THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES
vl4.
SYSTEM
UNIVERSAL GEOGRAPHY.
TuBKEY.] EUROPE.
TURKEY IN EUROPE.
Astronomical Position Between 39° and 48° IS' N. latitude, and 16° and 30°
E. longitude.
Dimensions Turkey, in its present restricted limits, exclusive of Greece and
the adjacent Islands, but embracing the tributary principalities of Moldavia, Walhi-
chia, and Servia, extends from E. to W. in its greatest length about 700 miles, from
the western border of Croatia to the Channel of Constantinople, or the mouths of
the Danube ; and from N. to S. in its greatest breadth, about 650 miles, from the
northern frontier of Greece to the N. E. frontier of Moldavia, including an area of
neiirly 180,000 square English miles.
Boundaries. — Northern: — The Military Borders of Croatia, Sclavonia, Hungary.
Transylvania, tlie Buckowine, and Bessarabia. Southern : . — The Archipelago, and
tlie northern frontier of the Kingdom of Greece. Eastern: — The Black Sea, Chan-
nel of Constantinople, Sea of Marmora, and the Dardanelles. Western : — The Ionian
Sea, Chivnnel of Otranto, Adriatic, and the Austrian provinces of Dalmatia and
Croatia.
General Aspect The greater part of Turkey is occupied by a series of lofty
mountain ranges, which form and inclose high valleys and table lands, leaving only
in some places a narrow border of lowland along the sea coasts. Such is its general
character between the Danube and the frontier of Greece ; but to the north of the
great river, the country sinks into a plain which stretches north-eastward to the
frontiers of Russia and the Carpathians, and includes the principalities of Wallachia
and Moldavia. According to Dr. Boue, even the best maps are erroneous and defec-
tive; containing not oidy false names, but wrong places, and erroneous positions.
Hills, and even large rivers, are entirely omitted ; while the hills marked in many parts
are merely imaginary representations. All maps exhibit a great central chain, ex-
tending from the north-west, in an easterly direction to the Black Sea, supposed to
be a continuation of the Alps, or, at least, to be connected with them by the hilly
legion at the north-eastern corner of the Gulf of Venice. But, in reality, the Balkans,
from Sophia to the Black Sea, are only a range of moderate heights ; the central
part of the chain may be crossed anywhere in a day, and in some places even in a few
hours. Indeed, the site of these pretended lofty mountains is, in some places, occu-
pied by molasse hills.
Groi.oov — The central nucleus of Turkey Consists of a high undulating country or plateau, ex-
tending from oast to west between Sophia and Pristina, and forming the upper part of the basin of
the Moraia. To the northward of this plateau tliu limits of Servia are detincd from E. to \V. by tlie
Jiilrehitf-z (chain of the Sparrow-Iiawks), tlie tlocsn, and the Knpaonik. The first chain is covered
only with onks, and higher up witli elms, like the hills in middle Servia, but the two latter have lir
trees near their summits. The greatest elevation of the chain appears to exceed 5500 feet. The Jas-
trebacz is a mass of crystalline slaty rocks, the others consist of transition slates, with syenite, dial-
lage rock, serpentine and metalliferous deposits. Southward of the plateau is a pretty large group of
hilis, named the Kurbittkn-plnnina, probably the Orbelus of the ancients, which have an absolute
elevati. II of between 4000 and 5(X)0 feet. To the west and east of this group are low chains clothed
with oaks, and forming the northern frontier of Macedonia from Uskub to Dubnicza and Sophia.
These hills are chiefly composed of talcose or micaceous slates, and scarcely reach an elevation of
more than 3(XX) feet ; they are still lower in some places to the west of Kostendil (Ghiustendil), whero
they partly consist of transition limestone, and even of tertiary molasse. The Orbelus itself is a
niiissive mountain of granitic rocks blendid with gneiss ; and In its vicinity are found trachytes, which
are rtjnm cted with tlujse of Karatova. Tra-liytc also extends along the low central chain, from
Strazin in .Mace<liinia to the vicinity of Vranja, south of the -Morava. A sulphureous hot spring
issurs foith at the northern extremity of these hills.
On th<' eastern border of the central plateau, south of NIzza, arc situate the lofty Slan-pl/inina (Old
Mountain), and Snio-pUmina (Dry Mountain), limestone ridges, occurring next to the mica slates of
Baditschka-(;ora. A very extensive group of mica slate and talc-s'ato hills rises more to the south,
ijctweeti the Morava valley and those of Irn and Sukova. On the nurth-castern base of this group are
found trachytes and trachyte conglomerates; Imt on the very steep southern declivity porphyry
dykes occur in the slates ; while the tops of some of the hills are composed of trachyte, and a white
trachyte aggregate. Here, as in the Servian hills, elms cover the low flats, oaks the sides, and pas-
turage the summits, the chief of which is the broad Sneppol (Snowfield.) The last mountain is a
little higher than the Stari-planina, and attains an elevation of nearly 1350 feet. The Sncgpol is united
by the ridges above the village of Klisura (defile) to the Kurhctska-planiiui, and the hills of Kfiri-
piil'ivka. The talc slates of which these ridges are formed, are often decomposed, and contain micro-
scopic crystals i.f magnetic iron ore, which is wa-hed and smelted in many places. These hills com-
pletely separate the upper valley of the Morava from that of Irn, whose stream Hows into the Sukova
and Nissava. To the south-east of this group are lower ridges composed of limestone and newer
transition slate, or Silurian rocks, with numerous detilos or rents running nearly N.-S. These hills
extend to the ureal valley which lea<ls from Ni/.za to Sophia, and which is excavated, particularly to-
wards the cast, in a conchiferous limestone, pmhably belonging to the Jura formation. All the above-
inetitioued chains ara inhabited by a pretty dense population of industrious Bulgarians.
Pp
511079
594 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Turkey.
To the west of the central plateau lies the Prutina, or Kostoea Plain, surrounded by low hills,
■which rise only 800 or 1000 feet above it, whilst its own absolute height is 1400 feet. The hills are
chiefly composed of talc or mica slate, with some serpentines and araygdaloidal limestones ; and
are covered with forests, chiefly of oak. The central plateau itself is occupied by hills a little higher
than those last mentioned, and contains valleys or basins formed by the rivers Morava and Toplitza,
and their detlles. The valleys are covered with villages, and cultivation extends far up among the
hills. The Morava valley is composed of tertiary beds of an argillaceous or sandy nature, as near
Nizza and Laskovacz : alluvial beds occur higher up in the Vranja basin. Some trachytic eruptions
have taken place to the south-east of Laskovacz, and siliceous limestone, probably of fresh water ori-
gin, occurs to the north-east, near Sheshine, at the foot of the hills to the east of the Morava. Be-
tween Radomir (at an elevation of 1614 feet, on the eastern side of the Strymon), Bresnick, and Sophia,
is a long plateau, nine miles broad, and composed of tertiary augite porphyry. To the south rises the
mountain IVistoska, or VVistosh, with its limestones, slaty and granitic rocks, argentiferous ores, and
abundant springs ; its height may be estimated to exceed 4000 feet. To the west it overtops the bare
hilly country round Radomir, and to the east the beautiful plain of Sophia, which has an elevation of
only 1348 feet.
The ranges to the south of the central plateau are united geographically to the Despoto-dagh or
Rhodope, and Balkan or Hcemus, by means of the Wistoska, together with some granitic and syenitic
hills, at the base of the Rhodop^, and three or four low ridges running obliquely from Barja to Ich-
timan. These last are composed of mica slate, gneiss, and granite, with some granular limestones,
and have an elevation from 2000 to 235G feet. At the base of the Despoto-dagh they are crossed by
the Kiz-derbend (Girl's defile), running W.-E., and composed at its narrowest part of granular lime-
stone. The road from Tartar IJasardschik to Barja is carried along it ; but this must not beconfounded
with another defile of the same name to the south-west, between Rasluk and Neurokop. The passage
of this deep defile occupies nine hours, and all around it appears a chaos. At Somakov the alluvial
soil is full of microscopic particles of magnetic iron ore ; for the smelting of which there are several
foundries, and the Pasha of Sophia has built one after an English plan. The Despoto-dagh or Rho-
dope does not extend to the Dardanelles, as all maps indicate ; its highest summits are situate towards
the west, to the south of Barja, Samakov, and Dubnicza, and reach an elevation of 8000 feet, or pro-
bably still higher. There it is called by the Servians Rilo-planina, and by the Turks Rilo-dagh ; to-
wards the east it takes the names of its great valleys. The chain gradually diminishes in height from
west to east, and terminates rather abruptly about five leagues from the Maritza, and six leagues S. W.
of Adrianople. The declivities on the northern side are generally steep. Pine trees occur highest up
among the hills, next to them are elms, and lower down oak forests. A number of rents running N.-S.,
form deep valleys, adorned with monasteries, villages, and cottages, and serving as the passes by
which the chain is crossed. The chain is composed of crystalline slates, gneiss, granite, and granular
limestone, of which some isolated portions are also found in the northern tertiary basin ; and at
Philippopoli sienite forms four small hillocks in the town, or close to it. From the Archipelago to
beyond Kara-bunar (south of Dimotika), is a long stripe, running S.-N., of trachyte and trachyte
conglomerate. On" the northern base of the Rhodop6 hornblendic trachytes are found in some parts
of the Semidsche valley; the trachytic country is partly a stony barren soil, and partly covered with
low trees of the paliurus aculeatus. It is fertile only where the conglomerates are in connexion with
the tertiary argillaceous-calcareous beds. South of Adrianople, between the Maritza and the Darda-
nelles, are the low ridges and plateaux of the Tekir-dagh, in which molasse is associated with clay,
and a sand which occasionally contains shells, with numerous fragments of scilicified coniferous
wood. Coralline and shelly limestones are found on the sands of Malgara, and particularly on the
western banks of the Maritza, near the trachytic zone round Fered. The greatest elevation of the
Tekir-dagh may be nearly 900 feet. To the south-east of Aimadtschik, is a somewhat higher ridge,
which, near the Sea of Marmora, is probably 300 or 400 feet higher than the Tekir.
The Balkan OT Hcemus extends from Sophia to Emineh-burun, on the Black Sea; the western
part being called Veliki-balkan (or Great Range), and the eastern Malo-balkan (or Little Range.)
It is a much lower chain than the Despoto-dagh ; the southern slopes are generally very steep ; but
on the northern side it is only the highest ridge which is much inclined. The Balkan is almost des-
titute of subordinate chains towards the south, and is composed of the principal high ridge, and a
series of parallel low ranges, which diminish in height towards the Danube. Among these are long
valleys extending east and west, and occasionally rents intersect the ridges from north to south, and are
occupied, as in the Alps, by the great rivers which issue from the long valleys. The western portion of
the chain, Kodja-Balkan, at the source of the Osma, probably reaches an elevation of more than 4000
feet ; but near the sea the summits are only from 1800 to 2000 feet above its level. There is an oblique
and pretty high ridge to the west of Czatac and Bashkoe, which separates the waters of the Bebrova
from those of the Akali-Komtschik. The high Balkan is composed of crystalline slaty rocks, gneiss,
mica-slate, talc, and clay slate. Above Islivne ( Selimno of maps), near the middle of the Balkan,
are some very picturesque hills of quartziferous porphyry ; and among these the peaks of the
Tschatal-dagh (rent hill), rise to the height of 2800 feet, and afford a most beautiful view of Roumelia.
Immediately above these older rocks of the Balkan is a thick formation of green sand, composed of
marly greyish sandstone, quartzose and greenish-coloured sandstones, and beds of marly clay, and
whitish, greyish, or black compact limestone, which forms thick beds, and occasionally craggy pre-
cipices ; but the other rocks, except the green sandstones, form only hills, which are generally
either covered with oaks and elms, or, being destitute of trees, are used as pasture grounds. At the
east end of the Balkan the green sand is covered with extensive plateaux of chalk, with flints and
belemnites. Between the Balkan and the Danube, Bulgaria is covered by a great tertiary forma-
tion, which becomes broader as we proceed from east to west. The Danube flows past a series of
small hills on the Bulgarian side ; but on the northern or Wallachian side, the coimtry is flat. Tho
isthmus between Rassova and Kostendsche, on the Black Sea, is occupied by alluvial matter, 'and
some low tertiary hills ; and the Danube can never have had its channel there in historical times.
South of the Balkan there exists only one subordinate chain, at some distance, consisting of low hills
of transition slate and limestone, extending between Kalofer (Caloper), Eski-Sagra, and a place west
of Islivne, where the Tondja issues through a defile from its upper alluvial basin. This basin is the
plain which extends between Tschipka, Kezanlik, and Czirkua, and it is on it that roses are cultivated
for making attar.
From Islivne to Burgas, on the Black Sea, there is an extensive hollow at the base of the Balkan.
The remainder of the chain bounds the vast tertiary gulf whose surface forms the present soil of a
great part of eastern Roumelia or Thrace. The southern base is remarkable for the exuberance of its
vegetation, consisting of gardens of roses, jasmine, and wild lilac, vineyards and forests of all kinds
of fruit trees, but without the olive-tree, the auis, or the lepleb. The adjacent plain, however, is
destitute of trees, and consists chiefly of fields under cultivation, and pasture grounds, which are
partly marshy, with a black soil. This alluvial and tertiary plain extends to the chain which runs along
the Black Sea, the Sea of Marmora, and the Archipelago. In the plain north of Adrianople small
groups of isolated hills composed of trachyte are occasionally met with ; and in the north-eastern
portion of the basin is a very extensive undulating plateau formed of augite pophyry, and extending
from the foot of the Balkan, north of Aides, to the gulf of Burgas and Karabunar on the Curu. In
TCRKEY.] EUROPE. 595
the wild and wooded country between Aldos and Burgas is a hot sulphureous spring. The chain
which extends along the south-western shore of the Blacli Sea is not iu immediate connection witli
the Balkan; but, spealiing geographically, is only a continuation of the chain at Eski Sagra. On ap-
proaching the Bosphorus the shore chain is divided into a number of small hills which rise on low-
lying plateaux. Near Serai are clay slates, which extend to the Bosphorus, and alternate with grey-
wacke and Silurian shell limestone. To the north of Buyukdereh is a small trachytic district.
To the west of the central plateau of Moesia is Upper Albania, a country occupied to the east and
south-east by the lofty Tschar, and to the south by its prolongation, consisting of the high ridges in-
terposed between the wild primary valley of the Debres and the plain of Bitoglia and Perlepe, with
the valley of Kalkandcl, called Tetovo in the Bulgarian tongue. They are in some places more than
8000 feet high, and occasionally capped with snow during summer. The ridges consist of immense
masses of crystalline slates, which, in the Tschar, become talcose or argillaceous, and contain whole
hills of compact or semigranular limestone. To the west of these ridges, and rising to the average
height of 6000 or 7000 feet, are the primary mountains of Elbestan, through which passes the only
military road from Roumelia or Monastir to Skutari. It is carried through Ochri, where the vineyards
indicate that the elevation of the lake of Ochrida is under 2000 feet. Further south extends the pri-
mary Pindiis, with parallel limestone ridges like those of the Tschar. To the north of these chains
there have been immense eruptions of diorite, compact euphotide, and serpentine ; and among these
are found all the compact, lamellar, syenitic, decomposed, and earthy varieties of the ophite of the
Pyrenees. Diallage rock occurs rarely, but forms some magnificent masses and small hills in this
deposit round the torrent of llape, 30 miles east of Skutari. These dioritic hills are connected geo-
graphically with the high calcareous ridges of the lower Drin, which are only the extremities of the
very high similar chains between Ipek or Scherkoles and the country of Montenegro. Their greyish
white summits covered with eternal snow, except towards the east, and their numerous rents, recall
to mind the secondary calcareous chains of the Alps. Around the lake of Plava, near Gusinio, above
Plava, and a little to the eastward, their elevation probably exceeds 8000 feet. Their lower declivi-
ties are covered with villages ; for the Albanians, like the inhabitants of Montenegro, seek liberty and
exemption from taxes in the wildest abodes. These serrated ridges are connected with the Kom and
Dormitor, two high chains to the east and west of Drobniak, and also with the Luliitschnia ; all of
which are limestone hills capped with snow. Further north, these chains are united to those east of
Glubigne, between Mostar and Novaschin in Ilerzegowina. The cretaceous formation occurs in the
upper tertiary basin of the White Drin. The inferior chalk is found on the coasts of Albania, where
it occurs in the form of singularly-shaped hills of limestone. It is also distributed over Dalmatia and
part of Herzegowina, forms numerous high hills round the bay of C'attaro, and extends to Montene-
gro, where its rocks are so numerous as materially to impede the cultivation of the country. The
cretaceous system forms all the hills round Skutari, the lake of which contains some rocky islands of
limestone. To the cast of Alesio the same limestone forms conical hills, which, more to the south,
extend, east of Durazzo, to Berat. The Acrocerauniaii or Chinuerian chain belongs to the same for-
mation, which probably crosses over to the Ionian islands, and stretches along the coast to Prevesa.
These mountains exhibit frequent examples of natural tires ; and large springs, issuing like rivers
from the rock, are found as in the older limestone districts. Pindus, in its progress southward, sends
off several divergent branches eastward, two of which inclose the plain of Thcs^^aly, terminating at
the Channel of Trikiri, where they are separated by the gulf of Volo. They contain several very
lofty summits. (See itnte, p. 152. )
Jiotnia is an extensive plateau, inclined from south to north, and presenting to the Albanian plain
of Ipek and the hiUs of Myrdita a limestone wall from GOOO to 7000 feet high. To the west it is
bounded in a similar manner by the snowy chain, east of Mostar and the A'um, west of Kolaschin
and east of Orobniak. Towards Servia, the plateau also descends very abruptly, especially to the
north-east. In the highest and most southerly part of the plateau are many miles of level ground ;
but the rest of the country is furrowed by ridges of hills, which diminish in height towards the
north, and running S.E.-N."\V., so as to form a'slightly inclined plane as far as the Save. Bosnia is
entirely composed of the tratisition formation, particularly of the older and medial divisions, inter-
sected here and there by igneous rocks. It produces in some places gold and silver; and rich iron
mines are found at MaiJan and other places. The chief foundries are at Bosna Serai. Bosnia is a
cold country, and its hills are covered with firs, pine-trees, and birches. The plants chiefly cultivated
are barley, oats, rye, potatoes, hemp, flax, and plum-trees for making brandy. It is only connected
with Turkey by the broken part of its high walls above Novibazar and Ipek, and with Skutari and
Maritime Albania by high mountain passes, rendered dangerous by snow and pi-ccipiccs. — (Dr. A.
B(/ut'. £din. AVu) J'hil. Juunwl, XXV. 174. J
OuLFS, Bays, Straits.— The Black Sea ( Kara-dcn/ris of the Turks, Tcheriago-mm-d ot the Rus-
sians, Fontut F.Hiinui, or simply Fmitus, of the Latins), is situate between 40^ M , and 16^ 45' N. lat.,
and 27^ '25', and 4(P 48' K. long, being bounded on the N.W. and N. by the Russian governments of
Bessarabia, Kherson, and Tainida ; on the N.E. by the Caucasian countries of Circassia, Abkhassia,
and Mingrelia ; on the E. .and S.E. by Inieritia, Grusia, and Armenia ; S. by Asia-minor ; W. by Rou-
melia and Bulgaria. Its extreme length, E.-W., is about O'M miles, and its greatest breadth, N.-S.
.380; but its width is variable ; the superficial area is about IG0,(X)0 square miles, and tho extent of its
coasts exceeds 2(XX). It is very compact in form, giving off few or no large branches, though small
bays and harbours occur at short dist.inces all round. The depth is variable ; but the variations ap-
pear to l)e very regular : at the entrance of the Thracian Bosphorus, 48 fathoms are found ; an equal
or greater depth is preserved along the west shore, at a little distance from the land, as far as tho
mouths of the Danube, where it becomes shallower ; but in the main sea, between the Bosphorus and
the Crimea, no bottom is found with 100, 120, and KiO fathoms. The south coast, from tho Bosphorus
to Sinub, is deep; and thence to the east coast, it may be navigated by vessels of any size. There aro
no tides, but the currents are marked, strong, .and rigular, with a general direction towards the Bos-
phorus of Thrace, through which the Black Sea pours its surplus waters. The water is by some
voyagers said to lie only brackish, and this may be the case near tho mouths of the rivers ; but by
others it is said to be only one-seventh part less salt than the Atlantic, and fully one-tenth Salter
than the Baltic. To account for this saltness, with such a continual supply of fresh water as it re-
ceives from numerous large rivers, an<l so constant an outflow as it sends through the Bosphorus,
it has Ijcen imagined that an under current from the Archipelago flows upwards through the Straits,
and communicates its saltness to the waters of the Euxine. It may, however, be also accounted
for by the great abundance of salt which is found in the country, to the north and north-east, and
which probably finds its way to the sea. The navigation of this sea is unobstructed ; there is deep
water almost throughout, with only one small island, near the mouth of the J^armbe, and two rocks
ofl shore in the Crimea. The smallest gale, however, raises a short and troublesome sea ; but it is
noway dangerous ; storms, which are not more frequent than in other seas, aro seldom of long
duration ; and even in tho worst there is no want of sea-room. Tho largest ships may sail (dose to
the shore; the ancliornges are good, and many of its harbours aro excellent. The prevailing wind
18 from the m rtli-cnst, and as it blows over a great extent of cold and swampy country, it is not only
piercingly cold, but is also loaded with moisture, oorasiiming thick fogs, and in winter storms of
snow. Towanis the middle of eununer, northerly winds generally prevail, and are succeeded very lato
596 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Turkey.
tn the' year hj breezes from the south, which again appear In January, February, and March. The cli-
mate is subject to great extremes ; and the average of temperature is lower than might bo supposed
from the latitude. The northern gulfs and straits are in some winters frozen hard enough to admit of
the passage of troops ; and though such extreme severity is not very common, yet navigation is always
susviendi'd during winter in the shallow sea of Azov, and most commonly along the northern shores of
the Euxine. On the other hand, the summers are usually hot. The sea teems with seals, porpoises,
sturgeons, sterlets, dolphins, mackerel, mullet, bream, and other fish, chiefly of the same kind as those
caught in the Caspian and the Aral ; tunn^ fish also enter it from the Mediterranean, for the purpose
of spawning ; there are also turbot, whiting, and roach ; and some writers speak of herrings In shoals,
■which are probably only large sprats ; but there are few fisheries along its shores, though, where they
do exist, they are very productive. The Black Sea receives the waters of many large rivers, as the
Danube, the'Dnieper, the Dniester, the Bog, the Don, the Kuban, and the Kizil-Irmak; and its bMin
occupies about a third part of Europe, with a small portion of south-western Asia.
The Thracian Botphorus (properly Botporos), or Channel of Constantinople, forms the only outlet of,
and entrance to the Black Sea. It opens, with a narrow channel, only a mile and and a half wide, in
the S.W. corner of that sea, and extends, about 20 miles, to the sea of Marmora. Its width varies
from less than3-4ths of a mile to 2^ miles; it forms in fact the finest river in the world, with a
constant current flowing southward. Its banks are high, exhibiting everywhere the most beautiful
scenery, and lined with an almost continuous range of towns and villages. The winding of its shores
occasions strong eddies and currents, which are sometimes so rapid, that it is scarcely possible for
ships to make way by tacking,.in their course to the Black Sea, though, in returning, the current will
carry them downwards even against the south wind. Northern winds are, however, more frequent
than those from the south, and vessels from the Mediterranean are often detained by them for months
in the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus, which they may easily pass in a couple of days with a favour-
able breeze. At its southern extremity the current of the Bosphorus strikes upon the Seraglio point,
which divides it into two portions, one of which flows westward into the Golden Horn, or biarbour of
Constantinople, while the main body of the water flows onward to the Sea of Marmora.
The Sea of Marmora (ancient Propontit), measures in its greatest length, from Gallipoli to Ismid,
about 170 miles, and in its greatest breadth, to the eastward of the 28° meridian, 48. It is indeed but
an inland lake, though salt, for it is formed by the waters of the Black Sea which are poured Into it
through the Bosphorus, and transmitted to the Archipelago by another channel as narrow, the Helles-
pont or Dardanelles. It has considerable depth. Five miles N.E. of Marmora, it has 133 fathoms of
water, and, at the same distance north, no bottom was found w ith 355. The shores are cultivated and
picturesque ; those of the Asiatic side are bolder than the European. The navigation is not difficult ;
it is generally free from danger, and good anchorage may be found along its northern shore and un-
der shelter of the islands. It contains a large peninsula on the south coast, and several large islands,
from one of which ( Marmora, or Marble island) it takes its name.
The Hellespont, or Channel of the Dardanelles, is a strait 40 miles in length, and varying from 3-4ths
of a mile to two miles in width, which connects the Sea of Marmora with the Archipelago. A strong
current runs always through it to the south, at the rate of from 2 to 4 miles an hour. The wind also
generally sets in the same direction, so that ships are often detained for a long time at the entrance,
and find it sometimes very difficult to work up the stream. There are shoals in some places, but deep
water is always to be found in some part of the channel. The Asiatic shore presents the most beau-
tiful scenery ; the European is generally steep and rugged. Being the only channel to Constantinople
and the Black Sea from the south, it is in several places lined with strong fortifications, mounted
with heavy guns ; but these are commanded by the.neighbouring heights, and can only prevent or re-
tard the passage of ships ; while the forts or castles themselves may be taken by landing troops with
artillery. The Seraskier Pasha, who commands the forts on both sides, has his station at the Sulta-
nieh Kalessi, on the Asiatic shore of the narrowest part of the strait. The general appearance of the
channel is that of a large river flowing between banks everywhere pleasant, in some parts wooded,
but on the whole far inferior in beauty to those of the Bosphorus.
The Archipelago (ancient Aigaion pelagot, Mgeiim mare, or E^ean Sea), is a large offset of the Me-
diterranean, extending northward between Greece and Asia minor about 380 miles, from Crete to
the coast of Thrace, and having a width of from 80 to 240 miles. It is studded with islands ; from
which circumstance its name has come to be used to signify a group of islands in any part of the world.
The navigation is rather intricate, and, owing to the currents produced by the numerous islands,
and to the varying winds, not seldom dangerous, particularly to small vessels. On the north-west
side, the Archipelago forms in Turkey several deep bays, as the Gulf of Orphano or Contetsa ; the
Bay of Istillar ; the Gulf of Ay on Oros, or Monte Santo ; the Gulf of Cassandra or Hagios Hamat ;
the Gulf of Saloniki ; the Channel of Trikiri ; and the Guff of Volo.
The Gulf of Arta (ancient Ambracian Gulf) is a deep inlet of the Ionian Sea, between Albania and
Western Greece, in N. lat. 39°, and E. long. 21°. Its extreme length, from east to west, is about 25
miles, and its greatest breadth about 10 ; but in several places it is narrower. The depth varies from
13 and 14 to 36 fathoms. The southern shore is formed by high land, with bold promontories, which
are clothed with fine woods ; the northern shore is for the most part low, and has encroached con-
siderably upon the water. The entrance is only 700 yards across, and, outside, is a bar of gravel,
coarse sand, and sea weed, with 15 feet water where shallowest. It was at the mouth of this gulf that
the battle of Actium was fought, between Caesar Octavianus and Mark Anthony, B.C. 29, which de-
cided the fate of the Roman empire at that time. — (Journal R. Geog. Soc. III. Sec.)
The other principal bays and gulfs of the Ionian and Adriatic Seas are : the Gulf of Kassopo, be-
tween Corfu and Albania ; the Gulf of Avlona ; the Gulf of Durazzo; and the Gulf of Drin.
Capes. — Tah Bournu, Gulgrad-burun or Cape Kalakria, Emineh-burun, and Cape Zaitan, on
the Black Sea ; Helles Bournu, the S. point of the Thracian Chersonese, at the mouth of the Helles-
pont ; Cape Monte Santo or Ainn Oroi (ancient Athos), Cape Drepano, and Cape Pailouri, the ex-
tremities of three peninsulas on the coast of Macedonia ; Cape Kissobo, Cape St. Demetrius, and
Cape St. George, on the coast of Thessaly ; La Punta, a narrow tongue of land (the ancient promon-
tory of Actium), at the entrance of the Gulf of Arta ; Cape Linguetta, on the coast of Albania.
Islands. — In the Archipelago : — Jmbro, Samothraki, Thaso, Lemmo or Stalimene, between the
Dardanelles and Mount Athos. These are large islands, generally mountainous, but fertile. Imbro
lies 21 miles west of Cape Jannlssary, is 16 miles long, 9 broad, and contains some fine villages. The
interior is woody. Samothraki, 14 miles N. of Imbro, is an oval-shaped rocky island, 8 miles long, and
6 broad. Its summit. Mount Feugari, rises 5248 feet above the level of the sea. ( See ante, p. 153. ) In an-
cient times it was celebrated for mysteries. Thaso is a large oval-shaped island, 30 miles N. of Monte
Santo, and near the coast. It is 18 miles long, and 14 broad ; and its summits, Ipsario and St. Elias,
rise respectively to 3428 and 3374 feet above the level of the sea. Stalimene (ancient Lemnos) is a fer-
tile and beautiful island, opposite the mouth of the Dardanelles, from which it is 41 miles distant.
Its greatest length is 15 miles, and its breadth nearly equal ; but its form is irregular, and it is almost
cut in two by the ports of Paradise and St. Antonio. Lemno, the chief town, is on the west coast,
but it contains no object of interest. Thaso-poulo, a small island between Thaso and the mainland.
Jlouillani and Diaporo, two small islands in the Gulf of Monte Sauto. Kattandra, a imall island in
Turkey.] EUROPE. 397
the (fulf of that name. Sasfno, a sniiU island off the Gulf of Avlona. Kriti, or Candia, a large
island, forming the southern border of tlie Archipelago. (See post. p. .)
RlTEBS. — Danobk (See ante, p. 393.) Its principal affluents in Turkey are: — On the right, the
Save, with its affluents, the Unna from Croatia, the Verbas or Verbitza, the Bosna, and the Drhta,
from Bosnia ; the Morawa or Maraea, with its affluents the Ibar and the Nissava, from Servia ; the
Timok, Lom, Ogoiut, SkittU, Itker, IVirl, Osmti, Jantro, Jemurlu, from Bulgaria. On the left, the
Syll, or Schyll, Olt or Alouta, Ardjis, and Jalonitza, from Wallachia ; the Sereth, and Pruth, from
IVioIdavia.
The Maritza, which drains the plain of Adrianople, and has a course of 320 miles into the Gulf of
Enos in the Archipelago. Its principal affluent on the right is the Arda ; on the left, the Tiinja, and
the Erkenheh. The Karasu, or Struunui, or Marmara (ancient Greek Strumon, Latin Strynum), flows
through eastern Macedonia, into the Gulf of Orphano or Contessa, afler forming and running through
the Lake Kadaka. The Vardar flows from the Tschar-dagh through Macedonia, passing by Uskub
and Gradisca, into the Gulf of Saloniki, a few miles to the west of that city. The Indje- Karasu flows
tlirough the southern part of Macedonia into the Gulf of Siloniki, not far from the mouth of the
Vardar. The Sakimbria (ancient Peneus) drains the celebrated vale of Thessaly, and opening a pas-
sage between Ossa and Olympus (the vale of Tempi!), flows into the Gulf of Saloniki. The Hellada
(ancient Sperchitts), flows through the southern part of Thessaly into the Gulf of Zeitoun.
The Atpro-potamo ( Achehus) drains the western slopes of Pindus in Albania, and flowing southward,
through Western Greece, falls into the Ionian Sea. The Arta also flows from Pindus into the Gulf of
Arta. The Kalamas flows through Lower Albania, into the Channel of Corfu. The Vuiussa or I'edis,
with its affluent the Argyrucastron, in Lower Albania, flow into the Adriatic. The Ergent, called also
the Beratino SLiid the Krevasta, flows from the mountains north-west of Kastoria, through Middle
Albania, into the Adriatic. The Scombi or Tobi, the Mati, the Black Drin, and the White JJrhi, the
Bojana, named Moracca in the upper part of its course, all flow through Albania.^into the Adriatic.
The Sarenta in Hertzegowina or Turkish Dalmatia.
Lakes. — Raselm or Rassein, near the mouth of the Danube (see p. 393), Is rather a lagoon than
a lake. Takinoi or Kadaka, formed by the Strouma, Betchik, St. Basili, and lenidja, in Eastern
Macedonia ; Kastoria, in Upper Macedonia, 80 miles W. of Saloniki ; and the mountain lakes of Jixi-
n/n'f, 2500 feet above the level of the sea; Skutari or Scodra, Ochrida or Okhrida, Plava, and others
in Albania.
Climate In a country consisting of so many high plains, and intersected by so
many lofty mountains, the climate must necessarily be very various, being affected
not only by the elevation of the ground, but also by exposure to the prevailing winds.
Commencing with the Danubian provinces, we find Bosnia and Croatia to be liigh
and cold countries, though, on the fruitful plains near the banks of the Drina, the
winters are mild. In the higher parts, however, snow lies for half the year to the
depth of several feet, and Fahrenheit's tliermometer has been often observed be-
tween lO'^ and zero. The heat of summer is seldom oppressive; but the northern
districts are then warmer than the southern. The weather is often tempestuous
from the beginning of June to the middle of August ; the forests on the mountains
collect the clouds, but the great rains during these months fertilize the ground.
Spring begins in the high country about the end of April, and continues till June ;
the summer's heat then commences, and lasts till September ; snow falls generally
before the end of that month, and does not entirely disappear till the middle of May.
Bosnia is, on the whole, a very healthy country ; it is well supplied with water, the
air is salubrious, and marshes are almost exclusively confined to the banks of the
Save. The climate of Servia much resembles that of Bosnia, though, being a lower
country, it is somewhat more temperate, particularly in its long open plains. Jjul-
garia is a country highly favoured by nature ; the cold is sometimes as severe as in
Servia, but, being sheltered on the north, the common temperature is sufficiently
mild to ensure the cultivation of the vine, corn, tobacco, and various kinds of
fruits. The climate of Wallachia is more temperate than that of the adjoining
provinces; but the inhabitants are exposed to two months of severe cold in winter,
and to two of excessive heat in summer. Lower Wallachia, being overspread with
extensive marshes, is unhealthy, and bilious and intermittent fevers are common dis-
eases. The winters in Moldavia are in general intensely cold ; the thermometer
lias been seen at 15° below zero. The summers, on the contrary, are very warm ;
the grape ri[)ens by the end of July ; and tlie vintage is over in September. Upper
Macedonia and Thrace, the modern Roumelia, were considered by the ancients to be
cold countries, and in the former was placed the residence of Boreas. At Constan-
tinople the climate is extremely changeable ; and the tem[)erature sometimes falls
31° in a single hour. Indeed, it depends upon the prevalence of the north or tlie south
wind, whether one is shivering in the cold of Russia, or luxuriating in the balmy at-
mosphere of Greece. The sky is genuine English, here a portion of blue, there a
rolling mass of white clouds. Like that of England, too, it seldom continues for
twenty-four hours the same. The winters are extremely long and severe ; the roads
are often blocked up with snow; and the wind on the Bosjihorus is frequently so
violent, that all communication with the villages far u[) the channel is cut otf. The
countries on the Adriatic, Ualmatia and Albania, partake of the warm temperature
of Italy; but are also subject to droughts, and to sudden and violent north winds. Tlie
clioiate of the Lower Albania, or ancient Epirus, is colder than that of Greece; spring
598 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Turkey.
does not set in before the middle of March ; but the summer's heat is oppressive in
July and August ; in which mouths many streams aiul rivers are dried up, and the
grass and plants are withered. The vintage begins in September ; heavy rains fall
in December, and are succeeded in Jaimary by some days of frosty weather.
Soil and Vegetation A great difTerence may be observed in the vegetable
productions of the provinces within the basin of the Danube, and of tiiose to the
south of the central mountains ; in the southern provinces the mountain sides are
covered with forests of lir, yew, pine, ash, cedar, holm, oak, plane, maple, carob,
sycamore, beech, waliuit, and chestnut-trees. Towards the north, however, the
most common trees are the ash and the lime ; the carob, the sycamore, and the plane
nevei grow but when forced by artificial means or by cultivation. The heights of the
Danube are clad with apple, pear, cherry, and apricot-trees, whole forests of which
may be seen in Wallachia ; which extend beyond the Balkans, and cover the hills of
Thrace, Macedonia, and Epirus. The olive and the orange-tree thrive beyond the
40^ only near the sea, but never (lourish in the interior ; where the cold is too severe.
The climate to the south of the same parallel is wholly different. Apple and pear-
trees disappear ; the olive then becomes the most common fruit-tree, and the planta-
tions in the southern regions are interspersed with the laurel, and the large-caped
myrtle. The vine is grown over the whole country, but the grapes produced on the
banks of the Danube are very different from those of the coasts of the Archipelago.
In the latter region they contain a great quantity of saccharine matter, while those
of Wallachia are watery and acid. Strong and generous wine might, however, be
obtained from the vineyards of Servia and Herzegwoina, where they are sheltered
from the cold of winter, and the scorching heat of summer. Indeed, were proper
attention bestowed on the cultivation of the grape, the vineyards of Turkey would
not be inferior to the finest in the world.
In Bosnia the hills are covered with firs, pine-trees, and birches ; the plants chiefly
cultivated are barley, oats, polygonum, fagopyrum, rye, potatoes, hemp, flax, and
plum-trees for brandy. Turkish corn does not grow well, except in the deep shel-
tered valleys ; and vineyards are found only near the banks of the Save. On the
higher ridges in the south of Bosnia there is, below the forests of fir and pine, a
zone of elms, which rises to the height ofSvSOOfeet on the southern declivities; oaks
occur lower down, and on the borders of the Albanian low country, are chestnut-
trees, and vineyards. The greater part, however, of Bosnia seems better adapted for
the rearing of cattle than for the production of grain. In Servia, wheat, maize, and
millet amply repay the labours of the husbandman ; tobacco, tiax, and hemp are grown
in large quantities ; and whole districts are covered with apple, pear, and cherry-
trees. The lower parts of the hills are covered with forests, which are mostly com-
posed of oaks, interspersed with some ashes, a species of tilia, a great many wild
pear-trees, some apple and cherry-trees, and a few hazels. In central Servia, elms
occupy the plateaux, oaks occur on the sides of the mountains, and fir-trees near the
summits. In the higher hills farther south, even fir-trees disappear, and the sum-
mits afford only alpine pasturages. In the valleys of the Morava and the Toplitza,
and the defiles of the mountains, the Bulgarians cultivate their fields and gardens in
a most admirable manner. The valleys are covered with villages, where maps only
indicate a wilderness, and the cultivated fields extend far up among the hills. Vines,
however, do not thrive well in the Morava valley, except round Nisha, Leskovacz,
Uranja, Urkup, and near Pristina. Indian corn is cultivated in the lower valleys,
where the Servian mountains protect them against the north winds. In Bulgaria the
common temperature is sufficiently mild to ensure the cultivation of the vine, corn,
tobacco, and various kinds of fruit. The extensive forests are varied by different
trees, the beech, the pine, and the oak ; and the sides of the mountains abound with
fertile pastures. In Wallachia the mountains and several islands in the Danube are
covered with forests of oak, pine, and beech. The pastures are fertile in aromatic
plants. The fields of maize, wheat, and barley, fine melons, and a variety of other
fruits, and whole forests of apple, plum, and cherry trees, bear ample proof of the
productive qualities of the soil ; but not more than a sixth part of the soil is culti-
vated. Wheat and barley are cultivated throughout Moldavia. Millet is also a com-
mon crop. The cultivation of fruit-trees and esculent plants is not in a very advanced
state. The melon, however, thrives throughout the province; but the grape is the
most valuable of the Moldavian fruits.
The southern base of the Balkans is remarkable for the exuberance of its vegeta-
tion, which consists of gardens of roses, jasmine, and wild lilac, vineyards, and forests
of all kinds of fridt trees; but without the olive tree, the cmis, or the lepleb. The
TuEKEY.] EUROPE. 599
adjacent plains, however, are destitute of trees, and consist chiefly of fields under
cultivation, and of pasture grounds, which are partly marshy, and have a black soil.
The plain of Adrianople is celebrated for its roses, from which large quantities of attar
are made. This region extends to the low hills which border the Black Sea, the Pro-
pontis, and the Archipelago. The soil of Macedonia is more fertile than the richest
plains of Sicily, and there are few regions of the world so productive as the penin-
sular districts on the Archipelago. The land, in some of the valleys, yields the most
luxuriant crops of wheat ; cotton and tobacco are also grown to a great extent. Ma-
cedonia is likewise famous for its wines ; corn, and different leguminous plants are
profitably cultivated in the interior. In Southern Macedonia we find a Mediterranean
vegetation, the evergreen-oak, the cypress, Grenada tree, oriental plane, the walnut,
the fig, &c. The olive is cultivated to the south of Saloniki. Thcssaly abounds in
oil, wine, cotton, silk, and wool. Larissa is surrounded by a country fruitful in
oranges, lemons, citrons, and pomegranates. The same district produces fine figs,
excellent melons, grapes, almonds, olives, cotton, and tobacco.
The Albano-Dalmatian flora is connected with that of Italy. The olive rises to the
first heights, beyond which the high country is noted for its fertile fields, excellent
pasturage, and lofty forests. The basin of Skutari is, however, so much protected
from the north winds that the heat is oppressive during summer, and the climate is on
this account favourable for the growth of Mediterranean plants, as the pomegranate
and the orange tree. The olive is also found here, though its true native country
commences more to the south, at Durazzo. Mostar, likewise protected on the north
by the high mountains of Bosnia, is, like another Nice, surrounded with gardens of
pomegranates, olives, and orange trees, rising in terraces, and forming a fertile oasis
in the stony calcareous soil of Herzegowina. In Lower Albania, the ancient Epirus,
oak trees of every kind arrive at great perfection. The plane, the cypress, and the
manna-be.aring ash appear on the coast beside the laurel and the lentisk ; but the fo-
rests of Pindus consist chiefly of cedars, pine, larch, and chestimt. Many of the
mountains are dry and sterile ; such as are sufficiently watered are covered with
herbage, or with the wild vine, and thick groups of elders ; in spring their sides are
clad with flowers. The violet, the narcissus, and the hyacinth, appear in the same
profusion as in the mild districts of Italy. Cotton and silk are cultivated ; but the
olive, for want of proper care, does not yield an abundant harvest. The Ampliilo-
chian peach, the Arta nut, and the quince, are found in a wild state in the woods,
and in the uncultivated land.
Animals The Thessalian horses were celebrated for their symmetry and strength,
and have been improved by crossing with a Tartar breed, which was introduced by
the Turks. A great many horses are reared in Moldavia, but those bred in the moun-
tains are the most valuable. Although small, they are not inferior in strength and speed
to the Russian horse ; those of the plains are larger, but not so swift. The cattle
of Wallachia are large and strong, many thousands of which are annually exported to
Bosnia and Constantinople. The meadows and pastures are of a rich and excellent
quality, and large herds of beeves and flocks of sheep are fattened upon them. Sheep
abound in Wallachia, Macedonia, aiul Thessaly ; but the goat is more valued by the
inhabitants of the mountains. The wild boar, the roe, and the fallow-deer frequent
the forests. The principal carnivorous animals are the fox, the wolf, and the bear.
A species of wolf, smaller than that of the hills, has been observed on the plains ; it
haunts the banks of the Danube, aiul finds shelter in the marshes, or among the reeds.
The partridge and the bustard abound in the valleys. The lion was not uncommon
at one period in the southern parts of Turkey, and in the time of Aristotle frequented
the region between the Achelous in Acarnania and the Nessus in Thrace ; but it has
been long since extirpated.
People The dominant people are the Osmanlee, or Othmanlee, or Ottoman
Turks, a branch of the great Toorkee family of Central Asia; who are dispersed,
more or less, over the whole country. There are, however, various otiier races, some
of them more numerous than the Turks, who iiil.abit different provinces, and are also
found scattered. These are the Roumi or Greeks, Arnauts or Albanians, Bulgarians,
and other Sclavonians, Wallachians, Armenians, Jews, Gipscys, and Franks.
The Osmani.ee have been generally considered as nicnibers of tlic Caucasian variety of mankind ;
but learne<I Orientalists have at last succeeded, by the aid of the Chinese annals, in identifying
them with the Hiong-nu, a people who lived to the north-west of China, many centuries before Cie
Christian era, and carried on frequent and bloody wars with the Celestial empire. Krom that region
their migrations can be traced westward, till they fioiilly sittled in those parts of Asia and south-
eastern Europe where they are now found. The Osmunlce and their brethren, the Tartars of Kazan.
000 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Turkey.
Asf^akhan, and the Crimea, hnvc indeed the physical characteristics of Caucasians ; but the inhabi-
tants of the country further east, as the Nogays, Kirghlses, Turcomans, and others, who speak pure
Turkish dialects, are known to have a diSerent organization, approaching nearly to tho Mongolian
character. It is therefore inferred that the Turks were originally members of the Mongolian variety
and that tho portion of them which now exhibit Caucasian features, must have acquired them by
IntermUture with tho Caucasian races whom they invaded and subdued ( Pritchard on the Ethjin-
graphy of High Asia. Journal H. Oeog. Soc. Land. IX. 192.) In accordance with this theory, we find
a recent traveller asserting, tiiat any one who has paid even but slight attention to ^)hysiognoniy,
will, after a short residence in Turkey, perceive that tlie Turks belong to three essentially ditt'erent
classes: 1. the original Turk or Mongol; 2. the modern Turk, or Caucasian : and, 3. the mongrel
Turk, or mixed breed. The Mongol Turks are l)y far tho most numerous and the most indolent : their
stature is generally short, frame thick-set, complexion dark, with a round face, thickish lips, widely
distant eyes, and sunk features. The Caucasian Turk, on the contrary, is taller, has a longer forehead,
well-formed face, aquiline nose, short upper lip, full chin, and clear complexion ; while the mixed
or mongrel Turk bears an affinity to one of the first two classes, in proportion as his descent is of
remote or modern relation. Osman, the founder of tho Imperial dynasty, is said to have been a
pure Mongol ; but the late Sult;in was, and the present Sultan is, a pure Caucasian, a circumstance
thought to strengthen the belief which has long prevailed, that the imperial family are not the genuine
descendants of Othman. The greater part of the chief Pashas and grand officers of state are also of
the Caucasian family. — f Turkey and the Turks, b>i John Ileid, p. 100.) Hut, though the Turks may
bo physically divided into three separate classes, yet, in a moral point of view, they may be consider-
ed as one ; such is the levelling character of their religion, that all personal distinctions are at once
brought down, and set aside by the law and the prophet. The character of the Turks is, however, a
question on which there is the greatest ditference of opinion among European writers and travel-
lers. Intluenced by prejudice or feeling, and forming their conclusions from imperfect knowledge,
or writing merely to serve a party purpose, these persons have given such conflicting accounts of the
Turks as can scarcely be reconciled, or even considered as applicable to the same people. But, after
a careful consideration of these conflicting statements, we are inclined to the opinion that, in re-
spect of moral character, the Turks are not much, if at all, inferior to the generality of their Eu-
ropean neighbours ; while to some of them they are decidedly superior. Thuir character, however,
varies in different provinces, some of them being more barbarous than others ; but, considering
the pernicious system of government to which they have been subjected for centuries, it is more sur-
prising that they possess any good qualities at all, than that they are not so thoroughly humanized as
some more favoured nations. They are indeed very ignorant, but, at the same time, very simple-
minded, and seem fairly entitled to the reputation of being a devout, honest, and well-disposed peo-
ple. Tho Osmanlee spurn the name of Turk, which they consider as a term of contempt, synony-
mous with barbarian; but glory in that of Osmanlee, as expressive of valour and polish. The
Turkish language is every wliere throughout the empire the language of government, and generally
that of trade. It is indeed the only language that will afford a means of comnmnication with all
the various tribes and races scattered over Turkey. Besides the Osmanlee, there is another race o.
Turks, called the Vobrujee, or Dobrudschee, who occupy the eastern part of Bulgaria, between Shuinla
and the Black Sea, and are divided into two hordes, the Orak and the Orumbet.
The Het.lenes, called Roomi and Yesihs by the Turks, and Gkeeks by Europeans, the mixed
descendants of the ancient Greeks, Romans, Macedonians, Thracians, and other tribes, who formerly
possessed the country. They are very numerous in Thessaly, Lower Albania, Macedonia, Thrace,
and Candia, and are found also in Wallachia and Jloldavia. Tl'.ey bear everywhere a very indiil'erent
moral character ; but form a strange contrast to the saturnine Turk, or the taciturn Armenian ; for
they are active and enterprising, versatile, loquacious, lively, vapouring, and disputatious, continually
hunting after distinction. The character of the Greeks is deeply imbued with credulity ; and their
religion is a tissue of the most degrading superstitions ; but they are quick of perception, fond of
quibble, and delight in sophistry. They receive tho impress of every mould, and the impulse of
every agent ; but are sadly deficient in honesty and stedfastness of purpose. They are of pure Cau-
casian lineage, their features are generally noble, and regular ; their eyes are large and black, eye-
brows arched, complexion brown, liair dark, most frequently black ; their stature above the middle
size, thick-set, and muscular, yet handsome and elastic. Upon their upper lip they generally wear a
moustache ; beards are worn only by their priests and men in authority. The Greek women are de-
cidedly handsome in figure, which is not injured by artificial means, beautiful in features, and elegant
In manners. Their eyes are large, black, and sparkling, their air languid, complexion pale, hair black,
teeth white and regular, and stature short. They are possessed of great natural shrewdness ; but
few of them are educated; and their moral character is but little elevated. — (Held, 132.;
The Arxauts, Albanians, or Skipitars, form the majority of the population of Albania, but are
also found in great numbers in Roumelia and Bulgaria. They were probably a tribe of the ancient
Illyrians, who migrated from tho northern mountains in the declining period of the Roman empire ;
but it is not to be imagined that a primitive tribe, or one which has remained unmixed during twenty
centuries, exists in a country like Turkey, inhabited by so many different nations confounded with each
other. Yet the Albanians are easily distinguishable by their physiognomy, temperament, and charac-
ter, from the Greeks and the Turks. They are strong, active, sober, and patient of fatigue ; their
happiness consists in action, and their habits are warlike ; but of glory and patriotism they have no
conception ; their services may be purchased by any government ; and, at home, they too often exercies
the trade of robbers. They are, indeed, a rude and barbarous people ; most of them are professors of Is-
lam ; and but few are very scrupulous about the observance of its precepts.— ril/a/^e Brun, VI. 188. )
The Bulgarians derive their name from an ancient Turkish or Tartar people who settled on the
Volga in the fourth century, and moved afterwards to the countries between the Don and the Bog,
and latterly to the south of the Danube, where they founded a kingdom, whose monarchs waged very
sanguinary wars with the Greek empire. But the Bulgarians being fewer in number than the people
whom they conquered, lost tlieir nationality, and in tho course of two centuries became entirely
Sclavonized. They were converted to Christianity in a. d. 860, and, from savage warriors, have
softened down to a peaceful, industrious, and hospitable people. They are Christians of the Greek
church, and form, next to the Armenians, the most respectable and most valuable class of the popu-
lation of the empire. The other Sclavonic races are the inhabitants of Moldavia, Servia, Bosnia, Cro-
atia, and Herzegowina, who are all members of the Greek chuixh, but vary considerably in charac-
ter, and language, in the different provinces.
The Servians are a very industrious race ; and, by their indomitable courage, have secured the in-
depandence of their country, or at least the right of self-government, which is the utmost that can be
expected by a small nation surrounded by more powerful neighbours. They are the descendants of a
colony of Servians or Sclavonians which migrated from Galicia in the seventh century ; and they
have preserved their nationality in its full integrity. Their language is an intermediate idiom, par^
taking of the Russian and the Polish. The Vlacus, Wallaks, or Wallachians, who give their
name to Wallachia, and are spread in groat numbers into the adjoining provinces, appear to be the
descendants of the ancient Dacians and of the Roman colonists settled among them after the conquest
Turkey.] EUROPE. 601
of Dacta by the Emperor Trajan. They call themselves Ht<nnvmt/i (»'. e. Romans), and retain a tradi-
tional pride of ancestry in sp te of their present degradation. Their language is soft, abounding in
vowels, and derives most of its words from the Latin, witli only a small intermixture of the Scla-
vonic. The pronunciation nearly resembles tliat of the Italian ; and it is a remarkable fact that tlie
Inflection and terminations of the words have a much greater similarity to those of the modern
language of Italy than to those of the Latin ; a circumstance which, as there has been no connection
between the countries since the time of the Romans, would go to prove either that tlie vulgar lan-
guage of Rome was more simple than is commonly imagined, or that, in both cases, the changes which
nave taken place are those which a polished language naturally undergoes when mixed with others,
or simplilied by the usage of uneducated and foreign people. It is dithcult to determine how far the
Wallaks have any title to their claim of Roman descent. The Roman colonists generally retreated
across the Danube when Dacia was abandoned ; but some of them may have remained ; and from such
the Wallaks of Hatzeg, in Transylvania, trace their descent. The rest are content with the mixture
of Roman and Dacian blood, which one may suppose to have taken place between the conquerors and
the conquered ; and the features of the Walliis resemble more those of the Dacians on Trajan's
column than those of the Romans or the modern Italians. Their modern foreign name is said to be
derived from the lUyrian word Vlach, a herdsman, or shepherd. But, besides the Wallachians of the
Danubian provinces, there are various tribes of the same name, who occupy the ridges of Pindus and
Olympus, descending In winter with their flocks into the low countries of Tliessaly and Macedonia.
They are a hardy race, less ferocious than the Arnauts ; sober, industrious, cleanly, and in high re-
pute throughout Greece as shepherds. The Montenegrins, who inhabit the southern part of Her-
zegowina, are the bravest, but at the same time the most savage and uncivilized of the southern
8clavonians. They possess a country surrounded by high mountains, which is quite inaccessible to
their enemies, and of which the Turks have never enjoyed more than a nominal domination. Tlie
Turks are at present content to receive a small tribute, leaving the government and administration of
civil affairs to the Vladika, or archbishop of Montenegro, who is under the protection of Russia.
The people, though they have apparently conformed themselves to some of the Russian laws, have
preserved with great fidelity the larger part of their national customs.
The Armenians of European Turkey are comparatively a small body; and are a portion of that
vagrant nation, who, like the Jews, expelled from their original country by foreign invaders, are now
found scattered over all the regions of south-western Asia, every where preserving their national lan-
guage, manners, customs, and religion. They are a most industrious and honourable people, and are
highly esteemed by their Osmanlee rulers. There are still greater numbers of the other two dispersed
races, the Jews and the Gipteys, who bear the same character, preserve the same manners and cus-
toms, and pursue the same sort of avocations in Turkey as everywhere else. The Fra?iks are people
collected from all parts of Europe, and are but few in number.
The estimates formed by European statists of the population of Turkey are entirely conjectural,
and differ widely in amount. We find the following statement of the total population, and of tlie num
bers of the separate races, in the Weimar Almanack for 1840, which is, perhaps, as near the truth as
can be reached. It is taken, we believe, from a work of Mr, Urquhart, Osmanlee, 700,000 ; Sclavo-
nians and Bulgarians, 0,000,000; Albanians, 1,000,000; Greeks, 1,180,000 ; Wallachians, 000,000 ; Jews,
a^iCOOO ; Gipseys, 200,000: Armenians, 100,000; Franks, 50,000 ; total, 10,080,000, under the direct
dominion of the Padishah ; to which number is to be added the population of Wallachia and Mol-
davia, 1,500,000, forming a total population of 12,180,000 for the whole of Turkey in Europe.
Religion All the Osmanlee, and great part of the Albanians, are Moslem; the
Greeks, Wallachians, Moldavians, Servians, Montenegrins, and Bulgarians, are mem-
bers of the Greek Church ; the Armenians adhere to the Armenian Church ; the
Franks belong to the various religious sects of Frankistan (Europe) ; and the Jews
are followers of the law of Moses.
The law and the religion of the Moslem being both founded on the Koran, the
clergy, and the lawyers form but a single order, named the Chain of the Ulema
(i. e. of the learned), at the head of which is the Grand Mufti, or Sheikh-ul-Islam,
who alone holds his office for life. He is the fountain of law, and the representa-
tive of the Khalif, or Sultan, in bis spiritual capacity; and as all new laws, and even
the question of peace and war, must have his sanction, he thus participates in the
legislative powers of the Sovereign, and bears a share in all the nioveniciits of the
government. The chain of the Ulema consists of various ranks, and admission into
it, and promotion to its highest dignities, are nominally open to all ; but here, as
every where else, birth, wealth, and official iiiliuence, are of more value than the
personal merits of the candidates. For the instruction of its members there are schools
or colleges, named muJreses, established in all the imperial mosques ; and the first
step of promotion is obtained by the student, when, after completiug the required
period of study, his name is inscribed in the list of those who aspire to legal offices.
If he then acquit himself well in the prescribed trials, he obtains a medrcsc, or pro-
fessorship, of the lowest income ; and afterwards advances by regular steps to the
highest rank of the medreses, that of the Suleimaniyeh, out of which the senior
muderis are promoted to the rank of Mahrej-Molla, or superior judges, a body who
are eight in number, and hold office only for a lunar year. The ne.xt step of [iromo-
tion by seniority is to one of the four superior mollaships of Adrianople, Urusa, Da-
mascus, and Cairo; the next to the two titular mollaships of Mecca and Medina; one
of whom is further promoted in turn to the rank of Istamboul-eifendi, or Master of
the Police of Constantinople, The next step from this olfice is to that of Kazi-askor
of Anadoli ; then to that of Kazi-asker of Roumili ; and, last of all, to the supremo
rank of Grand Mufti. Of course very few can reach these high offices; and the
greater part of the students are content with the rank of sinqile cadis or judges of
Naib, or sub-delegates of the judges in the towns and vilh^jcs throughout the cuipirc.
602 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Turkey.
Below the high moUas already ineiitioned are four ranks of judges and magistrates,
the first three of which can be filled only by muderis or doctors, the fourth, or lowest,
may be held by a mulasim, or inscribed student. All of these olficers, except the
Grand Mufti, hold their ollices only for a lunar year; and the price which they pay
for them is a principal source of the Grand Mufti's revenues.
Besides the Chain of the Ulema, there is another distinct class of clerical officers,
named the Chain of the Sheikhs. The title of Sheikh is borne by the Grand Mufti,
who is the Sheikh-ul- Islam, or Head of the Faith; and under him, by the superiors
of monasteries, and the Wais, or preachers, at the imperial mosques. The ministers
of religion, also, who perform the service of the mosques, are a class distinct from
the lawyers ; and, having once entered upon the sacerdotal office, can obtain no far-
ther advancement. The privileges common to all the members of the clerical body
are exemptions from taxes and arbitrary imposts, and from the punishment of death,
and confiscation. Their systematic organization gives them a firm coherence, which
makes the church (as Europeans would call it) the most solid part of the Ottoman
institutions. Its unity is secured by the controlling authority of its head, the Grand
Mufti, in whose gift are all the appointments to its various ranks and offices, while
the members have a common interest in maintaining its privileges. The clergy enjoy
great rank and influence, and unite the firmness of an aristocracy to the spirit of
a professional body. They are the natural supporters of the present state of things,
and form an almost insuperable bulwark against any species of innovation. The
Ulema have invariably been concerned in every political revolution in the empire,
and have uniformly shewn themselves the enemies of every reforming Sultan. It is
difficult to reform law and religion, even when they are taken separately; but, when
united, they offer an inert, or even an active resistance, sufficient to baffle the strong-
est efforts of the best intentioned despot.
Education. — The great number of employments for which learning is necessary
acts as a stimulus to the desire for education, and there is accordingly no want of
schools, where the elements of knowledge, as spelling, reading, and the principles of
grammar and religion, are taught. To all the imperial mosques are attached mu-
dreses or colleges, where aspirants to legal or sacerdotal offices are instructed. The
pupils first study grammar, then Arabic and Persian poetry, and rhetoric. When
considerably advanced in the Arabic language, they apply themselves to the reading
of the Koran, the commentaries upon it, and the books of civil law; and conclude
with the study of logic, natural philosophy, and metaphysics, in old Arabic works.
Totally neglecting mathematics, they also study judicial astrology, as the most sub-
lime branch of human knowledge. The number of the Suk/ites, or students, is very
considerable. In Constantinople alone they are reckoned to be 10,000, and form the
most turbulent and fpnatical part of the population. They receive a daily allowance
from the revenues of the mosques, and are lodged in the numerous cells attached to
these buildings. But besides these ancient institutions, there is also a school of
medicine attached to the Suleimaniyeh mosque at Constantinople, which was reformed
by Sultan Mahmoud, who attached to it a school of surgery. He also instituted a
naval college ; enlarged the school of engineers founded by his predecessor Sultan
Selini, and connected with it a school of architecture. Several other educational
institutions were also established in his reign, either by himself or by private persons ;
but under the reign of his son they seem to be all going to ruin ; while the old sys-
tem is again reviving.
Government The Government is an absolute monarchy or despotism, vested
in a Padishah or Emperor, of the race of Othman, who, in virtue of a compact made
with the last descendant of the Fateniite Caliphs of Egypt, is also Khali/ or Vicar of
the Prophet, and, as such. Head of the Mahometan religion ; but his official duties in
that capacity are delegated to the Grand Mufti, or Sheikh-ul-Islam. His authority is
absolute both in spiritual and temporal affairs, and his imperial prerogative allows
him to put to death fourteen persons a-day without sin, as the effect of immediate
inspiration. It is from this privilege that he has obtained his ordinary title of Unkiar
(or Hunkiar or Khunkiar, i.e. the Manslayer), by which he is spoken of among his
subjects. He bears also the title of Sultan ; but is best known to Europeans by the
Italian title of Grand Siguier. He usually delegates his authority in civil and military
affairs to the Grand Vizier, as his absolute lieutenant, who is charged with all the
afiairs of the empire, both foreign and domestic. The principal ministers of state, ac-
cording to their rank, are: — I. The Sheikh-ul-Islam ; 2. The Grand Vizier; 3. The
two Kadiaskers of Roumili and Anadoli ; 4. The Ministers of the first class, namely, the
Turkey.] EUROPE. 603
Minister of War and Commander-in-Chief of all the regular troops; the Seraskier, or
Commander-in-Chief of the troops of Anadoli ; the Capudan Pasha, or High Admiral ;
the Minister of Commerce ; the Captain of the Guard ; the Minister of Finance ; the
Minister of Foreign Affairs (an office formerly held by the JReis Effendi, or Chief
Secretary); the Cbaoushbashi, or executor of the judgments of the Divan; the Ha-
kimbashi, or Chief Physician ; and the President of the Board of Health ; 3. Ministers
of the second class, namely, the Reis Effendi or Secretary of State ; the Treasurer of
the Sultan's income ; the Beilikshi-effendi, assistant to the Reis Effendi in the exe-
cutive department of his office ; the Master of the Ceremonies ; the Director of the
Wakuffs, or charitable institutions ; the Interpreter of the Porte ; and the Director
of the Customs. The Council of Ministers is called the Divan, from the circum-
stance of their meeting in a certain room in the palace, which has no other furniture
than a divan, or wooden bench placed along the wall, about three feet high, and
covered with cushions. It is here that laws are made, suits decided, firmans issued,
troops paid, and the representatives of foreign sovereigns prepared for their introduc-
tion to the august presence of the Sultan. The imperial court itself is usually called
by Europeans, by the French designation of the Sublime Porte, a name derived from
the Bab-llumayon, the principal porte or gate of the outer wall of the palace, from
which the imperial edicts are issued. But the principal officers of the household fre-
quently possess great power and influence, and exercise more control over public
affairs than the ostensible ministers, who are sometimes only their instruments or
tools. The Sultan has no legal wives ; but he chooses several of the odalisques, or
females of the palace, generally three or four, never exceeding seven, who bear the
title of Kadine, or lady, and have each a separate establishment. At his death these
are removed to the old palace; but the Sultana Valide, or Sultan's Mother, remains
in his palace, and is sometimes allowed to interfere and exercise a predominant in-
fluence in public business.
For administrative purposes the empire is divided into provinces called eyalets, the
larger of which are governed by Pashas of three tails, with the official title of vizier ;
and the smaller, by Pashas of two tails, with the title of inirimiran. The eyalets are
subdivided into districts called livas or sandjaks, each of which is under the charge
of a Pasha of one tail, with the title of mira-liva, or sandjak bey ; the cities and
towns are governed by mutselims. These provinces are usually called pashalics by
Europeans. Pasha, however, is not an official title, but is merely a personal honour,
like knighthood in Europe, conferred by the Sultan. There are three ranks of pashas
(or bashaws, as the word used to be spelled by old English writers;) the first or
highest class have the privilege of bearing a standard of three horse-tails ; the second
of two ; and the third of one. The pasha is invested with the full powers of absolute
government within his province ; is the chief of both the military and the financial
departments, and of police and criminal justice ; with the power of life and death,
of making peace and war ; in short, of doing what he pleases, so long as he can pur-
chase and secure the favour of the Sultan and his ministers, or set them at defiance.
The provinces have hitherto been sold to the highest bidder ; the successful pasha,
of course, makes it his business to re-imburse his outlay by every species of extor-
tion ; and exercises his power in the most tyrannical and reckless manner. Nor is
this system of venality confined to the sale of provinces ; corruption seems still to
pervade every department of the state, civil, legal, and ecclesiastical ; and, under its
baneful influence, the provinces have been made little better than deserts, and the
empire has been brought to the verge of ruin. The late Sultan Mahmoud made many
vigorous efforts to reform abuses, and his successor Abd-ul-mesjid, has issued a Hatti-
scheriff, or edict, dated 3d November 1839, promising to endeavour by new institu-
tions to secure for the provinces of the empire the benefits of a good administration.
Finances The revenues of the state are raised by a variety of imposts; but as
no accounts are published by the government, we have not the means of stating cor-
rectly the amount which reaches the imperial treasury. The Christians and Jews are
subjected to a haradz or poll-tax, and other vexatious imposts, from which the Moslem
population are free. In the simple institutions which have formed the safeguard of
the empire against internal abuse, and foreign encroachment, direct taxation was an
essential element. Besides the haradz levied on the rayahs or infidel subjects, in
lieu of military service, the whole regular revenue used to be derived from the iniri, a
sort of property-tax, assessed and levied by each community or township separately.
A certain sum was fixed as the contribution of each village or district, proportioned
to its means, and each inhabitant [laid his share according to a rate assessed by the
604 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Tuukey.
communal council. When, however, Mohammed II. introduced the system of farm-
ing the revenue, he superseded the functions of these councils. The members re-
tained their office and title of at/an, but had no longer any control over the pashas,
who had purchased their offices, and thereby become owners, or farmers of the
revenue. These municipalities, however, still exist, and are acknowledged by the
government, but their power is in Rbeyance ; yet it is principally to them that
Turkey is indebted for the preservation of its social organization, amidst so many
misfortunes, and so long a continuance of misrule. Indirect taxes have also been
introduced, similar in character to our excise and customs ; and certain duties are now
levied on the export and import, the transit, and the sale of merchandise. It is as-
serted that, of late years, the general revenues of the empire have been in so flourish-
ing a condition, as to have actually left a surplus over the expenditure.
Army and Navy. — The celebrated corps of Janissaries was at first formed of
slaves and captives ; but its ranks were soon filled with the bravest of the Osman-
lee ; and, as a military brotherhood affords some chance of protection against arbitrary
power, all crowded to the muster-roll of the Janissaries, The multitudes, however,
of which the order at last consisted, were not all subject to military discipline, and
only served to fill the empire with turbulence and confusion, without increasing its
real strength. The number of Janissaries enrolled, at the close of last century, was
about 400,000 ; pay was issued for 60,000; but not more than 25,000 men could at
any time be mustered during the Russian wars. The corps was originally formed as
a protection to the Sultan against his powerful subjects, the military or feudatory
chieftains ; but soon becoming corrupted, it Substituted the danger of a pampered and
licentious soldiery. Bajazet II., within a century and a half after the organization of
the body, formed a plan for their destruction ; and Murad IV. destroyed great numbers
of them, without, however, exterminating them entirely. Selim III. prohibited the
recruiting of the corps, and this act cost him his life. The suppression of the Janis-
saries at last became essential to the security of the Sovereign and the State ; and by
one deadly blow, dealt by the late Sultan Mahmoud, that haughty soldiery, to whose
predecessors the empire owed the largest share of its extent and glory, was totally
extinguished in 1826.
A sense of their declining strength has induced the Sultans, since the beginning
of last century, to aim at introducing some military reforms, and to endeavour, by the
adoption of European tactics, to retrieve the tarnished glory of their arms ; but small
success attended their efforts, till the reign of the late energetic Sultan Mahmoud.
After the destruction of the Janissaries, Mahmoud determined that the nizam-jedid,
or new military force, should adopt the European dress and tactics. He found, how-
ever, his Moslem subjects so hostile to these innovations, that he was obliged to
enrol only very young men, whose prejudices were not very deeply rooted, and merely
retained a small number of old soldiers to incorporate with the new levies, which
were raised by conscription, mostly in Anadoli. The French system of tactics was
that selected for the infantry, and French officers were appointed as their instruc-
tors ; but, though the soldiers possess zeal, diligence, and habits of great attention,
when under instruction, their instructors have hitherto failed in forming them into
an efficient army.
An important part of the army formerly consisted of the spahis furnished, in time
of war, by the timariots, or great feudal proprietors of lands in Anadoli, to the amount
of about 20,000 good cavalry ; but Sultan Mahmoud destroyed these fiefs ; and the
cavalry soldiers are now levied like the infantry, by conscription; subject to the
same system of instruction. The horses are strong and active, and, though not
large, have more bone than those of Arabia, and are admirably calculated for light
cavalry. The riders are armed with swords and lances, and are generally finer men
than the infantry. The artillery are, however, the best soldiers in the army, and
work their guns with great dexterity. The soldiers, Marshal Marmont says, are
better fed than any other troops in Europe ; their magazines are filled with stores,
and the regiments have large reserves ; their pay is twenty piastres a-month, the
whole of which they receive ; and, in short, every thing has been done that could
promote the comfort of the soldier. The instruction is conveyed in a mild and ex-
planatory manner ; harshness is, indeed, unnecessary, as the men are naturally orderly
and well disposed, and shew great anxiety to acquire a knowledge of their duties.
Owing to their habits of sobriety, offences against discipline are unfrequent. For
small offences the soldiers are liable to be caned ; and for those of a graver nature,
they are subject to the same punishment that would be inflicted on civilians. At
Turkey.] EUROPE. 605
the commencement of the year 1840 the force of the army was estimated at 94,000
infantry and artillery ; with 25,000 regular, and 100,000 irregular cavalry.
The Osmanlee have never been a maritime people, nor have they paid any atten-
tion to the art of navigation ; their military navy, after its triumphs in the fifteenth
century, was «ong neglected, till the Sultan Mahmoud infused his energy into this
department, as into every other, and succeeded in creating a very respectable fleet,
which he left to his successor. At the time of his death, however, the Capudan
Pasha carried off the fleet then at sea, and delivered it up to the Pasha of Egypt.
At the commencement of 1840, the number of ships, including, we presume, those
at Alexandria, was stated to be ten sail of the line in serviceable order, and five
unrigged; 10 frigates on service, one in dock, and 4 unrigged; and 3 steam-ships;
besides several corvettes, and other smaller vessels. Before the Greek insurrection,
the fleet was manned by the Greeks of the Archipelago; and their pay was furnished
by the Greek nation. The patriarch of Constantinople was empowered, by an ex-
press order of Government, to impose the requisite sum, called viillahiye, or the
sailors pay, upon the Greek inhabitants of the capital, and, through their archbishops
and bishops, upon those of the provinces. The fleet is now manned by landsmen
trained in harbour, and is commanded by officers equally ignorant of seamanship, and
of naval tactics.
Manufactures and Trade Turkey is not a manufacturing country ; and the
people make no pretensions to rival the science and capital of Britain. But their
fertile territory and genial climate enable them to supply many of the materials for
foreign manufacture ; and these with their other agricultural products they are con-
tent to raise, and to receive whatever can be furnished to them cheapest and best in
return. There are, nevertheless, several places distinguished for the production of
excellent manufactured articles. The carpets of Anatolia frequently combine eco-
nomy and comfort in use with elegance of pattern ; while in the beauty and dura-
bility of the colour they are equalled only by those of Persia, which surpass them in
delicacy and costliness. The Turks, however, have never attained the art of making
woollen cloths, except of the coarsest kind ; but other branches of manufacture are
shewn to be active in the country, from the increased importation of cotton twist,
where it is entirely used. The coarser and more common articles of their manufac-
ture, such as muslins, ginghams, and handkerchiefs, have given way before those
of England ; but the finer fabrics of silk and cotton still maintain the competition,
and are likely to do so, from their superior quality, beauty, and durability. Silk
stuffs are made at Constantinople and Saloniki; the braziers and ironsmiths of
Sliumla have carried their art to great perfection; good steel is made at Bosna-Serai,
Scutari, Karatovi, and Constantinople; and fire-arms at Semendria, Grabora, and other
places. The grand commercial principle of Turkey is unlimited freedom of trade ;
and though the late Sultan Mahmoud, under evil influence, endeavoured to enforce
prohibitions on the export or import of certain articles, yet these prohibitions, and
all monopolies, have been again abolished, and the trade is now only limited and
restricted by the extent of the supply and demand. The principal articles of ex-
port are : horses, beeves, and swine, tanned and raw hides, wool, wine, tobacco,
cotton, currants, almonds, figs, dates, and other fruits, olive oil, wax, honey, opium,
raw and spun silk, camlet, carpets, morocco leather, gall-nuts, valonia, madder, gum-
dragon, sponge, copper, alum, &c. ; while the articles imported consist of corn, and
every sort of manufactured and colonial produce.
Commercial relations have long been maintained between England and Turkey, and
till a recent date there existed in London a Turkey Company, which possessed the
exclusive privilege of trading to the Levant. The trade, however, once carried on
by the company had gradually dwindled away ; the origin of our present trade with
Turkey is but of recent date. Before the last war between Britain and Turkey, in
1807, only two or three British vessels proceeded annually to Constantinople with
assorted cargoes. Of these, cotton goods formed but a small proportion ; and a quan-
tity not much larger was sent to Smyrna. When Malta became a depot for our trade
in the Mediterranean, the Greeks, imbued with an almost intuitive talent for commerce,
began to make purchases there of British manufactures ; and sent from that island
every variety of goods likely to suit the market, chiefly to Smyrna, from which (lie
capital was supplied. An English merchant, who had conceived a just opinion of
the capatfilities of the traffic, established a house at Constantinople in 18r2, which
for several years had the whole command of the direct trade with England. From
that period Constantinople became u rival mart with Smyrna, and has at length com-
e06 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Turkey
pletely eclipsed it in the supply of British manufactures. The trade has gone on
continually increasing; and no country now affords a better field for commci-cial
enterprize. Besides the English houses, there arc now upwards of seventy Greek
houses in Constantinople which trade with England, besides a number of Armenians
and others ; and most of the French, Austrian, and Italian merchants. About one-
fourth of the same number, probably, exist at Smyrna, and there are several at Salo-
niki, and in the principal towns of Syria. Besides English merchants and manufac-
turers engaged in business \vith Turkey, there are eight Greek houses in London,
with two branches at Manchester ; four Armenian and Syrian, and one Anglo-Le-
vant house ; in all thirteen Levantine firms, which enjoy respectable or first-rate
credit. The proportion of British produce and manufactures now sent to Turkey,
is one-twenty-fifth of the whole quantity exported. It is one-fifth of that sent to
the United States of America, one-half of that sent to Germany, four-fifths of that
sent to Holland, Italy, and Brazil respectively ; it exceeds by one-third the exports
to Portugal and France ; and the whole trade to Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Prussia,
and Spain together ; it equals the amount exported to Russia, and is nearly equal to
the exports sent to our North American colonies ; it falls short little more than one-
third of our exports to the East and West Indies, and is double the amount of our ex-
ports to China. The trade is now principally carried on by native merchants, and
their commission-houses, or partners in England, being shared with English houses ;
and, consisting only of real transactions, and affording no scope for speculation, it has
been more steady and secure than that with any other country. Goods for Persia,
however, have of late years formed the most valuable part of the shipments for Con-
stantinople, which is not only in the direct road, but offers nearly as great advantages
from being an intermediate market. From Constantinople, the goods for Persia are
sent to Trebizond, and thence overland through Armenia.
Previously to the convention of 16th August 1838, the only recognised duty on
imports from Britain was three per cent. ; but other duties were subsequently levied
at and after the sale of the goods imported, which equalled in amount the import
duty itself. By the convention of 1838, the duty on imports is fixed at the same
rate of three per cent. ; and, in lieu of all other exactions, one fixed rate of two
per cent, is established, on payment of which all goods imported may be sold and
re-sold, without further duty or restriction. With regard to exports, the only
recognised duty was also three per cent. ; but other duties, fluctuating in their na-
ture, and oppressive in amount, were levied at the caprice of the authorities, on
all articles of value, and especially on valonia, silk, oil, and opium. By the con-
vention of 1838, the duty on exports to Britain is fixed at three per cent. ; all
monopolies and prohibitions are abolished ; and in lieu of all inland duties on goods
to be exported, one fixed rate of nine per cent, is established.
According to the last published returns, the number of vessels which entered the
port of Constantinople in each of the years 1837 and 1838, were 3671 and 5625. The
number of British vessels in 1837 was 432, with a tonnage of 86,253 ; and in 1838,
vessels, 419, tonnage, 120,860. Of Ionian vessels, the numbers were, in 1836, vessels,
263, tonnage, 41,852 ; in 1838, vessels, 308, tonnage, 45,793. Of the vessels of other
nations, the following numbers are given, without the tonnage, of which the British
Consuls have no account. In 1837, American, 3 ; Austrian, 732 ; Belgian, 4 ; Da-
nish, 2, Dutch, 2; French, 19; Greek, 832; Neapolitan, 15; Prussian, 5; Russian,
555; Sardinian, 793 ; Swedish, 9 ; total, 3671. In 1838, American, 3 ; Austrian,
811; Belgian, 15; Dutch, 7; French, 48; Greek, 2228; Neapolitan, 64; Russian,
570; Sardinian, 866; Swedish, 4 ; Tuscan, 36; total, 5572. Of Turkish vessels
there is no account given for either year ; and, of the Greek vessels the average ton-
nage is stated to be very small compared with the number of vessels, among which
are included craft of all kinds and sizes. The number of vessels which enten;d the
port of Adrianople in 1837, was 7, of which 3 were British, I French, and 3 Greek ; the
Port of Saloniki, in 1837, 329, of which 5 British, 3 Maltese, 4 Ionian, 6 French, 15
Austrian, 2 Russian, 13 Sardinian, 243 Greek, and 38 Turkish ; the Port of Smyrna
in 1837, 897, whereof British 110, Ionian 20, Maltese 4, American 13, Austrian
145, Dutch 6, French 61, Greek 498, Russian 17, Sardinian, 18, Swedish, 5, Tur-
kish, not known. The number of vessels which entered the port of Trebizond, in 1837,
was 131, of which 31 British, 73 Turkish, 19 Austrian, 4 Russian, and 4 Greek;
tonnage, 22,349; value of cargoes, £1,145,471, whereof £623,372 were those of the
British vessels.
Internal Communications. — It is hardly necessary to say, that there are neither
canals nor railroads in Turkey. Many of tlie common roads are impracticable for car-
Turkey.] EUROPE. 607
riages of any sort, being mere tracks formed by long use ; and only a few will aJmit
European carriages. It is, therefore, the custom to travel on horseback ; ladies oc-
casionally make use of bad waggons. In European Turkey, the common beasts of
burden are horses and asses j in Asiatic Turkey, camels are also employed. For the
accommodation of travellers there is abundance of inns, called han or khan, or, when
in small villages, meyhane. In these the traveller generally finds during summer
every comfort, if he can adapt himself to Oriental customs. Throughout the em-
pire, both in Europe and Asia, there is a great posting establishment, consisting
of a series of posts, placed at various distances, from 3 to 16 hours, and extending
along most of the great lines of road. In these, horses are kept for the use of the
government couriers, called Tartars, who form a separate corporation, and are dis-
tributed over the empire at the residence of each pasha, where they live in a house
set apart for themselves, called the Tartar-han. They are generally a good sort of
people ; and though they drink a good deal of brandy, are always sober when on the
road, and intemperate only when they arrive at the end of their journey, or when they
have plenty of money, and are in a large town. The Tartars may be engaged by
private travellers, as conductors of their journey ; but a government order is neces-
sary for the supply of post-horses, which are furnished at a very low rate. When
carrying government dispatches, the Tartars travel without intermission, at so rapid
a rate that few ordinary travellers are able to accompany them ; but, when hired,
especially by a traveller, the Tartar acts as his servant, but never mixes with the
other servants, dining alone, to maintain his dignity. A firman, obtained at Con-
stantinople from the Sultan, gives a traveller the right, not only to have a Tartar
as his companion and protector, but also to be put into private lodgings, in the
towns and villages, generally in the houses of Christians, who are so accustomed to
this regulaticn, that many have a part of their house expressly set apart for fo-
reigners, to prevent them from seeing their wives and families.
Divisions Turkey is usually divided by European geographers into nine pro-
vinces or regions, namely, Roumelia, including the ancient Macedonia and Thrace ;
Thessaly ; Albania; Hcrzegowina; Bosnia and Turkish Croatia ; Servia; Bulgaria;
Wallachia ; and Moldavia. These divisions we shall follow in our topographical de-
scription. But for administrative purposes, the country remaining under the direct
dominion of the Padishah is divided into four eyalets, which are again subdivided
into livas and sandjaks.
The Eyai.et of Rocm-ili comprises Thessaly, Albania, and the western part of Roumelia, and is
divided into the livas of loanina, Saloniki, Mtmastir, Trikhala, Scutari, Ochrida, Avlu^ia, Kus-
tendil or Ghiustendil, El Bas$an, Perserin or I'rinfnd, Dukagin, Uskup, Ddmno or Detbino,
Velitschti-riii, Canala, and Alaja-hismr or Krukhomicz.
TheEYALET op^BosNiA comprises Bosnia, Croatia, and Herzegowina, and is divided into the livas of
Widdin, Kilits-llosna, Iznernik or Zrornik, Ada-i-kehir, and Trebiizne.
The Eyalet of Silistria comprises Bulgaria and the eastern part of Roumelia, and is divided into
the livas of AVcopo//, Chirman, I'iza or tVisa, Kirkitissa or Kirkliseh, 5i7/i<r«J, and also includes
the fortress of Belgrade.
The Eyalet of the Jezayks or Islands comprises the coasts of Thrace and all the islands of the
Archipelago, with Cyprus ; but many of these are now included in the new kingdom of Greece.
This eyalet contains tlie livas of Gaflipoli, Metclin, lihudci, Lefcosia, Chio, Suiiw, Sec.
§ Cities and Towns.
1. Roumelia. Constantinople fcallcd by the Turks Stamboul, or IsTAMnotiL), the metropolis
of the Ottoman empire, and the chief city of Islam, is situate on a hilly promontory at the southern
entrance of the Thracian Bosphorus, in N. lat. 41^ 1' and E. long. '28-^ .V)'. The city is built on seven
hills with their intervening valley s, and forms an irregular triangular-shaped area, pointing to the east;
having its south side washed by the Sea of Marmora, and its north by the waters of the (iolden Horn,
which, extending five miles inland from the Bosphorus, forms one of the finest harl)Ours in the world.
The west side is formed by a triple wall which stretches across from the harbour to the sea. The
total circuit of the city is between 1 1 and 12 miles, of which each of the three sides occupies nearly
four, the harbour side being considerably the shortest. Within this enclosure tlie city forms a con-
fused mass of narrow, winding, steep, and dirty streets, crowded with wooden houses, and interspersed
with numerous mosques, the principal of which crown the sunnuits of the seven hills with their
massy domes and lofty minarets, and give to the city, from a distance, an appearance of magnificence
which a eliiscr examination dispels. The point of the promontory is occupied bj' the Serai or imperial
palace (called Sera/^lio by the Franks), which consists of a group of buildings of various forms and di-
mensions, in the midst of numerous courts and gardens, the whole being surrounded by a high wall.
The principal buildings in the city arc the mosques, of which there are twenty dignified with the title
of huiwniDiin (imperial). The first of these is the ancient church of the Holy Wisdom ( Ai/ia Siijihia,
most absurdly converted by Europeans into a female Saint Sophia), founded by Constantine, and re-
built in its present form by the hmperor Justinian, in the sixth century. Externally, it is a large
square building, crowned with cupolas ; but, inside, it exhibits the form of a Greek cross, the inter-
section of which is surmounted by a very flat dome, 115 feet in diameter, and ISO feet above the floor.
In front is an ancient belfry ; and its Moslem masters have added a beautiful minaret at caoh of the
four Cf>rners. This mosque closely adjoins the Serai. Nearer the south end of the snnie hill is Iho
Ahmedya, or Mosque of Sultan Achnied I., which is not only the chief of all the nio-qius, hut also
the only one in the empire that has six minarets. It is the State Church, or Catliiilral. of Con-
stantinople ; for to it the Sultan generally repairs on the two great festivals of the IJairam, aceoiu-
008 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Turkey.
panic<l by his whole suite ; and It was here that Sultan Mahmoud appealed to his assembled people for
thoir assistance to crush the Janissaries. The Suleimaniych, the most splendid monument of Otto-
man architecture, and built under the greatest of the Ottoman Sultans, Suleiman the Magnificent, in
the middle of the sixteenth century, by Sinan, the greatest architect in the empire, stands on the top
of the second hill, and contains, within its sacred precincts, the mausoleum ot the founder, his con-
sort, and his children. These, and all the other mosques, are built after the model, or in imitation of
St. Sophia's ; but the latter is greatly surpassed by the Suleimaniych. The general plan of them all is
the same ; they contain, within their outward enclosure, a fore court, a garden or place of graves
forming a back court ; and, between the two, the sanctuary itself, tlie mosque, which, if small, is
called mesjid (the place of worship), if large, inm!, (the assembler.) Of the latter there are said
to be 100 in the city and its suburbs ; and it is only in tliem that, on Fridays, the prayer for the
Sultan is pronounced from the minber, or speaker's pulpit. As in Islam all instruction is founded
on religion, and jurists are at once theologians and lawyers, it is natural that mosques should be the
central points .around which scientilic and literary establishments should be grouped. Thus in the
Constantinopolitan mosques are founded the mudreses and the libraries ; and of these institutions
Constantinople possesses about 300.
Besides the church of the Holy Wisdom, there are several other remains of Roman antiquities, as
a monolithic Egyptian obelisk, another obelisk formed of several pieces, and appearing to have been
once covered with brass, and a brazen column formed of the bodies of three twisted serpents, in the
Atmeidan or Hippodrome, an open area adjoining the Serai, 250 paces long by 150 broad, and origi-
nally formed in the ancient Hyzantium by the Emperor Severus; the burnt column in the street of
Adrianople ; the column of Theodosius in the palace garden ; the cistern of Constantine, now called
Jiinderik, or the thousand and one pillars, and the Yereliatan Serai, or subterranean palace, two
ancient reservoirs, both situate near the burnt column ; and the Bosdjohan-ktmeri, or aqueduct of the
Emperor Valens, connecting the third and fourth hills, and consisting of two rows of arches, partly
ruinous, though still serving to convey water.
Constantinople contains a immber of covered bazaars, which have more the appearance of a row of
booths in a fair, than of a street of shops ; yet the arrangement anil exposure of their various and
gaudy articles would astonish a person familiar even with the splendour of London. Not only
these bazaars, but those which more resemble open streets, are severally allotted to particular trades
and articles of merchandise, after the manner of Athens and Rome, and of this city when under the
dominion of the Greeks. Water is to the Orientals the symbol of the principle of life, and the words
of the Koran, " 15y water everything lives," is almost universally inscribed on the great fountains,
some of which form the tinest ornaments of the city Baths are a luxury indulged in by all classes,
and of these useful establishments there are about 130 dispersed through the city. Some of tliem are
built of marble, but in general their external appearance is no way remarkable. Internally, they are
divided into a number of circular rooms, lighted from cupolas, and containing the baths, with all their
necessary appendages. The supply of water is brought by aqueducts, partly above and pai tly under
ground, from seven reservoirs or bends, in the neighbourhood of Belgrade, a village 15 miles to the
north of the city. For the reception of strangers, there are 180 hans or inns, which are just so many large
stone barracks or closed squares, and have, like the baths, every recommendation except architectu-
ral elegance. They generally contain a range of warehouses and stables on the gi'ound floor, and
ranges of small chambers in galleries above, which are kept neat and clean by the servants of the ban,
and are fitted up for the time with the carpets and slender wardrobe of the occupiers. These useful
structures are the work of sultans and other munificent individuals ; so that strangers, with the ex-
ception of a small fee to the servant, are gratuitously lodged, and, during their sojourn in the city, are
masters of tlieir rooms, of which they keep the keys. They are open to men of whatever quality, con-
dition, country, or religion ; and have contributed to attract the merchants and the merchandise of
the furthest Moslem countries of Africa and Asia to the Imperial city. During tires or insurrec-
tions, their iron gates are closed, and they thus aiford complete security to the persons and the pro-
perty of the merchants.
Connected with the Imperial Court, are two buildings in Stamboul which require notice; namely,
the Eski Serai, or Old I'alace, and the Yedi KouUeler, or Seven Towers. The former is a large
walled structure in the heart of the city, used as the residence of the cadines of the deceased sul-
tans and their attendants ; the latter is an ancient castle at the south-western corner of the city,
close by the sea. Three of the seven towers have disappeared; those remaining are 200 feet high ;
but the whole is ruinous, and garrisoned only by a few soldiers. It was originally built soon afler
the foundation of the city, was repaired and strengthened by Mohammed II., and afterwards became
the chief garrison of the janissaries, and a state prison.
Outside the city walls, and beyond the harbour and the Bosphorus, are several towns and vil-
lages, which may be called the suburbs of Constantinople. Immediately adjoining the wall, to the west-
ward of the city, are the villages of i^yojii, Otakdgiler, Mevla-hane, Balukli, Kutchuk-Balukli, and
Buyuk- Sal-hane ; on the north side of the harbour are Galata, Pera, Top-hana and Fuiidukli, St. Demi-
tri, Cassim- Pasha, Haas-kioy, and Soudlejeh ; on the east side of the Bosphorus is the large town of
Scutari, about nine furlongs from the Seraglio point, and Tnp-hana. Galata, the largest of the suburbs,
is the principal seat of trade, and the usual landing-place from the Sea of Marmora. It extends along
the north side of the harbour, near the entrance, and up the slope of the adjoining hill which is occu-
pied by Pera, and from which it is separated only by a wall with gates, which are closed at night. The
dwelling-houses of Galata are built of wood, but the warehouses are of stone, arched, and provided
with iron doors and shutters, as a precaution against the frequent fires. As a further precaution, a
watch is set upon a lofty tower which commands an extensive view, and from which the alarm is
given. There is a similar tower, called the Seraskier's, in Stamboul, near the palace. Galata con-
tains the Imperial custom-house, a Roman Catholic church, a convent of Dominicans, and one of the
Capuchins ; and a number of Greek and Armenian churches, but only one mosque. Pera is the head-
quarter of diplomacy, and the residence of the European ambassadors and consuls, and is chiefly inha-
bited by Franks. It is devoid of any Oriental character, a.nd bears much resemblance to a second-rate
Italian town. Top-hana forms a continuation of Galata along the shore to the eastward, and derives
its name from the cannon foundry established here. It contains also the artillery barracks ; and its
fine quay is the usual place of embarkation for Scutari and the villages on the Bosphorus. Fundukli
a straggling village along the shore continuous with Top-hana to the north. Cassim- Pashu is an exten-
sive suburb to the west of Galata and I'era, from which it is .separated by extcjisive burying-grounds.
It possesses few attractions for strangers. The suburb of St. Demitri, occupying a height above
Cassim-Pasha, and wholly inhabited by Greeks, was almost entirely consumed by fire in 1832. On the
heights behind Cassim-Pasha and St. Demitri is the Ok-meidan, or Place of Arrows, where the sul-
tans used frequently to exercise themselves in shooting with the bow and arrow. Eyoub is a beauti-
ful and picturesque suburb, at the north-west corner of the city, extending along the upper part of
the harbour, and surrounded by gardens and cemeteries thickly planted with cypress. It takes its
name from Eyoub or lob, the companion and standard-bearer of the Prophet Mahomet, who was
killed during the first siege of Constantinople by the Saracens, a.d. 668, and was buried here. His
burial place was revealed in a vision to the conqueror, Mohammed II., who erected a mosque on the
spot. The mosque is an elugant building of white marble, and is the place where the sultans are in-
TuKKtv.J EUROPE. 609
Bugurated, by being girded with the sword of Othman, the founder of the empire. No Christian is
allowed to enter the mosque, or to reside in the village. Asa burial-place Eyoub is held in great vene-
ration, and, next to those of Scutari, its cemetries are the most remarkable of any near the capital.
Scutari, like Rome and Constantinople, stands on seven low hills, on the east side of the Bosphorns.
Its structure in every respect resembles that of the city itself; it contains eight mosques, five of which
were built by sultanas and three by sultans. Its ancient Greek name was Chrusopulis (Gold-town),
probably from its being the place where the Persian tribute was collected. Its modern name of U$-
Kudar ( Italianized into Scutari ) is a Persian word, meaning a courier. Scutari is. and has been from
the remotest period, the post station for Asiatic couriers, the great rendezvous of caravans, and the
place where travellers to and from the east commence and terminate their journeys. In front of
the town is the Kis- Koulasi, or Maiden's Tower, built on an insulated rock in the Bosphorus.
The Bosphorus itself we have already described. Its great branch, the Golden Horn, extends
nearly five miles inland, with a width varying from two furlongs to live, but gradually narrow ing near
its termination, where it receives the " Sweet waters" of the rivulet called by the ancients Lukos or
Lyms. The water is deep enough to float the largest ships close to the land ; and there is room
sufficient for 1200 sail. The steepness of its banks, and its great depth of water, which is subject
to no variation from tides, afford peculiar facilities for loading and unloading vessels. The Impe-
rial naval arsenal, Ters-hana (the place of shipwrights), is situate mar the upper end of the harbour,
in the suburb of Cassim-Pasha ; the inclosure comprises docks, workshops, stores, and steam-engines.
The artificers are chi'.fiy Greeks and Armenians ; but the director is, or was recently, an Anglo-Ame-
rican, a man of great talent and reputation, who has constructed ships of the most enormous size. The
Bagnio or prison is close to the Arsenal, and behind it are the picturesque ruins of the palace of the
Capudan-Pasha. In 1837 an elegant wooden bridge, resting on boats, was constructed across the har-
bour, immediately below the arsenal, which forms a communication between Stamboul and Pera.
Ships pass it by means of two draw-brida;es. Besides the ships floating in the harbour, the surface
of the Golden Horn is covered with a countless number of boats, both large and small, which ply for
hire, like the wherries on the Thames. Some of these boats or caiques (kaw-eeks) are extremely ele-
gant, and the dexterity of the eaiquejee (b:!atman) makes them glide with great rapidity over tha
smooth surface of the water. Large and heavy boats, rowed like Thames barges, start at short and
regular intervals from Scutari, Top-hana, and the Baluk-bazaar (fish-market), which are crowded
with passengers for the villages on the Bosphorus. Steam-boats have lately made their appearance in
these quiet waters, to the great annoyance of the caiquejees, whose frail vessels are in danger of be-
ing overset by the commotion raised by the wheels.
Constantinople and its suburbs are peopled by a motley assemblage of Turks, Greeks, Armenians,
Jews, Franks, and natives of the East, to whom separate quarters or districts are allotted ; though in
certain parts some of them dwell promiscuously. The Ottomans themselves chiefly occupy Stamboul ;
but within its walls are also the quarters of the Armenians, Greeks, and Jews. '1 he Armenians have
two quarters, one alongside the sea of Marmora, and the other alongside the harbour, very near
the middle of each side. These form the busiest, the most valuable, and most rcspectab e part of the
population ; they are the bankers, the corn merchants, gold.^miths, physicians, surgeons, bakers,
builders, braziers, jewellers, weavers, hucksters, in short, the gentr.-il mechanics, labourers, and men
of business. They are mild, persevering, sober, patient, and horn st, but skilful in their dealings ; and
some of them are very wealthy. The Turks highly esteem them, and preler them to any other people
for the management of their commercial and financial transactions. The Ruumi, or Greeks, called
also Yesirs or slaves by the Turks, are likewise an important class. They are very much scattered
throughout the city, owing, it is supposed, to most of their ancient churches having been allowed to
remain, and thus to induce a portion of the people to reside in their vicinity. But the greater number,
and the mo.st influential part of them, reside in a district called the Fanar, adjoining the harbour,
towards the north-west corner of Stamboul. The Greeks have become almost proverbial (or their
intrigiiing character, duplicity, and dishonesty ; they are the inveterate enemies of the Turks, and
almost all favourably disposed" towards Kussia. The Fanariotes are the most respectable of theclass.
But the Greeks of the suburbs are, according to a late traveller ( Heid], a class of thieves, liars, swind-
lers, and assassins ; a worse set, he says, it would be impossible to find. The Jews are nearly all of
Spanish extraction, and understand more or less the Sj anish language. There are, however, to be
found Jews from Persia, Arabia, Tunis, France, Italy, Germany, Poland, Greece, and Asia Minor;
of whom the least respectable are the Greek and the Smyrniot. They have two districts assigned to
them ; the one named Baleta, on the south side of the harbour, to the west of the Fanar, and the
othi'r Haskoi, or Haas-kioy, on the north side; but they are also found in all the ( hristian quarters,
and among the villages oii the Bosphorus. Their quarters are the most densely peopled, but at the
same time the dirtiest and most squalid portion of the city. The Jews are not confined to mercantile
pursuits ; but are found exercising the callings of tinsmiths, carpenters, shopkeepers, cott'ee-house-
K epers, tailors, bootmakers, and weavers. The most respectable of them have warehouses in the
liarit ; but many of them infest the streets, where they are exceedingly troublesome to strangers ; and
cucli is tlieir pertinacity, that violent means are necessary to drive them off. They are a iierpecuted
ra^-e li.-re as elsewhere, "but still they thrive. In the street they assume the appearance of poverty ;
but many of them are Wealthy, and possess houses richly furnished. The Franks form a mot-
b'y and varied class, consisting of English, Scotch, Irish, Maltese, and Ionian Greeks, Americans,
French. Italians, Swiss. Prussians, Austrlans, Hellenic Greeks, and Russians ; all of whom enjoy the
protection of their own national laws, which are administered by their consuls. Their number in
I H.TJ was calculated as follows :— Scotch, 120 ; English, HO ; Irish, 21 ; Maltese, 2000 ; Ionian Greeks,
4(»of) ; Hellenic Greeks, S.^.'iO; Americans, 20 ; French, "00 ; lUilians, 2C00 ; Prussian.s, 410; Au.strians,
2000 ; Germans, 3.)00 ; Russians, 4(KX) ;— total 18,231 . The Scotch, English, Irish, and French, are the
most resiwctable ; some of the others preserve a decent character; but the mass of them, says Held,
are the most practised rogues, thieves, assassins, gamblers, swindlers, and villains, that ever existed
in any city. Pera has long lieen known as the head-quarters of intrigue and villany ; and neither
London nor Paris is said to be able to produce a proportionate number of daring n ffians. They
seem to be the offscourings of the capitals of Lurope; and it is no wonder that the J'urks despise the
nations whom they represent. Of the total amount of the population the most conflicting estimates
have been formed, varying from about 2.'tO,000 to upwards of a million. Mr. Reid says that the popu-
lation of the city and suburbs was stated to him, by an Armenian who had good means of informa-
tion, to l)e, at the end of the year 18.'i8, in round numbers, 84';,000 ; of whom ,5(X),(XMJ were Turks;
2;K).()00 Armenians; 100,000 Jews ; 28,000 (Greeks; and 18,000 Franks and other strangers. But, be-
sides the human inhabitants, there is another class of occupants which form one of the womlers of
ConstantirKiple. The dogs are not the property of any one, but arc supported by all. Their litttTs
are never destroyed ; they are the only scavengers, and may be constantly .seen prowling along the
edge of the water in search of bodies that may be washed ashore. The dogs are never domesticated,
and mosques and other Inclosures are carefully guarded from their intrusion. They are susceptible
of the plague, but hydrophobia is unknown among them. They have all their peculiar districts, where
they observe the most rigid police iimong themselves; and, should a va^ranl invade his neighbours'
t«rritory, the whole party Immediately assail him.
The receptacles for the dead are not the least interesting or important objects in Constantinople ;
610 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Turkey.
they are far more picturesque and commodious than those for the livinj?, and occupy hardly less
extent of ground. The people of every creed have distinct cemeteries. Those of the Moslem popu-
lation are distinguished by the dark cypresses with which they are planted, and by their turbaned
stones of white marble. A cypress is always planted at each Mussulman's grave ; and, as no grave
Is opened a second time, their burial grounds have become vast forests, extending for miles round
the city and its suburbs. Multitudes of turtle doves frequent these gloomy abodes, and hold a divided
sway with bats and owls. Burying within the city is strictly prohibited. The favourite burial place
on the European side is the cemetery of Eyoub ; but there are also large cemeteries between Cassim-
Pasha and Pera and Galata, and along the outside of the western city wall. The cemeteries of Scutari
are, however, the largest, the most beautiful, and the most celebrated. The principal one occupies a
very large .space of ground to the south of the town, and is richer in monuments of illustrious and
distinguished men than any of the cemeteries of Constantinople, or of the other villages. Scutari
stands on the sacred soil of Asia, and the Turks having a presentiment of their expulsion from Eu-
rope, prefer being buried on this holier ground, where they shall be safe from the intidel's tread. The
plane, the mulberry tree, and the terebinth or turpentine tree, shade the cemeteries of the rayaht, or
Christian subjects. The cemetery of the Armenians is pre-eminently beautiful. Beyond Pera are
extensive cemeteries belonging to every race.
Constantinoile was founded by a colony of Greeks about 3.58 years B. c, and bore for nearly a
thousand years the name of Buzantion (Latin, Byzantium), derived from Buzas or Byzas, the leader
of the colony. Byzantium, however, in its greatest extent, occupied only the two most easterly of the
seven hills. In the year 328 of the Christian era, Constantine the Great founded at Byzantium a new
city, which was destined to rival Rome, and called it lioma Nova ; but his own name ultimately pre-
vailed as its designation. For eleven centuries it remained the capital of the eastern portion of the
Roman empire ; till it was taken by storm, in 1453, by the Turks under Mohammed II., who made it
the capital of his empire, and there his successors have fixed their almost uninterrupted abode.
A number of villages, villas, castles, and palaces line the shores of the Bosphorus, forming so many
appendages to the metropolis. These our limits permit us only to name. Commencing from Fun-
dukli, on the European side, we find Dalmabaktchi', Bcshik-tash, Urto-kiov, .-trnaout-kioy, Bahec,
RoumiU-hissar or castle of Europe, at the narrowest part of the channel. Balta- liman, Steneh, Yeni-
kioy, Kalender, Therapia, Chefeh-kioy, Biit/tik-dereh, Sariyeri, Yeni-muka/a, Roumeli-kavak, Buyuk-
liman, Kazibjee fort, and Rouinelifanarakt or European lighthouse. On the Asiatic side, commenc-
ing from Scutari, we find Kous- Goiindjouk, Starros, Beglerbeg-kioy, Chengel-kioy, Vani-kioy, Ana-
doli-hissar or Castle of Asia, at the mouth of a rivulet called Oiuksou or the Sweet Waters, Kand-
lijek-kioy, Indjir-kvy, Beikos, Yali-kioy, SuUanich, watering-place, Oninurjtri, Vnkiariskillessi or
the Emperor's steps. Fort Joucha, behind which rises the Jnurha-dagh or Giant's Mountain, Jlnadoli-
karak, ancient Genoese Castle, Keteli-liman, Fhilboitrnou Pilar-boitrnu, Anadoli-fatiaraki or Asiatic
lighthouse. Besides these, we may mention the Bagtche-kioy and Belgrade, to the north-west of
Buyiikdereh, Sekeri-kioy, lerli-kioy, Demirehi-kioy, Kila or Kilia, and ^comlre-kioy, to the north;
a.nA Bourgourli-kioy, to the eastward of Scutari. In the Sea of Marmora, between 5 and I'i miles S.E.
of the city, are the Prince's Islands, a group of picturesque and beautiful hills, rising abruptly from
deep water. They are nine in number, and are much resorted to in summer by therayahs, or Chris-
tians of Constantinople.
Adrianople (or Andrinople, the Ederneh of the Turks), the first Ottoman capital in Europe, and
now reckoned the second city of the empire, is situate partly on a hill and partly on the banks of the
Tundja, at its confluence with the Maritza, in an elevated plain, 13.^ miles W.N.W. of Constantinople.
It has now the appearance of desolation ; the streets are covered with grass, and the houses seemingly
deserted. The only objects of interest are the mosque of Sultan Selim II., which is regarded as the
most magnificent temple of Islam, but built in the usual form, with a massy dome in the centre, and
four very elegant minarets ; and the bazaar of Ali Pasha, 300 paces long, and presenting a more
striking appearance than any of the covered bazaars of Constantinople. Adrianople was built by the
Roman emperor Adrian, from whom it takes its name ; it is the residence of a British consul ; and
its population is vaguely estimated at 100,000. Demotica, on the Maritza, 30 miles S. of Adrianople,
is a flourishing town of 15,000 inhabitants, the see of a Greek archbishop, and noted for its manufac-
tures of fine pottery, silk, and wool. Enos, on the south side of a bay at the mouth of the river, has
7000 inhabitants, and may be considered as the port of Adrianople.
The other principal places in Roumelia are : Philippopoli ( Filibe of the Turks), a large town with
30,000 inhabitants, 90 miles W.N.W. of Adrianople, and noted for its manufactures of silk, cloth, and
cotton. Tatar-bazardjik, 23 miles W. of Felibe, on the great road from Belgrade to Stamboul, is a large
town with 10,000 inhabitants. E$ki Sagra, at the foot of the Balkan, in the midst of well-cultivated
fields, has manufactures of carpets, and 18,000 inhabitants. Kaisanlik, in the defiles of the Balkan, has
10,000 inhabitants. Islivno or Selinmo, near the important pass of the Irongate, 60 miles N. of Adrian-
ople, has an important fair, and manufactures of woollen cloth, fusils, carbmes, and rose water. Popu-
lation 20,000. 0!<ro«nf?7'oca is important for its trade and its fair, which is frequented by merchants
from Asia Minor, Armenia, the Crimea, Russia, Germany, and Poland. Kirkilissa, 30 milts E. by N.
of Adrianople, is the capital of a lira, and is inhabited by numbers of Jews, who furnish a great part of the
butter and cheese consumed at Constantinople. Gallipoli, at the northern entrance of the Dardanelles,
on the west side of the strait, is a large town, the capital of the eyalet of the Jezayrs, with 17,000 in-
habitants, and a great trade. It is also noted for excellent leather. Rodosto, a large trading town on
tlie north side of the Sea of Marmora. Saloniki (ancient Thessalonica), the most commercial city
in European Turkey after Constantinople, is situate at the head or northern extremity of tlTe large
bay to which it gives its name. It is noted for its manufactures of leather, cotton, carpets, silk, cop-
per, steel, and iron ; it is the seat of a Greek archbishop, a grand moUa, and the grand hakam of the
Jews, a sort of high-priest of that people, who are liere very numerous. Population about 70,000.
lenidje Vardar, west of Saloniki, is noted for its industry, and extensive plantations of tobacco ; po-
pulation 7000. In its vicinity are the ruins of Fella, the birth place of Alexander the Great. Kara-
veria,, 3.5 miles W. of Saloniki, is noted for cotton and dye works, and marble quarries. Vodina, 46
miles N.W. of Saloniki, near or upon the site of the ancient Edessa, the first capital of Macedonia,
and the burial place of her kings. It is now the see of a Greek bishop. Seres, & large town, a few
miles west of lake Takinos, with manufactures of cotton, wool, and tobacco, is the centre of the cul-
tivation and trade of cotton in European Turkey. Orphano, a commercial town on the bay to
which it gives its name. Drama, a thriving town, with manufactures of calico and tobacco, 72 miles
E.N.E. of Saloniki, in the vicinity of which are the ruins of Philippi, where was fought the great
battle which decided the fate of the Roman world, 42 b. c. Monastir or Bitoglia, 95 miles N. by W.
of Saloniki, a large town with 15,(i00 inhabitants, is the residence of the Roumeli-valicy, or master
of the police of all Roumelia. Kastoria, 85 miles W. of Saloniki, on the west side of a beautiful
mountain lake, is the the see of a Greek archbishop. Its vicinity is inhabited by the Kastareses, a
mixed race of Servian and Wallachian origin. In the valley of the Vardar : Uskup or Scopia, the
capital of a liva, and the see of a Greek archbishop, is noted for its buildings, its fine situation, and its
tanneries ; population 10,000. Koprili, Kiupruli, Keupeurleu, or Keuprulu, a small town of 4000 in-
habitants, is noted for its stone bridge over the Vardar. Istib or Istip (ancient Stobi,) a small town
noted for its iron and steel works. Aarfl^ta, a straggling town noted for an argentiferous copper mine,
Turkey.] EUROPE. 611
and for the mftiiufacture of copper vessels and utensils. In the upper basin of the Struma, or Karasu :
Kustfndil or Ghiustendil, a small town with sulphureous warm baths, and 8000 inhabitants, is the
see of a Greek archbishop. Dupinja ( Dupnisza or Dobnitza), in a high valley east of Kustendil,
is noted for its iron mines ; Stromza or Strumnitza, or Ottroumja, formerly noted for its fortifications,
is now known only for its thermal springs ; Petromch, noted for txcellent tobacco. Melinik, the
see of a Greek archbishop. In the basin of the Morava : Pristina or I'irUtina, on the river Ibar, a
considerable town with 10,000 inhabitants, is the residence of the inspector of the mines of Macedonia,
and the see of a Greek bishop. Kouova, 10 miles N. by E. of Pristina, is a small town noted for two
great battles gained by the Turks in 1389 and 1448, and for the monument of Sultan Murad I. who
was killed there. Nova Berda is noted for the silver mines in its vicinity. J'rana is noted for its
forges and manufacture of scythes and arms.
The gulfs of Contessa and Saloniki are separated by a large peninsula, the ancient Chalcidice, which
subdivides into three, and projects far into the Archipelago. The most northerly of these is the cele-
brated >Iount Athns, now called by the Greeks Agiun Oros, and by the Franks Monte Santo (both
names meaning Hull/ Hill). It forms a mountainous ridge 25 miles in lengtli, and 4 in breadth, rising
abruptly from the water ; and having its lower parts covered with forests of oak, pine, and chestnut.
Near the S. E . extremity, the summit reaches to the height of 6349 feet above the level of the sea, in N.
lat. 40- 10', and E. long. 24^ 20' 30". From a remote period the mountain has been occupied by a
number of Greek monks, who live in a sort of fortified monasteries, of which there are about tw enty
in the Peninsula. The ecclesiastics not only cultivate the ground, and plant vines and olives, but also
rear vast numbers of bees, whose wax they export to a large amount, from the port of Aliara, on the
east side of the Peninsula. The isthmus which connects the Peninsula with tlie continent is about a
mile and a half across and only 15 feet above the level of the sea. It still retains traces of the cancl
dug through it by Xerxes, King of Persia, for the passage of his fleet, b.c. 430. •
2. Theitaly. Yeni-thehr (ancient Larissa), a large town on the south bank of the Salambria, which,
before the war, had a population of 30.000, and was one of the most flourishing towns in Turkey.
It is noted for its manufactures of silk, cotton, leather, and tobacco, and for its red dye, is tlia
centre of the trade of Thessaly, and the see of a Greek archbishop. It has a fine bridge of ten arches.
Trikhala, Tricala, or Tirhnla, 36 miles W. of Larissa, a considerable town, is the residence of the
Pa^iha, governor of the province, and the see of a Greek bishop. To the westward are the defiles of
Agraja., leading Into lower Albania, and the Metfora (higli places), a series of monasteries built on
scarped and isolated peaks, to four of which the ascent is made by a rope and basket. They are
formed of natural caverns, or of chambers cut in tiie rock. The number was formerly 24, but is now
reduced to ten. Tournaros, a smalltown, is noted lor the manufacture of light stufts, of silliand cotton
tissue, known in commerce by the name of bourres de la Grtce. Ainbelnkia, in tlie vale of Tempo,
is a large town with 6000 inhabitants, most of whom are employed in the manufacture of the red cotton
thread, which is considered the best in Turkey. Pubaor Ba/Mi-hassan, whose inhabitants are employed
in the same branch of industry, but are exclusively Maliometans. I /iar.<ata or Sata/jik,23 miles S. of
Larissa, is memorable for the victory gained by Cwsar over his rival Pompey ; and is stiU important
for the industry and trade of its inhabitants, who amount to 5 or 6000. Zagnra, a village near the
sea, is notedfor the cultivation of silk ; it formed, or still forms, a sort of republic, governed by its own
laws, and acknowledging only the authority of the Sultana Validi. J'olo, a small town, which gives
its name to a gulf, and represents the ancient Demetrius. Tikeri or Trikiri, a small town with a fine
harbour, at the entrance of the Gulf of Volo. Due north of Larissa, about 30 miles distant, is tlie
Celebrated Mount Olympus, now called Elymbo or Oli/mpo, also Lacha or L/tkha, a giant mass, which
rises with two peaks, named St. Stephano and St. Elias. to the height of 97.i4 feet above the level of
the sea, in N. lat. 40°5' and E long. 22^ 21'. The ridges forming its southern base are separated from
the ridges of (Lta, by tlie vale of Tempi, a deep gorge, through which the Salambria has forced its
way to the sea.
3. Albania. Ioasisa, Ianisa, Yahina, or Yania, a large well-built town, occupies a picturesque
situation on the western side of the large mountain lake to which it gives its name. It is an open town,
but commanded by two strong citadels, the one of which occupies a peninsula in the lake, and the
other, named Litharitza,a scarped rock in the centre of the town. loanina is celebrated in modern
times as the residence of Ali Pasha, the Vizier of Albania, under whose rule it attained a groat degree of
prosperity, and a population of 30.000 ; but these are now reduced to a few thousand Albanians and .lews.
The other principal towns of Southern Albania are : Mezzovo, Konitza, Premithi and Klissura,
noted for their fortifications ; Argyro- Castro or Krgir-Kadri, Dehnia, Delbino or Dilttino, Philates
or Philoti, Parimithia, Souli, so celebrated for the long struggle of its inhabitants, the Suliotes, against
Ali Pasha ; Arta, Salagora ; Precesa, at the entrance of the Gulf of Arta, and near the site of the
ancient Nicopolis, built by Augustus to commemorate his victory at Actiuiii ; Parga, hutrinto.
Chimera or Kirnera. In Middle Albania : Avlonu or f'aloua, with a good harbour, Tepelene, the
birth-place of Ali Pasha, Ducates. the chief town of the numerous Albanian tribe of Japys, Berat or
Arnaout Heligrad, Elliottan or Ilbastan, Durazzo (ancient Durrachion or Dyrrnchium), a small town
with a harbour on the Adriatic. In Upper Albania : Ochrida or Ochri, a considerable town on the
north side of a large mountain lake, drained by the river Drin ; Dukagin, the capital of a liva ; Perte-
rendi, Pritrendi or Perzerin ; Alesio, Alite or Letch, a considerable town with a harbour, at the mouth
of the Drin, and containing the tomb of the famous Scander-beg ; Croia or Ak- Serai, whose castle, now
demolished, was Scander-beg's residence; Scutari C Iskanderi of the Turks, Scodrr of the Albanians,
Scodra of the Illyrians), a large, fortified, and flour'shing town, at the south end of a largo lake, in the
bottom of a warm valley, with a population of 20.000 ; Dulcinno (Turkish , fJ/^"/«), a small seaport,
formerly the re'iort of corsairs or pirates, who infested the Adriatic ; Antivari ( Tiitari of the Turks,
Ear of the lUyriansI, a seaport town, with 6000 inhabitants, and a con.^iderablc trade in salt and oil.
4. Bulgaria. S»pni\ C Traditza o! the Bulgarians), a large town, situate in the mid.st of high
mountains between the rivers Isker and Nissava, .300 miles W.N.W. of Constantinople, on the high
road to Servia, with celebrated baths, and 46.000 inhabitants. Ichtiman, a small town at the entrance of
the famous pass of the Balkan named S'julu-Derb&nd or Tr'ijan't Gati; from the remains of a gate
attributed to that Emiicror. Samakof, a small town In a high valley, noted for its mines and flourishing
works in iron ; in the vicinity of which is the defile named Kis- Derbend (Girl's Pass), 35 miles N.E.
of Sophia. Bergorncz or Berkofja is noted for a rich silver mine, 48 mih s N. of Sophia. Mustapha-
palanka, and Sizxa or yitta, both noted forthiir fortifications, in the valley S.W. of Sophia. Shumlii
( Schmimim or Chouml'i), a large town 1 10 miles N. by E. of Adrianople. is distinguisheil for the in-
dustry and commerce of its inhabitants, who amount to 18 or 20,000. It is situated in the centre of
a convexity or rent of the chalk lieds which occupy tills part of Bulgaria, and which have been mi.s-
tiiken by geographers for offsets of the Balkan. It contains a citadel aud redoubts on the chalk
hills, which have enabled the Turks more than once to make an obstinate defence, and to prevent
the passage of tlie Russian armies in this direction. Butihuk, a large tortifii d town on the south
bank of the Danulie, with a popvlation of 30,000 Turks, Greeks, and Armenians, who carry on a
considerable trade with Vienna in indigo, corn, and cloth. Silittria or Dristra, a large tortifled
town on the Danulx:, with 20,000 inhabitants Its fortiflcations were completely repaired and extend-
ed by the Russians, who kept possession of it for several years alter the prac of Adriano|>le, in 1826,
as a key to Turkey ; but a late traveller (Spencer) calls il " an ill-iortified town, now in a most
CA2 DESCRIPTI^K GEOGRAPHY. [Turkey.
ruinous state." Niropn/i, on tbe Danube, a fortified town, occupies a pioturesque situation, partly
on tlie broT of a r.-inge of challt cliffs, and partly in a narrow valley. I'opulation 10,000. Sistora
( Sestov or Sfhstiib), a large town of 20,000 inbabitants, on the Danul)e, witfc tanneries, manu-
factures of CDttoii, and a fiourisliing trade. Wiiidin or I'idin, a large fortitied town, also on
the Danube, with 20.000 inhabitants, and considerable trade. In eastern Bulgaria are: BazarHjik
(Little Market), a small trading town in an important position; lama av IVama, on a small bay
of the HIack Sea, a fortitied town, which defied the Russian arms, till lo.st in the late war by the
inircbased treachery of its govirnor, Yusuf Pasha. Xassocti and Ilirsora, both on the Danube ; Isak-
r/ii, midway between Ibrail and Ismail, where the Russians used to place their pontoons for the pas-
sago of the river in their wars with Turkey; Toultcha, a fortified town at the separation of the
Sulinian and Georgietfian arms of the Danube. To the south and east of Shunila, Karnabat and
i'aramdi, places rendered important by their position on the groat military roads through tlie defiles
of the Balkan ; and Demir-kapi (the Iron Gate), a celebrated defile leading from Islivno in Roume-
lia, to Stareka in Bulgaria.
h. Bosnia, Croatia, and Turkish Dahnatia. — Bosna-Serai ( Sirajero in Illyrian), alarge town on the
Migliazza or Miliaska, an atHuent of the Bosna, stands on an elevated plateau, surrounded with woody
mountains. It is inclosed by walls 12 feet thick, and the upper city is defended by small forts. The
town contains a palace built by the Sultan Mohammed II., numerous mosques and baths, and about
70,000 ijihabitants, who not only carry on a great trade, but also manufacture, to alarge extent, military
arms, metal plates, iron and copper utensils, goldsmith work, wool, cotton, and leather. It is the
head-quarters of the principal hereditary captains who govern Bosnia under the Sultan, whose vizier
a Paslia of three tails, resides at Tniunik, a small town, with a citadel and 8000 inhabitants, 50 miles
N.W. of Bosna-Serai. In the immediate vicinity of the latter are the baths of Serajevsko, and a few
miles furtlier to the north and north-west, I'arescli, Vissoko, and Kressevo, small places, noted for their
forges and iron mines. The other principal places of Bosnia are ; Vraduk and Maghii, towns on
tlie Bosna, with strong citadels ; FoinUza, a village near Traunik, with rich iron mines ; Touzia,
noted for its rich salt springs ; Srebcriiik, the capital of a sandjak ; Zwomik or Isrornik, a large town,
with 14,000 inhabitants, and lead mines in its vicinity ; Jaicza, a small town, with a citadel, and a
nitre manufactory, and formerly the residence of the Catholic kings of Bosnia; population 2000;
Bimialouka . a large, busy, and commercial town on the Verbas, with 15,000 inhabitants, is one of
the principal fortresses of Bosnia. In Croatia are : Bihacz and i^ovi, small fortified towns on the
Unna; Kanungrad and Starai Maidar, noted for their forges and iron mines, and also for a silver
mine at tlie former. Bebir or Ottonmn Gradisca, and Brod, fortified towns on the Save. In Dalmatia :
Mortar, on the Narenta, a small fortified city, with -000 inhabitants, and noted for a bridge of a single
arch of 300 feet span ; Licnn, a town with 4000 inhabitants, on the great road from Austrian Dalmatia
to Bosnia, which renders it a place of considerable trade ; Trebigno, a lortified city, the see of a
Catholic bishop, with 10,000 inhabitants.
6. Skrvia, formerly a province of the Turkish empire, is now a sovereign principality, acknow-
ledging the supremacy of the Sultan, and pa,\ ing atribute. It has an area of about 12,000 square miles,
and 380,000 inhabitants. In the beginning of the present century, C/.erny-Georges, a Servian in the
service of Austria, formed the design of freeing his country from the Turkish yoke, and raised an
insurrection, which was continued for several years, till he was taken and beheaded by the Pasha of
Widdin. After his death the war was still continued ; but at length the Turks, finding it beyond
their power to reduce the rebels, agreed to resign Servia to a native governor, who should have the
management of its internal policy, while the Sultan should still controul its external relations.
Milotsch Obrenovitsch, a man who had risen to distinction during the troubles, was chosen prince
by the chiefs of the nation assembled at Kragojevacz, whose election was confirmed by the Sultan, and
the dignity guaranteed to him and his heirs ; but he has been deposed by the senate, and the govern-
ment seems to be at present in a very unsettled state. The country is nevertheless said to be improving
with silent but astonishing rapidity, and to have already made immense progress in public instruction,
administration, order, and industrious activity. The only town of any importance is Belgrade, at the
confluence of the Save and the Danube, and on the right bank of the latter river. It is a large but
decayed town, presenting a most picturesque appearance, from the number of its domes and minarets
peering from among the dark cypresses with which they are surrounded. The town is inclosed with
half-ruinous walls, gates, and towers, and has a citadel built on a bold promontory, once considered
the bulwark of Turkey on this side, but now completely neglected and falling to decay. It has a Turk-
ish garrison, and a Pasha dependent on the Vizier of Silistria. The seat of the Servian government
is sometimes at Belgrade, and sometimes at Kragojevacz, 75 miles to the S.E. Semendria, the for-
mer capital of Servia, has fallen completely to rum. Gladora or Scala Kladnva, a very small and
miserable Wallachian town, in the north-eastern corner of Servia, is only remarkable as the place
where the navigation of the Lower Danube commences below the Irongate. In its vicinity are the
remains of the bridge erected across the Danube by the Emperor Trajan, to facilitate the subjugation
of Daeia, now consisting only of a solid shapeless mass of masonry on each side, and of 13 pillars or
piers in the bed of the river, which are visible at low water. The distance between the two abutments
is 3900 feet. Higher up the river is a small island, containing the fortress of New Orsoca, belonging
to the Turks. Hassan Palanka, 12 miles S of Semendria, a small fortified town. Kruschevacz or Ata-
jahissar, nearl.y in the middle of Servia, is the see of a Greek bishop, and has a castle where several
sovereigns of Servia have resided. Schabacz, a small fortified town on the Save. Novi Bazar, or
leni Bazar (Newmarket), a large fortified town, with 7 or 8000 inhabitants, is the chief town of the
district of Rascia. Missa is a fortified town, with 4000 inhabitants, and the see of a Greek bishop.
7. Wallachia extends along the north side of the Danube, from New Orsova to the mouth of the
Sereth, and northward to the Carpathian mountains, which separate it from Transylvania. Its greatest
length is about 275 miles, and its greatest breadth 130 ; the superficial area is aboutSO.OOO square miles,
and the population amounts to 950,000. This province, and Moldavia were, till l.itely, ruled by go-
vernors, with the title of Hospodar, chosen from the Greeks of Constantinople, and vested with regal
authority ; the choice, however, was determined by purchase. By the treaty of Bukharest, in 1812,
the Russian Czar acquired the right of interfering in matters connected with the religion of the people,
and in cases of outrages committed by Turkish officers against the Christian subjects in the princi-
palities ; and by the treaty of Adrianople, in 1829, this power of interference was so greatly extended,
that they are now completely under the controul of the Czar, and little else than Russian provinces.
To the Sultan they pay a small annual tribute, and he still appoints the Hospodar for life, trom a list
of nominees presented by the boyars or nobles, and prepared of course at the dictation ot Russia.
The government, however, is of the worst possible kind ; every department is in miserable disorder ;
the people are divided into two classes of tyrants and slaves ; and the country is ill cultivated and
thinly inhabited by a wretched population. Bukharest, the capital, is a large town with 80,000 inha-
bitants, situate on the navigable river Dombroviecza, in an extensive marshy plain. It has few or
no manufactures, but a considerable trade. The other remarkable places are: Tergorist,foTui&[\y
the capital, but now almost in ruins, with a population reduced from 30,000 to 5000 ; I'lot/esti, a large
town, with a well frequented fair ; fl'aleni and Kimpuria, frontier towns north of Bukharest, with
custom-houses, and noted for the rock salt which is dug at Slanikul near the former, and at Okna-
Turkey.]
EUROPE.
613
Teleaga near the latter ; Giursewo, a commercial town, composed chiefly of huts, on the left bank
of the JUanube, opposite Rutshuk ; Ibrail or Brailow, on the left bank of the Danube, 15 miles above
the mouth of the Sereth, was once a fortr ss of some celebrity, though now demolished; but a new
town is rising out of the ruins, and the inhabitants carry on a very considerable trade in exporting
raw produce. To the west of Bukharest are : ylrdjisch or Kurtea d' Arjish, a small town, noted for
a monastery, tlie church of which is considered the finest in Wallachia. It stands on the great road
to the Rothen-thurm pass, leading through the mountains into Transylvania. Knijora, a small but
regularly-built and flourishing commercial town, with 8000 inhabitants. Ig/a', a small CDmmercial
town above the confluence of the Alouta with the Danube. liimnik, a small town on the Alouta, near
the northern frontier, with a very rich ^alt mine, that of Okiia-mare, in its vicinity.
8. Moldavia adjoins Wallachia to the north-east, beintt separated from it by the river Sereth and
its affluent the Milkov ; and is bounded on the east and north by the river Pruth, which divides it fmm
Bessarabia, and on the west by Transylvania and the Buckowine. Its extreme length is '2iO mdes,
and its extreme breadth 110 ; its area Ki.OOO square miles, and the population 450,000. The govern-
ment is exactly on the same looting as that of W allachia, and the country is as ill governed, and in
an equally wretched state. The principal towns are: lAssY.the capiral, a large town, with 40,000 inha-
bitants, situate on a height near the river Bachliu ; Galacz or GnUilz. a large wooden-built town on the
Danul)e. may be considered as the port of both principalities. It is said to contain alroady 20,0(X) in-
habitants. It carries on a great trade, chiefly in exporting the raw produce of the country, as tallow,
harrieot beans, corn, cheese, barrel staves, wa,\, flax, hemp, wool, bistial, skins ajid hides, wine, &c.
The principal articles of import are iron, olives, cotton, sugar, and cutfee. Vessels of 300 tons come
up to the quay. Siamtz, near the north-wistern frontier, is noted for its picturesque situation and
a large monastery, containing an ima;ie of the Virgin in massive silver, which is visited annually by
great numbers of pilgrims. Okrui, !*S miles N. W. of Galacz, in a valley with rich salt mines, whose
productiveness rivals the best in Kurope.
9. Cawdia ( Kriti or Kirid of the Greeks and Turks, the ancient Creta or Krete), is a large island,
forming the southern limit of the Archipelago, about KJO miles long, varying in breadth from (>
to 35, and containing an area of 3200 square miles. It is almost wnoily covered with rugged and
barren mountains, which increase in elevaiion towards the west, where they are snow-capt even in
June. Ida, now PHInruti, the loftiest peak, rises in the centre of the island to 7(i74 feet above the
level of the sea. The mountains abound with grottoes and caverns, one of which, at the foot of
Mount Ida, answers in essential pariiculars to the ancient accounts of the famous labyrinth. The
mountains are clothed with woods of oak, chestnut, walnut, and pine ; the plane, cypress, myr-
tle, wild olive, vine, carob, aloe, arbutus, Indian tig, and many line fruits and veiieiables, grow
spontaneously; and the gruund is covered wiili aromatic herbs. The wild boar, wolves, and goats
are met witii'in the forests ; game is plentiful; binis of prey are numerous ; and reptiles are few.
The cliief in eductions are, oil. silk, wine, raisins, c;irob, valonia, wool, oranges, lemons, wax, honey,
linseed and almonds, cotton, tlax, &c. The pastures are good, and cattie abundant, but the exportation
•)f them is prohibited ; wheat, liai ley, and oats are grown, but not in suflieient quantity for home cou-
sumptioii. The manufaccres are few and inccmsiderable ; the principal article is soap, of which
there are 24 works, producing annually about 3000 tons. Tlie roads are nearly impassable, even for
mules. Population, in 18.31), ir,8,000, of whom 100,000 were Greeks and 44,000 Turks. Crete has been
possessed for several years by the Pasha of Kgypt, but is now restored to the tiultan. The principal
towns are Oirtdia, Ultimo, Khtniiri or Canfii, and Sphikiii. There are several small islands along
the coasts, the piincipal of which are Slan-diu, opposite Candia, and CJozu, on the south-west coast.
As further illustrative of Turkish Geography, tite explanation of the following list of words of
frequent occurrence may be useful.
Aghach, or Agadj, a tree.
Ak, white.
Altun, golden.
Bactche, or Hagtch6, a gardni.
Bala, upper.
Balkan, a r/iaiu ctf hill:.
Bashi, a head.
Bazaar, a nuirket.
Bendt, a rewrvuir.
Bournu or Burun, a cape.
Bunar, a ipring.
Bu\uk, gri-at, large.
Chai, a rirer.
Dagh (Tag'i), nr viouiilaiii.
Davan, a >iu>unliiui-p(iis, or range
qfniuutU'iinj.
Demir, irtm.
Denghiz or Dengis, a fa, or lake.
Derah, Dereh or Dure, a valUi).
Doir, p nmcent.
ItxjU, tents.
F.gri, crooked.
Eski, o/il.
Ghieul. ghenl. gol orko!, a lake.
(irada. Grade, a fortress.
(iumisli, silrer.
Uissar or Ilisar, a nislle.
leni or Yeiii, tioiing, neir.
Ilijah, hot springs.
.lik, sign of dimuiutiw.
Kaleh, '/ rast/e.
Kapi or Kapoi.si, it gate.
Kara, Uirk.
Kasbah, a mnrket loun.
Khanah, a house.
Kelian, ii gorge, u pass.
Keli.-ieh or Kelisah, '/ eliurrli.
Keui, kieiii, kioy, koi or kui, a
rilUtge.
Kizil, red.
Koom, sandy plains, deserts.
I Koulassi, a tou-er.
Kopri or Ku) ri, a bridge .
Kutchuk, lilt/e.
I l.iman, a liay.
Madeii, a ininr.
I Menzil, an inn.
Oosek, high.
()\ah, a plain.
I'alanka, a stoekade.
' Phanar or Fanal, a h'g/.l-i
I I'lanina, it chain of hills.
I Sari. j/(-</.,H'.
I .Serai, a palare.
j Shehr, </ loun.
Sliellessi, slips, a Utndniij-
Sou or Sii, a uaUr, om.<
Tel, a wound.
\ Tuzlah, a saltern.
j Yeni, young, new.
Vesliii, gremi.
614 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Greece.
KINGDOM OF HELLAS, OR GREECE.
Astronomical Position. — Between 36'' 15' and 39° K/ N. latitude, and 20° 4(/
and 26° 3' E. longitude.
Dimensions Extent from N. to S. 180 miles, and from E. to W., including all
the islands, 300 miles ; superficial area about 20,000 square English miles.
Boundaries Northern : — Albania and Thessaly, or the Turkish provinces of
loanina and Trikhala. On the other sides, the Mediterranean Sea.
General Aspect. — The kingdom of Hellas is composed of three distinct por-
tions of territory: 1. Hellas proper, a long tract of hilly country, extending about
185 miles from east to west, with a breadth nowhere exceeding 50 miles, between
Thessaly and Albania, and the Gulfs of Lepanto and Egina ; 2. The Morea, so called
from its fancied resemblance in form to the leaf of the morus or mulberry-tree, and
named by the ancients Peloponnesus, or the Island of Pelops, a large peninsula, 137
miles in length, by 135 in its greatest breadth, but of very irregular form, and con-
nected with the mainland of Hellas by the Isthmus of Corinth; 3. The Islands; which
See The general aspect of the country is characterized by a very singular distribution
of its mountains, which are usually placed neither in parallel chains, nor in massive
groups, but are so disposed, as to enclose large basins or circular hollows. The
country is thus marked out into distinct districts, calculated to become the seats of
small communities, such as we find the States of ancient Greece to have been. Some
of these basins terminate at the coast, and seem to have been formed by the retiring
of the waters of the sea, as those of Athens, Argos, Laconia, Messenia, and Elis.
Others are completely surrounded by a rampart of mountains or high ground, except
at one point, where the accumulated waters of the valley have made for themselves an
outlet ; such are those of Bceotia and Arcadia. Phocis, or central Hellas, is one of the
most rugged districts, being occupied almost entirely by the branches and declivities of
Mounts CEta, Helicon, and Parnassus. Boeotia is a large circular valley, enclosed by
Parnassus on the west. Helicon on the south, Cithseron on the east, and by a range of
high ground on the north, while a low ridge running from north to south divides it in
two. The lake of Topolias, ancient Copals, which occupies the bottom of the
western and larger division, receives all the waters of the district, which it send oflF
by subterranean passages to the sea on the north-east. In summer the lake has the
appearance of a green meadow covered with reeds ; but the country has been more
than once inundated in consequence of obstructions iu the subterranean outlets. The
country is very fertile, but is higher and colder than Attica ; it is ofti-n covered with
thick fogs ; and from the abundance of its marshes is very much exposed to malaria.
Attica, which adjoins Bceotia to the south-east, is comparatively arid and barren, is
hilly rather than mountainous, but is peculiarly distinguished by the dryness and elas-
ticity of the atmosphere, and the beauty and serenity of its climate. In general,
Western Hellas has a physical character different from that of the eastern provinces.
It consists chiefly of long valleys opening to the south, and rising towards the moun-
tains on the north.
The Isthmus of Corinth, which connects Eastern Hellas with the Morea, is occu-
pied towards the north by high rocky hills, which render it strong as a military
post ; but in the south, where its breadth is about four miles, the surface is lower,
rising only about 150 or 200 feet. The Morea consists of an elevated central pla-
teau or valley, and of five separate maritime regions formed by the exterior declivi-
ties of the mountains which surround Arcadia, and divided by their spurs or branches.
The central valley of Arcadia, so famed in pastoral poetry, is high and cold, often
covered with fogs, and subject to malaria. Most of its waters are carried off
by the single channel of the river Roufia ; but it has sometimes suffered from partial
inundations. Argolis, lying in a semicircle round the gulf of Nauplia, embraces but
a small portion of level country, which, however, is remarkably rich, but very un-
healthy. Laconia consists of a long valley opening to the south towards the gulf of
Kolokythi ; of a mountainous region, extending south-eastwards from Arcadia to the
Cape of St. Angelo, ancient iUa/ea ; and of another ridge of mountains in the south-
west, terminating at Cape Matapan. ^lessenia, which forms the south-western portion
of the Peninsula, consists partly of a large plain or river valley, opening to the gulf of
Koroni, and partly of a hilly region lying between that valley and the western coast
Greece.] EUROPE. 6J5
Elis, on the west, and Achaia, on the north coast of the Morea, are in general hilly,
with numerous small river valleys, but rather dry. The Cyclades and the other islands
in the Archipelago are almost all steep and rocky ; Eubcea is traversed throughout
its whole length by a ridge of hills, and is separated from the mainland of Eastern
Hellas, by a very long channel or strait, so narrow at the middle as to be spanned
by a bridge.
The mountains which cover so large a portion of Greece are partly wooded, and
partly naked ; the woods are more abundant on the west side, and less frequent on
the east. The low country susceptible of tillage probably does not amount to two-
fifth parts of the surface, and not more than a twelfth part of it is actually ur.der cul-
tivation. It is generally bare of wood ; and the want of inclosures, the profusion of
weeds and brushwood, the thinness of the population, and the ruinous condition of the
few cottages, combined with the crumbling remains of the noble structures of anti-
quity, give it a deserted, desolate, and melancholy aspect. Towards the end of sum-
mer, the hills and fields appear parched ; yet Greece combines in the highest degree
every feature essential to the finest beauties of landscape, with the exception of
large rivers ; and travellers of taste have wanted words to describe the magnificence
of the views which it affords. It is the combination of its towering mountains and
rich sheltered plains, with so many spacious and beautiful inland seas and bays, broken
by headlands, encircled by mountains, and studded with islands, that makes Greece
surpass in picturesque beauty every other country in Europe, and perhaps in the world.
The effect of such scenery, aided by a serene sky and a delightful climate, on the
character of the Greeks, cannot be doubted. " Under the influence of so many sublime
objects, the human mind becomes gifted as by inspiration, and is by nature filled with
poetical ideas." Greece consequently became the native country of taste, science,
and eloquence, the chosen sanctuary of the muses, the model of all that is graceful,
dignified, and grand in sentiment or action.
Climate The climate is variable in character, but generally very mild; the
winter, indeed, is so temperate, that it frequently passes over without any frost. In
ordinary winters the thermometer rarely falls below the freezing point ; and during
the greatest cold it never falls more than 6° or 8° below it. Snow is scarcely ever
seen on the low plains ; on the loftier mountains it generally begins to fall about the
middle of October, but the summits are not permanently covered till the latter
part of November. The summer's heat is considerable and is continued ; almost every
year it attains its maximum of 104° ; but this high temperature does not continue for
more than one or two days. In July and August the heat almost daily exceeds 86° ;
and, as the nights at this season are not cool, and there being scarcely any rain to re-
fresh the air, the heat would become nearly intolerable, were it not for the sea-breeze
which sets in generally before noon, and produces so powerful an effect, that there is
occasionally more heat at seven or eight o'clock in the morning, th^n at mid-day,
when the wind is blowing. Rain seldom falls in summer ; from the first of July till the
first of October, an extraordinary dryness prevails; and it often happens that there is
not a single day's rain in July and August. Autumn, winter, and the beginning of
spring constitute the rainy season ; but the heaviest rains fall at the end of autumn
and the beginning of winter. December and February are usually the most stormy
months ; January is often very fine. Storms in summer are of rare occurrence, except
ill mountain districts ; the season for tempests is the close of autumn and the beginning
of winter ; but it cannot be said that storms are frequent. Hail is scarcely known.
Clouds are seldom seen in summer ; and it is not unusual for a whole month to pass
without a cloud, except on the loftiest mountains; and even there they are infre-
quent. Mount Delphi, however, and St. Elias in Eubea, are almost constantly
covered with clouds. During summer, the wind frequently blows from between the
north and the east for fifteen days together, or even a month ; it is warm, and
seems to occasion disease. The south winds, on the contrary, are refreshing and
salubrious. The wind is often very strong at Athens ; and during the heat of sum-
mer it blows the dust and sand even into the houses, and walking is rendered very
disagreeable. Earthquakes are common in the season of the violent rains ; but they
are usually very slight, and are sometimes scarcely felt. At Athens, during the
three years 1833-4-5, there were the average number of 87 days of rain, and eleven
in which there were storms. The mean temperature was 00^°. (Climat dt la Grace;
par M. Peytier, Bulletin de la Socicti de Geoyrapliie ; Juin 1837.) Hut the local
diversities of the country have a great effect in modifying the characteristics of the
climate ; M. Peytier's observations apply ciiie/ly to Attica and the eastern districts of
the Morea. In Attica, which, being freely exposed to the sea-breeze, has somewhat
616 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Gueece.
of an insular climate, tlie winter sets in about the beginning of January. About tht
middle of that month snow fulls, but is seldom seen for more than a few days. Gentle
rains fall about the middle of February, after which spring commences. In the be-
ginning of March the vines and the olives bud, and the almonds are in blossom ; in
May the corn is reaped. In the interior plains and valleys, which are encircled by moun-
tains, and cut off from the direct influence of the sea, the winters are much colder,
while the summers are comparatively warmer. At Tripolitza, in Arcadia, the snow
has been found 18 inches thick in January, with the thermometer at 16° Fahren-
heit ; and it sometimes remains on the ground for six weeks. In Baotia likewise, it
sometimes lies for several weeks to a great depth ; while the summer is there hotter
than in Attica. The coolest weather in all parts of Greece is accompanied by a north-
east wind ; the north and north-west winds are serene and dry. The zephyr or west
%vind is famed for its balmy softness ; the south-east, south, and south-west winds
are all humid, and the east wind still retains its character of a morning breeze, as de-
scribed by Aristotle. The sirocco is sometimes felt, blowing from the south-east,
and producing its usual effects on the human constitution, a feeling of oppression, a
dull headache, with general lassitude, and uneasiness in the limbs. There are few dis-
eases peculiar to Greece ; but the country suffers greatly from malaria, which prevails
chiefly in August and September, and produces fevers ; even Attica, though it possesses
a dry soil, is not exempt from this infliction. These fevers occurring frequently, de-
stroy the constitution, and produce goitres and scrofulous diseases. Coughs, catarrhs,
and apoplexies are prevalent in some districts ; and elephantiasia and leprous affec-
tions are more common than in other countries. The plague occurs at irregular
periods, and has sometimes made great ravages. (Holland, Hobhouse, Clarke, Pou-
queville, &c.)
Soil and Vegetation The most common cultivated products, are wheat, bar-
ley, maize, and rye ; oats in small quantity ; rice in marshy spots ; mullet, peas, beans,
tares, sesamum, anise, cotton, and tobacco; and, notwithstanding the most wretched
system of agriculture, the produce is large. The most fertile districts are the plains
of Boeotia, Sicyon, Argos, Messenia, and Arcadia. In Arcadia wheat yields twelve
for one ; in Argos, ten ; at Eleusis, twelve. The produce of good soils, in favoui'-
able seasons, is generally estimated at ten or twelve for one ; and that of the best soils,
in very favourable seasons, from fifteen to eighteen for one. The soil of Attica is too
light for wheat; and consequenely barley, as in ancient times, is the prevailing crop.
Cotton is cultivated to a considerable extent, principally in Boeotia and the Morea, and
is a more profitable, but more precarious crop than corn, as it requires clear sunshine,
copious dews, and light rains, to make it succeed. Tobacco is cultivated only to a
small extent. The olive is cultivated throughout Greece ; but that of Attica is still
distinguished, as in ancient times, by its superior excellence. It requires a dry soil,
a sheltered situation, and a warm exposure, and therefore is not adapted to the ricli
moist plains of Bceotia and Thessaly. Vines are cultivated on a small scale ; but
the wines have an unpalatable harshness, owing to the resin and the lime which are
mixed with them. The Corinthian grape or currant is almost peculiar to the Morea
and the Ionian Islands ; it is found in the greatest perfection along the southern
shores of the gulf of Lepanto, on some points of the opposite coast, and in Cepha
Ionia, Ithaca, and Zante. It succeeds best in plains near the sea, with a western ex
posure, and prefers a dry, light soil. Madder grows wild in abundance, and is
cultivated in Boeotia. The mulberry-tree has become an object of increasing import-
ance, and the produce of silk is considerable. The fruit-trees which grow in the fields
and gardens, besides the vine and the olive, are the almond, pomegranate, orange,
lemon, citron, bainna, fig, peach, apricot, quince, plum, and others of a more common
kind. The date-tree grows, but does not bear fruit. The melons, water melons, and
gourds are excellent, and form a considerable part of the subsistence of the inhabi-
tants. Their culinary vegetables, of which they have no great variety, are spinage,
artichokes, cabbage, cauliflower, carrots, beans, lettuce, and celery. The forests pro-
duce the oak, kermes-oak, cork-tree, pine, larch, ash, plane, aloe, wild olive, sweet
chestnut, the manna-ash, the turpentine-pine, various dye-woods and plants, and a
vast variety of flowers and aromatics.
Animals The wild animals are the bear, wolf, lynx, cat, boar, stag, roebuck,
goat, badger, marten, fox, weasel, jackal, hare, and hedgehog. The bears are rarely
seen, but the wolves are numerous; and to guard the flocks and cattle from their ravages,
dogs of a fierce and powerful breed are kept. Hares are very abundant, but are not
much hunted. Of birds, there are very large vultures, various kinds of falcons and
owls, the cuckoo, roler, kingsfisher, ducks of several sorts, the domestic goose and
Gkeece.] EUROPE. 617
turkey, storks, partridges, pigeons, quails, snipes, teal, blackbirds, goldfinches, night-
ingales, boccaficas, swallows, martins. Greece, as it abounds in mountains covered
with herbage, is eminently a pastoral country ; and the management of sheep is better
understood than any other branch of rural economy. The modern breeds of sheep,
however, have declined much from the ancient in beauty and value. The mutton is
but indifferent, the wool is of inferior quality, and the weight of the sheep is only
from thirty to fifty pounds. The flocks of Arcadia and Hellas, especially those
which feed on Parnassus, are considered the best. A black-wooUed breed is very
common. As in Spain, the flocks migrate, at the approach of winter, from the inland
mountains to the low valleys near the sea, and return to the hills in April. Goats
are also numerous, and are shorn along with the sheep. Beeves are less abundant ;
the oxen are chiefly used for labouring, and the cows for breeding ; and as both the
Greeks and Turks prefer mutton to beef, the number of sheep killed is incomparably
the greater. In all parts of the Morea, buffaloes, which are handsome animals with fine
skins, are used in husbandry, and, when unfit for labour, are killed for food. The
horses of the Morea are little to be admired for their beauty, but are active, vigorous,
and sure-footed ; asses are numerous, but diminutive in size ; and mules are used as
beasts of burden. Bees are objects of considerable attention. Honey is everywhere
abundant ; that of Hymettus in Attica still maintains its ancient pre-eminence, and
is there produced in great abundance. Silk worms are also becoming an object of
increasing importance ; and the produce of silk is already considerable. The country
is infested by troublesome and even noxious insects, more particularly in the low
plains, and during warm weather. The seas, lakes, and rivers abound with a variety
of fish, and seals are found on the coast.
People The dominant race are the Hellenes, whom all Europeans concur in
calling Greeks. The Hellenes claim to be the descendants of the ancient people
who rendered this country so illustrious by their writings, their deeds of valour, and
their cultivation of the fine arts; but they have unquestionably received a large pro-
portion of barbaric blood, particularly by intermixture with the Sclavoniaiis. They
are a rude and unenlightened people, with all the vices of slaves, and few redeeming
virtues ; but they are ingenious, active, enterprising, and restless ; and, now that
they have recovered some degree of national independence and civil liberty, they may
be able to turn their talents to account in acquiring a portion of the civilization
and learning of Western Europe. Their language is the Romaic, so called from
the word Romaioi or Romans, a name which they assumed, or acquired, during the
period of their subjection to the Roman Empire of Constantinople, and from which
their Turkish name Roumi is also derived ; but they have now abjured it, and re-
sumed the ancient names of Hellenes and Hellas as the proper designations of them-
selves and their country. The Romaic bears a much closer resemblance to the
Hellenic, or ancient Greek, than the Italian does to the Latin ; and it has even
been said by a very distinguished modern Greek scholar that if we take the Attic
as a standard, the ancient Doric differs as much from it as the present living dialect.
(Enajc. Brit., art. Greece, p. 741.) The Hellenes all belong to the Greek Church,
which is one of the most corrupted branches of Christianity ; but having no sove-
reign pontiff, and no decrees of infallible councils to obstruct it, it is more sus-
ceptible of amendment than the Catholic Church of the West. The priests freely
admit, and are thankful for the Bible. This circumstance, together with the ge-
neral progress of unfettered education, will no doubt soon be productive of the hap-
piest effects upon the present character of the Hellenic nation, which, at best, is
rather equivocal.
The Arnauts or Albanians are very numerous; of whom colonics or parties have
settled from time to time in various ])arts of Hellas. Nearly all of them belong to the
Greek Church; and they have, with few excei)tions, preserved their national manners,
dress, and language, though many are likewise able to speak Romaic. They chiefly
inhabit Attica, Ba-otia, Phocis, Argolis, and the islands of Hydra, Spezzia, Coulouri,
and Andro ; but have also several villages in Arcadia, Achaia, and Messenia. In the
rest of the Morea, in all the other islands, in Etolia and Acarnania, a great part of
Thessaly, and Lower Macedonia, the population is exclusively Greek. Tiie Mainotcs,
who inhabit the ridges and valleys of Mount Taygetus, in the peninsular promontory
between the gulfs of Kolokythi and Koroni, boast of their descent from the ancient
Spartans ; and the histories of Leonidas and Lycurgus, who are represented partly
as saints and partly as robbers, still figure in their popular traditions. They are a
wild and lawless race, living under a sort of patriarchal feudal government exercised
by hereditary chiefs, and seem to be really the descendants of the free Laconians,
618 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Gueece.
who were enfrancliised from the dominion of Sparta, by a decree of the Roman
senate. The total amount of the population, in 1837, was 926,000.
Government. — The Government is what has been usually called a constitutional
monarchy. Greece formed a part of the Turkish empire till 1821, when the people
revolted, and after a long and severe struggle, succeeded, with the aid of the Euro-
pean powers, in achieving their independence. Their country was formed, in 1832,
into the new Kingdom of Hellas ; and Otho, a son of the King of Bavaria, ap-
pointed King. The Council of State is composed of three vice-presidents, 17 coun-
cillors in ordinary, and 14 special councillors. In 1834 Athens was declared the
capital.
Education. — Education, it may well be supposed, has been till lately almost
entirely neglected ; even the priests were among the most illiterate of their profession ;
but, under the new government, considerable progress has been already made towards
fhe establishment of a general system of literary and scientific instruction. A uni-
versity has been established at Athens, with thirty professors ; where there is also a
gymnasium or preparatory college, with eight professors, attended by upwards of
800 students ; a high-school, divided into four classes, and attended by a crowd of
youths anxious to obtain certificates of competency to enter the gymnasium ; a normal
school for the education of teachers ; two lancasterian schools for boys and one for
girls. There are in other parts of Greece four gymnasia, 12 primary schools, and
about 180 lancasterian schools, supported partly by the Government, and partly by the
communes. The system, however, has scarcely yet been extended to the villages ; in
many places the teachers are not competent for their duties, and there is a general
want of school-books. In no country is education more prized by the people ; but
to educate them generally and fully must be the work of time.
Administrative Divisions Since 1838 the kingdom of Hellas has been divided
into twenty-four nomoi or governments, and seven sub-governments. These are :
1. Argolis, with the sub-government of Spezzia and Hermia; 2. Hydra, with Troezen
and Calauria ; 3. Corinth and Siqjon ; 4. Achaia ; 5. Kinaitha ; 6. Elis ; 7. Tri-
philia ; 8. Messenia, -wiih the sub-government of PAy/fa ; 9. Mantiiiea ; 10. Gor-
tynia ; 11. Lacedamon ; 12. Laconia (Maina), all in the Morea; 13. ^tolia,
with the sub-government of Trichoma; 14. Acar7iania ; 15. Eurytonia ; 16. Pho-
cis ; 17. Phthiotis, with the sub-government of Zocris ; 18. Attica, with the sub-
governments of Megaris and Egina ; 19. Baeotia ; 20. Euboea, with the sub-govern-
ment of the adjacent islands; 21. Tinos and Andros ; 22. Syros and the Cyclades ;
23. JVaxos and Paros ; 24. Thera (late Santorini), with the islands about it.
Religious Establishment Since 4th August 1833, the established religion of
the State has been that of the " Orthodox Oriental Apostolic Church," of which the
king is the head. The Government of the church is vested in a Holy Synod, which
meets annually, and consists of a president and five members, \vith two secretaries.
There are thirty-three bishops of the Greek Church ; and four Roman Catholic bi-
shops at Naxos, Tinos, Syra, and Santorini.
Finances. — The revenue for 1838 amounted to 14,853,277 drachms, or
£541,525 sterling ; and the expenditure to 16,467,131 drachms, or £600,363 sterling,
leaving a deficiency of £58,838. The public debt amounts to about £7,000,000 sterling.
Army and Navy The number of troops on the peace establishment is 12,326
men of all arms ; and the ships of war amount to 32, carrying 190 guns and 2400 n\en.
Productive Industry Manufactures on a large scale are unknown ; only such
coarse fabrics, with the implements, furniture, and utensils required by a people so
little advanced in civilization as the Greeks have hitherto been, were produced in the
country with more or less skill, according to circumstances. Greece, however, in-
dented by arms of the sea, and encircled by numerous islands, seems naturally adapted
to become a commercial country ; and its trade has always suffered less from the
wretched policy of its various governments, than either its agriculture or its ma-
nufactures. The people are gifted in a peculiar degree with the practical sagacity
and address requisite for conducting mercantile transactions ; and, finding the paths
to distinction, and the pursuit of national objects closed against them under the
Turkish government, their activity and enterprize flowed into the channel of com-
merce ; so that even before the revolution, the Greek merchants had branches esta-
blished in some of the principal cities of Europe, and sent their ships to America.
They now carry on an extensive maritime trade, not only with all parts of the Medi-
Greece.] EUROPE. 619
terranean, but also with more distant countries. Their exports consist principally of
raw produce, as cotton, corn, tobacco, olive oil, timber, wool, silk, honey, currants,
figs, bides, dye-stuffs, drugs, with some wine, cheese, butter, live-cattle, capots or
cloaks, coarse woollens, and a few slight fabrics of silk and cotton. The imports
from western Europe consist of manufactured goods, colonial produce, and peltry ;
from Turkey, coffee, flax, timber, rice, drugs, and some manufactured articles. There
are in the country no roads, in the English sense of the word ; and the transport of
goods and travellers is effected on the backs of horses, asses, and mules.
Cities, Towxs, and Remarkable Places. — Atheks, the capital of the kingdom, and one of the
most celebrated cities in the world, is situate in the pro\ince of Attica, about five miles from the
coast of the north-eastern tide of the Gulf of Egina, in North lat. 37° 58', and East long. 23^ 46'. It is
built in a plain surrounded by hills, and watered by the rivers Cephissus and llissus ; and has been
almost entirely rebuilt since 1834, when it became the seat of Government. New streets have been
laid out, the old streets levelled and widened, and many houses erected in the modern style ; but most
of the town still consists of narrow winding lanes, with mean, clay-built houses. The principal
public buildings are the royal palace, a large new structure of I'entelic marble ; the mint ; the royal
stables ; a military hospital, and a barrack. The population already exceeds 20,000, of the most hete-
rogeneus description of persons of all nations. A thens is the seat of a university, and has a gymnasium,
a high school, and other institutions for education. Great ett'orts have been made to secure the public
health, by clearing and repairing the ancient sewers, and draining the marshes which have beenformcd
by the rivers. The antiquities of Athens are, however, still the principal object of attraction. The
ancient acropoht. or citadel, is built on a rocky eminence rising abruptly from the plain, and contains
within its walls the remains of the Parthenon, the glorious temple of the tutelar deity and name-mo-
ther of the city, the virgin goddess Pallas-Athene; and another temple, almost entire, of the same
goddess in her character of Polios, or protectress of the city ; a beautiful Ionic structure, connected
with the temples of Erectheus and Pandrosns. The entrance to the acropolis is at its west end,
which was once adorned with a splendid gateway, called the Propylaea, of which several portions
still remain. Beyond the gate was a small temple of Victory, the fragments of which have been re-
cently discovered under ground, and the building completely restored. In the lower town is the tem-
ple of the demigod Theseus, built after the year 469 B.C., when his bones were brought to Athens from
Scyros, by Cimon the son of Miltiades. This is a Doric peripteral building, perfectly entire, except the
roof, which has been recently restored ; It is now converted into a museum or recei-tacle for anti-
quities. There are also the temple of the Winds, an octagonal tower, with figures of the winds on its
sides ; the monument of Lysicrates, called also the lantern of Demosthenes ; the tribunal of the Areo-
pagus ; the Pnyx, or place of public assemblies ; the ruins of the temple of the Olympian Jupiter, &c.
Five miles from the city is the harbour of I'orto Leone (ancient liraeut), where several large houses
have been built, and some good streets lined with low but respectable houses. The harbour con-
sists of a land-locked basin, with a narrow entrance, but with very deep water inside, and is large enough
to accommodate a great number of heavy ships. The government are erecting a pier for extending
the accommodation for vessels. The communication between Athens and the Piraeus is formed by an
excellent road, and omnibuses ply between them at all hours. On the adjoining promontory are the
remains of the tomb of Themistocles. Twenty miles N.E. of Athens, are the village of ilarathonii,
and the plain of Marathon, so celebrated for the victory gained there by the Athenians over their
Persian invaders, b. c. 490 ; and 25 miles 8.E. is Cape Colonna, the ancient Hunium, containing the
remains of a temple of Pallas-Athene, from which the Cape derives its modern name of Coto7inii
(pillar-cape). In the gulf westward of Athens is the island of Salamis (modern Coulouri), in the strait
between which and the mainland was fought the great naval battle between the Greeks and the Per-
sians in the year 480 b. c. On the coast of the gulf behind Salamis is the village of Lepsuia, con-
taining the ruins of the temple of the goddess Demeter (called by the Romans Ceres), where were
celebrated in ancient times the Eleusinian mysteries. Westward from Lepsina, and also near the
coast, is the ancient Megara, which was burned and demolished by the Greeks and Turks, during
the late war, and is now little better than a mass of blackened ruins.
Lebadea or Livadia, the chief town of Boeotia, is situate on the summit of a rock, at the source of
the river Hercyna, 50 miles N.W. by \V. of Athens. It contained in the time of the Turks about
1500 houses. In the 8.E. part of Boeotia are Tkica or Thebes, a poor village, on the site of the an-
cient ThebcE, the city of Pindar, Pelopidas, and Kpaminondas, of which scarcely a vestige remains ;
and A'o/c/a, the ancient Flattece, now untenanted. About 40 miles N. by W. of Livadia, is the famous pass
of Thermtpylie, a narrow defile between Mount tEta and the sea, leading from Phocis into Thessaly.
Castri, 30 miles W. of Livadia, represents the ancient Delphi, so renowned for the temple and oraclo
of the god Phoebus-Apollo. Talanti or Talanta, '22 miles N.JS.E. of Livadia, an episcopal city, with
.5000 inhabitants.
In Westerji HelUis the only places worthy of notice are Lepanto and Missolonghi. Lepanto, called
also Nepakto, and by the Turks Ainabakhti, the ancient Naupactut or shipbuilding-place, is a small
fortified archiepiscopal city, with a harbour on the north side of the Gulf of Lei anto, near the en-
trance, and a citadel crowning the top of the hill, on the slope of which the town is built. xMisso-
longhi, on the north side of a bay or lagoon of the Gulf of Patras, a small fortified town, is famed for
the sieges it underwent during the late war of independence, and for the death of Lord Byron, which
happened there in 1824.
In the Morea : — Sapoli di liomania or Kauplia, the capital of Greece for several years, before the
king removed to Athens, is a well-built city, strongly fortified, and pos.sesse3 an excellent harbour ;
near the head of the gulf to which it gives its name. Nearly all the trade of the Morea centres here ;
consequently great activity prevails at the port; but its confined situation and the neighbouring
marshes render it unhealthy. Its fortress of the I'alatmdi, which has been called the Gibraltar of
Greece, and deemed impregnable, stands on the top of a lofty and precipitous rock, 720 feet above tlio
level of the sea, and is inaccessible on all sides except the east, where it is connected with a range of
barren rocky hills. Another fortress, called Itch-Kali, is built on a peninsular ruck rising above tlio
town, at the foot of the Palamedi. Before the removal of the court, Napoli contained 'JOiM inhabi-
tants, but the number is now considerably reduced. To the west and north of Nauplia, and at the
distance of a few miles, are the ancient cities of Argos, Tirynt, and Myrenw. The first is a strag-
gling town of ruinous houses, with a deserted citadel on the hill behind it, the celebrated Larissa.
Tiryns has completely disappeared, but its citadel remains, a perfect specimen of cyclopcan architec-
ture, erected about the year 1379 b. c. Near the village of hrabata are the ruins of Myreixi; oiico
the capital of Agamemiicn, built b> the demigod Perseus about 1300 years b. c, and destroyed by tho
Argives aljout 46C b.c. The citadel still exists, occupying the top of a steep hill, and containing
specimens of Hellenic masonry of various at^es ; the most ancient parts being in tlie same style !u»
the walls of Tiryns. The treasury uf Atreus, called also the tomb of Agamemnon, is Imiit under tho
(lope of the hill, and consists of a massy vaulted subterranean chamber, 47| feet in diameter and 60
620 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Greece.
high, and connected by a door with a smaller chamber about 23 feet square. Corinth or Korinth, one
of the finest cities of ancient Greece, was, during the late revolutionary war, reduced to ashes, and
now presents only a mass of ruins, and a complete picture of desolation. A few new houses have
recently been built, and lines marked out for the formation of new streets ; but little progress has
yet been made in restoring the city. It is situite in a very unhealthy plain, near the S.E. corner of
the (iulf of Lepanto ; but, being only 8 or 9 miles from the Gulf of Egina, it long formed an entrepot
for the trade of Greece, merchants preferring to transport thiir goods across the isthmus, rathir than
sail round the stormy shores of the Peloponnesus. The citadel, called Acrocorinthus, is built on the
top of a hill 1800 feet high, and is considered the strongest fortress in Greece next to that of Nauplia.
The hill shoots up majestically from the plain, and forms a conspicuous oliject at a great distance ;
being seen from Athens, 44 miles in a direct line. Patras or Fadras, a considerable town with 5000
inhabitants, on the north-west coast of Achaia, has been recently enlarged and almost rebuilt with
wide regular streets, but is subject to fevers occasioned by malaria. Voslitza, a sea-port town with
2000 inhabitants, 20 miles E. of Patras. Aliout 16 miles from Vostitza is the convent of Mceaspelion
(big cave), in the face of a precipice, with from 250 to 300 monks, who possess large landed estates,
chiefly in Elis. In the church is a miraculous image of the Panagia, or All-holy virgin, said to have
been the work of St. Luke. Tripolitza, formerly the Turkish capital of the Morea, and a flourishing
town, with 20,000 inhabitants, in a cold plain, 3000 feet above the level of the sea, and 22 miles W. by
8. of Nauplia, is now a heap of ruins, with not a single house or inhabitant remaining. The ruins of
Mantinea, now called Pal<eopoH (old town), are situate 8 miles N. of Tripolitza ; and 13 miles S. W. of
Tripolitza, near the banks of the Koufia, are the ruins of Megalopolis (big town), which was six miles
in circumference, but of which little now remains except the theatre, still very perfect. Furtlier
down the river, about 13 miles from its mouth in the Ionian sea, are the ruins of the temple of the
Olympian Jupiter, where the Olympic games were celebrated every fourth year by the assembled Greeks,
and which once contained the statue of tliat god, formed by Phidias of ivory and gold, and con'iidered
one of the seven wonders of the world. Kalamata, the capital of Messenia, is a considerable sea-port
town on the north side of the Gulf of Koroni. ifairromati, a wretched village of a few huts, stands on
the site of the ancient Messcne, 1 1 miles N. W. of Kalamata, and at the foot of the steep hill of It/tome.
The ruins of Messene are magnificent specimens of tlie grandeur and solidity of the Hellenic military
architecture. Navarino, on the S.W. coast of Messonia, a fortified town near the southern entrance
of a noble basin formed by the island of Sphagia (ancient Sphartcria), memorable for a battle fought
on 20th October 1827, in which the Turkish and Egyptian fleets were destroyed by the combined
B. itish, French, and Russian squadrons, and which ei.ded, in effect, the revolutionary war in Greece.
Xaaaritto I'ecchio, the ancient Fi/los, occupies a lofty promontory at the northern entrance of the bay.
Arcadia ancient Kuparissia or Qipnriuia) is a miserable ruined town, on the north-west coast of Mes-
senia, about a mile from the sea, on the narrow summit .)f a rocky ridge. It has some trade, but only
an open roadstead for ships ; on which account most of its exports are conveyed to the island of
I'roti, or Frudano, for shipment. Spuria, so renowned in the history of ancient Greece, and after-
wards so long deserted, has been constituted the cajjital of the new province of Lacedsemon. Sparta
is situate in a plain near the right bank of the Basili-potamo (ancient Eurutas), about 20 miles from
the sea ; a plan has been formed for rebuilding it, and some of the public buildings are already in pro-
gress. Mistra or Misitnt, 3 miles N.W. of Sparta, was formerly a large Turkish town on the slope of
a hill; but the upper town is now quite deserted, and the acropolis is in ruins. Monembaiia or A'«-
poli di Malrasia, on the east coast of Laconia, is a considerable town, on the south side of an insulated
hill, which is connected with the mainland by a bridge. The island is only half a mile in length and
about 300 yards in breadth, of which the town occupies about one-third, with the houses piled above
each other, and a castle on the summit of the rock, but separated from the town by a perpendicular
cliii'. AH the coast within sight of the town consists of uncultivatable rocks.
Islands. — The inhabited islands are : — IJydra, Spezzia, Pvros, Egina, Augistra, Salaviis, Scopelns,
Helidromia, Sciathos, Sct/ros, Sijra, Tinos, Miconns, Andrus, Cea, Thermia, Aams, Paros and Antipa-
ros, Siphnos, Seriphos, Cimolos, ililo, Polj/cayidros, Sicittus, los, Amorgos, Santorin, Anaphe, Asty-
palwa, Eubixa. E^ripo (corrupted to Negropunt by the Franks), the capital of Euboea, a large town
Duilt on the site ot the ancient Chalcis, at the narrowest part of the Euripxis, or Strait which sepa-
rates Euboea from the continent. It was formerly the capital of the Turkish eyalet of the Jezairs, the
usual residence, and under the immediate command, of the Capudan Pasha ; but many of the best
houses are of Venetian construction. The strait is divided into two unequal parts, by a small square
castle on a rock, which communicates with the Uceotian shore by a stone bridge, 60 or 70 feet long,
and with the Euboean shore by a wooden draw-bridge, 35 feet long. On the south side no vessel but
boats can approach Egripo ; on the north side there is no difficulty. Before the revolution Egripo
contained Ki.OOO inhabitants. Si/ra, the capital of Syra, a large and rapidly-increasing commercial
town, is built on a conical hill, which is covered to the top with white-washed buildings, and crowned
by a monastery. The harbour is one of the best in Greece, with safe anchorage, and a good light-
house. The population in 1827 was only GOOO ; in 1837 it had already increased to 21,000. Syra is a free
port ; and the principal exports are figs of the finest quality. Arna, in Andros, an episcopal city, with
a seaport, and 50U0 inhabitants. Saxia, in Naxos, the see of a catholic archbishop, and of a Greek bi-
shop. Antiparos contains a famous grotto, or deep cave, formed naturally in the limestone rook. Miln,
in the island of the same name, contains the remains of an unfinished amphitheatre, cyclopean walls,
a temple of Venus, and other antiquities. Hydra is a singularly interesting city, rising in dazzling
whiteness and beauty on the amphithe.itric slope of a barren rock, on the west side of the island of
Hydra. The streets are precipitous and uneven, but remarkably clean ; and the quay is lined with
warehouses and siiops ; the dwelling-houses are built in the most substantial manner. Several mon-
asteries are perched on the cliffs, and the churches and religious establishments amount to lOJ, some
of them possessing ornaments of great value. The harbour is neither spacious nor secure. A few
fishermen and others, driven from the continent by the oppression of their Turkish rulers, first raised
here the nucleus of a town; and numbers of other people from Albania, Attica, and the Morea. crowded
to it, till at length its population, in 1825, amounted to 40,000. The population does not now amount
to more than half the number. In 1813 it possessed 375 vessels, with a burden of 45,000 tons, and 5400
sailors ; but its trade was almost entirely ruined by the war of independence, in which its mariners
took a principal part. Spezzia is built on the eastern shore of the island of the same name, at the
entrance of the gulf of Nauplia, and contained, in 1825, 3000 inhabitants. The streets are better than
those of Hydra, and the houses are equally good ; the port is good and well-frequented ; and the citi-
zens are mostly engaged in commercial pursuits. They possess many fine vessels, and furnished
sixteen ships, besides fire-ships, to the Greek navy during the late war. The climate is so salubrious
that invalids are frequently sent thither for the restoration of their health ; the women are es-
teemed the most beautiful in Greece. Egina, a newly built seaport town, in the island of Egina, in
the middle of the gulf to which it gives its name, contains a museum, a library, and a school. The
climate of the island is delightful, and the atmosphere is so pure, that epidemic fevers, the scourge of
the Morea, are almost unknown in it Egina was formerly celebrated for the richness and beauty of its
ornaments, but almost the only remains consist of a few tombs, vestiges of wells, and a mosaic pave-
ment. Near the S.E. end of the island, on the top of a hill of moderate height, are the ruins of the
temple of Zeus Panhellenios .the Jupiter of all the Hellenes), consisting of 23 columns, still entiro
Greece.]
EUROPE.
621
and the greater part of tbe architrave. These ruins are, however, thouglit by some antiquaries to
be rather the remains of the temple of Pallas-Athene (Minerva).
GnLPs, Bays, Straits. — The Gulf of Zeitoun, the Channel of Talanti, and the Channel of Egrij.o,
together, form the strait called Ijy the ancients Euriput, which divides Eubcea from the mainland of
Greece. The Euripus has been always famous for its tides or currents, which flow sometimes the one
way and sometimes the other, with such force as to turn mills at Egripo, tven in the face of a con-
trary wind ; but the nature, extent, and periodical intervals of these currents are not yet e.xactly as-
certained. Gu//'o/ £^!W/, between Attica and Argolis. Gulf (f Nauplia, in Argolis. GulfofKulo-
kifthi, and Gulf of Koroni, both on the south coast of the Morea. Gulf of Arcadia, on the west coast.
Gulfs of Fatras and Lepanto, between the Morea and Hellas. The latter is a land-locked gulf, ex-
tending about 75 miles E. and W., with a breadth of 10 or 12, having the llaiis of Corinth and I.iva
d'Ostro at its east end, the Bai/ of Sulona on its north sii'.e, and communicating with the Gulf of
Patras by a strait only about a mile across, which is defended by the two castles of Rumeli and Morea.
Gulf of jjrta. — {See ante, p. 506.)
Capes. — Komiso, Kandili, Kili, Chersonisi, Doro, Mantelo, and Karysto, in Eubcea; Marathon
and Colonna, in Attica; Skillo, MaUo or St. ylngelo, Matapan, Gallo, Konello, Katukolo, Klarenxa,
Kologria or Papas, in the Morea : Bakari and Skropha, in Western Hellas.
RlvEns AND I.AKES.^The /W&rrfa(Sperchius) drains a long narrow valley between Mount CEta and
Othrys, and falls into the Gulf of Zeitoun. Maeropotamo (Cephissus) flows through Pliocis and
Boeotia into the lake of Topolias. ^/ jopo (Asopus), in southern Bceotia, flows into the Channel of
Egripo. The Cephissus and Ilitstcs flow through the plain of Athens into the Gulf of Kgina. I'l'initxa
(Inachus) in Argolis. Basili-potamo (Eurotas) falls into the Gulf of Kolokythi. Pyrnntza (Pami-
sus) flows through Mossenia into the Gulf of Koroni. Pousi (Neda) flows past Phiiraleia into the
Gulf of Arcadia, lioufia (Alpheiis) drains the south-western part of Arcadia, and flows through Elis
into the Gulf of Arcadia. Its principal aflluent is the Ladon, from the north of Arcadia, where it
has its source in the Lake of Fhonia (Pheneos\ which, being surrounded by mountains, emits its
waters through a subterranean channel. Iliaco (Peneus) in the north of Elis. Fidari yV.venns), and
Aspropotamo (Achelous\ both in Western Hellas. The latter is a large river which rises in Albania,
100 miles north from its mouth. Besides the lakes already mentioned are : The lakes of L'mlirakia,
Great Oxero, Little Ozero, Hrakhori, Angela- Kastro, and Sauroritza, in Western Hellas. The Lake
of Zaraka (Styniphalus), N. W. of Argos, and surrounded by mountains which divide its basin from
that of the Lake of Phonia. This lake has been supposed to send its water by a subterranean channel
to the Planitza.
Mountains (Sec ante p. 152-3.)
IONIAN ISLANDS.
The Ionian Islands form a sovereign state, consisting of seven principal islands, and a number of
smaller ones adjacent, lying along the coasts of Albania, Hellas, and Morea. The names, dimen-
sions, and population of the seven larger islands are stated in the following table : —
Names. \ ^ 1
^ 1
Area in '. Popula-
Square tioii in
Miles. 1830.
Belatire
Popula-
tion.
Corfu,
41 19
30 18
25 13
22 8
11 3
ly 13
4 2
227
348
lo(i
IHO
44
110
20
0.5,107
63,197
35.:!48
17,195
9,044
8,707
5,004
287
182
226
95
219
75
If).";
Kephalonia (Cefalonia),..
Zakunto (Zante),
Thiaki
!
' ! \
1097 j 2ai,262
186
The smaller islands are : Merera, Fano, Samothraki, Diaplo, to the N.W., and J'ido on the east side
of Corfu; Anti-pnxo, to the S. of Paxo ; Meisanisi, Kalamo, Kastus, Arkudi, Atoko, S.H. of Santo
Maura ; Krrrigotto, Nautilns, Porrtl'i, Porri, Om>, Kouplwnisi, Dragonera, S. and S E. of Cerigo. All
the i.i*lands, both large and small, belong to the same great calcareous formation which prevails over
Greece. '1 heir surface is so remarkably mountainous tliat they do not contain a sufficient quantity
of arable land to produce the corn re'iuirodby the population; and, were it not lor the vine, the olive,
and the currant, which they produce abundantly, they could support but a small number of inhabi-
taiits. The climate resembles that of the neinhliouring continent, except that the sea renders it more
uniformly temperate and more humid. Snow often falls in winter ; and lies on the mountains, but
rarely on tbe plains. Sudden and furious squalls are frecjuent ; and the sirocco or hot wind occurs at
certain periods. I he harvest is in June ; earthqi)akes are very frequent, but not very destructive;
malaria prevails in low situations in autunui ; and the itch, which is conmion in some places, in-
stead of being cra<licated by medical means, is rather cherished by the people, from a strange notion
that it is a preservative against the effects of the malaria. In other resiects the climate is agreeable
and lualthy.
People.— The people are of the same race as those of the adjacent continent ; and the Tonians par-
take in the physical configuration of the Greeks. The complexion in healthy persons inclines to olive.
Their eyes are almost universally brilliant and full, and generally d.ark ; tlie hair generally brown or
black; the Kard copious ; stature, middle-sized ; constitution, sanguineo-choleric ; gestures, viva-
cious ; gait, trect and elastic ; and their sjieech voluble and emphatic.
Uki.igiox.— The Greek church predominates, there being only about .3000 Roman Catholics, and
.W) .lews. At the head of the Gret'k church is a Protoi>apa, elected by ballot in an assembly of tho
clergy and nobles, and conflrined by the patriarch of Constantinople ; the Catholics are uiider the
charge ot «n archbi.fhop. But both clergy and people are extremely unenlightened, and their religion
consists of the grossest superstitions, which even the British government deems itself obliged to
countenance.
Educatiox — At Corfu is a university, and also a, seminary for priests of tho Greek church. In
pach of the islands there is a " secondary school," maintained at tho public expense, in which tha
ancient Greek and Latin, and the modem Greek, English, and Italian languages, arithmetic, and elu-
622
DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.
[Greece.
mentary mathematics, are taught. Tn the chief town of each island is a central school, supported at
the public expense, for reading, writing, and arithmetic, and for training the village schoolmasters ;
there are, besides, district schools, on the same plan as the central, partly maintained by government
and partly by private subscription. The district and villa.re schools are under the superintendence
of the lioad masters of the central schools ; the whole being overlooked by an inspector-general.
The whole establishment for education is under the charge of the commission for public instruction.
The number of public schools in the islands, in 183G, was 138, which were attended by 21)4^ scholars.
Government. — The government is oneof the worst specimens of oligarchy or exclusive aristocracy;
the authority of the state being vested in magistrates and councils chosen by the nobles only, to the ex-
clusion of the mass of the people, and administe ed principally for their behoof. The Ionian islands
formerly belonged to Venice ; but at the peace of 1815 were placed under the protection of the King of
Great IJritain, who is represented by a Lord High Commissioner, and he again in each island by a I're-
gident whom he appoints. The legislative authority is vestod in an assembly of forty members, elected
for live ^ears, who meet in session every two years. The executive power is vested in a senate, com-
posed ot tive ordinary members and a president, who are elected from the legislative assembly. The
municipal government of each island is vested in a council of live members and a president. The ju-
dicial authority in each island is vested in three tribunals, a civil, a crimina!, and a conmiercial ; and
there is, besides, in each a court of appeal ; and petty courts, held by justices of the peace, for minor
pleas and offences. At the seat of government is a high court of appeal, consisting of four ordinary
members, two English and two Greek ; and two extraordinary, namely, the Lord High Commissioner
and the President of the Senate. Trial by jury does not exist. A new code of laws has been digested
for the islands. The military defence is placed in the hands of the protecting sovereign, and the re-
gular military establishment consi^ts only of British tioops, to the number of about 3300. There is,
however, a corps of militia in each island. The general charge of preserving the public tran-iuillity
being directly and immediately connected with the military establishmeni, the high police of the
" United States of the Ionian Islands" is placed under the direct mana;ement of the Lord High Com-
missioner ; the sovereiifn has the right to occupy the fortresses, and maintain garrisons ; and the
military force of the islands is under the orders of the British Comniander-in-Cliief. The average
revenue is about £176,000 stei-ling ; and the average expenditure about £177,000, besides the pay of
the regular troops and munitions of war.
Productive Industry. — Agriculture is still in a very rude Ptate, and the implements of husbandry
probablj' as primitive as tliey were in tlie days of Ulysses. The olive is the principal product ; the vine
is generally planted in the plains and valleys, and corn on the declivities of the hills. In Corfu and
Zaute soap to the value of £12.000 is ammally made and exported ; and also considerable quantities of
common earthenware. Silk shawl , coarse linens, coarse woollen blankets, and goat-hair carpets and
sacking, are also manufactured. The amount of the tonnage of vessels entered in l83(j was 273,8")3,
and cleared, 272,115, of which only 22,60(j entered, and 23,475 cleared, were British. — ( ilartiu's Culo-
Jiies, &c. 591, &c.)
The principal natural productions of the islands ; the number of acres cultivated and uncultivated ;
and the numbers of live stock, in the year 183j, are stated in t.ie loiiu« ing table : —
Articles of Produce
and Live Htuck.
i
8
^1
S
s
o
H
■\Mieat
G,133
17,833
3,910
185,660
86,795
98
617
1,392
30,775
30,8li6
638
5,854
530
9,102
3,985
11,834
432
255
856
450
189,783
7,182
966
492
6,410
16,766
13,6J0
327
134
64
1,474
53,869
1,724
3,978
547
8
1.203
4,216
101
99
555
5,350
97,436
73
340
13
190
212
756
2
71
68
1,626
3,137
453
8,466
'",513
I,3ii5
54
109
1,595
5,285
61,685
34
lUOOO
406
' 5',266
16,137
37,437
5,492
15,740
219,339
119,152
1,014
1,310
4,530
44,960
420,151
Indian Corn, Barley, Ca-1
lembochio. and Barley ;•
and Wheat j
Oats
Flax,
Pulse,
Total of Acres,
Number of Horses,
„ Beeves
„ Sheep,
„ Goats
354,139
223,622
101,314
11.5,217
6,488
79,525
16,640
885,262
4,106
2.351
21,708
16,524
2,220
1,378
26,962
14,668
3,330
1.22,)
13,156
8,07
2,462
2,141
12,006
20,072
765
120
4,134
6,554
1,010
3,140
16,900
2,910
296
16
2,910
23
14,189
10,366
95,950
68,826
Taule shewing the Nature and Quantity of each kind of Produce, in 183G.
Article! of Produce.
4
t3
is
el
1
li
^1
>
1
H
O
VTieat, Bushels.
Indian Corn, &c. „
Oats, „
Currants, I^bs.
Olive Oil Barrels.
19,064
51.741
12,963
85,246
55,042
5,927
26,523
5,342
4.654
41,6.55
3,584
9,740,000
.2,729
44,100
17,180
13,150
7,340
30,510
1,025
1,0.50
7,835,009
9,520
4S,770
4,385
6,610
l.IOO
40,000
16,781
38,681
4,884
5,100
1,342
35,443
5,9.35
15,!18.5
5,473
130,350
2,507
16,808
434
400,000
1,280
6,196
550
11,495
2,268
2,640
35,750
■"i9.5
20,010
3,590
3,070
1,855
170
12',907
686
76,326
185.660
22,915
17,980,100
113,219
210.147
37,567
74,933
23,378
170,350
Flax, „
Salt, ,
—(From Tables of Revenue, ^c. Colonies, \%'i5. Presented to Parliament IS30.]
Greece.]
EUROPE.
623
Cities and Towns Corpp, the seat of government, situate on the east side of the island of Corfu,
in N. lat. 39° 37', E. long. 19^ 5C', is a fortified town, with narrow and irregular streets, and ill-
contrived houses ; a cathedral containing the body of its tutelary deity, St. Spiridion, several Greek
and Catholic churches and chapels, a university, gymnasium, ecclesiastical seminary, and several pri-
mary schools. Population 17,000. Corfu has a citadel on a projecting rock, and two other fortresses,
one of them on the Island of Vido, which, when the works now in progress are completed, is expected
to be nearly impregnable. The harbour is safe and commodious ; and Corfu is the principal seat of
the foreign trade of the islands. St. Gago, in Paxo, contains 4000 inliabitants. Santa Maura, in
Santa Maura, 5000 ; Vathi, in Thlaki, 2000 ; ArgostuH and Lixuri, both in Cefalonia, the former with
4000, the latter with 5000 inhabitants. Zante, on the eastern side of the Island of Zante, is a large town,
with an imposing appearance, on the face of a hill, and containing 18,000 inhabitants. Zante contains
a large plain, bordered by mountains, and covered with vineyards and olive groves, presenting that
appearance of luxurious fertility which has procured for it the name of fiore di Leoante — the flower
of the Levant j but recently it has suffered severely trom repeated earthquakes.
MEDITERRANEAN SEA.
This great inland sea, which has been in all ages the principal theatre of the commercial and ma-
ritime transactions of the European and Western Asiatic nations, extends in a direction nearly E.
and W. about 2350 miles, with a breadth varying from about 100 to 650 miles, and covering an area
of about 1,000,000 of square miles. Its northern coasts are formed by Europe and Asia Minor ; its
eastern, by Syria and Palestine ; its southern, by Africa ; while towards the west it gradually dimi-
nishes in breadth till it terminates with the Strait of Gibraltar, only 13 miles across in the narrowest
part The depth varies considerably. The depth of the Atlantic, on the outside of the Straits, is from 50
to CO fathoms, but the channel deepens as it proceeds eastward, until, a little within Gibraltar, it reaches
1000 fathoms, and soon after gets beyond soundings. The Mediterranean is also very deep towards
its eastern extremity ; but between Sicily and Africa it is only from 30 to 100 fathoms deep ; there
seeming to exist in that quarter a submarine chain or shoal, which maybe considered as an extension
of the rock formations of Italy and Sicily, with deep water on both sides. A strong current perpe-
tually sets into the Mediterranean through the Straits of Gibraltar ; and although there is an oppo-
site eddy on each side, yet the reflux is not nearly equal to the quantity flowing inward. It receives
also the surplus waters of the Black Sea, whicli flow with a constant stream through the Dardanel-
les ; but the rivers which fall into it are the contributions of a smaller extent of territory than tho
river basin of any other inland sea, in proportion to its area. The disposal of the waters thus con-
stantly flowing into it, is considered by some philosophers to be sufliciently accounted for by evapo-
ration from so large a surface in a warm climate ; wliile others, on the contrary, maintain that there
is a submarine current flowing outward through the Straits of Gibraltar, and thus making room for
the lighter waters of the ocean that flow in the opposite direction. Tides are but little felt. They are
perceptible only in certain parts of the sea, and seldom rise more than six inches above the mean
level. Mr. Trevelyan, however, ascertained, by a series of observations at Antium, in the summer
of 1836, that the tides are perfectly regular, and rise there to 14 inches. In the more easterly parts of
the Mediterranean tlie tides are shewn by recent surveys to be much greater, though at the furthest
west they may be scarcely perceptible. To the eastward of Sicily a tide is raised, which flows up tlie
Adriatic, and rises in that comparatively narrow channel to nearly four English feet at new and full
moon, and half that height at neap tides, alternately covering and laying bare the bottom of the
Venetian lagoons. The Mediterranean being nearly surrounded by lofty mountains, at no great
distance from its shores, is, in consequence, much exposed to storms, and to sudden gusts of
wind, which raise short broken waves, more disagreeable, however, than dangerous to experienced
seamen. In the western parts of the Mediterranean the temperature of the water below 20O fathoms
is constantly about 55^ Fahrenheit, which is much higher than that of the ocean in northern lati-
tudes. The sea produces abundance of fish, the principal varieties of which are mentioned among
the articles of productive industry of the countries along its shores. — (See ante, p. 138 and 139.)
RECAPITULATORY TABLE OF THE EUROPEAN STATES.
Name and Title.
Area in
Square
Miles.
I. Empires. i
Austrian, ' 258,188
Russian, 2,000,000
Ottoman, ' 168,000
II. Kingdoms.
Great Britain, &c., I 1 18,734
France, \ 204,3.55
Prussia, I 107,885
Belgium, | 11,375
Netherlands | 11 ,897
Bavaria, 31,392
Saxony, i 6,772
Hanover I 14,709
Wirtemberg 7,632
Denmark 21 ,887
Sweden, 170,240
Norway I 122,460
Spain, 179,465
Portugal, 36,.596
Sardinia, ! 29,050
Two Sicilies I 44,510
Greece ( Uellas ) I 20,000
III.
States of the Church, 17,860
Electorate of llessen-Casscl, 4,439
IV. Gband-Dccuies.
Baden, 5,918
Darmstadt, 3,761
Population.
Absolute.
a5,050,533
52,943,000
10,680,000
24,028,345
33,540,908
14,271,5;«)
4,000,000
2,859,111
4,31.5,469
1,652,114
1,706,280
1,634,654
2,0:j5,0O0
2,985,000
1,194,827
11,964,000
3,0<;i,C84
4,470,000
7,752,0'tO
920,000
2,471,000
812,540
1,261,482
782,671
Annual
Kevenue
Mela- in Pounds
tice. Sterling.
Debt in
Pounds
Sterling.
12,974,648 64,000,000
14,200,000 I 40,356,000
not known not known
45,000,000
49,000,000
7,668,000
2,500,000
720,000
920,000
941,400
1,540,000
1,687,200
4.50,000
10,00;),000
2,913,000 6,000,000
4,500,000 not known
540,000 j 7,000,000
2,809,000 not known
497,000 I 250,000
810,000,000
200,000,000
35,000,000
7,000,000
i5,'obo,ooo
3,500,000
1,, '150,000
3,000,000
14,000,000
none
Bankrupt
1,086,000
548,000
2,000,000
1,300,000
Army
or Con-
tingent.
272,204
730,300
120,000
109,000
311,412
139,840
35,600
12,000
13,0.->4
13,9.55
24,867
32,094
12,000
35,2((0
37,7"'0
12,000
17,700
6,679
10,000
5,679
024
DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.
[Greece.
Kcime and Title.
Schwerln,
Strelitz
Oldenburg,
Weimar,
Tuscany,
V. Dlchies and Princedoms.
Nassau,
Urunswiok,
Coburg-Gotha,
Meiningen,
Altenburg,
Anhalt-Dessau,
Anbalt-Koethin,
Anbalt-Bernburg,
Reuss— Elder,
Reuss — Junior
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt,
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen,
Lippe-Detniold,
Lippe-Schauenburg,
Valdeck,
Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen,
HohenzoUern-Hechiugen,
Hessen-Homburg,
Lichtenstein,
Kniphausen,
Parma,
Modena,
Lucca,
Monaco,
Moldavia,
Wallachia,
Servia
VI. Republics.
Frankfort,
Lubeck
Bremen
Hamburg,
Cracow,
Zurich, "1
Bern,
Lucerne, .
Schwciz, .
Uri, .
Vnterwalden,
Glarus,.
Zug,
Fribourg,
Soleure, |
Basel, I
Schaffhausen, ;
Appenzell
St. Gall,
Grisons, |
Argau,
Thurgau I
Tessin, 1
Vaud, I
Valais, j
Neuohatel, I
Geneva, J
Ionian islands,
St. Marino,
Andorre,
I'opulation.
Area in
Square
Miles. Abtolute,
Total, 3,708,524 235,13.5,620
4,84.')
767
• 2,400
1,419
8,700
1, 7.^)7
1,.507.
799
888
.510
340
326
340
14.5
448
410
359
437
206
461
388
138
166
53
17
2,300
2,068
420
50
16,000
30,000
12,000
91
142
106
151
493
647
2,083
600
350
420
260
281
185
496
256
185
116
160
760
2.540
499
267
1,041
1,190
1,675
281
91
1,200
27
144
482,652
85,2,57
264,1.54
21.5,813
1,350,000
382.981
251,000
137,910
148,078
121,-590
1 60,94 5
'40,1.53
45,1.35
30,041
68,8.54
65,604
54,080
76,730
27,600
56,000
42,870
21,000
23,000
5,880
2,8,59
440,000
390,000
145,000
6,500
4.50,000
950,000
380,000
54,000
47,000
57,800
140,770
120,000
231,576
400,000
124,.521
13,519
40,650
22,571
29,348
15,322
91,145
63,196
65,424
31,125
49,870
1.58,853
88,506
182,755
84,124
113,923
183,.582
75,798
58,616
58,6fi6
210,(100
8,000
1.5,000
\Rela-
I tine.
100
111
no
173
156
218
166
173
167
238
179
123
133
203
153
160
150
175
127
121
110
152
138
111
168
191
188
345
130
29
31
31
593
333
545
932
243
350
1.54
207
38
91
86
104
180
183
246
353
268
311
209
35
364
315
109
155
45
208
615
175
2;;6
104
Annual
Revenue
in Pounds
Sterlinf;.
230,000
50,000
150,000
195,400
181,000
165.400
120,0i)0
110,000
6K,200
60,000
37,.500
37,500
14,000
47,000
32,500
24,000
49,000
21, .500
35,000
30,000
12,000
18,000
1,700
274,000
Debt in
Pounds
Sterling.
1,000,000
150,000
800,000
not known
450,000
400,000
580,000
400,000
1.50,000
80,000
155,000
85,000
24,000
90,000
30,000
25,000
70,000
48,000
140,000
120,000
30,000
60,000
Army
or Con-
tingent.
3,580
718
2,829
2.010
4,500
3,02>*
2,096
1,116
1,150
982
529
325
370
223
522
539
451
691
240
519
356
145
200
55
1,400
1,7.50
680
479
407
485
1,298
708,000
375,000
325,000
,660,000
known 3,700
5.824
,734
602
2:f6
372
482
250
,240
404
918
466
972
,•530
,600
,410
,5-20
,804
,964
280
960
880
625
ASIA.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
AsTRONOMirAL POSITION Bctweeii 1° 20' and 78° N. latitude; and between
26° and 190° E. longitude.
DiMtiNsioNs The greatest length from N. to S., in the direction of the meridian,
or from Cape Romania in Malaya to Cape Taimnra in Siberia, exceeds 5300 miles ;
and the greatest breadth from W. to E. along the fortieth parallel of N. latitude, or
from Baba Burun in Asia Minor to the east coast of Japan, is about 5C00 miles. The
superficial area is about 17,500,000 square English miles, or four times the extent of
Europe.
Boundaries. — Northern: — the Arctic Ocean. Southern: — the Indian Ocean.
Eastern: — the Pacific Ocean. Western; — the Ural Mountains, and the River Ural,
the Caspian Sea, the range of Caucasus, the Strait of Yenikaleh, the Black Sea, the
Channel of Constantinople, the Sea of Marmora, the Dardanelles, the Archipelago,
and the Levant, all which separate it from Europe ; and the Isthmus of Suez and
the Red Sea, which separate it from Africa.
General Aspect. — The surface of this large continent is very diversified. The
northern portion of it forms a plain rising gradually from the shores of the Arctie
Ocean, intersected by a number of very large rivers, and exposed without shelter to
the piercing blasts of the north. The southern portion, which stretches along the
Indian Ocean, is composed likewise of comparatively level regions, exposed to the
burning heat of the tropical sun; while the central region consists of a series of
elevated plains and mountains, from which rivers flow in every direction to the neigh-
bouring seas. This central region, however, is not, as was till recently supposed,
a uniform table-land of great elevation, supported on all sides by lofty mountains ; but
appears, on the contrary, to be occupied by long ranges of mountains, with interven-
ing plains and valleys, some of the latter of which have no great elevation. Among
the numerous mountains which intersect the surface, four great chains or systems
may be distinguished, stretching nearly parallel to each other, in the direction of east
and west, or south-west and north-east, and named by modern geographers the Altai ;
the Tcean-shan ; iho Kwan-lnn or Qiian-lun; and the Himnlmja. These, with their
mnnerous ramifications, occupy the greater part of the continent.
MovNTAiNS.— The chain of Altai, properly so called, occupies a space of scarcely more ti:an 7^ of
lonKifiidt' ; but the name is usually given to tlie northern boundary of a mountainous region whicli
extends from the sources of the river Irtish to tiie sea of Okhotsk. Between the Irtish and tho
Chulym, the most easterly affluent of the Obi, or between the meridians 80" and Wi"', the chain consists
of an extensive mass of liiKh rocks, furrowed by narrow val'eys and rapid rivers. Its eulniinatinj^
point lies N. W. of Lake Ubsa ; to the east of which the ch.iin divides into three ranges, of which tho
middle takes the name <jf Tanf;-nim, and extends eastward to the lake Kossogol. The most nortlnrly
range is named ^a^/ant-hian. or Minintiiini of Sayitn ; tlie most southerly, l.'liinf^om-iilii ; and the three
ranges, Ix-tween 'JH" and KCi- K. long., join tlie niountains which encompass the lake Baikal, and are
nsually called the Buihiiliiin Al(inril(iiii». l''arther east a chain shoots eastward, under the name of
Xinlfi, and the ifounlaint qf DiiDuria, and afterwards joins the labUninoi-krilii't (chain of Apples),
the Khinfi-liii7i, and the /tliinn llit/s, which, stretching along the west side of the sea of Okhotsk, <in''er
the name of AVrtnoro/, extend to the north-eastern extiemity of Asia, and tcrmtn;;to at Hehring's Straits.
The mean latitude of the Altai is lietween M)-" and .'il'-' 30'; the name, which is said to mean Colilcn,
has probably l)cen given to it on account of its great metallic riches. Although the top of the chain
Is said by the Chinese to reach the Milky-way, yet proliably no part of it attains a greater elevnf ion
than I L.'iflOfeet. The highest part of the range, so far as is yet known, extends east and west between
the liukhtarma, an aftiii< nt of the Irtish, and the Koksim.an affluent of the Obi. The most westerly
of its higher summits, the Hal/iorukha, loses its i-now in Mav, but is covered with it again by the end
of July : farther east is a loftier sunmiit, tlie .Skht.<k/ii/,rnik/iii;\mt the highest is the ISiili'Uiti, or
Byi-lnrha, which lies in the meridian of the Chiiu sc military post of Chingistei, on the IJuklitarmii, aii<l
rises, according to .M. (iebler, who visited it in lH.'t.l, to alioiit Il,(KO feet abovethe level ol the sea. and
about TOIM) alxive the surrounding niountains ; it Is covered with perpetual snow, which teruiinntes,
downwanls. in inmiense glaciers. From this lofty muss a range branches <i(f to t'le K.S K., extend-
Ing, as we have said, to the extremity of Asia ; but tlie supposit.on that it loi ined the norlhern wiill
ol a Very high table-land is so far from the truth, that the steppes around llie lake Zaisang, on tlio
Hr
62(} DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Physical
south side of the chain, and certainly tlie steppes near the lake Balliashi, are not more than 1918 feet c 300
toises) above the level of the sea. A\estwardfrom lake Zaisang the chain of Altai is prolonged, under
the parallel of 49° or 50^, by a series of isolated hills and groups of small mountains, through an extent
of about 540 miles, as far as the steppe of the Kirghiz, and ends abruptly about lO-' to tlie eastward of
the meridian of the Urals. Among the secondary chains connected witli the xVltai are, 1. The Munn-
tainsqf Koli/tian, between the rivers Irtish and ISiya, wliich .ire rich in gold and silver ; 2. The chain
which Humboldt proposes to call the Great yfltai, whose cuhninating point is al)Out 2^ of latitude to
the south-east of the lake leke-Aral-noor, and which unites the Altai with the Teean-Shan; 3. The
Tarbasatai chain, which extends to tlie south-west of lakes Zaisang and Alaktougul, and separates
them from lake Balkashi, for nearly 500 miles. In some places snow is said to lie on this chain durim;
the whole year, which indicates an elevation of a'.ioutOO lO I'eet. Tlie chain is connected with the Altai
by a series of low hills, running parallel to the south side of Zaisang, at the distance of about twi nty
miles. The Tarlmgatai chain is considered as forming the north-western boundary between the Rus-
sian and the Chinese empires. The great volcanic mountains of Kamtschatka may either be con-
Bidercd as connected with the Altaian system, or, perhaps, more properly with the maritime chain to
be afterwards mentioned.
The second great chain, called by the Chines3 Teean-siian (or in French Thias-chan-), and by
the Tdrkee nations Texori-dagh, both of which names signify sky mountains, or mountains which
reach the skies, extends from west to east nearly along the 42-' parallel of north latitude. The culmi-
nating point appears to be that mass of iiills, remarkable for three snow-clad peaks, wliich lies nearly in
the centre of As:a, upon the confines of Kansu, in the Chinese empire, and is celebrated by the name
of Bukhda-fila (Holy Hill), the Ungdo of I'allas, the Siua-sli'in (snow hill), and the I'e-slian {\\\Ma
hill) of the Chinese, about 85^ E. long. From IJilkhda-vda the Teean-shan stretch eastwanl towards
Barkoul, beyond which they suddenly fall to the level of the great desert of Cobi : but, alter an in-
terruption of about 10- of longitude, another chain, called Oadjar or In-shan, appears at the great
bend of t'ne Yellow river, following the same direction from west to east, which may be regarded
as a prolongation of them. About 112^ K. long, the Gadjar becomes confounded with a snowy
chain called Ta-hang, and with a chain running north and south under tlie name of K/n)if(han-i.l(i,
which forms a union in this quarter between the Teean-shan and the Altai. The chain which may
be considered as the principal, appears to stretch still further east, till it becomes connected on the
one side with the Mountains of Corea, and on the other with the chain which extends along the coast
of Mandchuria. Westward from Bukhda-Ola, the chain of Teean-shan is prolonged, between Gulja
( Ele) and Kuchu, and then between the lakes TemurtG and Aksit, to the north of Cashgar, under tlie
name of Miix-tagh, or Musart, From the point where the Bolor-tagh crosses the chain at right an-
gles, the MQz-tagh continues its course without interruption, under the name of Asf. rah-tagk, to the
south of the Sihoon, towards Khojend and Urateppeth, in Ferghana. The chain of Asferah, cailed
also the ridge or chain of Pamer, separates the waters of the Sihoon from those of the Amu, and
presents a group of lofty mountains, some of which are covered with perpetual snow. The chain
then turns to the south-west, nearly in the meridian of Khojend, and in this direction, as far as
Samarcand, is called Ak-tagh, or At-botom ; farther to the west, on the banks of the Kohik, it sinks
into the plains of Bokhara and Mawer-ul-nahr. Besides the divisions of the chain already mentioned,
there are several secondary ranges connected with the Teean-shan; as, 1. The Ala-shan, a chain
which runs along the west side of the great bend of the lloang-ho, and appears to connect the Gadjar
with the northern part of the great nucleus of Hoho-nor, named S'an-s/ian or Killan-shan, belonging
to the chain of Kwan-lun ; 2. The Ala-tiigh or Alatau, which extendi northward from the Teean-
shan into Turkestan, crossing the course of the river Cboui ; and, 3. The Ming-bulak, to the north of
Khokand, and nearly parallel to the Asferah.
The Chain of KwAN-i.UN, Ktjexlun, or Quan-lun, extends nearly along the thirty-fifth parallel
of north latitude, bearing also the names of Kulkun and Tart ash-da van, and couimenciiig about
the 70-' E. long., to the westward of the Tsung-ling (Blue or Onion Mountains), which are connected
with the Bolor-tagh, and, according to the Chinese geographers, form its southern portion. From
this point the chain runs eastward, and after crossing Thibet in two branches under the name of
Tsung-ling, to the north, and Sgari, Zzang, and Ui, to the south, forms in Eastern Thibet the Kuan-
lun of the Chinese, a mountain mass of prodigious height, which, in their mythological geography,
is called the king of mountains, the highest point of the whole earth, the mountain which touches
the pole and supports the sky ; it is, in short, the Olympus of the gods of the Buddhists, and the
Tao-se. This great mass is supported on the north by the snowy chain of the Nan-shan and Ktlian-
than, which also extends west and east. Between the Nan-shan and the Teean-shan the mountains
of Tanout bound the edge of the desert of Cobi, and that and other contiguous chains form the
country of Kham, Western Setohuen, and yun-nan. In Thibet the Kwan-lun is connected with the
Himalaya by several lofty chains, whose peaks are covered with everlasting snow.
The HiMALA, Himmala, Himachel, or Himalaya (Abode of Snow) mountains extend in a general
direction north-west and south-east. From tlie meridian 69^ 10' east, where it is connected with the
Hindoo-koh, the chain extends to the east and south-east, along the northern frontier of India, A ssam,
and Birmah, and penetrates into the Chinese province of Yun-nan, where, to the westward of Yung-
chang, it exhibits sharp and snowy peaks. It turns abruptly to the north-east, on the confines of
Hoquang, Keang-si, and Fuh-kien, and extends with its snowy summits near to the ocean, where
we tind, as if it were a prolongation of the chain, the moiintinns of Formosa, which are snow-capt
during the greater part of the summer, shewing in this latitude an elevation of at least 12,049 feet.
Westward, the chain of Himalaya forms, or is connected with, the Hindoo-koh, or Indian Caucasus,
and the Paropamisan mountains, which extend in a westerly direction through live or six degrees
of longitude, and then inclining to the north-west, appear to terminate before reaching the Caspian
Sea. In the same direction, however, after a short interruption, the chain of iT/ijir;; appears, ex-
tending along the south side of the Caspian, and connected with the Caucasus and the mountains of
Armenia. The culminating points of the Himalayas are found on the frontier of India, between 76-"
and 90-' E. long., where they present a series of snow-clad peaks, many of which are from four to five
miles of perpendicular height above the level of the sea ; and one of them, the Dliwalagiri or Whit(?-
moimtain, rises to the enormous elevation of five miles and a half. The Himalayas, though running
nearly in the same direction, are not exactly parallel with the Kwan-lun; but approach them so nearly
in thj meridian of Attok and J ellalabad, that between Cabul, Cashmere, Ladakh, and Badakhshan, the
Himalayas seem to form only a single mass of mountains with the Hindoo-koh and the Tsung-ling.
In like manner the space between the Himalayas and the Kwan-lun, further east, is more occupied by
secondary chains and isolated groups of mountains than the table-lands between the Altai and the
Teean-shan, andbetweenthe latter and the Kwan-lun. Consequently Thibet and Kashi cannot properly
be compared in respect of their geological structure, with the high longitudinal valleys which are si-
tuate between the eastern and the western Andes. Nor is the level of these countries equal throu;-'h-
out ; for the mildness of the winters and the cultivation of the vine in the gardens of Il'lassa imlicato
the existence of deep valleys or circular depressions. The courses of the Indus and the Saiipou, in
opposite directions, also indicate a depression of Thibet to the north-west and the south-east. From
this watershed, which is situate nearly in the meridian of the Jewahir, and Mount Cailasa or Caiias
(in Chinese 0-new-ta, and in Thibetan Gang-dis-ri), the chain of Kara-korum- padis/ia/i stretches
to the north-west, towards the Tsung-ling ; and the snowy chains of Hor and Zzang to the east. Tha
Geogbaphy.] ASIA. 627
Kara-korum chain forms the watershed between the affluents of the Indus on the one side, and tlie
rivers of Yarkhandou the other. The llor, at its north-western extremity, is connected with the Kwan-
lun, and its course from the eastern side is towards the Tengri-noor. Tlie Zzan", which is to the south
of the Hor, bounds the long valley of the Sanpoo, and extends from north to east towards the
Neen-tsin^angla-eangri, a very lofty mountain which, between ll'lassa and the Tengrl-noor. termi-
nates in Mount liem-shun-Ubashi. Between the meridians of Ghorka, Katmandhil and ll'lassa,
the Himalayas send off to the north, towards the riglit bank, or southern border of the valley of tha
Sanpoo, several spurs covered with perpetual snow, the highest of which is the Yaria-shamboy -
giingri (the snowy mountains in the country of the self-existing God), to the westward of the
Take Yamrak-yumdzo or Paltee. Subordinate to the Himalayas and the Kwan-lun, the following
chains may be mentioned : 1. The Yung-ling^ which runs north and south, separates, by a long se-
ries of snowy peaks, China from Thibet, and joins the chain of Pe-liiig, which bounds Shansi to ti;e
south, and has several snowy sunmiits. On the frontier of Honan it becomes lower, and runs north-
west towards Shansi, where it joins the Ta-liang. In Shansi itself, a secondary chain, called Loung,
stretches from the Pe-ling north-west to the lloang-ho, where it rises to the snow line, and unites with
the Ala-shan. In general, the Pe-ling marks the boundary between the basins of the rivers Hoang-bo
and Yang-tse-kiang, terminating near the sea, between their mouths. The Nan-ling, rising from tlio
extremity of the Yun-ling, at a great distance from the Pe-ling, approaches the latter as it advances
eastward, and sends off to the north-east several branches, which accompany the windings of the
Yang-tse-kiang, even to its mouth. The mountains of Ydti, to the north-west of Pekin, and the '/'«-
hang, to the west, in Shansi, appear to belong equally to tlie Te.an-shan and the Kwan-lun. 2. 'i'ho
Sub- Hiinalayat, which extend along the south side of tlie great chain, and form with it the valleys of
Nepaul, Bootan, he. 3. The chain which, under the names of Yuniadoiing and Anapektuniiou, ex-
tends from the upper end of the valley of Assam to Cape Negrais. 4. The BirmaJt- Siamese chain,
which extends north and south, between the valleys of the Saluen and the Meinam, from the coii-
iincs of Yun-nan through the peninsula of Malaya to Cape Romania. 5. The chain wliich tra-
verses Laos, and forms the eastern boundary of Siain, sei'arating the valley of the Meinam from that
of the Maykuang. G. The chain of jln-nam, wliic'h forms the v.atershed between the affluents of
the -Maykuang and the numerous rivers of Tonkin and Coc'.iiu-Cliiiia. 7. The chain of Sukitnan,
which extends from north to south, nearly parallel wiih the river Indus, and wliose branches form
tlie numerous secondary chains which traverse Affghanistan and Beloochistan, losing themselves
\.\ the table-land of Kerman on the one side, and terminating at Ca;.e Jask on the other. Us pi iii-
cipal summits are, Suffiid-koli ^ White hill), west of Peshawer, about 14,0C0 feet above the level of
the sea, and Tukht-i- Suleiman (Solomon's Throne), 3F 38' >i. lat., 11,000 feet. The loftiest peaks
of the Himalayas are supposed to be those of Dhualagiri ( \Vhite hill), nearly in the meridian of Be-
nares, and Chumulari in Bootan ; their elevation being calculated, though not exactly ascertained,
at about 28,000 feet. Farther west, various parts of the range have been approached, and even crossed
by Europeans, and the elevation of the summits pretty nearly ascertained. The Soutlicrn, or Hither
Himalayas, which separate the feeders of the Sutlej from those of the Pabur, Koopir, and Andrytie,
vary from 16,982 to iy,512 feet, and the passes from 15,0J0 to IfJ.OijO ; the Jumnatri peaks, or Bunthr-
pooch mountains, from 20,122 to 21,155 ; St. George, St. Patrick, and the Pyramid, above Gangoutri,
22,240, 22,385, and 20,U66 ; Hoodra- Ilimala, 22,390; Surga-Iiooer, 23,441 ; a cluster extending from Ke-
darnath to Budrinath, six peaks, 22,130 to 23,441 ; and tliree contiguous peaks, 19,178 to 21,683; Jewahir
four peaks, 22,3»5 to 2.5,741 ; Dhaibun, in Nepaul, 24,640, and Oossainthan, also in Nepaul, 24,740.
The BiLOB, Belur, or Bilyt-tagh (Cloudy Moimtains), extend in a direction transverse to that
of the preceding chains, being connected with the Tsung-ling on the south, and united on the north to
the chain which passes to the north-west of Cashgar, under the name of Cashgar-davan. Of the north-
ern part of the chain very little is known ; but, in its middle portion, it forms or consists of the table-
land of I'amer or I'amir, which is elevated 15,6(M) feet above the level of the sea, and is overtopped by
mountains which rise several thousand feet higher. From Pamer, a chain of very lofty mountains,
the Itindoo-koh of theWestern Asiatics, extends in a S. W. direction, terminating with a lofty snow-capt
mountain, named Koh-i-Uiba, 48 miles W. of Cabul, and being connected with the Himalayas at the
valley of Punjsheer, N.E. of that city, forms the watershed between the basins of the Oxus and the
Indus. From the same part of I'anier, the BelCir is continued almost straight S. till it join the Hima-
layas, separating in its progress tlie hill country of Chitral from Little Thibet ; while a third branch
extends in an easterly direction, towards the chain of Kara-kurum, which, as already mentioned,
separates the basin of the Indus from that of the river of Yarkhand. It thus appears that the chains
of Hindoo-koh and Karakorum may either I.e considered as diverging ranges of the IJeliir-tagh, or as
constituent parts of the western prolongation of the Kwan-lun. Though their elevation has not been
ascertained by measurement, they appear to be much higher than the Himalayas, for they form a
complete watershed between India and Central Asia, while, on the contrary, the Himalayas are in-
terrupted and broken through in many jflaces by the streams which flow from the northern ranges
and the hiU country which lies between them.
The L'rals, or U kalian Mointai.ns, which belong in common to Europe and Asia, extend rom north
to south, through yO^ of longitude, from the Arctic Ocean to the Sea of Aral. Compared with the
preceding chains, the L'rals are very low in their general elevation, though some of them reach the
limit of perpetual snow, a circumstance which is not remarkable in their high latitude. Where the
road from Moscow to Siberia crosses these mountains, the chain is about 40 miles broad, but the
ascent and descent of the road are so nearly iniperceptit>le, that were it not for the precipitous banks
everywhere to be seen, the traveller would hardly suppose he was crossing a range of hills. The
average elevation of this part of the range seems not to exceed 13.iU feet, though some rocky masses
rise perhaps a thousand feet higher ; and the base upon wliieli tlic chain rests is itself IJOO feet above
the level of the sea. Beyond .'ji- 20' the chain presents several summits which attain between 2(KJ0
and 300(J feet ; but the highest part of the range is situate to th»^ north of 59^, and the highest of all,
the Vaiuihken-kamen, lies to the nortli of 60-. The summits of this northern part of the range have
been ascertained to ri.se to between 8(KX) and 9000 feet above the level of the sea; but the principal
summits are detached mountains, to the eastward of the main range. Lateral branches also extend
eastward to a considerable distance into the plain. The principal chain bears successively from north
to south the names of J'oyns, tlie yerkhiitt'tnan Urals, the L'rals of lekaterinburg, and the liashkirian
I'rais. Several low branclies diverge into the governments of Arkhangel and \ ologda ; but the prin-
cipal subordinate or diverging chains are connected with the Hashkirian Lrals. 'The mountaitis uj
(Ibtsheityrt, which diverge from the western slope of the principal chain, are really nothing more than
a long table-land of undulating hillocks extending into the government of Orenburg ; forming, how-
ever, the northern limit of the depression which surrounds and contains the Caspian Sea. The chain
of Moughojar extends into the country of the Kirghiz, and seems to be connected with the plateau
ca'led the Ust-Urt, l<etween the Caspian Sea and the Lake Aral. Subordinate to this last-named chain,
or part of the same group, are the Unat JIurzuuk, a chain of low hills, which extends in a series of
rocky cliffs along the northern shore of the Aral, spreading out towards the west, and turning into tho
isthmus ; and the Little ISitrzimk, which are situate a little tarther to the south-east, and terminato
with a promontory at the north-eastern corner of the Aral. The mnuntains ij' Naraia Zonlia may also
!>♦• considered as an orographic conneciion or prolongation of the Urals. Their principal summit is
Olassousky, about 1^000 leet above the kvel of the sea.
628 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Physical
The remaining mountains of Asia, those of the south-west, have lieen classed hy the Freneh ijeo-
graphers as one ({roup, whieli thoy eall the Wkstbhm or Tairo-Caocasi an Svsiem. The grand
nucleus, or centre of the system, is t'orined by the liigli table-land of Armenia, and the lofty moun-
tains which interi<ect and overtop it. From the stupendous peak named Mat-it by the Arnienians,
ylfiri-daeih by the Turks, and Ararat hy Kuropeans, two ranges diverge to tlie westward, forming
between them tlie long valley of the Murad or Kastern Euphrates. The southern ot thi'se are the
Masian Mountains C Muns Matins of antiquity), which are merely a prolongation of the Tannit, which
extends into Asia jlinor. The northern branch is named by tiie Turks Kut-dauh, Kiziljfh-dagli,
Aiihir-d'igh, and Alu-dagh ; by the Armenians Daffh-er-dagh, and Maris; and to tlie north of it are
fwo long narrow valleys drained by the Karasu and the Aras. Farther north tlie mountains of
Tschtldir and lanik separate the table-land of Armenia from the lowland on the Black Sea, and are
coimeettHi with Agri-dagh by irregular ranges and clusters of momitains, which separate Armenia
from Georgia and Azerbijan, under the names of Klardjethi, Taosi, Medin, and Sdorin Goct;as, ot
l.ouer Caucasus.
From Armenia three chains of mountains diverge towards the west, which may ho considered as
forming so many different groups. The tirst chain encloses the upper basiu of the F.uphiates, and
passing that river above Samosat, advances towards the west, under the names of Taurus, JebfU
Kurin, and many other designations, along the southern coast of Asia Minor, terminates in various
promontories and Islands in the south-western part of the peninsula. The mountains of Riiodes and
Cyprus may be considered as its dependenc'es. The second of the three chains proceeds also into Asia
Minor, to the northward of Taurus, and its eastern part corresponds with the Anti- Taurus of the an-
cients. Kxtending in different directions, and with many interruptions, it intersects all tlie interior of
Asia Minor, and is ultimately divided into numerous brandies, which terminate on the shores of the Ar-
chipelago. The third chain likeivise extends into Asia Minor, along the southern coast of the Black
Sea, at no great distance inland. Towards the south and south-east three other chains are detaclud
from the central nucleus, two of which, however, may be considered as merely branches of the Taurus,
while the third seems to be a prolongation of this chain itself. To the westward of the Euphrates,
Taurus sends off several branches southward, the most westerly of whicli reaches the sea, and separates
Syria from the ancient Cilicia. This is the Amanus and Pierius of the Latin geographers, but now
bears the name of Alma-dap;h. It terminates between tlie Gulf of Scanderoon and the mouth of the
Orontes ; but is only divided by the narrow channel of that river from the mountains ij' Sijria, which
may be considered as the prolongation of the branch of Taurus. Commencing with the lofty peak of
Jebel-el Akral ( Mont Castius) and Mount St. Simeoji, which connects them with Alma-dagh, the Syrian
mountains extend southward, nearly parallel with the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, under
the names of Jebel Akra, Jebel Cliaksinah, Jfbel Kra'id, the mountains of the Sozaries. Lebanon,
and many others. Lebanon forms two branches ; the western being the Libanus of tlie Latins, whicli
terminates on the coast near Sidon, while a branch extends southward through Jiidea, forming the
watershed between the basin of the Jordan and the Mediterranean Sea ; the eastern is the Anti-
Libanus, which extends under various names, and with several interuptions, into the deserts of Arabia,
beyond the Dead Sea. The second chain is detached in the eyalet of Diyarbekr, extends into Meso-
potamia, and terminates at the Euphrates in the mountaii>s of Sinjttr'; and seems to be the Munt
Masius of the Latins. The third chain, the most remarkable of the three for its elevation and its
length, is detached from Armenia, to the south of tlie Lake of Van, and under the names ot
A glin-daah, Elvend, mountains of Kurdistan, Louristan, Bukhtiari, Sec. extends far to the south-east,
forming the boundary between the plains of Assyria and Babylonia on the one side, and the lofty
table-land of Iran on the other. It seems to be finally lost in the deserts of Kennan. The northern
part of the chain seems to correspond with the ancient Niphates ; the southern prolongation with
the ancient Zagrus. Subordinate to this chain, and nearly parallel with it, is the long ridge of Jchr>i
Hamrin or the Hills of Hamerun, which cross the bed of the Tigris above the 35^ N. lat., and e.ttend
to the south-east, forming the northern border of the alluvial plains of Babylonia and Chaldsea. To
the east of Zagrus the numerous ridges, which form a sort of net-work over the surface of Persia,
may also be considered as dependancies of the Tauro-Caucasian system. From the east side of Ar-
menia a lofty chain is detached to the south-east, which, under "the name of Elburz, passes to the
south of the Caspian Sea, and terminates in Khorassan, though it may be considered as prolonged in
the mountains qf Nishabor, which rise In the same direction, after a little interruption, and are con-
nected with the great chain of the Himalayas. To the north of Armenia, a chain stretches through
the pashalics of Kars and Akhaltsike, in the latter of which it forms the southern boundary of Imeritia,
and then stretches in a north-easterly direction, and joins the Caucasus in Georgia, forming there
the watershed ;between the affluents of the river Kioni, which flows to the Black Sea, and the Kur,
which flows to the Caspian, The great range of Caucasus, which forms the northern part of tiie
Tauro-Caucasian system, extends along the north-eastern coast of the Black Sea, across the istlmuis,
and terminates in a series of low hills in the peninsular promontory of Abcheron, on the west side of
the Caspian Sea ; but covers with its branches the Daghestan or hill country, which extends to a con-
siderable distance to the northward of Abcheron. The length of the principal chain of Caucasus
exceeds 700 miles, while its breadth is only from 6) to 120. The loftiest summits are found near tlie
middle of the chain, and are covered with perpetual snow. The snow line along the chain varies
from 10,(X)0to 11,000 feet above the level of the sea. TiiQ mountains of the Crimea are an orographic
dependancy of Caucasus, in the line of which they lie, and from which they are separated only by
the Strait of Yenikaleh, and the alluvial delta of the river Kouban.
. TABLE OF THE ELEVATIONS OF THE PRINCIPAL SUMMITS OF THE TAURO-
CAUCASIAN SYSTEM.
1. Armenia AND Asia Minor, — Feet.
Agri-dagh, Macis, or Ararat, N. lat. 39° 35', E. long. 44' 12', First peak, . 17.i6.i
„ ., „ „ „ Second peak, . . 12.102
Sepan, or Supan-dagh, N. side of the Lake of Van, ..... 9 300
All Ghuz, N.W. of Erivan, in Russian Armenia, ...... 12.000?
|^^.'^5"'} In the Persian Province of Azerbijan, { •.•.'.• .'^•°^'.'"' 'siooT,?
Mountains of Akhaltsike, ......... 10,000
City of Erzroum, the capital of Turkish Armenia, . . • . ,6,114
„ Kharput, S.E. of Erzroum, ... ... 5,032
Crest, or medium elevation of Taurus,—
At Maden-goumish, ...... 6,053
„ Dawah-Boiui, ... . . 4,453
„ Khutel, ....... 3,379
„ Gul-dagh, ...... 4,808
„ Ayeli, ..... . 5,650
Arjish-dagh, in centre of .Asia-Minor, S. of Kaisariyeh, . . . 13,000
City of Sivas, in centre of Asia-Minor, ..... 3,S94
„ Kutahya, „ ...... 6,000
Geography.] ASIA, 629
Feet.
Hassan-dagh, S.W. of Kalsariyeh, In Asia-Minor, ... . 8,000?
Olympus, near Brusa, 8. of the Sea of Marmora, . . . . • 9,100
Ida, S.E. of the Dardanelles, ......... 6,435
2. I.N Syria, —
Jebe!-el Akral. or Mount Casslus, at the mouth of the Orontes, . . . 5,318
Summit of Lebanon, Jebel Sannin, N. of Baalbec, ..... 11,050?
Mount Tabor, 2,053?
Mount Carmel, 2,250 ?
3. Caucasus and Elbubz, —
Elbiirz, highest peak of Caucasus, 43=5' N. lat., 42° 50' E. long., . . . 17,796
Kasibec, 42= 40' N. lat., 44= 41' E. long. ....... 15,345
Pass of Uariel, leading from Vladi-Kaukas to Teflis, ..... 8.000
Tchatir-dagh. S.E. coast of the Crimea. ....... 5,110
The Peak of Demavend, in the range of Elbiirz, between Irak and Mazenderan, 52°
E. Long 14,700
Mountains of Karalini, between Armenia and Georgia, .... 6,000
The Mountains of Arabia, though they may also be considered as part of the Tauro- Caucasian
system, and are so classed by Baibi, yet seem to be really so little connected with it, that we shall
be justified in treating them as a separate group. We know, indt-ed, very little about them. Arabia
seems to be, like Persia, an immense table-land surrounded and intersected by mountains, but with
their elevation and direction we have little acquaintance. The best known ranges seem to be those
which extenii, at various distances, along the coasts of the Red Sea, the Arabian Sea, and the Gulf
of Oman, attaining an elevation between GOOO and 9000 feet, and forming the boundary of the table-
land of the interior.
The MocsTAiNS of Isdia are classed by Balbi as dependencies of what he calls the Altai-Hima-
layan system ; but thi-y are so completely separated from the Himalayas that neither geographically
nor orographically can we admit thi,' correctness of hi:, classification. The most northerly chain of
the Indian mountains, named Arninilli, extends about 3.^0 miles from N.E. to S.W., through Rajpoo-
tana, with an average elevation of about 3600 feet, and forms the western boundary of a hilly region
which sends its waters to the Ganges. The I'iiidhyia and Sautpoora moiintnins are two parallel ran-
gHS, which stretch from west to east, along the valley of the river Nerbudilah, and are connected at
their eastern extremity with a mountainuus region which occupies the central portion of India,
ami terminates, on the one side, at Kajmahal on ths Ganges, and on the other, near the sea-coasts
of Orissa. Their average elevation does not exceed that of the Aravulli. The Western Ghauts extend
in a continuous line along the south-western coast of India, from the valley of the river Tuptee to the
valley of Coimbatoor, where they are connected with the Nilfiherries, the loftiest mountains of the
Peninsula. Tiie Eastern Ghauts follow, in like manner, the line of the south-eastern coast of India,
but form a less continuous and less regular chain than those of the west. Both chains may be con-
sidered as prolonged by the hills which extend southward from the valley of Coimbatoor, and ter-
minate at Cape Comorin ; though it is rather with the eastern than witli the western Ghauts that the
latter seem to be connected. The Mountaiiu of Ceylmi form a detached group of great elevation in
the centre of the island. (See India and Ceylon )
The J APA.NEsE or Maritime Chain includes all the mountains which are found in that long chain
of islands which extends from Kamtschatka to the Channel of Formo^ia ; and should properly include
the mountains of Kamtschatka also. The two extremities of the chain, the mountains of Kamt-
schatka and Formosa, seem to be its loftiest portions; the whole chain is a series of volcanoes.
Table of the Elevations of the Japanese Chain.
Feet.
Klutchevskaia, orKlioutshevskvi, N. lat. 56= 8', . . . . . 16,512
Koriatskaia, ... 58= 11*', .... 11,215
Kronotskaia, . . . .54= 8', . . . . . 10,625
Shivelutsh, 8.E. peak, . . . 56= 40^', .... 10,.')91
N.W. peak, . . 56= 40' 8,716
Jupanovskaia, .... 53= 3.5i', .... 9,060
Avatchinskaia, or peak of Awatshka, 53=17, ..... 8.760
Tolbatschinsk, ... ..... 8,316
Villuchinskaia .... 52" 13J' ..... 0,750
All these are in Kamtschatka.
The peak of leso, ......... 7,680
Mountains of Formosa, probably ...... 12,000
Volcanoes. — Asia contains very few volcanoes in proportion to its vast extent. 1. The prin-
cipal are found in Kamtschatka, to the numl)er of five, of which the Ktioiitshenskoi or volcano of
Tiilhatsrhik, is the most formidable. Next to it are the Avatshn and Kamtshatskaia, l)esides which
there are eight smaller ones 2. The Djettki/et, in Indo-China, between Moyeip and Tavoy. 3. The
I'e-shan, Ith-shan of the Chinese, or Eshikbash of the Turks (goathead), on the northern slope of the
Teean-shan (42= 3')' N. lat., 80= E. long.), between Koutche, in Little Bukharia, and Koigos, on the
hanks of the Elee, and the Ilo-tcheou, upon its southern slope, not far from Turfan (42= 40' N. lat.,
!>0^ E. long.), are very remarkable as being the most distant volcanoes from the sea yet known. Ac-
cording to the reports of the Chinese, the Pe-shan, which they also name Ilo-shan and At:hi (fiery
mountain), sends forth fire and smoke without intermission. Of the present state, however, of the
mountain, we have no very certain information. It i-* not known whether the name Fih-s/ian implies
that its summit reaches the line of perpetual snow, or whether it merely denotes the glittering iiuo
of a peak covered with saline substances, pumice stone, and decompo.-^ed volcanic ashes. From Chi-
nese history it aiipear.s indisputab y to have been, in the first century of our era. a volcano in the
Btricte.it sense of the word, vomiting forth torrents of lava. At present, it would appear to be rather
a solfatara. For a long time it has erased to eject lava, hut it produces ainnioiiiacal salt in such
abundance that the inhabitants of the country often pay their tribute to the Kmperor in that commo-
dity. The mountain is full of caverns and crevices, which in spring, summer, and winter, are filled
with fire to such a degree that during the n'ght the surface appears to be illuminated with th(iu.«aii<iH
of lamps, and it is then unsafe for any person to approach it. It is only in winter, when the snow lias
extinguished the fire, that the s.il-annnoniac is gathered ; the salt is found in the form of st:iluctites.
which are detached with difficulty. To the eastward of I'e-shan, the whole northern slope of the
Teean-shan presents volcanic phenomena. Lava and pumice-stone are found there, and even eoii-
Bldcrable solfataras, which are called " fiery places." The solfatara of Unnntsi (46= N. lat., 84" E.
long.), 40 leagues westward of the meridian of Ilo-tchcou, at the foot of the Biiklnla-Ola. is fivo
Iea>;ue8 in circumference ; in winter it is not covered with snow, but is suppo9e<l to be full of ashes.
If a stono be thrown into it llames Issuo forth, as well as black smokw, which coiitiiiucit for some tinjo.
630 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Physical
npi>ears likt- a flaming torch. About 200 miles north of Uramtsi, in a plain adjoining the river Kho-
liak, which falls into tlie little lake Oarlai, there is a hill whose sides, though they do not smoke,
are very hot, and yield a considerable quantity of ammoniacal salt. Besides these four places
hitherto known. I'c-shan, Ko-chow, Urftmtsi. and Kobok, there is an insulated conical mountain,
Araltube, in the Ijike Ala-kQl. which has been in a st.ate of ignition in historical times. It is situate
in the volcanic territory of Hishbalikh to the W. of Kobok and to the N. of the Pe-shan, at the distance
of 00 leagues from each. We are tlius acquainted in tlie interior of Asia with a volcanic territory of
upwards of 2500 square leagues, distant 300 or 400 leagues from the sea, and occupying one-half of
the long valley between the Altai and the Teean-shan. The chief seat of volcanic action seems to be
In the Teean-shan ; on the north side of the Tarbagatai and the lake Darlai the action becomes
■weaker; on both sides of the Teean-slian violent earthquakes are felt, and between the lakes Bal-
kashi and Ala-kfil they are said to be very common. The city of Askii was entirely destroyed by one
in the beginning of the l>th century. The Caspian Sea likewise appears to be surrounded by -a
volcanic territory. On the east side there are hot springs at Soiissac, in the Karatau mountains,
near the city of Turkistan -, on the south and the west sides, two volcanoes are stOl in activity,
namely, Denuivend and Seihan-dttcrh, besides many others which are now quiescent. The chain of
Caucasus abounds with trachvtos, porphyries, and warm springs, and numerous mud volcanoes
appear on the Isthmus between the Rlack Sea and the Caspian. But it is in the islands that the vol-
canoes are moat formidable. A continuous line of volcanic action commences on the north with the
Aleutian Islands, and extends first eastward for 230 miles, and then southward without interruption
to the Moluccas, where it branches to the E. and N.W. The N. portion of this volcanic belt is the
long peninsula of Alashka in N. W. America, from which it extends through the Aleutian islands to
Kamtscliatka, in the S. part of which are a number of active volcanoes. The belt then forms a train
of volcanic mountains extending through the long line of the Kurile Isles, nine of which are known
to have been in eruption, besides Jeso and Niphon, where the burning vents are very numerous,
slight motions of earthquakes almost incessant, and violent shocks experienced at distant intervals.
Between the Japanese and the Philippine islands the communication is preserved by several small
insular vents. Sulphur Island, in the Loochoo cluster, emits sulphureous vapour ; and Formosa suf-
fers greatly from earthquakes ; in Luzon are three active volcanoes ; there was also an eruption in
Mindinao in 1764. The belt is then prolonged through Sanguir and the N.E. end of Celebes, by Ter-
iKite and Tidore, to the Moluccas, whence a great transverse line runs westward through Wetter
Ombay, Panter, Flores, Sumbawa. Lombok, B.ally, Java, and Sumatra, ending with Batmen Island, a
vfry active volcano in the Bay of Bengal. In Java alone there are 38 large volcanic mountains, many
of wliicli continually discharge smoke and vapour. The volcanic belt is prolonged in another direc-
tion throueh Borneo, Celebes, Banda, Papua, Now Britain, New Ireland, and various other islands
in the Pacific.
Deserts. — Asia presents a great number of deserts ana steppes, several of which are of immense
extent. With little exception, all the northern part of Asiatic Russia may be regarded as an immense
steppe, interspersed with marshes ; in the soutliern part of the same region are many smaller steppes
and salt pl.ains, among which may be mentioned the great steppe of the Kir/^kiz, N.E. of Lake Aral;
Ischim, between the Irtish and the Tobol ; and Baraba, between the Irtish and the Obi. But the
most remarkable deserts are those sandy plains that occupy the greater part of the south-west and
central regions of the continent, extending, with little interruption, from the shores of the Atlan-
tic Ocean to the north-east of China, through a space equal in length to 130 equatorial degrees of
longitude, or upwards of 9000 miles, more than a third part of the earth's circumference. This
tract does not indeed form one continuous desert ; for, besides the oases, or islands, with which it
is sprinkled, it is interrupted, in the eastern part of Africa, by the narrow valley through which the
river Nile conveys its tropica! waters to the Mediterranean Sea. A little farther east it is nearly in-
tersected by the Red Sea, which leaves only the narrow isthmus of Suez to connect the deserts of
Africa and Asia. To the east of Arabia, it is again interrupted to a considerable extent by the Per-
sian Gulf and the plains watered by the rivers Euphrates and Tigris. To the east of Persia, the river
Indus separates the deserts of Beloochistan from the desert in the N.W. of Hindostan, while the gi-
gantic mountain chains of Himalaya, Hindoo-koh, and Kwan-lun form a complete separation between
the deserts of Persia and India, and those which occupy the interior of Asia. On the east of the Red
Sea, this desert occupies nearly the whole peninsula of Arabia to the extent of more than 1000 miles
in length, and from 700 to 900 in breadth, exhibiting everywhere the same character as the African
Sahara. The deserts of Persia are nowhere so extensive as those of Arabia, their continuity being
more interrupted by ranges of mountains and well watered fertile valleys, which form the inhabited
portions of the country. The deserts of the interior bear the names of Cobi or Gobi, Shamo, and
Tola, but are very little known to Europeans. Gobi, in the Mongol language, means a naked detert,
and is equivalent to the Shamo or Ilanhai of the Chinese. They extend almost continuously about
•iOOO miles in length, with a breadth of from 200 to 300. Marco Paolo says, that it takes a month's jour-
ney to cross the desert from N. to S., but to go through it lengthways would occupy a whole year.
The journey, he says, is entirely through sands and barren mountains, in which water is found every
day ; yet at some of the resting places it is so scanty as scarcely to suffice for a caravan of 50 or 100
persons with their cattle. In three or four places the water is salt and bitter, but in general it is very
good. In the whole journey across the desert no beasts or birds were to be seen, and it was reported
that many evil spirits resided there, and occasioned wonderful illusions to travellers. The eastern
part of the desert was crossed by Mr. BeU of Antermony, in 1720, in the train of a Russian embassy.
He was twenty-eight days in passing from the river Tula, on its northern border, to the first culti-
vated land on the south side, where he found to his great satisfaction a small brook of fresh water,
and some Mongolian huts. The desert exhibited everywhere a level surface, mostly overgrown with
rank grass, and occasionally interrupted by patches of sand and gravel ; but in the middle there was
a belt of sand 20 miles across, so loose as to be blown about, and raised into hillocks by every blast of
wind. During a later Russian embassy, in 1830, a series of heights was ascertained across this part
of the desert, from Kiakhta to Pekin, and it was found that the pass leading over the mountain chain,
to the south of Urga, and to the north of the river Tula, is only 5000 feet above the level of the sea ;
and that on the southern border of the desert, not far north of Pekin, the highest passes through the
mountains which are traversed by the great wall rise only to 5525 feet. Between Urga and the great
wall lies the desert, which, however, is not a perfectly level plain, but sinks towards the middle,
where it is about 3000, and in some places only 2600 feet above the level of the sea, and forms a long
flat valley, which is the proper desert, extending east and west. Its surface is covered with sand,
abounds in salt, and exhibits everywhere the traces of its having once been the bed of a sea. Farther
west, towards Kami, the country appears to rise considerably; but beyond this it would appear to be
furrowed again by the valley of the large river Yarim, which forms the drain of the hill countries
of Kashgar and Yarkhand, or Little Bukharia, and terminates in the Lake of Lop". In Western
Asia, the Deserts of Turkestan occupy the greater part of the surface of that country, the only culti-
vaiiie portions of it, below the mountains, being the narrow strips of land along tlie rivers, within
Geography.] ASIA. 631
reach of irrigation by their waters. The northern parts form steppes, which afford pasturage to the
herds and flocks of the wandering Kirghiz ; in tlie central region, along the Aral, are the two ex-
tensive sandy deserts of AVra-iowm (black sand) and Kizil-k-oum {red. sand); and, in the southern
region, the wide-spread deserts of Turcomania, extending from the Caspian Sea, along the northern
frontier of Khorassan.
Plaixs, Valleys, and Table-lands. — On the northern side of the Altai range, and indeed over
the whole of the northern part of Europe and Asia, the elevation of the ground is very inconsiderable.
From the plains of Brabant, it is possible to travel eastward to the Steppes which border the western
declivity of the Altai, and Chinese Zoungaria, from the Scheldt to the lenisei, over 80 degrees of lon-
gitude, without meeting with a single elevation exceeding 1200, or 1300 feet ; and even on the south
siiie of the Altai, along the banks of the Upper Irtish, and the borders of Lake Zuisang. and through
a great part of the steppe of the Kirghiz, the elevation has been found, bv barometrical measurement,
scarcely to exceed 1900 feet above the level of the sea. Of the countries lying farther south, between
the Altai and the Himalayas, we have a very imperfect knowledge ; but it is worthy of remark, that
the countries situate between the Kwan-lun and the Teean-shan, have a general inclination from
west to east ; while the valley of Zoungaria, between the Teean-shan and the Altai, is inclined to the
west ; being closed on the east, beyond the meridian of Pekin, by the Khingkhanula, a mountainous
crest, which runs S.S.W. and N.N.E., while to the west it is entirely open, on the side of the Tchoui,
the Sarasou, and the lower Silioon. It is quite otherwise with the country l)etween the Himalayas
and the Kwan-lun, which is closed to the west by the Bulyt-tagh, which separates Little from Great
Bukharia, and from Cashgar, Badakshan, and the Upper Jihoon or Amoodaria. The whole region,
indeed, between the parallels of 30^ and 50-* N. lat., and between the meridians of the Bolor range and
Lake Baikal, contains a vast extent of country, whose elevation probably does not exceed that of the
plains of Bavaria, Spain, and Mysore* There is, moreover, every reason to suppose, that plains of
tlie same order of elevation as those of Quito and Titicaca, occur only in t he bifurcation formed by the
junction of the Himalayas and the Kwan-lun, in the group of mountains surrounding lake Hoho-nor,
and in Gobi, to the north-west of the In-slian. But in the south-western portion of the continent there
is a series of elevated table-lands, which form a characteristic feature, almost peculiar to Asia. The
interior of the peninsular region, which extends from the Archipelago to the Caspian Sea, is occupied
throughout nearly its whole length by the high regions of Phrygia and Armenia, which are not in-
deed exactly a table-land, but consist ratlier of a series of valleys and plains, of various degrees of
elevation, from about 2000 to GOOO feet above the level of the sea. The elevation of the plain of Kutahya
is COOO fei t ; of Sivas 3894 ; and of Erzroum, the capital of Turkish Armenia, Gl 14. The peninsula of
Arabia is in like manner almost entirely occupied by table-lauds, which, in the noi'thern district, slope
towards the Persian Gulf and the Euphrates ; but their elevation is unknown, though, from the
height of the bordering mountains, it may be conjectured to be between 3000 and 4000 feet. The in-
terior of Persia is also occupied by a table-land, intersected by a network of mountains, and leaving
only a very narrow border of lowland along the Persian Gulf, the Indian Ocean, and the Caspian
Sea. The elevation generally exceeds 3000 feet, though at Koom it is so low as 204G. The city of
Ispahan is situate in a valley 4140 feet, and Tehran in a plain 378G feet above the level of the sea.
India likewise contains several detached table-lands. The table-land of Taxila, which occupies the
northern half of the Punjaub, has a considerable elevation ; the table-land of Malwah, or Central India,
supported on the south and west by the Vindhya and AravuUi mountains, has an elevation of about
2000 feet, but slopes north-eastward to the Jumna ; the table-land of the Deccan, supported on the
west by the 'Western Ghauts, has an elevation of iibout 2000 feet, but slopes considerably to the cast-
ward, in which direction all its waters flow ; the table-land of Mysore, in southern India, lying in the
angle formed by the meeting of the Eastern and the Western Ghauts, has an elevation exceeding 3000
feet, but is of no very great importance.
But the most singular feature in the form.ition of the Asiatic continent is the depression of con-
siderable portions of its surface below the general level ^ tiie ocean. The Caspian Sea, and a con-
siderable tract of country around it, have been found, by levelling across the isthmus, to be 18-30
metres or GO English ftict lower than the surface of the Black Sea. The depression of the Dead Sea,
in Palestine, and the basin of the river Jordan, has been found to be still greater. This was first
indicated by the barometer and the boiling of water ; but, these having given very discrepant
results. Lieutenant Symon'ls, R. E., in 1811, carried a line of levels across from Jaffa to the Dead
Sea, and ascertained the depression of the latter to bo 1311.9, and that of the lake of Tabariah, 32S
feet, below the level of tlte Mediterranean, shewing an inclination of nearly 1000 feet between
that lake and the Dead Sea, in a distance of about seventy miles. North-east-of the Caspian and
the Aral commences a very remarkable region of small lakes, comprising the groups of Balek-koul,
and Koum-koul, which seems to indicate, at some remote era, the existence of a great mass of water
in the interior of Siberia, communicating with the lakes Aksakal and Aral. It extends to the north-
east, between the rivers Tobol and Isclnm, and may be traced eastward beyond Omsk, through the
stejipe of Baraba, to Sourgout beyond the Obi, through the country of the Ostiaks of Beresov, and
even to the marshy .shores of the Arctic Ocean. The geological appearances of this tract render it
probable that, formerly, it was entirely covered with a mass of water, of which the Caspian and the
Aral are the most considerable remaining portions. The Chinese also have a tradition of the exis-
t( MIC of a salt lake in the interior of Siberia, which traversed the com so of the river lenisei; and
the salt plain which surrounds the oasis of Uanii is expressively called by them the Dried-up Sia
(Han-hai.)
Skas, Bats, Gulfs. — 1. In the Arctic Ocean : GuJfof lenisri and Gulf of Obi, respectively the es-
tuaries of these two great rivers. 2. In the Indian Ocean: the Hid Si'ii. Gidfnf /Irabia, Gulf of Oman,
I'irsiiin Gitif, Arnbinn Sea, Hay nf I'eiiit'il, Gulf nf Miirtaban. 3. In the Pacific Ocean: Chinese Sea,
Gulf of Slum, Gulf of To^iquin, Yellow Hea, Sea of Japan, Sea (if Okhotik, G ulf of Anadir ,
f^iKMTR. — SIrait of nabelmaiidil, which connects the Red Sea with the Gulf of Arabia ; Strait qf
Mal'iria, between Malaya and Sumatra ; Channel of Formosa at the south, and Strait of Formosa along
the west sid.j of the island of the .sanie name; Uhering's or Behring's Strait, at the north-eastern
cxtreniity of Asia, separating it from America.
RivKKS. — Asia contains some of the largest rivers in the world. They may be arranged in five
classes, according as they flow into tlie soas and oceans which .surround tlie continent, or into inland
lakes. 1. The /r/iiV/, with its affluents the three T<inguskas ; tlie Obi, with its nllluenfs tiie Irtish,
hrhim, and Tobol ; the Olinits ; the I.tna ; the Indiuirka ; and the Kolima ; all flow to the A rctic
Oci an. 2. The Itioni, and Kizil- Irmak, fall into the lUack Sea ; the Sarnbat and Meinder. info the
Archipelago; the Aazi or Onmtis, into the Levant. 3. The Fiiphrates a.ni\ Tigris, Indus, Ganges,
Jlrahmapootra, Irauadi/, Salum or Thaluen, fall into the Indian Ocean. 4. The ileinam, Mayknang
fall into the Chinese Sea; the Yang-tse-kiang, lloang or H'hang-ho, and /Ivwur or Saghalien, into
ffet (U'«G toi.se!t
of Bavaria an IGCO , of Spain, 2240 ; of .Mysore, 3U0O ; Quito, 9000 ; and Titicaca, 13,000
SI abo\t tlic level ol tlie sea.
632 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Phtsical
the Pacific. 8. The I'ral or laik, Kur and Arm, Kizil«zen, to the Caspian ; Jmll or Oivjt. and ftihnon
or Jaitirtes, fall into the Sea of Aral ; the i'hufe or Trhuui, from the lake Hi or Ele, into lake lial-
kash ; the rivers of Yarklumd and Cathgar, into the lake Lop ; or, perhaps, as it is alleged, into tlia
Whang-ho.
Lakes. — Asia contains the largest lake in the world, which, fVom its size and its saltncss, hag
been dignified with the name of Sea. The Caspian Sea is situate in the western part of the conti-
nent, between 36'^' 3.5' and 47° 25' N. lat., and 16^ 1.5' and ,55° 10' E. long. Its greatest length along the
meridian is about 'GO miles, but measured in a curve line along the middle of its breadth, from its
north-oastern extremity to the coast of Mazenderan, it exceeds 900 ; with an average breadth of 200.
Its area is computed l)y Arrowsmith to be lln,(XK) square geographical miles, or nearly 1(10,000 square
Fnjrlish miles. The Caspian is bordered on the north and north-west by the Russian empire ; on tho
south and south-west by Persia ; and on the east by Turkestan. The co.ist-line is irregular ; but tho
only considerable bays are, the Gulf of Mertovi or Dead Gulf, in the north-east, and the lialkan in
tho east coast. The south and south-west coasts are closely hemmed in by lofty mountains, which in
s inu' I'laces leave a narrow intervening strip of lowland, and in others, particularly on the west coast,
exhibit a precipitous rocky shore. On the north-west and north it is bordered by the low steipes of
Astrakhan ; and on the oast by the saudy d'.>?erts of Turkestan, which present a series of high clifi's
and sand-hills approaching close to the shore. Its depth is very variable. Along the north coast tlie
water is very sh^iUow for 20 miles from the land ; along the cast, west, and south shores, the depth is
sometimes I'so feet ; and at one place near the middle no bottom has been found at 2800 feet. In seve-
ral pl.iccs the bottom seems to descend by terraces. The water is less salt than that of the ocean, and
particularly near the mouths of the rivers, but is somewhat more bitter. Its level has been found, by
levelling ac"oss tho isthmus, to be about 81 feet below that of the Hlack Sea ; but the north and south
winds exercise a powerful influence in varying the level of the water at its opposite ends. Hence its
variations have a range of from four to eight feet, and strong currents are generated both with the
ri.sing and the falling of the wind. Some difference is also occasioned by the snow melting in sum-
mer ; and the lake is said to be subject to periodical variations of an anomalous kind ; increasing and
decreasing in its bulk through periods of about 30 years. The islands which it contains are few and
unimportant ; aud, for the most part, those which are elevated are without water and vegetation. The
low islands are often mere sand-banks, overgrown with reeds. There are few deep and secure har-
bours; and, as the winds are liable to sudden changes, the navigation is rather dangerous ; Baku is
indeed the only harbour in which a vessel can ride witii safety in stormy wtather. The rivers whicd
How into it are the Volga or Wolga, the great drain of the south-eastern declivity of Kuss a; the
Kouiiia, the Terek, the Kur, and the Aras, all from the declivities of Caucasus ; the Kizilozen, and
ma::y others, from Persia; and the Ural, from the southern parts of the Ural mountains. The cli-
mate is less temperate than might be expected from the latitude ; its northern gulfs are frozen in
winter, and the ice at the mouth of the Volga does not break up till April. In the south, however,
the summers are very hot atid humid, and in consequence unhealthy, thou;:h productive of the most
luxuriant vigetation in Mazenderan. The shores of the Caspian are frequented by multitudes of
aquatic birds, as storks, herons, bitterns, spoonbills, geese, and ducks ; and the waters abound with
fi;-h. The sturgeon is the principal object in the fisheries ; but for delicate eating, the sterlet is pre-
ferred. There is also the beluga Cai'cipeiiser huso), which attains such an enormous size, that one is
a heavy load for three horses. The Ciispiaii»likewise contains a species of sea!, porpoises, salmon,
and a kind of herring ; indeed it has been remarked that it contains all the varieties of sea animals
which are found in the Black Sea, except those which arrive in the latter pcriodicaliy from the ocean
for the purpose of spawning. The species of shells and sea plants are not numerous.
The Sea or Lake of Aral, to the eastward of the Caspian, is nearly a fourth part of its size ; and,
further east, are many smaller lakes of the same character, which receive rivtr..,, but have no outlet.
The principal of these are the Biilkashi-7ioor or lake Teng/iiz, the AUik tmc-eul, the K/iassel-Ziash,
the Ulisa, the Aral-nuor, the lakes Bustfug and Lob, the Tengri-noor and Buuka-tioor, all in Central
Asia; and the Fan'j.kung in Thibet ; towards the west are several of the same kind which are much
better known, as the lakes of Urumiak and Van i:i Armenia ; the great salt lake of Koch- HUsar in
Asia-Minor ; and the Bead Sea in Palestine. All these lakes, or seas, as they are sometimes called,
are salt ; the waters of some of them are intensely so, and even bitter. Ot fiesliwater lakes, witli
outlets, the principal are : the Baikal, in Eastern Siberia ; Zaisang, formed by the Irtish ; the Lake
uf Erivan, in Armenia; the Lake of Tiberias or Sea of Galilee, in Palestine ; the Fo-yang, aud Tojig-
ting, in China; the Rhauanrhad, Manasarouara, and Faltee, in 'Ihibet.
Islands. —The numerous islands of the Archipelago ; Cyprus in the Levant ; Ceylon, Andaman,
and the Sicnbar islands, in the Bay of Bengal ; Hainan, and Formosa, in the Sea of China ; the :*<aji-
cusinui, Loo-chno, Japan, and Kurile islands in the Pacific Oc( an. To the south-east of Asia, between
the Indian and the Pacific Oceans, is a multitudinous group of islands, which have usually been con-
sidered as belonging to Asia ; but they have now b- en formed, along with the islands of the Pacific
Ocean, into a new division of the globe, named Oceania or Ocf.anici ; and, though this clas.^ifica-
tion is far from being unobjectionable, yet, as it has been adopted by most modern geographers, and
has cumeinto popular use, we shall adhere to it; the more particularly on this account, that if any of
thiise islands are ascribed to Asia, it is difiicult to draw a line of distinction between them and those
whose inhabitants are fairly beyond the pale of Asiatic character anu manners.
Climate. —Nearly all the circumstances which unite in giving a mild climate to Europe, are re-
versed in the case of Asia. Its northern boundary extends beyond the parallel of 70-, and between tho
mouths of the lonisei and the Lena, reaches even to 75^ ; it everywhere attains the winter limit of
the polar ioe, and during the short summer of these high latitudes, there is onlv a narrow belt of
water between the ice and the land. The north winds, unobstructed by mountains, blow over a plain of
ice, and their cooling influence is not counterbalanced by hot deserts of sand in the southern portion
ol the continent ; there being no land under the equator, opposite the length of Asia, except the nar-
row strips of Sumatra, Burnoo, Celebes, and Gilolo. Consequentlv, the Asiatic countries situate in
tiip temperate zone, are not warmed by ascending currents of heated air, similar to those which riso
iroin the deserts of Africa, aud exert so beneficial an influence on the climate of Europe. The posi-
V.""."f J''"^' ^"^"1 mountain chains, and the general elevation of the country, likewise contribute to
(iiminish the temperature; the iiimalayas and Kwan-lun presenting an etteetual barrier to the waruj
u:nds in their progress from tiie equator, while the high plains and groups of mountains, which oc-
cupy the cjiitre of the continent, retain the snow till late in the summer, and produce descending
currents of an- which lower the temperature of the surroimding countries. There is, moreover, no
term, a climate in which the temperatures of summer and winter differ greatlv from the mean tem-
perature ot the year, or, in plainer language, where the winter is excessively "cold, and the summer
exctssi\ely hot. In Europe, on the contrary, there is less ditference between the temperatures of
sumnier and winter, and both approach nearer the mean temperature ot tl.e year.
GeographV.] ASIA. 633
The height of the snow-line on the mountains of Asia has hitherto been very Imperfectly de-
termined ; but in a general view, it may be regarded as much greater than in Europe, or even in
America, under the same parallel. It appears, from the Report of Messrs. Lenz and Kupfer to the
Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg in 1829, that the limit of perpetual snow on Mount Elburz is
11,000 English feet, while on the Pyrenees, under the same latitude, it is, according to Kamond, at the
height of only S6'M feet. The great intluence of local circumstances on the position of the snow-line,
is strikingly exemplitied in the case of the Himalayas. On the south side of these mountains, under
the parallel of 30^ or SP, the snow line is estimated at 12,4(X) feet; while on the north side, towards
Thibet, snwT.- disappears in summer at the enormous height of more than 20,000 feet. This remark-
able difference is ascribed by Humboldt to the powerful radiation which takes place in summer from
the hife'h plains of Thibet, to the small quantity of snow which falls in winter, when the temperature
sinks below 10-" of Fahrenheit, and to the serenity and clearness vt the atmosphere on the northern
title of the mountain chain ; circumstances which, at the same time, increase the radiation from tiie
plaing, and facilitate the transmission of the heat to the higher regions.
The effect of the very diversified local circumstances of the Asiatic continent, an example of which
we have just now given, is such, that its physical climates, generally speaking, seldom correspond to
the astronomical climates.
Mi.\ERAi,s. — There is no precious or useful mineral which is not found in this immense continent.
The following table exhibits the countries wliich are most distinguished for their uiiutral wealth.
Mineralofjical Table of Asia.
Diamonds : — India, kingdom of the Nizam, Baladghaut region, Bundelcund, Sumbhulvour, Gun-
dur, Ceylon; Asiatic Russia, Perm and Orenburg.
Other Pueciols Sto.nes : — Binnah ; Statu; India; Asiatic Russia, Perm, Orenburg, Tomsk,
Irkutsk, &c.; Chinese empire, China, &c. ; Ptrj-ia, Khorassan, &c. ; Indepejulent Turkestan, ]ia,ila.k'
ghan.
Gold : — Japan, Niphon, Sado, &c. ; Chinese empire, Thibet, Yunnan, &c., country of the Lolos,
Hainan ; Asiatic Rusna, Perm, Orenburg, Tomsk, &c. ; Biimah ; Annam, Tonkin, Cochin China, &c. ;
Siam ; MaUiya ; Assam, &c.
Silver: — China; Russia, Tomsk, Irkutsk, ^c; Japan, Bungo ; Ottoman empire, Armenia, Asia
Minor.
Tin : — Birmah ; Siam ; Malaya, Ligor, Queda, Selenga, &c. ; China ; Annam.
Merci'ky : — China; Thibet; Japan; India; Cfylon.
C'opi'EK : — Japan, Sviurounga, Atsiugo, Kuno-kuoni, &c ; Russia, Perm, Orenburg, Tomsk,
Georgia, &c. ; Uttum in empire, Asia Minor, Armenia; Chinese empire, Yunnan, Kouei-cheou, Thi-
bet; Anjiam ; India; Nepaul, Agra, Ajimere, JSellore, &c. ; fersia, AzeTh\ia.n.
litoN -.— Russia, Perm, Orenburg, Tomsk, Irkutsk ; India, Casliinere, Nepaul, Bengal, Bahar, Oude,
Agra, Bt-rar, Nellore ; thina, Shensi, Thibet, Bootau ; Siam; Annam, Tonkin, &c. ; Ottomait empire,
Diyarbekr; Aff^hanistan ; Seik territory, Vesha.v,ev ; Persia, Fam ; Japa7i.
Lead: — China; Russia, Irkutsk, Tomsk, Georgia; Siam; Japan, Jeso; Persia, Fars ; Arabia,
Muscat ; Uttuman empire, Asia Minor, Armenia.
Coal: — Chinese enipire, the northern provinces of China; Ottoman empire, Syria, near Beyroot,
&c. ; India. Bengal, Cutch, Valley of the Nerbuddah, &c.
Salt : — Chinese empire, Pe-che-le, and other provinces of China proper ; India, Giijerat, Ajimere,
Bengal, Lahore, Allaliabad, Agra, Oiissa, Coromaiidel, Arracaii, Cejlon, &c. ; Russia, Ste.ipe at
Ischiiii, Baraba, &c., lakes of Koriakov, not far from the Irtish, lake Inder, &c., Shirwan, Armenia,
(ic. ; I'ersia; Arabia, Yeman; Ottoman emjiire, Anatolia, Cyprus, &c.
Vegetation. — The vegetation is extremely rich and various. All the natural families of plants
anpear to have reiireseiitatives in Asia, for the vast extent of the continent includes climates of
til.- most opposite character. From the lowly vegetation which composes the Arctic flora, to tlie
gigantic trees and generally lu.xuriant vegetation of tlie Indian regions, we find in Asia every ii.ter-
iiiediato kind. Sometimes the extremes api)ear to exist even in the-same country ; for example,
whire the Himalayas present an Arctic vegetation in their higher regions, while, not far below, tlie
ve 'etation of warm climates is found in full luxuriance. But most of the countries of Asia havo
a honiKgeneuus and characteristic vegetation of their own. To attempt, however, to i.articularise
them, would be an idle work ; the bare enumeration of them might fill our volume, but would contri-
bute little to the edification of our readers. We .shall, therefore, confine our notice here to a few
plants of the highest value, not only in the countries wliich produce them, but in the most distant
regions of the eaith.
iif all the productions of the vegetable kingdom, that which has been the greatest favourite with
man in every age, is the vine ; the juice of which is a bevi rage sought after in every country which
civilization has reached. It is not, however, a very general production ot the earth ; the cultivation
of it is confined to narrow liioits, for excess of heat seems as unfavourable to its growth as too much
cold. Its southern limit is where the mean temperature of the climate is between 09-^ 8' and 71"^ C
Fahrenheit ; and its northern limit, 47i or48-\ where the temperature of the coldest month does not
fall below .^-l-. It is only within the middle regions of the temijerate zone that the vine comes to per-
ftctioii, but within those limits it is found throughout western Asia. The finest grapes are produced
in .\sia Minor, Syria, and Palestine ; but the vine is still found in its wild and native state in tho
forests of the ancient Colchis (at the eastern end of the Black Sea), climbing to the tops of tho loftiest
trees. Farther east the grapes and the wines of Sliiraz and Mazanderan enjoy the highest repute in
Persia. Vines are also found native along the upper banks of the Oxus, in Kashgar to the east of the
Belur, in Kunawar, the ISritish portion of Little Thibet, and also in Malwah or Central India. They
are also cultivated in the gardens of H'lassa in Great Thibet ; and, in China, on the shores of tho
Eastern Ocean, the vine is as plentiful, and the luxury of wino-drinking is as highly appreciated as
in Europe. In Francs Germany, and Hungary, the vine is the produce of art; farther south, and in
the regions emphatically called the Kast, the vines are to be seen in their full native luxuriance, as
delightful to the eye, as their produce is grateful to the palate. In all ages the vine has been a favourite
theme with the poets of the East. 'Ihe wine-bibbing Anacreon is notorious, and llafiz, the national
lyric poet of Persia, avows himself a most devoted admirer of this glorious beverage ; and, indeed,
the ttiiie of Shiraz, the place of his birth and of his burial, is so highly esteemed, that the Prrsians
say, that if Mohammed (who forbade the use of wine to his discii>les) had tasted the pleasures of
Sliiraz, he would have prayed God to make him immortal there.
Next in repute to the vine is the olive, which is likewise confined to temperate climates, and is indi-
genous to Syria, along the eastern shores of the Black Sea, and at Tukht-i-SuIeiman, near Ihe Indus.
The cultivated oli» e is easily reared in all parts along the shores of the Levant which are free from tho
visitation of frosty winds. It produces a very fine oil, which is in general use in all the countries
where it is grown, and the history of the tree appears to be as old as the human race ; for it was the
leaf of an olive tree plu'>Ktd off that Noah's dove brought to him in the ark.
Tea, which atli rds a wholesome and exhilarating beverage to all Ihe nations of the eastern, centraJ,
livA northern rejjions of .Sa.a, and has become a necessary of life in Drituin. is jiroihictd abundant)/
G34 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Physical
in the southern provinces of China; the best is grown upon the hills of the province of Foki-en. It
has also been lately discovered to be indigenous in Assam, within the limits of the Hritish territories,
and has been found to be perfectly adapted to the soil and climate of the Nilgherries in Southern
Rico Is a necessary, and indeed the very staff of life, to the Hindoos, Indo-Chinese, and Chinese, who
value it so highly, that they pity the Europeans for having no rice at home, and wonder how they can
exist without it." It is produced abundantly in the well- watered plains of those countries, and requires
great heat as well as abundant moisture to bring it to perfection. The same character is enjoyed by
the date-tree in Arabia, and the neighbouring hot and sandy countries of the south-west. Its fruit
there forms a principal article of food ; and the simple pi>ople wonder how Europeans contrive to live
without it. lUit for more detailed accounts of these and of the other vcgetnble productions of Asia,
we refer to our special descriptions of the countries into which the continent is divided.
Animals.— The mountains of Asia divide the continent into three zones, and this geological cha-
racter of the country alTects the distribution of the animals. In the central zone, which is composed
of high mountains, or extensive sandy plains, we find, the Bactrian, or double-humped camel, the
titrpan, or wild horse, the Jasr/iat/ti, another species of horse so fleet, that the Mongols designate them
the coursers of the sun ; several kinds of horse-tailed beeves, whose flowing tails are the ensigns of
inilitarv rank throughout all th;; east ; at least two sjiccies of antelopes, the zeien or yellow buck,
which is as fleet as the jaghatai, and the saiga, which is almost blind. Panthers are found in the
western regions ; and also a singular species of cat, the maim/, the original of the Angora cats. The
Indian tiger has been seen in Siberia, even as far north as the head of the Obi ; it is still common in
Mazanderan and Azerbijan ; and appears to range northward to the borders of the Keroulun and
Orciion in tl>e country of the Khalkas, and as far as the Altai. Tigers likewise abound in China,
and those which appear occasionally in Siberia, are natives of Jlongolia, where they are hunted every
year by the Emperor of China. Troops of several species of do^s, jackals, and wolves, prey upon tlie
antelopes, asses, and wild horses. All the mountains are inhabited by the musk animal ; the Altai
by the argali or Siberian rock sheep ; the southern mountains by the egagre or wild goat ; C:iucasug
by the egagre and the chamois. The western prolongation of this zone, which extends through
Persia and Arabia, Is overrun by antelopes and gazelles ; lions, panthers, caracals, and other sorts of
cats, jackals, and monkeys. Tiie mountains and table-lands produce also the onager, or wild ass,
the original of those beautiful- and fleet asses so much esteemed in tlie east. The single-humped
or proper camel, is tlie aboriginal native of Arabia only, but is found also wherever the Arabs have
settled.
In the northern zone, the river-banks, and the vast forests of Siberia harbour innumerable troops
of rein-deer, elks, brown, blue, and lilack foxes, bears, gluttons, and several species of martins and
sipiirrels. Alonj; the shores of the Arctic Ocean the great polar bear preys on every living creature.
In the waters of the oce:in are found seals and various kinds cf cetacea. The lake Haibal, in spite of
its fiesh water, and its great distance from the sea, has also, like the Caspian, its particular species
of seals.
In the southern zone every region teems with life. In India are several species of antelopes and
deer, which were till within these few years unknown in l^urope. In Thibet are swarms of blue an-
telopes whose horns, which fall annually, have more than once reminded English authors of the fa-
bulous unicorn. There is also found the Ckitkar». with four horns. In Bengal are the charming
white spotted axis ; in the forest-- of Oris-a is found the jungle-cow, the wild original of the domestic
beeves of India. In India there are few lions ; V.ut numerous fierce tigers ravage this, and the warm
countries further east and south. Over the same regions is spread the black-skinned, half naked
buttalo, with horns turned back, both wild and tame, delighting in the mnddy banks of the seas,
lakes, and rivers. Hetween the Ganges and the Indus the forests abound with squirrels, peacocks,
pheasants, and jungle-cocks. Several species of bears, one of which was for a long time considered
to be a sloth, inhabit the forests among tlie Ghauts. The elephant and the one-horned rhinoceros live
in the forests, but it is in the countries S.E. of India that these animals attain their largest size.
There also are found the two-coloured tapir, which ranges from Malacca to the southern provinces
of China; ourangs, gibf'ims. and various other kiiids of monkeys. In the Gauges alone 250 kinds of
fish have been described by Buchanan, which furnish abundant food for the alligators with which its
waters abound.
The birds are various in every zone, and adorned with rich plumage. Gigantic vultures tyrannize
over the banks of the Indus, wh.ere are likewise found great numbers of eagles, falcons, buzzards, and
screech-owls. Swarms of parroquuts, of every variety of colour, inhabit the continent and the neigh-
bouring islands.
Of domestic animals the elephant claims the pre-eminence, but is confined chiefly to the lowlands
of India, Birmali, and Siam, being seldom seen in the mountainous region to the north. The camel is
found over a far wider extent of country ; it consists of two species, tlie one with two humps, the
other with only one. The former, usually called the Bactrian camel, is comparatively rare, and
seems to be indigenous to the great deserts of north-eastern Asia, and the table-land of Pamer, being
only to bo found in the south-west when taken thither by travellers. The one-humped species,
usually misnamed the dromedary, is, on the contrary, the real camel, and is spread over Arabia,
Persia, western India, and northern Africa, where it is the common beast of burden. The drome-
dary, projK'rly so called, or racing camel, is only a variety of this latter species, is generally of a lighter
form, and better adapted for rapid travelling or flight. The other domestic animals of southern and
western Asia, are horses, mules, asses, bufialoes, beeves, sheep, and goats; of the central and eastern
regions, chiefly horses, cattle, and sheep ; the yak of Thibet and Pamer, and the bushy-tailed bull of
Thibet seem to supply the place of the camel an.ong the mountains, where they are used as beasts
of burden. In the rigorous climates farther north, where tlie cattle become stunted in size, and can
scarcely subsist, their place is supplied by the rein deer, which furnishes the people both with food,
and with the means of transport Dui ing part of the year they subsist upon its flesh and milk ; its
skin furnishes them with tlie principal part of t; eir dress, and its horns with various utensils. In
Kamtschatka, and the other north-eastern regions, dogs are trained to draw sledges in winter over
the frozen snow.
The southern countries of Asia profiuce reptiles, many of which are armed with the most fatal
poisons ; they are all hideous to the sight, and some of tl'.om are of pro ::igioi!S size and muscular
strength ; bi.t they are scare ly found beyond the Altai. All sorts of insects, as musquitoes, gn.its,
ants, flies, most of them noxious and destructive, swarm in the fouthern regions ; even during the
short summe s or the north the mosquito and other troublesome insects abound in the woody regions
of Siberia. But the most mischievous of all these winged creatures is the locust, which appears oc-
casionally in the sandy regions north-west of India ; and is found in countless swarms in Ar.ibia and
Syria. It is also frequently found to the north of the Altai, at the sources of the Irtish, whence it
extends its destructive flight as far as the Crimea and the southern provinces of Kussia in Europe.
People. — Asia contains a gre.it variety of tribes and nations, most of which will be enumerated in
the subsequent table. Of these the live principal races, the llindoo.s, the Chinese, the Tatars or Tar-
tars, the Arabs, and the Persians, seem to h.avedivi^led among them as a kind of inheritance, the con-
tinent and the aijoiniiig islands, and still occupy the greater part of them. The origin of these races
Geography.! ASIA. 635
Is burled in the most remote antiquity, and has formed a very fertile subject of discussion among an-
tiquarian philologists and physiologists. The Hindoos and the Arabs are generally considered as
belonging to the Caucasian or white race of mankind, though, in respect of language, they are entirely
different ; the former appearing to be allied to that family whose various dialects have been classed
together as the Indo-Germanic, and who seem to have spread from a common centre, somewhere in
south-western Asia, into Europe on the one side, and Persia and India on the other ; while the Arabs,
on the contrary, belong to the Semitic family, who seem to have been always confined to the great
peninsular region, which extends from the mountain ranges of Taurus and Zagrus to the Mediter-
ranean and Red Seas, the Persian Gulf, and the Indian Oci an. The ancient Medes and Persians seem
to have belonge<i to the Indo-Germanic family and to tlie Caucasian variety ; but the modern Persians
are a very mixed race, fo/med by the commingling of Persians, Arabs, Turks, Tartars, Mongols, and
natives of the Caucasian Isthmus. The Tatars or Tartars differ entirely from the Hindoos and the
Arabs in features, complexion, and form, as well as in manners and language. They all speak the
Turliee or Turkish language, and form the majority of the population of Turkestan, tlie western part
of Chinese Tartary, and the southern provinces of Russia ; are spread in various tribes throughout
Persia ; and constitute the original stock of tlie Osmanlec or Ottoman Turks, who have long been the
dominant people of south-western Asia. It has been doubted whether the Osmanlee are of the Cau-
casian or of the Mongolian variety ; but some of the other branches of the family, who speak the
purest Turkish dialects, are unquestionably Mongolian ; though they must be distinguished from the
Kastern Mongols, who speak languages apparently of different origin. The Chinese, according to
the institutes of Menu, were originally a military tribe of Hindoos, who, abandoning the ordinances
of Brahma, migrated eastward, and laid the foundation of the Chintse empire ; but this theory seems
to be extremely improbable. The Chinese are unquestionably of the Mongolian variety ; and their
nionosyllablic language and figurative alphabets seem to have no analogy with any of the languages or
alplialiets of India. According to M. Balbi, all the nations and tribes of Asia may be classified ae
cording to their languages, as in the following
TABLE.
The Semitic Family. — The Jewt, who are scattered over a great part of Asia, but are found in
the greatest numbers in Ottoman Asia and Arabia. Many are also met with in India, Persia, Turkes-
tan, and China. The Arabs, who are the most numerous and powerful branch of this family, occupy
nearly the whole of Arabia, the greater part of Syria and Mesopotamia, with parts of Khuzistan and
Fars in Persia ; they have likewise several settlements on the coasts of Blalabar and Coromandel, in
Turkestan, and in the regions of the Caucasus.
Georgia."* Family.— The Georj^inns, in Georgia and Imeritia ; ih& Mingrelians, the Sevanei, and
the Lii::es, at the eastern extremity of the Black Sea.
Arme.vian Family.— The liaikans, commonly called Armenians, form the great mass of the po-
puhition of Armenia ; they are also numerous in Gcorifia, Shirwan, and Azerbijan ; and are scattered,
besides, through all the commercial cities of Turkey, Persia, India, Turkestan, and even in some
parts of Cliina. The ylbasses or Absne, who inhabit Abakhssethi, or the Great- Abassie ; several
tribes of whom are vassals of Russia. The Natoukhashi, one tribe of whom are notorious for their
predatory habits.
Persian Family. — The Persmns, Parsees or Guebers, of whom the greater number are settled in
Gujerat and Konkan in India, and in Yezd in Iran. They are found also in smaller numbers in Kcr-
nian, Moultan, and at Baku in Shirwan. The Tavjiks, better known under the name of Iranee
(pronounced Keraunee ) or Persians, who arc believed to be tlie descendants of the original Arab
conquerors who overspread Persia during tlie most brilliant period of Islam prosperity, form the
principal mass of the population of Iran, and are likewise the most numerous and polished nation of
this family. The Bukharians, who are the indigenous people of Great Bukharia, and of the iirincipal
towns of Chinese Turkestan. They are also found dispersed as merehants in the large town of Sibe-
ria, Central Asia, and China. The Kurds, and the Lourei's. in Kurdistan and Louristan. The Aff-
ghnm or Poushtaneh, in Ail'ghanistan and the north-western parts of India, and in Rohilcund, in the
north-east of India. Tlie Bdootshees, who possess the south-eastern parts of old Persia and the
country of Sinde, on the lower part of the Indus.
Hindoo Family. — This is one of the most numerous families on the globe. Their habitat ex-
tends over the whole of India, to the north of the Tuptee and (.lodavery. The principal branches of
this family are : The Muf^uh, originally composed of Turks, Bukharians, and Persians, who speak the
Hindoostanec language, and originally formed the ruling class in the Mogul empire ; they are found
principally in llindoostan or Northern India. The Sciklis, the ruling people of north-western India;
the Hetifialees, who form the mass of the people of Bengal, and some parts of the bordering pro-
vinces ; the Mahrattas who occupy the western part of the l)eccan, and parts of Mahra, Khandeish,
and Gujerat; the Sinfralese, in Ceylon; the people of the Matdices ; the Zirifranees or Gifiscvs, a
numerous tribe scattered over Europe and Western Asia, and found also in some parts of Northern
India.
Malabar Family. — This family comprehends the people who inhabit that part of India which lies
between (ape Coinorin and the Tuptee and Godavery. The principal branches are : the Malnhars;
the Tamiil. who inhabit the Carnatic ; the Trlin^n or Tcbiogoo, who extend from Pulicat to Orissa.
The Garrotvs, the Kathes, the Gnnds, the ISIitels, and other tribes, who have dwelt from time imme-
morial in India, do not l)eIong to tlie families wliicli form the great mass of the people of that country.
They are more or less distinguished by their savage and liarbarous customs.
TiiK Ciii.vESE Family are the most numerous on the globe. 'I lie Chinese form nearly the entire
population of Cliina ; they are also settled along thecuasts of Hainan and tlie west coast of Formosa,
in Siam, .Malacca, Singapore, Peiiaiig, Ceylon, Calcutta, Mauritius, and have even found their way to
Brazil. The Minnmai, or Miajamnia, or liirniaits, are the principal occupants of the basin ot tlie
Irrawady. The Moans or J'effuatis inhabit Pegu. The Tai or Tai-7iai (pronounced Tie), called
also Laos, Shyaiii, Skans, and Siamese, are the ruling people of Siam, and occupy tlie whole of Laos.
'l'\ie Annamitei, subdivided into Ttmgkijiese, who aretli" most numerous, and Cochin- Chinese, who have
become the ruling people of the omjiire of Annam. Tlie Siati-pi or Corians.
The JaI'A.nese Family, spread over all tlie empire of Japan, where they form nearly the entire
I'opulation. In respect of power and civilization, tliey occupy the first rank among the Asiatics.
Tlie I.nnrhoonnt arc a hraneh of the same stock.
The Miaotees, the Lobis, the Mienlinss, are iiiiinerous tribes who are found in China, but do not bo-
long to the Cliiucse stock. The inUind savages of llaiimn, the Kemoys in the mountains which sepa-
rate Laos from Co'diin-China ; the I'lau or Karens in Birniali, are other savage tribes unconnected
with the more civilised nations anumg whom thty li\e-
'1 he Tu.NoousK Family. — The Tnngonses, siilxlivided info Mniidchrws, and the proper Tunpnnset.
T!u' former have been, since I'i'il, the ruling class in China, and are very a<lvanced in civilization.
'I hey form one half of the inhabitants of l.iaotung, and the entire population of Mandchusia, as far as
li.e conllucnce of the Oussiiri and the Amour. Tlie proper Tungouses, who are inferior to the others
in eivilization, an' conrnied to the Kussiaii empire, where they are spread over the third part of Sibe-
lin, from the len X'i to the sea of Okhotsk. The Mandcliews present a remarkable phenomenon in
630 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY, [Physical
the history of civilization. It Is scarcely 2rM years since they were nomades, Ignorant of the elemen-
tary arts of readinj; and writing, whereas thoy now possess a rich literature, particularly valmble for
the knowledge of the literature of China, which they have communicated through the medium of
translations from the original works. It is the Mandchew, and not the Chinese, which forms the lan-
guage of the Court of I'ekin.
The Mo.NOoLiAN Family. —Mongols, Kolmuchs, and Burates. The Mongols, subdivided into Mon-
goU properly so called, Khalk-ai, and Shaniigol, or Mongols of Thibet, occupy Mongolia and a part of
ThilKJt, along with Uohonor, in the Chinese empire. Some of tliem are also found in Asiatic Russia.
The Kalmticks or Okt inhabit a great part of Soongaria. The Burates are found in the government
of Irkutsk.
The TuRKEE Family. — The Osmanlee, or Othmanlee, or Otnman or Ottoman Turks, are the domi-
nant people in the Ottoman empire, and the principal and most civilized branch of this family. They
are most numerous in Asia Minor. Tlie Usbecks, or Ouzbccks, or Usbegs, are the dominant race in
Independant Turkestan. The Turks of Siberia, or Touralians, who are the pretended Tartars of Si-
beria, or Touralian Tartars of geographers, are spread over the governments of Tobolsk, Tom.<k,
and lenisseisk. The Turcomans, subdivided into a large number of stocks and branches, are spread
over Aflghanistan, Turkestan, Ottoman and Russian Asia. In Persia they have for more than a cen-
tury been the dominant race. The Kirghiz, subdivided into Bourouts or Eastern, and Kazak or
Western. A part of the IJourouts are tributaries of China ; the greater part of the Kazaks are \ a^-sals
of Russia ; the remainder are independent. The numerous tribes whicli have been named appear to
speak dialects of the Turkee language. The following tribes speak kindred languages : the Sokha
or Yakoutes, in lenisseisk and Yakoutsk, the most eastern and northern of all the people of this fa-
mily, and also the least civilized ; the Tshouwashes, named improperly Mountain Tartars by the Rus-
sians, wander over a part of Orenburg.
The Samoied Family. — The Tawghi, extending from the lenissei to the Lena, are the most north-
ern people of the old world. The Ouriangkhai are the most southern tribe of this family. The most
of tliem are found within the Chinese empire, between the Syanian mountains and those of Altai and
Khangai ; the re^t are found in Russia.
The Ienisseian Family. — The different tribes of this family are usually confounded by geographers
with the Ostiaks, who belong to the Finnish stock. They are chiefly confined to the governnKnt i>f
lenisseisk ; the Denka, the Imbazk, the I'oumpokolsk, the Kottes, and the Assanes, are the principal
tribes.
The Koriak Family comprises only the small and savage tribe of this name, which is found at the
north-east of Asia, in the districts of Okhotsk, Kamtschatka, and the country of the Tshouktshi,
(Chuckchee.^
The Andon-domni or Youkaghires, are a scanty race, whose tribes inhabit the country between
the Yakoutes and the Koriaks, along the Icy Ocean, from the lana to the Kolyma.
The Kamtschatdale Family, very few in number, and chiefly fish-eaters, occupy the peninsula
of Kamtschatka.
The KURiLiAN Family. — The Kiirilians or Kuriles inhabit the Kurile islands and the southern point
of Kamtschatka. The Ainos or lesso occupy tlie island of lesso. The Tarakai or Ainos of Tai akai
or Seghalien ; the Giliaki occupy that part ol Mandchuria to the east of the Oussouri, and are named
Fiaka, or Kedjen, by the Mandchews.
The Uralian or Tschude Family. — The Vougoules or Mann, who arefound between Kourgan and
Beresov, in the government of Tobolsk; the Ostiaks, distinguished as the As-IakU or Ostiaks of
the Obi, the Ostiahs of Kerssov, of lougan, of Narym, &c.
The Malaisian Family ; the aboriginal natives of Formosa : the Malays, who form the princi-
pal part of the population of the peninsula of Malacca, and the neighbouring islands. We must, how-
ever, except the mountains in the interior of the peninsula, which are inhabited by a negro race of an
entirely different origin.
Besides these native Asiatic families there are numerous colonies of Europeans in most parts of
Asia; Greeks in the Ottoman empire ; Kussians in Siberia; English, Scotch, Irish, Portuguese, and a
few French, and Banes, in India ; Dutch in Ceylon, Java, and the Moluccas ; Spaniards in the Phi-
lippines.
Government. — If we understand by a despot an absolute monarch, who disposes of the property,
the honour, and the lives of his subjects, employing them with indefinite anduucontroulled authority,
we nowhere in the civilized states of Eastern Asia find sovereigns of this kind, notwithstanding all the
declamations to which the governments of those countries have been subjected. Everywhere man-
ners, ancient customs, received opinions, and even errors, form more embarrassing restraints upon
power than written stipulations, whicli tyrants can so easily get rid of by force or fraud. It is only
in some Moslem states, and particularly in Persia, that we met with the most hateful despotism, and
that degrading servility which has been usually attributed to all the nations of Asia. The kings of
Asia have been taken for despots because they are approached on the bended knee. They have, in-
deed, assumed to themselves the titles of gods upon earth, vicegerents of Allah, brothers of the Sun
and Moon, asylums of the universe, and similar designations, and they have been considered as such,
without obstacles opposed to their will by religion, customs, manners, and prejudices being taken
into account. The governments of Ottoman Asia, Persia, Russia, Bukharia, and others in Turkes-
tan, India, Chin-India, China, Japan, and some of the islands are despotisms, differing in decree.
Besides the ancient republics, established in the Greek cities of Asia, and in Syria and Palestine,
we find in the centre of the continent, tribes whose political institutions are pre-eminently repub-
lican. The principal of these are the Affghans between India and Persia.
Asia likewise contains many nations whose governments may be compared to those of the Euro-
pean kingdoms of the middle ages ; such were the Mahrattas before the downfall of the Peishwa, and
the Affghans before the late subversion of the kingdom of Kabul ; and such are still the Belootshees, the
Mongols, the Kalmucks, the Mandchews, several Turkee tribes, and some nations of Caucasus, par-
ticularly the Circassians and Abassians. Even the empire of Japan is, properly speaking, nothing
else than a feudal monarchy, ruled by a prince, who may be compaied to the French mayors of the
palace. Some nations are entirely free, as the Bedwin Arabs, the Kurds, and several tribes of Cauca-
sus and Syria. The small nomadic nations of Asia, and many of the Arab tribes have a pastoral or pa-
triarchal government, which is generally hereditary in certain families ; others are governed by the
elders, and form republics. Thibet, Boutan, and parts of Arabia, have a sort of theocratic govern-
ment. The imams of Sanaa and Muskat are a sort of political high priests invested with temporal
power, while the rulers of Thibet and Boutan are absolute pontiffs, bearini; the titles of Dalai-lama,
Bogdo-lama, and Uharma-lama, and are considered as emanations of the Deity himself. In general
we may say that Asia afl'ords examples of every possible kind of government, from the most licentious
republicanism to the most atrocious despotism.
Divisions. In the following description of the different countries of Asia, we shall consider them
under the following hea,<\?,: — Ottoman Asia or Turkey ; Arabia ; Fersia ; Afghanistan ; Beluchistan;
India ; South-eastern Feninsula ; Chinese empire ; Turkestan ; Russian Asia ; Japan.
Geography.] ASIA. (i37
TURKEY, OR OTTOMAN ASIA.
Astronomical Position Between 30° and 42° N. latitude, and 26° and 49° E.
longitude.
Dimensions The greatest extent of Turkey in the direction of the meridian,
from north to south, is about 850 miles, and from east to west, about 1200; but,
measured diagonally, from Constantinople to the mouth of the Euphrates, the extent
is 1400 miles, and from the southern border of Palestine to the north-eastern ex-
tremity of Turkish Armenia, about 1 100. The area, however, by no means corre-
sponds with a square of these dimensions ; for the outline is so much indented by seas
on the one side, and by the sandy deserts of Arabia on the other, that the superfi-
cial extent hardly exceeds one-half of that square, or about 500,000 square English
miles.
BoDNDARiEs Northern : — The Black Sea and the Russian province of Imeritia.
Southern and South-western : — Arabia and the Mediterranean Sea. Eastern: — Per-
sia and Russian Armenia. Western: — The Archipaligo, Dardanelles, Sea of Mar-
mora, and Channel of Constantinople.
General Aspect and Climate — This extensive region consists of at least three
portions, which are geographically distinct, namely, Asia Minor and Armenia ; Meso-
potamia, Assyria and the low countries watered by the Euphrates and Tigris; and
Syria, including Palestine or the Holy Land.
Armenia and the northern part of Kurdistan, form an elevated table-land, or series of plains and
valleys, some of which are 5500 feet above the level of the sea, intersected and overtopped by ranges
of mountains several thousand feet higher. This table-land is, however, a fertile corn country, and
abounds also in pasture*, though the climate is cold, and in winter the country is covered with deep
snow. It is separated from the low country on the Hlack Sea, in the eyalct of Trebisond, by a triple
range of mountains, which attain their extreme elevation of GOOO or 7000 feet, at the distance of
twenty-four miles from the sea, and are covered with forests to the height of about 4500 feet ; but,
farther up, the country in general is bare of trees, except in some recesses of the mountains, where
forets e.\ist, even in the more elevated central parts. The passes from the coast are numerous ; but,
with the e.xceptiou of those which follow the omrses of the larger rivers, they are difficult, and m.iny
of them are open only in summer. The soil is for the most part fertile, and the country well watered.
From Armenia two ranges of mountains proceed westward into tlie peninsula of Asia Minor ; the
one the ancient Taurus, which stretches parallel to the shore of the Mediterranean Sea, and then
dividing into a number of branches, which intersect the western part of the peninsula, and form
as many fertile valleys, watered by tine rivers, terminates on the shore, or in the islands, of the
Archipelago. The other chain, Anti-Taurus, extends into the interior of the peninsula in a south-
westerly direction, and is probably connected with Taurus in the neighbourhood of Kaisariyah, and
also with the lofty mountains which, under various names, occupy the country between the Kizil-
Irmak and the Sea of Marmora. The central part of the peninsula, supported on all sides by these
mountains, forms a series of elevated table-lanls, nearly destitute of trees, but abounding with pas-
turage, which affords a plentiful sub-istenco to the flocks of the wandering Turcomans. The plain
of Kutahya is 6000 feet above the level of the sea ; and that of Sivas, 3.')0 miles farther east, about
3900. Some of the valleys are so completely surrounded by mountains as to have no outlet for their
waters, which, in consequence, not only overflow large tracts of country in the rainy siason, but also
form a number of permanent lakes. The south coast presents an irregular outline, with a very bold
front to the sea ; an almost continuous mass of lofty mountains presses close upon tlie shore, and at
some points forms the coast, terminating in bold promontories. Near the eastern end, however, the
mountains are distant from the sea, and leave room for the wide plains of the ancient I'ilicia. The
west coast presents a very irregular outline, consisting of deep bays, with long (leninsulas, promon-
tories, and islands. The northern coast, along the Black Sea, is also lofiy and rocky, with deep water
close to the shore, and is lined with ranges of mountains at no great distance inland, covered with
trees ; the forests of which are so extensive, that, in one place, the Turks have given them tlie expres-
sive designation of Af^atch-df7ipit, sea of trees. The nucleus of some of these mountain chains
seems to consist of granite and other primary rocks ; but in various places these are associated with
beds of marble and quartz rock, hippurite limestone, and schists ; tertiary and lacustrine marine de-
posits, ancient and modern igneous rocks, and recent aqueous accinnulations. The micaceous scliist
and associated rocks occupy, however, a very important place in the geology of Asia Minor, and form
nearly all the mountain chains which intersect the western portion of the peninsula. The hippurite
limestone, the only representative of that vast system of rocks which occupies a large portion of Ku-
rope, and is usually termed secondary, is even sparingly displayed in the north-western part of Asia
Minor. Tertiary lacustrine formations occur in ahno-t every valley, and marine deposits are found
in several places. Volcanic rocks are of frequent occurrence ; tracliyte is abundantly scattered over
the western i)art of Asia Minor ; the whole country between Is nik and Kutahya apjiears to consist
of agate or chalctidony, the strata being beautifully varied ; and, in the centre of the peninsula, the
lofty peak of Arjixh-daifh (anc. Ari^misJ which rises to the great elevation of l.'t.OOO leet, consists en-
tirely of volcanic rocks and scoriaceous cinders, having 'X-i sloping sides studded all round with nu-
merous cones and craters. Iliusii7t-da;ih, to the south-west of Arjish, is also volcanic, and rises to
thehei^lit of 800() feet; and !iO miles east of Smyrna. Kulith, a volcanic p«ak, rises to i'so. Hut thu
most snigular portion of Asia .Minor is tlie volcanic district of Kntak-ecaumine, or the luirniii-up re-
gion, about 'M miles eastward of Smyrna, which hears a striking resemblance to the volcanic region
of Auvergne. It extends about 1!» miles ea°t and we»t, and about 8 from north to south, and consists
of volcanic mounds, which rise partly amidst the lacustrine limestone of the valley of the Hernms,
and partly on the slope of the schistoiie hills which bound it on tho south. The mounds consist of
638 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Tukkey
gcorl» Rnd lava, and are referaMo to two epochs, Indicated by the difference in tlieir state of preser-
vation, and the appearance of tlie lava streiuns. Tlie older cones arc low and tlat ; their craters hav«
disappeared, or are marked by a slight depression, and all tlicir prominences seem to have been
smoothed by time. They are also covered with vineyards, which produce the Katakecaumene wine,
celebrated from the time of Strabo to the present day ; and the streams of basalt or lava which have
flowed from them are level on the surface, and covered with turf. Tlie newer volcanoes, only three
in number, though they have been extinct for more than 3000 years, preserve all their characters un-
altered ; the craters are perfectly defined, and their lava streams are black, rugged, and barren
( Hamilton, Trans. Royal Geohtiind Societi/, Lund.)
If, says Mr. Fellows, a line be drawn upon the map to include the elevated table-land of the inte-
rior, and the field of burnt or volcanic matter, it will precisely trace the boundaries of the ancient
riirvgia on the north, west, and south ; following even the singular forms which it projects into Caria,
Lycia, and ranipliylia. Tlie cold, from the great elevation of the country, is so severe that no plants
are to be seen, but such as arc found in the Highlands of Scotland, where they suffer less from se-
verity of climate than here. The summer is of very short duration. On descending from tliis ele-
vated country, every diversity of climate is met with, till the traveller reaches the productive \ alleys
of the rivers," and the warmer lands on the coast. During summer the heat becomes intense as the
morning advances, but before noon a cold breeze descends from the mountainous country, which
brings with it a refreshing coolness, accompanied by a shade of clouds, and not unfreqnently by flyi^'g
showers. In the early part of the evening tlie heat again becomes oppressive, and the dews are very
heavy. To the intense cold of the winter it must be attributed, that neither the aloe nor the cactus,
nor any succulent plant is to be seen in the country ; the frosts of winter being too severe for them.
Orange and lemon trees are with difhculty preserved in the sheltered valleys ; the olive seldom flou-
rishes, even in a similar situation ; and they are all inferior in growth to those of Sicily, Calabria,
and Greece. The extremes of the seasons are farther shown by tlie migration of the animal kingdom,
■which takes place to a great e.xtent. The scenery of Lydia and Mysia is varied and beautiful, the hills
being well wooded with splendid forest trees. In the forms of the mountains there is more of beauty
than of grandeur; the peculiar feature is the great contrast between the hills and the valleys, the
latter being so level as to appear to have been formed by lakes. In Bithyniathe scenery is of a bolder
character, its fine mountain range of Olympus, giving it a resemblance to Switzerland ; its valleys are
also richly covered with luxuriant woods. The flat-topped hills and immense table-lands of Phrygia,
which are often swampy, and seldom produce a tree, present more of the w ild and the dreary, than
of the picturesque. I'isidia, including the Taurus, again, partakes of the Alpine character ; but the
woods are not so finely grown as in Bithynia. The extreme beauty of Pampliylia is derived more
from distant effects than from near views. The marble mountains, which form the distant horizon,
shoot their jagged peaks of silvery rock, sometimes capped with snow, against the clear sky, while
their bases are washed by the blue sea, which they enclose in their wide-strttchtd arms. Lydia is
more mountainous, and resembles, while it far exceeds, in the boldness of its dirt's, and the richness
of its vegetation, the scenery of Parnassus. Its valleys, and particularly that of the Xanthus, are of
peculiar lieauty. Caria abounds in scenery of the most picturesque kind, its coasts being broki n into
bold headlands, whose ranges, continued into the sea, rise Into rocky islands. The south-east of
Lydia is less beautiful, and much resembles Sicily or Calabria ; but, on approaching Smyrna, this
district contains valleys equal to those near Salerno or Naples. — (Journal icritten during an Excur-
tion in Asia Minor, by Charhs FMows. London, 1838. Pp. 300-303.)
The country watered by the Euphrates and t'.e Tigris, forming the s. nth-eastern region of the
empire, is bounded on the north by the table-land of Armenia, and the lofty ridges of Taurus ; on the
east by the long line of mountains (anc. ZagrusJ which, under the names of the mountains of Kurdis-
tan, Louristan, Bukhtiari, &c., divide it from the table-land of Iran ; on the west and south-west, by
Syria, and the deserts of Arabia ; and on the south-east it barely touches the Persian gulf. Assyria,
including Taurus, is distinguished by its structure.its configuration, and its natural productions, into
three zones or districts ; by structure into a district of metamorpliio and plutonic rocks ; a district
of sedimentary formations ; and a district of alluvial deposits : by conflguration into a district of
mountains ; of stony or sandy plains, and of low watery plains : by natural productions into a coun-
try of forests and fruit-trees, of olives, wine, corn, and pasturage, or of barren rocks ; a country of
mulberry-trees, cotton, maize, sesame, tobacco, or of hardy labiate and composite plants, or bar-
ren clay, sand, pebbly or rocky plains ; and a country of date trees, rice, and pasturage, or a land of
saline plants, liquorice, reeds, sedges, and rushes. The first of these districts comprises the hilly and
mountainous country commonly called Taurus, which is composed of many different chains. Taurus
consists of a central nucleus of granite, gneiss, and mica schist, associated with limestones, diorites,
and diallage rocks ; of lateral formations of diallage rocks, serpentines, actynolite rocks, steaschists,
slate-clays, and outlying sandstones and limestones. The mean elevation of the crest of the Taurus
varies in different places from about 2900 feet to 5650. To the south of the main chain lies the plain
of Diyarbekr, 2500 feet above the level of the sea, and separated from the mountainous district of
Arghana by ranges of indurated chalk. The climate of Taurus presents cold winters with much snow,
and hot summers. In some of the valleys the natives themselves complain of the excessive summer
heats. The influence of warm days and cold frosty nights in spring, is to forward vegetation and yet
preserve the snow. In March, the almond tree, pear, medlar, and laburnum are in blossom in the
valleys. The most remarkable feature, however, is the abundance of trees, shrubs, and plants, in the
northern, and their comparative scantiness in the southern districts. Among the useful and culti-
vated plants may be mentioned the vine, fig-tree, almond, olive, wheat, triticum spelta, hordeum
hexastichon, and h. distichon. Gall nuts, pears, apples, and apricots, are abundant. The roots of
astragalus christianus are eaten ; the rhus coturnus is used for dying skins red ; and the rhamnus
catharticus and valantia articulata for dying yellow. The second district, comprising the plains of
Syria, .Mesopotamia, and the Country to the east of the Tigris, to Jhe.mountains of Kurdistan, consists
of cretaceous and supracretaceous deposits, here and there interrupted by'plutonic rooks, of the feld-
spatho-pyroxenic family. The character of the plains varies with the elevation and latitude, as well
as with the quality of the soil, and from the presence or absence of moisture. The upland of feld-
spatho-pyro.xenic rocks, which extends from Jezirah to Tel Sakhan near Nisibin, and which has a
mean elevation of 1550 feet, is a stony wilderness, amidst which there is little or no cultivation, and
where, nevertheless, numerous flocks of sheep and herds of cattle obtain a scanty subsistence during
a great part of the year. The great plains of northern Syria, with a mean elevation of 1300 feet, r^
Northern Mesopotamia, from Urfa to Rakkah, and from Nisibin to Kl Hatliar, and the Chaldcean
plain, east of Nineveh, that of Arbil and of Altun-Kupri, present characters pretty nearly similar, an
almost uniform level, with a soil possessing good agricultural qualities, but barren from want of ir-
rigation. The exceptions to this are where the plains are intersected by hills, or in spots at the heads
or on the banks of rivers or rivulets, where they can be irrigated, and which, in consequence, become
the permanent residence of agricultural tribes, the seat of cultivation and prosperity, or the tem-
porary resort of nomadic Arabs and Turcomans. Fertile districts of this kind are abundant ; the
plains of Urfah and Harran are watered by numerous streams. The climate is characterized by
great dryness, combined with very great variations of temperature ; Fahrenheit's thermometer has
been observed at 116- in the shade, in the month of August, while, in winter, it has fallen as low as
TuEKEY.] ASIA, 639^
12^^. From the Mediterranean Sea to the Tigris, tliere Is an increase of cold in the same parallels
from west to east; which is not the case, however, in the plains east of the Tigris, wliich. being
sheltered by the mountains of Kurdistan, have a more temperate winter. The influence of Taurus,
which is clad for so many months with snow, is considerable in reducing the winter temperature ;
and on the plains of northern Syria and Mesopotamia, from the want of sheltering hills, cimses the
vegetation to be really less southern than that of Sicily and Andalusia. At the same time, the long
extent of littoral mountains, Amanus, Cassius, and Lebanon, adds to these unfavourable circumstances,
by impeding tiie passage of mild breezes from the Mediterranean Sea. Notwithstanding these circum-
stances, the direct heat of the sun, increased by radiation and the equality of level, is almost without a
moderating influence; for evaporation is nearly null, and hence, where the winter temperature is so low,
the summer heats are intense. It is on this account that there are few annual and tender plants, while
the woody and tough stems tf vivacious species, resist better such opposite influences. For two months
in the year, October and November, vegetation is dormant, everything is burnt up, and no now
forms appear; but, after this period, clouds from Lebanon, and changes of temperature on the moun-
tains to the north and the east bring down, over Mesopotamia and Adiabene, moderate but refreshing
rain. The brown and fallow colour of the ground chatiges, grasses begin to increase and spread, and
notwithstanding the subsequent frosts and storms, some compositiE bud, without flowering ; but the
succession of vegetation is kept up by those families which have succulent roots, nodes, or bulbs, which
preserve moisture, so as to maintain life even in the dryest soil. Sleeping during the summer heals,
they awake to activity with the first rains, and some send forth prematurely tlieir leaves and even
buds in October. They are soon, however covered with snow, and blasted by the wintry winds ; till
early in spring, when the same precocious plants make their appearance with all that vivid beauty of
colour and variety of form, which have lent to the poet and the painter their not always falufous
pictures of the East. The absence of trees on these great plains is a phenomenon difficult to account
for. The vegetation is ephemeral, or consists of succulent and herbaceous biennials. Willows, how-
ever, grow on the banks of the Euphrates ; and the oriental plane, near springs and tombs, rises to an
enormous size. The desert described by Xenophon, extending from the Khabour to Kehoboth, still
preserves the features of his day, " full of wormwood ; and if any other kinds of plants grow there,
they have for the most part an aromatic smell." Wild asses or horses are still met with ; but os-
triches are rare.
The alluvial plains of Babyl&iiia, Chaldwa, and Susiana, which form the third district, have their
northern limit a few miles above Felujah ; on the west they are bounded by a line of rock and sand
not far from the Euphrates ; and on the east, by the Uamrun hills, a long range composed of tertiary
sandstones, with salt, gypsum, and limestones, which crosses the Tigris above the 35^ N. lat. The
plain, in the north-western or upper portion, has a slight but we!l-dctined southerly inclination, with
local sinkings above Felujah, undulates in the central districts, and then subsides into mere marshes
and lakes. The soil of the northern part is pebbly, and this Is succeeded lower down by a continuous
formation of clayey soil covered with mould, dust, or sand, or the more tenacious clay of frequent
inundations. The modern accumulations are still very great. Numerous canals, extending from the
one river to the other, at certain seasons inundate the whole country, and leave permanent marshes in
some places. But the natural level is everywhere altered by artificial works, as mounds, walls, mud-
ramparts, and dykes ; elevated masses of friable pottery are succeeded by low plains inundated during
a great part of the year, and the old beds of canals are visible in every direction. There is still some
cultivation and some irrigation ; flocks pasture in meadows of coarse grass ; and the dusky encanij)-
ments of the Arabs are occasionally met with ; but, except on the banks of the Euphrates, thire arc
few remains of the date-groves, vineyards, and gardens, which adorned the country in the days of
Xenophon; and still less of the labour and pupulation which must have made a garden of such a so:l
in ancient times. Babylonia, strictly so called, extends only to the marshes of Lemlun, (32^" N. lat.),
the soil of which consists for the most part of a soft alluvial clay and mud, containing only riv<.r and
lacustrine shells. The greater part of the basin, which stretches forty miles along the Euphrates, and
extends many miles on each side, is occupied by water or vegetation, where large herds of bufl'aloes
feed ; and in some places, during summer, the mud is covered with luxuriant crops of rice. Below
Lemlun, there is little indication of change ; a gradual elevation of soil, so gentle as to be scarcely
perceptible, but afl'ording ground fit for cultivation in the dry months, leads to plains of wide extent,
only a few feet higher than the marshes, which form the ancient territory of ChaUtea. The vegeta-
tion is characterized by saline plants, the river bunks are fringed with shrubberies of tamarisk and
acacia, and occasionally with groves of poplar. Below Suk-el-Sheikh the country is occupied by an
almost perpetual inundation, and at Omu-el-bak (mother of nuisquitoes), the waters spread out like a
great laJie, extending to the verge of the horizon, and are only here and there interrupted with groves
of date trees and huts. To the south of these great inundations, as far as the confluence of tlie
Euphrates and Tigris, the land is covered by an aquatic vegetation, chiefly by a kind of agrostis,
which, like the cane-brake of North America, has the appearance of the true reed of northern Europe.
These tracts present every where great uniformity of feature, a boundless growth of plants of tho
same kind, interrupted by lakes and ponds, or intersected by artificial canals. The character of the
country below Kornah is very similar, being fringed with date-trees along the river sides, and beyond
these it is inundated at one season, and forms a naked plain at the other, without a moss or a lichen
to feed the piping sand-grou-e; a barren and desert waste of mud and sand, covered with water for
nine months in the year. The banks, however, are Uned with groves of date trees, and at times
afford a rich pasturage for buffaloes. Villages are numerous, but the population is scanty. (Aiii4-
wortk't Kesearchet in Axtyria, lialjylonia, chaldaia, Sjc. London, 1831*.)
Kurdistan, which forms the north-eastern portion of ancient Assyria, and extends also into Persia,
presents an immense succession of hill and valley, with dells and plains of cxhaustless fertility, and
towering mountains. The summits of the great range of Zagrus rise to upwards of 14,(K)(J feet ; their
ri'igesare clothed with forests as far up as liOOO feet ; above that height the coinitry is less covered,
though in some of the recesses there are forests even in the more elevated spots. Ulie trees are wal-
nut, beech, pine, oak, cedar, wliite ami red mulberry, cherry, apple, pear, medlar, and apricot, juni-
per, wild plum, wild rose, wild madder, and vine. The climate is excessively cold during the greater
part of the year; and the hills are covered with snow for eight months.
Taurus, in its progress westward from the Euphrates, sends forth several spurs into Syria, (he
principal and most westerly of which bears the names of Alma-dafili and Juwur-dagh, the ancient
Anuintu and I'ieriut, which terminate near the mouth of the Orontes, and form the boundary be-
tween Syria and Asia Minor. On the south side of the mouth of the Orontes, Jilul el-Akral ( ISald-
hill), the ancient Caisiiu, rises abruptly to the height of 5318 feet, and is continued to the east by the
Jebel Chakiinah and the hills of Antioch, as far as to tho southern valley of the Orontes. 'Jo the
south the hills of Antioch are contimied by the Jchil Krnad to the Nosairi Mniaitaiiis, which extend
southwards, In connection with Lihanon. About 31-' N. lat. the chain divides into two rangi s, the
eastern and the western; the former being the Lihitnut, the latter the A7iti- I.ilntnus of I he (; reeks,
which enclose between them the long narrow valley of lU Ilaiaft, or Hollow Syriii. The western
branch terminates near tlie sea-coast, to the southward of Sidon ;"*rhile the eastern branch, in nearly
the same parallel, divides again into two ridgrs, the one of which passes into Arabia, along the east-
em side of the valley of the Jordan. The other extends southwards, along the western side of the
640 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Turkey.
Jordan, forming the waterslicd botwctm the baeln of the Dead Sea and the valleys which send their
waters to the Mediterranean, and covorinK the interior of Judea with a wilderness of barren moun-
tains. Mount Carinel forms a l)old promontory on the south-western side of the Hay of Acre, and lias
•n extension south-eastwards till it joins the mountains of Judea. Farther south, these mountains
become connected with the rocky chains wliich traverse the Petrsean Arabia, and fill up the space
between tlie tiulf of Suez and the Gulf of Akaba. The diverging range of the Libanus, which forms
the north-eastern part of the valley of the Upper Jordan, was the Herman of Scripture ; and farther
Bouth were the mountains of Gilead. These mountain ridges form a number of valkys, the principal
of which extend north and south ; but besides these is a great number of transverse valleys along the
sea-coast as well as in the interior. The crest and acclivities of the Nomiri Mountains are almost
uniformly barren and destitute of forests ; their outline is tame, and the general elevation of the chain
hardly exceeds 1000 foet. They are steep towards the Valley of the Oro)ites, which lies between them
on the west, and the Jabd-Shaehsahou on the north-cast, and is called El Ghab. The valley is inha-
bited by a mongrel race of Arabs and Fellahs, who live, in winter, in a few villages dispersed over it, of
which they cultivate only the land adjacent to their dwellings. On the approach of hot weather they
retire with their flocks and herds to the eastern mountains in search of pasture, and to escape the
Rwarms of flics and gnats which infest the Ghab at that season. Towards the west the Nosairi Moun-
tains descend in irregular hills into the plain of Jebilee. El Bekaa (the KoiXri Xus'x, Koile Suria of
the Greeks, Cult' Syrui of the Latins) is a beautiful valley between the two branches of Lebanon,
drained by the river Leitani. It is about 90 miles in length, by 1 1 of average breadth, and is the rich-
est and the most beautiful part of Syria. The faUey of thf Jordan extends about 175 miies from the
sources of the river to the southern extremity of the Dead Sea. From the Lake of Tabariah to Aiii el
Arus, 12 miles south of the Dead Sea, where it meets the Wadi-el-Arabah, it is called El Ghor. On the
east side of the valley, between the two lakes, the mountains rise almost precipitously from the river,
but on the west there is a narrow strip of level ground of singular fertility. To the north of the
Dead Sea the country opens into the plain of Jericho, 18 miles in length by 7 in breadth, walled in by
an amphitheatre of hills, which concentrate the rays of the sun, and make it very hot and parched. It
produces, nevertheless, good crops of wheat, barley, and balm. The whole valley of the Jordan is con-
siderably below the level of the Mediterranean Sea ; but the exact amount of the depression has not yet
been ascertained. The I'alleys of Galilee are geneially small, but beautifully wooded ; and between G all -
lee and the ridge of Mount Carmel lies the great Plain of Esdraelon, extending south-east from the IJay
of Acre, and watered by the river Kishon. It is called in Scripture the Valley of Jezreel or Megiddo ;
and is exceedingly fertile, and well adapted for growing corn ; but it is uncultivated, and only atl'oi ds
a rich pasture to a few scattered herds. The Plain qf Haouraii lies to the south of Damascus, be-
tween Ilermon and Gilead, and the Jebel llaouran. It is famous for its wheat, and contains many
scattered hummocks, which are the sites of villages. All these hummocks, the round stones found
in the fields, and the whole mountain of Haouran, consist of black basalt. The houses are entirely
built of this stone, even to the doors, and present rather a sombre appearance. The plain is inhabited
by Turks, Druses, and Arabs, and is also visited in spring and summer by Bedwins. The rocky wil-
derness called El Ludja and the Jthd Haouran comprehend ail the uneven country which extends
along the eastern side of the plain of llaouran, from near Damascus to Boszra, and is supposed to be
the ancient Trachonitis. The plain of Haouran itself is the ancient Auraiiitis.
The great Syrian desert and its borders are not a bare wide waSte of sand. Its surface consists
generally of a fine black soil, covered in winter with a long lank grass and herbs, and peopled with
antelopes, wild asses, and boars. In summer, however, the grass and the herbs are burnt up, and
the inhabitants are then obliged to betake themselves to the borders of the cultivated country. In
the interior, indeed, sandy tracts are met with, but even there a scanty herbage is to be found. Along
the side of Syria are numerous ranges of hills which divide the country into small plains ; but eastward
from Palmyra, the desert presents a boundless level surface as far as the eye can reach. In summer
the soil is parched and cracked into innumerable fissures by the heat, and the vegetation is destroyed ;
but no sooner do the winter rains commence than the herbage shoots up with astonishing luxuriance.
In summer, the herds and flocks feed on the dry dead herbage, and are obliged to congregate near
pools and wells; but in winter the Bedwins spread over the desert, and make long journeys, their
flocks and herds no longer requiring water, a< the plants then become juicy and full of sap. After
the heavy rains, a species of vegetables somewhat like mushrooms springs up in immense quantities
in different parts of the desert, some of which are celebrated for their abundant produce of this
article. The Bedwins gather and eat them, after boiling them with butter-milk or melted butter ;
when they are esteemed a great delicacy. The Arabs of the desert belong to the great Aeneze tribe,
and, during the former Turkish dominion of Syria, were quite independent ; but under the Egyptian
rule they were oblijied to acknowledge the supremacy of the Pasha, and even to pay him tribute.
Syria has three distinct climates. The tops of Lebanon, which are for the most part covered with
snow, diffuse a coolness over the interior, while the lowland sea-coasts are sul jected to heat and
moisture, and the eastern lowland adjoining Arabia are exposed to a dry and scorching heat. The
seasons and the productions consequently vary. In the mountains the winter lasts from November to
March, and is sharp and rigorous ; no year passes without falls of snow, which often cover the ground,
for months together, to the depth of several feet. The spring and autumn are agreeable, and tlie sum-
mer is not oppressive. In the plains, however, as soon as the sun has passed to the north of the equator,
a sudden change takes place to overpowering heat, which continues till October ; but to compensate
this, the winter is so temperate, that orange-trees, dates, bananas, and other delicate fruits grow in
the open field. A few hours are sufficient to produce the change from spring to winter. If natural
advantages were duly seconded by art, we might, in a space of 50 miles, bring together, in Syria, the
vegetable treasures of the most distant countries. Besides wheat, rye, barley, beans, and cotton, which
are cultivated everywhere, there are several objects of utility or pleasure peculiar to dirt'erent places.
Palestine abounds in sesamum which aftords oil, and in dhonrra resembling that of Egypt. Maize
thrives in the light soil of Baalbec, and rice is cultivated with success along the marshy borders of
lake Houle. Sugar-canes have been introduced at Beyrout and Saide ; indigo grows without culture
on the banks of the Jordan, and only needs a little care to make it of good quality. The hills of
Latakia, and indeed all the mountains, produce tobacco. Olives grow at Antakia and Kamli to the
height of the oak. The white mulberry thrives admirably on Lebanon and along the coast, and forms
the wealth of the Druses, in consequence of the beautiful silk [iroduced by its worms ; and the vine raised
on poles, or creeping on the ground, furnishes red and white wines equal to those of Bourdcaux.
The clusters are remarkably large, and the grapes are often of the size of plums. Jaffa boasts of her
lemons, Gama of dates and pomegranates, Tripoli of oranges, and Beyrout of figs, Aleppo is unequalled
for pistachio nuts; and Damascus possesses every kind of European "fruit; apples, plums, and peaches
grow with equal facility on her rocky soil. Niebuhr was of opinion that the Arabian coffee shrub
might be cultivated in Palestine. The mountains which diverge {Tuva Taurus in northern Syria are
richly wooded ; and large supplies of oak and yellow pine have recently been drawn from them for the
use of the Egyptian navy. Cottoa^ also produced in considerable quantity in the same region, but,
being raised from an annual plant, me crop is exposed to great vicissitudes. Syria possesses all kinds
of domestic animals common in Eiffope, with the buffalo and the camel besides. The gazelles take
the place of our deer ; and instead o'' wolves there are jackals, hyanas, and ounces. But the ravages
Tdrkf.y.] ASIA, 641
of none of these animals are so mischievous as those of the locust. Unusually mild winters generate
this insect in swarms in the Arabian deserts, from which, in bodies like clouds which darken the
sky, it descends on the plains of Syria, consimiing in its progress every particle of vegetation. The
approach of these formidable swarms spreads general terror, and their visits are followed by certain
famine. The only hope of the Syrian under this calamity is in a bird called satmirmar, which devours
the locusts, and in the south-east winds, which drive them into the Mediterranean. In the summer of
)H3Gan inva.sionof this insect took place, threatening destruction to every thing green in the province.
To destroy them ere they could take the wing was the only chance, and Ibrahim Pasha, it is said, set
not only all his army to pursue them, but every village was called upon to send out parties against
the common enemy. There is, however, a species of locust which furnishes a tolerable article or food
for man.
Samaria is a hilly country, with intervening valleys, which produce abundance of wheat, silk, and
olives.
Judcea lies farther south, occupying the most southern |)art of Syria, between the Mediterranean
and the Dead Sea. The ground rises from Jafla towards the mountains of Judea, in four terraces.
The sea-shore is lined with mastic trees, palms, and prickly pears ; higher up are vines, olives, sy-
camores, and lemon trees, with groves of evergreen oaks, cypresses, andrachnes, and turpentine trees.
The ground is covered with rosraary, citisus, and hyacinths. Some remains are still to be found of
the walls which the ancient inhabitants built to support the soil on the slopes of the hills ; of the
cisterns in which they collected rain water, and of the canals by which these waters were distributed
over the fields. These labours necessarily produced a prodigious fertility under a burning sun, where
a little water was the only requisite to keep the vegetaiile world alive. The flocks of the Arabs still
find in it nutritious pasturage, and the wild bees hoard up in the holes of the rocks a fragrant honey,
which is sometimes seen running down their faces. But the central hills of Judaea and the country
to the eastward are of a very difforant character, being dry and barren, and ending at last, along the
Dead Sea, in a dreary desert, a wilderness of mountains, where both ancients and moderns tell ui they
have found nothing but stones, salt, sand, ashes, and a few thorny shrubs.
Gri.FS, Bays, Straits. — In the Black Sea, thcG////« of Samsoun and Sinub or Sinope ; in the Sea
of Marmora, the Gti/fs of h-mid and Muudaniii ; in the Archil elago, the Gulfs of lietiche or liesihti,
near the entrance of the Dardanelles, Adramyti, Sinidarli, Snu/nia, I'oiala, Svalti-noua, Asi/n-kalcsi,
Cos, Siimi ; in the Mediterranean, the Gulfs of Marmorici, Aiairi, Sutalia or Adalia, Iskendcroon or
Scanderooti, and the Bay of Acre.
Capes. — Iliitoum, I'lmdji, Kmirehlih, Zephira, Aio- Vasidt, Poshpei, foti/i, Jasoun, Thermeh,
Tcherclitiibrh,Jndjth, Kirempe (ancient CaramliitJ, Baba, Kirpeli, arnXKara Bournou, all on the north
coast of Asia Minor. Capf Janitary, at the entrance of the Dardanelles; I'nha Burun, Kara Bujuii ,
and Krio, on the west coast ; Khelidonla, Anamour, Karadnth, on the south coast of the peninsula ;
Kht/nzir, Uosi/t, Rui-el Sliakaa, Mount Carmd, on the coast of Syria.
Islands. — Cypncs (' A.' upros of the ancient Greeks, Kyhris or Kibrit of the moderns), situate towards
the north-ea.st corner of the Mediterranean, and one of the largest and most fertile islands in that sea :
length, 140 miles j breadth, G3; superficial area, 3000 square miles. Kornierly very flourishing, rich,
and populous, it is now almost deserted, and full of ruined towns ; but is still famed for excel lent wine,
cotton, and other products. It possesses great fertility , oranges, olives, raisins, fifis, vines, and cotton,
thrive amazingly, not excepting even the sugar-cane. The population is su| posed to amount to about
60,000, of whom two-thirds are Greeks. Touns. — Nicosia ( Lefkusia of the Turks), in the centre of the
island, is situate in a fine plain, bounded by lofty mountains ; population, about 4000 families. Larna-
ka, on the south co<a.st, is the chief seat of commerce, and the residi-nce of the European consuls. '1 lie
ancient harbour is choke<l up; hut the roadstead is good, and considerable tratiic is carried on with
Malta, Kgypt, and Smyrna. Ffimntxnstii (the ancient Arsinoe, afterwards Ammokhosios), the capital of
the island when in possession of the Venetians, stands on the eastcoast, and still exhibits many prools
of its former grandeur. l'(tffo (auc. I'aphosJ, on the south-west coast, is now a mere village, hut contain-
ed in former times the temples and groves of A phrudite-Kupris (the Cyprian \enus), the goddess of 1 ve
and beauty, lihodos ( Rhodes), near the south-west coast of Asia Minor, 46 miles by 12, and containing
460 square miles, enjoys a delightful climate, the heats of sunmier being cooled by the lofty hills which
occupy its centre. Rhodes was renowned in ancient times for the great wealth and civilization ol its
people, and for the » isdom of its laws, to which it owed its long indcpendv-nce. It acquired a new dis-
tinction in the middle ages, when it became the residence of tlie knights of St. John of Jerusalem. It
Is now almost deserted, but is still of some importance from the fortifications and ship-l/uildiiig jards
of its chief town, in the north-ea^t of the island, which bears the same name, and which appears to oc-
cupy very nearly the site of the ancient Rhodiis, one- <if the most flourishing, oonnneroial, and splendid
of the (ireck cities. The Khodians were c.lebraled for their navigation, and for the enterprising
spirit which led them to send colonies to many parts of the then known world: they possessed for sonu;
time the dominion of the sea, and their maritime laws form the basis of the modern maritime coile of
Europe. The city iiresents no traces of its former splendour ; its only public buildings are two (in.
thic castles, and some massy Gothic churches, now converted into moscpies. It contains a population
of almut ."ifJOO Turks and KKK) Jews ; but no Christian is allowed to reside within the walls. The rest of
the island, however, is occupied almost entirely by Greeks, to the number of about 14,000. Smnos, .'lO
miles south of Smyrna, and separati'<l by a channel, only about a quarter of mile wide, from the pro-
montory of Mycalf, is about WJ miles in circuit, an<l was famous for the worship and temple of Juno,
who was said to have been born in the island. It is very fertile, rises abroptly from the sea to a great
elevation, and its people were long famed for their industry ; but ihey sult'ered very severely in
the late war of independence, and the island is now mostly deerti d and desolate. Scio (ancient
(Jreek C/iiox, modern A'AiVy^, a beautiful and fertile island west of Smyrna, celebrated among the an-
cients for its wine (the Chian), and in latter times for its college, rich library, printing press, and nu-
merous and industrious population, is now deserted, and covered with ruins. It was invaded by a host
of Turks in lH'22,the whole Greek population murdered or carriid into slavery, and their property plun-
derol or destroyed. Some barren islets or large rocks, named Sjni/niadcn; so occupy the space be-
tween Scio and the mainland as to render the passage very dangerous in st<irniy weather. Mylilini
f Lesbos J, north-west of the Gulf of Smyrna, contains 43.'> stpiare inilis, with a population of 40,000,
who are principally maintained by their trade in oil. It is also celebrated for oysters. Tnushnn
and Tcnedos, small rocky islands near the entrance of the Dardanelles. The latter produces a wiin'
more esteemed than any other in the Archipelago. ^ nrmiirn, famous for its marble quarries, hV//./-
Innito, Kabi. and the I'rincK's hluiids, in the Sea of Marmora. Kos ( htniikhiu of the Turks), Astr^f-
jia/aifi, Sisyro, Pisrnpi, Symi, Khalkhi, St. John, F.skriti, I'/aia, Adilp/ii, Stmida, Ci/xo, Scari^nttn,
Ka/imno, Lerita, Zitiuri, Lero, I'litrno, (liiit/iaro, h'urni, Nikaria, all off the soutli-wt^st <'oast. driiiii-
lidUta and K/iclidi/nia /«/<j, off Cape Khelidonia, J'rouctnal, south-west of Selefkeh. Krf/.irn, a small
Uland to the east of Cape Kirpce, in the Black Sea.
th-west
RiVKas. — The Jorukh rises in Armenia, and flows info fhi' BI.ilBiSc'^ af Bafum. The .//•' i.'. /r»,iX
Igret.'U river;, rises to tlui south-west of Tokat, flows thrc.ugh the eyalet of Sivas, passes Tokut, wbf ra
S »
642 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Turkey.
It is called Tokat-Su, Amasla, and Charsambeh, below which it falls into the Black Sea. The Kizil.
Jrmak (red river), formed of two branches, the one rising on the frontiers of Sivas, the other in the
Hassan-dagh, tiows first west, then north, and falls into the Black Sea, between Siniib and Sainsoun,
after a course of 570 miles. It is the ancient //a/y», and the largest river of Asia Minor. The Aifcaria
( Sangarius) is formed of two branches, one from the neighbourhood of Angora, and the other from
the Erair-dagh, joined by the Furtak from Kutaya, and has a course of 250 miles into the Black Sea.
The Kodos or Siirabat C Hermtu), rises in Murad-tagh, and falls into the Gulf of Smyrna, after a
course of 190 miles. The Mendere or Meinder ( Mceander), lias a western course of 180 miles into the
Archipelago south of Samos. It is celebrated for its windings, from which all similar windings
on rivers have been called meanders.
The Sihoon rises near Bostan, and flows south-west past Adana into the Mediterranean. The
Jihoon has a nearly parallel course, a little to the eastward, and falls into the Gulf of Scanderoon.
The Aazi or £l-Jsi (the rebel), the ancient Ormites, rises on the east sideof Anti-Libanus, north of
Damascus, flows north and north-west through a long valley to Antakia, where it turns south and south-
west, and fiUls into the Mediterranean after a course of 225 miles. It is a rapid and troubled river, flow-
ing near the foot of the Ausarian mouutains, where it forms numerous marshes. To the north-east of
Antakia the streams which descend from the valley of Taurus form a large lake, A^gi or Oirja-denf(his
( White sea), which empties itself by one stream, called the Kara-su, into the Orontes. The Leitani
( Leontes) rises at the northern end of the valley EI Bekaa, and flowssouthby west into the Mediter-
ranean, a little to the north of Tyre. The Jordan, Orden or Slierya, rises in a small lake, called an-
ciently Phiala. in Mount Hermon, flows south into lake Hoolya (the Waters of Merom), and passes
onward through the lake of Tabariak ( Sea of Galilee), and then flows with a winding course through
a spacious valley called El Ghor, and falls into the Dead Sea. In the higher part of its course, the
Jordan, after it leaves lake Tabariah, flows between banks which are often picturesque ; and in spring
it fills its deep channel, moving along with great rapidity. The Zerka (Jabbok) flows from Jebel
Haouran westward into the Jordan, nearly midway between the two lakes. The Mandhour 1\o\\s, also
from Jebel Haouran to the Jordan, a few miles south of lake Tabariah. The A'won flows through the
plain of Esdraelon into the south side of the bay of Acre. The Koje, Zerka, Kasab, Arsouf, I'etras,
Roubin, Surek, Besor or river of Gaza, all flow into the Mediterranean Sea.
The Euphrates is formed by the union of two large streams in Armenia. The Murad or south-
em, generally called the eastern branch, rises not far from Bayazid, in the mountains named Ala-
dagh, flows first northerly, and then west and by south, about 300 miles, collecting in its progress
the numerous streams which pour down from the mountains on both sides of the long narrow
valley through which it flows. The northern or western branch rises about 20 miles to the N.E. of
Erzroum, and passes westward within a few miles of that city, under the name of the Frat or Kara-su.
It then flows west by south through a succession of long narrow defiles, till it meet the Murad,
about 7 miles above the lead-mines of Keban-maden. The united stream flows on in the direction of
the Kara-su, and then makes a long circuit through the Taurus under the parallel of 38^ N. lat. After
clearing the mountains, the river foi-ms a double cataract, 22 miles above Samosat, and flows for 100
miles in a direction a little to the south of west ; then proceeds for another 100 miles nearly south, till
it reaches the latitude of Haleb, when it turns to the south-east, and continues in that general direction
to the head of the Persian Gulf; the wholelength of its course being variously estimated between 1500
and 1700 miles. The general description of the Euphrates, for some distance below Bir, is that of a
river of the first order, struggling through high hills, in an exceedingly winding course, as it endea-
vours to force its way over a rocky bed, from one natural barrier to another, the velocity of its cur-
rent varying from rather more than two miles to four and a half per hour, according to the season
and the nature of its bed. It is in this part of its course that it makes its nearest approach to the
Mediterranean Sea, at the gulf of Scandi-roon ; the shortest straight line between them being about
100 miles, and the bed of the river at Bir being 628 feet above the level of the sea. Although the
stream is in many parts quite uninterrupted by cataracts, it is frequently obstructed above Annah,
and a little below that place, by a rocky bottom, and is shallow enough in some places for camels to pass
in the autumn without burdens, the water rising to their bellies, or being four feet deep. The Euphrates
is here enclosed between two parallel ranges of hills, and its banks are for the most part thickly co-
vered with high brushwood, and timber of moderate size ; the " eternal tamarisk," as the members
of the late expedition call it, accompanying the river throughout its whole course. A succession of
long narrow islands, either wooded or cultivated, is found in many parts, and on some of these are
small towns ; the borders of this ancient stream being still well inhabited, not only by Bedwins but
by permanent residents. Fifty or sixty miles below Hillah the river enters alow tract, called the
Marshes of Lemlun, where the navigable channel is very narrow, winding, and intricate. These
marshes extend about 25 miles in a straight line, but 50 by the channel of the river, which here di-
vides into innumerable small canals, leaving the main channel about 120 feet in breadth, and in some
places not more than 35. From the marshes downwards there is a fine broad stream, for lyo miles,
to Kornah, where the Euphrates and the Tigris meet, 1100 miles below Bir, by the course of the river.
From Bir to the sea, the average inclination of the channel is 6.354 inches a mile ; but this is much
aflected by rapids, as at Annah. Through all that distance it is everywhere navigable by boats of a
particular construction, which draw little water. Though rudely buiit, they are numerous, and carry
on much of the internaJ traffic of the country. Some years ago public attention in Britain having
been directed to the Euphrates as a channel of communication with India, it was minutely surveyed
by Captain Chesney, whose report being favourable, an expedition was sent out under his command,
to try its practicability. Two iron steam-boats were built at Bir, and after many delays and dangers,
the descent of the river was accomplished, but the disadvantages of the route have in consequence
been found to be too numerous and too serious to be easily obviated, and all that has been gained
by the attempt is the addition it has made to the knowledge of the geographer and the naturalist ;
though, as usual in such cases, there are people who still maintain the practicability of the route.
The Tigris, the companion and the rival of the Euphrates, has its principal source in the moun-
tains of the country of Zoph, in Armenia, about 5000 feet above the level of the sea. A rising ground
Srevents it from proceeding to the Euphrates, while a deep ravine opens a passage for it towards
liyarbekr, whence it pursues its rapid course through a rugged territory with a great declivity, col-
lecting the waters from the south side of the same range of mountains which send their northern
streams to the Murad. Its extreme rapidity, in this part of its course, the natural effect of local cir-
cumstances, has procured for it the name of Tigr in the Median tongue, Diglito in Arabic, and Hid-
dikel In Hebrew, all of which denote the flight of an arrow. As the Tigris and the Euphrates approach
.^each other, the intermediate land loses its elevation, and is occupied by meadows, marshes, and de-
serts. Above Baghdad, the rivers are only about 20 miles apart, but they afterwards separate to a dis-
tance of 110 miles, and finally meet at Kornah, about 134 miles from the sea. The Tigris is, generally
speaking, a rapid river, and in thjajespect it has been contrasted with the Euphrates, which has been
called a gently flowing stream, ^mt this comparison will apply to the rivers only in the upper parts
of their course ; for lower dow^^Bey both flow onward for several hundred miles through the same
Slain, with more or less rapidity.Trccording to circumstances. Below Baghdad the Tigris has a mo-
erate current ; but in its course from Mosul to that city, it passes over several ledges of rock ; and
TanKET.] ASIA. 643
above the 32° N. lat., rushes through the hills of HamrDn, where It has cut a channel only 150 yardi
wide. The rapidity of the stream of the Euphrates varies at different pUces ; In the depression of
the plain, it is often not a mile an hour ; but over the dry ground it runs nearly three miles an
hour ; the upper Euphrates averages from three to four. The Tigris, in the plains, flows often less
Ui&n one mile an hour, and averaites one and a half throughout. At Mosul, in the time of flood, it
averages not more than four miles an hour. (Airuu-orth's Ilescarchet, Sfc.J Captain Mignan was
much struck with the force and rapidity of the Euphrates at Hillah, from his having always heard it
asserted that the Tigrts flowed more swiftly. " At this point," " he says, " the attribute (sluggish) is
inapplicable ; for at the time I am writing the stream is pursuing its course at the rate of three knots
and a half an hour, whilst the Tigris flows at scarcely three. From the house in which I lodged
(about two furlongs from the bridge of Hillah), I could distinctly hear the rushing of the wat«r be-
neath the bridge, whereas it is never audible at Baghdad, not even to those who live on the brink, and
opposite the floating bridge. Hence I conceive that the epithet 'sluggish,' when applied to the ma-
jestic Euphrates, is improper. In May 1828, I again crossed these rivers, and ascertained their re-
spective velocity. The Euphrates flowed past Hillah at seven knots an hour, and the Tigris at five
knots and a half," (at Baghdad we presume he means). — Trai:els. pp. 121 — 122. There has also been
considerable discrepancy in the opinions of travellers, respecting the relative size of these rivers. The
Euphrates has certainly the longest course, but it is more weakened by the supplies drawn off for ir-
rigation ; and at Hillah its width is only 420 feet, while that of the Tigris at Baghdad is more than 600.
Both rivers overflow their banks in spring, when the snow melts on the mountains of Armenia ; the
Euphrates rises to the perpendicular heig;d of 12 feet, the Tigris about 20 at Baghdad ; and, when the
fall of snow has been very irreat during the preceding winter, the country between and beyond the two
rivers, in the lower part of thiir courses, becomes a vast lake.
The Tigris, during the whole year, contains a sufficient body of water for moderate-sized boats
heavily laden, up to Baglidad; and, during the great r part of the year, as high as Mosul and Diyarbekr.
The great and only difficulty navigators have to contend with, arises from the savage character of the
people on its banks, who plunder every stranger that falls into their power, and not nnfrequently nuir-
der them.
The only a£3uent of the Euphrates worthy of notice is the Kliabour, a large stream which joins it at
Kirkesiah from the north-east. The principal affluents of the Tigris are the Gnat Zab, the Little
Zab, the Took, the Odomeh, and the Diynlah, from Kurdistan ; and the Mcnde/i, from the south-
western declivities of the mountains of Louristan. The two great rivers are, however, connected by
feveral canals, the principal of which is the Shat-el- II ie or Hye, which extends 100 miles from the
Tigris at Kut Aamarah, 241 miles above Kornah, almost due south to the Euphrates, 90 miles above
Kornah. It is dry in summer, but in winter it is about two fathoms deep, and was recently passed by
a steam-vessel. Both rivers seem to have frequently changed their course through the alluvial
plains.
The united stream of the Euphrates and Tigris is called the Shat-el- Arab (River of the Arabs),
and flows with a somewhat winding course, in a direction nearly south-east from Kornah ; entering
the sea by a single channel called the Khore-fl- Bussrali, over an extensive bar, which has only a depth
of three fathoms at high-water, and a bottom of soft oozy mud. It is described as being every-
where broader than the Nile, and its waters much deeper, while the banks are more thickly covered
with groves of date trees, and more on a level with the surface of the water, so as to be more easily
irrigated than any part of Egypt, except during the inundation; but in other respects there is a strik-
ing contrast between these classic and noble rivers. Ships which can pass the bar maybe easily na-
vigate<l up to Bussrah. The tide ascends the Euphrates 60 miles, and the Tigris 35 miles above Kornah.
Not far below Kornah the Shat-el-Arab is joined by the Haweczn or Kirkah, a large river from
Louristan ; and below Bussrah it communicates, by the Ilitfar canal, with the Karuon or Kfiran, and
as was supposed till Chesney's expedition proved the contrary, by the Jerahi also ; the three river.s
together forming seven mouths. The four eastern mouths belong to the Karoon and the Jerahi ; the
tifth, named Khore-omeyah, leads directly into the Shat-el-Arab, and is believed to be navigable by
ships drawing 10 feet water ; but being so close to the main body of the river, its passage is never at-
tempted. The Khure-el- Bussrah, the principal entrance into the river, and the only stream now navi-
gated by ships, has been already described ; and the seventh, Khore- Abdullah, is supposed to have been
once a mouth of the Euphrates, when that river reached the sea by a channel of its own, before it
was united with the Tigris at Kornah. At present it is rather a creek or inlet of the sea, than the
mouth of a river. It is said to be four times as broad from land to land at its entrance as the Shat-el-
Arab is at the same point, and it continues to be twice as broad throughout its whole length ; the depth
of water in mid-channel, decreasing from ten fathoms at the entrance to five fathoms at the head.
Lakes.— The great Lake of Van, in Armenia, situate between 38° and 39"^ N. lat., and 42'' and
44° E. long., extends nearly 80 miles in length from S.W. to N.E. ; the eastern half has only a breadth
of from h to 9 or 10 miles ; in the middle it suddenly expands to a width of 37 miles, but contracts
again at the west end to 15 or 10. It occupies the bottom of a valley, or, as M. Dubois calls it, a vol-
canic amphitheatre, surrounded with lofty mountains ; its waters are bitter, except at the mouths of
the rivers, where they are sweet enough to be drunk by cattle. A species of herring or Sardinia
is taken in abundance at some seasons, and is salted, and exported to all parts of Asia Minor. The
Ixjautyof this lake has been celebrated by almost every Armenian writer both in prose and verse.
It contains two considerable islands, with Armenian convents, one of which bears the name of
Akhtiimar, which is also the Armenian name of the lake. The Turks call it Arjish. A few small
vcs.sels ply upon the lake ; and a singular substance is found floating on its surface, which the j)eople
gather, and use in washing clothes. This is an alkaline salt, composed chiefly of carbonate of soda
and chloride of sodium or sea salt.— ( Suuthi^ate, II. 306. ) The lake is 5,407 feet above the level of the
sea.
The great Tuxla, or Salt Lake of Koch- llitar, situate nearly in the centre of Asia Minor, is said
to l>e 30 leagues in circumference ; it is narrow, while its length extends nearly .W miles. Ihe water
is so extremely salt that no fish or other aquatic animal can live in it; even birds are afraid to
touch it, as their wings become instantly stiff with a thick coat of salt ; and anything thrown into
the lake is soon covered with that substance. The remains of a causeway formrd across the lake are
almost concealed under a case of salt, and the bed of the lake at some places consists of a tliick crust
of solid salt. The salt is a government monopoly, and is collected at only four places.— ( Hami/ttm,
Journal R. Geog. Soc. Land. VIII. 147.) The surfaceof the lake is 2,.500 feet above the level of the
sea. It is called by the people In the neighbourhood Tuz-choli (salt desert), because it is nearly drv
in summer; but sometimes Tuz-goli i»ait\akc), Agi-fiol (bitter lake), or Kocb-hisar-goli (lake of
Koch-hisar.)— .<^ifMU6(r<A'* Journal, li. Geog. Soc. X. 298.
The Dead 8e*, called by the Arabs liahr Lout (Lofs sea), and Sahr Mittneh (stinking sea\ and
by the Latin geographers, Larus Asvhallitis or Marr Mortuum, is utuato in the southern pai t of Pales-
tine, between 31'^ and 32 ' N. lat. and 35 ' and 30 ' E. long. Its dim^kons have not yet been exactly as.
certalned ; but it probably extends about 50 miles in length from^Ho 8., and from 7 to 20 in breadth.
In July 1n35 Mr. (/'ostigan, an Irishman, with a Maltese sailor as^n servant, »i)ent eight days in ma-
kingthe tour of this lake in a boat, but wa<< so worn out with his exertions, that be died liefurehc could
644 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [ToRKEy.
give an aeoonnt of his voyage. His servant, however, had observed the coast and sow dings with the
eye of a sailor, ai>d told -Mr. Stephens, who found him at Bcyrout, that they had moved in a zigzag
direction, crossing the lake several times ; that every day they sounded frequently with a line ot 175
braohia (each about 6 fecfi ; that they found the bottom rocky and of very unequal depth, sometimes
ranging 30, 40, SO, 20 brachia, all within a few boat's length ; that sometimes the lead brought up sand,
like that of the neighbouring mountains ; that they failed but once to (ind the bottom, and in that place
there were Urge bubbles all around for 30 paces, rising probably from a spring ; that, in one place,
they found on the bank a hot sidphureous spring; that in four different places they found ruins, and
could clearly distinguish large hewn stones, which seemed to have been used for buildings ; that at
the south end of the lake a long tongue of high land projects into the water, and is composed of solid
salt, which has at a distance the appearance of an island, the extremity. being higher than the isthmus.
In March 1837 it was again surveyed in a boat by Messrs. Moore and Beke, who found its depth in
some places to exceed 300 fathoms ; and, from several observations on the temperature of boiling
water, and by the barometer, they estimated the level of its surface to be 500 feet below that of the
ocean. Pro/essor Schubert has estimated the depression, as indicated by the barometer, to be 598 or
600 feet ; but M. Russeggcr has carried his estimate, also by barometer, to the enormous amount of
UOO feet. Its waters are intensely salt, and their taste is of the most nauseous kind, salt, bitter, and sul-
phureous, and so pungent that the eyes smart severely for sometime after being dipped in theiri. It has
been found to contain, in 100 parts, 0.920 of muriate of lime; 10.246 of magnesia; 13.300 of soda; and 0.054
of sulphate of lime. The south-western side of the lake is skirted by a long low ridge about 150 feet
high, the whole mass of which consists of solid rock salt, covered with layers of soft limestone, marl,
and other substances, through which the salt breaks out, and appears on the sides, in precipices 40 or
50 feet hieh, and several hundred feet long. Often also the salt is broken off in pieces which are
strewed along the shore like stones, or accumulated at the foot of the precipices. The extreme salt-
ness of the lake is thus easily accounted for ; the Arabs carry salt from the Dead Sea to all parts of
Palestine for common use. The principal supply of water is derived from the river Jordan, which,
even two or three miles above its mouth, is impregnated with the salt and bituminous matter of the
lake ; but, in the rainy season a great supply is also derived from the south ; for, not only the waters
of the valley El Arabah, but those also of the western desert, far to the south of Akaba, flow north-
wards to the Dead Sea. Nothing can be more dreary than the scenery round this lake ; the soil is
without vegetation, and furnishes food for neither bird nor beast. The water is extremely buoyant,
and the air above it has a feeling of opjiressive weight. Asphaltum or bituminous matter is found
floating on its surface; but whether or not it contains fish seems not yet positively ascertained. —
( Stephen' t Incidmts of Tracel. New York, 1838, vol. II. ch. 14 and 15. Journal R. Geog. Sac. Land.
Tol. IX. See ahn ante, page 631. J
The Lake of Tnhariah or Sea of Galilee, is situate about 70 miles N. from the Dead Sea, in a
basin surrounded by lofty but naked hills, about 328 feet below the level of the Mediterranean Sea,
according to Lieutenant Symonds. It is about 16 miles in length by 9 in breadth, and is celebrated
by all travellers for its grandeurand picturesque beauty. The water is of a greenish hue, and abounds
with fish, some kinds of which are said to be found only in this lake and in the Nile ; it is perfectly
clear and sweet, though it receives several hot salt streams so impregnated with gases that they
change the colour of the stones over which they pass. The Jordan flows through the middle of the
lake with a strong and perceptible current. Long-continued storms are unknown, but the lake is oc-
casionally subject to whirlwinds, squalls, and sudden gusts from the hollow of the mountains. There
Is no navigation upon it, nor even a fishing boat.
The .^ggi or Owja-denghis (White Sea) is formed by the streams which descend from the va,lleys
of Taurus, to the north-east of Antioch, and empties itself by one stream, the Kara-su, into the
Orontes. It is about 10 miles long, by 4 or 5 broad, and affords a navigable passage along its west side,
to Murad-pasha on the upper Kara-su, and through the lower Kara-su and the Orontes to the sea.
Besides these, there are in Syria, the Bahr-el-Margi, or Lake of the Meadow, which is the receptacle!
for the streams that water the plain of Damascus. In summer it is only a pestilential marsh, hut in
■winter it becomes a considerable lake. The Lake of Horns, formed by the Orontes ; and the Sihkak
or Salt Lake of Geboul, to the south-east of Aleppo. In Asia Minor there are a great many other
lakes ; the principal of which are : The Lukes of Is-nik, AbuUiont, and ilaniyas, on the south ^ido
of the Sea of Marmora ; Egerdir, a beautilul sheet of water about 30 miles in length, surrounded by
lofty mountains, which are clothed with wood, and emitting at its south end a copious stream, which
is said to fall into another very large lake, 35 or 40 miles in circumference, at the distance of four
hours' journey; Eber, Ak- Shehr, Beg- Shehr or Kereli, Seidi- Shehr or Sog/ila, the Ak- G/iieul iW\iit0
lake), Ochardak; a salt lake, from which great quantities of salt are collected ; all to the north of the
Gulf of Adalia. Gheuljik- (Little lake;, .50 miles N.W. of Diyarbekr, between Kharput and Arghana-
Maden, 12 miles long by 3 or 4 broad, and 4,4.53 feet above the level of the sea. The water is fresh,
though usually said to be salt. — -('LVawd, Juurnal R. Geog. Soc. Land. VI. 208.) It is also called
Geukcheh (Sky-blue), and by Mr. Ainsworth, Girrjik-Goli.
People. — The Osmanlee are the dominant race, being spread over all the empire, but are most nume-
rous in Asia Minor, which they seem to consider as their proper country. C See Turkey in Europe.)
Besides the Osmanlee there is a great number of other Turks ; those in Armenia, and along the
eastern frontier, take that name, which completely distinguishes them from their western brethren,
■who spurn it. Next to the Turks in number are the Arabs, who form the principal part of the popu-
lation of Syria, and of the south-east provinces. (See Arabia.) The Montefige Arabspossess the coun-
try between Bussrah and Baghdad ; their aggregate number is about 200,000, of whom "0,000 are fit for
■war. The Annizah and Jerboa are the other great Mesopotamian tribes. Among these tribes it has
always been a part of the Turkish policy to foment a jealousy and maintain a balance of power, as
othern ise they might, by confederating, drive them out of the country. The Kurdt or Koords, the de-
scendants of the ancient Carduchii or Cordueni, inhabit and give their name to a region to the south-
east of Armenia, extending about 300 miles in length, and half as much in breadth, and presenting an
endless succession of hill and valleys, dells and plains of exhaustless fertility, and towering mountains.
They speak the Persian language with a mixture of Arabic and Chalda^an terms, and are mostly Ma-
hometans ; but their religion is conjoined with various superstitions, which seem to be the remains
of the ancient Magian faith. About a tenth part of them are Nestorian Christians, or Chaldseans, who
inhabit the wild mountainous region to the south of the lake of Van, round Julamerk, their chief
town. But whatever be their religious profession, they are a very uncivilized and lawless race ; their
country from time immemorial has been the scene of turbulence, robbery, and warfare ; and they have
seldom, if ever, been more than nominally subject to any of the great em"pires which have prevailed in
this part of Asia. Kurdistan is at present nominally divided between Persia and Turkey, without
being really subject to either. The Kurds are divided into numerous tribes, and ako into two classes,
the nobles or gentry, who spend thfir time in idleness or warfare, and the slaves, serfs, or peasants,
who perform all the agricultural^^our, and who appear to be of a different race from their hau'.:hty
masters. Many Kurds are foun^^kond the limits of Kurdistan, scattered through Armenia, Asia
Minor, and Northern Syria, wh^BHiey lead a wandering pastoral life, like the Turcomans, and sonie-
tim«i prove very troublesome neighbours to the inhabitants of the plains. Everywhere the nania
Turkey.] ASIA. C45
of Kurd seems to be considered as nearly synonymous with robber. The Turcomans are, like the
Osmaiilee. a branch of the great Tflrkee family ; but, like the Kurds, they lead a pastoral and un-
settltd lite ; they are, however, by far the most numerous and most civilized of the nomadic tribes of
Asia Minor. They live in tents during summer, but have generally fixed villages for their winter
quarters ; they possess large herds of camels, buft'aloes, goats, and sheep ; they also breed horses,
and sell them, with milk, butter, and meat, in the towns and villages, taking in return, arms, clothes,
and money. Their women spin wool and make carpets. Each camp is under a chief, whose power
is regulated by customs and circumstances, the abuse of which is restrained by public opinion. They
pay so much a tent to the pashas for the privilege of pasturing over the unenclosed and uncultivated
parts of the provinces. A large portion, also, of the Moslem population between Haghdad and Mosul,
call themselves Turcomans, and speak the Turkish language. The Yurukht are another nomadic
people of Asia Minor, who live in tents all the year round, but almost exclusively in the mountains;
and, when in the neighbourhood of towns, they generally act as charcoal burners, and supply the towns-
peoj'le with that article. They also cultivate a little ground. The l'ert>rfe« are a singular race, who prin-
cipally inhabit the mountain range of Sinjar in Mesopotamia, between the rivers Euphrates, Tigris,
and Ivliabour; but are found also in great numbers in Kuidis^tan, and near Mosul, and a good many
in the eyalet of Diyarbekr. There seems to be no doubt that tliey derive their origin and name from
Yezid the son of the Caliph Moawiyah, who destroyed the race of Ali ; although it is said by some
that they are descended from a saint named Yezid, who lived about the same time (in the seventh
century). Being detested by the Persians, on account of the destruction of the house of Ali by Yezid,
and by the Arabs, as worshippers of the devil, they have been driven into the strong and isolated hills
of Sinjar, and the rugged mountains and defiles of Kurdistan. Their religion (see ante^ p. 124) is a
strange mixture of worship of the devil with the doctrine of the Magians, Mahometans, and Chris-
tians ; but religion, or religious ceremonies of any kind seem to be merely nominal among those of
Sinjar, though those in Kurdistan practise various religious observances. Their manners and customs
are very simple ; their chief articles of food are barley bread, onions, figs, and grapes, either fresh or
dried, according to the season; wheaten bread is very rarely seen. No kind of wine or spirituous
liquor is used by them. They are of the middle size, with clear complexions, regular features, black
eyes and hair, thin, muscular, and well-proportioned limbs. Their character is rather superior
to that of their neighbours. They are brave, hospitable, and sober, faithful to their promises, much
attached to their native soil, but cruel and vindictive, considering their proper means of support to be
robbery and theft. They differ from the surrounding tribes in not being polygamists ; and all the
tribes intermarry with each other. They used to keep the whole country between Mosul and Nisibin
in a constant state of alarm ; but in 1837 they were reduced to subjection by the pasha of Diyarbekr,
and registered as tributaries of the Sultan. — ( Furbes ; Visit tu t/ie Sinjar Hills in 1838, Sjc. Journal It.
Gcng. Soc. Land. IX. 409.)
The Jrmvnians, one of the most ancient nations in the world, were the original possessors of Ar-
menia, where, however, they now form only about a seventh part of the population, the rest of the
inhabitants being chiefly Turks and Kurds. They call themselves in their own language Ilai-kuni,
and are distinguished by an elegant form and an animated physiognomy. Being constantly exposed
to the wars waged by the great neighbouring potentates, they have been forced in a great measure to
leave their country ; and, though originally a brave and warlike people, thoy have now become dis-
tinguished for their peaceful character, and their willing submission to the govermnent of every
country in which they live. Devoted to commerce and manufactures, they have [irospered wherever
they have settled, finding their way to places inaccessible to Europeans ; and their scattered colonies
now extend from Hungary and Venice to Calcutta, and even to China ; and from St. I'etersburg and
Moscow, to the deserts of Africa. In their own country, as well as elsewhere, they generally live in
large families, in a state of happy unanimity, under the patriarchal rule of their oldest member ; but
this family attachment is found to be (juite compatible with insensibility, injustice, and perfidy to-
wards persons of a different race. Their religion is a branch of the Oriental Christian Church (sea
anti; p. IIS). There are, besides all these races, a great many Greeks spread over the country, but
chiefly in the western parts of Asia Minor, who are also found ahmg the southern coasts, ajid in the
towns of Syria and Palestine ; preserving everywhere their national characteristics and religion.
Syria Ijeing successively invaded by the Persians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Saracens, the Latin
Crusaders, and the Turks, presents a very mixed population. The aboriginal Syrians form but a very
small proportion. Turks are found in the towns, and used to be the only civic functionaries. Many
Arabs are settled throughout the country as cultivators, and many Bedwins are also to be met with.
The total population of Syria is estimated at from 1,'2.')0,000 to 1,500,(X)0, of whom two-thirds are Jlos-
lem, and tlie greater part of the remainder Christians. In the northern eyalet of Aleppo are hordes
of Turcomans and Kurds ; and the mountains between Aleppo and Damascus are occupied, in great
part, by the single tribes /frisariutit, Dnisis, Mnrunitis, and Moloualis. The Ansariaiis, called vari-
ously S'ecfrtt, Niiri'res, Nocires, Nassiiriinis, Nassaris, Knsyriaiis, Aiizeyrys, and Ismailijx, occupy the
mountains which extend from Antakia to the river Kebir, and are generally considered as a Maho-
metan .sect, said to have been founded in the seventh century by one Nassar. But very little is in
reality known about them or their religion ; it api)ears, however, that they were established whero
they are now found, long before the Ottoman conijuest ; and all that can be said of their religion is,
that it is a mixture of .Mahometaiiism and idolatry. Their chief seat, and the residence of their einir,
is Mmial, or Mnszyad, a castle, 40 miles N.K. of Tripoli. The Druses, about 150,000 in number, dwell
among the hills and in the valleys of western Lebanon, as far south and east as the Leitani or (iiiasniio
river. Their origin is uncertain, but they are, with some probability, believed to be the descendant.*
of the ancient Itura-i, a brave people, who possessed the same country in the times of the Konian.s,
end, according to Niebuhr, the proper form of their name is Dnrzi, or Turzi, according to more
modern authority, Di^ze, for Durtiz. They are under the government of an emir, who resides at
i)f-ir-el- Katiuir, Uouse-of- the-Moon, a town situate midway between Lebanon and the sia, about 12
miles K.N.K. of Saide. Their religion is involved in njystery, though they are said to believe in one
supreme Ijcing, who appeared for the last time incarnate in the person of liakem, Khalif of Ivgypt,
about A.D lO.tO. This pretender to divinity was supported in his pretensions by a pro|jhet, who camo
from Persia into Egypt; both the khalif and the priest p>ri.-hed by violence; but their doctrines sur-
vived, and their proselytes, persecuted as usual by the sect then in power, arc said to have taken refuge
in Lebanon. The Druses have found it their interest to tolerate differences of opinion in religious
matters, and they have therefore united in a body, at different times, to oppose the crusaders, the sul-
tans of Aleppo, the Mamelukes, and the Ottomans. After the Ottoman conquest of Syria, the Druses
often descended from the mountains to harass the conquerors ; but after the middle of the Kith cen-
tury they l)cc«me subject to the Porte, and, for the payment of yearly tribute, were allowed to main-
tain an almost undisturbed independence. They are in general fierce, restless, and enterprising, and
their bravery even approaches to rashness. In time of extremity they can muster 'iO.lMIO men, horso
and foot, armed with firelocks, the larger proportion being cavaby. The Dru.ses, who eor.ipose two-
thirds of this force, are a stout and well-made people, with a ciMvful and rather reckless expression
on their round facis, which are in general iH'anlless, and ratheSfeir. They wear their hair beneath
tile light Syrian turban, tor in Lebanon neither the faith nor the customs of the Turks have ever been
▼cry i'a»hioiiable. Some c' them entertain very peculiar notions reepocting reUgion; but as aboily
646 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Turkey.
they arc said to be qiiltc liulifferent to It, following the Maronltes or the Turks Just «-» they And it
convenient. On the mountain tlii'ir enilr Is a Christian; when he visits the towns on the coast, he
is a believer in tlio Trophot ; he resides in a large and costly palace called Beteddin, close by Deir-el-
Kaniar. The Druse women wear tantooras, or horns, on the head, supporting a sort of reil. which
gives them a very singular appearance. The Fellahs of the Lcdja, south of Damascus, are also Druses;
and to the east of Sanamein is a ridge of hills, called Jebel ul Droos, or the mountain of the Druses,
the inhabitants of which are here governed by a prince of their own, independent of the emir beshir.
The Maronitei occupy the hill coimtrv between Beyrout and Tripoli, called Keirawtm, Ketrouan,
or, improperly, Ctistrnvnn, and live in villages and hamlets round the convent of Kannohin, the seat
of their patriarch. Hcing divided into various tribes, each cultivates his own little territory. Tliey
live peaceably and frugally in the bosom of their families, and beneath their humble roof the Christian
traveller meets with a kind and hospitable welcome. The sound of bells and the pomp of processions
attest the full liberty of conscience here enjoyed by the Christians. Two hundred monasteries rigor-
ously adhere to the rules of St. Anthony, and numerous hermits have taken up their abodes in the
grottoes and caverns of Lebanon. The Maronites derive their name from Maron, a saint of the
fifth century, whose proselytes, having been stigmatised as heretics, sought refuge in the Kesrawan.
After long braving the Saracen and the Turkish power, they were reduced at last by Sultan Murad III.
in I.V>8, who penetrated into their country, compelled them to acknowledge his supremacy, and to
pay a yearly tribute. In every other respect they remained uncontrolled. They have been received
into the communion of the Roman church, which, however, according to its usual custom with hea-
then converts, still connives at their retaining some of their old opinions and practices, and particu-
larly at the marriage of their priests. Their devotion, superstitious as it is, is fervent and steady,
and throws an agreeable interest over their little territory, surrounded as it is by the darkness of
Islam. Their numbers are about 150,000. The Maronites recognise no distinctions of rank, and
have scarcely any form of government ; the villages form so many little communities, and settle
jicacefully among themselves the disputes which elsewhere atford such a handle to governors to plun-
der and oppress their people. In personal quarrels, however, they exercise the barbaric right of
vengeance, their religion having failed to impress upon them the most essential part of its morality,
the forgiveness of injuries. They are all armed, and, when their strength is called out, can muster
3-^,000 men. Their monks cultivate the ground, and practise all the necessary handicraft trades.
The priests are supported by the bounty of their flocks, which they are obliged to eke out by the cul-
tivation of land, or the prosecution of a trade; even the bishops have only revenues equal to about
£60 sterling a-year. But for this poverty the clergy are compensated by the great respect paid to
them by the people, who kiss their hands whenever they meet them.
The Moutoualis or Metwalit, are Shiahs, or heterodox Mussulmen, who worship the Khalif All
and his descendants, while they curse Abubekr, Omar, and Othman. They formerly occupied the valley
Kl-Bekaa, and sometimes rendeied themselves very formidable to the Turks. They are supposed to
be ancient Syrians, though, as a distinct sect, their name does not occur before the 18th century.
Their name signifies Sectanes of jlli. The Moutoualis are now very much reduced, and are chiefly
to be found in Eastern Lebanon, and among the Maronites. Their Emir resides at Baalbec ; but the
lower part of the valley is occupied by Turks.
The Arabic language predominates over the whole country ; and the old Syrian tongue is spoken
only in a few districts, chiefly in the neighbourhood of Damascus and Lebanon. The Arab and Tur-
kish part of the people are Mussulmen. Of the Christian sects the most numerous are those of tho
Oreek church ; the Jacobites have also many adherents ; and there are besides some European Chris-
tians, Armenians, Nestoriana, and Jews. In fact, no country presents a greater assemblage of dif-
ferent creeds.
Government. — See Turkey in ErROPE.
Prodoctite Industry. — Throughout the vast regions of Ottoman Asia agriculture is in the most
wretched state, with the exception only of a few small districts, and the neighbourhood of the large
towns. Manufacturing industry is a little more flourishing, particularly in the larger towns. It may
even be said, that in dying cotton, silk, wool, and skins, the Turks surpass, or at least equal the most
perfect European specimens of the same kind. But, generally speaking, there seems to be a completo
stagnation of industry, enterprise, and energy. 1 he principal arts and manufactures of Asiatic
Turkey are : The silk stuffs of Aleppo, Damascus, Mardin, Baghdad, and Brusa ; the cotton stufi's of
Mosul, Damascus, Aleppo, Guzel-hisar, Diyarbekr, Smyrna, and Manissa ; the cloth of Brusa, Tokat,
Amasia, Trobizond, Rizah, Mardin, Baghdad, and Diyarbekr ; the ordinary cloth of Khanak-kalesi,
Guzel-hisar, and Hillah ; the camlets and shawls of Angora ; the carpets of Brusa, Kara-hisar, I'er-
gamo, Aleppo, Damascus; the leather of Konieh, Kaisariyah, Kuskin, Diyarbekr, Orfa; the saddles
of .\intab ; the bridles of Uillah ; the tobacco of Latakia ; the opium of Kara-hisar ; the stoneware
of Khanak-kalesi and Hillah ; the soaps of Damascus, Baghdad, and Aleppo ; the cutlery of Damas-
cus ; the copper utensils of Tokat and Erzroum, and the glass of Mardin and Hebron.
Commerce. — Few countries in the world are better adapted than Ottoman Asia for being the centra
of an immense commerce. Accordingly, from the highest antiquity, and during all the middle ages,
this country was the seat of the greatest commerce in the world ; but from want of safety to traders,
of great roads, of navi>fable canals, and encouragement on the part of the government, its present
commerce is scarcely the shadow of what it was in former times. The central position, nevertheless,
of these fine provinces between Europe, Asia, and Africa, the rich productions of their soil, the nu-
merous products of the industry of some of their great towns, and the caravans of Damascus and
Baghdad which convoy to Mecca the pilgrims of Europe and Eastern Asia, contribute still to give
great activity to their commercial relations. The internal commerce, which is the most considerable,
is carried on by caravans, as in other parts of Asia. Erzroum, Kara-hisar, Tokat, Angora, Brusa,
Smyrna, Bussrah, Baghdad, Diyarbekr, Aleppo, Mosul, and Damascus, are the principal resort of
the caravans from Persia, Arabia, and Europe. The maritime commerce is carried on almost en-
tirely by Europeans except only at Bussrah ; the English, the French, the Dutch, the Russians, and
the Austrians, have the greatest share of it. Smyrna, Latakia, Tripoli, Acre, and Beyrout, are tho
principal places in the Levant ; Trebizond is the principal mart on the Black Sea. The Armenians,
and next to them the Jews and the Greeks, are, of the native population, most given to commerce.
The principal articles of export are : silk, cotton, wool, leather, tobacco, copper, camels'-hair, goats'-
hair, opium, saffron, gall-nuts, turpentine, storax, raisins, figs, and other dried fruits, the wine of
Cyprus, skins, turkey-leather, and other articles of native manufacture, and several manufactured
articles whicli are imported from India, Persia, and Arabia. The principal articles of import are :
silk-stufl"s, cloths, needles, watches, and other hardwares, mirrors, and other glass-ware from Bohe-
mia and Venice, paper, tin, Nuremberg wares, porcelain, colonial produce, and many other articles.
Arabia, Persia, anil India, furnish^a great part of the precious products of their soil, and the last
country sends the produce of its nwBjerous handicrafts. (See Turkey in Europe.)
Divisions. — For administrative purposes, Asiatic Turkey is divided into 20 governments called
tyaleti, which are subdivided into departments, or shires called Sanjaks and livas : some of tlie lat-
Turkey.] ASIA. 647
ter, however, being Independent of the pasha, or governor of the eyalet within n nlch they are geogra-
Sliieally situate. Both classes of divisions are very unequal in respect of extent and population,
lany wandering and mountain tribes, and, indeed, large tracts of country are only tributary ; some
are merely vassals, and others quite independent. The following table of these divisions is given by
Baibi in his Abrege, as the nearest approach he could make, with the assistance of M. Joiiannin, to
the true administrative divisions of Ottoman Asia.
Eyalett. Chief Towns and Remark-able Placet.
L— ASIA-MINOR, or ANADOLI.
Akadoli. . Kutahya, Is-nikmid or Is-mid, Brusa or Prusa, Moudania, Eidonia or Haivall,
Pergamo, Sart, Smyrna, Guzel-hisar, Allah-Shehr, Ayasalouk, Antalia or Ada-
lia, Ak-hisar, Kara-hisar, Angora, Kanghri, Kastemuni, Sinub, Boli, Bartine or
Bartan, with several tribes of vassal Turcomans.
Adaka. . . . Adana, Tarsotis, Sis, Baias, Anemour, Selefkeh, Alaue or Alaia, and several
Turcomans.
Caramania. Konieh, Laranda or Karaman, Ak-shehr, Ak-serai, Nikde, Gourouk, Maden, Kir-
shehr, Kaisariyah, Ladik.
Marash. . . Marnsh, Bostan, Aintab, Malatiyah, several tribes of Turcomans and Kurds.
SiVAS. . . . Sicat, Tokat, Yuzgat or Ouscat, Amasia, Merzifoun, Chorum, Vizier-pasha,
Unieh.
Trebizond. Ttebizond or Trapetun or Tarabozun, Kerasun ; Lazistan, the country of the
Lazis, and independent tribes, lies along the coast east of Trebizond.
II.— ARMENIA, WITH PART OF KURDISTAN and GEORGIA.
Erzroum. . Erzroum, Kamakh, Maden, Erzingan, Kara-hisar, Gumushkhaneh, Baibout, Top-
rak-kalah.
Kars. . . . K'irt, Ani, Ardanuji.
Van. . . . Fan, Mftsh, Betlis, Khoshab, Bayazid.
Shebrzcr or Ottoman Kdrdistan. — Kerkul:, Shehrzur, Erbil, Baian, Suleimaniyah.
HI.— MESOPOTAMIA or ALJEZIRA, with ARABIAN IRAK.
Baoboad. . Baghdad, Meshed-Ali, Hillah, Meshed-Hussein, Anna, Nisibin, Mardin, Bussrah,
Kornah .
DiTARBEKR. Diynrbekr OT Kara-Amid, Maden, Siverek.
Rakka. . . BaH-a, Orfah, Bir, Tor, Khabour.
Mosul. . . Mosul, Elkosb.
IV.— SYRIA OR ELSHAM.
AtEPPO. . . Haleb or Aleppo, Killis, Alexandretta or Scanderoon, Beilan, Antakia or Antioch,
Shogr or Jesr-shogr.
Damascus. . Damatcus, Hamah, Horns, Tadmor or Palmyra, Jerusalem, Bethlehem, El Rhalil
or Hebron, Rayah or Jericho, Nablous or Sichem, Gaza, Kamlah, Jaffa.
Acre. . . . ^cre or Aklca, Beyrout, Sidon or Saide, Sour or Tyre, Nazareth or Nazra, Ta-
bariah.
Tripoli.. . Tripoli or Tarabolout, l.aXakxa..
Cities and Towns in Asia Minor and Armenia.
Smyrna (Itmir of the Turks) lat. 38° 29' N., long. 27° 11' E., is situate at the bottom or eastern
extremity of the gulf of the same name, and is built in the form of an amphitheatre, on the slope of
a hill, the top of which is crowned with a ruinous castle. Without being beautiful, Smyrna presents
an agreeable appearance, and contains some well-built houses, which belong chiefly to the Franks,
and form a pretty quarter of the town. The streets are narrow and dirty, with the exception of those
which are covered. To its position Smyrna owes the rank which it holds among the most important
trading places in the world. The extent and safety of its road for shipping, and the facility of its
communications with the interior, liave made it the general emporium of the Levant. The trade
in dry fruit is immense. Smyrna now forms a small eyalet, governed by a pasha of three tails,
and has a population of about 130,000, of whom 10,000 are Jews of Spanish origin. The Frank quar-
ter is inhabited principally by the English, French, Dutch, and Italian merchants, with their fami-
lies and servants, whose persons and property are exempt from Turkish rule ; and in civil, com-
mercial, or criminal matters, they recognise no other judges than their own consuls. In the magni-
ficent cassino, which was built by subscription, are found all the principal periodical publications of
Europe, and in the theatre an amateur company plays Italian comedies. There is also a Greek col-
lege ; and a gazette is published in French. The summer heat is very great ; the thermometer in July,
In a cool room with the shutters closed, varies from 78- to 83°, and in the shade out of doors, from 84°
to 94°; but the heat is generally tempered by a fine westerly breeze called the inbat, which continues
from mid-day till sunset. Occasionally, however, hot winds blow from the south and burn up the
country. In the immediate neighbourhood are the pretty village of Boumabat, where most of the
Franks have their country houses, and the villages of iiojya and Stdi- A'twi, remarkable for their fine
plains and numerous population.
Manilla (, Magneiui),2btai\es'S.'E. of Smyrna, is a large town, with a flourishing trade and extensive
plantations of saffron. It also contains a ruined fortress, and the tombs of Sultan Murad II. and
his family. Population 100,000. Fokia, 2.5 miles N. W. from Smyrna, a flourishing town with a good
harbour, built on the site of the ancient Bhociea, so renowned for its colonits in Spain and Gaul,
among which the most distinguished was Massilia (Marseilles), f'ourla, a small town, 20 miles W.
by 8. of Smyrna, built near the site of the ancient Clazomeme, still contains traces of the mound
formed by Alexander the Great, (hftmeh, Chismeh or Trhetme, 40 miles W. by S. of Smyrna, a
small town situate on a bay, where tlic Turkish fleet was destroyed by the Russians In 1770. Ayasaluuk,
(Moon-town) 40 miles S. by E. of Smyrna, a miserable Turkish village, represents the ancient Kphetw,
the remains of which are at a little distance, and consist of shapeless ruins and stone walls. The
harbour is now only a pestilential marsh. Scala-nova, 45 miles 8. by E. of Smyrna, a flourishing
commercial town witli a harbour, contained, before the Greek revolution, 20,000 inhabitants. Palatia,
near the mouth of the Meander, a wretched assemblage of huts, appears to represent Miletus, one of
the most flourishing commercial cities of antiquity. The ruins of its vast theatre are still to be seen.
It is situatcl upon a brackish lake, connected with the Meander by a channel two miles long. Huzel-
hitar ( Trallet), fi4 miles 8. E. by S. of Smyrna, is a flourishing trading town, with cotton manufactures,
and 30,000 inhabitants. Tin-h or Tirrci, 47 miles S.E. of Smyrna,* modern town, is nearly as large as
Smyrna, though less populous. Caiiaba or Durgiitii, 3.*) miles E. of Sm.vrna, is a '^''IJ^ town, with
about COOO houses. Sart ( Sardei), 'oO miles E., is a miserable village iiiliab'ited by a few Turks, on tha
648 DESCRIPTIVE, 3E0GRAPHY, [Turkey.
s\t« of tlic splendid capital of the Lyiilan kings. The principal ruins consist of those of the great
church, the temple of ("ybelo, and the tomb of Alyatte?, the father of Croesus, which consists of a
ijonical hill of earth 200 feet hish and KKX) round the base. Similar monuments of smaller size are
found at a little distance. At-Ai'mr (ancient Tht/atira), 60 miles N.E. of Smyrna, is a town of 1740
houses, situatcin a fertile plain, and surrounded by groves of delicious gardens. AUah-Shehr or Alw
S/iihr (.ancient I hiliidi'lphia). 8t miles E. of Smyrna, is said to contain more than a dozen of Chris-
tian churches, and the bull< of its population is Christian. I'ergarno or lier^ma, 48 miles N., is a largo
and still nourishing town in the valley of the < akin ( Grivuikli), although only the shadow of the
ancient residence of the kings of I'ergamus. Its magniflcent temple of ^sculapius, its celebrated
library, inferior only to tliat of Alexandria, and the invention of parchment {charta pergatnena), give
a distinguished place in history to this ancient city. Uuirali, named Kidunia by the Greeks, on the
gulf of Adramyti, founded towards the end of tlie 18th century, became in a short time one of tha
most industrious, commercial, and polished cities of Asia Minor. It possessed numerous manu-
factories, a fine college, a library, a printing press, beautiful churches, 3000 houses, and 36,000 inlia-
bitants, all of which disapix;ared in the late war between the Greeks and the Turks. Since lb2I
Kiilonia has been only a heap of ruins.
Hkosa, or Prosa, lat. 40° 1*' 30'', long. 29^ 4' 45", 03 miles in a straight line S. by E. of Constan-
tinople, is situate in a fine plain 20 miles in length, behind which, to the south, rise the snowy tops of
Olympus. The ordinary houses are of wood, the streets very narrow but clean and well-paved, and
altogether it is a very fine city. It is overlooked by an old castle situate on a rocky and picturesque
eminence, and Is surrounded by extensive suburbs. The most remarkable buildings are the Oulou-
jami, or principal mosque, a large building, which dates from the Ottoman conquest of the city; the
mosques of the Sultan Orkhan, with his tomb, and a well-frequented college; and those of the Sultans
Othman, Murad, and Hayazid. The city contains also a number of fine klians, built with stone, magni-
ficent baths, and beautiful fountains. Formerly the capital of the kings of Bithynia, it was after-
wards the capital of the Ottoman empire till the taking of Adrianople. Population 100,000. The adjoin-
ing plain is covered for miles with mulberry trees, which supply abundant food for the silk-worms that
furnish the staple produce of the place. The adjoining mountains abound in the finest pasturage,
timber, underwood for fuel, and springs of the purest water, which is profusely supplied to every
part of the city. From the foot of Olympus there issue mineral waters, with a strong sulphureous
odour, and of the emperature of 1G7° to 190^ Fahrenheit, which are conducted into baths for the use
of the citizens.
Moudania, 17 miles N.W. of Brusa, a town on the gulf to which it gives its name, serves as tlia
port of Brusa. Is-nik or Sneek; a wretched pile of huts, which stand upon the site of Niaea, the
ancient metropolis of Bithynia, is celebrated for the first general council held there by the Christians
in A.D. 325. Its thick walls, its towers, and gates are still in good preservation ; 37 miles N.E. h-
nU-mid or Is-7nid, 62 miles N.E., the ancient AVramerfta, an early residence of the kings of Bithynii,
was made the capital of the Roman empire by Diocletian. No vestiges of its former magnificence re-
main. It contains about 700 families, and has the appearance of a modern town. AbouUont ( Apulhi-
nta), situate on an islet in the lake to which it gives its name, contains 2000 inhabitants, who are
chietly fishermen, and live almost entirely upon the produce of the rich fishery of the lake, which is
of considerable size; 20 miles W. of Brusa. Mikltalch, a large straggling town of 1.500 houses, 36
miles W. of Brusa. The south coast of the Sea of Marmora is overspread with celebrated ruins,
among which the principal are those of Cyz'Ciis (now Balkis), one of the finest and most flourishing
cities of .Asia. Its remains are still to be seen not far from Peramo, a miserable village on the ea-t
side of the Peninsula, formerly the island of Cyzicus. Ponngar-btis/ii or liournar-haslii, south-e.ist
from the Dardanelles, a village supposed to occupy, or at least to be near to, the site of the ancient
Troja or Ilium. There are no remains of the city, but on a neighbouring rock believed to be / (7-
gamus (the citadel), are the ruins of buildings in irregular iHjlygons, a cistern cut in the rock, and
three heroic tombs, or barrows. Some marble pillars and other remains at ChibUick: point out the
site of Hew Ilium, built by Alexander the Great, ruintd by Sylla, and rebuilt by Julius Csesar. Sliemnl,
another village with antiquities, marks the site of Alex indria-Truas, a city entirely ruined and de-
serted, but whose ruins still attest its ancient magnificence.
KcTAHVA C Cotyieium), 189 miles E.N.E. of Smyrna, 80 S.E. of Brusa, a large town, built in a pictu-
resque situation, on the slope of Mount Puisak, and watered by the river Puisak, is considered tl.e
capital of Anadoli. Among its buildings the only one remarkable is an old mosque of singular ar-
chitecture. Population SO.O'IO. In the immediate neighbourhood is Tunshali, a place with famous
warm baths. Sidi-Gazi, 30 miles E. by S. of Kutahya, a ruined vdlage, is remarkable for its fine
mosque, and still more for a Phrygian monument in its neighbourhood, visited by Colonel Leako, who,
inferring from the words " To King Midas" cut upon its side, believes this tomb cut in the rock an.l
covered with sculptures like those of Mycene, may be attributed to one of the Phrygian kings of ti:e
dynasty of Midas. If this bj the case, it must have been formed between 570 and 740 years b.c. AV.- -
thehr, a small town 30 miles N.E., the ancient Doryhtum, and important for its warm bath.s. Turbn,
a small village, where the road begins to ascend the Donuiun-tagh, a high mountain upon which there
has been long established an hospice like that of the Great St. Bernard, to assist travellers wandering
in the snow; for which purpose large dogs are kept. Axan'-, a wretched village 70 miles S.E. of
Brusa, deserves attention on account of its ma:.rnificent ruins of a great Hellenic city, and of a temple
of Jupiter, which is said to be equal to the most remarkable Greek buildings yet remaining. Kara-hisar
called also Afioun-kara-'iisdr (0\)\\im Black Castle), 54 miles S.S.E. of Kutahya, so called from the
immense quantity of opium (afiuun) which is collected in its neighbourhood, and to which, as well
as to its woollen manufactures," it owes its flourishing condition. Po; ulation about U!i,000.
KoiiiF.H C Icon'mmJ, lat. 37° 5G', long. 32° 45', 300 miles E. by S. of Smyrna, is a large town, in a rich
and well-watered plain. Among its numerous mosques is remarked that of Selim, built on the model
of Saint Sophia. Here is also the convent of the Mewlevis, founded Ijy Jelaleddin Roumi in the
13th century, and the chief of all the establishments of the same kind in the empire. Konien still
possesses considerable trade and manufactures, and numerous medreses or colleges. The great flat
plain to the east is dry in summer, but is flooded and impassable in winter. Population about 30,000.
Lnzikyehl-karanutn or Yurngan Ladik (ancient Laodicea), is a small town 25 miles N. by W.of Ko
nieh. Karaman or Laranda, GO miles S.S.E. of Konieh, a large commercial town, near the ruins of
lyzranda, which have supplied materialsfor its buildings. A k-shehr (White Castle), 72 miles W.N.W.,
a flourishing city, is the see of an archbishop, with 15,000 houses. The medrese or college of Bayazid, and
the principal mosque, are remarkable buildings. Eregli ( Heraclxa), a small town, 85 miles E. by
S. of Konieh, near a large swampy lake, which appears to be a continuation of that of Konieh, and
emits its waters through a tunnel, in the limestone ridge which bounds the plain to the south.
ToKAT (Armenian Ectogia, Greek Eudokia), lat. 39° 53', long. 36° 50', on a branch of the Kizil-
Irmak, is a large town, with narrow but well-paved streets. It stands at the mouth of a long, steep,
narrow, rocky defile, which widens a little on approaching the city, on the bank of a small stream,
but so surrounded on three sides by lofty mountains, that the heat concentrated in tlie narrow valley
sometimes becomes intolerable. "The valley for about three miles above the town is filkd with gar-
dens and vineyards, and a number of rilis of water run through it. The town is not esteemed healthy,
autumnal feverj being rerj prevalent. Population about 30,000. As a commercial mart the import
Turkey.] ASIA. 649
tanee of Tokat has passed away. Knitariyah, 160 miles K.N. E. from Konkr, the ancient Vaxaca,
capital of Cappadocia, afterwards called desarea, in honour of the Emperor Tiberius, is situate at the
foot of the mighty and constantly snow-capt Mount Aijish, 4'200 feet above the level of the sea. It 1
sunounded by a wall quite dilapidated, and has a castle within on the same level as the city ; but nei
ther of them could offer any resistance to cannon. It contains 8000 houses, 5000 Turkish, 2500 Ar-
menian, and .500 Greek. The villages in the neighbourhood are large and populous, and the Christian
inliabitants here display their riclies and luxury in their country houses more than in any other part
of Turkey. Kaisariyah is the principal commercial mart in the central part of Asia Minor ; the inha-
bitants are remarkable for their activity and enterprise, and the natives are found assiduously fol-
lowing their pursuits in the remotest corners of tlie empire. The climate is warm in summer, and
not severe in winter, and still it is not reckoned very healthy. The products of a warm climate, as
melons, figs, pomegranates, and grapes are yielded ; but the plain is neither fertile nor well cultivat-
ed, except merely around the town. The bottom of the mountain is covered with gardens, which pro-
duce fruits, and the yellow berry used in dyeing, for which Kaisaryiah is so celebrated. The ruins of a
more ancient town, destroyed by an earthquake, are close by. Yuzgat, 96 miles N. by W. from Kai-
SMriyah, grew into importance under the fostering care of the Chapwaan Oglu family, who fixed tlieir
residence here; and from an in.significant village it l)e>'ame a considerable and flourishing town. It
i.-i a neat, clean, walled town, situate in a narrow valley, overlooked on all sides by rising grounds.
N.W. from Yuzgat about 20 miles, is Boghas-ktui, a village, near which are the remains of an an-
cient town, supposed to be Tarium.
South-east of Tokat lies the extensive eyalet or pashalic of Sivas, the capital of which is Sivas, the
ancient Sebcute (so called in honour of the Roman Em^ieror Augustus, whose Latin title Augustus,
the Greeks rendered in their own tongue Selmstos), .50 miles S. by E. of Tokat, situate in a plain, from
4 to 6 miles in breadth by lU or 20 in length, watered by the Kizil-Irmak, and noted for grain of superior
quality. The climate is sever,', though remarkably healthy. The town covers a large area, witliiii
which are many ruins. It contains about .5000 Turkish, and 1200 Armenian families; and its position is
very favourable for an important commercial city. Tlie access from the Black Sea is easy, and has
been facilitated by a military road. The city is situate in the centre of a district abounding in tha
first necessaries of life, and of a country which would require extensive supplies. The route by Sivas
is the best to reach Malatiyah, Kharput, and Diyarbekr. The bazaars are extensive, and the khans nu-
merous, and both are well supplied with goods. E^in, situate in a deep valley on the right bank
of the Kara-su, or Western Euphrates, about 115 miles E. by S. of Sivas, contains 2700 houses, of
^•hich 2000 are occupied by Mahometans, the rest by Armenians ; among whom the goitre is a frequent
ilisease. Arab-gir, 30 miles first S. then S.W. from Egin, 15 caravan days (about 270 miles) from Aleppo,
and only II (198 miles) from Trebizond. The town is situate in the midst of a forest of fruit trees, and
contains about 6000 houses, of which 4800 belong toMahometans. and 1200 to Armenians. The latter
are principally engaged in manufacturing cotton goods from British yarn, and there are about lOOt)
looms at work. The place is, in consequence, in a thriving condition, and is one of the most interesting
towns in the interior as regards Trebizond. The climate is severe, and much snow falls in winter;
hut the summers are cool. Keban- Maden, 20 miles S. from Arab-gir, is situate in a ravine, near
the Euphrates, in the neighbourhood of an argentiferous lead-mine, in which the greater part of its in-
habitants, 400 or .500 families, are engaged. The mine produces annually about 1000 pounds of silver,
and 195,0(X) pounds of lead. Kharput, 30 miles S.E. of Keban-Maden, is situate on an eminence at the
termination of a range of mountains, overlooking an extensive, beautiful, and productive plain, and
contains 1720 families. Malatiyah, 105 miles S.E. of Sivas, with Aspusi, G miles distant S.W. among
the hills, may be considered as one town, containing 8923 families, who used to spend the seven sum-
mer months at Aspusi, and the five winter months at Malatiyah ; but now confine themselves chiefly
to the former, while Malatiyah is, in consequence, nearly deserted.
Thebizond C Trapesus), lat. 41^ 1', long. 39^ 40' E., on the southern coast of the Black Sea, has
been a place of importance since its foundation by the Greeks in ages beyond the reach of authentic
records. The town is built on the slope of a hill facing the sea, part of it being surrounded by a cas-
tellated and lofty wall, and is in the'shape of a parallelogram (r'ac^nrnt), whence it derives its name.
On each side of the walled portion of the city is a deep ravine, filled with trees and gardens, and both
ravines are crossed by long bridges. Overlooking the city is a citadel, whicli is rather dilapidated and
neglected, and is commanded by neighbouring heights. There is no harbour for ships ; but a small
open bay at the east end of the town is used as an anchorage during the summer. After the autumnal
< quinox the Turkish and European vessels resort to I'latana, an open roadstead 7 miles W. of Tre-
bizond; but British vessels anchor at all seasons at Trebizond, and the anchorage there, even in
winter, appears to be quite as secure as that of I'latana. The city contains between 25,000 and 3,5,{K)0
inhabitants, of whom between 3.5(X) and 4000 are Greeks, from 1500 to;2000 Armenians, and the remain-
<ler Mahometans. Its present importance depends almost solely on its being the most convenient
piirt of debarkation for merchandise destined for Armenia and Persia. Kaia-hisnr, 85 miles S.W.
of Trebizond, contains 2500 liouses, and has a considerable trade with the coast and the interior.
Krrasu7i (anc. Otiisus), is the port on the Black Sea with which its communications are most ac-
tive, and is distant about (K) miles N. by W. The town is built around an old castle on the top of the
i-^olatwl hill. Near the town are extensive mines of rock alum, from which it takes the distinctive
a|ipella1ion of Shebh-k-hiini'h (alum-office, or alum works.) Kik'iar, the ancient Neo CcEsarea, 70 miles
W. of Kara-hisar, is situate amidst a forest of fruit trees, on the east side of a very extensive and
remarkably inch plain, watered by the Char-Shambah. Gumish-Khanch (place of silver), on the river
Kharshut, 40 miles S. by W. of Trebizond, a town which has grown up amidst the mines of argenti-
ferous lead in the neighbourhood. These mines were once rich in silver, but the produce is now very
small, and the people are, in consequence, reduced to great poverty. The whole district abounds
in ores of copper and lead ; but few mines are worked, and those which are in operation produce little
from the ruinous system of management pursued. Trebuli, a town, with copper mines, at the mouth
of the Kharshut, .50 miles W. of Trebizond. Surmennh, llizali, JtenaJi, Khupah, are places on tlio
coast east of Trebizond, each consisting only of a street of shops, with one or more cott'ee-houses, and
a khan or two. The inhabitants live in cottages scattered singly over the country. Kizah is an im-
portant and fertile district, with the most extensive bazaar on the coast, and is famous for the mami-
iftcture of a cloth, Mr. Brant calls it /incn, made of hemp, and used throughout Turkey for shirts.
Vnii k ( (Kiioi'), ISO miles W. from Trebizond, on the coast, a dirty town, built of wood, but occupying
a most beautiful situation, and carrying on a thriving trade in cotton-stuft's, fruit, and wine.
.Imnsla, the ancient metropolis of I'ontus, the birth-place of Mithridates, and of Strabo the geo-
grapher, stands on the west bank of the Jekil-Irmak, at its confluence with the Chekr, 60 miles from
the sea. Chirrum, 40 miles W. of Amasia, is a large town, situate in the mi<l«t of an extensive
plain, through which a small stream flows southward to the Jekil-Irmak. It is inhabit(<l by bigoted
Mussulmans ; there is scarcely a (ireek or Armenian in the town, and, owing perhaps to its isolated
position, a Krank was never seen in it l>clore it was visited by Mr. W. T. Hamilton m October lH.t6.
Mariiiranur Mirzifuun, .30 miles W.N.W. from Amasia, is a town of 4000 houses, according to M. Kon-
tanier, and possesses rich Copper mines. Saiiwiun C AmisusJ, on the coast, midway between the
Kizil-lrmak and the Jekil-Irmak. Population about 2000. Sinub C Sino/x), a very ancient Milesiiiii
colony, and aftvrwardu capital of Uie kingdunt of i'ontuf, still contains about 500U iuliabitaots, and
650 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Turkey.
carries on an export trade In rice, fnilt, and hides. Kostamuni, 70 miles S. W. by W. of Slnub, called
also Koitamboul, is a largo Turkish town with 42,000 inhabitants, and a great trade in wool, which is
said to be as good as that of Angora. JBoU or Zafaran Boli, 150 miles E. by 8. of Constantinople, is
a large town with 15,(XX) inhabitants, and flourishing manufactures of leather and cotton stuffs.
Angora or Enguri (anc. Ancyra), 80 miles S.E. of Boli. and 27SO feet above the level of the gea, is a
large town with 50,000 inhabitants, celebrated for its silky-haired goats, cats, rabbits, and dogs ; and
for the camlets made from the goat-wool. The quantity of wool annually exported amounts, it is
said, to 1,250,000 lbs. ; but of this less than ahalf is of the more valuable fleece.— (Ainrworth, Jour. R.
Geog. Soc, IX. 275.) Among other antiquities. Angora contains the remains of the Auguttemim,
or temple of Augustus CsBsar, with an account of his life inscribed on the portal. In a.d. 1402, a
great battle was Fought near A ngora, bet ween Bayazid-Ilderoa, the Ottoman Sultan, and Tamerlane,
or TimOr the Tartar. Eregri or Erekii, or Benderegli (anc. HeracUea), on the coast, north by west
of Boli, is a small sea-port town with 500 houses.
In the south-west and south parts of Asia Minor are : Budrun ( Halicarnasmt), a small town in a
romantic situation, defended by a good castle, with a harbour and dockyards, where frigates and smaller
vessels are built for the Turkish navy. Krio, near the cape so called, is remarkable for the ruins of the
ancient Criidus, one of the principal towns of Doris, where Venus had several temples, one of which
contained the famous statue called the Cnidian "Venus, a masterpiece of Praxiteles. Mamwritza,
Marmorice, Mermeris. or Mermergcfieh, a small town near the ancient Physcut, with one of the finest
harbours in the Mediterranean, to the north of Rhodes. Karagatch, a little to the eastward, is a still
finer bay, better suited for vessels of a large class, and of more easy access. Makri or Macri ( Telmis-
tuij, a small town, near a very fine bay, not far from the magnificent ruins of the ancient Lycian
city Patara, which was very flourishing when its celebrated oracle of Apollo attracted visitors ;
but is now deserted except by a few shepherds. There are the ruins of temples, a theatre in good pre-
servation, part of the walls, and one of the gates. Mais or Caitellorizo, a singular town, built on an
insulated limestone rock, 800 feet high, to the east of Patara, with a fine harbour, and 80OO inhabitants,
mostly Greeks. Adalia or Satalia, a large and flourishing commercial town, with a magnificent tri-
umphal arch, erected in honour of the Emperor Adrian, at the north-west cornerof thegulf to which
it gives its name. At Eski-Adalia, the name given by the Turks to the magnificent ruins of the ancient
Side, there is a theatre, the largest and best preserved of all on this coast. Selefkeh (Seleucia), with a
harbour. The ruins of the ancient city consist of immense cisterns, catacombs, a theatre, and other
buildings. Mexetlou, a miserable town on the coast, south-west of Tarsous, near the ruinsof Sott or Pom-
peiopolit, which resemble those of Antinoe in Egypt, and Jerash in Syria. Tarsocs f TarnisJ, for-
merly the most powerful and populous city of Cilicia, the rival of Athens and Alexandria for
learning, whose academy was, in Strabo's opinion, the first in the world, is still a large town, of about
30,000 inhabitants. It has been for several years the great mart for the produce of the copper mines
of Asia Minor. Adana, on the Sihoon, situate on a gentle declivity, surrounded with groves of mul-
berry, peafch, apricot, fig, and olive trees, and vineyards, 28 miles E. of Tarsous. Population, chiefly
Turks and Turcomans, about 30,000. It is a large and gloomy town, with well-furnished bazaars.
Sit, 100 miles N.E. of Adana, a ruinous city, is the capital of Little Armenia, a name given to
this part of Cilicia in the eleventh century, from numbers of expatriated Armenians having taken
refuge there. Paias or Baiat, on the north-east coast of the Gulf of Scanderoon, a small town, en-
riched by the piracies of Kutchuk- AJi, is now reduced to a heap of ruins. Merash or Marash, 85 miles
N.E. of Adana, a middle-sized town, is the capital of a pashalic.
Erzrocm, the chief town of Armenia, and the capital of an eyalet, lat. 39° 55' 12" N., long. 41° 17' E.,
is situated in an extensive and fertile plain, 30 or 40 miles in length, and from 1 5 to 20 broad, and watered
by the Kara-su, or Western Euphrates. On every side are found rich grain countries, in which good
horses, fine mules, cattle, and sheep, are reared in great numbers. Erzroum commands the road to
Persia, protects the approach from the east to Constantinople, and is now the first important place
in Turkey, whether it is entered from Persia or Georgia. The Pashalic yields in rank and extent only
to that of Baghdad. The population, in 1827, was estimated at 130,000 ; it was subsequently, in conse-
quence of the Russian invasion, reduced to 15,000; but it fluctuates considerably, on account of the
vast number of strangers who are continually arriving and departing with caravans. In 1 837 the
settled inhabitants were estimated at 35,000. The town is partly surrounded by an old castellated
wall, and contains a citadel ; but a large portion is unwalled, where are the principal khans and bazaars.
There are 36 khans ; the custom-house is the largest in the empire, and the city is the entrepot of a
great trade. The climate is severe, on account of the elevation of the town above the sea, which is
ascertained to be 6114 feet. Immediately to the east of the town, is a low range of hiUs, rising
from 800 to 1000 feet above the plain, called the Deveh- Boyini or Camel's Neck, which divides the plain
of Erzroum from the Plain of Pasin, remarkable for its fertility, and drained by the head- waters of the
Aras, which flow eastward. It contains a town, Hamn-Khaleh, once a considerable place, but now a
heapofruins, and containing only some 30 or 40 families. Erzingan, 90 miles W.S.W.from Erzroum,
situate at the west end of a beautiful and rich plain, contains about 3000 families or houses, of which
about 800 are Armenian, and the rest are inhabited by Turks. It is governed by a Bey, in dependence
upon the Pasha of Erzroum. The south side of the plain, through which runs the Kara-su, is formed
by the Dujik-dagh, a mountain range, peopled solely by Kurds, who inhabit villages in winter and culti-
vate the land. They are represented as rich, pay no sort of contributions to the Sultan, omit no oppor-
tunity of levying them upon passengers, and are in the constanthabitof plundering their neighbours.
Kamakh, 26 miles S.W. from Erzingan, is a singular place on the Kaxa-su, contaiuing 400 Turkish
and 30 Armenian houses, but without commerce or manufactures. The people live by the cultivation
of the neighbouring valleys, and by conveying wood down the river, which has sufficient water in most
parts to admit of its being navigated by boats, but is frequently interrupted by rocks, shoals, and ra-
pids. From Erzingan to Kamakh, the river runs through a very narrow defile, which is strong, and
contains innumerable defensive positions. Baibout, in a deep mountain valley, 60 miles W.N. W. of
Erzroum, on the high road to Trebizond, is composed of a few paved streets, shaded by the pent-
houses of the bazaar, which is an open space, surrounded by coffee-rooms, and in the middle of which
the horses are tied. It contains six mosques, and a population of 500 families. Kan, 100 miles N.E.
by E. of Erzroum, the capital of an eyalet, and governed by a Pasha of two tails, was formerly a large
town, containing from 6000 to 8000 families, but is now little better thanja heap of ruins, and contains
only from 1500 to 2000 families. The climate is very severe ; but the fertile plains in the vicinity pro-
duce abundant crops of excellent wheat, and various other grains. About 40 miles E. by S. of Kars are
the ruins of Ani, once the capital of Armenia, surrounded by walls of a soft red sand-stone, still per-
fect, and having a fresh and finished appearance. The walls are about six miles in circuit, and contain
the remains of many magnificent structures ; the whole surface of the enclosure is indeed covered
with broken columns and capitals of exquisite workmanship. Batun, near the mouth of the Joruk,.in
the eyalet of Kars, has the appearance of a newly-settled colony. It is well sheltered, and its bay is
capable of containing a large number of ships ; but it is an unhealthy station, and the people who ven-
ture to reside there from July to October are exposed to severe attacks of fever. Bayazid, the seat of
an hereditary Pasha, 150 miles E. by S. of Erzroum, and not far to the S.W. of Mount Macis (Ararat),
hangs romantically on the side of a rugged precipice, which rises considerably above It. A citadel,
containing a well-tmilt mosque and the Fasba's palace, occupies a lofty projection at the top ; but
TuEKEY.] ASIA. 651
the town Is in a mlcerably ruined state. It contained in 1836 only about 190 Armenian and 300 or 400
Moslem families. The latter are nearly all Kurds ; Kurdisii is the common language ; and indeed tlie
whole pashalic of Bayazid forms a part of Kurdistan. Muth, Mooth, Mouth, a considerable town,
with 5000 inhabitants, the residence of an hereditary Pasha, about W) miles S.E. of Erzroum, in the
valley of the Murad, or Kastern Euphrates. The Armenians of Mftsh have five churches, one of
which, called the church of the forty steps, is said to be 1300 years old. About 15 miles S.W. of
Mdsh, is the monastery of Chaiiguri, a famous place of Armenian pilgrimage. Bedlis, Betlis, op
Bitlii, a well-built commercial town, in a picturesque situation at the meeting of three valleys, a
few miles from the south-west corner of the lake of Van, on the banks of a stream running to the
Tigris, contains about 2000 Moslem and 1000 Armenian families. — C Journal R. Geog. Soc. Land.
VIII. 72. ) Fan, situate near the east side of the great lake to which it gives its name, in a large plain,
studded with villages and gardens, is noted as one of the bulwarks of the Ottoman empire in its
contests with Persia, and is a strong and commercial city, with about 12,000 inhabitants. It appears
to have been in ancient times a place of great importance ; it has been always called by the Arme-
nians Sfiamiramakert (Semiramis' town), and the people of the neighbourhood still venerate the me-
mory of the Assyrian kings, whose names they have preserved, in connection with several localities.
The citadel is built on an isolated hill, believed by some travellers to be artificial, in the interior of
which there are are large caverns and vaulted rooms, where remains of statues and other ancient ob-
jects are still sometimes found. But the most interesting relics are the inscriptions, in arrow-headed
characters, which cover the entrance and the sides of the hill. Kuins and relics of the same kind are
found not only In vicinity of the city, but in all the surrounding country. South-west of Van is Er-
dremid or Artemid, the ancient Artemita. The banks of the lake, particularly the eastern and southern
sides, are very mountainous, and are partially covered with wood ; the soil is fertile, and the pasturage
excellent. Van is the seat of a Pasha, who is dependent on the Pasha of Krzroum.
§ Cities, Towns, SfC, in Syria and Palestine,
Haleb (Khelbon of 'EzeViel, Chalybon and Dertra of the Greeks, Aleppo of the Franks;, situate on
the banks of the Koikh, in N. lat. 36^ 12', and E. long. 37^ 12', was, of all the Ottoman cities, inferior
only to Constantinople and Cairo in extent, population, and wealth ; while, in respect of salubrity,
the elegance and solidity of its buildinjiS, and the neatness of its streets, it was superiorto both of these.
It is encompassed by walls three miles in circuit ; but the suburbs were so extensive, that the total cir-
cumference was estimated at seven miles, and the population at 250,000. The city stands low, with no-
thing in the surrounding country that can add beauty or importance to its poMtion. It is protected
by a strong castle on the top of an immense mound, of a circular form, and surrounded by a wide
ditch. By two successive earthquakes in 1822, more than half the city was destroyed, and its fine&t
buildings ruined or considerably injured ; and the destruction was almost completed by another earth-
quake in 1830. It is very slowly recovering from these disasters ; but is still a large and important city,
with a population of nearly 60,000 souls. Formerly its commerce placed it in the first rank among the
cities of Asia, and it was the grand emporium of Syria, Arabia, Mesopotamia, and Armenia, It is still
the emporium of Northern Syria, and is connected in extensive conmiercial transactions with Diyar-
bekr and the upper parts of Anatolia, and with Merdin, Mosul, and Baghdad. Since 1 832, several British
merchants have established houses at Aleppo. The principal manufacture of the city is that ofstuflFs,
which are famous throughout the Ea.st, which is still extensively carried on. They consist of silk stuft's,
with gold and silver thread ; silk and cotton, flowered and striped ; and striped cotton only, called
nankeens. There are about 4000 looms employed, and about 4800 persons, men and children, produc-
ing an yearly value of about i.'2')0,000 sterling. The chief attractions of Aleppo are its gardens, which
are watered by the Koikh, and produce abundance of fruit and vegetables, among whlcii the pistachio
nuts are much celebrated. The townspeople are chiefly dependent for water on an aqueduct, attributed
to St. Helena, which still brings water from a distance of several miles. Aleppo is about 60 miles from
the sea on the one side, and is equally distant from the Euphrates on the other.
In the eyalet of Aleppo : Scnnderoon, Itkenderun, or Alexandretta, 60 miles W.N.W. of Haleb, is a
small town situate in the midst of pestilential marshes, on the southern shore of a fine gulf, which
penetrates 26 miles inland from Ras Khanzir, gradually diminishing in breadth from 10 miles to 7.
The bay is bordered on the south and east sides by the lofty mountain ridges of Amanus, which, in
some places, rise gradually from the sea, and, in others, are two or three miles inland, leaving between
them and the shore small plains composed of a rich light soil. The harbour of Scanderoon consists
of a fine bay running in south-east from the gulf, and protected from all winds ; it is capable of con-
taining in perfect security from 30 to 35 sail of ships. Latukia fane. LaodicceaJ, 90 miles S.W. by W.
of Haleb, near Cape Ziaret, is a small town with a well-sheltered harbour, which has also now become
one of the ports of Aleppo. Antakia (anc. Atitiochia, or Afitioch the Great J, 60 miles W. of Aleppo,
on the banks of the Orontes, once the proud capital of Syria, with 700,000 inhabitants, is now a ruinous
town, with houses built of mud and straw, narrow dirty streets, and a population of less than 20,000.
Its ancient walls, about five miles in circuit, are still mostly standing, but are in a very decayed and
mouldering condition. The river, which is from 100 to 150 feet wide, and is crossed by a substantial
bridge, was formerly navigable to the sea, and might easily be rendered so again, for larger vessels than
the boats which are used upon it. The fall of the stream scarcely exceeds 5A feet a mile. Suadeah,
a small town in a plain north from the mouth of the Orontes, near which is Kepte, in the ruins of the
ancient Seleucia Pieria, the port of Antioch, where the masonry of its magnificent harbour is still in
so good preservation, as to be capable of repair. Jeboul, 20 miles S.E., a small village in the Valley
of Salt, so called from a large tibkah, or salt marsh, where a great quantity of salt is gathered. Sermein,
22 miles 8. W., another small village, with numerous cisterns cut in the rock, and several caves inha-
bited by the natives. Edlip, a small town of 1000 houses, surrounded witli olive trees, 30 miles 8.M'.
lieiha and Benin, two little towns, containing ruins, 40 and 45 miles S.W'. Famiah or Ka/at-el-
Medyk, 70 miles 8.S.W., upon the Orontes, occupying the site of the ancient Apamea, where the
kings of Syria had established their principal stud, and where they maintained 500 elephants, its
rich pasturages still attract a number of Bedwins, and the abundant fishery in the lake El I'aka, which
communicates with the Orontes, produced to the governor, at the date of Burckhardfs visit, IMHH)
a-year. Hamah, 93 miles 8. by W., the Hamath of Scripture, and the Greek Epiphania, a large
town on the Orontes, an industrious, commercial, and flourishing town, the mart for supplying tiio
wants of the Arab tribes, who roam over the deserts between Syria and the Euphrates. All- Bey
gives it a population of 1(K),000 ; Burckhardt, of only 30,(K)0. Htnni, 115 miles 8. by E., the ancient
Emeia, famous for a splendid temple of the sun, whose priest, Ilcliogabalus, was elected Koman em-
peror, A.D. 218. The plains of Horns have been the scene of two great and decisive battles ; the first
ending with the deieat of Zcnobia, queen of Palmyra, by the Koman emperor Aurelian ; and the se-
cond, 7th July 1H.)2, when nine pasFias of three tails, with their respective forces, were defeated l)y
Ibraliim Pasha, and their army put to tiight. Palmyra, 160 miles S.E. by S., the Tadiiuir of Scripture,
a mass of splemlid ruins in an oasis in the desert, the remains of a great commercial city which at-
tained tlio height of its prosperily in the third century, when its queen, Zenol>ia, defied the arms of
Uomc. The present iiihabituntg are a few Arabs, who occupy about 30 mud huts among the ruins.
652 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Turkey.
and obtain a subsistence by cultivating a few detacbed spots, and feeding some flocks of goats and
sheep. Two small streams impregnated with sulphur run among the ruins, and are lost in the sands.
In the seventh century Palmyra was still so fortified, as to stand a siege from the Kaliph Merwan,
out after that period it seems to have fallen gradually to decay. Beilan or Dylan, a small town near
the western entrance of the great pass, leading between Mounts Rhosus and Amanus from Aleppo to
Scanderoon. From Beilan to Scanderoon the descent is very striking : the heights are lofty, pictu-
resque, well covered with wood, and a great part of them planted with vines, disposed in the neatest
order, and carefully cultivated ; the summit of the pass is, by barometrical measurement, 1584 feet
above the Mediterranean, and the mountain above it reaches 53,37 feet. J'intab, 65 miles N. by E.,
near the source of the Koikh, is a large town, with 20,0(K) inhabitants, in a rich and fruitful district.
Mmibij or Bambuch, .56 miles E. by N., where the walls still standing attest the ancient greatness
of Malioe; or HierapolU ( Hnlytown), sacred to the worship of the Syrian goddess Astarte," called in
Scripture the Queen of lleaven. The goddess was represented by a monstrous image, half woman,
half fish, and had a magnificent temple, served by 3tX) priests, and filled with rich ofi'erings, which
were plundered by Crassus, the co-triumvir of Csesar and Tonipey. Shogr, a town on the Orontes, on
tlie road from Aleppo to Latakia, which was destroyed by the earthquake of 1822.
Tripoli, lat. 34^^ 26', long. 35 ' 52', called by the Turks Tarabolus, is built on the declivity of a hill,
about a league, or half an hour's journey, from the sea shore, near the mouth of the river Kadisha,
It is one of the neatest towns in Syria, the houses being all well built of stone, and neatly fitted up
within ; it is surrounded by luxuriant gardens, which produce abundance of oranges and lemons.
The population amounts to about 15,000; among whom are several European merchants, and consuls
for France, England, and Austria. The principal article of export is the soap produced on the
neighbouring mountains, of which it formerly exported 800 quintals every year, at about £80 the
quintal ; but its commerce has been lately on the decline. The next article of export is sponges, which
are procured on the sea shore, the best being found at some depth in the sea : soap is exported to
Tarsous for Anatolia and the Greek islands, as well as the alkali for making it, which is procured in
the eastern deserts ; the khan of the soapmakers is a large well-built edifice. The marina or port
forms a little tow n by itself. Tripoli was formerly the seat of a Pasha, whose command extended
from the river Ibraham to Latakia. and eastward to the mountains.
In the eyalet of Tripoli are : Batrun, 15 miles S. of Tripoli, a small town of 300 or 400 houses,
with a harbour for boats or small vessels. Belmont, 2 hours S. of Tripoli, a convent on a very
high rocky mountain, of difficult ascent, which overlooks the sea. Kanobin, 14 miles S. E., a con-
vent, the residence of the patriarch of the Maronites, may be considered the capital of that tribe.
Tortosa, 30 miles N., once a very strong city, still exhibits the remains of two walls half a mile in
circumference, but is now a miserable little town. Nearly opposite is the island Rtmd, the ^rvad of
the Scriptures, the Aradus of the Greeks and Romans, once occupied by a Phoenician city, with
houses of 5 or 6 storeys, where commerce and liberty had collected an immense population. It is now
a naked rock. Only a few masses of strong walls, and numerous cisterns cut in the rocks, attest its
former existence. Jebilee ( Gabala) on the coast, 35 miles N. of Tortosa, is remarkable only for its
antiquities, its tombs cut in the rocks, and its mosque of Sultan Ibrahim, which was demolished
by the earthquake of 1822. Jebail or Gehail, 20 miles S. by \V. of Tripoli, is the ancient liyblos, the
chief seat of the worship of Adonis, whose beauty and tragical history occupy an important place in
classic mythology. About a mile from the town flows the river Ibrahim, the ancient Adonis, the
periodical reddening of whose waters, as if commemorative of the shed t«>od of Adonis, gave occa»
sion to a famous Phoenician festival. Near Gebail is a fine sponge fishery. Masiat or Masyad, 40
miles N. E., a small town, the principal place of the Ansarians.
Acre, or Akka, or St. John d'Acre ( Ftolemais), lat. 32^ 54', long. 3-5° 8', the capital of an eyalet,
was a place of great importance in the time of the Crusades, and sustained many sieges alternatply
from the Saracens and Christians. It is memorable in modern history for the gallantry with which
it was defended in 1799 against Buonaparte, who, after spending 61 days before it, was obliged to
retreat. It was afterwards strongly fortified by Jezzar Pasha, which enabled it to endure a siege of
seven months from the Egyptian army in the winter of 1831-2. Its fortifications were subsequently
repaired and improved; but on 3d November 1840 the town was reduced to a heap of ruins by a
three hours' bombardment from the British fleet, acting as the allies of the Sultan, and the fortress
evacuated by the Egyptians. It stands at the north-east side of a fine bay, near the mouth of the
river Naamany (Belus). The harbour of Acre is the best on this coast. Acre is the principal mart
for the cotton of Syria, and the principal commercial nations of Europe have consuls here.
Mount Carmel, 8 or 9 miles S.W., forming the south-west side of the bay of Acre, terminates in a
rocky promontory about 2000 feet high, and contains a number of grottoes once occupied by thecells and
chapels of the austere order of monks called Carmelites. A very few still remain, who lead a recluse
life, and are venerated even by the Mahometans, who supply their wants. The mountain bears the
traces of ancient aqueducts, and of plantations of vines and olives, and on the top is a monastery
built originally by the empress Helena, and recently restored in a very substantial and elegant style,
chiefly at the expense of the late king of France, Charles X. At the foot of the hill, on the southern
shore of the bay of Acre, is Caipha, a walled town, with about 3000 inhabitants. Kaisariyah (Greek,
Kaisareia, Latin, Ccssarea), .30 miles S.S.W. of Acre, founded by Herod the Great in honour of
Augustus Caesar, and one of the finest and most magnificent cities of the East, so celebrated in the
first age of Christianity, and so important during the Crusades, has now scarcely a single inhabitant ;
but the preservation of its walls, its harbour, and its monuments, says Count Forbin, inspires an in-
definable surprise. 'Sazra ( Nazareth), 20 miles S. E of Acre, a mean and wretched village or town
of 3000 inhabitants, contains an extensive building, the Latin convent ; and the church of the An-
nunciation is (he finest in Palestine after that of Bethlehem and the church of the Holy Sepulchre at
Jerusalem. Another church contains several grottoes now convorted into chapels, where popular belief
places the kitchen, the bedchamber, and other parts of the house of the Virgin Mary ; and not far from
this, tradition shows the place where the angel Gabriel appeared to Mary, Joseph's work-shop, and
the school to which our Lord went to be taught with other boys. Near Nazareth is Cana, a pretty
little town of about 300 inhabitants, and Mount Tabor, the traditionary scene of the Transfiguration,
where within a grotto have been built three altars in memory of the three tabernacles which Peter
proposed to build. Once a-year, on the day of the Transfiguration, the Latin fathers celebrate mass
here. Tabor is a conical hill, nearly detached from those around it ; its form is singularly regular ;
the summit is flat, and commands a most magnificent view. In the same neighbourhood are the
reputed scenes of several other miracles, to which the monks go in procession every year to chant
the gospel on the day of their commemoration. Tahariah { Tiberias), 30 miles E.S.E., a town with
about 4000 inhabitants on the south-west shore of the Sea of Galilee, was neajiy destroyed by an
earthquake in January 1837. It was one of the four holy cities of the Jewish Talmud, and the resi-
dence for 350 years after the destruction of Jerusalem of the principal Jewish doctors, who founded
there a school of great celebrity. Safed or Saffad or Szaffad, 27 miles E. by N. of Acre, a small, but
well-built and flourishing town, of about 600 houses, was swallowed up by the earthquake of Januarv
1837. It was one of the four holy cities of the Jews, from which they sent forth missionaries to seek
out their poor brethren ; it contained a college and a printing press; and very near it was Jacob's
bouse, consisting of magnificent tombs cut in the rock, whioh the Turks consider as the ancient
TuaKEY.J ASIA. 653
abode of the patriarch, and the citadel, which appeared to be one ;>f the most ancient structures lu
Palestine ; its walls were of extraordinary thickness and strength, and are often mentioned in the
wars of the crusades. Bani<u, a village of about 150 houses, supfojed to be built on the site of the
ancient Dan; near which one of the branches of the Jordan issues from a cavern under a pre-
cipice. Stir or Tyre, 28 miles N. by E. of Acre, the queen of the sea at the dawn of profane history,
the cradle of commerce, and the chief city of Phcenicia, contained in the latter half uf the 18th cen-
tury only about a dozen of wretchid huts, which sheltered a few fishermen. It afterwards began to
recover, and now forms a considerable town, is well built, and contains several mosques, churches,
and bazaars. The original Tyre stood on the mainland, but that having been taken and destroyed
by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, the Tyrians built a new city on a small island off the coast,
where they were again besieged by Alexander the Great, who joined the island to the continent by
an immense mound, which now forms an i>thmus. Saide ( Sidon), the mother city of Tyre, 23 miles
farther north, is still a considerable town, though somewhat decayed.
Beyrout or Beiroot 65 miles N.N.E. from Acre, and 48 miles S.S. W. of Tripoli, one of the ancient
cities of Phoenicia (UerytusJ, is situate in a lovely plain, with fine scenery all round. It is the port of
t)amascu« and central Syria, and has more commercial activity than any other Syrian port. Many
merciiants reside in Beyrout, besides the consuls and agents of the various European powers. The
town and neighbourhood have been of late greatly improved. A new lazaretto has been built by
Ibrahim Pasha ; and valuable productive mines of coal and iron have been found in the neighbour-
hood, within a few miles of the town. The white houses of the town, sloping up from the sea, are
encompassed by vineyards and mulberry gardens, and the numerous villas ot its merchants. That
singular plant, the prickly pear, is very abundant, and often composes in part the hedges of the paths
and gardens, where it is an effectual guard against forbidden feet. Antoura, 10 miles E. of Beyrout, is a
beautiful and celebrated monastery ; and three hours north of it is Lar/«a, a charming monastery, built
in the Italian style, in a very elevated situation; not far from which is Bezummiir, the finest and
richest convent of Kesrouan, built upon a high mountain. '/,ahle,'i2 miles E. of Beyrout, a small
town, is rapidly increasing, and is one of the places where the coal and iron have been found. Deir-el-
Kamar, J3 milrS S.E., the chief town of the Druses, consists of a large village, with 15,001) or 18,0UO
inhabitants, and a large serai or pal.ice, which has no pretensions to eleiiance. Nahar-el-Kelb ( Vug
Ricer), which reaches the sea about 12 miles north of Beyrout, is the ancient Lycus, which, ac-
cording to Strabo, was navigable, though very rapid. The mountains, which are here very high
and steep, come down to the sea, leaving only the road between them and the bay. In the neigh-
bourhood, the >ides of the rocks are in tnany places covered with Greek and Latin inscriptions, and
with symbolical figures, whose meaning cannot be deciphered. Bmilbec, at the head or north end of
the valley Bekaa, near the source of the Leitani, 50 miles E.N.E. of Beyrout, formerly a considerable
town, is now a mere village witli 200 inhabitants. It occupies the site of Heliopvlis (Sun-town), and
contains several splendid remains, the principal of which is that of the temple of Baal, or the Sun-
god, a beautiful building, with a Corinthian peristyle, built in the reign of Antoninus Pius, on the
site of a more ancient fabric, fragments of which are still visible. North of Baalbec is the high-
est part of Lebanon, and on one of the roads from Baalbec to Tripoli are the ancient cidars of l.e-
iantm, which the people of the country believe to be the remains of the identical forest which tar-
nished the timber for Solomon's temple. Only seven of the old trees remain, but there are many
hundrefls of young trt es grow ing up to supply their places. An ascent of three hours from the cedars
brings the traveller to the snow-capt top of Lebanon, from which there is a splendid view of the moun-
tain regions, of the plains at their base, and the not far distant Mediterranean. Before reaching this
point, however, vegetation has expired, with the exception of a few stunted cypresses, which lose
their spiral form, and, throwing out their branches sideways, have the appearance of small oaks.
Every year, on Transfiguration day, the Maronites, the Greeks, and. the Armenians, celebrate a mass
at the foot of one of the ancic nt cedars, on a homely altar of stotie. The nearest village to the cedars
Is Bt/iirrai, or Bis/iarra. 18 or 20 miles S.E. of Tripoli .
Uamasccs, (El Sham of the Arabs), lat. 33- 20', long. 36° 34'. situate in a beautiful plain, on the
east side of Eastern Lebanon, watered by numerous streams which How from the mountains eastward
into the desert, where their surplus water forms a lake or marsh, called the Bahr-tt-mtirffi, Lake
of the meadows. The plain is so extensive, that the hills which bound it to the north and south can
merely be discerned from the opposite sides. Towards the north-west the mountain Ashloun hounds
it in tlie distance, and on the south-east it extends to the Jibbel- Haounin. The city stands on the west
side of the plain, not more than two miles fi om the place where the river Barrada issues from a clett
in the mountains, is studded with mosques and minarets, and is enconipasstd with gardens, extending
in common estimation not less than 30 miles round, which gives it the appearance of a noble city in
a vast wood. The gardens are planted with fruit trees of all kinds, and are kept fresh and verdant
by the waters of the Barrada, which is distributed by canals and streamlets. The city is built of brick,
and its streets are narrow and gloomy, the inhabitants reserving their magnificence for their interior
courts and palaces. Several of the streets have rivulets running through tliem, which furnish plenti-
fully the great eastern lu.xury of water. The principal building is the great mosciue, which was for-
merly a Christian church, and now possesses so j eculiarly sacred a character, that Franks are rarely
j>ermitted to enter it. This cathedral is one of the finest that the zeal of the early Christians produced i
the architecture, which is Corinthian, is very superior in beauty and variety to that of any other mosque
In Ottoman Asia. Next to it in architectural importance is the grand khan, a large and splendid build-
ing, with a very lofty roof supported by granite pillars, and surmounted by a large d(mie in the ceiure.
The inhabitants of Damascus, amounting to about 10(l,(K)0, have a bad reputation in the east, where
Sham Shuumi, "the W)cke<l Damascan,"haseven passed into a proverb, formerly they were exceedingly
fanatical, but since tliey fell under the Egyptian yoke, they have learned to be more liberal ; European
merchants have settled among them, and a British consul hashoistid his national flag in this holy city.
Damascus has long Ijcen the most flourishing city in Syria, a distinction which it owed to the excellent
character of several successive pashas, through whose exertions the whole of the territory assiuned an
improved and cultivated appearance. It has lost the manufacture of sword blades, for which it was
famous in the middle ages ; hut it still has considerable manufactures of silk and cotton; and tho
fruits of the neighbouring plain, dried and prepared into sweetmeats, are sent to every part of Tur-
key. Iiamascus is a place of the highest antiquity, and is the point of union for the caravans of pilgrims
from the north and the east of Asia, who travel towards the Holy Land of Arabia under the guardianship
of its pasha. On this acecjunt it has received the name of " the Gate of the Kaaba;" but, what is of
more importance, the resort of pilgrims produces a great trade, the pilgrims being careful, and indi ed
being expressly allowed by the Koran, to combine traffic with the more pious oliject of their jouroey.
Ophthalmia and intermittent fevers are very prevalent ; the former disease is attributed to tlio exli n-
•Ive irrigation, and the latter to the exhalations of the Bahr-el-margi, which, in siinnner, becomes a
pestilential swamp. It is 1 10 miles N.E. by N. of Jerusalem ; 180 S. by \V. of Aleppo, anil (iO inilt-a
E. by 8. of Beyrout. SaUihiih, a considerable village north-west of the city, contains numorous
villas and gardens, and is the snnmier retreat of the wealthy Damascans. About a diis's journey to
the nortli-east, at Mali.ul, is a inimbor of curious grottoes, inhabited by Syriati Christians.
To the south of Damascus, and east of the Jonian, are: /'(;.»»('»//, the ani-ii'iit Jl<z(r ur Huzmh,
63 tnUt S., celebrated for its vineyards, but now inhabited only by about lifteen families. It is, ne-
654 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Turkey.
▼erthdess, described by Burckhardt as the largest town In the Haouran, Including Its ruins. Jerash
( Ger<i$a), 80 miles S. by W., on a small stream, in a valley on the south-west side of Mount Oilead, is
quite deserted, but the traces of its ancient walls remain, inclosing three splendid temples, two am-
phitheatrcs, porticoes, baths, and hundreds of columns, which vie even with those of Palmyra.
JKBCSAI.EM (El Khoddks of the Arabs), lat. 31" 48', lon^. 35° 14', stands on part of four small
hills, nearly surrounded by deep ravines, and is enclosed with Gothic embattled walls, about two
miles and a half in circumterence. The houses are heavy square masses, very low, without chim-
neys or windows, with terrace roofs or domes on the top, and presenting the appearance of prisons or
tombs. The streets are narrow, dusty, and unpaved. The population has been variously estimated
at from 20,000 to 30,000. The manufactures consist chiefly of objects accounted sacred ; as shells of
mother-of-pearl, considered as badges of pilgrimage, crosses and beads made of the stones of dates, of
hardwood, or of black fetid limestone from the Dead Sea. These holy toys are purchased in large
quantities by pilgrims and travellers. The principal support of the city is derived from the numer-
ous pilgrims who resort to it from all parts of the east, and even from Spain, to visit the holy places.
The prmcipal and most conspicuous edifice is the mosque of Omar, built on the site of Solomon's
Temple, and Inferior in holiness only to the Beitullah (House of God) at Mecca. It is an octagon,
Btanding in the middle of an oblong square area, paved with white marble. The walls are externally
covered with painted tiles, adorned with arabesques »nd verses from the Koran in gold letters, and
altogether, it is one of the finest buildings in tlie Mohammedan world. It stands on the east side of
the city, overlooking the deep valley of Jehoshaphat. The Church of the Hoty Sepulchre, the grand
object of attraction to the Christian pilgrims, was built originally by Helena, the mother of Con-
Btantine the Great, on a site which was supposed to include the scene of the greatest events of the
history of our religion, the crucifixion, the entombment, and the resurrection of our Saviour. It con-
tained also, till recently, the tombs of Godfrey and Baldwin, the first Latin kings of Jerusalem, which,
however, have now disappeared ; and a rent is shewn in the natural rock, supposed to have been pro-
duced by the earthquake which happened at the crucifixion. In October 1808, the ancient church was
destroyed by fire ; and in its stead the present building was erected, at an expense of upwards of £200,000,
by the Greeks and Armenians, whose clergy have, in consequence, usurped the principal charge of the
holy places, which was formerly possessed by the Latins. Of the thousands of Christian pilgrims
who annually visit Jerusalem during Lent, almost the whole are of the Greek, Armenian, and other
oriental churches, with scarcely a Catholic among them. Baron Geramb states, that at the period of
his pilgrimage, in 1832, there were only himself and three other Catholics among 4000 pilgrims. There
are three convents, belonging respectively to the Latins, the Greeks, and the Armenians, where tra-
vellers and pilgrims are hospitably entertained. The Mount of Olives overlooks the city on the east
side, on the summit of which is a mosque, built on the site of a church erected by St. Helena, and
occupying the very spot from which Christ ascended. In a kind of chapel, in the centre, is to be
seen the print left m the rock by the left foot of our Saviour (See Cbyion.) The temperature at
Jerusalem is exceedingly changeable ; it has happened, that in the morning the heat has been sufl'o-
cating, while at night snow has fallen. The city stands about 2750 feet above the level of the sea in
tlie midst of a hilly country which is little better than a desert.
Bethlehem,T laWes S.W. by S. of Jerusalem, the place where our Saviour was born, is still a large vil-
lage, with 3 ^00 inhabitants, and contains a fine church, built over the site of the place of the nativity,
and visited of course by numbers of pilgrims. El- Khalil ( Helrron), 20 miles S. by W., in a country
less arid than that around Jerusalem, has a population of 4000 or 5000 Turks and Jews. It is a pretty
cheerful-looking town, on the slope of a hill, surrounded with vineyards and olive grounds. The mag-
nificent churcli built by the empress Helena on the supposed site of Abraham's tomb, has been con-
verted into a mosque, entrance to which is allowed only to Mussulmans. Santa Saba, 8 or 9 rniles
8.K. of Jerusalem, a monastery remarkable for its situation on a height, which rises precipitously
several hundred feet from the deep valley of the brook Kedron. Beside it are numerous grottoes,
which are said to have been inhabited by more tlian 10,000 monks at the epoch when St. Saba intro-
duced the monastic life into Palestine. In continual danger from the wild Arabs, the convent appears
like a fortress, with immensely strong and lofty towers. Jericho, 14 m'les N.E., is represented by the
modern Rayah, a miserable village of about 50 huts, or by some ruins in its vicinity, in a hot and dirty
circular plain. Nabloia, 30 miles N. of Jerusalem, one of the most beautiful and flourishing towns in
the Holy Land, stands in a bold and fertile valley, surrounded by hills and embosomed in groves and
gardens. The inhabitants, about 10,000, are employed in making soap and other articles for the neigh-
bouring country. Nablous seems to be the metropolis of a very rich and extensive district, abound-
ing with all the necessaries of life ; it occupies the site of the ancient Shechem, which became the ca-
pital of the Samaritans after the destruction of Samaria by Slialmanaser. Its modern name is a cor-
ruption of the Greek Neapolis, New town. In its neighbourhood is the tomb of Joseph and the well of
Jacob. Sebasta, 37 miles N. by W. of Jerusalem, tlie ancient Samaria, which was rebuilt by Herod the
Great, and named Sebast(', in honour of his imperial patron, Sebastos Kaisar (Augustus Caesar), and
adorned with a temple of Sebastos, and other magnificent works. Its situation is extremely beautiful
and naturally strong, on a fine large insulated hill, compassed all round by a broad deep valley, which
again is surrounded by four hills, cultivated in terraces to the top, sown with grain, and planted
with fig trees and olive-trees. The hill of Samaria likewise rises in terraces to a height equal to
any of those around it. The present village is small and poor ; but on the hill in different places are
remains of the ancient buildings. Jaffa C Jaffa or YaffaJ, 40 miles N.W., formerly Joppa, one of the
most ancient sea-ports in the world, its history stretching far back into the twilight oi^the early ages,
is situate in a fine plain on the shore of the Mediterranean, and owes its continued celebrity and im-
portance to its being the port of Jerusalem. As a station for vessels it is one of the worst on the
coast. The present town stands on a promontory jutting into the sea, rising about 150 feet above its
level, and oflFering on all sides picturesque and varied prospects. The interior of the town has all the
appearance of a poor village. The streets are very narrow, uneven, and dirty ; the inhabitants are
estimated at between 4000 and 5000, of whom the greater part are Turks and Arabs ; the Christians being
only about 600, and consisting of Roman Catholics, Greeks, Maronites, and Armenians. The Latins,
Greeks, and Armenians, have each a small convent for the reception of pilgrims. Ramlah, 35 miles
N.W., on the road from Jerusalem to Jaffa, supposed to be the ancient Arimathea, Is apleasant town,
situate in a fertile plain, with a population of 5000, who are principally engaged in agriculture. Sea-
lona, 50 miles W. by S., an inconsiderable town, representing the ancient Askelon or Ascalon, a city
of the Philistines. Askelon was of great note among the ancients for a temple of Derketo or Astarte,
the Ashtaroth of scripture, who was here worshipped in the form of a mermaid, and is said to have
been the mother of Semiramls. Gaza, 56 miles S.W., is a little town with 4000 or 5000 inhabitants.
§ Cities, Towns, and Remarkable Places, in Algezira or Mesopotamia.
DiTARBRKR or Di ABBEKR, lat. 37° 50', long. 39° 52', the ancient Amida, is situate on the right bank
of the Tigris, with intervening gardens between the river and the town. The town in its prosperity
contained 40,000 families or houses, and numberless looms in constant work ; it enjoyed an active
trade with Baghdad in Indian, and with Aleppo in European produce, and was one of the most flourish-
ing and wealthy cities of Asia. The plain was cultivated in every part, and covered with villages
Turret.] ASIA. 655
and within three miles of the gates were several villages, each containing from 400 to 500 hon&es
and more than one Christian church. But since the commencement of the present century, all this
prosperity was destroyed by the Kurds, who plundered the caravans, and kept the city in a state of
siege. The assailants were repressed by Reshid Pasha in 1 837, and the communication re-opened ; but
since his defeat at Nezlb, by the Egyptians, in 1839, the Kurds are said to have again broken loose.
The climate, though excessively hot in summer, cannot be considered unhealthy, and in winter the
temperature is delightful. The Tigris is not used as a channel of communication so high up, but
ratts of timber are sometimes floated down from the mountains above the town.
About 36 miles north-west of Diyarbekr, is Arghana, situate under a lofty peak, surmounted by a
large Armenian convent, which overlooks a vast plain. It contains about COO families, but appears in
a very dilapidated state. Ten miles N. by W. is the copper mine of Arghana (Arphanc'i-Maden),
around which are collected 743 families, of which 270 are Greek, 173 Armenian, and 30*) Turkish, the
first and the last being all engaged in directing or working the mines, the Armenians are trades-
men or artisans. From the mine to the town the road lies over steep, difficult, and barren mountains.
In this neighbourhood, also, the sources of the Tigris are only 10 miles distant from the waters which
flow to the Murad. In the district of Diyarbekr, 24 hours' distant, is Sert, believed by D'Anville and
Kinnear to represent the ancient Tigranocerta ; but according to M. Saint Martin, Diyarbekr itself
is the Tigranocerta, where Tigranes, king of Armenia, was defeated by LucuUus, 67 years B.C.
In the valley of Diyarbekr, or the upper Tigris, there are no other places of any importance. The
watershed between the Euphrates and the Tigris, in this neighbourhood, is the Karajeh-dagh, which
extends in a direction parallel to the Tigris, at no great distance from the river. Uetween these moun-
tains and the Euphrates itself, lies the pashalic of Orfa, which contains Orfah, the ancient Edessn, 40
miles east from the Euphrates, on the banks of the little river Daisun, which, after joining the Giallnh,
falls into a small lake about 23 miles below the town. Orfah is built on parts of two hills, and in the
valley between them, and is surrounded by a wall three or four miles in circuit. The streets are nar-
row but paved, and not dirty, the bazaars numerous and well supplied, the khans also numerous, and
some few caravansaries excellent. The number of mosques with minarets, seen from without, is fifteen ;
but the one which is held in the highest reverence and esteem, is that of Ibrahim-el- Khalil (Abraham
the friend), wliich contains a tank or pool teeming with fish, which are preserved in honour of the pa-
triarch Abraham, this town being the supposed Ur of the CliaMees. The manufactures of the town
are confined chiefly to articles of the first necessity, principally coarse woollen and cotton cloths. The
population is estimated by Mr. Buckingham at 5(1,000, among whom are about 2000 Christians and
500 Jews, the rest being Mahometans. Racca, 85 miles S. by E. of Orfah, also gives name to the same
pashalic, and stands on the northern or left bank of the Euphrates, where it receives the waters of
the small river Belet, or Belish, or Jielejith. Racca is the Greek Nicephorimn, and was once the fa-
vourite residence of the Khalif Haroim-al-Raschid, the ruins of whose palace may still be seen. It
is now a very insignificant place, containing only about 30 houses. Haran, the place of Abraham's
sojourn, before he went into Canaan, and famous in latter times, under the name of C/iarrce, for the
defeat of the Triumvir Crassus by the I'arthians. At Jaour- Khouri, 12 miles east of Orfah, is an im-
mense number of artificial caves regularly arranged, presenting the remains of a subterraneous city.
Nuibin ( Nisibis), 120 miles E. of Orl'ah, and nearly the same distance N.W. of Mosul, was formerly a
Btrong Roman fortress, and the frontier city between the Romans and the I'arthians ; but only the
foundations of its walls remain, the interior being filled with stones and rubbish, and containing a
hamlet of some thirty houses. Dara, 3 J miles W. by S. of Nisibin, is another fortress, now in ruins,
whose foundations may be traced more than two miles. Merdin or Mardin, 60 miles S.E. by S. of
Diyarbekr, is the old Roman town of Mardis, the walls of which are still in tolerable repair. It con-
sists of about 3000 houses, looking down from its heights of calcareous rocks on the plains below.
It used to be reached by a stair more than a mile in length, cut in the rock, at the top of which is the
gate, but the stair is now converted into a good road. The site of the town is so elevated, that the
Turks say the inhabitants never see a bird tiying over their heads.
Along the course of the Euphrates: Bir, on the east bank of the river, situate on a steep acclivity,
contains between 1800 and 2000 houses, and is 3J days' journey from Aleppo by caravan, lat. 30° sy',
long. 38° 7'. The stream is here very wide, and so rapid, that often the ferry boats can only cross it
in an oblique direction. The inhabitants are Turks, who also extend about 5 or 6 miles down the
river, and are described as a peaceable people. The Arab tribes commence about 14 hours below Bir,
where there are some ruins called Bilhnh, on the left bank. About 8 hours below Bir, on the right
bank, are the ruins of Salamia. Giahar is a town of about 1000 houses and tents, .35 hours below Bir,
on the left bank, near which there is an abundant supply of bitumen. El- Der, supposed to be the
ancient Thaptaciu, on the right bank, contains about 1,500 houses. Karkdsia ( Kirkesion of the
Greeks, Circetium of the Latins, Carchemith of the Hebrews), at the mouth of the Khabour. Aimnh,
170 miles below Racca, on the right bank, consists of one long, narrow, winding street, running
along the narrow space between the river and the high grounds. The town contains two mosques,
and about 1800 houses. Hit, 33° 43' N. lat., 42° 27', E. long., contains about 1500 houses, built round
a long hill, which rises parallel to the right bank of the river. The houses are generally one or two
storeys high, and fiat-roofed ; the streets are narrow, dirty, and steep. In the neighbourhood, for miles
both above and below, there are numerous springs and streams of salt water and bitumen. Felujiah,
140 miles below Hit, is a castle on the left bank, with a floating bridge. At Musseib, 70 miles farther
down, is also a bridge of boats 160 yards long. Hillah, a large well-built town of 10,000 inhabitants,
440 miles below Annah, and 460 from the Persian gulf. About two-thirds of the town are on the
right bank, the rest on the left, with a bridge of boats between them, 4.50 feet long, the depth of water
being 18 feet at the lowest season. The bazaars are good, and well supplied with meat, fish, rice, and
even luxuries ; the city is regularly governed, in general quiet, peaceable, and well disposed towards
strangers and Franks. It is surrounded with a good wall, and the governor's house is also fortified.
Below Hillah are the towns of Dewaniyeh, Levtlun, and Semaueah, the last of which is celebrated for
its cotton cloths, which are much esteemed throughout the East.
Hillah is situate within the precincts of BabyUm, and built with bricks dug from its ruins. A few
■hapless mounds are all that now reniain of the gViry of the Ch/i/dees' exccllinrj/ ; the majority of
which lie on the left, or east bank of the Euphrates, within five miles north of Hillah ; but the most
remarkable of all the ruins is on the west side of the river, five miles south of Hillah. This is an oblong
hill surmounted by a tower, the circumference of its base measuring exactly 722 yards, and its lieiglit
to the bottom of the tower IKO feet. The tower itself is a solid mass of the finest kiln-burnt brick-
masonry, 35 feet in height, making the total height of the pile 225 feet. Two distinct stages of build-
ing are discernible along the sides of the hill ; the tower forms apparently part of a third, above wliich
there may have l>cen others, decreasing gradually in their external dimensions so as to give the en-
tire building a pyramidal form. The whole summit and sides are furrowed into deep hollows mid
channels, strewed with broken bricks, ctamped with three, four, six, and seven lines of writing;
(tones, glass, tiles, large cukes of bitumen, and petrified and vitrified substances. Around it are seve-
ral mounds and ruins ; it is called the Birt Nimrvod, and is believed by many to be the identical tower
of Babel, afterwards converted into the temple of Bel, and destroyed by Xerxes, and which Alexander
the Great attempted to restore. But Mr. Ainsworth supposes it to represent the Ihirtippti or Bir-
A((a of the Greek and Latin geographers; while Mr. Rich, Major Kciuicl, and oihern, suppose the
Geo DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Turkey.
tower of Babol and temple of Rel to be the ruin now called the MuJcUbah, on the east bank of ftio
river, ten miles from the Rirs Nimrood.
At some distance west of the Euphrates, In the neighbourhood of HiUah, arc situate three places
of great historic and rclipious fame, watered by canals from the river. Cufa, Kufa, or Kovfa, 20
miles S. of llillah, from which the letters of the Arabic alphabet have got the name of Cufic, was en-
larged, if not built by Omar, who made it the residence of the Khalifs ; but after the building of Hagh-
dad, it fell into decay. At present there remains little more than the mosque where the Klialif Ali
was murdered, a plain building held in peculiar veneration. All's burial-place " was concealed from
the tyrants of the house of Ommijah, but in the fourth age of the hejrah, a tomb, a temple, a city,
arose near the ruins of Cufa. Many thousands of the Shiites repose in holy ground at the feet of the
vicar of God ; and the desert is vivified by the numerous visits of the Persians, who esteem their de-
votion not less meritorious than the pilgrimage of Mecca." — ( Gibbon, c. 1.) The city of Meshid-Jli,
5 or 6 miles W. from Cufa, is of the size and form of the modern Jerusalem. The tomb of Ali is
within a handsome mosque in the centre of the city. All the tyrants of Persia down to Nadir Shah
enriched it, says Gibbon, with the spoils of the people. The dome is of copper, with a bright and
massy gilding, which glitters in the sun at the distance of many miles. Meshid- Hussein, about 20
miles N.W. of Hillah, is built on the spot where Hussein, the eldest son of Ali, and grandson of
Mahomet, was killed by the emissaries of the Khalif Yezid, a.d. 680, in the plain of Kerbela. The
town is larger and mo- e populous than that of Meshid-Ali, and is principally supported by the influx
of Persian pilgrims, who come here to worship at the shrine of the martyred Hussein ; and whose
bodies are brought in great numbers to be buried in so holy a spot. Meshid-Hussein was plundered of
all its treasures by the Wahabees ; and the relics of Meshid-Ali were carried off by the Pasha of Bagh-
dad, to save them from the same fate, but were never returned. Kelow these places, the last town on
the Euphrates is Snk-el- Sheikh (Lord's market), 70 miles above Kornah, on the south bank of the
river, which contains about 70,000 inhabitants, most of whom live in huts without the walls, which
enclose only a few brick houses. It was built above a century ago by the sheikh of the Montef.ge
Arabs; is the great resort of Hedwins from all parts of the desert; and contains several wealtliy
merchants, who carry on a great trade. —^ Welstead, I. 161.)
Descending the Tigris from tlie valley of Diyarbekr, the first place of importanoo is Mrstil, a large,
ancient, gloomy-looking town, in a state of visible decay. It stands on the west bank of tlie river, in
lat. 36'^ 20', long. 43^ 6', and contains about 35,000 inhabitants, with the remains of some tine buildings.
It carries on some trade, has some unimportant manufactures, and gives name to the well-know n
article muslin (mosuline, cloth of Mosul). Exactly opposite, on the east side of the Tigris, is the vil-
lage of Nunia, occupying a part of the site of the ancient Nineveh ; the only remains are mounds of
earth, like those of Babylon, which are nearly a mile in circumference, but neither so high nor so per-
fect. About a day's ride nortli of Mosul, is the monastery of Rabban- Hormuzd, belonging to tl e
Chaldsean Christians, and the residence of their metropolitan ; and about a mile nearer the city is the
village of Al Kosh, the reputed birth-place of the Prophet Nahum, and containing his tomb. F.rbil
or j4rbil ( Arbela ), 50 miles E. of Mosul, gives its name to the last great battle fought by Alexander
the Great with Darius King of Persia. The battle, however, was not fought here, but at Gmigumeki,
nearly midway between Erbil and Mosul. The inhabitants are Kurds and Turks. Erbil was once
evidently a very large town, but is now in great decay. It is built on a round fiat-topped hill, aboi-t
150 feet high, surrounded by a wall enclosing about 1000 houses ; and there are about 50O more at the
foot of the hill. Altun-kupri (Golden bridge), 26 miles S. of Erbil, is a small town on an island in
the Little Zab river, which is crossed here by two bridges of brick-work ; and 24 miles farther soutli
is Kerkuk ( Kirkuk, Kirkook), a large town of 15,000 or 20,000 inhabitants, built partly on a hill like
that of Erbil, and partly on the plain below. About 80 miles east of Kerkuk, is Sulimania or Suoli-
rriania, or Suleimaniyah, the principal town of Turkish Kurdistan, situate in a sort of ravine, and con-
taining about 2000 families of Moslems, 130 of Jews, 9 of Chalda'an Christians, and 5 of Armenians ;
C khans, 5 baths, and 5 mosques. In winter the cold is sometimes intense, especially when strong
easterly winds prevail ; in summer, the east wind is hot and relaxing, blowing with prodigious vio-
lence sometimes for eight or ten days in succession. Kshaf, at the mouth of the great Zab. Senn,
at the mouth of the little Zab. Tekrit, a ruined fort near the mouth of the Toak. Dvr, Samaru,
Kasviean, a resort of pilgrims, and Baghdad.
Baghdad stands on the Tigris in N. lat. 33° 20', and E. long. 44° 24'. It is a large, but decayed
city, surrounded by an ancient embattled brick wall, about 7 miles in circumference. 1 he city is
built entirely of brick, and contains no buildings of either elegance or importance. The hirger
portion stands on the left bank of the river, which is crossed by a bridge of beats, 670 feet long. The
desert comes up to the very walls. Baghdad is the capital of an eyalet, which includes all the country
from Merdin to Bussrah ; it was founded by the Kaliph Mansoor-il-Dewaniky, in the 13!*th year of
the Ilejirah, or a.d. 766, and continued to be the residence of his successors till a.d. 1258, when it was
taken, and the Kaliphate terminated, by Holagu, the son of Jengis Khan. It came finally into the
possession of the Turks, in 1638 ; and was recently recovered by the Sultan from the doninion of an
almost independent pasha. Three miles north of the city is the mosque of Casmeen or Kosmeiti,
built over the remains of the eleventh of the twelve Imams (see p. 124), and forming one of the hand-
somest structures in Mesopotamia ; and, just without the city wall, on a sloping eminence sur-
rounded by an extensive cemetery, is the tomb of Zobeide, the well-known wife of the Caliph Haroun-
al-Kasbid. The climate of Baghdad is salubrious, but, in the strictest sense of the word, excessive ;
the summer's heat reaching 120°, and sometimes even 140° Fahrenheit ; and the winter's cold being
reduced very low by the icy breezes from the neighbouring mountains. The cold season continues
from the middle of December to the middle of February, when the warm weather begins, and gra-
dually increases to the scorching heat of summer. From April till October the inhabitants spend the
d*y in their terdabs, or underground apartments, and the nights on the roofs of their houses.
About 20 miles below Baghdad are the ruins of two ancient cities, on the opposite banks of the Ti-
gris. Seleucia ( Sekukeia), built by Seleucus Nicator, king of Syria, once contained 600,000 citizens,
and engrossed all the commerce and the wealth of Babylon ; but time, violence, and the inunda-
tions of the river, have levelled everything. Bricks, tiles, and pottery of every colour, stones,
glass, shells, compose what now remains of the once magnificent city. On the opposite, or east-
ern, bank of the river, are the ruins of Ctesiphon, built by the Parthians, within three miles of Se-
leucia, in order to dispeople and impoverish it. It contains one magnificent monument in a perfect
state of preservation ; but without an emblem to throw any light upon its history ; and with no proof
or character to be traced on any brick or wall. This stupendous fragment, called Tauk-Kesra, is
built of fine furnace-burnt bricks, and measures 300 feet along the front or eastern face. It is divided
by a high semicircular arch [lauk] of 86 feet span, which rises to the height of 103 feet, and is sup-
ported by walls 16 feet thick. All round are fragments of walls and masses of brickwork, and vast
structures encumbered with heaps of earth. On account of the vicinity of these two cities, the Arabs
gave them the common name of Al Mudain (the two cities. J Ctesiphon was taken and sacked t)y the
Arabs in a. d. 637, and the plunder obtained was immense. This event was followed by its desertion
and gradual decay, and the building of Baghdad finally reduced both of these cities to insignificance.
Kornah (Koorna, Kurnah. Comeh,) the Apamea of the Syrian Greeks, stands on the point of land
formed by the confluence of the two great rivers. It is now an insignificant place ; but extensive
Turkey.] ASIA. 657
ruing attest Its former importance. On the west bank of the Shat-el-Arab, 48 miles below Kornah,
and 86 from the sea, stands Bcssrah ( Btitsorah, Basra, Basrah, Bozra, BaUora, Bassorah, ButrahJ, a
large commercial city. The position of the British factory, which is nearly in the centre of the town,
has been determined to be in lat. 30-^ 29' 30'', long. 47^ 34' 15". The town is of an irregular oblong
square form, surrounded by brick walls 8 or 9 miles in circumference, forming an effectual defence
against the Arabs ; but of the enclosed space not more than a fourth is occupied by houses, the rest
being partly filled by ruins, or partly laid out in corn fields, rice grounds, date groves, and gardens. The
walls and most of the houses are built of sun-dried bricks. The population has varied, at different
times, from 500,000 to 50,000, of whom about one-half are Arabs, one-fourth Persians, and the other
fourth a mixture of Turks, Armenians, Indians, Jews, Catholic Christians, and a few Kurds and
Europeans. The situation is so highly favourable for trade, that in spite of evtry obstacle occasioned
by a bad government, and an unsafe passage by land or water, it continues to enjoy a commerce suffi-
cient to enrich many by its profits, and to furnish the means of subbistence to its large population.
The ruins of the more ancient hahora are at the distance of 8 miles from the modern city. The
country immediately surrounding the city is a desert, with a horizon as level as the sea, and is covered
with water for six months in the year. The climate is excessively hot from April till October, but
the heat seldom rises above 110- Fahrenheit. On the east bank of the Shat-el-Arab, and on the north
side of the Hafar canal, below Bussrah, is Slohammerah or Mohamra, a small place, where the steam-
vessels occasionally stop.
Tt
658 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAFIIY. [Arabia
ARABIA.
Astronomical Position Between 12- and 3G° N. lat., and 32'' and GO' E. Ionia;.
Boundaries SmUh-western : — Tlie Red Sea. South-eastern and Eastern : — ^The
Arabian Sea. North-eastern: — The Persian Gulf and the river Euphrates. North-
western : — Syria and Palestine, where, however, the boundaries are not precisely de-
fined.
Dimensions From the Isthmus of Suez, in the north-west, to Cape Ras-al-
Had in the south-east, Arabia measures 1650 miles; from Suez to the Straits of
Bab-el-Mandeb, 1300; from Bab-el-Mandeb to Ras-al-Had, 1250; from Bab-el-Man-
deb to Racca, on the Euphrates, 1940; and from Gaza, on the Mediterranean, to the
mouth of the Shat-el-Arab, 840. The superficial area is computed at about 834,400
square English miles.
Beled-el-Arab (Arab land), and Jezirat-el-Arah (Arab island or peninsula) are tlie
usual native names of the country. The Persians and Turks call it Arahistan. The
singular word Arab is used as a collective noun, to designate the people ; but its
etymology and meaning are uncertain.
General Aspect Arabia is a large peninsula, having the greater part of its boun-
daries washed by the sea and the Euphrates, and occupies the south-western corner
of Asia. It appears to be an innnense pile of naked mountains and table-lands, en-
circled by a belt of flat, dry, sandy ground, along the sea coasts.
The north-western portions are mountainous ; the triangular peninsula formed by the fork of the
Red Sea is very rugged. The ridge of Anti-Libanus, or at least a continuation of it, after skirting
the IJead Sea and the Ghor, runs along the coast parallel to the Red Sea, at a distance of from 30 to
80 miles, and sometimes approaches closely to the shore. It increases in elevation as it extends
southwards, and appears to be continued in a line parallel to the shore of the Indian Ocean as far as
Oman. These mountains diverge into the interior in ridges, which increase in elevation as they
recede from the sea ; in clear weather they are vii>ible for 60 or 70 miles, and the distant peaks have a
rugged pointed outline. Between their bases and the shore extends a lowland border of varying
width, called by the Arabs the tehamah, which is generally desert and barren, but is cultivated in a
few spots. The country to the east and the north of the mountains is higher than the low country
along the coast, by so much as two thirds of the height of the mountains, and appears to form an im-
mense table-land or series of elevated deserts, sloping generally towards the Persian Gulf and the
Euphrates. No part of Arabia contains rivers or large streams, in the proper sense of the word ;
though the coast lands are intersected by numerous ravines, called uadies, which contain torrents
during the rainy season. The dryness of the atmosphere is so great, that it sometimes does not
rain for several years in succession. It is only, therefore, those lands which are situate at the foot of
hills, and can be watered artificially, that are susceptible of cultivation ; and without the help of
the wady-torrents, which are intercepted by dams, collected in ponds, and turned from their course
upon the land, scarcely any crops could be raised. The peninsula, however, contains many well-
watered spots, and wells are interspersed throughout the deserts in numerous oases.
Climate. — Arabia partakes of the climate of northern Africa. The mountains of Yemen are
moistened by regular showers from the middle of June till the end of September ; but even then the
sky is seldom overcast for 24 hours together, and during the rest of the year not a cloud is to be
seen. In Oman the rainy season begins in November, and continues till February ; but along the
south coast it begins in February, and lasts till the middle of April. The air is everywhere gene-
rally dry, and always hot ; the average temperature of the year is reckoned at 85° Fahrenheit ; but
during summer, particularly in the low country along the Red Sea, the heat is intense, the thermo-
meter at Mocha rising to 98-^. In the hill country of Saana, north-east of Mocha, frost is sometimes,
though rarely, felt ; and falls of snow take place in the interior, which, however, never lies long. The
nature of the winds differs according to the tract they have passed over, so that the same wind is in dif-
ferent places moist or dry. The winds which blow from the deserts are naturally of the latter kind ; but
it is only in the northern part of the peninsula, in the deserts between the Euphrates and Syria and
Mecca, that the much-dreaded Simoom or Samiel, is felt ; and even that blows only during the in-
tense summer heats. The Arabs are said to perceive its approach by its sulphureous odour, and by
an unusual redness in the direction from which it comes. The only means of escaping from one of
these poisonous blasts is to lie fiat on the ground till it has passed over'; and even the animals in-
stinctively bow their heads, and bury their noses in the ground. The effects of the simoom on those
who face it are instant suffocation, and the immediate putrefaction of the body, which is observed
to be greatly swollen. In the driest tracts, near the sea, the dews are singularly copious ; but the
natives nevertheless sleep in the open air ; and Niebuhr says that he never slept more soundly than
where he found his bed all wet with dew in the morning. At night the stars shine forth with a bril-
liancy unknown in other regions. In the desert the cold of the night is in proportion to the heat
of the day ; fevers, notwithstanding, appear to be unknown ; and the Bedwin who sleeps in the sand
receives additional vigour and vivacity from the purity of the air which he breathes in his slumbers.
GcLFS, Bays, Straits. — The Arabian Gulf or Red Sea is a great inlet of the Indian Ocean, ex-
tending in a north-westerly direction between Arabia and Africa, through 18^ of latitude, or from 12^
30' to 30° 10' N., a distance of 1,400 miles, with a breadth varying from 200 to 120, where undivided.
Its northern portion is divided into two smaller gulfs, those of Suez and Akaba, which are very con-
siderably narrower than the main sea. The Gulf of Suez extends about 200 miles in length, with a
breadth varying from 10 miles to 40; the gulf of Akaba is about 100 miles long, but only 7i wide at
its entrance, and has the appearance of a narrow deep ravine, along which the hUls rise in some place*
perpendicularly at the distance of 300 feet from the water. It is exceedingly stormy and dangerous.
Arabia.] ASIA. 659
The Red Sea is full of coral reefs ; and with the exception of occasional gaps, tlirough whicli thera
are navigable channels, a continued line of these runs parallel to the shore along the whole Arabian
side of tne gulf. The average width, however, of the clear sea is UK) miles, and the depth almost
unfathomable ; and within this clear space it may be navigated at all seasons, without impediment
from the reefs ; only one of which, that of the Do'dalus, is found within the whole extent. The mou~
soons, which blow periodically in the Indian Ocean, do not extend to the Red Sea ; the wind, how-
ever, blows with equal violence from opposite quarters at the two extremities, leaving a considerable
space which is subject to light breezes and calms. North-westerly winds prevail throughout the
year, in the northern part of the sea ; but, during June, July, and August, they attain their greatest
strength, occasionally blowing home through the Straits of Bab-el-mandel, to the very limits of the
south-west monsoon, and driving the water before them to such an extent, that reefs which are usually
covered appear three or four feet above the surface. The duration, however, of such gales, rarely
exceeds three or four days, and is usually succeeded by light breezes. In the southern portion south-
erly winds prevail for nine months of the year ; in October, November, and December, they not
unfrequently blow home to Suez, also raising the water perceptibly in that direction ; but on ordi-
nary occasions, their violence is not perceptible for more than 1.50 miles above Mokha The tempera-
ture of the atmosphere, compared with that of the Persian gulf, is moderate. The north-west winds
are cool and refreshing ; but those from the south are damp, sultry, and unwholesome. During the
prevalence of the latter in September and October, the humidity of the atmosphere is very great in
the warmest days, and the heavy dew at night is particularly disagreeable. In the upper portion of
the sea, during the prevalence of northerly breezes, the atmosphere is of uncommon purity, and
every object can be perceived the moment it rises above the horizon. In the daytime a cloudless sky
throws its deep blue tinge over the sea, which is more clear and pellucid than the tideless Mediterra-
nean, except when the surface is agitated by the tempests which so frequently sweep over it, and
raise its waters into snowy-crested waves. The nights are equally pure and clear, and though the
coast of Hedjaz is said to be unhealthy, it is not found to be so at sea. The Red Sea communicates
with the ocean by the Straits called Buh-el-mandeh (Gate of tears), which measure, l>etween the
opposite shores, Uj geographical, or nearly 17 Knglish statute miles across ; they are divided by the
island of Perim into two portions, of which the eastern is little more than 2 miles wide, and the
western, 13. The soundings in the smaller strait vary from 8 to 14 fathoms ; but in the middle of the
other no bottom can be found with 120 fathoms. This larger strait is, however, divided by the Jezirat-
ui-Sab'ah or the Brothers, a cluster of rocky islets, extending 6 miles east and west, 10 miles south of
the most southerly point of Perim. The strait is formed on the Arabian side by Has Bab-el- mandeh, a
prominent cape, visible from a ship's d-ck on a clear day at the distance of 'if) miles ; its highest peak,
Jehel Manhali, rises 8G0 ftet, and stands in lat. 12' 41' 10", N., long 43^ 32' 14" E. On the African shore
Bat Sejan, a gloomy-looking peak 380 feet high, projects northward from the coast, with which it is
connected by a swampy piece of lowland TOOyards wide. {Jmirnal R. Geog. Soc. Land. IX. \2T.)
Beyond the Strait is the Gulf(\f Arabia, more commonly called the Gulf uf Aden or the Gulf of liab-
el-nu'iiidel, which extends east and west nearly 600 miles, with an almost uniform breadth of about 200.
On the south coast of Arabia is the large open bay of Curia-muria or Kourya-moorya, with good
soundings throughout. The Gulf of Onuni, formerly called the Gulf of Ormus, extends 320 miles
from S.E. to N.W., between Arabia and Persia, with a breadth varying from 200 miles at its
ca.stem extremity, to hi) or GO where its meets the Persian Gulf. The latter is a large gulf which
penetrates 000 miles into the continent in a north-westerly direction from the Strait of Ormus, with
a briadth varying from 230 miles to 130. Along the Arabian shore a great pearl bunk extends from
Sharja, 47 miles S.W. by W. of Ras-el-Khaimah. to Jliddulph's Group, 400 nnles N.N.W. up the gulf,
with a breadth of 150 miles. The bottom consists of shelly sand and brciken coral, and the depth
of water varies from 5 fathoms to 1.5. The right of fishing for pearls is common to all ; the fishery
continues from June to September ; during the rest of the year the weather is too cold. During the
season, every person who can procure a boat, or a share in one, is employed. The boats are of various
sizes and forms, averaging from 10 to .50 tons ; Bahrein is computed to furnish of all sizes .3.500 ; the
Persian coast, 100 ; and the coast between Bahrein and the entrance of the gulf, 700. The annual
value of the pearls obtained is estimated at £100,000 sterling; and the number of people employed is
about 30,000. The heat of the atmosphere in the Persian Gulf is not surpassed by that of any othiT
place in the world ; the nights being short, neither land nor sea has time to cool ; even the heat of
the sun when on the horizon is sutticicntly great to be disagreeable ; the sailors say it rises red hot.
From sunrise till about an hour before noon, when the sea-breeze suts in, the heat is almost intoler-
able.— C M-'ellstead . J The Persian Gulf receives at its northern extremity the waters of the great
rivers Euphrates, Tigris, Jerahi, and others.
Capes. — Bat Mohammed, a low promontory, forms the southern extremity of the triangular penin-
sula of Mount Sinai. Has Bah-el-numdeb, the south-western point of Arabia. Bas-al-hud (V\:it
('ai>e), a sandy point at the south-eastern extremity of Arabia. Jlas Mussendon, an insulated rocky
point at the enti ance of the Persian Gulf, is separatad from the mainland by a very deep chaiuu-1 not
more than 400 yards wide. Biu Becca7t, the most northern point of a peninsula which projects about
loo miles into the Persian Gulf, on its south side.
Isi.A.-tns. — In the Red Sea are : Graa or Jezirat I'haroun, named also by the Arabs Kalat-el-dier,
is a small islet at the head or northern extremity of the Gulf of Akaba, consisting of two rounded
hillocks joined by a flat isthmus, the whole being encompassed by a massive wall, with square towers
at the atigles. The island was noted in the wars of the crusaders. — ( Weltstead, Labunle ) Tehran
or Tinin, a hilly island with a high peak, is destitute of water, and inhabited only by a few fisher-
men. It was anciently sacred to Isis, and is one of a group which lies opposite the mouth of the
Gulf of Akaba. Jebel Teir, a pyramidal islet, (i miles in circumference, is 1.300 feet high, and inha-
bited by a few fishermen. N. fat. \f>^°. Jebii Xifiifer ithe isle of prayer), sterile and uninhabited
rocks of volcanic formation. Sabaquien Islands, fourteen barren rocks, pyramidal and volcanic, to
the south of Jebel Teir. Sughair and Harnish, two large islands in a group called the Arroe hlaui's,
14 N. lat. I'erim or A/*>_vM«, a small rocky island which divides the strait of Bab-el-mandeb. Ca-
maran or Kamaran, a large island near the coast, south of Loheia, which is used as a depot for coa'.s
to supply the steam-vessels. Abdul-Kudir or Palinunu Shoal, a dangerous patch, discovereil by
the H.E.I.C.'sship Pallnurus, in 1836, 8i miles offshore, 14^54'.'>0'' N. lat., .50^ 4.5' 20" E. long. E. by
N. of Makulla.
Bahrein, Ilaharein, or Aral, a largo island in the middle of a bay on the southern shore of the Per-
sian Gulf, measures 27i miles long, and 10 broad; the middle of its l>readth is occupied by a range of
hills, but its shores are very low, and surrounded w.th shoals, most of which are dry at low water. It
is very fertile, and covered with plantations of date trees; it has also numerous springs of e.viH'llint
water in the interior, but none near enough the harbour to be available for shipping, whic^li an: sup-
plied from the bottom of tlie sea, 18 feet deep, where there is a spring of ^ood fresh water. The chief
town, named Manama, is a large and populous place at the northern end of the island, in 2') 1 4' N lat.,
.V) 3*;' E. long., with about 4(l,0«)0 inhabitants. The houses are well-built, and the town altogether is
more respectable than any other in the Persian iJulf. The ba/.aar Is well .supplied with fine cattle,
sheep, poultry, fish, and vegetables ; an extensive trade is carried on with all the tribes along thu
660 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Arabia.
coast, in which upwards of 140 vessels are employed. But the priiic:pal source of its prosperity is the
prarl fishery. The harbour is formed on the cast side by the island of .-irud, which is very low, and
Is nearly divided by the sea at high water, though ttie tide rises only ^tvi n feet. It contains the town
of Maharag, about a mile east of Manama, but not ne;irly so populous. On the west side of Bahrein,
is another small island, named Ji'/iel Hussein, wliich is low and uninhabited. The (jroup is sur-
rounded by shoals and flats, one of which, named Teignmouth Shoal, extmds 15 miles to the north-
ward, with a breadth of 14 miles, and is in many parts dry at low water. The bay which contains
these islands, extends 70 miles inland, between Kas Reccan and Ras Tanhora, but is so completely
filled with shoals as to be quite unnavigable for ships of burden.
MiKKBALs, Vegetable rRonccxioNS, and Animals. — According to Niebuhr, Arabia contains
no mines of gold or silver, though the latter metal is found in small quantities among the lead of
Oman. Iron mines exist in the north of Yemen. Rock salt is wrought near Loheia, and several
other places ; the lieds of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf abound witli coral, and on the southern
shore of the latter is the great pearl bank of Bahrein. The country is rich in indigenous trees, as
the Indian tig tree, the date tree, which produces the staple article of food to the desert tribes ; the
cocoa pahn, the fan palm, and other sorts of pahns and fig trees ; tlie Cornell tree, the plantain or ba-
nana, the almond, the apricot, the pear, the apple, the quince, the orange, the acacia, which produces
gum-arabic, the mangoustan, the papaya, the sensitive plant and other mimosas, the balsam tree,
and the tamarind. 'Iheie is. however, in the country, little timber iit for building, the wood being
mostly of a light porous texture. Among the shrubs may be mentioned the cofiee-plant, the in-
digo shrub, the castor-oil plant, the senna, aloe, styrax, sesamum, cotton, sugar-cane, betel, nutmeg,
all sorts of melons and pumpkins, the wars, which yields a yellow dye, the/o!«/, which supplies a red
dye, and a great variet\ of Ugtiniinous plants, pot-herbs, and officinal herbs Among the odoriferous
plants are lavender, marjoram, the white lily, the globe amaranth, the sea datlodil, various kinds of
pinks, and other plants. Wheat, turkey-corn, and dhourra, abound in the plains of Yemen and other
fertile districts ; also barley, with wliich the Arabs feed their horses, and beans, which serve as food for
their asses. Manna, answering jirecisely to the description given by Moses ofthefood of the Israelites,
is produced abundantly from a little thorny shrub, in all tlie deserts. Arabia is distinguished for her
breed of horses, the character of which is, that they are spirited, active, and of tlie most generous tem-
per. Perhaps, it has bein said, the genuine Arabian steed is the most compact piece ol powerful and
efficient mechanism in the brute creation ; but the horses are generally of small size, and in no way
remarkable for beauty. The Arabs pay the utmost attention to the genealogy and education of
this faithful friind. which indeed is brought up as one of the family ; the colts live in the tents among
the children, and are treatvd with a familiarity and tenderness which produce gentleness and attach-
ment. They are accustomed, says Gibbon, only to walk and to gallop ; their sensations are not blunted
by the incessant abuse of the s pur aiid the whip ; their powers are reserved for the moments of flight
and pursuit ; but no sooner do they feel the touch of the hand or the stirrup, than they dart away
with the su iftncss of the wind ; and, if their friend be dismounttd in the rapid career, they instantly
stop till he has recovered his seat. There are two distinct breeds of horses : the one called kadistii
(of unknown descent), is in no higher estimation tlian the common horses of Europe, and is em-
ployed to carry loads, or for draught ; the other breed, called koheili or koMnni (of ancient and
noble pedigree), is reserved for riding only. The best horses are bred in the Syrian deserts ; they
are valued more for their attachment and their amazing speed, than for their beauty. And yet tl:e
horses of Abdallah, the chief of the Wahabees, which were captured by the Turks, along with their
master, and could not have been purchased at any price, are said to have had eyes and bones like those
of the ga/.elle, the latter indeed delicate, but firm as steel. Nottiii;g can be compared to the beauty
and the gracefulness of all their motions, and none of the Turkish horses at all approach them in
agility and swiftness. Horses, however, are not very numerous ; the comparative scarcity of vege-
table substances for their food is an insuimountable* obstacle to the extensive breeding and rearing
of this animal; and in some places there are many encampments without a single horse. The tribts
richest in horses are those onthe borders of Syria and Mesopotamia ; while, on the contrary, the tribes
in the southern parts of the peninsula have very few. Like their masters, the Arab horses live
all the year in the open air. Next to the horse in importance is the camel, the faithful slave of the
Arabs, which serves them as a beast of burden across their deserts, while its milk supplies them with
the most nourishing part of their food, its hair with coverings for their tents, and its flesh with a
dainty morsel on their holidays. The camels of Arabia are of the one-humped species ; those of
them that were trained for riding were denominated by the Greeks, from whom we have borrowed the
terra, dromedaries (racers), some of which are exceedingly swift ; the modern dromedaries seem to
be a peculiar variety of the species, generally of a lijjhter form than the beast of burden. The other
animals found in Arabia are asses, some of which are large, and so spirited, that it has become a pro-
verb to say of a person ofgreat vivacity that he is as brisk as an ass. Oxen and cows with a hump, rock
foats, gazelles, sheep with broad thick tails, hyenas, panthers, ounces, jackals, wedves, foxes, wild bears,
ares, jerboas, and monkeys. Among the birds are eagles, falcons, sparrow-hawks, vultures, ostriches,
lapwings, thrushes, pheasants, guinea-fowl, pigeons, partridges, larks, quails, plovers, and storks.
Domestic poultry are very plentiful in all the fertile districts. Pelicans and other sea fowls are nu-
merous on the coasts, which all abound with fish. There are also various kinds of serpents, lizai'ds,
and ants ; and the formidable locusts are produced in myriads in the deserts. These last the Arabs
dry, and roast or boll them for food ; and Niebuhr states that in his time they were strung on threads,
and offered for sale in the markets of all the Arab towns, from Bab-el-mandeb to Bussrah. '1 be
practice is still contiimed ; the mukin or r«d species is the fattest, and, when fried and sprinkled with
salt, is considered a wholesome and nutritious food.
People. — The Arabs are of the Caucasi.in, or white race of mankind, and speak various dialects
of the Semitic language, which are all classed under the general name of Arabic. Their language is
celebrated for its beauty and extraordinary copiousness. The people are Mahometans of the Sooiiee
sect, excepting perhaps a few remaining M'ahabees ; and are all divided into the three classes of Bed-
wins,* husbandmen, and citizens. The modes of life ot the two latter classes are not essentially
different from those of people of the same classes in other countries ; it is principally the Bedwins
that exhibit the peculiarities of the Arab character. The stationary Arabs are somewhat above the
average stature ; they are robust and well formed ; their skin is sun-burnt and brown, but elastic ;
their face is oval and copper coloured ; their forehead high and broad ; the eyebrows black and
bushy ; the eyes black, deep-seated, and quick ; the nose straight, and of medium size ; the mouth
well defined ; the teeth well set, beautiful, and white as ivory ; the ear beautifully formed, and of
the normal size, slightly curved forwards. In the women, the graceful outline of the limbs is espe-
cially admirable ; and also the regular proportions of the hands and feet, and the elegance of their
• This word is usually spelled Bedouins ; but as that is the French form, we have preferred the
English Bedtvin, which is nearly the same in sound, though different in spelling. The term is a cor-
ruption of the Arabic badwi, which means an inhabitant of the desert, and is derived from the noun
tadte, an op^n country, a desert
Arabia.] ASIA. 66
attitudes, steps, &c. The Bedwins are generally divided into tribes, which are scattered upon the
confines of the cultivated regions, and along the edges or on the islands of the deserts ; they live
under tents, jshich they transport from place to place. They have generally a very strong resem-
blance to the settled Arabs ; but their eyes are more sparkling, their leatures less distinct, and their
stature somewhat inferior. They are also more agile ; and, though slightly built, they are very
strong ; have lively imaginations ; are haughty and independent in character ; and are suspicious, dis-
sembling, and restless, but brave and intrepid. They most religiously observe the rights of hospi-
tality ; and are especially remarkable for their profound address, and for their great intelligence.
They are regarded as excellent horsemen ; and they boast, not without reason, of their skill in the
use of the lance and the javelin. They are also very skilful as tradesmen and artizans. The man-
ners and customs of both classes are, however, in most respects very nearly the same. They rear
sh 'ep, camels, and horses ; all speak dialects of the s^ame language, and profess the same religion,
Islam. Their mode of living is nearly the same ; their food consists principally of milk, eggs, and
vegetables; they eat but seldom, and consume little flesh ; and in general they are very sober and
temperate in drinking ; and easily support all kinds of privation. The men all shave the head and
allow the beard to grow ; the women allow the hair to grow, and often colour it and their eyebrows
with paint more or less of a deep brown, which strengthens the hair and imparts to it a beautiful
black hue. They also dye with a liquor of a golden yellow colour, procured from the henna plant,
the edges of the feet and hands, reaching to the points of the toes and fingers. These parts, and
also the faces of the youth of the higher classes, are protected from the disfiguring effects of the small
pox by means of gold leaf, which is applied at the invasion of the malady. ( Remarks on the Physical
Onistitution of the Jrabiatit. By M. Larrey. Edin. Kew I'hil. Journal XXV. 318.) The life of a
Hedwin is one continued round of idleness or amusement. When no pastime calls him abroad, he
loiters in his tent, smokes his pipe, or stretches himself under the shade of a tree. He has no relish
for domestic pleasures, and seldom converses with his wife and children ; he values nothing so much
as his horse, which he makes use of in hunting and plundering expeditions, to which the race have
been adlicted in all ages. The Bedwins are di\ided into numerous tribes, which have constant feuds
with each other; and, even when they are at peace with their neighbours, they cannot rest at home,
but make incursions upon distant tribes, and upon all the more civilized people who possess anything
to tempt thuir cupidity. They are, in short, the children of nature, and exhibit a strange combina-
tion of \irtues and vices. They are certainly now vury much improved from their ancient condition,
such as it is described in Antar, and which is very well exhibited in the speech of the Arab ambassa-
dors sent to Yezdegird, the last Sassanian king of Persia, to require his submission to their prophet.
" Their food was green lizards ; they buried tlieir infant daughters alive ; nay, some of them feasted
on dead carcasses and drank blood ; while others slew their relations, and thought themselves great
and valiant, when by such an act they became possessed of more property ; they were clothed with hair
garments, knew not good from evil, and made no distinction between what is lawful and what is un-
lawful." From this state they were raised by the religion of Mahomet; and whatever improvement
their manners and customs have undergone must in fairness be ascribed to the new impulse given to
their minds by that fanaticism wherewith he inspired them ; to the union which he and his succes-
sors established among them, by giving them a common religion ; and to the continued influence
of that religion, which is pure in comparison with the idolatry by which the whole country was
polluted before his time. The Arabs have been di>tinguished in all ages for their national inde-
pendence ; they have never formed part of any o the great empires ; their country has never been
overrun by any of those migratory hordes of Scythians, Turks, and Tartars, who have at different
periods invaded and overspread all the other southern countries of Asia, overturning the existing
governments, and founding new dynasties. This independence is easily accounted for ; the Ara-
bian deserts cannot easily be crossed by large bodies of men, and they contain nothing to tempt an
invader. All that Arabia possesses to allure the cupidity of conquerors is to be found only in Yemen,
and this province, accordingly, has been conquered and possessed by foreigners, who made their ap-
proach by the Red Sea. It is only the desert, therefore, that has maintained the much-vaunted inde-
pendence of Arabia; and there everything contributes to preserve the natives from subjection. The
Arabs are likewise famed for their hospitality to strangers ; their generosity has also been much
praised, as well as their lidelity ; but they are, in fact, a nation of robbers ; and late travellers, who
have studied their character, declare that all the tribes, with very rare exceptions, regulate their
lidelity only by their interests. They are all addicted to war, bloodshed, and cruelty, and never for-
get or forgive an injury. The houses in Arab towns, even when built of stone, are entirely destitute
of taste; the men's apartments are in front, those of the women behind. Kven the Bedwin divides
his tent into two apartments by a curtain, behind wliich the women are concealed. In respect of
l)ersonaI cleanliness, they are said to observe the precepts of their religion with the most rigorous
e.vactness. Their dress is loose, long, and flowing, wrapt round them and girded with a sash ; some,
liowever, go almost naked in hot weather, others wear drawers and slippers, but no stockings. In
Some , arts the women wear large veils, with rings, bracelets, and necklaces, have their nails stained
red. their feet and hands of a yellowish brown with an herb called henna, their eye-lashes darkened
with antimony, and use every art to make the eyebrows large and black.
Some of the Arabs boast of their descent from Ishmael the son of Abraham ; they are not, however,
all Ishmaelites. According to their own traditions they are sprung from two stocks, Kahtan or
Juk/an, the son of Helwr. of the family of Shem, and Adnan^ the lineal descendant of Ishmael. The
posterity of the former they call pure Arabs, that of the latter, mixed Arabs. The Kahtanians set-
tled in tiie east and south of the peninsula, while the Ishmaelites .seem to have taken possession of the
north-west, alon;; the borders of Egypt, Palestine, and Syria. Their e.irly history is very obscure ;
It was only after the time of .Mahomet that they acquired what may be called an historical character ;
for, under his successors in the civil and ecclesiastical sovereignty which he founded, the Arabs burst
from their deserts like a torrent, and made themselves masters of Syria, As.syria, Persia, Kgypt,
North Africa, and Sixain. Their sovereigns, who took the title of caliph or khalif, transferred the
seat of government to Damascus, and Kul'a, and latterly to Baghd:id on the Tigris ; and the Arabs,
who followed their chief into the cities and fertile countiies subject to his dominion, became a very
lolished people, and carried the pursuits of literature and philosophy to a high degree of excellence,
while Kurope was buried in the darkness of the middle ages. As the caliphate declined, the natives
of the peidnsula relapsed into their former state of wild independence, in which they continue at the
pr> sent day.
GovKBNMEST AKD Pboductive I.NDC8TRV. — The nature of the country keeps the Arabs divided
into petty tril)es, and nowhere admits of large bodies being consolidated into powerful states, and
thereby acquiring a supremacy over the whole nation, and foun<ling such a monarchical despotism
as has always prevailed in the more fertile and populous countries of Asia. The Arab governments
are accordingly of the simplest kind, and their princes have very limited powers. The prevailing
principle of their government is patriarchal, wh're the hereditary chief of the tribe is the real or
reputed descendant of their common aneostor. The chiefs, who are called Sheikhs, and the more
powerful of them, Kinirs, lead the tribe to war, iidminister justice, and deeree i)ence and war, but sel-
dom without the advice of the elders of the tribe. The Sheikhs, however, though the prince* of in-
662 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Arabia.
dependent communities, are In no respect to be compared with the European kings ; for their whole
mode of life is distinguished by the utmost simplicity, and they live on the most familiar terms with
all their subjects. From the principle inherent in the nature of man to abuse the power witli which
he is invested, some of these sneikhs occasionally conduct themselves very despotically ; but in such
cases their imimticnt subjects make no scruple to depose them, and elect others in their stead ; a prac-
tice which operates as a salutary check upon their despotic inclinations. The governments of the
desert tribes are all of this description ; but, among the settled inhabitants of the cultivated districts,
very despotic princes are to be found ; those of the north-west, and along the coasts of the Red Sea,
have been subjected to the vigorous and despofc rule of the Pasha of Egypt and his deputies; and
the Arabs in Mesopotamia and Syria also acknowledge the sovereignty of the Sultan and his pasiias,
but pay very little obedience to their orders when they attempt to command. There is scarcely any
such thing as manufacturing industry, excepting only the commonest articles and fabrics for home
consumption. But in agriculture the settled Arabs arc very industrious, particularly in turning to
account the scanty streams of water. In Yemen, the contrivances for this purpose are elaborate and
extensive. Terraces are formed, and dams to retain the water, which is also raised from wells to
irrigate the fields. In harvest the crop is pulled up by the n ots, and the hay is cut down with a
sickle. The commerce of the country, though much loss than it was before the discmery of the pas-
sage to India by the Cape of Good Hope, is still somewhat considerable, and is carried on chiefly by
the caravans whicli yearly arrive at Mecca from all parts of the Mahometan world. The articles of
necessary use are furnished by India, those of luxury by Europe, and military arms by Persia and
Ottoman Asia. The principal exports are coffee, the most important of all ; pearls, dried dates,
skins, horses, senna leaves, indigo, gums of various kinds, the produce of Arabia ; besides benzoin,
incense, and myrrh, which are brought from Africa, though they pass in commerce for the produc-
tions of Arabia. The principal articles of import, besides the three already mentioned, are stuffs,
sugar, and other produce of India, steel, iron, cannons, lead, tin, cochineal, cloth, false pearls, arms,
and many other productions of European industry and skill.
The well-known division of Arabia, made by the Greek and Roman geographers, was into three
parts: Petrtxa,* Felix or Eudaimon, (the Happy), and Deterta (Desert.) Petraea comprised the
region between Judiea and the Red Sea, and was so called from its chi.'f town Petra, the capital of
the Nabatheans. The Happy, or fortunate Arabia, comprised the south-western regions, and ap-
pears to have been so called on account of its producing, or being supposed to produce the so
much coveted drugs and spices of the East. The Desert Arabia comprised all the central, eastern,
and northern parts of the peninsula. But these distinctions were never known to the Arabs them-
selves ; nor are the native writers agreed as to the proper divisions of their country ; in fact, as Arabia
never formed one kingdom, the division into provinces is unknown, and the boundaries of the pos-
sessions of tribes being always fluctuating, and never at any time well defined, they cannot be assumed
as civil divisions. Geographers are accordingly very much at a loss to know how to divide .Arabia.
No two of them are agreed as to the number or the names of the provinces ; but as it appears that
the Arabs do attach certain names to certain ill-defined portions of their country, we shall consider
it as so divided, according to the best information we can obtain. The divisions are, 1. Hkojaz,
comprising the Pctriean Arabia, and all the east coast of the Red Sea to the frontiers of Yemen.
It thus includes the Ueled-el- Haram, or Holy Land of Arabia. 2. Yeme.v, comprising the south-west
parts of the peninsula, including Tehama, or the low country on the Red Sea, and Hadramaut ; or in
other words, the whole of the low country along the Red Sea and the ocean, to the south of the 19th
or 20th parallels of latitude. It comprises the Imamat of Sanaa or Y'emen proper ; the state of
Aboii-Arisli, between Mecca and Yemen ; the countries of Kobail or Hashid-el- Bekil, between Sanaa
and Nedjed, inhabited by several warlike tribes, who form a kind of confederation, and furnish mer-
cenary soldiers; the country of /Jrfew, at the south-west extremity of the peninsula ; and Hadramnut,
which extends along the ocean to the east of Sanaa. 3. Oman comprises the eastern angle of the pe-
ninsula, but its inland districts are very little known. 4. Lachsa or Hesse, extends to the north-
west of Oman, along the south coast of the Persian Gulf, nearly as far as the Euplnates, and is divided
into several small states ; the population on the coast live principally by fishing and piracy. It in-
cludes also Bahrein, a group of islands in a bay of the Persian Gulf, celebrated as the chief seat of the
I>earl fishery. 5. The Bahria or Bab-abad, the interior of Arabia, comprises two principal divi-
sions : Nedjed, which includes all the inland deserts, from Yemen and Oman, in the south, to the
head of the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea ; and the Syrian desert, which extends from the Euphrates
to the borders of Syria and Palestine.
§ Cities, Towns, and Remarkable Places.
Mecca (Mekka or Bekka), N. lat. 21° 3G', E. long. 40° 20', is situate in the Holy Land of Arabia,
In a barren valley, surrounded by mountain-^, two days journey from Jiddah on the Red Sea. It is
celebrated as the biith-place of Mahomet, and the cmdle of the Mussulman traditions. The Arabs
believe that it was at Mecca that Adam and Eve, after their fall, obtained pardon of God. It was
here, also, that Ishmael and his mother took refuge, alter being driven from Abraham's house by the
jealousy of Sarah, and founded the illustrious ti ibe of the Koreish, from which Mahomet was sprung.
Abraham, they also allege, visited Ishmael several times at Mecca, and built the Kaaba, which has
been ever since the object of religious veneration. Mecca may be styled a handsome town ; its streets
are generally broader than those of eastern cities ; the houses are lofty, and built of stone; and the
numerous windows which face the streets give them a lively and European aspect. The city is open
on every side. No trees or gardens cheer the eye ; and except four or five large houses belonging to
the sheriff, two medreses or colleges, and the great mosque, with some buildings and schools at-
tached to it, Mecca has no public buildinirs to boast of. Neither khans, nor palaces, nor mo.-ques,
which adorn other towns of the East, are here to be seen. The streets are unpaved, tilled with dust
in the dry season, and with mud during the rains. There are few cisterns for collecting rain, and
the well-water is brackish ; the best water is brought by a stone conduit from the vicinity of Arafat,
six or seven hours distant. But Mecca possesses the Beitullah (house of God), the grand centre of
the Mahometan world, which forms an olilong square, nearly in the middle of the town, 250 paces
long, by 200 broad, and surrounded by a covered coloimade. The centre is occupied by the Kaaha
or holy house, an oblong massive structure of rough stone, 18 paces In length, 14 in breadth, and from
3.5 to 40 feet in height, and entirely rebuilt, as it now stands, in a.d. 1627, after it had been nearly re-
duced to ruins by a torrent. At the north-east corner is a black stone, which appears to be a
piece of lava, or black basalt, fixed in the wall, and is devoutly kissed by every pilgrim. The four sides
of the Kaaba are covered with a black silk cloth which hangs down, and leaves the roof bare. This
' A vulgar error was long prevalent with respect to this word, which was supposed to be the com-
mon Greek word pelraia (stony), and the province was accordingly supposed to have been so callod
on account of its very rugged, rocky, or stony nature. But in this respect it is not more stony than
many other parts of the peninsula, and, historically considered, there is no reason to doubt the cor-
rect derivation of the word to be from Petra, thcproper name of the city.
Arabia.] ASIA. 663
curtain or veil, called kf tenia, U renewed annually at the time of the hadje, being brought from Cairo,
where it is wrought at the expense of the Ottoman Sultan. Within the square is also the well 'lemzem,
and several other holy spots. The Meccawys are an idle and dissolute race, who, with groat pro-
fessions of sanctity, openly set at defiance all the moral precepts of their religion. Many of them
even neglect its very forms, and, like the Bedwins, never pray at all, thinking it quite sutticient to
ensure salvation that they have been born at Mecca. Their principal support is derived from the
pilgrims, to whom they let their houses, and whom they supply with necessaries. Their number at
one time amounted to so many as 100,000 ; but, after the invasion of the Wahabees, it was reduced
to about 18,000. It is probably now very considerably increased. Mahomet having enjoined upon
his followers that they should visit Mecca at least once in their lives, a great concourse of pilgrims
takes place every year in this holy city, and, notwithstanding the decrease of religious zeal, and the
increased expense of the journey, so many as 120,000 attended the hadje or festival in November 1831.
— ( Lieut. fVellttead, Journal H. Geog. Soc. ionrf., VI. 89.) After the downfall of the Caliphate, Mecca
became an Independent state under its own sovereign called Sheriff, but it is now a dependency of
Turkey. In the neighbourhood are several holy places, which are visited by the pilgrims ; as Mount
Arafat, six hours' journey on foot east the valley of Mina, and the movmtainof Hira, which contains
the cave to which Mahomet was accustomed to retire for meditation on heavenly things, and where
he reported that the angel Gabriel appeared to him for the first time. Jiddah, the port of Mecca, .W
miles west on the Red Sea, 21° 28' 30" N. lat, is a well-built town, on a slope which rises gradually
from the sea, surrounded with a wall 3000 paces in circuit, but in the midst of a desert; there being
within the town no gardens or vegetation of any kind, excepting a few date-trees near one of the
mosques ; and, even on the outside of the town, the whole country is a barren desert, covered on the
sea-shore with a saline earth, and higher up with sand. The people are almost exclusively foreigners,
and are engaged in commerce. Their number has been variously estimated at from 5000 to 40,000.
The streets are airy, the houses lofty, and well built of coral. About 70 miles east of Mecca is Tayf
or Taief, a small town in the midst of a sandy plain, surrounded by hills, which is supplied with water
from two copious wells, and celebrated all over Arabia for its beautiful gardens.
Medina, about 250 miles N. by W. of Mecca, situate in a low plain close to the mountains which
run parallel with the Red Sea, is a small town surrounded by a good wall, which has always made
it be considered as the principal fortress of the Hedjaz. It was formerly called Yathreh, and re-
ceived its present name of Medinat-al-mbi (prophefs-town), from the circumstance of its having
become the residence of Mahomet after his flight from Mecca, and of his burial. Without the town
are extensive suburbs. The great object of attraction is the mosque which contains the tomb of
Mahomet ; it is smaller than the beituUah of Mecca, but built on a similar plan, forming an open
square, surrounded with colonnades, and having a small building in the centre. Near the south-
east corner stands the famous tombs, wherein are deposited the remains of Mahomet, and the first
two caliphs, Abubekr and Omar. In the neighbourhood of the city are Mount Ohud, where the
prophet suffered a bloody defeat from the Meccawys; and the wells of lieder, where he gained his first
victory over them. Yambo, a small town on the Red Sea, with a capacious harbour, the best on the
coast, is considered the port of Medina, from which it is distant about 100 miles S. W. It is situate
on a low sandy spot, which is utterly destitute of vegetation. The population is very fluctuating, but
is estimated by Lieutenant Wellstead at 2000. No ships resort to the harbour, and its trade is car-
ried on by boats. Lat. 24° 3' 35' N.
In that portion of the Hedjaz which corresponds with the ancient Arabia Petrsea, are several places
of remarkable interest. I'etra, the ancient capital of the Nabatheans, is now deserted, but its site still
exhibits many splendid remains of the architectural taste and the wealth of its inhabitants. It is
situate in a small valley, called IVady Mousa, surrounded with precipices, about G4 miles from the
head of the Gulf of Akaba. A little to the north-west is Mount Hor, where Aaron was buried, and
where there is now a mosque containing his tomb. Mount .S'matand Mount Horeb, or Jebet Katerin,
and Jebel Moitta, are situate in the southern part of the triangular peninsula formed by the forks or
briinches of the Red Sea, in a gloomy wilderness, consisting of long ranges of rugged rocks, inter-
sected by deep valleys, at the bottom of which are found the only traces of verdure. According
to Dr. Robinson, in his Biblical Researches in Palestine, it is Jebel Mousa that is the Sinai of
Moses, and it is the northern part of it, named Horeb by the Christians, and not the summit,
which he believes to be the place from which the law was delivered; there being in front of it a
plain where the people might have stood, but which cannot be seen from the top. Jehel Katerin
(usually called Sinai) is situate to the south-west of Jehel Mousa, which it overlooks, rising
H-SOO feet above the level of the sea. Between the two mountains, on the flank of Jehel Mousa,
is the convent of St. Catherine, fortified like a castle, inhabited by about thirty Greek monks,
and containing a very ancient church, and also a mosque, as old as the first century of the Hejrah.
It is doubtful, however, whether or not these mountains be the Sinai and lloreb of Moses; there
being another hill in the neighbourhood, which, in the opinion of some travellers, better accords
with the history; and the honour is also ascribed to Jebel Serhal, a mountain considerably to the
north-west. On the west coast of the peninsula is the small seaport town of Tor; about eight miles
from which, on the sea shore, is thj Jebel Narnmo or Sounding Momttiiin. A solid slope of the
finest sand extends from the ba.se to the top of the mountain, a height of 600 feet, at an angle of about
40^ with the horizon, and is encircled by a ridge of sandstone rocks rising to a pointed pinnacle, and
liresenting little surface adapted for forming an echo. When sand is rolled down it produces a sound
commencing in a strain like the first faint notes of an Eolian harp, or of the fingers wetted and
drawn over glass, and increasing in loudness as it descends, till at the bottom it l)ecomes almost equal
to thunder. Akaba, a Turkish ca.stle at the head of the gulf to which it gives its name, is supposed to
l>o near the site of the ancient Elalh and Exitm-geber, from which the fleets of Solomon sailed lo
Ophir. It communicates directly with the Dead' Sea by the long narrow valley El Arabah, which
was for some time supposed to have licon traversed by the river Jordan before the catastrophe of
Sodom and Gomorrah; but is now found to be so nmch higher than the valley of the Jordan as to
render that supposition impossible. Wady Araba joins Wady Ghor about 12 nnles south of the Dead
Sea, forming there a long iwrrow valley or ravine 2.50 to 300 yards wide, which is filled with tamarisks.
It widens as it extends southward; and from ;«)-' 15' N. lat. slopes to the Red Sea, forming what
is pro[>erly called the .-Ikaba or ascent. To the north-east of Petra are Karek or Carark, and Shobek
or Montreal, places distinguished in the wars of the crusades ; Karek is still a considerable town of
.5.50 families. Between Akaba and Suez is the desert El Ty, or, as the Arabs call it, Tya-beni- Israel,
the desert of the Israelites, a desolate tract covered with'black stones, which Burckhardt describes
as the most dreary and barren wilderness he had ever seen.
In Yemen : Snann, the capital of the Imamat of Saana, one of the most powerful states of Arabia,
stands in the middle of a l)eautiful valley 40(M) leet above the level of the sea, and is a well-built town,
surrounded with brick walls and towers. It is supiiosed to contain 4(),(H)0 inhabit.mts, who carry on
a great tra<le, chiefly in coffee, and some of its merchants are reputed to l)overy wealthv. It is the seat
of a dynasty of Imams, which dates from the year I(i2'i, when the Turks were expelled from Yemen.
The Imam has two large pahiceH, with extensive gardens walled round and fortified. The city also
ronlains 20 mosques, many of which are splendid, with richly gilt domes. There arc three other
towni in the valley, Kodak, Wady-Uhar, and Jer<\f, containing altogether about JO.tKKJ iuhabiUnt* ;
664 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Arabia
lat. IS^ 21' N., long. 44'' 21' E. Mocha or Mokha, 160 miles S. W. of Saana, a decayed town with 3000
hooses, on the flat sandy shore of the Red Sea, with an open roadstead, was formerly the princi-
pal sea-port of Yemen, and the place from which the cortee was exported. Zebid, GO miles N. of
Mocha, is a small gloomy city with 7000 inhabitants, ami a garrison of 700 men. Beit-cl-fakih, 83 miles
N. of Mocha, a large nnwalled town of 8000 inhabitants, is the frontier town of the Egyptian or Tur-
kish government, and has a citadel of some strength. It is the emporium of all the coffee from the
Interior, and is reckoned the hottest town in the Tehamah. Aden, on the coast of the Indian Ocean,
east from Hab-el-Mandeb, was once a great emporium of commerce, and has an excellent harbour ;
but its trade has been lost, and the town has been reduced to a heap of ruins j it contains a population of
about COO Jews, Hanians, Arabs, and Somaulies. It is built on a small flat, probably the bottom of a
crater, surrounded by precipitous rocks, on the east side of a peninsula formed by two fine bays, in
the one of which, opposite the town, is the fortilied island of Siruh, which commands the approach.
The peninsula consists chiefly of a mass of volcanic rocks, of the most rugged and fantastic lorms,
extending five miles east and west and three broad, and having as its most southern point, Rus San-
ailah or Cape Aden, in lat. 12^ 45' 10" N., long. 4.')- 9' E. The highest part of the peninsula is Jebel
Shatnshan,a rocky promontory of limestone, rising 1776 feet above the level of the sea. The penin-
sula boars a strong resemblance to the rock of Gibraltar, and could easily be rendered as impreg-
nable ; but its rocky masses are higher and more peaked in their outline. It is connected with the
mainland by a neck of fl:U sandy ground only a few feet high. But both the peninsula and the mainland
present the most desolate aspect ; not a tree or a shrub is to be seen ; and the heat is iiitoleralile. On
.5th June 1839, at six in the evening, the thermometer stood at 100° in a stone house ; tlie place, how-
ever, is healthy. Aden has been taken posses.sion of by the British Indian Government ; the popula-
tion is already increasing, and the town promises to become again as great a seat of trade as it was
in the 13th century, when it contained 30,000 inhabitants. The neiglibouring country abounds with
honey and wax of the finest quality. MiikullaU or Mukallah, 300 miles E. of Aden, in 14- 31' N. lat.
and 49-' 13' E. long., a sea-port town on a low pmjecting point under the face of a precipitous hill,
is the principal trading place on the south coast of Arabia, and has a population of 4 lOO to .5000.
Many of the houses are lofty and substantial. Siham, the capital of Hadramaut is situate 100 miles
distant from MakuUah. Loheia, a town on the Ked Sea, is situate in a poor country, with a shallow
harbour and bad water ; but exports a good deal of cofifee. Hodiida, a town of considerable size on
a sandy bay of the Red Sea, where ships are well protected. The neighbouring country is flat and
sandy, and chiefly produces dates ; but from the mountains, which are visible from the coast, at the
distance of two days" journey, grapes, coffee, limes, and other vegetable productions are brought to
the market. Gomfodah or C(m''udah, is a port on the Red Sea. Dafar or Zafar, a town of Hadra-
maut, on the ocean, in the district of Shih-hir or Seger.
In Oman : Muskat, Maskat, or Muscat, a large town, is situate at the extremity of a small cove, in
lat. 23= 38' N., long. 58° 42' E., in the gorge of an extensive pass, which widens as it advances into the
interior. The town presents a fine appearance from the sea, but consists of narrow crowded streets
filthy bazaars, and wretched huts, intermingled with low and paltry houses. The palace, however,
of the Imam, the governor's house, and sonje others, are good and substantial. Muskat is important
not only as the emporium of a very considerable trade with Arabia, Persia, and India, but also as the
principal sea-port of Oman. Its imports are chiefly cloth and corn. The customs are fixed at .5 per
cent, on all imported goods ; but no duties of any kind are levied ( n exports, which consist chiefly of
dates, madder, sharks' fins for China, and salted and dried fish. The returns are made principally in
bullion and coffee. The population of Muskat and the adjoining town of Matareah, which is a very
large collection of huts about two miles distant, is estimated at 60,000, and consists of a mixed race
of Arabs, Persians, Indians, Syrians, Kurds, Aft'ghans, Heloochees, and others, who have been at-
tracted by the equity of the government. They are chiefly engaged in commercial and maritime
pursuits ; the principal body of the merchants consist of Banians, who almost exclusively monopo-
lize the pearl trade of the Persian Gulf. The common language is Hindoostanee, or lingua franca.
The trade employs 14 ships and brigs, and 500 bungalows and battiles, from 60 to 400 tons ; the coasting
trade nearly 1200 more, from 8 to 40 or 50 tons. Muskat is the cajital of a state, whose sultan, usually
but erroneously styled the Imam of Muskat, claims the sovereignty of all the coast of Alrica from
Cape Delgado to Cape Guardafui ; of the southern coast of Arabia from Aden to Ras-al-had, and thence
northward as far as Bussrah ; and of all the coasts and islands in the Persian Gulf, and the oceanic
coasts of Persia as far as Sinde. His yearly revenue amounts to about 700,000 Spanish dollars. His
only permanent military force is a small body of men accoutred like the Indian seapoys ; but he can
in three days collect from southern Oman 10,000 men, and can soon increase it to 30,000 by the ac-
cession of the neighbouring Bedwins. His flag now even crosses the Atlantic, and his traders have
visited the ports of the United States. Muskat is considered the hottest town on the globe, being en-
circled by naked rocks, the sun's rays become concenired as into a fucus, and the heat is at certain
seasons almost intolerable ; the thermometer ranges in January and February about 50^, but in July
and August generally from 90° to 115°, and has even been observed at 122° in the shade ; the Arabs
emphatically call it El-jehannum, Hell. Very generally, however, this extreme heat is moderated,
during the day, by cool and refreshing sea breezes. Sohar, a town of 9000 inhabitants, 140 miles W.N.W.
of Muskat, carries on a considerable trade with Persia and India. There are several other large
towns on the coast of Oman ; but, with the exception of liottak, which is large and well-built, there
are none of any importance in the interior.
In Lachsa, the principal places are : Ras-al-Khyma or Khaima (Tent Cape), not far to the west of
Ras Mussendon, a flourishing town, the residence of the sheikh of the Joasmee pirates, and the sta-
tion of their fleet, which consisted at one time of 63 large vessels, and 800 barques, maimed by 19,000
men. All their ships, building yards, and forts, were destroyed by the British forces from India in
1809, and a second time in 1819, but the town is again as .Nourishing as ever. Its harbour is the
best on the coast. EUKhat'f, a fortified town situate on a bay, with about 6000 inhabitants, is the
most commercial place in this part of Arabia. /««/, the chief town of the country of I.aehsa, with
about 15,000 inhabitants, consists of a fort, surrounded by an open village, fields, and plantations of
date trees. Grain or Koueit, at the north-west corner of the Persian Gultj is a town of 10,000 inhabi-
tants, who live by fishing and trade.
In Nedjed the only place worth mentioning is Derreyeh or Deraiah, the capital of the ephemeral
empire of the Wahabees, situate at the entrance of a deep and narrow valley, which is enclosed by
arid mountains. It contained 28 mosques, 30 colleges, and 2500 houses ; but in 1819 it was quite de-
serted, and we have no information of its present condition.
Persia] ASIA. 665
PERSIA.
This name is applied by European geographers to the wide region which extends
from the basin of the Euphrates and Tigris, eastward to the Indus; and from the
Indian Ocean, northward to the borders of Turkestan and the Caspian Sea. Tlie
name Persia, however, is quite unknown to the natives; and, whatever may have
been the case in former times, this country does not now form one kingdom, but is
divided politically into three regions, namely, the Kiiujdom of Iran or Persia proper;
Affyhanistan or the Kingdom of Cabul ; and Beloochistan or Belachistan.
THE KINGDOM OF IRAN
Is situate between 25^ 40' and 39^ 40' N. lat., and 44^ and &P E. long. ; and is bounded on the east
by AflFghanistan and Beloochistan ; on the west, by the mountains of Kurdistan, the river of the
Arabs, and the Persian Gulf; on the north, by Russia, the Caspian Sea, and the Turkman desert;
and on the south by the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean. Its greatest length, from north-west
to south-east, or from Ararat to beyond Cape Jask, is about 1250 miles, and its greatest breadth, from
south-west to north-east, or from liussrah to beyond Jleshid in Khorassan, about 870. The super-
ficial area is about 500,000 square Kiiulish miles. Tlie southern and south-western portions form
a narrow tract of level, dry. and arid country, without rivtrs, lying along the shores of the Persian
Gulf. The appearance of this tract is everywhere the same, a succession of sandy plains ; in view-
ing which the eye is occasionally relieved by plantations of date trees and patches of cultivation
which are found near the wells and fresh water rivulets which are thinly scattered over the barren
country. It is called the Dushtistan or Gurmsir, i. e. warm region. The heat during four months
in the year is scarcely supportable even by the natives, and the atmosphere is so unwholesome that
strangers who fall sick seldom recover. Along the shores of the Caspian Sea there is a corresponding
narrow tract, but of a dirt'erent character ; for though the climate is very warm, and the heat in sum-
mer scorching, yet the winters are mild and the atmosphere is always excessively moist. To the hu-
man species this is a most insalubrious region ; but, under the joint influence of heat and moisture, ■
the vegetation is most luxuriant. The sugar-cane is cultivated with success in the low countries of
Ghilan and Mazanderan, while the slopes of the mountains are covered with forests of acacias, lin-
dens, oaks, and chestnuts, and their summits with the cedar, the cypress, and various other pines.
Between these two narrow lowland belts lies an extensive table-land, generally of the great height
of between 2500 and 3.500 leet above the level of the ocean ; though at Koom it is so low as 2046 feet ;
and in some other places even lower. It is, generally speaking, an immense, dry, salt plain, tra-
versed by ranges of mountains, either isolated, or connected with the frontier chains, and includes
many long valleys, which are, in fact, the only cultivated and populated parts of the country. Tliis
table-land is formed on the nortli by the great cliain of mountains which connects the Himalayas
with the Caucasus ; a very high limestone ridge, rising abruptly from the shores of the Caspian,
where it bears the name of Elburx, and the deserts of Turkestan, but declining more gently towards
the inland country. Ttie western and southern boundaries are formed by the mountains of Kurdis-
tan, Louristan, and Rukhtiari, which extend south and south-east from Armenia to the Indian Ocean,
consisting of from three to seven parallel ridges, separated by long narrow valleys, and forming so
many terraces rising above each other, between tlie Gui msir and the Sirhood, or cool country, in the
interior. From both chains arise a multitude of ramifications which cover the country like a net-
work, stretching in all directions, and heaped upon each other as if thrown together at random ;
but few of them rise more than 1000 feet above their base. There are but few passes leading through
these natural walls of Upper Iran, into the low countries on the south-west and the north. 'J'hose
which have acquired the greatest celebrity are : the .Median Pass, which, beginning nea"- Baghdad,
passes through the Median gates ( I'ylin Meiliu: of the ancients), by Kermanshah, Besitun, and Kun-
gavar to Hamadan. 2. The pass called A.'«^»/-/-f/"/l.7(^r leading from Bushire to Shiraz ; where the
ascent is made by means of a road, most skiltuUy constructed, buttressed, levelled, and parapetted,
so as not to alarm even tlie most timid, and broad enough to admit of several mules abreast. The
summit is believed to be GOOO feet above the level of the sea, where there is a plain, green as an emerald
in sunnner. Nothing, it is said, can be more striking than the change from the Gurmsir to the tine
climate and rich soil of these elevated plains. Atiove Shiraz the road now heaving the name of
Ili'slit-i- Arjnn passes through winding mountain tracks and narrow ravines till it reach the plain
of .Mirdusht, which contains the ruins of Persepolis. The summit of this pass is not less than 7200
f.et above the level of the sea. From Persepolis the road proceeds over a third range of mountains,
r aching the height of r,6(X) feet, to the valley of Ispahan, which is itself 4140 feet above the level of tho
fea. From this level the njountain passes farther north, near Kohrud, rise nearly 2000 feet higher.
A third great road begins at Gambrun or Benderabassi, and leads northward to Kerman ever tho
(.(■hul Abad. but we are not aware that the elevation of its valleys and passes has been ascertained.
(If the ancient Caspian and Uyrcanian gates (' /V/te Ctispiu: and l')/lie Ih/rcunice), leading through
the niounUiins tn .Ma/anderan, the former, supposed to be the one that leads past Kishlac, rises to
4."i72 feet ; and the otiier, hy Shahri.d into the province of Astrabad, to 3414 feet. The sunnnits of
the mountain raiiKC through wiiich they extend, do not rise above 70O0 feet, except only the peak
of l>eniavend, which reaches \i.('M).
The great plains of the table-land are all to be found in the eastern part of Iran. Westward, tho
tabk-land narrows to marly half the breadth, but increases in elevation, rising into mountain masses
which become higher and higher, till in the ])rovinces of Azerbijan and Kurdistan, it is replaced by
enormous mountains, and the high valleys wliich are found among their ranges. But the principal
feature of this region is the great extent of its deserts, or sandy and salt plains, which form no incon-
siderable portion ot that long series of deserts already mentioned as extending across Africa and Asia.
I{\it, besides the characters connnon to them all, tlie deserts of Iran exhibit some peculiarities. Tho
principal desert is the Kui^eer or Grent Salt disnrt, which extends, with a very irregular outline, over a
great part of the provinces of Irak and Khorassan. In some places its surface is dry, in others it is
a <rackbng crunt of earth covered with elllorescent salt. Klsewliere it is marshy, the melting of
tlu! snow otM'asioning an accumulation of water in the lower parts, which in summer is evaporated,
imd leaves a nuantity of salt in the form of cakes upon a bed of mud. In other pliices again, sand
predoniinates, either ;u the sluipu ol luavy plains, or wave-like hillocks, easily drilled by the wind.
668 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Persia.
and at times so light and moveable as to be dangerous to travellers, who are not unfrequently burled
under its heaps. There ore also the deserts of Kernian, and Mekran ; and even the low country along
the gulf is little better than a desert.
The low shores of the Caspian Sea are exposed to oppressive heats in summer ; but tl\e winter is
mild, and excessive humidity at all times pervades the atmosphere. Like tropical countries they have
a rainy and a dry season ; the heavy gales commenoe in September from the north and north-east,
by which the clouds are driven against the mountains, and the rain in consequence descends in tor-
rents, accompanied by terrific thunder storms. In the plains the rain continues till the middle of
January ; but among the mountains, it is converted into snow in November. Tlie spring, from March
till May, is the most pleasant and healthy season. In summer, though rain is less frequent, the
atmosphere contains much moisture, and the plains are almost constantly covered with vapour and
fogs, which occasion fevers and other dangerous diseases. In the central table-lands excessively hot
and dry summers are succeeded by rigorously cold winters. From March till May high winds gene-
rally prevail, with frequent hail-storms. From May till September the air is serene, scarcely a cloud
is to be seen ; dews are unknown ; but refreshing breezes prevail during the night. From September
till November high winds again prevail ; the atmosphere, however, still remains extremely dry ; in win-
ter snow storms are frequent, but thunder and lightning are very rare. This general character, however,
of the climate is subject to local modifications. The mountainous regions of Kurdistan and Azerbi-
jan derive from their great elevation and their forests, a greater degree of humidity, and enjoy a more
equal temperature, although the winters are sometimes exceedingly severe. Fars also, especially the
valley of Shiraz, is exempt from great extremes of heat and cold, the thermometer in summer seldom
rising higher than 80^, or sinking at night below 62^. In descending towards the shores of the Per-
sian Gult the climate and the face of nature undergo a complete change. From the mouths of the
Indus to those of the Kuphrates, the narrow tract of low land which lies between the mountains and
the sea bears a greater resfml)lance in soil and climate, to Arabia than to the uplands of Persia.
The country is almost an entire desert, and the summer's heat is insupportable ; but the heat and
dryness of the climate are the very circumstances which make it suitable for the growth of the date
tree, which is almost its only vegetable product.
The table-land is entirely destitute of trees, and is chiefly covered, where there is any vegetation
at all, with plants which require a saline soil. The soil is generally a hard clay, quite unproductive
without irrigation, but wherever water can be obtained, the vegetation is most luxuriant. Wheat is
the chief produce ; barley, millet, and oats are also grown, and in Mazanderan, rice is cultivated with
great care. The gardens of Iran are highly celebrated, and few countries surpass it in the variety
and flavour of its fruits. It is believed to be the native country of the fig, pomegranate, mulberry,
almond, peach, and apricot ; it also produces oranges and lemons of great size, melons, quinces, and
grapes ; hemp, tobacco, opium, sesamum, rhubarb, manna, saffron, cotton, turpentine, mastic, va-
rious kinds of gums, and gall-nuts. The most remarkable vegetable production is the plant from
which asafeetida is obtained. Poppies, which produce opium, are cultivated all over the table-land,
and in many places saffron is al:<o raised. The silk-worm is extensively reared, and the annual pro-
duce of silk has been estimated at 2ii,000 bales of 216 lbs. each.
The animals are, horses of different breads, some of which are considered the finest and the hand-
somest in the East ; camels of both the Bactrian and the Arabian species, and a mule breed produced
between them, which is considered preferable to the pure breeds in respect of strength, docility, and
patience ; horse-ass-mules, asses, wild asses, and beeves. Numerous flocks of goats and sheep form
the wealth of the nomadic tribes, while antelopes, hares, zebras, foxes, and deer of various kinds af-
ford amusement to the sportsman. Boars, bears, lions, and the smaller kinds of tigers lurk in the
forests and the mountains, and hyenas and jackals infest the southern provinces. There are also
tame and wild fowl of the same kinds as in Europe, with plenty of pigeons and partridges, eagles,
vultures, and falcons.
Iran is not rich in mineral products. Salt is too abundant ; the ground is everywhere impregnated
with it. Copper is found in Mazanderaii and Kerman ; iron and silver in Azerbijan ; sulphur and
nitre in Mount Demavend ; turquoises in Khorassan ; and naphtha and bitumen in Irak. IVledicinal
springs of various kinds arc numerous; and near Maragha, In the valley of lake Urmiah, there is a
spring whose petrifying quality is so remnrkable, that it produces a beautiful transparent stone, called
Tabriz marble, which admits of being cut into large slabs, which take a good polish and form a prin-
cipal ornament in the buildings througliout the country.
People. — The Iranee are divided into two great classes, the fixed and the erratic, tlie latter being
called Eitnuts or Iliyats. The former, called S/ieherces by the rural tribes, area mixed race of Turks,
Tartars, Arabians, Armenians, and Gei>rgians engrafted on the stock of the ancient Persians, and their
general language is a mixture of Arabic wiUi the ancient dialect of Fars. They are generally called
Tajiks or Taujiks; and by that name only are their colonies in Att'ghanistan and Turkestan distin-
guished from theother inhabitants. They are a fine race of people; they are not tall, but it is rare to see
any of them diminutive or deformed, and they are in general strong and active. Their complexion
varies from a dark olive to a fairness nearly approaching the northern European. Th«y are quick of
apprehension, vivacious, and naturally polite, sociable and cheerful, but prodigal and rapacious. The
higher classes are kind and indulgent masters, and the lower ranks, so far as respects the active per-
formance of their duty, and the prompt execution of orders, are equally good servants. Hut there is a
great ditference and variety of character among the inhabitants of different cities and provinces ;
some being as remarkable for their courage as others are for their cowardice. The highest class, from
whom the ministers of state are usually selected, are called mirzas (secretaries or men of business),
who are often highly accomplished, but versed in deceit, and not very remarkable for strict mora-
lity. They rarely indulge in martial or athletic pursuits, nor do they assume much state. They do
not wear swords, and are distinguished by a calumdaun, or inijstand, stuck in their girdle instead "i
a dagger. The merchants are numerous, and often wealthy ; the shopkeepers and tradesmen are dis-
tinguished for cunning and insincerity, but are versatile, humble, and persevering. The clergy, includ-
ing the expounders of the law, are a very numerous, wealthy, and powerful body; the higher ranks of
whom are usually men of learning, of mild temper, and retired habits, and are very careful to preserve
the respect which they enjoy, by cherishing the popular impression of their piety and humility ; but
nothing can be worse than the character of the lower classes of the clergy : their hypocrisy, profli-
gacy, and want of principle, are the subjects of stories, epigrams, and endless proverbs. They are
bigoted and intolerant, and are often accused of indulging the worst passions. To say, a man hates
like a moUah, is to assert that he cherishes sentiments of the most inveterate hostility. The cultiva-
tors of the soil appear, in general, to be in easy circumstances. Their houses are comfortable and neat,
and are well supplied with the necessaries of life.
The character oftheEilauts or Iliyats is very different from that of the other class ; they are generally
sincere, hospitable, and brave ; but rude, violent, and rapacious. Their origin is various ; those that
are indigenous are found principally in the hill countries of the south and west ; the others are chiefly
Turks and Arabs. Many of them have become inhabitants of towns and villages, and the class is
therefore divided into Shehr-nishin (dwellers in towns), and Suhra-nuhin (dwellers in fields). A lew
only adhere to their former mode of life, live during the whole year in tents, in winter keepiiiif
to the plains, and in summer seeking the pasturage of the mountains. These look upon the Shehr-
Persia.] ASIA. 667
nishin as degenerate. The principal or most distinguished tribes are : — The Kajar, to which the pre-
sent royal family belong!, who occupy the country around Astrabad and Teheran, with iBranches in
Casvinand Erivan. The y//»/iarj, of Turcoman origin, are found inthegreatestnunibersat Abiverd, in
Khorassan, the birth-place of Nadir Shah, the most distinguished member of their tribe, and at Kelat,
his favourite stronghold. The Laks, a very large tribe of ancient Persian origin, and renowned as
thieves, are much dispersed, but their principal seats are about Casvin, and in Fars and Mazanderan.
The Feili are the most numerous tribe, and the most formidable, from their being all collected in one
region, the western side of the mountains of Louristan, and the adjoining parts of Khuzistan ; they
number 100,000 houses. The Bukhtiari, a mountain tribe of 100,000 houses, inhabit the high lands of
Louristan, and are a brave and hardy race. On the eastern frontier are two large tribes of Arabs and
Kurds, who were transplanted thither by Shah Ismail, in the sixteenth century ; the former have
increased to 6000 tents, and the lattt-r to .50,000 houses, and are formidable from their numbers and bra-
very, and their predatory habits. The Aimaks or Einuiuks, a large Affghan tribe in Khorassan ; the Ba-
lurh, in Southern Persia ; the Khodabenechlit, near Teheran, of Persian origin ; the Shekagi, a Turkish
tribe, in Azerbijan; the Memacenni pride themselves on their antiquity, and preserve their original
wildness and independence, by keeping almost constantly in the fastnesses of Fars, where they are
celebrated as robbers. Most of the tribes, however, are so much dispersed, that they have lost that
union which alone could render them formidable. Such of them as have become inhabitants of towns
are subject to the laws and regulations of the community to which they have attached themselves.
The Salira-nishins, though taxed in various ways, and made to contribute to the military service of the
state, are comparatively less molested by the government than the other subjects. Their wealtli con-
sists principally in cattle and sheep. They breed camels and horses for sale, and their sheep yield
milk, which is made into raughan (liquid butter) and sold. Their peculiar privileges consist in liberty
to range over districts from which none can dispossess them. They ascend in summer to cool regions
called f/ailtik, where they find pasture ; in winter, they return to the lower and warmer districts, which
they call kishlak. These regions are assigned by the government to each tribe ; and whenever the ap-
pointed imits are encroached upon by other tribes, violent strife and battles ensue. The government
is generally very jealous of the migrations of the tribes ; and prevents them from moving from one
province to another without the king's permission ; but in troublous times, if they be strong enough
to encounter opposition, they frequently pass from their old haunts to better localities. The existence
of these migratory tribes being advantageous to the government, they are little oppressed; they are
taxed at certain established rates on each bead of cattle, and are called upon to serve in the king's
armies. They are not compelled to labour on public works, like other subjects ; and their taxes are
levied by their chiefs, who transmit them to the government. In their small communities they are
governed by Reis-sejid or elders. Their chiefs are the only hereditary nobility of Persia. — ( Some
account of the Ilit/ati, or Wandering Tribes of Persia, by Jamet Morrier, Esq. Journal R. Geog. Sue.
Lond. VII. 230.;
Speaking generally of the Persians, says Sir John Malcolm, we may describe them as a handsome,
active, and robust race of men ; of lively imagination, quick apprehension, and agreeable and prepos-
sessing manners. As a nation they may be termed brave ; but their vices are still more prominent
than their virtues. There being no such thing as a census in Persia, the amount of its population
can only be conjectured. The fixed inhabitants are estimated by Mr. Fraser at 7,000,000 the Uiyats,
by their own account, amount to nearly half a million of houses or families, or "2,500,000 individuals.
Reliqion. — The Tajiks, Ghelakis (inhabitants of Ghilan), Lours, and Haluchees, are Islamites of the
Shiah, or heterodox sect ; the Turkish and Arab tribes, and the greater part of the Kurds, are Soo-
nies. Jews are met with in all the great towns ; Armenians and Nestorians are also to be found,
and a few Sabeans, or star-worshippers. It has been conjectured that there are between 2(X),000 and
300,000 professed SuflTees, or free-thinkers. The clergy consist of various orders. The highest are
Mushteheds, of whom there are seldom more than three or four. Next in rank is the Sheikh- ul-
Islam, or Ruler of the Faith, who is the supreme judge of the written law, in which capacity he en-
joys a salary from the government. In every mosque of consequence, and at every con.iidcrable
shrine, there are at least three clergyman ; the mfltwuUe, who manages the temporal afiairs ; the
Muezzin, who summons the people to prayers ; and the Mollah, who conducts the ceremonies. If the
establishment is rich, there are several mollahs, from whom is selected a peish-numaz (fugleman), who
recites the prayers, and goes through the motions and genuflexions, to guide the congregation. The
mollahs also preach occasionally a fort of sermons on te.xts from the Koran. Besides these, there
are in every city, and connected with all seminaries of learning, a crowd of mollahs, who, like the
French abbes of old, live by their wits, and have little of the priestly character but the name. The
character of the class, as already mentioned, is generally very inditl'erent. The only remains of the
ancient fire-worshippers, or followers of Zoroaster, called Guebres or Infidels by the Moslems, reside
chiefly at Yezd, Kermaii, Shiraz, Ispahan, and Kashan ; but they are very few in number, there being
only about '2300 families in the whole of Persia.
Kdccatioji and Lear.m.no. — The Persians received their arts and sciences originally from tlic
Arabs. The Ptolemaic system of astronomy was implicitly accepted as true, and still contiimes to
prevail. During the reigns of the Sufavey princes the mollahs had acquired great power and inde-
pendence. Mahomet has made no positive provision for the ministers of his religion, and has de-
nounced priestcraft in very strong and decided language. Nevertheless, during the long reigns of
the house of Sefi, and even earlier, the endowments of land ami other property which had been made
to the colleges, mosques, and other religious institutions, had become so large in the bands of
the mollah.s, that they possessed above a third of the whole revenues of the kingdom, and were there-
fore, as a body, powerful and formidable. During the ravages which followed the All'ghan invasion
and the extinction of the Sufaveys, their estates hutt'ered considerably and fell into decay, and Nadir
Shah seized the opportunity of proposing that if they would relinquish all claims to their territorial
possessions he would in return allow them a fixed income out of the government treasury as pensions.
Thus the literary institutions were deprived of all their estates ; the colleges and public build-
ings which had been ruined during the revolution were never restored; and those which had withstood
the (>olitical storm soon fell, from want of repair, to utter ruin. After the establishment of the
present dynasty, a severe struggle took place between the regal power and the influence of tho
mollahs, who possessed at that time great authority over the minds of the people. The agreement
made with Nadir Shall had served his purpose of rendering the mollahs completely dependent on
him; but when the country again t)ccame involved in anarchy, the stipulated pensions were gradually
diminished, till at length the mollahs were obliged to seek some other means of subsistence. They
consequently allied themselves more closely than ever with the pcoi)le, on whom their sole de-
{>endence rested, and by their own religious zeal, and by appealing to the suiHjrstitions of the popu-
ace, and constantly rousing their prejudices or their fears, they surceeded in obtaining the most
eomplete ascendanry over their minds, and thereby acquired so formidable a power, that they liave
ever since set at defiance the authority of tlie kings, who are compelled to court their friendship
and solicit their blessing. Fulley Aly Shah, during his reign, increased their pensii)iis, and re.stcin d
the college lands as far as po>sible. Several colleges were built at Teheran, one by himself, Hn<l others
by his niibles and ri-lations. Hrom the beginning of the present eciitury I'er.sian literature has l/een
decidedly on the advance. A !<pirit of intellectual refinement ia beginning to influence society, and
668 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Persia.
a general thirst for knowledge prevails among the Persians of the present generation. With the fx-
ci'pt'on of some of the lowest peasantry and actual paupers, there is now scarcely a mechanic or
laljourer wi.o does not send his children, especially the hoys, to school ; but the system of instruc-
tion is so bad, that the pupils, after four or five years' attendance, are unable to read or write. The
children are first taught ttie Arabic alphabet, and are then required to read the Koran in its original
language; and until they can do so fluently (without, however, being njade to unilerst:ind a word),
no attempt is made to teach them their own language. From this point, however, the system is
tolerably good ; those whose parents can nfl'ord to keep them longer at school, and those who are
intendid for the university, now make a rapid progress, and on the average, become in three years
respectable scholars; after which, and not till tliiii, Arabic is taught grammatically, and then for
the first time a young man begins to comprehend the meaning of the Koran. The absurdity and the
mischievous etVects of this system are daily becoming more and more obvious. Another event,
which nuist necessarily have important consequences on literature, is the iiitroiluctiun and esta-
blishment of the printing pre^s The fir t was established at Tabriz about 2.t years ago; six years
later another on a larger scale was sot up at Teheran ; and a third has ^ince been established at Ispahan.
Tlie books which have been print ;d hi.herto are chiefly elementary schoolbooks, and works on the-
ology and law. Even the girls are now mueh better instructed than formerly, and a father does not
fear, in defiance of the Imams, to allow his daughter to learn to write, an accomp.ishment which those
leaders of the faithful have strictly prohibited. They would indeed have forbidden women to open a
book, but for the clear and unequivocal directions of tlie prophet himself, who exhorts all his followers,
without distinction of se.\ or caste, to acquire knowledge, and particularly to study the Koran. The
good elfects of the education of v.omen are becoming more apparent every year ; the greatei number
of them will not now consent as foi merly to be married to men whom they have not seen, and hold
it no breach of tilial duty to refuse oliedionc on such occasions.
Ispahan contains the largest and most important imiversity. There is one also at Shiraz, and a
third at -Meshid. In all of these the Aralic language and literature, and the Mahometan laws and
theology, are studied; btit each seminary is celebrated for some particular branch or brandies of
learning. Accordingly Meshid is considered as tlie seat of natural philosophy, hut in truth very
little is taught there. In n.atliematics the students scarcely ever go beyond the elements of Euclid
and the Almagest. The I'toleiuaic 'y^tem of astronomy is also studied to a limited extent, and the
belief in astrology is as strong as ever ; tliis keeps the credulous in the constant practice of algebra,
which they understand tolerably well. Of geography they literallv know nothing. Ispahan is the
great school for metaphysies and philosophy, and the students culti\ate these sciences with logic
and usool (general principles of law) to singular periection. The city contains about 30 inhabited
colleges, some of tliem very large and Nourishing, and the number of masters and students in and
out of college may amount to fiOOO or 70(X). At Shira/, there is a curious mixture both of men and
studies. There are to be found thehighorthodox theologians, the Akbar.es, who consider every branch
of literature, excepting ^'Aa// and paitith (law and tiaditions) as useless, and hold that whoever wastes
his life in any other pursuit incurs tlie denunciations o: the holy Imams, already recorded against
such intidels. There, too. are the Haktemi- Usoulies, or religious philosophers, who, although they
consider the study of the law to be the most important, yet, according to the clear declaration of the
prophet himself, that " the knowledge of anytiiing is better than I eing ignorant of it," do not think
it wrong to study the usool and metaphysics. Again, there are the ^unjiet,; who are divided into two
great branches, the Suofy- Motashtnria, or orthodox Sooties, who admit (rather reluctantly) the
mission of the prophet, but not directly from a!)vve : their belief is that he was himself a Sooty, in-
spired by the divine spirit to guide the vulgar and oruaiise society ; but they do not con.-ider them-
selves bound to obey his precepts as they stand in the Koran, some of which they explain metapho-
rically, and act accordingly ; not believing, for instance, that an occasional glass of Shiraz wine, or
food which is not injurious to the health, can hurt any one. The others are termed Suofy- Motlucks,
or abstract philosophers, who look upon the Koran as a tine specimen of Arabic composition, but do
not entertain any particular reverence for its author. The Soofles are upon the whole the most ra-
tional and intelligent of tiie Persian literati ; they do not hesitate to stiidy any subject, nor to dis-
cuss any point, whether intellectual or moral, witli any rational being, whether intidel or Moslem.
There are, and have always been, more sound and learned men among the Sooties, than among any
orthodox class of the educated men in Persia; and however misrepresented and calumniated by their
enemies, the superstitious Moslem, their morality is in general beyond question.
Besides these three principal universities there is. another whioh furnishes the Persian colleges
and societies with many highly orthodox niollah.«, at Kerbelah, where there is a seminary for the
study of law and philosophy, chiefly attended by Arabs and i'er^ians. The arch-Mojtahed of all
Persia generally resides there as head of the university, and thence sends his resalas or mandates to
all parts of the kingdom, together with numerous disciples, whose high Mahometanisni and khoshky-
daniagh i^ dryness of the brains, as the Soofies term it), baffle all description. But Sootieism is gaining
ground in Persia, and those khosU-damaghs are not so much feared, nor are the Soofies so much
abused and persecuted as formerly. The greater part of the literary men of Shiraz are Soofies, who
scarcely disguise their principles, and yet are rarely molested or interfered with by the orthodox.
A Sootie doctor may now sit in his divan-khanah (outer room), with his pupils around him, without
fear of being assailed by the mollah-niob, persecuted by the fakihs, or bastinadoed to death, as he
probably would have been '25 years ago. The courses of study at the colleges comprise Arabic and
Persian literature, logic, metaphysics, moral philosophy, theology, law, usool, and tafseer i, com-
mentaries on the koran), all of which they stiidy thorouglily. Their knowledge of mathematics is
very limited; with natural philosophy they are in general but imperfectly acquainted; of geograpiiy
and geology they know litt.e; in fact they are rather a literary than a scientific people, i oetry lias
been in all ages, and is still, a favourite pursuit, and there is scai cely a species of composition which
the Persian poets have not cultivated with success. During the reigns of the Sufavey princes Per-
sian literature began to flourish. They spared no pains to improve the country ; gave every encou-
ragement to literature and science; and built and nobly endowed colleges in almost every city.
The nobles followed their example. No sooner was a college built by the sovereign, than others
were commenced by his servant-, and endowed with lands or money, amply sutticient to render the
students, who never pay for their education in any college, and the teacliers comfortable and inde-
pendent. Under Abbas the Great Ispahan became a seat of learning, and Shiraz resumed its ancient
fame. The greater number of colleges were established at Ispahan, and an immense congregation
of professors and students were collected there from all parts of Persia, and formed a large and
brilliant university. The system of instruction, the modes of study, and the habits of the students,
are excellent. Every college has a superior, who, wiih assistants, presides over its discipline, and
manages its property, if it have any. There are no formal degrees conferred, except on the imme-
diate ministers of religion, nor any professorship founded. The lectures are all public, and open to
any person who may choose to attend them. Any man may act as a professor and give lectures, but
the number of his pupils will of course depend upon his ability. There is no emolument attached
to a professorship, nor do the scholars pay for instruction ; public fame and honour are the only
rewards. — ( History of Fenian Literature by Mirza Ibrahim, nf IJaileyOury College; publithed in
Athm<cum 1837.)
PiRsiA.] ASIA. 669
GovERXMENT. — The government is an unmitigated military despotism, tlie country and the people
being considered the pmperty oftlielting, whoso word is law. The nomadic tribes, however, are ruled
Immediately by their khans, whose authority is sometimes very limited. The civil and criminal laws
are founded on the precepts of the Koran, and are administered by the Sheik-ul-Islam and his deputies,
in the sherrah courts. There is also the f/»/, or customary law, administered by secular magistrates, of
whom the king is the chief; but the respective powers and privileges of these two branches of judi-
cature have always been matter of dispute. It is scarcely necessary to add, that in Persia, as in
every other oriental country, justice is sold to the highest bidder. The governors, indeed, civil, mili-
tary, and ecclesiastical, from the highest to the lowest, seem never to have entertained the idea that the
administration of justice, and the preservation of the public peace, are their highest, and, in truth, their
only legitimate functions. They appear rather to look upon their subjects as things made for no
better purpose than to be cheated, abused, robbed, and murdered, for their amusement, and for tlie
gratification of their appetites and passions.
The public revenues which reach the royal treasury are said by Mr. Fraser not greatly to exceed
a million and a half sterling ; out of which are paid the expenses of the royal family ; the salaries
of officers not provided for in the expenditure of the local government ; and the maintenance of
fholdvis, or household troops. But the greater part of the public revenues are levied and expended
y the provincial governors, who form a sort of petty kings, uncontrolled in their administration,
though appointed by, and amenable to, the Shahan-shahee, king of kings, when he has power to en-
force his commands.
The army is principally composed of irregular troops, supplied by the nomadic tribes, and officered
by their chiefs. During the reign of the late king the European discipline and tactics were introdu-
ced to a considerable extent, but witliout mucli success ; though, it must be admitted, that the regular
troops, and the artillery in particular, have been very serviceable in reducing the rebel chieftauis of
Khorassan, who had nearly become independent. Against the regular troops tlie rebels could not keep
the field, and their fortlets have been easily demolished by the artillery. The amount of force whicli
the kingdom can raise, there is no means of determining, though the late king is said, in various ways,
when he took the field, to have made up a numerical force ot 100,000 fighting men, besides double or
treble the number of camp-followers. The Persians are naturally qualified to make good soldiers ;
they are able-bodied, and capable of endui ing fatigue and long marches with little food ; and they ac
quire military discipline more readily than Europeans ; but their military organization is defective to the
last degree. Besides these regular and irregular troops, the king has a class of military favourites,
called gholamt or slaves, who are Georgian or Circassian captives, intermingled with the sons of the
first nobles of Iran. The situation is one of honour as well as of contingent emolument, and is
eagerly sought after even by the highest ranks. This l)ody amounts to about 3000 or 4000, who are
chiefly distributed about the king's residence, and attend him in camp. They are well mounted, and
armed with matchlocks or muskets, swords, and sometimes pistols, and generally carry a shield on
their shoulders. Their pay varies according to their standing and estimation. They are commonly
employed as messengers on confidential business.and the more experienced of them are often entrusted
with affairs of high importance, in which they contrive to amass large sums by extortion. Their
name is a terror to the country, and the arrival of a ghulam-e-sUahee, or king's slave, is sufficient to
throw a whole district into alarm.
PsoDUCTivE Industry a.nd Commerce. — The great mass of the fixed inhabitants are engaged in
agriculture and manufactures ; the nomadic tribes are herdsmen and shepherds. All the Jews, and
many Armenians and Arabs are engaged in commerce. Agriculture is followed in many places with
much activity and intelligence, in spite of the obstacles arisiig from the salt impregnature of the soil,
the want of rivers, the obstruction of the aqueducts, bad roads, civil and foreign wars, and the oppres-
sions of every kind to which the people are subject from a tyrannical and rapacious government.
The Iranee have a natural talent for the mechanical arts, some of which they have carried to great
pirfection. They excel particularly in mailing sabres, in copper and brass work, perfumery, dressing
of leather, pottery, silk plain and brocaded, carpets, felts, painted cloths, and shawls. Their com-
merce is principally carried on by land, their maritime trade being all in the hands of the English,
Arabs, and Russians. Their principal port on the Persian Gulf is IJu^hire ; and on the Caspian,
Enzille and Balfrush. The land trade is carried on by caravans, with Turkestan, Turkey, and
across Turkestan and Affghanistan, with Kussia, India, and China. The princi] al conmiercial towns
are Tabriz, Kermanshah, Hamadan, Cashan, Ispahan, Shiraz, Balfrush, Mushed, and Nishapore.
The principal articles of exportation are pearls, silk, horses, camels, goat- skins, camel-skins, lamb-
skins, sal-ammoniac, naphtha, amber, turquoises, copper, sulphur, rice, n^ adder, gall-nuts, sart'ron, rai-
sins, dates, pistachios, opium, almonds, salep, cotton, tobacco, silk-stuff's, cotton-stuff's, shawls,
cloths, carpets, felts, leather, rose water, asafietida, hennah, copper and steel articles, pipe-heads,
&c. The importations are princii)ally indigo, cochineal, coffee, sugar, rhubarl), drugs, furs, tin, lead,
iron, porcelain, tea, diamonds, rubie", and other precious stones, ivory, eunuclis, line cloths, and
all other kinds of European merchandise. There are no roads in I'ersia'but such as have been made
by the constjint passage of baggage, cattle, and travellers.
DiTisioNS — For administrative purposes, Iran is divided into large provinces, governed by begh-
terbfght or great lords, who have under them /c«A./morgovernors of districts, and rf'no^'a* or governors
of towns ; but the limits of these provinces are frequently varying, and do not always comprise the
territories of the nomadic tribes. Geographers, therefore, continue to retain the ancient divisions of
the country, namely, Kiinlistan, Azerbijun, Ghi/uji, Mazaiideran, /iUralad, Klwrasmn, Irak-aji'ini,
Khuziitun, Furs, Larittan, Kcrnian, and Seistan. These we shall now describe separately in their
order.
Persian Kurdistan or Ardblan, situate to the north-west of Irak, and to the south of Azerbijan,
measuring about IfiO miles in length, by 100 in breadth, is composed of a series of hills and table-
Iannis, intersected by narrow valleys, where the villages are built in situations to protect them from
the weather. The soil is good, and would yield abundance of wheat and barley ; but the Kurds con-
tent themselves wiih raising what is necessary for their own subsistence. Tobacco is cultivated in
small quantity ; and the forests of oak supply abundance of timber aud gall nuts. The country is in-
habited by various tribes of Kurds, but the principal chief, who claims at least the nominal supremacy
under the king of Persia, is the Walli of Ardelan, who resides at Hcnmi, a romantic and Uourishing
place, in a deeji secluded valley, which is filled with orciiards.
AzERiiij t.N, adjoining the north-western frontier, is one of the most fertile and most productive
Provinces, but is high, rugged, and cold. It extends in length Ti^y miles from N. W. to S.K., anil J 10
I breatlth from S.W. to N.E. Nearly the whole of it consists of a succession of lofty mountains
separated by deep valU^vs, which are partially cultivated, and open into fertile plains. In the very
centre the mountain ot^ Hahend raises its enormous mass, like a truncated cone, to the height of
9IKM) feet. To the ea^t of Tabriz, and ne.tr Ardebil, Havellan rises to 12,(KX) or 13,(K)0 feet, with every
appearance of having once been a volcano, though no crater is now vi.^ible, it being probably covered
with the snow. To the east the province is bounded by the mountains of Talish or Mussula, wbieli
sei arate it from (ihilan ; and on the west by the high range which extends southward from Mount
Macis, and divides Azerbiianfrom Turkish Kurdistan and Armenia. The western pi.rlion of the pro-
vince contains the large lake of Sbahee or L'ruiniah, which is generally about sii miles long, and 17
670 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Peri;a.
where broadest ; its greatest dupth is generally 45 feet ; but it is subject to great variations both in
depth and extent at diffen-nt times. The water is so salt that no fish can live in it, though the
dmaller classes of zoophytes are found in considerable quantity, and is so buoyant tliata man can
scarcely stand in a depth of three feet ; and will actually float on the surface. In shoals, which are
not agitated by the wind, the water forms almost a paste of salt. The lake contains .'16 islands, and
a'large i>eninsula on the east side, formeii of a mass of rock 40 miles in cii'cmmference, containing 12
villages, and sometimes entirely surrounded with water. ( Monteith, Joiiiytal R. Geog. Soc. I.cmd. HI.
54.) Several large streams of bitter brackish water flow into it from the north, and it probably
contains numerous subaqueous saline springs. The lake is bordered on its west side by the rich
alluvial plain of Selmat, which extends westward to the mountain border of Turkey, and is thickly
studded with villages. In the north-east there is another fertile plain, named Chowal- Mogam, which
contains excellent pasturage, but is infested by a dangerous kind of snakes. Azerbijan forms the
north-western portion of the great table-land, and has a general elevation of 4500 feet. The climate is
healthy and temperate, though the summer heat is considerable ; during winter the atmosphere is gene-
rally very clear, but the cold is intense, and is the more severely felt, in consequence of the want of
fuel, the only article of which is dried cow-dung mixed with straw. During several months in win-
ter, the country is generally covered with snfiw ; but, nevertheless, in the plain round Lake Urumiah,
the winters seem not to differ much from those of northern Italy. The principal town is Tabriz
^or Tebriz, Tarreez, Tiiurit, i. e. fever dispellii'g) a prosperous commercial town, with a large but
very fluctuating population. It stands about 4500 or 5000 feet above the level of the sea, in a dry and
stony plain, bordered on three sides by bare mountains of the most fantastic forms, while on the
fourth side the plain extends without interruption to Lake Urumiali, which is 30 miles distant.
The city is about four miles in circuit, and is surrounded by a brick wall ; and the citadel, a high
and massy structure of brickwork, is visible from a distance rising above the broad screen of gardens
which mask the approach to the city, and which, being cultivated with great care, yield every kind of
fruit in the utmost perfection and abundance. The winter cold at Tabriz is severe, and snow some-
times lies for six months without intermission. Dilman is a modern town of about 15,000 inhabi-
tants, near the north-west corner of Lake Urumiah. Ardebil, 85 miles E. of Tabriz, is an insignifi-
cant town, which in 1837 presented the appearance of a mass of ruins, but is remarkable as the ori-
ginal family seat of the Sophi or Suflfavean dynasty of kings, who ruled Persiaduring the 16th and 17th
centuries, and for a fort constructed on European principles. Maragha, an ancient town with 15,000
inhabitante, is noted as having been the residenceof UolagQ Khan, who conquered Persia in the 13th
century, and is supposed to have been buried there. It contained, likewise, the observatory of the
celebrated astronomer Nazir-u-deen ; and near it are some singular eaves, with altars not unlike the
Lingam of India. Urini (corrupted to Hhi.mia, Uri'imiah, or Ooroomiah), the birth-place of Zoroaster,
the founder of the ancient Magian religion, is now a well-fortified town of 20,000 inhabitants, 80 miles
S.E. of Tabriz, and 12 miles W. from the great lake. Khoi, one of the finest towns in Persia, has
.30,000 inhabitants, 80 miles W N.W. of Tabriz. Sflrnas, N.W. from the lake, with springs of sul-
phureous water. Miami or Miiineh, 94 miles S.E. by E. of Tabriz, a small dirty town of 2500 inha-
bitants, at the passage of the Suffeid-rud, on the road to Teheran, noted for a species of bug, the bite of
which is said to be fatal. Near the south-eastern border of the province is a remarkable place namt d
Takht-i- Suleyman (Solomou'sthrone), which is supposed by Major Rawlinson to be the Echatana of
Dejoces, described by Herodotus, and it certainly better corresponds with that description than Uania-
dan. It is an almost isolated hill, rising 150 feet above the plain, and having its brow crowned by a
high wall with bastions, 1330 paces in circuit. The wall encloses the ruins of a deserted city, and a
very deep lake, 300 paces in circuit. (Jottmal R. Geog. Soc. Land. X. 47.)
Ghii.an, Mazandeban, and Astrabad occupy the low tract which lies between the shores of the
Caspian Sea, and the table-land of Iran. This tract in its western parts, is very narrow, but in Ma-
zanderan it expands to a width of 20 miles, between the sea and the foot of the mountains. It is
marshy, covered with dense forests, and a rank vegetation, and is extremely verdant and fruitful, and
more than usually populous. The staple produce of Mazanderan is rice, of Ghilan, silk ; and
no other produce of the soil is much regarded. The ground, when not cultivated, consists of swamps
overgrown with forest trees and thorns, and particularly with bramble bushes of incredible luxuri-
ance, and perfectly impervious. Above the narrow plain rise the mountains in two ridges, the first
is clothed with forests as dense as those in the plain below, and throws forward spurs which in some
places reach the coast. Beyond this range, which is traversed in all directions by the wildest and
most romantic glens, the peaks and rocky masses of the Elburz are seen rising in naked grandeur,
and spotted with snow even in September, their elevation being from 6000 to 9000 feet. The coast is
lined with a ridge of sand-hills, from 20 to 30 feet high and 200 feet broad, behind which lies a morass
of stagnant water, in many places expanding into lakes, whose banks are overgrown with alders of
enormous size, plane trees, elms, ashes, poplars, and other trees adapted to a moist soil ; and, in the
rainy season, the country is so flooded as to exhibit the spectacle of a boundless forest in a swainp.
It is, indeed, impossible to imagine a more luxuriant vegetation than that of Mazanderan. Exposed
alternately to heavy rains and a powerful sun, the rich soil throws out in profuse abundance every
form of vegetable life. The wind which blows from the Caspian is sometimes thick like a Scottisti
mist, and is in consequence called the bad-i-kabout, or grey wind. Tlie Mazanderanee are a fine
hardy race, of a deeper bronze complexion than the inhabitants of the northern parts of the table-
land of Irak, and distinct from them both in manners and language. The language of Ghilan is a
dialect of the Persian, and is that of the Talisli, a small province which borders and forms a Ci>n-
tinuation of Ghilan on the north. The principal places in Ghilan are, liesht, EnziU-e, Tomen, and
Lahijan. Resht, the capital, is a busy trading town ; but its population of fiO,(X)0 or 80,000 was recently
reduced by cholera and other calamities, to 15,000 or 20,000. E?izili or Iitzili or Enziltee, its ship-
ping port, 12 miles distant, is a town of from 300 to 400 housos, at the east end of a sandy spit, with
an excellent harbour, a good bazaar, and a population chiefly Russian. The spit, which is 15 miles
long, and in some places only 150 yards wide, is divided from a similar tongue of land, called Kazeran,
by a strait .500 yards wide, but only five feet deep ; and inside, the water is usually so fresh as to be fit
for drinking ; about 70 streams flow into the lagoon. Lahijan, another considerable town in Ghilan,
with 15,000 inhabitants, 35 miles E. by S. of Resht. Sari, the capital of Mazanderan, is a large town
surrounded by a mud wall two miles in circuit, with 40,000 inhabitants. Amol, 40 miles west of
Sari, on the river Herauz, 12 miles from the Caspian, has a biidge of 12 arches over the river, and the
ruins of a mausoleum erected by Shah Abbas the Great to his maternal ancestor Meer Buzurg, king
of Sari and Amol, in 1378. BalfriUh or Batfi-ri'ish, once a flourishing commercial town between
Amol and Sari, on the river Bawul, at the mouth of which is its port of Mushed-i-Sir. The popu-
lation, in 1822, was estimated at 300,000 ; but before 1834, it was reduced by cholera and loss of trade
to about 30,000. Astrabad, the capital of the small province of the same name, has a circumference
of three miles, and had once a population of 40,000. Ashruf, 60 miles west of Astrabad, was the fa-
vourite residence of Shah Abbas the Great.
Khorassan or Khobasan, is a large province of very fluctuating and uncertain limits, forming
the north-eastern portion of Iran. The mountain range of Klburz, after passing to the south of the
Caspian Sea, here spreads out into a great width, in some places extending to 200 miles, and is di-
Pebsia.] ASIA. 671
vided into ridges with intervening valleys wliich communicate with each other by defiles or passes, and
form an extensive aggregate of districts, many of which are well cultivated and populous. Towards
the northern desert this mountain region uresents a considerable declivity, called Atak or Daman,
i. e. the skirt; but towards the deserts of the interior it declines less abruptly. Speaking generally,
Khorassan, formerly one of the richest provinces of Iran, is now almost a wilderness, thickly strewed
with the ruinsof large towns, and other vestiges of former prosperity. For many years it was in a state
of anarchy, and divided among petty chiefs, who by turns conciliated or d^'tied the king of kings. It
has been again reduced to obedience ; but, under so mischievous a system of government as now
exists in Persia, it seems to have little chance of recovering its former prosperity. Mcshed (Me-
scHED or Mkscuid), the capital, is celebrated for, and owed its prosperity to, the tomb of Reza, one
of the twelve Imams, descendants of Ali (see ante, p. 124), wliich is contained in a most splendid
mosque. Beside the remains of the Imam lie those also of the celebrated Caliph Haroun-al-Ras-
cliid, who died at Tut or Tuos, a city now in ruins, a few miles to the north-west. Mushed is, in con-
seiuence, the resort of great numbers of pilgrims, and had, not many years ago, a population of
about lOO.O'W; but, when visited by Mr. Fraser in 1834, it was nearly depopulated; the few remain-
ing inhabitants were reduced to poverty ; thousands of beggars at the point of starvation annoyed
the traveller ; and even the mosque itself, shorn of its glories, was falling to ruin. Kabuchan, 100
miles N.W. of Mushed, is a large town of 15,000 inhabitants, and is the seat of the most powerful
of the Kurdish chiefs of Kliorassan. Nisfuipur, 90 miles E. by S. of Mushed, once a large city, now
contains only 5000 inhabitants. Kelat or Kulat- Nadiri, the stronghold of Nadir Shah, is a valley .50
or &i miles long, by 12 or 15 wide, surrounded by mountains so steep, that a little help from art has
rendered them quite impassable, the rocks being scarped into the form of a huge wall. A stream runs
through the valley, and its entrance and outlet, the only points of access, are fortified by walls and
towers which are deemed impregnable. The valley contains a number of villages, and 2000 families.
Mtrei or Merit- Shah- Jehan, once a famous city of Khorassan, is now a mass of ruins, beyond the
present limits of the kingdom. Turshix, TiiMnts, Serukhs, and rdfow, are all large towns, with some
trade, to the south and south-east of Mushed. Herat, 200 miles S.E. by K. of Mushed, is a large
city, with a population of about 45,000, is well fortified, and about throe quarters of a mile square, or
three miles in circuit. It is divided into four quarters, by four .long bazaars, covered with arched
brickwork, which meet in a small domed square in the centre of the city. The city contains al-
together about 4000 houses. 1200 shops, 17 caravanserais, 20 baths, numerous mosques, and fine pub-
lic reservoirs of water. It is, however, one of the dirtiest cities in the world. The necessaries of life
are plentiful and cheap ; and the water and the bread of Herat are proverbial for their excellence.
The climate is said to be salubrious, though the heat is excessive fdV two months of the year, and
though in winter there is much snow. Herat is the emporium of the trade between Persia and
India. For many years it belonged to the late kingdom of Cabul ; but, since the downfall of that
kingdom, it has been possessed by a brancli of the Dflrannee royal family, as an independent so-
vereignty. It is still, however, claimed by the king of Persia as a part of Khorassan ; but he was
recently foiled in an attempt to make himself master of it. The town is situate in a beautiful and
extensive plain, or long valley, watered by the Hurrarud, which runs northward to the desert, where
its termination is unknown.
Ibak-Ajrmi or Persian Irak, is the largest and one of the most valuable provinces of the kingdom.
It forms part of the great table-land ; and is almost everywhere intersected with valleys of indefinite
length, but seldom exceeding 10 or 15 miles in width. The hills which border them are barren, and
stretch almost invariably west and east, gradually sinking into the desert, or extending into Kerman
and Khorassan. The valleys are nearly destitute of water, except after the melting of the snow, and
only a small part of them is cultivated. The north-western part of the province forms an elevated
plain, varied with gradual ascents and descents, and furrowed by deep valleys in which the rivers
flow. Ispahan or Isfahan (the Si'ahawn of old travellers), the cajiital of Iran under the Sophi
kings, and at that time a very large and splendid city with nearly a million of inliabitants, is now
deserted by the court, and a great part of it is in ruins. It stands in a plain 4140 feet above the level
of the sea, upon the banks of the Zeinde-rud, which is crossed by three fine bridges, and is surrounded
by a mud wall 24 miles in circuit. Nothing can exceed the fertility and beauty of the neighbouring
valley, and the first view of the' city is still very imposing. A nearer view however dispels the il-
lusion ; though much still remains of wealth, if not of splendour. Ispahan has still a considerable
trade, and a population of about 150,000. On the south side of the river are the two suburbs of Isfn-
hanuk or Little Ispahan, and .lulja; the latter named after a town of Armenia, whose inhabitants
were transix)rted hither by Shah Abbas the Great. Tkheban or Tehran, the modern capital of
Iran, and during forty years the residence of the late king Futtey-Ali, 220 miles N. of Ispahan, is
four miles in circuit, and fortified with a mud wall, towers, and a wide and deep ditch. Its only
important edifice is the ark, a fortified palace or citadel. The population varies with the season
from about 10,000 to 60,000. Teheran stands in a gravelly plain 37HG feet above the level of tlic sea,
which is bordered by a high range of mountains. A gazette was commenced at Teheran in 1837, un-
der the auspices of the Shah. About 40 miles E.N.E. of Teheran, is Deminnnd or Demawuiid,
an enormous volcanic peak, rising 14,300 feet above the level of the sea. About 10 or 12 miles S.E.
of Teheran are the extensive but almost obliterated remains of lihe or Ilhaees, the contempo-
rary of Nineveh and Ecbatana. the capital of the Parthian kings, and the birthplace of the great
caliph Haroun-al-Kaschid. Casbin, (Ciuvin, Kazmnor Casween), 90 miles W.N.W. of Teheran, one
of the largest and most commercial cities of Iran, is situate in a large plain or valley, 20 miles in
breadth, which affords good pasturage, contains numerous villages, and is in some parts well culti-
vated. The town is approached through a vast extent of vineyards and orchards inclosed by high
walls. The grapes of Casbin are considered the best in Iran ; and its pistachio imts are also abun-
dant and highly esteemed. The town is inclosed by a mud wall with towers, and is said to exceed
Teheran in size, though it is not so populous. It contains whole streets lying in ruins, and has no
building of any note. Population about 40,0)0. Sultaniah, 00 miles W.N.W. from Casbin, is a mere
village amidst the ruins of a great city. In summer, the late king and his court, accompanied by a
great part of the inhabitants of Teheran, used to encamp on this plain of Sultaniah to avoid the heat
of the plain of Teheran About 70 miles E. of Teheran, on one of the mountains of the Elburz, is
the fortress of Fir&z-kiih, which is considered impregnable, and is of great importance as com-
manding the most accessibli! pass loatiing to Mazanderan. Ze7ijan.'M miles W.N.W. of Casbin, is
a considerable town with 8000 inhabitants, at the junction of the roads which lead from Teheran and
Ilamadan to Tabriz. Ilamadan, supposed by some to be the ancient Echatana, 270 miles N.W. by .N.
of Ispahan, and 198 W. by S. of Teheran, stands at the base of Mount Eliiend or Klwimd, the ancient
Orimtes, and is merely a collection of clay-built houses, with .50,000 inhabitant'. The sides of the
hill abound with antiquities ; but the only buildings which are entire are the tomb of the celebrated
physician .Avicenna, and the supposititious tomb of Esther and Mordecai. Hamadan is the centre of a
considerable trade ; has extensive and well furnished bazaars ; and a very a<;live and bustling popu-
lation. Kunffawur or Kenfrhe.rar ( CimruharJ, a small town 20 miles W. by S. of Ilamadan. contains
the ruinsof a splendid temple of a goddess, corresponding to the Greek Artemis and the Komaii
Diana. In the same direction, at the distance of .52 miles, is knrmiimhah, a thriving city with 3.5,000
inhabitants, adorned with many handsome public buildings. It is noted for the manufacture of car-
672 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Persia.
I>ets ; and the vicinity is celebrated for Uie production of wheat and superior mules. Ahoiit 90 miles
W. of Kcrmansliali, is Kasr-i- Shirin, a village, containing the remains of two inagniiieent palaces
built by Kliosroe-Fiirviz, one of the Sassanian kings, as a retreat for himself and his beloved wife
Siierin; it is 115 miles N.E. of HaghJad. At Besitun, 20 miles E. of Kermanshah, are the remains
of a large piece of sculpture on the face of a rock, supposed to represent Semiramis and her guards.
but so much defaced that scarcely any outline can be traced ; the tigure and also an inscription of
nearly 1000 lines of arrow-headed letters, exhibiting the religious vows of Darius the son of Hystas-
pes, after his return from the destruction of Babylon, on the revolt of its governor. Koom or Kum,
a large but ruinous town, the abode of a fanatical, ignorant, and bigoted jiuople, is rich only in
shrines and priests, and contains more domes and minarets than inhabited houses. It is situate 175
miles W. by N. of Ispahan. As a place of pilgrimage it ranks next to Keibelah and Mushed; the
principal object of attraction being the tomb of Fatima, the sister of t!ie Imam Reza. From the
holiness of its saints and priests, Koom has acquired the title of I)(ir-al- ilurshedin (the abode of
the pious). Kashan, 105 miles N. by W. of Ispahan, a neat, populous, and busy town, situate in
a well-cultivated and fruitful country, is famous for its manufactures of silk and cotton stuffs, bro-
cades, carpets, and copper-wares. Yezd, 2(10 miles E. of Isp:ihan, situate in a dry but well cultivated
and fruitful oasis, nearly encircled with mountains, and connected with the fertile tracts eastward
of Ispahan, by a scries of small oases or islands in the desert, is one of the most prosperous com-
mercial and manufacturing cities of Iran. It is a great mart for the intercliange of commodities,
between easiernand western Persia ; and its own manufactures of silk and other stutl's, felts, sugar-
candy, and sweetmeatH, enjoy great repute, and command a ready sale. Population about 50,000,
among whom are more thanSuOO families of Guebres, ijpllowers of the religion of Zoroast.'r, an in-
dustrious and patient race, who are busily occupied in trade and agriculture. The south-we>tern
part of Irak is a mountainous region named Louristan, inhabited l)y nomadic and pastoral tribes,
part of whom are now classed under the general name of Bukhtiari. It contains the towns of Kuiu-
mabad, Hissar, Burojird, and Xahavend.
KuizisTAN, the ancient Susiana, lies along the eastern or loft bank of the Tigris and Shat-el-Arab,
at. the head of the Persian Gulf. A large proportion of the province is little better than a forsaken
waste ; and the southern part of it is a desert arid country called Chaf), which is possessed by an
independent Arab tribe. The mountainous portion, however, to the north and east, contains several
fertile valleys of great extent, but only partially cultivated. Shuster, the capital, is a well-built town,
with stone houses, but narrow and dirty streets, and contained about 15,000 inhabitants before it was
nearly depopulated by the plague in 1832. Dizful, between Shuster and Sus, is now considered the
principal town of the province, and may contain about 20,000 inhabitants. — ( Jour. R. Geos. Soc. IX.
671.) At Sus or Slius, 80 miles N.E. by N. of Kornah, and 37 W. by S. of Shuster, are the ruins of
a great city six or seven miles in circumference, which present the appearance of irregular mounds
of bricks and broken pottery. Sus contains also a modern building called the tomb of Daniel. Susan,
on the Kuran, 160 miles N.E. by E. of Kornah, and 90 E. of Sus, also contains the ruins of a great
city, and the tomb of Daniel, called Dan-yali- Akbar, or the Great Daniel, to distinguish it from the
structure at Sus. Major Rawlinson is of opinion that Susan and not Sus is the Shusan of Scripture,
though probably both places represent the Susa of the Greeks at diflferent epochs. — {Jour. H. Geog. Soc.
Land. IX. 85, &c.) J huaz, on the banks of the Kuran, 50 miles S. by W. of Shuster, is a small, mean,
and solitary town of about 1600 inhabitants, in the midst of a mass of ruins, the remains of what was
a large city in the days of the Abbaside Caliphs. Dorak, on the banks of the Jerahi, a wretched col-
lection of date-tree huts, surrounded by a mud wall, and containing about 8000^ inhabitants, is the
capital of the Chab district. Haweexa or Haoiza, on the Kerah or Kerkhah river, 85 miles S.W. of
Shuster, is a considerable town, surrounded with a fortified wall, and contains a fort or castle. Ram-
Hormuz, tlie ruins of an ancient city in a beautiful valley of the same name, 60 miles long by 6 or 8
broad, watered by the Jerahi, 100 miles S.E. by E. of Shuster.
Fars or Fahsistan, the original Persia, lies on the north-eastern side of the gulf, and extends to-
wards Irak and Kerman. The northern and north-western portions of the province are rich in soil, and
covered with wood and verdure, but contain scarcely a human inhabitant. The i astern portions are
sandy and arid. The northern section, bordering on Irak, consists principally of rocky mountains,
which enclose long nari-ow valleys, many of which afford excellent pasture to the herds and tlocksof the
wandering tribes who possess it, and even yield grain where the means of irrigation exist. The plain,
which extendsalong the northern side of the mountainous region, has a soil strongly impregnated with
salt, and contains the great lake of Bakhtegan, with several of smaller dimensions. It would form a
portion of the great desert, were it not separated from it by a series of oases, extending east and we.'^t,
between 29° and 30^ N. lat.,and enclosed to the north and south by two low ridges of rocky hills. This
narrow tract, called the Siirmanshir, produces somegrain, and is particularly rich in fruit, some kinds
of which reach great perfection. Shiraz, the capital, is situate in a plain 4284 feet above the level of
the sea, on the Ruknabad, a small stream, which empties itself into a salt lake. It has never at any time
been remarkable for its splendour or fine buildings, but is renowned for its vines. Shiraz contains
the tombs of Sadi, the moral philosopher, and Hafiz, the lyiic poet, the Anacreon of Persia, whose
works contain the most glowing allusions to the pleasures of Shiraz ; but all is now changed. It
had been for a long time rapidly falling to decay, and its ruin was completed by an earthquake in
1823. The town is about six miles in circumference, but great part of its area is covered with ruins.
The houses are generally small, and the streets narrow and dirty. The ground has been raised, and
the climate changed for the worse. Tiie population is much reduced from its former number:^. Lat. 29^
37', long. 52°41' ; 220 miles S. by E. of Ispahan. Kauseroun or Kazerun, 50 miles \V. from Shiraz, is a
town ot some importance, in a fine and weil-watered valley, 2772 feet above the level of the sea ; but its
walls enclose more ruins than houses, and its population is only about 3000 or 4000. Abu- Shehr or
Bushire, on the gulf, the prini'ipal sea-poit of Persia, in lat. 26° 58', long. 50° 52', 120 miles VV. by S. from
Shiraz ; population about 10,000. The harbour and rouds are capable of containing any number of small
native vessels and boats ; but neither in the inner harbour, where vessels under 18 feet water may lie,
nor in the outer roads, is there sutficient depth for vessels to anchor at a convenient distance from the
shore, nor sufficient shelter to protect them against tlie prevailing winds. The town is built at the
end of a sandy peninsula, and, from the anchorage, has rather an imposing appearance ; but is
really a mean and dirty place. The water near the town is brackish, but sufficiently wholesome.
Ruins of Sliapur, 15 miles N. of Kauseroun, once the capital of Persia, in a well-watered plain. Plain of
Merdiuht, 35 miles N.E. from Shiraz, contains the ruins of I'ersepoUs or Ltakhar, the principal part
of which is called Chilminar, or the 40 pillars ; also Tukht- Jemsheed, i. e. the throne of Jemsheed. A
few miles distant are remarkable excavated hills called Naksh-i-Roustan and Naksh-i-Rejid, which
are supposed to be tombs of Sassanian kings. Murghab,VJ miles N. N.E. from Istakliar, contains nu-
merous ancient remains, apparently coeval with those of Persepolis, and among them a building,
generally considered to be the tomb of Cyrus, but called by the natives the Mosque of Solomon's Mo-
ther. It is in perfect preservation, but the body of the great conqueror of Asia is gone. The ruins
whichsurroundit are supposed to be those of Faiargadts. /)ara6g-/i(?rrf, a town with 15,000 inhabitants,
1.35 miles E. by S. from Shiraz ; Saza or Tesa, 75 miles E. by S.; Firozeabad or Feruzabad 60 miles
8. ; Yezdikhast, a considerable town on the borders of Irak, 140 miles N. by W. Congoon, on the coast
Persia.} ASIA. 673
east of Cape Verdlstan, la said to contain 6000 inhabitants, who are suojects of tlie Imam of Muskat
and carry on a considerable trade. Beehaban, 130 miles W.N.W. of Shiraz, is a large town 3 miles in
circumference, and said to contain 10,000 inhabitants.
Labistan is a small province on the northern side of the gulf near its mouth. The lower part of
It is an arid desert, with a surface diversified by rocky mountains and valleys of sand and salt ; but
the northern region contains a number of tine valleys, which produce dates and other fruits, and also
grain. Lar, the capital, is a town of 12,000 inhabitants, with a castle situate on a hill, and contains the
finest bazaar in Persia. /Itsaloo, Nabtnd, Shewar, Nackiloo, Jezzar, C/teroo, &c. are all towns on the
coast of the Persian Gulf. Farem, and Forg are inland.
Kebman lies to the east of Fars and Laristan, having the Persian Gulf on the south, and the great
deserts'on the north. It is exceedingly mountainous and barren, is destitute of rivers, and but for a few
springs in the hills, and the subterraneous aqueducts, the inhabitants could not exist. Water is col-
lected with extraordinary pains, and, after all, is not more than sufficient to irrigate a very trifling
portion of the soil ; although snow lies on the mountain tops during" the greater part of the year. In
the desert part of the province, the ground is so impregnated with salt, that sometimes not a blade
of grass is to be found in a stretch of 90 miles, and not a drop of water. In the whole tract there is
but one green spot, where the town of Khubbees was built, lat. 31° 40', long. 58°14', for the purpose
of facilitating the trade between the northern and the southern provinces. But the town has
gone to decay, and its inhabitants have become robbers. Kerman, the capital, lat. 29° 51', long.
f*P 13', 220 miles E. from Shiraz, 340 miles S.E. by E. from Ispahan, stands in the centre of a large
well-cultivated plain, and has a population of 30,000. Tlie wool of Kerman is celebrated for its fine-
ness, and its manufactures of shawls, felts, and matchlocks, are in request all over Iran. Gambron,
Gombroon, or Bendtr-Abasi, on the shore of the Persian Gulf, once a flourishing commercial town,
is now a collection of huts, inhabited by 3000 or 4000 Arabs. Krook, Nuheemabad, Began, Jumalee,
Bumm, Tfheroot, all to the south-east of Kerman, in the district of NUrmanthir, the most fertile
part of the province, a tract or series of oases, extending east and west 90 miles by 30, where the soil,
consisting of a rich black mould, and watered by mountain streams, yields an abundant produce. Bayun,
40 miles 8.E., Killaheirtga 70, and Shuhri Bababeg, the ruins of a once splendid town, in the midst of
a profusion of the most prolific fruit gardens, 105 miles W. from Kerman.
Seistan, in the middle of the eastern border of the kingdom, is a small province, and consists of a
desert of sand and rocks, through which the river Hehmmd or Hermund, from Affghanistan, flows
into the sea or lake of Durrah or Zurrah. This lake is about 60 miles in length by 35 in breadth,
and covers an area of about 1100 square miles. The water is slightly brackish, but abounds with fish
and wild fowl. In the dry season it is shallow, and overgrown with reeds. In the middle of it is a
fortified island named Koh-i-zur, where the chiefs of Seistan used to take refuge when their country
was invaded. The province is now in the possession of independent wandering tribes, wliose chiets
live in fortified villages on the banks of the Hermund, and are frequently engaged in plundering
expeditions.
Islands.— .KAarafc, in the Persian Gulf, 45 miles N.W. of Bushire, in 29° 14' 45".N. lat., and ,50° W
19" E. long., is five miles long and two broad, with excellent water, and contains an old Dutch fort, and
8 good harbour. The soil is light and productive ; millet, onions, cucumbers, grapes, melons, and
figs, grow in great abundance. About a third part of it is cultivated. The island was recently taken
possession of by a British force from Bombay. Kiihme, Kishm, or Jism, called also by the Arabs Jezi-
rah- Taivilah or Jezirah Diraz (i, e. long island), is situate at the entrance of the Persian Gulf, the
56° E. long, running nearly across the middle of it. It is 54 miles long, by 20 at its grt'ate>t breadth,
and is separated from the mainland of Persia by Clarence Strait, which is three miles wide at its nar-
rowest part, but expands to 13, and is studded with islets. The south side of the island is occupied
throughout by a range of hills ; the north side consists of arid plains and deep ravines. The greater
part of the surface is sterile, and has in some places a crust of salt. The northern portion,
however, is somewhat fertile and populous ; the total population, about 5000, are employed in fish-
ing, cultivating the soil, and making cloth. They reside chiefly in villages and hamlets scattered
along the coast. The only towns are Kishme, with 2000 inhabitants ; I.aft, and Basidoh or Ba-
tidore. The last named town is situate at the west end of the island, in lat. 26° ;i9' N , and 55° 22' E.
long ; and recently was the naval station of the Bombay squadron in the gulf, and the residence of its
commodore. Ormut or Hormus, eastward from Kishme, near the norih shore, under a lofty moun-
tain called Jebet Shamal (Mount Nirth), whose summit is clad with snow even in spring. Ormus is
12 miles in circuit, nearly circulai, and its appearance from seaward is broken and rugged. The sur-
face is destitute of soil, and the conical shape and isolated positions of the numerous small hills which
cover it, give it a highly volcanic aspect. The harbour on the north-east side is secure and conve-
nient ; the fort is situate on a projecting point of land, separated from the main body of the island
by a moat, and is still in good condition. There are no fresh-water springs in the island. The rug-
ged hills which line the eastern shore, are covered at one part, to a considerable distance from their
bases, with a crust of salt, in some places clear as ice, and in others partially covered with a thin
layer of dusky red-coloured earth, tinged with oxide of iron, with which the whole surface of the island
is deeply impregnated. Ormus once contained a splendid and populous city, one of the principal
commercial settlements of the Portuguese, during the period of their dominion in the Indian Ocean ;
but the city has entirely disappeared. The island is now in possession of the Imam of Muskat,
who farms it from the king of Persia, and keeps in the fort a small garrison. Population in 1827,
when the island was surveyed, about 300, whose only employments were collecting salt, and fishing.
Anjar, on the south side, and Larek, on the east side of Kifhine, are small, sterile, volcanic-looking
islands, the latter inhabited only by a few fishermen. The Great and the Little Tomb ( Tunh), two
uninhabited islands, 24 miles S. of Basidoh ; the former well stocked with antelopes. Along the
cotst northward are the islands of Pelior, Keish, Inderabia, Busheab, and Kenn.
KivBRS. — The rivers of Iran are few and unimportant. The Kizilozan rises in Azerhijan, and
flows through Ghilan into the south-west corner of the Caspian Sea ; in the lower part of its course it
takes also the name of Suffeid riid, or the White river. In Azerhijan it flows in so very deep a channel
that its waters cannot be used for the purposes of irrigation, and it enters Ghilan by a deep gorjie,
which separates the Elburz from the mountains of Massula. This is the famous Pa-ti qf Budbar,
about 30 miles long, through which the river dashes with incredible velocity. The Tedjen, in
Khorassan, near Mushed, flows north-eastward into the desert, where it is lost. The Zei^ide waters
the valley of Ispahan, and flows through that city to the south-east, where it terminates in the desert.
The Kur or Hundemir, in Fars, runs into Lake Bakhtegan. The Kuran and Jerahi fall into the Per-
sian Gulf. The Haweza or Kerah or Karani, is an affiuent of the 8hat-el- Arab. The Diala, in Kurd-
istan, is an affluent of the Tigris. "The Gourgan and the Attruck, both flow into the south-eastern
corner of the Caspian Sea, to the north of Astrabad. The Murg-ab rises from the Paroiianiisan
mountains to the north-eastward of Herat, and flows to the north-west, where it is lost, like so many
others, in the Turcoman desert. The Shiur-riid, in Kerman, flows into the Persian Gulf, opposite Uie
island of Kishme. The names of Persian rivers sometimes terminate with Uie eyllable ruud or rud,
which signifies river.
Capbs.— Verdiitan, in the Persian Gulf; Bombarak and Gmk, on the coast of the Gulf of Oman.
U u
674 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Persia
AFFGHANISTAN,
The north-csstem portion of Persia, is bounded on the north by the ridges of the Himalayas and Hin-
(loo-koh, and the Paropamisan mountains ; on the south by Beloochistan ; on the east by the river
Indiis ; and on the west by Khorassan and Seistan : measures from west to east about 630 miles,
and from north to south, 450 ; and contains an area of 240,000 square English miles.
Affglmnistan is a congeries of high valleys and table-lands, which are separated by lofty mountains.
The Hindoo-koh and Himalayas, which bound it on the north, appear, in some places, to form four
distinct ranges, the most northerly of which is always covered with snow, though not of equal elevation
throughout. In some places the range is surmounted by peaks of great height and size, which do not
taper gradually to a point, but rise at once from their bases with amazing boldness and grandeur.
The height of one of these peaks was ascertained by Lieutenant Macartney, in 1809, to be 20,493 feet.
Koh-i-baba, a remarkable ridge with three peaks, in longitude 68° E., rises to 18,000 feet; it was
crossed on the east side by Lieutenant Burnes, in 1832, by the pass of Onna, the summit of which is
11,000 feet high ; the pass of Hiiji-('f;uk is 12,400 feet ; and beyond these lies the pass of Kaino, which
is 1000 feet higher. The secondary ranges decrease in elevation according to their distance from
the main trunk ; the tops of the highest are bare ; but their sides and the whole of the lower ranges
are well wooded. The minor ranges are covered with snow for several months in the year ; their
tops have few trees ; but their sides are covered with forests of pine, oak, and wild olive. Lower
down are many valleys, watered by clear streams, whose banks afford a profusion of European fruits
and flowers, which grow wild, in the utmost variety, perfection, and abundance. The hills bear
many pretty sorts of fern and similar plants, with several elegant shrubs ; and even the rocks are
rendered beautiful by the rich verdure of the mosses which cover them. This region is called the Ko-
hittan or hill country. All the valleys of the range open ultimately into the great valley of the Cabul
river, which extends east and west about 200 miles, and carries their waters to the Indus. The Hin-
doo-koh may be said to terminate westward with the Koh-i-baba, beyond which the range declines in
elevation, and is lost in the Paropamisan or Ghor mountains, which extend about SSO miles east
and west, with a breadth of 200, the whole space being a congeries of mountains of difficult access, and
little frequented. They are so much lower than the Hindoo-koh, that no continuous line of perpe-
tual snow can be traced among them. On the south side of the Cabul valley, to the west of Peshawer,
the Suffeid-koh or White Hill, called also Sprenghur, rises to the height of 14,000 feet above the level
of the sea ; and is only separated by the river from the projecting offsets of the Hindoo-koh. To the
south of this mountain, a range extends through several degrees of latitude, forming the eastern
limit of a mountainous country which reaches to the desert of Seistan ; and the western limit of the
basin of the Indus, to which it descends with a rapid slope, terminating in an arid plain, called the
Daman or Skirt. The elevation of the range is considerable, but the Suft'eid-koh is the only peak
which retains snow throughout the year. In lat. 31°39'it forms the lofty mountain of Cussay Ghur, of
which the Tukht-i-Suleiman (Solomon's throne) is the highest peak, which rises 11,000 feet above the
level of the sea. Snowliesupon it for three months, and on the neighbouring mountains for two. To the
westward are two smaller parallel ranges, both lower than the most easterly or principal range, the
last of which, however, is intersected by valleys which open a passage to the Indus for the waters which
rise between it and the second range. The latter thus forms the watershed between the Indus and
the rivers which flow westward to the desert of Seistan, and throws out several branches in that direc-
tion, which form the high valleys of Pisheen, &c. The Sulieman or eastern range is described as being
composed of a hard black stone ; the next, of a red stone equally hard ; and the third or most westerly,
of a friable grey sandstone. Their summits are all bare ; the sides of the highest range are covered
with pines ; those of the second with olives and other trees ; but the lowest is quite bare, except in
the hollows, which are overspread with thickets of brushwood. Westward from these mountains, the
country gradually becomes more and more bare and sterile, till at last it terminates in the deserts of
Seistan and Khorassan.
In the lower portions of the eastern valleys the summer heat is sometimes as great as in the hottest
parts of India ; but it does not continue so long, and is compensated by a much colder winter. In the
■western districts of the country, where the land is higher, the heat is less excessive. In the north,
the temperature is various, as might be expected from the diflerences of elevation and from other
circumstances. The low parts are hot, the middle temperate, and the high cold ; but speaking
generally, the average heat of the year does n<.t reach that of India, nor is the cold so great as that
of England. The north-eastern portion of Atfghanistan participates in the Indian monsoons or
rainy season ; but they are here greatly modified, and very diflerent from that incessant and drench-
ing rain which prevails in the southern provinces of Hindostan. These periodical rains diminish
to the westward, and in the valley of Peshawer the monsoon only appears in some clouds and showers ;
in the valley of Cabul it does not extend beyond Lughnan ; but in the southern mountains, called
Coond, it forms the principal rain of the year ; while, in the southern regions, it is felt as far west as
the western boundary of Mekran. There are other rains or snows that fall about Christmas, which,
in the greater part of the country, are of more value to husbandry. Tlie monsoon rains are indeed
less important than those of spring, which are said to come from the west. Candahar has a hot climate ;
no snow falls ; and the little ice which forms at night on the edges of the streams melts before mid-day.
To the north and east, as the country rises, the cold increases, and the communication between
Cabul and Candahar is often interrupted by the snow. At Ghuznee the cold is sometimes excessive;
€md there are traditions of that city having been twice destroyed by falls of snow, in which all the in-
habitants were buried. The prevailing winds are from the west.
Gold does not seem to be found in Affghanistan, except in the streams which flow from the Hindoo-
koh. Silver is found in small quantities in the country of the Kafirs ; and whole clifi's of lapis-lazuli
overhang the river of Kashkar, to the north of the Euzofzye country. There are also lead, antimony,
iron, sulphur, rock-salt, and alum, and indications of copper. Saltpetre is made everywhere from the
soil. Silver, copper, iron, lead, antimony, lapis-lazuli, and asbestos are found in the mountains
around Cabul, and the sand of the Kirman river is washed for gold. The most common trees on the
mountains are pine, oak, cedar, and a sort of gigantic cypress ; also walnuts, wild olives, wild grapes,
and barberries ; in the plains are found, the mulberry, the tamarisk, the willow, the plane, and the pop-
lar ; in gardens are roses, jessamines, poppies, narcissuses, hyacinths, tuberoses, stock, and other Eng-
lish kinds of flowers, and many of them are found wild. Lions are very rare, if found at all ; tigers
are found in most of the countries to the east of the Suleiman range, and these, with leopards, are to
be met with in most of the woody parts of Affghanistan. Wolves, hyenas, jackals, foxes, and hares
are common everywhere ; bears are found in all the woody mountains ; wild boars are rare ; and the
wild ass appears to be confined to the Duranee country, Gurmseer, and the sandy country to the south
of Candahar. Elks, and many kinds of deer are found in all the mountains ; but antelopes are rare,
and are confined to the plains. The wild sheep and wild goat are common in the eastern hills, which
contain also porcupines, hedge-hogs, and monkeys, mungooses, ferrets, and wild dogs. The principal
domestic aniinals are horses, ponies, asses, mules, camels, buffaloes, and humped beeves. The great
Persia.] ASIA. 676
stock of the pastoral tribes consists of sheep of the broad-tailed species. The grcyhounJs are excellent,
and are bred in great numbers among the pastoral tribes, who are very fond of hunting ; pointers also
are not uncommon. There are also cats, particularly a lonjj-haired species called Burak, which are
exported in great numbers, and everywhere called Persian cats, though they are not numerous in tliat
country, and are never exported from it. Of birds, there are eagles, hawks, falcons, herons, cranes,
storks, wild ducks, geese, swans, partridges, quails, pigeons, doves, crows, sparrows, cuckoos, mag-
pies, and many other species. The snakes are chiefly innocent ; the scorpions of Peshawer are well
known for their size and venom, yet their bite is seldom or never fatal. There are no crocodiles ;
turtles and tortoises are common. Great flights of locusts are not of frequent occurrence. Bees
are common, and musquitoes, which are less troublesome than in India.
The origin of the Afi'ghans, and of the name by which they are designated, is uncertain. It is only
through the Persian that the name is known to the people themselves, and it is probably of modern
introduction. The name they themselves give to their nation is Piixhtun, in the plural Pushtanne/i,
whence probably the name of Patan, by which they are known in India. They consider themselves to
be descended from Affghan the son of Irmia or Berkia, a son of Saul, king of Israel. They call them-
selves accordingly Beni- Itrael, though they consider the term Ya/iudee (Jew) as one of reproach.
According to the native tradition they were transplanted by Nebucha'inezzar, after the overthrow of
the temple, to Ghore, a town near Bamean. and lived as Jews till the first century of the hejrah, when
Khaleed converted them to Islam. The Aff'ghans have all the appearance of Jews, and many believe
them to be really the descendants of the captive ten tribes of Israel, but the malter is at the best
very uncertain. They are divided into a number of tribes, which possess each a distinct territory, and
continue In a great measure unmixed. Each tribe has branched into several divisions, and in the
more scattered tribes, these branches have separated, and are each governed by its own independent
chief; they retain, however, the common name, and an idea of a comnuinity of blood and interests.
This operation of subdividing is repeated so often, that the last ofl'shoot sometimes contains but a
few families, with a chief who is subordinate to the leader of the division in which it is comprehended.
Kach branch has its common ancestor. The clrief of a tribe bears the title of khan, and is generally
elected by the people, who pay some attention to primogeniture, but more to age, experience, and cha-
racter. The chief of a subdivision is always elected by the people from the oldest family which it con-
tains, except in the lowest subdivision, where the superiority is often natural, as when an old man is
the head of 10 or 12 families, formed by his sons, nephews, and grandchildren. The internal govern-
ment of the tribes is conducted by the khans, and assemblies of the heads of divisions called jir-
gas. The khan presides in the principal jirga, which is composed of the chiefs of the great branches
of the tribes. Each of these presides in the jirga of his own division, which is formed in a similar
manner of the chiefs of the subdivisions, who again hold their jirgas. This system of government
is, however, so often deranged by circumstances, that it is seldom found in full operation ; and must
therefore be considered rather as the model upon which all the governments of the tribes are
formed, than a correct description of any one of them. The members of the tribes are naturally at-
tached to the tribe and its members, but their attachment is rather to the community than to the
khan ; and though, in the opinion which they entertain of their khan, the idea of a magistrate set
up for the public good is certainly mixed with that of a patriarchal and natural superior, yet the for-
mer impression will always be found to be the strongest. Accordingly, the power of life and death
Is rarely possessed by a khan, and it is but seldom that his personal interests would lead a tribe to
take any .step inconsistent with its own honour or advantage. An assemblage of many such com-
monwealths composes the Affghan nation. Each tribe has its own territory ; and they may be ar-
ranged geographically in the following order :— Eastern tribes, — the Euzofzyees, Otmarikhail, Tur-
coUmeet, Kybereet, the tribet C)f the plain^ of Peshawer, and those of Buneush and Khuttuk, all
classed under the general name of BerdOrdnt, inhsbitthe north-eastern part of the country between the
Himalayas, the Indus, the Salt range, an<t tiie Sulieman range. The tribes of Etaukhail, Sheotooki,
Bunnutet, Dower and Khuttees, are tound in the neighbourhood of the Salt range. The Daulutkail,
ileankhail, Bnburt, Stureani, and GuncUpiir occupy Damftn. Central tribes: — Jangtes, Toorees,
Jatiram, yizereet, Minheih, Munakhuil, Zimurrces, Sheranees, Spintereens. Western tribes : — I.
The Diirani or Doorauneet possess a tract of country of about 400 miles in length by 120 or 140 ill
breadth, extending from Herat to the south-east of Candahar, where it appears to be bounded by the
range of mountains called Kojeh-Amran, which is so high as to be covered with snow for three
months in the year. To the south of Kojeh-Amran is Puheen, a sort of valley or table-land, 80 miles
from N.E.to S.W., its greatest breadth being about 40 miles, which is inhabited hy the Tora- Tereans,
who are closely connected with the Dooraunees both by descent and friendship. Their principal em-
ployment is agriculture, but a great proportion of*them is occupied between Candahar and upper
Sinde, in the business of carriers. II. The Ghi/jeet extend from the south-east of Candahar to the
Kohistan or hill country, north of Cabul, and eastward to the heights of Jellalabad and the range
of Suleiman, occupying a tract of about 350 miles in length by 150 in breadth. To the south of the
Ghlljees are the Caukert or Kaukert, whose country forms a square of about 100 miles, extending
Tvestward from the Suleiman range, and separated from Beloochistan by the pass of Bolan. They are
divided into at least 10 clans, without any chief of the whole tribe. All the tribes above men-
tioned possess a country of their own, but the Sassert live in scattered parties, wandering in sum-
mer in the western doserts of Affghanistan, and proceeding in winter, in a collected body of 30,000,
with their herds and flocks, into the warm region of Daman.
After the death of Nadir Shah, in 1747, one of his principal officers, Ahmed Abdallee, a Dftrani,
fought his way to Candahar, where he established a kingdom, which subsequently included all Afi-
ghanistan and Beloochistan, extending westward from the Punjab and the Indian desert, to the
deserts of Khorassan and Kerman, and northward from the Indian Ocean to the river Oxus. He was
succeeded by his son Timur Shah, and the latter successively by his two sons Shall Zeman and Shu-
jah-ui-mulk, the latter of whom was the king who received tlie British embassy at Peshawer in 1809.
Sujah was subsequently deposed, and expelled from the country by the brothers of his hereditary
viiier Futtey-kban, of the Barukziya family, who contiimed to rule over Affghanistan till 1840, when
the kingdom was recovered for Shah Shuiah by the British forces from India. In Novemljer 1841, a
revolt of the Affghans took place at Cabul ; the British envoy and other superior officers were assas-
sinated, and the troops, obliged to abandon the city, mostly perished on their way to Jellalabad.
Their fate was avenged by the advance of the British armies to Cabul in 1842 ; but the country has
been subsequently abandoned.
The northern parts.of Afl°ghanistan, including the hill country of the Paropamisan range, nearly all
the way from Cabul to Herat, are occupied by the Hazareh$ or l/tizaras, a simple people, who differ
much from the Affghans. In physiognomy they more resemble the Chinese, and have square laces
and small eyes. They are of Mongol or Tartar descent, and one of their tril)cs is now called the Tar-
tar-Huzaras. The Iluzaras were subjects of the kingdom of Cabul, but latterly they have lH<i'n al-
most quite independent, owing their independence and their safety to the natural strength of their
oountrv. They are mostly a pastoral people, partly Soonies and piirtly Shiahs. They derive their name
from the Persian word hazar, a thousand, from being divided into innumerable tribes. Their subsis-
tence depends chiefly on the produeu of their flocks.
676 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. fPEBSi*.
§ Cities and Towns.
Cabol or Kabul or Cabooi., Is situate in a plain at the bottom of a kind of funnel forntved by a
high and irregular hill of gneiss which rises 1(X)0 foit above it, and bends round it from south-east
to north-west. The city is surrounded by a lofty wall with towers and curtains and a broad ditch ;
and, with the exception of a suburb, stands all on the right bank of the river, which is rapid and
clear, but only 30 or 40 yards wide, and is crossed by four bridges. The houses are built of sun-dried
bricks and wood, but few of them are more than two storeys high. The great bazaar ( Charcuta or
clumchut), is an elegant arcade nearly 600 feet feet long and 30 broad, and divided into four equal
parts. There are few such bazaars in the East, and wonder is excited by the silks, cloths, and goods
arraved along its sides, and at the quantity of dried fruits, grapes, pears, apples, quinces, melons, &c.,
piled up in endless profusion. Each trade has its separate bazaar. A white jelly strained from
snow, called yij/u'/c/i, and blanched rhubarb, called rhuwdrh, are great favourites with the people;
and the town is famous for its cubobs or cooked meats. The population amounts to 60.000, Tajiks,
Affghans, I'ersians, Cashmerians, Hindoos, Turks, Beloochees, Arabs, Jews, Armenians, Slaposh-
katlirs, and Kybarees ; who all seem to converse in Persian as their mother tongue; but the
Pushtoo or Art'ghan language is spoken in the neighbouring villages. At the foot of the eastern
ridge is the B'tln-hissnr, a tortitied palace, surrounded by an old brick wall ; and on the eminence
above it is the upper B'lhi-hissur or citadel, which overlooks the whole plain. The city stands about
tioflO feet above tlie level of the sea ; but the climate is genial. At noon in summer the sun is much
hotter than in Kngland, the thermometer generally standing at 9(P or 91° ; the evenings, however,
are cool, and during the niglit the cold is excessive. The snow lies for five months in winter,
s;^'veral feet doep ; and the prevailing winds are from the north. Cabul is celebrated for its fruit;
its gardens artbrd a great variety of both fruits and flowers ; and the people make a species of wine not
unli\e Madeira. The people are passionately fond of sauntering in the gardens; and in the centra
of one of these, about a mile from the city, is the tomb of the chivalrous and philosophic Sultan
Baber, the founder of the Mogul empire in India. His grave is marked by two erect slabs of white
marble ; and in front of it is a small but chaste mosque of sim|)le and pleasing architecture. Near
it are interred the remains of his wives and children. The gardens of Utnhif, in the valley of Koh-
daman (mountain skirt). '25 miles N. of Cabul, are famous throughout Affghanistan. At the head o!
the valley, on its eastern side, the face of the hill, at one particular spot, is coTered with fine sand,
oiled Reif;- Raivan, or the moving sand, which ascends about 250 yards up the hill, with an accllTltj
of 45^, and produces sounds when disturbed. The bazaar was destroyed by the British troops in 1842.
Candahar or Kanuahab, the western capital of .■Afghanistan, is situate in an extensive plain,
bounded on the north and west by picturesque mountains, and watered by the river Urghand-ab.
The city is of a square form, 5901) feet in circumference ; is surrounded by a sun-dried mud wall 33
feet high, w tli towers and loop-holed battlements ; and contains a citadel, consisting of an inner en-
closure 200 yards square, in the northern face. Streets lined with houses of sun-dried brick, start
from each of the four principal gates, and meet in the centre of the city under the vast dome of a circulai
bazaar, called the Chuhar-sou, or four ways ; all o; which are tilled with shops, and crowded with people
from morning till niglit. The streets, however, are excessively tilthy, and mendicity is to be seen in
its most loathsome and repulsive forms. The mosques are neither numerous nor splendid. The
finest building in the city is the mausoleum of Ahmed Shah Abdallee, the founder of the Doo-
raunee dynasty ; an octagonal structure surmounted by a lofty dome. Candahar is the centre of a
great trade between India and Persia; its population amounts to 60,000, of whom the greater part
are Affghans. It is supposed to be one of the Jlexandrias founded by Alexander the Great ; but the
present city is comparatively modern ; the ruins of the older city are situate about three miles to the
westward, at the foot of a range of mountains which bounds the plain in that direction. The cli-
mate is subject to great e.rtremes ; the thermometer, which sinks at night to 5'2-\ ranges above 100^"
during the day, and in June and July the city is often visited by the fatal simoom from the western
deserts.
Ghuznee or Ghizne, the capital of a powerful kingdom in the 12th century, is now completely in
ruins ; but there is a new town built at the foot of a long narrow ridge of gypsum, which rises a few
hundred feet above the plain, and forms an irregular pentagon, with sides varying from 200 to 400
ya. ds in length. The fortifications consist of a high rampart built on a scarped mound about 35 feet
high, which, flanked by numerous towers, and surrounded by afausse-braye and a deep wet-ditch.
About half a mile N. of the Cabul gate is the tomb of the iconoclast conqueror of Hindostan, Sultan
Mahmoud of Ghuznee, in the midst of a vast encjpsure of gardens and orchards. It consists of a low
and plain marble sarcophagus, in a low-roofed building ; at the head of the tomb is still preserved the
mace with which hedeniolished tlie idol Somnath ; and the cedar-wood gates of the building are those
which he carried ofl'from Somnath's temple, in Gujrat, seven centuries ago. Not far from the tomb
are two very elegant and graceful minarets of brick work, about 140 or 150 feet high, but considerably
damaeed. Somnath's gates have been restored to India by the British army ; and Ghuznee demolished".
Peshawkr is a large town situate in a rich and e-xtensive plain, watered by the river of Cabul, and
extending westward from the Indus. The town is upwards of 6 miles in circuit, but the environs exhi-
bit little else than avast space covered with ruins and tombs. The gardens which stretch from the.south
to the west of the city present the appearance of a forest of orchai ds, where the plum, the fig-tree, the
pear, the mulberry, the pomegranate, and the quince are cultivated. Peshawer has the appearance, of
a very ordinary Hindoo town, but contains about 105,000 inhabitants, consisting of .Atf^hans, Cashme-
rians, and Hindoos. Peshawer, as well as the neighbouring territory between the Indus and the moun-
tains, which form the western border of its valley, are at present in possession of the Seikhs, who have
built a substantial fort on the site of the Bala-hissar, or royal palace of Peshawer. Jellalahad, 60 miles
W. of Peshawer, is an insignificant place, in a healthy situation, containing .500 or 600 houses, and
surrounded by a square wall. The Kyber Pass, between Peshawer and Jellala'md, extends about 30
miles in length, partly lined with precipices, and is completely commanded by the wild Affghan tribe
of Kyberees, who either rob travellers, or make them pay for a safe passage. At Kohat, 24 miles S. of
Peshawer, a paltry-looking town with 2000 inhabitants, the Seikhs have erected a fort on the top of
a scarped rock. Near it are naphtha springs which yield five gallons a-day, and sulphur mines.
Descending the Indus from Peshawer are several important places on the right or Afi^ghan side, as :
Kalaf/agh, a town romantically situate in a gorge of the great salt range, the hottest place between
Attock and the sea. It has an alum work, which employs about 300 people, and produces daily about
122 maunds. Dera- Ismael-khan is a new town well laid out, with straight and wide streets, in a coun-
try abounding with both the necessaries and the luxuries of life ; 32° N. lat. The old town was swept
away by the river in 1829. Dera- Ghazi-khan sta.nds on the alluvial plain of the Indus, four miles from
the river, 30° N. lat., and is surrounded by date groves, from the produce of which the Seikh govern-
ment draws a considerable revenue The town is admirably situate for trade Mittun or Mittunkote,
on the right bank of the Indus, near the junction of the Punjnud, is a town of 1500 houses. Quetta or
Kwetta, a town of mud houses, surrounded by a mud wall, at the head of a fine valley, in the country
of the Caukers, 170 miles S. t)y E. of Candahar. To the south-east of Kwetta, extends the Pass of
Solan, leading through the Kurklekkee hills, into Cutch-Gundava, with a steep descent, and of the
most formidable description. Like the sea-beach, it is formed of loose pebbly stones and sand, and
Persia.] ASIA. 677
runs in sharp angles from 150 to 200 yards in length, and gradually decreasing in width till it imrrows
to 20 or 30 feet, with perpendicular rocks rising lilse walls on each side.
Bamean ( BaumeeanJ, 60 miles W.N. W. of Cabul, is a singular place, situate in a valley to the north ot
the Hindoo-koh, on an affluent of the Oxus, and is celebrated for its colossal idols and innumerable ex-
cavations, which are found in all parts of the vaUey for about eight miles, and still form the houses of
the greater part of its inhabitants. Altogether, they form an immense city, but none of them have
any pretensions to architectural ornament. Bamean appears to be a place of very high antiquity.
The gigantic idols, for which it is so famous, consist of two human figures, the one named Silsal,
the other Shahmana, both of which are cut out in high relief on the face of a hill ; the larger of the
two is 120 feet high, and stands in a nich of 70 feet radius ; the other is about half the size. Both are
much mutilated, and their origin is quite unknown. The dominions of Cabul extend to the Fuss of
yikrobat, 15 miles N. of Bamean, leading through a wide belt of mountains, which are much lower
than those to the south, and are free from snow when the others are covered. In the valley of Ba-
mean are the remains of Ghulf^huleh, a town destroyed by Zengis Khan, a.d, 1220. Furrah. 260 miles
W. of C'andahar, and 140 S. of H, rat, is a town of 1000 houses, near the river to which it gives its name
(Furrah-rud), built under a sin^jle hill in the middle of the valley. — ( Conolli/.)
The principal river of Affghanistan is the Indus, which forms its eastern border. The others are .
—the ^boo- Seen, which joins the Indus at Cabulgram; a river without a distinctive name, which
joins the Indus at .\tliick, and conveys the collected waters of the valley of Cabul. Its principal altlu-
ents are, the Kanui, Kanuh, or Kuner, which drains the hill country of Chitral, between the Ilindoo-
koh and the Himalayas ; the Lundi/e. tunjcura, and Gourband. The llehmmd, Heirviuiid, or Kty-
maiider, which rises at Fazindaz, inthe mountains of Pagman, near the Oona pass, and flows south-
west and west into the Lake of Zurrah, after a course of 400 miles. Its immediate banks, and the
country within half a mile or a mile of them, are everywhere fertile, and in most places well culti-
vated. Its principal affluents are, the UrgUundah, Khashrud, Turnuk, Urghossun, Shonnidam, imd
Doree. The Fumi-riid, or river of Kurrah, runs into the Lake of Zurrah, afti r a course of 200 miles.
The Lorah, in I'isheen and Shorabfik, is lost in the desert, ofter a course of 200 miles. The Oomut
drains the high valleys above tlie Suleiman range, through which it forces a passage ; but its water
is completely absorbed by irrigation, in the Daman, before it reaches the Indus. The only lake in
the country is the Ab-i- Stande/t (i.e. the Still- water), about 60 miles S.E, from Qhiznee; about three
or four miles in diameter in dry weather, and about twice as much after floods. Its water is salt ;
and it abounds in ducks and every sort of wild fowl.
JBELOOCHISTAN,
The remaining division of Persia, lies between Aflghanistan on the north, and the Indian Ocean on
the south, extending along the latter almost tOO miles, from Cape Jask to Kas Monz^, and compris-
ing altogether an area of about 160,000 square English miles. The greater part of the country is
mountainous, and especially its east and west divisions, which consist of two elevated table-lands. A
large portion of it is entirely desert, being a continuation of the deserts of Kerman ; and the sea-
coast is covered by flat barren sands, which are destitute of water, and produce no other Tegetation
than date trees. The geology is almost totally unknown ; gold, silver, iron, lead, copper, tin, sulphur,
alum, nitre, rock-salt, sulphur, and naphtha, are found in ditlerent places. The climate is healtliy,
except in the maritime region of Mekran, where there are four seasons, two wet, one cold, and one
hilt; in the hill ci/untiies to the north there are also four seasons, corres(ionding with those of Eu-
rope. The pi incipal vegetable productions are, the zizyphusjujiiba, the timber of which resembles teak,
palms, the tamarind, neem, peepul, maryo, walnut, and sycamore; and fruits of almost all the kinds
known in Europe. Mekran is famous for its dates, Kelat, for almonds ; and melons are produced
of so large a size that a man is scarcely able to lift one. Lions and tigers are rare, but both are
found on the eastern border ; hyenas, wolves, and jackals, are found over the whole country ; there
are also wild dog-, which hunt in packs ; leopards, wild cats, fo.\es, wild asses, antelopes, elks, red
and moose deer, hares, niungooses, and mountain goats. Eagles, kites, and magpies, are found near
Kelat ; also water-fowl of various kinds, as herons, flamingos, bustards, patridges, lapwings, snijies,
&c. Fish abound on the coast, where they form the principal food of both man and beast. Tortoises
are common ; but vermin and venomous reptiles are not so abundant as in India. The number of
cattle is considerable ; the sheep are of the fat-tailed kind ; the cattle are chiefly of the black breed
or butfaloes. The horses of Kelat and Cutch are large, strong, and bony, but vicious; but those of
Mekran and Lus are sniali and spiritid. Greyhounds and shepherd's dogs, of a ferocious kind, are
both much valued; fo«ls and pigeons are the only domesticated birds. Except in Cutch-Gundava,
which is fertile, well cultivated, and said to be capable of producing a sufficient supply of grain for
tiie whole of Belo >chistan, not a hundredth part of the country is cultivated. All the kinds of grain,
however, which are known in India, are grown; also cotton, madder, and indigo, pulse and vege-
tables.
The people are almost equally divided into two distinct nations, the Beloochees, who are foimd in
the west, and the liiahuai, who occupy the east. The former are desirous of being considered de-
Hceiidants of the Arabs, but do not resemble them in physical conformation, and are believed by
Col. I'ottinger to have been originally Seljukees. They are almost entirely a rude, nomadic, and
pastoral people, living in tents, and moving from place to place with their herds and flocks. Their
language is a corrupt dialect of the Persian. They are divided into three great tribes, the A'u/i-
ruueri, the limds, and the Murg/neet or Murrees, with numberless subdivisions. The Brahocs in-
habit chiefly the district of Kelat, the Hala or Bralxioick mountains, and their borders; the Kinds
and Murghsees occupy the country of Cutch-Gundava; the latter are also scattered over Sinde.
The Brahoes are interior in personal appearance to the Beloochees; their habits are still inore
unsettled, but they are not so predatory, avaricious, revengeful, and cruel. The government of
Kelat, when the British army marched into Aflghanistan, comprised the provinces of Jhorawan,
Karawan, Mukran or Mekran, Lus, Cutch-Gundava, Hurrund-Dazel, Mustoong, and Shal. Slial,
Musloong, and Cutch-Gundava, have now been made over by the British Government to the King
of Cabul. A people called Gewahrs, probably of Gheber descent, are found in dirterent places, w ho
speak pure Persian; Hindoos are tolerated, and monopolise most of the trade of the eastern provin-
ces. The government was nominally under the khan of Kelat, but was really in the hands of the
chiefs of the tribes. During the advance of the British army the Beloochees ottered every opposition,
by a continual series of predatory attacks ; Kelat their capital has beeu in consequence taken
possession of by the British troops; but, while we write, the Beloochees are said to be .still in arms,
and will probably not t»e soon gulxlued, as they can always have recourse to their deserts, or moun-
tain fastnesses, where the regular warfare, for which disciplined troops are most available, can-
not easily be carried on.
Culch-Oundam, the best cultivated, and the most fertile part of the country, is properly within tli«
limits of India, lying below the mountains which form the western border of the basin of the Indus,
on the north-west frontier of tsiude. It consiits chiefly of a plain, bounded by uukdy deserti on th«
678 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Persia.
north, south, and cast, bvit watered by a number of streams which communicate with each other hy
canals. Tlie face of the ooiintry is thus covered by water courses and streams, about four feet wide
and as many deep, all havinj? their sources In the Hala mountains. Two of these are entitled to
the name of rivers, namely, the Nauree and the Kauhee, which both flow from the mountains, but
are lost, or entirely absorbed, before they reach the Indus. The soil is rich and exceedingly produc-
tive ; the climate is oppressively hot in summer, when the country is occasionally visited by the pes-
tilential hot winds from the desert; and then becomes a white and plain, presentinj; a cracked sur-
face like the dry l)ed of a marsh. In March 1839, the thermometer, in the tents of the British offi-
cers, stood at 111^. In the rainy season the low level parts of the province are converted into a
swamp of ."Salt marshes. In winter the climate is mild, and the inhabitants of the western mnnn-
tains and table-lands then risort to Cutch. The majority of the people are Jftts, but there are also
a few Hindoos, who are engaared in trade. Villages are extremely numerous. The chief towns are
Gundara, the capital, once a rich though mud -built city; but it was sacked and completely de-
stroyed in October 18J0, by the marauding Beloochees. Dituder and Baitgh are also large towns of
mud houses, on the road from Shikarpore in Sinde to the Bolan pass. Dauder contained about 2000
inhabitants, but has suffered Uic same fate as Gundava.
India.] ASIA. 679
INDIA.
Astronomical Position Between 7° and 35° N. latitude; and 67** and 97°
East longitude.
Dimensions. — The greatest length from north to south, or from the Himalayas in
Cashmere to Cape Comorin. is about 1870 miles ; and the greatest breadth, from the
Hala mountains in Sinde to the eastern extremity of Assam, nearly along the 27° N. lat.
is about 1800 miles. The superficial area comprises about 1,250,000 square English
miles, with a sea-coast line of 3622 miles.
Boundaries The natural boundaries of India are remarkably well defined. The
whole of the northern frontier is formed by the gigantic range of the Himalayas ;
and the southern, or more properly the south-eastern and the south-western bounda-
ries are fixed by the Indian Ocean, into which the country extends with a wedge-like
point. The eastern boundary is less regular. Commencing at the head of the valley
of Assam, it may be drawn along the mountains which form the southern watershed
of that valley, and then, turning to the south, divide Arracan from Birmah, and ter-
minate at Cape Negrais. The western, or north-western boundary is formed in like
manner by the transverse range of mountains which commences at Ras Monze, or
Muaree, and extends northward to the SuflTeid-koh, which again is separated only
by the narrow bed of the Cabul river from the offsets of the Himalayas and Hindoo-
koh. The Indus, however, has been usually considered the north-western boundary
of Hindustan ; the sacred limit beyond which the Hindoos are forbidden to pass ; and,
in fact, the right bank of the river, and some portions even of the left, as in Sinde
and above Attock, are inhabited by Beloochees and Aifghans. The mountains beyond
it may nevertheless be assumed as the natural geographical boundary of the region of
India; for the narrow intervening strip of country has all the characteristic qualities
of the Indian soil and climate ; while the country on the other side of the mountaius
becomes at once a portion of the table-land of Iran or Eastern Persia. Nor could
the free navigation of the Indus be preserved, were not both banks under the entire
control of the same ruling power.
Name The origin of the name of India is uncertain ; it was formed by the ancient
Greeks from the name of the river Indus or Sinde, which in their days was the eastern
boundary of the Persian empire. Among the Brahminical Hindoos it bore anciently
the general name oi Djnmbu-dwipa, Island of the Djambu ; and Bharata-khanda, the
land of Bharata. The Hindoos divided it into, 1 . Ouditshya-desa, North country ; 2.
Madhya-desa, Middle country ; and 3. Dackshina-desa, South country. The first and
the second divisions, corresponding with the modern Hindustan, they considered as
their true fatherland ; beyond them every place was regarded as impure, an imputation
which extended even to India itself to the south of the Vindhya mountains. In the
ancient books of Zoroaster, India is called Ferakh-khand ; and Hindustan, the modern
name of Northern India, or the region between the Himalayas and the Nerbuddau, is
likewise Pers^ian, being derived from the words Hindoo, black, and St'han, country,
i. e. the country of the blacks ; but it has for ages been adopted by the natives of all
religions. Colonel Tod, however, says, that Jndu is a name of Buddha, and that
the appellation of the Indu or Hindu race is derived from the word Induvansa, one
of the names of the descendants of Buddha, or the moon-race of India. — (^As. Jour.
December 1840, p. 234.) That portion of India, to the south of the Vindhya moun-
tains, or the river Nerbnddah, has been generally called the Deccan or South Coun-
try ; but the extension of this name, as well as of Hindustan, is now considerably
restricted.
General Aspf.ct The Himalayas extend along the whole of the northern and
north-eastern frontier of India, with a continuous series of snowy peaks. From the
crest of the passes through this chain, for 30, 40, or 50 miles southwards, the whole
space is covered by immense snowcapt peaks, which are separated only by narrow
intervening valleys. Another space of 30 or 40 miles is occupied by a very elevated
region, consisting of mountains so lofty, as to have their sununits covered with snow
in winter, but embracing between their ridges high and narrow valleys, which are
watered by mountain streams, and are generally inhabited and cultivated. The vege-
table productions of this region are of the most remarkable statelincss, variety, and
680 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [India.
beauty. Except at the summits of the mountains the trees are very large ; and every-
where, and at all seasons, the ground is covered with the most heautiful flowers,
which partly resemble those of India, but approach still more nearly to those of
Europe. Along the south side again of this second region, is a lower belt of about
20 or 30 miles in breadth, covered with small hills which rise gradually towards the
north, and are intersected by valleys, watered by numerous streams which have
their sources among the loftier mountains, with which these hills gradually unite.
The lower parts of this belt, with a portion of the adjacent plains, are the grand seat
of the Salforests. In some places, particularly between the Jumnah and the Ganges,
where the Sevalik hills form a belt, which rises from 1000 to 4500 feet, these low hills
are separated from the mountains by fine valleys of considerable width, like the
English dales or the Scottish straths ; while, among the hills themselves, are niiiny
narrower valleys, resembling the f/fcns of Scotland. Between this last or lowest
ridge of hills, and the plains of Hindustan, is a strip of country called Tarai, Tarae,
Tariyani, or Ketonee, varying at different places from 3 to 20, or even 50 miles in
breadth, and containing a few scattered small hills, and much poor high land over-
grown with trees and shrubs, which are the haunt of elephants, tigers, black bears,
hares, foxes, jackals, wild hogs, antelopes, and monkeys. It contains also much rich
soil ; but the whole district is so marshy and pestilential, that even the natives of the
neighbouring country tremble to approach it ; and, from April to October, the monkeys
themselves, as well as the tij^ers and other wild denizens, and even the birds, are said
to abandon this " belt of death." In Rohilcund the terai is separated from the plains
by a low range of hills, crossed by numerous passes, some of which are practicable for
wheel-carriages. The remainder is wholly open to the plains.
To the south of these mountainous and hilly regions, extend the great plains of
Hindustan, which are watered by the Indus, the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, and their
numerous affluents, and fall with a very gradual slope to the shores of the ocean, on the
eastern and western sides of the peninsular part of India. Between the basin of the
Sinde or Indus, which has been called Sindetic India, and the basin of the Ganges,
or Gangetic India, is a ridge, or a series of ridges of hills, called AravulU, which extend
south-west and north-east more than 300 miles, with a breadth varying from about
6 to 60 miles, and a general elevation of 3600 feet. The AravuUi rise abruptly from
the western desert, but fall gradually towards the east. Their general geological charac-
ter is of primitive formation, and the summits of the diverging ranges west of Ajmere
are quite dazzling, not with snow like the Himalayas, but with enormous masses of
vitreous rose-coloured quartz. To the north of Komulmair, 25° N. lat., two of their
divergent ridges form a Continuous table-land, from 6 to 20 miles in width, as far as
Ajmere, where it breaks up from the tabular form, and sends off numerous branches
of low rocky hills through Jeypoor and Alwar, which reach the Jumnah in the vici-
nity of Delhi. From the south-western extremity of the Aravulli, several subordi-
nate ranges of hills diverge to the north-east, and form a table-land, or series of high
valleys at their angles, which slope towards the Jumnah. Further south, the Vindhya
Mountains extend east and west, for about 350 miles, being separated from the Aravulli
range by the valley of the river Mhye, and terminate eastward in a hilly region,
which covers a large portion of Central India, and sends out branches as far as the
Ganges at Chunar, Mirzapore, and Rajmahal, and even to the ocean at Balasore. The
Vindhya mountains are scarcely so high as the Aravulli ; but they rise very abruptly
to their full elevation from the valley of the Nerbuddah, and form on their northern
side the table-land of Malwah, which is about 2000 feet above the level of the sea,
and slopes gently northwards ; in which direction the Chumbul and other rivers carry
the most of its waters to the Ganges, while'a portion of them is conveyed by the
Mhye to the Gulf of Cambay. Along the south side of the Vindhya mountains the
long narrow valley of the river Nerbuddah extends in the same direction, beyond
which is another nearly parallel ridge called the Sauipoora Mountains. To the
south of these is the valley of the river Taptee, beyond which rises the Chandore and
Gawilghur ranges, forming the northern mountain border of the table-land of the
Deccan.
The southern part of India forms a large triangular promontory or peninsula, pro-
jecting into the Indian Ocean, about 900 miles farther than the coasts of the Gan-
getic and Sindetic plains. Along the western coast of this peninsula, a range of lofty
mountains, called the Ghauts, extends from near the mouth of the Taptee river to
the valley of Coimbatoor, where they terminate with the Nilyherries, or Blue Moun-
tains, which are the highest in the peninsula. The Ghiuits rise very abruptly at the
distance of about 30 or 40 miles from the coast, forming on their eastern side a table-
India.] ASIA. 681
land, about 2000 feet above the level of the sea, rather undulating than flat ; and
covered with numerous smaller ranges of hills, sloping eastward in terraces to the
Bay of Bengal, into which its waters descend. The northern part of the chain
is less elevated than the southern, and seldom exceeds 3000 feet ; between 17°
and )8° N. the Mahabaleshwar hills form a table-land of about 4300 feet high;
between 10° and 15° N. there are peaks of granite 5000 or 6000 feet high; in
Coorg, Podicandamale rises to the height of 5682, and in no part of the country is
there a summit lower than 3000 feet ; farther south the Nilgherries reach the ele-
vation of 8960. On the eastern side of the peninsula a similar chain, named the
Eastern Ghauts, extends along the borders of the Lower Carnatic and the Northern
Circars, but at a greater distance from the sea than the Western Ghauts ; it is not
so lofty, is less continuous, and is crossed by all the rivers which flow from the
interior table-land. At their southern extremity the Eastern are connected with thd
Western Ghauts, and in the angle formed by the two chains, the table-land of Mysore,
and that of the Balaghaut or Upper Carnatic, rise to the great elevation of 3000
feet above the level of the sea ; the table-land of the Nilgherries reaches 7000 feet,
and from these the country declines rapidly towards Coimbatoor. Northwards, the
Eastern Ghauts terminate in an unexplored country, where their diverging ranges
seem to cover a wide extent of surface. The highest part of the chain is about the
latitude of Madras, where it rises to 3000 feet. To the south of the Nilgherries,
which form, as it were, the terminating nucleus of both ranges, the valley of the river
Paniany forms a gap of 16 miles wide; and beyond it, to the south, rises a group of
mountains clothed with stupendous forests, and intersected by lovely valleys, which
extends southwards nearly 200 miles, and may be considered as a continuation of the
Ghauts. Within 30 miles of Cape Comorin this groupe terminates abruptly in a bluff
granite peak, about 2000 feet high, from the base of vvhich a low range of similar rocks
extends southwards to the sea. Between the Western Ghauts and the sea, there is but
a narrow strip of land, and the precipitous sides of the mountains which rise above it,
are generally covered with forests of the tallest trees, and with impenetrable jungle.
The lowland along the east coast is very considerably different, being a broad though
unequal belt of country, many parts of which consist of alluvial plains formed by the
deposits of the numerous rivers which flow from the table-land of the interior. In
the sea these deposits are so distributed as to form a shelving bank, upwards of 100
miles in breadth along the coasts of the peninsula, which slopes so regularly that the
number of fathoms of water is a sure indieation of the distance from land.
But the most remarkable region is the Great Desert, which may be said to extend
from the eastern base of the Hala mountains to the western base of the AravuUi, a
distance of 330 miles ; and from the Runn of Cutch northward to the Suttlej, up-
wards of 430 miles; comprising an area of 130,000 square miles, or about an eighth
part of the surface of India. This desert is traversed in its western portion by the
Indus, and in its eastern, by the Loonee ; but, except along the banks of these rivers,
and within the reach of artificial irrigation, it admits of cultivation only in a few
places, and immediately after the rains. Between the Indus and the Loonee and the
AravuUi mountains, the desert forms a continuous succession of sandhills, for a space
of 430 miles in length, with a breadth varying from 30 to upwards of 100, intersected
by valleys where scanty crops of grain are raised after the monsoon. The sand is a
dust of the finest quality ; the hills are covered with stunted shrubs and different
kinds of vegetation till within a few months of the rainy season, when, in consequence
of the herbage being burnt up, the sand is blown violently about by the wind, and
the region is rendered almost uninhabitJible. The surface has no covering of turf,
nor any closely contiguous roots ; but there are various kiiuls of plants, whose berries,
leaves, or fruit are fit for food. Travelling through such a tract is difficult and disa-
greeable ; camels and horses are the only animals which can cross it ; hill and valley
alternate, as if the surface had been troubled like the sea in a tempest, and left sta-
tionary in the midst of its fury. Wells, however, are scattered through the desert,
and are generally found in the valleys, often in the bed of a tank, or in the hollows
where the rain-water collects. They consist of small round holes, about a foot and a
half in diameter, which are dug sometimes to the depth of forty or fifty fathoms, and
lined with branches of trees. The rains which fall are slight and irregular, and are
speedily absorbed by the thirsty sand. That portion of the desert which is destitute
of wells is called rohrce ; and it would not be difficult to convert the whole region
into a useless waste, by filling up the few which exist. This is not unfrequcntly done
by some Rajpoot chief or other desperado, who, flying to the desert, fills up tlic wells
tp) strengthen his position, and betakes himself to rapine and bloodshed, bo far as it
682 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [India.
has been hitherto examined, the desert lies upon a sandstone formation. Many large
portions of it present the features of real solitude and desolation ; but there are also
numerous oases, where herdsmen pasture their flocks. In the direct line from Bhooj
to Kairpflr water is abundant j and the country is traversed by low sandstone hills,
which are thickly wooded. The desert is called by the natives Thull, Thur, or Dhat ;
but in the Hindoo geography it is called Maroosthulli, or the Region of Death. The
people found in it are Bheels, and wandering tribes of Soda and other Rajpoots,
Khosas, and Sindees; the first two tribes are the only permanent settlers, the others
being attracted to it only after the rains, for the sake of the abundant pasture which
it then produces. Of the whole surface of India it is reckoned that one third is
covered by jungle or waste.
Gulfs, Bays, and Straits. — The Gulf of Cutch, between Cutch and Gnjrat. The Gulf(ifCambaff,
between Gujrat and the peninsula of Kattiwar. With the exception of the Bhagwa sands on tho
east side, between the Nerbuddah and the Tuptee rivers, the lower part of the gulf is clear of shoals,
with irregular soundings of from 8 to 30 fathoms ; but the upper part is filled with extensive shoals
and sandbanks, intersected by deep channels, which are frequently shifting, particularly during the
rains. The tides are extremely rapid, and their rise and fall very great. The whole coast is low, is
overflowed for some distance inland at high spring-tides, and is intersected by numerous small creeks
and inlets. The bore of the tide sets into the gulf like an upright wall of water, with a head of 4, 5,
or 6 feet, each succeeding wave always decreasing, till the whole gulf is reduced to the level of the
sea without. Bombay is an indentation of the coast of Concan, formed by the islands of Bombay and
Salsette on the west, and contains several wooded islands. The Gulf of Manaar, which separates the
southern Carnatic from Ceylon, is too shallow for large vessels, but has a sufficient depth for sloops
and the craft of the country, which, by passing this way, avoid making the circuit of Ceylon. The gulf
is closed to the north by a ridge of sandbanks, stretching 30 miles across, between the islands of Ma-
naar and Ramiseram, the formation of which is very remarkable, being only about a quarter of a mile
in breadth, and consisting entirely of sand, partly above and partly below water, which has been
collected apparently by the surf and the currents, and is, so far as can be ascertained, unsupport-
ed by rock. On each side, at the distance of two and a half or three miles, the sea is six fathoms deep,
and quite free of obstruction. There are three principal chaimels across it, which are passable by
dhonies and fishing boats in fine weather; but the passage being difficult and dangerous, is not com-
monly used. The whole distance between Ceylon and the continent is 62 miles ; but the only chan-
nels safely passable even by small vessels are one of one mile in breadth, between Manaar and Cey-
lon, and another of only about fifty yards wide, on the west side of Eaniiseram. The latter is called
Paumbaun passage ; and for several years attempts have been made by the Madras government to
deepen it, so as to make it passable for the larger vessels of the country. They have so far succeed-
ed as to form a channel for vessels of 200 tons ; and it is expected that a depth of 12 or 14 feet will be
ultimately reached. The ridge itself is called by Europeans Adam's bridge and is said by the Hin-
doos to have served as a bridge for their demigod Rama, when he invaded Ceylon. The channel to
the northward is called Path's Straits, from a Dutch commander who is said to have once passed
through the bridge with a fleet. False Bay and Balasore Roads, between Point Palmyras and the
Hoogly river. The whole of the east coast of India is destitute of harbours, and large ships are obliged
to cast anchor at the distance of several miles from the shore, which slopes very gradually seaward.
Capes. — Juggut Point, the western point, and Diu Head, the southern point, of the peninsula of
Kattiwar, in Gujrat. Boria, a remarkably high blufi' headland, on the coast of Concan, lat. 17° 20' N.
Ramas or Bamus,a. bluff headland, in lat. 15° 10' N., which projects so far from the line of coast as to
form a bay on each side. Maundilly or Mount Dilly, lat. 12° 1' N. , a hill separated from the coast of
Malabar by salt-water creeks, and forming a bold and remarkable promontory. The bay on the south
side runs three miles inland, with six fathoms water, and a fine bottom. A project is under the consi-
deration of government to convert it into a harbour, by means of a breakwater. Comorin, the most
southern point of India : the land at its extremity is low and flat, covered with trees, and not visible
from a ship's deck for more than four or five leagues ; but about half a mile inland is the mountain of
Komari, 4000 feet high, quite smooth, and verdant to the very top. • Point Calimere, the south-eastern
point of the delta of the Cauvery. The Dolphin's Kose, at Vizagapatam, on the coast of the north-
ern Circars, a lofty and steep promontory, rising abruptly to the height of 1000 feet above the level of
the sea, which washes its base. Point Palmyras, the most easterly projection of the province ot
Cuttack. The Sandheads, the extremities of the sand-banks which which he between Point Palmyras
and the mouth of the Hoogly river.
Rivers. — The Indcs is formed in Balti, or Little Thibet, by the union of two streams, the Shayuk
and the Sinh-kha-bab, or river which rises from the lion's mouth. The latter is so called in reference
to the Thibetan tradition, borrowed perhaps from the Hindoos, of the origin of four great rivers from
the mouths of as many animals ; as, the Indus from the lion's mouth ; the Ganges from that of the
peacock ; the Sutlej from the elephant's ; and the Sanpoo from that of the horse. The Sinh-hha-bab rises
in the Kan-re, Kangri, or Kantesi mountains, the Kailasa or Cailas of the Hindoos, which skirt
on the north the sacred lakes Manasarowara and Rawan-rhad, in the Chinese province of Chan-
than. Flowing in a north-westerly direction, it receives at 1'ashigong a river from the valley of Gar-
tope, and pursues its course through Ladakh and Balti, receiving in its progress a number of large
streams from both sides, the principal of which are the Zanskar or Lingtee, to the westward of Leh,
and the united stream of theriversof Pitshk-yum,Kartse, Drai.and .SAiw^-o, which drain the valleys to
the north-east of Cashmere. The Shayuk has its sources in the mountains of Karakorum, between 77°
and 78° E. long., and about 35° 40'-N lat.; it flows first for several days' journey to the south, and then
turning almost at a right angle to the north-west, continues in that direction till, at Kiris, 20 miles E . of
Iskardo, it meets the Sinh-kha-bab. From Kiris the united stream flows westward for about 100 miles,
receiving in its progress the rivers of Shigar, Nagar, Hunz, Gilgit, Yasin, Hassora, and other streams,
and then turns to the south, breaking through the Himalayas in 74° E. long. From this it flows south-
west among high mountains, where it receives the Abu-seen, and thence onward to Torbela, 40 miles
above Attok, E.N.E., where it enters the valley of Chuch, spreading out and forming innumeratile
islands as far down as its confluence with the Lundye or River of Cabul, where it again enters a hilly
country, and becomes so confined, that at Attok it is only 286 yards across, but very deep and rapid,
with a current exceeding six miles an hour. Even when the river is lowest, the stream at the meeting
of the Indus and the Lundye, and during its course through the rocks, is full of waves and eddies,
and produces a sound like that of the sea ; but, when it is swelled by the melting of the snow in summer,
it forms a tremendous whirlpool, the roaring of which can be heard at a great distance, and which often
swallows up boats, or dashes them against the rocks. The Indus itself isunnavigable abovetheconflu-
India.J ASIA, 683
ence, but the Lundye is navigable till witliin 50 miles of Cabul, from which point boats may drop down
to the sea, a distance of 1200 miles, but not without danger ; for, besides the obstructions already men-
tioned, the Indus, only 200 yards above the fort of Attok. gushes over a rapid with amazing fury,
but afterwards passes on in a tranquil stream. At Nilab, JO miles below Attok, tlie river enters again
among hills, and continues to wind through them to Kfirabagh or Calal>agh, 33^ T 30'' N. lat. The
banks of the river throughout this distance are formed of hills which rise immediately from its waters
in bold bluffs, or weather-worn slopes, at some places presenting mural precipices, at others rugged
and broken, and casting dark shadows across the nwrow river. Compressed by narrow banks, which
are several hundred feet high, the sullen stream, when not obstructed, glides smoothly onward with a
current of nine miles an hour, where its depth and velocity are greatest. From May till Septeml)er
the upward voyage through this gorge may be pronounced impracticable ; but the downward voyage
may be performed at all seasons, though not without risk, when the river is full. Below Karabagh
it enters the rich valley of the Esau-khails in four great branches, and, except at Bukkur, where it
crosses a low limestone range, is not again interrupted by hills till it reach the ocean, to which it
flows tirst south and then i^outh south-west, dividing into numerous streams, fertilizing a wide extent
of country, and ultimately forming a delta, which presents a face of 125 miles to tlie sea. The incon-
stancy of the river in flowing through the delta is proverbial ; its channels and branches are conti-
nually changing, new courses being formed, and old ones filled up, almost every season. The tide
flows and ebbs with great violence, particularly near the sea, and ascends the river about 75 miles,
overflowing the lower banks to a great extent. The course of the Indus is occasionally swept by ter-
rific blasts, which, wiiile they last, prostrate everything before them ; but fortunately they give timely
warning of their approach, and long before the storm bursts the careful tracker has moored his boat
in some secure haven.
The principal atHuent of the Indus on the right is the Lundye already mentioned, which is also
named the Cabul River. Indeed, the river which joins the Indus from the westward above Attok has
no distinctive name; it is formed by the streams which flow from the Himalayas, the Hindoo-koh,
and the Suffeid-koh, into tiie valley which lies l)etween thtm, the Lundye and the River of Cabul being
perhaps the principal channels. But there is an affluent larger than any of the others, named the
Kama or Kameh or Kunar, which forms the great drain of the elevated hill countries of Chitral and
Kafferistan, situate between the Himalayas and the north-east prolongation of the Hindoo-koh, and
has its remote sources near those of tlie Oxus. On the left the Indus receives also one great river,
the Chenab or Punjnud, near Mithun-kote, 28° 54' N. lat. This affluent is composed of five celebrated
streams, the Vedut, or river of Jelum, Jhylum or Julian (ancient Hydaspes), which drains the valleys
of Cashmere and Carets; the Chemtb {A cetines); the Raoee {Hydraotes); the Ghara or Beat (Hy-
phant); and the Suttlej, Suttled^e, or Sutudra ( Hetudrus or Zaradrus.) The first four have their
sources on the south side of the Himalayas ; but the Suttlej flows from the lake Rhawan-rhad, on the
north side of the same chain, and its most remote source is said to be at a place named Chomik-
Tongdol, where a small stream issues from the ground, and runs into Goorgoo lake, about 19,000 feet
above the level of the sea, and 2000 feet higher than lake Manasarowara in Undes. It flows first in a
north-westerly direction, till, on the borders of Kunawar, it is joined by the Losar or Riiter of Fiti,
which drains the southerndistrictsof Ladakh, when it turns to the south, and enters India through a
very deep valley between 77'-^ and 79- E. long. At several places above Loodianathe Suttlej is fordable,
but in general is so rapid as to be scarcely passable ; below Loodiana there are no fords, and the river
is said to be very deep. These are all very large navigable rivers, but being studded with shifting
sandbanks, they are not equally navigable at all seasons, nor for all kinds of vessels ; indeed the na-
vigation of them can be considered practicable oc V by the boats of the country, which are flat-bot-
tomed, and draw little water. Steam vessels could ply if built in the same manner, but no vessel with
a keel could be safely navigated on them all. There is, says Lieutenant Wood, no known river dis-
charging even half the quantity of water which is not superior for navigable purposes to this far-
famed stream, the Indus. Till recently, the navigation, such as it is, was completely obstructed by
political influences; these have l)een now removed by the extension of the British dominion to the
Indus, and steam-boats ascend that stream, the Chenab, and the Suttlej, to Ferozepore and Loodia-
na. A survey has been made of the level between the Suttlej and the Jumnah, and the ground
has been found favourable for a canal between Kurnaul and Loodiana, which would complete a cir-
cuit of nearly 3000 miles of inland navigation, from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal.
The Ganges, which is reckoned the principal river of India, is formed by the union of two branches,
the Bhagirathy, which is regarded as the true Ganges, and the Alakananda ; the former rises from
a bed of snow above Gangoutri, at the height of 13,800 feet above the level of the sea, 79^ E. long. ;
the latter rises above Badrinath, 79'-' 20' E. long., and after iiaving received the waters of the Doulee,
Pindur, and other streams, unites with the Bhagirathy at Deo-prayaga. The Bhagirathy, or true
Ganges, is considered peculiarly sacred, and is even worshipped as a goddess under the name of Gun-
ga; the water of the river is reckoned capable of washing away all sin; and multitudes of pilgrims conio
from all parts of India to bathe in the stream, or have its water poured over tliem. It is peculiarly sacred
at the confluences of five of its tributaries, four of whicli unite with the principal channel among tho
hills above Uurdwar, and the fifth, which is the Jumnah, at Allahabad. The united stream, or Ganges,
then flows on to Hurdwar, where it leaves tho mountains, and enters the plains of Hindflstan, with
a clear, beautiful, and rather shallow stream, having already fallen 12,000 feet below the level of Gan-
goutri. Tho river then flows with a winding course in a general direction south-east by east, re-
ceiving in its progress all the streams which descend the southern slopes of the Himalayas through
1.5° of longitude, and those collected from Central India by the Junmah, the Saone, and others.
From Hurdwar to Allahabad the Ganges is generally from one mile to 1 J wide; farther doyn it be-
comes more winding, and its bed expands till it reaches it» extreme width of three miles. Above Alla-
habad it is fordable in some places, but the navigation is never interrupted. At the distance of 500
miles from tho scathe channel 19 30 feet deep when the river it at tho lowest; and this depth continues
to the sea, where the sudden expansion of tho stream deprives it of the force necessary to sweep away
the bars of sand and mud which are thrown across it by the strong southerly winds, so that tho
principal branch cannot be entered by large vessels. About 200 miles from the sea, or 300 by tho
course of the river, commences the Delta of the Ganges. The two most westirlybranches, named the
Coitimbazar and the Jettitighy riven, unite and form tho Uoonly river, which passes Calcutta, and is
the only branch commonly navigated by sra-going vessils. It is moreover considered by the Hindoos
to be the Bhagirathy or true Ganges, and therefore held sacred. For the greater part of its course,
from Calcutta to the sand-heads, the banks of tho Hoogly are the most desolate that can well be ima-
Sined; and tho navigation is rather intricate, owing to the frequent changes of tho sand. From
ellinghy the main stream flows south-east, and throws off numerous branches, which form a laby-
rinth of rivers and creeks, inclosing a multitude of low islands covtred with jungle, and named the
Sunderlrundi, which give an extent of 2fX) miles to the base, or sea-coast of the delta. In the dry sea-
son the mean rate of motion of tho stream Is less than three miles an hour ; but in the rainy season
the current runs five or six miles, and in sonio places even seven or eiuht. The (ianges and its
branches form the great highways of Bengal and the upper provinces, along which nil bulky com-
modities are transportcl. and it is said that so many as 300,000 boatmen arc employed in tliis traffic.
The most important affluent of the Ganges is the Yamuna or Jumnah, which joins it at Allahabad,
684 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [India.
after a course of 780 miles. It rises at Jumnotri, a little to the west of Gangoutri, 10,849 feet above the
level of the sea, and flows southward, nearly parallel with the Ganges, at the distance of from 50 to 75
miles. It is fordable in several places above Agra, before the beginning of October, and may be con-
sidered passable at any place above its junction with the Chumbul. Us affluents on the riglit are:
the Hansoutee, Bungunga, Chumbul, Kohari and jlshin, Sinde, Jietwa, Cane, linuiry ; the Hiiidan
on the left. The Chumbul has a course of 440 miles, rising near Maundoo in Malwah, and falling
Into the Jumnah 20 miles below Etawah. Its principal affluents are the Sij^pra, Chotu- Sind, KaUy-
Sind, Newitj, Parbuttee, on the right; the iiuna* (termed A'ou'arri or the virgin), on the left. Be-
tween the Jumnah and the Sutlej are several small streams, which are very important in a military
point of view. The Khugor or Gagur, and some others fall into the Sursonty, the termination of which
was long a problem ; it is lost in the desert to the east of Bhutnere ; but the Hindoos believe that it
proceeds under ground to join the Jumnah and the Ganges at the great prayaga of Allahabad.
The other principal affluents of the Ganges on the right, are : the Tunsa, the Sone or Sonne, the
Burracur, and the Dummooda; on the left, the Ranigunga, Goomtee, Tojise, Sarjou or Gogra, Gun-
duck, Bogmutty, Cooty or Kosah, Mahanada and Purnabuhah, Attri or Teesta ; all very large rivers.
The Brahmapctra or Bcrrampooter, is supposed to have its origin in a lofty mountain range
somewhere near the 29° N. lat., and 97° 20' E. long. It flows westward through Assam till it reach
the borders of Bengal, where it turns south, and reaches the sea, after a course of 1000 miles. In the
higher part of its course it is also named Lohit, and, near its mouth, Megna. Its affluents are the
Dibong, Dihong, Dikho, Deesung, Booree-dehing, Noa-dehing, Debooroo, all in Upper Assam ; the
Bonass, Champonatty, Gaddada, Toreesha, and Stanshi, from Boutan ; the Teesta, Atri, Lobnce, and
others, between it and the Ganges. The only tributary of any importance is the Dihong, which joins
the principal stream in 27° 45' N. lat., and 95° 25' E. long. It comes from the north, and its volume
of water being about three times that of the Brahmapfltra, it is supposed to derive them from the San-
poo of Thibet ; but the difficult state of its channel, which is full of rocks and rapids, and the impossi-
bility of travelling on its banks have hitherto prevented a survey by European officers, for more than
a few miles up the stream. The late mission to Bhotan (1838) were told by intelligent natives that
the San-poo is the BrahmapQtra of Assam, and that, just before turning to the south, it receives a
river from the eastward from China. The BrahmapOtra is the largest river of India. It has a course
of 400 miles through Bengal, during the last 60 of which, before its confluence with the Ganges, its
width is regularly about four or five miles ; and but for the freshness of its waters, it might pass for
an arm of the sea. Upwards it ceases to be navigable, except for canoes, at Soonapoor, about 20 miles
E. of Sudiya, in Upper Assam.
The Loony, Looni, or Loonee, has its sources in the sacred lakes of Poshkur and Ajmere, with a
more remote arm from Purbutsur, in Rajpootana, and has a course of more than 300 miles S.W.
through Marwar into the Runn of Cutch. It is the only channel by which the rain which falls on the
western slopes of the Aravulli finds its way to the sea ; but it is rather a torrent than a river ; its
stream is constant only during the rainy season. It has, however, pools of water in its channel, and
affords an ample supply from pits or wells dug in its sandy bed.
The Sabermotty and the Mhve or Mahi both flow into the head of the Gulf of Cambay ; the for-
mer from Rajpootana, the latter from Malwah ; but they are both great water courses rather than
rivers, their streams being almost dried up within three or four months after the rains.
TheNERBUDDAH, Narbada, Nerbaddah, Nermadda, or Nirmada, rises near Omercuntuc, in
Gundwana, 2463 feet above the level of the sea, close to the source of the Soane. It flows at first along
a table-land ; has a great fall near Mundlah ; and then turning nearly due west, between the parallel
ranges of the Vindhya and Sautpoora mountains, falls into the Gulf of Cambay. It has a course of
750 miles, with fewer windings than most Indian rivers ; but it is obstructed by rocks, shallows, and
cataracts. At Husseinabad the bed of the river is 900 yards wide, but much broken, and has thirteen
fords within 14 miles of that town ; but at Mandatta, 130 miles further down, it is not more than KIO
yards wide, being confined between barren rocks, and very deep. The valley, for 300 miles above
Hindia, is only from 15 to 20 miles wide, the river keeping near the Malwah side ; forests of deep
jungle extend on both sides, and rise to the tops of the hills.
The TnPTEE or Tapty rises near Beitoul, among the Injardy hills, and flows west with a very
winding course of about 500 miles into the Gulf of Cambay, below Surat. Its principal affluents are
the Pourna and the Guirna.
The Carawotty rises in the table-land of the Deccan, to the east of Goa, and, after a winding
course, falls into the sea on the west coast, between Carwar and Shedashevaghur. In leaving the
upper country it forms a tremendous cataract several hundred feet high.
The Cauvery rises in the hill country of Coorg. near the coast of Malabar, 4000 feet above the level of
the sea, passes through Mysore, Coirabatoor, and the Carnatic, and after a winding course of 450
miles falls into the sea below Tanjore by six principal mouths, which form a spacious delta. Above
Trichinopoly the Cauvery divides into twobranches, which form the island of Seringham. About 13
miles east these branches again approach, but the northern one is 20 feet below the level of the other,
and they are prevented from uniting by a great bund or dam, which sends the southern branch
through Tanjore in numberless channels, while the northern branch flows onward to the sea under the
name of Cohroon. Its principal affluents are the Henavutly, the S/iinsTia, and the Aravutly in Mysore ;
and the Noyel from Coimbatoor. It is navigable only for small boats. Near the island of Sivana-
Samudra, 35 miles E.S.E. of Seringapatam, the river forms two cataracts of extraordinary grandeur,-'
named Gungana-chuki and Birra-chuki, the one 460 feet, and the otlier 350 feet high. The volmne of
water in the rainy season is very great, especially in the larger fall, where it rolls in one sheet over a
precipitous ledge of rock, with a fearful and stunning sound. These falls have been made easily
accessible by roads and bridges, constructed by a public-spirited individual named Ram-Samy Mode-
liar, to whom the Rajah of Mysore gave a grant of the island, and by whom the jungle has been
cleared, and the land brought into cultivation. The source of the Cauvery is a place of devotion to the
pious ; and the spring is tabled to have been once a nymph of exquisite beauty. At its confluence
with the Kuniky, in Coorg, are three temples dedicated to the Hindoo triad.
The Pensar rises in Mysore, which flows first N., then E. by S. into the Bay of Bengal, below
Nellore; the Palar, in the Carnatic, which passes Vellore and Arcot, and falls into the sea to the south
of Sadras ; the Punnair, which rises in Mysore, and falls into the sea at Cuddalore ; the Vellaur passes
Attoor, and enters the sea at Porto Novo, at the mouth of the Coleroon.
The Krishna or Kistnah rises from the western Ghauts in the table-land of Mahabalesh war, only
30 miles from the west coast, and 4500 feet above the level of the sea, and flows S.E. into the Bay of
Bengal, after a course of 650 miles. Its principal affluents are : the Tongabudra, formed by the
Tonga and the Budra, Wurda, Hugra, and Vedavutty ; the Warna ; the Gunga; the Gutpurba;
the Mulpurba; the Dhon, a salt-water river from Bejapore; the Beema or Bima, which has a course
of 400 miles before it joins the Kistnah, receiving in its progress the Moota-moola, Neera, Maun, Vail,
Goor, Kokaree, Seana, and Boree; the Dindee; the Pedda Wag; and the Musty, which passes Hy-
drabad.
The GoDAVKRY rises in the western Ghauts, near the fort of Trimbuck, about 70 miles N.E. of
Bombay, and flows S.E. into the Bay of Bengal, after a course of 850 miles. It enters the sea by two
principal branches, and several smaller streams, which form good tide harbours for ships of moderate
India.] ASIA, 08^
burden . Its principal affluents are : the Para ; the Sindhana ; the Manhat ; the Manjcra ; the Dnndna ;
the Ghiirk- Poortia ; the Prayiheeta, formed by the H'hurdu and its atiluent the I'ain- Gimga, and tlia
H'vtif- Gunga, with its affluents, the Khahan, Heeree, Atora, arid Chootbund ; and the SoUiir.
Tlie MAHANonoY rises near Conlveir in Berar, and enters tlie Bay of Bengal near Cuttack by
many mouths. The Bervorah, formed by the Brahminy and the Suank, enters the Bay of Bengal
under the name of Mypirra, on the north side of Point Palmyras. The Domkah, formed by the
Butuiny, Cnyle, Sulutidi/, and others, also falls into the Bay of Bengal, a few miles farther north.
The Suliemerka or Siil/unreeka, rises in the di.-»trict of Chuta-nagpoor, in Bahar, and falls into the
Bay of Bengal, between Balasorc and Injellee. It has a great fall at Uurdru-ghaut, near Kishcnpore
and Oounda in Chuta-nagpoor.
I.AKEsandMoRAssES. — The B linn of Cm^cA is one of the most singular features of India. It is situate
between the peninsulas of Kattiwar and Cutch on the south, and the Thur or Groat Desert on the north ;
being about 190 miles in length, and 90 at its greatest breadth, and containing about 6,t00 square miles.
In the dry season it forms a desert plain interspersed with diminutive shallow lakes, long ridges of bar-
ren sand, patches of verdant pasturage, a few lields susceptible of cultivation, and extensive sheets of
salt crust spread over the insiduous surface, which is full of dangerous quicksands ; but, during the
nion>oons it is covered with water, which flows into it from the Gulf of Cutch and the Loony river, and
forms a dirty saline solution, which reaches up to the camels' girths in many places along the tract
wh re it is crossed, between Bhooj and Buliari ; the travellers finding rest, and their camels pasture in
a little island named Khari-caba. After the retiring of the waters again, myriads of dead prawns,
mullets, and other fish are found strewed over the surface. The ground, when uncovered with water,
is nowhere fenny or swampy, but is dry and sandy ; and the limits of the Runn are as strongly marked
as those between a gravel walk and the verdant lawn which it skirts. The traveller steps at once from
a soil teeming with vegetation upon the bare and sterile ground. At some seasons the mirage is very
prevalent in the Runn. On the banks, and in the small islands of the Runn, the wild ass, a handsome
animal, but of untameable fierceness, exists in great numbers ; apes, porcupines, and vast flocks of
large birds share with him the possession of this dreary and desolate region. The lakes of India are
few and of small dimensions. The Chilka lake, on the coast of Orissa, between Cuttack and the
Northern Circars, is a shallow expanse, 35 miles long by 8 in breadth, separated from the sea only by
a belt of sand. Culair lake, in the Northern Circars, is chiefly formed by the overflowing of the rivers
Kistnah and Godavery, between which it lies. It is about 47 miles in length by 14 in breadth ; from
the beginning of July till the end of September it is covered with water, except about 60 or 70 small
islands in which the inhabitants remain ; during the rest of the year it is dry and passable, and in
some parts highly cultivated. Pulicat lake, on the coast of Carnatic, north of Madras, is about 33
miles long, and 11 broad, contains several islands, and communicates with the sea by very narrow
channels. Samber or Sambur lake, in Rajpootana, 20 miles long, and 1 J broad. After its bed is tilled
with the rains, the water becomes strongly impregnated with salt, which, when the waters retire, is
found crystallized in large masses under a layer of mud. It supplies with that article a considerable
£ortion of Upper India. Deed wannah and AVrr, two other small salt lakes, also in Rajpootana. Lunar
ike, 40 miles from Saulna, in the Neermal lulls, is a vast crater 500 feet deep, and4 or 5 miles round
the edge ; its water is green and bitter, supersaturated with alkaline carbonate, and containing silex
in solution, with a portion of iron. The mud is black, and abounds with sulphuretted hydrogen ; the
water, nevertheless, is clear and without smell.
Gkology and Mineral Productions. — The geological arrangement of the rocks
is everywhere very simple, and a great uniformity prevails throughout the whole
country from Cape Comorin to the Ganges ; the same formation extending in many
instances uninterruptedly for several hundred miles in one direction. Primitive for-
mations, in which granite seems to bear the principal proportion, stretch, with few in-
terruptions, from Cape Comorin to beyond Nagpoor and EUichpoor, occupying a great
part of the Carnatic, Malabar, and Mysore, nearly the whole of the Nizam's territory,
and a large portion of Berar. They are also met with in many places still further
north, in Malwah, Bundelcund, the Aravulli mountains, and the neighbourhood of
Delhi, and occupy altogether about three-fourths of central and peninsular India.
Primitive rocks form also the main body or nucleus of the Himalayas, and some of
the highest peaks seem to be composed of granite. The flanks of the sub-Himalayas
are covered with beds of concretionary sandstone, conglomerate, and loam. Between
the Jumnah and the Ganges, these hills, there named the Scvalik or Scivalich, rise
from 1000 to 4500 feet; and in their deposits are found immense quantities of the
fossil teeth and bones of the elephant, mastodon, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, elk, o.x,
horse, deer, of several carnivorous animals, crocodiles, gavials, and freshwater turtles,
with fluviatile shells, and remains of fishes. The remains of extinct species of the
monkey and the camel have also been found. The great plains of Gangetic <ind Sin-
detic India are almost entirely composed of alluvial deposits, which are in many places,
as in Bengal, several hundred feet thick. A great sandstone formation, commencing
at the Rajmahal hills on the Ganges, stretches westward across the basin of the
Saone, and through Bundelcund to the banks of the Nerbuddah, and appears again
at Neeinuch and I3aug. In both of these districts, and in Malwah, it is frequently co-
vered with a thin crust of grey argillaceous limestone, nearly destitute of organic
remains, the general absence of which in the secondary rocks of India is remarkable.
The Thur or Great Desert, to the west of the Aravulli mountains, also lies, as
already mentioned, on a great bed of standstone. Tertiary rocks are found at the
base of the first rise of the primitive rocks of the Himalayas, in the north-east of
Bengal, where the Brahmapiltra issues from them at the passes of the (iarrow hills.
Various animal remains have been found among them ; and mmnnulite limestone
prevails at Sylhet. Enormous beds of trap rock or basalt have been traced all over
Malwah, southward to Nagpoor, and the western confines of Hydrabad, thence to
686 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [India.
the sea near Bankote, and northward to the Gulf of Cambay, eovcring an area of
more than 200,000 square miles, and contributing very materially by their decom-
position to the amazing fertility of that part of India.
Coitl occurs extensively in the grits bounding the southern slope of the Himalayas,
and in other places. The sites at present known are at Burdwan in Bengal, where
the coal district extends for sixty miles along the bed of the river Damooda ; at
Rajmahal, Palamoo, Ridgeghur; the Towa river, Hoshungabad, Jubbulpoor, Soha-
gepoor, Chanda, and Mardanala, in the Nerbuddah districts ; on the Mahanuddy in
Cuttuck; at Chirrapoongee in Sylhet ; Assam; and at Sandoway and Kyook-Phyoo
in Arracun. Fossil seeds carbonized have been found in Travancore ; and lignite, in
Kumaon, Moradabad, Cutch, and Peshawer. Coal has been traced from Burdwan to
the westward across the valley of Palamow, and by Sohagepoor to Jubbulpoor, and
the neighbourhood of Sak, and the Towa river, a distance of 420 miles. It is found
nearly in the same latitude in Cutch, and eastward to the extremity of Assam, form-
ing a great belt, which stretches from 69° to 93° E. long., and between 20° and 25°
N. lat. ; Chanda, on the Wurda river, Cuttack and Arracan being its southern boun-
dary, while the vale of Calliiiger, the river Teesta, at the base of the Sikim moun-
tains, and Upper Assam, form its northern limits. This valuable mineral has also been
found at Hurdwar and Attok. In 1837, an extensive bed of fine quality was disco-
vered in a range of low barren hills a few miles from Chunar. Several quarries of fine
marble were likewise found in the same vicinity. Fossil salt occurs in large quantity
in the salt range of hills which crosses the bed of the Indus, extending from the
Suffeid-koh to the Jhylum ; salt is also produced abundantly by evaporation in the
Samber and other lakes of Rajpootana, and in the Sunderbunds on the coast of Ben-
gal ; and throughout Rajpootanaa saline efflorescence covers the surface, occupying the
dried beds of marshes and rivulets, and in appearance exactly resembling hoar frost.
The inhabitants call it reh, and use it for making soap, an impure sulphate of soda,
and other compounds. It consists principally of carbonate of soda, with associated
sulphate of soda, and chloride of sodium, and is consequently a natron. Iron is found
in the Carnatic, and is wrought with great skill, and to a considerable extent at
Porto-novo and Nagore. Gold and silver have been found in Mysore ; and particles
of gold occur in the beds and at the mouths of the rivers of Southern Malabar. Tin
and copper have also been found. Diamond mines are wrought in the district of
Punah in Bundelcund, in a matrix formed of conglomerate, with quartzose pebbles ;
also at Heera Khoond, eight miles east of Sumbulpoor ; and diamonds were formerly
found also in the Neela-mulla mountains, between the Kistnah and Pennair rivers, in
the extinct kingdom of Golconda. Rubies, chrysolites, garnets, amethysts, catseyes,
and many kinds of carnelian, jasper, and agate, rock crystal, rock salt, and beautiful
felspars are likewise found in many places. Talc is found in great abundance in the
Mahabaleshvvar hills, where it is used instead of glass, being cheaper and more du-
rable.
The soil varies with the geological character of the country. In the deltas of the
rivers it consists of a rich alluvium ; and in the countries overlaid by the great trap
formation, a stiff clay and tenacious surface, which is highly fertile when irrigated,
prevails. But for more particular information on this subject, we refer to our subse-
quent topographical description of the states and provinces of this interesting country.
Climate As a great part of India is situate to the south of the Tropic of Cancer,
the climate of the low countries is tropical, and the year is divided into two seasons
— the wet and the dry. Owing, however, to the great and abrupt elevation of por-
tions of its surface, this country exhibits varieties of climate corresponding in tem-
perature to those which are met with through every degree of latitude from the equa-
tor to the poles ; so that, while the plains are burnt up by intolerable heat, some
of the mountains which overlook them are clothed with everlasting snow. Between
these extremes the climate is delightful ; and the most favoured regions of southern
Europe are rivalled at least, if not surpassed, in amenity and luxuriant productive-
ness, by the newly explored hill countries of India. The highest degree of tempe-
rature is found in the Thur, and other sandy districts near the level of the sea, as in
the Northern Circars and the Lower Carnatic, where the climate is the hottest in
India. Frost is never felt in the Deccan, nor in the countries to the south of it, ex-
cept on the summits of the Nilgherries ; but the temperature at Hydrabad is some-
times only 6° or 8° above the freezing point. In the table-land of Malwah, or Cen-
tral India, the temperature is not only mild, but the range of the thermometer is
unusually small, seldom falling below 72° in the night and morning, or rising above
76° or 77° at noon. After tiie close of the rainy season the mornings become cooler,
India.] ASIA. 687
but the cold weather does not commence till December ; when it continues during
the whole of January and part of February. During the hot season which succeeds,
the parching winds from the north and west, which prevail in most parts of Hindus-
tan to an intense degree, are in Malwah comparatively mild and of short duration.
The thermometer, however, daring the day rises sometimes to 98° ; while the nights
are invariably cool and refreshing. In the low countries, to the north and north-
east, the climate is scarcely less hot than in the Carnatic. In the Thur, the thermo-
meter has been seen to reach 112°; and even in the plains of Delhi, 5° north of the
tropic, and 800 feet above the level of the sea, the ground is parched in summer, and
the heat becomes intolerable to Europeans. Yet there, owing to the great radiation
from the sandy surface, the cold of winter is sometimes 3^ or 4° below the freezing
point, and the tanks are entirely frozen over. In Upper India, the climate is generally
dry, but is subject to considerable changes of temperature. During three months of
the year, the hot winds blow like hurricanes from a furnace ; but in the cool season
the precautions against cold which are common in Europe are far from being unplea-
sant. Bengal is free from the great alternations of heat and cold to which the upper
provinces are exposed ; the climate is moist and humid ; the hot winds are unknown,
and during the cold weather no inconvenience is sutfered ; but the heat and the mois-
ture together render the temperature very oppressive during the greater part of the
year. The climate of India, even in the north-western provinces, does not permit the
use of woollen clothes for more than five months in the year, and sometimes not so
long. The spring, or dry season, throughout Gangetic India, lasts about four months,
the heat gradually increasing till in May and June the thermometer rises to 100°, and
frequently to 108° and 110°. The heat is occasionally modified by terrific thunder-
storms, termed northwesters, which purify the atmosphere, refresh the soil, and give
new life to the vegetation. Milder showers also occur, and partially refresh the air.
In the north-western provinces a parching wind often blows from the west during
the day in the hot season, which is succeeded at night by a cool breeze from the op-
posite quarter, and sometimes for a considerable time by easterly gales. The cold
season, which follows the rains, continues from November till the middle of Feb-
ruary, and during all that period the atmosphere is clear, and the thermometer ranges
from 65° to 84°. In the Carnatic it ranges from 100° to 106°; and the cold season
is of very short duration. In the low country of the Arcot district, during the hot
season, the thermometer rises to 100° in a tent, and to 120° in the sun. At Madras,
the average heat is less than at Calcutta, the mean temperature being about 80°. In
January, when the temperature is lowest, the thermometer ranges about 73°, and sel-
dom rises above 91° in July. At Coimbatoor, among the hills, the temperature in
the cold season varies from 31° to 59° ; in summer, it rises to 64°, 65°, or even some-
times 75°. Near Bangalore, it seldom rises above 82°, or falls below 56°. The
hottest months on the west coast are April and May. At Cochin, the greatest rise
of the thermometer in April is to 105°. At Bombay, it ranges during the year from
64° to 98° ; at Surat, from 59° to 96°.
The most remarkable peculiarity of the Indian climate is the periodical changes
of the wind, which blows alternately for nearly half the year in opposite directions.
These are termed the monsoons, and blow from the south-west and the north-east ;
but it is in the southern or peninsular part of India that their effects are more parti-
cularly felt. On the Malabar coast the south-west monsoon commences about the
middle of April, and continues till August or September, when it gradually loses its
violence, and is succeeded by light variable winds. Towards the end of October,
the north-east monsoon begins on this coast, and continues till April. On the eastern
coast the south-west monsoon begins in the latter part of March, or beginning of
April, but is not regular or strong till June, land and sea breezes being not uncom-
mon in March, April, and May. Even during the three following months, when this
monsoon is very steady, a land breeze often blows from shore for twenty-four or forty-
eight hours. In September the south-west monsoon declines, and the north-eastern
commences about the middle of October ; from which time till the beginning of De-
cember navigation is rendered extremely dangerous, and a tremendous surf is thrown
on the coast. During the prevalence of the south-west monsoon, the coast of Malabar
is deluged with rain, in consequence of the clouds which it brings with it being inter
cepted by the lofty range of the western Ghauts, which protect, in a great degree,
both the table-land of the Deccan and the Carnatic from its influence. The rains which
fall in Mysore are not more than sufficient to preserve the verdure, and in the Mah-
ratta country there is seldom heavy rain for any long continuance, partindarly at the
commencement of the season ; und the country is in consequence but ill supplied
688 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [India.
'.*ith water. The whole west coast, indeed, and the basin of the Indus, are directly
exposed to the full force of this monsoon ; while the eastern provinces feel it only
indirectly. The clouds which pass to the south of Cape Coniorin, are carried across
the Bay of Bengal, until, coming in contact with the mountains on the eastern fron-
tier of India, they are diverted from a north-easterly to a north-westerly course,
and in that direction the rain descends on Bengal and the adjoining provinces, pass-
ing along the face of the Himalayas as far as Affghanistan, where the monsoon gra-
dually becomes weaker, and pi oduces only occasional showers. The rainy season on
the Coromandel coast, or the Lower Carnatic, as far north as the mouth of the Go-
davery, commences, on the contrary, with the north-east monsoon, about the middle
of October ; but the rains are not nearly so violent as on the west coast, and the
rainy season continues only about two months, while in Malabar it usually lasts for
eight. The Northern Circars have also some peculiarities of climate. To the north
of the Godavery, a westerly wind, accompanied by moderate showers, begins about
the middle of June ; about the middle, or in the latter part of August, the rain be-
comes more violent and regular, and continues so till the beginning of November,
when the wind shifts to the north-east, and stormy weather occurs. The tempera-
ture continues moderate, with little rain, till the middle of March, when the hot sea-
son commences ; south of the Godavery the climate is somewhat different. During
January and February a strong wind blows along the shore from the south ; and, as
sea-breezes set in every day, the temperature is moderate. In March, the west wind,
blowing over a loose parched soil, produces a most oppressive degree of heat ; the
thermometer sometimes rising to 1 10° within doors, and seldom falling below 105°.
On both coasts the setting in of the monsoons is generally accompanied by violent
hurricanes ; but storms and sudden rains are more frequent and more violent on the
west coast, where the labours of the husbandman are liable to be defeated by two
opposite causes, devastating floods, or protracted drought. The east coast, on the
other hand, experiences more violent heat and a longer continuance of drought.
Vkgetable PuoDUCTioNS. — The more important of the vegetable productions of
India are cotton, indigo, sugar-cane, cajeput oil, caoutchouc, rice, wheat, barley,
pepper, ginseng, sandalwood, spikenard, and gigantic bamboos and palms. The chief
rice country is Bengal, which produces a surplus for exportation ; but rice of superior
quality is also grown in smaller quantities elsewhere, particularly in the western pro-
vinces. The Madras territory does not produce enough for home consumption ; but
cultivation is extending, and the inferior kinds of grain are giving place to rice. The
wheat grown in the northern and western provinces is of excellent quality, so as to
be preferred, even in England, for various purposes. The barley of the north-western
provinces is also good, and the Hindoos of the Himalayas distil from it a spirit which
is not inferior to Irish whisky. Potatoes have been introduced into every part of India,
the cultivation of them is extending rapidly ; and they are much liked by the natives.
In the eastern and southern provinces the fruits are principally tropical ; but in the
hill countries of the north-western provinces, apples, pears, grapes, walnuts, straw-
berries, raspberries, and other fruits peculiar to temperate climates, are now reared in
abundance. The grapes of Malwah have long been celebrated ; those of Kunnawar are
of great variety, and are produced in sufficient abundance, if properly managed, to sup-
ply the whole of India with wine. Culinary vegetables now crowd the bazaars. The
sugar-cane grows luxuriantly in most places ; but the manufacture of sugar is chiefly
confined to Bengal and Benares. The coffee of the southern districts of the penin-
sula is excellent and abundant ; that of Malabar is of so superior quality as to be taken
to Arabia, and re-exported as Mocha coffee ; but the cotTee of Tinnevelly brings the
highest price in the London market. Tobacco grows everywhere luxuriantly, and in
many parts has an excellent aroma. Indigo is cultivated extensively in Bengal, Bahar,
Oude, Allahabad, and Agra. Cotton, both of the creeper perennial and of the forest
tree everywhere abounds ; but, owing to improper or defective management, the qua-
lity of the material is not equal to that of North America. The East India Company,
however, are now taking measures to introduce a proper system of cultivating this
important plant, and no doubt is entertained that ere long it will be produced in
abundance and of the first quality. Malwah and the north-western provinces seem
particularly adapted for its cultivation. Hemp of the strongest quality is grown on
the northern hills ; and the experiment of growing flax on a large scale has been made
in the district of Monghir. Opium is produced in great quantities in Malwah, and
the neighbourhood of Patna, and forms a principal article of export in the trade
with China. Roses are cultivated to an immense extent at Ghazipore and else-
where, and are used for making rosewater (a sovereign remedy for all diseases with
India.] ASIA. 689
the natives), and otto or attar, of which only the weight of a rupee is produced
from 200,000 bulbs. Along the coasts of the Bay of Bengal, the co;oa and areca
nut palms flourish abundantly ; of dyes, medicinal drugs, resins, gums, and oils,
there are great varieties. Timber of all kinds is evei'ywhere abundant ; the fo-
rests are numerous and magnificent, and cover a large portion of the country. The
maritime provinces produce teak, ebony, and many other species of trees ; the inte-
rior produces the saul, sissor, bamboos, and rattans, with a great variety of plants
which yield excellent materials for cordage. The northern and hill provirces yield
at one season European grains, and at another those that are peculiar to the tro-
pics. On the Himalayas, tropical trees entirely disappear at the height of 4000
or 5000 feet ; the middle region, between 5000 and 9000, produces oaks, syca-
mores, elms, hornbeams, pines, barberries, roses, and honeysuckles, all of Indian
species, but of European forms ; and numerous saxifrages, crowfoots, geraniums,
violets, gentians, primroses, and labiate plants. It is this belt also which produces
the scarlet rhododendron ; and, on its lower edge are found those camellias and tea-
like plants which render it probable that the tea-plant itself might be cultivated in
this part of India. The third and upper belt extends to an elevation unknown in any
other part of the world. Trees of rhododendron and quercus lanata are first met
with ; to these succeed pines and various kinds of firs, some of which are splendid at
the height of 11,000 or 11,500 feet; oaks in great variety; yews, birches, svcii-
mores, and poplars, with roses, viburnums, and honeysuckles ; above which follow
patches of snow, with the Himalayan bamboo, creeping along the ground. To these
succeed forests of quercus semicarpifolia ; and the limits of vegetation are finally mark-
ed by a few starved yews and junipers, with primroses in the warmer situations, dwarf
species of rhododendron, heather, and willow. The agriculture of this region is as sin-
gular as the vegetation; wheat is sometimes cultivated on the top of a mountain, and
rice at its foot ; maize, millet, and other small grains constitute the rain crop ; capsi-
cums, turmeric, and ginger, are grown as high as 4000 feet ; wheat is cultivated as
high as 10,000 feet, or even, according to Captain Webb, to the height of 12,000 feet.
Cotton succeeds even at Kumaon. At Saharunpore, 30° N. lat., 77^ 32' E. long.,
1000 miles from the sea, and 1000 feet above its level, the East India Company have
established a botanic garden, where are collected in one place, and naturalized in the
open air, the various fruit and other trees of very diiTerent countries, as those of India,
China, Cabul, Europe, and America. But the most remarkable vegetable produc-
tion of India is the banyan tree (Jictis Indica) the branches of which send out shoots,
which fall to the ground and fix themselves there, becoming in time large trunks,
and forming a grove around the parent stem. A famous banyan tree has been often
mentioned as growing on an island in the Nerbuddah ; and one in Mysore is said to
cover an area of 100 yards in diameter. — {Hoyle's Illustrations of the Eotany of the
Himalaya Mountains. Introduction.)
Animals. — India produces many of the most interesting forms of animal life. The
elephant ranges wild in the deep forests and jungles of the eastern and southern pro-
vinces, and is domesticated throughout the peninsula, where it is still used to swell
the gorgeous parade of the court, and to form the humblest of drudges. Wild ele-
phants are particularly numerous in Assam, where they move about in large herds;
and from 700 to 1000 are yearly exported from that province. Its huge rival, the rhi-
noceros, is also found in the thickest parts of the forests of Bengal, but has never been
trained to any useful employment. The camel abounds in the sandy regions of the
north-west, where it is used as the ordinary beast of burden. Deer, of many species
and varieties, are found among the mountains and forests ; also antelopes, wild boars,
hyenas, jackals, foxes, hares, squirrels, porcupines, hedgehogs, and monkeys, the last
being met with in great variety, and multiplied to a vast extent through the supersti-
tion of the Hindoos, who consider them as sacred animals. 13ears abound in all the
wooded mountains; wolves are also numerous in the northern provinces. The wild
dogs of the Himalayas are remarkable animals, in form and colour like a fox, though
larger ; they hunt in packs, give tongue like dogs, have a very fine scent, and by force
of numbers they are said at times to destroy the tiger. The bulfalo, both wild and tame,
is indigenous ; one species, the hos-arner, is noted for its great size and strength ; the
yak, or Tartar ox, is numerous among the Himalayas, where they browse in herds among
ice and huow, and constitute, next to corn, tlie chief wealth of the inhabitants ; there
are also several species or varieties of l)eeves, the most common of which is the sacred
humped species. The native horse of India is a small, ill-shaped, vicious poney ; but
fine horses in great numbers are imported froui Arabia and Turkestan, and are bred in
Xx
690 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [India.
the studs. The sandy deserts of Western India are the haunt of the wild ass, which
roams in herds along the borders of the Runn of Cutch. In Southern India asses of
several varieties are tamed for domestic purposes. The rat tribe abound ; one species
is of enormous size and very mischievous ; some of the smaller species are also very
destructive. The musk rat is only about the size of a mouse ; and yet when it passes
through a room it fills it with a strong perfume, and whatever it passes over becomes
impregnated with the taste and the smell of musk. The goat of Cashmere has long
been celebrated for its fine wool ; and there are also other varieties of the goat. In the
country of the shawl-goats some sheep's wool of very fine quality is also produced,
and no mutton is finer than that of the grain-fed sheep of the plains of India ; but the
native sheep are covered with hair instead of wool. Great attention has, however,
of late, been paid to the introduction of improved breeds of sheep; the most decisive
results have been obtained within the limits of the Bombay presidency, and, from the
active measures taken to improve the fleeces, in the extensive pastoral country of
the Ueccan, the export trade in wool promises to be one of the most valuable and
important for Bombay. But, of all the animals of India, those of the feline tribe are
the most remarkable, as well for their beauty as for their size, strength, and fierce-
ness. The lion is found chiefly in the northern provinces, near the borders of the
plains, and in Kattiwar ; but the tiger abounds in all the forests and jungles. through-
out the country, even up to the glaciers of the Himalayas, and is the grand object of
pursuit with European sportsmen. Leopards, ounces, and panthers, of different
varieties, are also numerous ; one species of leopard, the chittali or cheetah, is em-
ployed for hunting wild deer. The ox and the cow are treated with great veneration,
and are even worshipped ; and cow dung is used by the devotees to adorn their persons.
The birds of India are, in many cases, both splendid and curious. Those of the
parrot tribe are the most remarkable for beauty, and for the variety of species ;
eagles are numerous among the Himalayas, also vultures, hawks, and falcons ; many
other birds are common, as herons, cranes, storks, flamingoes, pea-fowl, pheasants,
geese, swans, partridges, quails, pigeons, gulls, plovers, wild ducks, and the common
domestic fowls; the jungle-cock of India is believed to be the original parent of
the common cocks and hens of Europe.
Reptiles are numerous ; serpents swarm in the gardens, and even intrude into the
houses ; some are comparatively harmless, but of others the bite is speedily fatal. Water
snakes are so particularly numerous along the coasts, that seamen used to ascertain
their approach to land by the appearance of those animals. Alligators abound in the
rivers and tanks, and particularly among the creeks of the Sunderbunds, along
with a great variety of amphibious animals and fishes; the shark infests the mouths
of the rivers, as well as the sea-coast, and grows to an enormous size. The best
and most highly flavoured fish is the mango, which appears in the lower Ganges in
June, and is reckoned a delicacy at the tables of Europeans, especially in the two
months during which it is in roe. Mullet is plentiful in all the rivers ; and there are
also many other kinds of fish which we caimot attempt even to enumerate. The na-
tives are dexterous fishers. Oysters, as well flavoured as those of Europe, but not so
large, abound on the coast of Chittagong.
The insect tribes may be said to be innumerable. The heat and the moisture of
the climate give incredible activity to swarms of noxious and troublesome insects,
and to others of a more showy class, whose large wings surpass in brilliancy the
most splendid colours of art. Musquitoes, moths, and ants of the most destruc-
tive kind, everywhere abound, to the intolerable annoyance of both Europeans and
natives. The white ants destroy every sort of animal or vegetable substance, and
the natives allege that they can even eat rupees. Clouds of locusts are also occa-
sionally seen in the northern provinces. Among useful insects, is the silk-worm, the
produce of which has long formed an article of commerce from India: the indige-
nous species are numerous ; others have been introduced from China and Italy ; and
the greatest attention is now paid to the rearing and training of the worms, and to
the preparation of the silk, the quantity and value of which are yearly increasing.
Attempts have also been made to introduce the cochineal insect, but hitherto without
the desired result ; for, after a great deal of trouble and expense, the animals im-
ported and multiplied over the country turned out to be of the wild species, and not
of that which produces the finest dye. But the cactus on which they feed, will
flourish in the most sterile parts of the country ; and, as the experiment with the
wild species was so successful, no doubt can be entertained of equal success with the
tjrana fina cochineal, whenever it can be introduced (Royle, Productive liesourett
of India.)
India.] aSIA. 691
People Throughout the wide extent of India there is greater diversity of cha-
racter and language, physiognomy, manners, customs, and occupations among the
natives, than is to be found in the whole of Europe. The country contains at least
thirty nations, speaking as many distinct languages, and all strangers to each other;
and of each of these languages there are innumerable diversities of dialect. The in-
habitants of India are in fact a very heterogeneous people ; though they are generally
considered as belonging to the Caucasian variety oi the human race. In the form
of the skull, the features of the face, and the proportions of the limbs, the
Hindoos resemble Europeans more than the Persians and the Arabs; but their
physical characteristics differ so much in different parts of the country, that no
general picture would suit the various dissimilar races. Among the Rajpoots and
northern mountaineers are often found men of gigantic stature and proportions ;
but, in general, the inhabitants of the plains are of shorter stature, and more slen-
der form. They are, however, all of an agile gr.aceful figure, and capable generally
of enduring considerable fatigue. Few deformed persons are to be seen, but blind-
ness is not uncommon. Their complexion varies from a dark olive, approaching black,
to a light, transparent, beautiful brown, with still an olive tinge, like that of the na-
tives of North Italy, or Proven9e ; nor does this variety of colour seem to depend en-
tirely on climate. " Of the crowd," says Heber, " by whom we were surrounded,
some were black as negroes, others merely copper-coloured, and others little darker
than the Tunisines, whom I had seen at Liverpool. It is not merely the difference
of exposure, since this variety of tint is visible in the fishermen, who are all equally
naked. Nor does it depend on caste, since very high-caste Bramins are sometimes
black, while Pariahs are comparatively fair. It seems therefore to be an accidental dif-
ference, like that of light and dark complexions in Europe, though, where so much of
the body is exposed to sight, it becomes more striking here than in our own country."
(Journal, I. 9.) Their face is oval ; the forehead moderately large and high ; the eyes
and hair black ; the eyebrows finely turned ; and the nose and mouth have a European
cast. The women, when not exposed to the weather, or stunted by hard work, are
often very beautiful. Their forms arc delicate and graceful ; their limbs finely . :)ered
and rounded ; their features mild ; their eyes dark and languishing ; their hair fine
and long ; their complexions glowing ; and their skins remarkably soft and polished.
The Brahminical Hindoos appear to have been divided, at some remote era, into
four tchadi or casles, each of which had its peculiar privileges, duties, and laws.
These were, 1. The Brahmins, priests; 2. The Kshatryas or Khetris, soldiers; 3.
The Vaisyas, Vice, or Bice, merchants and husbandmen ; 4. The Sudras, artisans,
labourers, and servants. A notion has long been prevalent among Europeans, that
the Hindoos are a race unsusceptible of improvement, in consequence of every trade
and profession being confined to a particular caste, and each caste being placed within
certain impassable limits or walls of separation. But this opinion is now ascertained
to be very incorrect. If the fourfold division of castes ever existed entire in India,
it certainly does not exist now, so far as occupations are concerned. Even before
the time of their legislator Menu, more than 30U0 years ago, an intermixture of the
castes had taken place, and the mixed race thence arising were divided into a great
number of new tribes or castes, to which, speaking generally, no employments are
forbidden ; and the subdivisions of these classes have further multiplied distinctions
to an endless variety. " It appears, indeed," says Mr. Colebrooke, " that almost
every occupation, though regularly it be the profession of a particular class, is open
to most other classes ; and that the limitations, far from being rigorous, do in fact
reserve only the peculiar profession of the Brahmin, which consists in teaching the
Vedas, and ofhciatiiig at religious ceremonies." (Asiatic Researches, Vol. V. As.
Ann. lier/. 1800.) We have thus the highest authority for rejecting entirely the doc-
trine that the whole Hindoo community is divided into four castes, whose peculiar
prerogatives are kept inviolate by impassable walls of separation; and, instead of
this, we find everywhere in the present day, a heterogeneous mass of people of
all professions, without a single example in any particular state, or kingdom, or [lor-
tion of the community, of that fourfold division of castes which has been so con-
fidently insisted on. " I have myself," says Mr. Rickard^-, " seen carpenters of five
or six different castes, and as many different bricklayers, employed on th(! same
building. The same diversity may be observed among the CTaftsincn in dockyards,
and all other great works; and those who have resided for any time in the principal
commercial cities of India, must be sensible that every increasing demand for labour,
in all its different branches and varieties of old and new arts, has been speedily and
effectually supplied, ia spite of the tremendous institution of caatcs ; which wc are
092 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [India.
taught to believe, forms so impassable an obstacle to the advancement ot Indian in-
dustry." (India, I. 32.) In short, the only one of the four castes which still pre-
serves anything like a distinct existence is that of the Brahmins; but even of these,
in Bengal alone, Mr. Colebrooke enumerates 1 68 subdivisions or families, with im-
portant distinctions among them. Even their sacred functions have been encroached
upon ; for the priests throughout India are not all Brahmins, nor are all the Brah-
mins, priests. According to the Abbe Dubois, the pontiffs and all the clergy of
the sect of Siva, in Southern India, are Sudras ; but the greater part of the high
priests of Vishnu are Brahmins. Many of them engage in the employments of the
lower castes ; they are found professing almost every trade and calling, and even act
as cooks in the kitchens of the despised but wealthy Sudras. Brahmins form a con-
siderable proportion of the British Indian army ; they arc also usually the political
and financial functionaries of the native princes; some of them engage in commerce;
some are employed in the appropriate duties of their caste, in religious services
at several of the temples, and in literary pursuits ; but great numbers of them
live by begging, it being one of their highest privileges to live by the industry of the
lower classes. Whatever be their occupation they are generally an artful set of im-
postors. Till recently, the number of them who were respectable for knowledge was
very small, while the great majority were devoted to ambition, intrigue, and sensuality ;
their character being disgraced by a degree of avarice, meanness, and cruelty, which
inspired a stranger with no feeling towards them but one of contempt. The charity
to which they give so high a place in the list of duties and virtues, has no human beings
but Brahmins for its objects. Towards the other castes they cherish no feelings of hu-
manity ; but, on the contrary, claim everything from them, while they would give
them nothing in return. The Brahmins, indeed, appear to have been originally foreigners
in India. They have a tradition that the primitive seat of their ancestors was to the
north of the Himalayas ; and there we still find the most sacred of all tlie Hindu
places of pilgrimage, the Manas-sarowar (lake of intellect), and the river Brahma-
piitn. ^son of Brahma). Tradition relates that the descent of the Brahmins into
India took place by the chasm through which the Ganges flows, and which is called
the Gomukhi (cow's mouth, or more properly, water spring). This accounts for the
very holy character which is ascribed to that great river.
The rest of the Hindoo community is composed of inimrnerable mixed tribes, not
one of which can prove itself to be genuine Kshatrya, Vaisya, or Sudra. It is certain
that the professions peculiar to these castes are everywhere usurped and practised
by the mixed classes ; and all the castes, except that of the Brahmins, are thoroughly
intermixed. A real Kshatrya prince or soldier is not to be found ; that caste has in-
deed long since disappeared, and the Brahmins allege that it was entirely extirpated
by Parasu-Rama, the sixth avatar of Vishnu. All classes and castes now exercise
the profession of arms ; and Brahmins, Vaisyas, Sudras, and mixed castes, perform
the functions, and hold the rank of princes and rulers, which, by the laws of Menu,
belong exclusively to the Kshatryas. The Nairs, for instance, who are the heredi-
tary soldiers and rulers of Malabar, and the warlike Mahrattas, who so long domi-
neered over Hindustan and the Deccan, are only Sudras. In like manner all the
varieties of castes follow the allotted professions of the Vaisya and the Sudra, and
practise, without distinction, every branch of agriculture, commerce, handicraft, and
menial service. But, though the grand fourfold division certainly no longer exists ;
and, though people are at liberty to practise what profession or trade they please,
without legal restraint, yet they are, nevertheless, so far divided into castes, as to
follow very generally and exclusively the profession of their fathers, and do not readily
engage in any other, unless from necessity or great temptation. So much does this
feeling prevail, that the members of different professions may almost be considered
as forming so many distinct hereditary castes ; but, instead of ybur only, there are
viany hundreds of such castes, often distinguished by very trivial and even ridiculous
customs and practices. " In the neighbourhood of Puna," says Mr. Elphinstone,
" where they are probably not particularly numerous, there are about loO different
castes." — (Hist, of India.) Nor do persons of different professions or castes readily
associate with each other ; they are always under the superstitious dread of coming
in contact \vith something that will pollute them; and, as they thus live much
estranged, the various classes come at last, through inveterate usage, not only to
lose all mutual sympathy, but to consider each other almost as beings of different
races or species, having no common sympathies, feelings, rights, or privileges.
These feelings, however, have been of late years considerably modified, through
the prevalence of European education and intercourse ; and there are unequivocal
I.vDiA.j ASIA. 693
signs that caste will ere long fall into disuse, if not into contempt, among the
educated classes. It is even alleged, that, were the matter enquired into, there
would scarcely be found a single Hindoo family in the whole of Bengal whose caste
has not been already forfeited by a violation of its laws ; though, by mutual forbear-
ance and connivance, they give each other credit for still possessing it, and though
the higher orders still sometimes shew an insolent reverence for its rules. Still, of
all these various classes or castes, the greater number are considered as more or less
pure, and consequently entitled to a certain degree of respect and attention ; but,
beneath the lowest of the pure castes, there is a very numerous race of outcasts,
amounting, it is said, to not less than one-fifth of the whole Hindoo population, to
whom the higher classes deny the rights of humanity. These are generally called in
the Carnatic pariahs, in some places chandalas ; and, whatever may have been their
origin, they exist now in the lowest and most deplorable condition. A person of pure
caste is contaminated by entering a pariah's house, or eating food prepared by him ;
some even consider themselves polluted by the touch of a pariah. In the towns
these outcasts are confined to separate quarters, and are employed in the meanest
and most disgusting occupations. It is on this latter account that Europeans are
ranked with pariahs by the pure Hindoos ; for, like them, they perform indiscrimina-
tely all kinds of work, however impure ; and eat, with equal indifference, all kinds of
food, even that of the sacred cow. Yet even these degraded beings have, among
themselves, distinctions of purity, which they observe as rigidly as the purest Brah-
mins. In Malabar there is a variety of outcasts cdWed poliars, who are not allowed even
to approach any of the higher castes. If a poliar wish to speak to any of these, he
must stand at a prescribed distance, and call aloud; and when a violation of this rule
occurs, the person polluted must purify himself by bathing and by reading the sacred
books. Nor are even these the lowest ; there is in the same province a still more
degraded race, called niadis, who wander in small companies, and, when they see a
passenger, set up a howl to warn him not to approach too near. Slavery, also, both
prsedial and domestic, prevailed extensively throughout India ; there was no law de-
fining the extent of a master's power over his slaves; and the prohibition of import-
ing them by sea, from other countries, had long increased their price, without putting
a stop to the traffic. The slaves are generally kept in a very wretched state; and, in
some places, as Travancore, the Merramuhhul, or children of slavery, are so degraded
as to be connected in name with everything that is the most revolting, shunned as if
infected with the plague, spreading alarm and indignation among the higher classes by
their presence, and even defiling towns and markets by their approach. By a law,
of 7th April 1843, slavery throughout India has been abolished.
For a long time it was generally believed in Europe that the Brahminical Hindoos
abstained entirely from animal food ; but, like the doctrine of castes, this has been
found to be a most erroneous notion, for they are scarcely less carnivorous than
Europeans, and even the purest Brahmins are allowed to eat mutton and veni-
son. Any person, not excepting even a Brahmin, eats readily the flesh of what-
ever animal has been offered in sacrifice ; while, among all the lower castes, mutton,
pork, venison, fish, everything, in short, but beef and fowls, are consumed as readily as
in Europe. And though intoxicating liquors are prohibited by their religious codes,
the prohibition is very generally disregarded by persons of all ranks, both Hindoo and
Moslem. Many of them are very fond of liquor, and drunkenness is a common vice of
their chiefs. Opium is also used to a great extent; among all classes bang, a prepa-
ration of hemp, is as common as their rice ; and the most respectable Hindoos are sel-
dom an hour without having a large piece of betel and chunam in their mouths. " On
the whole," says Captain Ogle (As. Jour. October 1840J, " though the Indian, from
the nature of his climate and constitution, can never become a drunken brawler, yet
I should unscrupulously average the use of intoxicating drugs amongst all classes of
society to be ten times greater than among the population of Great Britain." The
poor, whose means will not allow them to procure animal food, consume rice, dhall,
and other cheap grains, seasoned with salt, spices, and, if possible, a little fish. On
the whole, however, the Hindoos are generally considered by other writers to be an
abstemious and very temperate race. The character, indeed, of the Hindoos varies
in diiferent parts of the country, as much as the characters of the nations of Europe
differ from each other. The Bengalees are weak in body and timid in mind, and
are, in general, marked by the accompaniments of timidity, which are fraud and ser-
vility ; and they seem to deteriorate in respect of bodily strength and mental ca-
pacity, as they approach the coast. The Ilindustanees of the upper provinces,
»bove Benares, and particularly the llajpoots, are a race of men, speaking generally.
694 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [India.
not more distinguisbed for their lofty stature, wliicli rather exceeds that of Euro-
peans, and their robust frame of body, than for some of the finest mental qualities.
They are brave, generous, and humane ; and their veracity is as remarkable as their
courage. The greater proportion of the Bengal army is composed of these Hindu-
stances ; and it is remarked that there are few corporal punishments in that army, the
slightest reproach being felt as the greatest punishment. Such is the character given
of the soldiers by Sir John Malcolm ; and the character of those who tbllow civil pur-
suits is much the same as that of the soldiers, allowance being made for their different
habits of life. The Hindoo on the coast of Coromandel is a weaker man than the
Rajpoot ; but even here there are among them many classes who are highly respectable.
On the other side of India, the Mahrattas are much superior to the Bengalees, and
even to those of the Carnatic.
Besides the Hindoos who profess the Brahminical faith, there are in India multi-
tudes of people and numerous tribes, differing from each other in origin, religion, and
habits of life ; of these, as well as of the more noted of the Hindoo classes and races,
we shall now endeavour to enumerate the principal.
Jrtyiniians, who, being expelled from their original country, and scattered over all the regions of
south-western Asia, are also to be found in the principal cities and towns of India, following their
usual employments of merchants and tradesmen.
Banians or Banyam ( Vanceya), are a numerous tribe of Hindoos settled in Gujrat, and also to
be found in the principal commercial towns along the western coast of tlie Indian Ocean. They are
all merchants and traffickers, and many of them travel to places very remote from India ; where
they remain for several years, till their success in trade enables them to return to their families.
Many of them also finally settle in foreign countries, where they and their descendants continue to
use the Gujrateo language ; wliich, indued, may be called the grand mercantile language of the In-
dian marts. Tiicy are generally mild-tempered and well-behaved, and many of them have very ex-
tensive mercantile connections throughout the cities of the East.
Batties or Bhatties. a predatory tribe in the desert, between Rajpootana and the Indus, remarkable
for carrying on their depredations on foot, and still more for the length and rapidity of their incur-
sions ; but they have been latterly reduced to order.
Bhils or Bhe.els are an interesting race, considered by some as the remnant of the aboriginal people
who were driven to the hills by the Brahminical Hin;ioos. They are found in the hilly parts of Gujrat
and Malnah, and among the hills along the Nerbuddah and the Tuptee. Their habitations are of the
rudest kind, and they are in other respects barbarians ; but they have been nevertheless considered by
some of those best acquainted with them to be generally a better, a nobler, and a more manly race than
their Hindoo conrjuerors. Attempts have been made to wean them from their wild and lawless life,
but hitherto without much success. There are among them a great many varieties, some being more
civilized than others, among whom human sacrifices still prevail to a great eitent. Some of them
are even said to be cannibals, and to consider it a part of their religious duties to devour occasion-
ally a member of their own family. They do not burn their dead according to the custom of the
Hindoos, but bury them in the ground. They are very expert marksmen with the bow, which in their
hands is a formidable weapon. They seldom or never commit aggressions upon the Europeans in their
vicinity ; and have never been known to abuse the confidence placed in their honour by young officers
who sometimes go among them, for a few days' sport in their wild haunts ; but they are not so scru-
pulous with the native servants who are sent among them on any duty.
Bhanrus, a sort of separatists from the Newars in Nepaul, who are supposed to amount to about
MOO. They observe many of the customs of the IJhooteas.,
Bohrahs. a singular sect of Mahometans, supposed to be of Arab descent, whose moUa or high
priest resides at Bohraunpoor, form a very large society, spread over the whole of the Deccan, and
carry on an extensive trade. They call their sect Ismaeeliah, and derive their origin from one of
the followers of the prophet, who flourished in the age immediately succeeding that of Mahomet.
Uhooteas, Bhutiahs, or liooteas, a people of Tartar descent, who possess Bootan, and are found along
the hills as far as Kumaon. They are rather an undersized race, more remarkable for tension of
sinew than for weight of limb ; their features are purely Tartar; their persons are extremely filthy ;
they are, however, a very quiet industrious people. They shave their heads, and observe many idola-
trous rites and customs.
Brhigarles or Brinjarahs, and Loodanahs, are a sort of travelling merchants, who have no permanent
re:-idence, but live i^i tents, and trade generally in grain, with which they travel from province to
province, or follow the route of armies, w ho in their fiercest contests consider these useful attendants
as neutrals. They preserve a marked independence and separation from other races ; and their dress
and usages are peculiar.
Budhuks, a numerous fraternity of hereditary thieves, who inhabit the almost impenetrable forests
which gird the northern border of Oude, and the banks of the river Chumbul. Tliey have no fixed
abodes, but live in temporary huts, and shift their residence with a rapidity scarcely credible. They
do not willingly allow Mahometans to join them ; but they have few Hindoo prejudices, feeding >ipon
every kind of animal, and drinking spirits in large quantities. They speak a i>cculiar language.
I.ike the Thugs, they are very superstitious, and pay great attention to omens. A great many rob-
beries have been traced to them, and Government is now employed in putting them down.
Cherons.a. race of Hindoos who employ themselves as carriers of heavy goods, such as grain, in which
they also deal ; they possess large droves of cattle for carria-e. They are likewise sometimes engaged to
protect travellers in the wild parts of the country, and take an oath to die by their own hands in the
^vent of those who are under their protection being plundered. The superstitious thieves of India
are always overawed by this threat of the Cherons, whom they hold in great veneration.
Cooliet or Khclies, a manly and bold-looking, but very ferocious and troublesome people, who are
found in Gujrat, among the wilds and jungles of the province. They used to be formidable for their
robberies ; but seem now, like their neiglibours, to give promise of more peaceful conduct under
their powerful masters.
Cossyahs, or Kossiyahs or Khasyas, are found in the Khasya hills to the eastward of Bengal, and are a
dark and scanty race, but strong and well-formed, and of greater stature than most mountaineers.
Their character is peaceable and honest. Their women have handsome features, but are sun-burnt
and toil-worn ; and their ears and noses are deformed by heavy metal rings, which they wear as
ornaments. The Cossyahs are very industrious.
Daoudp'ttras, a tribe of Mahometans from the district of Shikarpore, who crossed the Indus in the
reign of Aurungzebe, and wrested from the Sindees the lands which they now possess. Their
whole number does not exceed 50,000 ; they are a fair ana handsome race, and are subjects of Bhawui-
Khan.
India.] ASIA. 695
Dhenwart, the husbandmen and fishers of the western districts of the kinsdom of Nepaul.
Garrowt, a barbarous people who live among the hills to the eastward of Bengal. They are strong,
well-shaped men, hardy, and able to undergo much toil, of a surly look, flat caft're-like noses, small
eyes, generally blue or brown, wrinkled foreheads, overhanging eyebrows, large mouth, thick lips,
round and short face. Their colour is brown, of different shades. They are of a mild disposition,
honest, and faithful to their promise. They are more agricultural and industrious than the Kossiyahs,
whom they resemble in warlike character, and excel, if possible, in muscular developement and bodily
strength, though not their equals in external appearance and dignity of carriage. They go almost
naked, and lead a very savage life. A Garrow's greatest treasure is as many human skulls as his
house can contain ; his greatest cordial, a pint of brandy ; and his greatest dainty a pudding made by
feeding a young dog with as much rice as he can contain, and then roasting him alive till the rice is cook-
ed, when the entire mass is served up for eating. Their country is extremely fatal to Europeans. A
branch of the same people, called Hnjirs, who reside at the foot "of the hills, are more civilized, and in
religious matters partake more of Hindoo notions.
Gipseut, known in India by the name of Bazighurs (players or actors), are divided into seven
castes, have all become Mahometans, and are foimd principally in the upper provinces of Hindustan.
They are pretty numerous, and are identically the same peojile as those found in Europe.
Goands, Goonds, Khunds, a savage people who occupy the wildest parts of Gundwana, to which they
have given their name, between the northern Circars and the Bengal provinces. They bear a striking
resemblance to the African negroes ; and are in the lowest condition of savage life ; their appearance is
generally wretched, though some of their leaders are tine-looking men. They are blood-thirsty, cruel,
and revengeful, and otter human sacrifices. Their country is mountainous, rising 2000 or 3000 feet
above the level of the sea. The Goonds are a perfectly distinct race from the people of the plains, and
speak an entirely different language. They are armed witli bows, arrows, and battle-axes. Those who
live in Goomsur have been recently reduced to subjection by the British Government.
Ghorkhas or Goorkhas are the dominant people of Nepaiil, but are also found in the hill countries
to the westward, which were recently subject to the Nepaul sovereigns. They appear to be descended
from the Hindoos of the plains, who took refuge in the hills from the Mahometan invaders, but have
been intermingled in blood with the Tartar and Chinese races, who seem to have been the ori-
ginal inhabitants of those regions. They are a hardy, brave, active, and enterpris'ng people. In the
British Indian military service there are several regiments or battalions of Goorkhas, who make ex-
cellent soldiers.
Gurungs, a pastoral tribe in Nepaul, who shift their abodes between the mountains and the valleys,
with summer and winter. They adhere to the I.ania priesthood and the Buddhist faith. They cul-
tivate their lands with the hoe, are diligent miners and traders, and employ their numerous flocks in
conveying their goods to market. — (See Nepaul).
Jarejahs are the ruling class in Cutch, and are all more or less connected with the family of the
liao, from whom they hold their lands by military tenure. There are about 250 chiefs, who are termed
the Bht/aud or brotherhood, and form the Rao's hereditary advisers. They are a simiularly tine race
of people, naturally robust, and peculiarly warlike in dress and bearing ; but in their habits dissipatec!,
proud, and cruel. They procure their wives from the Soodahs, a people who live in the Thur, and
put their own female children to death, usually by means of opium applied to the mother's breast, or
by drowning them in milk. They have numerous retainers called Grasias. The western part of
Kattiwar is also possessed by Jarejahs, who migrated from Cutch 800 years ago.
Jariyuht. a numerous tribe, who inhabit the lower hilly region between the Kali river and the
valley of Nepaul. They are now almost all converted to Hinduism { See yepaul.)
Jatt or Jautt are a numerous and turbulent race, who occupy great part of the north-west pro-
vinces. They appear to have migrated originally from Turkestan, and still retain the nomadic and
w.arlike habits of the people of that region. Colonel Tod considers the peasantry of north-west India,
.".s well as the Seikhs, to be chiefly composed of this people. The Jauts of Bhurtpore. who are descended
from a low Sudra caste, but have assumed the title of Kshetri, or warrior, are distinct from the Jauts
tf the Punjab.
Jewt are found in considerable numbers in Western India; many of whom are enrolled in the
ranks of the Bombay army, and form good soldiers. There are two races or colonies of Jews at
Cochin, distinguished as the white and the black. According to the missionary 'Wolfr, those are
called black Jews who became Jews of their own accord in Malabar, and those who are dispersed in
the country, of black and half-black colour. They have neither priests nor levites, nor families nor
relations in foreign parts. Their coiniiloxion is like that of the Hindoos. They consider themselves
as slaves to the white Jews ; they pay them a yearly tribute, and also a small sum for the privilege
of circumcising their children, and for being allowed during the time of prayer to wear the frontlets.
They do not sit in presence of the white Jews, nor e.at with them ; they are, however, richer, more in-
dustrious, and more moral than the white Jews.— f.Vm. Jdiirnnl, I. 478.) The Jews of Bombay are
rf a higher degree of respectability than in any other iiart of India; they call themselves Beni-
Israel, and there is some reason to believe them descendants of the ten tribes, rather than of the later
Jews.
Katkarii or Kalodis, a people in the northern Concan, who live as outcasts near villages, and are
hold in great abhorrence by the country people, and i^articularly by the Brahmins. They derive their
name from the oecup.ition on which they are principally dipendent for support, the manufacture of
tlse kat or terra japonica from the kliair tree or acacia catecini.
Kattiet inhabit Kattiwar, the penini-ular part of Gujrat, and are reckoned one of the royal races of
India. They are a half-civilized people, whose principal occupation formerly was robbery and piracy ;
but, now that their occupation is gone, their villaees and forts are falling to decay, their country is
covered with ruins, their power is broken, and their chiefs are in poverty.
Kookies or Lunctat, in the hills north-east of Chittagong, are regarded as the wildest of all the
tribes on the eastern frontier.
yiahratlat, a numerous and powerful r.ace, who originally occupied the north-western part of the
Ucccan. They rose to distinction in the 17th century, under their rajah Sivagee, and, during the 18th,
were possessed of a great part of .Northern and Central India. Their power was first broken by Ahmed
Abdallee, king of Cabul, from whom they sustained a terrilile defeat at I'aniput in \'Cj\ ; and they have
now completely yielded to the British ascendancy. Their principal remaining chiefs are the Kajab of
Sattarah, who is the descendant of Sivagee, the .Mahamjah Scindiah, Holkar, the (iuicowar, and the
Kajabs of Kolapoor and Sawuntwarree. The .M.abratt.as are generally of a diminutive stature, ill form-
ed, and of a mean rapacious disponition. They are of low caste, and ilivided into three principal tribes,
the Koonlieeg, the Dungar, and the Goalah, or the farmer, the shepherd, and the cowbcrd. Thoro
are certainly minute shades of ditference among them, but no distinction of caste, for the genuine
Mabrattas arc all Sudras ; and there are local circumstances which may prevent one family from inter-
marrying with another ; but still every .Mahratta can eat with his neighbour, unless he should have
become an outcast, an event of no unusual occurrence. 'I'he Brahmins who live among them differ in
their customs from thfir neighbours, with whom they will neither associate nor intermarry. The
Mahratta language is widely spread, extending from Beder over the whole country to the north-west
of Canara, and of a line, which, passing considerably to the eastward of Dowlatabad, takes an irre-
gular sweep till it touches the Tuptee river, and follows the course of that river to the sea.
698 DESCRirriVE GEOGRAPHY. [India
Mairs inhabit that part of the AravuUi mountains in Rajpootana called Mairwarra, or the region
of hills, between Komulmalr and Ajmere. They are a branch of the Mainas, one of the original
tribes of India, and have lived for ages by robbery, being at constant war with their Rajpoot neigh-
bours. They have yielded, however, to the British power, and give fair promise of becoming a civil-
ized and industrious people.
JV/(/rarnj inhabit a stripe of land on the coast from Cape Comorin to the north of Ramnad, their prin-
cipal town. Thcv arc a people of considerable antiquity ; and tliere appears some reason to conclude
that they are the ilescendants of the rude tribes who inhabited the pennisula before the Hindoos colo-
nized it, and introduced }$rahminism. which they seem to have eftocted under the command of their
celebrated hero or demigod, Kama. The Maravas have also been spread at different times, and in
various proportions, througli the Tanjore, Madura, and Tinnevelly provinces.
Mechis inhabit the forest j)ortion of the Terai, from the Rrahmapiitra to the Konkinia in Upper
Assam, a space 250 miles in length by 12 or 15 in breadth. They live entirely in the forest, without
towns or permanent villages, and are remarkably healthy, notwithstanding the malaria, which is so
deadly to strangers. They are Sivaites, but have no priests or temples, nor distinctions of castes, and
no prejudices against strangers. They are industrious and honest.
Moptas or Moplat/s or Mapellalis, are the Moslem inhabitants of Malabar, and are a wealthy, intel-
ligent, and enterprising race of people. They enjoy the greater part of the trafiic throughout Mala-
bar, and are exceedingly jealous of the interference of any other class in their occupation.
Moslems or ilahnmctans of India, are of various races, partly emigrants from the countries to the
west and north, as Moguls, Tartars, Turks, Persians, and Afighans, and partly converted Hindoos.
Those of foreign origin are considered as generally superior to the Hindoos ; they have greater
elevation of sentiment, greater energy of purpose, and dignity of character ; tliey are more luxurious
and dissipated, but decidedly more warlike, manly, and cultivated as a people. They are, however,
very bigoted and fanatical, but harmonize, notwitlistanding, very well with the Hindoos, who
even assist in celebrating some of the Moslem festivals ; and it is very remarkable that all the
butcher meat consumed by the Hindoos is prepared, as far as regards the slaughter and cutting up
of the animal, by Moslem butchers only. The Moslems are spread over the greater part of India,
but are most numerous in llindvistan, or tlie upper i)rovinces ; they are also congregated in great
numbers at Uydrabad in tlie Deccan. Their number altoj;other is estimated at about 15,000,000 ; and
they are said to cherish a deadly hatred to their European conquerors, and to be always looking for
an opportunity to throw oft' t'leir yoke. The princip:il Moslem princes are the family of the Great
Mogul, or Emperor of Dellii ; the king of Oude ; the Nizam, or king of Hydrabad ; the Nabob of Ar-
cot ; the Nabob of Bhopal ; and Hhawul Khan.
Mughs are the indigenous people of Arracan, and the most numerous portion, amounting to six-
tenths of its present population. They are a hardy but inoffensive race, of a short muscular stature,
with a copper comple.xicn. and round flat features. They are Buddhists in religion, and though in
many respects far from civilii-ed, yet in others they equal, or even surpass the most polished nations.
There is rarely one of them to be met with who cannot read and write. Their priests appear to be
entirely occupied in the education of the children, and in every village there are two or three who are
so employed. The Mughs, in their manners, are perfectly free from the servile hypocrisy of their
western neighbours, and equally superior to tliem in probity. — (Jouryinl R. GVoir. Sac. Land. I. 177.)
Niiirs are the aristocracy of Malabar, who are divided into eleven ranks ; they were formerly the
hereditary soldiers of the country, but now engage in handicrafts. Though they are considered to
belong to the Sudra caste, they are, nevertheless, a very arrogant race. They do not marry ; and their
families are continued by the children of their sisters.
?\a>/aks or Niiyakadias, a wild tribe wlio inhabit the Bassia, ChCimpaneer, and Oudipoor jungles,
between the Mhye and the Nerbuddah, with a breadth of about ."lO miles. They are found chiefly about
the centre of that region, and are much scattered towards the extremities, wliere various tribes of
Koolies and Bhils, and a mixed Hindoo population predominate. They are very barbarous, and ob-
jects of the greatest terror to their peaceable neighbours. They worship Wagheshwar, the lord of
tigers, and Maha, a malevolent female deity.
Neu-ars, a people who originally occupied the more fertile part of Nepaul proper, before the Goorkha
conquest of that country. They are generally of the middle size, of great bodily strengtli, with broad
shoulders and chest, very stout limbs, round and rather flat faces, and open and cheerful counte-
nances, but with little or no resemblance to the Chinese. They are peaceable, industrious, and even
ingenious ; their occupations are principally agricultural ; but they are, besides, almost exclusively
employed in the arts and manufactures of the country. Tlie greater part of them are Buddhists, and
are much attached to their religion ; but they do not acknowledge the lamas of Thibet, and have
priests of their own. They live in towns or villages, in houses built of brick, cemented with clay,
and covered with tiles; they live on buft'aloes, sheep, goats, fowls, and ducks, and are immoderately
attached to the use of spirituous liquors.
Oorians are the aboriginal natives of Orissa, wliich derives its name from them. They are a timid
people, and the men are so feminine in appearance that it is difficult to distinguish them from the
women, both sexes dressing alike. They are exceedingly dissolute and obscene, and more versed in
low cunning, dissimulation, and subterfuge, than perhaps any other people of the East. They are,
however, honest and industrious.
Parsees, a numerous colony of fire worshippers, who left Persia to avoid the persecution of the
Moslem conquerors, and have settled in Gujrat and Bombay. Their total number is about .")0,000, of
whom 20,000 are found in Bombay ; the remainder are to be found chiefly at Surat, Baroach and its
neighbourhood, the N'ovthern Concan, and Ahmedabad. The opulent among them are merchants,
brokers, sliipowners, and extensive land-owners; the loner orders are shop-keepers and artizans,
and are in great request by European families as domestic servants, for they arc much less intolerant
in their principles than either Moslems or Hindoos, will perform a greater variety of work, and are
more agreeable as domestics. The Parsees are divided into two classes, clergy and laity ^ moifrf and
bedeen.) The clergy and their descendants are very numerous, and are distinguished from the laity by
wearing white turbans ; but, excepting those particularly selected for religious service, they follow,'like
the laity, all kinds of occupations. They have a few plain churches, where they assemble for prayer;
these are crowded daily by the clergy, but the laity attend only on certain days. They neither bury
nor burn their dead, but place the bodies in open buildings, where they leave tliem to be consumed by
the elements or the birds. The greater part of the wealth of Bombay is in the liands of Parsee mer-
chants, who are a hospitable people, liberal but not extravagant in their expenditure. Their houses are
often furnished in the European style, and they have adopted from their rulers many customs and
habits still unthought of by the Moslems and Hindoos. Their women, though not jealously excluded
from all society, are rather closely kept. Their cliarities are munificent ; they relieve the poor and
distressed of all classes, and maintain their own poor in so liberal a manner, that a Parsee beggar is
nowhere to be seen or heard of. Their sacred books are written in the Zend and Peblevi languages,
the genuineness of which is unanimously opposed by English authorities, who consider them inven-
tions of the Parsee priests ; while, on the contrary, tlie continental European scholars arc equally
unanimous in vindicating their genuine antiquity.
Palims are people of Affghaii descent, who inhabit different parts of Hindustan, and are t!:c prin-
India,] ASIA. 697
cipal people of Bhopal. Their name is believed to be a derivation or corruption of Futhtoo, the na-
tive name of the people whom the Persians call Aftghans.
Pucfiarriet are the inhabitants of the Rajmahal hills, and the hill country between Boglipoor and
Burdwan, in the north-west of Hengal. They are quite distinct from the Hindoos in features, lan-
gtiage, civilization, and religion ; tliey have no castes, care nothing for the Hindoo gods, and are
even said to have no idols. They are middle-sizod, rather little men, but very well made, with re-
markably broad chests, long arms, and well-formed legs, broad faces, small eyes, and turned-up noses ;
in other words, they are a short, thick-set, sturdy race, with the African nose and lip. They are an idle
and dirty people, not fond of hard work, but orderly and loyal, and they hate and despise lying so
much, that in the courts of law the evidence of a Pucharrie is always trusted more than that of half-a-
dozen Hindoos.
liajpuots (sons of kings), the noblest of the Hindoo races, are the dominant people of North-western
India, which from them is named Kajpootana, Kajwarra, or Kajahstan. Tluy are a tall, vigorous,
and atliletic race, with rude habits, and are devoted to war and robbery. They lorni the best soldiers
of the iJingalarmy, though not quite so orderly and obedient to discipline as their comrades of theBrah-
minioal and other castes. Their chiefs boast of a long line of ancestry, and are considered as of more
illustrious birth and of higher rank than any other Hindoo princes. A sort of feudal system is esta-
blished among them; the subordinate chiefs holding their lands on condition of military service.
The Hajpoots pretend to be the lineal descendants of the lost Kshatiaya, or royal and military caste ; but
the Brahmins deny it, ami allege that they are sprung from the Vaisya caste on the paternal side, and
from one of the mi.\ed castes on the maternal. Yet the Rajpoots are, even more t!i;in the Brahmins,
the representatives of Hinduism. In them are seen all the qualities of the Hindoo race umnixtd, and
displayed in the strongest light. They e.vhibit the genuine form of a Hindoo community, consistiiig
of the most discordant materials, and comhiniiig the most extraordinary contrasts; unconquerable
adlieratice to native opinions and usages, with servile submission to any foreign yoke ; an unl elieving
priesthood, ready to suSVr martyrdom for the most petty observance of their proles;^ed faith; a su-
perstition which inspires the resolution to inflict or to suffer the most atrocious barbarities, with-
out cultivating any benevolent sentiment, or enforcing any social duty. — ( Sir J. Mackintosh ; Me-
moirs, I.) The poorest Hajpoot of the [jresent day, says Colonel Tod, retains all the pride of ancestry,
often his sole inheritance; he scorns to hold the plough, or to use his lance e.xcept on horseback. The
Rajpoots are divided into thirty-si.\ royal races all descended from the sun and tnoon. or the Surya and
Induvansa races; and to each family or tril)e is attached a bard, who is acquainted with all their peculiar
privileges and customs, religious tenets, and ancient history. The great families use armorial bearings;
and, in memory of their reputed ancestors, many of them wear round their necks badges of gilt metal,
■with the images of the sun and moon on horseback. They are extremely attached to their chiefs, to
whom they yield a sort of feudal obedience. They hold their lands at low rents, on condition of
military service, each village or township furnisliin;.; its contingent of horsemen on the shortest
notice. Family feuds are frequent, and la^t for centuries. Hence murders, burnings, poisonings,
mingle in their domestic annals with traits of generosity and romantic valour; and the modern
Rajpoots differ little in their manners and prejudices from their ancestors. — {Annals i.f Rujalistimn,
1. 3.) The Rajpoot states were first brought within the pale of the British ascendancy in 1817; but
their turbulent disposition, and their impatience under the yoke of what they consider ignominious
treaties, have kept them in a state of continual anarchy and revolt. Their extravagant dissensions,
and endless disaffection, have at last made the British Government subject them to an active poli-
tical superintendence; but no measures have yet been taken to institute among them regular forms
of government ; and, although they have been taught to acknowledge the British supremacy, and to
feel their own weakness, they have hitherto been permitted to indulge in all the excesses of internal
discord, and futile animosity. Yet, amidst all their social disorganization, lie concealed the ele-
ments of national worth and greatness, with qualities which may he wrought into the elements of
future |irosperity. The o;>ening of the Indus, and the consequent extension of trade, accompanied
by the gradual progress of knowledge, will be of importance in purifying the no.xious atmosphere
of Rajpoot feelings and politics.
lianiousties, a predatory tribe in the neighbourhood of Poonah and Sattarah, have great faith in
destiny, and live in little or no fear of law or punishment. They are worshippers of the litigatn,
Oomiali, one of their principal, most adventurous, and most successfu! chiefs, was tried at Poonah,
and hanged in 1h32.
JCohiUat, a numerous people of Affghan descent, who possess the country east of Delhi, but are
now wholly subject to the British Government. They are also called Fatajis, and are professors of
Islam. Tliey are a tall, handsome race, and, compared with the southern Hindoos, are of fair
complexion; they are a clever and animated people, but devoid of principle, false, and ferocious.
Crimes, both of fraud and violence, are very nunurous, and perjury is almost universal. Rohilcund
is infested with a crowd of lazy ])rofl:gate jHM«rrj, or gentlemen, who, though not possessed of a rupee,
conceive it to bj derogatory to their ;.entilily and to theirPatan blood, to apply themselves to lion ;.t
industry. Th..y prefer living on the tradesmen and farmers, or existing as hangers-on to the few noble
and wealthy families that yet remain in the province. The Rohillas were oriuinally a band of Patans
or Ailglians, who came into Hindustan about the year 1720, in quest of military service, and soon
after made themselves masters of the ili>lrict wliich bears their name, and u here they rose to con-
^idtrable power and influence. But their combined forces were completely defeated liy the British
at the battle of Cntterah or Kuttrah in 177-1, an event which terminated the Kohilla sway; and
nearly the whole of Rohilcund was ceded by the Nabob of Oude to the British government in 1801.
S^ik/is or aik/is, a religious community which, after the downfal of the Mogul empire, rose to great
political power, and now possess the whole of the Punjab, and some adjacent territories ( See imtr,
\i. 126.; Their fatherlanci is the Doab or peninsula between the Havee and the ,Suttlej ; but /ew are
to be found 3li miles below Lahore. There are none westward of the .Ihylum ; and even to the eastward
of Lahore, v»liere they are most numerous, they do not form one-third of the poi)ulation. They are
a. robust and athletic race, with sinewy limbs, and tall stature. The genuine Kalsa or .Singh knows no
occupation but agricultnre and war. They are, however, very tolerant ; they have no prejudices of
castr, nor are they averse to fermented liquors ; but hold tobacco in abhorrence.
Sliikltaauttii't, u tribe of predatory Kajpuots, living in the desert north of .Tyepoor, have heeii
recently reduced to order by the British Government, after a great deal of trouble and hara: sing petty
warfare.
Siiiid<ihs, a rude people of noble, or perhaps Rajpoot lineage, w ho live in wandhs or grass huts in the
Tliur or great de.-ert, in a state of pecnliar privation and misery. They are by profession shiplier<!s,
but Irecjuenfly commit forays on thiir neighbours. They find, however, their principal soun t
-alth in the beauty of ttieir daughters, for one of whom a rich M.iliometan will sometime- i ay It ,';()()
rup' es (,£1000; ; and they also furnish wives to the .larejahs of Cutch.
I'uiiat, Tu'laiirs, Thudanri, or Tafhives, a small trihe who occupy the highest valleys of the Nil-
ghcrries. They are tall, athletic, with a bold bearing, and long black hair, Roman noses, and largo
lull eyes; they live in palriarchal simplicity, raising no grain, nor rearing any ilomestic animal hut
the cat. Their wealth consists in herds of hufl'alocs ; their principal occupation is to tend and iniil;
their herdi, and prepare the milk for use or exchange ; and the little commerce they ctrry on i^ ::i
698 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [India.
butter, which they exchange for grain. They dwell in families, in small clusters of hutg, migratlns;
from place to place, according to tlie convenience of pasturage. They are strangers to war, and
have no weapons of attack or defence, yet tlieir demeanour is hardy and fearless ; tliey are strictly
honest, and, witliout fastening their doors day or night, live in perfect safety. Tliey are ignorant of
the mytliology, language, learning, and manners of the Hindoos; tlieir temples are dark hovels, in
which a little shining stone is tlie only object of worship. They are certainly an idle race, but are not
ap.ithetic. They liave no civil or political government, but yet are quite orderly. They are highly re-
spected by the other people of the hills, who, though richer, more numerous, and more civilized, look
upon the Tudas as a superior class, appeal to them in their disputes, and pay them tribute; their
whole number is said to be less than a thousand.
Thui;s or Phaytst/gars, a singular class of professional murderers, do not form a distinct tribe or
sect, biit rather a confederacy, consisting of both Moslems and Hindoos. They have been found
chiefly in Central India, on both sides of the Nerbuddah ; but used to spread themselves over the
coimtry in all directions for the purpose of plundering travellers and others who came within tlieir
reach ; always murdering them by strangling them with a noose, and carefully avoiding blood-
shed. They were devout worshippers of the goddess Bhovani (Kali), and were directed in all their
proceedings by omens, which they believed to be sent by her for their guidance. They generally tra-
velled in parties, and consisted of people of all sects, the Moslems amongst them assuming Fatima,
the daughter of their prophet, to be the same person as the Hindoo Kali. A few years ago the Thugs
attracted tlie particular attention of the British Government, who are now employed in putting them
down, and in endeavouring to extirpate so mischievous a brotherhood. Many most appalling atrocities
liave been brought to light ; many hundreds of the gang have been hanged, transported, or imprison-
ed ; yet the survivors, such is the force of superstition, ascribe their misfortunes, not to their crimes
against humanity, but to some neglect of their duties towards their patron Kali, who, they think,
has in consequence abandoned them.
fl'agheas, a predatory tribe of Rajpoot descent in Kattiwar, near Okamundel.
U'aralu, a wild tribe who inhabit the jungles and forests of the Northern Conean, and speak the
Mahratta language ; their principal object of worship is Waghia (the lord of tigers), a shapeless
stone, smeared with red lead and ghi, but they have no priests.
The Europeans in India consist chiefly of natives of the British islands, French,
Danes, and Portuguese, with their descendants. The British are completely the ruling
class, perform all the functions of supreme government over the greater part of the
country, and fill all places of power and profit, in the presidencies into which the
British territory is divided. Tliey are exclusively the officers of the British Indian
army, and the greater numher of them, either in a civil or a military capacity, are the
servants of the East India Company, or in their employment. The independent set-
tlers are very few; and the total number of Europeans, including the Queen's regi-
ments, throughout India, is believed not to exceed 40,000, of which number so few
as one-eighth are not in the employment of Government. Since the renewal, how-
ever, of the Company's charter in 1833, the right of independent settlement is so
much less fettered than it was previously, that it is probable the number of European
immigrants will rapidly increase.
The East-Indians, called also Anglo-Indians, Indo-Britons, Eurasians, or Half-
castes, are the offspring of European fathers by native mothers. No proper census
has ever been taken of their number, but it appears to be very considerable, and to
l>e always increasing. They are found chiefly in the capitals of the three presiden-
cies, and in the neighbourhood of the principal civil and military stations. They are
in general tolerably ^vell educated ; and the whole of the class speak English as well
as the vernacular tongue of their native province. They almost monopolize the
situations of clerks and accountants in the Government offices, as well as in those of
public servants and private merchants. The ladies of the class, though feelingly con-
scious of the distinction between them and genuine Europeans, yet look upon the
young men of their own colour as beneath them. In the seminaries and asylums of
Calcutta, there are generally upwards of 500 half-caste girls, illegitimate daughters
by native mothers of the higher ranks, who receive a genteel education.
The French and the Danes are found of course at the several settlements belonging
to their respective governments ; but their number is relatively small. The descen-
dants of the Portuguese, once masters of the coasts of India, are believed to amount to
600,000, who are all Roman Catholics. Most of them occupy only the lower places in
the community, and have sadly degenerated from their renowned forefathers ; they have
now no tie which unites them with Portugal, of which, indeed, they are altogether
ignorant. Their condition and state of civilization are nearly the same with those
of the aboriginal natives among whom they live, and are frequently much lower. They
ere, indeed, very ignorant, and are sunk into a state of idolatry and superstition not
far removed from heathenism ; but their being nominally Christians, and their steadi-
ness in adhering to their faith, preserve them as a distinct class. " In most parts of
India no reproach is more cutting than to be called a Portuguese ; for the name is
supposed to combine all that is most depraved in wickedness with all that is most
despicable in weakness." — (Major Sevan, II. 88.)
The Chinese are fast establishing themselves in Calcutta, where their superior skill
as artizans procures them ready and profitable employment. And besides those which
we have enumerated, there are various other petty tribes, races, and distinctions of
India.] ASIA. 699
class, in all parts of India, some of which are partially civilized, while others remain
in the lowest stage of savage life. As no complete census has ever been taken, the
total amount of the population of India is not known with any degree of certainty,
Mr. Martin estimates it at 200,000,000, which is only 90 inhabitants to the square
mile ; and of that number much more than one-half are British subjects.
Languages The learned language of the Brahminical Hindoos is the Sanscrit
(^sancta scriptura), in which most of their sacred books are written, and which, though no
longer spoken, appears to be the parent of, or at least to be intimately connected with,
many of the living tongues and dialects of India. It has also been found to have a
remarkable affinity with the Greek, the Latin, and the Teutonic languages of Europe,
which are now believed to have all sprung from one original tongue spoken in some
central part of Western Asia, from which they diverged at a very remote period. The
Sanscrit is written with 32 letters, for several of which there are no corresponding
characters in the alphabets of Europe. It has also thousands of syllabic abbrevia-
tions. Harmonious and grave, with a just proportion of consonants and vowels, rich
in terms, free and flowing in its pronunciation, possessing numerous conjugations,
tenses, cases, and particles, this language may be compared to those which are con-
sidered the most perfect and most refined of the original tongues. The Pracrit is sof-
tened Sanscrit, and is spoken by the women in their classic dramas. In modern India
there are at least thirty nations, who speak as many distinct languages. The principal of
these are : the Bengalee, spoken in Bengal Proper by about 30,000,000 people ; Hin-
dustanee, spoken in Hindustan or the upper provinces, in a variety of dialects, by
about 20,000,000 ; the Maharatta or Mahrati, in the western parts of the Deccan ;
the Gurjara, in Gujrat and the adjoining districts, including the old provinces of Khan-
deish and Mahvah ; the Tamul, in the country south of Madras ; the Tdinga or
Kalinga or Teloogoo or Tenugu, spoken to the north of that city for about 500 miles
along the coast, and 200 inland, })y about 8,000,000 of people ; pervading a semicircle of
which Riijamundry may be considered the centre, while the radius extends to Madras.
It has a peculiar alphabet. The Carnataca, spoken in the Balaghaut or Upper Car-
natic, and also in some districts on the west coast ; the Cashmerian; Doyura ; Oocli ;
Suide ; Cvtch ; Concanese ; Punjabee ; liicanere ; Marwaree ; Nepalese, &c. In
short, it has happened in India, as in every other country where there is no popular
literature, nor free and regular communication among its people, that every small
community has a dialect of its own, which is intelligible only to its own members
or tlu'ir immediate neighbours ; though these dialects maybe, as they often are, merely
modifications of the one original tongue spoken by the people from which the various
communities and tribes of a province or a country may have sprung. For a long
time the modern Persian was used by the liritish Indian Government as the lan-
guage of their state papers and courts of justice; but that practice is now abolished,
and Ilindilstanee substituted for general purposes; for all ordinary local purposes,
however, the vernacular language of the country is now the language of the courts of
law and government. English, however, is everywhere making rapid progress. The
spirit of change, or probably the desire of improvement, has seized upon the people;
men of all classes have become desirous to learn English, as the only road to the
treasures of knowledge which that language contains, and are ambitious to give their
rliildren an English education ; so that the day is perhaps not far distant when we
shall see our own speech spread over all India as the common language of literature,
science, government, and religion.
Edccation. — Every village can boast of its schoolmaster, who forms as regular
a constituent member of the community as the priest or the barber ; and the school
is open to all boys of pure caste. The ordinary routine of education generally com-
mences in the fifth year, at which time the child is cither taught by his fatlicr to
write the alphabet, or is sent for that purpose to the village school. From the simple
characters the pupil proceeds to the compound letters, to words, and to the figures
of arithmetic. But the blessings of superior education are very partially diffused
even among the Brahmins, most of whom are ignorant of their sacred professional
language, the Sanscrit. Among the warlike tribes of the north, music forms a part
of education, ami one of their principal amusements, though it is indecorous to be
considered a performer. Some of the higher classes liave proceeded so far in their
literary education as to possess an easy epistolary style ; tliougli most of the Raj-
poots can only rea<], and sign their names ; consi(lcral)lc intellectual energy, ncver-
iheless, is sometimes exhibited among them. Tliough the gains of the f^clioolmas-
tcrs are ve-y small, yet they are generally respectable men. The sacred books
700 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [India.
being the depositories of science and law as well as of religion, are necessarily the
great objects of study to the native literati, some of whom have acquired a great re-
putation for learning ; but they confine themselves entirely to the sacred books them-
selves, and to the endless commen,taries with which they are loaded, seeming never to
think it possible, even if it were lawful, to seek for knowledge anywhere else. The
consequence is, that their science is very antiquated, and too often erroneous.
At the last renewal of the East India Company's charter, it was stipulated that
£10,000 a-year should be devoted out of the surplus revenues of the country to
tlie purposes of education ; and that sum the Government has placed at the dis[)Osnl
of the General Conniiittee of Public Instruction, established at Calcutta in 1823,
for the promotion of education, and of the improvement of the morals of the
people. At different times the Govermr.ent has established, or sanctioned the esta-
blishment, of colleges for teaching the higher branches of education : but of these
our limited space will allow us to mention little more than the names. The Cal-
cutta ISIadrissa, or Mahometan College, established by Warren Hastings in 1781 ;
the Benares Hindoo Sanscrit College, 1791 ; the Vidalya, or Anirlo-Indian College,
Calcutta, 1816; the Calcutta Hindoo Sanscrit College, 1821 ; Agra College, 1822;
Oriental College and English College at Delhi ; the English College, Calcutta, for
the admission of a certain number of the more advanced pupils from the Hindoo and
Mahometan Colleges, for gratuitous instruction in science and literature by means
of the English language ; Bishops' College, Calcutta, founded in 1820, established
by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, by which it is supported, and
immediately regulated; the Martiniere, founded at Calcutta l)y a legacy of General
Claude Martin, and opened in 1835 for the children of Europeans, with a Principal
and two Professors ; the Benares English College ; ]Moorshe(hibae College ; Medical
College at Calcutta ; University of Madras ; Elphinstone College, Bombay ; Dr.
Bell's School, Madras. There is, besides, a great number of native minor colleges,
and schools, throughout the provinces ; and great efforts have been made, and are
still making, as well by Government as by religious and educational societies, both
in Britain and in India, for the diffusion of education throughout the country ; and,
fortunately for their success, the natives everywhere, and of all classes, exhibit the
greatest eagerness to avail themselves of an English education for their children , and
some of the colleges and schools have already produced accomplished scholars. The
schools established at the capitals of the presidencies by the General Assembly of the
Church of Scotland, have also assisted in paving the way for the rapid progress of
education in India.
Religion About nine-tenths of the people are professors of Brahminism (see
page 124); but with endless shades of difference, and in numerous sects, each party
devoting itself more or less exclusively to the worship of one particular god or set
of gods. There are live sects which exclusively worship a single deity, and one
which recognises all the five deities which are worshipped by the others. These five
sects are the Saivas, who worship Siva ; the Vaishnavas, who worship Vishnu ; the
Saurias, who worship Surya, or the Sun ; the Ganapatyas, who worship Ganesha, the
god of wisdom and policy; and the Sactis, who worship Bhovani or Paivati, the wife
of Siva; the sixth sect is the Bhagavatis. Vishnu and Siva, the second and third
persons of the trimurti, seem to be the most common objects of worship, under
various names and forms, while Brahma, the first of the three, has only one temple
— that at Poshkur, near Ajmere. According to the Hindoo mythology, Vislmu has
often appeared on earth, for the purpose of destroying evil spirits and rulers, spread-
ing religion, protecting its votaries, and for other beneficent purposes ; but the most
celebrated of these avatars, or incarnations, are those in which he appeared in the
forms of Ki-ishna and Rama-chandra, who are consequently regarded as the two prin-
cipal demigods; and of these the former is a favourite object of worship. Rama-
chandra was Vishnu's seventh avatar, when he appeared in the person of a virtuous
and courageous prince, the son of the sovereign of Ayodhya (Oude) to punish Ra-
vana, a monstrous giant, who then reigned over Lanka (Ceylon) ; a mission which
he successfully accomplished. His history forms the subject of the Ramayana, one
of the finest of the Hindoo epic poems. Krishna was the eighth avatar. This per-
sonification of the deity was born in Mathura (Muttra), and was the son of Vasu-
deva and Devaki, sister to Cansa, the king of that country. In this avatar, Vishnu
is said to have appeared in all the splendour of deity, accompanied by the other gods ;
but the Brahmins affirm, that though all the seas were ink, and the whole earth
paper, and all the inhabitants were employed solely in writing day and night for a
hundred thousand years, it would be impossible for them to describe the wonders which
India.] ASIA. 701
Krishna wrought on earth during bis reign of a hundred years. Be this as it may,
Krishna is now most extensively and enthusiastically worshipped by the Hindoos of
Bengal, and the north-western provinces, where he is the great delight of the fe-
males. The Vaisnavas claim for their deity the title of Iswara or the Supreme Lord ;
but his claim to this honour is contested by the Saivas, who bestow on Siva the title
of Buhbandiswara or Lord of the Universe; and frequent, and sometimes sanguinary
conflicts take place between the rival sects in support of the pre-eminence of their
respective gods. Siva is principally worshipped under the form of the lingam, which
is nothing more than a smooth black stone, nearly in the form of a sugar-loaf, with a
projection at the base resembling the mouth of a spoon. It is indeed an obscene
representation, in one image, of the active and passive generative powers. The
number of the worshippers of this symbol is beyond comparison greater than that of
the other deities or their emblems. The bull Nandi, on which Siva rides, is also held
in great reverence, ajid has many living representatives, called brahminy bulls, which
infest the cities, and are fed by the people. Siva has besides many other names,
the principal of which is that of Maha-deo, the Great God. Kali (Kawlee), the
wife of Siva, known also by the names of Bhavani, Doorga, Ooma, Syilla, &c., is
likewise held in very great veneration ; but she is represented as ferocious and
blood-thirsty, the terror alike of gods and men. She is, however, at the same
time, the patron deity of poetry, of arms, and of arts ; and is, in short, mytho-
logically considered, merely the energy of Siva in his destructive character of Kal
or Time. Kali is the name-mother of the city of Calcutta (Kalighant), which has
been built beside a (/haul, or flight of steps, leading from her temple to the sa-
cred Ganges. But whatever be the object of worship, the Hindoos are all equally
idolaters ; their rites, ceremonies, and superstitions, are of the most grotesque
irrational, and revolting kind ; and the effects of the whole system upon their
moral character, are thus sununed up by Bishop Heber, from the results of his
personal observation: — " Of all idolatries which I have ever read or heard of,
the religion of the Hindoos really appears to me the worst," in respect of " the
degrading notions which it gives of the deity, the endless round of its burdensome
ceremonies, which occupy the time, and distract the thoughts, without either in-
structing or interesting its votaries ; in the filthy acts of uncleanness and cruelty,
not only permitted, but enjoined, and inseparably interwoven with those ceremonies;
and in the total absence of any system of morals, or any single lesson which the
people ever hear, to live virtuously, ami to do good to each other. In general, all
the sins which a Sudra is taught to fear, are, killing a cow, offending a Brahmin, or
neglecting one of the many frivolous rites by which their deities are supposed to be
conciliated. Accordingly, though the general sobriety of the Hindoos affords a very
great facility to the nuiintenance of public order and decorum, I really never have
met with a race of men whose standard of morality is so low, who feel so little shame
in being detected in a falsehood, or so little interest in the sufferings of a neighbour
not of their own caste or family ; whose ordinary and familiar conversation is so licen-
tious ; or, in the wilder and more lawless districts, who shed blood with so little re-
pugnance." With the Hindoos, every thing is mixed up with their religion ; their
sciences, their arts, are all revealed from Heaven. Their religion mixes itself with
their legislation, determines their habits, fixes their customs, establishes their insti-
tutions, forms their national character ; it guides their science, and controls every
branch of intellectual pursuit. Undo, therefore, their religion, and you undo the
whole system of Hinduism ; overthrow their science, and their religion perishes
along with it. In an essay read at the last examination of the General Assem-
bly's school (22d January 1841), at Calcutta, by Mahendra, a Hindoo convert to
Christianity, a rapid view is taken of the leading branches of Hindoo literature,
science, philosophy, and theology, and it is shown in succession how sound knowledge
nuist inevitably demolish the whole. Considering that there were huiulreds of in-
telligent Hindoos present, and that they could patiently listen to such a demonstra-
tion from one of their own countrymen, we may well coiu-iude, says Dr. UulF, that
the spell and enchantment of Hinduism are fairly broken in the metropolis of Bri-
tish India.
The doctrines and precepts of the present religion of the Hindoos, are contained
in Scriptures called the Puranas, of which there are eighteen, all alleged by their
followers to be the works of Vyasa, the compiler of the Vedas ; but they were in
reality, according to Professor Wilson of Cambridge, c{)mpose<i by difrerent authors,
between the eighth and the sixteenth centuries of our era, tliough many jjarts of tiiem
are formed of materials of much more ancient date. The I'uraiuis contain theogonies.
702 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [India.
cosmogonies, philosopliical speculations, instructions for religious ceremonies, gene-
alogies, fragments of history, and innumerable legends relating to the actions of gods,
heroes, and sages. Most of them are written for the purpose of supporting the doc-
trines of particular sects, and all are corrupted by sectarian fables ; so that they do
not form a consistent whole, and were never intended to be combined into one
general system of belief. They are all, notwithstanding, received as incontrovertible
authority ; and as they are the sources from which the present Hindoo religion is
drawn, it must necessarily be full of contradictions and anomalies. Colonel Kennedy,
however, strenuously controverts this opinion of the learned professor, and maintains
their genuine antiquity and unsectarian character. (As. Journal, 1840-41.) The
doctrines of the more ancient religion are contained in the Vedas, which are incon-
testibly of great antiquity. Their primary doctrine is the Unity of God. " There
is in truth," say repeated texts, " but one Deity, the Supreme Spirit, the Lord of
the Universe, whose work is the Universe." Among the creatures formed by the
Supreme Being are some superior to man, who should be adored, and from whom
protection and favours may be obtained through prayer. The most frequently men-
tioned of these are the gods of the elements, the stars, and the planets ; but other
personified powers and virtues likewise appear. The three principal manifestations
of the Divinity, Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, with other personified attributes and
energies, and most of the other gods of Hindoo mythology, are indeed mentioned,
or at least indicated in the Vedas ; but the worship of deified heroes forms no part of
the system. Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, are rarely named ; they enjoy no pre-emi-
nence, and are never mentioned as objects of special veneration ; and Mr. Colbrooke
could discover no passage in which their incarnations were suggested. There seem
to have been no images and no visible types of the objects of worship. (Elphinstone's
History of India, I.)
Buddhism (see p. 125) appears to have been at one time extensively prevalent in
India ; and Buddha is even claimed by the Brahmins as one of the avatars of Vishnu ;
but as Buddhism strikes at the root of the supremacy and pretensions of the Brah-
mins, it seems to have excited their violent animosity, and to have yielded at last to
their unrelenting persecution. Buddhism is pre-eminently the religion of reason,
while Brahminism depends entirely on tradition and authority. The Mughs of Ar-
racan and the people of Bootan are the only Buddhists now on the continent of
India ; but Buddhism is still the national religion of Ceylon. The late Mr. Prinsep
ascertained, in the course of his learned researches, that, at the period of Alexander's
conquest (B. c. 332-320), India was under the government of Buddhist sovereigns,
and that the earliest monarchs of the country are not associated with a Brahminical
creed or dynasty ; and Colonel Sykes (in a paper read before the Royal Asiatic So-
ciety, 30th June 1840), states, that he had arrived at the conclusion that Brahminism,
such as it has been known in Europe, is of comparatively modern date ; that it was
introduced into India by a tribe foreign to the country, at least to India south of
the Punjab ; and that it did not reach the plenitude of its power till after the de-
cline of Buddhism ; that the Buddhism of Sakyamuni prevailed universally over India
and Ceylon from the 6th century b. c. till the 7th century after Christ, and was
not entirely overthrown in India till the I2th or 14th century; that the religion of
the preceding Buddhas prevailed from a very remote period ; that the followers of
the mystic cross, " the doctors of reason," whose characteristic emblem was the
Swastika, were Buddhists ; that India was at that time divided into small mo-
narchies, though occasionally consolidated under one prince ; that there is no
evidence of the dominion of princes of the Brahminical faith during the prevalence
of Buddhism ; that Brahminism, as it is taught by the Puranas, did not spring up
till the decline of Buddhism ; that the tribe of Brahmins were originally a secular,
and not a religious community, and did not acquire political influence until about the
period of the rise of the Rajpoot states, and the invasion of the Mahometans; and,
that the division of castes was secular, and that similar divisions existed among the
Buddhists. He then alludes likewise to the fact, that the oldest inscriptions found
in India all relate to Buddhism or the fire worship, and are in a form of the Pali,
and not in the Sanscrit language.
The Jains are a numerous sect in Central and Western India, and are also found
in Mysore. They profess to believe in one God, possessing the attributes of wisdom,
power, eternity, and intuition ; but affirm that the government of the world is inde-
pendent of him, that m.atter is eternal, and that the harmony of the visible world is
dependent only on natural and organic laws, which must be everlasting. They pay
little respect to the Hindoo gods, and hate the Brahmins ; but have, nevertheless
India.] ASIA. 703
many customs in common with them. They burn their dead, pay great reverence
to their gurus or spiritual teachers, and believe that a life of solitary privation will
entitle a devotee to be absorbed into the Supreme Being. They are divided into
two classes, the Shrawuks and the Lunkas ; the former of whom are worshippers of
the images of twenty-four deified saints called Trithacars ; while the latter abhor
idols, and are more strict than the Shrawuks in observing the laws against the de-
struction of animal life. The Jains have numerous temples in Kattiwar, Gujrat, and
Rajpootana; the most splendid of which are on the sacred mounts, Aboo, Girnar,
and Satrunga. One of their principal places of worship is also at Sravana-belgula,
36 miles N. by W. of Seringapatam. The Jaina religion is closely allied to Buddhism,
and every circumstance connected with it demonstrates its early and extensive pre-
valence in Western and Central India. The chief merchants and men of property in
those regions are still generally Jains. It appears also that a hard struggle had at an
early period taken place between Brahminism and Jainism, in which the latter was
finally crushed though not extirpated.
In Malabar and the Carnatic there are about 220,000 Si/rian Christians, who are
divided into three sects or denominations : — 1. Those of the pure Syrian church, in
Quilon and its neighbourhood ; 2. The Syro-Roman Churches, who have adopted the
Roman ritual, but still perform their worship in the Syrian language ; and, 3. Those
who have fully conformed to the church of Rome, and use the Latin liturgy. The
Syrian churches remain quite distinct from the Latin ; they are superintended by
bishops, and a regular establishment of clergy, but they are very poor.
The Portuguese are all Roman Catholics, and the missionaries of that faith have
succeeded in spreading it into several inland districts, among a few native converts.
The Catholic hierarchy, who now enjoy the protection of the British Government, are
four apostolic vicars stationed at Pondicherry, Verapoly, Bombay, and Agra ; with
a prefect of the Roman mission in Nepaul. There are also two archbishops and two
bishops appointed by the Crown of Portugal, namely, the archbishop of Goa, who is
metropolitan and primate of the East, and the archbishop of Cranganore. The bi-
shops are those of Cochin and of St. Thomas at Madras. The latter sends a legate
to Calcutta, who has under his superintendence fourteen priests and ten churches.
Although, however, the forms and ceremonies of the Romish church approximate
very closely to those of the Hindoo worshi|), and though the most profound religious
ignorance is alike compatible with both, there have been few converts to Romanism.
The Europeans are, of course, all professors of Christianity, and most of the Bri-
tish are Protestants of the English or Scottish Church. Since 1813 there has been
a Lord Bishop of Calcutta appointed by the down ; and since the last arrangement
with the East India Company in 1833, two other bishops have been appointed, one
at Madras, and the other at Bombay. Under their charge are three archdeacons, one
at each presidency, with a luimerous body of chaplains at the civil and military sta-
tions throughout the country, all of whom are paid by Government. There are also
two chaplains of the Church of Scotland at each of the presidencies, likewise ap-
pointed by Government, and paid out of the public revenues.
During the last forty years strenuous efforts have been made to convert the Hin-
doos to Christianity, but the labours of the missionaries for a long time gave little pro-
mise of success. The Baptist missionaries, who had established themselves at Scram-
pore, zealously set to work to translate the Bible into all the languages of India, in the
hope that by this silent method the gospel might find its way into every corner of the
land. Their labours, however, have not hitherto accomplished much; nor have the
missionaries of the Roman Catholic Church been more successful. Indeed the failure
of the latter has been so signal, as to draw from one of their number, the Abbe Du-
bois, an expression of the utter hopelessness of success, and his belief that " these
unhappy people (the Hindoos) are lying under an everlasting anathema." " The
Hindoos," says Professor Wilson, " are an intelligent and inquisitive people, and not
averse to controversy ; but they will not conleiul in matters of speculation against
authority. Their defence is reserve ; and their obstinate adherence to their own
opinions is proportioned to what they think an unfair method of refuting them.'
Taught by experience, we may now venture to assert that those Christian serfs
only who arc ready to give a reason for their faith, as well as for the authority which
they claim for the Scriptures ; and who combine the culture of the intellectual and
moral faculties of the people with the preaching of the gospel, can hope for ultimate
and complete success.
Besides the religious denominations already ennmerated, there are professors of
Islam or Mahometans, to the amount of about 15,000,000, who arc spread over tho
<04 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [India.
northern and central provinces ; Armenian Christians in tho jjreat towns ; and some
Jews. The hill tribes, as the Bheels, Ramoossies, and Koolics, hold communion in
religious matters with the Brahmins, only so far as concerns the civil institutions of
marriage, naming of children, and such like. Several of the gods worshipped by the
common people are unknown to the Hindoo mythology ; and others are but inciden-
tally connected with it. The Brahminical religion is exceedingly accommodating to
other idolatrous systems ; and, consequently, wherever the Brahmins find among
other nations a god whom they deem worthy of reverence, they make him an ava-
tar, or incarnation of one of their own deities who most resembles him in attributes.
We must not, therefore, take it for granted, that every article of belief which, in
more modern times, has attached itself to Hinduism, belongs to the ancient Braluni-
nical creed. One of the most decided anti-brahminieal forms of religion is that termed
the worship of Vetal, in the more secluded parts of the Deccan, Concan, Canara,
Gujrat, and Cutch ; and which Dr. Wilson of Bombay considers to be not only
repugnant to Brahminism, but of an earlier date in those parts of India. Vetal, how-
ever, is not the proper name of any individual god, but is merely a general term for a
spirit or demon. Vetal, in the Deccan, has no image in the shape of any animal ;
he has no temple, but is worshipped in the open air, generally under the shade of a
wide-spreading tree ; the place is usually inclosed with a circle of stones ; and
the principal figure is a rough unhewn stone, of a pyramidal or triangular shape,
placed on its base, and having one of its sides fronting the east. (Jour. R. As. Soc.
V. 192, &c.) — There is also in the Deccan, a religious sect called Bauddha Vaish-
navas or Vithal Bhaktas ; they are found chiefly in the Mahratta country, but are also
scattered over Gujrat, Central India, and tlie Carnatic, wherever Mahrattas have
settled. Although the basis of their system is Brahminical, they may be considered
as a kind of religious eclectics and reformers, borrowing doctrines from all sources,
and appealing for support to reason rather than tradition. In their notions of deity,
matter, and spirit, they appear to follow the Vedanta philosophy. In theory they
admit of no distinction of castes, but in practice conform to the ordinary customs of
the country.
The festivals celebrated by the Hindoos in honour of their gods are very numerous.
Two of these, the one Mahometan and the other Hindoo, which are considered the
principal solemnities, are common to the various sects, and take place ainuially. The
European officers are expected by the natives to honour them with their presence ;
and all contribute towards the expense. The Mahometan festival is called the Mo-
hurnim; which is strictly a fast of the most mournful kind ; but is attended with such
pomp, magnificence, and show, that it ratlier resembles a rejoicing. This is a dramatic
representation of the deaths of Hossein and Hussein (see p. 124), and the marriage
of the daughter of Hossein with her cousin. The latter event took place on tlie day
of the battle of Kerbela; and on the seventh night of the Mohurrum the marj-iage is
represented with great magnificence. The whole ceremony lasts ten days, and on
that particularly devoted to the commemoration of the deaths of Hossein and Hussein,
the Moslems wear mourning, clothing themselves in green garments. Tlie Hindoo
feast, which is called the Ddr(/a-piiji, or Dusserah, or Dusrah, also lasts ten days, and
takes place in September or October. It is celebrated in honour of the great goddess
Dilrga or Kali; and all mercantile, judicial, and government business of every de-
scription is suspended for eight days. To a person unacquainted with the religion
it appears only a scene of confusion. Men present themselves dressed up in the
form of animals, and perform numerous antics ; dancing-girls and music also form a
chief part of the amusements. The entertainments, however, are various: consisting
of recitations, sham-fights, and expert swordsmanship, in which the wonderful activity
of the men, tlieir quickness of eye, and rapid movement of limbs, astonish Europeans,
who are always the welcome and honoured guests of the wealthy natives on this occa-
sion. A brilliant display of fireworks closes the evening's entertainment ; after which
refreshments of coffee, sweetmeats, and fruit are presented to the \isitors, before they
retire. Sometimes the different castes countenance the festivals of each other, but more
generally they are jealous of rivalry in splendour. The Brahmins are the principal
performers in the dusserah festival; they read portions of their sacred books, recite
prayers and incantations, and perform a multitude of ceremonies. There is also a great
festival, called the Hooly, celebrated in honour of Krishna, in the month Phulgoon
(February, March), at the beginning of spring; the amusements of which consist in dan-
cing, singing, and ludicrous exhibitions. It is observed by all classes throughout India,
and may be termed the Saturnalia of the Hindoos; when all give way to licentious
rioting and confusion.
India. J ASIA. 705
India is infested by religious devotees, who prey on the community, and form a nu-
merous class of sturdy beggars. They consist of both Hindoos and Mahometans ; but
the former are found in greater variety and excess. The Sannyasis are Brahmins who
break off all ties, whether of affection or interest, which could bind them to society,
make profession of mendicity, and subsist solely upon alms ; and their initiation is ac-
companied by numerous ceremonies. They perform also numerous acts of penance and
mortification; but, in general, these are mere amusements when compared with those
which the logis or yo(/ies(another class of devotees) sometimes inflict upon themselves.
The name 7oyi properly signifies the followers of the Yoga or Pajantalah, a school of
philosophers, who maintain the possibility of acquiring entire command over elementary
matter by means of certain ascetic privations. But few, if any, of the Yogies are
entitled to the dignified appellation of philosophers ; most of them arc only deluded
fanatics ; some keeping their hands closed till they are pierced through by the growth
of the nails ; others making vows to remain standing in a certain position for years,
with their hands over their heads, till the arms become fixed and powerless. Some
crawl like reptiles on the ground, or roll along in a ball like a hedgehog; others
swing before a slow fire, or hang suspended for a time with their head downwards
over the fiercest liames. In short, there is no limit to the varieties of torture which
they practise. Another class are called Gosains, who all wear the distinguishing
mark of Siva, a crescent on the forehead. Many of them, however, who have made
a vow of celibacy, still follow secular professions, and distinguish themselves both in
trade and in arms. The Ayhori are a fraternity who infest almost every town in the
upper provinces, and abound at all the holy jjlaces of the Jains. Their religious
principles teach them to act in almost every respect contrary to the rules of caste,
which they despise ; and, going to the opposite extreme, they eat everything without
scruple, even putrifying human carcasses, which those who respect caste will not
even approach. The Fakirs, Fakeers, or Fukeers, are a Mahometan fraternity, who
profess to devote themselves entirely to religious duties, and to visit the holy places.
These classes together are believed to amount to several millions; wherever there is
a fair, a festival, or a sacrifice, they collect, attracted by the prospect of gain, w'hich
they have the faculty of scenting from afar. They perambulate the streets in a
state of almost perfect nudity, generally besmeared with ashes, and bedaubed with
paint. Their principal mode of getting a livelihood, is either by compelling the people
to contribute to their wants, by making a clamorous demand at their doors, or by
selling roots, drugs, and charms. Many of them, it is said, do not scruple to en-
gage in crime. Among the priests of India, there is one particular class, who, in
respect of their authority aiul rank, bear a strong resemblance to the clergy and
episcopal hierarchy of the Cluistian church; these are the Gdruaov Gooroos, a sort
of spiritual teachers. Each caste and sect has its particular guru; but tiiey are
not all invested with the same degree of authority ; there are among them grada-
tions of rank, and subordination is stiictly preserved. The inferior clergy or giirus
are very numerous, and derive tlieir authority from the superior priests, who depose
them at pleasure, and appoint others in their room. The high priests or superior
giiriis are comparatively tew. At stated periods these high fimctionaries make the
<'irciiit of their dioceses, inquire into tiie conduct of the inferior giirus, and jjcrform
ccrt.iin important rites at the temples. Such of them as make profession of superior
sanctity greatly extend their pilgrimages, for the purpose of performing the tipascijda
and other solenni ceremonies, at their colleges and in their sacred groves. '1 he
gurus are mostly either Brahmins or Sudras.
GovKRNMENT In tiie native states, the Government is a pure despotism in its
most naked and most oppressive form ; the people and the land are alike the juo-
perty of the rajah, the nabol), the sultan, or the padisliah. Tiie greater part of his
revemies consists of the laiul rents, and these, with rare exce[)tions, he wastes in riot
aiui debauchery. The instances of a good and enlightened prince, using his power and
privileges for the welfare of his subjects, are rare iiuleed ; and Indiaevery where retains
the traces of the tyratmy, the misrule, the anarchy, the quarrels, and the bloodshed
which have been the pastime of her peoi)le and their rulers, from the commencement of
her niitional existence. To this state of things t!ie British ascendancy has so far put
an end, that none of the native |)rinccs can, with tlie hope of impunity, follow the ex-
ample of their predecessors, in measures of open violence. But their states are still
.eit to the misrule of men destitute of the necessary qualifications of governors;
and it will require a long continuance of j)eaceful habits, a complete regeneration,
indci'd, of Iiulian society, to root out the vices so intimately interwoven with the na-
tional character, as well of the rulers as of the ruled.
Yy
706 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [India.
The education of the native princes not only unfits them for government, hut is
often conducted on this very principle by those who have the direction of it. From
infancy the future rulers are taught to consider themselves the favourites of Heaven,
to whose use and convenience all other created beings are subservient. Possessing
no feeling beyond an exaggerated idea of their own greatness and power ; inca-
pacitated by early excesses, habitual indolence, and gross ignorance, from forming
an opinion on any serious subject, they sink into an early grave ; and they advance
in succession through the same process, each ending his worthless life in the same
manner. The affairs of the kingdom or state are left to the management of adventu-
rers, whose sole aim is to secure a large portion of plunder to themselves, before they
are succeeded by others, destined to act in the same manner and on the same prin-
ciple. In the native governments, however, there is hardly any greater source of evil
than the female supremacy which has existed in the country — a system of female go-
vernment uncongenial with Asiatic institutions, but which the British rulers have un-
fortunately managed everywhere to foster, instead of putting it down. A prince dies ;
his widow is allowed to adopt an heir ; she adopts the youngest she can find, that her
own reign may be as long as possible ; and when the heir grows up she tries to dispose
of him, that she may adopt another infant. In order to acquire the sceptre, these
ladies have been suspected of destroying their husbands, and, in order to retain it, of
disposing of their adopted children, or even of their sons. Secluded, as all women of
rank are in India, they have no opportunity of learning the character or capacity of
the men they entrust with the conduct of affairs ; but they are generally found to
consider such points as of little importance, and to select either their own paramours,
or those of some favourite attendant, commonly making them paramours after they
are chosen, if not before. Under such a system the people are governed by a set of
miscreants whom they detest and despise, and who, knowing that they are detested
and despised, set no bounds to their rapacity.
The superintendence, direction, and control of the whole civil and military go-
vernment of the British territories and revenues in India, is vested in a Governor-
General and Councillors, styled, "the Governor- General of India in Council." The
Council is composed of four ordinary members, three of whom are chosen from the
East India Company's servants; and, when there is a separate Commander-in-Chief,
that officer is an extraordinary member, taking rank and precedence next after the
Governor- General. The Governor- General in Council are empowered to legislate in
every matter touching the government of India, and may assemble and meet in
any place ; but, when their meeting is held within the territory of Bombay or
Madras, the Governor of that presidency is for the time an extraordinary member.
The Executive Government of Bengal was intended to be vested in the Governor-
General, and those three of his councillors who are Company's servants ; but, by
virtue of a new interpretation of the act of Parliament, the Government of Bengal
has been transferred from the Governor- General in Council to the Governor-General
himself, in his new capacity of Governor of Bengal. The Government of Agra is
administered by a Lieutenant-Governor, or by the Governor-General himself, when
he resides within its limits. In each of the other presidencies the Executive Govern-
ment is likewise vested in a Governor and two Councillors ; but these have no power
to make laws or to grant money, and are subject in <ill respects to the orders of the
Governor-General in Council, who in their turn are subject to the orders of the
Court of Directors of the East India Company, acting under the superintendence of
the Board of Control for the affairs of India, and ultimately responsible to the British
Parliament. Misgovernment is thus guarded against with as much care and effect as
the great distance between Britain and India will admit.
The capitals of the three presidencies are subject to the laws of England, and
ustice is administered within their limits by Supreme Courts, the judges of which
are appointed by the Crown. But, within the rest of the territory, justice is admi-
nistered according to Hindoo or Mahometan law, by courts of various degrees of
authority, under European and native judges, from whose decisions appeals lie to the
Sudder-Deivanny and Nizamutadaivlet, or supreme courts of civil and criminal law,
attached to each presidency, and ultimately to the Queen in Council. A new digest
or code of laws for these courts has recently been prepared and promulgated by Go-
vernment.
For administrative purposes the whole of the settled territory is divided into shires
or provinces, called zillahs, circars, or collectorates, each of which is placed under
the charge of a government officer, and has its peculiar courts ; but the newly ac-
quired territories are generally entrusted for a time to commissioners, who are vested
India.] ASIA. 707
with the whole powers of government, civil, military, and flaancial, suhject of course
to the orders of the Government of the presidency to wh eh they belong. Under
the former Mogul governments, a certain number of villages formed a pergunnah ;
a certain number of perguimahs, comprehending a tract of country equal to a mo-
derately-sized English county, formed a chuckla ; of these a certain number formed a
circar ; and several circars formed a soubah or province, to each of which was assign-
ed a soubahdar or governor, who exercised the whole functions of government, civil,
military, and financial. Through the various changes of rulers which India has un-
dergone, the Hindoos, in all the settled parts of the country, have uniformly been
divided into small communities, or townships, where not only the public services, but
also the handicrafts, with the exception of mere agricultural labour, have been per-
formed by persons who hold them by hereditary succession, and who are paid by cer-
tain portions of land, or by fixed presents. The principal of these is the potail or
headman, under whom are the officers and servants of police ; an officer, whose business
it is to be acquainted with all the local rights and boundaries, and to settle all disputes
respecting land ; the superintendent of watercourses ; the brahmin ; the astrologer ; the
schoolmaster ; the village register ; the smith ; the carpenter ; the poet ; the barber ;
the musician ; and the dancing girl ; and in levying revenues or demanding services of
any kind, it has always been found the most expedient method to apply to the heads
of the village, and delegate to them the task of collecting and apportioning it. In
some provinces, however, the collection of the revenues had been entrusted to cer-
tain officers, called zemindars, &c., who, acquiring by degrees an hereditary tenure of
office, and being merely obliged to pay a certain fixed rent, came in time to be viewed
as proprietors, burdened only with a land-tax, and as such they were dealt with by
Lord Cornwallis in his settlement of the land-revenues of Bengal. Being entrusted
at the same time, to a great extent, with the administration of justice and police,
they became in a certain degree the feudal lords of the district. Under them were
the immediate cultivators of the soil, the ryots, who, either by original right, or long
established usage, retained their land, so long as the rent was paid, in undisturbed
possession from father to son.
Finances. — The revenues of all Asiatic states are drawn principally from the
land, the whole of which is regarded as the property of the sovereign. 'J'o this ge-
neral rule the British Indian Government forms no exception ; for the greater propor-
tion of their territorial revenue consists of the land rents, collected in some provinces
through the instrumentality of zemindars, whom, as we have stated, the Government
have constituted hereditary proprietors of the land, though they were formerly only
collectors ; and in others, derived directly from the ryots or cultivators, by the officers
of Government, according to permanent or temporary arrangements, as the case may
be. The rest of the reveiuie consists of the profits of the monopoly of salt, opium,
and tobacco ; and of taxes on imported merchandise, stamps, licences, postages, and
various other imposts. The average annual revenue for the ten years 1829-39,
amounted to £15,930,000 ; and the average annual expenditure for the same period,
including interest on debt, but exclusive of the charge of collection, amounted to
X14,G32,000. Of the finances of the native princes no account can be given.
Akmy and Navy Each presidency has its separate army, commander-in-chief,
stair, &c. ; but the Commander-in-chief of the supreme Government possesses a ge-
neral authority over all the presidencies. The total armed force in Ikitisii India is
ab(»iit 194,000 men, which may be said to consist of three brandies, namely, Queen's
cavalry and infantry; the East Irulia Company's European engineers, artillery, and
infantry; and tlie Com[)an3's native artillery, cavalry, aiul infantry. The last branch
has two sets of commissioned officers, the one European and the other native, the
latter consisting of souhalidars, jemadars, aiul liavildars, or captains, lieutenants, and
ensigns, who, though liolding nominally the same rank as the corresponding Euro-
penn officers, are nevertheless all subordinate to the lowest Pjuropean commissioned
ollicer. The total number of European troo()s in India, besides commissioned offi-
cers, is usually about 20,000, of whom two-thirds are Queen's regiments, the re-
mainder consisting of persons enlisted in Britain directly for tlie East India Company's
service. The native troops are composed of Hindoos and Moslems, kv. who are
mixed in every regiment ; they are usually called Scapoys, Sepoys, or Sijiahees, and
in discipline, cleanliness, sobriety, bravery, and fidelity, are not sur])asseii by any
body of men. The native artillery make it a jioint of honour never to desert their
guns, and wherever a British officer has been found to lead, it has rarely or never
happened that the seapoys refused to follow. The native cavalry are excellent an<J
708 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [India.
fearless riders, superior in that respect even to Europeans, and good swordsmen ; they
are exceedingly fond of their horses, and treat them with the greatest kindness. Of
the whole army it may be said that no men are more alive to emulation ; a medal is
as highly prized by a seapoy as by a British soldier ; and many instances of their
heroism have been related which would do honour to Greek or Roman story. The
Bengal army is considered to possess the men of the highest caste, most of them being
Brahmins and Rajpoots ; the Bombay seapoy is more a man of all work ; and the Ma-
drasites are perhaps the hardiest race ; but all are extremely tenacious of their rights,
and adhere punctiliously to the customs which their religion ordains (Martin's Sla-
tistics, Sfc. p. 325.) The prejudices, indeed, of the Bengal troops on many points are
often dilHcult to be overcome, partly in consequence of the great number of Brahmins
among them, and partly, because they consider themselves collectively as of a higher
caste than the Madras seapoys, whose prejudices are comparatively trivial. The ap-
pearance of the Bengal sepoy is in general better than that of the Madras soldier ;
the Bengalee has generally greater height, though he does not usually possess muscle
in proportion. The Madras seapoy is of shorter stature, but has more strength and
power of enduring fatigue and privation. The troops of Bengal and Bombay lately
gave a noble proof of devotion to their duties, by passing the forbidden limits of the
Indus, in their way to Affghanistan, not only without a murmur, but with high
spirit. In 1837, two orders of distinction were instituted, the first, styled " The
Order of British India," is to be given, to soubahdars and jemadars, for long and
honourable service ; and to consist of two classes. The first class is to consist of
100 soubahdars, with an allowance of two rupees a-day each, in addition to their
regimental allowances, or retiring pensions ; and the second class, of 100 officers,
with an allowance of one rupee a-day each, in addition to their pay and pensions.
Members of the first class receive the title of Surdar-bahadur (invincible com-
mander); those of the second, Bahadur (invincible.) The other order, styled " The
Order of Merit," is to furnish rewards for personal bravery, and to consist of three
classes, with an appropriate badge, and additional pay and pensions, without distinc-
tion of rank.
Besides the regular British army, several of the native princes are obliged by treaty
to maintain subsidiary troops, who in fact form a guard over the conduct of those who
pay them ; and, in the event of war, they are required to furnish contingents for ser-
vice in the field. Formerly, the Indian troops v.ere little better than an undisciplined
rabble, called out for the special purposes of the war in which their ruler happened
to be engaged ; or consisted of mercenary soldiers, who sold their services to the high-
est bidder, and who changed from one employer to another, just as it suited their
interest or caprice. Latterly, several of the princes have attempted to form and main-
tain regular armies, disciplined in the European manner ; but, from imperfect training,
the want of proper officers, or general mismanagement, these armies, when brought
into collision with the British troops, have proved hardly more efficient than their
undisciplined predecessors. But the fighting men form the smallest part of an Indian
army ; the attendants, sei'vants, and camp followers are innumerable. Each of the Bri-
tish seapoys has his personal servants at all times ; but, when the army takes the field,
the number of attendants is prodigiously increased. When General Harris advanced
against Seringapatam, in 1799, his army consisted of 35,000 soldiers and 120,000 at-
tendants ; and when the Marquis of Hastings, in 1817, commenced the Mahratta war,
his fighting force amounted to 110,000 men, his camp followers, to half a million.
The navy of the British Indian empire was at one time very considerable, but is
now much diminished ; it consists only of a few vessels of war of the smaller
classes, several armed steamers, and some surveying vessels. The navy is attached
to the Bombay presidency ; and measures are now in progress to convert it into
an armed steam flotilla. At Calcutta, there is a marine establishment, which, though
not of a warlike character, is nevertheless of the utmost importance. It is the pilot
service, which consists of 12 strojig, well fitted, and quick-sailing vessels, of 200
tons burden, several of which are always stationed off the mouths of the Ganges and
the Hoogly, on the look-out for vessels coming up the bay, into each of which they
place a European pilot, and a leadsman to steer the course to Calcutta. There are 120
Europeans employed in this service ; the first rank being that of branch pilots, who are
12 in number, and receive each £70 a-month. The yearly cost of the pilot service, in-
cluding pilots, men, vessels, lighthouses, buoys, and other necessary adjuncts, ex-
ceeds £150,000 a-year.
Productive Industry Agriculture throughout India is in the lowest condition ;
the implements used are of the rudest kind, and the cultivator follows the routine of
India.] ASIA. 709
his forefathers, without ever dreaming of improvement. For the articles of produce,
see Vegetable Proauctions and Topography.
The great fertility of the soil generally insures a sufficient supply of food ; but go
dependent is vegetation, in this hot climate, upon the supply of moisture, that an
luiusual continuance of dry weather sometimes occasions dreadful famines. Tanks
or artificial ponds, and wells, are spread in countless numbers over every tract of
cultivated country ; and the former, being often of great extent, and maintained by
strong dams, present an interesting proof of the power of human skill and industry
in averting an evil so incident to the climate, and supplying to the thirsty soil that
moisture of which it is deprived by the long droughts of a tropical region. Without
these innumerable wells and reservoirs, which have been created by the labour of suc-
cessive generations, great part of India would speedily become an uncultivated desert.
European skill and capital are now, to a large extent, applied to the production of in-
digo and opium, principally in Bahar and Malwah ; and tea is cultivated in Upper
Assam, where it is already grown of good quality, and may be raised almost to any
extent which the market may require. The cultivation of the indigo plant occupies
above a million of acres, yielding an annual produce of the value of two or three mil-
lions sterling. Silk is the next important article : the average quantity of raw silk
exported during each of the twelve years ending 1831, amounted to 1,334,883 lbs. ;
and in 1837, the value of silk exported exceeded £120,000. There are in India
three species of mulberry-tree, and two kinds of silk worm ; the silk districts, which
are in Bengal, are all situated between the parallels of 22^ and 26" N. and long. S&^
and 90^ E. Opium is produced in Malwah and Bahar ; and in 1836 was exported,
for the purpose of being smuggled into China, to the enormous extent of 26,018 chests,
valued at 17,106,903 dollars. The working of mines is scarcely worth mentioning;
diamonds are procured near Punnah, in Bundelcund ; coal is wrought in the district
of Burdwan, in Bengal, aiul in other places; and iron in the Carnatic, where excellent
steel is manufactured at Porto-Novo. For many ages India was famous for the weav-
ing of silk, cotton, and goats- wool, particularly for muslins and calicoes ; but since the
opening of the trade in 1813, the introduction of British manufactured goods has al-
most entirely ruined the Hindoo manufacturers, without supplying a substitute for
their employment. In woollen textures, iron work, and earthenware, there are few
Tiations more rude or less successful. Notwithstanding the vast demand in Europe
for the staple productions of India, and the unlimited capability of the country to fur-
nish them, the native i)roducts have hitherto been exported only to a comparatively
small extent. The conunerce, however, both in exports and imports, has increased
immensely since the trade was opened in 1813. According to the last puldished par-
liamentary returns, the value of the imports into the presidency of Bengal in the year
1836-7 amounted to 40,429,076 Company's rupees; into Madras, 15,125,857; into
Bombay, 47,245,571 ; total, 102,800,504 rupees, or £11,565,056 sterling. The value
of the exports for the same year amounted, in Bengal, to 67,847,147; Madras,
27,854,757; Bombay, 59,905,978; total, 155,607,882 rupees, or £17,954,161 sterling.
Tlie maritime trade centres in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras ; but the people of Man-
divee, in Cutcli, likewise carry on a great trade; and from Curachee, in Sinde, cara-
vans of camels convey large quantities of goods towards Cabul, Candahar, and other
places to the north-west of India; bringing back in return the produce of these coun-
tries for exportation. Upwards of 1000 Arabian ships also arrive amnially in India
between the monsoons; by which an extensive conunerce is maintained in a ((uiet im-
perceptible maimer, through the means of obscure native agents, who freight the Arab
boats; and thus many thousand tons of P>rilish manufactured goods are bought from
our merchants, and find their way into the heart of the most remote and most barba-
rous countries. But besides the counnerce with Europe, a considerable trade is carried
on with the Persian Gulf and Arabia ; and witli China aiul the Asiatic Islands the tra(h;
is also great. A large quantity of wool is now exported from Bombay, the produce of
the sheep pastured along the Indus and other districts ])eyond tlie British frontier.
The first exports reported, were in 1833, wiien tiie amount was only 69,994 lbs. ; in
1837 it had iru;reased to 2,444,091 lbs. The general peace, also, atid the incicascd
t^afety of coiiununication wiiicb now exists througiiout ail India in consequence of the
British ascendancy, are fast iiroducing tlieir natural results, in a ra[)idly increasing in-
ternal commerce. Inland customs are also now al)olishcd, and traders may carry tlieir
goods from one extremity of the coimtry to the otlier, without being pilhiged at every
btep, as formerly, by custom-house officers. For tiie encouragement of tliis trade, two
banks have been established in Calcutta; one at Agra, which divided, in 1839, ninu
710 DESCRIPTWE GEOGRAPHY. [Indu.
per cent, of profits ; and one at Bombay. The available capital of these banks is
less than £2,000,000 sterling ; they have little or no intercourse with England ; and
their business is chiefly confined to the limited population of the presidencies. The
great mass of the people are dependent on the shroffs or money-lenders for pecuniary
assistance, at the rate of two per cent, a-month, or on the Goverinnent for small
advances to carry on their agricultural operations from seed time till harvest. The
monetary circulation consists of the rupee, a silver coin of no more than two shillings
value, with copper and shells. To remedy these inconveniencies, a great establish-
ment, called the Bank of Asia, with branches in India, has lately been established in
London.
Internal Communications The roads throughout India are generally mere
tracks, scarcely suited for the transport of wheel-carriages ; and the modes of tra-
velling are of a nature which an European, accustomed to travelling in Britain, would
hardly feel very comfortable. Such conveniencies as stage-coaches, public waggons,
and boats, do not exist. There are not even any conveyances which can be hired
from stage to stage, except in a very few parts of the country, where a traveller may
for a short distance be supplied at certain intervals with ponies which go at the
rate of three miles an hour ; while he is obliged to hire porters to carry his baggage.
The only attempt at travelling post is by going in a palkee (palankin), which is car-
ried by bearers ; and this is a mode of conveyance available only to the rich. A pal-
kee holds but one person, and the charge is never less than one, sometimes two
shillings a mile, a rate as high as posting in England. The traveller is obliged to give
from two to five day's notice to the postmaster, according to the distance ; and the
average rate of travelling is about four miles an hour. In ordinary cases the tra-
veller carries everything with him ; if he is a rich man, accompanied by his family,
his retinue resembles that of the patriarchs of old, including bis flocks and herds, his
camels, and his beasts of burden, his men-servants, and his maid-servants ; he travels
on his own horses, or on an elephant, while his tents, beds, cooking vessels, &c. are
conveyed on camels or in carts. Some of his attendants accompany him on horseback,
or on ponies ; and the rest follow on foot at the rate of ten or twelve miles a-day. If
he travel by water, he hires a comfortable boat for himself and his family, with as
many more as he requires for his kitchen and baggage, and embarks with all his
retinue. Individuals of less wealth convey their property in carts, and are content
to sleep and eat under the shelter of trees, or of one of those magnificent groves of
mango which are found at intervals of a few miles in many parts of the country. Ac-
cording to the rank or wealth of the individual his mode of travelling and the number
of his attendants varies ; some have only a pony to carry their baggage, while they walk
on foot ; and the poorest not only walk, but carry their own stores, consisting of a
blanket or quilt for a bed, a pot of brass or copper tinned in which to boil their pulse
or make a curry, a smaller vessel for drinking, and a round plate of sheet iron, on
which, supported on two stones or lumps of earth, and with a few sticks or a little
cow-dung for fuel, they bake their cakes of unleavened bread, which consist merely of
flour and water, kneaded for a few minutes. Merchants, who have goods to dispatch,
hire boats, or carts, camels, pack-horses, or bullocks to convey their wares to their
destination ; and the same conveyances and the same drivers proceed throughout the
whole distance, though it may be 500 or 1000 miles. Large sums of treasure or jewel-
lery, amounting sometimes to several thousand pounds, are constantly dispatched by
the bankers of one town to their correspondents at the distance of several hundred
miles, by the hands of common porters. These men, instead of going in large
parties well armed, usually travel in small numbers, without arms ; trusting for
protection to the extreme poverty of their appearance. There are but few inns
or serais ; and the best of them consist but of a square of arches or arcades Some
of these, which were raised under the Mahometan princes, are beautiful specimens of
architecture, with lofty gateways and battlements; but the greater part of them are
rude and shapeless. Under the native princes, these buildings were numerous, and
were kept in tolerable order ; a regular establishment of guards and servants was
maintained at them ; and there were private doors and apartments furnished for wo-
men. But all have suffered more or less from the political disturbances of the coun-
try, and many of the most splendid have gone entirely to ruin. There are generally a few
shops within the square ; and, in places of considerable thoroughfare, a few people,
of a class called Buttearas, who cook dinners for travellers. Where there are no
serais, travellers sleep in the verandahs of houses, or in any open sheds they can find ;
but the climate of India is such as to render shelter unnecessary during nine months
India.] ASIA. 711
in the year ; and none but single Vravellers, or very small parties, care for serais or
houses. All who are rich enough to carry tents with them, or those who travel in
considerable numbers, usually prefer encamping under the shade of trees, at some dis-
tance from the dirty serais or villages ; and when one party is so encamped under a
shady grove, a single traveller, or even a party of several, will easily be induced to
join them, and often ask permission to do so, for the sake of protection.
But several good roads have been recently formed or projected, particularly one
from Calcutta to Cuttack ; and a great road, which is to extend from Agra to Bombay,
through Allyghur, Sasseram, and Jihree, crossing the Nerbuddah at Akberpore, a
total distance of 750 miles, has been surveyed, and partly executed. There are no
navigable canals or railways ; but the Indus and the Ganges both afford a long course
of inland navigation, which is traversed by steam-boats ; and a canal has been pro-
jected to connect these rivers, proceeding across the country between the Jumnahand
the Suttlej ; and its tract has already been surveyed and found practicable. — See
lllvEKS — Indus, Ganges, &c.
Divisions. — As India has never formed one empire, there is no general system
of administrative divisions. By the Mahometan writers, the name Hindusta/i was
understood to signify the country in inunediate subjection to the sovereigns of Delhi
vrliich, in 1582, was divided into eleven soubal'' or provinces, the names of which are
still retained in our maps, though most of ,^^m have become entirely obsolete, and
those which still remain, have materially changed the extent of their application.
Tlicse were: — Lahore, Mouhan, includnig Shale, Ajmerc, Delhi, Agra, Allahabad,
Baha'-, Oude, Bengal, Malwuh, and Giijrat. A twelfth soubali was formed of
(\jtil, and the country to the west of the Indus; and several new divisions were af-
cerwards added from the conquests in the Deccan, namely, Berar. Khandeish, Aurun-
gabad, Beejapore, Beder, A'aiidere, Ilijdrabud, the Carnatic, Giindwana, and OriS-
sa. Of all these, the only soubahs whose names remain geographical appellations are,
Bahar, Oude, Bengal, Orissa, Malwah, Giijrat, Khandeish, and the Carnatic. Bengal
is the great plain at the mouths of the Ganges and Brahmaputra; Bahar is a smaller
province to the north-west ; Oude is the name of one of the existing political divi-
sions ; M(dwah, or Central India, is the table-land, supported on the south by the
iidhya mountains; Gnjrat is the country around the Guif of Cambay; Khandeish
. H province of the Bombay presidency, in the lower part of the Tuptee ; the Carnatic
»s the south-eastern portion of the peninsula of India ; Orissa extends along the coast,
' etween the Carnatic and Bengal, with a breadth of about ninety miles inland, where
V borders upon Gundwana, a large tract of country, with ill-defined limits, but un-
derstood, in its \videst dimensions, to extend westward and northward to EUichpoor,
Bhopal, and Bundelcund.
India is now divided politically into a number of sovereign states, which may be
arranged into four classes: — 1. Territories under the immediate government of the
officers of the East India Company, which are divided into the three Presidencies
of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay ; 2. Subject States, left to the rule of the native
princes, but under the protection and complete controul of the British Government ;
.'J. States under British protection or alliance, but without interference in their in-
ternal governments. These do not in reality dilfer much from the Subject States,
and we have therefore, in the subjoined table, united them in the same class ; 4. In-
dependent States. The names of all of these, with their dimensions and population^
are stated in the following Table : —
I. IJbitish Tkrritory.
Presidency of Fort-AVil!iam, I5pnK;iI.
1. Governiiient of UrnKal, lialiar, and Oii-sa. incltuling
2. tiovcrniinrit of Agra, or the iiortii-west I'roviiiCiS,
Trcsideucy of Fort St. George, Madras,
Presidency of JJombay, .....
II. and III. SunjKCT and I'kotki
Nizam, or King of Ilydralmd, ....
Kajah of lUr.ir. <ir King of N.ij,';i(;rc,
Rajaii of Sattarah, ^ . . . • .
Kajah of Kolaiore, > Malirattas,
Rajah of .Sawuntwaree, J . ...
£aj8h of Travancore, .....
Carryover, . e'J8,G6l 90,764,911
Area in
Papula -
so. miles.
iiiiii.
\ssani and Arracan, 181,684
40,.').')0,000
170,210
17,021,000
121,'J82
l^,0i^0,0^4
C2,542
6,940,277
530,418
79,101,311
TFD States.
88,884
10,000,000
.')fi.72;j
3,0(KI,(K)0
7,y4:j
794„J00
3,1 HI
318.400
'XKi
9;t,.^(X)
4,.'.74
467,400
712
DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.
Brought over,
Eajah of Cochin, , . . . .
Hajah of Mysore (now annexed to Madras),
Kajah of Sikini, .....
P.idishah, or King of Oude,
Rajah of Kewah, in Bundelcund,
Chiefs of Dhattea, Jliansi, and Terhi, in do..
Rajah of Bliurtpore, .....
The Rajah of Dholporc, Baree, and Rajali-Kairah,
Nawub or Nabob of Bhopal, in Malwali,
Holkar's territory in Malwah,
The Rajahs of Dhar and Uewas, in Malwah,
The Guicowar, or King of Baroda,
The Rao of Cutch or Kachh, .......
The Rajpoot and other Princes in Rajpootana and Malwah.
Mewar or Oudipore, 11,784 1,178,400
Jeypoor, 13,427 1,342,700
Marwar or Joudpour, .... 34,132 1,706,100
Kotah 4,389 438,900
Bhondi, 2,2!)1 229,100
Alwar, ....... 3,235 323,500
Bikaneer, ...... 18,000 180,600
Jeysulmere, 9,779 97,790
Kishenghur, ...... 724 72,400
Banswarra, ...... 1,440 144,000
Pcrtaub^hur, ...... 1,457 '45,700
Dungarpoor, ...... 2,005 200,500
Keroli, ....... 1,878 187,800
Sirohi or Sirowy, ..... 3,024 302,400
Ameer Khan, lord of Tonk, Seronj, and Nimbheera, ',633 163,300
Rajahs of Patiala, Keytal, Naba, Jcend, and others, between the Jumnah and 7
the Suttlej, ........ j
Bhawul- Khan, Chief of the Daoudputras, .....
Ameers of Sinde, .........
IV. Independent Siates.
The Maharajah Scindia in Central India, ......
The Punjab, or King<lom of Lahore, ......
The Kingdom of Nepal or Nepaul, .......
Bootan, or the country of Deb-Rajah, ......
v. Foreign Possessions.
French territory, .........
Danish territory, .........
Portuguese territory, .........
Total area and population of India,
Area in
sq. miles.
098,661
1,988
27,999
4,400
23,923
10,310
10,173
1,940
1,0-J6
G,772
■ 4,245
1,466
24,950
7,396
[India.
Popula-
tion.
90,764,911
198,800
2,799,900
440,f/00
6,000,000
1,031,000
1,617,300
194,600
102,600
677,200
424,500
146,600
2,495,000
350,000
109,458
10,002
30,000
60,000
32,944
100,000
36,000
20,000
530
93
1,2110
6,713,190
500,000
350,000
2011,000
3,294,400
4,000.000
2,000,000
1,000,000
210,000
36,01 0
500,0i)0
1,298,452 130,905,(K;0
A large portion of the British territory consists of the possessionsof princes, who, though deprived of
the government, still enjoy pensions paid out of the public revenues. The territories of some of these
princes were ceded in return for military protection ; others were forfeited by the chances of war ; aTid
those of a third class were taken from them, on account of their tyranny or incapacity. The princes
of the first and the last classes, are formally installed on their thrones, and allowed to exercise sove-
reignty over the tenants of their private estates, and the members of their household ; are exempted
from the jurisdiction of the British courts of law, have their own civil and military functionaries,
■with all the ensigns of state, and a British envoy usually resident at their court. The following list
contains their names and the amount of their stipends : —
Stip. Rupees.
The Great Mogul, Emperor of Delhi, and Family,
Soubahdar of the Carnatic, or Nabob of Arcot,
Families of former Soubahdars,
Rajah of Tanjore, ......
Soubahdar of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, .
Families of former Soubahdars, ....
Rajah of Benares, .....
F'amilies of Hyder Ali, and Tippoo, Sultans of Mysore,
Rajahs of Malabar, .....
Peishwah of the Mahrattas, and Family,
Descendants of Himniut Bahadur, .
Benaeek Rao, and Secta Baee, Chiefs of Saugor,
Gowind, Rao of Calpie, ....
Nawab of Masulipatani, .....
Nawab of Surat, .....
Nawab of Furruckabad, .....
1,500,000
1,165,400
900,000
1,183,500
1,600,000
900,000
143,000
639,549
250,000
2,150,000
60,000
2,50,000
100,000
50,000
162,675
108,000
Topography. — We shall now proceed to describe the different provinces of India,
in the following order: — 1. Government of Bengal ; 2. Government of Agra ; 3.
Presidency of Madras ; 4. Preaidcncy of Bombay ; 5. Subject and Protected States ,-
6. Independent States ; 7. Foreign Possessioiis ; and 8. The Islands.
§ 1. Government of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa.
This is the original territory granted in dewanny or stewardship by the Emperor of Delhi to the East
India Company in 1765. It is situate at the head of the Bay of Bengal, and consists chietiy of the
alluvial plains formed and intersected by the Ganges and the BrahmapOtra, with their innumerable
branches. The government extends 3S0 wiles in breadth, N.S. in the meridian of Calcutta, and about
India.]
ASIA.
713
520 in length E.W. along the 25° N. lat., comprising an area of 217,000 square miles. Bengal is a very
flat country, with scarcely a hill of any considerable elevation, and is so intersected by rivers, that
even in the driest season there are few points which are 20 miles from a navigable stream. The lower
portion of the country, adjoining the sea, is a dreary tract of islands called the Sunderbunds, formed
by the branches of the Ganges, covered with jungle, and infested with tigers, alligators, and other
wild animals. The ground of Bengal consists entirely of alluvial or travelled matter, which extends
to a very great depth. \ bore made at Fort- William in 1840 reached not less than 481 feet, without
rock, which was not found even there, the lowest stratum which was reached consistingof fine sand,
like that of the sea shore, largely mixed with shingle. The cultivable soil, however, is very thin, and
is composed of saltish mud and sand ; but it, nevertheless, produces abundantly all the necessaries,
and many of the luxuries of life. Rice, the principal food of the natives, is grown in the low grounds ;
and wheat and barley in tlie higher districts. Tlie most fertile and the best cultivated portion is tlie
district of Burdwan, which has the appearance of a garden in the midst of a wilderness. Salt, tobac-
co, sugar, indigo, cotton, silk, and opium, are also produced, and the cultivation of the jiotatoe is ra-
pidly extending. The climate is very damp ; during half the year it rains incesi^antly, and during the
other half the dews are heavy and penetrating. The rainy season lasts from June till October ; tlie
cold season from November till February, when the hot season begins, and continues till the middle of
June. During the cold season the atmosphere is clear, sharp, and bracing ; but the hot season, in the
lowcrpartsof the province, is nearly intolerable, even to a native. The rays of the sun seem to pene-
trate to the very vitals, while there is not a cloud in the sky to intercept them. When the monsoon is
about to change, the very atmosphere feels as if it were thick, breathing becomes laborious, and all ani-
mated nature languishes, the oppressiveness of the night being almost as great as that of the day. In
the north, however, where the country begins to rise, and where the land is cleared, the climate is said to
be very fine. A narrow portion of Bengal extends to the south-east along the coast for 120 miles, form-
ing the district of Chittagong, an unproductive hilly region, which is much resorted to by Europeans for
sea air and bathing. Bahar lies north-west of Bengal, and contains about ,is,000 square miles, of which
nearly one-half is plain arable ground ; about a seventh consists of a straggling hilly country, pro-
ducing little ; and the remainder, about a third, is a highland region of inconsiderable value. It is
divided by the Ganges into two nearly equal portions. The climate is comparatively temperate ; tho
heat and the moisture are less oppressive, and the cool season continues longer than in Bengal. The
soil of the plains is generally fertile, unless where saltpetre exists in excess, and being well watered
and cultivated, is very productive of the dryer grains, and of the luxuries required by the more active
inhabitants of the north. Opium is the staple produce; and a great quantity of saltpetre is manu-
factured, principally in the divisions of Hajeepore and Sarun. The part of Orma originally included
in tho Emperor's grant, is only a narrow tract stretching along the south-western frontier of Bengal.
Tlie government of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa is divided into four provinces and thirty districts or
zillahs. Calcutta Pkovince contains the City of Calcutta, the suburbs, the 2i pergwinahs, and tbe
zillahs of Hoogly, Nuddea, Jessore, Cuttack, Midnapore, Burdwan, and Jungle-me hauls. The i'Ro-
vixcE OF Patna contains the districts of Ramghur, Behar, Tirhoot, Sarun, Shahaiad, and Patna,
The Provinck op Moobshedabad contains the districts of Bhaugulpore, I'urneah, Vinagcpore,
Rungpeor, Raj/'shahys, Birbhoom, and Moorshedabad. Tlie Province op Dacca contains the dis-
tricts of Mymensing, Sylket, Tipperah, Chittagong, Backergunge, Dacca, and Dacca-Jelalpore. The
cities and towns of Bengal have been arranged in the following table, which shows also their dis-
tances and bearings from Calcutta.
Azmerigunge,
Backergunge, .
Barrackpore,
Bauleah, . . .
Belcuchy, . .
Bernagur, . .
Beyhar, . .
Bijnee, . . .
Bissunpore, .
Boosnah, . .
Buddaul, . .
Budgebudge, .
Burdwan, . .
Burhampore, .
Bygonbarry, .
Chandernagore
(handpore, .
Chilmary, . .
Chinsura, . .
Chirra-punjee,
Chittagong, .
Colinda, . .
Comercally, .
Comillah,
Cossiin bazar,
Cuhia, . .
Culpee, . .
Cutwa, . . .
Dacca, . .
220 N.E. by E.
122 E.
10 N.
12.5 N. by E.
145 N.E. bv N.
115 N. by W.
260 N. by E.
310 N.E. by N.
80 N.W. byW.
100 N.E. by E.
175 N. by E.
13 S.W.
CO N.N.W.
103 N. by W.
lUo N.E.
20 N.
MS E. by N.
.21(i N.N.E
22 N.
280 N.E.
220 E. by 8.
. 180 E.
101 N.E. by N.
. 18(5 E. by N.
105 N. by W.
. 45 N. by W.
.36 S.S.W.
73 N.N.W. by N
. 1.50 N.E. by E.
Darra, . . .
Diamond Har-
bour, . . .
Dinagepore,
Dumroy, . .
English Bazaar,
Fringy Bazaar,
Fulta
Goragot, . .
Gour, . . . .
Guzgotta, . .
Ilarriorpore, .
Uurryal, . .
Indos, . . . .
Injellee, . . .
Islamabad,
■lellasore, . .
iJellinghy, . .
Jennidah, . .
Junglebarry, .
Jyntialipore,
Kedgeree, . .
Kishenagur,
Luckipore,
Mahniudpour,
Mauldali, . .
Maundee, . .
Midnapore,
Moorley, . . .
172 N.W. by N.
34 S.
210 N.
145 N.E. byE.
105 N.N.W.byN.
loO E.N.E.
25 S.W.
192 N. by E.
160 N.N.W.byN.
242 N. by E.
120 W.S.W.
132 N.E. by N.
64 N.W.
60 S.S.W.
220 E. by S.
95 S.W.
105 N. by E.
80 N.E. by N.
202 N.E. by E.
288 N.E. by E.
55 S.W. by S.
,57 N. byE.
1.50 E. by N.
95 N.E. by E.
170 N.N.W.byN.
120 W.N.W.
73 W. by S.
04 N.E. by E.
Moorshedabad,
Nabobgunge, .
Narangur,
Nagore, . . .
Natore, . . .
Nuddeah, . .
Nuldingah,
Nulslii, . . .
Nunklow, . .
Oleapour,
Pachcte, . .
PipleeorPipley,
Plassey, . .
Pubna, . . .
Pucculoe, . .
Ptirneah, . .
RaKonatpour,
Kajanagur, . .
Kajinahal, . .
Kaiigamatty, .
Kungiiore,
K.vnabad, . .
Saibgunge,
Seerpore, . .
Serampore, .
Shanashygotta,
Silhet, . . .
Siitalury, . .
Taujepour, .
120 N.
140 N.
75 W.S.W.
120 N.W.
132 N. by E.
.50 N.
75 N.E. byN.
1.52 N.E.
300 N.E.
226 N N.E.
140 N.W.
90 S.W.
83 N. bv M'.
112 N.E.'byN.
148 N.E.
230 N.N.W.
125 N.W. by W.
132 E. by N.
172 N.N.\\M>yN.
270 N. N.E.
235 N. by E.
84 E.
200 N. bv E.
1.58 N.N.E.
10 N.
275 N.
270 N.E. by E.
114 E.
225 N.N.W.byN.
Calcutta, the capital of Bengal and of all India, is situate on the left bank of the Hoogly river, loo
miles from the sen, and 130 from the Sandheads, in 22^ 33' N. lat , and 88° 28' E. long. Tlie city and
suburbs extend along the river more than six miles, but the breadth is various. Tlu^ European resi-
dences are built in the Grecian style, generally detached, and are situated in the southern part of the
city, wliich is called Chowringhee, or in the suburbs. The natives reside in the " lllaek '1 own," a
congeries of narrow and dirty streets, most of which are lined wiih mud lioveh, but contain also some
large houses of tho rich Baboos. Fort- William stands on the river siiie, separated from the city <m
the north and east by a wide esplanade, which also extends along the south side, where it fclrlll^!he
racp-courye. The fort is an irregular octagon, strongly fortified. It has cost the Company ,£,'-',0()0,00()
Hterling. and would require a garrison of from 10,000 to 1.5,(K)() to man the works. The interior is truly
beautiful, consisting of large grass plots surrounded by shady trees, and intersecteii with gruvel walks,
with here and there pilesofballs, bombs, and jiarks of artillery. The barracks are large enough for 20,00 )
men. For a quarter of a mile round the outside no tree or house is permitted, and ships pass so close
that they may be hailed from the glacis ; but the country being perfectly flat, and the ramparts rising
only a few feet above it, tlie fort does not make a very imposing appearance ; indeed its strength is
scarcely perceptible. The only other building deserving of special notice i.s the palace of the Govui--
714
DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.
[India.
nor-General, wliich is built in tlie Ionic style, on tlie nortli side of tlie esplanade. A fine quay called
the Strand, raised 40 feet above low-water mark, and furnished witli 30 principal ghauts or flights of
steps, for access to and from tlie water, extends between two and three miles along tlie bjtnks of the
river, northward from the esplanade ; and a tine drive, called the Circular Road, is carried round the
whole city, including also the citadel and its esplanades, and marking the limits of the English law.
The Hoogly is about a mile wide at high water, and ships of 600 tons can lie almost clo^e to the quay ;
on both sides, but particularly at Kidderpore, there are docks in which ships of any size can be built
or repaired. A plan has been proposed for the erection of a floating bridge, similar to that at Devon-
port. There are 11 Christian places of worship, where service is performed every Sunday in English ;
several small mosques and pagodas; and several colleges andschouls. (See Education, p. 700.) The
population of the city amounted in 1837 to about '230,000, composed of Hindoos and other Asiatics,
from every province and country, with Armenians, Jews, Britons, and a few other Europeans ; but
the population of the suburbs amounted at tlie same time to 217,103, making altogether a population
of nearly 4')0,000. On the west side ot the Uoogly is a splendid botanic garden of 300 acres, and near
it, opposite Fort- William, is Bishop's college, a large Gothic building forming three sides of a square.
By means of the Ganges and its branches Calcutta has the benefit of a very extensive inland naviga-
tion ; and thereby monopolizes the whole external trade of Bengal. The gross amount of its exports
is from £10,000,000 to £12,000,000 a-year. According to the report of the chief magistrate of police, tlio
number of crimes committed, in IsiiG was 1880, and in 1838, 1037 ; the greater part being burglary and
theft.
Barrackpore, 10 miles above Calcutta, contains a cantonment, the head-quarters of the troops of
the presidency, with a country house of the Governor-General, and a fine park. The artillery can-
tonment is at Dum-Dum. Serainpure. is a pretty town, with 13,000 inhabitants, built almost entire-
ly in the European style, on the riglit bank of the Hoogly, opposite Barrackpore. Serampore is the
residence of the Governor-General of the Danish possessions in India, and also of the English Baptist
missionaries, who have there established a printing press, and issue from it translations of the Bible
into most of the languages of India, and of several other countries of the East. It is, however, chiefly
remarkable as the sanctuary of Calcutta, the place to which all the malefactors and bankrupts retire
to avoid the consequences of the law. Chanderiiagore is a French settlement, also on the Hoogly, oc-
cupying a high and picturesque situation. Cliiiisurn, a pretty little town, lately a Dutch settlement.
Jiitlmond Harbour is a miserable place, 34 miles below Calcutta, where ships drawing more than 17
feet water stop. Dacca, on the left bank of the Borri-Gunga or old Ganges, is a large irregularly
built town, formerly the capital of Beiij^al, and the principal seat of the muslin manufacture, but is
now falling rapidly to decay. It contained, in 183U, 158 mosques, 5.t Hindoo temples, 4 Christian
churches, and a population of 75,000, including tlie military. Dacca is 400 miles from Calcutta by
water, though only 180 in a direct line. Moorshedabad. which extends eight miles along both sides of
the Bhagirathy or Cossimbazar river, was the capital of Bengal from 1704 to 1771, and is still the resi-
tloiice of the hereditary S.mbahdar or Nawab of the province, who is a pensioner of the British go-
vernment. Population of the town and district, 762,000. The ruins of Guur, the once flourishing
capital of Bengal, are situate in the district of Dinagepore. Its decline and abandonment was occa-
sioned by the desertion of the Ganges, which formerly flowed past it, but is now 4| miles distant.
li'ijmahal, a small town on the Ganges, represents the a.wcieut Jialiputra, f Palibothra of the Greek
geographers), built by the demi-god Bala-Ilama, and long the capital of a powerful kingdom. Chit-
ta gang or Islamabad, is a large town of 12,000 inhabitants, situate among small abrupt hills, which
furnish beautiful sites for English villas, 10 miles from the sea, on the river Kurnisoolee. Chirra-
puiijee or C/ieera-poonjee, 30 miles N.N.W. of Silliet, about 4000 feet above the level of the sea, in the
Cossyah liills, a sanitarium or health station for Europeans. The foot of the hills on which it is
situated can be reached from Calcutta by steam in six days, after which, however, there is a fatiguing
journey of nine hours from the landing place. Nunklow station, 40 miles N. of Chirra-punjee, and
4")">0 feet above the level of the sea, is described as one of the loveliest spots in the world, resembling
more a gentleman's demesne in England than the general character of Indian scenery. The tlier-
mometer in May ranges from 67° to 75° ; in June from 68° to 72° ; in winter there is frost and ice. A
military post has also long been established at Bishnath, in Silhet.
Table of the principal towns in Bahar, with their distances from Calcutta : —
Arrah, . . .
Bahar, . .
}!ettiah, . .
Boglipore, .
Bu.xar, . . .
Chackie,
Chittra, . .
Chowsar,
Chuprah, . .
Curruckpore,
Curruckdeah,
. 310 N.W.
300 N.W.
. .385 N.W.
210 N.N.W.
.3.50N.W. by W.
200 N.W.
. 265 W.N.W.
200 N.W^
. 330 N.W.
210 N.W. byN.
. 200 N.W.
Daoudnagur, .
Daibungah, .
Doesah, . . .
Kchagur, . .
Gayah, . . .
Hajeepore,
Hazareebaugh,
Islampore,
Koondah, . .
Kotumbah, .
ilonghir, . .
206N.W. by W.
. 300 N.W. by N.
235 W. by N.
170 W. bv N.
270 N. W. by W.
. 300 N.W.
220 N.W.
274 N.W.
273 W.N.W.
300 W.N.W.
230 N.W. by N.
Mow or Mliow,
Norungah, .
Falamow, . .
Palcote, . . .
Fatna, . . .
Ramgur, .
Serris, . . .
Sheergotty, .
Siilee, . . .
Tarrapore, . ,
Toree, . . .
. .300 N.W.
300 W.N.W.
. 200 W.N.W.
245 W.
.200 N.W.
210 N.N.W.
.312 W.N.W.
270 W.N.W.
, 180 W. byN.
200 N.W. by N,
. 250 W. by N.
Patna is a large city on the right bank of the Ganges, containing about 300,000 inhabitants, 400
miles N.W. travelling distance from Calcutta by Moorshedabad, or 340 by Birbhoom. Two miles
west from Patna, with wliich it is connected by the civil station of Bankipilr, and the suburb of
Digah, is the cantonment of Dinapur or Dinapore, a station for European troops, and the liead-
quai'ters of a division usually commanded by a Brigadier-General. Ilugeepore, or Hajeepore, or Hii-
/«/)(/i<r, at the mouth of the Gunduck, nearly opposite Patna, has some pretensions to bi considered
trie Newmarket of India. The races at the annual fair, in November, are well attended and are always
exceedingly gay. Gayah, 55 miles S. of Patna, the chosen residence ot Budha-Guadania, with 35,000
inhabitants, lorinerly contained a great temple, and is still resorted to by numerous pilgrims. Mount
Mandar, an isolated conical hill, 20 miles S. by E. of Boglipore, is renowned as a place of pilgrimage,
on account of its having been employed by the Hindoo gods to churn the ocean, for the purpose of
procuring the amreeta, or drink of immortality. Deughur or Baidyanath, in the district of Birb-
hoom, 53 miles S.S.W. of Boglipore, contains a celebrated temple, situate on a rising ground in the
midst of a forest. The temple consists of 10 distinct muts or pagodas, each about 77 feet high, termi-
nating with the trident, one of the emblems of Mahadeva. At the great annual festival Deoghur is
thronged with pilgrims ; but at other times there are few residents besides the police, officers of go-
vernment, and the people of the bazaar.
To the government of Bengal are also attached the province of Cuttack or Kuttack, in Orissa ;
Jssam, in the valley of the BrahmapCltra ; Aracan and other wild countries to the east and south-east.
Kuttack extends along the sea-coast to the south-west of Bengal, for about 150 miles, meeting the
northern circars of the Madras presidency at the Chilka lake. The coast is similar to the contiguous
coast of Bengal, being low, and subject to frequent and calamitous inundations. Within from two
to five leagues inland the country rises into swelling undulations, which continue from 15 to '20 miles
in breadth, gradually increasing in height, till they form hills, with a dry and fertile soil, and covered
with magnificent f'.-re«ts This hilly region, 'v\ ned Momlbu7iJy, has a soil of a wliitish appearance.
India.] ASIA. 715
etrewed in many places for miles with a thin sprinkling of limestone concretions ; it extends from
north of the Mahanuddy to Midnapore ; it is finely cultivated, and has a most picturesque appear-
ance. At Balasore a group of fine hills approach within 15 miles of the sea. The interior, however.
Is little known ; the hilly region is said to extend lor 200 miles in length, by 100 in breadth ; the eleva-
tion of the highest hills seen from the Mogulbundy is estimated at 2000 feet, but their general elevation
only from 300 to 1200. They consist chiefly of granite, resembling sandstone, and containing a variety
of minerals and precious stones. The granite rocks are very hard and naked, presenting a bold and
varied outline, with sharp peaks and abrupt craggy faces ; they are in many parts curiously inter-
sected with trap veins. The rivers in the lowlands are embanked with immense earthen mounds,
sometimes 6l) teet thick, and 20 high. Cuttack, the capital, which is situate on a branch of the Mahan-
uddy, 250 miles travelling distance from Calcutta, contains upwards of 6 JOO houses, and 40,000 inhabi-
tants. Balasore, lou miles N.E. of Cuttack, is a seaport town on the Booree-Bellaun river, which is
not navigable for vessels of greater burden than liiU tons. Pilots for the Hoogly are procured in
Balasore roads. Pouree, a small town on the coast, 45 miles S. of Cuttack, is considered the Mont-
pellier of ISengal, the climate being somewhat dry, while a refreshing sea-breeze blows continually
from March till July. It contain^^, or adjoins, the celebrated temple of Juggernaut, who is an incar-
nation of Vishnu ; but he is accompanied by his brother and sister; and, besides these, all the idols
particularly vensrated by the Hindoos tind a place within the precincts of the temple, so that all
castes and sects may unite in celebrating the great yearly festival. The body of the temple consists
of a pa;/oda 2011 feet high, which forms a landmark at sea; and the various services are performed
by about 3000 Brahmins and their attendants. The number of pilgrims who attend the yearly fes-
tival amounts to 80,iioo or 100,i)ijO. On this occasion the idols are placed on cars, to which long
ropes are attached, and by these the people draw them forth, it being considered a meritorious ser-
vice to assist in dragging the deities; and sometimes people throw themselves before the ponderous
wheels, lor the purpose of being crushed to death, and thereby obtaining an entrance into i'aradise.
The superintendence of the temple is vested in the rajah of Khoordah ; and 50,000 rupees (i'500ii)
are paid annually for its support, by the East India Company, out of the ordinary revenues of the
province. The country round i'ooree is considered holy to a great distance ; but the most sacred
portion is confined to a circuit of about eight miles. The country consists of low sand hills, covered
by a thick but not lofty forest. About a mile from the sea vegetation suddenly ceases; the inter-
vening space being a waste if deep and loose sand along the desolate shore. I'ooree is situate on
the edge of this desert; and the European cantonments stand on a high ridge, perfectly destitute of
verdure, fronting the sea, and enjoying the benefit of its cooling breezes. The town is in consequence
a desirable residence; and many persons, worn out with the heat of Bengal and Hindflstan, are de-
lighted to loiter upon the healthful, though solitary, shores of Cuttack. Juggernaut is as sacred in
the estimation of the Buddhists as of the Brahminical Hindoos, on account of its having contained
for a period of eight centuries the dnlada, or tooth of Buddha, which is now in Ceylon. The name
Juggernaut, properly Jhagat-nota Hord of the universe), is an appellation which Gautama- Buddha
himself assumed; for it is said that on the day he became Buddha, as well as when about to expire,
he exclaimed, " O universe, I am thy Lord." Allahabad, Benares, Durjodum, Gaya, Saugor island,
and Juggernaut, are places of devout pilgrimage to the Buddhists of Thibet, but the last two are
of pre-eminent sanctity, whilst Gava, the birthplace of their legislator, is only of secondary rank. All
castes are privileged to nii.\ within the sacred limits of Juggernaut; they are said to be even blame-
less for eating together, which savours more of a Buddhist than of a Brahminical origin. — (Furbes'
Ceyion, II. 217.) Kaniiaruc, or the I/lack- jxifroda, on the coast, 15 miles E. of I'ooree, has been one of
the most splendid temples of which India can boast. It was a temple of the sun, of greater antiiiuity
than that of Juggernaut ; but has lost its sanctity, and is now deserted. The building is lofty, form-
ing a landmark at sea, and is adorned with numberless sculptures of exquisite beauty, but generally
of ail indecent character. It stands in the midst of a wilderness of sand, partially overspread with
Jungle ; and great part of the building is now in ruins.
Assam is situate in the valley of the BrahmapOtra, to the eastward of Bengal, is about 3G0 miles
in length, and from 20 to 70 in breadth, and contains an area of IS.yon square miles. It extends
from the river Monash to the foot of the Himalayas, close upon the western frontier of China ; on
the north it is bounded by a cold mountainous country, and on the east and south by a range of
mountains which gradually decrease in elevation as they proceed westward, separating Assam from
the basin of the Irrawady, and the rivers of Silhet and Cachar. The country is almost a perJect
flat, studded with little conical green hills, which rise abruptly to the height of from 200 to 7uO feet.
It is intersected in every direction by the branches and affluents of the Bralnnapdtra, which are almost
everywhere navigable; it is always swampy, but in the dry season the ground is susceptible of culti-
vation, and produces abundant crojjs. Assam is rich in mineral treasures; nearly all the streams
carry down particles of gold ; the mountains contain precious stones, and silver ; iron is found under
the Naga hills, and elsewhere; and coal of good quality has been found to the east of Rangpur. The
Boil of the hills is composed of a rich red loam, with a sprinkling of particles of (piartz or talc ; and
large masses of granite are scattered over them in whimsical confusion. It is well adapted for agri-
cultural purposes, and for many hundred miles, might be converted into one continuous garden of
silk, cotton, coftee, sugar, and tea. The last is an important ai tide of produce ; it grows wild in Upper
Assam,; is the identical tea tree of China, and only requires the tame care in its culture and manipu-
lation to rival or supersede the " fragrant weed" of the celestial empire. Cofl'ee is also found in its
wild state. As^am is beyond the influence of the moonsoons; the wind blows from east or north-
east for nine months in the year, and seldom in any other direction for more than a few days in suc-
cession. In the rainy season, in July, the whole country is flooded like an inland sea, the river rising
to an average height of 30 feet. Some centuries ago it was richly cultivated by an industrious and
enterprising people; but now seven-eighths of the surface are covered with jungle, which emits febrilo
miasmata. The ruins of splendid temples have been discovered in the midst of wastes and forests;
and large tanks, overgrown with brushwood, point out the sites of once populous cities. The ruling
people of Assam, who were called Ahoms, and belonged to the Tai family, are supposed to have nii-
Rrated from the borders of China, and to have conquered the country early in the thirteenth century.
In the 17th century they were converted to Hinduism, and adopted the language of Bengal. The
present representitive of the powerful kings of Assam resides at Jorenalh in tawdry splendour, his
resources are limited to those of a zemindar, his nohility has been reduced to beggary, and his court
presents the empty mockery of royalty. The central part of Assam, with a population of about 200,000,
was left for some time under his innncdiate government, alter the country was recovered from the
Burmese in IH^C; but it has been a.^ain resumed, and placed und.r the innncdiate charge of British
oftlcers. The most ancient capital was GItergimg, a city of great extent, built of brick or stone, a
few miles above Kangpur; and abnut 10 miles from it is Azoo, the burial place of the kings, where
their remains were deposited in a vault un.ler a magnificent temple. During the splendour of the
Assam princes (inwliutti was also a large city and fortress, but few vestiges of its grandeur now re-
main. It has however again, within a few years, grown up from a cluster of huts to a well-built
and populous town. Sudiijah, in Upper Assam, was for sometime a British military station, but it
has been abandoned, and the head-quarters of the army have been established at Saikxvah, on the
opposite bank of the Brohinapfitra, three miles be.;w. (Joalpara, in Lower Assam, is rapidly rising
716 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [India.
In Importance us a mart for the produce of the country. The Assamese are chiefly Hindoos, fol-
iowers of ISrahminisni, and subject to an influential, intriguing, and vicious priesthood. There is
also a large proportion of .Moslems, who are held in great contempt. The population is besides com-
posed of great numbers of people from the hill country, who intermarry with the Assamese. In
Upper Assam, and among the hills, are various wild tribes, as Booteas, Akas, Duphlas, Koppachors,
Miris, Abors, Bor-abors, Mishmis, Kangtis, Bor-Kangtis, Singplios, Muttucks, Nagas, Munniporis,
Cacliaris, Kassya^, and Garrows. The Kangtis, who are JSuddhists, and live in I'ppcr Assam, are
the most civili/.ed; but the most numerous and most formidable tribe are the Singp/ios, who are
sometimes very troublesome, but nevertheless acknowledge the paramoiint authority of the British
Government. The whole country has been hitherto in a state of abject barbarism ; but, under its new
masters it is rapidly improving; and promises to become one of the finest and richest provinces of
the Indian empire. — ( Topography of Assam, lifi John M'Cosh, Calcutta, 1837.)
Aracan or Rakhaim lies along the east side of the Bay of Bengal, between 17° 20' and 21° 20' N.
lat. ; extending 230 miles in length, with a breadth varying from 10 to 100, average (iJ ; and contain-
ing about lG,.i(H) square miles, of which only l-24th part is cultivated. It is bounded on the east by a
range of mountains, named Yiomadong by the Aracanese, and Annpectomiim by the Birmans, which
stretches northwards from Cape Negrais to the Tipperah hills. Its mean height is 30()(i feet, but in
some places it reaches oDOO. Not less than 22 passes are said to e.\ist in the ridge, leading between
Aracan and Ava ; but only five are used for this purpose ; the best is the pass of ^I'tig, the summit
of which is 4664 feet above the level of the sea. Towards the east side the mountains decline by a
succession of terraces ; but towards Aracan the descent is steep and abrupt. The northern part of
the province consists of the large valley of Aracan Proper, which is divided from the Bay of Bengal
by a ranse of heights, which scarcely rise to more than 7i'0 feet, and generally assume a conical shape.
Some of them are insulated ; others are connected by narrow ridges ; but all are scattered irregularly,
and separated by ravines, valleys, and confined level spots, each occupied by a stream, a lake, or a
marsh. The valley of Aracan varies in width from 10 miles or less to 40 ; but is so little above tho
level of the sea. that the tides overflow the flat borders of the rivers to a considerable e.\tcnt, and
leave them at ebb a noisome swamp. With the exception of this swampy ground, the soil consists
of rocks crumbling on the surface, and covered by a thin layer of loose black earth, overspread with
grass and jungle. In July, when the rains become abundant, the whole valley is inundated; and so
numerous are the rivers which intersect it, that they form a complete labyrinth of water communi-
cation between the towns and villages during the greater part of the year. The principal river is the
Keladyne or Iluritung, which rises between t hittagong and Munipoor, and has a course of about 2.')0
miles, terminating in a bay full of low islands of considerable size. The valley is extremely unhealthy ;
the heat, the inundations, and the general moisture, all contributing to this eftect. Even in the dry
season, November, December, and January, occasional, and sometimes heavy showers occur; in Fe-
bruary, March, and April, they become more frequent ; and still more so in May and June, when the
periodical rains set in, and continue till November. Heavy dews and thick fogs prevail, even in the
dry season, and great heat in the day-time ; the thermometer rises in July to8!)-, in August to 94°, and
is never under 77° in these months. The country is extremely fertile, and the soil fit for the cultiva-
tion of almost all kinds of tropical produce ; but nothing except rice is cultivated to any extent. Indigo,
cotton, tobacco, hemp, sesame, and mustard seed, are also raised ; the sugav-cane grows very luxu-
riantly, and might bo cultivated to a great extent ; black pepper grows wild near Aeng, but is nowhere
cultivated ; fruit is plentiful, and of excellent quality. The pine-apples and the plantains are perhaps
the finest in the world, and are produced in the greatest abundance. Mangoes, jack-fruit, sweet-limes,
and cocoa nuts, are jilentiful, but oranges are scarce. Onions, garlic, and turmeric, are the principal
culinary vegetaljles ; but bhangens, red pepper, cucumbers, water-melons, papeyas, and raktalus, are
also abundant. No forest trees grow in the valley, nor on the hills along the shore ; but large forests
of teak abound in the mountains. Tigers and elephants are found in the upper part of the valley ;
there are also poultry of various kinds, buftaloes, silk-worms,andbees. Fish are so plentiful, that they
supply not only a principal part of the food of the people, but also, when dried, an article of export.
The whole coast is intersected by rivers, creeks, and inlets of the sea, so as to form a series of penin-
sulas, isthmuses, and islands, some of the latter of which are large, particularly those of liamiee or
Cheduha. Ramree is about .5;) miles in length, mountainous and covered with jungle, and separated
from the mainland by a narrow strait. Cheduba is only about 30 miles in length, but, further from
the land, low, dry, and sandy, tolerably free from jungle, and healthy. Akyab,s.t\\ie. mouth of the
Aracan river, is similar to Cliebuda, but smaller. Between Akyab and Ramree is an extensive and
numerous group of hilly islands, mostly uninhabited. liroken Jshittds are a group of high insulated
hills to the north of Aracan ; Hardy Islands and Fold Island, to the south-east of Ramree and Che-
duba. Aracan was conquered from the Birmans in 182G, and is now under the charge of a commis-
sioner, and divided into the four districts of Akyab, Ramne, Sanduivay, and Aeng. In 1831 the
population amounted only to 173,928, in 1839 it had increased to 216,0.31, chiefly by immigration from
Chittagong and the neighbouring districts of Bengal. The nett revenue has reached 4.57,183 rupees
(£46,000). Aracan, the capital, stands on a navigable river, 50 miles from the sea in a direct line; it
was formerly very large, but its population has fallen to 3000, and is still diminishing. Its trade has
passed to Akyab, at the mouth of the river, a place which has been selected on account of its advan-
tageous position for health and trade, and is rapidly increasing. Kyook-Fyoo, Kyouk-Fhyou, or Keauk-
Feo (white stone bay), at the northern end of Ramree, is large enough to accommoclate the whole
British navy. It is land-locked on three sides, east, west, and south, and is thus completely secured
against the south-west monsoon ; the anchorage has from 8 to l.i fathoms water throughout ; tho
beach consists of fine bard sand, strewed with beautiful white pebbles, from which the harbour and
one of the islands derive their names. The town of Kyook-Fyoo contains 2000 inhabitants ; Ilamree,
on the same island, 7000. The latter stands on a creek in a lovv' situation, surrounded by hills, but
bears a high character for salubrity.
To the southward of Assam and eastward of Bengal are situate several wild countries, named Cachar
or Kachar, Tipperah, Illunipoor or Munipur, Kosiah or Cossya or Kossiyah, Gonasser, and the Giirrous,
which form a sort of neutral territory, between Bengal and Birmah. Manipitr contains an area of
7000 square miles ; the central portion of which consists of a valley of rich alluvial soil, 36 miles by
18, 2.i00 feet above the level of the sea ; the climate is favourable ; and the fruits of both tropical and
temperate climates are plentiful. It was formerly very populous and well cultivated, but is now over-
spread with jungle and marshy swamps. Chundrapure is the present capital ; the ancient metropolis
consists only of ruined temples, mounds, and ditches. It was conquered by the Birmese in 1774, and
reconquered by the British in 182,% who restored the Rajah. The Munipoories are active soldiers and
expert horsemen, and are very courageous. They profess to be Rajpoots, but they have broad Tartar
features ; the women are coar.se and masculine. Cacliar contains 4/00 square miles ; its capital is Cos-
poor. The country is in great measure waste ; and part of it is under British rule. The Kossiyah hills
extend from Silhet to Gowhatti, being an elevated region of 3500 square miles, which forms a sort of
table-land, varying from 4000 to 6000 feet above the level of the sea. The inhabitants are ruled bj a
number of petty Rajahs, who form a sort of confederacy. Gonasser and the Garrous are a continu-
ation of the same elevated region, extending westward to the great bend of the Brahmaputra. In the
Kossiyah hills is Cheera-poonjee or Chirra-punji or Chiira-pounjee, a sanatarium, 30 miles N.N.W
India.] ASIA. 717
of Silhet, and 4000 feet above tlie level of the sea. Tipperah or Tiperah is situate to the north-east
of Chittagong ; some parts of it are rich and fertile, but the greater part of the country is wild, covered
with jungle and forests, and abounding in wild elephants and other animals.
§ 2. Government of Agra or the Nurth-west Provinces.
These provinces extend from the mouth of the Soane upwards, along the Ganges and the Jum-
nah, to the sources of these rivers, including the Doab or peninsula between them ; the hill country
of Kuraaon, Hurriannee, Rohilcund, Bundelcund, ceded districts on the Nerbuddah, and the districts
in Gundwana and Orissa, ceded by the Rajah of Berar in 1820. The outline of the provinces is ex-
tremely irregular, varying from about 50 miles in breadth to 500 ; and they comprise altogether about
170,210 square miles, divided thus :
Government of Agra Proper, containing the districts of JUahabad, Futtehpore, Xorth^ Sq. miles.
Bundelcund, South Bundelcund, Benares, G/iazeepore, Gurrnckpore, Juanpore, Azim-l rr '\\C\
ghur, Mtrzapore, Agra, Alli/ghur, FwTuckahad, BareiUy, Shah-jehan-pore, Saharun- J "">^'"
pore, Meerut, Cau-npore, Etawah, Moradabad, and Bolundshuhur, . . . J
Hill Countries of Kumaon, ^-c. ......... 18,000
Ceded Districts on the Xerl/uddah, ........ 29,800
Districts ceded by the Rajah of Berar, in Gunduana, in 182G, .... 55,!j00
170,210
In the lower districts of Agra, along the rivers, the country is flat, and, where well watered, is ex
uberaiitly fertile, particularly in the Doab, or peninsula between the Juninah and the Ganges. As
abundance of water is indisi)ensable to fertility, the governmLiit have it in contemplation to cut a
janal from the Ganges, near Uurdwar, through the length of tlic Doab, to thu south of Coel and Myn-
poorie. To the south-west the country rises considerably, and in Bundelcund or IJundelklmnd, be-
comes a table-land diversified with hills, where were formerly numerous strongholds, whose ruins still
crown the summits. This table-land contains the famous diamond mines of I'unnah. To the north
the country along the rivers still continues flat, as far as the Sub-Himalayas, where it is only. 1000 feet
above the Uvel of the sea, though nearly 1000 miles distant from it in a straight liYie ; but towards
the west and north-west frontier, it becomes hilly and wooded. Westward of Delhi is the province
of IIurriaiDiee, which, in the flourishing times of tlie Mogul empire, was the appanage of the lieir ap-
parent, and is celebrated for the fine verdure, from which it derives. its name, for the herds of cattle
which are pastured on it, for its lions, and for the valour and independent spirit of its inhabitants.
Eastward of Dellii, between the Jumnah and the hills on the north-east is the extensive territory of
Kohilcund, which derives its name from the Kohillas. — ( See Pkoi'LK.) The soil and climate of Kohil-
cund are very fine. The sugar, rice, and cotton raised there are the best in India ; toddy and date
palms are common, while the walnut, (he apple, the pear, strawberries, and grapes, likewise thrive.
Kunuion. Gerhwal or Gurhuul, and .SVrHioor, are severally tlie names of a mountainous region, popu-
larly called The Hills, extending from the Suttlej to tlie Kali, a distance of 250 ndles east and west,
and between the Sub- Himalayas and the crest of the main chain, to the north-east. The whole of this
space is occupied by numerous ranges of mountains ; and, when viewed from a commanding position,
presents the appearance of a wide e.xpanse of unconnected ravines, rather than a succession of re-
gular chains. The valleys are lowest on the banks of the largest rivers, where, too, the greatest poi--
tion of level land is generally to be met with. These spots, however, never exceed, and seldom
amount to, half a mile in breadth. The region contains the sources of the Ganges and the Junniah,
and of several of tlieir tributaries, and no less than four of their t\\e prai/agas or holy junctions, the
fifth and principal one being at Allahabad. The hill countries are blest with a delightful climate, the
rigours of the winter being moder.ited by poweiful solar radiation, while the summer heats are tem-
pered by the snows of the Himalayas. Indeed during summer the vicinity of the frozen region causes a
continual descending current of air which si ts in daily, just as regularly as a sea breeze on a tropii al
shore, and with an equall.v invigorating freshness. At Saharunpore, the climate resembles that of
the southern pans of Europe, the mean annual temperature being 73^. During more than half tho
year the Bhot districts of Kumaon are covered witii snow, wiiieh begins to fall in September, and con-
tinues to accumulate till April. In open and level places, where the body of snow is in some parts
12 feet deep, it disappears early in June ; but in the hollows it remains till the middle of July. Du-
ring the five sunnner months the thermometer ranges at sunrise from 40^ to 5,')^ ; at mid-day from liG'-'
to 75^ in the shade, and from 00- to 110 in the sun. During the cold season, on the contrary, owing
to the great evaporation, the thermometer before sunrise is always lowest in the valleys, and the frost
IS more intense than on the hills of moderate elevation (below 7000 feet), while at noon the sun is
more j.owerful. The extremes within 24 hours have been known to be 18- and 51^'. The snow, how-
ever, does not fall equally every year ; the natives «ay every third year is one of heavy snow ; but in
general it does not lie long, except on the mountain tops and ridges. The heat, however, diminishes
as the height increases. At Massouree (67(i0 feet), the mean animal temperature is only •17'' ; indicd,
at an elevation of 4000 feet the hot winds cease, and vegetation assumes a European character. The
quantity of rain which falls at Almora is from 40 to 50 inches. ( Sec aide Vkgktaklk 1'uoductions.)
The tiger is found quite up to the gJaciers, of size and ferocity undiminislied ; there are also lynxes
and hyenas, and bears are common, and mischievous. The chamois is not uncommon among tlie
snowy mountains ; the musk deer is found only in the highest part of the province; it is unable
to bt ar even tlie lieat of Almora; i\w yak or Thibet cow also droops as soon as it leaves the neigh-
bourhood of tlic ice. The shawl-goat will live, but its wool S(;on degenerates ; whilj the English dog
ig said not only to improve in strength, size, and sagacity among tlie Bhooteas, but to acquire in u
winter or two the same fine .'■hort shawl wool, mixed up with its own hair, which distinguished tlie
indigenous animals. The same is to a considerable extent the case with horses. Hare.-: are found
here, n.uch larger and finer th:;n in tlie soutliern provinces, and not inferior to tliose of Europe. A
beautiful flying squirrel is not uncommon in the higher and colder parts of the forests ; small mar-
mots, of the Alpine specie s, abound in the neighbourhood of tbe snow; and rats of the same species
as those of India are numerous and trimblesome. There is also a beautiful and rai'e animal of the deer
species, called ^oonh, sometimes employed in carrying the children of chiefs. But the most remark-
able animal is a wild dog, in form aiidtur resembling a fox, but considerably lar.gerand stronger, and
very wild and fierce. These dogs hunt in packs, giving tongue like dogs, and possess a very fine scent ;
they make tremendous havoc among the game of the hills ; but compensate this mischief by destroy,
ing other wild beasts, and evin tigers. Eagles are numerous and very tdrmidable. Quails, partriilges,
pheasants, larks (not very diftVrent from those of England), a black thrush, a little black and red bird,
with a note like a robin's, and the goldfinch, are also Ibund. The inhabitants of the hill conntiy are
almost all Hindoos, or at least claim a descent from Hindoo colonists who took refuge there fiom
the Mahometan invaders ; while their chiefs boast of Kajpoot blood ; but they are held in little esteem
by their brethren of the plains. In many points which are held to be of the liigliest importance, tliey
are by no means orthodox; and the circumstance of their dispensing with the ablutions, considered
to be 80 necessary by the worshippers of Gunga, forms au abomination whieh Europeans unltv iu
'18
DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.
[India.
reprobating. Mahadoo CSiva) is tlie'god to whom tlicy pay tlie greatest homage ; but their bralimina
are an ignorant race, utterly unacquainted with their sacred writings.
Kumaun, whicli is tlie eastern portion of tlie territory, and contains a superficial area of about
10,Cy7 square miles between the Kali and the Ganges, is directly under the British Government. The
portion to the north-west of the Ganges, as far as the Suttlej, and up the valley of the latter river to
t:ie borders of Thibet, is governed by native chiefs, who are completely subject to British controul,
rnd are under the charge of a resident or commissioner, who resides at Umbala or Subhatoo. That
part of the valley of the Suttlej which is under British control, and named KanouroT Kunawur, stretch-
ing between the Himalayas and Chinese Tartary or Thibet, is the most delightful region that the pen
of the traveller has ever attempted to describe. The climate is the finest in the world, being beyona
the reach of the periodical summer rains, and subject only to such gentle and refreshing showers as
are necessary for the cultivation of the land. The fruits and the flowers of all countries flourish in
this delightful spot ; those of Europe are indigenous, and reach perfection with little care. The grape
grows in such lu.vuriant abundance, that from this province alone the whole of India might be supplied
with wine. It contains eighteen species of the vine. Honey also is plentilul ; but bears are numerous,
a. id very destructive to the vineyards and the hives. Though covered with hills apparently too steep
for cultivation, the country is nevertheless very fertile, yielding more corn and vegetables than are
f ufHcient fur the support of a numerous population. The country, however, is very high ; the villages
are nenerally at the elevation of 8000 or 9000 feet, and some are so high as 12,000; at the north-east
frontier, the elevation of more than 20,000 feet above the level of the sea has been attained by travellers
\iitliout crossing snow; but, nevertheless, the sun's rays for a few months in summer are oppressive,
though the atmosphere in the shade is freezing. The nights become frosty in the middle of Septem-
ber; the thermometer sinks below the freezing point in the mornings in October; snow falls towards
t!ie end of that month, and covers the ground till March or April. The climate being dry, the falls
of snow are not heavy ; but the winters are, nevertheless, extremely rigorous. The passes by which
Kunawur is approached from the Indian side of the Himalayas are at present somewhat difficult, but
might easily be rendered very passable. Kunawur belongs immediately to the Hajah of Bissaher,
whose territory includes a large portion of the valley of the Suttlej and the adjoining mountains.
The ceded districts on the Nerbuddah, and in Gundwana and Orissa, extend through the middle of
India, comprising a large tract of hilly. 111 cultivated, and imperfectly explored country, intersected
by deep ravines and fertile valleys, and covered in many places with dense forests. They have not
yet been reduced to the form of regular provinces, but are placed temporarily in the charge of com
niissioners, wlio exercise the whole functions of government.
The principal towns in the north-west provinces, with their distances from Allahabad, are stated
in the following table : —
AORA, . .
Ajmere, .
Ajmerghur,
Allyghur,
Almora,
Anopshehr,
Bareilly,
Belaspore,
Benares,
Bhutnere,"
260N.W. by W.
. 440 W. by N.
190 S.
, 290 N.W.
320 N.N.W.
, 300 N.W.
260 N.W.by AV.
.510N.W. by N.
. 535 N.'w. by W.
Boolundshuhr, 320 N.W.
Callinger, , . 90 W. by S.
Calpie,
Canouge, . .
Cawnpore, . .
Chunarghur,
Coel, . . .
Cutterah, . .
Darabnugger,
Dehra, . . .
Dklhi, .
Deobun, . . ,
Etawah, . .
Ferozepore,
Furruckabad,
Futtehpore-
Sikri, . . ,
Gangpore, . .
Ghazipore, .
Ghoosghur,
140 W.N.W.
. 1G5 N.W.
120 N.W.
. 70 E. by S.
. 280 N.W.
232 N.W. by W.
. 3.-)0 N.W.
410 N.W. by N.
.360 N.W.
390 N.W.
. 200 N.W. by W.
580 N.W.
. 200 N.W.
270 AV.N.W.
295 S.E.
, 112 E. by N.
400 N.W.
Gohud, . . .230 W.N.W.
Gooroodwara, . 400 N.W. by N.
Gurrah, . . . 200 S.W.
Hansi, . . . .442 N.W. by W.
Hattras,
Heerapore, .
Hissar, . . .
Hurdwar, . .
Jeliangeerabad-
Jubbulpore, .
Jushpore,
Kallinger, . .
Kalpie or Calpie, 140 W.N."W
Khimlassa, . .226 W.S.W.
Konkelnugger,
Kooneh,
274 N.W
210 S.W. by S
462 N.W. by W.
385N.W. by N.
305 N.W.
190 S.W.
250 S.E. by S.
90 W. by S.
Kurnaul,
Kuttrah, . .
Landour, . .
Loodiana, .
Mandouthee,
Massouree,
Maundoo, .
Meerut,
jVIhow, . .
Mooradabad,
Mundlah, .
Muttrab, . .
Narwar,
230 S.E.
172 W.N.W.
420 N.AV.
232 N.W. by W.
420N.W. by W.
520 N.W.
380 N.W. by W.
420 N.W. by W.
450 S.W. by W.
350 N.W.
420 W.S.W.
300 N.W.
205 S. by W.
295N.W. by W.
Nugeeana,
Nusseerabad, .
Paniput, . .
Patialah,. . .
Peeleebheet, .
Punnah, . . .
Rampore,
Rewaree, . .
Rohtuk, . .
Rotasghur,
Saharunpore,
Samanah, . .
Sasseram, . .
Saugur, . .
Seheraunpore,
Seronge,
, 3.54 N.W. by W.
430 W. by N.
410 N.W.
475 N.W.
260 N.N.W.
112 W.S.W.
370 N.W. by W.
. 400 N.AV.
136 E. S.E.
. 400 N.W.
474 N.W.
140 E. by S.
.215 S.W. by W.
. 400 N.W.
260 W.S.W.
Shahjehanpore, 220 N.W. by N.
Simla,. . . . 490 N.W. by W.
Sirdhana,
Sirgoojah,
Sirhind, . .
Sirinagur,
Sohagepore, .
Sookertal,
Soonput, . .
Subhatoo,
Sumbhulpore,
Thanesur, . .
Umballa, . .
370 N.W.
. 180 S.E. by S.
490 N.AV. by N.
.380 N.N.W.
160 S.
, 370 N.W.
380 N.AV.
490 N.AV. byW.
305 S.S.E.
440 N.AV.
, 456 N.AV.
Allahabad, the seat of government, is an ancient city situate at the point of the peninsula formed
by the confluence of the Ganges and the Jumnah, 820 miles from the sea by the course of the Ganges,
but only 475 AV.N.AV. in a straight line from Calcutta. The houses are built of mud, and so lately as
the time when it was visited by Bisliop Heber, the city bore a desolate ruinous appearance ; but it is
how improving, and the population which, in 180.3, was estimated at 20,000, had increased, in 1831-2,
to 64,785. The fortress erected by the Emperor Akbar has baen much improved since it came into
the possession of the British Government ; it is lofty and extensive, and, being situate at the very
point of confluence, completely commands the navigation of both rivers. Allahabad is the grand
military depot of the upper provinces. The Ganges is here a mile wide, and the Jumnah 1400 yards.
The confluence of the rivers forms one of the five prayagas or holy junctions ; on which account it is
visited by multitudes of pilgrims who come to battle in the sacred spot ; and some for the purpose of
drowning themselves, with the certainty of reaching paradise through so holy an entrance. In some
years the number of pilgrims has amounted to 220,000. They believe that a third river, the Sereswati,
joins the other two below ground ; and it is owing to this extraordinary circumstance that the pray-
aga of Allahabad is reckoned peculiarly holy.
Benares or Bunarus, called also Kashi, the sacred capital of HindOism, is a large city on the left
bank of the Ganges, 53 miles E. of Allahabad. The Ganges here forms a fine sweep of four miles,
aiid the convex side of the curve, which is a high bank, is covered with buildings to the water's edge.
The .streets of the city are very narrow, and the houses generally lofty. Benares has long been cele-
brated as the chief seat of Brahminical learning ; but, in addition to the holy character of the city,
the inhabitants are also very industrious and wealthy. It is the great mart or entrepot for the
trade between the north-west and the south-east provinces, and has, besides, considerable manufac-
tures of its own. A new road is forming between it and Calcutta. Benares is built, say the Brah-
mins, not on common earth, but on the point of Siva's trident ; and is so holy that whoever dies
here, of whatever sect, and even though he should be an eater of beef, provided he is charitable ti>
India.] ASIA. 719
the poor Brahmins, is sure of salvation. This reputation for holiness makes Benares the great
resort of beggars ; because, besides the attraction of tlio alms of the multitudes of pilgrims who are
continually going and coming, many rich individuals in the decline of life come here to wash away
their sins, and expend large sums in profuse and indiscriminate charity. The principal place of
worship is a pagoda called Visswishor or Visshishor; which, though small, is handsome, and con-
tains a black cylindrical stone, representing biva, the Mahadeo or Great God. Hoth men and women
resort in crowds every morning and evening to adore this idol. There is besides a stone figure of
Siva's bull, and usually a sacred live bull also within the court of the temple. There are also nume-
rous smaller temples, and a celebrated observatory erected by a rajah of Jyenugger; but there are
only a few Moslem mosques. The largest was erected by the Mogul Emperor Auruiigzebe en the
liighest part of the bank of the river, on the site of a lamous Hindoo temple, which he destroyed for
the purpose. This mosque is distinguished by its two slender and very lofty minarets, peering far
above every other object. All the principal houses of Benares are built of stone ; but the streets are
so very narrow that a palanquin has barely room to pass. The city is divided into 390 niehalas or
wards, each with gates regularly cl03td at niglit. The i opulatiun was estimated, in 180,'f, to exceed
.'182,000 ; but, since 1822, it has been ascertained hy Mr. Prinsep to be only about 20(1,450, of ^liom
181,482 live in the city, and 18,908 in Secrole, and sixteen neiglibouring vilages. About a fifth part
of tills population is Moslem ; but the city itself is exclusively inhabited by -Hindoos ; the Brahmins
forming a very considerable part of their number. The number of pilgrims who attend the great
festivals varies from about oO.OOO to 100.000. The British cantonment is at Secrule, to the west ot the
city ; and at Ilanmiigur, on the opposite bank, but five miles up the river, is tlie residence of the
liajah of lienarcs, one of the East India Company's pensioners.
AOB\, which gives its name to the government, is situate on the right bank of the Jumnah, 830
miles W.N.W. of Calcutta, and 710 N.N.E. of Bombay. It was formerly a very large and populous
city, one of the capitals of the Mogul empire ; but has fallen greatly to decay, though it still contains
about 96,576 inhabitants, of whom two-thirds are Hindoos and the rest Moslem. The city rises in a
vast semicircle from the river, which is here lialf a mile wide, and consists of narrow streets, lined
with tiat-roofed brick houses. It is very conveniently situate for commerce, and is the entrepot of a
very considerable inland and frontier trade. The plains, for several miles around the city, are en-
cumbered with shapeless masses of bricks, stones, and mortar, the remains of beautiful buildings ;
and occasionally with the fading relics of a garden still surrounded by its ruined wall. In the midst
of all this desolation rise two celebrated fabrics, the TuJ-malial and the fort. The latter is very lar^e,
surrounded by high walls and towers of red hewn stone, enclosing a splendid palace built by the Em-
peror Akbar, the mootee-musjed, or pearl mosque, a beautiful structure of white marble, and nume-
rous other buildings now sadly disfigured and destroyed. The Tuj-malial is a splendid sepulchre of
white marble, adorned with the finest mosaics, erected by tlie Emperor Shah Jehan for his beloved
wife, Mehd-Alia, who was also called Mumtaj-mahal, Nur-mahal, and Nur-Jchan. It stands on a
terrace within a quadrangular enclosure, measuring 300 yards by 190. and consists of a square build-
ing surmounted by a bulbous dome, and adorned with minarets, Shah Jehan intended to erect a
similar tomb for himseli on the opposite bank of the river, and to comiect the two by a bridge ; hut,
dying before his intention could be carried into effect, he was laid beside " the Light of the World,"
in this, the most splendid mojiunient of conjugal affection ever erected. The Taj-mahal is said to
have cost IT-'iO.tWO. It has been repaired, and tiie surrounding garden put in order, at tbe expense of
the British Government, who have also assigned a handsome annual sum to keep it in repair. All
who have seen it agree in considering the Taj-mahal to be the finest architectural structure in e.xis-
tence, and rei resent it as one of the wonders of the world. Si.x n.iles north of the city is Senmrlnr,
a ruinous village, which, however, contains one of the most splendid buildings in India, inferior only
to the Taj-malial. This is the tomb of Akbar or Ukhbar, the greatest and the best of the Mogul em-
perors ; it is built of red stone, and consists of several tiers of arcades and galleries, over which, at
tlie top, is an area surrounded by a marble screen richly carved. In the centre of ti.e area is the
nronuinent of Akbar, of white marble, containing this inscription : " The God Akbar, may his glory
be magnified !" together with the hundred names of God inscribed upon it in Arabic, interwoven with
flowers and leaves beautifully executed in relief. The body of .Akbar reposes in a plain tomb, under
a lofty dome on the ground floor. I'rom the top the view is extremely fine ; the immediate neigh-
bourhood is covered with the tombs of his wives, ministers, nobles, and courtiers, while in the distance
is seen the town and fort of Agra, amidst ravines and ruins, and rising above them all the beautiful
Taj-mahal, " the diamond of the desert." Futtthpooi-Sikri or I-'ultypme-Sicri, 23 miles west of Agra,
though now a collection of huts and ruins, was formerly the Versailles of the Mogul emperors, and
the favourite retn at of Akbar, whose palace is also in ruins. It contains a splendid mosque still to-
lerably entire. Lasvaree, a village 70 miles W.N.W. of Agra, is celebrated for a great victory gained
by General Lake over Sciiidiah's forces in 1803.
JJki.hi C Drlili. Dchlce, Delli, Delli/, Villi J. formerly the capital of the Mogul empire, and still the
residence of the Great Mogul, whose empire is now limited to the walls of his palace, and whose reve-
nues consist of a pension from the liritish Government, is situate on the right bank of the Jumnah,
l.'i7 miles N.W. by N. of Agra, and 800 ft et above the level of the sea. Delhi i.s one of the most ancient
cities of India, and celebrated in its history under the name of Jndritprest ; it formerly occupied a
space of 20 fijuare miles, but great 1 art of its area is now covered with ruins. The city of New Delhi,
founded fy Sh.ah Jelian in 1631. is about seven miles in circumference, and is surrounded on three sides
by walls faced with substantial masonry of huge blocks of sparkling granite, and pierced by seviii
gates. Within are the remains of many splendid palaces and fine mosques. The imperial palace
was also built by .Shah Jphan, and stands within an inclosure of red stone walls which is a mile in
circumference. It is built of red granite in a beautiful style. The gardens of Shahlimar were liiid
out by the same emperor, at the cost of about 11,00(1,000 sterling, but ar ■ now destroyed. '1 lie |iro-
Spect to the south of the Shahlimar, as far as the eye can reach, is strewed with the remains of exten-
sive gardens, pavilions, mosques, and tombs, all of which arc desolate and ruinous. In the reign of
Jehaiigire, Ali Merdan Khan brought a canal from the upper part of the Jumnah. a distance of 120
miles, to Delhi ; but in the general wreck of the empire it became eliokeil up and useless. It was,
however, completely restored in 1826 by the British Govermnent, and now supplies the city with good
water. The original purpose of the canal was to irrigate the lands; but it is now used to drive saw
and flour mills, near Delhi. Under the rule of its present masters, Delhi has been for many years ra-
pidly recovering from its ruined condition, and its population exceeds l.')0,0(K), one-eighth of whom,
it is said, derive their means of subsistence from digging amidst the ruins of the (jid city, when' they
often find articles of value. About nine miles 8. of Delhi stands the Vutlub Miliar, a remarl,abie
tower or pillar 242 feet high ; it seems to have been inteniled as a minaret to a mosiiue, which was
never completed ; it was erected upwards of 600 years ago by the .Mlghan Emperor of Delhi, Ctittiih
Shah, whose tomb, a huinble edilice, stands near it. The emperor (lied a. d. 1210
Ajmerr C ylfitrrwrf, /■liljnihnirj, a beautiful and ilourishing city, situate in a small detached terri-
tory on the eastern flank of the Aravulli mountains, in Kajpootana, was formerly the capital of
one of the provinces of the .Mogul empire, but fell completely to decay. Since, however, it came Into
the possessson of the British Government, the security thereby provided has induced many mer-
chants of Marwar to settle in it • street?, squares, and bazaars rise \\y almost daily • a gvneral uni-
720 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [India.
forniity of p'lan has been maintained ; and the city promises to become the ornament of the country.
Population in 1830, '25,000. Tliough surrounded by bare and rocky hills, the valley of Ajmei-e is
beautiful, being wooded with reoni, peepul, and tamarind trees, and watered by extensive lakes. It
contains a strong fortress, which has been deemed impregnable, and has within its walls the tomb of
Sheikh Kojah Mow-uud-deen, one of the most celebrated Moslem saints in India. The tomb is, ex-
ternally, a very elegant Saracenic structure of yellow polished limestone, apparently inclosing an an-
cient Jain temple ; and the Emperor Akbar is said to have made a pilgrimage to it on foot. It is still
visited by numerous devotees. Poshkur or I'okur. six miles W. by N. of Ajmere, is a flourishing ana
populous town with a great yearly fair, and containing the only temple in India dedicated to Brahma,
the Creator, or first person of the Hindoo triad. It is situate on the edge of a lake, an ablution in
whose waters is believed to wash away the sins, not only of the person who batlies, but of the family
he represents. It is annually visited in October by prodigious crowds of pilgrims, and a strong de-
tachment of troops is despatched to the town to keep the peace among the Soniyasses, Yogies, Ghos-
saiiis, and other holy devotees, who often come to blows and bloodshed in upholding their respective
claims to superior sanctity. Poshkur is also renowned for its gardens and vineyards, the gi-apes of
whicli are said to equal those of Shiraz, and ai-e the largest and the best in India. Nusseerahad, 14 miles
E.S.E. of Ajmere, a British military station or cantonment, is one of the healthiest in India, though
very dreary. Beawr, one of the wildest stations in India, forms a sort of outpost to Nusseerabad, from
which it is 30 miles distant. Bliutnere or lihutneer, is a large fortress in the desert, 183 miles N.N. W.
of Delhi. At Hissar there is a stud belonging to the Company. Shapoom, near Ajmere, is also a large
place, with signs of prosperity, besides a large lake abounding with alligators.
G/inzipore or Ghaxeepiir, is a large town and military cantonment on the left bank of the Ganges,
nearly midway between Allahabad and Patna, celebrated for the salubrity of its atmosphere and the
beauty and extent of its rose gardens. Chunarghur, a strong fortress on the right bank of the Gan-
ges, 18 miles S.W. of Benares, was formerly the key of the British frontier on this side, but is now
of less importance. It is built on a steep rock, which rises abruptly from the plain, and projects into
the river. Cawnpare or Kanpiir, a town on the right bank of the Ganges, with extensive military can-
tonments, occupying a space nearly six miles in length. At the distance of a few miles is Bilhore, the
])lace of confinement for the deposed Peishwah of the Mahrattas. Punivih, the capital of the diamond
district in Bundelcund, a large town situate in a barren rocky plain. It has several handsome temples,
in one of which is an idol with a diamond eye of great brilliancy and of immense value. The princi-
pal mines are now at Siikareah, a village 12 miles from Punnah.
Ban-illy, the chief place of Roliilcund, is a flourishing town of 70,000 inhabitants, of whom two-tliirds
are Hindoos and one-third Moslem, noted for their cutlery, brass, and cabinet work, fine carpeting,
ensbroidery, and jewellery. The civil and military servants of the East India Company reside in
cantonments to the south of the town, protected by a kind of citadel built in 1816, and strong enough
to resist any attack from the natives. Furruckabad, near the west bank of the Ganges, is a flourishing
town with a population of 70,000. Three miles distant, close on the Ganges, is the British canton-
ment of Futtehghui: Canoiige or Kanoge, an ancient capital of HindClstan in the Doab, two miles
from the Ganges, consists at present of a single sti'eet, but is surrounded with ruins for many miles ;
217 miles E. by S. of Agra. Muttrali, a large and remarkable city on the right bank of the Jumnah,
30 miles N.N.W. of Agra, is much reverenced by tlie Hindoos for its antiquity, and its connection with
many of their legends ; more particularly as the birth-place of tlie demi-god Krishna. Meerut, 32
miles N.E. of Delhi, is a town of some antiquity, and now the principal military station of the British
troops in this part of India. It stands in a wide dry plain,, and has a church with a high and elegant
spire, capable of holding 3000 people. Sirdfiana, 14 miles N.N.W. of Meerut, was lately the capital
of a small principality belonging to the Begum Sumroo, the widow of an adventurer named Sum-
roo or Sommers, who acquired a gift of it from Najif Khan, and died in 1776. It contains about 40,000
inhabitants, of whom 600 are native Christians. The Begum ( Lady), who died in December 183.5, was
a devout Catholic ; she built an elegant church in the city, and endowed it with a lac of rupees,
( £10,000) ; and also erected and maintained at Meerut a Catholic chapel, for the benefit of the British
Catholic soldiers. At her death the territory reverted to the East India Company. Paniput, 50 miles
N. by W. of Delhi, a large commercial town, built of brick on a rising ground in the midst of a very
extensive plain, is famous as the scene of two of the greatest and most important battles ever fougiit
in India : the first a. d. 1525, in which Ibrahim Lodi, the last Patau king of Delhi, was defeated and
slain by Sultan Baber, the founder of the Mogul empire; the second in 1761, in which Ahmed Shah Ab-
dallee, the first king of Cabul, defeated the JIahrattas, and broke their power. Kurnaul, an impor-
tant military station, 74 miles N. by W. of Delhi. Tanaaur, Thanesur, or Thunesur, 94 miles N. by
W. of Delhi, and one of the most celebrated places in Indian mythology, and was formerly filled with
temples and crowded with pilgrims. The Sarisvati, or Serisvatee, or Surriswutty river, a famous
mythological stream, flows through it, and is lost in the desert, but is believed to rise again at the
prayaga of Allahabad, 503 miles distant. In the vicinity are the plains of Kourket, famed in the Ma-
liabarat. Patialah or Putteeala, the seat of a rajah, is a compact brick town, but thinly inhabited.
Sirliind, a famous city of great extent, is now a mere provincial bazaar or market town. F(ruxp;iorc,
a fortified town near the Suttlej, the capital of a small state, which lately reverted to the East India
Company on the death of an old Sikh lady. It was formerly a large city, and still contains a com-
manding castle and keep. It has been newly surrounded with a wall and ditch ; bazaars have been
laid out, and shops constructed, and it is rapidly tilling v.-ith settlers an.xious to participate in the
newly opened trade of the Indus. A fair has been established, and commerce is in a very active state.
Steam vessels now ascend from the mouth of the Indus 950 miles by the Chenaub and Suttlej to
E'erozepore. Loodiana or Lodceana, a large military station near the Suttlej, 200 miles N.W. by N
of Delhi, has been for many years the residence of Shah Zemin and Shah Shuja, the exiled kinys of
Cabul, and their families, who are pensioners of the British Government. Seheraimpore or HakaruiL-
■pure, D2 mile N. by E. of Dehi, and 1000 feet above the level of the sea, contains a fine botar.ic garden
belonging to the East India Company, and a school of monkeys, kept by a set of devotees called Gos-
seins, who have tutored their pupils, an innumerable swarm, into something like discipline. Hurdii-ar
or Haiidwar, 117 miles N.E. by N. of Delhi, isa celebrated place of Hindoo pilgrimage, on the right
bank of the Ganges, where it issues from the mountains. The principal object of pilgrimage is to
bathe in the sacred stream ; and, for the accommodation of battiers, a fine ghaut or flight of stops
has been erected on the bank of the river by the British Government. A great fair is also held at the
bathing season, and so many as 2,000,000 of people have been known to assemble ; but the usual num-
bers vary from 200,000 to 300,000. The water is supposed to acquire additional sanctity every twelfth
year ; and the concourse of pilgrims is then always greatest.
Abiwra, the capital of Kumaon, is a small town, built on the ridge of a mountain, 5400 feet above
tlie level of the sea, in the midst of an extremely bleak and naked country. Sirinagur or Sltrinagur,
tlie capital of Gurhwal, is situate in a valley on the left bank of the Alacananda, 1500 feet above the level
of tlie sea. It was almost destroyed by an earthquake in 1805, and is in a state of dtcay. Guoroodwara,
i i the chief town of the Beijra-Dhoon, a fertile valley, 1350 feet above the level of the sea, 56 miles long
and 16 miles broad, between the Jumnah and the Ganges. Simla, lat. 31° 6' N. long., 77° y' E., 7486 feet
above the level of the sea, a new European station in Sirmoor, near the Suttlej, a small straggling town
on a narrow ridge, every ledge and gentle slope of which has been eagerly pitched upon for the site
India.] ASIA. 721
of a house. The gardens i»rodue« Eurnpean fruits, and culinary vegetablat. while the open counlrj
2 bounds with dai-ies, primroses, rhododendrons, oal^g, tirs, and dog roses. Hhubarb and ginger ara
also ii.digenous, and immense quantities of the tiiiest lioney may be had all over the hills. The cli
liiate in summer is very tine, and makes the place appear a perfect paradise to those whose constitu-
tions have been exhausted by the heat of the plains ■ but in winter it is covered with snow. Lan-
tlitur and Mutsnuri or Massuri or Matsouree, aie two other summer stations of the same liind as Sin. la,
but more easily accessible. They are both situate on the hills on the norih side of the Dehra or De-
jra Uhoon ; Landour, atan elevation ol 7.'>')9 feet, and Massouree, (i70 i. The houses of both are merely
thatch-roofed bungalows, and there is so little flat ground that the foundations of many of them
are built up with masonry against the edge of precipices ; tlie roads are narrow, being cut along the
sides of the most fiiglitful precipices, and yet ladies gallop along them without alarm, and drunken
toMiers stagger on them with impunity. Another new station has also been formed at Sirta, in the
Hhootea country. Dehra is another lovely spot lower down, situate in the valley to which it gives its
name, with neat European hou>es, and an enchanting view from the parade ground. Subfiatoo, the
occasional residen'-e of the political agent who superintends the petty princes of Gurhwal, is a small
place, a few miles S. \V. of Simla. The proper or official residence of the agent is at Umballa, a town
on the road from Kurnaul to Loodiana.
Saiigtir or Situgui-. the ciiief town of the ceded districts on the ^erlmddah, occupies a pleasant situa-
tion. 2(KK) feet above the level of the sea, onthe banks of abeautiful lake, whicli isflve miles in circumfe-
rence, surrounded by an anipliitlieatre of basaltic and sandstone hills, and abounding with a great
variety offish, and in the cold season, with teal, widgeon, wild ducks, numberless snipes, and some-
times geese. The town contains a stationary population of .50,000 inhabitants, chiefly Mahrattas
Ten miles from Saugur an ele^'ant suspension bridge, of 200 teet span, has bet n erected over the river
IJeas. SMUgur is usually garrisoned by four battalions of infantry, a company of Kuropean artillery,
and a regiment of local cavalry; it has also a mint, and a large civil establishment. The station is
perfectly isolated, and, except in the cold season, the British residents seldom enjoy thesight of a stran-
ger. The climate is damp and chilly. Husseinabad or Hussineahud or Hoshuufiabad, a consiclerablu
town on the left bank of the Nerbuddah, where it is W)0 yards wide ; but tiie tied of the river is umch
broken, and there are 13 fords across it within U miles of the town, Juhbvlni^ri' itO miles S.t. ol
Saugur, IS the residence of the political agent for the Saugnr and >itrbudLiah territory.
§ 3. The Presidency of Matirns.
The authority of this presidency extends over a great part of the peninsula of India, stretching along
the east coast, from the Chilka lake to Cape f omorin ; and including, on the west coast, the maritime
provinces of Malabar and Canara. The presidency consists of five large provinces, namely, the ( ar-
ruitic-paif/m-gh(iut, or hower CarnBititi ; the Cinnatir-bala-iihaut, or Upper Carnatic ; the Surthern
Circtirt ; Malabar ; and Vaiiara. The Lower Carnatic, which extends for 560 miles alon^ the coast of
Coromandel, ( Cholamandula), and inward to the eastern ghauts, is a flat country rising very little
above the level of the sea. The soil along the coast is for the most part light and sandy ; inland it
se ms to consist of a decompositi<.n of syenite impregnated with salt, which, in dry weather, cover*
the ground with a saline efflorescence. The climate is the hottest in India ; but in May, June, and July,
the air is cooled and the ground refreshed by frequent showers, or by torrents of rain, which sometime*
flood the country. At other times ve>retation is burnt up, or buried beneath the clouds oftine dust which
are driven along by the hot winds from the interior. The Lower Carnatic is not remarkable either for
mineral or agricultural produce. The latter consist.sof dhourra, betel, tobacco, dwarf cotton tree, and
raghi, a small grain on which the poorer natives chiefly subsist. The Coromandel coast is low and bar-
ren; and the sea, which is extremely shallow, beats upon it with a tremendous surf anda perpetual cur-
rent The only signs of vegetation obseivable from sea, are thickets of low bushes, and wild nopal trees.
Around Madras the ground, when well cultivated and watered, produces good crops of rice, and a
pleasing verdure is maintained by the indefatigable industry of the natives ; but beyond this small
circle, the northern part of the Carnatic is not.iing but a vast naked and dusty plain, with few village.*
or signs of animal life. In the southern portion, however, particularly in Tatyore, the country is highly
cultivated and productive, a result to which the water.-; of the Cauvery, which are widely distributed
by canals, most materially contribute . the delta of that river forms, indeed, one sheet of rice ground.
From Cape Comorin also, through Tinnevelley and Dindigul, the scenery is magniticem and beauti-
ful ; the mountains assume every variety of form, and are clothed with .'■tupendous forests, while the
smaller hills which skirt the plain are graced with temples and choultries. W inding streams flow
from every hill, and the soft and lovely valleys atl'ord a striking contrast to the dark forests wh ch
overhang them. The lUtla-fshaut or Cpp'r CarnaUr, including Mysore and the districts of Salem
and Barramahal, is a lofty table-land, exceeding 3000 feet above the level of the sea ; and emoys a
temperate and generally healthy climate. The force of the monsoon.s is broken on both sides by the
Cihauts. and the rain which falls is merely sufficient to clothe the fields with perpetual verdure, and
preserve an agreiahle temperature. The principal products aie rice, raghi, oriental sesamuni, sugar-
cane, and the castor-oil plant ; cocoa nut trees are in some places so numerous as to form forests. Sona
parts of the Cuimbatoor disi rict are. however, only 500 le; t above the level of the sea, while other pai ti.
rise prodigiou-ly, as the \>li;/ii'rriei. which are the loftiest mountains to the south of the Himalayas.
T1ie.se form a mountain tract 42 miles N.K. and S.W. and 14 hroad, witli a general elevation of abuut
.V»00 feet. Nopart of thesuvtace can becalb d table-land ; it is interspersed with hills and valle>8, gene-
rally susceptible of cultivijtion. The higher iiartsarc sonietimesvisiied by frost even in summer, and
in winter they hrt covered with snow. Lower down there is fine pasture, and the wild fruits of Kuiojhi
are found in abundance. Some of the deeiK'r » alleys are narrow and niaishy ; every valley has its ren-
ning stream, and several of tl ese streams meet and form a lake, six miles in circuit, now surrounded
by a good carriage road, which affords one of the most delightful drives to be met with in India. Tha
climate is of every variety. That of the higher districts resembles the climate of the intertropical tab e-
lands of America ; but is never subject, like them, to the sudden clian,i:es and cold piercing wind.<,
which descend from their snow-capt mountains. Sjiing reigns Ihrounhout the year; yet, though
there is no winter, the heat is never sufficient to bring to perfection the more delicate European fruita
The lower valleys, however, enjoy the climate of Italy. Game Is abundant. These valleys are inlnl it d
by several tribes quite distinct from each other, and from the peoi>le of the plains. These hills were
discovered in IHI8, by two English sportsmen. From Coimbatoor the passage into Malabar is through
a funnel-shap«d pass 7 miles wide at the east, and IG at the west, and 31 miles long, which affords a free
cour.te to the N.E. and S.W. winds. To the 8. W. of .Mysore is the extremely rugged hill country of
CouriiOT Kdorg, calle<lalso Codumt male or Srnmstan, containing 2 16'> square miles, and recently the ler-
ritory of a sovereign prince, who has now been deposed Coorg is a woody district, healthy and fertile ;
Interspersed with highly cultivated valleys, the rice of which is proverbial for its size and whiteness.
Malabar and Cannra form together a very narrow strip between the western Cihauts and the sea, but
extending above 300 miles along shore. A great portion of .Malabar is comparativ. ly low, but it is in-
tersected with narrow ravines, covered with forests and JunK'le, and watered hy innumerable streaiiis.
Hart of the province consists of small low hills, with steep sidis formed into terraces for cultivatlou.
The interjacent valleys are extremely fertile, and support a numerous population. In some places k
Sandy plain three miles wide runs aloilg shore, rising into downs covered with cocoa-nut tr«itS, add
Zz
722
DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.
[India.
fartlipr inland, producing excellent rice. The coast is Indented with numerous inlets. In every stream
and river, and also in the sand along the sea shore of South Malabar, near the mouths of the rivers,
gold is found ; and on some of the mountains there are mines from which this precious metal is ex-
tracted. The quantity collected annually is about 7W ounces. The cliief vegetable produce is black
pepper, cocoa-nuts, cardaniums, teak, and sandal wood. Canara, which lies to the north of Malabar,
has a broken and rugged surface, and the Ghauts in some places approach quite close to the shore.
It Is for the most part well cultivated, and produces considerable quantities of rice, betel nut, black
pepper, cardamums, and plantains. On the high grounds red gravel prevails ; near the coast the soil
Is sandy ; but the valleys are well adapted for rice. The Nort/ierti Orcari extend about 470 miles along
the coast of the Bay of Bengal, from Motupalli, south of the Kistnah river, to the Chilka lake. They
are separated from Uydrabad by a range of small detached hills, extending between the Kistnah and
the Godavery ; and from Berar by a continuous ridge of mountains which is nearly impassable for
horses or wheeled carriages. The northern border is formed by a continuation of the same range,
which, in Goomsur, bends to tlie eastward, and, with the Chilka lake, forms a barrier of nO miles in
lenifth. Here the hilly districts of Goomsur form a beautilul table-land, of great elevation, with a
delightful climate, which is healthy throughout the .year. The river Gundozama forms the southern
boundary, separating the Circars from Ongole and the Lower Carnatic. The superficial area is about
18,800 square miles. The coast, viewed from seaward, appears mountainous to the beach ; but has,
nevertheless, along its whole extent, a sandy waste about 3 miles broad, beyond which the land rises
into detached hills, which cover the country to the frontiers of Hydrabad. The province receives its
name from the circumstance of its comprehending five circars or districts north of the Carnatic. Four
of these were acquired by Lord Clive, by grant from the Great Mogul in ITii.i ; but the fifth was not
acquired till 1788. The province is now divided into the five coUectorships or districts of Ganjam,
Fizagapatam, Rajamimdry, Mamlipatam, and Guntoor. The following is a list of the principal towns
in the presidency, with their distances from Madras :—
Adoni or Ad-
wany,
Alvar-Tinne-
velly,
Arcot, . .
Attoor, . .
Uallary, . .
Bangalore,
Barcelore, .
Batticolah, .
Bednore,
EUoor, . . . 260 N. by E.
270 N.W. by W.i Gaingoondaun, 343 S.W. by S.
Ganjam, . . 530 N.E. by N.
Ginjee, . . . 85 S W.
Girsupah, . . 380 W. by N.
Goomsurgurh, 535 N.E. by N.
350 S.S.W.
. m W. by S.
1.52 S.W.
. 265 N.N.W.
180 W.
. 368 W. by N.
380 W. by N.
. 360 W. by N.
Bellamcontah, 240 N. by W.
Bimliapatam, 395 N.E. by N.
Bobilly or Bobi-
lee, ... 420 N.N.E.
Brehmadasum, 356 S.S.W.
Calcaud, . . 370 S.S.W.
Calicut, . . 324 W.S.W.
Cananore, . . 3.50 W. by S.
Cauveryporam, 186 S.W. by W.
Cherpoolcherry 300 S.W. by W.
Chilkalurpadu, 200 N.
Chitteldroog, 270 W. by N.
Cicacole,
Chingleput,
Coimbatoor,
Colar, . .
Combaconum, 160 S.S.W,
Condapilla, . 250 N
430NE.by N.
35 S.W.
265 S.W. by W.
140 W.
Conjeveram,
Coringa, .
Cranganore,
Cuddalore,
Cuddapah,
42 S.W.
285 N.N.E.
. 300 S.W.
100 S.
135 N.W.
Gooty,
Guntoor, .
Honauwiir,
Hunsoor,
Kivalur,
Kotagheri,
Kurnool, .
Madura, .
Mahabalipuram, 34 S.
225 N.W.
. i20 N,
.390 W. by N.
, 390 W. by N.
165 S. by W.
. 260 W.S.W.
245 N.W.
270 S.W. by W.
Mahe,
Manargoody,
Mangalore,
Masulipatain,
Mercara, . ,
Motupalli, .
Munahpaud, .
Mysore, . .
Naguldinny, .
Naitravutty,
Negapatara, .
Nellore,
Nizampatnara, 2(X) N.
330 W.S.W.
177 S.S.W.
360 W.
190E.S.E.
320 W. by S.
190 N.
360 S.S.W.
216 W. by S.
270 N.W. by W.
360 W.
150 S.
. 102 N. by W.
Nugur,
Nundidroog,
Nuttam, . ,
Onore, . .
Ootacamund,
Palamcottah,
Penang or Po-
nany, ... 330 S.W. by W.
Periapatam, . 280 W. by S.
Pondicherry, . 85 S. by W.
Poodoocotah, . 210 S.W. bj S.
Porto-Novo, . 116 S.
Pulicat, ... 25 N.
Rachur, . . 200 N. by E.
Rajamundry, . 295 N.N.E.
Ramnad, . . 270 S.S.W.
Kepalle, . . . 200 N. by E.
Sadras, ... 40 S.
St Thomas'
Mount, . . 8 S.W.
Salem, . . . 175 S.W. by W.
Salour, ... 400 N.N.E.
Satenapalli, . 230 N.
Satimungalum, 230 W.S.W.
Seringapatam, 242 W. by S.
Shairmadavy, . 3r)6 S.W. by S.
Shevagunga, . 2.50 S.W. by S.
Sidhout, . . .130 N.W.
Soonda, . . . .387 W.N. W.
Strevygoondum,3.50 S.S.W.
Tanjore, . . . 175 S.S.W.
Tellicherry, . 330 W. by S.
Thenkaushee, . 350 S.W. by S.
Tinnevelly,
Tiruvalur, .
Tranquebar, .
Trichindoor,
Trichinopoly,
Tuticorin,
Velloie, . .
Vinuconda,
Vizagapatam,
Vizanagur,
Vizianagram,
Wallajahabad,
Wandiwash, .
3.50 S.W. by W.
. 165 S. by W.
160 S. bv W.
. 3,50 S.S.W.
190 S.W.
330 S.S.W.
. 80 W. by S.
210 N. by W.
. 375N.K.by N.
520 N.E. by N.
.400 N.E. by N.
37 S.W.
60 S.W.
360 \V. bv N.
, 174 W. by N.
235 S.W.
. 390 W. by N.
270 S.W.
350 S.W. by S.
Danaikencontah240 W.S.W.
Darapooram, . 250 S.W.
Dlndigul, . , 240 S.W. by S.
Doopaud, . . 210 N.N.W.
Madras, the capital of the presidency, is situate on the coast of Coromandel, in the Lower Carnatic,
in 13° 6' N. lat., and 80° 25' E. long, 10.30 miles travailing distancj S.W. of Calcutta, and 770 S.E. of
Bombay. The principal pait of the city is Fort St. (ieorge, which is handsome and strong, and requires
for its defence only a moderate garrison. It stands on commanding ground, and may be easily relieved
by sea. In the middle stands the original fort, now converted into government offices, the governor's
house, and the exchange. The Europeans, however, reside entirely in their garden-houses in the
vicinity, repairing to the fort in the morning for business. The pettah or black town, is somewhat
less than half a mile north of the fort, from which it is separated by an esplanade ; it is very exten-
sive, but in general meanly built, and dirty. There are in it, however, many fine houses belonging to
merchants and shopkeepers, and many streets of neat small houses occupied by Portuguese, Arme-
nians, and half-castes, or by such of the native merchants and clerks as have acquired European
habits. A census in 1827 gave only 27,000 houses ; but, including all the neighbouring villages, the
fopulation is estimated at 420,000, of whom 5-l()ths are Hindoos, 3-lOths Moslems, and 2 lOths Anglo-
ndians, Europeans, and Armenians. Madras trades with Europe, America, the Asiatic islands,
China, Birmah, Calcutta, and Ceylon. The principal articles of import are rice and other grain,
chiefly from Bengal ; cotton-piece-goods, iron, copper, spelter, and other British manufactures ; raw
silk from Bengal and China ; betel-nut or areca, gold-dust, tin, and pepper, from Malaysia ; rice and
pepper from Malabar ; and teak-wood from Pegu. The exports consist of plain and printed cottons,
&c. Madras has no harbour ; but large ships moor in the road, in from seven to nine fathoms wa'er,
two miles from the shore, and goods and passengers are shipped or landed by means of massulah
boats, which, being light, buoyant, and elastic, carry them safely through the tremendous surf which
always beats upon the coast, and in which no European boat could live. From October till January
is considered the most unsafe season of the year for shipping, in consequence of the prevalence of
storms and typhoons. In the fort there is a light-house, 90 feet above the level of the sea, which may
be seen from the deck of a large ship 17 miles distant, or from the mast-head at the distance of 26
miles. The principal artillery station of the presidency is at St. Thomas's Mount, 8 miles S. W. ; the
cantonment consists of good bouses, built at the base of a hill, with a fort at the top and a Catholie
chapel, to which on certain d«^ i, the Catholics of the vicinity resort in great numbers.
India. J > SIA. 723
Arcot, the capital of tho Carnatic when it was a soubah of the Mogul empire, anu the residence of
the Soubahdar, commonly called the Nabob of Arcot, consists of a fort surrounded by a large town,
on tlie banks of the river Palar. Vellore is a fine fortress partly of European, and partly of native con-
struction ; but is not of much value as a military position, being commanded by the adjacent hills. It
is used as a kind of state prison, and as such is tolerably secure, being surrounded by a wet ditch « hich
abounds with alligators of great strength and ferocity. Tripetty, 52 miles N. of Arcot, in a secluded
hollow surrounded by mountains, contains the temple of Vencata-Hama, an avatar of Vishnu ; whose
shrine is considered too holy even to be looked on by a Moslem or a Christian. Kurnool, on the
Tungabudra, the capital of a petty state, the Nabob of which has been recently deposed, and his state
confiscated, for a rebellious plot. Nundidroog, a celebrated fortress, fast falling to decay, on a hill
1700 feet high, and almost inaccessible, is only noted now for the growth of potatoes, and fur the manu-
facture of a very fine kind of soft white sugar. Bangalore is a town in Mysore 2900 feet above Madras,
in a very temperate climate, where the thermometer seldom rises above 80^, and where the cj press
and the vine grow luxuriantly. It contains a large proportion of good sized iiouses, built of red earth
covered with tiles, carries on an extensive commerce, and contains about 60,000 inhabitants. The fort
is still a strong position ; the cantonment, about three miles distant, generally contains four or five
regiments of native infantry, two Queen's regiments, with Company's artillery, and numerous civi-
lians, forming altogether a large society. At a little distance is the Wynaud Jungle, which contains
many wild elephants. Seringavatam, a fortified city upon an island in the Cauvery, formerly tho
capital ol the kingdom founded during last century by Hyder-Ali, and whicli terminated with the deatli
of his son and successor Tippoo Saib, who perished at the storming of Seringapatani by the British
forces, 4th May 1799. Population about 30,0(10. The place, however, is so unhealthy that the garri
son has been removed to a plain seven miles oil", called the Fre7ich Rocks, where the atmospliere is
more salubrious. At MaUtKelly, 25 miles E., and Siedapore, 54 miles W. of Seringapatam, Tippoo was
defeated by the advancing British armies in 1799. Hunsoor, about 30 miles N.W. of Seringapatam,
was originally merely a depot for the cattle bred for the transport of ordnance and army stores ; but
of late the preparation and manufacture of tanned and buft" leather have been introduced, and have
so rapidly improved that the town is now able to supply every sort of leather equipments as good as
those from England at half the price. All sorts of work in brass, iron, copper, and wood, are also neatly
executed, sufficient in every respect for the Madras army. Hunsoor has so many advantages that at
the shortest notice it can supply all the requisites for an army of 50,000 men. It enjoys a tine climate,
and in no part of the presidency are the gardens of flowers, fruit, and vegetables, so beautiful and so
productive. Sraeaim-belgula, a village wholly inhabited by Jains, 3(1 miles N, by W. of seringapatam,
is noted as the principal seat of the Jain worship in the south of India. It contains a colossal statue
70 feet high, apparently formed by cutting away the rock of which it consists. Oottacanmnd, a town
or village in the Nilgherries, 6410 feet above the level of tlie sea, is a great resort for valetutlinarians.
The temperature near the town is never so high as that of an English summer, nor so low as that of
an English winter. A register kept for four years showed a variation from 36^^ to 70° Fahrenheit, but
ill nineteen days out of twenty the variation was from 42° to 65°. The average fall of rain has been found
to be 46 inches in the year, more than double the quantity which falls at London. H-'alLiJ/ihahad
contains extensive militai y cantonments. Cuddalorn is one of the great stations for soldiers wlio wish
to remain in India after having served out their time, or having become invalids. Tanjore, the capital
of a rajah, contains the finest pyramidal temple in India, in the precincts of which is the figure of a bull
In black marble, finely sculptured. Combaconum, in Tanjoie, contains 40,000 inhabitant", and is dis-
tinguished for Its sanctity ; near it, in the midst of a richly cultivated country, is a sacred pond, which
once in twelve years is filled with the waters of tlie Ganges, which are supposed to travel so great
a distance under ground, and to have the quality of washing away tlie sins of those who bathe in
them. It is in consequence resorted to on these occasions by multitudes of pilgrims. Furto-Sovo,
on the coast of the Carnatic, contains flourishing lion-works which supply steel and steel-ware of ex-
cellent quality at a very low price. Mahabaiipuram or the Sfittti I'agodas, near Sadras, a collection
of extraordinary ruins, con.-isting of temples cut from the solid rock, and covered with sculptures,
which are said to mark the site of a great city now partly covered by the sea. ChUlambarum or CUii-
lumOrum, 9 miles 8.W. of Porto-Novo, contains several celebrated pagodas, the principal of which
is an exquisite sjecimen of Hindoo architecture ; and at Triviairy, 15 miles W. by N. of Pondicherry,
is a magnificent pagoda, with a slUj endous stone tower rising over its gate. In its vicinity are
found the most extraordinaiy petrifactions. Near Tiichinopoiy, in the Cauvery, is the island of
Senngham, also celebrated for its pagodas. This part of the peninsula is indeed renowned for its
temples and ruins. Trichinopoly, on the Cauvery, is a strongly fortified city with 80,000 inhabitants;
is very salubrious, and garrisoned by five or six regiments. ChitUldroog is a liill foi t of such amaz-
ing strength as to be reckoned impregnable ; but it has become so unhealthy that it has been found
necessary to abandon it. i'aticut, in Malab.ir, the residence of a prince styled the Zamorin, the first
place in India where Vasco da Gania touched after liis successful voyage round the tape of Good
Hope in 149H. It contains about 30,000 iniiabitants. Cananure, a large town with a strong fortress,
the principal military establ.shnieiii on the coi.st of Malabar. Atanga/ore, a flourishing sea-port town
In Canara, with 30,(X)0 inhabitants. (Jnore or Hunauuur. a sea-pori town at the entrance of an estu-
ary or large lake which readies almost to the Ghauts, aid in the dry season is talt. It is the estuary
of a river which has a tremendous lall of »i2 teet near (Jtnupah. It was at Onore that HyUer All
built docks, and established a naval arsenal, which were si b.sequently destroyed. Mutulipatam, in
the Northern Circars, a square fort in tlie midst of a salt morass, with a large petlah or native town, a
mile and a half N.W., communicating with the fort by a causeway 6000 feet in length, is a place of
con^lderable trade, and also of some military importancj. It stands on a semicircular bay wliich
affords tolerable shelter from all winds but the south-east. Coringa, a populous town on the coast
of a large manufacturing district in the Northern Circars, near the mouta of tho Godavery. The bay
of Coringa afiords excellent shelter for ships, and is said to be the only place on the east coast of
India where a vessel of any burden can be rentltd with sal'ety.
§ 4. Presidency of Bombay.
The authority of this presidency extends over a considerable stretch of territory of the most lire-
gular outline, with several detached parcels in the old Mogul provinces of Arungaliad, Beejapore,
Khandeish, and Gujrat ; comprising altogether an area of 64,!)3n siiuare miles. The principal part of
the territory stretches along the west coast of the peninsula, from near Goa to the mouth of the Ner-
buddah, 420 miles. It is divided into ihirteencolieetoratcs, namely, Bombay, I'oonah, Ahim-tinnggur,
Khnndeuh, Dharuar, South Jagheerdart, Satara Jagheerdart, South Cunran, North Conran, Suial,
Broach, Ahtnedabad, and Kiiirah. The last f ur are situate in Gujrat, along the Gulf of t amljay (
Poonah, Ahmednuggur, Dliarwar, and the Jagheerdiirs, are situate in the table-land of the Deccaii ;
Bombay and the two Coneans below the Ghauts, along the sea-coast. The Coticati or Koukun, is a
long narrow tract, a coniinuation of Malabar and Canara, inleraeoted by numerous rivulets flowing
westward from the mountains, and iiidented with snuiU bays and shallow tiarbours or coves. It pre-
sents a series of steep rocky mountains, rising abruptly like a wall, and affording scarcely any prac-
ticable access to the table-land fur wheel-carriages. The uisiiicts of I'oonuh and Ahmeunuggur
724 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [India.
in the Dfccan, are tlovated 2000 feet above the level of the sea ; and are intersected by rivers and
streams flowing through tlie must beautiful valleys, overtopped by trap hills, many of which are
crowned with castles ot a highly picturesque appearance. Some parts of the country arc exceedingly
fertile ; but, in general, owing to the mountainous and rocky nature of the surface, the district is
very barren. In tlie districts of D/iaruar, Satarah, and the Jag/ieerdars, the country near the
Ghauts is e.xtremely rugged; but the eastern portions are less so, and contain level tracts, where the
rocks, which in some places stud the surface, are buried in a rich blacli mould. The Ghauts along
the western border are not so much broken into masses as in some other places, but present conti-
nuous lines of mountain forests ; and, along the banks of the rivers, the country is exceedingly rich
and picturesque. At Poonah the annual fall of rain is only 2.') inches, while at Bombay it. is 100.
Dews, however, are very copious, but fogs are little known. The climate is salubrious ; there are
two harvest^, one during the hot and wet season, consisting principally of rice, the other during the cold
or dry season. The rivers, during the monsoons, are magnificent streams ; but in the <iry season, their
beds are often only samly plains, with a mere thread of water. Kkiindcish is an extensive, fertile,
well-watered plain, interspersed with low barren hills, at the base of which run numerous limpid
rivulets which find their way to the Tuptee. Great part of the district is still covered with jungle.
Gujrat, when a province of the Mogul empire, compri.«ed a large extent of country along the eastern
and northern shores of the Gulf of Camhay, with the whole peninsula of Kattiwar ; but the name is
now understood to comprise only the disti icts on both sides of the gulf which are dependent on the
civil jurisdictions of Abmedabad, Kairah, Baroda, Broach, and Surat ; the remainder being distin-
guished as Kattiwar, which is under separate authority. In this restricted sense Gujrat is, gene-
rally speaking, a dead level, through wliich the mountain torrents of Rajpootana, Khandeish, and
Malwah have cut their channels. The soil in most places consists of a loose, rich, alluvial deposit,
ill others of a deep sandy and mixed soil, resting on a calcareous formation, similar to that of Bengal
and Bahar, and termed by the natives Kankars. The Nerbuddah and the Tuiitee are the only rivers
properly so called; for the Suberinatti and the Mhye are merely great water-courses, which are al-
most completely dried up within three or four months after the rains. The climate is reckonid one
of the worst in India, being intensely hot during the greater part of the year, with a heavy thick at-
mosphere, which few people can endure. During December, January, and February, tlie mornings
and evenings are cold, and the rest of the day temperate and pleasant ; the thermometer is then often
under 60°, sometimes considerably lower, and at noon seldom exceeds 70°. But during the h.t winds,
in the ensuing months, it rises from 70^ to 100^ ; and in the plains of Cambay it has been seen at 1 Ki'^
in the soldiers tents. (Forbes' Oriental Mem. III. 245.) The soil is particularly fertile ; several sorts
of grain may be seen growing in the same field. The Parsees are numerous, and form the most re-
spectable part of the population of Gujrat.
Bombay, the capital of the presidency, is situate on a small, rocky, barren, and once pesvilential
Island, on the north-west side of the entrance to the bay. in 18° r>& N. Int., and 72° 57' E. long. The
city is built on the south-east side of the island, and is surrounded by walls about two miles in circuit,
which are mounted on the sea side by formidable batteries. The hou^^es are picturesque, but incon-
veniently crowded together ; they are very lofty, and generally built in the Portuguese style. Three sides
of the walls are washed by the sea; on the fourth is the esplanade, and beyond it the Black town, spread-
ing out amidst a wood of cocoa nut trees, a curious, busy, bustling, and dirty place ; and, still farther
oft", the cocoa nut gardens are studded with villas. Those who are obliged by business or duty to re-
main near the government house in the fort, live in town only during the rainy season ; at other times
they live in bungalows, or huts and tents on the es. lanade, where they enjoy the benefit of the sea
breeze. The population amounts to about 2 iO,000, who occupy 20,786 houses, grouped into the several
towns, called Bumbay Castle, Dungaree, Mahim, liyculah, and ( ulabnh. Including English and Portu-
guese, there are no less than nineteen languages spoken in the island; a circumstance which proves
the heterogeneous character of the population. Of the native community a large number are Par-
sees or Persians, who, driven from Persia in the eighth century, took refuge in Gujrat, and have now
established themselves in Bombay. The greater part of the wealth of the place is in their hands. Tlie
Jews are more numerous, and a more respectable class than is to be found in any other part of India ;
they make good soldiers, and are found in considerable numbers in the ranks of the army. The mar-
kets are well supplied; and water is furnished from large cisterns or tanks, where it is collected during
the rains. It is not considered wholesome ; and a singular disease is ascribed to the use of it. Aninsect
or worm appears on the body in a large vesicle or bag, sometimes as large as a hen's egg ; when the bag
is opened, the end of a worm, like a white thread, is seen in the midst of a gelatinous fluid. To remove
the disease the end of the worm is seized, and gradually wound on a dossil of cotton wool, a few turns
being taken daily till the whole is extracted. It is sometimes several feet long, and occasions great
pain. Bombay is the only principal settlement in India, where the rise of the tides is sufhcient to
permit the construction of docks on a large scale. The highest spring tides rise 17 feet; but tlie
usual height is only 14. The docks and dockyards are capacious, and are entirely occupied by Par-
sees, who are complete masters of the art of ship-building, and construct vessels of the largest class.
Bombay is the great entrepot for the trade of the Ked Sea, the east coast of Africa, Arabia, the Per-
sian Gulf, Indian archipelago, and China. European and American vessels find cargoes here from
the greater part of India, consisting of drugs, spices, arrack, shawls, cariielians, agates, cotton-wool,
&c. Many fine ships are owned by Parsees and other native merchants. The island is compostd of
two unequal ranges of whinstone, with an intervening valley about three miles in width ; it has been
converted from an unwholesome swamp into a very salubrious residence ; is traversed by five roads
and connected by a causeway with Salsette, a great portion of which is now under cultivation. '1 he
principal objects of curiosity near Bombay are the caves of Kenery, in Salsette, and F.lephanta, on a
small island in the bay, six miles E S.E. of the town ; the latter containing a remarkable three-headed
figure of Siva and his wife (See Journal R. yls. Soc. V. tU.)
SuBAT or SooRUT, a very large city, with 600,000 inhabitants, on the right bank of the Tuptee, 20
miles from the sea, is the station of a considerable military force, of a collector, of a board of
customs, a circuit court, and the Sudder-Adawlut, or supreme court of the presidency. It is never-
theless falling rapidly to decay, in consequenc ■ of its trade having been diverted to Bombay ; and in
April 1837 many thousand houses were destroyed by tire. The most re,i arkable object in Surat is
the pinjra-pol, an hospital for sick, aged, and maimed animals, supported by the Banians. Even rats,
mice, and insect vermin of ail kinds, are not only tolerated, but fed. Surat anl its neighbourhood are
thronged with religious devotees, as takirs, jogies, and gossaens ; and at Pulparrah, on the Tuptee,
six miles distant, is a holy place, abounding with altars, temples, and sacred trees. Barorhe or
JJeroach, Beroatrh or Broatsh, a poordilaijidatedtown, 2.') miles irom the sea, on the left bank of the Ner-
buddah, which is here two miles across, even at ebb tide, but very shallow, has a considerable trade in
exporting cotton to Bombay, and contains about 30,000 inhatitants. In an island 12 miles above the
town, is the banyan tree which has been renowned ever since the arrival of the Portuguese, and is still
flourishing. Kairah, a large and neat town, surrounded by a lofty wall, at the confluence of the small
rivers Wartuk and Serry, 30 miles north of Cambay. '1 here is a large military cantonment, a mile and
ahalf from the town, which is extremely unhealthy. Cundici, Mnruera, and Balsan, are large and
populous towns, remarkable for their order and cleanliness. Bassein, 16 miles >f. of Bombay, once
a celebrated Portuguese co>>ny, was ^i .■merly a town of considerable size, surrounded by a regular
India.]
ASiA.
725
rampart and bastions, but Is now forsaken and desolr^e. It contains eight churches, and the ruins of
several magnificent buildings ; but is inhabited only by a few fishermen and sbiliaries. Tannah, a
neat and flourishing town, and Gorabunder, a village, are both in Salsette.
PooxAH or Pc.f AH. lately the capital of the Mahratta empire, is situate in a small hollow, on the
banks of the river Moota-MooUa, in a very extensive and barren plain, 2000 feet above the level of the
sea, and surrounded by trap hills of singularly scarped forms, which rise from 1500 to 2000 feet liigher.
The city is without walls or fort, anJ till recently was very irregularly built and ill paved, with in-
ferior bazaars, and ruinous streets ; but it now presents a totally different appearance. E.xcellent
streets and drains have been formed; all the nullahs (river channels) have been covered, and every
part of the cjty made conveniently accessible. Population 70,000. Poonah contains a Sanscrit coUeije,
where grammar, logic, law, rhetoric, and astrology are taught. At the governor's bungalow, called
D'lpourie, a mile or two from Poonah, is a good botanical garden, filled with the choicest plants.
Slng/iur, 10 miles S.W. of Poonah, affords a cool and salubrious retreat ; but possesses no accommo-
dation for visitors. Kirkee or Kirky, a small but pretty cantonment, is connected with Poonah by
an excellent road. Caniiala, the Montpellier of "Western India, is a village on the road to Panwell.
Chinc/ioor, 10 miles N.W. of Poonah, is the residence of a live god, a supposed incarnation of Ganesa
or Ganputty, the tutelar deity of the Mahrattas, whose revenues are about £5000 a year. Caiii or
Karli, 45 miles N.W. by W., contains a famous cave temple. I'anwell, a small and dirty village on the
east side of Bombay harbour, the landing-place for travellers from Bombay to Poonah, which are con-
nected by a splendid road over the Ghauts. Jhmednuggur, 83 miles N E. of Poonah, once a large
city, and the capital of a kingdom, is now little better than a heap of ruins ; it contains a strong
stone fort, of an oval shape, about a mile in circuit. Jnonere is a town and fortress of great natural
strength, 48 miles N. of Poonah. Trimbuck, a formidable and wonderful hill fort at the source of the
Godavery, measuring 10 miles round the base, and rising in a perilous steep of 600 or 700 leet. Unkie-
tun'He, 13'J miles N.N.E. of Poonah, is one of the most complete specimens of natural tortifleations
that exist. It rises on every side from 150 to 200 feet in perpendicular height, inclosing on the top a
level plain a mile in circuit ; the ascent is made by flights of steps cut in the rock, and secured by
strong gateways. It has granaries, magazines, and armouries, all hewn in the rock, and thus setting
bombardment at defiance. Asteereurh, a town and fortress of great strength, in a small detached terri-
tory, near the north bank of the Tuptee, 215 miles K.N.E. of Surat. The fortress is built on a rocky
hill, surrounded by a precipice 80 to 100 feet in perpendicular height, and measuring 600 yards in
length by 100 in breadth. Dharwar, the capital of the South Mahratta country, is a large military sta»
tion. Be'gaum, a strongly-fortified town, in a small isolated division of Dharwar, has a healthy cU .
mate, but the trade is stopped for six months in the year by the rains.
§ 5. Subject Slates.
The K1N0D0.M of HYDRAB.4D, belonging to his Highness the Nizam-ul-mulk, the hereditary Mogul
Soubahdar of the Deccan, occupies tlie middle portion of the table-land of the Deccan, measuring
about 460 miles in its greatest extent, N.S. and E.W., and containing above 100,000 square miles. The
country comprises some fine tracts of land ; and, towards the north, the valley of Berar is particularly
fertile. It is traversed by the Godavery and the Kistnah, with their numerous tributaries ; the occupa-
tions of the people are chiefiy agricultural ; but the government is very inditt'erent, and everything is
in the worst condition. The Nizam's subsidiary force consists of six battalions, disciplined andotticered
like the British seapoys ; some of the officers have no rank but in the Nizam's service,butniost of them,
especially the commandants of corps, are in the service of the East India Company. The appointment
to the higher ranks is in the patronage of the governor-general ; but the minor appointments are gene-
rally made by the resident at Hydrabad. His proper army contains cavalry, infantry, and artillery.
The infantry consists of from 12,000 to 15,000 regular troops, who may, however, be regarded as a sort
of militia, being rarely employed beyond his frontier. The artillery are also under the direction of
European officers, and form a very efficient body. His cavalry, generally called the irregular horse,
are not equal to the infantry in order, dress, and discipline, nor have they the same proportion of
European officers; most of them are Moslems, and bigotted in their attachment to ancient customs. A
f;reat part of the country is possessed by Jaghiredars, or persons who have districts assigned to them
n Jaghire, who draw all the rents, and are, in short, almost the counterparts 1 f the feudal barons of
Europe during the middle ages. Only a small portion of the kingdom is governed directly by the
Nizam himself. His Highness is the descendant of Nizam-ul-mulk, who, after the death of Aurung-
zebe. obtained possession 01 the Mogul conquests in the IJeccan about the year 1717 ; but, since tliat
time, the limits of the territory have experienced great fluctuations. His capital is Hydrabad ; and
the other principal towns, with their distances from the capital, are stated in the following table : —
Hydraiiad, the capiUl, N. at. 17^ 15'; E. long. 78=42'; 380 miles E.S.E. of Bombay, and32U N N.W.
of Madras.
Ajuntah, . .
Akola, . . .
Anagoondy, .
Argaum,
Assaye, . . .
Aurungabad,
Beeder, . .
Bongneer, .
Chinoor, . .
Davercondah,
Dowlatabad,
Eidgeer,
280 N.W. by N.
. 270 N. N.W.
I!W S.W.
, 280 N.W. by N.
260 N.W. by N.
. 265 N.W.
78 N.W.
, 30 E.N. E.
135 N.E. by N.
. .56 8.E.
28.5 N. W.
96 S.W.
Eilgundel, .
EUifhpore,
Kllora, . .
Gawulgurh,
Golconda,
Jatfierabad,
Jaulnah,
Kulburga,
Kullianee,
85 N.N E.
280 N.W. by SV.
280 N.W.
. 2y0 N.W. by W,
6 W.
. 2.5G N.W. by N.
240 N. W.
. 110 \V.
105 W.N.M'.
Kuminummett, 110 E.
.Mahoor, . . 180 N. by W.
Maiduck, . . . 53N.N.VV.
Manickdroog,
.Vloodgul,
MuktuI, . .
Mulkher, . .
MuUangoor, .
Mungahpett,
Omrawutty, ,
Purainda, . .
Raichoor, . .
Kamgeer,
Suggur, . . .
Waruiigul, .
170 N. by E.
160 S.W.
85 S.W.
, 85 W. by a
85 N.E.
, 148 E.N.E.
2,50 .N.bv W.
. 2(KI M.N.W.
110 S.W.
110 N.E.
1)5 S.W. by W.
84 N.E. by E.
Hydrabad is a large city, densely inhabited by Moslems, Patans, and Hindoos ; but the first clasi
greatly predominate, and are the most turbulent and ferocious Sit ot ruffians within the limits of India.
Riots and tumults are of alnio-t daily occurrence, and are rarely checked without the interfireuce
of the military. The state of morals is very low; unnatural crimes are so common that they form a
topic of ordinary conver.fation. An officer who resided a short time in the city declared that, " com-
pared with Hydrabad, Sodom would be found innocent, and Gomorrah the perfection of purity."
The lives and properties of the nobles, mcroliants, and bankers, would not be safe for a single day
were the British troops withdrawn ; the crowds of hall-starved ruffians that infest the streets vsould
plunder the city, but tor the awe in which they are kept by the garrison. Tliere are fevv- m^'nufactures
of importance; the principal are silks interwoven with gold, called kinkaab.s, turbans, and small or-
naments. The British subsidiary force, with the Nizam's contingent, are 8tali(>n<d at some distance
on the outside of the city, in the cantonments of Si'cuiidirabad and Jiultirum. They consist of about
i2.0'ii» men, one-tenth of whom are Europeans ; the whole are kept in a high state of discipline and
efficienoy. A fine houfe built in the European style, from the design of a Britisli engineer otticer, w u»
rcnj-ntly erected by the Nizam for the British resident. The population is ogliinatud at 8i),()oii. Tlio
neighbourhood of Hydrabad i» beautiful and highly dWerslfled, meriting th« character which an old
728 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [India.
traveller gave of Italy, — " It is a paradise inhabited by devils." — (Becan, II. 75.) The fort of GolctmHa,
6 miles W. of the city, is the depository of the Nizam's jewels and treasures ; it is strictly gu*rded,
and no stranger is permitted to enter it ; but the bankers of Hydrabad are allowed to have houses
within tho fort for the s>ecurity of their property. It is built on a rocky ridge, and has some resem-
blance to the castle of Edinburgh, but the rock is not so high nor so abrupt; and at the distance of
601) yards from the fort, on a plain, are the tombs of the kings of Golconda, a dynasty who ruled over
tnis part of India in the 16th and 17th centuries. The tombs present several splendid specimens of
tlie SaracL-nic style of architecture, and consist generally of square buildings surmounted by bulbous
don)os, which are highly decorated. The diamond mines, lor which Golconda has acquired so much
repute, are not near the fort, but at the base of the Neela-moolla mountains, between the Krishna
and I'ennar rivers. They are now exhausted and deserted. Ajuntah, a village, beyond Vhich is the
celebrated jijuntah-ghaut or pass, leading from ihe tai.lc-land down to the valley of Khandeish. It
descends about 800 feet with a gentle declivity of about 1 in 25. Argiium, a village 40 miles S. by W.
of Ellichpore, where a battle was fought in November 1803 between the British, under Colonel Wel-
le?ley (Wi'Uington), and the forces of Scindiah and the Rajah of Berar, the latter ot whom were com-
pletely defeated, ylssaye or Aisye, an insigniticant village at the contiuvnce of the rivers Ketnah and
Juah, 50 miles E.N.E. of Aurungabad, is celebrated for a decisive victory gained by the British troops
under Wellesley over the combined armies of Scindiah and the Rajah of Berar, 23d September 1803.
^ KrH ngoAafl! is still a large city, though greatly fallen from its former grandeur when it enjoyed
tlie favour of the Mogul emperor Aurungzebe, whose name it bears. It is situate in a hollow, on
the banks of the Kowlah, a mountain stream which separates the city from a suburb called Begum-
poara (Lady's-town), the communication being preserved by two substantial bridges. Nearly half
the town is in a state of decay and ruin; but the population still amounts to about 00,000. Aurun-
gabad is the station of a British political resident, and the head-quarters of a portion of the Nizams
army, under British officers and control. The cantonments stand about a mile S. W. of the city,
upon a rocky plain, which is free from the malaria by which the banks of the Kowlah are in-
fested. Aurungabad contains the palace of Aurungzebe, and the tomb of his favourite wife Raboa
Dooraimee. The tomb resembles the Taj-mahal at Agra, but is built of coarser materials, with " all
the defects and few of the beauties" of its model. The tomb of Aurungzebe himself is at Rozah, a
small town 8 miles N.W. of Dowlatabad. lieeder, a large but decayed city, was formerly the capital of
a smibah or province of the Mogul empire. Doulatabad, the Hindoo Deoghur, one of the most remark-
able fortresses in the Deccan, 7 miles N W. of Aurunt'abad, is an isolated mass of granite, about 3000
yards dislant from the hills which stretch to the north and west, which rises 500 feet above the plain.
For nearly a third of the height the rock has been scarped like a wall, and presents all round a per-
pendicular cliff. Above this the hill assumes a conical form, on the peak of which is the Nizam's
tiag-staff, and a large 24-pounder. The only access to the fortress is by a sloping passage cut in the
body of the rock, and carefully secured. Strong as it is, and apparently impregnable, Dowlatabad
has nevertheless been taken several ti.nes, and is now of small importance, as it does not command
any road, pass, or district of country. At the foot of the rock is tiie pettah or town. At Eltura, a few
miles N.W., are celebrated cave temples. Ellichpore, the former capital of the Mogul province of
Berar. Gawulgurh, a fortress, 32 miles N. N.W. of Ellichpore. was stormed by the British troops
under Wellesley and Stevenson, 14th December 1803. Jauhuth or Jalna/i, a British military station,
situate in an open fertile country, on the banks of the Ketnah, with a small but strong fort. Mahoor
is a hill fort, three miles in circumference, consisting of walls of solid masonry, with parapets and
loop-holes for musketry. The town is in ruins, and would have been quite deserted had it not het-n
a place of peculiar sanctity, in consequence of containing a temple of the goddess Bhowani, to which
pilgrimages are made from every part of the Mahratta country. Omrauiitty, a large town, the chief
mart of the Deccan, and the residence of several rich bankers, is three miles in circumference, and
is surrounded with a stone wall.
Berar, or the Kingdom of Nagpore, is situate chiefly in Gundwana and Orissa, between the
Nizam's territory on the south-west, the Northern Circars on the south-east ; the ceded districts
on the Nerbuddah on the north-west, and the ceded distiicts of Gundwana on the north-east. It
extends about 33i) miles from N. to S., and 300 from E. to W., and comprises abuut .i(J,(Hlo square Eng-
lish miles. Berar is fertile in dry grains ; peas, vetches, flax, sugar, betel, and tobacco, are also raised.
The wheat is reckoned the best in India, and, with maize, forms the principal food of the people. A
large proportion of the country has been brought into cultivation since it came under British control.
The sovereign is the Bhoonslah rajah, recently a feudatory of the Mahratta empire, who is allowed to
maintain a standing army of only h.O.i horse. The principal towns are : —
Nagpoke, the capital, N. lat. 21'^ 9'; E. long. 79^ 45'; 60) miles W. by S. of Calcutta, 420 E.N.E.
of Bombay, 570 N. by W. of Madras.
Ajmerghur, . 220 N.E. by E. i Dhumterry, .
Amboora, . . 35 E. Hinghengliat,
Bellood, . . 126 E. i Konkeir, . .
Bustar, . . .240 S.W. Kyraghur, .
Byragurh, . . 240 E. by S. Lanjee, . .
Cliandah, . . . 74 S. by E. Pandoorna,
Comptah, . . 74 N.E. by E. | Pertabghur,
Nagpore or Nagpoor is a large town, rather more than 5 miles in circuit, and contains about 80,000
inhabitants. The greater part of the houses are merely mud hoi els, arranged along narrow winding
patlis ; but there are also several lofty houses roofed with red or black tiles, and handsomely orna-
mented with stucco. The town contains two palaces, the one possessed by the Goond-rajah, the de-
scendant of the former sovereigns of Gundwana, who has a Sixiall allowance, barely sufficient for the
subsistence of his family ; and the other, a new palace, inhabited by the Blioonslah rajah, a small but
beautiful building, consisting of stone walls covered with stucco, and adorned with highly carved
balustrades. Nagpore has a few manufactures of silk, cotton, arms and accoutrements, and a con-
siderable transit trade. The neighbouring c;/untry is fertile, and contains many beautiful gardens ;
but scorpions are abundant among them. The British residency and fort on the Seetabuldee hills,
which adjoin the city, are now garrisoned only by a small detachment of infantry, relieved at stattd
periods from the cantonment at Kamptee, about 9 miles distant N.E., on the left bank of the Khakan
river ; which has been selected in preference to the original station near Nagpore, on account of its
superior advantages. The change has proved equally beneficial to the health and to the morals of
the soldiers. The force usually consists of about 6000 men. Ramteak, 23 miles N.E. of Nagpore, but
within the British territory, is a place of great sanctity among the Hindoos, who have numerous
temples all over the hills. Chandah, a walled town 3 miles in circumference, with a tolerably strong
citadel in the centre, stands on the confines of a dense jungle, and is protected on two sides by a lake,
and on the other sides by deep ravines, broken ground, and the sandy bed of a river.
The Rajahs of Saitarah, Kolapore, Sawintwaree and others in the Deccan, are Mahratta
princes. The first possesses a large territory in the old Mogul province of Bejapore or Visiapore, and
is the descendant of Sivagef , the founder ot the Mahratta empire. The rajahs were for n.any years
USE.
Pownar,
. 44 S.W.
.w s.s.w.
Pownee, . .
. 36 S.W.
l.iG E. by S.
Raeepore, .
. 150 E.
112 E.
Kuttunpore, .
.210 E.N.E
8'i N.E by E.
Sanguddee,
. 48 E.S.E.
48 N.W by \i .
Wyragur,
. 75 S.E.
66 E.S.E.
India.] ASIA. 727
kept prisoners at Sattar&b, while the government was administered bj neii hereditary Peiihteah, who
resided at Poonah ; but, on the downfall of the latter in 1817, the sovereign was restored to his throne
by the British Government, with a considerable portion of the Mahratta territory. The territories of
Kolapore and Sawuntwaree are petty states ; the former in the Deccan, to the south of Sattarah ; the
latter in the Concan, to the north of Goa. Sa^^ara/t is a strong hill fort, and town, 47 miles S. of Poonah.
The British cantonment at Sattarah is beautifully situate in a lovely valley, which is surrounded by
towering mountains. The summer retreat of the Europeans of Sattarah and Western India, is a spot
on the MahalMtleethivar hiUt. 30 miles N.W. of Sattarah, computed to be 4500 feet above the level ot the
sea, where several prt tty bungalows have been erected, also a sanitarium for invalids, and a church.
The view is most extensive and magniticent, including a great part of the Concan, and the sea at the
distance of 30 miles. Four miles from the sanitarium, at the village of Mahabaleeshwar (t. e. the
great and good God), are the two sources of the river Kistnah or Krishna, over whose sacred waters
are placedlarge and curious temples, in each of which the stream, issuing from the mouth of a figure
of the sacred bull Nandi, is received into a small tank, whence it flows tlirough a beautiful and fertile
valley. The climate of the hills is often cold enough to render fires necessary, and is found to be
highly renovating ; fogs are prevalent in autumn, but produce no unpleasant or dangerous effects.
The walks and drives about the hills are numerous and beautiful. The rajah is constructing a great
bund or dam for a tank on the hills ; and other great public works, as bridges and roads, are in pro-
gress throughout liis territory. From the village of Mhar, on the western side of the Gliauts, there is a
conveyance by boats to Bomtiay. The hills are overlooked by Pcrtabghur, the finest fort in the Oec-
can, built by Sivagee, and containing a temple of great sanctity, which is visited yearly by his descen-
dant, the rajah. I'he fort is now abandoned as a military station, and contains only a few seapoys for
the garrison, and a few Brahmins for the service of the temple. Bejapore, Bijapur, or I'tsiapore, "the
Palmyra of the Deccan," a large decayed city, 125 miles E.S.E. of Sattarah, is an immense mass of
ruins, and of half- decayed toinhs, palaces, mosques, caravansaries, and other buildings of every kind.
It was formerly the capital of a powerful kingdom, ruled over by the Adil Shahee dynasty, the la^t
of whom was subdued a.d. 1685. by the Mogul Emperor Aurungzebe, who made it the capital of one
of his provinces Bejapore is said to have contained 984,000 inliabited houses, and 1600 mosques.
Though not so totally abandoned as some other famous cities, it contains a very scanty population,
composed chiefly of Moslem priests and religious mendicants attached to the mosques, poor Mahrat-
tas, and some veiy orthodox Hindoos. The walls of the citadel and principal buildings are of hewn
stone, tunderpnre, ^6 miles east of Sattarah, on the right bank of the Beema, is a very prosperous
and populous Mahratta town. It is a holy city, and has a ten)ple of peculiar sanctity, to which vast
numbers of pilgrims resoit. There are also in the city 12 large palaces belonging to the principal
Mahratta chiefiains, each strongly fortified, and proof against any attack without guns. In former
times these chiefs used to visit Punderpore annually, either in person or by deputy ; but the concourse
of ordinary pilgrims still remains undiminished.
Thavaxcobe extends along the coast of Malabar, 140 miles northward from Cape Comorin, by
about 40 in breadth. The whole territory is in the highest degree picturesque and beautiful, consist-
ing of hills, valleys, and mountains, watered by numerous streams, and covered with magnificent
forests. Elephants, buffaloes, tigers, monkeys, and apes abound in the woods. The produce consist*
of rice, pepper, betel, cocoa nut, tobacco, cassia, maize, long nutmegs, and wild saffron. Cochix, a
small territory, adjoins Travancore immediately to the north, and consists of a succession of narrow
valleys watered by small streams, where rice is cultivated. The mountains are covered with forests,
and the groves are studded with palms, jacks, mangoes, and plantains ; the forests abound w ith teak,
ironwood, blackwood, and jackwood. The chief exports are pepper, cardamums, teakwood, sandal-
wood, cocoa-nuts, coir, cordage, cassia, and fish maws. Trivaiidrum, the capital of Travancore, is a
populous town, 60 miles N.W. of Cape Comorin. ^njengo, Uuiloti, /llipee, or Alipelly or Aulapolly,
are seaport towns on the eoa^t northward. Cochin, a large town 3 or 4 miles in circumference, wag
formerly the capital of the Dutch possessions in India, but is now very much reduced, and contains
only 10,00(J inhabitants. It is situate at the mouth of a sort of river, which is entered over a danger-
ous bar, having 17 or 18 feet at high water of spring tides. On the outside of the bar the anchorage is
good, and within, the river expands into a fine estuary, 3, 5, and 6 miles wide, 12 miles long, and deep
enough for the largest ships. As a place for ship building Cochin is still superior to all the ports on
this side of India, except Bombay. The river communicates w ith the Lackwater, a natural system of
inland navigation, which extends parallel with the coast from Chowghaut in Malabar to Trivandrum,
a distance of about 170 or 180 miles, being sometimes only a few hundred yards, at others, 3 or 4 miles
from the sea, varying in width from 12 miles to 200 yards, and in depth, from a few feet to many
fathoms. Into this backwater, as a grand trunk, all the numerous rivers and streams which flow
westward from the Ghauts are discharged. It communicates with the sea by six openings, the only
one of which that is navigable for ships is at Cochin.
MysoRK, a territory of considerable extent in the southern division of the table-land formed by
the converging of the Eastern and Western Ghauts, was constituted a kingdom in 1799, in favour of
the descendant of the ancient rajahs of Mysore, who had been dethroned by Hyder Ali. But his
Highness having been guilty of the grossest misrule, was superseded by the British Government in
183.3, and his states are now administered by officers of the Madras presidency.
SiKiM is a small principality in the hill country between Nepaul and Bhotan, containing about 4400
square miles. The chief town is Sikim, on the west bank of the Jamikuma river, which rises on the
south side of the Himalayas, and opposite the town, separates into two branches, that flow round a
large mountain, upon the top of which is a stronghold named Tasidong. Darjeling or Darjelling or
DarrjeeUng, 36 miles S.E. of Sikim, and 340 north of Calcutta, has been fixed upon for a sanitarium.
It can be reached from Calcutta in four days, and steam-boats can ascend the Teesta to Kithengunge,
which is only one day's journey from the hills.
The KixoDOM of Gcde is siiuate in the basin of the Ganges, to the north of Allahabad, and con-
tains about 25,300 square miles, being about 2>'j0 miles in length, by 100 in breadth. The whole surface
is flat, extremely fertile, well watered, and produces abundantly wheat, barley, rice, and other grain,
sugar, indigo, opium, and all the richest articles used in India. The kingdom is governed by the he-
reditary vizier of the Mogr.l empire, a descendant of Saadut Khan, a private horseman in the Mogul
army, who obtained the tuubah of Oude in 1722. In 1819 the Vizier- Soubahdar, with the sanction of
the British Government, assumed the sovereign title of I'adithah or king, thereby renouncing his
nominal dependence on the Mogul emperor; but the government is of the worst description, and the
people are sunk in poverty and misery. I.urknow, the capital, is situate on the right bank of the river
Goomtee, 6.50 miles N.W. by W. travelling distance from Calcutta. Great part of it consists of nar-
row dirty streets, with mean clay houses and abounds with ijeggars. There are, however, some fine
streets, with handsome houses, and well filled bazaars ; and the king's palaces, the tombs, and principal
mosques, built in a highly ornamental style, display considerable splendour. Population about
600,000. Conttantia, the residence of the late General Claud .Martin, by whom it was built at the cost
of about £1.50,000, stands in the neighbourhood. Fyxahad, the former capital, is situate on the right
bank of the (;ogra, 80 miles E. of Lucknow ; and is still of considerable extent, with a numerous popu-
lation. A few miles distant to the eastward, are the ruins of Oude or Ayodhya, the ancient capital of
the demigod Kama, situate on the banks of the Gogra, which is still resorted to by numbers of pll-
7-28 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [India.
griins, who walk round the supposed sites of its temples, bathe in Its saored pools, and perform other
c.Temonles. Oude Is said to have been built by Menu, the legislator of India, and to have been a very
large and splendid city. The other principal towns are : Beraytch, Bulrampore, Tandeh, liisona,
Khi/rtad, Shahdbad. Hoy-Bareilly, ana Manickpore.
^tJSDKLCUND or BONDELKHUHD Is an elevated country to the south and south-west of Allahabad,
consisting of parallel ranges of mountains supporting successive table-lands. Part of it is within the
immediate territory of the British Government ; the remainder is divided among the petty princes
of kemih, Sumptliur, Jhansi, Jaioun, Oorcha or Tehree, and Dutteah.
Bburtpore is a small state to the westward of Agra, inhabited by Jauts, who originally migrated
from iloultan. The inhabitants are descended from a low Siidra caste, and are distinct from the
.lauts, or old Moslem peasantry of the Punjab. Bhurtpore, 34 miles W. of Agra, was a strong for-
trt'ss, which twice defied the British power. In 1805 it maintained an obstinate defence againsi Lord
Lake; but in 1826 it was again besieged, taken by storm, and its ramparts demolislied. The Kajah
has another fort named Deep, T2 miles W. by S. of Muttra.
The Rana of Dholpolr, Barree, and Rajah Kaikau, acquired these possessions in 1804, in e.x-
change for Gwalior and other hereditary estates surrendered to Scindiah and the Kriti h Government.
His revenues amount to about £'5;),00il a-year. His ancestors were, in the beginning of last century,
Zemindars of Gohud, then a petty village, but raised to a town and the capital of a principality by
t'lieir warlike qualities and industry. They were afterwards tributaries of the Mahratta empire, and
latterly of Scindiah. The capital is Dliulpour, a considerable town about a mile tiom the left bank of
the Chumbul, and 40 miles S.S. W. of .Agra.
Bhop^l is a considerable territory in .Malwah, or Central India, extending about 120 miles along
the right bank of the Nerbuddah, and including an equal extent of the Vindhya mountains, wiih a
portion of the table-land ; altogether above 7300 square miles. The surface is very uneven, and full
of jungle ; but the soil is generally fertile, especially in the valleys. The dominant people are Patans,
who were established here in the 17th century by Aurungzebe ; the state was constituted in its pre-
sent extent by the Marquis of Hastings In 1817. The principal towns are Bhopal, htamnugirur, a
fortress f> miles N. of Bhopal, and Ashtak. In Malwah are also situate the small irmcipalities of
Dhar, Dewas, Mutlatim, Si/ana, Nuisinghur, AmjUeera, &c. lih/tr, is an ancient city once containing
20,000 nouses, but has now only about ,5000, wliich are surrounded by a mud wall. The Kajah also
possosses Burseiah, a town of 3000 houses, 24 miles N of Bhopal.
HoLKAR or HoLC AR, One of the principal feudatories of the late Mahratta empire, v hose dominimi,
at the beginning of the present century, extended over a large portion of Central India, is now re-
duced to the possession of a small territory of 4245 square miles, lying chiefly in the valley of the
Nerbuddah, but extending also over the Vindhya mountains into tiie table-land of Malwah, the ex-
tremities being about 120 miles distant N.8. His capital is Indme, a small town in Malwah, 456
miles N.E. of Bombay. In 1840 an English school for native youth was established at Indore l)y Sir
C. M. Wade, the British resident, to be supported by contributions from the sirdars lotficers of
government) and rich natives of the city. Mhow, or Mow, 10 miles S. of Indore, and 2019 feet above
the level of the sea, is a cantonment for British troops, who have a depot fi^r their stores in the cita-
del of Jaum, a small town 22 miles further south, at the head of a steep but much frequented ghaut,
or pass, which has a descent of Wi'i. feet down to Mundlesir, a small town on the Nerbuddah, with a
well built fort of masonry, and a Uritish cantonment. Mhysir, 8 miles W. of Mundlesir, also on the
right bank of the Nerbuddah, is a city with 3500 houses, a large fort, and several beautiful temples.
Mundatta, 35 miles E. of Mundlesir, and 42 S.K. of Indore, a small town on an island, which rises
from the Nerbuddah in the form of a hill of moderate height, contains a pagoda dedicated to Ongkar,
the phallic emblem of Mahadeva- Siva. It is one of the twelve places where the deity is considered
to be peculiarly present ; he is known here in the form of the mystic syllable OM. About three-
quarters of a mile east is a sacrifice rock, called Bhcercallah, from which devotees throw themselves,
during the feast of Cartic-jattra. lyoon, or H'une, a decayed town a'so in Holkar's territory. 27 miles
8. by VV. of Mhysir, was formerly a large city, said to have contain d 99 Ja'n t mples. of which the
remain of about 20 can still be traced, ilauiiduo, the ancient cap tal of Malwah, situate 27 miles
S.VV. of Mhow, is now completely deserted, but still contains numerous remains of fine buildings
overgrown with jungle.
The Gt'icowAR or King of Baroda, also one of the feudatories of the Mahratta empire, possesses
a large scattered territory in Gujraf, t^n both side j of the Gulf of Cambay, which comprises alto-
gether about 3.5,000 square miles, including the peninsula of Kattiwar. The peninsula, however,
does not belong to the Guieowar in absolute sovereignty ; but is possessed by a great number of petty
chiefs, of whom 137 were tributary to the Peishwah, and 111 to the Guieowar. The Peishwah's share
of the tribute was ceded to the Bri'iish Government in 1818 ; and these turbulent chiefs are now not
only secured against external aggression, but are kept at peace among themselves by their-powerful
masters. They are free to exercise sovereign authority on their own estates, and are exempted trom
the authority of the ilritish courts of law. The peninsula is hilly in the interior, and, being rather
scantily supplied with water, is not productive of grain ; but has everywhere abundance of the
ooarse vegetation suited to the soil. The coasts are tuU of creeks and inlets, which used to shelter
numerous pirates, who easily escaped from cruizers, through the difficulty of the navigation. The
Guieowar is the descendant of Pillajee Guieowar, the potail of a Mahratta village, who, early in the
18th century, assumed sovereign posxer. His capital is haroda, or Behmda, Brodera, or Brodra, a
large and populous city, with considerable trade, 240 miles N. by E. of Bombay, and about 12 miles
E. irom the estuary of the Mliye. The British cantoinnents are prettily situate two miles from the
city. The other principal towns are : Cambay, at the head of the Gulf to which it givei its name,
an ancient and renowned city, now very much reduced ; Futtun Sidlipore, Rhadunpore, Palhanporp,
and X)/?<'ff/, to the eastward of the Kunn of Cut ch ; Duiraun^drn, Hulwud, ilaUia, Moravee, Vi'mik-
aneer, Surdham, faulytaiina, Jafferabad, Puttun- Somnath, HxHawul, Joonaghur, Kotyana, Poorbun-
der, Juggut, Bate, Nowanuggur, and Jouria, all in the peninsula of Kattiwar. Puttuii, situate nea»
the right bank of the Surraswuttee river, 64 miles N N.W. of Ahmedabad, represents the ancient
Hehrwatleh or Anhuluarra, the capital < f W estern India, a great empoi ium of commerce, and the
residence of powerful princes, styled Balcaraes or Balharas, trom the 8th to the 14th century. To
attest the former splendour of this great city only four architectural relics exist ; everything avail-
able was carried oti' in the 15th century to liuild Ahmedabad. Puttun or Piittan- Somnath, on the
southern coast of Kattiwar, contains the remains of a celebrated temple of Somnath (Lord of the
Moon), once possessed of immense wealth, which was plundered by Sultan Mahmud oi Ghuznee,
A.n. 1025. A Mahratta princess, Ahalya-Bhai, wife of Hoikar, subsequently erected near the same spot
a temple to Siva, which is still visited by pilgrims. The remains of the ancient temple stana on a
bold promontory, visible at the distance of 25 miles ; and the town contains abundant evidence of its
original character as the capital of an extensive Hindoo territory. Its walls and gates are rich in
the remains of Hindoo architecture, and the magnificently chiselled shrines of Hinduism form the
bases of the finest mosques. It is now entirely Mahometan, but almost an entire ruin. — ( Burne »
Jour. R. Ai. Soc. V. 105. Postan.) Paulytanna or Palit'hana, is situate at the eastern base of
Satrunja, the mount sacred to Adnath, the'first of the .Jain hierophants. A flight of steps tut in tl'e
rock leads to the top, through a variety of shrines, amongst which that of Adnath is the most holy.
Indi\.] ASIA. 72^
.hmnnifkiir, 46 miles N. by E. of Puttun- Somnath, is a large Moslem town with 16,000 inhabitants, knd
the capital of a Nawab. Near it is an ancient Rajpoot citadel called Upah-kote, a place of great his-
torical interest, but now deserted ; and a few miles E. of the town Is the sacred Mount Girnar, a
granite peak rising to the height of 2500 feet from an extensive plain. On a small flat near the summit
are t he walls of a fort inclosing agroup of seven Jain temples of exquisite beauty, filled with idols, wh'ch
^ive the place a peculiar sanctity. The summit consists of two peaks, the higher of which, the Guni-
aattara, is crowned with a small white temple kept by a Gosain, to which the ascent is very difficult.
Great numbers of Banians, pilgrims, devotees, and travellers daily ascend the sacred mount ; and in
February a religious assembly or jattrah is held, when thousands of people attend. Outlaws and
religious devotees are the usual inhabitants of Girnar ; the scenery of the mount is of great beauty, un-
equalled even by that of the Ghauts ( Postan's IV'estern hidia.) Dwaraka, Dooarka, or Dwarica, near
the western extremity of Kattiwar, is a small walled town with a magnificent pagoda dedicated to
Krishna, which is visited by pilgrims from all parts of India. About 20 miles N. by K. of Poorbunder
are the remarkable and splendid ruins of the ancient city of Ghumli or Bhumli, formerly the capital of
the Ranas of Jaitwar, whose territory comprises that part of the coast within 30 miles of Poorbunder.
(Jour. R. As. Soc. V. 73.;
CuTCH or Kach'h is a long narrow peninsula between the gulf of Cutch and the Runn, 165 miles In
length, and varying in breadth from 15 to 52 miles. Through the middle, from east to west, stretches
a range of hills called Lunkki-Juhb''rl, from 1 to 8 miles in breadth, forming a mass of volcanic rock,
destitute of wood, soil, and water, except during the rains, when numerous torrents pour down its
sides. North of the Lunkhi is another range running parallel, and nearly mixing with it ; the valley
between the two ranges, and tfie plain betwei n the Lunkhi and the sea, from 21 to 3 ) miles broad,
interspersed with detached hills, form the arable part of tlie province. Close to the sea-beach is a high
bank of sand, called c/tigo. which extends from the Indus to the gulf, and makes the country appear
lower than the sea. Along the north side of (^utch. a tract of laud, called the lihunni or Bunnee, At
miles long, and in few places less than 7 wide, and nearly separated from the rest of the province
by an arm of the Runn. produces mo«t luxuriant pasturage. The eastern part of Cutch is also
a sort of peninsula, called ff'agur. To the nortli of the Bhunni are two large islands, named
Puchum and Khureer; and further east, the large island of Sai/ntnlpuor so nearly occupies the neck
of the Runn as to leave only two narrow straits b.^twecn Cutch and the mainland. Nearly in the
centre of Cutch is a conical hill called A'u/ioh', well known to navigators, who distinguish it at sea
Dy the name of Chigo ; and a little to the east and north of Nunow is Ifarra, a remarkable hill, quite
flat on the top, and with its edge so evenly defined as not to have a notch observable. Cutch consists
mostly of secondary formations, such as laminated shales, a series of sandstones and shales inclosing
beds of iron ore and coal, sometimes tolerably good^ but generally very impure. The latter series
forms the central and principal part of the province, where it rises into hills. The iron ore is
smelted by the natives to some extent near the town of Doodye. In the southern part of the province
is a range of hills composed entirely of basalt and other volcanic matter ; traces of volcanic influence
occur besides in different places, and the country suffers occasionally from violent earthquakes, one
of which, in 1819, buried the town of Sindree, formed a large lake on the Koree or eastern branch of
the Indus, raised a great embankment across its chaimel, which is now called the UlUih-Oitnd (God's
dam), and destroyed I5IK) houses in the town of Anjar, and 7(tO() in Bhooj. The hills seem to have
recently cooled from a state effusion, the masses of rock are black and bare, thrown together in wild
and chaotic forms, in many parts presenting large chasms, down which, during the monsoon, rapid
torrents sweep into the plains, irrigating the valleys, which are covered with stunted brushwood,
and afford good pasture for numerous flocks of sheep and goats. The vegetation, however, fails with
the rains, and a soft sandy soil is again the principal feature of this sterile land. A few fields in
the vicinity of the villages are cultivated; but the rest of the country presents nothing but a rocky
and sandy waste, in many places scarcely relieved by a show of feeble vegetation, which consists of a
stunted, thorny sort of brushwood, and a singular species of bramble called the kheie. Water is scarce
and is often brackish. The rains are usually slight; and the climate may be considered healthy,
though at the close of the rainy season fever is prevalent, and, during the cold season, rheumatism.
For nine months in the year the atmosphere is temperate and agreeable ; in the hot months the
temperature is high, and the weather stormy ; in winter the cold is frequently intense, and ice is
very commonly found on water placed in ves.'els which are exposed to the air during night. The
produce of the land under cultivation is not sufficient to support the scanty population, so that Cutch,
even in the best seasons, is dependent on Sinde for supplies of grain. But this deficiency of vegetable
food is amply compensated by the abundance of animals. Perhaps no country of equal size so teems
with animal life as the whole province, which literally ,.' lunds with game and wild beasts. Cutch
is famous for a breed of horses, of very singular appearance, having a dip in the back, which looks
a-i if the piece had been cut away. The wild ass, which is peculiar to the Runn and its borders, is
singularly marked, and stands about 13 hands high; it is of a light lawn colour, with a broad dun
stripe down the middle of the back, and is a handsome and well -shaped animal. The wild ass de-
lights in the salt vegetation of the Runn, and is sometimes seen in herds of (iO or 70, but is so fleet
as to defy pursuit ; it is, however, taken in pitfalls, and the flesh is considered a delicacy by the
Moslems, while it is abhorred by the Hindoos, who, on the contrary, eat the hog, which the Mc^lems
hold in abhorrence. There are also great numbers of pea-fowl, which the Hindoos deem sacred.
The moisture of the Runn is exceedingly conducive to the production of injects ; musquitoes are seen
in thick clouds; and, during the monsoon, the people of the Bhunni are obliged to quit their houses,
and seek refuge in Cutch from the swarms of flies. The inhabitants of Cutch are partly Brahminical
Hindoos and partly Moslems, the numbers of both being nearly equal. The dominant class are the
Jarejahs (see ante, p. 695), who hold their lands of the Rao by niilitaty tenure, and have themselves
numerous retainers called Grasias, who owe them immediate allegiance. There is also a class of
warriors called .Meyannahs, who were originally shepherds, but have become a fierce and warlike
tribe, noted as robbers and mercenaries. They are Moslems, and can muster 3000 warriors. The
total population of Cutch is only about .350,000. There is now some prospect of improvement in
their condition; the country is protected by a British subsidiary force; the tyranny and misrule
of the Rao and his military chief^s have been completely checked, and peace prevails to foster and
reward industrious habits. The mariners of Cutch are a fearless and enterprising race; and for
centuries past have traded to the Hed Sea, the-coasts of Africa, Ceylon, an<i even the Chinese Sea.
Their principal exports consist of cotton cloths, in return for which they receive dates, coffee, dried
? Tapes, antimony, senna, and coloured mats from the Red Sea; elephants' teeth and rhinoceros' horns
rom Zanzibar. Their moallims or pilots are singularly intelligent and well informed.
flhoof, the capital of Cutch, is a large town of ,30,0(K) inhabitants, surrounded with a strong,
well-built wall. The streets are narrow, dirty, and rendered scarcely passable by herds of sacrod
hulls; the Rao's palace is a large white stone building, decorated with beautiful cartings and
fine fret» work. The Britidh cantonment is about a mile from the city, and half a mile N.K. is
the citadel or fortress, called Borjtnh, on a hill. On 16th .lune 1819 both the city and the fort
were nearly destroyed by an uncommonly violent earthquake. Mandnree or Mindine, the prin-
ripal M>a-port, Is situate on the south coast; it enjoys a considerable trade, and boatbuilding is
carried on to some extent. On the same creek, two miles inland, are the ruini of a city called
730 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [India.
Raipore, but supposed to have been the ancient Mandavee, which is still called Raipore in official
documents. Jnjar, a fortified town on a hill near the gulf, in the most fertile part of Cutch, was
for some time the seat of the British residency, and contains a Hindoo temple, where at one time
about 3000 rats were kept by an old Gosain, who summoned them to their meals three times a-day
by the tinkling of a bell. At Danodhtir, on a lofty hill, 20 miles S.W. of Bhooj, is a monastt-ry
of Kanuphties, forming a kind of brotherhood, who dispense food and shelter to all applicants,
without distinction of creed, country, or caste. They possess the revenues of about '20 villages, and
»re reputed rich ; their superior is a rajah, who is treated by the Kao with high consideration. At
Mhur, a village west of Rhooj, is a fraternity of Kaprias, about 120 in number, governed by a rajah,
who enjoys many immunities and privileges ; like the Kanuphties, they are sworn to celibacy.
They possess five villages, the revenues of which they devote to the charitable purpose of supiilying
with food all who apply. Luckpttt, or Ltiekiptit, or Lak'hpat, is a fortress, situate on elevated groui.d,
39 miles from the sea, and about a mile from the left bank of the Koree, once the most easterly branch
of the Indus, but now a mere tide creek or estuary. Ihe walls, defended by numerous towers and
bastions, with guns of all sorts and sizes, inclose a space about 800 yards square, of which not moi e
than a third is occupied by houses.
R*jpooTANA, Rajwarra, or Rajahs'tan, is the name of a country of indefinite extent, situate
in Hindiistan, mid-way between the Indus and the Ganj;es, and traversed diagonally by the Aia-
vulli mountains. The dominant inhabitants are the Rajpoots, from whom it takes its name. The
country, in its present dimensions, is divided among the Rajahs of Ondeypore, Jyepore, Joudpore,
Kotah, Bundi, Alwar or U/ivar, Bicanere, Jeysulrtiere, Kishengurh, Uaiiswarra, I'urtahgurh, Dotigar-
pore, Kerowly, and Sirohi or Seroiry. The territory of Oudeypore is also called Mewar, and consists
chiefly of a table-land in the angle formed by the Aravulli mountains, and the hills which extend along
the left bank of the Chumbul. It is hilly, well watered, and well adapted for cultivation. Oudeypore
or Oodtypore, the capital, is situate in a valley 60 miles in circuit, which has only one entrance passable
for carriages, 2064 feet above the level of the sea, and contains two lakes of considerable extent.
The city is built on an elevated ridge of rocks. The Rana of Oudeypore is of tiie most ancient and
purest descent of all the Rajpoot princes, and is on that account the most honoured among them,
though not the most powerful. Chittote. the ancient capital of Mewar, is situate 70 miles E.N E.
of Oudeypore, and contains a very celebrated fortress, built on a steep hill above the town. Xal'/id-
u-ara (the portal of God) 22 miles N.E. of Oudeypore, on the right bank of the Bunass, is one of the
most remarkable temples in India. It was founded in the reign of Aurungzebe, when Vishnu was
exiled from his ancient temple in Vrij, on the Jumnah, and is one of the bist frequented places of
Hindoo pilgrimage. A considerable town has grown up around it, and the priests and their re-
tainers are supported by contributions from all parts of India. Komulmair or Comulintre, a formi-
dable hill fortress, 45 miles N. by W. of Oudeypore, 2500 feet above the level of the sea, contains a
Jain temple dedicated to the supreme God, which is considered as among the most beautiful of the
shrines of India. Jyepore or Jeypur, Ki.shetigur/i, Kotah or Haranutee, Bundi, Kerowly, and Alwar,
are situate to the north-east and east of Mewar, and partake of the same character, being hilly and
well watered, fertile and populous, though in some parts arid and desert, particularly in the western
part of Jyepore. Jyepore or Jaipore, is a handsome well-built town, with a fine castle situate on a
steep and lofty rock, 80 miles E.N.E. of Ajmere. It contains by native calculation 80,000 houses,
which would give a population of 400,00(i. It is a magnificent city, and may challenge comparison
with any other in India; it is built in a sandy plain, with streets crossing at right angles. Joudpore
or Marwar, which lies to the west of the Aravulli mountains, and extends into the desert, is an arid
territory of about 70,000 square miles, but generally well peopled, and valuable, producing wheat and
other grains. It is traversed by the singular river Loonee or Loony, which, at the distance of 50
miles from its mouth, sends off numerous branches, intersecting aflat and fertile district of 350
square English miles, called Nueyur. The soil is there very rich, and wheat is its universal pro-
duct ; it abounds with herds of cattle, and the cows and oxen are of a superior kind. Buffaloes are
also reared, and there is abundant fodder for camels. Wild hogs and game abound on the banks ot
the river among the peloo and tamarisk shrubs ; and tigers, hyenas, and wolves are attracted by
the herds. Small crocodiles are found in the pools; wild ducks and partridges are plentiful, and
among the latter is the black partridge, noted for the richness and beauty of its plumage. The
Nueyur is studded with villages, the chief places of note being Gurra and Kugger ; the one with 20^ ()
inhabitants, the other with 1600; to the Loonee alone is the abundance of vegetable and animal life
to be attributed. During some seasons the Nueyur is a sheet of water. Joudpore (Judpur, Jhod-
poor), the capital of Marwar, 100 miles W. by S. of Ajmere, a beautiful city, filled with temples and
ornamented houses, is built in a hollow, surrounded by rocky eminences, on which are three forts,
the largest of which contains the Rajah's palace, a very extensive edifice, and visible from a great
distance. This fort is amazingly strong, and stands on a rocky and perfectly impracticable hill.
Joudpore is the centre of a very extensive trade, and contains about 60,000 inhabitants. Marwar
contains altogether about 500 towns and villages; few of the towns are large, but many of the
villages contain from 1500 to 200) houses. Pattfe, 40 miles S. S.E. of Joudpore, a large open town
in a low swampy plain, but commercial and wealthy, with 60,ii00 inhabitants. Nagore, 70 miles
N.N.E. of Joudpore, is a walled town with a substantial fort, famous for its manufactures in brass
and iron, and containing 40,000 inhabitants. The territory of Jeysulmere is barren and unproductive,
with little arable land. The surface is generally uneven, co\ ered with rocks, which never ri.~e into hills,
or extend in chains, but are scattered irregularly. Not more than a third of the country will admit of
tillage; the parts which are cultivated, yield good crops of the coarser grains, as bajree and moong,
but no wheat ; and the cotton crops are only reaped after a three years' fostering care. Jeysulmere,
the capital, is a fine city with 2(',00ii inhabitants, and a fort or castle of a most commanding and mag-
nificent appearance, 140 miles W.N.W. of Joudpore. The territory of liicanere forms a portion of
the Great Desert, and is flat, sandy, and destitute of water, except from wells, which are dug from
100 to 200 feet deep. The crops are very precarious, and greatly dependent on the rains. Horses
and bullocks are the only articles of export. Bicunere {liicaneer, Hikanaii), the capital, is a large
town, presenting externally the appearance of a great and magnificent city in the midst of a desert,
but the interior is composed of mud huts. It is surrounded with a strong wall and towers. Sirohi or
Sirowy is a small principality to the south of Marwar, at the south-west extremity of the Aravulli
mountains. It contains the sacred mount Aboo ( Abu, Abiije, Abughad\ which is about 5ii miles round
the base, and rises 5000 feet above the level of the sea. Its various elevations and platforms are
covered with shrines, temples, fortresses, and tombs, adorned with sculptures and statues, which are
relieved at intervals by all the varieties of wild and beautiful scenery. On the very summit is a small
circular platform, containing a cavern with a block of granite bearing the impression of the feet of
Data-Briga (an incarnation of Vishnu), which is the grand object of pilgrimage ; but in that part
of the mountain called Dailwarra or Dewtclwarra (region of temples), is the most superb of all the
temples of India, to which no other edifice but the Taj-mahal can be compared. It is sacred to
Vrishabdeva, the first of the Jains, was erected by Bimul Sal, a merchant of Anhulwarra, one of the
richest of their votaries, and attracts pilgrims from every region of India. The principal building
is surrounded by numerous minor temples, the chief features of which are not mere solidity and
vastness ; their merits consist rather in l!.c proportions, the endless variety and richness of the
Ikdia.J
ASIA.
731
Ahoo, . . .
. 160 S.W.
Jyeporo, . . .
80 E.N.E.
Alwur, . . •
. 146 N.E. by N.
Kerowley, . .
. 160 E.
Banswarra, .
200 S.
Kisliengurh, .
18 N.E. by E.
Biiilwarra, .
. 70 S.W. by W.
Komulniair, .
.120 S.W. by S.
Bicanere,
. 125 N.W.
Kotah, . . .
120 S.E.
Bundi, . .
. 110 S.E.
Machery, . .
. 160 E.N.E.
Bunaira,
S.
JlairtaorMeerta, 40 W.N.W.
Chittore, . .
110 S.
Mandulgurli,
. 90 S. by E.
Chooroo,
133 N. by E.
Mokundurra, .
140 S E. by S.
Dcedwana, .
. 6fi N. by W.
Nagore, . .
. 70 N.W.
Dehgong, .
252
Narnol, . . .
147 N.E.
Doni^urpore, .
. 180 S.S.W.
Neemuch, . .
. 140 S. by E.
Fullodee,
140 W.N.W.
Nimbhera, . .
126 S.W. by W
Hinnliiisgurh,
. 144 S.S.E.
Nusseerabad,
. 12 S.E.
Jaitarun,
S.W.
Oudeypore, . .
130
Jeysiilmere, .
. 200 W. by N.
Palee, . . .
. 95 W.S.W.
Joudpore, .
SOW.
Par bus ir, . .
S.W.
Julra-Patun, .
. 160 S.E. by S.
Peepur, . . .
sculptures, the ektended colonnades and vaulted roofs, which give evidence not only of unbounded
wealth in thj founders, but also of high refinement in the arts.— C Todd'* Travels in IVesiem India.)
The other places in Bajpootana are uf little importance ; the names and situations of the principal oi
them are arranged in the following table, with their distances from Ajmere: —
IPokrun, . . . IR5 W. by N.
Purtabgurh, . . 170 S.
iRampooi-a, . . 97 E.S.E.
iRutlam, . . .220 S.
iRyepore, . . S.W.
iSambre or Sam-
I bur, .... 47 N.E.
Sanganeer, . . S.
Sawa, .... S.
'Seywanah or Sey-
I wanoh, . . S.W. by W.
Sirohi, . . . . 140 S.W.
.Sojut, .... 73 S.W. by W.
Thurraud, . . 240 S.W. by W.
Tijara, . , . 170 N.E. by E.
Tonk 70 E. by S.
Ummergurh, . S.
jWaUotra, ... S.W.
Kotah, a large city on the right bank of the Chumbul, is the capital of the state of Haraoutee, which
cttends southwards to the MoKundra range of hills ; and contains Julra-Patun, a well-built modern
town, surroundf d by a substantial wall, with round bastions, yeemuch is a British military station,
80 miles E. of Oudeypore ; it has a small stone fort, constructed for the purpose of afl'ording protec-
tion to the wives and families of the troops, should they take the field, and of serving as a depot for
military stores. The climate is very salubrious ; but the scanty supply of water is drawn from wells.
Neemuch is situate within Scindiah's territory; and usually contains four regiments of native infan-
try, one of cavalry, some artillery, and a corps of local horse.
SiNDE is a large teriitory occupying the lower part of the basin of the Indus or Sinde, which tra-
verses the country in numerous and ever-chanjring branches, along the banks of which, and within
reach of irrigation are the only cultivated districts. To the eastward of the river there is not a rising
ground or a stone, e.vcept the hillocks of Buckhur and Hydrabad. The country is flat and covered
with bushes, till at last it joins the desert of sandhills which separates it from Kajpootana. Westward,
as low down as Sehwun, the same flatness prevails to the foot of the Beloocliee mountains ; from
Sehwun to the sea the land is rocky and barren. The delta of the Indus has a rich alluvial soil, but
is poorly cultivated. The depressed shore oifers no remarkable object to the eye of the mariner ; tha
coast line is covered at spring tides. Ten miles from the sea the country is often an impervious jungle ;
higher up it is overgrown with tamarisk shrubs ; but the greater part of it presents a naked plain of
hard caked clay. Much of the land adapted for cultivation is only used for pasture, and great part of
it lies waste ; yet the crops of rice are extensive, and their produce far exceeds the consumption of the
inhabitants; wheat, barley, juwaree, and other grains, indigo, sugar, tobacco, and hemp, are also grown.
Very little labour is bestowed upon tiiem ; the seed is scattered after the inundation subsides, and
the harvest is certain. Sinde, indeed, owes its fertility entirely to the Indus, without which it would
be as barren as the coimtry to the eastward. In winter the climate of the delta is delightful,
being cool and bracing ; ice is occasionally found in the morning, but the temperature generally
ranges from 4o- to 82-, and during the day is most agreeable ; fogs, however, sometimes occur, but
they are not very prevalent, and quickly dissipate as the sun rises. In summer the heat is excessive ;
at Sukur, on the Indus, 27° 43' N. lat., in June 1839, the thermometer stood at 100= in the shade, 106°
in the hospital, 123= in the seapoy's tents, and 146= in the sun. Little rain falls, but during the in-
undation the climate is very unhealthy ; fevers, dysentery, and agues then prevail. The population
is very mixed, being composed of Hindoos, Jauts, Beloochees, and various other tribes from the adja-
cent countries. The Seids or Sayyads (descendants of Mahomet), and Fakirs (religious vagabonds),
are very numerous, and are estimated at so many as 100,0(X). The wealth of many families consists of
their herds of horned cattle ; and of their produce, hides and ghi, Kurachi e,\ports a considerable quan-
tity. The buffalo furnishes the principal supply. Sinde formed till lately an independent state, ruled
by the three chiefs of a family called Talpoora, with the title of emirs or ameers ; but, in 1839, it was
reduced to subjection by the British army of the Indus ; and, in 1813, incorporated with the British
territories. The ameers had long been jealous of the British power, and had shewn themselves exceed-
ingly averse to the opening of the navigation of the Indus. They had at last been induced to sign
a treaty yielding the banks of the river, and the country between it and the western moimtains ; but
immediately repenting of that act, they commenced hostilities ; which ended in their defeat, and the
conquest of their country. Hydrabad or Haiderahad, the chief town, is situate at the eastern hank of
the Indus. 120 miles from the' sea, and contains about 20,000 inhabitants, who liye in mud hovels scat-
tered about the south end of a rocky hillock, on the top of which is the fort, a mere shell, consisting of
a single brick wall surrounded by a dry ditch; at the northern extremity of the hill are the tombs of the
chiefs, some of which are biautiful structures. Tatta or T'AarAaA, the ancient capital, stands at the
head of the delta of the Indus, 60 miles from the sea, and 3 from the river, upon a rising ground sur-
rounded by a brick wall, and contains about Is.O'lO inhabitants. The town is dirty, with narrow
irregular streets, and consists chiefly of mud huts, or of bricks plastered over with mud and straw.
The cemetery extends for several miles, and contains a number of beautiful and magnificent tombs,
erected in the days of the city's prosperity. Tatta has acquired some celebrity for the lungi, a rich
fabric of silk, cotton, and gold, of variegated pattern and close texture. The raw silk in most esti-
mation with the weavers is that from the Persian province of Ghilan. In the vicinity are the ruins of
Kii/lancotr and Saminnupf^ur, places to which the natives ascribe a high antiquity. Kurachi or
Curachee, between Has Mooare and the delta of the Indus, the principal seaport of Sinde, is a large
town of mud houses, with narrow, irregular, and incommodious streets, and containing no building
Worthy of notice. Though it has long been the commercial emporium of Sinde, no attempt has been
niade to improve the creek which forms its harbour ; the goods have to be put into large punts or flat
boats, and hauled through the mud, or carried on men's shoulders. The bazaar is very extensive ;
Bome of its streets are entirely shaded from the sun by matting. The prin( ipal merchants are Hindoos,
and that people form the greater proportion of its 10,0(X) inhabitants. They carry on a brisk trade with
Bombay, .Malabar, and Arabia. The town enjoys a great celebrity for tlie tanning and preparation of
bides, which are chiefly exported to Muscat, but are also used to some extent in Sinde. From February
till October, Kurachi is the only accessible harbour on this coast. With the exception of the gardens
in the vicinity of the town, the country around Kurachi is literally a waste ; there being no vegetable
production except the clumps of prickly pear with which the face of the ground is thickly studdc<l ; it
i», nevertheless, the healthiest place in Smde, and the prevalent diseases arc few and tractable, t'urt
732 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [India.
Manor/ih, on a rocky promontory between the open bay of Ras Mooaree and the roadstead of KurachI,
guards the entrance to the harbour. Among the outlying hills which skirt the Hala mountains, a' out
9 miles from Kurachi, is a hot spring, the temperature of which, where it wells from the ground, is
136° Fahrenheit. The stream waters a small valley, and supplies some ponds or swamps, in which
the faliirs keep numbers of tame alligators. Bunder f'ikkur or Vikknr, on the R*''mari branch of the
Indus, ranks next to Kurachi among the seaports of Sinde, but is an inferior town. Dharaja, the
port of Tatta, '20 miles from tl>e sea, is also conveniently situate for trade. Sehivnn, a miserable
collection of huts, with 10,000 inhabitants, 2 miles from the right bank of the Indus, 105 miles
above Hydrabad, is a place of groat antiquity, with a very remarkable castle now in ruins, which
overlooks the town, and contains tlie shrine of a saint named Lal-shah-baz, whose tomb is a place of
pilgrimage to both Hindoos and Mussulmans ; the neighbnuring country is rich and productive.
Between Sehwun and Hydrabad, near the left bank of the river, is Halo, a considerable town, which
derives no small degree of importance from the slirine of a saint, named Pir Mukdumiui. It has also
been long noted for earthenware and Sindian caps. The ruins of Khodaliari, once the favourite resi-
dence of the Talpoor chiefs, are situated a little to the N. W. of Hala. Bukkur or B'khur, 160 miles
above Sehwun, a fortress on a rocky island in the channel of the Indus, about 800 yards long and 400
broad, is considered by the natives as impregnable, but is entirely wanting in every point which can
make it a place of strength. It wascedtdto the British Government by the Khan of Khyrpore in 1839.
Hooree or Rori, a town of 8000 inhabitants, built on a precipice of hraestone and flint 40 feet high, on the
left bank of the Indus, facing Bukkur. Siikur, oil the opposite side of the river, situate on lower
ground, is about half the size of Roree. In the channel of the Indus, between these towns, are seve-
ral rocky islets, one of which is occupied by Bukhur, and another, Kharija Kizr, is noted for its sanc-
tity. Khyrpore, 1 1 miles S.S \V. of Bukkur, a very large open town, with 15.000 inhabitants. Larkhanu,
14 miles W. by S. is also a large straggling town, with 10,000 inhabitants, in the midst of a date grove,
on the banks of a fine canal drawn from the Indus. Shikarpnre, a very large town 15 miles W. from
the Indus, chiefly inhabited by Hindoo bankers and merchants, who have cjmmercial connections all
over the East. The houses are entirely of mud, or sun-dried brick, but the town is surrounded with
gardens.
Daoudpootra, the territory of the Nawab Bhawul Khan, which extends along the left bank of the
Indus and the Gharra for more than 301 miles, is only a portion of tlie great desert, an endless expanse
of sandhills thinly covered with jhow and phog bushes, which furnish food merely for camels ; the only
cultivable partof the country being what is within reach of irrigation by the waters of the rivers. The
Nawab is nominally independent, hut is in alliance with, and under tlie protection of the British Go-
vernment. Jiakawu/pore, his capital, is a large commercial town of mud houses, surrounded with a
low mud wall, and crowded with koojur and peepul trees, on the left bank of the Gharra, with 20,000
inhabitants. It enjoys great reputation for its silk manufactures. His other towns are j4 hmedpore,
about half the size of Bahawulpore ; Daraical, an ancient fort in the desert ; and Ooch, Uch, or t'tsh,
3 miles E. of the Chenab, and 5 miles below its confluence with the Gharra, in a fertile plain, shaded
with trees, and containing 40,000 iniiabitants, who are miserably poor, though the neighbouring
country is richly cultivated. Tobacco grows luxuriantly ; indigo is also reared successfully. Wheat
and other dry grains are cultivated in preference to rice, which does not form here, as in Sinde, the
principal food of the people. The country abounds with game. Uch is highly celebrated for the
tombs of two Moslem saints.
The Protkctkd Skikh, and other states on the left bank of the Suttlej, are about 150 in number.
The country and the principal towns have been already described at page 717. The territory of the
Rajah of Bissahar extends to the northern side of the Himalayas, along the valley of the Suttleg.
§ 6. Independent States.
The Maharajah Scindiah, one of the principal feudatories of the late Mahratta empire, possesses
a large territory of the most irregular form, which extends through the middle of Hindftstan from
near Baroda to the neighbourhood of Agra, a distance of 450 miles, and comprises about 42,300 square
miles, with a population exceeding 4,000,000. Kanoojee Scindiah, the first of the family who attained
eminence, was one of the commanders under the Peishwas in the Mahratta expeditions into Hindfl-
stan in the early part of last century ; and he and his successors acted a distinguished part in all the
wars and revolutions of the country down to 1817, when the present limits of their territory were
fixed by treaty with the British Government. The territory is capable, under proper management,
of realizing a revenue of 140 lacs of rupees (£1,400,000 sterling). The rajah is bound to aid the Bri-
tish Government when required, with a contingent of 5000 men; and he maintains, besides, a large
military force, which, at the death of the late Maharajah, the last of the original family. In 1827, was
estimated at 14,000 infantry, 10,000 cavalry and 250 pieces of caimon. The present rajah is only a dis-
tant relation, brought from the original seat of the family in the Deccan in 1827, and adopted by the
widow of the late Maharajah, after his death, and married to his grand daughter. His capital is
Gualior, a large town of 50,000 inhabitants 80 miles S. of Agra; with a celebrated fortress, built on a
long flat insulated hill, half a mile in length, three or four hundred yards broad, and rising in the
highest part 450 feet above the plain. The rock is for the mo^t part inaccessible, and is surmounted
by a stone rampart along its edge. It formerly belonged to the Raiia of Gohud. The other principal
towns, with their distances from Gualior, are arranged in the following table :. —
Aggur or Augur, 216 S.W. by S
Bansrore, . . 180 W.8.W.
Bhilsah, .... 1!)0 S. by W.
Burhanpore, . 360 S.S.W.
Ohampaneer, . . .380 S.W.
Chendaree, . . 120 S.
Emlea, . ... 20 N.N.W.
Gohud, .... 23 N.E. Mundissor orMun-
Hindia, . . . 284 S. by W. ' desoor, . . . 240 W.S.W.
Hinglaisghur, . 200 S.W. Nemuch, ... 230 W.S.W.
Jawud, .... 220 W.S. .V. Oujeiii, ... 260 S.W. by S.
Khimlassa, . . 150 S. Ruttumghur, . . 205 W.S.W.
Mehidpore, . . 250 S.W. Seeta-mhow, . 225 W.S.W.
Shall jehanpore, . 230 S.W. by S,
Oujein or Ougein. which holds ahigh rank among the holy cities of India is situate in Malwah, 1698
feet above the level of the sea, and 3iO miles N.E. by E. of Bombay. It is of the most remote antiquity,
being described in the Puranas ; and the Hindoo geographers and astronomers consider it their
first meridian. The ancient city, however, was destroyed by some physical catastrophe ; the Hindoo
legends say a shower of earth buried the city and its inhabitants. The modern town is a mile N. of
the ancient site ; is surrounded with a wall si.x miles in circumference, and is very populous. At
Mehidpore or Maheidpore, on the banks of the Seeprah or Siprah, 20 miles N. by W. of Oujein, Hol-
kar was defeated by the British forces, 21st December 1817. Burhanpore or Burhaunpor'e, the late
capital of the soubah of Khandeish, is one of the finest cities in the Deccan, and the head-quarters of
a singular sect of Mahometans called Bohrah, who all actively engage in commerce, wear a peculiar
costume, and retain in their form and features characteristic traits of their foreign (Arabic; an-
ctstry. It is situate on the right bank of the Tiiptee, 260 miles N.E. of Bombay. Hindia is a town
and fortress on the right bank of the Nerbuddah, where the river is 1000 yards broad. Chuinpaneer was
once a large city, whose ruins < xtciid several miles, but are covered with jungle. A small area inclosed
with a wall and inhabited by silk weavers, forms the modern town. Overlooking it the stupendous
India.]
ASIA.
733
rock of Pouan-gurh rises abruptly from the plain to tlie height of 600 yards, presenting a perpendi-
cular face except on the north side, wnere it is fortified with five walls. On the top is a famous pa-
g.ida, dedicated to the goddess Kali ; and also tho tomb of a Mahommetan saint. The fort has also
ail inexhaustible supply of water, but -was nevertheless tal<en by storm by the British forces in 1803.
The KiNoDOM of Lahorb, established during the present century by an enterprising Seikh chieftain,
Runjeet Singh, who died in 1839, is situate in the N.W. part of India, including all the country be-
tween the Indus and the Suttlej, and from the crests of the Himalayas to the borders of Sinde. It
comprehends also the narrow tract to the west of the Indus, between that river and the mountains
of Affghanistan ; being altogether about .iOO miles in length from N.E. to S.W., by about 400 in its
greatest breadth, and comiTises an area of 160,000 square miles. The southern and south-eastern
portions of the kingdom form part of the great phiin of Western India, and consist of sandy wastes,
or hard clay plains covered with jungle, admitting of cultivation only along the banks of the rivers.
There, however, the soil is remarkably fertile, and produces abundantly all the necessaries of life. To-
wards the north-west the country is crossed by the Jungher or suit range of hills, which stretches from
the Sufl'eid-koh in Affghanistan to the w^est bank of the Jhylum. The hills rise abruptly from the
plain to the height of 2100 feet above the level of the sea, and support on their northern side the table-
land of Taxila, about 8') J feet above the level of the plains below. The Salt range has a breadth ot
about five miles ; the formation consists of sandstone, and the bold and bare precipices rise at once
from the plain. Hot springs are found in various parts of them ; alum, antimony, and sulphur also
occur ; but their principal mineral wealth consists of salt, which has a high reputation in India, on
account of its medicinal virtues ; but being impure it is not lit for curing meat. About 80,000,000 lbs.
are yearly extracted for behoof of the government. The salt occurs in compact glassy strata, dipping
at an angle of Gh-^ The southern part of the table-land, fri m want of water as well as from the
presence of salt, is little adapted for cultivation, and the villages are consequently very thinly scat-
tered. In the northern part, how.ver, are beautiful valleys, copious springs, and a rich soil, which
supports a dense population ; but, owing to the oppressive cuaracter of the government, agriculture
is n.'glected. The climate embraces extremes, and the inhabitants exhibit striking varieties of cha-
racter and manners. The Moslems who border on tlie Jhylum closely re-emble the Hindoos of the
Punjab, while those on the east hank of the Indus have all the peculiarities of the Affghan character.
The mountain tril)es who are found along the west bank of the Jhylum are in a very savage state ;
most of them live only b.v plunder ; but the tribes of the plains having a fertile country, are in com-
lortable circumstances, though greatly oppressed by their chiefs. To the northward of this table-
land, and eastward from it X^y the Suttlej, the country rises into hills, which increase in elevation till
tliey terminate with tlie Hiuialay.is themselves, the whole space, l.')0 miles where broades-t, being oc-
cupied by mountains and valleys, the principal of which is the celebrated valley of Cashmere, l he
dominant people are the Seikhs, who form, however, no more than about a seventh part of the total
population, which amounts to three and a half or four millions. Their original country is the do-ab
(peninsula) between the Ravee and the Suttlej, but few are found 30 miles below Lahore. There ara
none westward of the Jhylum ; and even to the east of Lahore, where they are most numerous, they
do not form more timn on^-tliird of the people. After Runjeet Singh's death, the country continued in a
very uusettled state till 1845 <!, wlieu the army revolted and passed the Suttlej, to invade Hindustan.
They were however completely defeated, arid, by a subsequent treaty, the northern part of the kingdom
was fonned into a new sovereignty for Gliolab Singh, the Rajah of Janioo ; and all to the east of the Uoas
and the Suttlej annexed to the IJritish territory. The principal cities and towns are arranged in the fol-
lowing Table, with the tiistances from Lahore.
Attauree, . . .70S. Jellalpore, . . 215 S.W.
Attok, . . . 200 N.W by N. Jelum or Jhylum, 100 N.. N.W.
Barai, . . . . 114 N.W.
Byedera,
Bhenanah,
Bimlier, . .
Bukkup, .
Cashu.ere, .
Chouchouk,
Clioung, . .
L'an-Gali, .
Deedwal,
38 S.W.
23 K. by S.
103 N N.W.
1&.5 W.
17.5 N. by E.
60 S.W.
13 S.W.
140 N.N.W.
1411 N.W.
Jliubbtr, . . 42 N.W
' Jhung 104 W. by S.
Dera-deen-punah, 208 W.S.W.
Dera-ghazi-khan, 22.5 W.S.W.
Dera ismael khan,210W.
Uhowler, . . 80 S.W by S.
Doborjee, . . . .50 S. by K.
Kminabad, . . 35 N. by W.
Kaliah, . . . . 80 N. W.
Kuttehjung,
Kuttelipore, .
(ihoorka,
Gujerat, . .
Gujerunwala,
Itatlzabad,
Husun-abdaul, .
Hureeka, . .
Jellalpore, . .
170 N.W. byN
80 S.W.
S3E.SE.
73 N. by W.
43 N.N.W.
.5.-. N.W.
Jummou,
Kalabagh,
I Kengunpore, .
Kot-kuu)alia,
I Kurrumpore, .
Kussoor, . .
! Kyrodeen, . .
{ Maina, . . .
.Manga, . . .
' Manlkyala, .
i Meerpore, . .
Mittunkote, .
; Moultan, . .
Mulka, . . .
Mulsae, . . .
Muiideo, . .
JIuzufferabad,
Muzurt'ergurh,
Nasaurah, . .
Neeloo, . .
Noon-maim;e,
Paukpetten, . 98 S S.W.
Peshawer, . . 2.35 N.W.
Pettee, . . . 40 S.K. by E.
Pin-dadun-khan, 110 N.W.
Pind-mulik-ulea, 175 N.W.
Pruntz, . . . 144 N.
Rajaor, . . . 116 N.
103 S.W. by W. Kamnegurh, . 67 N.W. byN.
153 S.W. Uamtenh, . . :<0 E. by N.
Kawilpindee, . 1.57 N.N W.
Rotas no N.N.W.
97 N.N.i'
190N.W. by W
6U S.
37 S. bv E.
23 E.
240 S.W.
30 S.W.
145 N.N.W.
113 N.N.W.
2911 S. W.
Sadulapore,
Seetpore, . .
Slieikhupura,
Sliittabgurh, .
Shujuabad, .
190 S.W. by W. Sijera,
. 93 S.W. by S. Sira
170 S.W. Sooket, . .
. 160 E. Sungur, . . .
173 N. by W. Sunlpore, .
. 205 S.W. by W. Surai-khojake,
38 N.W. Tobhee, . .
. 122 N.W.by W. Tehur, . . .
180 .N.W. byN. Nungul
50 S.E. Nurodeen-serai,
100 N.W. ! Oinerpure, . .
lOS N.W.
25 N.
32 E. by S
123 S.W. by S.
Toolumba,
Umritsir, .
I Vizierabad,
75 N.W. by N.
260 S.W.
24 W.
. 160 S.W.
210 S.W.
. 38 S S E.
49 S.W.
, 1.55 E.
250 W. by 8.
24 N.W.
15 N. by W.
115 S.S.W.
80 S. by W.
. 120 S.W. by W.
34 E.
. 66 N. by W.
Lahorr, the capital of the kingdom, stands on the left bank of the Ravee, in N. lat. 31- 33' and
E. long. 74= 22', about 10<K) miles from the mouth of the Indus, 38'^ from Delhi, 1070 from Bom-
bay, and 1360 from Calcutta. The city is of an oval form, about 3 miles in circumference, surrounded
by a strong brick wall and a ditch, with twelve ^.atcs, and as many semicircular outworks. Popula-
tion about 8i>,0fX). It contains sevtral splendid mosijucs; and the Shah-limar, a beautiful garden of the
MoKul emperors, is still kept in good order, about five miles from the city. At Shah- Diirrah or
Shahii^ra, 2 miles N., is the mausoletim of the Emperor Jchangeer, a niagniticent and strikingly
elegant building, of the stme style as the TaJ-mahal at Agra, and apparently from the hands of the
same workmen. /Imritxir or I'mritiir (pool of immortality; is a large town, 8 miles in circumfer-
ence, and surrounded by a n.ud wall faced with brick. During the existence of the Seikh confederacy,
till it was dissolved by the ascendancy of Runjeet Singh, Ainritsir was the federal capital, as it still
Is the principal seat oi their religion. It was anciently called Chak. afterwards ItrtmdaMtpoorn ; and
ac'iuired its present name from the famous reservoir or tank built here by the (JfirO Ham-dass.
This tank is a basin 13.5 paces square, built of burnt bricks ; in the centre of it stands the guruut, a
•mall square temple, all fretttd, and covered with gold outside, and in the inside splendidly and gor-
geously decorated, and inlaid with precious stones. In this temple, which is dedicated to the Gurft
734 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [India.
Oovind-Singh, is lodged the book of laws written by that GOrQ, under a beA<.ttful silken canopy.
Population of the town about 100,000. Amritsir has a citaiiel on the north-east side; and close to
the south-west side is the strong fort of Gomnd-ghur, « here the Maharajah's treasures are kept. Moul
tan, one of the most ancient cities of India, stands on the left bank of the Chenab, is about three miles
In circumference, surrounded by a ruinous wall, and overlooked on the north by a fortress of some
strength, and in good repair. It is a hot, dusty, and slovenly-looking place, with narrow streets, lined
with houses two, three, or four storeys high, which are built of sun-burnt bricks, and washed with mud.
Moultan is famous for its silk manufactures ; about 700 mauiids of silk are imported every year, chiefly
from Bokhara and other places in Turkestan, which are manufactured in 150 workshnps. Population
45,000. ( Vigne't Cabul, &c.) Shujuabad or Shonjuabad, a modern town of 10,000 inhabitants, stands
on a ^lain 4 miles E. of the Chenab, 30 miles S. of Moultan, and is surrounded by a tine brick wall, 30
feet high. It was built between 18 '8 and 1818, and is situate in a most beautiful country, watered by
two spacious canals drawn from the Chenab. Rota.!, a celebrated fortress, formerly considered one of
the principal bulwarks between Tartary and India, is situate near the right bank of the Jhylum, in the
eastern part of the Salt range. Attuk, a fort built by the Mogul emperor, Akbar, in l.'iSl, on the left
bank of the Indus, is in the form of a parallelogram, but seems rapidly falling to decay. Cashmere
C Cashmeer, Cachemere, Cashmeer, Kashmir, Kasmir, Kasshnir), called also Sirinuggur or Sreenuggiir,
a large city with about 40,000 inhabitants, is now decayed, has narrow dirty streets, and is situate
nearly in the centre of the fa nous valley of the same name, about 58011 feet above the level of the sea.
The Vedut runs through the city, dividing it into two principal parts, which are connected by seven
bridges ; but everything is in ruins. The valley is enclosed on the north side by the main chain of the
Himalayas, here called the Thibet Panjahl, and on the south and south-west by a diverging chain of
nearly equal height, called the Pir-panjahl. The distance between the crests of the mountains is about
130 miles E.-W. and 60 N.-S. ; but the plain between them measures only 80 miles in length, with a
breadth varying from 6 miles to 30. The level of the plain is very uniform, and nearly 600C feet above
the level of the sea. The soil is very rich, and produces two crops annually ; in the first, the finest
kinds of rice, maize, millet, oord, moonge, cotton, and lobeeah ; in the second, wheat, barley, pease,
beens, cablee, chimeh, mussoor, linseed, mustard, castor-oil, till or sesame, poppies, saffron, safflower,
tobacco, awa-jow, mundoowah, somah, and buckwheat. There are also many kinds of culinary vege-
tables, and the finest fruits and flowers in abundance. Cashmere is particularly famed for its roses.
The climate is very similar to that of Lombardy, and the productions much the same. " All," says
M. Jacquemont, " is strangely European." The fame of this valley has extended far and wide. It
used to be the summer retreat of the Great Moguls in the days of their prosperity ; and to people ac-
customed like them and their attendants to the sultry climate and the parched plains of Delhi and
Agra, it must have seemed a perfect paradise. They expended immense sums upon it in building
palaces and forming gardens. Nothing, however, now remains of their magnificence but gigantic
trees ; their palaces fallen into ruins have almost everywhere been effaced, and the Shah-limar is the
only one of their gardens that still bears a trace of its mighty lords. The mountains which inclose the
valley have a very bold outline, are deeply sheeted with snow in winter, but in summer are laid bare
nearly to their summits ; and no part of them seems to be higher than 17,000 feet. There are many
passes into the valley ; the principal of which are on the north-west side. Winter is no obstacle to ac-
cess ; and, even after the heaviest falls of snow, people find their way across. The river Vedut or Bedut
has its source in the southern part of the valley, and runs north-west to the lake Wuller or Oolar,
above which it is joined by tjie Chote Sindh. From the lake it flows south-west and leaves Cashmere
through a beautiful pass, where its bed is from 1000 to 1500 feet deep ; and to the westward of the
£ass, it is joined, at Muzufferabad, by the Kishen-gunga, a large river from the valley of Carets,
•ake fVuUer is nearly 15 miles in length, and is surrounded with forests abounding in wild animals ;
but the lake so celebrated in poetry and romance is the Dal, on the north-east of the city, 5 or 6 miles
in length, and half as much in breadth. Cashmere was, a few years ago, subdued by Runjeet Singh,
and was then supposed to contain 800,000 people, divided into 36 pergunnahs, containing 10 towns
and 2200 villages; but through the dire effects of famine and cholera, the number of the population
was reduced below 200,000 ; many villages were entirely deserted, so that the town of Chirar contained,
in 18S5, 2000 houses, and only 150 inhabitants. These disasters, and the oppression of the Seikhs have
driven many of the Cashraerians to emigrate. The principal towns besides Cashmere, are Islamabad,
Pampour, and Chupeyan.
The KixGDOM OF Nep.*ul or Nepal is situate almost entirely within the hill country of India,
between the Sub-Himalayas and the crest of the main chain, extending from the river Kali on the
north-west to the border of Sikim, on the south-east, a distance of 470 miles, with a breadth of about 100.
It consists of at least three parallel belts, of which the first, about 20 miles broad, is a portion of the
Gangetic plain. Next succeeds a region of nearly the same width, consisting of a series of small hills
rising like terraces, till they gradually unite with the Himalayas. Magnificent forests of saul, sisoo,
and tuon trees stretch along the declivities of the lower hills into the adjacent plains ; the forests higher
up exhibit a greater variety, gradually assuming more and more of an alpine character. Between these
hills and the Himalayas fine cultivated valleys are sometimes met with ; but, though fertile, they are
generally neglected on account of their unhealthiness. Some of the wild glens produce rattans and
bamboos of enormous size ; others contain nothing but pines and oaks ; while a third series ripen the
pine apple and the sugar-cane. Others produce barley, millet, and other similar grains. Peaches grow
wild beside every rill, but never ripen, and the vines, which require more care than is ever bestowed
upon them, produce inferior grapes ; but the orange, which ripens in winter, is found in the greatest
perfection. Ginger, cardamums, and grain of every kind, are abundant. The country was formerly
possessed by numerous independent rajahs ; but, within these ninety years, the petty princes have all
been reduced to subjection by the rajah of Goorkha (a small state to the north of Nepaul proper), who
has fixed his residence at Catmandoo, in the valley of Nepaul, and become king of the country. The
king has been deprived of a large portion of his conquests by the British Government, and is believed
to be continually plotting with the princes of India and Birmah, and preparing to overthrow the
ascendancy of the detested foreigners. He maintains a regular army, and the people are brave and
warlike, and ever ready for enterprise. The people are chiefly of the Tartar or Mongolian family,
divided into numerous tribes ; but they are, in some cases, considerably mixed with Hindoo blood,
and profess the Brahminical faith, though some still are Buddhists.
Catmandoo (Katmandu, KhatmandooJ, the capital, is a small town, with narrow, dirty streets, and
brick houses, situate in a circular valley, about 40 miles in circumference, 420 miles N.W. by N. of
Calcutta, and 4784 feet above the level of the sea, watered by numerous branches of the river Bog-
mutty, an affluent of the Ganges. The plain of the valley has a rich alluvial soil, and exhibits every
appearance of having been once the bed of a lake. It is exceedingly populous, and contains several
considerable towns, as Lalita-Patan, with 24,000 inhabitants ; Timi, Kirtipur, Dewatpatan, Sanghu,
and Thankot. The other principal towns are :
Amarpore, . . 112 S.E.
Betaul, . . . 100 W. by S.
Chayanpore, . 110 E. by S.
Dhorali or IVIala-
bum 140 W.N, W. | Lamjun,
Gorkah, ... 52 W. by N.
Jemlah, . . .265 W.N.W.
Khachi, ... 154 W.
Khatang, . . . 90 E. by S.
. 79 N.W.
Mukwanpore, . 22 S.
Noacote, ... 20 N.W.
Palpa, .... HO W.N.W.
Poing 112 W. bv N.
Satahung. . . , 100 W. by N.
India. J ASIA. 735
Bhotah, Bootam, Boodhtax, or B'l'than, situate to the east of Nepau> and Siklm, iS about 210
miles in length, and 90 in breadth. It is a mountainous country, cold, and rugged. The climate is very
various, and rendered at times exceedingly disagreeable by violent gusts which blow up the ravines, and
are loaded with dust. The vegetation exhibits considerable peculiarities ; the bases and lower portions
of the mountains are scantily covered, and it is only at great elevations that the grand forests malie
their appearance. The lowest edge of them is scarcely ever less than 7000 feet, generally 8(XH> or 8500,
where oaks, magnolias, rhododendrons, and several kinds of fir attain great pe fection ; but the south-
ern faces of the mountains are bare of trees, in consequence of their exposure to the south-west mon-
soon. The sovereignty of the country is vested in the Dhurm-rajah, a spiritual prince, who never
dies ; but the government is exercised by the Deb-rajah, who holds office for three years, and is
checked or assisted by a council ; but, so bad is the whole system of government, that there is no secu-
rity for property, and not much for life. Fines, however, are deemed more profitable than bloodshed,
and the only safety of the lower orders consists in their extreme poverty. The people seem to belong
to the Mongolian stock, their features being purely Tartar ; they are rather under-sized, more re-
markable for tension of sinew than for weight ; they are very quiet and industrious ; but the popula-
tion is scanty, and the villages few and small. The palaces and castles are the only places which are
well inhabited, being occupied by idle priests and their followers, who live at the expense of the poor
cultivators. The causes of this scantiness of population are polyandry and agyny, bad government,
and the filthy and licentious habits of the people. The Booteas seem to have no castes, though they are
divided into several sects ; but it does not appear that the possession of the higher offices is confined to
the higher sects. They may be classed into labourers, priests, idle retainers, and grandees. Perhaps
the most numerous, and certainly the most pernicious class is that of the gylongs or priests, whose
Dumber is unusually great ; they inhabit not only the palaces and castles, but also whole villages.
Their chief duty is to be idle, to feast at the expense of the country, to tell their beads, and mutter
prayers. Their religion consists in external forms ; they are remarkably superstitious, believing in
hosts of spirits whose supposed abodes they dare not pass without numerous incantations. The moral
character and social habits of the Booteas are very low. They have no genius for war; and though
they go armed, even the women, at all times, yet they are afraid to fire the matchlocks which they
carry. Their religion is Buddhism. Many of their laws and customs have been copied from the
Chinese ; and they are equally scrupulous with their celestial neighbours in guarding against the
entrance of foreigners into their country. The people are chiefly employed in agriculture ; many of
them cultivate one tarni in the mountains In summer, and another in the lowlands in winter. Their
commerce is trifling, as they have few articles to give in return. They export ponies, mules, woollen
cloth, rock-salt, and a peculiar spicn, very pungent and aromatic, which is the capsule of a species of
zanthoxijlon. found on the mountains to the north-east. Their political relations are very limited.
They are tributary indirectly to Lassa, and now directly to China, though the official people strenu-
ously deny it. The summer capital is Tassisudim, which, in winter, on account of the cold, is deserted
lor Dosen or Punuh/ia. The eastern part of Bhotan is governed by the Towang rajah, and is a por-
tion of the government of La.si^si.—( Journal of a Mission to Bootan 1837-8, by Capt. Pemberton; At.
Jour. XXXI. 81., &c. Journal As. Hoc. Betigal, March and April 1839.)
§ 7. Foreign Possessions.
The French Territory in India consists of several detached portions, forming the single govern-
ment of fuiidichery, but arranged in five districts, namely, l'o7idichery and Kariknl or Cartcal, in
the Carnatic ; Yanaon, in the North Circars ; C/tandertiagore, in Bengal; and Maki', in Malabar;
comprising together an area of about .530 square miles, and a population of 1G8,000 souls. I'ondi-
ehery, the capital, which is situate on the coast of Coromandel, 85 miles S. by W. of Madras, is a fine
city, laid out very much in the European style, with wide and regular streets, and 40,000 inhabitants.
It has a colle>.'e, and several school.s, a mont de piet(?, and a botanic garden ; in the vicinity indigo,
si.gar-oane, and mulberries are cultivated. It has no harbour, but a tolerable road. Make is a small
setthment on the Malabar coast, about two miles in circumference on the land side ; it contains a
well-built town, and carries on some export trade in pepper, arrow-root, and cocoa-nuts. It is very
salubrious, and is on that account nmch frequented by the military fiom Cananore.
The Uasish Territory consists of the two small establislimtnts of Tra7iquehar,QX\t\ie Coromandel
coast, and Serampore, in Bengal, forming together about S3 square miles, with :i5,000 inhabitants.
Tranmu'bar is a tine town, built almost entirely in the European style, and protected by a citadel
namea Daruborg. It is situate in Tanjore, on the coast of the delta of the Cauvery, a branch of which
serves for its harbour. It carries on a considerable trade, and has a population of 12,000 souls. The
Danes pay for Tranquebar and its territory an annual rent of 2000 sicca rupees (£200 sterling) to the
raj: h of Tanjore.
Portuguese I.ndia is now reduced to the territory of Goa, on the west coast, between the Concan
and Canara, Danuiun, in Gujrat, and the l.-land of Diu, on the south coast of Kattiwar. Goa con-
sists of two provinces, Saliette and Bardes, with several islands, measuring altogether along the coast,
about GO miles, with a breadth varying from 15 to 30. The physical characteristics of the country are
the same as those of the adjoining British provinces ; many parts of it are well cultivated, and its re-
venues, estimated at 900,000 rupees (£90,000 sterling) defray all the expenses of government, besides
furnishing £20,000 to the royal purse of Portugal, that being the proceeds of the tobacco monopoly. The
population amounts to .')00,000, two-thirds of whom are Christians. Goa, once tlie splendid capital of
the wide-spread Portuguese dominions in Asia, is now deserted, fallen to ruins, and overgrown with
Jungle. The cathedral, however, and several other churches are still in good preservation ; but the
whole population, including monks, nuns, priest.s, and their servants, amounts only to a few hun-
dreds, In.stead of the 200,000 which the city once contained. The seat of government is now at Paiigi,
called also lilla Soi-a de Gixi, G miles nearer the sea, a collection of huts built on the low shelving
shore of the river. Some of the buildings, however, including the government house, present a
handsome appearance from the water. Population al)out 'JOOO. The river of (ioa tonus a harbour
scarcely if at all inferior to that of Bombay ; it is navigable up to Goa, 8 miles from the sea. On the
north bank stands the fortress of I{pis, a striking object, bristling with cannon. The scenery is most
beautiful, but the climate of (ioa itself is very unhealthy, a circumstance which has chiefly led to
the town fjeing so completely deserted. The archbishop of Goa takes the title of Primate of India, and
resides at Sun I'edro. 3 miles from Pangi, with which it is connected by a fine road. The entrance to
the harbour is formed by Agorida, an elevated rocky i)romontory on the north side, and C'libo, a simi-
lar but 1(88 celebrated point on the south. The only passage for large ships is connnanded by the
guns of two forts at Agoada. On the point of Cubo is a Donjinican monastery, which forms a fine
object. Mfrgdon, in Salsette, and Murpwa, in Bardes, are considerable towns, with each almut
I0,(XX) inhabitants. Danviun is a seaport town in Gujrat, on a small river, 82 miles N. of Bomliay.
The houses are whitened, and give to the town externally a handsome appearance, but the streets are
narrow and dirty, and the walls are incapable of defence. Damaun contains several churches and
convents, and a Parsee temple, in which the sacred fire brought from Persia has been preserved for
I2<X) years. Daraaim is noted for its docks and shipbuilding. Population about OfKX). I)iu is a smiill
town and fort, now fallen to decay, at the east end of the island of the same name in Kattiwar. Th«
736 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [India.
Governor-General has recently (1840) declared that all kinds of merchandise may be deposited in tha
ports of Goa, Diu. and Uamaun, on the payment of an ad ualorem duty of one per cent, und tliat no
further tax will be levied on their exportation.
§ 8. Tlie Inlands of India.
I'eyi.on. — This large and beautiful island, " the Jewel of the Eastern Seas," and "the Jem of
Paradise," is situate between ^^ 56' and 9^ b6' N. lat. and 7.t" hi' and 82= E. long, to the south-east of
the southern part ot the Carnatic, from which it is separated by tlie Gulf of Manaar and Palli's
Straits, which, at the narrowest part, along Adam's Bridge, are fi'i miles wide. It is of an oval shape ;
tlie northern portion is an e-xtensive plain, with only a sandy beach, ovt-rliung by groves of cocoa-nut
t ecs fringing the const, and not an eminence of any kind can be distinguished from the sea as break-
ing the line of those trees from the interior. The southern portion is hilly near the sea, and moun-
tainous inland towards the centre, some of the ranges presenting masses of the most fantastic shapes.
All round the island, however, therrf is a belt of ricli alluvial soil well watered by numerous streams.
Un the west side the country is flat ; and the north coast is broken into a number of islands and
rocks. The centre of the southern portion is occupied by a picturesque table-land, 67 miles by 50,
between 2000 and 3000 feet above the level of the sea. From this elivated region some conical moun-
tains rise several thousand feet higher. Tlie mountains run in general in continuous chains, inter-
spersed with the loveliest valleys ; the liills are clothed to their very tops wi h gigantic forests, from
which issue magnificent cascades, and foaming cataracts form in the valleys placid rivers, and babbling
brooks, which are fringed with turfy banks, and all the beautiful verdure of the inter-tropical re-
gions. The highest mountain is I'edrotuUdnalln, near Newera-ellia, 8280 feet high. Kirrigal-pota
is 7810 ; Tutta-pella, 7720, and Adam's Peak, formerly supposed to be the highest in the island, is now
ascertained to be only 7420. The plain of Wilmantalawe is so high as 6G90, and that of Newera-eUia,
6210.
Though there are no natural lakes in Ceylon, yet probably no country is better watered by rivers
and innumerable streams and rills than the hill country of the interior and the adjacent districts ;
while the ingenuity and labour of the earlier inhabitants, by the construction of immense reservoirs,
had almost rendered it independent of such droughts as occasionally happen. The principal rivers
are: The ilahauilJi-gtinga, or Miilmirelle-giirtga (Great Sandy River), which rises from the Newera-
ellia Mountains, flows by Kandy.from which to the plains of Bintinne, a distance not exceeding 31 miles,
it hurries down a descent of more than 1000 feet perpendicular, receiving in its course a great accession
of waters. It then flows north-east with a slow and tedious course, through the flat country, into
the sea between Trincomalee and l?atticaloa. It is believed to be navigable to Bintinne, but the
lower part of its course is obstructed by sandbanks ; and below Kandy, by rocks and a succession of
rapids. It is subject, like all tlie other rivers and streams, to great and sudden floods during the
rainy season In 1834 the Mahavila-ganga rose GO feet above its ordinary level. Kalany-ganga, rises
from the group of mountains of which Adam's Peak is the centre, and enters the sea three miles north
of Colombo, after a course of 60 mile-, through three-fourths of which it is navigable for boats. Kalu-
ganga ( Black River), rises on the south side of Adam's Peak, and falls into the sea at Caltura: it is
navigable for boats 40 or 50 miles. H'dleway-ganga, enters the sea between Tangalle and Hamg-
bangtotte. The other rivers of the island are of little consequence. They are more numerous on
the west than on the east coast, and less unfrequent in the south than the north.
Ceylon is completely under the influence of the monsoons ; the north-east prevailing from November
till February, the south-west from April till September, and the intervening, or equinoctial months
having variable winds or calms. The east side of the island is hot and dry ; the central, western, and
southern provinces are temperate and moist. The south-west wind is felt generally over the island,
but the north-east wind does not, during half its duration, reach across the mountains to Colombo,
on the west coast. A great deal of rain falls, particularly among the mountains, and on those parts of
the coast which are most directly exposed to the monsoons. The rains are periodical and very heavy.
In the northern part of the island, and along the east coast, the rainy season begins in November, and
lasts about two months with great violence ; during the rest of the year the country is dry, and is
rarely visited by scanty showers. On the west coast the greatest quantity of rain falls about the set-
ting in of the south-west monsoon, but it is not so heavy, nor so constant as on the other side ; the
dry season, however, is more apt to be interrupted by showers. The seasons among the mountains
are more or less of the same kind, according to the localities and aspects. Rains are frequent in
the interior, and the country is accordingly well watered. The heat varies in different places. The
west coast is remarkable for equality of temperature, the mean being about 78^ and the atmosphere
e.xceedingly moist .At Colombo the mean daily variation does not exceed 3^, while the annual range
of the thermometer is from 76= to 86j°. The east coast about Trincomalee is remarkable for intense
heat, the mean temperature of the hot months being about 82=, the greatest daily variation I7=, and
the annual range from 74^= to Ol^-'. Among the mountains the heat is less violent ; the mean anni^al
temperature at Kandy is 73= 5', the mean daily variation 6=, and tlie annual range from 66° to 86=.
Higher up, at Newera-ellia, the mean daily variation is 11=, and the annual range from 3.ij= toSO|=.
The healthiest parts of the island are the south-west coast, and the hills and table-lands of the interior.
The most unhealthy regions are the wooded parts between the mountains and the sea, all round ex-
cept on the south-west, where the hills come down to the coast. Hurricanes are unknown.
Uniformity of formation is the most remarkable feature in the geological structure of the island.
With very few exceptions, the whole island is c. mposed of primitive rocks, granite or gneiss, with
some large veins of quartz, horiiblciide, and dolomite. Limestone is found near Kandy and Jaifnapa-
tam, and is of the shell kind, mixed with coral rock ; grey and blackish sandstone occurs along the
shores. The only metallic ores hitheito found, are iron pretty generally ditt'used, and manganese.
The island has been long famed for amethysts, topazes, garnets, catseyes, cinnamon-stone, sapphires,
rock-crystals, shorl, zircon, rubies, and diamonds, &c. ; but in general the gems are not of much
value, and the ruby, tlie most valuable, is rarely met with. The pearl fishery in the Gulf of Manaar,
sometimes produces great abundance of that valued gem. The most ', rodiictive pearl banks are
situate off drndiichy or Kotidafrhie, a miserable village, 12(t miles N. by E. of Colombo ; and extend
30 miles from N. to S. with a breadth of 20 in the lower part of the Gulf of Manaar. The fishery
generally begins in March, when the calm wet.ther permits the boats to go out and in daily. The
average net revenue produced to government from this fishery for 32 years, ending in 1832 was
£14,622 per annum. The season lasts only 3 ) or 35 days ; and each bank being available only for
a period of about 2.) days, once in seven years, the fishery is sometimes small, and sometimes
there is none at all. The pearl oyster, though neither palatable nor wholesome, is not poisonous,
and is sometimes eaten by the poorest of the i eople who frequent the fishery. None of the pearl
divers are Singalese ; the most of them come from the opposite coasts of India. There are some
other detached banks, but of inconsiderable value, compared with those of Manaar, situate far-
ther south, nearly opposite Chilaw. Repeated examinations of the banks, and judicious restric-
tions of the fishery to those places where the oysters are of full size, have almost brought the pearl
fishery to be a regular item in the annual revenue of Cejloij —lorbct, I. 255-7. Nitre- caveg ar«
India.] ASIA. 737
numerous; alum is plentiful, and the coast from Cliilaw to Manaar and .latfna, on the west side, and
from Tangaile, through the Mahagampatoo to the eastward, contains extens-ive and valuable salt for-
mations.
The vegetable productions are not less valuable, the most celebrated and the most precious of v.hich
is the cinnamon-tree, which grows wild as well as in a cultivated state, in every southern part of the
island where there is sufficient moisture. Hitherto the cultivation and sale of the article have been
monopolised by government; but even under this vicious system, the cinnamon fzardens covered up-
wards of 17,000 acres on the coast, the largest being near Colombo. The cinnamon-tree grows v.ild
in the woods to the size of a large apple tree ; but, when cultivated, is never allowed to exceed tin or
twelve feet in height. Next to the cinnamon in repute, though in reality far more valuable, i^ the
cocoa-nut tree, which furnishes a large portion of the people with their princiial sui sistence. l'"roni
Tangaile to Chilaw, a distance of 135 miles, the country is nearly one continued ^'rove of cocoa-nut,
bread-fruit, and jack- fruit trees. Cotton i-; produced with the greatest facility ; every village or hut has
its patch of sugar-cane and tobacco ; coffee grows luxuriantly, and, without care, even of an excellent
quality. Of late, the attention of speculators has been strongly directed to this article, which has
already become the staple production of the island, instead of cinnamon, the demand for which was so
capricious that it could hardly be cultivated with profit ; but the coft'ee planter has a quick and sure
return for his expenditure. In five years the tree reaches maturity, and before the expiration of the
sixth, the receipts cover the original and current expenditure. During 1838 mure thin 10,000 acres of
land were purchased from government for this purpose ; and, if the progress of cultivation continue
to advance at the same rate as it has done for the last few years, an immense improvement will soon bo
effected in the desert wastes of the island, and, as a necessary consequence, in the moml character and
intellectual advancement of the people. Almost all the cotl'ee plantations are situate in the Kandian
or inland provinces. Many of them are scattered over the high country between Kandy and Newera-
ellia, where the road frequently winds through estates in a high degree of cultivation. — C Lieut, llvits.
As. Jour. April 1841.) The pejiper vine grows nearly wild al; over tlie island ; cardamum plants are
equally plentiful ; areca-nut and rice are produced of the best quality ; teak forests abouud, and excel-
lent masts and yards are everywhere procurable. Calamander, ebony, satin, rose, sappan, iron, jack,
and every kind of the most beautiful wood for cabinet work are lound in rich prolusion. Enehauring
groves of the palmyra palms surround the villages in the northern part of the isUnul, and, like the
cocoa-nuts of the south, are of the gi-eatest value to the people in seasons of drouj;ht. It was at Fort
Macdonald and its neighbourhood that potatoes were first successfully cultivated, so as to supply the
market at a moderate price ; and although at Newera-ellia they grow still larger and liner, it is Ironi
Upper Ouva that the general supply is obtained. Not only potr.toes, but most of the other European
vegetables, are now general in every good garden in the Kandian country ; but the seed iiiugt be cou-
tii'ually renewed from Europe or South .Africa.
The animal kingdom is not less rich ; earth, air, and water, are instinct with life. The elepb.ant.i
are large and docile ; the tiger formidable and destructive ; and lil ewise the buffalo in its w ild state.
There are deer of every kind, and elks resembling the fossil reniains of Ireland. Snakes, e\ en poison-
ous ones, are very numerous and large, but deaths caused by them are very few. The most dang:erous
snake is the tic-polanga ; the formidable cobra-di-capello is comparatively harmless, being less vicious
and less easily provoked. The puribera is the monarch of the island snakes, being sometimes more
than 20 feet in length; but it is little dreaded, and seems to confine its ravages to the birds. Alligators
are found in most of the rivers, and jackals abound in every grove. The mountain districts are
infested with a kind of leech which clings pertinaciously to the skin. and e.\tracts much blood, occasion-
ing even painful and dangerous ulcers. In short, there is the greatest abundance of lisSies, animals,
and fowls; and, taken altogether, Ceylon is one of the most luxuriantly productive, and most highly
favoured regions on the face of tlie globe.
The population may be divided into four distinct classes : -Cei/'jjiese or Sitigale.ie, who occupy
Kandy, and the south and south-west coasts; ilu/ahiirs or llindnus, who occupy the north and east
coasts, with the Island of Jaffna ; Moms or Arabs, who are dispersed all over tlie island, and form the
mass of the population in the Tultam district. fKhhis or Beddas, the aborigines of the island, who were
said to I e found in the most savage state, in the great forests which extend from the south to the east
and north, and also in the most inaccessible parts of the interior, wild-beasts and wild-fruits being
their only food, small huts formed on the branches of large trees their resting-places, and a clotli
round the loins their only dress. Hut this account of them is believed to be greatly exaggerated They
are indeed an uncivilized race, thinly scattered over an exteiisiveand unhealthy tract of country, lying
between the maritime province of Katticaloa on the eastern coast, and the Kandian bills ; but "they
are all consid<red to be of the Goyawanzae or highest caste, and do not appear to differ from what
other natives would become, if compelled to make the same exertions, and to endure the same privations.
The village Aeddashavc permanent places of residence, cultivate small portions of land, and com-
municate, although they do not mix with the other natives. The forest \'eddas subsist by hunt-
ing, or on the spontaneous productions of the eartli ; and they olitain arrowheads, the only article
of manufacture which they covet, through the intci vention of tiieir own chiefs, and their brethren of
the villages. They are, however, very scantily clothed; their whole dress cc/nsisting of a small jitce
of cotton cloth lianging in front from a string tied round the loins. '1 hey may more properly he
termed rude than savage, because they are as free from ferocity as from any trace of civilization.
Their present state is an inheritance from their ancestors, the Yakkas or aboriginal inhabitants, who
were in possession of the eastern part of Ceylon when \'ijeya landed, u. c. .")13; and, liavii.g then
esca|;ed trom the fury of the invaders, into the forests of Bintinr.eand ".Cddarata. they have there pre-
served the purify of their race, and the superstitions of their failiers.—f/V/Y,p.,-, II. 'ih.J There aie also
Malays, Mnormm, Caffres,a\\A J'inanese, & icw Chinese and i'l/r^cc trailer , and many descendants of
the Portuguese, Dutch, and English, mixed with native blood, scattered over the island. Tlie pure Sin-
gaiese of the interior are completely Hindoos in person, manners, customs, religion, an<l ^'overnUKiit ;
and differ from Euro|:eans less in features than in colour, si/e, and form. Tlie colour of their skins
varies from light brown to black ; the cdour of their hair and eyes also varies ; but hazel eyes are
more common than brown hair. In size they generally exceed the lowland Singalese and the Hin-
d(;09 of Coromandel and .Malabar, but are inferiir to Europeans ; their avera-e stature may be about
f> feet 4 or .'i inches. They are cleimmade, with neat muscles and small bones ; their features arc com -
monly regular and often handsome; their faces intelligent and animated, 'i'li. women are geiierally
well-made, and good-looking, and often handseme. The Singalc e of the cosist are generally a liner
race of men than the Bengalees, and more clegnnt than the Kol.illas or Rajpoi.is. The expression of
the countenance is fine; their skins neaily black; and their hair long r.nd black, but not e(Kirse.
From the gonial climate little clothing is requisite, and abundance of looii (at the worst, Iruil and
yams), with fuel at command, probably ilaces the i easant of Ceylon in a better, position than the
peasant of any other country. The higher classes, v* ith the exception of the old chiefs. hav<' already
lost the ri-collection of barbarous power, and, by giving their children an Knglish education, are teach-
ing them to aspire to those offices which conl'er real importance and just infliK nee on the posses ois.
The highest rank of natives have generally mild manners and quick ahililits; ai'.'l, Iruui tl.e l.;ujable
ambition with which they are inspired, it may be expected, ere long, that many if then, will be h'UliJ
a A
738 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [India.
filling with respectability the high official situations which have been opened to their competition. —
C Forbes, I. 6-2.)
The Singalese recognise the four Hindoo castes, which they call wanscs : the Echshastria ( Kshetrya)
or royal caste ; the liramina; the IViesia ; and t!ie Sudra. The tirst two, however, have now no exist-
ence in Ceylon ; forthe royal family, who were believed to bo of the Echshastria caste, are now extinct ;
and there are no Hrahmins. The Goewanse or cultivators, form the highest caste in the interior; and
were formerly a privileged class, who monopolised, under the Kandian government, all the honours,
and all the hereditary rank ; while the labourers and tradesmen formod the other caste called Kushdra-
vanze. In this inferior caste, not only each service or trade was distinct, but was also subdivided into
branches, the families of which did not intermarry. Below all these are the Rhodias, a race of outcasts,
who are employed in the lowest and most de,?raling professions. The Singalese are, genei-ally speaking,
on a level with the Hindoos. In courtesy and polish of manners they are little inferior to the most refined
people of the present day ; but in intellectual acquirements and proficiency in the arts and sciences,
they are not advanced beyond an equality with the darkest period of the middle ages in Europe. Their
character on the whole is low, tame, and undecided, with few strong lights or shades ; possessing few
prominent virtues or vices, it may be considered as a compound of weak moral fcL-lings, of strong na-
tural ail'ections, and moderate passions. In religion they are Buddhists, and, like all uninstructed
people, extremely credulous and superstitious ; believing in omens, demons, and spirits. By the last
census in 1835, the amount of the population was found to be 1,250,000. Ceylon is now entirely in the
possession of the British ; the government is regulated by a charter granted by the Crown in 1833,
and is under the charge of a governor, appointed by tlie Crown, who is assisted by two councils, the
one legislative, the other executive ; and for the administration of justice there are a supreme civil
and criminal court at Colombo; a vice-admiralty court, and provincial courts in various districts ;
besides magistracies. Trial by jury was introduced several years ago, with great success, and highly
to the satisfaction of the natives, who have proved themselves to be well qualified for the enjoyment
of the privilege, and the performance of its duties. For administrative purposes the island is divided
into five provinces, named the Eastern, Western, Northern, Southern and Central, and each of these
is subdivided into districts. In each province there is a government agent, besides 19 assistants, who
are stationed in various districts. These functionaries administer the affairs of government, and
also officiate as magistrates. The ecclesiastical establishment of the Church of England consists of
an archdeacon, G chaplains, and 11 proponents. At Colombo a regular police has been organized on
the London system ; and throughout the island the police is generally good ; but crimes are rare.
Good roads, some of which are said to be equal to any in England, have been formed and are forming
by Government throughout the island, rendering the various regions easily accessible, and contri-
buting largely to their rapidly advancing prosperity. Various reforms have also been effected in the
revenue expenditure, in the system of ta.xation, and the regulation of commerce ; and the moral cha-
racter of the people has already been raised very perceptibly by making them eligible to every govern-
ment situation, by the general extension of education, and the introduction and rapid diffusion of the
English language ; but most of all by the abolition of compulsory service, in making the people all
equal in the eye of the law ; and abridging the authority and influence of their chiefs.
The mythological history of Ceylon extends backward to the conquest of Lanka, which was
effected by the Hindoo demi-god Rama, about 23 centuries B.C. ; but the authentic history commences
only with the year 543 B.C., when Vijeya, a Hindoo of the solar race, conquered the island, and esta-
blished a dynasty which continued to exist uninterruptedly till a.d. 1815, when the last of 165 Singalese
kings was dethroned by the British Government. The family, however, of Vijeya's descendants had
become extinct in 1739 ; the subsequent kings were only connexions by marriage with the solar race ;
and from an early period in the sixteenth century their dominion was restricted to the interior of the
island by the Portuguese and Dutch, who were finally succeeded by the British in 1796. It has been
usually asserted by European travellers and residents in Ceylon, that there were no authentic his-
torical records ; but, since the British Government acquired the complete possession and ascen-
dancy in the island, a multitude of records have come to light, from which it is possible to compile
a perfectly authentic history of the kings of the solar dynasty ; or, from the year 543 B.C. to the
present day, a long period of 2383 years. The earlier history is only traditional, or mythic, and,
during the long period which elapsed between Rama's conquest and the arrival of Vijeya, is very ob-
scure or almost a blank. — ( Tumour's Epitome of Cingalese History, in Appendix to vol. II. of Forbes's
" Eleven years in Ceylon." Laka, Lanka, Lankawa, Laka-diwa, Lanka-dwipia, or some other variety
of these words, is the most ancient appellation of Ceylon to be found in Sanscrit or Singalese re-
cords. Laka is the ancient Singalese, Lanka, the Sanscrit name of the island. The most common
name of the island is S/ng'Aa/a, variously written .Si/iafe, Sihalen, Singhalen, Ceylon, Seilan, daviyeA
from Singha or Siha, the race to which Vijeya, the Hindoo conqueror and his followers, belonged.
Vijeya was banished by his father, wiio ruled over a country named Lala, whose capital, Singhapura, is
probably the same as Singhea, on the banks of the Gunduck, wliere the site of an ancient city is dis-
cernible, covered with numerou sruins and Buddhist monuments. — (Forbes, I. 9, 12.) It is asserted
by the Singalese, and the Greek and Roman geographers seem to confirm the assertion, that Ceylon
was formerly of much greater extent tlian it nowis. Lanka is said to have been aV20 miles in circum-
ference ; but by successive encroachments of the sea, to have been reduced to a circumference of 928
miles, which is considered by the Singalese to be the present extent of their island. By Europeans its
circumfeTence is reckoned about SOO. The first partial submerging of Lanka is stated in the Singalese
records t« have occurred about 2387 years, B.C. ; the second in the time of King Panduwas, who
reigned from 504 to 474 B.C. ; and the third and greatest in the third centurv before the Christian era.
The Singalese traditions also mention that thousands of isles attached to the kingdom of Lanka were
overflowed by the sea b.c. 2387, along with the splendid capital of Sri-Lanka -poora, which stood to
the westward of any part of the present island.
The revenues derived from land-rents and various other sources, averages somewhat more than
£330,000 a-year, and now generally exceed the expenditure. The military force consists of 4 regi-
ments of the line, 2 companies of artillery, and the Ceylon rifles, consisting of 16 companies, princi-
pally composed of Malays.
Towns, with their distances from Colombo.
Anaradhapoora, 104 N.N.E.
Badulla, . . . 85 E.
Batticaloa, . . 140E.byN.
Bintenne, ... 90 E.N.E.
Calpentyn, . . 95 N.
Caltura, ... 25 S.S.E.
Chilaw, ... 37 N. by W.
Dondra, ... 95 S.S.E.
Fort Macdonald, 75 E. by S.
Fort Macdowall, 70 N.E. by E.
Hambangtotte, 100 S.E. by E.
Jaffnapatam, . . 170 N. bv E.
Kandy, . . . 60 E.N. "E.
Katrc'am, . . . 110 E. S.E.
Matura, ... 82 S.E. by S.
Moelitivoe, . . 170 N.N.E.
Nalande, . . . 75 N.E.
iNegombo, . . . 21 N.
Newera-ellia, . . 60 E. by S.
Paltupane, . . 110 E. S.E.
Pantura, . . . 20 S. by E.
Point de Galle, . 6.5 S.S.E.
Pultam, . . . 74 N.
Ratnapora, . . 41 E.S.E.
Rokelay, . . .165 N.N.E.
Trincom,ilee, . 140 N.E. by N.
Tangalle, . . 90 S.E.
Colombo, the capital of the island, is situate on the south-west coast, lat. 6^ 57', long. 80^ 2', with a
India.] ASIA. 739
strong fort built on a peninsula, which is defended by 300 pieces of cannon. The town is handsome,
and divided into four parts by two broad streets. The Petta/i, or native town, is very extensive, hav-
ing so many as .50,000 or 60,000 inhabitants. There appears to be little traffic, except in cinnamon and
pepper; the harbour is safe at one season only; during the south-west monsoon, the whole coast is
wind-bound. Kandy, 72 miles travelling distance from Colonibo, by a carriage road equal to any in
England, is situate at the head of a valley 1678 feet above the level of the sea, and surrounded with
hills. The houses are all of clay, those of the chiefs tiled and white-washed, the others thatched ;
but all arranged in regular straight streets. Kandy was the residence of the latter kings of Ceylon,
and is now the occasional residence of the British governor. It contains several temples, and two
colleges for Buddhist priests. It is nearly surrounded by the Mahavelligunga, over which there is a
splendid wooden bridge at Paradeinia or Paradennia, 4 miles from Kandy, of one arch 205 feet span,
22 feet wide, and 67 high. Immediately adjoining the bridge, in a bend of a river, is the botanical gar
den, which is a pretty spot. Kandy is connected by four great roads witli Colombo, Trincomalee,
Baddula, and Kurunaigala. Newera-cllia or Xeweralia, 50 miles S. from Kandy, upon a table-land 6210
feet above the sea, is a place rising fast into repute, from its salubrity, the lowness of its temperature,
and its approximating in many respects to a European climate. Most of the European vegetables
grow to groat perfection ; strawberries are abundant. There is also an hospital for convalescents.
The mountain Pedrotallagalla, rises above the plain of Xewera-ellia, about 2000 feet, and a road has been
cut to its top, where a superb view is the reward of those who ascend it. ISetween Newera-ellia and
Kandy, the road is so good that the distance has been ridden in five hours, and the scenery is not to
be surpassed in Switzerland or Wales. The valley of Cotamalie, in particular, situate at the base of
the hills which skirt the plain of Newera-ellia, is consi<!ercd by many to be the most enchanting spot
in the island. The general range of the thermometer at Newera-ellia is from 45° to 65°, hut it often
falls to the freezing point, when of course, ice is formed ; and there are few evenings in which a fire is
not found to be neces.-ary for comfort. South-west of Newera-ellia, overlooking Saflragam, is tho
lii;,'hest table-land in Ceylon, named by the Ceylonese ilaha-elUa (the great plain), and part of it U'il-
iiianliiltiue; but by Europeans llortun P'ains, 6690 feet above tho level of the sea. Trinconuilee ( Trin-
komtilee), on the north-east coast, in lat. 8° 32', long. 81° 17', communicating with Kandy and Colombo
by a fine road, is a small and mean town with few European inhabitants, and few Singalese, the lower
people being chiefly Roman Catholic Malabars. The fortifications form a sweep of about a mile in
length ; and might be renJered almost impregnable. The rocky promontory occupied by the fort
is dedicated to Siva, in his character of Eiswara, and is held by his votaries in great veneration. Ex-
ceiJt a few small coasting vessels with rice, there is no trade. The harbour is so land-locked that it
appears like a lake ; its surface is beautifully <liversifiod with islands, covered with luxuriai.t vegeta-
tion, as are also the hills which surround it. It is capable of containing any fleet of tho largest ships
in perfect safety, and is the place of refuge for such as are overtaken at sea by the novtSi-east monsoon.
Trincomalee is consi:lcred the worst station in the island. The vicinity is a wild uncultivated coun-
try, abounding with game of all kinds, from the sni^>e to the elephant. The temperature is much higher
thnn that of any other of the stations. October and the three following months are the cool season,
and the climate is then truly pleasant ; in March, April, and May, the heat is oppressive ; the thermo-
meter IS seldom below 91° during the day, and is often at 99° ; the nights are u.-ually cool. There are
often loni; intervals of dry weather ; six months sometimes pass without rain. The coast is celebrated
for iKjautiful shells. The hot wells of Kanya, situate near a ranK'e of wooded bills, eight p. lies from
Trincomalee, are seven in number, of small size, and of different degrees of temperature, varying from
10(1- to 110°, and consist of warm, pure, clear water. About 3') miles from Trincomalee is the cele-
brated lake of Candelai/, formed by an embankment across a valley, and covering an area of about 15
Sijuare miles. Point de Galle, a strong fortress and excellent harbour, on tl;e south coast, lat. 6°
r, I'jng., 80-' 10'. The outer and inner harbours are spaciuus, and the iimer ia secure at all seasons. Tho
town is situate on a rocky promontory, with works upwards of a mile in circumference ; and is re-
markable for its salubrity. The usual range of the tlicrmomettr is from 80° to 84°, but the heat is
tempered by the sea-breeze, which blows nearly the whole year. The south-west mont^oon blows full
and tVesli from the ocean, renovating the constitutions of those who have sutfered in the more un-
healthy parts of the island. The inhabitants are celebrated for their skill in the making of dressing-
cases, work-boxes, and jewellery. Dimdra or Dewinuunra i God-town), a village at the most southerly
point of Ceylon, lat. -r^ .50' N., long. 80° 40' E. Jafftia or Jajf'wipatam stands in aflat country, but the
richness of the vegetation, and the beauty of the scenery render its appearance exceedingly i iclu-
resque. The houses arc neat and clean, and arc all white on the outside ; the principal street, which
runs through the centre of the town, is finely shaded on each side by rows of hirge trees, towering
aijove the houses, which, indeed, are only one storey high, but raised a few steps from tho ground on
tt paved terrace. At the distance of a quarter of a mile westward from the town, !-tands a connnodious
pentagonal fort, having tive bastions, and surrounded with broad ditches an<l an extensive glacis; a,
large square occupies its centre, enclosed by rails, and bounded by streets of excellent houses. .M
two miles distance from the fort are the Pans, where a great quantity of salt is gathered, which is dis-
posed of lor twopence the paralt (40 pounds weight;, to (lovernment, who afterwards sell the same
quantity to the traders for two shillings. Vast quantities are exjjorted to Madi as, Calcutta, and
oiher parts of India. .laffna is situate on an island at the northern extremity of Ceylon. Near
Miiii/ulti', opposite the island of Mnjiaar, are the ruins of a very large city, built (.f brick and mortar,
and an immense tank 16 or 18 miles in extent, said to have been Ibuncled by tho Hindoos, and made tho
ca|) tal of a kingdom which they established in the northi rn part of the inland, yittiirddhiiptitira, one
of ihe ancient capitals of <.'eylon, an honour which it hold for twelve centuries, was surrounded by a
wall 16 miles square. Among its ruins are six i)agodas ofiminenje size, the form being a bemispliere
surmounted with a spire ; the two largest are each 270 feit high, of s^did briclrworl:, once entirely
covered with chunam ; the roofs arc composed of curiously carved raficrs of wood. All the ruiri.s,
find even the lofty monuments are either covered with jungle, or obscun-d by forests ; it is nearly a
thousand years since it ceased to he the capital. Its successor Piiliiniditiia, which was the capital lor
.5.iO years, is likewise completely in ruins ; it is situate about '.Wi miles S. W. of Kandy, and was finally
deserte<i in A. n. 1319. it is now generally called by Kurojicans 7't(,'W/<', a corruption of Tupaucva,
the name of the tank which extends along one side of the city.
'I'hc most celebrated place, however, in Ceylon, is Admu's I'riik, so called by the Mahometans, who
believe that Adam, whose stature was equal to the height of a tall palm tree, all or having been thrown
down from Paradise in the seventh heaven, alighted on this peak, an<i remained standing on one
foot until years of penitence and suflTerin^ had expiated bis oflenco, and formed the footstep. The
Hindoos ascribe the impression to their god Siva. My tho ^Mngalese, however, the mountain is called
Snmajtt'lla or Unmaitilla, from Saman, the guardian god. The top <d' the moinitain is 7120 feet
above the sea ; its area measures only 70 feet by 30, and is surroinided by a stone wall 5 feet high,
built in some places on the brink of the prccii)icc. Within the indosure is a granite rock, tho
highest part of which is 9 feet above the ground, and on the top is the Sree-pada, the impression
of Buddha's foot, which he made on his first visit to the island. It is a superficial hollow, .'> feet 3;)
inches long, and 2 feet 5 or 7 inches wide. The cavity certainly bears a c<iarse resemblani'c' to tlio
figure of a human foot ; but that is helped out by a marjiin of plaster, which is coloured like the rock.
It is covert J by a s;naU wooden temple, Cvcd by chains, and uiually attended by a priest; an 1 ij
740 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [India.
visited by crowds of pilgrims, who make offerings, pay their devotions, and go throiigli
ceremonies, deeming themselves purified from their sins by having performed so perilous :
3:h certain
:a task as
ascending this mountain. Tlic ascent is difficult ; and near the top is so precipitous, that werj it not
for iron chains fixed to the roeUs, few would be able to complete their pilgrimage. Notwithstanding
the help of the chains accidents sometimes occur, and lives are lost. Tlie principal temple of Saman
is situate two miles from Ratnapoora. This is tlie same deity as the Hindoo demi-god Lackshman, the
brotlier of llama, who is said in Singalose traditions to liave hold tlio sovereignty of the western and
southern parts of Ceylon, and to have greatly improved the laws. His figure is always painted yellow.
— ( Forbes, I. 18>5.)
Hate, a low island, at the north-west point of Giijrat, with a small town. Uet ween Date and the cliffy
headlands of the peninsula there is a safe roadstead usually filled with boats waiting a favourable
wind. Din, at the south point of Gujrat, 4 miles long and 1 broad. Ferlin, a small island on the west
side of the Gulf of Cambay, opposite tlie mouth of tlie Ncrbuddah. Bombay, 10 miles long and 3
broad, now united by a causeway to Salsitte, which is 18 miles long by 14 broad. These form the
outer limit of Hombay harbour. Eli'phantii, a small island in Bombay, about G miles E. from the city,
5 miles in circumference, nearly covered with wood, and abounding with springs of excellent water.
It contains a very celebrated cave temple, in the face of a hill, sculptured with i eiirosentations of the
personages of the Hindoo mythology, but now quite deserted as a place of woishij) or pilgrimage.
It got its present Portuguese name from the colossal figure of an elepliant in stone, placed before the
entrance of the temple, which fell to pieces some years ago. Ccringa, another small island in Bom-
bay. Seiierndrooji, a small low island so close to the mainland of Ooncan, as scarcely to be distin-
guished from it at sea ; lat. 17° 45' N. Simdidroog or Sinde/droog, a small rocky island on the coast
of Concan, \CP6' N. lat., half a mile from the shore. It contains a fort, surrounded with a strong and
high wall, the principal stronghold of Angria the pirate, and tlie burial place of Sivagee, the fuunder
of the Mahratta empire. Krahmiiis and other .ittendants are maintained at tlie public exiiensc, for the
purpose of performing certain ceremonies at Sivagee's tomb, where his sword of st:ito and otiier
insignia are preserved. His memory is still cherished and revered by all classes of the Maliratta
HiiKloos. Vingorla Rocks, in 16° N. lat., sometimes called the Burnt Islands, probably from their
parched and barren appearance, are upwards of 20 in number, visible above water ; some of them are
low, while others rise about 50 feet. They are barren and uninhabited, and occupy a space about .5
miles in length, between 2 and 5 miles from the shore of the Concan. Oyster Hocks, a number of
siiiail islets nearly opposite Carwar, 14° 47' N., all above water, but destitute of vegetation ; witli a
safe passage and good anchorage between them and the mainland. Anjeditui, 14° 46 N. lat., about a
mile in length, separated from the continent by a strait 2 miles wide, which is safely navigable,
having 6 or 7 fathoms water in mid channel, and no hidden dangers. The island is barren and rocky
towards the sea, but fertile and agreeable on the east side towards the land. Anjediva is a Portuguese
penal settlement, and has a small town and castle. To the east are two smaller islands near the shore,
and another 4 miles S.E. 2 miles off the land. Busswaragee-drong or Fortified Island, 14° 11' N. lat.,
about 6 miles in circuit, and 1 from the shore. It has a stone wall all round, the towers of which are
visible at sea ; but it is no longer used as a fort. Pigeon Island, 14° 2' N. lat., 2 or 3 miles in circum-
ference, and 100 feet high, oval, and rounded, having its steep sides and top covered with trees and ver-
dure, but not inhabited. To the east and south-east are two smaller islands, both visible above water.
Jallycoond or Hog Island, 12 miles E. of Pigeon Island, is somewhat less, but nearly as high, rising like
a cone from a broad base to a sharp point, and well wooded. Between it and the shore there is an un-
navigable strait less than a mile wide. St. Mary's Hocks, a cluster of islets 4 or 5 miles off the shore,
and the Fremeira Horks, another cluster of the same charactiT, but about double the distance from the
shore, both on the coast of Cnnara, between 40 and. 50 miles N. by W. of Mangalore. Bamiseram, on the
south-cast coast of the peninsula, foiming the western termination of Adam's Bridge in the Gulf of
Maiiaar, in 9° 1.5' N. lat. It is 11 miles long, and 6 broad, and is a place of great sanctity, containing
a must stupendous and very fine pagoda, dedicated to the demi-god Rama, and frequented by pil-
grims from all parts of India, raumbaun, a small town at the west end, is the capital of the island.
Tlie opposite or eastern termination of Adam's Bridge is formed by the island of Maiiaar, which is
about 15 miles long, but very narrow, and is separated from Ceylon only by a small strait. Figeon
Island, 12 miles S. W. of Vizagapatam, of small size, and moderate height, visible 3 or 4 leagues at sea,
in fine weather. Saugur or Saugor, at the mouth of the Hoogly river, a cluster of 10 islands, divided by
tide creeks ; altogether about 21 miles in length, from \h to Sin breadth, and containing about 600,000
acres, with a soil of stiff black mud, very fertile in producing coarse rice ; but no part of it is above
the reach of high spring tides. It is frequented by crov.ds of pilgrims, for the purpose of bathing
where the sacred Ganges meets the sea. Sundeep, Hattiah, Moncooruh, Deccan-shahl,az}iour, large
alluvial islands at the mouth of the Eastern Ganges and Megna. Cuttupdeali, Mascall, Red-Crab,
and others, on the coast of Chittagong ; St. jSIartiii's Islands, at the mouth of the Domback river ;
Oyster Island, Ijiilongo, and Flat Island, at the mouth of the Aracan river ; the Terrible Rocks,
Bainrre and i'l'ieduba islands, all on the coast of Aracan.
The Maldives are a coral chain of numberless isles and reefs, extending nearly 540 miles from
N. to S. about 20) miles to the S.W^ of Cape Comorin, between 7° 6' N., and 40' S.'lat., and 72° 48'
and 73° 4s' K. long. They are divided into 17 groups called atollons, which are generally either
round or oval in form, and have navigable channels between them. The atollon, properly speak-
ing, is a V, ail of coral which surrounds a cluster of islets, defending them from the force of the sea.
Within the atollon there is always smooth water, and seldom more than 2o fathoms anywhere, nor
even so much in many parts. The atollon in many places scarcely reaches the surface of the water ;
in others it forms a long sandy btacli, perhaps less than six fett above the level of the sea, and the
highest land in any of the groups does not exceed 20 feet. The islands indeed are just the higher
portions of the coral banks, which have become covered w itli soil and vegetation ; and Captain
Moresby, after examinirg many of thtm, has found them to be composed entii-tlv of sand and sand-
stone. All the larger islands are richly clothed with wood, chiefly palms ; the greater niimbLr of
them, however, are mere rocks, rocky shoals, and sand-banks flooded at spring-tides. The chaiiiiels
which separate the clusters cannot in general be passed by large vessels; but there are four much
wider than the othtr.-, which may be navigated by the largest vessels. 'They are all, nevertheless,
extremely dangerous, particularly at night. The islands are fertile in fruit and other commodities
necessary for food, princi: ally cocoa-nuts of a very small species, and millet, fowls and eggs.
The atollons are wonderfully abundant in all kinds of fish, large and small, which furnish a prin-
cipal article in the food and commerce of the natives; sharks are numerous. Tlnougliout the
islands there are no connected towns ; the houses are built separately, each with its own garden and
ground. A great liade is carried on among them, each atollon having something peculiar to itself.
'The Maldivians also trade with India, in their own boats, going and returning with the monsoons,
exporting coir, oil, and all the other produce of the cocoa-nut tree their grand staple, cowries, salt-
fisli, turtle-shell, &c., and bringing back rice, sugar, liaidware, cutlery, cloth, silk stufls, cottons,
tobacco, &c. The people are Mahometans, and are descrii ed as a mild inoffensive race, and very
hospitable. They are all under the dcininicn of one chief, who, by the aid of viceroys, rules over all
the groups of islands. Twice a year an embassy from the Shldives arrives at Point de Galle in
Ceylon, to render iioniage to the Biitisli Governnient.
NDiA.J ASIA. 741
The Laccadites are a cluster of 17 islands, due west of Malabar, between 10° and 12° N. lat., and
7'2= and 74° E. long., of which only eipht are inhabited. The total population, about GoOC, are a
poor inoffensive race, all Mahometans of the Moplay sect, and subjects of the Bibi or princess of
Cananore. There is no safe anchorage among the islands, and thoy produce nothing of any com-
merc'al value but the cocoa-nut. In the south-west monsoon all intercourse amont; them is in-
terrupted, and their large boats are sent to the Malabar coast for shelter. The islands are all
defended by coral reefs to the windward, except Anderote, the principal, which not only presents a
bold front to windward, but that front is one side of the island itself, and not a reef, os is generally
the case. The coral reef on which it is based projects to leeward, instead of windward, south-west
being considered the prevalent direction of the wind.
Elicalpine Bank, 11° 16' N. and 74° 20' E., has only si.v or seven fathoms water, with arocky bottom
in some places, on which a large ship would be liable to strike in a heavy sea, 27 leagues from Mount
Dilly.
South of the Maldives is situated the Ckagos Group, consisting of some ordinary atolls, similar to
those of the Maldives, some annular reefs rising to the surface, but without any islets on them,, .".nd
gome atoll-formed banks, either quite submerged or nearly so. Of the last kind the Great Cuagus
Bank is much the largest, being 90 nautical miles in length by 70 in breadth. It consists of a level
muddy tlat in the centre, between forty and fifty fathoms deep, surrounded by the steep edges of a
set of banks widely arranged in a circle, and formed of sand with very little live coral. It seems to
form altogether, in the words of Captain Moresby, " nothing more than a half-drowned atoll." C f)
tcin on Ccral Itlandt, 39.)
74-2 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [South-Eastern
THE SOUTH-EASTERN PENINSULA.
Tii .s is an extensive region, wiiicli lies to the south-cast of India, and south-west of China, is pos-
sessed by several distinct nations, and divided into various independent states, but bears no general
distinctive name. Some geographers have proposed to call it Ittdia beyond the Ganges, or the Farther
Peninsula; others, Indo- China; and Malte Brun calls it Chin- India. But these names are all liable
to various objections ; we shall therefore adopt another, which involves no theory or Keograpliical
impropriety, but simply expresses the situation of the country relatively to the rest of the continent
of Asia, namely, The South-Eastern Peninsula. It forms one geographical region ; and, as such, we
shall firstdescribe its general natural features, and then proceed to the particular description of the
countries •vhich it comprehends.
This region forms a large peninsula, projecting from the borders of India and China southwards
Into the Indian Ocean, and terminating in a long narrow promontory, which approaches within two
degrees of the equator, and forms the southern extremity of the continent of Asia. The surface is
occupied by several long ranges of mountains, which extend from nortli to south, forming between
them wide valleys and maritime lowlands, which are drained and watered by large rivers, the remote
sources of which are found in the northern mountainous region between India and China.
The principal rivers in the peninsula are the following: — The Irawady, which has its sources
among the mountains to the eastward of Assam. The latest accounts trace them to numerous petty
streams, from the mountains of the Laos and Yunnan, which are said to be covered with perpetual
snow. In the summer of 1827 the Irawady was crossed in 27° 3')' N. lat. by Lieutenants Wilcox and
Burlton, from Sudiya, at a place where it was only 80 yards wide, and which, according to the natives,
was only 50 miles from its source?. Klaproth, however, on the faith of Chinese authorities, connects
the Irawady with the Sanpoo of Thibet, by means of a river which the Chinese call P>7i-Uang, and
which seems to be the same that is called by the Birmans Tajian-k-hyoung ; but Captain Hannay,
who travelled from Ava to the borders of Assam in November and December 183,5, describes the
Taping or Japan, near old Bhamo, as not more than 150 yards broad, with only sufficient water to
float a small boat ; which seems to set at rest the question of its identity with the Sanpoo. So paltry
a stream as this would form an insignificant channel for the miglity drainage of a tliousaiid miles
of the Himalayas and Kwan-Iun. — ( Crawford's En^bassij to Ara, 11.223; Asiatic Jourmil, November
1837.) — The Irawady flows southward through the Birman empire; and, in Pegu, divides into a
number of branches, which water a large extent of country, and give important facilities to naviga-
tion. It enters the Indian Ocean by more than 14 mouths, in IG^ N. lat , to the eastward of Cape
Negrais, its delta forming a swampy coast of 170 miles from E. to \V. It may he ascended to Ava
at all seasons by vessels of 200 tons, "and by native boats to Bhamo, near the frontiers of China ; the
length of its course is reckoned to be 1200 miles. It is in fact the great highway of the Birman
empire, and the principal source of its fertility. Its principal aflHuent is the Kyen-duen, which joins
it at Yandabo, about .50 miles below Ava.
The Saluen, Thaluen, Tiia.v-louex, Thalohyex, or Thaleaix. appears to rise in Thibet, where
it is known by the name of Oir-ckow, and flows through Yunnan under the name of Kou or L'lu.
After leaving China it takes the name of Sahien, and separates part of the Birman provinces from
those of Siam. It enters tlie Gulf of Martaban to the eastward of the delta of the Iranady, by two
branches, which are divided by the island of Balu. The northern branch is so much obstructed by
shoals as to be impracticable for shipping ; but the southern branch has a width of seven miles, and
the tide flows up the main stream and its affluents more than 100.
The Mkinam appears to have its sources in Yunnan, from which it runs due south to the Gulf of
Siam. In Siam it divides into several branches, which form a number of fertile islands. The lower
part of the main stream is very winding ; it has generally a depth of four or five fathoms, and is free
from shoals, up to Bankok. The mouth of the river is 5 miles wide, but the navigable channel does
not extend more than half a mile, with a low swampy shore. Large vessels anchor out at sea, 8 n ilcs
otF shore; the tide rises and falls seven feet, but is irregular, ebbing and flowing only once in the
twenty-four hours. In the country of the Laos is a river called Jlnnan-myit, which connects the
Weinam with the river of Cambodia ; but it seems to be a small stream, navigable only during the
season of inundation. The Meinam is navigable for boats up to Changmai.
The May-kua>g, Me\am-kong, or Mekon, rises in Thibet, where it bears the name of Dza-chou
or Sa-chiiu; it afterwards flows through Laos' and Cambodia into the Chinese Sea, by a number of
lihannels, which form an extensive delta. In Yunnan it is called L<m.thang.
The Saung or Von-nai, in Lower Cambodia, has a course of 3' 'd or 400 miles, passing the town of
Saigon, and forming one of the finest navigable rivers in the world. The Sang-koi is the largest
river of Tonquin ; the Che-sai is another river of the same country ; both of which fall into the Gulf
of Tonquin.
Capes. — Xegrais, at the western mouth of the Irawady ; Romania, the south-east point of the Malay
Peninsula, forming the southern extremity of the continent of Asia ; South Cape, North Cape, Ko ky
Point, and Cape Patani, on the east side of the peninsula ; Krci Point, on the west side, and Cape
Liant, on the cast side of the upper part of the Gulf of Siam ; Point Kamboja or Chruilin, the south-
east point of the gulf; Cape St. James, at the eastern side of tlie river of Saigon; Cape Padaran,
Cape Avarella, Cape Bantangan, Cape Turon or North Cape, on the coast of Cochin-China.
Islands. — 7?afe, at the mouth of the Saluen ; Tavoy, Great Canister, Cabossa, Teriasserim, Kings,
To7-res, Domel, Clara, Twins, Susamia/i, St. Jndrew, St. Matthcu; Aladdin, Cliance, Middle, Perfo-
rated, Seyir, Juuk-seylon or Salang, Jiaja, Brothers, Panjnng, liattoo. Pilgrims, Molica, Sannald,
Telihon, Boiiton, Trotto, Lancavd, Laddas, Hat, Pennng, Dinding, Sambelang, Jara, Callain. Arroas,
Pishers, Pisatig, CocoO, all along the west coast of Tiivoy, Tenasserim, and the Malay peninsula ;
Tinggi, Aor, iisang, Tioman, Ilabi, Varela, Brala, Capas, Great Redang, Lantinga, Print ian, Ron,
Lozm, Tantalem, Cara or Krali, Carnam or Samai, Sancori or Phang-an, Bardia, along the east
coast of the peninsula ; Si-chang, Nuk, Kram, Phai, Rin, San, Sam-me-san, Kah, Samet, Kud, Chang,
Kong, Dud or Klrok, Hasting's Archipelago, Panjang, Oubi or Oby, on the cast side of the Gulf of
Siani ; Condore, Caturick, Sapata, Cicier tie Mer, Cicur de Terre, Tre, Buffalo, Turtle, Canton or
Callao Ray, Chamcallao, Tiger's Isle, on the coasts of Cambodia and Cocliin-China, besides a great
many others. Many of these islands have the word Palo or Kho prefixed to their names, both of
which mean island ; the former in the Malay, the latter in the Siamese language. The only islands
which deserve particular notice are, Tantah'm, Junk-ceyloii, and Penang. Tantalem lies at the south-
west side of the Gulf of Siam, is about 70 miles in length, and is separated from the mainland liy a
narrr w cha^^^cl, which, at tlie northern end, is bare at low water. The southern i an of tlie islaua
Peninsula.] ASIA. 743
is high, but the north Is low and marshy. No part of it is cultivated or inhabited except that which
contains a portion of the town of Sungcora. Junk-ceylon lies on the west coast of the peninsula, in
the same latitude as Tantalem, &° N. The name is a corruption of the Malay words Vjun^ Salang,
headland of Ceylon. It is the most densely inhabited portion of this part of the Siamese territory, and
is under a governor styled Phya, who has subject to his jurisdiction seven districts on the adjoining
mainland. The island is of granite formation, and possesses very rich lead mines. It is nearly 40
miles long, by 12 or 1.5 in breadth, and is separated from the continent by a very narrow shallow
channel. Penang will be noticed elsewhere. Preparis, 70 miles S. of Cape Negrais, is a small island
:( miles long, 8 in circumference, covered with wood and jungle, and surrounded for several miles by
sunken reefs, which render it the dread of navigators. It is accessible only on the eastern side.
People. — With the exception of the Malays, who possess the coasts of the peninsula which bears
their name, and the negro tribes who inhabit the interior of the same narrow tract, the whole of this
extensive region is inhabited by many tribes and nations of the same physical type, forming a sort of
intermediate variety between the Mongolian and the Malay or Caucasian races, but more nearly
resembling the first. They are, in general, short* r than the Chinese and Hindoos, but taller than the
Malays ; their average height is live feet three inches. Their lower limbs are well formed ; their per-
sons are robust, active, fleshy, and well proportioned, wanting, however, the grace and flexibility of
their neighbours in the west ; their complexion is a light brown, perhaps a shade lighter than that
of the Malays, but much darker than that of the Chinese. The Siamese and the Kariens are the fairest,
being of a bright cane colour ; the Birmese and Peguans are of dark bamboo. The face is flat, with
high cheek bones, presenting the form of a lozenge ; the hair of the head is abundant, black, lank, and
coarse ; but the beard is scanty. Their languages exhibit the same characteristics of simplicity,
poverty, and deficiency with the monsyll.ibic languages of China and Thibet. Three distinct languages
prevail among them : — the IJirmese, which is spoken in Ava and Aracan ; the Siamese, in Siam and
I.ao ; and the An-namese in Tonquin and Ct;chin-China. Pegu, however, is said to have an orig-inal
dialect called the Mon, of which too little is known to determine its relation to the others. The
sacred language of Birmah is the Pali ; the Birmans have also borrowed the Sanscrit alphabet ; their
legal code is one of the commentaries upon the institutes of Menu ; and in these and some other
respects they discover th( ir affinity to the Hindoos ; while the Siamese, An-namese and Peguans bear
a more strongly maiked resemblance to the Chinese.
Government. — This region exhibits despotism in its greatest purity. As in China, the names of
the Emperor of IJirmah and of the King of Siam must not be pronounced during their lives by any
of their subjects, under pain of death ; and these dread names are confided only to a small number
of favoi:rite courtiers. In Birmah, Siam, and An-nam, every man above twenty years of age, with
the exception of the priests and pulflic functionaries, is obliged to devote not less than every third
year ot his life to the public service, either as a soldier or as a labourer. It is on this account that,
among tliese people, emigration is considered as a treasonable offence, and equivalent to a theft of
the prince's property. There exists, however, throughout these countries, in spite of the faults of
their governments, a great degree of order and regularity. Civil and criminal justice are adminis-
tered with more firmness and with less precipitation than in several other countries of Asia; the
result of which is considerable security for life and property. The administrative forms among the
Hirmans and the Siamese are of interminable slowness ; but in Cochin-China the activity of the go-
vernment is equally vigorous and rapid. The Kmperor of An-nam has called himself for a long time
the vassal of China; and the King of Siam still recognises bis vassalage to that empire; but this
deiendeiicc is only nominal. The tribute which they pay is merely a formal acknowledgment, and
every interference of China in the affairs of government is rejected with firmness. The savage tribes
live under their respective chiefs, who are more or less oppressive; but some of them enjoy a consi-
derable degree of liberty.
Indistry. — The civilized portion of the inhabitants of this region have made little progress in the
useful or the fine arts. They excel, nevertheless, in gilding, in a kind of varnished work, ornamented
with rich mosaic in mother-of-pearl ; in idols, from the smallest size to the most colossal, in certain
kinds of gold and silver work, in common pottery, and the building of ships and boats. The Cochin-
Chinese have made great progress in naval architecture and navigation, as well as in everything per-
taining to the military art ; a progress which they owe to the Bishop of Adran, and several French
engineers. In 1787, the King of Cochin-Chins having been re-established on his throne by the eft'orts
of the Bishop of Adran and the French misj-ionaries, invited several officers and engineers of that
nation, who formed very important establishments, and superintended the various nnprovements
which were made in the naval and military arts. In other respects, the people of these countries are
inferior ; they cannot make cotton-cloth like^the Hindoos, porcelain like the Japanese, or silk like the
Chinese. The care which the Cochin-( hinese and Tonquiiie^e take of these latter works gives them a
great advantage in the useful arts over the more western nations. They make coarse cotton-cloth
for their own use ; also slight silk stufl's, which formerly, in the infancy of European manufactures,
were eagerly sought for in our markets. The large towns are the principal seats of industry. In
Birmah, agriculture is chiefly the lot of the Karyan, the Khyan, and other tribes who do not congre-
gate in towns, and some of whom have not even ceased to be nomadic.
Commerce. — For several years past the commercial relations of the Europeans with the civilized
people of the South-eastern Peninsula have become much closer than formerly. For upwards of forty
years the Chinese have possessed themselves of all the commerce of Siam, of which they are the
foreign merchants, the navigators, and the seamen ; 140 junks, of 3.5,000 tons burden, sail yearly to
China; and 40 or 50 to Sincapore, which is abo frequented by junks from Cochin-China. Besides the
commerce carried on in Birmah by Kuroj can ships, the Birman boats trade to a considerable extent,
creeping in fine weather along the coa.-t of Aracan to Calcutta. Connnercial business of some im-
portance is also carried on by land b.twceii the British and the Birman territories, between Birmah
and China, and between^jiina and Tonquin. But with Siam the Birmans have no commercial rela-
tions ; an implacable haffed, and a state of continual warfare exist between the two states. Tluir
respective frontiers have the appearance of a desert, and slavery awaits the unfortunate adventurer
who passes his own frontier, and has the misfortune to fall into the snares which these people respec-
tively lay for each other.
The principal articles of export arc cotton, silk, tin, tcakwood, caglewood, an<l sandalwood, gum-
lac, catechu, grain, salt, oil, sugar, ivory, peiper, birds' nests, precious stones, particularly rubies and
agates, iron, and varnished works. The principal imports are cotton stuffs, wrought silks, cloth,
opium, velvet, porcelain, tea, paper, lint, canvas, and a great number of Europe-an and Chinese manu-
factures. The principal inland trading places are, Ava, Prome, and Bhamo, in Birmah ; and Ketsho in
Anam. The principal maritime trading places are Sincapore, Georgetown, Kangoon, Bankok, Chan-
tibou, Saigon, liuehan or Faifo, and Touron or Ilansan.
Divisions. — The whole region may 1)C divided into six portions : 1. The liirmnn Empire or liir-
mnh ; 2. The Kitigdovi iif .Siam; 3. The Empire iif yln-ii<im ; \. The (ountry iif tlic I.iiaf ; 5. The
liritish I'ramnrfi nf Miirtnbiin, Tiimy, Tenatterim, Mer/^ui, Miilarai, Ifelltsli//, I'inniig, awiX Sinni-
piirr ; 0. The Miilay Slatet of Uui'ila, Vcrak, SaUvigorc, Juhore, I'ahnng, Ketiuimatig, Trinjfuno
CalanUtn, and Patani.
744 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [South-Eastern
§ 1. The Birman Emjiire
Is situate between IT)" 45' and 27^ 20' N. lat., and 93^ and 09° E -ong. ; being about SO) miles in
lenj^th Ironi north to south, 3"0 in broat'th fr(jui east to west, and comprising an area ot 20(),00;i s;qi;ar«
miles. It is bounded on t!ic north by .Ass.im, aid the unexploied mountainous country farther east ;
on the south by the Gulf of Martaban ; on tlie west by tlie hill countries of C'achar, Tipperah, C'liit-
tagonjr, and Aracan ; and on the east i y tlu- Chinese t rovince of Yunnan and the river Saluen, which
divides it from Siam. From the sea up to the parallel of 174'-'. the cour.tr.v is low and champaign ; from
that point to 22-' it is elevated and hilly ; and further north, it is decidedly mountainous. Itis watered by
four of the great rivers already mention- d, the Saluen, Setaiig, Irawady, and Kyen-duen, all of which
have a southerly course, marking tiie character of the country as a plain, inclined fi om north to
south. It contains a great many lakes ; tho^e in the lower provii.ces are numerous, but small ; the
province of Bassein alone contains about 127. The lakes of the upper country are nmeh larger. Bir-
mah has about 240 miles of sea coast, extending from Cape Ncgrais to the mouth of the Salut n ; the
whole of which is low, marshy, and broken by at leist twenty channels of rivers, or arms of the sea.
In a mineralogical view, the Birmese teriitury may be described as consisting of four divisions : l.
The alluvial plain formed by the mouths of the great rivers ; 2. The country of secondary or tertiary
formation, extending from between ti;e 18^ and 19° to near the 22^ N. lat. ; 3. The extensive moun-
tainous tract of primary formation, lying to the north, the north-east, and the east of Ava, and the
hilly regions which form the western boundary of the vallies of the Ii awady and the Kyen-duen. The
lirst region is remarkably destitute of mmeral products ; bxit the other two contain limestone and
marble, gems, principally of the sapphire and i uby family, beautiful serpi ntine, iron gold, silver, cop-
per, tin, lead, antimony, amber, coal, petroleum, nitre, natron, and salt. Tlie most remarkable, how-
ever, of these is the petroleum or mineral oil, which is procured fi om wells sunk in a bea of blue
clay, about three miles from the town of Re-nan-k'hyaung (smelling- water rivulet^, on the east
bank of the Irawady, in lat. 20° 27 N. The wells occupy a space of about sixteen miles srjuare ; tbo
oil, when first obtained from the well, is thin, but thickens by keeping, and in coid weather coa-
gulates. Its colour is a dirty green, like that of stagnant water ; it has a pungent aromatic smell,
which is disagreeable to most people, and, in burning, it emits an immense quantity of black smoke,
which soils everything within ils reach. It is, however, so much cheaper than any other kind of oil,
that it is universally used by the Birmans for their lamps, wherever there is water to convey it. 'iho
annual produce of the wells is estimated at twenty-two millions of viss, each 3 65-100 pounds avoir-
dupois. Among the useful productions, the teak-tiee holds a distinguishtd place ; tlie forests are
very extensive, and it appears to be very generally diffused throughout the high lands of the king-
dom ; tliere are also oaks and other valuable trees, mimo-a, catechu, and others of the same fa-
mily. The forests also furnish varnishes and stick- lac. Birnian agriculture embraces rice, mai/.e,
jndiet, wheat, various pulses, i aims, sugar-cane, tobacco, cotton, and indigo. Jiice is the givat oK
ject of husLandry throughout the kingdom. The usefid quadrupeds domesticated by the Birmans
are the ox, the butfaloe, the horse, and the elephant; the last of wiiich, however, appears to be meiely
an ol gect of royal luxury and ostentation. The hog is also dom.esticated, but being neglected, its
habits are disgusting and oti'ensive in the highest degree. The dog is seen, but uncared for. Cats
are numerous, and de.xterous in destroying vermin. The ass, the slieep, and the goat, though bear-
ing native names, are little known in the domestic economy. Of poultry, only a few common
fowls and ducks are reared. AVild animals and game are numerous. The most remarkable quadru-
peds are the elephant, rhinoceros, hog, deer, ox, buttalo, bear, otter, tiger, leopard, wild and civet
cats. The elephant is found in all the deep forests of the country, and is peculiaily abundant in
Pegu. Hares, wild cocks, pheasants, i artridges, quails, and snipes are also abundant ; geese and
ducks are numerous in the upper provinces. The Birman territoiy is but very parti.nliy cultivated,
and thinly peopled by a race of inhabitants who have made little progress in uselul industry. The
financial system of the government is rude, barbarous, ar.d inefficient beyond what can easily be be-
lieved. No regular land revenue is collected on account of the sovereign, the greater part ot the
lands being given away in jageer to members of the royai familj', to public othcers, and to favourites,
instead of pensions or salaries, and a mere trifle is reserved for the king, ttarcely any disburse-
ments in the form of money are ever made from the treasury, as no salary is j aid to any public
othcers from the highest to the lowest ; ihose who have no lands hve as they can, on fees, perqui-
sites, and extortions. Even the government itself does not encroach upon its hoard, except on very
extraordinary occasions, and may be said to depend on the daily supplies. If an embarsy is to be
sent to a foreign country, a contribution is levied for the purpose; if an army is sent on an expe-
dition, the necessary expenses are raised on the occasion ; if a temple is to be built, the same thing
is done ; and so in all other cases.— C Crawford, II. Jppendix, 23.) Few countries have had their po-
pulation so variously estimated. Old geographers stated it at 30,000,000; Symes made it 17,080,000;
Cox afterwards reduced it to 8,000,0u0 : and Balbi allows only 3,700,000. " The chief woongee at Ava
informed me that the last census gave a total of 300,000 houses. After the most carefui inquiries,
I am led to put down the number of the inhabitants to whom the Birman is vernacular at 3,000,000.
The Shyans are probably three millions more, and, with other subsidiary tribes, biiiig up the total
population to about the estimate of Cox." — ( Malculm's Travels, I. 208.)
Birmali is inhabited by many distinct nations or tribes, of whom so many as eightten have been
enumerated. The most considerable of these are the proper Birmans, the Peguans or Talains, the
Shans or people of Lao, the Cassay or Kathey, the Zabaing, the Karian or Karens, the Khyans, the
Ys, and the Lawa, which are respectively numerous and civilized, nearly in the order in which they
are here mentioned. Though diftering in language, and often in manners, customs, and religion, they
have the same physical type which is common to all the tribes that possess the countries between India
and China. Widely different from the Chinese and the Hindoos, they approach m.ore nearly to the
Malays, from whom, nevertheless, they differ so considerably, that even a stranger ma.\ distinguish
them without difficulty. The Birmans n;ay be described as of a shcrt, stout, and active, but well
proportioned ferm ; their complexion is never of an intense black, but is commonly brown, or re-
sembling dark bamboo. The hair of the head is black, coarse, lank, and abundant. There is a
little more beard, and generally more hair on other parts of the body than among the tribes of the
same race to the south, as the Siamese and the people ef Lao. The proper Birmans inhabit a dry
and elevated country ; but climate and other physical circumstances appear not to produce any n.a-
terial ditlerence between them and the other tribes of the empire. 'Ihe Peguans or Talains, who
inhabit the alluvial plains, are, however, alleged to be a more robust and active race than the
Birmans. The Birmans are greatly inferior to the Hindoos in civilization, and still more so to
the Chinese. They are considered by Mr. Crawford to be nearly on an equality with the Siamese ;
or, more nearly still, with the people of Java ; they are, however, more advanced than the other
civlized inhabitants of the eastern archipelago. Their laws and political instituticns, bad as they
are, are commonly better than those of the Indian islanders ; yet the latter are sui trior to the Bir-
mans in enterprise, courage, personal independence, and even morality. In one rtspect they agree :
namely, in the comparative absence of religious or political bigotry, and flu freedom from unso-
cial customs. The practice of tatooing, or staining the skin of an indelible tint, obtains among the
Birmans and Talains, and hag been followed more or less by the nations whom they have subdued.
Peninscla.j ASIA, 74i
tlie Kyens, the Aracanese, and the Shans. Another practice, which geems to be universal with both
sexes, and with all the races wliich inhabit the Birman territories, is that of boring the lobe of the ear.
so as to make a very largj and unseemly hole, into wliich is stuffed a gold or silver ornament, or a
piece of wood, or a roll of paper. The Birmans are extensive consumers of the betel mixture, and the
smoking of tobacco is universal. With respect to dress, the Birmans are well, and not unbecomingly
clad; but much of the body is left naked ; and the texture and pattern of the fabrics worn, though
substantial and durable, are coarse and homely. The dress of the priests differs entirely from that
of the laity. The head is not only without covering, but is, or ought to be, closely shaved, and its
only protection against the sun is a small fan of palmyra leaf. The colour of the priestly costume
is yt'llow, which it would be deemed nothing less than sacrilege for any one else to use : so peculiarly
sacred, indeed, is this colour htld, that it is not uncommon to see one of the people pay his devotions
in due foi-m to the old garment of a priest hung out to dry, or to one after being washed. A super-
ficial education is very common, and there is probably not more than one man in ten who is unable
to read. Tl'.is ischiefly owing to the institution of monasteries, and to its being a religious duty of the
priests to instruct youth ; but their science is of the lowest description ; and they have an intense
passion for alehymy, the object of which is to change the baser into the more precious metals.
The uniformity of the physical structure of the Birmans e.ftends in an equal degree to the devel-
opement of their moral character. The face of the Birman is without intelligence ; his mouth is
large and sensual, the teeth prominent, and the nose tlat. Altogether the national cast of counte-
nance is vulgar in the extreme, and so rigid that the passions have scarcely the power of relaxing it.
Early taught by experience to study precaution, and practise dissimulation, candour and sincerity
are unknown to them, and it is a national boast that the Birmans are without equals in their adroit-
ness in concealing the truth. Happy or sad, their physiognomy announces neither pleasure nor
pain ; and even when questioned on the simplest topic they return an indirect reply. Artifice and
circumvention are resorted to as the legitimate means of attaining their ends, and the man who should
employ neither deceit nor stratagem in the pursuit of his object would be looked upon as little re-
moved from a fool. They are, however, a very lively and talkative people ; very vain, and proud of
their affected superiority over every other nation ; obstinate, suspicious, and addicted to many vicious
habits, particularly the smoking of opium and gambling. The diversity of talent, the variety of
appearance, and disparity of form, so conspicuous in individuals of the civilized countries of Europe,
a: e scarcely to be found in Birmah. Every person conforms to the habits of the mass ; and in respect
of fortune the whole community are more upon a level with each other than any people who dwell in
cities. Ench has the same opinion of himself, of his country, and of foreigners in general. The
national characteristics are perhaps less strongly marked in the priests, owing to their life of study
and devotion ; but these are not perpetuated, in consequence of their celibacy. E.xcept in remote vil-
lages the pjople are on a perfect equality in respect of education, a circumstance which is accounted
for by the fact that they are all instructed in the same routine, which embraces reading and writing
in the vernacular tongue, and a smattering of Pali, collected from elementary books. As the colleges
have no direct revenues, the priests are dependent for subsistence and clothing on the freewill otier-
ings of the jieople; but usage has imposed on parents the duty of feeding the clergy of the college in
which their children are educated. A large number of scholars forms, therefore, the best endow-
ment of the brotherhood, a fact which may account for the vehemence witli which they e.xhort their
hearers to send their children to school, and denounce the negligent in this respect as the enemies of
religion.
With respect to the Birmans it is obvious, says a late writer, to the most casual observer, that
the country is gradually falling to decay. While the people of India are pressing forward with rapid
strides, in defiance of the trammels of caste, scarcely glancing behind them, and then only to smile
at the errors of their ancestors, the Birmese are receding from twilight into darkness, gathering
their wisdom from books fourteen hundred years old, turning the fables of their forefathers into truths,
pausing in puerile admiration over the knowledge and exploits of their ancestors, and lamt nting their
own fallen condition ; the government, meanwliile, regardkssof the value of life, draining an already
half- peopled country of its inhabitants, towns dwindling into villages, and villages disappearing alto-
gt^rhcr ; connnunicatiun becoming less frequent ; the people dispirited by oppression, yet passionately
attached to the soil, anxiously awaiting the fulfilment of the prediction which promises them the
restoration of their lost happiness and power, under a wise and just dynasty. The wars which had
prevailed since the tw, Ifth century, at one time between the Shans and the Birmans, at another be-
tween the Siamese and thePeguans, and at a later period between the I'eguans and the Birmans, had
almost stript those regions of their inhabitants, when the warlike propensities of Alongpora and his
successors give the final blow to the prosperity of Birmah. They robbed their cities of every able-
bo'lied man, and carried their arms into Siam, Aracan, Assam, and Caesay, exterminating the people
wherever they came, till the whole region from the 95'^ to the 100^ of longitude, and from Cape Negrais
to the tropic, became almost untenanted by human bjiiigs. It is now overrun with jungle covering
the ruins of foits and temples, wh'ch serve to mark the spots that were crowded in former times with
a dense popuiation, whose descendants are now gathered in scanty groups along the banks of their
ningniliceiit livers. But they have lost tlie enterprise and valour wliich rendered them the terror of
their m iglibours, and retain oi ly the vanity, obstinacy, and restlessness by which they have been
always cliaracterised. The degenerate Birmans seldom engage in any pursuit which requires nmeh
mental application ; their books on religion and science are translations from the I'ali ; their poetry
is confined to odes and sungs of love and war ; their knowledge of music is very limited ; they aro
unacquainted with chemistry, and believe in the transmutation of metals. On the other hand, they
are acquainted with vegetable physiology, and the sexes of jdants ; they can work in gold with con-
siderable taste; tliey can weave intricate patterns, whicli even in I'.ngland it has been found difficult
to imitate, and they can carve in wood with tolerable ingenuity; but, on the who!e, they do not excel,
or even attain mediocrity, in any art which di mands elaborate manipulation ; and the f 'w manufac-
tures which they still possess, flourished among them in higher |.erlection at the moment of our tiist
acquaintance with them than they ilo at present.— (Jojt. Smith, Asiiilir. Jiinriial, /Ipril IKll.)
Among the Birmans and the Talains there may be said to exi.-t seven classes of society dis-
tinguished by their privileges or employments ; namely, the royal family, the public officers, the
priesthood, the merchants, or " rich men," as thiy were called, the cultivators and labourers, slaves,
and outcasts. The only class of pid>lic officers which can l)c called hereditary are the Thaubwas or
Saubwas, the tributary princes of subjugated countries. The rest of the chief ofiicers ar(^ appointed
and dismissed at iiKasure ; and their titles, rank, and ofll(!es, and very often even their proi)erty, (lo
notdesccn 1 to their children. Any subject, who is not a slave or outcast, luay aspire to the first ofiieo
in the state, and the highest offices are really often held by persons of very mean origin. The priests
called I'hungyi or Ra-ban, are bound to a rigid celibacy, interdicted from allemploymrnt but their own
especial calling, and particularly from intermeddling with politics ; but they are secured from labour
by the voluntary contributions of the people. As a body they are not surpassed by the clergy of many
more civilized countries, in the extreme simplicity and virtuous manner of their lite. Existing by
the voluntary gifts of the people, their best interests are involved in the observance of an irreproach-
able life, their sermons are generally in prai.se of charity, while, however, the gineral doctrines of their
religion aro not left unexplained. The priests form an Important and nunie'ous order ; and along
746 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [South-easterv
with them may be classed the Thi-la-shau or nuns, who are less numerous, and are generally
old women. There are also occasionally some young women among them, who forsake the sister-
hood as soon as they can procure husbands ; neither priests nor nuns being bound to continue in
their profession. The women generally are neither immured nor veiled, nor are they withdrawn from
the company and conversation of men ; but they are treated as mere slaves, all labjrious duties being
devolved upon them ; they also manage most of the transactions ofbujing and selling. The habitations
througliout the country are made of slight materials but are commodious. Bamboos fixed in the
ground, and tied with strips of rattan compose the outline, and serve as the supports of the building ;
the walls are covered with mats, and the roof thatched with grass. These slight structures are suf-
ficiently comfortable, but they are exposed, by the nature of their materials, to frequent conflagra-
tions. The temples and monasteries are splendid structures, being covered profusely with carvings
and paintings, varnished and gilded, but the materials con-^ist principally of brick and mortar. Through
the mischievous effects of bad government the population and prosperity of the country liave long
been and still are rapidly declining ; the whole p jpulation, it is believed, does not amount nearly to
thrco-millions.
The Birman empire consists of two great divisions — Pegu, which comprises all the sea-coast, and
the mouths of the rivers; and Ava or Birmah, wliioli comprehends the upper country, and is the seat
of the dominant people. For administrative purposes, the empire is divided into provinces or vice-
royalties, of very variable extent. The most frequent civil division appears to be that into viyos or
townships, which are reckoned to amount to 4()00. The towns, however, properly so called, and
some of whicli are indeed little better than large villages, do not exceed thirty-two. Of tiie seven
principal towns, Mr. Crawford gives tlie following conjectural estimate of the population ; — .\va,
Amarapur.% and Sagaing, with their suburbs and districts, 3.')4,200 ; Rangoon, 12,000 ; Prome, 8000 ;
Bassein, 3000 ; Martaban, loOO. Ava, the capital of the empire, stands on the left bank of the Ira-
wady, in lat. 21° 50' N., and long. 96^ El. The native popular name of the city is Angu-a (a fish
pond), which has been corrupted by the Hindoos and Malays into Awa, and by Europeans into Ai-a ;
Its official name is liatnapoura (Jewel town.) Ava is surrounded by a brick wall 15j feet high, ten feet
thick, and SJ miles in circumference ; the houses are in general mere huts, and are thatched with grass.
Some of the dwellings of the chiefs are constructed of planks, and tiled ; but there are probably not half-
a-dozen of houses built of brick and mortar. The houses are thinly scattered, and large spaces are
even wholly destitute of habitations. The town contains many temples, the tall white or gilded spires
of which give in the distant view a splendid and imposing appearanoe. The capital is not confined
to Ava, but embraces likewise Sngaing, a straggling town of mean houses on the opposite bank of
the river, and Amarapura, with the large districts attached to the thre :■, ma'dng together an area of
288 square miles. Ava was the ancient capital of the country ; but Alompra, the founder of the Bir-
man empire, built the new oity of Amarapura (town of immortality) a few miles to the eastward,
which became and continued the capitiil till 1822, when Ava was restored to its pre-eminence by the
new king, who then ascended the throne. On the 23d March 1839, Ava was visited by one of the
most terrible earthquakes ever known in that part of the world. The three cities of Ava, Amara-
pura, and Sagainp, were reduced to vast piles of ruins ; every thing built of bricks, houses, monas-
teries, temples, and the city walls, were levelled with the ground ; and of the immense number of
pagodas, not one was left entire. The shock was felt throughout a space of 1000 miles southward
from the borders of China, embracing the most populous parts of the empire ; not a single pagida,
temple, or other brick building being left standing. But comparatively few people perished, their
escapeieing owing to their liviiig chietly in wooden houses or bamboo huts.— ( S'/Wn/ianf Am. Journal,
XXXVIII. 385.)
Rangoon stands on the north or left bank of the eastern branch of the Irawady, 2G miles from the
sea. It is a poor and decayed town ; but is the chief, and, indeed, almost the only port for foreign
trade in the Birman dominions ; for which purpose .its situation is extremely convenient, from being
so near the sea, and having an uninterrupted communication at all seasons, by the river, with tho
upper provinces. The tide rises 18 feet at neap tides, and at spring tides from 25 to 30. About two
miles from the river is the great temple of Shwe-Dagong, of the shape of a speaking trumpet stand-
ing on its base, which is built of brick and mortar, and richly gilt all over. Its height i- about 278
feet, and it is really a noble object. This temple is the most famous religious edifice in the Birman
dominions, a celebrity which it owes to the legend which suppo.'es it to contain tight true hairs of
Gautama, brought as a trophy from western India many c nturi. s ago, by two merchants. It is, in
fact, what is not common in this country, a place of pilgrimage, and is frequented by m uiy strangers.
Nearly GO miles to the north is Pegu, the ancient capital of the country when a separate kingdom, but
now almost entirely deserted. It contains the famous temple of Shoemadoo, or the golden supreme,
a structure of the same kind as the Shwe-Dagong at Rangoon, and 3"tl feet high. About 15 miles east
of Rangoon is Sijriam or Syrian, formerly one of the chief ports of the kingdom of Pegu, and tlie seat
of a great trade, before its harbour was shut up by the Birman conquerors.
Prome, written by the Birmans Pri, but pronounced Pyi, stands on the east or left bank of the
Irawady, about 1,56 miles N.N. V. from Rangoon, in a narrow plain between the hills and the river ; it
is a very ancient capital, having been founded, according to the Birmans, about 443 years B.C. It is a
thriving place, and fully as populous as Rangoon. About 70 miles E. by N. of Prome is Tango or
Tanou, the representative of the Tangou of the ICth century, the capital of a dynasty which caused
memorable revolutions in tlie western and central parts of this region. It is said to be a place of con-
siderable traffic and population.
Bassein or Versaim is a sea-port town, on the left bank of the most westerly branch of the Irawady,
about 70 miles from the sea.
Martaban, on the north bank of the Saluen, at the point where the river separates into two branches,
is built at the foot of a long steep ridge, and consists of mean houses, which are raised Irom the
ground on posts. It has many old substantially-built monasteries, and several temples, one of which
13 150 feet high, and is of a more chaste design than usual.
Bhamn or Bdmoo, on the Iiawady, 180 miles N.N.E. of Ava, near the junction of the Tapan or Pin-
lang or Bhanio river, which tlows from China, contains about 14,000 iuhabitjunts, of whom one-tenth
are Chinese. The surrounding country is one of the most prosperous and wealthy portions of the
empire; and a great trade is carried on between Bhamo and China. Mo-gotMig or Mong-maorong, is
a large fortified city, on a branch of the Irawady, about lat. 25' 20' N., inhabited chiefly by Shyans,
Chinese, and Singphos. In the vicinity are famous amber mines, which attract merchants from Yun-
nan, Hunipore, and other places.
§ 2. The Kingdom of Siam
Is composed of Siam Proper, a portion of the country of the Laos, a part of Cambodia, and the Ma-
lay States of Quedah, Patani, and Ligor. It is situate between 6° and 29- N. lat., and 97" and 105- E.
long., measuring about 900 miles in length from north to south, and from 50 to 400 in breadth, includ-
ing an area of 220,000 square English miles, with a population of about 2,790,000 Its boundaries are :
north, Laos ; south, the Gulf of Siam, and the Malays ; east, An-nam ; west, Birmah, the British Bir-
man provinces, and the Bay of Bengal. The greater part of the country is mountainous; but it contains
Peninsula.] ASIA. 747
also fine valleys, and, near Bankok, a rich alluvial plain, watered by the Melnam. The soil is fertile,
yielding in abundance fruits, dyewoods, medicinal gums, and timber ; but it is badly cultivated, and
thinly inhabited. Besides the Meinam, it is watered by many small rivers. The eastern coast of the
gulf is skirted with innumerable islands, the smaller of which are uninhabited. On the shore of the
Bay of Bengal, the Siamese territory extends 260 miles, including a great many islands, some of which
are of considerable size, as Junk-ceylon, Paiijang, Langkawi, Trutao, and Boutung. This part,
however, of the kingdom is a mere wilderness, with only a few places inhabited. Siam Proper con-
sists of the valley of the Meinam, which, at the southern extremity, does not exceed 00 miles broad ;
but it extends inland about 360 miles, and is bounded on both sides by high mountains. The climate
and natural productions are much the same as those of Birmah. The government is a despotism of
the most absolute kind. The name of the sovereign is confided only to a few individuals ; in public he
is mentioned by such ( pithcts as these : the sacred lord of heads ; the sacred lord of lives ; the owner
of all ; lord of the white elephants ; most exalted lord ; infallible and infinitely powerful. Even the
members of his body are spoken of in terms of adulation ; everything belonging to or attached to his
person is styled golden ; to visit him is to approach to his magnificent majesty's golden feet, to speak
in his golden ear, tec. The country is divided into districts ; each of which is governed by a minister
appointed by the king, aided by a governor and other officers ; and the more distant provinces are
placed under viceroys or rajahs. There appears to be no written law. All the people, except the
Chinese, European, and American residents, are virtually slaves, or in a state of slavery, being obliged
to labour on public works one month out of every three or four, according to royal pleasure, in building
temples or junks, making roads, or performing any other work ; for all which they receive no compen-
sation but the glorious privilege of living in Siam or Thai, literally the free country. There are, besides,
a number of slaves, who consist of captives taken in war, and debtors. The religion of Siam is Budd-
hism. The talapoins or priests, who are supposed to amount to 100,000 at least, are maintained by daily
contributions from the people, by annual presents from the king ; and by valuable gifts which they
receive at funerals. They assemble daily in the temples to repeat prayers which they do not under-
stand, as they are in the Pali language, with which very few are acquainted; they relieve the people
from all devotional exercises and holy acts, except that of daily bestowing upon themselves boiled
rice, and other offerings. For three months of his life every Siamese is obliged to serve as a talapoin,
and the yellow robe is generally assumed at twenty years of age. They may quit when their term is
expired ; but if they take up the robe a second time, it must be retained for life. The talapoins are
of different ranks or classes, and have one supreme chief, like the pope, who has under him various
priests, corresponding to cardinals, archbishops, bishops, and other dignitaries ; the wliole sye-tem
bearing a very strong resemblance to that of p: pery. The ivats or temples are numerous and costly,
many of them are indeed magnificent ; they occupy the best situations in the kingdom ; and are the
residences of the priests, and the places of education for all male Siamese-
The Siamese belong to the Mongolian variety ; their average height is five feet two inches.
The lower limbs are stout and well formed ; but the body is long, and consequently the figure is not
graceful ; the shoulders are broad, and tlie muscles of the chest well developed ; the neck is short,
and the head in fair proportion. The hands are large and the complexion of a dark olive, but not
jetty. Among females of the higher classes, who pass their time generally within doors, the skin is
of a much lighter h\ie ; in some instances it might be called a very dark brunette. The forehead is
narrow at top ; the face flat, the cheek-bones broad, and the chin narrow, so that the whole is rather
lozenge-shaped than oval. The eyes are remarkable for having the upper lid e.vtended below the
under, at the corner next the nose, but it is not elongated like that organ in the Chinese or Tar-
tar races; the eyes are dark or black, and the white is dirty, or of a yellowish tint. The nostrils
are broad, but the nose is not flattened like that of an African. The mouth is not well formed, as the
lips project slightly ; and it is still more disfigured by the habit of chewing areca-nut. The hair
is jet black, stiff and coarse, almost bristly, and is worn in a tuft on the top of the head ; the rest of
the head being shaved or cliiiped very close. A few scattered hairs grow upon the chin and uiiper lip,
which are usually plucked out. Though active, the Siamese are not a warlike people ; they possess an
inordinate self-esteem, which places them above all nations, except the Chinese, whom they acknow-
ledge as superiors, and to whom they have sometinies paid tribute, and the Birmans, whom they
rank as their equals. All their superfluous wealth they devote to the building of temples, to obtain
what they believe the prospective salvation of thiir souls. They are mean, rapacious, and cruel, sus-
picious, vacillating, and procrastinating. Cringing and servile in the extreme to their superiors,
they are arrogant, haughty, and tyrannical to their inferiors. They have, however, the commend-
able quality of filial affection, which is maintained through life with punctilious exactness. The son
never stands m the presence of his parents, i;or takes a seat on a level with his father. Even his
magnificent majesty humbles hiniselt once a month, and appears before his mother on his knees and
elbows. The Queen dowager (when there is one), and Talapoin Pope, are the only two individuals
In Siam who have no superiors. The Siamese call themselves Tai ; tlie Shyans denominate them
Tai-yai, or the great Tai. By the Birmans Siam is called Yudia, from the name of its former capi-
tal, and the people are designated Yudia-shan or Yudias. The Assamese, Shyans, and Siamese, are
evidently sprung from a common stock.
Thouiih larger than France, Siam does not contain one-tenth of the number of inhabitants. On
comparing the births and deaths for a period of ten years, the' population appears to decrease at the
rate of one-ninth every year ; and in Itss than a century the land would consequently be a desert, did
not the constant influx of foreigners, for the purposes of trade, supply the deficiency. Siam already
contains nearly as many Chinese as Siamese. Several causes concur in producing this depopulation ;
as polygamy, the great number of the talapoins, the extreme filthiness of the people, and their halit of
livmg on every sort of unwholesome food. The Siamese have feeble constitutions; the least bodily
exertion fatigues them; and a Chinese physician will distinguish a European among a hundred
Asiatics, merely by feeling his pulse and without looking at hin). The Siamese at present possess that
portion of Cambodia which extends along the Maykuang river between I'i^ and 14^ N. lat.
Bakkok, the capital, is situate on the Meinam, about 20 miles in a straight line from the sea, but
40 by the course of the river. It is irregular in jdan, and everywhere intersected by canals ; tho
streets are narrow and dirty ; the greater part of tlic houses consist of miserable bamboo huts ; l)ut
there are several richly gilt temples ; and tho palaces of the king and his gramlees are large buildings,
In the Chinese style. Many of the people live in large boats ranged along the sides of the river and
canals. Bankok i^the principal seat of the commerce of Siam ; and the row of junks generally ex-
tends for more than two miles, riding at anchor in the middle of the river, where they often renuiin
for months retailing their cargoes. The population, according to the government census in IhJ8,
amounted to 401,3^1. Mr. Crawford, however, makes it only .50,000; Mr. Malcolm took some pains
on the suliject, and is of opinion that the city and immediate suburbs contain at the most about
100,000 souls. M ithin the walls, he s.nys, there cannot be more than 40(X) people.— ^ Travils. II. l.'W.)
The climate of Bankok may lie called hot, hut is as pleasant and salubrious as that of any city of tho
oast. The thermometer ranges about 1.3 '; the highest mean temperature of the hot season, H6- .'(.3'.
Ayuthia, properly Hi-yn-thx-yn. also named Siam by the old European geographers, the ancient
capital, stands on an island of the Meinam above liankok, and is said to be nearly as i^opulous. I'rn-
I'lit, IW miles N. by E. of Bankok, contains an impression of Buddha's foot in a rocl<, which is the
748 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [South-eastern
grand object of plljjrimage anions the Siamese. The only other places worthy of notice are : — Pak^
nam, at tiie month of tho river, where it is 5 miles wide. Cluintibmi, on a river which falls into the east
side of the gulf, 12 hours from the sea; Liffor, Tulung, and Suns^ora, considerable towns on the east
side of the isthmus of the Malay peninsula The district of Chantibon and of the neighbouring town of
Tutigyai, are the proper country of the people called Clioiig, and the only part of the kingdom which
prodiices black pepper.
§ 3. The Empire of An-nam
Comprises Tonquhi OT An-^mm proper. Cochin- China, the eastern and southern parts of C<rmfto(f/a
or K'iniknja, and sevei'al islands in the Chinese Sea, along which it extends upwards of 12,00 miles. It
lie-; between 8° 40' and 23-^ 20' N. lat., and between 105-" and 109° E. lon^i;. being bounded on the north
by the Chinese provinces of Quangtong, Quangsi, and Yun-nan ; on the west by Laos and Siam ; and
on the south and east by the ocean. It comprises altogether an area of about 120,000 square miles ; and
a population of 10,000,000. The country is naturally divided into two long narrow stripes by a range of
mountains which extend in a direction parallel to the coast, from the be rders of China to the mouth of
the Maykuang ; Tonquin and Cochin-China being to the east of the range, and Cambodia, to the west.
Cambodia occipics the lower p irt of the valley of the Maykuang, with the alluvial pliin or delta at its
mouth, and a small portion of tho coa t of the Gulf of Siam. It is said to be a fertile champaign coun-
try ; but no geograpliical detail? rvSpccting it are known. Cocbin-China consists of along narrow strip
of land, e-xtending more than 600 miles in length along the Chinese Sea, but nowhere exceeding 1,50 in
breadth. It is in fact a series of small transverse valleys divided by so many spurs from the long range
of mountains which forms its western boundary. The coast is beautiful and grand ; the shore is in-
dented with numerous bays; and the mountains, which rise several thousand fe.t in height, are broken
into innumerable valleys and ravines. Tonquin expands to a much greater width than Cochin-Cliina,
and consists chiefly of a large alluvial plain, watered by the Sang-kui and other rivers. It is the only
part of tlie empire that is rich in metals; and produce-* large quantities of gold, silver, copper, and iron.
The climate is generally fine and healthy, the heat being tempered by the sea breeze ; but a material
diversity of climate prevails in the different provinces, arising from difference of physical aspect,
and geographical situation. In Cambodia the seasons follow the same course as in Malabar, Bengal,
and Siam ; the rains commence about the end of May or beginning of June, and continue till Septem-
ber. In Cochin-China, the seasons are reversed ; the dry season prevails during the south-west mon-
soon, and the wet season during the north-east monsoon ; a change which is occasioned by the lofty
mountain border which intercepts the monsoons ; the rains commence in October and continue till
March. In Tonquin again, the seasons are tlie same as in Cambodia. In both Tonquin and Cochin-
China the heat of summer and the cold of winter are excessive ; at Hue the greatest heat of summer
lias been reported to be 103°, and the greatest cold of winter 57° Fahrenheit. The forests of Cochin-
China produce a variety of scented woods ; true cinnamon, teak, ironwood, cedars, walnut, cocoa,
areca, betel, bumboo, rattans, ebony, and most of the products of British India. Tea also grows in
great abundance between 10° and 1G° N. lat., whicii serves for the consumption of the lower orders;
but the chiefs prefer tea from China, to which the native produce is somewhat inferior, owing to the
improper manner of cultivating it. Cambodia produces gamboge, cardamums, aniseed, areca, indigo ;
the central provinces, popper and two sorts of sugar-cane ; Tonquin yields many kinds of varnish trees,
areca palms, &c. Cotton, rice, and the mulberry-tree are almost universal. There is aiso great variety
of fine fruit ; ginger, and spices of various kinds are also indigenous. The principal animals are the
elephant, rhinoceros, tiger, leopard, buffalo, bear, horse, deer, goat, monkey, baboon, dog, cat ; pea-
cocks, parrots, and a variety of other birds of the richest plumage, curlews, plovers, and aquatic birds
of all kinds. Alligators infest the larger rivers ; the hooded snake, and several other noxious reptiles
infest the land; the seas abound with an inexhe.uslible supiily of fish, andaff.jrd subsistence to a large
portion of the population. Mosquitoes and other insects abound in great multitudes.
The people consist of several races. The Tonquinese and Cochin- Cld-nese are a short, squat, and ill-
favoured race ; in features nearly resembling the Malays, but without any indication of ferocity in
their expression. On the contrary, says Mr. Crawford, their countenances exhibit an air of cheerful-
ness and good humour ; the women ajipear to be fairer and handsomer than the men. Their hands,
arms, and feet are well formed, and tlie carriage even of the lower orders is graceful. They are much
in the same state of civilization and comfort as their neighbours. Besides these, the empire contains
people of several other races : — The Cambodians, wlio call themselves Kammen or Cummin, speak a
language distinct from those of all their neighbours ; but, in physical form, manners, laws, religion,
and state of civilization they bear a close resemblance to the Siamese. "The people of Champa or
Tsiompa on the south-east coast, between Cambodia and Ccchin-China speak a peculiar dialect, dif-
fering es-^entially from the languages of both An-nam and Cambodia, and profess a species of Bud-
dhism widely different from the religion of their neighbours, and more resembling that of the Jains
in Hindustan. Tlie coast of their country is now principally occupied by An-namese. The Moi
occupy a strip of mountainous country, between Lao and Cochin-China, extending about 300 miles in
length by .50 or GO in breadth ; but little more respecting them is known than their name, and that
they are an uncivilized but inoffensive pe.jple. All these are indigenous races. The strangers settled
in the empire consist of Malays, Portuguese Christians, and Chinese. The Malays are confined to
the east coast of the Gulf of Siam, between the latitudes of 11° and 12° ; they retain Mahometanism
and speak tho Malay tongue, intermixed with a number of Cambodian and Champa words. The Por-
tuguese are a mixed race who a] pear to have migrated from Malacca about the middle of the seven-
teenth .century, and are found in different places along the coast. They are hardly distinguishable
from natives of the country who have embraced Christianity. These Christians are among the poorest
and most abject part of the population. The Chinese form the most numerous cLass of strangers ;
but their total number will not be overrated at 40,(X)0, of whi^m 25,000 are engaged in working the
iron, silver, and gold mines of Tonquin. Politically, the empire contains but two classes — the people,
and the nobility or mandarins. The highest ofKces are open to candidates of every class, and very
lately, all the great mandarins, the chiefs of the five columns of the empire, had been common soldiers.
The son of a mandarin of the first rank is entitled only to the second rank ; if he is in actual employ-
ment as a mandarin, his children belong to the third class ; but if he has not been employed, liis
children return after his death to the ranks of the people.
The empire is at present divided into three great civil divisions; Cambodia and Tonquin, which are
governed by viceroys ; and Cochin-China, whicli is under tlie immediate government of the em-
peror himself. The whole territory is subdivided into twenty-two provinces, of which six are in
Cambodia, seven in Cochin-China, and the remainder in Tonquin, the last of which is the most
populous and the most valuable division of the empire.
Hue, in Cochin-China, the capital, and the residence of the emperor, is a large and strongly forti-
fied city, situate nine miles from the sea, upon the banks of a wide navigable river which falls into the
Gulf of Tonquin, in lat. 16°45'N., long. 106° 32' E. It is of a square form, about si.x miles in cir-
cumference, surrounded by a rampart 30 feet high, which is cased with brick, kept in excellent order,
and protected by bastions all in the European style. One side is washed by the river, and the other three
by a wide and deep canal. The interior is laid out in squares ; but the town is rather paltry. The
Peninsula.] ASIA. 749
palace is summndvd I.y handsome barracks ; the citadel is a small quadrangular building, with strong
and lofiy walls ; ai.d the City, it is said, would require a garrison of 40,000 men for its defence. The
population is beiitvcd to amount to 30,000. Turon, GO miles S.E. of Hue, stands on a river which falls
into a uiagniticeiit Isay tafe and most coiuniodious for bhipping, measuring five miles by two, and
completely land-locied. (juht/tonc, one of the largest towns in the province, 15 miles from the sea, is
situate on a navigable river which falls into a bay of the same name, 200 miles S. by E. of Hue ; and
ratiier more tlian 100 miles farther south, are the two magniliceiit harbours of Catnraigne and N/iii-
traiig, the latter of which is one of the naval arsenals o; the empire, and is strongly fortified in the
European style. In Tonquin the only place of importance is Kelsho or Kachao, the capital of the pro-
vince, and the largest town in the empire, situate 100 miles from the mouth of the river Sangkoi,
which is navigable for junks eighty miles up from the sea. The city is said to be at least tiiree
times as large as Hue, and probably contains 150,000 inhabitants. In Cambodia : Saigon, the capital,
stands on a peninsula formed by two branches of the river Don-nai, one of the finest rivers of Asia,
but till lately scarcely known to Europeans. The river may be navigated for 60 miles from the sea by
vessels of any burden without a pilot ; and by native craft, 20 days' voyage above Saigon, which is
itself 15 leagues, or about 40 miles from the sea. Saigon is composed of two distinct towns, called
Bingeh anil Saigon, near the former of which is an immense citadel, almost rivalling in e.\tent the
fortifications of Hue. There is likewise a great naval arsenal. The houses are, as usual, built of
woed, and thatched, and one storey high. Saigon is the principal commercial city of the empire, and
contains at least 100,000 inhabitants. Kamboja (Cambodia, Eawek, Laweik or Loech), the ancient
capital, is built on an island in the Maykuang, nearly 300 miles from its mouth ; but is greatly de-
cayed. Its royal palace and pagodas are in ruins.
About the middle of last century Tonquin, Cochin-China, and Cambodia formed separate king-
doms; Cochin-china being, however, tributary to Tonquin. Tliese countries having been fur many
years in a state of anarchy, a revolution at length broke out in Cochiti-China, in 1774, which led
eventually to the present orderof things. The great agents in tlie revolution were three brothers, called
Tayons, men of the lowest condition, who defeated and put to death the king, and his son, who had ad-
vanced with an army to his father's rescue. But the wife of the prince having escaped witli her son
(jia-long, the latter, after many adventures, became ultimately king of Coeliin-China and Tonquin,
and e.-tablisiied the present empire of An-nam ; a result for which he was indebted principally to the
resoiutiijn and sagacity of the French Bishop of Adran, and the skill and courage of a few European
adventuiers who accompanied him. Gia-long got possession of Hue in IsOl ; Tonquin was subdued
in 1802, and Cambodia in 1809. He died in 1819, leaving his empire to an illegitimate son. The
government exhibits despotism in its worst lorin ; tlie only rich man is the king ; he has fine palaces,
large treasures, excellent fortresses; and vessels far superior to those of the Chineie. His officers
arc merely his tools, and share but little in his splendour. The nation at large is in the most abject
Ci ndition ; the people are poor, wretched, and filthy in the extreme, and are forced to give more than
one-tl.ird of their labour, or an equivalent, to the king. The country is disturbed by trequent insur-
rections and rebellions ; and emigration has lately prevailed to a vast e.Ktent, though prohibited by a
despotic and decidedly anti-commercial prince, w ho forbids his subjects to carry the produce of their
own country to other markets under pain of death.
§ 4. The Countri/ of the Laos
Is a mountainous region situate to the north of Cambodia and Siam, occupying the upper vallies
ol the Meinamand the May-kuang. 'being bounded by An-nam on the east, Yun-nanon the north, Siam
and Cambodia on the south, and Birmah on the west ; and measuring about 800 miles in length by
400 in breadth. The climate is warm in the south, and temperate in the north, where it is a com-
mon occurrence to see snow and ice in wiiutr. The atmosphere is very unhealthy during the rainy
sea^on, which lasts from April till October ; during the other six months of the year the dry and fresh
north wind purifies the atmosphere, and the forests can then be passed through without danger. The
api earance of the country is magniticent, and the scenery beautiful ; the soil is generally very fertile,
e.vcept on the higher mountains, which present an arid appearance, with enormous rocks of strange
8h;ipes, concerning whose origin the Laos possess innumerable traditions. The country is rich in
gold, silver, copper, and iron ; almost every brook rolls down particles of gold ; and if the people were
acquainted with the art of mining, there is no doubt that they might acquire immense wealth. The
vegetation is nearly the same as that of Siam. It is from the mountains of Laos that those enormous
trees are obtaintd which serve the Chinese as masts for their largest junks. The country contains all
sorts of wild animals, as elejihants, rhinoceroi^es, bears, tigers, boars, porcupines, wild o.xen, and
bufialoes, elks, deer, &c. Crocodiles are not rare, and birds of every kind are inmnnerable. The
inhabitants are called Sliynn by the Burmans, Lao or Low by the Chinese ; but they call themsehes
Tai or Tie. They seem to be the parent stock of both the Siamese and the Assamese ; they are
divided into three distinct races, with many subdivisions of tribes, and their language has a corre-
sponding number of dialects. They are said to he a more civilized people than the hirmans ; mild,
Lumane, intelligent, and prosperous ; and, though parts of their country are occasionally overrun and
8ub<lued by their neighbours, they have yet maintained a virtual independence. Some of the tribes
still adhere to the ancient demon-worship ; but most of them are Buddhists. Zuiimai, on the Meinani,
4011 miles N. of Hankok, is the residence of the prince of all the southern Laos, and is said to contain
25,000 inhabitants. It is called Chavgtiiai or Cnanjimy hy tho Siamese; and by Loubiere, in his his-
tory of Siam, c/taine, Juni^nma, and Shaimai. Within a circuit of .'jn miles are the cities of Liijrimg
and Muuiigpai, each with 10,000 inhabitants ; Labung, with 14.000 ; and several smaller towns.— ?A'o-
tin tur le Laos, par M. Fiillt'i^oix ; Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie, I'uris, Jan. 1831).)
The Singphos, a kindicd people, occupy both sides of the upper region of the Irawady, and spread
from the Patkoi hills. In Assam, to China. They are divided into fifteen or twenty tribes, some of
which are now British suVijects, some are subject to the Birmese, and others are independent. Tliey
are a wild and somewhat lawless people ; worship na/< or demons ; and have a great hatred of Budd-
hism. Ileita. called by the liurmans liijanoung, and by the Shyans Ilulnaig, near the head of tho
valley of the Kyen-duen, is one of the principal Singpho towns, between whicli and Assam there is
constant and free intercourse.
§ 5. The lii itish Proviucea.
Martabah or Moui.mein, Rf. or Ye, Tavoy, and Mekoli or Tk.vasseium, are situate .along the
eastern coast of the Gulf of iMartaban, between IH and 18^ N. lat., and extend about 480 niiks in
length, by only 44 in breadth, comprising an area of 32,80ii square miles ; besideii a great numb r of
islands along the coast, which to^'Cther comprehend about 1000 s<pnire miles. The whole li nutli of the
eastern frontier is fornud by a raiige of mountains rising from 30!IO to 5itOO leet above the level of the
»ea, and chieUy composed of grainte ; the rest of the country consists of a series it' hills, \ alleys, and
plains, which exteiid from the mountains to the sea. Several passes lead through Jic mountains into
Siam. The princij'al of these is the I'lira-i'tng-vhu, or I'ait of t/w t/ircv p'iii',(las, i:i lat. 15 4b' N., 110
730 DESCRIPTIVE iEOGR.-vPHY. [South-eastkrn
miles S.E. of Sloulincln ; which is the clilof key to the military position of Martaban, and forms part
of the road from tliat town to Hankoli. The three pagodas are only piles of stones, or cairns. Tlie pass
of \iit/f(l,iut>g leads also into Siam from Tavoy. The general character of the Martaban or northern
part of the provinces is tliat of a champaign c.mntry, where the plains greatly exceed the extent of
the hilly land. There arc, however, several low ranges of quartz rocks, and a considerable number
of steep, insulated, picturesque rocks of blue limestone. Tlio districts of Ye and Tavoy may gene-
rally be described as mountainous ; the valleys or plains are few, and of small extent. The Mergui
district is still more hilly, and the valleys are narrower ; the geological formation is almost univer-
sally granite. The coasts of Ye and Martaban are open and e.vposed ; but those of Tavoy, Mergui,
and Tenasserim are thickly skirted with islands which are all hilly or mountainous, and generally
composed of granite, with an occasional intermi.xture of lime and sandstone. The climate is very
moist, and the country is covered with luxuriant vegetation. The year is divided into three seasons,
the rainy, the cold, and the hot. The rainy season usually sots in about the beginning of May, an<l
continues, with brief intervals of dry weather, till the end of October. November, Docembi.r, and
January may be called the cold, or rather cool season ; February, March, and April form the hot sea-
son. In the latter the sun is very powerful, but its heat is tempered by a cool wind, which prevails
in the middle of the day. Hot winds are unknown ; and, during the rains, the strength of tha mon-
soon prevents the atmosphere from being close and oppressive. In the dry season regular land and
sea breezes prevail on the coast ; and the territory of Martaban and Mergui especially may be con-
sidered salubrious. The province of Martaban contains very extensive forests of teak of the best
quality and of the largest size ; the otiier principal articles of natural produce are cardamums, cate-
chu, bets- wax, ivory, rhinoceros and deer horns and skins, jerked beef, esculent swallows' nests, and
sea-slug, most of which are in constant demand in China. The merest fraction of the territory is
under cultivation. The chief agricultural products are rice, cotton, indigo, black pepper, and areca
nut. Martaban is peculiarly suited for rice, which, even with the present rude cultivation, gives a
return of from fifty to eighty fold. The coast of Ye abounds with large oysters, which cluster
together on the rocks^in immense numbers. Turtle also abound on the rocks at low water ; but they
are of little use except for their eggs, which are a favourite article of food with the Birmans. The
most useful minerals yet ascertained to exist are coal, lime, iron, antimony, and tin. Coal has been
found at Moulmein ; and at the distance of 29 miles N. from the town of Tenasserim, a bed has been
discovered only ten feet below the surface, and of a quality said to be admirably suited for steam ves-
sels. This coal field is part of a great coal deposit which extends ahout 41) miles N., 50 S.E., and to
an unknown distance N.E. of the old town of Tenasserim, seemingly in a great basin encircled by
primitive, but much more by transition formations, in isolated ranges — ( See Hepurt on the Coalfuld
ulTu-that/-ij>ia, 071 the Tenasserim Iliuer, in Mergui province. By J. IV. Heifer, M.D Jour. As. Soc.
Bengal, Ap. 1839.)
The population consists of Talains, Taliens, or Peguans, Birmans, Karyens, Trongsus, Chaloms or
Seelongs, and Passas. The first two races are the most civilized; the Karyens are less so; and the
others are wandering half-savage tribes. The Seelongs inhabit the islands on the coast, live entirely
on the spontaneous productions of nature, principally turtles, fish, and moUusks, and never cultivate
the ground. The bulk of the population is Birman ; the total amounted, in January 1839, to 1 1'2,405
persons. The greater part, indeed, of this tine country is a wilderness, in consequence of having been
continually laid waste by the hostilities of the Birmans and the Siamese. It came into the possession
of the British Government in 182G, by treaty with Birmah, and is now rapidly improving ; the security
of person and property afforded by the British Government attracts settlers from all the neighbouring
regions, particularly from Siam. The civil establishment of the provinces consists of a commissioner,
deputy commissioner, two assistants, and a police magistrate. The first and the two last reside at
Moulmein, the second at Tavoy, and the junior assistant at Mergui. The Birmese is the language
of the courts, of public transactions, and of general conversation. The military force has been in-
creased to two Queen's regiments, two regiments of native infantry, a company of European artil-
lery, and a corps of Talain light infantry. The revenues in 1839 amounted to 3.")I,74G rupees; and
the value of the exports to 1,325,119. — (Captain Low's History of Tenasserim, in Jour. 11. As. Soc—
Report on Tenasserim, ^c, by J. IV. Heifer, M.D., Jour. As. Soc. Bengal, December 1839.)
MoOLMEiN ( ilaulmain, Moelmin, Maulamyaing), the capital, is a new town built on the site of an
ancient Peguan city, opposite to Martaban, on the left or eastern bank of the estuary of the Saluen
river, where it is seven miles wide, and near its confluence with the Gyne, Saluwein, and Attaraii
rivers. In 1826 it contained only a few huts; it now extends three miles in length, and in 1839 num-
bered a population of upwards of 17,000, including several Armenians and Parseos, who, like the Jews,
are sure to dock to every place which holds out any prospect of gain ; besides a fluctuating population
of about 1000 Birman and Talain labourers, who leave their villages for a time, and resort to Moulmein
in search of employment. The military cantonment occupies the interior of a large square fort,
the walls of which are of the most substantial order, and in good preservation, notwithstanding their
high antiquity. The town occupies the space between the walls and the shores of the rivers on the
north and west sides ; and to the east is a range of hills studded with pagodas. The great temple of the
ancient city has been repaired and beautified, and forms a striking object from the river; it is be-
lieved to have been built about the year 1527. Moulmein enjoys a considerable trade in exporting
the produce of the country, the staple articles of which are teak, wood, paddy, and rice; and in sup-
plying with manufactured goods the people of the interior, principally the Shyans, who visit Moulmein
annually in caravans, bringing witli them ponies, lacquered boxes, coarse silks, bullocks, and occasion-
ally elephants, which they barter or sell for English piece goods, coarse cloth, fire arms, cutlery,
salt, and a few minor articles. A considerable traffic is also maintained by means of the rivers with
the people along their banks. Amherst, 27 miles S. of Moulmein, was fixed upon in 1826 for the site
of tlie capital ; it stands on a promontary at the mouth of tht Saluen, and has a fine harbour ; but the
superior advantages of Moulmein have caused Amherst to be almost entirely superseded as a settle-
ment. Ye or Yeh (properly He*) a village of about 150 huts, at the moutli of a river of the same
name, across which there is a dangerous bar, 60 miles S.E. by E. of Amherst. Tavoy or Dahway, a
Peguan town of high antiquity, stands on the left bank of a ri\er of the same name in lat. 14^ 45' N.
It is regularly and compactly built, with streets crossing at right angles ; the houses are mostly built of
■wood, but are cleaner and more comfortable than is usual in Birman towns. Population in 1839, 10,490.
The town stands, however, in a low swampy situation ; the river, 20 miles below the town, begins to
expand into a conical-shaped bay or gulf, one of the most magnificent tliat the eastern seas can boast
of. The navigable channel is broad, deep, and capacious ; the anchorage is generally good; and the
high lands which surround the bay aflford complete shelter from the violence of the south-west mon-
soon. Mergui, a well-built town, with 7405 inhabitants in 1839, on the banks of the Tenasserim river,
not far from its mouth, has a fine harbour, and a salubrious climate. The natives call it Bike.
Tenassetitn is situate on the bank of the cognominal river, 30 miles E.S.E. of Mei'gui. Balu or Buloo
* The Birmans pronounce the r of their alphabet as the English y before a vowel; so that many
names are found spelled by English writers sometimes with the one of these letters and sometimes
with the other.
Peninsula.] ASIA. 751
or Bruze island, forms the west side of the estuary of the Saluen, extending 17 miles In length N.-S.,
by 6 or 7 in breadth, and divided lengthways by a chain of moderately elevated hills. It is inhabited
chiefly by Karyens, and produces a considerable quantity of rice.
Pemaxo, Pinaho, or PiLO-PEyAXG (Betelnut island), called in official documents Prince of'Wai.es'
ISLAXD, is situate near the northern entrance of the strait of Malacca, opposite the coast of Queduh,
from which it is separated by a strait two miles wide. It is about 16 miles long, and from 8 to 12
broad, comprising an area of 160 square miles. It is of granitic formation, with a range of hills
which extends through its whole length ; but on the west and south sides there is a considerable
space of level ground of good quality. Penang is considered remarkably healtliy. In 17S5, Captain
Light, the commander of a country ship in India, having married the rajah of Quedah's daughter,
received this island as a marriage portion ; he transferred it to the East India Company, who agreed
to pay for it 6000 dcdlars annually to the rajah ; and they having in 18 0 obtained a further grant of
a district on the opposite mainland, now pay him 10,000 dollars a-year for both Gi'orgetou-7i, the
capital of the island, is one of the neatest towns on the Indian seas; it has a capacious harbour,
with good anchorage, and is well-defended. The population of the island amounted, in l>i33, to 40,:j'22.
Wellesley province, the continental dependency of Penang, extends 35 miles along the coast, and con-
tained, in 1833, a population of 4!>,S53.
The territory of Malacca, on the south-west coast of the Malay peninsula, extends about 40 miles
along shore, by 30 inland, and contains about 80O square Knglish miles, with a population, in 1833, of
34,000. The coast is rocky and barren, with detached islets of cavernous rocks; the interior is
mountainous, with picturesque valleys. The highest peak, called Leafdimir by the Malays, and
Ophir by the Portuguese, rises to the height of 4000 feet. The climate is liealtby ; the temperature is
very equal, the thermometer ranging only from 72^ to 85- during the whole year. The city of ilaUicca
stands on a plain, with numbers of trees intersi erscd among the houses, near the mouth of a small
river, in N. lat. 2- 14', and E. long. 102^ 12'. It is regularly built, and has an excellent anchorage, but
a bad harbour. The situation is eminently salubrious. Population about 5(MK). The Anglo-Chinese
college, one of the most valuable institutions in the east, was established here in 1818, by Drs. Mor-
rison and Milne, for the cultivation of European and Chinese literature, and the instruction of native
youths in the principles of Christianity ; it is supported by voluntary contributions, and has several
schools attached to it, at Malacca, Tavoy, Moulmein, and Kangoon. Malacca was founded by tho
Malays after their migration from Sumatra ; it was afterwards in possession successively of the Por-
tuguese, the Dutch, and the English ; and was hnally ceded by the Dutch to the English, in 182.5, in
exchange for Bencoolen in Sumatra. Though fallen, the city is still the head-quarters of the British
military force on the Straits.
SixcAPORE or Sl.NGAPORF. ( Singhapura, Lion-town) is an oliptical-shaped island, about 50 miles
in circumference, 27 long by 15 broad, comprising : n area of 270 square miles, and situate at tlia
southern extremity of the Malay peninsula, from wiiich it is separated by a long strait, only a quarter
of a mile wide at its narrowest part. Within a circuit of 10 miles, there are about fifty other islands,
containing altogether an area of about 60 square mile.-, all within the limits of the settlement, the total
circumference of which, including the interjacent s' as, is about l(Ki miles. The surface of the prin-
cipal island is beautifully diversitied with valiies, plains, and irregular hills ; it is well stocked with
timber, and the trees are generally of great size. A more delightful climate is probably nowhere to be
found ; the variation of seasons is scarcely perceptible ; there is neither summer nor winter ; even the
periodical rains are short, and not very well marked. Tho thermometer ranges from 71^ to 89°. The
Boil is fertile, the scenery beautiful, and the air deliciou>ly balmy. The town is situate on the south side
of the island, in N. lat. 1- 17', and E. long. Wi-' 51', on the banks of a salt creek, which is navigable
for lighters. The streets are regularly built in the English style, chiefly of brick or freestone, gene-
rally two storeys high, finished with taste and neatness, and all painted white, which gives the town
a fine and imposing appearance from the offing ; its symmetry and beauty, however, are considerably
impaired by the uncouth structures of the Chinese, Malays, and Hindoos, who adhere to the styles of
their respective countries. The Chinese are the most numerous and most industrious class of the
population. The harbour or road is commodious, sale, of easy access, and defended liy a fort, which
IS well garrisoned and occupies a beautiful situation. In the vicinity of the town is a level, fertile, well-
cultivated plain, laid out in gardens and plantations, intersected with excellent carriage roads, which
are bordered with shrubs and trees of perpetual verdure, and contain the villas of the English nier.
chants. Singhapura was a very ancient Malay settlement, but bad been abandoned since the 13th cen-
tury. In 1818 it was taken possession of by Sir T. 8. KatUvs ; and the sovereignty confirmed to Britain,
in 182.5, by a convention with tho King of the Netherlands, and the Malay princes of Johore, to whom
it belonged. It bad been previously possessed for a few \ears by some Malay fishermen and pirates ;
but so rapidly did the new settlement prosper, that wheii the first census was taken, in January 1824,
the population amounted to l(i,Gs3 ; in 1834, it had increased to 2C,34y, of whom only 13<) were «liito ;
the rest being Malays, Chinese, and other orientals. It has become a central emjiorium for the trade
of the Chinese and Javan Seas; native vessels from every part of the Indian Archipelago find here a
market for their produce, and a sui)ply of the conimcidities which they require. A lucrative trade is
also carried on with C'ochin-China, Cambodia, Siam, Malaya, and Sumatra. There are no export or
impoit duties. The language of general commercial intercourse is Malay. The island is abundantly
supplied with all kinds of provisions, in great variety and of excellent quality. It possesses, indeed,
so many advantages that it has been called " tho paradise of India, the home of plenty, and tlie abode
of health."
Penang, Malacca, and Sincapore, are dependencic." of the Government of Bengal, and are under
the immediate charge of the Governor of Penang, who has assistants resident at Malacca and Sin-
capore. By means of these three settlements, the British Government has now the command of
the northern passage to China. The jealous and exclusive commercial schemes of the Dutch have
been completely frustrated by the bold step of Sir T. S. Katlles, in taking possession of Sincapore ; a
measure at which the Dutch were highly indignant. But when they found they were left without
a remedy, they surrendereil Malacca too, as the possession of that city would no longer answer their
purpose of closing the straits.
§ 0. The Malay States.
The Malayan peninsula is a long narrow tract of about 750 miles, and 170 where broadest, but varv-
ing from that to a breadth of only 6o. The great mountain range which divides the British liirman
provinces from Siam, appears to i xlend without interruption to the southern extremity ol the pe-
ninsula, occupying a great part of its breadth. The whole territory is of primitive formation, e.vhibitiiig
everywhere masses and peaks of granite. It produces a considerable quantity of gold ; but the staple
production of the whole region, as far north at least as the 15-^ N. lat., is tin. The <listriits best
known produce pepper, and other aromatics, and several kinds of gum. The forests, wliieli seem
to occupy- a great part of the interior, contain aloewood, caglewood, sandalwood, and rasaia (nloiala,
a kind ol cinnamon. \egetatii>n is, indeed, everywhere rank and luxurini:t ; the animals are nearly
the same as those which are found in the neighbouring countries to the north. The northern districts
752 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [S.-E. Pkninsula.
boloriK to the kingdom of Siani, and are chiofly inliabited by Siamese; but the southern portion, inlia-
bited by the Malays, in divided into a number of" petty states or kingdoms. Quedah or Kedah extends
along the west coast from the Trang river, lat. 7^ 20' N., to the Krian, in h° 10', with a population of
about 50,(X)0 ; I'erak, from the Krian to the Kunku)), lat. 3^ 59' — population, 3,'>,0<X) ; Salangore, from
the Runkup to the Liugie, in 2^ 3')'— population, 12,(KHl ; Malacca, fiom the I.ingie to the Cassang —
population, 3'),(KKi ; Johorc, from the Cassang on the west coast to the Sedilly on the east coast, in
lat. 2^ 15' — population, 25,000; Pahang, from the Sedilly to the Kenianiang, in lat. 4- 15' -popula-
tion, 40,000 ; Kemitmang, a very small inland district, with UMHt inhabitants ; Tringann, from the
Kemamang to the Basut— population, 30,(XX); Calantan, from the Basut to the Baruna —population,
50,000; Patani, from the Baruna to the 'I'ana, in lat. 7'-' 20' — population, 54,0o0 ; Ligor, from the Tana
to about the O-' 20' N. Of these, Quedah, Patani, and Ligor are subject to Siam ; Malacca is a British
province; the others are independent, being governed by rajahs. The inland mouniains are inha-
bited by savage tribes, some of them negroes, who are in a state of general aiiaichy and biirbarism.
The Malays, who have given their name to the peninsula, migrated in the twelfth centuiy from the
territory on the banks of the river Malaya, in Sumatra, to escape subjugation to a king of Java.
They seem to be a branch of the indigenous population of that great island, and prubiibly of Java
also, but are now settled along the coasts opposite to those islands. They are in general of a ferocious
character, and celebrated for their piratical habits ; a propensity to war and violence being the ruling
passion of the race. The country being unsettled and laid waste by perpetual feuds, the peasant driven
from his village and lawful means of subsistence, and tempted by the smooth seas, the safe navigation,
and the shelter from pursuit afforded by the numerous islands, creeks, and rivers of the straits, and
by the charms of a life so congenial to his free and restless spirit, is induced to scour the ocean for a
precarious subsistence by fishing, or plunder, or both, as opportunity offers. There is, however,
something highly romantic, and even interesting, in the national character of the Malays. They are
not wholly illiterate; for they possess letters, and, as Mahometans, are acquainted with the Koran.
They shew great ingenuity in several mechanic arts, especially in the fabrication of arms, and in the
highly-wrought temper and finish of their formidable creesi5s. In some of their principal settlements
they carry on a considerable trade, and can boast of wealthy merchants ; but nowhere is slavery or
slave-dealing more common. A bull-dog does not differ more in form and quality from a greyhound,
than a Malay from a Hindoo. The broad face and course lineaments, the bull neck, short stature,
muscular limbs, and glaring yellow hue of the former, are in direct contrast with the symmetrical
features, the olive hue, the slender limbs, and the often elegant figure of the latter. Their mental
dispositions and other natural qualities are in equal opposition. A Malay will not submit to an
insult or an injury, without harbouring the purpose of deadly revenge, which he will carry into effect
with all the art and subtlety of a fo.\ ; he will smile while he stabs, the better to throw his victim off
his guard. Sometimes an infuriate Malay will run amuck, that is, strike and stab every person who
falls in his way, till he is himself knocked down or captured. The laws and institutions of the Malays
are said to e.xhibit the worst parts of Islam, mi.xed up with certain superstitions of their own ; they
practise circumcision, and believe in witchcraft ; they buy their wives, often at an enormous price,
the poorest seldom giving less than 60 dollars, which frequently reduces them to slavery, for debtors
are obliged to work for the creditor till they can pay. They have fines for theft, and even for murder ;
but in most cases the pimishment depends on the power of the injured party to exact it. The
government is in the hands of sultans and rajahs, whose power is extremely limited, and is chiefly
confined to the precincts of their own residence. Every village has its chitft; in ; and these digni-
taries seldom agree in any common object, but, on the contrary, are often at war with each otiier.
The justice which they administer to their followers depends entirely on tlieir caprice. Tliey are
honoured with high-sounding titles ; but it is difficult to conceive a greater caricature of royalty
than a Malay sovereign in his wooden palace or barn, naked, except round the waist, squatted on a
mat, and eagerly bargaining for the sale of cattle and fowls, or vegetables. Their perfidy is such,
that no treaty with them can be relied on : they have been known to murder at their own table an
invited guest. Plunder and bloodshed seems indeed the invariable object of every Malay, and such
is their audacity, and so general is the spirit of piracy among them, that should even a lai'ge sliip-
of-war meet with a serious accident in their seas, she will be surrounded with hundreds of prabus,
waiting for the first favourable opportunity to plunder the wreck, and murder t!ie crew.
Malay towns consist of a group of huts of wood and thatch, heaped together without order or regu-
larity. The prahus or praos, used by the pirates, are generally about eight or ten tons burden, well
manned, and remarkably swift, particularly with the paddles which are commonly used. They are
generally armed with swivels on their bows, centre, and stern, of small calibre, but long range. When
preparing to attack, strong wooden bulwarks, called apilans, are erected, behind which the crew en-
sconce themselves, fighting with their long guns, until their prey is disabled, or till the gong sound
the signal for boarding. But they mainly depend for safety and success on their skill in paddling, the
swiftness of their boats, and their knowledge of the intricate channels among the islands, or over
the bars of the rivers, into which they generally contrive to escape, thereby bafHing their pursuers,
and often leaving them aground on a shoal or a mud bank. They scarcely ever attack except during
the lull between the land and the sea-breezes, or in a calm. They make their attacks and move in
small fleets of from six to twenty prahus. During October, November, December, and January, they
are found cruizing up and down along the west coast of the peninsula, and the opposite shore of Su-
matra. From June till the end of September, they are often to be seen about the islets to the south
of Sincapore, and in the creeks and rivers of the Johore coast. February, Jlarcli, and April, are
spent in fishing, collecting sea-weed, and preparing for future expeditions. The crows are armed with
boarding spears, some of which are of very great length, creeses, hatchets, and swords, muskets,
blunderbusses, and a variety of missiles. The most noted haunts for pirates on the west coast
of the peninsula are the Bunting, Aroe or Arroa, Cocab, I'isang, Dinding, and S'lmbilaiig islets ;
those on the Salangore coast ; and the islets between Cape Rachado, and the I.ingie river. The
rivers Mirbowe, Perak, Puiefi, Koi-uo, Muar, Formosa or the ilaific-pa/iat ri\er, and formerly the Lingie
river ; the straits of CaUrng and Dryon, Point or Cape Ilomania, and its vicinity, and the Carimon
isles to the south ; on the east coast the creeks and small rivers of Johore up to Fahang ; the Kema-
mang river ; those of Tringano, and Calantan ; also the islands of Timoang, Puh Tingie, Iledang,
and Aor. Their armed vessels, however, are often ready for war or trade as occasion may ol'er ;
and some of them are reaUy traders, who assert the necessity of carrying arms for their own de-
fence ; but the British eruizers invariably burn, sink, or otherwise destroy all that are found with
arms on board. One of their chief re-orts for their slave trading is I'ulo-Nias, on the west coast
of Sumatra. — ' Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Nov. 1836. — United Sen-ice Jourrutl, April
1837.)
For the materials of this Section, the South-eastern Peninsula, we are principally indebted to Craw-
ford's Journal of his Embassies to Ava, Siam, and Cochin- China ; Capt. Low's History of Tenasserim,
in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain ; The liev. Howard Malcolm's TrareU in
the Birman Empire ; Husclienberger' s Travels round the World; the Asiatic Journal for Attgust and
October 1840; Martin's History and Statistics of the British Colonies; Captain Benjamin Murreli't
I'oyages; Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1830 and 1840, ^c. ^c.
China.] * ASIA. • " tS'a
THE CHINESE EMPIRE.
This empire extends over a very large portion of eastern and central Asia, com*
prehending upwards of 3,000,000 of square English miles, of which 1,298,000 are
within the limits of China Proper, and the remainder in the subject territories to
the west and north.
Astronomical Positiov China Proper is situate between 20^ and 42^ N. lat ,
and 98= and 123= E. longitude.
Dimensions The greatest length, from north to south, is 1500 miles; and the
greatest breadth, from east to west, about 1100 miles. The superficial area compre-
hends 1,298,000 square English miles, and the coast line is upwards of 2500 miles
in length.
Boundaries. — Northern : — Mantchouriaand Mongolia, or Chinese Tartary. West-
ern : — Thibet. Southern : — Birmah, An-nam, and the country of the Laos. East-
ern : — The Pacific Ocean.
Name. — The name of China is very probably derived from that of the dynasty of
Tsin. The country is called by the natives Chtmg-hwo, central kingdom ; and Tang-
shan. Hills of Tang, the name of one of their most celebrated dynasties. The pre-
sent ruling family have given to it the name of Ta-tsing-kwo, the Kingdom of Great
Purity. In the proclamations issued by government, especially those addressed to
foreigners, it is often called Teen-shan, Celestial Empire. The natives call them-
selves Chung-kwo-teih-jin, Men of the Middle Kingdom, or Han-jin or Tang-jin, Men
of Han or Tang. The whole empire is often designated Teen-hea, Under Heaven.
Geneual Aspect China consists of a series of river basins, and of low lands
along the sea-coast, divided by ranges of hills, which rise in some places to a very
considerable elevation. Yun-nan, the south-western province, is very mountainous,
and sends out two branches eastward ; the one of which separates the basin of the
Si-kiang river from the coasts of the Gulf of Tonquin ; the other separates it from
the basin of the Yang-tse-kiang, and its affluents, whose basins are themselves di-
vided by diverging ranges from each other, and from the coasts of the east sea. The
basin of the Yang-tse-kiang is divided from that of the Whang-ho by a continuation
of high land which diverges eastward from the Peling mountains, on the borders of
Tartary, but which, terminating before it reaches the coast, leaves a large alluvial
plain between the mouths of these two great rivers. The remaining portion of the
coinitry lying between the Whang-ho and the Gulf of Pe-che-lee, consists of the
basin of the Pei-ho and the Eu-ho, having the hills of Shantung province on the south,
and a cross range on the west, but communicating with the basin of the Whang-ho,
by an opening at the angle formed by the two ranges. The geology of China is un-
known ; the only elevation which has been ascertained by European observers, is
that of the mountain over wiiich is the y^a.s.s of Jifeilun, between the provinces of
Kiang-si and Quang-tong, which rises to the height of 8000 feet above the level of
the sea. Tiie appearance of the country is very varied; between Peking and Can-
ton, a distance of 1200 miles, the members of the British embassy observed every
variety of surface, but this uniformity was very remarkably dis[)osed in large masses.
For many days they saw nothing but one continuous plain, without the smallest va-
riety ; for as many days they were hemmed in by precipitous mountains, naked and
unvaried as the plains ; and, for ten or twelve more, their course lay through liikes,
swamps, and morasses. There was a constant sucxession of large villagos, towns,
and cities, with large navigable rivers communicatir.g with each other by artificial
canals, both of which were crowded with boats of every form. Neither hedges nor
trees were to be seen throughout the country.
The southern basin and the adjoining coast compose the provinces of Yun-na/i,
Quang-si, and Quang-tong. Ytin-nan preserits a singular variety of mountain and val-
ley; possessing a more alpine character thati any other part of China, and yet con-
taining some extensive and finely watered plains. It is also said to be the richest of
all the provinces, in metals and minerals, among which are gold and very fine copper.
Quang-si and Quang-tong, or the two Quang provinces, lie to the east of Yun-nan,
3 13
754 DESCRIPTIVK GEOGRAPHY. [Chin-a.
ami consist principally of a large plain bordered by mountahis. F kien and Che-kiang
are maritime provinces to tbe north of Quang-tong, and consist of ridges of moun-
tains at no great distance from the sea, interspersed by numerous valleys. Fokien is,
comparatively speaking, so unproductive, that its numerous population are compelled
to devote themselves to maritime affairs, in which they are favoured by the deep
bays and fine harbours which the province contains. Its inhabitants are the boldest
and most adventurous of the Chinese, and furnish the mariners for the imperial fleet
of war-junks, and the greater part of tbe emigrants to foreign countries. The basin
of tiie Yang-tse-kiang, and its affluents, is occupied by the provinces of Setchiten,
Kwei-chew, Hou-qiiaiu/, Kiang-nan, a. id Kiang-si. Setchuen is very imperfectly
known. Its mountain border on the west is lofty, but the eastern part of the pro-
vince slopes into a plain. Kwei-chew consists partly of a plain, but a large por-
tion is composed of the mountains towards Yun-nan and Qiiang-si. Hou-quang
consists principally of an extensive and highly fertile plain, watered by numerous
lakes and rivers, and producing in abundance, beyond any other part of the empire,
every thing that can minister to the use of man. Kiang-nan consists, with li.tle in-
terruption, of a great alluvial plain, which extends from the sea inland, along both sides
of the Yang-tse-kiang and the Whang-ho. Kiang-si occupies the basin of the Kan-
kiang and the Poyang-hou, and is profusely watered by numerous streams which pour
down from the mountains that border on its south, east, and west sides. The north-
ern provinces of Shen-si, Shan-si, Honnn, Shan-tung, and Pe-che-lee, occupy the basins
of the Whang-ho and Pei-ho and their affluents, with the mountains which divide and
encircle them. Shen-si, the north-west province of China, abounds with mountains,
everywhere diversified with fertile and well-watered valleys, but is nowhere so rugged
as to shelter savage tribes. Shansi is also partly mountainous, and occupies the eas-
tern side, as Shen-si does the western side of the valley of the Whang-ho, in its long
southerly course from the great wall, before it turns finally to the east. Honan lies
between Shan-si and Kiang-nan, occupying the space between the two great rivers,
and from its central situation is called the " flower of the middle." It is described
by the missionaries as being so fertile and beautiful as to have merited the appellation
of the garden of China ; and appears to consist of an extensive champaign country,
bordered on the west by high mountains covered with forests. Shan-tung consists
of a long mountainous promontory, jutting far out into the Yellow Sea, with the
valleys which border it on both sides. Pe-che-lee is the most northerly province, and
consists of a wide naked plain rising gradually to the Tartar frontier, where it becomes
decidedly mountainous. The new province of Knn-suh is composed of hills and de-
serts, lies to the west of Shen-si, and comprehends a great part of what was formerly
included within that province.
GnLFS, Bays, Straits. — Gulf of Tonquin, between the island of Hainan and the province of
Quang-si and Tonquin; Gulf uf Canton, in Quang-tong; Strait of Formosa, between Formosa and
Folvien ; the Yellow Sea ( Whang-hai), between Corea and the northern provinces of China ; the
Ea't Sea ( Tung-hai ), between Formosa and Corea ; Gulfs of Fe-che-lee and Liaotong, in the north-
western part 01 the Yellow Sta. The water in these gulfs is generally shallow, with a muddy
bottom.
Isi.ANns. — Hanan, between island 20° N. lat., andl08°and 112° E. long., is separated by a narrow
and shallow channel from a long peninsula which juts out from the province of Q,uang-tong. It is
about 19) miles long, by 70 broad ; a great part of it, particularly on the northern side, is level, and
is inhabited by Chinese ; but the interior is rugged, and possessed by very rude tribes. The climate
is hot and unhealthy. The capital is Kions-cheou-fou, on the north coast. The Ladrones or linhhrr'a
Islands extend along the coa-t between Hainan and Canton, so near each other and the mainland,
and so irregular in their form and position, as to appear like fragniints disjoined from the continent.
They have a very bleak and rugged appiarance, and liave long served as a haunt of pirates. Tt/t-man-
shan, or tke Great hadr^me, in lat. 21^ 57' 10" N., long. 113^ 44' E., is steep and bold, and may be >een
at the distance of fourteen leagues from the masthead of a large ship, or nine from the deck. This
island, with the Little I.adrone and Potoe, to the norlh-nortli-west, bounds the eastern side of the
great channel which leads to Macao roads. Heang-shan, a very large island formed by two branches
of the Canton river, forms the western side of its main channel, and terminates seaward, in a .^mall
peninsula which contains the Portuguese town of Macao. The Asses' Kars and the Lenias, are small
islands, barren and uncultivated, at the eastern side of the Gulf of Canton. Lintin. the station of the
opium smugglers, a small island in the Canton river, 21 miles N.E. of Macao, and 23 outside of the
Bocca-Tigris. The peak of Lintin, a high mountain in the centre of the island, tonns an excellent land-
mark. Lantao or Tyho, a large island on the eastern side of the Gulf of Canton. Himg-kimg, a small
rocky island, l.'i mih s in circumference, recently ceded to the British as the seat of tlieir trade with
China, is ^ituate to the east of Lantao. Hae-tan, a large island off the coast of Fokien, between which
and the mainland there is a labyrinth of islands and rocks, lining the coast for many miles. Qitesan,
a cluster of islands between 29= and 30° N. lat., off the coast of Che-kiang. C'/iew-shan, Chou-shar,, or
Chusan, a large and fertile island, between 30° and 31° N. lat., surrounded by a great number of smaller
islets off the north-east ciast of Che-kiang. Between the Quesan islands and Chusan harbour, a space
of about 60 miles by 30, the number of islands exceeds 300, among which there are almost as many va-
luable harbours, or places of perfect security, for ships of any burden. This circumstance, together
with their central situation in reference to the east coast of China, and the vicinity of Corea, Japan,
Loo-choo, and Formosa, attract a considerable trade, which centres at Ning-po, a city of Che-kiang, to
which all these islands belong. Ting-hai-heen, the capital of Chusan, is a large city, 6 miles in circum-
ference, and surrounded by a good wall and ditch. Near Chusan is the island of Foo-to, inhabited by
About 1000 Bonzes, who attend anumber of large temples, which are resorted to by mariners toreturu
China.] ASIA. 755
thanks after a perilous voyage. Tsong-ming or Tsuiig-ming, a large alluvial island, 5 or 6 leagues
long by 2 broad, at tlie mouth of the Yang-tse-kiang, surrounded by dikes to prottct it f j om the sea,
and containing about 2,1)00,000 of inhabiian.a, wlio are industrious and enterprising, and celebrated
as excellent fishermen and s-ailors. One i art ot tlie island is used for the ciltivaiion of rice, another
for the growth of various grain*, and the third, thoujih apparently the most un, remising, and pro-
ducing not even a blade of grass, is so impre.nated with salt, as not only to furnish a sufficient quan-
tity for the consumption ot the inhabitants, but also a large aurj^lus for e.\portation. 1 he banks wiiich
bar the entrance of the Yang-tse-kiang are really formidable; they are about twelve in nuiiiber, vi-
gible at low water, and several miles in circumference. yVoo-teaou-tha are iii.mense banks at the
mouth of the Yellow river, stretching about 80 miles out to sea, but gradually sinking, and running
out in spits. As the coast is not visible, even at the distance of two miles, many vtssels are wrecuea
upon them ; but no measures are ever taken by the Cliinese government to point out the dangers.
Yun-tai-than, an island with a double range of hills, north of the Yellow river. Staunton. Alceste,
Miatau, small islands off the coast ol Shan-tung. Sha-luo-puo-tien, low sandy islands or shoals, off the
mouth of the Pei-ho, in the Yellow sea. Potocki's Islands, a group off the southern coast of l.iaotong.
Sir James Hall's Group, Huttan's Island, Amherst Isles, Corean Archipelago, all in the Yellow sea,
along the west coast of Corea. Quelpatrt, a large island in the East sea, 60 miles from the south-west
point of Corea.
Ta -wan (called by its first Portuguese visitors Formosa ilha. Beautiful island), in the East sea, be-
tween 22- and 26^ N. lat., and 120° and 121° E. long., is 260 miles in length, by 80 in breadtlj, and lies
about 20 leagues from the coast of Kokien. It is divided throughout its length by a range oi mount ins,
some of which reach the limit of perpetual snow. Fiomthis ridge there is a gradual slope to the west
coast; and far into the sea. on tliat side, the water is shallow. This side produces immense quanti-
ties of rice and sugar, is in possession of the Chinese, forming part of their province of Fokien, and
contains two considerable towns, 7'«i-if«M, the capital, and Ke tang-cliin^,Vae latter of which possesses
the only good harbour in the island, and is situate on the north coast. The eastern side of the island
is mountainous and precipitous, and is inhabited by independent tribes of the Malay or Polynesian race,
who live chiefly by hunting. Along the coast are the smaller islands of Stt-el, Sulio, Samasanna, Bo-
tul- Tubago-xinui, and Lamaii; and in the channel, between Tai-wan and Fokien, are the fescaduret
or Pang-hoo or Pehoe Islands, a numerous group of various dimensions, all extremely barren ; but,
having good harbours, they serve as a place of refuge for the junks in the north east wind, which
blows here during the greater part of the year. The Chinese keep a numerous garrison here, as the
security of Tai-wan depends on the possession of these islands.
Rivers.— The Kiang (river), called by Europeans the Blue River, and named, near its mouth,
Yang-tse-kiang (river of the son of the ocean), is the largest in the empire. It is formed by the
union of three branches, named the Kin-cha, the Yahyu, and Min, of which the first is considered by
Klaproth to be the principal. The A'in-cAa-fcawg' (gold-sand river), called jUoztioui-(/Ks«oM and bourai-
chou, in Thibet, takes the name of Tiz-ArMng- (great river), in Setchuen, and runs through that pro\ince.
Ho -quang, and Kiang-nan, into the East sea. Thelengthof its course is about 3280 miUs. Its principal
affluents are the Yaloung, Min, Lo, and Kan, on the right; the Kiu-liiig, and Han, on the left. Its
course is very winding, but the general direction is nearly east, through the middle of China. It
appears to be the longest, as well as one of the largest, rivers of Asia, and conveys an immense body
of water into the ocean. Where it is crossed by the imperial canal it is two miles wide, and the stream
runs with such force, that Lord Amherst's embassv found great difficulty in sailii;g up to the Poyang
lake ; and were unable to make way at all against the stream, except with a strong north-easterly
bree/e. The influence of the tide extends 40U miles up the river.
The Whang-hu ( Uoang-ho of the French), or Ykllow River, has its sources in the Koulkoun
mountains, in the country of Hoho-nor. Turning abruptly north, it passes to the outside of the great
wail, and, after flowing in an easterly direction, turns south, and flows S. by W. for about 400 miles,
at the end of which it turns again very abruptly east, and flows into the Ea.,t Sea, about 100 miles to
the north of the Yang-tse-kiang, after a course about 30U0 miles. Its stream is so excessively rapid
as to be nearly unnaviga'>le throughout the greater part of its course. It carries along wi h it an im-
mense mass of yellow mud in a state of solution in its watirs, and its frequent floods occasion great
damage to the country, and expense to the government, in maintaining artificial embankments. Its
principal affluents on the right are the IVei-ko or Ouei-lw or Koei-ho, in Shan-si, and the Hoei or Hoai-
ho in Kiang-nan. The Fw^n-ho, in Shan-si, is the principal atlluent on the left. The tide ascends the
stream of the V\'hang-ho as far as in the Yang-tse.
The Pei-ho rises in the Kingkan hills, and falls into the gulf of Pe-che-lee. Its principal affluents
are the Tshao-ho, the San-kan-ho, and the IJou-thou-hu or Eu-ho, which is crossed by the imperial
canal.
The ^i-A-Van/r ^ Pearl river) flows through Quang-si and Quang-tong, past the city of Canton, where
Europeans give it the Portuguese name of Tigris, and call its mouth the liocca-tinris. A lit le above
Canton it is joined by the Pe-kiang, and below Canton, by the Tong-kian^, both from the north.
Lakrs.— The Tomr-tine-hou is a, large lake, 300 miles in circumference, in the province of Hou-
quang.which pours its waters into the Yang-tse-kiang. From the bordersof this lake to the city of Voo-
tshan, or an area of 140 English square miles, there is a great number of lakes nearly touching each
other, from which circumstance the province has received its name of Hou-quang, tlie country of
lakes. The Poyang-huu, in Kiang-si, has a circumference of 90 or 100 miles, and receives four large
rivers, whose accumulated waters are discharged into the Yang-tse. It lies in the midst of a great extent
of swampy land, with rivers flowing into it from most points of the compass. Its waves sometimes
rise so high as to render it, in the opinion of the Chinese, as dangerous as the ocean. Its surface is
studded with sandy islands just rising above the water, and covered with humble dwellings, the abode
of fishermen, who pursue their calling on the lake. The Tai-hou to the south-east, the Kao-yeou-
hou to the north-east, the Hong-tse-huu to the north, and the Tsiao-hou to the south-west of Naniing.
Climate The temperature of China is considerably lower than that of the Eu-
ropean countries in the same latitiules ; and is more subject to excessive variations. At
Peking, in the latitude of central Spain, frost occurs daily in December, January, and
February, and very often in March and November ; and this cold is often followed
by excessive heat. At Peking there are, properly speaking, only two seasons, winter
and summer ; and, according to the observations of Father Amyot, the mean of the
greatest heat is 121°, that of the greatest cold 63° below zero, and the medium
heat of the year 55°. At Canton, under the tropic of Cancer, the mercury fre-
quently falls below the freezing point in January, while in summer it sometimes,
though not often, rises to 100^. The mean of the monthly range of the thermometer
al Canton, for the years from 1829 to 1838 inclusive, stood thus ; — January 52j^°|
756 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [China.
February 55" ; March G2i° ; April 70° ; May 77° ; June 81° ; July 8S=> ; August 82° ;
September 80.033° ; October 73^°; November 654 ; December 57.134°. The num-
ber of rainy days in each of the ten years averaged 122. — (^Silliinan's Am. Jour, of
Science, April 1840.)
The first English emb.assay, on their arrival in Canton in December 1793, found
that a fire was not disagreeable ; thirteen years afterwards, Krusenstern saw ice
selling in the streets during the same month. In February 1836, Canton was visit-
ed by a fall of snow, which continued for several hours, to the great surprise of the
natives, few of whom had ever before seen such a phenomenon ; and to the great
delight of the European residents, who were thus agreeably reminded of home. Not-
withstanding, however, these extremes of heat and cold, the climate of china may be
characterised as highly salubrious, a circumstance which no doubt arises from the
extent of cultivation and dr.iinage. During August and September it is generally
hot and*ickly, as the wind then blows from the west over the parched deserts of the
interior. Hurricanes also are not unfrequcnt, and are sometimes extremely violent.
Vegetable Productions. — The southern provinces possess the usual products of
tropical regions, few of which, however, are seen to the north of the Pass of Meilan.
Between that mountain range and theWhang-ho, various species of orange, lemon,
tea, sugar-cane, rice, pomegranates, black and white mulberries, the vine, the wal-
nut, chesnut, peach, apricot, and fig, are seen growing on the same spot. Camelias,
bamboos, and cypresses arc also found ; the whole zone abounds with coniferoe, and the
mountains are adorned with pines. The principal object of cultivation is rice ; but in
the north-western provinces there are districts too cold and dry for this grain which
is therefore replaced by wheat. Yams, potatoes, turnips, onions, beans, and, above
all, a kind of white cabbage, caWed potsai, are cultivated. But not the least impor-
tant of the vegetable products is cha or tea, of which the Chinese botanists reckon 200
species. It grows in the most sterile ground on the sunny ridges of hills, chiefly be-
tween 25° and 30^ N. lat. ; though it is also found in various other parts of the country.
The cultivation appears to be confined to the temperate zone, extending to the north-
ern provinces. The tea-districts, properly so called, are thus stated by Dr. Abel :
That of the green tea is in Kiang-nan, between 29° and 31° N. lat., at the north-
western base of a ridge of mountains which divides Che-kiang and Kiang-nan ; the
black-tea district in Fokien, is contained within lat. 27° and 28° N., and is situate
on the south-eastern declivities of a ridge of mountains which separates Fokien from
Kiang-si. Green teas are very little used by the Chinese ; though an infusion of tea
is used universally throughout the country, and is brought forward on all occasions,
and at all times of the day. Public tea-houses are also found in every town and village.
Animals. — China contains scarcely any animals which are not common to other
countries. The elephant is found in the south-western provinces, and the one-horned
rhinoceros lives in the marshes of Yun-nan and Quang-si. The musk deer is some-
times found in the western provinces ; deer, boars, foxes, and other wild animals abound
in the forests. The Chinese rear, though in small numbers, all the domestic animals
of Europe, the horse, the ass, the ox, the buffalo, the dog, the cat, and the pig. They
have also two-humped camels of a small size. They eat almost indiscriminately
every living creature which comes in their way; dogs, cats, hawks, owls, eagles, and
storks are regular market commodities ; and, in default of these, a dish of rats or
snakes is not objected to ; and cockroaches, and other insects and reptiles are used
for food or medicine. Some of the native birds are very splendid ; the fish are in
great variety ; and from China we have derived the gold and silver fish of our ponds
and vases. The insects are numerous and beautiful. The white-wax insect pro-
duces an important necessary of life. Sir George Staunton mentions it as an insect
not much exceeding the size of a fly, covered with a white powder, which is imparted
to the stems of the plants on which it lives. This powder is collected by the people,
who apply to it hot vegetable oil, and the mass, when cold, coagulates and becomes
as firm as bees' wax. As a medicinal drug, it is highly esteemed throughout China,
and, for making candles, is reckoned superior to bees' wax. The silkworm is said to
have come originally from China. The people rear this valuable insect in small houses
erected for the purpose in the midst of the mulberry plantations ; and even the inha-
bitants of the towns rear it, and purchase mulberry leaves for the purpose. Destruc-
tive ants abound in the southern provinces.
People The Chinese are considered by physiologists as belonging to the Mon-
golian variety of the human race. The head is almost square, the nose is short with-
out being flat, the complexion yellow, the beard thin and the eyes oblique. There ii*
China.] ASIA. 757
however, a great difference between the southern and the northern Chinese, and be-
tween the mountaineers and the inhabitants of the plains and sea-coasts. A Chinese
female is vain of her beauty in proportion to the smallness of her eyes, the protube-
rance of her lips, the lankness and blackness of her hair, and the extreme smallness
of her feet. Among the men, corpulence, as the indication of an easy life, commands
a certain degree of respect ; and men of thin figure are regarded as destitute of talent.
People of quality allow the nails of their fingers to grow, and stain the hair of the
head and the beard black. The Chinese are generally of a middle size ; few tall men
are found among them, and still fewer dwarfs or deformed persons. The women can
be seen with difficulty, and generally those only of the lower ranks, who are not dis-
tinguishable from the men by any delicacy of feature or complexion. Their persons
indeed are considered to be the reverse of elegant or beautiful. With respect to cha-
racter, peace, industry, order, and regularity appear to prevail among them. Flagrant
crimes, and open violations of the law, are not common ; but petty delinquencies and
frauds are very prevalent. The supreme ruler of the country is the bamboo, which is
applied, at the discretion of the magistrates, to all ranks of offenders ; and on such
occasions the delinquent is obliged to return thanks to the magistrate for his paternal
care of his morals. The attachment of kindred is very strong, and the support of the
aged and infirm is inculcated as a sacred duty, which appears to be very strictly fulfilled.
Towards strangers, however, and persons not of their own family, their indifference is
extreme ; and in cases of accident, they allow their neighbours to perish before their
eyes, without offering the smallest assistance. They all marry early, and are very
prolific, the consequence of which is a very numerous, and generally redundant po-
pulation, who, with all their industry and moderation, have often great difficulty in
obtaining the means of subsistence. Emigration is prohibited ; but great numbers
of men notwithstanding contrive to leave the country ; numerous colonies have
settled in the Indian Archipelago, and some have even gone to Calcutta, Mauritius,
and Brazil.
The community of China appears to be divided into four ranks or orders ; of which
the literati or learned occupy the first place; the husbandmen the second ; the ma-
nufacturers the third; and the merchants the fourth. But in this country, as every-
where else, wealth raises its possessor above such conventional distinctions. The
merchants accordingly, though lowest in rank,' can command the services of their
superiors ; but it is only the leurned who are yet allowed to occupy places in the
government. The only persons possessing hereditary rank are the members of the
Imperial family, who are distributed into five classes, all distinguished by wearing a
yellow girdle ; but they possess no political powers or privileges, and have only very
small revenues assigned to them for their subsistence. The consequence is, that
some of the more remote of these branches are in very indigent circumstances. Being
likewise brought up to a life of idleness, they are in many cases ignorant, dissipated,
and worthless ; but they are kept under very strict control. Besides the descendants
of the emperors, there is another class of imperial kinsmen, descended from the brothers
or uncles of the first Tartar emperor, who are distinguished by a red sash and bridle.
Every thing connected with their dress and equipage is subject to minute regulation,
and they are as strictly watched as the others. It is said there are still some de-
scendants of the Jliiig dynasty in existence, but they have laid aside the yellow girdle
through fear of persecution. Polygamy is not permitted ; a man can have only one
legal wife, but he may have as many tsie or concubines as lie pleases, or can afford ;
and the offspring of the latter possess many of the rights of legitimacy. Tlie wile is
espoused witii regular marriage ceremonies, is the equal of her husband in rank, and
possesses certain legal rights, such as they are ; but the tsie is bought for money, and
is taken into the house nearly as any other donicstic. The women are, however, the
slaves of their husbands and masters; they live and die in ignorance, and every effort
to raise themselves above the rank assigned to them is regarded as impious arrogance.
Besides the subjects of the Emperor, there are within the limits of China Proper
several tribes who have always maintained their independence. The higher distiicls
of Yun-nan are occupied by a hardy highland race called Lolo, of a totally dificrent
character from the Chinese. Such is their valour, and tlie strength of their iiiounlairi
fastnesses, that the Imperial Government has been obliged to rest satisfied witli a
nominal acknowledgment of homage, leaving the internal government to be admi
nistercd by the native hereditary chiefs. In the neighbouring province of Kwci-cliew
are several tribes of rude people called Miaotsi, who inhabit the mountain districts,
and have hitherto bid defiance to the military force of the empire. The people who
758 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [China.
possess the mountainous districts of Hainan and Formosa are likewise nearly, if not
altogether independent.
The Ladrones, or Pirates of the islands which stud the southern coasts of China,
form a very numerous and organized body, and possess a fleet of at least 300 well-
manned vessels, of from 10 to 250 tons, the largest carrying 12 guns, and all of them
armed, besides the ordnance, with abundance of small arms, gpears, swords, and
boarding krises. They are under strict discipline, and often evince great bravery.
Population With European statists the population of China has long been
an insoluble problem ; and their estimates have varied from about 30 to 370
millions. Balbi, by his approximative method, determines it to be 150 millions.
In 1793 Sir G. Staunton was informed by a mandarin of high rank that it then
amounted to 333 millions; and in 1832 Mr. J. R. Morrison of Canton stated, in the
Companion to the Anglo-Chinese Almanack, as the result of a census taken in 1813,
and published by imperial authority, the amount as having then been 360,443,000.
Mr. Medhurst says that it was, in 1812, 361,221,900, and adds, that after the fullest
consideration of all that has been said on the subject, after the most patient investi-
gation of native documents, and after extensive inquiries and observations among the
people for more than twenty years, he cannot resist the conviction that the population
of China Proper is as above stated ; besides the population of Formosa, and the tribes
of Chinese Tartary. Mr. Gutzlaff also declares himself to be " fully persuaded that
the last imperial census is as near the truth as it can be ascertained." Those parts
of the empire which he visited were extremely populous. He took the trouble of
examining some parts of the census, and of numbering the houses in small districts,
and invariably found that the population was under-rated. And Mr. Morrison, in
publishing the statement already referred to, observes that it " will probably serve to
set at rest the numerous speculations concerning the real amount of population in
China. We know from several authorities that in China the people are in the habit
of diminishing rather than increasing their n)mibers in their reports to government.
And it is unreasonable to suppose that in a work published by the government, not for
the information of curious inquirers, but for the use of its own officers, the numbers
reported by the people should be more than doubled, as the statement of some Euro-
pean speculators would require us to believe." The numbers in our table of the
extent and population of the provinces are those published by Mr. Morrison, taken
from the Ta-tsing-hwuy-leen, or Collection of Statutes of the Ta-tsiiuj dynasty, pub-
lished in 1825, according to a census taken in the 18th year of the reign of Kia-king,
under the authority of his imperial Majesty.
Education, Science, and Literature. — One of the most curious features of
Chinese policy is the encouragement given to the cultivation of literature, which
is professedly the only chainiel of introduction to advancement in the State, and to
the acquisition of office, rank, and honours. With the prospect of such rewards the
number of students is very great, and a taste for letters is almost universally diffused.
Schools abound in every town and village, and the best education which the coun-
try affords may be procured on the most moderate terms. Certain magistrates are
appointed in every province to take charge of the candidates for employment, to di-
rect them in their studies, and twice a-year to hold public examinations, when small
presents are distributed to the most deserving. At Peking is a grand national col-
lege named Han-lin-yen, which is supported by Government, the members of which
are the chief literati of the empire. Nothing, however, but old established prin-
ciples are taught ; the scholar of the present day must not venture to go beyond the
sages of ancient times ; learning is consequently at a complete stand-still. As a
further encouragement to literature, the press is left free, and any one may print
what he pleases, taking his risk of the consequences ; the Government being very
rigid in suppressing " wicked, corrupt, and seditious publications," and in punishing
their authors. The antiquity and importance of Chinese literature have only of
late years been duly appreciated in Europe, and have but very recently begun to
attract the attention of students. " The Chinese literature," says M. Abel-Re-
musat, " is incontestibly the first in Asia, in respect of the number, the impor-
tance, and the authenticity of its monuments. The classic works, named King, go
back to a very remote epoch. The philosophers of the school of Confucius have
made them the basis of their labours upon morals and politics. History has always
been the object of attention, and the Chinese annals form the most complete and
continuous that exist in any language. The custom of competition has given a power-
ful stimulus to political and philosophic eloquence. Literary history, criticism, and
China.] ASIA. 759
biographj, are the subjects of a crowd of works remarkable for their order and re-
gularity. The Chinese possess many translations of Sanscrit books upon religion
and metaphysics. The literati cultivate poesy, which is subject to the double yoke
of metre and rhyme; they have lyric, narrative, and descriptive poems, theatrical
pieces, romances of manners, and romances wherein the marvellous prevails. They
have, besides, a great number of special and general collections, libraries, and ency-
clopaedias, and in the last century they began the printing of a collection of select
works in 180,000 volumes ! Notes, glosses, commentaries, catalogues, indices, ex-
tracts arranged in the order of subjects, lend their aid to facilitate research. They
have excellent dictionaries, in which all the symbols of their writing, and all the
words of their language are explained with the greatest care, and in a very regular
order. Books are printed upon silk paper, and as this paper is extremely fine, they are
obliged to print only upon one side ; the parts are clussed, numbered, and paged ;
finally, there is not, even in Europe, a nation that has so many books, books so well
made, so commodious for consultation, and at so low a price ;" and notwithstanding
there is no country where real science and literature are at a lower ebb.
Geography has been cultivated from the most ancient times ; a fact which is proved
by the descriptions of the empire given in the Chou-king, five centuries B. c. The
Jesuits constructed a new map of the empire by order of the Emperor Kamhi, be-
tween 1707 and 1715, and a new edition of it, with corrections, was published in 104
sheets in 1760, by order of the Emperor Kien-long, under the direction of the mission-
aries. The imperial geography forms 260 volumes in quarto, with maps and plans.
It embraces every topic: topography, hydrography, monuments, antiquities, natural
curiosities, industry, productions, commerce, agriculture, government, population,
general history, biography, and bibliography. Astronomy has always been held in
honour, but its progress has been very limited. Their knowledge of mathematical
science appears to be very low ; they use the decimal system of arithmetic, and
execute with rapidity all its operations by means of a machine, the swanpan, the use
of which has passed into Russia and Poland. Their theory of military tactics dis-
plays some learning, and has even fixed the attention of some generals of the school
of the great Frederick ; but their artillery is very defective; their muskets are infe-
rior, and their powder is very inefficient. The Chinese were, nevertheless, acquainted
with the art of making gunpowder before it was known in Europe, and they have
long been accustomed to make fireworks which produce a surprising effect. Their
medical science is mixed with superstitious practices, and founded upon imaginary
theories. Their pharmacopaea, however, is rich, and they have good books of medical
natural history, accompanied with plates ; but their physicians are the only cultiva-
tors of natural history. Their arts of design are very imperfect ; they are unac-
quainted with perspective; and the only objects which they paint well are plants,
flowers, houses, boats, and other objects of inanimate nature. Their sculpture is dis-
tinguished only by its nice finish ; but they execute in wood sculptures in relief of re-
markable fineness. Their architecture has neither grandeur nor elegance; and yet
the order, and the fine colours with which their buildings are adorned, have a sedu-
cing effect. Magnificence is reserved for public buildings, such as the eiiiperor's pa-
lace, temples, towers, triumphal arches, town walls, and gates. Their bridges, canals,
quays, and particularly the embankments of the Yellow river, are as remarkable for
the persevering industry which has produced them as for their usefulness. The
Chinese music, though foimded upon a very complicated system, wants, nevertheless,
according to European taste, both harmony and melody (^Balbi's Ahrcije, p. 787.)
The manners of this numerous people have one striking characteristic, and their
religious opinions and practices are precisely similar throughout the empire. When
the main features of the Chinese character have been studied in one place and in one
person, they have been studied in all, and when one train of argument has been dis-
covered which suffices to silence the objections of one individual, it will be equally
effective on all other occasions. The uniformity and iiivariableness of the Chinese mind
is to be traced perhaps to their possessing one set of opinions on philosophy and re-
ligion ; which being laid down in their ancient books, and transmitted from age to
age, constitute the public and universal belief on these topics, and run through
the whole mass of society. Hence the missionaries find the Chinese always using
the same arguments, and starting the same objections, which having been often
answered before, may be easily answered again. In the system of Chinese literature
there is no harmony or continuity. The most deplorable ignorance stands in imme-
diate juxtaposition with science of more than ordinary refinement ; an astonishing ac-
curacy and minuteness of detail are often combined with a total want of g( ncral
760 D15SCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [China.
principles, or with principles grossly incorrect. Here and there are observable foun-
dations of immense mental strength, on which no superstructure is erected ; or,
perhaps, some superstructure of so uncouth an appearance, and so useless and fragile,
as to prove only the perverted ingenuity of the artist ; and on the other hand, sur-
prise is excited hy the prospect of some noble and magnificent edifice, which seems
to have sprung from the ground, like the palace of Aladdin, without any percept-
ible agency of sufficient power to call it into being. All the intellectual combina-
tions of China are monstrous; they possess uniformly a mingled character of civili-
zation and barbarism. The people have been from time immemorial separated from
the rest of mankind, and no free intercourse has ever shaped their rude inventions
into forms calculated to make them suitable to mankind in general. All that
they have done is specifically Chinese ; all their productions have a national cha-
racter ; they are stiff, contracted, and incapable of being wrought into any foreign
composition.
The spoken language of China is composed of monosyllables, of which there are
scarcely 350 which a European can distinguish from each other ; but the Chinese
are able, by various modulations of the voice, to distinguish many more' — about 1300.
The syntax is also very meagre; declensions and conjugations are wanting, and
their place is supplied by circumlocutions. There is also a written language, ex-
pressed by about 80,000, or, according to some writers, 40,000 different characters
or symbols, each representing a separate object or idea ; and as this written language
is common to the whole empire, the natives of the various provinces, though speak-
ing different dialects, and mutually unintelligible when speaking their own dialect,
can, nevertheless, all read the written language, and have thus a ready means ot
general communication. Even beyond the limits of Chinese dominion the Chinese
■written language is understood; and throughout Cochin- China, Corea, and Japan,
it is a common object of learning. The multiplicity of characters might seem an
insuperable obstacle in acquiring the language ; but these are in fact compounded
of 214 elementary symbols, which form a clue to their labyrinth ; and by the help
of which, dictionaries have been formed that enable Europeans to acquire a competent
knowledge of it in a comparatively short time. It has been the general opinion
among learned men in Europe that the written and the spoken languages of China
have no connection or relation to each other ; that the visible characters represent
things or ideas directly, without reference to the sounds, by which the same objects
may sometimes be expressed ; that they are real characters, in short, which have
no connection with words, and might have been invented by a race of beings des-
titute of the faculty of speech. But Dr. Ponceau of Philadelphia has succeeded in
throwing new light on the subject, by shewing that these so-called real characters
represent words only and not ideas, at least directly, and that they are not com-
mon to the other nations which surround China in any other way than the words
of the French language, for example, are common to the nations of Europe ; that
is, that they are common to the people of those nations who have studied and
learned to write them, and to speak the Chinese language along with them, and to
no others. To use the Doctor's own words, " nations whose languages, like the
Japanese and the Loo-chooan, are polysyllabic, and have inflections and gramma-
tical forms, cannot possibly understand Chinese books and manuscripts, unless they
have learned the Chinese language." Every syllable in Chinese is a word, and as
each character represents a syllable, it follows that each character represents a word.
The Japanese have a syllabic alphabet of 47 characters ; and their historians relate
that, in a. d. 284, their sovereign having sent an embassy to the emperor of China
to request him to send a person to civilize his kingdom, Vo-nin, a prince of the
imperial blood, was sent. He introduced the Chinese civilization, language, and
literature ; and for a long period Chinese was the only written language in Japan,
and the only record of its learning. It was not till a. d. 733 that a selection of 47
characters was made from the Chinese, and applied to the Japanese language by one
Kibi, a man of high rank, who modified the characters so as to adapt them to the
syllables of which his alphabet was composed. The Chinese language, thus intro-
dulced into Japan, still remains there as a learned language, and is taught as such.
Many of its words have also been adopted by the Japanese into their language ;
an^event which has also happened in various other countries ; but the Japanese who
have not learned the Chinese language, cannot make themselves understood by the
Chinese in writing any more than in speaking. Chinese books are constantly trans-
lated into Japanese and vice versa; a labour which certainly could not be necessary
if the ^wo nations, as is commonly believed, used the same written characters fot
China.] ASIA 701
both languages. There are also various native dictionaries in Chinese, with Japanese
explanations ; and in Japanese, with interpretations in the language of China. Chinese
books, with interlineary Japanese translations, are also used in Japan. Dr. Ponceau,
in saying that foreigners, and even the Chinese themselves, read the Chinese written
language only by translating it, and that the symbols directly represent words, is un-
doubtedly right ; for each of the characters of which it consists has attached to it one
of the 1300 monosyllabic words of the spoken language ; but as these are too few to
afford a distinct sound for each character, it happens, in some cases, that one mono-
syllabic sound represents 70 or 80 written characters, so that it is scarcely possible
to read the written language aloud intelligibly even to those who can read it for
themselves. Indeed it frequently happens, that, in reading a paper, the auditors are
assisted by the reader making, by a motion with his hand in the air, or with his fan,
the shape of the character, or at least of its key, to remove ambiguity. The same am-
biguity would prevail in the spoken language itself were it not obviated by the use of
expletives, that is, by compounding the monosyllables, of which the language has been
said entirely to consist, into polysyllabic words. For instance, when a man is speaking
of his father, a term which is expressed hy/oo, a monosyllable which has 70 or 80 dif-
ferent meanings, according to the different written characters which it represents,
he employs foo-chin ; and, instead of moo for mother, vwo-chin. The syllable c^!«,
which signifies kindred, not only removes at once all doubt as to the meaning of the
speaker, but is one proof at least that the Chinese is as necessarily and inevitably, in
some cases, a polysyllabic language as English itself, or any other. But that Dr,
Ponceau is wrong in saying that the characters only represent words directly, and
not things or ideas, is evident from the fact that each of the 70 or 80 characters
represented in speech by the single syllable /oo, conveys a distinct idea to those who
read it, while the same idea could not be communicated to another person distinctly,
by merely reading the monosyllabic name. In short, the real difference between the
so-called monosyllabic language of China and the languages of other countries is,
that in the former the written characters represent syllables with distinct meanings,
while in the latter they represent the simple unmeaning sounds of which syllables
are composed ; but, in both, it is only by compounding syllables into longer words, in
Chinese perhaps less than in other languages, that a copious and generally intelligible
speech, applicable to any thing beyond the simplest ideas, or to the purposes of any
other than those of unthinking savages, is, or can be produced. The educated classes
throughout the country communicate with each other in the dialect of Kiang-nan, the
seat of the last native dynasty, which is usually called the Mandarin language.
Religion (See pages 125 and 126.) Besides the religion of Buddha or Fo, of
Confucius, and of Tao-sse, nearly all the other forms of mythology which are conspi-
cuous in the page of history now exist in China. To use their own expression, says
Dr. Milne, " her gods are in number like the sands of Havy river." There are gods
celestial, terrestrial, and subterranean ; gods of the hills, of the valleys, of the woods,
of districts, of families, of shops, of the kitchen ; gods who preside over thunder, fire,
rain, grain, births, deaths, and small-pox; and genii of the mountains, rivers, lakes,
and seas, birds, beasts, and fishes. Astrology, divination, geomancy, and necro-
mancy, every where prevail ; and every one possesses spells and charms. As might be
expected, the god of wealth is the most popular deity among merchants and trades-
men ; and is represented with a wedge of gold in his hand. Seamen worship as their
god Tun(j-hai-vaiing, the lord of the east sea; and also pay their vows and burn in-
cense to a goddess who is the exact counterpart of the heavenly patroness of the
mariners of Spain, Portugal, and Italy. But all these superstitions are more or less
mixed with the worship of Fo, the number of whose temples and priests (bonzes'*
is incalculable. These shrines are found not only in every city, town, and village, but
also in private houses, where the priests are occiisioiially employed to instruct the
children ; but no temple can now be built without special permission; and the sacred
edifice is used for state purposes by the officers of goverrunent, for the reception
of foreign ambassadors in travelling through the country. Tlie Chinese have no
Babbath, and no division of time by weeks. They labour every day in the year, ex-
cept the first, which tliey devote to family visiting, and the last, which they conse-
crate to the memory of their ancestors. They celebrate the festival of the full
moon by keeping up a noi.-e arul riot all night; and during the first two days after
the first full moon of the year they celebrate the feast of lanterns, on which occasion
the whole country is illuminated. Every house, and every village, with all the ship-
ping on the canals and rivers, are then lighted up with painted lanterns. This ap-
pears to be a religious festival ; but its origin and history are forgotten.
762 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [China.
Since the first arrival of the Portuguese on the shores of China, in the 16th cen-
tury, the catholic church has been earnestly employed in endeavouring to convert
the inhabitants to her form of Christianity ; but the result of all her efforts, during
three centuries, is the existence of only about 200,000 native Christians in the em-
pire, and chiefly in the western and northern provinces. Of late years protestant
missionaries have also been labouring zealously to gain proselytes to their doctrines,
and have translated the Bible into the Chinese language ; but hitherto without much,
if with any, real success. There are also some thousands of Jews in China, whose
principal residence is at Khai-fung, in the province of Honan. A few Mahometans
are found in Shen-si and Kan-suh.
Government The Chinese Government is a sort of patriarchal despotism ; li-
mited, however, by the right of representation which is lodged in certain classes of
magistrates, and still more by the obligation under which the emperor is placed, of
having to choose all the agents of government, according to fixed rules, from the
literary class. The members of this class form a true aristocracy, which is perpe-
tually recruited by promotions from among the numerous students. Young men of
all conditions are admitted to trial for the third literary rank ; those who obtain
this enter themselves as candidates for the second, to attain which is a necessary step
for those who are to exercise public functions. From the second rank they may
rise in the same way to the first, which qualifies them for the highest offices and em-
ployments. This institution is as old as the seventh century ; its members are the
only nobility of China, but their rank is not hereditary. It dies with the posses-
sors ; but, as might be expected, their children form the favoured class of students,
and have the best chance of promotion. Hereditary dignities are confined to the
princes of the imperial family, and to the descendants of the philosophers Confucius,
Mencius, and Laokiun. The supreme power is exercised by the emperor, who takes
the title of Son of Heaven, and August Emperor. The succession is hereditary in one
family, but the emperor selects his successor according to his own judgment or ca-
price. For adminisirative purposes China is divided into eighteen large provinces,
which are subdivided into districts arranged in three classes according to their im-
portance, and designated by the terms /oo, chew, and keen, usually annexed to the
names of their chief towns. Each governor general, or viceroy, has commonly twc
provinces under his charge. There are besides, in each, an intendant of the pro-
vince, a superintendent of the literati, a director of finance, a criminal judge, and
two intendants, the one of the salt-pits, and the other of the public granaries.
Each district has likewise its particular magistrates, who are invested with adminis-
trative or judicial functions. The emperor nominates to all employments from a
triple list furnished by the personal or privy council. Many reports, decreets, and
other official documents are published under the form of instructions addressed to
the magistrates or the people ; they are published regularly in the Peking gazette,
from which they are extracted and again published in the provincial gazettes, which
are printed in the principal cities. When the emperor pursues any measure, or pro-
mulgates any law to which public opinion is supposed to be unfavourable, he pub-
lishes in the gazette his reasons for it. The emperor believes himself responsible to
his subjects for all the calamities which they experience, such as famines, epidemics,
earthquakes ; and, when such occur, publicly accuses himself of having offended
heaven by neglecting his duties, and imposes on himself certain penances, such as
seclusion, fasting, &c. The public functionaries, both civil iind military, are divided
into nine ranks, distinguished by buttons of the size of a walnut, formed of diffe-
rent jewels and metals, which are fixed on the top of their conical caps. Their com-
mon title is Quart; but they are usually called by Europeans mandarins, a word
derived from the Portuguese verb mandar, to command. The first rank include"
ministers of state, and presidents of the tribunals, who are distinguised by a red gem ;
the second, viceroys and governors of provinces, who have an inferior red gem ; the
third, judges, treasurers, and salt-superintendents, a dark-blue stone ; fourth, su-
perintendents of circuits, and governors of counties or provincial districts, a light-
blue stone ; fifth, rulers of departments, a crystal globe ; sixth and seventh, magis-
trates of districts, a white stone globe ; eighth, assistant magistrates, a flowered
gilt globe ; ninth, village magistrates and inferior officers, a plain gilt globe. There
are six supreme tribunals at Peking, to which all the affairs of government are re-
ferred, and which make their reports to the emperor for his decision and approval.
The first selects, promotes, and superintends, all the civil officers of the empire,
and is the centre of all power and patronage ; the second has the charge of the
revenue, and superintends the census of the population, taxes, coinage, &c. ; the
China.] ASIA. 763
third takes charge of all public ceremonies, and the different forms of religion ; the
iourth manages the affairs of the army, navy, and ordnance, and appoints the various
officers; the fifth, or police department, superintends all matters relative to the de-
tection and punishment of crimes; the sixth, or tribunal of public works, takes charge
of all the palaces, public offices, mines, canals, manufactories, bridges, &c. Besides,
these there are a board of music, the colonial office, and the Too-cha-yuen or cen-
sors, whose office it is to watch over the words and conduct of the emperor. There
is also another board of censors who preside over the deliberations of the other
tribunals, and report to the emperor; and may be said indirectly to govern the em-
l>ire. Under the Mandchew emperors the Chinese appear to have declined in civili-
zation ; and the government is now in a state of deplorable and increasing weakness.
The people have ceased to respect laws which are openly contemned by public
functionaries. Piracy and smuggling are acknowledged as trades ; in some districts
robbery is committed openly, and in all these cases the mandarins are quieted by
a share of the profits.
Since the conquest of China by the Mandchews, two centuries ago, a large party
has existed who are anxious to restore a native dynasty of sovereigns. The mem
bers, being closely watched, formed themselves into a secret society, ruled and organ-
ized like that of the Jesuits, from one of whom indeed, it is said, the plan of the
"nstitution was obtained. The society soon extended its branches into every pro-
vince, and its members are now supposed to amount to several millions. They are
united by the most solemn oaths of secrecy, and by pledges of mutual assistance ;
they have signs and pass-words known only to themselves ; possess a common purse,
and are remarkable for their implicit obedience to the commands of their unknown
superior. In 1794 they made a vigorous effort to overthrow the reigning dynasty, and
their ravages were not suppressed till 1802. Occasional revolts have occurred since,
but the society have conducted their operations so cautiously that all the efforts of
the imperial ministers have failed to discover their leaders. The connection, real or
supposed, of this society with the Jesuits, was the cause of the cruel persecutions
of the Chinese Christians at the beginning of the present century. The Society
are called Pe-lien-kiao (worshippers of the flower of the nymphaja or water lily).
Finances — There are no authentic documents from which any account of the
public revenues can be obtained; Mr. Medhurst has given the following account
of them : — " The reveruie is derived principally from the land-tax, which is paid
partly in kind and partly in money; it is generally a very light impost, amounting
not, as some suppose, to one tenth, but more usually to one fiftieth or one hundredth
of the produce. There are also taxes on pledged articles, and more particularly a
iicavy impost on salt ; while custom-houses are established on the sea-coast, and at
the most important passes in hills and junctions of rivers, so as to secure the mer-
cantile as well as the agricultural population. Some of the reveiuie thus derived is kept
in the provinces, to pay the army, navy, aiul police, and to provide against famines,
while a considerable proportion is forwarded to Peking for the inunediate service of
the emperor and his officers. We cannot, therefore, form a correct estimate of the
resources of China, unless we consider all that is sent to the capital and expended
in the provinces, as being alike drawn from the labour of the people, and devoted
lo the service of the state. Thus the revenue of the Chinese empire will appear to
be as follows : —
Land-tax, pjiid in money sent to Peking, . . . £10,581,755
Ditto, paid in grain, ditto, ..... 4,230,957
Custom*, paid in money, and sent to Peking, . . . 493,006
Grain kept in the provinces, ..... 31,590,509
Money, ditto ditto, ...... 9,508,375
£50,-171,322
This revenue, when divided among 301,221,900 persons, amounts to three shil
lings and three halfpence per head : and if that only which is sent to Peking be
reckoned, namely, £15,200,378, it will not amount to much more than tenpeiice per
head. Some persons may doubt, how a government over so great a country ran be
maintained for so small a sum, and how a people under an arbitrary rule can be let
off with such insignificant imposts ; particularly when, in a free country like our own,
and in a time of profound peace, ea(;h individual contributes upwards of two pounds
HTinually, as his share of the public burthens. I'ut it niu.-t be reuiembered that China
has few or no resources beyoii'! itbclf ; that her foreign commerce is limited, and, com-
/64 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [China
pared with the population, insignificant ; that comparatively few subsist by raanufac-
tures ; and that almost all the inhabitants are dependent on agriculture. In a country,
therefore, where the consumers fully equal the capabilities of the soil, and where
every production is hastily devoured by a needy population, there is little left for a
government to glean, or, to use a Chinese simile, to squeeze, out of the already ex-
hausted pockets of the people. It is not unlikely, also, that the present peaceful
state of the country, and the willingness with which the Chinese submit to the Tar-
tar yoke, is to be ascribed mainly to the light and insignificant burthens pressing on
) he people, who would soon complain, and perhaps revolt, if more heavily taxed.
Bat how can the government manage to maintain an immense establishment of civil
ind military officers, besides an army and navy of nearly a million of men, upon fifteen
or even fifty-six millions of pounds sterling? To this it may be replied that the pay
of a Chinese soldier is only fourpence a-day ; that the salary of the highest officer
under government does not exceed £8000 per annum, of which there are not many ;
there is no more than one officer to ten thousand people ; and that most of these have
no more than £50 per annum : thus it is quite possible for the government to ma-
nage a country so thinly officered and so poorly paid, upon a comparatively small
sum of money. Besides which, there is no national debt in China, so that all that
is gathered goes to the actual maintenance of the government, and is not expended
in paying the interest on obligations formerly contracted, to be defrayed by future
generations.
In the report of the Anglo-Chinese college for 1829, there is an estimate of the
amount of land-tax paid in different provinces, extracted from the Ta-tsing-hwuy-
teen, or " Collections of statutes of the Tartar dynasty," by which it appears that
the average rate of land-tax per mow (or Chinese acre, somewhat smaller than an
English acre), is from fifteen cash to one hundred, or from one penny to sixpence :
this, when calculated at its highest value, and multiplied by the number of acres in
China under cultivation, will amount to about £12,000,000 sterling. This state-
ment agrees with the common report of the natives, who affirm that from one to two
per cent, of the produce is the utmost of what is exacted by the government in the
shape of land-tax."
Army and Navy The army is numerous but inefficient ; and consists principally
of an undisciplined rabble, armed with matchlocks, bows and arrows, and spears. The
number has been variously estimated by European writers, from about half a million
to 1,954,450. The most precise account of the military force of China which we
have been able to find is contained in a communication by Father Hyacinth Bitshurin
to the Academy of Arts and Sciences at St. Petersburg, in August 1837. The
Mandchews, with the Mongolians and Chinese who accompanied them on their inva-
sion of China, form a distinct military community, which is divided into " standards,"
and subdivided into sections and companies, each company consisting of 150 men.
The Mandchews of Peking consist of 681 companies, amounting to 102, 150 men ; the
Mongolians quartered in that city consist of 204 companies, amounting to 30,600
men ; and the Chinese 266, amounting to 39,900. The whole force of the Mand-
chews on duty in the provinces amounts to 840 companies, or 126,000 men. To
these arc to be added the " wild hunters," who form 97 companies, consisting of
14,550 men. These troops garrison the principal cities and towns of the empire ; but,
in addition to them, there is an army of native Chinese, amounting to 660,300 men,
who do the ordinary duty of posts, both within and beyond the frontiers of China.
The Government maintains 3000 regular troops in Thibet, besides a number of irre-
gulars ; and in Turkestan, numerous Chinese garrisons are established in all the towns,
which are furnished from the adjacent province of Kan-sub (United Service Jour-
nal, xix. 97.) This, however, is only the peace establishment ; in time of war, it is
calculated that 10,000,000 of soldiers may be levied; but we are assured that the
greater part of these exists only on paper, and that it is very difficult to muster an
army when one is required. With the exception of the men stationed on the fron-
tiers, the whole of this mighty host consists of men of peace, who are always in gar-
rison, and are employed in preventing any violation of law. But they suffice, such
as they are, to keep the country quiet ; and may be considered rather as an armed
police force than an army. — (Canton Register, November 27, 1838.) But, since
these opinions were expressed, the Chinese have come in contact with British troops,
and have shown an unexpected degree of efficiency and resolute bravery ; though they
are ill armed, and not very expert in the use of their artillery.
The imperial navy is sail? to consist of 1763 vessels; of which 1036 are employc-f
China.] ASIA. 765
for police purposes on tte great rivers, and the rest are stationed on the sea-coast.
They are of all sizes, but none of them carry more than 20 guns. The larger ships
carry from 200 to 400 soldiers and seamen ; the total amount of the marine force is
estimated at 60,000 men, on the peace establishment.
Productive Industry. — The industry of the Chinese in every thing which re-
lates to the comforts and conveniences of life is wonderful. The origin of several of
the arts is lost in the twilight of antiquity, and the invention of them is attributed
to personages whose existence is very doubtful. They have from time immemorial,
been acquainted with the preparation of silk, and the art of making the cloths which
iave attracted the merchants of the greater part of Asia. The manufacture of por-
celain has been carried to a high degree of perfection, which the Europeans have but
lately been able to surpass. The bamboo, besides being the grand instrument of
punishment, serves as a material for numerous kinds of works. Their cotton cloths
are famous over the world. Their furniture, their vessels, instruments and utensils
of every kind are remarkable for great solidity joined to a certain ingenious simpli-
city, often deserving of imitation. They have always been acquainted with the art
of working metals, they make musical instruments, cut and polish precious stones.
Wood engraving and block printing are as old as the tenth century. They excel in
embroidery, dyeing, varnishing, and cutting ivory. The fans which they make are
everywhere admired ; their works in filagree are beautiful ; their artificial flowers
have never been surpassed, and we owe to them the invention of tinted paper.
Europeans have very imperfectly imitated some of the productions of their industry,
such as their vivid and unalterable colours, their paper, which is at once fine and
solid, their ink, and many other things which require patience, care, and dexterity.
They take pleasure in reproducing models that reach them from foreign countries,
which they copy with scrupulous exactness and slavish fidelity. They even make,
expressly for Europeans, objects suited to their taste ; and the rate of wages is so
low, that it is often found advantageous to employ them upon works which European
artists could only execute at a great expense. Nearly the whole arable land is con-
stantly employed in producing human food. Even the steepest mountains are brought
into cultivation ; and are cut into terraces which resemble at a distance immense py-
ramids ascending by numerous steps or storeys. The waters which flow at the foot
of the mountain are raised from terrace to terrace till they reach the very top by
means of a portable chain-pump which may be worked by two men. Reservoirs are
also formed on the tops of the mountains, from which the rain-water that is collected
is let down for the irrigation of the sides. The houses of the peassintry are dispersed
throughout the country, and not collected in villages. The women rear silk- worms ;
spin cotton, and weave it into cloth, which is in general use among the common
people for both sexes; they also manufacture woollen stufl^s. The Chinese use no
butter nor cheese, and very little milk ; their principal animal food is pork ; they
have few horses for travelling, show, or war ; the only cattle which they keep arc
such as are required in husbandry ; even sheep are very rarely to be seen, except in
mountainous districts where the plough cannot be used with advantage. Hence there
are no grazing farms, no meadows, and very little pasture, while every acre of
ground capable of cultivation is turned up by the spade or the plough, and converted
into a rice or a corn field. Wheel carriages are rare, particularly in the south, where
the roads are few and narrow, and consist generally of raised patiiways through the
rice fields, or of winding lanes over the mountains. The gardens are very few ; a
Chinese grandee delights more in artificial landscapes, laid out in a small compass,
than in an extensive park, or a flower garden. Utility is every where studied in pre-
ference to pleasure.
Public Works The Great Wall begins with a large bulwark and fort on the
shore of the Yellow Sea, from which it extends westward, along the borders of Pe-
che-lee, Shan-si, and Shen-si, through a space of 1500 miles, and ends amidst nearly
impassable rocks and extensive deserts. It consists of an embankment of earth,
raised upon a foundation of large square stones, and cased with stones or bricks; it
is generally broad enough at top for six horsemen to [)ass abreast. Its height varies
according to its situation; in the valleys and plains it is not less than 30 feet ; and
in such places it is strengthened by projecting square towers, at the distance of a
bow-shot from each other. There are gates at intervals, which are strongly fortified
and garrisoned. This great work appears to have been completed in the third cen-
tury, and was intended as a defence against the Tartars, but a great part of it is now
falling to ruins. The Yun-ho, Yu-ho, or Great Canal, commences near Lin-chin, in
766 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [China.
Shan-tung, extends across Shan-tung, and Kiang-nan, and ends at Hang-chou-fou in
Che-kiaiig, after a course of 700 miles. In-some places it is raised above the level of
the country, where strong dikes prevent its waters from overflowing; in other
places it has been dug to the depth of HO or 70 feet below the surface; and through-
out it has a width of 200 feet. There are no locks, but only floodgates, and in
hilly tracts inclined planes interrupt and regulate the current of its waters. In every
part of its course it passes through alluvial soil, which is intersected by numerous
streams ; the sluices are of the rudest construction. It is neither carried through any
mountain nor over any valley ; it is nevertheless a work of high national utility, and
forms the great channel of communication between the northern and the southern
provinces. By means of the Pei-ho and Eu-ho rivers in Pe-che-lee, the Canal, the
Yang-tse-kiang, the Poyang-hou, and the Kan-kiang in Kiang-si, and the Pe-kiang
in Quang-tong, there is a navigable communication between Peking and Canton, inter-
rupted only in one place by the high mountains which separate Quang-si and Quang-
tong from Kiang-si. Across the mountains the communication is formed by the pass
of Meilan, cut through the top of the ridge, a work esteemed so ditficult that the
Mandarin who accomplished it, was honoured with a statue in one of the neigh-
bouring temples. The Chinese are obliged, by the circumstances of their country,
to pay great attention to the draining and irrigating of their lands. Especial care
has therefore been taken to prevent inundations ; and the labour and expense be-
stowed on this department is scarcely equalled in any other country. Some of
their embankments are strong and well constructed ; their bridges over rapid streams
and broad estuaries, are constructed of solid granite, and bear testimony to the skill
and perseverance of their engineers.
Commerce The internal commerce of China is much more important than the
foreign ; it is carried on by means of the rivers and canals, and consists principally in
the interchange of the natural and artificial productions of the ditferent provinces.
The country is so extensive, and embraces such a variety in its products, that the
inland traffic is sufficient to occupy a very numerous portion of the people ; and this
circumstance has contributed to make the Chinese neglect their maritime commerce,
which once extended so far as the Red Sea. Their merchants, however, still visit the
principal ports of the Eastern Seas. Their foreign commerce may be distinguished
into the maritime and the inland. The former is the more considerable, and its prin-
cipal mart was Canton, where it was carried on by the maritime nations of Europe and
America. Their intercourse, however, was restricted by the Chinese government
to certain merchants, whom the French called Hanistes, and the English, Hong,
through whose intervention all commercial operations were managed. But, by treatv
between the Chinese and the British governments in 1842, five ports, namely Can-
ton, Amoy, Fow-chow-foo, Ning-po, and Shang-hae, have been opened to European
trade, and merchants are to be allowed to live there with their fauiilies, a privilege for-
merly denied to them at Canton. The Hong merchants are no longer to be allowed
to monopolize the trade ; but both foreigners and natives are to be allowed to trade
with whom they please. All kind of intercourse is to be permitted without ofTi-
cial interference ; and fixed duties are to be established at all the five ports. The
British part of this commerce was long monopolized by the English East- India Com-
pany ; but since the abolition of their monopoly in the year 1833, the export ot tea
has increased immensely. The maritime trading towns next in importance are Hang-
chevv-foo, Hiamun or Amoy, Chao-ching, and Ning-po. The Spaniards of Manilla
have the exclusive right of trading at Hang-chew-foo, in Fokien ; Shanghai, in
Kiang-nan, is the emporium of the trade with Japan. The land foreign commerce
is carried on at five principal stations on the frontiers of Siberia; at Yarkhand and
Aksou on the frontiers of Turkestan ; at Leh and other places in Thibet ; at Young-
chang-fou on the frontiers of Birmah ; and at Kuei-lin-fou on the frontiers of An-
nam. The principal articles of export, besides tea, are Nanking cloth, porcelain, rhu-
barb, squine, musk, ginger, badiane, mercury, zinc, borax, silk, shawls, mother-of
pearl, tortoise-shell, and other articles mentioned in the preceding section. The
principal imports are, cloths and other woollen stutfs, furs from Siberia and North
America, gold and silver wire, purl, and mats, glass and mirrors from Bohemia, lead,
coral, cochineal, Prussian blue, cobalt, champagne wine, clocks and watches, ebony,
gunpowder, sandalwood, calambac, ivory, tin, copper, birds' nests, incense, mother-
of-pearl, camphor, tobacco, opium, and various other articles. The opium trade is
contraband; but forms nevertheless the most valuable article of import. This drug
is smoked by all classes to an enormous extent. In 1836 so many as 26,018 chests
were imported into the country, valued at 17,106,903 dollars. The value of edible
China.]
ASIA.
767
birds' nests imported from the Indian Islands has been estimated to exceed £300,000
sterling annually.
Divisions. — China is divided into eighteen provinces, vrhich are subdivided into
foo, chew, and heen ; and it is a remarkable fact, that the Cbinese cities have no pro-
per names, but are all distinguished by the names of the foo, chew, or heen of
which they are the capitals. Canton, for instance, is named Quang-chou-foo, i. e. the
capital of Quang-tong ; Nan-king is named Kiang-nan-foo, i. e. the capital of Kiang-
nan ; the capital of the empire itself, the residence of the Imperial Court, has no
other name than King-szu, i. e. the capital, or Chun-thian-foo, the capital of Chun-
thian. In consequence of there having been in China, occasionally, several simul-
taneous kingdoms, or, from the circumstance of the Court having several times
changed its residence, the different capitals have received names indicative of their
position : Pe-king, the north court ; Nan-king, the south court ; Tung-king, the east
court.
Table of the Extent and Population of the Provinces of China, with the
Principal Towns.
Promncet.
Area in
tq. milet
Population.
Relative
Popula-
tion.
Towns.
Pe-che-lee,
58,949
65 104
55,268
92,961
39 150
27,990,874
28,958,765
14,004,210
( 37,84f,501
(.34,168,059
91; osii laA
474
445
253
}774
671
422
354
} 318
276
242
93
51
87
PE-KiNO.Tong chew-foo, Tien-sing-foo.
Tsi-iian-foo, Tong-chew-foo, Uong-chew-foo.
Tai-yuen-foo.
Kiang-nan-foo (Nan-king), Soo-chew-foo.
Gan-khing.
Hang-che»-foo, Ning-po-foo.
Nan-chang-foo, King-te-ching.
Honaii-foo.
Wou-chang-foo.
Chang-eha-foo.
Foo-chew-foo, Amoy, Chin-chew.
Q.uang-che\v-foo (.Canton), Macao.
Knei-lin-foo.
Vun-nan-foo.
Shan-si
Kian«.„a„.]^-«-;]
72,176| W.m]9i)9
65,104 23,037,171
144 77oU"'3^*^'"^*
'**'^'"| [18,652,507
53,480i 14,777,410
79,456 19,174,030
76,25« 7,313,895
107.969 5,561,320
60,554 5,288,219
16C,»00| 21,435,678
Hou-,ua„g,{||-Pf. }
Fokien
Setchuen
128 Ching-too*-foo. 1
Kan-suh, /
154.008 ^ ,5;iy3;,.^5 j \ 165 iLaA-^chew-foo. |
ToUl
1,297,999 367,659,901 1 283 IPekimo. i
These names are spelled in various other ways: it is always difficult, and sometimes impossible to
exi resu oriental names by Roman letters, and therefore each European nation spells them differently
§ Cities, Towns, and Remarkable Places.
Pe-k1!»g (North-Court), the capital of the empire, in the province of Pe-che-lee, about 26 miles
only from the great wall, in lat. 39^ 42' 15" N. long., WP 30' E., stands in a sandy plain, destitute of
vegetation, and bounded on the west by a chain of high hills from which iss-uc several streams that
water the country. It is about 20 miles in circumference, is surrounded with high castellated walls of
blue- brick, outside of which there is a wet ditch. It is composed of two cities which are quite distinct ;
the one called King-tshing (Imperial town), called also the Tartar city, because it was buiit by the
Tartars or Mongols during their possession of Chii a in the 13th century, and is now inhabited prin-
clpttlly by the Mandchews ; the other named Lao-tshing (old town), or Wai-lo-tshing. called also the
Cfiinese town, because it is principally inhabited by Chinese. Some of the gates are lofty and strung,
and surmounted with lofty towers, which give them, at a distance, the appearance of grandeur. The
streets are generally broad, and in straight lines ; the largest is 60 yards wide, and m arly 3 miles in
length, from east to west. They are unpaved, but clean and well kept. The houses are low, often one
storey, and are built of brick, and tiled. Ihe shops are handsomely ornamented, and the brilliancy
and variety of the goods exposed for sale give them a gay appearance. The finest buildings are the
temples, which are spacious and magnificent, adorned w ith columns, and stairs of white maj ble. The
streets and houses of the Chinese town are very inferior in appearance to those of the Tartar city.
There are, besides, 12 large suburbs, without the walls, each e.xtending about two miles in length.
The population of Peking is varii.u?-ly estimated at between 600,000 and 3,0(10,000; the city probably
contains about 2,000,000. The Tartar city is composed of three towns within each other, each sur-
rounded with its own wall. The innermost is the Tsu-kiii-ching, or Imperial i alace, about two miles
in circumference, of a square form, surrounded with strong walls, 30 feet high, built of brick, and
covered with yellow tiles. It is composed of numerous buildings, containing halls, temples, &c.. and
the Imperial garden. The second enclosure, called Whan^-ching, contains numerous largf gardens,
with artificial lakes, and hills, ti mples, atid halls, and is principally inhabited by people in the service
of the court. Peking is distmguished from the other capitals and great cities of Asia by a number
of public institutions, resembling those of Europe, notwithstanding the great difl'erence> interposed
by Chinese habits, manners, and customs. It receives its supplies from the southern provinces, by
means of the great canal and the rivers of Pe-che-lee, which form the channels of a very active com.
merce.
In the neighbourhood of the city is the imperial summer palace, called Yuen-min-t/uen, the round
and shining garden. The palace Is very large, being composed of a great number of buildings, disposed
with beautiful symmetry, and separated by courts, gardens, and parterres. The face of each glitteri
with gold, varnish, and |,aliiling, and the emperor's apartments are adorned with the most valuable
t)roductlons of China, Japan, and the Indies, and even with masterpieces of several Euro] can arts.
The gardens contain about 60,000 acres, diversified with artificial liillg, lakes, canals, vallies, rocks,
76Q DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. fCmsA.
and islands ; which are occupied by arbours, forests, pavilions, and everything most agreeable to the
tight. A hundred and twenty miles to the N.E. of Peking, and beyond the great wall, is Zehol, a
hunting-seat of the emperor, where Kien-long received the British embassy in 1793.
Nan-kino or Kiang-nan-foo, stands on a branch of the Yang-tse-kiang, in the province of Kiang-
nan, 570 miles S. by E. of Peking. The area enclosed by the walls is much larger than that of Peking,
but the greater part of it is now destitute of even the traces of buildings, and the city occupies only
a corner of the enclosure. Reduced, however, as it is, it still continues to be one of the principal manu-
facturing towns of the empire. Its silks, paper, and cotton cloths, are preferred to those made any
where else ; and even in Europe the cottons were once highly esteemed, and have given their name
to a species of imitation cloth called nankeeri. Learning also continues to flourish, the booksellers'
shops are amply furnished, and more physicians are sent from Nanking than from any other city of
the empire. Its principal or most celebrated building is a pagoda, or octagonal tower of 9 storeys,
ascended by 884 steps. The material is a tine white tile, which, being painted in various colours, has
the appearance of porcelain; and all the parts are so neatly joined as to appear to form only one
piece. The galleries are tilled with images, and set round with bells, which tinkle with the wind ;
and on the top is a large pine-apple-shaped ornament, consisting, as the Chinese say, of solid gold.
About 40 miles E. by N. of Nanking, in the bed of the Yang-tse-kiang, is Kiii-s/utn or Chin-shan
(Golden island), which rises almost perpendicularly from the river, and is covered with gardens and
pleasure houses. " Art and nature," says Sir G. Staunton, " seem to liave combined to give to this
spot the appearance of enchantment." It belongs to the emperor, who has built upon it a large and
handsome palace, and on the highest point are several temples and pagodas. It also contains a large
monastery of priests, who are its principal inhabitants. In this part of the great river, which is here
two mileswido, are numerous islands skirted with shrubbery, and rocks which rise abruptly from the
water; the waves roll like those of the ocean, and porpoises are said to be sometimes seen rolling
among them. Chin-shan stands nearly in the middle of the stream.
Sou-chew-foo, a very large city, and one of the most tiourishing commercial places in the empire,
stands on the east bank of the great canal, 104 miles E.S.E.of Nanking, in the province of Kiang-si;
and is extolled as a terrestrial paradise. It is traversed by numerous canals, which render it, like
Venice, a city on the waters ; it contains a multitude of magnificent bridges, temples, and trium-
phal arches, and it is here that all the classes of people, whose business it is to minister to pleasure,
lawful or unlawful, are trained to their respective callings. A few miles west of the city, the Tai-hou
(Great lake), nearly 100 miles in circumference, and bordered by picturesque hills, which are cul-
tivated to their very tops, is a place of great resort and recreation to the citizens, who take their
pleasure in numerous boats, rowed chiefly by women. Ching-kiang-foo, in the same province, on the
south bank of the Yang-tse-kiang, at the place where it is crossed by the canal, is one of the maritime
keys of the empire, and is defended by a very strong garrison. Shang-hai, Seang-hae, or Shan^-hae-
he'en, GO miles E. by S. of Sou-chew-fou, has a tine harbour at the mouth of the Woosung river. The
entrance, however, leads over an extensive bar, so that only ships drawing not more than 14 feet water
can reach the city, which is in lat. 31° 9' N., long. 121° 4' E. This is, perhaps, the largest emporium
of the empire, and carries on an extensive trade, equal in amount, at least, if not superior, to that of
Canton.
Hang-chew-foo, the capital of Che-kiang, is the emporium of trade between the northern and the
southern provinces. It is the famous Kinsai of Marco Polo, the capital in his time of southern
China ; and is 90 miles to the S. of Sou-chew-foo. The whole intervening space is a rich and beau-
tiful country, containing in many places extensive forests of mulberry trees, which afford abundant
food for the silkworms. Hang-chew-foo is situate between the basin of the great canal which ends
here, and the river Chen-tang-chaung, which falls into the sea, at the distance of 60 miles east. The
tide when full increases the width of the river to about four miles opposite the city ; and renders it
the channel by which great quantities of merchandise are received and exported to and from the
southern provinces. But there is no water communication between the river and the canal, so that
all goods arriving either way must be landed at the city. The population is very large. Ning-po-foo,
in lat. 29° 33 12" N., long. 121° 17' E., is a very beautiful town, with an extensive trade in raw silks,
silk piece-goods, and green teas. It stands upon a creek, and, till the middle of last century, contained
an English factory. Large vessels can proceed only so far as Chin-hae, at the entrance of the river,
but ships of 3(K) tons may anchor before the city, which is about 12 or 15 miles from the sea. Sikpo
(Ship-po), south of Ning-po, has an excellent land-locked harbour ; and Cha-po (Cha-poo), about 70
miles N., is the Chinese emporium for Japan.
In the province of Fokien are : Hok-chew or Foti-chew-foo, tlie capital, 10 miles from the mouth of
the river Si-ho or Min-kiang, which is broad and navigable up to the city. The entrance of the river
i% in lat. 26° 6' N., long. 119° 55' E., and is rather intricate. Numerous villages and hamlets occupy
beautiful situations on its banks ; while fertile fields, producing wheat, naked rocks, cascades, islands,
and plains of sand give a diversified aspect to the scene. The city is one of the largest and most
populous in China, and is distinguished for its commerce and the industry of its inhabitants, as well
as for the number of literati who make it their residence. It is also remarkable for a great stone
bridge, a rude but substantial structure, built quite across the broad river, dmuy or Emoei ( Hea-
munj, in lat. 24° 27' 26'' N., long. 118° 10' 30'' E., is situate on an island, with an excellent harbour
which admits ships of the greatest burden. It carries on a very extensive trade with the Indian
Archipelago, Formosa, and all the maritime provinces of China. The city is very e.xttnsive, and
contains at least 200,000 inhabitants. Vessels can sail up close to the houses, load and unload with
the greatest facility, liave shelter from all winds, and in entering or leaving the port are in no danger
of getting on shore. Chin-chew (Tseuen-choo), 50 miles N.E. of Amoy, a seaport town on a small
river, with a bay obstructed by shoals and banks, so that only small brigs can proceed to the city
Canton or Quang-chou-foo, called also by the natives Sung-ching, is situate in lat. 23° 7' 10'' N.,
long. 113° 14' 30'' E., on the Choo or Si-kiang (.Pearl river), 100 miles from the sea, and surrounded by
canals, branches of rivers, rice fields, and towering barren hills. It is a very ancient city, and
was recently the sole emporium of the European and American commerce with China. The city
is of a square form, surrounded with walls built of stone and brick, with a line of battlements and
embrasures, and pierced with sixteen gates. It is divided by a wall into two parts, called the old city
and the new city, the whole circumference of which can be walked round at a quick pace within two
hours; but the suburbs are fully as large as the city itself. The European factories are outside the
walls on the banks of the river, and are thirteen in number. They are, without doubt, says Gutslaff,
the most elegant buildings in the empire, though a European might find fault with them, and view
the factory comforts with contempt. There are about GOO streets in Canton, most of which are nar-
row and crooked, and none at all to be compared with the old and new China streets near the facto-
ries. Few of the houses are splendid ; the dwellings of the poor are exceedingly crowded ; and, even
in the houses of the wealthy, if we except those of a few Hong merchants, there is no real comfort.
The governor's palace, a very spacious building, stands near the Yew-Ian gate. The other public
buildings and the temples are very numerous. The population has been variously estimated between
75,000 and 1,500,000. Many thousands of the people live continually on the water, in a sort of floating
houses ranged in lines like streets. The foreign trade was transacted by means of a certain number of
merchants called Uong ; and the imperial officers, to whom communications were made through the
China.] ASIA. 769
Hong, were the Tsung-fuli, povernor of tlie two Quang provinces, who gehcralty resides at Canton,
though his proper official seat is at Shaou-liisig-fuo, about 100 miles to the westward ; the Foo-yuen,
or Limtenant-governor ; the Hae-kwan-keen-tuh or Uoppo, tlie collector of the customs, who has
the entire direction of foreign trade. All matters, however, of importance are communicated to the
Tsung-tuh, who reports to the Emperor what is worthy of his attention. The European and Ame-
rican ships used to anchor at Whumpon, a small and wretched village on an island about 14 miles
down the river. Each ship on its arrival engaged a Ilong merchant, wI:o became surety for the good
behaviour of the crew, and for the payment of the duties ; and with him the greater part of the busi-
ness was transacted The custom-house officers are very numerous. All of them live by extortion, and
are, without e.xception, venal. Macao, in Chinese Aou-mun, "the entrance to the bay," a Portuguese
town, is !!ituate on a small peninsula, nine miles in circumference, at the southern extremity of a
large island (Heang-shan) formed by two branches of the river of Canton. It is a handsome well-
built city ; and the population is estimated at between 12,000 and 30,000. The Chinese government in-
terdicts all communication between Macao and the neighbouring country, and a wall is built across the
isthmus, and closely guarded, which no European is allowed to pass. The peninsula is rocky; the
cliffs are of various picturesque forms, presenting fine views of both sea and land. A garden and a
cave are still pointed out as the haunt of Camoens, the author of the Lusiad. The foreign merchants
used to leave their families here, while they proceeded to Canton for the purposes of trade Macao is
near the sea, just within the entrance of the great western channel of the river or gulf of Canton. It
had an excellent harbour, but the depth of the entrance has decreased to two fathoms, and largi ships
are therefore obliged to lie in the roads, which are much exposed. The Bocca- Tigris, or proper
mouth of the river, lies to the north of JIacao road, about 50 miles bv the navigable channel of the
gulf.
Xan-tckang-foo, the capital of Kiang-si, upon the Kan-kiang, a very large town, is the centre of the
porcelain manufactures. It has also a great trade in silks and lurs ; and produces an immense number
of idols. King-te-tshin, on the Po, a large town to the east of the Poyang lake, is the largest porcelain
manufactory in the world. It contains not fewer than 500 furnaces, and is said by the missionaries
to have 1,000,000 of inhabitants. Its site is marked by the clouds of smoke by day, and pillars of fire
by night, which give it the appearance at a distance of a great city on fire. No foreigner has ever
been admitted within its precincts, lest he should make known the secrets of the processes there
carried on. China contains many other large cities and towns, but these, however important to their
natives and the imperial government, h.ive never acquired a European fame, nor been visited by any
other Europeans than a few Catholic missionaries. The kingdom is said to contain altogether 1572
towns, 2790 temples, 3158 bridges, 10,809 public buildings, 7C5 lakes, and 14,607 mountains; all spe-
cially enumerated and described by Chinese writers. Large and flourishing cities are found only
where there is ready water communication with other places. The greatest sameness exists in all
the towns. In the larger towns are a few well-paved streets, lined with shops ; but most of the streets
are very narrow, extremely dirty, and lined with mere hovels. The suburbs of many cities are much
larger tlian the cities themselves, and it ia not unusual to see a large walled space Without houses,
where there was formerly a city. Villages and hamlets have often a fine appearance at a distance ;
but internally they are only a mass of houses irregularly clustered together, without furniture or
comforts, and filthy in the extreme. The grandeur of the natural scenery is often as striking as in
many parts of the world. Commanding situations are chosen for temples, which serve likewise for
taverns, stages, public halls, and gambling-houses. The building of houses is regulated by law, and
none is allowed to exceed a certain size. Tlie public buildings have little to recommend them. —
( BalOi't Ahreise, p. 771 ; Sir G. Stnuntun's Account of Macartney's Embassy ; Ellis's Account of Lord
Amherst's Embassy; Gutzlaff's I'oyajes, Ckinii Opened, and History of China ; Medhurst's China ;
Downinif's Fanqui in China; Davis' s_China and the Chinese; lieo. Howard Matcom's Travels; Voyage
of the Amherst ; &c. &c. &c.;
§ Subject territories beyond China Proper.
I. The western part of the province of Kan-suh, comprising iJarAo^ and Ouroumtsi, with the coimtry
between these places and the ancient western limits of Shen-si.
II. Thian-shan-pc-luu, or the country to the north, and Thian-shan-nan-lou, the country to the
south of the Celestial mountains, form together what the Chinese call Tsin-kiang, or the \ewJro7iiier.
They are both dependent on the military governor-general who resides at Hi or Ele, and have been,
since 1700, a regular province of the empire. Thian-slian-pe-lou comprises, 1. Soungaria or Zun-
garia, subdivided into three military divisions, which bear the names of their chief towns. Hi or
Uuuija, Kour-lcara-'jusiou, and Tarbagntni. 2. The country of the Kirghiz, which comprises a part
of the territory of ihe Kirghiz of the tireat Horde, who dwell around lake BalUashi, and a part of the
coun;ry of the Iluriit, in the neighbourhood of Lake Zaisang. 3. The Torgut country, which com-
prises ilie teriitory along the upp.T Hi, assigned by lh_- Emperor of China to the remains of the Tor-
gots or Torguths, who, in 1770, migrated from the banks of the Volga to place themselves under his
protection. Thian-.Oian-nan-lou or Liltle Hukharia, formerly divided into eight principalities, tribu-
tary to the empire, is now divided into ten districts which are entirely subject, and bear the names of
their chief towns, namely, Khamil or Uami, I'ijan, Karashar, Koutshe, Sairam, Aksuti, Uushi, Kash-
gar or kashlmr or Cashf-ar, Yarlihand, and Khuten or Khotan. Aksou may be regarded as the capital
of the country, as it is the residence of the coinniander-in-chief of all the troops in this division of
the emp.re. It was in this province, and particularly in Cashgar and Yarkhand, that a few years ago
the Turkish princes revolted, and carried on a desultory warlare against the Chinese.
III. The country of the Mongols »/ Iloho-nor or Khukho-noor, divided, according to Klaproth, into
30 banners. This race inhabit the very high mountainotis country around the lake Iloho-nor, and are,
properly speaking, Kalmucks. This region contains the sources of the Whang-ho, and its southern
slope sends forth the Kin-cha-kiang, one of the principal branches of the Yang-tse-kiang, the Sa-
luen. ani the -May-kuaiig or river of Cambodia, three of the largest rivers of Asia.
1\'. Thibet or Si-zzang, subdivided into, 1. Uui, which contains ITlassa (Lassa), Botala, and Jiga-
gounggar. 2. Zzang, which contains Jikadze, a town of 30,000 inhabitant?, according to Klaproth ;
Jashiluumlio (Teeshoo-loniboo.) th.! residence of the IJantshan-lama ; Gliinndxe ; fhari, a small for-
tres' not far trim Mount Chumulari; Chakakote, a commercial town of 1000 houses near Dhwahigiri;
JShiiUU OT I'altee. 3. A.''A«f;i, which comprises lintkang, Tsiauido, Sonimang ov Sourmari, Suuk. It
apiiears that the eastern part of tliis jirovince has been united to the Chitiese province of Seteliuen.
4. Sfiari, which comprises several unall states tributary to the Dalai-lama. Their chief towns are
Choitinurlr, Bouranu-dakla, Debit, the capital of the Lndes or Vrnadesa. and the residence of a lama ;
Toting, the re.sidiiiee of a grand lama ; Ladakh or Leh, the capital of Little Thibet ; Utirluu or Our-
tope, a Chine.-e military post. The eastern part of this province is occupied by Mongol tribes named
Khor or Charai-gol ; and Lidakh is an independent kingdom or principality.
V. The cirUTitry oj the Dib-Iiaja or Bhotan and Uisni, both already described as being within the
natural limits of India. They are dependent upon, but are not properly subject to China.
VI. Mantchouria, or the country of the Mandchews, divided into three depariuienta or sliirwn ;
3 ('
770 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Chika.
1. Ching-king, which comprises Ching-yaiig or Jloukden, Foung-tliian, tho arch jielago of Leao-tong
or of John Potocki ; 2. Xirin, which comprises Kirin, Hedoune, Ningouta, TonJon, a place of exile
for Chinese criminals; 3. Sa^halien-oula, comprising Sa);halien-oula-hotun, Tsitsiliar, Kailar, and
the northern part of the island of Tarrakai or Tshoka or Seghalien.
VII. Monfiolia, in which we must distinguish: — !. The Country (\f the Mongols, subdivided into
Korttin, where are found the ruins of the towns Almalou and Sibi5 ; Tourhet ; Jalait. where are found
Cholkoto ; Oarlos, containing the ruined towns of I.oungngan, 'jlo-khoto, and Jiar-khoto ; Arou-
Kortsin ; Tonmet, containing the ruined town of Kai-a-khoto ; Karatsin, containing the ruins of
several ancient cities, and the Buddhist temple of Kou-youan-miiig-szu ; Aokhan ; Saiman ; Ouniriii-
otit, with the ruins of Jao-tsheou ; Khalka (left «ing l ; Jnruut, wliere there is a celebrated temple of
Buddha- Sakyamouni ; Ahakhai ; Abakhanar ; Khaotsit, where we find Barin khoto and the tombs of
the Khitan emperors ; Kesikten; Sotiitioiit ; Donobon- Koehoehn ; Khalka (right wing); Tmimet of
Koukou-Khoto (in Chinese, Kwei-wha-Ching), the residence of an incarnate god ; Ourot, where we
muiit place the ancient country of Tenduc or Thian-te, mentioned by Marco Polo, and containing
several celebrated temples; Ordos; Chakhar orthe Frontier Mongols, in the neighl)Ourhood of Shan-si ;
the Districts of the eight pasturages belonging to theChinese Government, wliere was situate the town
of Chao-naircan-soume, formerly called Kai-phing', wliich, according to Klaprotli, istlie Clemenfou
of Slarco Polo, the summer residence of the Mongol khans of the dynasty of Yuan. 2. '1 he Country
(if the Khalka, which comprises the ancient country of the Khalka, a part of the desert of Gobi, the
country of tlie Ourianghai and a portion of tliat of tlie EUuths or Oclvt. Its principal towns are:
Ourga or Kuren, Mai-tma-tshin. Oulia-smitai, the residence of a Mandchew general, commander-in-
chiet of the troops in this province. Several hordes of Kalmucks wander in this elevated region. In
Ourianghai live the Soyotes, who sometimes induljie in cannibalism. According to Klaprotli, it is in
this part of the empire tliat we must place Karakliorin or Karakorum or Caracorum, the ordinary resi-
dence of the first successors of Zenghis Khan, and consequently the capital of the largest empire that
ever existed. It was there that Kublai and Argoun received the ambassadors of all the princes of Asia,
and of several from Europe and America.
VIII. The Kingdom of Corea.
These eight provinces comprise an immense extent of country of very diversified surface, and
possessing different climites and natural productions.
Mongolia is an elevated valley or table-land inclosed between the Altai mountains and those of
Thibet, and intersected by chains of lofty granite mountains, the summits of which are in many parts
clothed with a variety of trees. Numerous rivers, abounding in fish, flow at the foot of these ridges,
and pasturages ant cultivated fields interrupt, at intervals, the monotony of the sandy and stony soil
of which the greater part of the country consists. The desert of Gobi is intersected from east to
■west by mountains less elevated than those to the north. Notwithstanding the scarcity of water and
pasture it is almost everywhere covered with flocks of sheep and goats, herds of large camels, vigo-
rous thougli small horses, and oxen, undisturbed by insects or reptiles. The yellow sand, which
forms the surface of the desert, is generally not loose and moveable; and water is found in wells
from seven to ten feet in depth. To the northward, however, of Hoho-nor it assumes a most terrific
appearance, being there covered with semi-transparent shingles, which reflect the sun's ravs and ren-
der the summer heat so intense that not even a blade of grass can grow among them. The arid soil
ends at the southern limit of tlie Gobi. The country of the Tsakliars, of the Ordos, and of several
Mongolian liordes, who live to the south of the steppe, is adapted for tillage, and sufficiently well
watered. Nearer to the great wall of China, the districts of the Eastern Mongols form afenile coun-
try. The climate is very difl'erent from tliat of the countries of Europe situate in the same latitude
(between 40° and .')0° N). The great elevation of the country, and an abundance of natron are probably
the most active causes in producing the greater degree of cold which is experienced in Mongolia.
In October and November 1820, the Russian embassy found Reaumur's thermometer to varj- between
10° and 18° below zero, = between + 9° and — 9- of Fahrenheit ; but cold a^ the climate is in winter,
it is, on the contrary, in summer almost as hot and parching as in Arabia. The pines, fir, birch, ash,
elm, and white poplai', grow on the mountains of Northern Mongolia, and in the same region are
found red currants, wild peaches, and various shrubs. Besides tlie domestic animals already men-
tioned, there are numbers of wild horses, boars, goats, bears, wolves, hares, fo.\es, sables, and squir-
rels ; with cranes, wild geese, ducks, moorfowl, quails, and swans. The Mongols being obliged by
their pastoral habits frequently to change their places of abode, have to content themselves with a
little wheat, millet, and barley, of their own sowing, and to depend for the greater part of their sub-
sistence on the produce of their flocks and herds, and the corn which they receive from China in
exchange for their sheep and other animals. Their improvidence in regard to bread exposes them
sometimes to absolute want in winter, when their flocks likewise suffer from extreme cold, or disease.
They are naturally warlike, and have not lost the remembrance of the victories of their ancestors
oyer the Chinese ; the name of Zenghis Khan is still in high repute among them, and they still point
out his several places of residence. But the long peace which they liave enjoyed since they became
subject to China, in the latter half of the I7th century, has rendered them more strikingly remarkable
for simplicity of character, frankness, kindness, and hospitality, than for traits of a martial spirit.
Yet they still are fond of horse-racing, wrestling, and archery. In religion they are Buddhists, and
have among them a great many /(Tm«j ('spiritual mothers), and no less than ten of that superior order
styled Kutvkhtu. The Mongolians worship one supreme God, but regard the Kutuklitus as his vice-
gerents, who, they believe, know the past, the present, and the future, have the power to remit sins,
and do not die, their soul only migr-^ting to another body. The Dalai-lama of Thibet is the superior
of the Kutukhtus, and the supreme head of the religion, and used to point out the child into whose
body the soul of the deceased Kutukhtu liad migrated ; but that privilege is now reserved to tlie
emperor himself. The lainaic religion contributes to soften their manners ; crimes are seldom com-
mitted ; and, when they do occur, are always severely punished. Tliough they have neither artists
nor manufacturers, and depend on China for their supply of manufactured goods, they dress them-
selves carefully and expensively ; and tlieir tents usually contain a variety of furniture and conve-
niences, besides altars and idols. They live principally on milk, butter, and cheese, and only in case
of great necessity eat the flesh of the camel or horse. They drink koumiss, a fermented liquor made
from mare's milk. They beguile their idle hours with songs, which are very flattering to their ancestors,
and betray a secret dislike to their Mandcliew rulers. Polygamy prevails among them, and divorces
are frequent. Their trade is almost entirely with China, with which country they exchange sheep,
cattle, and silver bars for manufactured goods and tea. The country is divided into several princi-
palities, which are independent of each other, but all recognise the supremacy of China ; and though
the (;hinese politicians trust to this division of power for the maintenance of their authority, yet, for
greater security, they have placed Mongolia under military rule. All the hordes are divided into
bands, regiments, and squadrons ; the officers of which are invested with both military and civil
powers ; and over them inspectors are appointed by the emperor. Every three years the chiefs of the
principalities hold a general diet. The dignity of prince is hereditary in the eldest son alone, the
younger sons falling into the class of poor nobility. Each prince pays the emperor a tribute of cattle,
as an acknowledgment of his supremacy, but receives in return presents of much greater value ; and
not seldom an imperial princess for a wife. The supreme administration of Mongolia is rested in
China.] ASIA. 77i
the board or tribun*! of foreign affairs at Peking.— f Travelt cf the Jlussiaii Hitsion through Mongolia
to China, §c., in 1820-1, bt/ George Timkoushi. London, 1827.^ The Khalkas, or black Xlongols, are
described by Gerbillon as being, next to the Hottentots, the dirtiest and ugliest race he ever saw.
They possess the north-eastern deserts to the south and south-east of the Baikal. The Kalmucks,
who possess the western part of Mongolia, Thian-shan-pe-lou or Soongaria, and the western part of
Kan-suh, do not differ materially from th« Mongols. They call themselves lierben Oeroft — the four
brothers, or allies; and are divided into four nations, called Choshutes or Eleuths (called Si/am by the
Chinese;, who live in the vicinity of lake Hoho-nor; Soongarts, who give their name ( Soongaria) to
the country they inhabit ; the Torgotet or Torguths, already mentioned; and the Derbetes, some of
whom have joined the Torgotes, and others have attached themselves to tlie Soongarians. The Kal-
mucks live in tents or cabins of hurdles, and are quite nomadic in their habits. Tlie few towns in
their country are inhabited principally by Bukharians and Chinese. 1 hey have three distinct classes
of society ; the nobility, or " white bones ;" the common people, or " black bones," who are slaves ;
and the lamas or clergy, who are sprung from both, and are freemen. The internal concerns of the
tribes are managed independently by their princes, who sometimes used to combine for common
objects, and elected a contaysha, or king, to direct the general concerns. In religion they are fol-
lowers of the Dalai-lama, and are in complete subjection to the dominion of their priests, to whom
they commit the direction of all their affairs ; and nothing is done without consulting a gylong (or
gellong) who pretends to interrogate the gods by sorcery. The priests live in luxury ; they are
enjoined to cff.ibacy, but the purity of tlieir life is somewhat questionable. Goitlja, the chief place in
Soongaria, is a large town of 10,000 houses ; it stands on the river Hi, and is the entrepot of the com-
merce of central Asia with its western and eastern regions. Ourga or Kusen, south of Lake Baikal,
contains 70,000 inhabitants.
LiTTLK Bckharia, or Thias-shan-nas-loc, forms a wide plain, extending eastward from the
Belur-tagh, and is watered by numerous streams, which find their way to the Loknor (lake of Lop),
or are lost in the desert. Cas/igar is the most westerly portion, and appears to be flourishing under
Chinese sway; the fields, being carefully cultivated, produce large crops of grain, and the fruits are
of peculiar e.vellence. Its chief town, which bears the same name, was once the capital of a kingdom ;
and is still a large and flourishing city, with nearly 50,000 inhabitants. Yarkhand or lerkhand, not far
to the south-ea^t, is a soinewliat larger city ; and stands in a fertile plain, rich in fruit and grain,
bordered by hills on all sides except the east, in which direction its river flows. Its climate is dry
and agreeable ; snow seldom falls, and even rain is rare. Eela, another city, whose situation seems
not exactly known, is said to have '.ifiCiO inhabitants. Khottn, once the capital of an independent
kingdom, of considerable extent and power, lies south-east of YarUhand, but very little is known of
the country. The inhabitants are Mahometan Turks, who are allowed to conduct their own govern-
ment, while the Chinese collect the revenues and guard thefiontiers. People entering the country for
the purposes of trade, from Bokhara and Thibet, are not allowed to proceed farther than Yarkhand;
and, as they enter the Chinese dominions, are placed under the charge of certain persons ^\ho are
responsible for their behaviour. '1 he frontier is guarded by a chain of military posts, at which every
package brought by the caravans is carefully examined; and permission is then given to proceed to
Cashgar and Yarkhand, wliere duties of no very oppressive amount are exacted. So thoroughly or-
ganized is tills system of police, that it is said to be impossible to elude its vigilance. A native who
was suspected in these countries, and was afterwards in the service of Captain liurnes, remained in
confinement for three months, and was at length dismissed by the road he had come, after a likeness
of him had been taken. Several copies of the picture were dispatched to the frontier towns, with
these instructions: — " If this man enters the country, his head is the emperor's, his property is jours."
•' 1 need not add," says Captain Burnos, " that he has never since sought to extend his acquaintance
In the Chinese province' of Yarkhand." — 'Humes' Travds, II. 233.)
Mantchocria, or the country of the Mandchews, and Corea (V. and YI.) form together one geo-
graphical region, and occupy tlie wide extent of country which lies along the eastern coast of Asia,
between China and Siberia. Their northern border is a part of the Altai range of mountains ;
another range called Seih-hih-tih, forms the coast extending from the mouth of the Amoor to the
southern extremity of Corea, and constitutes the nucleus or skeleton of that peninsula; while a third
range, stretching in a direction from north to south-west, divides Mantchouria from Mongolia; and
between these two cross ranges there appears to be a mountain ridge, or high land at least, which di-
vides the basin of the Amoor and its affluents from the waters thai flow southward to the Yellow Sea.
The greater part of Mantchouria is occupied by the basin of the Amoor and its affluents. This
great river is formed at Baklanova, on the Russian frontier, by the confluence of the Anon or Onun,
called also Chilka, and the ylrgun from the west. It then makes a long circuit through Daouria, and
enters the sea in lat .')3- N., alter receiving from southern Mantchouria the waters of the Honaari-ulu,
and the Csuri or L'mli, with various other streams. Deep and still it presents no impediment to na-
vigation* it has neither rocks nor shallows ; its banks are lined with magnificent forests, and it is
admirably suited as the outlet of the produce of south-eastern Siberia ; but the jealous policy of the
Chinese prevents its being used for purposes of commerce. 1 he northern part of Mantchouria Is the
original seat of the present imperial family, who conquered China in IC40. It appears to be diver-
sified by rugged mountains, covered with tliick forests, and separated by valleys of considerable fer-
tility. Win at is raised only in the most favoured spots ; oats being the general object of cultivation.
The most, valuable product, however, is ginseng, the universal medicine intheestimalion of the Chinese,
who boast that it would render man immortal were it possible for him to be so. It grows upon the
mountain sides. The shores along the ocean are covered with magnificent forests, but are in a state
of nature. Its few inhabitants, named Keyakur ani Feyak, do not even hold any intercourse with
the interior, but li%e entirely independent, subsisting by" fishing ; and, though very poor and uncivi-
lized, they appear to be mild and well disposed. The Mandchews arc somewhat civilized ; they possess
even a spoken and written language essentially diffi rent from that of tlie Chinese, or auy other nation
of central Asia, and have many radical sounds which bear a close aftinity to those of the languages of
Europe. They belong to the Toiigoosc ra<e, and are divided into several tribes, diflering slightly in
the degree of civilization. Thiy are more robust in their figure, but have less expressive countenances
than tlie Chinese, and their women have not their feet cramped and distorted. The Daoiirii/ns or
Duclif-ri, who possessalargeportionof the banks of the Amoor (called from them Daouria), consist of
Mandchews mixed with Mongols. The Mandchews generally appear to be a rude, half-civilized people;
and their coni|uest of China has greatly injured their native country, as the leading families, and
ambitious individuals have naturally fillowe d the court. Thiy have neither temples nor idoLs. but
worship one supreme being, whom they style the emperor of heaven ; yet their religion appears to
have some aftinty with Shamanism. Mantchouria is divided into three provinces: — 1. Chin-king.
Moukden or I.eao-toiig; 2. Kirin ; and, 3. Cliic/iikar or Tsitsiknr. l.ciio-tong lies round a gulf of
the Yellow Sea, and is separated from Corea by considerable ranges of hills, the most celebrated of
which U the Chang-pih-sinig, or long-white mountain. A part of the country produces abundance of
wheat, pea*, andriiubarb, the staple articles of export to China; but the soil is mostly poor, the harvests
frequently fall, and famines are not uncommon. Ilcmp is the plant which best repays the cultivator; it
reaches the height of seven or eight leet, aiid sometimes more. I'otatoes have also been recently intro-
duced from Kussla, and thrive very well, yielding a good produce. The climate is very cold; the sum-
772 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [China.
mers are not ana snort ; but the winters are long and dismal. The cold sets in during October ; when
the rivers are frozen, and continue so till March. The changes from heat to cold are so sudden that
in a few hours the thermometer falls from 40° to 10^, and a line autumnal afternoon is often suc-
ceeded by a dismal winter night ; and yet the vine, the chestnut, and the walnut thrive. The Chinese
greatly outnumber the Mandchews, who are here an indolent, poor, proud, and contemptible race.
The capital of the province is Moukden or Chin-t/ang, in N. lat. 41"^ 56', and 7° 1 1' E. of Peking. The
Chinese emperors have used all their influence, and expended much money in endeavouring to render
Moukden a great and elegant city, but to no purpose ; for, though the inner town contains some build-
ings in the highest style of Chinese magnificence, those in the outer city are mere huts. Kae-choo, near
the capital, is a place of very great trade, situate on a shallow river about 8 miles from the sea; its port
is Shang-hae, a small place near the shore. Km-choo or King-tcheou, is also a large emporium; and
exports great quantities of drugs, pulse, and flour ; and the trade is so brisk that more than a thou-
sand junks can obtain cargoes. It is situate in N. lat. 49° 10', on the N.W. side of the gulf. Kirin
district (Kirin-oula) which extends along the coast from Corca to the Araoor, is a dreary country,
with a very cold climate ; the frost sets in in September, and the winter lasts for seven months.
Kirin-oula-hotun, the capital, in N. lat. 43° 40', is a paltry place, surrounded by a mud-wall ; l)ut as
the tombs of the emperor's ancestors are in the vicinity, it is deemed a sacred spot, and a place of
pilgrimage which the emperors occasionally visit. The only other places worthy of notice are L'lo,
the best built town in the district; Pedne, I'edune, or }letouiie,ir>]eaguesti.Vi'. of Kirin; and Xittguntii
or Kingoota, E. by N. a place of great trade. Chichikar, called also Sighalien-oula, includes the north-
western and northern parts of Slantchouria; the climate and productions are much the same as
those of Kirin. Chichikar or Tsitsikar, the capital, in N. lat. 47° 26', is surrounded with a palisadtj
lined with a rampart ; the inhabitants are mostly Chinese exiles or merchants. Saghcdien-oida-
hotun, on the Amoor, N. lat. 5i)°, is the best inhabited town. The island of Saghalien, called by the
Mandchews Sngha'ien-anga-hotu, and by its natives Choka, extends .590 miles from N. to S. along
the coast of Mantchouria, from which it is separated by the narrow channel of Tartary. Its inhabi •
tants are a very poor people, destitute of horses or oxen ; but they are hospitable, and carry on soma
trade with Japan and Mantchouria. They are tributary to the Mandchews, who call them Oruii-
Chun, Kooyeh, and Feyak.—{ Gutzlaff).
CoRKA extends in length 610 miles, by 250 to 230 at its northern and southern extremities, but, at
the neck of the peninsula, it is only 1 40 broad. It lies between the Yellow Sea on the west, and the Sea
of Japan on the cast. The only known feature of its physical geography is the existence of the high
chain of mountains which stretch through it, at a short distance from the east coast. The general
inclination of the greater portion of the country is towards the Yellow Sea ; the eastern coast is preci-
pitous and rocky; the western is skirted by innumerable islands, which were first discovered during
the voyage of the Alceste and Lyra in 1816. Though in the latitude of Italy, Corea is said to have a
cold climate ; but the soil lis fertile and well cultivated. The mountains of the northern part are
covered with vast forests ; their only other produce is ginseng. The southern provinces abound in
rice, millet, and a species of panicum, from which a vinous liquor is made ; and also in hemp, tobacco,
lemons, and silk. The Coreans area well-made race, with an agreeable physiognomy, and very polished
manners ; the arts, the sciences, and the language of China have been introduced among tliem. The
literati form a separate order in the state, and make use of the Chinese language and characters ; but
the vernacular tongue is quite different, and has an alphabet of its own. Their religion is the same,
or nearly the same, as that of China. The country forms a separate kingdom, whose ruler is absolute
within his own dominions, but is, nevertheless, a vassal of Cliina, and sends annual presents and am-
bassadors to Peking. The country was formerly defended from the Mandchews by a great wall or
rampart along its northern frontier, which, it is said, is now, like that of China, falling to ruin. The
Corean towns have nearly the same general appearance as those of China ; but the houses are built
of mud, without art, and are inconvenient. King-ki-tao, nearly in the centre of the peninsular part
of the kingdom, is the capital.
Thibet, Tibet, or Tubei or Tobbat, is a region of table-lands, deep valleys, and high mountains,
lying between India on the south, from which it is separated by the Himalayas ; China and Birmah
on the east and so;ith-east ; Kan-suh, Gobi, and Little Bukharia on the north ; and the unexilorel
countries, forming tl;e basin of the Upper Indus, commonly called Little Thibet, on the west ; being
about 1350 miles in length, by 350 or 400 in breadth. The native name is Pout or llhrnit, or, addini;
the termination signifying country, Bhout-yid, Boodha's country. The physical structure of the
country, in respect of mountains and lakes, has been already described in our general gtography of
Asia. The most remarkable feature which remains to be mentioned is the valley of the Sanpoo. This
river rises on the north side of the Himalayas, near the sources of the Ganges and Suttlcj, but flows
eastward through a deep valley of 1000 miles in length, carrying with it all the surplus waters of tliis
part of Thibet. Its termination is not yet certainly known. Klaproth believes it to be identical with
the Irawady ; but it most probably pours its waters into the Brahmapoota ; and the recent discove-
ries in As-sam seem to confirm this opinion. With respect to climate and natural productions, it is
unnecessary to repeat what we have said upon these subjects. — See ante p. 026. The people are said to
be mild and honest, of a stout figure, and possessing hut little of tlie Mongolian features. The com-
plexion is brown, but enlivened with a mixture of red. Religion is the basis of both their political
and their social system ; it is a variety of Buddhism, and the clergy are the political rulers, as well as
the private directors of the whole country. Every district has its lama, or bishop ; the chief of these
spiritual sovereigns is the Grand or Dalai-lama, who resides at Lassa. Ne.xt to him is the Teshoo-
lama, who resides at Teshoo-lomboo. These are both inc irnations of the deity, which pass suc-
cessively by transmigration from one body to another. The priests form the aristocracy of the
country, they reside in companies in large mansions, which unite the characters of convent and palace.
They are said to be generally mild and unassuming in their manners, and in their behaviour to their
inferiors ; all the wealth of the country seems to centre in their body, while a general poverty per-
vades the rest of the community. A singular species of polyandry exists among the Thibetans ; all the
brothers born of one mother havebut one wife in common, who is selected by the eldest. It never hap-
pens, it seems, that she has any preference for one of her husbands ; love and jealousy in their rudest
forms are feelings which seem to be unknown to these people. Tlieir ordinary dwellings are very rude,
consisting of rough stones heaped together without cement, and with flat terraced roofs. The reli-
gious buildings, however, which combine the triple character of temples, monasteries, and palaces,
sometimes display extraordinary splendour. That of I'ootula near Lassa, the summer residence of
the Dalai-lama, is said to contain 10,000 apartments filled with gold and silver images, and to have its
roof richly gilded. Thibet is neither an independent kingdom nor a province of China ; it is merely
a geographical region divided into a number of states, the majority of which pay a small tribute to the
Dalai-lama, who is himself, as well as all the rest, under the protection of the emperor of China.
The emperor's residents, however, at the courts of the sovereign lamas, have, of late years, acquired
80 much influence in the internal administration of the country, that it may be regarded as now
entirely dependent. The frontiers, as in other parts of the empire, are strictly guarded against the
intrusion of strangers.
Latsa or H lassa, the capital of the Dalai-lama, and the ordinary abode of the tazin or Chinese resi-
dent or viceroy, situate upon an affluent of the Sanpoo, is a Large well-built city, with houses of two
Ladakh.] ASIA. 773
or three storeys. It has in the midst of it an immense temple, formed of an assemblage of buildings,
with a bazaar around it. The population is large but fluctuating, owing to the constant arrival and
departure of pilgrims, who come from all parts of the realms of Buddha, to this sanctuary of Laihaism.
About 8 miles N.W. of the city is the vast temple of Brae-poung-chong-pa, which is attended by more
than 5000 lamas ; and in the neighbouring plain are 21 other temples. Jigagoun^gar, near the right bank
of the Sanpoo, though neither marked in our maps, nor described in our books of geography, is a large
and important city of 20,000 houses. Jikadze, also near the right bank of the Sanpoo, is said to have
23,000 families, and a garrison of 5300 men ; it is the capital of the territory of the lama styled Bantshan
or Bogdo-lama. Near it, to the west, is the magnificent convent of Jashi-loumbo or Teshoo-loomboo,
where this pontiff resides ; and which is said to contain more than 3000 chambers or cells. It is adorned
with numerous obelisks, covered with gold and silver, with statues of Buddha in gold, silver, andbronze,
and is served by more than 3.500 lamas. Bhaldi or lltiidi, a small town near the lake Yamtso or Paltee,
which contains a convent on an island, the residence of a female divinity called Dordjepame, or the
holy mother of the sow. The Hindoos, and Nepaulese, as well as the Thibetans, reverence her as an
incarnation of the Hindoo goddess Bhavani. She never quits her dwelling', nor leaves the island, but
when she goes to Lassa, in great pomp. During the journey censers are carried before Iier, and she
sits upon a throne covered with a large umbrella ; everybody runs to receive her blessing, which she
bestows by making them kiss her seal. The convents in the islands of this lake, inhabited by monks
and priests, are under her direction. The western part of Thibet bears the Chinese name of Chan-
than (Snow country), but is known to the Bhooteas as Hiun-des. and to the Thibetans as Sari; in-
cluding the provinces of Garo, Rodol.h, Gardokli, Su»if.'iel, and Tholin^, the two last of which are
immediately contiguous to Piti in Lad:ikh,and to the British dependencies of Bissaherand Kunawar.
Tholing, the chief town is situate on the left bank of the Suttlej, and is a place of considerable note ;
it is said to contain 108 temples, with a number of gelums attached to each. Chan-than is the chief
resort of the shawl-wool goat, and is also pastured by numerous flocks of sheep, whose wool is an ar-
ticle of trade. It likewise produces gold in considerable quantity ; but the searching for it is discouraged
by local superstition as well as by the Cliinese authorities. Gardukh, called also Gartokh, Ghertope,
or Garo, is little else than an encampment, consisting of a number of small blanket tents, with a few
houses of unburnt bricks ; it is in fact merely a trading station, or mart, where, in the summer months
the natural productions of Thibet and China are exchanged for those of India. — ( Hoorcrnfl's and
Treberk't Travels, vol. I. part 2, chap. .").) To the south-east of Gartope are situate the two cele-
brated lakes Miinojarowara and Raua7i-rhad ; the former of which is an oval basin about 15 miles by
1 1, nearly 17,000 feet above the level of the sea, surrounded by tremendous rocks, above which rise the
loftiest summits of the Himalayas. The waters are clear and well tasted ; but it is yet uncertain whe-
ther or not they hare an outlet. Once to behold the Manasarowara is considered by the Hindoos as
a felicity beyond every other on earth ; but the great and almost insurmountable difficulties of the
journey prevent all but a select few from accomplishing the pilgrimage. It was visited by Mr. Moor-
croft in 1812. The Rawan-rhad, which he only saw at a distance, was said to be four times the size of
the other, and to enclose some lofty mountains in the form of an island; but his distant observation
did not confirm these statements. It emits its waters by the Suttlfj.
LoocHoo ( Doo-choo, Lekayo, Low-kow, Lieou-kieou, Lieu-kieu, Lieu-chew) is an insular king-
dom, in the Pacific Ocean, to the eastward of Formosa ; the principal island lies between 26^ 4' and
'iG^53'N. lat, and 127° 34' and 128^18' E. long., being nearly 60 miles in length by 10 or 12 in breadth.
The climate is very temperate ; and such is the excellence of the soil and climate, that vegetable
productions, of different natures, and generally found in distant regions, grow here side by side. Not
only the orange and the lime, but the Indian banyan tree and the Norwegian fir, the tea-plant, and
the sugar-cane, all flourish together. The island abounds in rice, wheat, pease, melons, pine-apples,
ginger, pepper, camphor, dye-woods, firewood, tobacco, silk, wa.\, and salt ; and the sea yields coral
and pearls. The animals are beeves, sheep, horses, deer, and winged tjame, goats, pigs, and poultry.
The people are of small stature, with a good deal of the Corean physiognomy, but with nothing of
the drowsy and elongated eye of the Chinese. They arc a polite and cultivated race. Their language
diflFers both from the Chinese and Japanese, though it has many words common to both. Their books
of religion, morality, and science are written in the Chinese character ; but, for common purposes,
the Japanese letters are used. They seem to have made no progress in science and literature; all
their acquirements have been derived from China. Their religion seems also to be of the same nature
as the Chinese, but the priests are considered an inferior caste. Their government is monarchical.
The only town with which Europeans are yet acquainted is the great seaport of Napa-kiang, on the
south-west coast, about five miles from the capital, Kien-ching. The group contains altogether 36
islands, all of which are small ; and the only one deserving particular notice is Sulphur Island, 80
miles N. of the Great Loo-Choo, which contains a sulphuric volcano, that constantly emits white
smoke. The Madjicosima Islands, the principal of which is Typinsan, and situate midway between
Loo-choo and Formosa, are also subject to the king of Loo-choo, who is himself tributary to China.
LADAKH
Is a portion of the mountainous region situate between the Himalayas on the south, and the range of
Kara-korum on the north, extending about 2,')0 miles from E. to W. and 200 from N. to S. but with
an irregular outline, and comprising altogether a superficial area of only 30,000 square miles. It is
bounded on the north-east by the mountains of Kara-korum, which divide it from the Chinese pro-
vince of Khoten; on the east and soutli-east by Kodokh and Chan-than, dependencies of Lassa; on
the south by the British subject territory of Bissalicr, and by the hill states of Kulu and Chamba ;
Balti, Kartakshe, and Khasalun complete the boundary on the west and north-wtst. The country
consists of a series of narrow valleys, which are sometimes little better than deep ra\ines or defiles ;
and even at their greatest expanse, do not exceed a few hundred yards in width at the bottom. They
are all situate at the great elevation of from 1 1,000 to 13,1100 feet above the level of the sea, and the
mountains which form them rise several thousand feet higher. The passes which lead into Ladakh on
its southern frontier exceed Ifi.CXlO fttt, and there are several mountains within the country of still
greater hiight. The general character of the surface is extreme inequality, Cf nsisting of steep and
bare mountains capped with snow, and close rocky dells, with rapi<l torrents or deep rivers rushing^
through them. There is accordingly little room lor the labours of agriculture ; and the pro; o: tioii of
available ground does not probably exceed one-fifth of the country ; and the soil being lornicil liy the
disintegration of primitive rocks, is such as to be only rendered productive by human industry and
skill. The general aspect of the country, where not uiuler cultivation, is one of extreme sterility, in
which a few willows and poplars are the only trees, and the chief verdure consists of Tartaric furze,
with a few tufts of wormwood, hyssop, dojjrose, and other plants of the desert and the rock, which
expose rather than conceal the barrenness of the soil. Nor is the climate more auspicious to the labours
of the husbandman. Frost, snow, and sleet commence early in September, and continue with little
intermission till May. In May the days become warm, though even then the rivulets present a coat
of ice tarly In the morning ; which may be observed in some spots even in June, while on the loftiest
mountains snow falls occasionally in every month, During summer the sun shines with great power,
rt'i DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Lacakh.
aai for a short time of the day Hs rays are Intensely hot. Even in the depth of winter the sun's heat
is Tery considerable for an hour or two, and the variation of temperature is consequently extreme.
The great heat of summer compensates the shortness of its duration, and brings the crops to rapid
rqaturlty. The air is generally dry, the moisture being converted into snow in winter, and speedily
etaporated in summer ; there is consequently very little rain The harvests however are not unpro'
ductlve ; and they prosent also the peculiarity of yielding equally abundant crops year after year from
the same land, without fallows or rotation of produce. The water is in general clear and pure ; but
is often discoloured by earth, and impregnated with soda and alum. In general it is unwholesome to
strangers, and at some seasons even to the natives. The species of grain cultivated are wheat, barley,
and buckwheat, of various kinds. The natural sward is composed of a starveling low grass anddnarf
sow thistle ; in bogs the surface is covered with a short rush and bent grass, with some varieties of
crowfoot and dwarf equisetum. The islands and banks of the rivers are in some places naked, in
others fringed or concealed by a kind of thorn. In some places natural springs keep the surface per-
petually wet during summer, and are then surrounded by beds of low rush and aquatic grass, afl'ord-
ing wholesome pasturage. Lucerne, both wild and cultivated, grows in some places with great luxu-
riance, and is gathered as winter fodder for the cattle. A species of sainfoin also grows wild in soma
places; but the most valuable source of fodder is the pra7igos, an umbelliferous plant, which grows
only in the western districts of the country. The head of the plant, including leaves, flowers, stems, and
seeds, is converted into hay for the goats, sheep, and cows. Horses also will thrive on it ; but it is
only as hay that it is an acceptable food ; whilst growing, no animal will bronze upon its leaves,
though they will eat its flowers. There is no great variety of culinary vegetables ; but onions, carrots,
turnips, and cabbages are reared in some places in spring and summer ; carraway, mustard, and to-
bacco are grown in a few gardens. The only fruits cultivated are apricots and apples ; rhubarb is
produced in great abundance. Tlie domestic animals are horses, asses, yaks, beeves, the zho or yak-
mule, sheep, goats, and dogs. The horses are small, but active and hardy ; but they are not numerous,
nor much used. The sheep are larger than those of India. The common breed of goat is the shawl- wool
species ; the fleece is cut once a-year ; the wool picked out is sent to Cashmere, but the hair is made
into ropes, coarse sacks, and blankets, for home consumption. The dogs are large, with a shaggy
ooat of a dark colour, and are in general fierce, but intell gent. The wild animals are not numerous ;
they are mostly of the goat kind, are much larger than the domesticated species, and yield a liner
wool. The ibex frequents the loftiest and most inaccessible rocks ; the wild sheep is also met with ;
and in the eastern parts of the country a sort of wild horse or ass. Large mice, hares, squirrels,
foxes, ounces, bears, lynxe-, leopards, and marmots abound ; and in the mountains a species of tiger.
The birds consist of a large, fierce, and powerful raven, another large ravenous bird called chakor,
sparrows, linnets, redbreasts, skylarks, snowlarks, and water birds of various kinds. Fish abound
in all the streams, but are not used for food. There are mines of sulphur in some places ; soda is
found in great plenty along the banks of the Sinh-kha-bab, and in the district of Nobra ; lead, iron,
and copper are also found; but want o: i' i; 1 and want of industry prevent them being wrought. The
rivers are all affluents of the Indus (see ante, p. C82). In the eastern part of the country are two large
lakes, which have no outlets, but are kept at their level by evaporation. The lake of I'aniikung is
about three miles broad, but of unknown length, though not less than 50 miles ; the water is ex-
tremely salt, and contains apparently no fish. The other lake, named Tsumeieri by Mr. Trebeck,
and CUuinonenil by Mr. Gerard, is situate among steep mountains which rise abruptly from the
water ; it is about 14 miles in length, and 2 in breadth, and 1.5,000 feet above the level of the sea.
The water is brackish, and seems to contain no fish. In the middle of May Mr. Trebeck found this
lake sufficiently frozen to bear the weight of a man across it.
The people of Ladakh are of the Thibetan stock; but a considerable number of Cashrairians have
settled at Leh, and have produced a mi.xed race called jlrgands. The whole population may amount
to 160,000 or 180,000. There is not much wealth in the country, but what there is is equally dilfused,
and the great body of the people are in easy and comfortable circumstances, owing chiefly to the valu-
able fleeces of their goats. They pay no taxes in money, but are bound to give suit and service, both
domestic and military, and to furnisli contributions in kind for the support of the Rajah and the pro-
vincial governors. The severity of the climate renders warm clothing indispensable, and woollen
clothes are therefore worn by all classes. The people are in general mild and timid, frank, honest,
and moral, but indolent, diity, and addicted to intoxication. Their religion is nominally lUiddhisra,
but is a strange rai.xture of metaphysics, mysticism, fortune-telling, juggling, and idolatry. The
doctrine of the metempsychosis is curiously blended with tenets and jirecepts very similar to those of
Christianity, and witli the worship of grotesque divinities. The country is infested with idle lamas
and gylongs. who live on the industry of the people. The government is a simple despotism ; but it
is so curiously modified by the circumstances of the people, and the influence of the priests, that the
Kajah, unless he is a person of uncommon talent and energy, is possessed of little real power, and
may even be deposed, his successor being always a member of his own family. The business of
government is administered by the khalun or prime minister, assisted by the nuna-khalun or deputy,
the lom-pa or governor of Leh, the chiig-zut or treasurer, and the banka or master of the horse. The
districts and towns are governed also by inferior khaluns or tan-zins, or rajahs ; and the business of
the magistracy is discharged by oihcers called nar-pas, and by the head men of the villages. There
is no permanent military force ; the peasants giving their service as soldiers when required. The
Rajah is nominally independent, but pays a tribute, disguised under the name of a present, to the
authorities of Gardokh, on behalf of the government of Lassa. The country is divided into the prin-
cipal pergunnahs or districts of Ladakh, in the centre ; S'ubra, on the north ; Zanskar, on the south,
and Spiti or Piti, on the south-east. Lc or Leh, the capital of Ladakh. situate at the foot of some
hills, stands in a narrow valley, about two miles from the baalis of the Sinh-kha-bab, from which it
is separated by a sandy plain. It is inclosed by a wall, with projecting towers ; but the streets are dis-
posed without order, and the town forms a confused assemblage of houses. These are partly of stone
and partly of brick, generally of two or three storeys ; some are loftier, and their total number is esti-
mated at lOJO, though Mr. Moorcroft thinks .500 nearer the truth. The palace of the Ra,jah is a large
and lofty building, forming a conspicuous object to a person viewing the city from without. The
whole town, at a distance has much the appearance of a cluster of cards ( Mourcruft's and Trebeck't
Travels, vol. L Lond. 1841.)
Chitral, Gilgit, Kaffiristan, and Little Thibet, are situate to the westward of Ladakh, and
occupy the remainder of the elevated mountainous region which extends from the Himalayas on the
south to the Hindoo-Koh, Belur-tagh, and Tsungling or Kara-korum mountains on the north. They
are exact counterparts of Ladakh, and the same description will equally apply to all ; their valleys
are all drained by the affluents of the Indus. The inhabitants of Chitral, Gilgit, and Little Thibet
are Shiah Mahometans ; and their princes boast of their descent from the celebrated Secunder Zool-
kurneenee (Alexander the Great.) Chitral is subject to Kunduz; Gilgit is a strong country and
independent ; but very little is known about either of them. Iskardo or Ukardo, the capital of Baiti,
in Little Thibet, is a large fortified town of irregular construction, on the left bank of the Indus, nearly
due north of Cashmere, and 140 miles N.W. by W. of Leh. The chief of Iskardo boasts that his
capital was built in the days of Alexander. Kaffiristan is the most westerly portion of this region,
and situate immediat«^ to the north of the Kohistan, or hill country of Cabul. It contains many
Turkestan.] ASIA. 775
elevated table-lands, on which there are always villages. The winter is severe, but in summer grapes
ripen in great abundance. It is the abode of a singular people, called by their Moslem neighbours
the Siahposh Kaffirs, or Black-vested Intidels, from their wearing black goatskin dresses ; they are
entirely confined to the mountains, and are persecuted by all the surrounding nations, who make
them slaves. They appear to be a rude uncivilized race, with very little rehgion ; and, possessing a
country strongly fortifaed by nature, they wage interminable war with the Moslems, and have repaid
on them with tenfold vengeance the injuries which they liave tliemselvos suffered. Yet at times they
are peaceable, and allow their country to be visited by commercial traders, and even make short
periodical truces with some of their immediate neighbours. Gold is found among their mountains,
and formed into vessels and ornaments ; and various circumstances, taken in connection with their
personal appearance and fair coiuple.xion, in which they differ from other Asiatics, have given rise to
an opinion that they are of Grecian descent ; probably the remains of settlers from Alexander's army,
or of those who formed the Grecian kingdom of Bactria, and were driven by the fanatic followers of
Mahomet into the wilds which they now occupy. They possess great agility and activity.
TURKESTAN.
This country is situate between 36° and 51° N. lat., and 45° and 78° E. long. From east to west, be-
tween the sources of the Syrdaria and the Caspian Sea, it extends about 1350 miles ; and in breadth,
from the northern frontier of Persia to the frontier of Russia, including the steppes of the Kirghiz,
about 1260. It is bounded on tlie north by the Russian provinces of Orenburg and Tobolsk ; on the
south by Aflfghanistan and Khorassan ; on the east by the mountains of Pamer, part of the Belur-
tagh, which divide it trom Chinese Turkestan ; and on the west by the Caspian Sea and the river
Ural. The greater part of the country is composed of sandy plains, intersected by a few rivers, and
studded witn small lakes, the banks of which, with the grounds witliin reach of irrigation by their
waters, are the only cultivated parts of the country. It rises gradually from the shores of the Caspian
and the Aral towards the south and the east, on both of which sides it is inclosed by high mountains,
wliich give rise to its principal rivers. The south-eastern region is a hilly country, formed by the
diverging ranges of the Hindoo-koh ; and the eastern is formed, in like manner, by the divergent and
subordinate ranges of the Belur-tagh. The great plain at the foot of the mountains has an elevation
of about 21)00 feet ; but it gradually declines westward to the Caspian, where it is as low as the level
of the ocean. From the Sir northward to the Moughojar hills, through a space of more than 270
miles, not a single river crosses the desert, wliich, however, contains a number of shallow saltwater
lakes, and has exactly tlie appearance of land from which the sea has retired. These lakes are in
some places dried up, and have left a cake of salt, of dazzling whiteness, covering an area sometimes
of 6 or 7 square miles. Immediately along the east side of the Aral are the two great deserts of Kara-
koomnnd. Kiztl-koum, or the Black and the Red Wastes; the former of which is in some parts 175
miles broad, extending from the north-east corner of that sea to the mouth of the Sir, and the other
from the Sir to the Anioo, forming an ocean of sand, w ithout a drop of fresh water, and covered with
moveable hillocks, which rise between 12 and GO feet above its surface. To the north of the Aral is
a wild hilly region, thinly inhabited by nomadic tribes ; and the highest part of tlie country in that
direction is occupied by the Moughojar hills, which are a continuation of one of the groups into
which the Urals are divided at their southern extreniity ; the same red sandstone wliich composes
the Urals at Orenburg? extending into the steppes. In the northern and westerly part of the region
there are extensive hills ; but, towards the south and the east, this hilly region gradually sinks into
plains composed of clay, marl, and calcareous tufa, covered with loose sand which is blown by every
storm of wind into hillocks, and forming altogether a depressed tract of immense extent, interspersed
with innumerable lakes and morasses, the general direction of which, from the shores of the Aral
north-eastward, favours the opinion that tlie whole region was at no remote period under water.
These deserts, however, are partially interrupted by two ranges of low hills, called the Gnat and the
J.ittle Bijurzuuk, tlie latter of wliich terminates in a promontory at the north-eastern corner of the
Aral, while the other extends considerably to the westward. North-eastward, again, irom the Little
Bourzouk are some hills of hardened marl, full of marine shells, a formation which extends to the
shores of the lake, of which these hills appear to have recently been the shore, though they are now 40
miles distant from it. Between the Caspian Sea and the Aral the country is occupied by an elevated
region called the Utt-urt or High Plain, which extends north and south from the 41^ to tlie 47'^N.lat.,
or about 400 miles. It is bordered all round by a small chain of calcareous hills, called the Chink,
which forms the western and north-western shores of the Aral, and touches the Caspian at the
Mertvoi-Kultuck or l>ead Gull, where it forms also the shore of the Tiuuk-kaia-su, a de> p indentation
of that gulf. When approached either from the north or from the south, the Chink presents a preci-
pitous face or cliff, in which the openings are so few, so narrow, and so difficult, that it may almost be
considered inaccessible ; it is so steep towards both seas that it rises at once 63!* feet above them. Tho
Ust-urt rises in some places to 727 feet ahove the Caspian, and its lowest elevation is .550 feet above the
same level. On its north-eastern side it is connected with the Moughojar hills, and thus forms a
complete bar to any communication between the two seas. The climate of the Ust-urt is perceptibly
more unequal and severe than that of the low country ; on which account it is considered advijahle to
make the circuit of the si a of Aral, rather than pass between the seas, in travelling between Khiva and
the Russian frontier. The Ust-urt does not possess a single river; the bushes and herbage which
grow upon it are fit only for camels, but not for horses, and still less for sheep. Springs are rare, and
the water is far below the surface. In the middle there are some salines and sanJy tracts. The
general sterility and the violent winds and storms to which the Ust-urt is exposed, render it quite un-
inhabitable ; and no Kirghiz are ever known to encamp there in winter. It presents the same appear-
ance to the eye as the lower steppes ; both consisting of sandy clayey ground, sand, and saltpits, and
containing tile same vegetation, with the exception of a bushy plant called baialysh, which is not
met with in the lower steppes. Near the Ust-urt, at diBcrent distances, are distributed hills of un-
equal elevation, but extending in the same direction as the Chink ; and to the south of the Eniba
there is a chain of hills, or rather a small plateau, called .lildi-tagh ; all of which appear to have been
formerly connected with the Ust-urt, and to have been afterwards separated from it by the action of
the waters which covered th'j lower plains, at a time when the Ust-urt formed a large peninsula, con-
nected with the northern mainland by the Great and the Little Bourzouk, which may even be con-
sidered as its north-eastern prolongation.
The steppes of the Kirghiz have not e^cry where a uniform surface, nor do they constitute a vast
pl.iin, as the name might be thought to imply ; they are, on the contrary, intersected by many chains
of hills, and no where exhibit those boundless expanses which are met with elsewhere. The surface is
for the most part unequal, and covered w ith small rouml-topped hills ; but, as these hills are neither
high nor clothed with tree.«, the name of steppe is sufficiently applicable to the country. There is also
a great want of water, which causes an excessive dryness, an inconvenience which may be attributed
to the rarity of rain, the extreme summer heat, the clayey soil, and the winds which pa-s over it. The
verdure is consequently poor, and the general appearance is unvaried and fatiguing to the eye. It may,
however, be divided into teveral regions of various degrees of fertility. The most ferlilo and least
776 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Torkestan.
sandy part Is the northern region, between the 51° and 55° N. lat. ; the meadows there are rich in
pasturage and in every kind of flowers ; there are forests which produce timber fit for building, as
well as Hre-wood ; many plains of a strong soil, fit for asricultural purposes ; lakes aboundifig in fish ;
and rivers of fine, palatable, and wholesome water. Tlie second region, bounded on the north and
west by the river Ural, and to the south and east by lines extending from the Moughojar mountains
to the fortress of Orsk and fort Houdarinsky, consists of a clay soil, watered by a great number of
rivers, and consequently abounding in lierbage ; it contains also several places fit for cultivation, but,
with the exception of some bushes and trees on the banks of the river Ikk, no wood appears anywhere.
Notwithstanding its distance from the sea, it contains many shells, peijbles of divers colours, petrifac-
tions, moUusUs, and other marine remains The third region extends to the south of the second, ter-
minating at the Caspian sea on the south-west, at the Ust-urt on the south-east, and at the Steppe of
Mouss-bil. between the Moughojar hills and the Ust-urt, on the east. Itis evidently less fertile than
the second region, contains large spaces of sand, vast marshes, and lakes of water unfit for drinking.
The small streams which water it are almost all saltish, even to bitterness, and become dry in summer.
It affords in summer ample food for camels, but it is only in autumn that the herbage becomes tit for
horses, after the cold has modified its dryness ; watering places are rare ; and cultivatde ground is only
to be found in the north, along the water courses, and even there in small quantity ; the southern part,
almost entirely occupied by salt lakes and marshes, and beds of reeds, is completely sterile. The
fourth region is the Ust-urt already described ; the remainder of the country, extending to the east
and the south, is generally sterile ; but towards the north-east, being watered by streams from the
northern hills, it becomes more fertile and pleasant, and contains many valleys fit for cultivation.
The most southerly region presents scarcely anything but general sterility, as in the sandy wastes of
the Great and the Little IJourzouk, the Kara-koom, the Kizil-koom, the Arch-Koudouk-koom, the
desert Biptak, the lake Ralkask, the reed-beds which surround it, and the almost unknown steppes
which are traversed by the rivers Choui and Talash. Several places, however, in the northern and
western regions are remarkable for their fertility. — (Description des Hordes et des Steppes des Kirghiz-
Kazaks, ou Kirghiz-Kaussaks, par Alexis de Levclme. French edition, Paris, 1840.)
KivERS. — The JiHOON or Amoo* (ancient Oxus) has its source in the Siri-kol, a lake inKhunduz,
N. lat. 37° 27', E. long. 73° 40', 15,600 feet above the level of the sea, and encircled with mountains,
except on the west side, where the river finds a channel. After leaving the mountains, it passes
through the sandy plains in a north-westerly direction, fertilizing a narrow tract of about a mile in
breadth on each side, till it reaches the territories of Khiva, where it is divided into a great number of
branches, and forms at last a swampy delta, overgrown with reeds and aquatic plants, and terminating
in the sea of Aral. Its channel throughout is remarkably straight and free from rocks, rapids, and
whirlpools, nor is it much obstructed by sandbanks ; and were it not for the marshes whicli obstrvict
its mouth, it might be navigated from the Aral to near Khunduz, a distance of (iOO miles. Being the
only drain of an extensive hill country, it pours down a great body of water, and is never fordable
below the junction of the Ak-Surai, 40 miles N.W. of Khunduz. The melting of the snow causes a
periodical swell in May, which continues till October and the river is also subject to a second but
smaller flood during the rains of spring. It fluctuates also in its rise and fall with the state of the
weather; in the upper part of its course it is frozen every year, so that, above Khunduz, passengers
and beasts of burden cross it on the ice, on their route to Yarkhand. Below Khiva it freezes yearly, and
throughout the desert it is also frozen over in severe winters. Its advantages, however, both in a
commercial and in a political point of view, are very great. According to tradition, a branch of the
Amoo, if not the whole stream, once fiowed westward to the Caspian Sea ; and the deserted bed of
the river can still be traced in that direction, terminating in the Gulf of Balkan ; but when the change
took place, and whether suddenly or gradually, is uncertain. Its principal affluents are the Soorkh-ab,
or river of Karategin; Koksah, or river of Badakhshan ; Kafernihan, or river of Hisar; the Tupalak,
and the Zurhab, on the right bank ; the Ak-surrai, Biinghee, Surkhab, or river of Goree ; the Klioo-
loom, and Adirsiah or Delias, on the left.
The SiR-DARiA or Siholn, called, in the upper part of its course, Narym, rises among the Teean-
Bhan or Sky Mountains, to the south of the south-west corner of Temourtou or Issek, in the country
of the Highland Kirghiz, who are subjects of China The Narym has considerable affluents. About
2.50 miles above its mouth in the Sea of Aral, a branch called Kouvau separates from the main stream
of the river, and is afterwards subdivided into five liranches, whicli again unite, and a little lower down
form a great number of lakes of different sizes. According to Meyendorf, the Sir is rejoined near its
mouth by the Kouvan through a little brook. It washes Khojend, Tounkat, and Otrar, passes a little
to the north of Khokand, and some miles to the west of Taskkend. It is much smaller than the
Amoo, but is said to be more rapid. In summer it is fordable ; and in winter it is covered with ice,
som.etimes two yards thick, over which the caravans pass.
Next in importance to the Sir is the Kohik or Zunifshan or Zerafclian, which rises in the high
lands east of Samarcand, and passing north of that city and Bokhara forms a lake (Kara-kool,
Black Lake), in which it terminates, not far from the rigiit bank of the Amoo. In the upper part of
its course it waters the rich province of Samarcand ; below that city its waters are diverted, for the
purpose of rice cultivation ; for three or four months of the year itsbed is perfectly dry at Bokhara ;
and in consequence that city and the country below it suffer great inconvenience, as they depend on
the river for a supply of water. The lake into which it flows is familiarly called Denghis or the Sea,
and is about 25 miles long, and surrounded by sand hills. It is very deep, and does not appear ever to
decrease in size at any season. 'When the snow melts in summer, the water flows as steadily into it
as it does in winter ; its water is salt. The river of Khurshee rises in the same high lands as the
Kohik, and passes through Shuhr-Subz and Kurshee, below which it is lost in the desert The fields
of Shuhr-Subz yield rich crops of rice ; and Kurshee is a sheet of gardens and orchyards. For six
miles on the one side and sixteen on the other, the waters of the river are distributed by canals ; and
where these cease there is again a barren desert to contrast with the beautiful herbage of tlie watered
district. The rirerof Balkh, already mentioned as a branch of the Amoo, rises south of the Hindoo-koh,
about 20 miles from Bamean, near the Bund-i-hurbur, a celebrated dam, ascribetl to a miracle of Ali,
but more probably a mass of earth that has fallen in upon a ravine. The river then flows north among
the mountains, and enters the plains of Turkestan, about six miles south of Balkh, where it is divided
into innumerable channels which intersect the whole country, and so completely absorb the waters
that none of them reach the Amoo. The Sara-sou flows through the country of the Kirghiz of the
great horde into Lake Teles-Kool. The Choui or Shoui, which comes from Soungaria, out of Lake
Issi-koul, flows through the Kirghiz country of the middle and the great hordes into the lake Kaban-
Koulak or Bei-le-Koul. The Emha rises from the western flank of the Moughojar hills and flows in a
Bouth- westerly direction into the north-eastern corner of the Caspian sea. The Ulkhiak nud Ulu-
Irghis flow from the eastern flanks of the Moughojar hills in a south-easterly direction into the Salt
Lake or marsh Jk-sakal-barbi. The Noura rises from the hills to the north-webt of Lake Balkash,
and flows north-westerly into the lake Khurkaljine.
* Jihoon means a flood, and is the name used in all the Turkish and Persian works which treat of
these countries ; but the people on its banks now speak of the river under the name of Amoo, calling
it Durya-i- Amoo, the rivtr, or literally the tea of Amoo.—(Bur7i(i' Tiuvels, 11. I8U.)
Turkestan.] ASIA. 77T
Lakes. — The lake commonly called the Sea of Aral, is situate in the western part of Turkestan,
between 43^ 35' and 46° 48' N. lat., and 52° and 68° E. long. It is very nearly of a square form, but
with a considerable extension to the north-east, and measures from south-west to north-east 370
versts, or 245 English miles ; its greatest breadth, along the 45° parallel, is about 190 versts, or 124
English miles ; and it contains a superficial area of about 21,000 square miles. The Arabian and Per-
sian geographers called it the lake of Khwarism, Kharasm, and Urghunge ; but the Kirghiz-Kazaks
and their neighbours call it Aral-denghis or Sea of Islands. In the Russian annals it is called Cinoe or
Blue Lake. The water is not so salt as that of other seas, and even near the mouths of the Amoo and
the Sir, at some distance from the shore, it is almost fresh ; the eastern and southern shores are low,
for the most part sandy, but in some places covered with reeds. The western and northern shores
are high and precipitous, being formed by the Chink or border of the Ust-urt. In the eastern, or ra-
ther south-eastern part, are a multitude of small islands named 15arca-Kaitmass, and, to the northward
of the middle, is a large island named Barva-Kilmess, covered with wood. The lake Ireezes in winter,
and from the mouth of the Sir to the town of Kourgiat it is passed on the ice. The fish are of the
same species as those of the Caspian. Many of the Kirghiz allege that in the middle of the lake there
is a whirlpool, which no vessel dare appro.^ch. Its surface, as ascertained barometrically in 1826, is 18
toises, or 115 feet higher than that of the Caspian.— ('Lcir/iuie, 47.) The de^tli is not great, and there
are so many sand-banks near the shores that the fishermen are obliged to use flat- bottomed boats.
Its waters are said to be rapidly diminishing.
In the steppes of the Kirghiz there are a great many lakes, which differ in their properties as well
as in extent. Some are fresh, some bitter, but the most of them are salt. The principal of them are:
the Balkashinoor, about 130 miles in length from north to south, bordered on the west and south by
sands, and on the north-east by very extensive beds of reeds. It receives the river Hi (Eelee) from the
Tarbagatai ; the Aiaguz from the north-east, and a number of smaller streams. The Issyk, Jssek, or
Tou2 ( Warm or Salt Lake), called by the Mongols Temourtou, and by the Chinese le- Gai, among
the hills to the south of the Balkash, is about HO miles in length by 34 in breadth. The water i*
almost fresh, and abounds with fish ; its outlet is the river Choui. To the north-east of the Balkasli
are two lakes, the Sact/k or yllak-tuu-koul, and the Alu-kuuU only divided by an isthmus composed of
saltish substances, which seems to be of recent formation. None of the other lakes are of the least
importance. — ( Levchine, 47, &c.)
Ci-iMATE, AND Natural rRODUCTioss. — The climate of the plains and the steppes of Turkestan
is subject to extremes of heat and cold ; the sandy surface of the country producing an intense heat
in summer, while, on the contrary, in winter the same deserts are sometimes covered with snow, and
are always very cold during the night. In the steppes of the Kirghiz the extremes are remarkable';
tlie thermometer often falls below 30° of Reaumur, or .')6° of Fahrenheit below zero ; and, even at the
mouth of the Sir, 45^ N. lat., it falls to 20^ or —13° of Fahrenheit. In such a temperature the river.s,
mountains, and plains of the steppes, are neces.-arily covered with snow, which is very deep, and lie's
long. .■\t the mouth of the Sir snow does not always fall in winter, but almost every year the lower
part of the river, and the northern part of the Aral, are coated with ice. Nor is the extreme cold the
only evil ; severe storms, hurricanes, and whirlwin<is, blow over the steppes, carrying every thing
which is moveable before them. These colds are succeeded in summer by excessive heat, whicli is
nearly insupportable by either man or beast. In the region adjoining the river Ural the temperature
sometimes rises to 50- Reaumur, or 145° Tahrenheit, in the sun, and to 34° (100° Fahrenheit) in the
shade. The hand cannot then be applied to iron, and tlie sand is so hot a* to roast eggs. The climate,
however, is generally healthy. Rain is very rare in the steppes ; the ground is consequently very dry,
ami, in summer, breaks into cracks or crevices. In general the seasons in this country may be repre-
sented as follows : — spring, sudden and fleeting ; summer, dry and burning ; autumn, rainy, gloomy,
and short ; winter, loni.', dry, and constantly cu\A.—( Levchine, Part I. ch. 2.)
Among the mammiferous animals in the steppes the rodentia are the most numerous; wolves in-
habit caverns of the gypsum mountains, and the sandy districts ; the canis corsac roams among
herds of tlie antelope saiga. Horses arc the most valuable domestic animals in almost all the grassy
steppes of Persia, Turkestan, ar.d Siberia. Among these the beautiful race of Argamats tupply the
cavalry of Khiva. Camels, of both species, and sheep, frequently of a good breed for wool, and
some of them fat-tailed, beeves, and goats, constitute the wealth of the wandering tribes. Fine wool
goats are bred in Bokhara. The tiger has been found in the vicinity of the Aral, on the banks of the
Sir and the Kouvan. The wild boar is found in great numbers in the vicinity of all the rivers ; the
mouse in the Kirghiz stejipes ; and the dog geese, so called from their burrowing in the ground. The
falco chrysa;tos builds its nest in the Kirghiz steppes. But, generally speaking, the natural produc-
tions peculiar to the country are comparatively few in nuinljcr, and ot little consequence. — ( '/.imnier-
vi'tii's Memoir un the cuiuitriet abuut (he Caspian and Aral, Sfc. London, 1840.)
People. — The most numerous race who occupy the low country are the Usbeck's, who distinguish
themselves by :y> tribes, into which they are said to have been divided in their pastoral seats, before
they conquered this country. The first tribe crossed the Sir about the beginning of the ICth cen-
tury, and possessed themselves of Bokhara, Kharism, and Khokand. They are also to be found
beyond the Belur-tagh, as far east as Khotcn, and prol ably further. They are of the Turkee or
Turkish race, and are generally short and stout made, with broad flat foreheads, high cheek-bones,
Ihin beards, small eyes, clear and ruddy complo.vions, and generally black hair. Their dress con-
sists of a shirt and trowsers of cotton, with a coat of silk or woollen cloth, which is bound with a
girdle ; and above this a gown of woollen cloth, pasteen, or felt. The head is covered with a white
turban, worn in general over a kalpack. Both men and women wear boots, and bandages round their
legs instead of stockings; and every man has a knife suspended from his girdle, with a flint and steel
for striking fire. The women have a dress similar to that of the men, but longer, with a silk handker-
chief tied over the head, and the hair plaited into along tail, which hangs down from the middle of the
bead in tho fashion of the Chinese. They wear gold and silver ornaments, and over all throw a sheet
of silk or of cotton. The eborigines of the country are the Taujiks or Tats, sometimes, but erroneously,
called Sart, which is merely a nickname given them by the nomadic tribes. The Taujiks are devo-
ted to commerce ; their language is Persian, which has long been that of the country ; and it is most
probable that they are themselves of Persian or Arabian origin, descended from the first Moslem
conquerors. There is besides a great number of Persians in Turkestan ; and many ,)ew s, Hindoos,
Armenians, and Russian slaves. The northern parts of the country, towards the Russian frontier, are
occupied liy nomadic races formed by an intermixture ot Kalmur/.t, Kazakt, and Kirthiz. The Kaliiuuks
and the IJsbecks are said to have sprung from one tribe ; and the Kirghiz and the Kazaks ap])ear to be
much the same people, differing only in location. The Kazaks pass the summer in the southern parts
of Russia; but repair in winter to the neighbourhood of Bokhara, where they sell their sheep. Tho
Kirghiz occupy the wide plains or steppes which extend along the southern frontier of Siberia to the
c»st of the Aral, and the north of the Sir. They are divided into three branches or hordes, called
the Great, the Middle, and the Little horde. The great honle ranges to the east and south on the
borders of Cashgar and Khokand, and many of its tribes have adopted the hal)it8 of these more Im-
proTcd districts, and acquired a peaceable character, with fixed dwellings ; those of them, however,
which occupy the higher parts gf the hilly regions still merit the name of the wild Kirghizes. Tho
778 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Turkestan.
middle and the little horde occupy the shores of the Aral, extending also towards the Caspian, and
retain the nomadic pastoral character in its ancient purity. They own the supremacy of Russia,
which pensions their chiefs ; and for greater security against their inroads a line of strong posts is
Kept up between the Ural and the Irtish. The Usbecks and Taujiks of Hokhara, Khiva, Balkh, and
Kokand, are Soonee Mahometans, very strict in their profession, and even fanatical. Several tribes
on the eastern borders are Shiahs, and some are idolaters. There are also Jews and Hinjoos, who
profess, of course, their paternal faith.
Among the numerous states of Turkestan the government is more or less despotic; but each na-
tion or body politic is generally composed of an aggregation of clans or Cirflghs, of which the chief
are in many instances elected by the people. The chiet administers the internal affairs of the clan,
and arranges the quota of tribute, and military service exacted by the general government. But these
heads of clans do not unite in any assembly, nor claim the right of exercising any control over the
measures of the sovereign.
It may be stated, in general, that in all the great towns the people are industrious ; most of them
being devoted to agriculture. But the Bokharians are distinguished above all their neighbours for
their manufacturing industry, and for the fine cotton and silk stuffs, hats, paper, and other articles
which they produce. Bokhara has always been a great mart for the trade of central Asia ; and for the
last 80 or 90 years it has been visited annually by caravans from the southern provinces of Russia;
till within these 20 years the trade in European fabrics was principally confined to the Russians,
■who brought them from Orenburg and Troitskai ; but is now carried on more extensively through
India and Cabul. The late attempts of the Russians to open a direct communication with Bokhara
have been frustrated by the chief of Khiva, who took offence at measures which threatened
to turn the traffic from his own territories; but numerous fairs are now held annually on the
southern frontiers of the empire, the chief of which is at Nishnei-Novgorod, on the Volga, which
commences in August, and lasts 40 days. It is at this market that the merchants who carry on the
trade of central Asia make the most part of their sales and purchases; and evon Hindoos are found
among the traders. The imports from Russia consist of white cloths, muslins, chintzes, broad-cloth,
both of English and Russian manufacture, of imitation brocade (kincob\ velvet, with nankeen and
and gold thread, all of home manufacture; also furs, cochineal (kermis), locks, iron-pots, iron, brass,
and copper; wires, leather, paper, needles, cutlery, and jewellery, hardware, refined white sugar,
honey, and a variety of other small articles. The annual caravan which arrives at Bokhara consists
of about 1300 camels, and leaves Russia in January. The imports from India by way of Cabul, are
indigo, cotton, sugar, white cloths of all kinds, calicoes, and muslins ; chintzes of European manu-
facture, shawls, brocades, muslins, spices, &c.; and Captain Burnes was informed that three-fourths
of the articles which are imported from both countries are of British manufacture : many of which
can be transported through Russia at less expense, even as far as the borders of India, than through
India itself. Besides the Russian and British trade, Bokliara carries on an extensive and direct com-
mercial intercourse with the Cliinese garrison-towns of Cashgar and Yarkliand, importing china-
ware, musk, and bullion, but chiefly tea, of which beverage the people of Turkestan are extravagantly
fond. With Persia their trade is inconsiderable, owing to the unsettled state of the roads, which are
infested by wandering Turcoman robbers, and the hatred which subsists between the two people, who
differ in their religious tenets. The shawls of Kerman form the principal article of import. Opium
has also found its way from Persia into Bokhara, and is again exported to Yarkhand and Cashgar,
where the same demand exists for it as on the sea-coast of China. The exports of Bokhara are far
from inconsiderable, since it possesses silk, cotton, and wool. The silk is chiefly produced on the
banks of the Amoo, where the mulberry thrives luxuriantly ; and nearly all the Turcomans are engaged
in rearing silkworms in summer. It is exported in considerable quantities to Cabul, and even finds
its way to India. The silk is manufactured at Bokhara into a stuff called urfnw, of a mottled colour,
red, white, green, and yellow, which is the fashionable and most expensive kind of dress in Turkestan,
and is not exported. There are likewise extensive cotton manufactures ; their cotton thread is much
in demand, and is exported in considerable quantities to Russia, while much of the raw material is
sent to Balkh, Khooloom, and Kunduz. The wool of Turkestan is sent across the mountains to
Cabul, and the Punjab, where it is made into a coarse kind of shawl. It is procured from the
Kazaks and wandering tribes about Bokhara, who were long ignorant of its value, and still use it
for the common ropes for their horses and cattle. The lambskins of Bokhara are celebrated in the
East : they are procured only in Karakool, and are exported to Persia, Turkey, and China; but chiefly
to the first country. The Persian merchants purchase them for ready money, being afraid to risk a
commercial investment across the desert. It is not possible to negotiate a bill between Meshid and
Bokhara.
Divisions.— Turkestan has never been all subjected to the same sovereign. It may be considered
as divided naturally into, 1. The Steppes of the Kirghiz, which occupy the northern part; 2. Mauer-
til^nahar, i. e. between the rivers Amoo and Sir, the Trnnsoiana of the Latin geographers; 3. The
hill countries along the southern and the eastern borders. It is divided politically into a great number
of states, which differ greatly in extent and amount of population ; but the dominant, or at least pre-
ponderating native powers are the Khanats of Bokhara, Khiva, and Khokand or Ferghanah. The
following are the principal states or Khanats:^
Bokhara, which is the richest, most populous, and most powerful, is an isolated kingdom of small
extent in the midst of a desert. It is an open champaign country of unequal fertility. In the vici-
nity of its few rivers the soil is rich ; but beyond them, it is barren and unproductive. It lies chiefly
to the north of the Amoo; but towards the south-east, it crosses the river and holds a supremacy
over Balkh, and the Khanats of Andkho and Maimuna. On tiie banks of the Amoo, the Kohik, and
the river of Kurshee lies the whole cultivable soil of the kingdom. Its length along the Amoo is 240
miles. From Balkh to Bokhara the distance is 2G0 miles of nearly an entire waste ; the desert com-
mences about 1.5 miles beyond the capital. The strip of cultivable ground on the banks of the Amoo
is narrow, and much of it lies neglected ; the most fertile part of the kingdom is the valley of the
Kohik, the ancient Sogdiana, which is considered a paradise by the Arabs. Another small portion
is watered and fertilized by the river of Kurshee ; while Balkh and other places south of the Amoo
owe their fertility to the waters which descend from the mountains. The climate of Bokhara is
salubrious and pleasant ; being dry, and in winter very cold, as is usual in sandy countries. There
is constant serenity in the atmosphere, and the sky is of a bright azure blue, generally without a
cloud. At night the stars have an unusual lustre, and the milky way shines conspicuously. Even
in moonlight, stars are visible on the verge of the horizon, and there is also a never-ceasing display
of the most brilliant meteors. In winter, the snow lies three or four months at Bokhara ; and the
spring rains are often heavy. In Balkh, the heat is oppressive; and the climate is very unhealthy.
The harvest is about fifty days later than at Peshawer ; the wheat is cut in the middle of June, and at
Bokhara it is about a fortnight later. Bokhara, the capital, which stands in lat. 39^ 43' N., long. 04-^ .=i5'
E., about 1200 feet above the level of the sea, is a place of great antiquity, tradition assigning its foun-
dation to the age of Alexander the Great. It lies embosomed among gardens and trees, and cannot be
seen from a distance ; the situation is delightful, and the climate salubrious. Its shape is triangular,
exceeding eight miles in circumference, '.urrounded by a wall of earth, about twenty feet high, and
Turkestan.] ASIA. 779
pierced with twelve gates. Few great buildings are to be seen from the outside ; but when the trtt-
veller passes the gates, he winds his way among lofty arched bazaars of brick, and finds each trade
occupying its separate quarter. Everywhere he meets with ponderous and massy buildings, colleges,
mosques, and lofty minarets. The city contains about 20 caravansaries and 100 ponds and wells, is
intersected by canals shaded by mulberry trees ; but is, nevertheless, indifferently supplied with water,
the river being six miles distant, and the canal opened only once in fifteen days. In summer the
people are often deprived of water for several months. It contains several large mosques, and not
less than 366 madreses or colleges, a third part of which are large buildings which contain upwards
of seventy or eighty students. Many, however, have but twenty, and some only ten. The students
are supported by a public allowance, and are entirely occupied with theology, which has here super-
seded all other subjects. They are quite ignorant even of the history of their country ; and a more
perfect set of drones, says Burnes, were never assembled together. Population, 150,000. Samarcand,
the Maricanda of the Greeks, 120 miles E. of Bokhara, is as ancient as the time of Alexander. It
was the capital of Timour, and the princes of his family passed their winters there. It has now
declined from its grandeur to a provincial town of 8000, or at most 10,000, inhabitants ; gardens and
fields occupy the place of its streets and mosques ; but it is still regarded with high venuraiion by
the people. Some, however, of its buildings still remain to attest its former glory. Three of its col-
leges are perfect, and one of them, which formed the observatory of Ulugh Beg, is particularly hand-
some. The tombs of Timour and his family still remain ; and the ashes of the conqueror rest beneath
a lofty dome, the walls of which are beautilully ornamented with agate. Kursliee is a straggling
town of a mile in length, with a considerable bazaar, and about 10,000 inhabitants, 140 miles S.E. of
Bokhara. To the N.E. of Kurshee, about .50 miles, is Shulir- Suhx (the Shehri-Subz of Arrowsmith,
and Cher-Sebz of Balbi), the birth-place of Timour, and the seat of a khan. Balkh, lat. 36^ 48' N.,
long. 67^ 18' E., 260 miles S.S.E. of Bokhara, is one of the most ancient cities in the world, and is
called by the Persians Am-ool-belud, mother of cities. It is supposed to have been the ancient Bactra,
said to have been built by Kyamoors, or Cyrus, the founder of the Persian monarchy ; and was in
later times the capital of a Grecian kingdom, wliich was founded by the successors of Alexander.
It was also the birth-place of Zoroaster, and the seat of the patriarch, primate, or archbishop of the
Magian hierarchy. Its present population does not amount to 2000. "The ruins extend for a circuit
of twenty miles, but present no signs of magnificence ; they consist of fallen mosques, and decayed
tombs, which have been built of sun-dried bricks ; nor are any of these ruins of an age prior to
Mahometanism. The city stands in a plain about .-^ix miles from the hills, and aifords an abundant
supply of bricks to the inhabitants of the surrounding country. A stone of white marble is still
shown in the citadel, which is said to have been the throne of Kyamoors. These are the only towns
in the country ; there are some large villages, but none which contain more than 2500 inhabitants.
The villages are also few, and widely separated from each other ; they amount to about 400, and the
whole population of the kingdom is estimated by Burnes not to exceed 1,000,000, one half of which
are nomadic tribes. The villages are fortified with mud walls ; and in the cultivated parts of the
country, single habitations, called robats, are scattered here and there, and invariably surrounded by
walls.
KHUXDnz or Koosdooz occupies a valley to the south of the Amoo, lying among low hills which
extend about 30 miles from east to west, and about 40 from north to south ; the climate is most insa-
lubrious, the heat is excessive, and yet the snow lies for three months during winter. It produces
rice, wheat, and barley, apricots, plums, cherries, and mulberries. The town, of the same name,
cannot boast of a population of more than 1500. The neighbouring districts do not partake of this
unhealthiness, but have in general a pleasant climate, and a rich and prolific soil. Bt'DUKUsHAX or
Badakhshas, called also Fyzabad, is situate to the east of Kunduz, to whose meer or chief it is
now subject. It lies higher up the Amoo, and is celebrated by both natives and foreigners for its vales,
its rivulets, romantic scenes and glens, fruits, flowers, and nightingales. This celebrated country is
now almost without inhabitants ; it was lately overrun by the chief of Kunduz ; its ruler was de-
throned, the peasantry driven out of the country, and a rabble of lawless soldiery quartered in its
provinces. The natives are Taujiks, very fond of society, and so hospitable that it is said bread is
never sold in the country. Their language is Persian, which they speak with the broad pronunciation
of a native of Iran. Budukhshan has acquired great celebrity for its ruby mines, which are still
worked, but are not very productive. There are also mines of lapis lazuli near the head of the valley
of the Koktcha river, about liO miles E. by S. of Kunduz. Of its capital, Fyzabad, once so cele-
brated throughout the East, scarcely a vestige is left, except the withered trees which once orna-
mented its gardens.
To the north of Kunduz and Budukh.shan, and beyond the Amoo, are the small hill states of Hitar
Koolab, Durwax, Shoo/rnan, and H'ukkan ; the whole of which are mountainous. Hisar is finely
watered, and is a rice country, independent of Bokhara and Kunduz; and its capital, of the same name,
stands on a rising ground, 2G0 miles E.S.E. of Bokhara. The whole population of these states is
Mahometan.
Between Budukhshan and Yarkhand or larkhend, in the Chinese territory, lies the high plain of
Pamir or Pamer, Inhabited by the Kirghiz. In the centre of the table-land is the lake Sir-i-kol, from
which the Amoo flows. The plain extends all round the hike for six days' journey ; and all the moun-
tains aredescribed as being reflected in its waters. Pamiris aflat tract, intersected by shallow ravines,
and covered with short, but rich pasture. The climate is very cold, and in summer the snow remains In
the hollows. The Taujiks call it /?am-(-rf«n!a/(, roof of the world. It is about 15,600 feet abovethelevel
of the sea, bordered and intersected by mountains 2000 to 3000 feet higher. This elevated tract is
common to India, China, and Turkestan ; and from it, as a central point, their principal rivers flow ; it
is also the centre from which their mountains radiate. From Pamir the ground sinks in every direc-
tion, except to the south east, where similar filateaus extend along the northern face of the Hima-
layas into Thibet —C ft'ood I Jnnrney to the tource of the Ortis. Lond. 1841.) The inhabitants are
nomadic Kirghiz, who cover their whole bodies, even their hands and faces, with sheepskins, to pro-
tect them from the severity of the cold. There is no grain in the country, and the people live entirely
on flesh and milk. They do not even know the useof flour ; and when it is given tliem they mix it with
their soup, but never bake it into bread. Captain Burnes heard of an animal called rass by the Kir-
ghiz, and koo.ihffar by the low country people, which was said to be peculiar to Pamir. It is larjjer
than a cow, but smaller than a horse, of a white colour, with hair hanging under its chin, aiid its
head is crowned with very large horns ; which are indeed said to be so large that a niiin cannot
lift a pair of them ; and when left on the groinid, the small foxes tiring forth their young in the ill^ide
of them 1 The flesh of this wonderful animal is much prized by the Kirghiz, who kill it with ar-
rows. A common-sized rass requires two horses to carry home its carcase ; it is said to delight in the
coldest climate. The two-himiped camel is also indigenous to Pamir, and the ij a k enjoys the snows
of all the neighbouring mountains
KnoKASn. Koka.n, or Ieroiia.nai!, the country of the celebrated Sultan Habcr, the founder of the
Mogul empire in India, lies north-east of Bokhara, from which it appears to bo separated by the Ak-
tagn, or Asferah mountains. It occupies the upper valleys of the Sir and its aflluents, and is a much
smaller territory than Bokhara. It is ruled by an Usbcck khan, who claims to be of the same lineage
w't.i Baber, but his power is on the decline. The country is cclelwated for its silk ; and its other produce
JSO : DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Turkestan.
Is much the same as that of Bokhara. The capital is Kokan, an open town on the Sir, ahout half the
size of Bokhara ; the ancient capital is Marghikin, still a large and fine city, some miles to the south-
east of Kokan. Jndejan, on the Sir, is likewise a town of considerable note ; and the Chinese of
Yarkand call all the people who visit them from the westward Indcjanees. Tashkend, an ancient
and flourishing city 86 miles N.N. W. of Kokan, is described by the Siberian merchants who visit it, as
a large town of 80,000 inhabitants. Unaccustomed as they are to extremes of climate, these travellers
complain vehemently of the oppressive heat of Taslilcend. Its whole wealth consists in the produce of
the soil ; yet that soil would soon be annexed to the desert, were it not for the industry of the inhabi-
tants. Every vegetable substance grown in Tashkend, the mulberry-trees to leed the siik-worms. the
fruit-trees, even the trees reared for fuel, are. with the humbler vegetables, all planted in gardens,
watered by canals from the little river Cherchik, which tlows at 12 miles distance. The staple article
of produce is cotton, in the manufacture of which more than half the population are employed ; but,
owing to the rudeness of their processes, the Russians, notwithstanding the long land carriage, can
supply them with manufactured goods at a cheaper rate than thi-y can make them. Turkestan, a town
of 1000 rnud houses, defended by a fort, and ditch 15 feet deep. Och, at the foot of the Tukht-i-Suleiman
mountain, is a town frequented by numerous pilgrims, who come to pay their devotions at a small
square building on the top of the mountain. Tradition states that Solomon sacrificed a camel on this
spot, where the blood is still shewn on a stone which is quite red. It is, however, much frequented by
people suffering from rheumatism and other acute diseases, who are said to be cured by stretching
themselves on a flat stone near the building. Khnje7id, on the bank of the Sir, is a fortress" surroimded
with fields and gardens, like Bokhara. The Kokanese wear skull-caps instead of turbans. The khan
keeps up an intercourse with Russia and Constantinople ; but there is no friendly feeling towards the
rulers of Yarkhand.
The Khanat of Khiva (sometimes spelled Chiva) and more generally called Orgunje by its in-
habitants, lies about 200 miles W.N.W. of Bokhara. It is a small but fertile territory, occupying the
delta of the Amoo, and surrounded by deserts. The inhabited part is about 200 miles from north to
south, and about half as much from east to west ; it claims the dominion of the deserts which border
the Caspian, has of late years established its supremacy over the Turcoman hordes south of the
Amoo, and holds Merve, which lies on the high road between Khorassan and Bokhara. It is the an-
cient Kharism or Charism, and is mentioned by Arrian under the name of the country of the Cho-
rasmii. It contains only two places of note, Kew Orgiinje and Khiva ; the former of which is the
commercial capital, the latter the residence of the khan. Xew Orgunje ( Urghendj or Ourghendj)
stands on a canal derived from the Amoo, about six miles from the river, and has a population of about
12,000. It is distant from Bokhara about 300 miles W.N.W. A'Ai'jia is a modern town, about half the
size, situate also on a canal, about 60 miles S.W. of New Orgunje; and is the greatest slave market
of Turkestan. The country of the Kara-kalpaks, lying along the Sir, whose inhabitants are nomadic
in summer, and stationary in winter, is subject to Khiva, but contains no place of any importance.
The people of Khiva carry on the slave trade to a great extent ; they make forays into Persia, and
seize the subjects of Russia on the Caspian ; they supply Bokhara and the whole of Turkestan with
slaves, and are said to possess about 2000 Russian slaves. But while the Khivans are thus robbing in
every direction, they grant protections to caravans on payment of fixed duties. The Russian cabinet
has long attempted, but without success, to form a connexion with Khiva, not only for commercial
purposes, but for the suppression of the practice of enslaving its subjects. There is great hostility
to Russia in the minds of the Khivans, and it would be most dangerous to appear in the character
of a Russian in their country. The Russians recently attempted, in the winter of 1839-40, to march
an army of 20,000 men to Khiva, through the Ust-urt ; but, after losing all their camels and many
men, through the extreme severity of the cold, the wreck of the armament was obliged to return to
Orenburg ; and, instead of repeating the attempt, the Russian government has been content to enter
into a treaty, one condition of which is, that the Kivans shall no more enslave Russian subjects.
Turkmania is the country lying south of the Amoo, or Turkestan Proper, stretching from Balkh
to the Caspian, and occupying the space between that sea and the Aral. On the south it is bounded
by hills, which are a continuation of the Hindoo-koh, and the Paropamisan Mountains. On the south-
eastern shore of the Caspian, where Turkmania adjoins Persia, the country is mountainous, and
watered by the rivers Gurgan and Attruk, which fall into that sea. In all other places it is a flat and
sandy desert, scantily supplied with water. Tlie streams which flow from the mountains are speedily
absorbed by the sand, and never reach the Amoo. The largest of these, is the Milrghab or river of
Merve, and the Tejend, which passes Shurukhs. The country contains no towns or villages, for the
Turcomans are an erratic tribe, who wander from one well to another with their herds and flocks, taking
their conical khirgahs or huts along with them. The desert is a vast ocean of sand, flat in some places,
and rising in others into mounds, which, in the neighbourhood of the Caspian, reach the height of 60
or 80 feet. There is little difficulty in crossing them, and the wells, though few and distant, otter their
supply of water at no great depth from the surface, seldom more than 40 feet. The Turcomans boast
that they rest under the shade of neither king nor tree. They acknowledge the patriarchal sway of
their Aksakals ( Whitebeards) or elders, and now and then, in some places, fall under the power of the
neighbouring nations. Tlie life of a Turcoman is passed in the most reckless plunder of property and
human beings ; and a proverb among them boasts that a Turcoman on horseback knows neither
father nor mother. They have fortunately no supreme ruler to guide or direct their united eflorts, a
circumstance which lessens their power and the effects of their barbarity. They belong to the great
family of the Turkee or Tartar race, and differ from the Usbecks in being exclusively a nomadic
people. They all claim a common lineage, though they are divided into different tribes, to some of
which they concede a greater degree of honour than to others. Their total number is reckoned at
about 140,000 families. They have neither science nor literature; they are even without mosques,
though not altogether without religion ; they are a warlike people, and their domestic habits fit them
for battle. Their food is simple, consisting of the milk and the flesh of their herds and flocks. They
bestow great care on their horses, which attain a noble perfection in this country, and in the countries
north of the Hindoo-koh. The climate is favourable to the constitution of the animal, and the people
exhibit the most patient solicitude in its breeding and food ; so that its best qualities are fully de-
veloped. The Turcoman horse is, however, a large and bony animal, more remarkable for strength
and power than for synmietry and beauty.
In the midst of Turkmania, between Bokhara and Persia, lies the once fertile land of Merve, the
capital of which is said to have been built by Alexander. It is yet styled Merve or Meru-shah-i-jehan,
king of the world. It long continued a dependancy of the Persian empire, and rose to be a great and
opulent country, producing a hundred fold, while its wheat fields furnished three successive crops
from the tame seed. Such was its condition, when it was conquered in 1787 by Shah MCirad of
Bokhara, who destroyed its castle and canals, and forcibly marched the greater part of its people to
Bokhara, where they still form a separate community. At a later period the remnant of the population
was driven into Persia ; and this beautiful district, wliich once presented so striking a contrast to the
rest of the country, now partakes of the general sterility, while the Turcomans have usurped the
place of its once fixed population. The fields on the verge of the Murghab alone are cultirated, and
here the Turcomans still rear the finest wheat, juwaree, and excellent melons.
RcssuN Abu.] ASIA. 781
RUSSIAN ASIA.
The Russian empire in Asia comprehends several countries and provinces of vast extent, which
may be arranged in two distinct portions, the Caucatian Provinces, and Siberia.
§ 1. Caucasian Provinces.
Though the Caucasus has been assumed by modern geographers as the boundary between Europe
and Asia, yet, since the countries on both sides of the range form one natural region, and are included
ill one political government, we have found it necessary, in this particular, to pass the limits of Asia,
and intrude on those of Europe. The country we are about to describe has a very irregular outline,
and forms a sort of isthmus between the Black Sea and the Caspian. Its northern boundaries are
the rivers Kouma, Manytsh, and Kougoi-Ieia; the western the Sea of Azov, the Strait of Yenil^aleh,
and the Black Sea; the southern, Turkish Armenia, the river Aras, and Persian Az.crbijan; the
eastern, the Caspian Sea ; comprising an area of more than 200,000 English square miles. The principal
feature of the country is the celebrated mountain chain of Caucasus, which extends across it from near
Anapa on the Black Sea to the peninsula of Abcheron on the Caspian, a distance of more than 700
milei, with a breadtli varying from about GO miles to about 120. The highest part of the cliain lies
to the east of Mount ElbQrz, 43^ E., and contains numerous summits which rise above tlie snow-line
(sie ante, p. 628, 629, and 633) ; but, in the peninsula of Abcheron, the chain sinks down to the ap-
pearance of moderate hills. Tlie culminating point is usually named by European naturalists Elbiirz
or Elborus ; that, liowever, is not the distinctive name of any of the summits, but is only the common
Circasian appellation of all snow-capt mountains. The proper Circassian name of tliat lofty peak is
Otha-makhua (mountain of happiness); tlie Abbassians call it OrJ'eif-Guhli (lieavenly mountain,
or mountain of the Great Spirit); and the Tartar?, I/tUt- I'/uipftar (mountain of stars). All the
neighbouring tribes consider it as the residence of the Chin-Padisliah, or emperor of the Jins — (Spen-
cer's ii'edern Caucasus, I. 111.) Westward from Elburz the chain extends to the north-west, parallel
to the shores of the Black Sea, at a distance of 20 or 30 miles, presenting in its eastern portion a series
of granitic and porphyritic summits, flanked by shapeless masses of black schist, over wliich rises a
wall of Jurassic limestone, to the height of 7000 or 8000 feet (French), cleft by deep ravines, tlirough
which the collected waters flow. Advancin'^ from Colchis it is still separated from the sea by a uni-
form plain 7 or 8 leagues wide, wliich runs along its base for a space of 30 leagues, becoming gradually
narrower, as far as the height of Gagra, where tlie Jurassic wall approaches the sea with its full ele-
vation, leaving only a pass nearly as narrow as the Grecian Thermopylae, whicli is a sandy flat, in
some parts only lifty feet wide. Fartlier west the summits decline in elevation, and change their
geological character; the black schists and the Jurassic limestone are gradually concealed beneath
the waves of the Black Sea, or under vast l)eds of a clialk formation, which here terminates the Cau-
casus. There are no longer peaks white with snow ; but, in their stead, low, round, woo<led hills
are found ranging along a deep sea coast, cut into a multitude of narrow lateral valleys, wliich are
watered by uniiavigalile streams. Tlie sea it.^^elf is bordered by a long series of white or grey shelv-
ing rocks, whicli are lashed by its waves.— ('.V. Dubois; Bulletin de la Snciete de Geographic/ue, Paris,
Acril 1837, p. 240. ) The Western Caucasus is named by the Circassians Kuschkaa, and by the Kussians
Chirnigori (black mountains), from their being densely covered with forests; and to distinguish them
from the lofty snow-capt range, of which Klburz forms the principal peak. Towards the banks of
the Kouban the mountain valleys open into a plain, a considerable part of which is covered with
fortjsts, while the acclivities, glens, plains, and river banks arc embellished with cypresses of the
growth of centuries, palm-trees, plantains, maples, elms, firs, alders, and poplars. The right or
northern bank of the Kouban presents a very different scene, and contains a tract as wild, desolate,
and woodless, as the mind can conceive. The soil of the mountain valleys is rich and well-watered,
and wants only human industry to render it highly productive. At present, however, a great portion
of it is overgrown with wild herbs, and is used only for pasturage. The same description, indeed,
will apply, with little variation, to the country farther east, along the whole range of the mountains.
To the north of the Kouban and the Terek extends a wide plain, containing scarcely any elevation
which deserves the name of hill ; and the water.'^hed of the country between the two seas rises pro-
bably no higher in its northern part than 120 feet above the level of the Black Sea. The western
part of this plain is intersected by ravines, in which flow small streams ; it contains not a single tree,
but is covered with excellent grass, interspersed with beautiful flowers. The eastern portion, from
the Terek to the Volga, is a saline, sandy, and barren steppe, occupied by a few wandering Tartars,
and exhibits every apijearance of liaving formerly been a part of the bed of the Caspian Sea. Along
the Caspian, southward from the mouth of the Terek to the point of Abcheron, lies the liachestait
(hill country), which consists of a numerous succession of hills and valleys, formed by the offsets of
the Caucasus. Its south-western bordt-r is the main range itself; but the northern part of its western
border consists of a long offset, which divides the bed of the river Koisou, whicli flows north, from
the smaller streams that flow directly east to the Caspian.
The southern slopes of the Central and Eastern Caucasus subside into two great valleys or river
basins ; the one, extending .■!.30 miles north-west from the Casjiian sea, with a mean breadth of about
7.1 miles, is drained by the river Kur and its numerous affluents ; the other extending only about 120
miliS from the watershed, westward to the Black Sea, is drained by the river Kioni and its afliuent.s.
The mountains of Karalini, which form the watershed between these (treat valleys, are of com-
paratively small elevation, and rise only to 6000 feet ; but, as the range extends westward, along the
Bouthcrn side of the basin of the Kloni, towards the mouth of the Choruk, under the name of tho
mountains of Akhaltsike, the suuimits reach in some places an elevation of 10,000 feet. The southern
side of tlie basin of the Kur is formed by n high mountainous country, which contains in its bosom
the great lake GCikcha or Sivan ; and one of the summits, Ali-Gliuz, rises to the height of 12,000
feet. To the south of these mountains we find the long narrow valley of the river Aras. wliich
forms, throughout the Kreatcr part of its course, the boundary between the Hussian and the Pei-
«ian territories. Towards the mouth of the river the boundary line diverces from it, croFsing the
desert of .Mogain or Mogan, and extending southwards along a ridge of lieights, whicli form tho
watershed of the small strijims that flow to the Caspian, and ending on the shore near Astarah or
Fort St Nikolaia, 6') miles S. from the mouth of the Kur.
The Caucasus forms an immense wall between the northern and the southern portions of the coun-
try. There are, however, several pas-ses across the ranxe, the most celebrated ot' which are the Past
of D'triel. In VP E. long., Ixlieved to be the Caucasian pass of the ancients ; and the ytlbiinian Past
of antiquity, which is generally supposed to be the road that now goes along the shores of the Caspian
8ea, by Der )ent and Baku, though Malte Brun aftinns it to be that whith now proceeds along the
782 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Russian
banks of (he Koisou, crossing tlir mountains to the eastward of Mounts Tersh and Kara-kia, in 46°
20' E. long. From the fortress of Aladikaukas, on tlie Terek, the Pass of Dariel extends soutliward
along tlie banks of that river, reaching the lieiglit of 8000 feet, from wliich it again descends to the fort
of Passanaour, erected for the protection of travellers, and thence proceeds along the valley of tho
Aragbor river to Tefiis. Between Passanaour and the fort of Kasibeg, on the northern side of the
Bumniit, the mountains rise several thousand feet above the pass, and in some places the road runs
along the edge of an abyss, which seems to be as deep as the mountains above it are high ; while the
difficulties of the traveller are often increased by the fail of avalanches, or the sudden swelling of the
mountain torrents. The other passes are comparatively unimportant; that by Derbent is little
frequented, for, though it does not pass over mountains, it is everywhere interrupted by numerous tor-
rents wliich often overflow their banks, and render travelling dangerous. The rivers are few, and
comparatively unimportant. The Kouban (ancient Greek Hupanis, Latin Hypanis), rises in a valley
between Mount Elburz and the main chain of the Caucasus, and flows first north-west, and then west
to the Black Sea, which it enters a little to the east of the Strait of Yenikaleh. It receives all the
waters that pour down from the northern valleys of the Caucasus, between Mount Klburz and tho
Black Sea ; the length of its course is about 480 miles. The Terek rises from the foot of Mount Kaz-
bek, flows lirst north through the lower northern part of the pass of Dariel, then north-west till it
join the Malka, where the united stream turns nearly due east, and enters the Caspian Sea by a num-
ber of mouths. It receives all the waters between Elburz and the valley of the Koisou, and has a
course of more than 300 miles. The Kouma rises from the northern side of Elburz, flows first north-
erly, and then east towards the Caspian, which it formerly reached after a course of 320 miles; but
it is now absorbed by the sands before it reach the sea, its empty channel being still visible for about
100 versts. The Manytsh has its origin in a number of small lakes or marshes to the north of the
Kouma, flows north-west, forms the large lake Bolchoilmen, and falls into the Don near Tscherkask,
in the country of the Don Cossacks. The Kiir t^Kuros of the Greek, and Cyrus of the Latin geogra-
Ehers) rises in the Turkish eyalet of Kars to the north-west of the city of the same name. It flows
rst in a north-easterly direction, till it reaches the slopes of Caucasus, which turn it to the south-
east, a course which it continues till it enters the Caspian. Its course is .5.50 miles. The Jras ( Araxes
of the Greeks and Latins), a larger river than the KGr, rises from the Bingoldagh, 35 miles S. of
Erzroum, and flows easterly, south-easterly, and then north-east, into the Kur. These two rivers
receive considerable affluents from both sides of their respective valleys, and, in the lower part of
their courses, form or communicate with a long string of lakes and swamps, which appear to have
formed, at one time, a part of their bed. The Riani ( I^hasis) rises to the south-east of Elburz, and
flows to the Black Sea, collecting the waters of the southern slopes of Caucasus between the 42d and
the 44th meridians. Its principal affluent is the Zirouln, from the eastern part of the valley.
This region, except the portion to the north of the Kouban, which is part of the Government of
Taurida, forms one general government of the Russian empire; the governor-general of which has
his residence at Teflis, tlie capital of Georgia. It includes several ancient kingdoms, states, and
provinces, whose names and people have acquired historical celebrity; and these it is necessary to
consider as still the proper geographical divisions of the country, though the arrangements of the
Russian Government may be dili'erent. The ancient divisions are, 1 . Georgia. 2. Shirwan, Shirran or
Guirtian. 3. The Russian portions of .Armenia and Jzerbijan. 4. Imeritia, Mingrelia, and part of
G&riel. b. Abassia. 6. Circassia. 7. Daghestati and Lesghistan. 8. The old Russian province of Cait-
casia, comprehending the country between the Kouma on the north, and the Upper Kouban and the
Terek on the south and west.
1. Georgia (the Persian Gurgistan, the Russian Gnwi'nr, and the Turkish G»(rWii) though formerly
of greater extent, may now be considered as comjirising the north-western or upper portion of the
basin of the Kflr, and is about 240 miles in length, by 120 in breadth. The Kflr flows nearly through
the middle of it, carrying all its surplus waters to the Caspian. The country presents an agreeable
variety of mountains, forests, and plains, enjo.vs a very mild temperature, and is in general very
healthy. The people cultivate wheat and millet ; peaches, apricots, almonds, quinces, cherries, figs,
and pomegranates, flourish with very little care. The vines are abundant, and of good quality ; but
the wine is not well made. Apples, madder, and cotton are also cultivated. The people boast of their
management of bees ; their horses and beeves equal the best European breeds in size and beauty ; and
their long-tailed sheep atford excellent wool. The finest oaks and firs are suffered to rot without
being applied to any use. The Georgians speak a language radically different from every other known
tongue ; but they believe themselves to be descended from the same stock with the Armenians. They
are generally handsome, well made, and active; and possess good natural abilities, but are selfish, and
addicted to drinking. The beauty of their women is not less celebrated than that of the Circassians,
though their skins are not so white, nor their figure so graceful ; and many of them are, or used to be
exported to Persia and Turkey, for the supply of the harems. Many of the Georgians live in huts half
concealed in the ground ; but in the more civilized parts of the country are found houses formed of a
slight wooden frame, walls made of bundles of osiers, covered with a mixture of clay and cow dung,
and surmounted by a roof of rushes. In almost all the villages there are towers, built to serve as
asylums for the women and children against the attacks of the Lesghis. About two-thirds of the
people are proper Georgians, attached to the ritual of the Greek Church ; Armenians and Jews are
also numerous. Georgia was formerly a fi udal monarchy, subdivided among princes and nobles, the
former of whom paid no contributions, but were obliged during war to follow the king with their
vassals. Their lawsuits were also decided by the king. The nobles paid certain taxes to both the
king and the princes ; and although they dwelt in thatched cottages, their pride was equal to their
poverty and their ignorance. Under these rulers the people lived in the most abject slavery; they
were sold, given away, or pledged, like domestic animals. / 11 who were capable of bearing arms
were soldiers ; each noble commanded his own vassals, but the king named the commander-in-chief.
The king's revenues consisted of the fifth part of the produce of the vineyards, fields, and gardens ;
with duties on all exports and imports, as well as the produce of the mines, which were but slightly
worked. Georgia being protected by mountains, escaped the great Tartar devastations ; but for the
last three centuries, it has been the scene of almost continual warfare; and, though now under the
regular government of Russia, it has experienced so little improvement that its public revenues are
not sufficient to defray the necessary expenses.
Teflis, Tiflis, or Tibilisi, the capital, stands nearly in the centre of the country, on tho right bank of
the Kflr. It was destroyed in 1796 by Aga Mahommed Khan, the King of Persia, but has been gra-
dually rebuilt, with considerable taste ; the remaining portions of the old town are ill built, and con-
tain narrow and irregular streets. The houses of tlie richer classes alone have glass windows ;
the poorer people are content with oiled paper. In the new town, however, there are wide streets,
fine squares, large barracks, well-managed hospitals, vast caravansaries, and large and fine buildings
for the accommodation of the governor and his assistants and deputies. Among the older buildings
the cathedral is remarkable for its antiquity, its extent, and its architecture ; and the ancient citadel,
which is built on a high rock, presents an imposing mass of ruins. Teflis is the residence of the
governor-general of Caucasus, and of a Georgian and an Armenian archbishop ; it possesses a gym-
nasium, a seminary, several schools, and a botanic garden ; it has also four newspapers, which are pub-
lished in the languages of Russia, Georgia, Persia, and Armenia respectively. There are also cele-i
Asia.] ASIA. 788
brated warm baths, for which water is collected from springs in the neighbouring hills, and is said to
possess considerable medicinal virtue. The inhabitants are somewhat industrious, and carry on a
considerable trade; but their number, even including the large Russian garrison, does not amount to
30 090. Lat. 41° 41' N., long. 44- .50' E. The other principal towns are Douchfitt, 27 miles N. by W.
from Teflis; Gori, 4.5 miles N.W. ; Giinjah or Elizauetpol, 90 miles S.E. ; Telaci, 33 N.E. by E. ;
Signakk. 56 miles E. by 8.; Akhaltsike or ylkiska, 110 miles W. of Teflis, which was formerly the
capital of a Turkish pashalic, and contained 40,000 inhabitants, but now contains only about 13,000,
mostly Armenian emigrants from Turkey, who liave not yet fairly established themselves. It contains
several fine churches, and ruins. At Hertwis or Khartous, SO versts (33 miles) S.E. of Akhaltsike,
where the Trapovanie and the KQr form a junction, the country is completely volcanic. For a distance
of five miles up the KQr, every rock is composed of a series of volcanic blocks, with layers of solid lava,
from 20 to 100 feet in height, resting upon them. The traveller next reaches a circular valley, five or
six versts in diameter, through a narrow rent in which, .iO or GO feet deep, the river flows. In this quarter
small balls of volcanic ashes are incessantly thrown up in every direction ; which issue from the side of
an oval lake from 400 to 600 feet in length, and of fathomless depth, situate in the midst of wild sterile
blocks of lava ; the surface of its water is .50 feet above the Kiir, which runs close past it. Beyond tliis
lake the KQr continues to flow among volcanic rocks ; at the top of which, 1000 feet above the river,
stands the large fortress of the Armenian Queen Thamar ; and at the distance of four or five versts
from the entrance of the crater, is her favourite place of residence iVarzich, a most extraordinary spot.
It is a complete city, hewn out of volcanic stone ; and contains, among other works, three large
churches, entirely cut out of the rock, subterraneous passages several versts in length, innumerable
chambers, some of them finely sculptured, and Queen Thamar's summer and winter palaces.
2. Shirvax was formerly a province of Persia, but of very uncertain limits ; its northern boundary
was sometimes fixed at Baku, and sometimes considered to extend as far as Derbent. In its restricted
acceptation, it comprises the lower part of the basin of the Kur, between that river and the moun-
tains ; its climate and natural productions are very much the same as those of Georgia. It consists
chiefly of a fertile well-watered plain, which produces plentifully cotton, rice, wine, and fruits of
various kinds ; but along the shore of tlie Caspian there is a fiat tract which is nearly desert. The
inhabitants are chiefly .Mahometan Persians. The peninsula of Abcheron, though hilly, contains no
summit exceeding 1000 feet. The soil is rocky and barren, and its only water is brackish, and is obtained
from wells. There is not a tree in the peninsula ; but portions of the territory have a layer of mould,
on which wheat, barley, and maize, melons, and other fruit, rice and cotton, and, on the liigher ground,
saffron, are raised The soil is saturated with naplitba, from which gas is profusely exhaled. It not
only streams spontaneously through the surface but rises wherever a hole is bored. It is of two kinds,
black and white, and its principal sources are about six miles from BakCI. The black oil shines with
a reddish tint in the rays of the sun, and is used for burning, and for coating roofs. Not far from the
same spot a stream of white oil gushes from the foot of a hill ; it readily ignites, and burns on the sur-
face of water ; and in calm weather people amuse themselves with pouring it in quantities into the sea,
where they set fire to it, and it floats away, giving the waters the appearance uf a sea of fire. The
poor people of the neighbourhood obtain a cheap light, and fire for cooking, by driving a clay pipe or
a hollow reed into the ground, and burning the gas which rises through it. The Persian ghebers, like-
wise, send the gas in bottles to their friends at a distance. The burning field, near Baku, is a hollow
expanse, full of clefts coated with white sand and grey dust, and abounding with particles of sulpliur.
Some of the clefts are seen burning, some smoking, and others emitting only vapour. There is also,
not far from the town, a boiling lake which is in constant motion, and emits a flame without heat.
Occasionally the whole region seems to be on tire, as it rolls along the hills in enormous masses, and
with incredible velocity ; but this fire does not burn, and it is impossible to detect in it the smallest
heat. In ancient times this burning field was one of the most celebrated atesliyahs or shrines of grace
among the ghebers or fire worshippers of Persia; a spot to wliich thousands of pilgrims resorted
to purify themselves from sin. A few of them still find their way to it, and spend such a portion of
time, five, seven, or ten years, as they think necessary to acquire for themselves the character of sanc-
tity among their countrymen. Pilgrims come even from India to visit this sacred spot. The penin-
sula is likewise celebrated for numerous volcanoes which discharge immense quantities of mud.
Baku, the capital, is situate at the south-west corner of the peninsula of Abcheron, where the sea
Is land-locked by two islands, which render the roadstead a safe anchorage, even close to the shore.
The town is walled, and built on a declivity, the top of which is occupied by an old palace of the kings
of Persia. The streets are narrow and winding, and tlie population amounts only to about 3.'i00 or
4000. The exports consist of naphtha, saffron, cotton, silk, opium, rice, and salt. The district of
the town contains 35 villages, with iy,0()0 inhabitants, of whom 1000 are Turcomans.
To the south of Shirvan, and divided from it by the Kilr, tlie Russian territory includes a portion of
the Persian province of Ghilan, called Talish ; but there are no towns, or other places, of the least
Importance.
3. The Russian portions of Armenia and Azerbltax lie between Georgia on the north, and Mount
Ararat with the river Aras on the south; being together about 200 miles in length frmn N.W. to
S.E., and 130 in breadth. The country consists of a mass of mountains which form a congeries ot
volcanic amphiteatrcs, and here, as well as to the south of the Aras, crowding upon each other, fill
up the whole space between the Black Sea and the Caspian. One of the largest, of these amphi-
theatres is occupied by the most remarkable feature of Hussian Armenia, the great freshwater lake
GUkcha or Kukr/ia (properly Gokcheh-ilerya, the blue lake) called also Siian or Sevan, the surface
of which is .5300 feet above the level of the sta. Its greatest length, according to Colonel Monteith,
who travelled round it, is 47 English miles, while its breadth varies from G to 21 ; but according to
the late Russian trigonometrical survey, as reported by M. Dubois, its length is only 1,5 l-'rencli
leagues (41 j English miles), and its breadth 8 leagues f2li miles). In the north-western portion ol
the lake is an island called Scran, with a monastery, 1200 yards from the shore. In his passage across
this strait, Colonel Monteith lost soundings with 400 feet of line soon after pushing ott', and tlie lake
had the dark blue appearance of deep water. — {Journal H. (ieog. Sor. Lond. III. 40.) A branch of the
river Zengue, which passes Erivan, carries the surplus waters of the lake to the Aras. The lake is
entirely surrounded by extinct volcanoes, and by jets of various trap rocks and porphyries which
jleld small streamlets of water during the spring months. Immediately to the north west, but politi-
cally within the limits of Georgia, lies another great volcanic amphitheatre, that of Snmklioti, which
has no lake, but contains immense beds of lava and obsidian. The western border of this region, and
of the Russian territory, is formed by the /trpa-Ckni (barley river), which, accordini; to Colonel
Monteith, invariably presents the same feature of fli)wing in the deep bed of a basaltic ravine, with
numerous ruined castles, perched on abrupt rocks, till near its junction with the Aras; but according
to Smith and Dwight ( Musiunary Idsiarchi-t in ylrmmia, Sfc. London. IH31, i)p. 102, 2Gy), it presents
•t the place where they crossed it, at Giimri, not the shadow of a Imrrier to the advance of an army.
In their journey eastward tliey had entered a different empire almost before they were aware of it; as
both banks of the river presented the .sjime features of plain and gentle undulation, and the river itself
was easily forded. GCimrl, however, has since been fixed on as the site of a Russian fortress. Waving
flelds of barley on its eastern bank, interspersed with ineaduws, attracted their attention before they
knew they had crossed the boundary. .,^ The beautifully limpid water, scattered widely in artificial
784 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Russuii
canals, gives extreme fertility to a broad tract of land, which is well peopled, and presents an ani-
mated scene of villages, some of which appear to be large. The north-eastern part of this region,
occupying the angle formed by the Kfir and the Aras, aijove their confluence, is called KaraUiugh
(black garden), from the extreme fertility of the black aUuvial soil of the valley of the Kur which it
embraces. The rest of it is mountainous, and, in general, well wooded with a variety of forest trees ;
but in the heart of the mountains which form the walls, as we may call them, of the two river valleys,
is an extensive tiible-land entirely destitute of timber. — ( Smith and Dwight, i'lZ-i'i^-). ) Its waving
surface, however, is arable, and cultivated with grain throughout in long narrow fields without
fences ; but, as there is no moans of irrigating the soil artificially, the produce is i^canty, varying
from one to five fold, and four fold being the average crop. The table-land is intersected by
numerous ravines of great depth, whose precipitous sides bristle with numerous slender conts,
each capped with a rocU occasionally several tons in weight (judging from their size), and forming
the beds of streamlets of the purest water. The southern border of this table-land is formed by a
high mountain ridge which sinks abruptly on the opposite side down to the Aras, which forms, as
already mentioned, throughout the greater part of its course, the limit of Russian Armenia. Its
valley is much narrower than that of the Kftr; and the low grounds along its banks are in many
places swampy for miles in succession. The lower part of its course is through a succession of
defiles; and below Ouradabad the stream forces its way through a great chain of mountains, where
a road has been made which even now scarcely admits of a loaded mule passing on either bank.
Basaltic and volcanic rocks form everywhere the prevalent mineralogical features of its channel;
but in a valley four miles below its junction with the Arpa-chai, are situate the salt mines of Kulpia,
which have for many ages supplied Georgia and even the Caucasus with that necessary article. The
salt is so abundant that hitherto it has not been necessary to sink deep. A range of hills bordering
the valley on the east side appears to be entirely composed of salt, in the sides of which numerous
excavations have been made. The soil of the valleys of the Aras appears to be extremely fertile, but,
except in the lowest plains, nothing is produced without continual irrigation; and wliercver a canal
cannot be made to reach, not only is there no crop cultivated, but even grass seems scarcely to grow,
and unsightly saline weeds, covered with thorns, increase the appearance of general barrenness. If
it be true, as some have Imagined, that we are here to look for the site of Eden, certainly on no part
of the earth is the primeval curse more palpably inflicted than on the original paradise. No where is
it more true that man eats bread in the sweat of his brow, and nowhere are thorns and thistles more
spontaneously produced. The mountains around, instead of being covered with trees, as in the
Karabaugh, or clothed with verdant pastures, as at Krzroum, present only forbidding precipices of
rock or of earth, apparently without even a blade of grass. Tlie whole scene of valley and mountain
alfords not a tree, except in the immediate vicinity of the villages. — ( Smith and Divight, 270.) Di-
rectly south of Erivan a small portion of the Russian territory extends to the youth-westward of the
Aras, and in the south-west corner of this portion stands the famous mountain Maris or Jgri-Dagh
or Ararat. Its peak rises to the height of n.'lQ'^ English feet (2700 toises, by Parrot's measurement)';
M. Dubois makes it 1G,'2.54 French feet; and the smaller peak he makes 12,102. Sixty miles N. by W.
of Ararat the mountain Ali-Ghuz rises to the height of 12,000 French feet, capped with perpetual
snow, and forms the northern termination of a superb garland, as M. Dubois calls it, of extinct vol-
canoes which enclose the basin of Ararat or central Armenia, over the whole circumference of which
nothing is to be seen but black and grey lava currents, with pumice or obsidian, along with scorite
and basalt, or trass, intermixed with porphyries and melaphyres. In July 1810 Ararat and the
neighbouring country were shattered by a tremendous earthquake.
Erivan, lat 40° 9' 30" N., long. 44° 33' E., the capital of the province of Rvissian Armenia, is situate
in a rugged valley, on the east bank of the Zengue or Zenghi or Zengy river, the outlet of lake
Giikcha. It is a sm,all city without walls, but has good houses, and contains about 1800 Moslem,
and 700 Armenian families, or about 12,000 inhabitants. Tlie citadel is at the distance of about a
quarter of a mile to the south, and is almost a distinct town. Surrounded on the north by arid
mountains, which concentrate the sun's rays, the climate of Erivan is extremely hot in summer, and
proverbial for intermittent fevers and liver complaints. The soil, however, is extremely fertile, and
Erivan is not less famous for its fruits tlian for its diseases. All the sunny hills which border the
valley are covered with vines. Some places are so warm as to allow them to remain exposed to the
air all the winter, but generally they are slightly covered with leaves or straw during that season.
The melons and apples are also uncommonly fine. The trade of the place seems to be in a languishing
condition; and the population is said to be declining since the Russian conquest. About 12 miles
west from the city is the convent of Etchmiadziti, the ecclesiastical capital of t!ie Armenians, and
the residence of their catholicos or spiritual primate. It is surrounded by a high wall, fianked with
circular towers, which give it externally the appearance of a fortress ; within, it is a city in minia-
ture, containing an ancient church, rebuilt a,d. (118, and other buildings. Nakhckenan or Kah-h-
chiva, 80 miles S.E. by E. from Erivan, claims the honour of being the oldest city in the world.
Armenian etymology shows that the name signifies "first place of descent;" and tradition affirms
that Noah fixed his residence here after descending from Ararat. The city was almost entirely
ruined during the last war, and is not yet recovering. Around it are numerous gardens of extreme
luxuriance, which produce abundance of quinces, pears, apples, melons, pomegranates, grapes, and
almonds; but, like Erivan, Nakhchevan is as noted for its sickliness as for its fertility, though it is
situated about two fursukhs, or 8 miles, from the Aras, on a higher level than the alluvial and marshy
plain which borders the river. Twenty miles, in a straight line, farther down the Aras, and at the
south end of a strong defile, is Jii/fa, an ancient city, destroyed by Shah Abbas the great, who carried
its inhabitants to Ispahan, where the suburb which they occupied still bears the same name. About
20 miles north-west of Nakhchevan, is the supposed site of ylrtaxata, jin ancient capital of Armenia,
destroyed by the Roman general Corbulo, in the reign of Nero. I'alarsapat or I'agharshahfid, anotl er
ancient capital, now a village of about 500 mud cabins, stands close by the walls of Ktchmiadzin.
There are several other ruined cities in different parts of the province. Skoiisha or Clioucheh (in
Armenian Shoushi), the capital of Karabaugh, 124 miles E. by S. of Erivan, is a mountain formed
into a natural castle, surrounded by very deep precipitous ravines. The town contains about 2000
houses, built of stone, frequently two storeys high, and open to the street.
4. I.MF.RITIA, JIiNGREiiA, and that part of Gvriel within the Russian territory, occupy the whole
basin of the Rioni ; the northern border be'ng formed by the Caucasus, the eastern by the mountains
of Kartalini, the southern, by those of Aklialtsike, and the western, by tlie Hlack Sea. The mean length
is above 120 miles from east to west, and the greatest breadth, at the 42° meridian, above 60, The soil
is extremely fertile, but little cultivated, and the country is covered throughout with thick forests.
Owing to this last circumstance, as is supposed, the climate is so humid that it rains from 120 to 1.50
days in the year. The lower part of the country, next the sea, is a dead unvaried fiat, full of
swamps and marshes, producing a constant nuasma, the fertile source of pestilential fever-. The
people are of the Georgian race, and amount only to about l.')0,0y0. Imeritia is dir. ctly under the
Russian government, but Mingrelia and Guriel still have their respective princes, who acknowledge
the emperor's supremacy, but even their countries are filled with Cossack police stations ; and
the insecurity to person and property, so vividly described by Chardin, who passed tiirough the
Asia.] ASIA. 785
country in 1672, has given way to perfect quiet and security. Decided measures have been adopted,
with success, to restrain the sale of slaves, and the condition of the peasantry has been greatly im-
proved. Still, with the exception of a few merchants, the population is divided into only two classes,
the nobility and the slaves, the former being the owners of the land, and the latter performing all the
work. But as the noble can no longer deprive his serf of his life or limbs, nor sell him to a foreign
master, slavery has assumed a somewhat milder form ; and the master and slave live together on al-
most equal terms. Some of the nobles can read a little Russian, but they are unacquainted with their
own language. Drunkenness prevails to an incredible e.\tent ; and scarcely any limits are set to un-
chastity in its most offensive and sinful forms. The sacredness and validity of an oath are unknown.
K'houthaissi, Kotais, Kotatis, Coutait, or Koutais, the capital, stands on the Rioni, in an unhealthy
situation, where the river first reaches the plain, nearly in the centre of the province. It is a small
town with about 1600 inhabitants, nearly one-half of whom are Jews. Tlie split and naked rocks
which rise above the town are covered with ruins of every description, temples, churches, bridges,
aqueducts, towers, &c. overgrown with ivy, brambles, and pomegranate bushes, being all that re-
mains of the ancient c'tyA'Mto or Cutasium, the birth-place of Medea, so celebrated in classic my-
thology for her share in the success of the Argonautic expedition. Foti, a fort near the mouth of
the Phasis, on the Black Sea. Redout -Kaleh, a small fortified town, about 10 miles north from the
Phasis, on the coast. The roads are unsafe, and there is no harbour. It occupies an unhealthy situa-
tion, and owes its existence to the commercial privileges granted in 1821, for ten years, to the Trans-
caucasian provinces. While these privileges existed, the merchants of Teflis, who visit the German
fairs, used to send their purchases, generally by way of Odessa or Trieste, to this port; but in con-
sequence of the restrictions and prohibitive duties since imposed by the Russian government, the
traide has been transferred to Trebizond, and Redout-Kaleh is now ahiiost deserted.
5. Abassia or Abkhaz lies along the north-east coast of the Black Sea, between the shore and
the summits of Caucasus, being about 260 miles in length and less than 30 of average breadth. It is
also called the Great Abassia, to distinguish it from another region named the Little Abassia, on the
northern side of the mountains, towards the sources of the Kouban. The country is fertile though
very mountainous ; very moderate labour produces rich crop?, and the herds of cattle are nume-
rous and productive. It is possessed by wild independent tribes, who have set the Russian power at
defiance ; and though the Russians mark on their maps nearly half the country as subject, yet their
authority is in reality acknowledged no farther than their arms can reach. The Abassians were for-
merly well known as pirates on the Black Sea. Many of them used to prosecute tlieir fortunes in
Egypt, where they rose by their bravery to eminent military rank : the greater number of the Mamelukes
were natives of this country. Their women are beautiful, and much sought after in Turkey, where
they generally pass for Circassians. The chief towns and forts are : Anapa, a small town and fortress
45 miles S.E. by E. of the Strait of Yenikaleh, which is in possession of the Russians. It was for-
merly the chief emporium of the Turkish trade with the Caucasian tribes, and from it the Georgian
and Circassian slave girls were supplied. Sonjouk-kaleh, a ruined fortress occupying an important
position on a splendid bay which affords safe anchorage, 25 miles S. by E. of Anapa. Ghelenjik, 10
miles farther S.E., is a Russian fort formed of intrencliments and palisadoes mounted with heavy
guns, and contains a garrison of 2000 men. It has one of the best harbours in the Black Sea. About
15 miles farther S.E. is the bay of Pihad or Pshiate (French I'chad or Pchiate), where the Russians
are said to have lately (1837) erected a fort. Vadran, 50 miles S.E of Ghelenjik, is also occupied by
a fort. Pitzounda, 80 miles S.E. of Vadran, where the Russians have a fort, two miles from the coast,
to which, says Spencer, the road leads through a forest of splendid trees of oak, beech, and chestnut;
with wild olives, figs, and pomegranates in full bloom, and vines of enormous growth wreathed from
tree to tree. Soukgnum-kaleh or Souchom- Kaleh, 30 miles S.K. of Pitzounda, and in the south-west
SJigle formed by the intersection of the meridian 41^ E. with the 43"^ N. lat., is a miserable spot, more
fatal than any other to the Russian garrison. When in possession of the Turks it is said to have
contained a population of 30OO ; but it has now decreased to little more than a dozen of wretched
huts, inhabited by a few Greeks and Armenians. There is also a square fort in a very dilapidated
state, but fully mounted with cannon.
6. CiRCASSi A extends along the north side of the Caucasus, from the seaof Azof to the Upper Terek;
but, by the gradual progress of Russian encroachment, the independent Circassians are now restricted
to the comparatively small region which lies between the Kouban and the mountain tops, forming some-
thing like a triangle of 220 miles in length from east to west, and 120 in its greatest breadth, ft com-
f irises the northern declivities of Caucasus, and sinks into a flat towards the banks of the Kouban. It
s possessed by a wild people who call themselves Adecket or Adekhes, a name denoting a mountain
ravine on the sea ; but their neighbours, the Nogai Tartars, call them TcherL-esses, a name which well
expresses the ferocity of their disposition, being derived from tsherk, to cut off, and kes, the head.
From this Nogai word is derived their European name of Circassians. They are divided into ten
tribes, whose habitat cannot be specified, as they often change their residence; their character eveti,
and condition are continually fluctuating accordmg to the character and circumstances of the settlers
who come among them. These tribes bear the names of certain rivers or districts, or of individual
founders, and number altogether, it is said, about 272,400 males. The only class of society is the
military; every head of a family being obliged to protect, as well as to cultivate, his own property.
Among some of the tribes, however, there is a sort of nobility, destitute of privilege or influence.
Some nave slaves, who are not natives, but captives in war, or purchased strangers. In former
times the Circassians were governed by despotic princes ; but, since 17C9, the government has
been vested in a sort of senate, or council of elders. Of these assemblies, there is'one in every sub-
division of a tribe, but their deliberations must be confirmed by the general assembly of the people,
which often ^overrules the decisions of the council. This state of things gives rise to continual
bickerings, animosity, and deadly hatred among the tribes. In religion the Circassians are Maho-
metans ; in respect of moral character, they are a set of lawless plunderers, who respect only those
of their own trilxi or lineage. The adjoining provinces can never prosper, while they have such
neighbours as these, who ere ever ready to harass, and rob, and murder the peacefully disposed citi-
zens ; and it is therefore the interest, if not the duty of the Russian government to extirpate or subdue
them. In external appearance, however, the Circassians arc a remarkably fine race, and their women
are reputed the most beautiful of the Caucasians. Their houses are formed of hurdles covered with
clay, and thatched with straw. Forty or fifty of such huts, arranged in a circle, form a village, in
the centre of which the cattle are placed for safety during the night. Their horses, which are con-
sidered inferior only to those of Arabia, roam freely in the fields, without ever entering a stable.
Their agriculture is in a state of primitive simplicity ; but the great fertility of the soil mnkts up for
their want of skill or industry. The management of bees is an important part of their rural economy.
The Circassian language differs much from those of the other Caucasian tribes. It is never written ;
and when a Circassian has occasion to send a letter, he applies to his mollah, who writes it for him in
the Turkish tongue. The original country of the Circassians is also called Kabardah, which is divided
into two portions, the Great and the Little ; the former comprising tlie basin of the Kouban ; tho
other, the upper and the middle parts of the basin of the Terek.
7. Daohrsta,"« and Lesohistan, comprise the mountainous cotintry which lies between the west
coast of the Caspian Sea, and the surarBits of the eastern Caucasus, as far west as the Koisou; and
3 D
786 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Russian
extends Into Georgia M far a» the Alazan, an affluent of the Kur. Along the ooast Daghestan ex-
tends from the Terek to Abcheron, a distance of 260 miles, while its greatest breadth, between the sea
and Mount Tersh, is about 100. The north-eastern part of Lcsghistan is included in this measure-
ment: but its southern portion extends beyond it, down the southern slopes of the mountains. As
the name Irnplies, Daghestan is the country of mountains ; but the soil is extremely fertile, and the
climate is mild. The territory of Kuuba, in the southern part of the province, has been called by the
Persians, the paradise of roses ; and in some parts of it, the vine may be seen shooting from every
cleft of the rock. But these fine regions are subjected to excessive humidity ; and are in several
places infested with reptiles and pernicious insects. Daghestan abounds with rivers, which, as their
courses are very short, are scarcely worth naming. The largest of them is the Koisnu, which flowa
into the Gulf of Agrakhan, after a course of 1-10 miles. The SamourbsiS a course nearly as long, and
discharges its abundant waters by ten or twelve mouths, between lat. 41'-' 50' and 42-'. The inhabitants
of the lowlands of Daghestan are a mixed race descended from Persian, Arabian, Syrian, Turkish,
and Tartar colonists, mixed with the aboriginal Caucasians. The mountains ere inhabited by the
Lesohis, the most predatory and ferocious of all the Caucasian nations; who appear to have been
established in this region from time immemorial, and are mentioned, not only in the ancient chronicles
of Georgia, but even by Straboand Plutarch. They are considered as among the bravest of the Cau-
casians, and are always ready to serve as mercenaries in the wars of their neighbours ; their fidelity
may be relied on as long as they are regularly paid. The majority of them are now Soonee Mahome-
tans, but a few faint vestiges'of Christianity may also be traced among them. The weak bonds of
society are held together only by hospitality and the law of retaliation. They used to be the terror
of all the surrounding provinces ; and they so perseveringly and successfully resisted the power of
Persia, as to give rise to the proverb, " If a king of Persia is a fool, let him march against the Les-
ghis." They were, however, at last driven, in a.d. 1742, by the arms of Nadir Shah, to seek protec-
tion from Russia, and swear allegiance to the Czar ; they now pay a small tribute of silk or money,
and the influence of Russia is eft'ectively felt in the election of their rulers. Hut they are still even
worse than the Circassians for their predatory habits and blood-thirstiness. The Russians for a long
time, instead of residing and having military posts among them, stationed troops along their frontiers,
to prevent them from pillaging the adjacent districts ; and tlie country used to be a sort of asylum
for refugees from Russian justice or oppression ; but Marshal Paskewitsch is said to have lately re-
duced some of the tribes to absolute subjection. The Lesghis are divided into numerous tribes, whom
the nature of their country keeps so isolated, that no such thing as a general confederacy or national
union seems ever to have been known among them. Their language has no analogy with any known
tongue except that of the Samoiedes, to which it has a distant resemblance. It is divided into nume-
rous dialects, which Guldenstsedt has endeavoured to arrange into eight classes, each comprising tho
speech of several tribes. The first of these is the Avar, which comprises the Arars, and fourteen other
tribes resembling them, who all dwell in the north-western parts of Dagb.estan. The Avars them-
selves occupy the upper valleys of the Koisou, and their khan, the most powerful prince of the eastern
Caucasus, resides at Koun-dzakh, a large village, where he has a r-pacious mansion, with glazed win-
dows. The king of Georgia used to pay the predecessors of this khan about £1000 sterling a-year, as
black mail, to save his subjects from Lesghian ravages ; the Russians now pay him a pension of
about £1660, in consideration of which he always acts in subservience to their wishes and directions.
The Avars are believed to be the remains of the Avars or Huns who took refuge in this part of Cau-
casus. The only other tribes worthy of notice are tho Jkushas and the Knbashas, both compiised in
the tifth of Guldenstaedt's classes, and the Kasi- CoumyUs (or Koomuoks), who form the seventh. The
Ak-ushas dwell on the Koisou, and form a republic, composed of about thirty villages. They have
neither princes nor nobles ; but are divided into twelve tribes, each of which has a chief, who pos-
sesses, however, no power to command, but only that of advising. They sell their services to the
highest bidder, and will fight against any other tribe except the Shumklial of Terki, whose supremacy
they formerly acknowledged, and who permit them, without remuneration, to graze their flocks on
the rich meadows along their frontier. The Kubashas also live near the Koisou, in a large town
of the same name, with eight dependent villages. They call themselves Franki, on which account
they have been supposed to be of Venetian or Genoese origin ; but they n semble in every respect
the other Lesghis, and their language is a dialect related to tlie Akushan. They are known through-
out the East as the Zer-kherans, or makers of coats-of-mail ; they manufacture splendid arms, and
fine cloth or shawls, which are highly prized, not only in the Caucasus, but even in Persia, and the
countries beyond the Caspian. They neither cultivate the ground, nor rear cattle, but exchange
the produce of their manufacturing industry for the necessaries of life. They always live on good
terms with their neighbours, and court their friendship ; but are nevertheless ever on their guard
against attack, and tho only two passes leadingtotlieir country are defended by fortifications, mounted
with small copper cannons, cast by themselves. They never make war, nor pay taxes ; they are
governed by a council of twelve elders, chosen by the people ; and their disputes are settled by arbitra-
tors, to whose decisions they submit without a murmur. The Kasi-Coumyks live also on a branch
of the Koisou, under a khan, whose authority extends over 100 villages, and who is fiercely opposed to
the Russians. He resides at a place called Chaliar or the town, and can raise on an emergency 6000
men. The Kasi-Coumyks are zealous Mahometans ; they practise agriculture as well as the rearing
of flocks, and are notorious marauders. Besides these seven classes, there are several other Lesghiau
tribes not enumerated by Guldensta?dt, whose dialects he could not ascertain.
Towns in Daghestan. — Derbent, an ancient but decayed city, on the Caspian, in lat. 42° N. long.
48° E., in a very pleasant situation, which rises gradually from the sea to the top of a hill, and com-
mands a very extensive prospect, especially towards the south-east. It is surrounded by an ancient
wall, built of large square stones, and formed, during many centuries, the key of the Persian empire
in this quarter. It is still supposed to contain so many as 4(i00 families. In the neighbourliood is a
tomb said to be that of forty Arab heroes, who were killed in battle against the infidels, when
Derbent was taken by the Khalifs. The Mahometan Lesghis still make pilgrimages to it. Near Der-
bent are the remains of a great wall, which formerly extended to the Alazan, aiidWas built by Kho-ru
Noushirvan, king of Persia, to prevent the incursions of the Khasars ; but which the people of Der-
bent ascribe to Alexander the Great, the wonder-worker of Western Asia. The upper castle of Dei -
bent is built on an abrupt rock three miles from the shore ; the lower stands close upon the water.
These are connected by a double rampart, but to what era it is impossible to decide. Kmtba, ,50 miles
S. of Derbent, was formerly the capital of a Khanat, one of the most powerful in Daghestan, and in
now the chief town of the pro\ince or district of Kouba. Its situation being unwholesome, a new
town of the same name has been founded at a short distance to tho westward. BarcMy or IhreiUlei,
20 miles N.W. of Derbent, is the residence of the khan of the Kaitak. who bears the title of Oiizmci,
and exercises a sort of sovereignty over the Akushas and Kubashas. Tarkou, Terki or Tarki, 75 miles
N.N.W. of Derbent, the residence of a khan, with the title of Shamkhal, is built in terraces upon three
peaked hills, about three miles from the Caspian sea, and has a population of 10,000.
8. The old province of Caucasus includes all the country to the north of the Terek and the Kouban,
lying between the Caspian i^ca, and the eastern border of the government of Taurida, and hounded oa
the north by the rivers Kouma and Manytsh. It is almost entirely a sandy steppe ; but the proviuca
niaj? noVr" be considered as including also the hill country between the Upper Kouban and Lcsghistauj
AsiA.J ASIA. 787
f o the summits of the Caucasus, callod Kabardah and Little Abassia, and inhabited by the Ostetet, the
Mistrijeghit or Kistes, and several of the subjected Circassian and Abassian tribes. The eastern portion
of the mountains, bordering on Lesghistan, and extending westward and northward to the upper
Terelj and Its affluent the Sovja, is occupied by the Mistdjeghis, some of whom are nearly as great
robbers as the Lesghis. The Russians have not yet been able entirely to subdue them, and it is even
necessary to send an escort of 150 men with official dispatches from Mozdok to Vladikaukas. The
Chechenzies are the most powerful tribe ; the Karaboolaks are as wild and troublesome ; but the
Jngooshes have been subdued, and are more inclined to agriculture and peaceful occupations than
any other of the Caucasian highlanders ; though in religion, and moral feelings they are not superior
to their neighbours. The Ossetes live to the west of the Mistdjeghis, and are a people of precisely the
same character. Their language and other circumstances have induced some writers to believe that
they are a Median colony transplanted into the Caucasus at some remote epoch ; and Klaproth sup-
Soses them to be the Sarmato- Medians of tlie ancient, and tlie Alani or Ases, of the middle ages. The
Russians have, as yet, sucoeedod in establishing their authority over only a few villages in the valleys
of the Terek, through which the military road to Georgia passes. The low country, to the north of
the Terek and the Kouban, is inhabited by Nugai- Tartars and (,'oumyks ; the latter of whom posses*
the lower parts of the rivers Sundsha, Koisou, and Axai ; the former the country farther west.
The Russians first got possession of this country in the time of Peter the Great, who even extended
his dominion along the Caspian Sea into Gliilan ; but, in the reign of the Empress Anne, the military
establishments were withdrawn to Kislar, and a line of forts carried along the Terek, for the defence
of the Irontier. Mozdok was built in 17i.3, and from that point the line was extended gradually west-
ward to the Sea of Azov, along the northern bank of the Kouban. The wars in which the Russians
have been engaged with Persia and Turkey having led them again to tlie south side of the Caucasus,
they have been anxious to establish thtir authority over the intervening mountain tribes, who, if not
reduced to subjection, are likely to prove the most troublesome and dangerous neighbours. In the
course of time they will probably succeed in effecting their subjugation ; but as yet their progress has
been very slow ; and, as the policy of tlie government is not to adopt the only means of civilizing them,
by introducing a rational system of moral and intellectual education, the contest will most probably
end in the extirpation of the mountain tribes.
Starrnpol, the capital of the province, is a neat fortified town, near the Kouban, lat. 44° 49'. N. long.
41"^ 50' E. Georchicvsk, the capital of the province till 1825, and still the residence of the military
fovemor-general of Caucasus, is a well-built fortified town, on the left bank of the I'od-Kouma, 90 miles
E. of Stavropol. Konstantiiiogursk, a small town, 20 miles S.W. of Georghievsk, is celebrated for sul-
phureous warm baths, which are resorted to by people from the farthest parts of the empire. I'eligorsky,
another much frequented watering place, 40 miles W. of Georghievsk ; the water is hot, and strongly
sulphiirtous. At Kislacudsky, S.AV. of Georghievsk, there is acid water. Karass, a neat town, be-
tween the two last named places, at the foot of the Bech-tau (the five mountains, 4320 feet high), is
remarkable for a colony of Germans and Scotch. Mozdok, a comii:ercial town, and one of the principal
military stations on the line of the Terek, 80 miles E. by S. of Georghievsk. Kislar, an important
fortress and a large town, on a branch of the Terek, near its mouths. Besides the garrison its popula-
tion is reckoned at 9000, the greater part of which are Armenians. Some of them are very wealthy,
and have built for themselves the finest churcli in the region of Caucasus, at the expense of £2J,0UO
sterling. Vladikaukas, on the right bank of the Terek, nearly under the 43d parallel N. lat. and 45- E.
long., is a small fortress, with earthen ramparts and a ditch, which are well protected.by palisadoes.
Though comparatively insignificant, it has fully answered its purpose of keeping the neighbouring
mountaineers in check, and preserving the communication through the pass of Dariel, of whicli it
may be called the key. A suburb extends between the fortress and the Terek, which is partly inhabited
by Russian dealers, traders, and soldiers, and partly by peaceful Ossetes. There are also some large
gardens, where every kind of vegetable, but more particularly cabbages and potatoes, thrive admirably.
There is also a celebrated orchard planted by General Del f ozzo, a late commandant.
§ 2. Siberia.
Siberia is the general name of the vast region which extends in length from the Ural mountains, on
the borders of Europe, to Behring's Straits and the northern Pacific Ocean, which separate it from
America; and in breadth from the Artie Ocean to the Altai mountains, whicli form the border
between the Russian and the Chinese empires. Its extreme length, measured from the southern
extremity of the Urals to liehring's Straits, exceeds 4000 miles ; and its greatest breadth, from the
parallel of 5iP N. lat. to Cape Severo-Vostochni, about 1870. The original Siberia was a small khanat
founded by the Tartars in tlie year 1212, on the banks of the Irtish and the Obi, which took the name of
Sibir, from its capital. This khanat was invaded by the Russians in the sixteenth century, and after
considerable resistance, was added to the dominions of the Grand Duke. As the Russian discoveries
and conquests extended to the eastward, the name was vaguely applied to all the newly acquired coun-
try, till at length it reached the farthest limits of Asia on the Arctic and the Pacific Oceans ; and it
was even, for a time, extended to the kingdoms of Astraklian and Kazan, on the west of the Urals.
The name is now definitively restricted to the country ea>t of those mountains.
Silieria may be described generally as an immense plain, sloping upwards from the Arctic Ocean
to the Altai mountains and the Urals; but with an ascent so gradual as to be scarcely perceptible.
The Urals extend along its western border from near the gulf of Karskaia, in lat. GS-' N., to the river
Ural in lat. 51 -; but in few places exceed the elevation of .5000 feet, tlieir higher summits being to
the north of the I'olar circle ; and immediately to the east of them lies the basin of the great river
Irtish. This tract is so low, that at Tobolsk, 5.50 miles, in a straight line, from the gulf or sea of
OI)i, the lower portion of the town is only 128 feet above the level of the Arctic Ocean. And even
the basin of the upper Irtish, on the south side of tlie mountains, 1750 miles from the ocean in a
straight line, or 1000 miles more by the course of the river, has been found not much to exceed 1900
feet. At Irkutsk, on the Angara, 1400 miles from the ocean, in a straight line, measured along the
l(i5tb meridian, the elevation is 124G feet ; but at Kiakhta. 1.50 miles farther south, it rises to 2228. At
Yakutsk, on the Lena, S'iO miles from the sea, on the 130tli meridian, the elevation is only 287 foet ;
and even at Kat.shuga, near Irkutsk, where the rivulets which form the upper branch ot the I.ena
have their sources, it is only 1509 feet. The country which forms the watershed, in this (liroction,
Ixtween the basins of the Lena and the Angara, though extremely uneven, is not mountainous ; but
a considerable ri'.Ing is perceptible from Irkutsk to Katshuga, and the highest point of the road Ijc-
tween them is 1771 feet. From Yakutsk to the river Aldan, the ground rises continuously, but gradu-
ally, as it proceeds eastward, till at .Nokhinsk, on the western liank of the Aldan, It reaches 751 feet.
On the eastern banks of that river, the mountain range, which has derived Its name from the stream,
rises with a steep ascent. The mountain pass on the road to Okhotsk Is 2G19 feet high ; and .Mount
Kapitan, the highest point of the Aldan mountains in this direction, rises to 40.55 feet. On the east
of .Mount Kapitan, tlie country continues 1 1 l)e from 2I(KI to 20'i0 feet (iborc the level of the sea ; and
only to the cast of Ketanda, in GO- 40' N. lat., and I II- 3s' E. Ion;;., it descends with a rather steep
declivity to Olihotsk, wliich is only 13 feet above the level of the iea The mountains of Aldan form
788 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY [Russian
the eastern boundary of the great plain of Siberia, and leave between them and the sea of Okhotak,
only a very narrow strip of land covered with marshy forests, which produces scarcely any plant sub-
servient to human subsistence.
The plain of Siberia seems to consist almost entirely of steppes and marshes, intersected by large
sluggish rivers, which roll down an immense mass of water to the Arctic Ocean. The steppes are
extensive plains, somewhat dilferent from each other in nature and aspect. In some places they are,
like the American savannahs, covered with abundance of tall grass ; in others tlie soil is saline, the salt
appearing in the form of an efflorescence mixed with the earth, or in ponds or lakes of salt water ; in
general, they consist of very loose soil, and contain many lakes, because the waters, finding no declivity,
remain stagnant. The steppe of Ischim occupies the greater part of the country to the south-west,
between the Tobol and the Irtish, an extent of 700 miles from east to west; and the country between
the Irtish and the Obi is occupied by the steppe of liarabinsK; of hardly less extent than tlie other,
which comprises the whole space between the Irtish and the Obi. It is by no means dry and parched,
as the word steppe is sometimes thouglit to imply, but abounds, on the contrary, with water to a
remarkable degree, being full of lakes, morasses, and rivers, which tlow either into the Om, the chief
river of the steppe, or into the Obi or the Irtisli. In some places the plain is a bog as level as the
sea ; here and there it is covered with grass or weeds, and with poplars and birches. Many of the little
lakes are salt. The two largest are the Uha and the ICkul. The steppe of Ischim, sometimes, though
rarely, presents the same aspect ; and in both many tumuli or barrows are found, containing the
remains of Tartar or Mongolian chieftains. Between the upper Obi and the lenisei is a hilly ridge,
which, however, disappears in the neiglibourhood of leniseisk ; and though there are some groups of
hills in the south-western part of the district of Mangaseisk, whicli send a few small streams to the
ocean, these are more specks in the vast marshy plain which extends between the lower parts of tlio
Obi and tlio lenisei, presenting a dismal region, where the ground is continually frozen to a great
depth, only superficially thawed in summer two or throe feet, and covered hero and there with some
stunted plants, and a carpeting of moss. Beyond Beresov, in G3^ 20' N. lat., the face of the country
along the Obi consists of an uninterrupted swamp, which is constantly frozen over, and unvaried
by tree, hill, or mountain, except that the dwarf pine and the sand willow are occasionally seen.
Such is the only prospect which meets the eye of the traveller for 400 miles along the Obi to Obdorsk,
near its mouth. Farther to the east, in the country of the Tongooses and the Yakuts, lofty and
well-grown larches veil the barrenness of nature, for 400 miles inland, but their number decreases
as the traveller proceeds northward, and they gradually become dwarfish and stunted. Both the tree
itself and the moss which covers it become coarser, but nothing can save them from the destructive
blast of the north wind. A few stunted birches are the last to contend with this dread enemy, and
the 70th degree of latitude may be assigned as the limit to the growth of trees. Between that line
and the Arctic Ocean, extends an apparently interminable, waste, called the tundra, consisting of land,
lakes, and sloughs. It contains few rivers or streams, but some of the lakes are large, and of con-
siderable depth, and all of them abound in fish. A death-like silence reigns throughout, only inter-
rupted by the summer birds of passage. Still further north than this dreary region, there is a chain
of large islands, separated from the mainland of Siberia by a strait of the Arctic Ocean, which is free
from ice only for a few weeks in August. The general depth of tliis strait is small, although a strong
current sets through it in the direction of Behring's Straits. In many places the former limit of the
sea may be traced several miles inland ; it is, in general, high and steep, whereas the present shore is
low and flat ; and on the intervening space is found a quantity of dry and half-decayed wood, appa-
rently left there by the receding waters. Icebergs sometimes rest on the bottom of the strait. The
islands extend 400 miles in a direct line from east to west, from the Lena to the Kolina, between the
74° and 77^^ N. "lat. The largest is named Kotelnoi ; which is hilly, and watered by a small river.
Ammonites with a pearly lustre are found in its sands. Another of them is named Nocaia-Sibir or
New Siberia, discovered in 1809 by M. Hedenstrom, who explored 140 miles of its coast. The Arctic
Ocean may be said to commence only to the north of these islands in the 76-^ of latitude. It never
freezes, but in March every year a few detached blocks of ice may be seen floating upon it. The
regions along the southern borders of Siberia are, as miglit be expected, considerably difl'erent from
those we have now been describing. Though hilly in many places, they contain large tracts of excel-
lent pasture ground, and some which are even very fertile in grain ; so much so, that in the district ot
Krasnoyarsk on the lenisei, the soil is sorich that it requires very slight labour, and maybe cropped for
Atc or six years, or even more, in succession, without manure. In the neighbourhood of Irkutsk the
country is agreeable, the soil fertile, and agriculture flourishing. Kirensk, on the Lena, has also a
fertile territory, producing plants of extraordinary size. As the Baikal is approached the country
becomes more and more mountainous ; and the district of lower XJdinsk, to the south of the lake, is
almost entirely covered with dark and marshy forests, where the soil produces nothing but moss and
marsh plants, similar to those of the northern regions ; and Upper Udinsk appears to be composed
of sand and rocks, with a soil ill fitted for the culture of vegetables. It possesses, however, an asto-
nishing variety of soil and climate ; containing in one place narrow, gloomy, and cold valleys ; and in
another, hot sandy plains, and, a little way olf, a surface of neutral salts. The province of Nertshinsk,
south-east from the Baikal, along the Amoor, is covered with mountains. The plains are only wide
valleys containing every where precipitous and perpendicular rocks, which have the appearance of
being suspended in the air.
Rivers and Lakes. — The Obi issues from Lake Teletskoi or Altyn Nor, in the territory of the Kal-
mucks, near the frontier, under the 52° N. lat. Insignificant at its origin, it goes at first by the name
of By or Biya, and only takes that of Ob or Obi after its union with the Kataunia or Katuyiya, a
large river, which joins it from the west. It passes through the governments of Tomsk and Tobolsk,
becoming larger and more rapid by the accession of many powerful streams, and enters the Arctic
Ocean at the head of the deep gulf or sea of Obi, to which it gives its name. Its affluents on the
right are the Tom, which waters Tomsk, the Choulim,iiie Ket,th.& 2'im, and the I'akh. The principal
affluent to the left is the Irtish (Irtyche or Irtuish, Ertshish of the Mongols), as large'as itself,
or, as some say, rather larger, which, rising in the great Altai mountains under the 46° N. lat.,
forms the lake Zaisang in the Chinese territory, and thence flows north through the mountain border
of the two empires. It receives in its progress the Karym, Bukhtarma, and Uba, before it enters
Siberia, and afterwards the Ishim, Tobol, Sosva, and several other streams from the left, and joins the
Obi in lat. 61° N. The Teletskoi lake, from which the Biya issues, is inclosed by high mountains,
but receives a considerable river, the Chulyshmajt, from the Chinese territory.
The Iexisei has its sources in the country of the Ouriangkai, in the Chinese territory, where it is
formed by the union of the Oulou-kem, and the Beikem. After entering Siberia it flows almost
due north to the ocean, with a very large and rapid stream, which, even at leniseisk, is already
3600 feet wide. Its principal affluents on the right are, the Upper Tongousku, the Podkamenaia Ton-
gouska (Tongouska beyond the rocks), and the Lower Tongouska, which is the largest of the three.
The Upper Tongouska issues from the Lake Baikal, under the name of Angara ; and if we consider
the Selinga, the principal feeder of the Baikal, as a continuation of the Angara, then the remote
sources are to be traced to the south side of the Altai, nearly 500 miles south-west of Irkutsk.
The Piasnia, the Taimoura, the Khatonga, the Anabara, and the Olensk, are comparatively small
rivers which enter the ocean between the lenisei and the Lena.
Asia.] ASIA. 789
The Lena, one of the largest rivers of Asia, rises at Katshuga'near Irk-utsk, 2000 feet above the
level of the sea, flows north-east and nearly due east to Yakutsk, where it turns north, and flows in
that direction to the ocean, which it enters by several mouths. Its principal affluents on the right
are, the Jldan and the Vitim ; on the left, the Viloui. The lana, the Indigirka, and the Kolima or
Kolyma, are considerable rivers which enter the Arctic Ocean to the eastward of the Lena. The
Anadir flows eastward to the Gulf of Anadir, to the south of Behring's Straits.
The Ural, which forms the boundary between Europe and Asia, rises on the east side of the Ural
mountains, from the foot of Mount Kolgan, in lat. 54° 50' N., and flows nearly due south for upwards
of 250 miles, when it turns westward and leaves Siberia.
The great Lake Baikal, in the south-eastern part of Siberia,' embosomed among high mountains,
between 51° and 56° N. lat., and 104° and 1 1 1° E. long., is about 360 miles in length, and from 20 to 52
wide, about 1200 in circumference, and contains a surface of 14,800 square miles. Its depth varies
from 20 fathoms to 100, and in some places exceeds even 200. It contains many islands along the east-
ern and some on the western shores ; but most of them are of small extent, and only masses of rock.
The largest island, named Olkon, is 32 miles in length, by 10 in breadth, is rocky and mountainous, and
is separated from the shore by a strait two miles wide and very deep. The water of the lake is fresh, and
extremely clear. It freezes in November, and thaws in May, and during winter is crossed in sledges.
It is subject to remarkable agitations, being sometimes raised into high waves by a moderate wind,
and at other times scarcely put in motion by a violent storm. It also is said to be liable to a kind of
intestine commotion or boiling, by me.ans of which vessels receive rough shocks, even when the sur-
face is perfectly smooth. The lake contains seals, though none of these animals are ever known to
ascend the river lenisei, and its affluent the Angara, which issues from the lake. It also contains a
particular kind offish, which the Russians call Soliamanka, and whicii, according to Tallas, consists
entirely of bones, and an oily grease. The waves sometimes throw on shore a kind of bitumen. Tho
principal feeders of the lake are the Selinga, on its south-east side, which has a course of 700 miles ;
the Upper Angara, at the north-east end, which has a course of 450 miles ; and the Bargusin, on the
east side, which has a course of 300 miles. The surplus waters are discharged by the Lower ylngara,
which issues tlirough a deep crevice near the south-west point of the lake. The Russians speak of the
Baikal with a respectful awe ; and give it the name of the Holy Sea ; even the surrounding mountains
are held sacred. Its name is derived from the language of the Yakuts, who call it Bayalihal, the rich
water. Its surface is 1793 feet above the level of the sea. In summer it is navigated by the Russians,
and in winter it is crossed in sledges.
The other lakes are of little importance. Lake Tshamy, 80 miles in length by 50 broad, lies in a part
of the steppe of Baraba which is filled with lakes almost touching one another. The province of
Kolhyvan and the steppe of Ischim also contain a great number of lakes of which Karg- Algydim is
the largest. In the districts of Iset and lekaterinburg the number of small lakes is very great. Salt
lakes are almost equally numerous, and are found in all parts of the country. The lake Biehi or
EbeUi, in the steppe of Ischim, is one of the most abundant in producing salt ; and in the middle of
the steppe of Baraba is the famous lake Yamish, 7 or 8 miles in circumference, the salt of which is
extremely white, and crystallizes in cubes.
Climate — The climate of Siberia is, in every sense of the word, excessive. Exposed without
shelter throughout its whole length to the winds which blow from the Polar ice, and excluded by the
high mountains of Central Asia, from the more genial breezes which would otherwise reach it from
the equatorial regions, the cold in the northern part is keener and more constant than that of Lap-
land, and the same intensity is sometimes experienced among the southern mountains between
the parallels of 50° and 55°. The winter lasts for nine or even ten months. Snow begins to fall in
September, and is not rare even in May. The corn crops, when not ripe in August, are considered
as lost ; and they are often covered with snow before they can be cut down. The consequence of
this almost continual cold is, that in all the northern parts of the country the ground is constantly
frozen to a great depth ; and it is only tlie surface that is thawed by the summer heat to a depth ol
from one foot to three feet and a half. Even so far south as the latitude corresponding to Scotland,
between .16^° and 58°, Humboldt found soijie springs of no great depth, the temperature of which
was 34° 7' and 36° 5'. Some degrees to the north of Irkutsk, where the mean temperature of the
year is between two and three degrees below the freezing point, the soil always remains frozen to
the depth of 12 or 15 feet. At Bogoslovsk, in the middle of summer, a bed oi" frozen earth, nine
feet and a half thick, was found at the depth of six feet below the surface ; and,' at Yakutsk, 62° N.
lat., notwithstanding the high temperature of the atmosphere, in July and .August, the subterranean
ice is perpetual. At Yakutsk, in lat. 02° l^' N., a well has been lately sunk to the depth of .382 feet, by
which the temperature has been ascertained ; and this immense thickness proves that Siberia must
have been in the same physical condition for a long period of years as it is at present. The mean
temperature of the atmosphere at Yakutsk is 6° Reaumur ; in 18J8, the mean temperature of January
at two P.M. was -.35.7° Reaumur, and the mercury did not thaw for three months in succession ; in
ordinary years it is solid only for two months. It is impossible to determine accurately, in the pre-
sent state of our information, the boundary of this layer of ground ice , we know only enough to say,
that it extends over an immense tract of country. Humboldt found the soil frozen at a depth of six
feet at Bogoslovsk, 59° 44' N., near the Urals. Near Beresov, Erman found the temperature of tho
soil at a depth of 23 English feet to be + 1° ; but in 1821, a dead body, which had been buried upwards
oOl years, was found in a bed of ground ice showing no signs of decomposition. It has long been
known that the soil at Obdorsk is always frozen. At Tobolsk there is no ice, but the farther we pro-
ceed eastward the more the direction of the ice is to the south. Georgi found it on the shores of Lake
Baikal, and it is said also to be found at Nertshinsk. No ice is found at Okhotsk, and the soil is in
?:eneral warmer on the shores of the Pacific. Tho summer heats are short, but are sudden and power-
ul. In the neighbourhood of Yakutsk tho Tongooses often go naked in summer. The growth of
vegetables Is almost perceptible. Hut in the neiglibourhood ot the Arctic Ocean, in the middle of the
long day of the polar circle, a north wind is sutticient to cover the w.aters with a thin crust of ice,
and to give a yellow and red tinge to the leaves of plant's. Vegetation is often limited to a few days ;
but in that short interval the plants flower and form seed ; they sometimes even grow in the morasses,
where at all times ice is found on raising the moss. At Kolyma, the vegetation of summer is little
more than a struggle for existence. In the latter end of May the stunted willow bushes put out small
wrinkled leaves, and those banks that have a soutlurn exposure, become clothed with a greenish hue.
In June, the temperature at noon attains 72° ; the flowers appear, and the berry-bearing plants
blossom, when gometimes an icy blast from the sea gives the verdure a yellow blight, and destroys the
bloom. Tlie air is clearest in July, and tho temperature is then usually mild, when millions of rnus-
quitoes darken the air, and force tho rein-di er to leave tlie fV^rests, and t.akc refuge in tho cold open
plains near the sea, where they are pursued and killed without diflioulty by the hunters. Winter pre-
vails for nine months. In October the cold is somewhat mitigated by thick fogs, and by the vapour
which rises from the freezing sea ; but in November the great cold begins, and in January increases to
65°. Breathing then becomes difficult ; the wild rein-deer withdraw to the deepest recesses of the forest,
»nd stand there motionless as if deprived of life. As the sun returns tho cold becomes even more
piercing ; and the intensity of frost which accompanies the rising of the sun in February and March
»• especiaUy penetrating. Perfectly clear days are extremely rare in winter, because the sca-winda.
790 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Russian
which always prevail, bring with theiu vapours and fogs, which arc sometimes so thick as wholly to
conceal the stars. But, though the climate is so severe and unkindly, it is not injurious to health ;
and the inhabitants are not subject to scurvy nor other infectious diseases. Storms are frequent in
the southern regions ; but near the ocean thunder is scarcely ever heard, though distinct flashes of
lightning are sometimes seen. In the low countries on the lenisei, the aurora borealis is seen from
the beginning of October till Christmas ; and in no country does this phenomenon exhibit greater
magnificence. The climate of Siberia is, on the whole, favourable to man. Fogs prevail not only
over the northern and eastern regions, but also in the steppe of Uaraba, the inhabitants of which
have a cachectic look. In Daouria, and round Nertshinsk, the confined narrow Tallies give rise to
fevers, epilepsy, and scurvy.
Natural rRonrcTioNS.— In so rigorous a climate only the most hardy plants can thrive : the
oak, the hazel, the alder, the plane, and the wild apple, cannot withstand the rigours of the Siberian
winter. They disappear in the neighbourhood of the Urals and the banks of the Tobol ; but the
oak and the hazel appear again, though feeble and languid, on the banks of the Amoor. The lime
and the ash cease at the Irtish; the pine, which in Norway reaches the parallel of 71", does not in
Siberia pass beyond G0°; the silver fir reaches no farther than 58°. The common gooseberry, which
frows in Greenland, does not succeed farther north than TQrukhansk on the lenisei, in lat 60°.
otatoes diminish in size, till, at the latitude of fiO°, they are no larger than pease, and here the cab-
bage ceases to expand. But we are not to conclude from these facts that the great Siberian rivers
pass through barren wastes ; for they are skirted with thick forests of alders, willows, elms, Tar-
tarian maples, white and black poplars, and aspens, besides an immense quantity of different kinds
of pines, among which the Siberian cedar (pinus sibirica) sometimes reaches a height of 120 feet, while
its rings of branches sometimes indicate an age of 150 or 200 years. It is only as far as tlie lenisei
that this tree displays its magnificence; to the east it diminishes in size, and, beyond the Lena, to-
wards the eastern sea, it becomes quite dwarfish, though still preserving its proportions. The balsam
poplar perfumes the air, and exudes it.= odoriferous resin. Siboria produces neither apiiles nor pears.
The w^ild pear of Daoui-ia only yields a tasteless fruit, of the size of a cherry. The fruit of the Sibe-
rian crab is also small ; but the berry-bearing undershrubs, the rubus chama-morux, the rubus arcticus,
and different kinds of vaccinium, abound, and agreeable drinks are made from them. The steppes are
covered with a kind of cherry tree, the fruit of which is abundant, and is used for making a species of
wine. The Siberian apricot, whicli grows only in Daouria, produces a sourish fruit; the wild cherry
grows in every part of the country, but the garden cherry tree becomes languid even in the neigh-
bourhood of Ischim. During their short summer these wild countries are adorned with a consider-
able number of beautiful flowers, each region possessing some peculiar to itself. The true rhubarb
has been sought for in vain. In western Siberia, cultivated grains generally disappear about the tiOth
parallel, though even there, on the banks of the Obi, Mr. Erman learned that wheat and barley pro-
duce forty fold on the fertile soil which is inundated by the river; and still farther north, at Beresov,
63^° N. lat., the cultivation of barley and rye has been tried with success. In eastern Siberia grain has
been found not to ripen at 55°, nor in Kamtschatka at 51°. The mountains on the southern frontier
are too cold and too dry ; so that three-tifths of Siberia are scarcely susceptible of any sort of culture ;
but the south-western parts possess remarkable fertility. In the north of Kolhyvan barley give- a
return of twelve, and oats of twenty fold. Buck wheat is apt to shoot in this black and light soil ;
but when sown in thinner soil it gives a return of from twelve to twenty fold. The greater part of
the cerealia known in Europe grow also in the south of Siberia ; but only the winter rye, barley, and
oats, are cultivated. The Tartars, who are fond of white bread, have great difficulty in rearing a
little wheat. In short, beyond the COth parallel of latitude, with the exception already mentioned,
and the 112th meridian, the cerealia do not succeed. In the north they are destroyed by the cold;
and on the east the fogs prevent them from ripening. The culture of potatoes now supplies their
place to a considerable extent. Common flax grows in several parts of the Urals. The linum perenne
reaches to 66^; hemp onlj to 55°. At the foot of the Altai mountains some Tartars make thread
and cloth from two species of nettles, the urtica disica, and cannabma. Hops are produced in great
abundance.
AxiMAr.s — Siberia scarcely exhibits a single genus of birds or quadrupeds which is not common
to it with Europe. Wild rein-deer roam in herds near the shores of the Arctic Ocean, and, when
domesticated, form the wealth of the desert tribes ; but they come down to a lower latitude than in
Europe. Herds of them have been seen on the mountain border of Mongolia, near the sources of
the Onou, between lat. 49° and 50°; and thus the countries of the rein-deer and the camel, which
in the western parts of the old world are separated by an interval of 20° or 30°, here touch each
other, or perhaps are intermixed. A Samoiede is reckoned rich who possesses 150 rein-deer ; some
Tongooses have as many as a thousand ; a Koriak, several thousands ; and we are told that among the
Tshucshes there are men who own as many as 50,000! The Siberian dog, resembling the wolf, is in
some measure the companion of the rein-deer. He serves as an animal of draught, not only among
the Kamtschatdales, but also among the Tungooses, the Samoiedes, and the Ostiaks. He is swift and
agile, but wild and diflBcult to guide. The Tartars of western Siberia have carried along with them
in their migration the favourite animal of their nation, the horse. The greater j art of the Siberian
horses are white. The sheep of the nomadic tribes are of tlie broad-tailed kind. The black cattle of
Russia, when transported to Siberia, diminish in size, but improve in strength. In general the animals
of central Asia extend more or less into the southern parts of Siberia. The camel not only comes to the
country with caravans, but he lives in Daouria among the Russian Mongols. Next to North Amei ica
and South Africa, Siberia is the most extensive hunting ground in the world ; but, owing to the eager-
ness with which they have been pursued, the animals of the r^hase are now very much diminished in
number, and are only to be found in the most remote districts. Sables, ermines, marmots, martins,
and squirrels, are the principal animals hunted for their skins. The rock or ice fox (ccniis lagapus, or
Itatis), whose colour in general is white, but sometimes bluish, inhabits the icy zone, Kamtschatka,
and the eastern islands. The elk is diffused over great part of the country, but does not pass the lati-
tude of 65°. It is hunted in March when the snow begins to melt. The tahia or wild horse is found in
the steppe of Ischim, and in various parts of the mountain border; the koolanor wild ass, the jigbetai,
a sort of mule, the stag, the roebuck, the antelope, the argali or wild sheep, which extends Irom the
Caucasus to Kamtschatka, some wild boars on the banks of the Irtish, the musk animal, though rare,
and beavers in Kamtschatka. There are also various small animals worthy of notice, as the hare
of Daouria (Lepus tolai), the hare of Jlongolia, the mountain hare, which makes a regular pro-
vision of hay ; moles, weasels, and several animals of the rat and mouse kind, among which we may
mention the lamming, and the species called the mus oeconomicus, and the mus sociaiis, which store
up in their holes considerable quantities of onions and other esculent roots, which the Siberian dili-
gently searches out, to apply them to his own use. Among the wild beasts the white bear is the
most formidable; the brown bear is also common; the ounce, and a species of panther with long
white hair, have been found in the south ; the lynx and the glutton are natives of every part of the
country, and even the tiger has appeared on the banks of the Lena, to the north of lake Baikal. Both
natives and travellers are annoyed by insects; in summer the air is darkened with mosquitoes,
and even the rein-deer are forced to take refuge from these tormentors in the wilds of the tundra.
The houses are infested with bugs. The country aboundg with winged game, as wild-ducks, geese.
Asia.] ASIA. 791
swans, water-hens, woodcocks, and partridges ; and in summer innumerable flocks of ducks and
geese cover all the lakes and marshes of the tundra. The Greenland and other seals, and the morse
abound in the Arctic ocean; and a particular kind of seal is also found in the Baikal. Herrings
are caught in the rivers in vast quantities ; and it is worthy of remark, the farther to the east this
fish is caught, the larger is the individual, although they are all of the same species. The herrings
are followed up the rivers by a species of smelt called the muksun. The Lena is visited by shoals
of sturgeon, and the salmo omul is occasionally found in the rivers of the tundra. The salmo vasus,
and the talmo autumnalis, ascend all the rivers which have stony beds, as the lenisei, the Lena,
and others to the east, but do not enter the Obi, which has a slimy and earthy bottom. But to com-
pensate this deficiency, the Obi produces very large sparlings, ntmiherless sturgeons, white salmon,
pikes, eels, and eel-pouts. The lisheries on the east coast, and among the adjoining islands, are very
rich, and remarkable. In the seas which w ash these regions are numberless shoals or herds of whales,
sea-bears, sea-wolves, nianatis, and sea-otters. Besides these living animals, numerous remains of
elephants, rhinoceroses, and other animals of the torrid zone, have been found along the banks of
the Irtish, the Obi, the lenisei, the Lena, and even on the very shores of the Arctic Ocean. Bodies
of these quadrupeds are found mi.\ed with sea-shells, and bones which appear to be the skulls of the
largest inhabitants of the ocean ; they are met with along the river sides, and in beds of earth or ice,
and seldom, if ever, in a pebbly stratum. The Liakhof or Lachow islands are composed entirely of
sand and the bones of elephants, rhinoceroses, and mammoths or Siberian elephants, which are quite
entire, even sometimes with the llesh and skin in good preservation. Naturalists are quite at a loss
to account for the occurrence of these remains in so high latitudes.
Mines and Minerals. — Siberia is rich in minesof gold, silver, platina, copper, and iron. Red lead,
or the chromate of lead is found in the mines of Beresov. Chrysolites, opals, beryls, lazulites, feltspar,
jasper, talc, black porphyry, and other minerals occur in various places ; and, there can be no doubt,
that much mineral treasure yet remains to be discovered. The grand mining districts are in the
northern part of the Urals, on both sides of the range, in the government of Perm. It is, however, on
the Asiatic side of the mountains that the auriferous sands are found, which contain pieces of gold,
platina, and chromate of iron united with platina. These metals are often found only a foot below the
surface. The principal gold mines are those of Beresov, in the district of lekaterinhurg (5G^ 54' N.
lat.) They were first worked for gold in 17S4, but they did not rise tDany importance till the time of
Catherine II. The numbt-r of workmen employed is upwards of 3000. The ore is an iron pyrites,
nii.xed with quartz, which contains gold ; 3^ or 6 lbs. Knglish are obtained from 12.iO stone weight of
the crude ore. About 45 miles N. by W. ot lekaterinburg are the gold mines of Seviatisk, belonginff
to the Yakoklef family, which are managed and wrought by their serfs, who compose the great bulk
of the population of the district, about 10,000 in number. Though tlie proprietors rarely visit their
estates, they have a castle at Neviansk. which is richly furnished in the antique Dutch fashion of the
days of Peter the Great ; where they allow a liberal sum to their steward expressly for the entertain-
ment of respectable travellers. The t arliest mining works at Neviansk were constructed by a body of
the unfortunate Swedes who were taken prisoners at the battle of Pultova, in 1709. The mines of
r'/y-iY/iO, 70 miles N. by E. of lekaterinburg, with seven others within a circuit of 30 miles, all belonging
to the Demidoff family, are, like those of Neviansk, wholly managed by serfs, without any imme-
diate or personal superintendance of the owners. The principal produce is iron, but the district
yields also copper, gold, and platina. The magnitude of the works at Tagilisk corresponds with the
boundless mineral treasures of the surrounding country ; the roasting furnaces being large enough to
contain at once 14,000 tons of ore. The value of the mineral veins possessed by the Demidofl's is much
enhanced by the immense extent of forest included in their estates, and which are adequate to feed the
blazing fires of their colossal furnaces for ages to come. On the territory belonging to their mines
are 5<^X) square miles of tine forest, in which the trees stand so close together that the woodman has
scarcely room to wield his axe ! In quantity, as well as in financial importance, the iron undoubt-
edly lar surpasses the other metallic produce of the country. There is annually produced the enor-
mous quantity of 132,000 tons of metal, of which four-sevenths are consumed in European Russia, two-
sevenths in Asiatic Russia, and one-seventh is exported to the south and the south-west. The iron
ore near the surface is spread over so wide an extent, that it is calculated many ages must roll over
before it be exhausted : the hill of Blagodat alone, which rises from the plain near Kuschiva or
Koushva(38=17'30"N. lat., Co-' 18' E. long.) to the height of l.i34 feet above the level of the sea, is en-
tirely composed of magnetic iron ore, forming a mass much larger than would be consumed in a cen-
tury at the prei-ent rate of production. The Lralian copper mines yield about 3.500 tons of metal yearly.
The gross value of the platina and gold found in the Urals nearly equals that of the iron ; and the
total annual production of that celebrated region may be valued at Jt 1 ,.500,000 sterling. Silver is rarely
found in a native state, but is often niix<d with gold, and in one of the Daoorian mountains with lead.
Corneous silver ore ( ar'^entutn murtiitumj is found at SchlangSiiberg (called by the Russians Zmei-
auikaia-gord, in the Little Altai mountains, and in the district of StniipuUitnui), where sulphuret of
antimony and silver, and arsenical ore, and copper pyrites, also abound. In Laouria, south-east of
Lake Baikal, are the numerous silver mines of Nertshinsk, opened in 1704. The ore is rich in lead,
and contains a little silver, which is easily extracted. Besides the copper mines in the Urals, there
are some in the Altai. The richest mines are on the Siberian side, at Turia-Wasiliewskoi, Trolew-
skoi, and Ologowskoi ; and are found at the limit which separates the schistous rocks from the pure
limestone. 'I he copper of Siberia is exceedingly ductile. '1 he prevailing ores in the mines last men-
tioned are the red oxide and the blue carbonate. Malachite or stalagmite copper is also found here
in the greatest perfection. The iron mines diffused over Siberia (besides those of the Urals) are little
worked. The i>easantry smelt iron in the neighbourhood of Krasnoyarsk and leniseisk ; but at
Nertshinsk and Kolyvan the other more valued metals are so productive that iron is despised. In
1741(a ma^s of native iron was found, between Abakansk and karaoolnoi Ostrog, near the upper
lenisei, weighing 1680 lbs., which, according to a tradition of the natives, had fallen from the atmo-
sphere. Asbestos is also produced abundantly in the Urals and in other places ; and on the eastern
coattg there is found a solt and almost liuid clay, called litliomargc or rock marrow, which the Tou-
g(i08e» eat by itself, or with milk, without inconvenience. Throughout Siberia there is found on the
aluminous schistous an efflorescence called " rock butter," which is used by the people as a remedy
for diarrheas and the venereal disease. Diamonds have lately been found, but in small quantities.
Peopls. — The liussians are of course the dominant people ; but they, with the Cossacks, and other
colonists from Europe, inhabit chiefly the tow ns and the military stations. Some of them are descen-
dants of the soldiers employed in the conquest, or in keeping the country in subjection; others are
criminals sent thither for banishment, with their descendants. To these two classes must he added
adventurers, peasant deserters, and ruined merchants, w ho seek here the means of repairing their for-
tunes. The higher offlcers of govermnent are a very Heeting class of the community : all of them,
whether civil or military, who volunteer to serve in Siberia, are entitled to promotion by three years*
service beyond the Irtish ; many seek professional advancement by this voluntary exile, but few pro-
long their stay beyond the time required. The advancement, however, of civilization in Siberia of
late years, and the jsreater advantages which it now holds out to settlers, have induced many people
of a better description than those who used formcrlj to visit it, to take up their i)crniancnt abode in
792 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Russiak
the principal towns, and in the more fertile and agreeable districts of the country. Little more than
a century apo the SibL^rians were considered so savage a race, that Peter the Great believed he
could not inflict a severer punishment on his enemies the Swedes, than to send them to Siberia. The
consequence was, that these honourable exiles introduced into the country some of the customs and
manufactures of Kurop» ; and while employed in ameliorating tlieir own situation, civilized the people
among whom tliey had been forced to settle. More lately, the governors, with civil and military offi-
cers, have introduced into the principal towns the manners of St. Petersburg, accompanied with all the
Russian vanity and ostentation. But tills refinement lias scarcely yet extended to the small towns
and villages scattered over the vast wilderness ; though even there, in the most remote stations, re-
spectable travellers are received with the greatest hospitality, and treated with the most coidial
kindness. Some of the settlers, though rich in flocks and herds, scarcely know the use of money, and
lead a life purely patriarchal. The hitnters, however, that roam over the deserts, are not much removed
from savages. They sleep on the frozen ground; quench their thirst with wild berries; and even
drink the blood of their victims. The Cossack who, at Tobolsk, or Irkutsk, linds himself confounded
■with the populace, becomes a sort of monarch when sent among the Samoiedes or the Yookaghirs, to
collect their tribute and maintain order. Some Cossack families have obtained the rank of dvoriai-
nin, or patrician nobles. The garrisons of the posts and stations along the frontiers are mostly com-
posed of Cossacks, who are everywhere the most active and useful servants of the government. The
merchants of Siberia used to be chiefly itinerant, going from town to town, and from market to mar-
ket. Of the exiles, those condemned for political ottence?, and who belong to the upper classes of
society, are usually sent to towns far to the north or the east, where, from their strong nationality
and confirmed habits, they are unable to accommodate themselves to the rude and simple manners of
the country, and consequently lead a miserable existence. The difficulty of keeping horses, or of
using them in a country of snows and morasses, is a frequent ground of complaint. The exiles (or
unfortunates, as they are compassionately styled) residing in Tobolsk, are chiefly persons convicted
of embezzlement, or other acts of dishonesty. They are in general free from all kind of restraint,
but some of them are bound to perform certain religious penances in the churches ; and many submit
to the same punishment voluntarily. Oftenders of the worst class are often condemned to hard labour
in the mines of Nertshinsk for one year or more, and after having completed the period of their se-
vere punishment, are allowed to reside in Tobolsk ; but, generally speaking, the Siberian exiles of the
labouring classes are in the situation of settlers enjoying full liberty to make the most of their in-
dustry. Their exile puts an end to their vassalage (for the greater part of them are oiiginally serfs),
and raises them to the rank of independent men. To tliis grand change in their condition, and the
moral sense to which it gives birth, must be chiefly ascribed the revolution which takes place in their
character. In this, their new country, the unfortunates of this class turn out for the most part ex-
emplary men, and rarely fail to procure by their exertions a comfortable independence. To most
of the settlers the long winter proves a puriod of relaxation frcim labour. The Russian works for
one-half of the year with matchless energy, to make himself comfortable during the other ; and
when the time of rest arrives, he sits down with a keen apjietite to feast on his hoarded stores. 1 he
exiles are to be found everywhere comfortably lodged, and in the midst of abundance, which they al-
ways feel a pleasure in sharing with the stranger.
Numerous Tartar colonies occupy the southern part of the government of Tobolsk. Those farthest
cast are the Ririusses, the Katshini or Katshinians, and the Beltires ; three tribes which, more or less
mixed with Mongolian blood, live in the neighbourhood of the Abakan, an affluent of the lenisvi.
The Katshinians are rich in cattle ; and their beardless visages shew them to be of Mongol lineage. In
the south the Sayanians, who have some resemblance to the Mandchews, occupy the Sayanian moun-
tains. A tribe of Teleootes or Telengutes, live in the neighbourhood of Kutsznesk ; but the greater
part of them are found in the Kalmuck country. The Russians call them white Kalmucks ; tlieir lan-
guage is half Mongolian. The Tomsk and the Tchulim Tartars inhabit a part of the banks of those
rivers. In the Baraba steppe are the Barabinitsi, a nomadic people, some of whom are Mahometans, and
the rest Pagans. The Tartars of the Obi live along the left bank of that river as far as Narym. The
Tartars of the Tobol are found on both banks of that river, from the frontier to its mouth. The
Taralians, in the district of Tara, speak the same language as the last. The Turalinzi or Turalinians,
the most civilized of all the Tartars of Siberia, inhabit the towns and villages on the banks of the
Tara, from the mountains to the Tobol. They were forcibly baptized in the river by Philoppei, a noble-
man or ecclesiastical dignitary, assisted by a body of Cossacks. The Tartars are generally of a robust
and vigorous constitution. Their simple mode of life, their frugality and cleanliness, protect them
from most of the malignant and contagious diseases, with the exception of the small-j'ox, which
has at times made terrilSle ravages among them ; and the precepts of the Koran protect the Moslem
portion of them from the consequences of the drunkenness to which their Russian neighbours are
too much addicted.
Tribes of true Mongol descent occupy the country about Kiakhta and Selinginsk, but are few in
number. The Booriates or Barga-Buratt, a great Mongolian race, have peopled almost the whole
provinces of Irkutsk and Nertshinsk. In external appearance they refemble the Kalmucks ; but there
is a greater proportion of fat people among them ; they have still less hair ; and many of them have no
beard whatever. Their complexion is pale and yellow; they are very deficient in bodily strength ; a
Russian of the same age and size as a Booriate is a match for several of them in wrestling. They en-
joy, however, good health, though they seldom reach an advanced age. The small-pox, once very de-
structive to this tribe, has been arrested in its ravages by the establishment of an institution for ino-
culation at Irkutsk. The itch is very prevalent, being greatly promoted by tlieir manner of living and
clothing. Those to the east of the Baikal make use o! warm baths in chronic diseases. Their phy-
Bicians are shamans, or sorcerers, who attempt to cure them by sacrifices, talismans, and incantations,
rather than by natural remedies. They speak a very rude diaieet of Mongolian, which is rendered
unintelligible to strangers by frequent transpositions and changes of consonants. Those Hooriatcs
who live north-west of the Baikal are Shamanists, those to the south-east are Buddhists. Some of
them cultivate the ground ; but the far greater number live on the produce of their cattle ; they have
numerous herds of horses, beeves, and sheep; also a few camels, which in winter are covered with
blankets. Their chief wealth consists in horses. The number able to bear arms is 73,000. They are
governed by native chiefs, called taishas.
Tongooies. — This people call themselves (Ei-cen ; the Chinese call them Solon, and the Yookaghirs
Erpeghi. They have a common origin with the Mardchews ; and are distinguished by their regular
conformation. They are usually of middle size, slender, and well made. Their face is less flattened
than that of the Kalmucks ; they have small and lively ryes, a well proportioned nose, a thin be.ird,
black hair, and an agreeable expression. They are subject to few diseases, yet they seldom attain
old age, a circumstance which is owing to tlie rigorous and unwholesome climate, and" their laborious
and dangerous mode of life. The priests or shamans are their physicians. Their sight and bearing
are incredibly acute ; they are not only well acquainted with every tree and rock within their district,
but can point out with certainty a road of a hundred miles, by describing the stones and trees which
occur in it ; and they follow their game by the slightest tracks left on the grass or the moss. Their
other senses, however, are less acute. Their religion is a branch of Shamanism ; their chief god is
called Boa. Tbey practise polygamy. Xbeir )rinces are called taitha, a word which appears to bt
•
Asia.] ASIA. 793
of Mongolian origin. Their Iftn^uage is a dialect of tlie Mandchew, with a mixture of Mongolian
words, chiefly such as relate to objects of civilized life; and has eight or ten dialects. The Tongooses
occupy no less than a third part of Siberia, extending from the lenisei to the sea of Okhotsk, on the
south-east, and to the Lena on the north-east. Those on the Lena, who are called Otenians, live by
the produce of their rein-deer, and by fishing and hunting ; those who occupy the coast of the eastern
sea are called Lamutet or shoremen (from lama, the sea), and border with the Koriaks.
Finns Tnbes of this race are found along the base of the northern Urals, and on the lower Obi.
The Woguls, who live between the Tobol, the Beresov, the Obi, and the Urals, are under the middling
stature ; with generally black hair, and little beard. Their principal occupation is the chase, in which
they display singular agility and address, managing with equal dexterity the musket and the dart.
They also excel in laying all sorts of toils for deer. They call themselves Manti, and have a very
mixed language. They are nomadic ; but, apparently with a view to spare the game, they change their
dwellings less often than many tribes of Eastern Siberia. They never join more than five vurts or
huts, in one station ; and to prevent the wild animals from being frightened away by the smoke, these
stations are not allowed to be fixed nearer each other than ten miles. Rein-deer constitute their whole
stock ; and even in summer these animals are yoked in sledges to cross the level country ; but the
winter is almost exclusively their season of labour, of travelling, and of collecting their booty. It is
then that they are busily occupied in the chase of the fur-animals, and in the trade arising out of it
with the Samoiedes, the Ostiaks, and the Russians. Their annual migrations, or trading excursions
eastward, are very remarkable ; for the European Samoiedes travel in winter across the Ural, and
while their eastern neishbours and the Woguls, who dwell to the south of their route, all move in the
same direction, they often drive 400 miles, as far as Obdorsk, to barter, in February, the produce of
the chase.for Russian bread. The M'oguls, during summer, give themselves up to lazy repose, and, as
the smoke protects tliem from the flies, they scarcely ever leave their tents at that season ; in short,
they seem to fall into a summer sleep, retaining just sufficient life to enable them to digest their winter
feasts. The Oj^iaAjof theObi, who are likewise of Finnish extraction, hold the whole extent of country
from the Togurian district of the circleof Tomsky (in 5»° north lat. and 83° 20' east long. 1 to Obdorsk,
and from about 100 miles north of that fort to about G60 mih-s south of it. In summer and at the be-
ginning of spring they inhabit temporary dwellings, which they call jurtes, on the banks of the large
rivers ; but in winter they retire to the forests, where they have permanent jurtes in the neighbourhood
of water. Their settlements are met with at intervals of from (J to 24 miles, and contain from four to
twenty jurtes, placed within 320 feet of each other, and built wholly of cedar- wood, although many
other kinds of trees, as the birch, pine, fir, spruce-fir, and larch, are to be had in abundance. They are
a small and feeble race, of mild manners, and unmeaning physiognomy ; and have hair generally of a
reddish, or light yellow cast. They wear a tight dress made of fish skins or furs. Nothing is more dis-
gusting than their appearance and manner of living ; and yet they enjoy good health. They generally
die of scorbutic, nervous, or other chronic diseases. Their property consists wholly of rein-deer, and
the possession of from 200 to 500 of those animals is considered as indicating affluence. Their name is
said to be a Russian corruption of the Tartar word Ustiak, signifying wild or ignorant men. The
northern Ostiaks call themselves Kondicho, from the name of the river Konda, and the word cho, a man.
The Ostiaks of the south call themselves ^/sjaket after their river Jake. Historians have traced the
descent of this people to the Finns, but there is a broad distinction between the two nations in their
physical and moral conditions, and particularly in their languages. The Ostiak tongue is said to have
no affinity with any European or Asiatic language (which can hardly be the case unless they be autoch-
thones), and is so poor in words, that those who hold much intercourse with the Russians, borrow
from them, and adopt new expressions for such ideas as they cannot render into their own dialect.
The Russo-Oreek form of Christianity was introduced among the southern Ostiaks about the year
1652, but their mode of life makes them very remiss in the observance of religious ordinances ; and,
what is worse, they have become addicted to the vice of inordinate drinking. The northern Ostiaks
are still pa^^ans, though they practise baptism, as well as their more enlightened brethren, and give
their children Russian names ; the women veil themselves in the presence of strangers. Their general
employments are hunting and fishing, and many of them live in a kind of simple attluence. The Ostiak
yokes but two dogs to his sledge, unlike the natives farther east, who drive five or six pairs in a train.
The bear enjoys among them a kind of religious veneration. They ofler sacrifices before setting out
to hunt this formidable animal ; and, after having killed one, they celebrate his memory by an expiatory
fete, and by songs addressed to his manes.
The Samoiedes occupy an immense e.\tent of moss-covered marshy territory, which stretches along
the coast of the Arctic Ocean from the river Mesen near Arkhangel, to the Khatunea, upwards of 2000
miks in length, and from 270 to .550 in breadth. Their ordinary stature is from four to five feet ; they
arc generally broad, with very short legs, a large and flat head, a flat nose, the lower part of the face
fTojecting, a wide mouth, large cars, a very scanty beard, and small, black, angular eyes. To these
attractions they add an olive coloured skin, sliining with grease, and black and bristly hair, which,
though it is small in quantity, they arrange with great care. The women have an agreeable shape and
mild features, and arrive very early at puberty. The girls are generally marriageable at eleven or
twelve, but they have few children, and cease bearing before thirty. The women are considered as
impure beings, and are obliged to perfume themselves before passing the threshold of the cabin. The
Samoiedes are nomadic, and move frequently from place to place. They have much in common with
the Ostiaks, but maintain a better character, and are less addicted to drinking. Their wants are very
limited ; hunting is their chief employment ; and their wealth consists in rein-deer, the poorest Samo-
iede possesses a hundred, while the rich man's herd often amounts to 10,000. They all quit the sea-
phore in winter, when the ice sets in, and w.-inder with their herds to tlie mossy hills of the interior.
They are gross idolaters, their only worship being a species of fetichism. Their magicians are adroit
jugglers ; but, in sujiporting their assumed character of inspired persons, many of them become really
frantic. Their amusements consist in danc.", in which they keep time to a nasal sort of song. They
are divided into diflferent tril}cs, of which the Obduriatu and the Jooraks are the most remarkable.
They have a peculiar language, apparently unmixed with any other. It is believed that the whole
Sariioiede race have moved down the course of the lenisei ; for there are still found in the country
which stretches from the upper lenisei and the Abakan, to the west end of lake liaikal, some small
tribes which use dialects containing a great mixture of Samoiede words, or e%en belonging entirely
to that language. Such are the .SVn/'Vcr, who are said to be numerous in Chinese Mongolia; the
Kaihalt'S, who leave the dead bodies of their children exposed on the trees, and who dispute with tho
mountain hare the heaps of hay provided by that intelligent animal; the Matnns, the Kiirtif^asxes,
the S'tmiicliinzes, and theOjYiV/A*of Naryni. It might appear natural to consider the Ostiaks of the
lenisei or of I'unipokol as a link of the chain ; l)ut it appears that this tribe of hunters lias formed
for themselves a peculiar jargon which defies the researches of historians.
The YakUlt inliabit the lower basin of the Lena from the neighbourhood of Yakutsk to the ocean,
»nd appear to be degenerated Tartars, who have fled before the conquering Mongols. They call
themselves Socha, in the plural Sochalar ; and there is still among the Tartars of Krasnoyarsk a trib«
which bears the same name. The Yakftts wear long hair, and short and open dresses. In want of
Attention to cleanliness they yield to none of their neighbours ; and in their general habits of life they
tery much res«mblc the Tongooses, tiiough they are considered to be less daring and active. They
794 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Russuw
are exceedingly superstitious ; they reckon thirteen Isinds of evil spirits, with the dread of which they
are perpetually haunted ; and the influence of their magicians is therefore unbounded. They have
made considerable progress in cultivating the ground ; and have introduced the rearing of cattle and
horses, and have attained, not merely a scanty subsistence, but even some degree of comfort. They
are now all baptised. But though they are properly a pastoral people, whose chief riches consist in
the number of their horses and beeves ; yet the abundance of fur-clad animals in their vast forests,
and the profit which they make by selling them to the Russians, have induced them to turn much of
their attention to the chase, of which many of them are passionately fond, and which they follow
with'un wearied ardour and admirable skill. The Yookaghirs inhabit the country between the lana and
the Kolyma ; but geographers are in doubt whether to number them among the Samoiedes or the
Yakiits, or among the tribes still to be enumerated. They live by the chase and the produce of their
rein-deer, and are all baptized. They were formerly a warlike and formidable people ; and the Rus-
sians found great difficulty in subjugating them. They are now all but extinct as a pure race, those
who now bear the name being much mixed with Russian blood.
The Chuckchee or Tschuktschi possess the north-eastern extremity of Siberia, from the river Tshaun
to Hehring's Straits. They generally live in small camps near the rivers ; their dwellings are dirty
and their food disgusting. The dress of the women consists of a deer's skin hung from the neck, so
that by untying a single knot, they are made completely naked. The Chuckchee have large features,
but have not the fiat nose and small eyes of the Kamtschatdales. They are expert slingers, and display
mucli courage and address in whale fisliing, which they conduct in the European manner, witliout
having received instructions from that quarter. They still preserve tlicir independence, but live on
good terms with the Russians, and meet them for purposes of traffic at the annual fair of Ostronaya
in February, where they exhibit a great degree of adroit management. The staple article which they
purchase seems to be tobacco, in return for which they give morse-teeth, and various skins and furs.
Tliey are a bold and fearless race, extremely jealovis of Russian traders and emissaries, and far from
unintelligent. The Shelagi, near Skelatskoi-noss, the Ashushalat, and the Peyeskoli, on the islands of
the Frozen Sea, who are little known, belong to the Chuckchee family. The Chuckchee are, however,
in many respects a peculiar race, and are very little known. A great number of them have been bap-
tized, but they remain as completely heathen as before, without the slightest notion of the doctrines
or the spirit of Christianity. Their inducement to present themselves fur baptism is solely to obtain
the presents which arc made to them on the occasion. They formerly all lived on the produce of their
rein-deer ; but those among them who happensd to lose their herds by sickness or other causes, set-
tled by decrees on the coast, and employed themselves in killing whales, seals, and walruses. They
are now divided into two cla-ses, the settled Chuckchee, who live on the coast, and the nomadic
Chuckchee, who inhabit the hills. The latter, who form the bulk of the people, call themselves Ten-
nygik. The two classes live on good terms with each other, and exchange their different commodi-
ties. The inhabitants of the coast furnish the nomadics with whale flesh and bones, walrus skin, and
train oil, which is a favourite article of food, and receive in return rein-deer skins, both raw arid made
up into clothing. The coast of the bay of Anadir is inhabited by a people very distinct from the Chuck-
chees in figure, features, clothing,and language. They are called Oukilou (sea people), and are said to
have formerly occupied the whole coast from Cape Scheatskoi to Behiing's Straits ; and every where
along this tract are the remains of huts, constructed of earth and whale bones, quite different from
those of the Chuckchee. Captain Billings thinks that their language has a close affinity to that of the
Aleutians of Kodiak, who are of the same stock as the Greenlanders or Esquimaux. They pass
Behring's Straits in baidours or boats formed of skins ; but the thick fogs and frequent storms render
the passage dangerous in such frail vessels, and they therefore usually stop at the Gwosdew islands.
The Kuriaks live near the rivers Anadir and Oloutoria, between Kamtschatka and the country of the
Chuckchee ; who live by hunting, and the produce of the rein-deer. The Oloutorzi speak a smooth
language ; but, in general, the idiom of the Koriaks approaches to both the Chuckchee and the
Kamtschatdale.
The Bashkirs or Bashkurs are found in the provinces of Orenburg, of which the greater part belongs
to them, and Perm, on the south-western borders of Siberia, speak a Tartar dialect, and are Soonee Ma-
hometans ; but it is difficult to trace their origin. They seem to form an intermediate link between
the Finns and the Turks ; their customs and habits are of Tartar origin, except the dress of the
women, which is evidently Finnish. They have no longer any military chieftains ; and have, for nearly
a century, been good subjects of Russia. In disposition they are faithful, decile, and ready to oblige ;
and the traveller may pass through their country as safely as through any part of Europe. By an impe-
rial ukase issued in 1832, they have been declared the owners of the gold mines on the east side of the
Urals, on payment of one-tenth of the produce to the crown. Most of them subsist by rearing cat-
tle, and a few by agriculture. They pass the winter in villages, living in clean wooden cabins ; but in
summer they are all abroad in the open country, and live under tents of felt. They may almost be
said to live on horseback ; but unwearied and skilful in all that pertains to horsemanship, they are
dull and lazy in everything else ; yet they are very expert falconers ; they teach their small falcons
to pounce on hares, while a larger kind, called berkuti, are trained to kill foxes, and even wolves.
These birds they rear and train in considerable numbers, not only for their own use, but for the pur-
pose of selling them to the Kirghiz, and other wandering tribes of the steppes. They are divided into
12 cantons, subdivided into tribes or clans, jurtcs, and villages. They pay no taxes, but are hound to
provide post-horses, supply men for the frontier cordons, and hold themselves ready for any foreign
service. They are, however, but indifferent soldiers. They cherish an inveterate hatred against the
Cossacks, whom they excel both in courage and muscular power. Their principal weapon is the bow,
in the use of which they are very expert, but fire-arms are rarely found among them.
Indistrv and Commercp..— Besides the agricultural labours ;rhich are carried on in places suitable
for the produce of grain, with the hunting and fishing, and rearing of horses and cattle, that form the
chief occupations of the native tribes, the industry of the Russian settlers is principally directed to
the working of the mines of the Urals, Kolyvan, and Nertshinsk, and the manufacturing of iron,
copper, utensils of these metals, leather, shagreen, and carpets; arms, glass, salt, saltpetre, pitch,
isinglass, and felts. The art of lackering has been brought to great perfection at Tagilisk, on the
XJrals, and the lackered wares are generally ornamented with paintings, the execution of which was
for a long time wholly intrusted to such of the uninstructed workmen as seemed to manifest a taste
for drawing; but of late years the proprietors of the mines and iron works have sent serfs into
Europe to study the art of drawing and colouring. Some of these have even spent years in Italy,
and afterwards returning to Tagilisk, have established schools of design for the benefit of their
brethren. Among other branches of industry carried on at lekaterinburg, is the cutting and en-
graving of precious stones. Amethysts, topazes, tourmalines, with quartz crystals of large size, are
cut and polished with great skill ; and are then inelegantly, though ponderously, set in the gold of the
country. Besides the great abundance of gems found in the neighbourhood, many are brought from
all parts of Siberia ; and the trade of the lapidary is here carried on in the most extensive manner
possible.
Tobolsk is the centre of Siberian commerce. The produce of the mines, fisheries, and hunting
expeditions, and the rude articles supplied by the native tribes, as furs, peltry, mammoth bones,
mors* teeth, dried and salt fish, are here met with and exchanged for European and Chinese goods
Asia.] ASIA. 795
and manufactured articles, woollen and cotton cloths, silk stuffs and the like ; most of which, how-
ever, are drawn from China, the preference being partly due to their cheapness, and partly to the skill
with which the vigilant Chinese merchant adapts liis commodities to the wants of the country. Tea,
likewise porcelain, silk, musk, and rhubarb, are imported by them to a considerable extent. A great
trade is also carried on at the annual fair of Irbit, 100 miles N.E. of lekaterinburg, which is the
best frequented and the most Important of all Siberia. The commerce eastward of Tobolsk is car-
ried on through Kiakhta, Irkutsk, and several other intervening towns; the whole distance between
Tobolsk and Kiakhta, with the exception of about CO miles, benig navigable by tlie branches of the
Angara, the lenisei, and the Obi ; and although the route is exceedingly circuitous and tedious,
amounting to no less than 8000 miles, the profits of the trade carried on with the Siberian tribes on
the banks of the streams are considered a sufficient compensation lor the time and trouble spent on
the journey. From the south the merchants of Turkestan bring silk and cotton stuft's, precious
stones, and other articles. Formerly caravans of some thousands of camels used to arrive annually
at Omsk, Petropaulovski, Orenburg, and other frontier towns of western Siberia. But at present the
dried fruits of Bokhara, the ricli shawls, raw cotton, and other produce of the southern countries,
are carried direct to Nishnei-Novgorod, in European Russia. Still, however, small caravans occa-
sionally travel southwards fri>m the Siberian frontier, taking with them otter and seal skins, linen,
and bar-iron. The merchants, who are chiefly Tartar?, though a Kussian sometimes ventures to
accompany them, assemble at Semiyarsk on the Irtish, about GltO miles S.E. of Tobolsk, and usually
start in May, while the pools and streams in the desert are not yet completely dried up. The place
to which they direct their journey is Tashkend in Turkestan, at a distance of two months travelling
from Semiyarsk ; the tirst 200 miles being over a wild and hilly country, across the Karakaralui
mountains, which are thickly covered with forests of firs, willows, and black poplars, and infested by
bears and wild boars ; after leaving which they pass through a woodless country till they reach
Ta«hkend. To the north, again, Obdorsk, 50 miles from the mouth of the Obi, is a point of the
greatest importance to the Russian fur traders, and is the centre of the commerce carried on witli
all the tribes who possess the country from Arkhangel to the lenisci. The traders begin to assemble
in December, but the active traffic, or the fair, does not take place till February, when the yasak, or
tribute of skins, is paid by the Ostiaks of Beresov. Besides other useful articles, great quantities of
meal and baked bread are sent northward by private traders from Tomsk and Tobolsk, besides what
is despatched on account of government, all of which serves as money in the traffic with the Ostiaks
and Samoiedes, who are very fond of such luxuries. Petropaulovski, in Kamtschatka, is the principal
port on the Pacific Ocean, but its trade is monopolised by the Russian American Company, who
have also factories, or counting houses, at Moscow, Irkutsk, Yakutsk, Okhotsk, Kazan, Tomsk, and
other J. laces. Peltry forms the principal article of the trade.
Divisions. — Siberia is divided into two great regions, called Eastern and M'estern Siberia, which
are placed under the charge of governors-general, who reside respectively at Irkutsk and Tobolsk.
"Western Siberia includes tlie subordinate governments of Tobolsk and Tomsk, and the province of
Omsk; Eastern Siberia includes the governments of Irkutsk and leniseisk, the province of Yakutsk,
and the districts ot Okhotsk and Kamtschatka. To these we must add those parts of the govern-
ments of Perm and Orenburg which lie to the east of the Urals, and also the country of the Chuckchee,
who are independent. These divisions, with their principal towns, are exhibited in the following
table :—
I'rotmcet. Towns.
I. WeSTKHN SinERIA.
TouoLsii, . Tobolsk, Tumcn, Turinsk, LilCitorusk, Tara, Kdrgan, Ishim, SilrgOt, Beresov,
Pelym. Ob.iorsk.
Tomsk, . . Tomsk, Kaiiisk, Smeinogorsk or Schlangenberg, Barnoul, Kolhyvan, Tomskoi-
Savod. Kiddersk, SousCmsk, Bisk, Narjm, Kiiznetsk.
Omsk, . . . Omsk ; Pctropaulosk, the principal fortress of the line of Ischini, and containing
an important custom-house ; Semipolatinsk, Ustkamenogorsk, Semiyarsk,
II. Eastern Siberia.
Irkutsk, . Irkutsk, Selinginsk, Kiakhta, Nijnei-rdinsk, Wertshinsk, Nertshinskoi-Savod,
Troitskosarsk, Karensk, Balagansk, Bargousin, \'(.rshnei-Udinsk.
Ieniseise, . Krasnoyarsk, Kansk, Abakansk, Atshinsk, leniseisk, Tflriikhansk, Minussinsk,
Khantanskoi.
Yakutsk, . Yakutsk, VilCiisk, Olekminsk, Olensk, Oustie-Olenskoie, Verskhoiansk, Vitiin-
skoi, Srcdne-Kolymsk, Nishnei-Kolymsk, Zachiversk, Jigansk, Oudskoi.
Okhotsk, . Okhotsk, Ijikhinsk, Kanienoi-ostrog.
Kamtschatka, Petropaulovski, Vcrsne-Kamtfchatsk, Nijne-Kamtschatsk, Aklansk, Bolshertes-
koi, Tigilsk.
Perm, . . . lekaterinburg, Neviansk, Verklioturia, Irbit, Tagilisk, Bogoslovsk, KCishva.
Obenuurc, . Troitsk, Tsheliabinsk, Verkho-uralsk.
Tobolsk, formtrly the cnpit.il of all Siberia, is situate on the right bank of the Irtish, near its con-
fluence witli the Tobol, in N. lat. hH^ 12', and K. long. fi8- 1.5'. It is divided into the lower and the
upper town, the former of which stands on the banks of the river, and is much exposed to floods ; the
latter occupies the top of a steep ridge which rises considerably above the plains, and consequently
the white houses and the church towers are visible at a great disl-ance. The lower town is only 128
the upper 3-i7 feet above the level of the Arctic Ocean. Except the government buildings and two
churches, the town is built wholly of wood, and even the streets are paved with that material. Its
population in IK-TS aTnountcd to IT.MS, of whom a considerable number are exiles, who live here not un-
comfortably. The variety and abundance of wild fowls in its markets are no where else to be equalled ;
■while the fisheries of the Ol i on the one side and the herds and flocks of the pastoral tribes on the
other, yield tneir respective supplies at the cheapest rate. It is also well supplied with manufactured
jjoods of overy kind, and with tea, and colonial produce from Europe and China. Literature, science,
and the polite amusements of Europe, have also made considerable progress among the citizens, and
contribute greatly to their amusement as well as instruction. The inhabitants endeavour also to
heighten the graces of the West by a mixture of Siberian merriment, the quadrille and the gallo-
pade being accompanied by singing, while the ladies display at once their figures and their voices.
Eviry pretext, relijiious or social, is seized on for a feast, a ceremony, or a public show. Marriage
gives occasion to four ceremonies ; first comes " the meeting ;" then "the near inspection ;" after-
wards " the shaking of hands ;" and lastly, " the maiden's feast," which completes the nuptial rites.
Tumcn, 130 miles W.S.W. of Tobolsk, Is a town of 80(X) inhabitants, which enjoys a considerable
trade. Hereior, 420 miles N. of Tobolsk in a direct line, orG'iO by route, is a fur trading settlement of
?;reat importance, inhabited by several respectable merchants and exiles. It staii<ls at a little distance
rem the left bank of the Obi, on its affluent the Sosva ; and no other place can vie with it in the
active, enterprising, and kindly spirit of its people. Its situation is very ideasant, and it contains a
population of 1.500, most of whom subsist by trade. It is historically Important, as being the placo
where the three favourites of Peter the Great, Ostcrman, Dolgorukof, and Menzikofl', ended their
796 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Russian
days in exile. In 1821, the remains of Menzikoff were found buried deep in tlie frozen earth, in a sUt«
of perfect preservation. Obdorsk, a paltry wooden town, 50 miles from the mouth of the Obi is
nevertheless, the centre of all the trade carried on with the Samoiedes and the Ostiaks of Beresov'
From Tobolsk to Beresov the river is easily navigated downwards in eiglit days by the current alone '
upwards, the navigation is favoured by the prevalent north winds, and by the counter currents near
the banks.
Tomsk, 630 miles E. by S. of Tobolsk, a city with 10,577 inhabitants, and the capital of a province
though It contams several churches and many handsome buildings, both public and private is never-
theless, a miserable place. It stands on the right bank of the Tom, near its mouth, has a military
BChooI with 400 students, a provincial college with a considerable revenue, but without either masters
or scholars, and also a very neat public garden. Barnaul, 260 miles S. by W. of Tomsk, contains
1200 houses, with 9000 inhabitants, and is the seat of administration for the whole of the mines of the
Kolyvan line, the governor being solely dependent upon the imperial Cabinet. It is also the chief
smelting place, and enjoys the civilization of a European city. The mining district subject to the
authorities at Barnoul extends southwards about 300 miles towards the Irtish and the frontiers of
Chinese rartary. The silver mines of the SchUingenbers (Snakehill) are situate 180 miles to the
south of Barnoul. As the country rises to the south its climate does not grow milder in that direc-
tion, but the winters are at least as severe, and the summers as short as they are some hundred miles
farther north. The hills are in general but thinly wooded ; and, on that account, notwithstanding
the difflculties arising from great distance and inadequate water conveyance, the ores have to be
carried down to the smelting houses in the lowlands, chiefly to Barnoul. The wealth and population
of this mining district increase rapidly to the south. The farmers and miners of the southern val-
leys, who have the opportunity of trading with the Chinese, wear silks and fine cloth with gold orna-
ments and jewellery i and in their houses and their mode of living, manifest a degree of opulence un-
known to those of equal rank in Russia. Kainsk, nearly midway between Tomsk and Omsk is a
neat town in the centre of a low brushwood forest, and contains GOO houses and 2500 people '
„ ^'•^^^t^^ f^P'*^'^"!^^^.?^^"'^?' '? situate at the confluence of the Om with the Irtish, '290 miles
u ■ Tobolsk, and 490 W. by h. of Tomsk. It is composed of a fortress, and a town with its sub-
urbs, and has a garrison of 4000 men, with a flying artillery of forty pieces. The fortress is the largest
of the three divisions, is a neat place, with buildings of brick, and surrounded by a mud wall and
1- o-u . •'Obtains an imperial military college for the children of the military who form the army
ot Siberia, also a school tor the children of Cossacks. The town and suburbs contain some neat
buildings, but are not otherwise remarkable. The total population in 1833, amounted to 11,428. Semi-
polatmsk is a fortress on the right bank of the Irtish, 400 miles S.E. by S. of Omsk The town stands
on a pleasant eminence, commanding a view of the lofty mountains to the south, but the surrounding
country is uncultivated and infested by robbers. It contains 1000 soldiers and 2000 civil inhabitants
Irkutsk, the capital of Eastern Siberia, is situate on the left bank of the Angara, 1246 feet above
the level of the sea, 24 miles N. from the lake Baikal, and 1500 E. by S. of Tobolsk, in lat. 52= 16' and
long. 103-^30. It is the handsomest in external appearance, and the most elegant as to society of
any place in Siberia. The houses are chiefly of wood ; but the streets are wide and sp:icious : some
ot the public buildings are very fine, and among these there are twelve handsome churches. The
population, by the census of 1833, amounted to 13,522. The principal inhabitants are merchants, and
the civil and military officers of Government. Both classes being in constant communication with
i.urope, have introduced into this remote quarter, whatever is most recent in literature, as well as
in music and the drama. A small library has been formed, and a collection or museum of natural
history. The shops are filled with nankeens, porcelain, lackered ware, and other articles of Chinese
workmanship. Ihe Russian-American Company have a counting-house here and large magazines :
and the town may even be regarded as the grand mart of the Russian commerce with China. It is
also a b.shop s see. The Angara is here deep and rapid, and the approach along its stream to the
Baikal may be considered, says Captain Cochrane, one of the grandest sights in the world. The
river gradually widens as it draws nearer the lake, till at length it forms a pretty inlet where vessels
are laid up. Selmgtnsk, once an important place on the Selinga, is now much decayed, and contained,
m 1821, only 200 houses and 1000 people, besides the garrison. Vershnei- Udiiuk,\ large, populous,
and flourishing town on the right bank of the Selinga, 200 miles E. of Irkutsk, and 70 N.N.E. of
Selinginsk, contains many handsome brick houses, churches, and public buildings, and has risen on
the ruins of Selinginsk as the grand mart between Irkutsk and Kaikhta. It contains a strong -arri-
son, 400 houses, and about 2G00 inhabitants. Kiakhta, a neat and regularly built town of 450 houses
and 4000 inhabitants, on the right bank of a little brook of its own name, an afHuent of the S.lin^a,
which forms the border of the Russian and the Chinese empires, about 200 miles S.E of Irkutsk It
19 the only place on this frontier, where the Chinese Government allows its subjects to trade with
Russia ; and the Chinese town of Maitmatshin, 200 fathoms from the old town ot Kiakhta is their
frontier station. IVertshmsk, 500 miles E. of Vershnei-Udinsk, is called a city, but is ill-built widely
scattered, badly situate, and worse inhabited, containing about 200 houses and 1000 people. It is the
head-quarters of the great penal settlement of Siberia, all the worst criminals being sent to work in
the mines of this district. The majority of them are kept at the Bolshov-zavod, or great fabric, 180
miles E. from the city, situate in a deep hollow, and surrounded by high' and barren rocks, as bleak,
dreary, and inhospitable as can be imagined.
Krasnoyarsk, the capital of the province of leniseisk, is situate on the left bank of the lenisei,
300 miles N.W. of Irkutsk. Atshtnsk, 90 miles west, is a thriving trading town
Yakutsk or Iakctsk, is situate on the left bank of the Lena, 1200 miles N.E. of Irkutsk, in a bleak
and dreary region, with a very cold climate. It is an irregularly-built town, but being the seat of the
tur trade, and of a great commerce with the natives, it contains so many as 40O0 inhabitants. lakutsk
has all the character ot the cold and gloomy north. It is situate on a barren flat near the river ; the
Btreets are wide, but the houses and cottages are poor. There is not a tree or a bush to be seen, and
nothing to indicate summer but the absence of snow. It contains about 500 houses, 5 churches, and a
convent. Yakutsk is the centre of the inland trade of Eastern Siberia; furs, walrus and mammoth
teeth, are brought to it for barter, during the ten weeks of summer, from the most distant places to
the east, and north ; and as soon as the Lena is clear of ice, merchants begin to arrive from Irkutsk
bringing with them tobacco, tea, sugar, brandy, rum, Chinese cotton and silk stuffs, yarn, coarse
cloth, hardware glass, &c. The Russians live entirely by trade, and have abandoned all sorts of handi-
craft to the Yakuts, among whom there are now excellent carpenters, cabinetmakers, carvers in
wood, and even painters.
Nishnei-Kolt/msk stands on the eastern sida of an island in the Kolyma, about 150 miles from the
mouth of the river. It is a large town for this part of the world, containing nearly 50 houses and
400 people, most of whom are Cossacks, with a few pedlars and three priests
Okhotsk, a small town with a liarbour on the western side of the sea of Okhotsk, maintains a con-
siderable trade with Kamtschatka and the Russian settlements in North America, the produce of which
all passes through it, as the only sea-port of Siberia on the Pacific Ocean. Petropau'ovtki (pronounced
I'etropaulski), the capital of Kamtschatka, and the residence of the government and commercial
agents, is a town of thatched log-houses, of very poor appearance. Its harbour is a safe land-locked
bason, on the eastern side of Awatska Bay, capable of containing si.x or eight ships of the line in per-
Asia.] ASIA. 707
feet seeurity. Awktska B«y is 30 miles in circumference, witii general deptii of water of 12 or 14
fathoms on a level bottom of soft mud ; and abounds with fish ot the finest quality. Its entrance is
four miles long and a mile and a half wide at the narrowest part, with a lighthouse on the south-east
point, in lat. 6^=" 52' N. lat., and 158° 47' E. long.
lekaterinburg or Katherinenburg, is situate on the eastern slope of the Urals, 25 miles east of the Bilim-
bayevski pass, and 976 feet above the level of the sea, in the government of I'erm. It contains about
2000 houses, chiefly built of wood, though some are of stone, and the great marmfaotories are of brick,
rooted with thin iron pU^tes. It contains the college of mines, which superintends all the foundries
maintained by it on both sides of the Urals. The town presents, in a remarkable degree, the appear-
ance of comfort and thriving industry. Many of its houses would be deemed ornamental in the most
handsome towns of Europe ; yet the greater number of its inhabitants are serfs, whose annual remit-
tances of tribute to their owners amount to princely revenues. It is 320 miles W. by S. of Tobolsk.
Tyumen, on the banks of the Tara, 180 miles from lekaterinburg, is a larger town than the latter, and
is situate in a fertile country.
Seas, Bays, and Gclfs. — Sea qf Kara, on the east sideof Nova Zembla. Sea of Obi, forming the
firth or estuary of that river, is about 400 miles long by 80 or 'M wide. Behring's Straits form the
communication between the Arctic and the Pacific Oceans, separate Asia from America, and are
about 50 miles wide, with a small island in the middle. A constant current sets through the straits
from the Arctic into the Pacific Ocean. GiUf of Anadir, to the south-west of Behring's Straits.
^LCdttira Bay, already described. Sea of Okhotsk, a large inland sea, between Kamtschatka and Ok
hotsk, is unnavigable in winter.
Capes. — Severe- I'ostochni, the most northerly point of the continent of Asia. Skclatskoi-noss, in the
country of the Chuckchee, in long. 175° E. TscUuktschi-nost ov East Cape, formitig the western side
ot Behring's Straits, and being the most easterly point of Asia. Cape Lopatka, the most southerly point
ot Kamtschatka.
Islands, — A'»<etooi or Kettle Island, Fadei, Novaia-Sibir, Stolbovoi, Iterchanksoy, Bear Islands,
and Bumey's Isle, in the Arctic Ocean ; Diomedes, in the middle of Behring's Straits ; Eeougisona or
Clerk's Island, to the south of the strait ; ilatui, St. Matthew or Gore's Isle, south-east of the Gulf
of Anadir; Karagui and Behring's Isles (with 110 inhabitants in 1827) on the east side of Kamt-
schatka ; and the Kurile Islands, which extend in a long line of 900 miles across the mouth of the sea
of Okhotsk, from Cape Lopatka to leso. Their number is not accurately known ; but they contain
eight known volcanic mountains, some of which are in a state of activity. Some of the islands are
uninhabited from want of water, while others rival Kamtschatka in the abundance of game and fish.
The few inhabitants are peaceable and well disposed ; they live very much in the same manner as the
Kamschatdales. The northern portion of them are subject to Russia, and pay a small tribute in furs
and sea-calves ; the southern islands are claimed by Japan.
Kamtschatka is a large peninsula attached to the north-eastern extremity of Siberia, between 51°
and 62° N. lat., and 166° and 167° E. long., about 800 miles long, from 100 to 250 broad, and contain-
ing about 80,000 square miles. It is traversed lengthways by a chain of volcanic mountains of great
elevation (see ante, 629), many of whose summits are in constant activity. The climate is very severe ;
but not insalubrious ; for the inhabitants are robust and long-lived, and have lew diseases. Rye, barley,
potatoes, cabbage, turnips, hemp, and flax may be raised successfully ; but most of the people are de-
voted to hunting and fishing. The forests contain birch, fir, larch, poplar, cedar, willow, and juniper.
The animals usually hunted are bears, lynxes, otters, rein-deer, foxes, sables, beavers, &c., and the
number of skins annually exported is about 30,000, cliiefly those of foxes and sables. There is also
other game of several varieties, and water fowl, whose eggs, saturated with oil, constitute the princi-
pal part of the food of the inhabitants. The fish comprise salmon, cod, herrings, besides seals, wal-
ruses, and whales. The trade is very limited; labour is confined to the supply of temporary necessities ;
domestic comforts are little known or cared for, and attluence is seldom attained even by the most
provident and most industrious. Taxes are paid in skins ; furs and dried fish are exported from Pe-
tropaulovski, chiefly by Russians and Dutch, who bring in exchange rice, flour, coftee, sugar, brandy,
and whi^ky. The Kamtschatdales, the indigenous natives of the peninsula, are a people of short
stature, with firm shoulders, large heads, long and flat faces, small eyes, small lips, and but little hair.
Their women have fine skins, very small hands and feet, and a tolerably well proportioned figure.
In their independent state they were very warlike and ferocious ; but now, under the Russian sway,
they have become a peaceable and honest, but lazy, drunken, servile race, careless of futurity, and
addicted to coarse sensuality. The southern Kamtschatdales have both their winter and summer
cabins raised on stages, twelve or thirteen feet high, fur the purpose of drying their fish. The chief
occupation of the men is fishing. In the northern part of the country the cabins are subterranean
holes which retain the heat ; but the closeness and the tilth are insupportable by those who are not
accustomed to them. The people are subject to few diseases ; their most common complaints are
scorbutic and venereal ; and the glare of the snow occasions frequent inflammation of the eyes. In
VAi there were in the whole territory of Kamtschatka only 2700 natives and Aleutians.
Omsk has recently (1812) been constituted the c:ipital of Western Siberia, instead of Tobolsk.
798 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Japan.
EMPIRE OF JAPAN.
This empire consists of a group of large Islands in the Pacific Ocean, to the north-east of China,
between 30* and 42° N. lat., and 128^ and 143° E. long. The principal Islands are named Niphon, Si-
totre, Kiu-siu, Awadsi, Sado, and leso ; besides which, the Japanese have also colonised the southern
portion of the island of Saghalien, and claim dominion over the southern half of the Kurile islands,
Niphon is upwards of 800 miles in length, but of irregular form, and of various breadth ; the other
islands are very considerably smaller ; and the whole superficial area of the empire is estimated at
about 260,000 English square miles. The principal islands have a very uneven surface, interspersed
with rocky hills. Niphon is traversed throughout its whole length by a regular chain of mountains, the
highest peak of which, named Fusi, exceeds 12,000 foet ; but the elevation of the chain is in general so
low, as to admit of cultivation up to the watershed of its streams. Several of the summits are active
volcanoes ; AV'unsondaki, east of Nangasaki, is the most formidable at present known ; Fusi, in Ni-
phon, was formerly an active and very much dreaded volcano, but has been quiescent for more than a
century. Earthquakes are frequent and destructive; thermal and mineral springs are of frequent
occurrence. The metallic wealth of the country is said to be very great, comprising copper, sulphur,
lead, tin, iron, gold, and silver. The streams have very short courses, and are for the most part
rather torrents than rivers. The climate varies extremely from north to south, being intensely cold
in the north, while in the south it is nearly as warm as in the south of France, though more v^iriable.
In Kiu-siu, and the southern parts of Niphon, the thermometer ranges between 29^ and lot' Faiireu-
heit, 80° being the average in the middle of summer, and 35° in the coldest months of winler. Tlia
cold, however, is much increased hi winter by the prevalence of north and north-east winds ; while the
summer heats are modified by breezes fromthe south and south-east. Ran is very frequent; hurri-
canes also and storms are of frequent occurrence, and are sometimes very violent.
Few plants, e.vcept on the hills, are found in a natural state ; and the face of the country, even up
the sides of the mountains, is most diligently cultivated. In the southern districts rice is raised in
very large quantities, and forms the principal article of food amonij the inhabitants. Wheat is very
partially cultivated, and is held in little estimation. Barley, buckwheat, beans, potatoes, melons,
pumpkins, and cucumbers, are raised in great abundance ; and the fruit trees of southern Europj, the
orange, lemon, vine, peach, and mulberry, are common and very productive. Ginger and pe;ipL'rare
the principal spice plants ; cotton is grown in considtrable quantity, and tobacco, in the south. Ne.vt
to rice, however, tea is the grand object of cultivation ; and not only are there large plantations of that
shrub, but the hedges on the farms of Kiu-siu consist of it, and supply the drink of the lah >urers.
Oaks, firs, and cypresses, are common, but not in large masses ; timber is supplied from leso and
Saghalien. There are also the gum varnish tree, the camphor laurel, and others ; many of the plants
are extremely beautiful. Among the wild animals may be eiiumerated bears, boars, foxes, dogs, deer,
monkeys, hares, rats, mice, and two small animals of the weasel tribe peculiar to the country, and
called itutz and tin. The people eat very little animal food ; they live chietly on fish, and dress princi-
pally in cotton and silk ; the pasturing of cattle is consequently not much attended to. Buffaloes and
beeves are not numerous, and are used only for draught labour ; the sheep are but few, and are the
progeny of a stock introduced by the Dutch. The horses are small, and used only by the nobility ; there
are neither asses nor nmles ; and pigs are found only in the vicinity of Nangasaki. Dogs are common,
and held sacred ; cats are even more esteemed by the Japanese ladies than by those of Great Britain.
Birds are numerous, and of many species ; falcons are highly valued ; and pelicans, cranes, and herons,
are considered useful in destroying vermin. The pheasants, ducks, geese, teal, storks, pigeons, ravens,
larks, and other small birds are numerous ; but the common crow and the parrot have never been seen.
Snakes are not unfrequent, and one variety, the ourahami, is of enormous size ; there are also tortoises
and lizards, scorpions, centipedes, ani whits ants. The seas contain large quantities of fish, which
afford a principal article of food to tlie inhabitants, and give employment to numerous villages of
fishermen. The salmon, herring, cuttle-fish, eel, perch, and many others, are caught in great quan-
tities ; oysters also, of a peculiar and delicious kind, are extremely abundant, and are used almost ex-
clusively as food by many of the poor people about ledo, where the fisheries are situate. Whales and
narwhals often visit tiie coasts, and are caught by the harpoon ; the flesh is eaten, the balein serves for
various purposes, and ambergris is extracted from the entrails.
The people seem to be a nii.xed race of Mongolian and Malay blood, though they boast of being abo-
rigines. They are in general well made, active and nimble, with yellow complexions, small deeply-
set eyes, sliDrt flat noses, broad heads, and thick black hair. They ai-e divided into eight classes ;
princes, nobles, priests, soldiers, civil officers, merchants, artizans, and labourers ; which are kept
distinct, with all the strictness of caste, each person following invariably the professionof his fathers.
Polygamy is not practised even by the nobles, and much more freedom is permitted to the women than
in China ; nor do the women compress their ftet, though they bandage their hips so tightly as to turn
their feet inwards, and give themselves a very awkward gait. Concubines are common, but tluy
hold a lower rank than wives. Prostitutes are found in every town in greater numbers than in any
other country of Asia, except India ; and so little discredit is attached to the character, that they are
visited by married women, and are received without remark into respectable society. The Japanese
are said to be intelligent, and desirous of knowledge ; they study medicine and astronomy ; and their
astronomical observations are as correctly made as their rude instruments will allow. Almanacks
are compiled at Miyako, the great centre of the national science and literature. History has b^'en writ-
ten with great care by some of their learned men ; their works on botany and zoology contain good
descriptions, and tultrable engravings ; poetry is cultivated ; and there is a prevalent taste for music.
The Japanese language has no relation to the Chinese, nor indeed to any known Asiatic language,
except that of the Ainos. who inhabit leso and Saghalien. It is polysyllabic, and has an alphabet of
47 letters, which are written in four diti'erent forms, one of which is used exclusively by men, anl
another by women. Some of the inhabitants are also acquainted with Chinese. The established or
state religion is that of Buddha ; but it has many varieties, and much superstition prevails among
its votaries. There are monks of various orders, some leading a secluded and ascetic life, others
infesting the towns and highways while on their way to visit diti'erent temples. There are also
large immbers of reliirious beggars and singing girls, who go about in the habit of nuns, and levy
considerable sums. The sect of Siuto, which professes the doctrines of Confucius, has al-o boeii
imported from China ; but its followers are very few. An older form of religion tlian eitlier of these
lias maintained itself from the most remote antiquity to the present day, not only in the hut of the
peasant, but in the palace of the Mikado; which is called the Sinto or Sin-siu (faith in godsj, or,
according to Siebold, Kami-no-tnitsi (way to the gods.) — C See ante, p. 12G.) This ancient sect con-
sider the founders of the empire as the immediate descendants of the Supreme God, who came down
from heaven Into Japan ; and have continued without interruption to exercise sovereign authority ;
Japan. J ASIA. 799
the race being continued by adoption, when progeny fails the reigning emperor. They believe the
spirit of their ruler to be immortal ; a doctrine which confirms the faith of the people in the immor-
tality of the soul ; in connection with which they also believe in future rewards and punishments.
The Supreme Being is too great to be addressed in prayer, except through the mediation of the
Mikado, the son of heaven, or of inferior spirits called Kami, to whom temples are specially erected.
Various kinds of food are offered to the Kami, and anciently even human victims were immolated to
appease the wrath or secure the favour of spirits. They pay great reverence to the fox, as the abode
of a spirit, and consult him in difficult affairs. The priests of this sect are allowed to marry. Tha
amount of the population has been variously estimated; but is positively unknown to any European.
Balbi, on the assumption that Japan is equally populous with China, rates the population at 25,000,000 ;
but if China really contains more than double the number which this geographer assigns to it, the
population of Japan should, on his principle, amount to fifty or sixty millions.
The government is a hereditary absolute monarchy. The sovereignty was formerly vested in an
emperor called the Mikado or Dairi-saimi ; but in a. d. 1593, the emperor's Seogun, or military com-
mander, called also the Kubo, usurped the chief civil power ; and the Mikado lias been ever "since a
mere tool in respect of the civil government, though he has been left the entire superintendence of
rtligion and education. All public enactments, however, must have his sanction before they become
laws ; to him alone belongs the power of conferring honorary distinctions. He lives at Miyako, se-
cluded in a large palace called the Dairi or Imperial Court, surrouiKied by numerous officers, who
treat him with almost divine honours. His income, however, is small, being now restricted to the
taxes levied in Miyako and its district, a certain allowance from the Kubo, ami fees paid for dignities
and offices. His income, indeed, is so small in proportion to the number of his dependents, that ho
may be said to live in splendid poverty. The Kubo keeps a guard and a governor over him, but
acknowledges himself to be the Mikado's first subject, and sends every year an embassy to acknow-
ledge his inft-riority with rich presents. The Kubo holds his court at ledo ; exercises full sovereignty
over the lives and properties of his fellow subjects ; and directly administers the local government
of the five great towns of ledo, Miyako, Osaka, Sakai, and Nanpasaki. The rest of the empire is
divided into provinces, and smaller districts which are governed by daimios and siomios, appointed
by the Kubo; some of whom are so dependent on him as to be obliged to leave their families in the
capital as hostages for their good conduct, and even to reside there themselves during half the year.
But they receive the revenue." of their territory, with which, besides maintaining their state and dig-
nity, they keep an armed force for the preservation of order, make and repair roads, and erect other
public works. They usually reside in the large towns, and occupy castles defended by strong gates
and lofty towers, which are the marks or symbols of their dignity. Even the least dependent of the
daimios are obliged, once a-year, to repair to ledo, attended by numerous and splendid retinues, bearing
valuable presents, which form a main portion of the Kubo's revenues. The general executive govern-
ment is confided to seven ministers ; the supreme judicial council is composed of five daimios, who
assist the Kubo in deciding on political off"ences ; and a senate of fifteen daimios forms the ordinary
court of civil and criminal law. The laws are severe, and even sanguinary ; fines are seldom im-
posed ; exile to the penal settlement of Eatsisio, banishment, imprisonment, torture, and death by
decapitation or impaling on across, are the ordinary punishments; and it often happens that the
courts visit with punishment, not only the delinquents themselves, but also their relatives and depen-
dents, and even strangers who may have been spectators of the crime. In order to avert these evils
from his friends, an off'ender sometimes anticipates his expected punishment by ripping up his belly ;
and every Japanese is instructed in the art of performing this operation. The ]irisons are gloomy
and frightful dungeons ; and tlie police is extremely s-trict. The public revenues are derived from
taxes on land and houses; the land is assumed to be the property of the State, and the tax, as in all
Asiatic govtrnments, consists in part of the rents, which are said to exceed the half, or even two-
tliirds, of the produce. The army in time of peace is rated at KK),000 inlantry, and 20,000 cavalry.
The arms of the former are muskets, pikes, bows, sabres, and daggers; of the latter, lances, sabres,
and pistols. The artillery is confin;.d to a few brass cannon and light guns. Discipline and the art
of fortification are little understood. There is no armed navy.
The industry of the Japanese will hear a comparison with that of the Hindoos or the Chinese.
Their works in copper, iron, and steel, bear a high character; telescopes, thermometers, watches and
clocks of good quality, are made at Nangasaki; glass is made, but the manufacturers are not ac-
quainted with the art of glass-blowini,'. Printing was introduced from China in the 13th century, and
is conducted in the Chinese manner by means of wooden blocks. Silk and cotton cloths are niaiiu-
factured in quantities nearly sufficient for the supply of the country : and porcelain which is even
more esteemed than that of China. The art of lackering is practised w ith great success ; good paper
is made from the bark of the mulberry and other trees, and the fibres are made into cordage. The
art of building houses is very little advanced; they are almost universally constructed of timber,
plastered on the outside, and consist of two storeys, dividtd into rooms by slight paper partitions.
Of ship-building and navigation their knowledge is very limited; aii<i they are compelled by law to
build their vessels in a particular fashion, very like that of t!;e Chinese junks. Great numbers of
ships are employed in the coasting trade of the empire; l.ut tliey are quite unfit for the navigation
of the oiien-sea. The internal trade is very extensive, and native industry is protected and encou-
raged by a variety of regulations, while, on the other hand, there are no customs or excise duties, and
communication is facilitated by numerous coasting vessels, and by excellent n ads. The shops and
markets are always well provided, and the great fairs are atteiiile<l by crowds of people from all
quarters. Foreign commerce, however, so far from being encouraged, is rigorously opposed by the
government, in consequence of the attempts made tjy the Jesuits to Christianize the people. Niinga-
saki is the only port tor foreign trade, and the Dutch are the only Europeans allowed to engage in
it ; while the number of vessels, and the kinds and quantities of goods, are strictly defined ; and the
number of residents in the factory is restricted to eleven, 'i he sliips, on arrival, are minutely
searched ; and the crews are confined to the small island of Desima, which is close to the harbour.
All the business is transacted by Japanese, who even unload and reload the vessels. The superin-
tendent <jf the factory is likewise obliged to send valuable presents to the Kubo; and once in four
years he is required to make an official visit to Ii do, with great jiomp, anil gifts of more than usu-.il
value, costing, with tlie journey, about .£3000. The imports comprise raw silk, woollen, cotton, and
linen cloths, sugar, dyewoods, seal-skins, pepper and other spices, meri^ury, tin, iron, cinnabar, glass-
ware, &e., from the Dutch; and silk, tea, sugar, dried fish, and whale oil, from the Chinese. The
exports consist ehietly of copper in bars, and, to a small amount, of camphor, silk fabrics, lackered
ware, porcelain, &c.
Miyiiku (i.e. the capital) or Kin (the residence) the metropolis of the empire, is a very large city
situate in a plain surrounded by hills, in the south-western part of Niplion, about 40 miles from the
sea. It Is regularly built, with straight streets crossing each other at right angles ; but here, as every-
where else, the houses are only of timber and plaster, and two storeys high. Among the gnat
number of public buildings the principal is the palace of the Mikado, an inelosure of vast extent, sur-
roiHid(d with walls and ditches, and overlooked by a fine sipiare tower. Next to it arc the palace ot
the Kubo, a building of hewn stone, surrounded by a wet ditch, and also overhxdied by a tower; the
temple of Eokozi, ei.lcbrated for a colossal image of Daibouts or the Great Uuddha ; and the temple
800 DESCRIPTIVE GEJGRAPHY. Japan.
of Kwanwon, also with a large image of that god, and numerous images of his subordinate deities.
Miyako is the centre of Japanese trade and industry ; and contains tlie mint wliere the money of
the empire is coined. Most of the booljs are also printed in this city, wliere the dairi (.imperial
court) forms a sort of academy for the cultivation of literature, science, and the fine arts ; the city
also contains a library of about 150,000 volumes, and one of the six universities of the empire. At
the end of the seventeenth century, as reported by Kcempfer, Miyako contained about half a million
of inhabitants, among whom were 52,169 priests.
Jedo or Yedo, the residence of the Kubo, and the seat of the civil and military government of the
empire, is situate in a large plain, opening to the shore of a deep ^ulf, on the south-eastern coast of
Niphon, about 200 miles E.N.E. of Miyako. It is about 20 miles in circumference, contains about
1.51)0,000 inhabitants, and carries on a great trade. The principal building is the palace of the Seo^un
or Kubo, situate near the middle of the city, and seeming by its extent to form a separate town. It
is surrounded willi ramparts and wet ditches, wnieh are crossed by draw-bridges. It contains the
great imperial library of about 150,000 volumes ; and it was here that the Encyclopedia of Japan was
published, a very valuable work, in 80 volumes, witli a great number of plates. Owing to the nature
of its construction, the city is very subject to tires ; scarcely a day passes without several ; and wliole
quarters of the city are sometimes burned down.
Kara, the ancient residence of the emperors, and, consequently, much venerated, is situate near
Miyako, and is a very flourishing place, in consequence of the great number of its temples, which
attract crowds of devotees. Osaka, at the mouth of the river Yodo, which runs through the plain of
Miyako, is a large city, the richest and most commercial in the empire, and the great resort of all the
votaries of pleasure. According to the Japanese its population might furnish an army of 80,000 men ;
but M. Halbi, with more than his usual moderation, thinks the total number of inhabitants m.iy be
reckoned at 150,000. Nangasaki, on the west coast of the island of Kiu-siu, an open town with nar-
row winding streets, is the only place where foreigners are allowed to trade. Its commerce and
manufactures render it very flourishing and populous ; and it is surrounded by hills crowned with
numerous temples, which render the view very picturesque. Matsmai, a large town, with ,50,000 inha-
bitants, situate on a bay at the south-west point of the island of leso. Its harbour is constantly filled
with merchant vessels, and it has a flourishing trade. Among the remarkable places of Japan we
must not omit the island of Futsisio, the most extraordinary place of exile in the world. It is a small
island in the open sea, 230 miles S. by E. of ledo, and its coasts are so precipitous that there is only
one landing place. The grandees, who have fallen under the Kubo's displeasure, are sent hitlier,
where they are employed in different kinds of handiwork, and manufacture stuffs so precious for tlieir
be.iuty, that his majesty reserves them for his own use.
The large island of leso. called also Mo-sin, and In-sti, to tlie northward of Niphon, and separated
from it by the Strait of Sangar, though possessed and colonized by the Japanese, is also inhabited
by an aboriginal people, who call themselves Ainos, but are called by the Japanese Mo-sins (hairy
bodies). They are distinguished from the Japanese by a somewhat taller stature and more robust
frame ; have very large, thick, black beards, and black and somewhat frizzled hair. They live cliiefly
by hunting and fishing, and pay tlieir tribute to the governor of Matsmai, in skins or other natural
productions of their country. Their principal arms are bows and arrows. Tliey live without esta-
blished laws, and almost without religion ; have no alphabet, and no coin, and trade entirely by bar-
ter. They live in tribes, which are just so many family associations, though they seldom form mutual
alliances. Their language seems to be equally foreign to the Japanese, the Mantchoo, and the
Kamtschatdale. The island presents on all sides lofty mountains, covered with beautiful verdure
and magnificent forests, which abound with wild animals. — (Matte Srun, II. 509, 514.)
801
AFRICA.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
Astronomical Position Between 37" 20' N. and 34" 50' S. latitude; and SI'-'
30' E. and 17° 33' W. longitude.
Dimensions. — The greatest length from N. to S. is about 4988 miles; and the
greatest breadth, from E. to W. about 46 18. The superficial area is estimated at
11,870,000 square English miles.
Boundaries. — Northern: — The Atlantic Ocean, the Strait of Gibraltar, and the
Mediterranean Sea. Eastern: — The Isthmus of Suez, the Red Sea, and tlie Indian
Ocean. Southern : — The Southern or Antarctic Ocean. Western : — The Atlantic
Ocean. Africa is a vast peninsula, joined to Asia by the Isthmus of Suez, which is
onlj- about ~5 miles broad ; and, at the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, the southern ex-
tremity of the Red Sea, it approaches within 10 miles of the same continent. It is
separated from Europe by the Mediterranean Sea, and the Strait of Gibraltar, at the
latter of which the two continents approach within about 10 miles of each other.
Name The meaning of the name of this great continent has been a fertile subject
of conjecture among philologists and antiquaries. By the Greeks it was called Libya,
and by the Ro.mans, Africa; the learned Varro believed that he had found the ety-
mology of the former in Libs, the Greek name of the south wind; and Servius, the
scholiast on Virgil, proposes to derive tlie other from the Latin aprica (sunny), or the
Greek a-phrihi' (without cold). It is more probable that the name Libya was formed
by the Greeks inva the name of the people whom they found in possession of the
coaiitry west of Egypt, and who are called in the Hebrew Scriptures Lehabim or Lu-
him. With respect to Africa, Suidas tells us that it was the ])roper name of that
great city which the Romans called Carthatjo, and the Greeks Karchedon. It is cer-
tain at least that it was applied originally to the country immediately around Carthage,
that part of .Vfrica with which tiie Romp.ns became first acquainted, and was subse-
quently extended with tlieir increasing knowledge, till it came at last to include the
whole continent. t)f the meaning of the name the language of Carthage itself sup-
pli 's a simple and natural explanation; the word Afrt/qah signifies a separate cstab-
li~hiiieiit, or in other words a colony, as Cartilage was, of Tyre. The Arabs of the
present day gi\c tlie name of AfrikiyaJt or Afri/ijiih, to the countries which formerly
depended on this original Afryqah; and it may be remarked, that the name was not
used by the Romans till after the time of the iirst Punic war. (Esquisse Generate
de lAfrique, ]>ar M. lyAvezac. Paris, 1837; I>p. J, 0, 7.)
Gkskuai. .Aspect. — Unlike the other great continents, Africa presents a solid
mass of land with a very regular coast, unbroken by large peninsulas, islands, bays
or gulfs, except only on the south-we.-tern side, where the (iulf of Guinea makes a
deep and wide indentation. The length of its coast-line is calculated to exceed 10,000
miles. Throiurliout the whole of that space there are only two navigable openings yet
known by wliicli access ran be obtained to any considerable distance iiito the interio.
of tin; continent; and though the one of these, the river Nile, has b:en known to
the civilized world since the earliest dawn of history, its remote sources have not
yet been reached by Europeans; while the mouth of the other, the Kawara, is a dis-
covery of very recent date; the certainty of its existence, and the direction of its
course, were proved so lately as the time of Mungo Park. In addition to this want
of water communication, the access of travellers has been barred by the all iitit insu-
perable difliculties of passing the deserts, which occupy so large a portion of its sur-
face, and serve as a wall of separation between its sable natives and their lighter
3 E
802 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Physical
coloured brethren of the northern and eastern continents. The general characteristic
of the surface is, that in most parts of its outline, the countries immediately on the
coast are low plains, above which the land rises by successive terraces, forming at
their summit level an innnense table-land, or a series of table-lands, which seem to
occupy the greater part of the unexplored interior.
Mountains. — The north-western portion of Africa, between the Mediterranean Sea and the Sahara,
contains a group of mountains which has been known from the most remote antiquity uiid.r the
general name of Atlas. The principal chain bigins on the shores of the Atlantic Ocean, with Cape
Geer, which rises almost perpendicularly fiom the sea to a great height, and extends nearly due east
to the meridian of Maroceo. when it turns to ^h^• cast-norih-east, and continues in that direclion to
the meridian 6^ W., where there seems to lie an extensive nucleus which contains the highest summits
of the chain. From this point a chain appears to extend along the wesiern side of the ba^in of the river
Mulwiah nearly to its mouth, in lat. 3-1-^ N. ; while another branch, under tlie name of JHhI Tfdla,
proceeds in a north-easterly direction along the eastern side of the same river basin to lat. 31^, and then
stretches in an easterly direction through the territory of Algiers, where the highest part hears the
name ot H'aniseris (Wan-iiash-ris), and terminates at the river Shellif, which probably interrupts the
continuity of the chain, a little to the west of the meridian of London. To the east of that river, the
range again rises, and forms, south-east of Algiers, tlie Jebel Geriierah, lat. 3ti^ 20 N., from which it
dechnes to the south-east. Farther east several ridges appear to extend in different directions into
the territory of Tunis, terminating on the one side in Cai es 151anco and Bon, and on the other at the
basin of the gr^at salt lake of Marks, and the Gulf of Khabz. The chain or range whose general
course we have thus endeavoured to trace, has been sometimes distinguished as the Lrs.ier ^l/as, in
consequence of its being supposed tliat a higher chain occupiL-d the country faither inland, between
Barbary and the great desert. It has now boon ascertained that no such chain exists, the country be-
tween the coast cliain and the dosert being descril;ed by tlie natives as more or Itss elevated, with
slopes of greater or smaller acclivity, but without any range ot mountains. From Jfbel Teuan, west of
the Mulwiah, a minor range extends westward, nearly parallel to the coast of the Mediterranean, and
terminates with Jebel Zatuut or ^pn's Hill, at the Strait of Gibraltar. From the southern part of
the great mountains another minor cliain, named Jebel Hadrar, extends tir»t south, and then west-
ward towards the shores of tlie Atlantic, near Cape Ivun ; while spurs diverge on both sides, forming
the watersheds of the various wadies or river vallies, that pour their waters towards the sea or the
desert. To the east of Lake Loudeah, a chain of hills, lower than the Atlas, but which may be con-
sidered as a continuation of the same system, extends in a direction nearly tarallel to the sliores ot
the Mediterranean, under the names of Jehel Fissiit, Jebel G/iaiiiin, and the mountains of Tarlitmnah,
terminating in a chain of low hills which skirt the coasts oi the greater Syrtis. The only summit of
the Atlas which has been measured with any degree of accuracy is Mtltsin, 27 miles S. 20^ E. of Ma-
roceo, which has been found to be 11,400 feet above the level of the sea, a heiglit below the limit of
perpetual snow assigned by Humboldt ; and yet this summit but once in twenty years has been seen
free trom snow. It is mere than probable that Miltsin and the neighbouring summits are nut the
highest of tlie range, which will probably be found in the province oi Tedla, near the sources of the
two great rivers Om-erbegh and Mulwiah, whtre a considerable part of tlie chain is permanently
covered with snow, and where the summits have been estimated to riach the height of la,200, and
even 15,000 feet. Waniseris and Gergerali are covered with snow during a considerable part of the
year, and have been estimated to reach the height of 7000 feet (TiOJ toises.)
Mountains of Mbyssmia. — These form a cliain remarkable for its elevation and extent, which pro-
ceeds in a direction irom south to north, across the provinces of Shoa, Amhaia, and Tigre, and
is prolonged towards the south-west across the table-land of Ciingiro and Narea, beyond which it is
supposed 10 join or form a part of the celebrated Mountains of the Moon, of which nothing is known
but the Arab name. This name is either Qomr or Qamr, according to the diacritical marks em-
ployed ; Uumr signities an object of a white colour ; y«»ir signihes the moon. If the former be the cor-
rect form, it may imply that these mountains are covered with snow ; but as the name Mountains qf
the Moon is as old as the time of I'tolemy the geographer, the latter is mo. e probably correct. — (Jour-
nal ylsiatique, taris, February 1837.) Another cliain appears to extend to tiie >omh-we!-t from that
which overtops Lake IJemhea, across the 15ahr-el-Azrek, and to join the mountains of Byre and
Tegla, to the south of Kordofan and Dar-Fur. Another very high chain extends through the eastern
pan of Tigre, and, stretching in a direction from south to north, forms the famous dehle of Tarunia.
Proceeding northward, this chain follows the direction of the west coast of the Red Sea, and. in
Nubia, forms the mountains of Languy, the height of which must be gnat, since, according to Burck-
hardt, they form the limit of the seasons in that part of Africa. Tiie hi)ls which lorm the basin of the
Nile in Nubia and Egypt, and the west coast of the Red Sea, may be considered as an extension of the
Abyssinian mountain.-, but are too inconsiderable to require further attention here.
Ihe Mountains of Kong.— This name lias been given to a rai.ge which separates the low country
of Guinea trom the b isin of the Kawara, and lias been supposed to extend eastward across the conti-
nent, to join the Mountains of the Moon. It appears to terminate westward in a very hilly country,
which contains the sources of the Kawara, the Senegal, and the Gambia; in long, 'i'- or »^ E. it is cut
through by the stream and valley of the Ivawara ; but beyond that eastward there are the Momttam.t
of Mandara with ethers in tiie interior, and tamerouns, on tlie sea coast, which appear to be connected
with the Kong^. The Cameroon mountains rise to an elevation of 13,000 feet, close to the sea, and in
the adjoining i.sland of Fernando Fo, Clarence I'eak rises to 10,G6i5 feet. 'Ihese mountains appear to
be of \olcaiiic formation, and to be connected with those of Mandara by a cliain of the same descrip-
tion. But beyond these scanty particulars, hardly anything is known about this range or ^ystem of
mountains.
In southern Africa the Mountains of Lupata or the Back Bone of the World, have been long cele-
brated. They are supposed to extend in a line parallel to the south-east coa--t, from Cape Guardafui
to the Capo of Good Hope, or nearly >o; but nothing positive is known respecting them. The isame
m»y be said of the corresponding chain wliich extends along the easterti regions of Congo. Angola,
and Benguela, supporting the western side of the great table-land which is supposed to occupy the
.Titerior. But the mountains which occupy the extremity of the great peninsula are somewliat better
known; as they form several chains of great height within the territory of the Cape of Good Hope.
■Of these the Nieureldt ri.-es to 10,000 Jeet; the Compass-berg, in the snowy range, to 7400; and the
Table Mountain, near the Cape, to 3582 feet above the level of the sea.
Plains and Deserts.— Of the smaller plains and alluvial river-basins and deltas common to Africa
with every other continent, there are none so extensive as to require particular notice in this place.
But in Its grand characteristic of deserts, Africa is pre-eminent. The great desert, to w hich the Arabs
give the name of Es Sahara or Sa/i'ra (the Desei't), by way of eminence, occupies a space of more
than 46'^ of longitude and 15^ of latitude, or about 3000 miles in length, and 1000 in breadth, the tropic
of Cancer running through the middle of its breadth. A great part of the surface is a dead level.
Stretching on every side like the ocean, and presenting a view only limited by the horizon, la some
Geography.] AFRICA, 803
places it is a naked burning plain of sand ; other parts consist of hard clay; and in some places the
surface is covered with small sharp stones. Elsewhere it is divtrsified with ravines, rocks, and emi-
nences, all alike barren and unfruitful; while the soft finely pulverised sand is driven to and fro by i very
breat'i of wind, and piled up into hillocks which constantly change their furnis and places, and too
often bury whole caravans in their bosoms. This vast tract, however, is not entirely desert. It is
sprinkled here and ther^i with fertile spots, like islands in the sea, which render its dreariness only the
more awful from the contrast. In these spots, called oases or uahs, the supply cf \\ater admits of a
certain degree of verdure and cultivation, affording support to a scanty population. In the eastern
part of the desert some of these oases areof con jidei able extent, and form a sort of little kingdom. In
other parts they are only large enough to contain one or two villages, which serve as halting-places for
the caravans ; others of them afford mcr,ely springs or wells for the refreshment of travellers, but too
small a portion of cultivable soil to admit of Si tth d habitation. The Sahara contains, likewise, many
salt lakes, which afford an abundant supply of natron and common ^alt, important articles of traffic
between the desert tribes and the people of Soudan, where .'^alt i-* wanting. But under the impulse of
the predominating ihir^t tor gain, man has oveiKapt the barriers which natme might teein to have
destiiud to remain for ever insurmountable, had she not provided an intti ument every way calculated
to carry her favoued children ovr these her drearie t re>;ion<. The camel has been emphatically
called the ship of the desert, and, by the assistance of this invaluable animal, the recesses of the. Sa-
hara have l>een e.tplorcd. and r. gular tracts for conimerce establishid across its wastes. Caravans,
or companies of traders cross the desert in every direction, amounting sometimes lo the number of
200 I individuals '1 hey are generally men inured from their infancy to the hardships and difficulties
of the«e formidable journies ; their food consists of camel's milk, with 1 arl. y mtai or li dian corn,
and a few datts. Water is conveyed in goat->kins, covered with tar, and these are replenished at the
wells which occur in the route. Sometimes, however, in cry easoi.s, tin- s-pringsfail, and great num-
bers nf the traveller- and their camels p ri-h trom thirst ; only about thirty years ago, a caravan pro-
ceiding from Tafilelt to Timbuetoo, across the western pan of the Sahara, wholly perished, to the
numberof about ^(XIO m:n and 1800 camels. Difficult, dangerous, and disagn table as the journey
is to the regular traders, it may well be imai:ined how an cli more so it must Le to the poor negroes
whom they bring with them in large numbers from Soudan, to supply the slave maikets of liarbary
and Turkey. Quite unacccstomeu to such travellii g. and too often ill supplied with food and water,
these poor wretches speedily fall victims to the avarice of their masters. SVhen wearied out they lie
down and die, and the desei t paths are sirewed with their benes. iJenhamand C lapperton, in me part
of their joirney to Bornou, passed trom sixty to ninety human skeletons every day ; but at a place
called El Hammam, the numbers were countless ; and the greater part of these, our travellers were
told, were the spoils brought by the sultan of Fezzan from Soudan, only the year before.
The Desi^it oj ytii^ail occui ies the western part of the territory of Aljiiers ; other deserts of great
extent appear to occupy A.ian and tl e country of the Cimbebas on the south east ; another large de-
sert extends from the southern borders of Henguela to the river Gariep ; and to the south of that
riv>r, elevated districts called A(/r<"<, of several hundred miles in extent, occur between the high
mountain ranges which constitute the Cape territory.
Rivers and Lakks. — Almost the only rivers worthy of notice in a general description of the con-
tinent are, the Sile ; the Stneu"! ; the Gam/iia ; the Kawara, (iuurra, Joliba, or Si^er ; the Zaire or
riri-r nj Omfio ; the Gariep ; and the Zaniheze or Zainliizi.
The Tchad, Tjad, Schad, or Cliad is the largest lake yet discovered in Africa. Its centre I'es in
15° E. long., and 13^ 30' N. lat. ; its lenetli beim; about 200 miles, and its breadth 1.^0. Its water is
fresh, and it is said to have no outlet. The other principal lakes are : — Filtre, a large lake east cjtthe
Tchad, of which nothing is known ; DiliOie, Dt-bn. or Ljrhnu, lormed by the Joliba, between l-')° and
IG^ N. lat. ; the Dem/iia or Tzana, formed by the Bahr-el Azrek, in Abyssinia; tlie Birkct-el- Keroun,
formed by the Nile in Egypt ; the salt lakes or marshes of Me/gie; Shutt, and Loudeah, in Harbary ;
and Mariii^i, a large lake said to exist in the interior, north-west of Mozambique ; but of which
nothing whatever is known.
IsL.iNDs — Madagascar, Comoro Islands, Bourbon, Mauritius, ylmirante isles, Seychelles, Zanzibar,
Pemba, Muzambique, Qui rimba, and others off the south-east coast ; Socutia, east of Cape Guardafui ;
Madeira, iJesert'is, and I'orto Santo; Canary Inlands, SlTiA Ca/ie /Vrrffi /i/udf/i. off the north-west Ccast;
Ftrnando I'o, Principe, San 77iome and yV««o/<ij«, in the Gulf of Guinea ; St. Helena, Asiensiun,&i\^
Tristan da Cu7iha, in the Atlantic Ocean ; Jirbeh, and Karkineh, off the coast of Tunis, iu the Medi-
terranean ; Dhalai- and others in the Ked Sea.
Capks. — Bon and Blanco, on the north-east coast of Tunis ; Ceiifa and Sjpartel, at the Strait of Gib-
raltar ; Btnnco, Cantin, Geer, Nun, in Marocco ; Unjndar, Diis Barbas, Bronco, on the coast of the
Sahara; Cape r<-rrff, the most westerly point of the continent; St. 7>/(/);!/, at the mouth of the Gambia ;
Mount Falmas, Three Puititt, St. I'uut's, on the coast of Guinea ; I'urmosa, the south-west point of
the delta of the Kawara ; Lopez- Gonialro, St. Catherine, in Lower Guiiua ; I'adion, at the mouth of
the Zaire ; AVpro, in lat. IG"^ south. Vnltas.&X, the mouth of the river Gariep ; Good Hope or TBS
Cape, the south-west point of Africa; I,' Aculhas, the most southerly point of the continent east of
the Cape ; Currientu, St. Sebastian, Santa Maria, Delftado, Orfui or Hefottn, on the south-east coast ;
Guardafui or Hat Atscre, the most easterly point of the continent, ai the entrance of the Gulf of
Aden.
Climate —With the exception of the Barbary States, Egypt, a part of the Sahara, the country of
the Hottentots, and Cafferland, this vast confine nt lies between the tropics, and its climate, generally
speaking, is that of the torrid zone. It may even be said that the influence of this tropical climate is
felt over a great part even of those countries which their northern situation should exempt from it,
for it is really only that strip of Barbary which the Atlas protects from the hot w iiids of the desert,
and that part of Hottentot-land protected by the Nieuveldt and other mountains near the Cape, that
enjoy the advantages of countries situate within the temperate zones. M iih the exception, therefore,
of these small and liarrow tracts, of those regions in the interior to which their elevation impai ts the
coolness of higher latitudes, and the borders of the great lakes and rivers, every part of Africa is
burnt up by conliiiual heat, and the continent generally may be regarded as the warmest part of the
(ilobe. Nothing moderates the heat and the dryness, but the animal rains, the sea-winds, and the
elevation of the soil ; while in the well-watered regions, the moisture, comhiiud with the heat, though
productive of the most luxuriant vegetation, are extremely unwholesome to man.
Minerals — The mineralogy of Africa is as imperfect as any oth(>r part of its geography. We have,
nevertheless, says M. Balhi, endeavoured to arrange in the following table, the principal couutriei
according to the respective abundance of the minerals which they produce.
Mintrahgical Table of Africa.
DIAM05DS.— /?c^'rm nf Moghreh, Algiers.
Other Precious Stocks.— AV<f(7,/«r(rf, Angola, TJihe, Cassanga, Mucliingi, Country of the Ma*
louas ; £gypt, in the Arabian chain of its mountains.
804 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Physical
Gold. — Jfeefolnnd, Boure, Kamalia, Mandingo, AVasaw, Dankara, Haoiissa, Wangara, Bambouk,
Akim, &c.; IVesteni Africa, Abuta; Region of the S tie, Kaiiiamil, tbe couiiti'y along the Bahr-el-
Abiad, Abyssinia, &c.
Sii.veh. — Eastern Africa, Chicova. Keeroland, the plateau of Timbo, Baghermeh.
Copper Segroltind, Country of the Molouas, Borgo or Dai-Sale!i, L)ar-Fui-, &c. Eattern Africa,
Country of the Cazembos, the Movizas, the Maquainas, Biituo, Zunibo, Inhanibane. South Africa,
Country of the Hottentots. lieginnnftue A';/e, Feitit, Kordofan, &c. liegiun of Maghreb, Marocco, &c.
Lead. — Region of Moghreb, Algiers, itc.
Iroh. —Negroland, lianibouk, Timbo, Kailo, Dentilia, Argola, Loango, Benguela, Molouas, Sala,
W'assoulo, Bere, Mandara, Calanna, &c. South Africa, Country of the Maquainas ; lluct Africa, Countiy
of the Cazembes. Algiers, Abyssinia.
Salt. — Moghreb, Marocco, Tagazza, Aroan, Bilma, &o. Region if the Nile, Baylur, Kordofan,
Sennaar, &c. Negroland, Quisama, Angola, Benguela, Saley or Vadai, Uar-Fur, &c.
Vegetable Productions. — Our knowledge of the botanical geography of Africa is limited in this
respect, that wo are acquainted with little more than its sea-coasts, while the interior is almost
entirely unknown. The vegetable productions of the coasts of Barbary are closely related to those
of the Spanish peninsula, from wliich they are separated only by the narrow interval of the Strait of
Gibraltar ; so that there is a singular analogy between the fioia of Algiers and that of Andalusia and
Valencia, in Spain. Olives, oranges, chanuerops humilis, the arborescent r/anu.t, and the date-tree
grow in both countries equally well. A somewhat higher degree of boat in this part of Africa favours
the developement of several vegetable forms unknown to the south of Europe, but they are, neverthe-
less, only different in species, without being so distinct as to constitute new genira. The jilants of
Barca have likewise a great similarityto those of Europe; they form the transition between the Atlantic
species and thoseof Egypt ; and even some of them are of a kind which seems peculiar to the torrid zone.
The zizi/phus lotus or jiijub, is so abundant in this country that some ancient tribes were fed exclu-
sively with its fruit, and received, on that account, from the Greeks, the name of Lotophagi or Lotus-
eaters. Egypt presents a great number of particular plants, which are so characteristic, that the mere
siglit of them, meagre and stunted as they are, is sufficient to indicate their country. Upper Egypt
produces in abundance numerous kinds of casias, the leaves of some of which form, und^r the name
of senna, a considerable branch of commerce. Besides the date-tree and the chamaerops there is also a
remarkable kind of palm called the doum palm or curifera thebaicii. Several aquatic plaiits cover the
surface of the Nile with their large loaves, and their flowers, which float gracefully upon the water ;
as the nymphcea lotus and ceerukn, wliich are se n on the ancient monuments ; but the nelumbium spe-
ciosum, which is also figured among the hieroglyphics, has disappeared from the waters of the river
The fruit described by the ancients under the name oi persea is produced by a plant supposed to be the
balanites JEgyptiaca, a small thorny tree which covers the sandy tracks not only of Egypt, but also of
a great part of central Africa, and is found in abundance at Senegal. In .Abyssinia, tbe vegetation
has not yet acquired a tropical character ; it is, nevertheless, connected with the plants of Mozam-
bique and the Cape of Good Hope. In this country Bruce found a species of prutea, and Salt, a. pelar-
gonium, genera which were believed to be peculiar to the Cape of Good Hope and New Holland.
Cott'ee grows naturally on the African coast of the Red Sea, near Bab-cl-Mandeb, and in the interior,
to the southward of Abyssinia, and from it the province of Kapha takes its name. The plants of
Upper Egypt, on the contrary, and of the country farther inland, have a great resemblance to those
of the west coast of Africa ; but no country offers in its plants such a singular physiognomy as the
Cape of Good Hope. It is there that we find numerous erica:, protean, pelargonia, mesembryanthema,
ixiie, stapelice, &c. These genera are formed by a number of species all collected together near the
south point of the continent, with the exception of one or two which are found upon the more northern
coasts. The plants of the equino.xial regions have a strong r.semblance to those of the west coasts ;
so much so that there is a great uniformity of vegetation from the Senegal to the Zaire. Among the
trees are found the adinsonia digitata or baobob, that colossus of the vegetable kingdom, which grows
also in Nubia, the bomhax pentandrum, the elais guineensis, and others. These remarkable plants are
found along a very considerable extent of the coast. The sterculia acuminata, a tree whose seeds,
known among the natives by the name of cola, have, it is said, the projerty of rendering the mo.-t
unwholesome water drinkable, grows in Guinea and at Sierra- Leone. Tlie anona senegalensis ai;d
the chrysobolanus icaco are also useful trees found on the banks of the rivers from the Senrgal to
the Zaire. In Senegambia, indeed, there are plants not only of species wl-.ieh grow in the regions of
Africa of analogous climate, such as upper Egypt, and in Arabia, Sec, but also of species which have
been considered peculiar to the Indian Archipelago, Madagascar, and South America. It must, how-
ever, be remarked that these vegetable relations are only found in regiims charactL-rised by excessive
heat accompanied by humidity, as the banks of the Gambia and the Casamanca. With respect to
the sandy and arid localities of Senegal properly so called, they furnish vegetable productions which
resemble those of Egypt and Arabia. The alimentary plants cultivated by the natives of the west
coasts are maize, cassava, two kinds of pulse, of which the one is the cytisus cajan, L,., the other a
kind of harricot (dolichos) and the arachis hypogea. The best fruit trees of the same country are
the banana (musa sapientum), the papaw (carica papaya), lemons, oranges, tamarinds, the elais
guijieeyisis which furnishes the palm-oil, and the raplna cinifera, which, as well as the elais and a
species oi corypha, produces the famous palm-wine. Some botanists think that the greater part of
these plants are of an origin foreign to Africa. Thus Mr. Kobert Brown assigns an American
origin to the maize, the cassava, the ananas, the papaw, and tobacco, while he thinks that the banana,
the lemon, the orange, the tamarind, and the sugar-cane liave been imported from .Asia. The in-
terior of equiuoxial Africa is unknown to botani-ts ; but if ve compare the productions of Senegal,
Benin, Congo, and Upper Egypt we find among them such striking relations, as clearly to prove, in
our opinion, that the same elimateric causes originate the same vegetable productions, without per-
ceiving any necessity for supposing their transmigration from one country to another, — fJJu/ii'j
Abrege.J
AsiMALs With the exception only of a few animals common to Africa with the adjacent peninsulaof
Arabia, this continent presents a zoological phy>iognomy as distinct from that of Asia as if the coun-
tries were separ.ated by the distance of half the globe. In the whole of central and northern Africa are
found lions, panthers, ostriches, jackals, gazelles, and antelopes, of kinds that are not found to the south
of the tropic of Capricorn, where so many other species are assembled. Everywhere the antelopes are
the prey of the lions and other feline animals, and of the jackals, hyenas, and pythons. The one-humped
or Arabian camel, now abundant in northern Africa, was introduced to the west of the Nile only
since the third century. Beyond the Sahara, under the influence of the humidity produced by the
great rivers of Senegambia and Soudan, appears a creation, of which no species have ever crossed the
desert. There we lind the African elephant, the two -horned rhinoceros, the tall girafle, and the
clumsy hippopotamus, which extend their ravages, or have their haunts, in every suitable locality
between the Sahara and the Cape of Good Hope. Between the tropics are found various species of the
dog-headed monkeys (cyriocephali), none of which ev.r inhabited Egypt, but of which, nevertheless,
three kinds were worshipped in that country, a practice which could on'.y have originated in the na-
tive region of these animals. Monkeys with painted faces are found only in Guinea ; some are found
Gkography.] AFRICA. 803
at the southern exiremity of the continent ; and others again from Sennaar to CafFcrland. Tn the ba-
sins of the upper Nile and its affluent 3 are two liindi of the fennec, described and delinpated by Bruce,
■wliich has been thought to be a.gala<ro. Its immense cars, exceeding two-thirds of the lengtli of its
dog-lilie body, form a wide distinction between it and tlie other q((a(//«»ia'?ia. Figrred on the monumcutB
of Lower Egypt, with the dog-heads, tlie sacred beetle, and the antelopes of t\ie same region, the
fennec establishes the Ethiopic origin of the people who raised those monuments. Along the coasts
of Zanzibar the Cape buffalo lives in the same forests with the elephant ; to the south of the tropic
of Capricorn are found the numerous species of antelope, which seem to have been assembled at
the southern extremity of the continent as a compensation for the want of even a single species of
deer. There also are found the zebra and the quagga ; the engallo or phacochere, with the body of .a
boar, the grinders of an elepliant, and whose face, bristling with four protuberances, has given it its
name of the masked boar ; and the Kthiopic wild boar, figures of which are seen in the mosaics of
Palestrina, which has two pairs of ribs more than the European hoar, ai;d to wliich the ancients gave
the name of A-o7/ro;)o;flmuf. Among the reptiles are crocodiles, succhos, khanises, monitors, tupin-
aniliis, and cliamseleons ; which last three animals are found nowhere else but in .Spain and the !Moluc~
cas. The birds peculiar to Africa along the confines of Europe and Asia, have a strong analogy
v.'ith those of the other two continents. The region of the Nile and the shores of the Mediterranean
contain species analogous to those of Araliia, Persia, and Spain. In the sandy deserts of Central
Africa are species fitted for these solitudes ; while the southern extremity contains birds which are
new and jcculiar. The Ostrich is found in the equatorial zone and the deserts ; the messenger or se-
cretary, a singular bird of prey that feeds upon reptiles, is found near the Cape; few regions, indeed,
are mure prolific of rapacious birds than Africa, and tlie animals that serve for their prey are abun-
dant and easily procured. Large carrion vultures, grillons, the hideous chincow, and the oricow are
always on the watch for the fall of some animal, upon whose carcase they pounce, and devour it in an
instant ; and in this work they are joined by a smaller species, the percnopters. Eaglesare found in every
rog.on of Africa, along the ban'.is of its iukes and rivers, and its sea-coasts. The other rapacious l>irdi
are kites, sparrow-h.awks, vultures, bats, buzzards, and falcons. Crows are abundant ; Guinea fowl,
bustards of enormous size, grouse, partridges, and quails are much more so. The Numidian, the vir-
gin, the Balearic cranes, the rose-coloured flamingo, the pelican, and a great variety of water-fowl,
frequent the lakes and rivers of every part of Africa e.xcept the desert. In the equinoctial regions
are parrots and parroquets innumerable, and birds of the most beautiful plumage.
Noxious insects and reptiles of almost every species abound; scorpions, scolopendras, enormous
spiders, and other venomous creatures ; but the Africans suffer less from these than from two other
enemies, which, though individually powerless, are, when collected in swarms, the greatest scourge
which can be inflicted on a country. These are the termiles or white ants, and the locusts. The ants
abcinid in all the tropical regions, and even for some distance beyond them; they build clay houses
of enormous size, some of which Clapperton met with in his last journey, rising to the height of
twelve feet, and resembling so many Gothic cathedrals in miniature. These ants devour every sort
ofaniiiial or vegetable substance that fails in their way ; and they march together in incredible swarms,
niak:iig up by their numb, rs for their individual insignitic.ince. Locusts are still more destructive ;
they are gregarious like the ants, and the region over which they have passed has the appearance of
being clean swept. \\ hen on the wing they form so dense a body as to hide the sun like a black cloud.
Pk'iple. — Tliere is a great .r variety in the physical characteristics of the native Africans than
is found among the inhabitants of any of the other continents. As the interior regions are almost
entirely unknou n, it is imjossible to say what varieties may be found there ; but along the maritime
countries, throughout the Sahara, and the greater part of the basins of the Kawara, the Tchad, and
the Nile, the varieties already icnown are so numerous and so perfectly distinct, that it is not easy to
s;iy what cl'.araetLristics they have in couuiioii, except thusu tliat distinguish man from the otlier
animals. The central or equinoctial regions, extending along both Oceans, from the southern limits
of the Sahara and Abyssinia to about tlie 16° or 20*^ 8. lat., are possessed by numerous races and va-
rieties of the black-coloured, woolly-headed jieople, wliicli are classed hy naturalists as the Ethiopic
or Black race, or Negroes jiropcrly so called. According to JI. Flourens, they are an essentially
distinct race from th.; whites. They have under tlieir skin a particular apparatus, which is entirely
wanting in the white man, and which is the seat of the pigment or ccdouring matter. — ( Annalcx (lis
Sciences Sal. J)eci7)ilier \M.3i. Edin. Ni'w J'hil. Joio. XXVIL 3")3.) The Sahara and Moghreb are pos-
sessed by people of many varieties, all referable to the Caucasian or white class; differing in com-
plexion according to the climate or other physical circumstances, but having nothing in common
with the proper Negro s, except tlieir colour, whicli in some of them is almost or even quite black in
those parts of the body wlrch are exposed. Among these the most remarkable are the Bn-eUrs or
Amazif^lis, wlio possesss tlie .Atlas mountains, and are supposed to be the remains of the aboriginal
natives of that region ; the Shi-Uuklis, TiO/oof, and Tuiin'cks, the principal tribes of the desert, who are
likewise, probably, of the same lineage. The uncultivated low country of Moghreb is occupied by
numerous tribes of Anths, while the cultivated districts and the towns, along with a narrow strip of
country on the southern skirts of tlio Sahara, between the desert and the Kawara, are possessed by tho
Moiirs, a swarthy race, apparently sprung from an intermixture of the aborigines with Phcnician,
Koman, Githic, Van:la!ic, Arabic, and Turkish blood. Turks of pure lineage are found in Barbary,
r.nl also a grcit many .lows. In the region of the Nile there are likewise many varieties, chiefly Cau-
casian, though some are apparently Ethiopic. The great body of the iiihabitan's of Egypt are of
.Araljic origin, while their rulers are Turks ; the deserts on both sides of the Nile are po.-sessed by
roving .Arabs; and the ancient Egyptians arc represented by a few thousand scattered Capli. Tho
Ahybsinians, or at least the lately dominant race in that country, are apparently the remains of a
Colony from the eastern shores of the lied Sea; but tliey are now pressed ujion and hemmed in hy
African races of unknown origin and lineage. Nubia is occupied hy several very mixed races, Negro
B-s well a^ Caucasian, and varieties of the latter are Ibund along the coasts of the Ked Sea, and the
Gulf of Aden, as far at least as Cape Guardafui. We find in Soutli Africa, beyond the country of the
proper Negroes, two distinct races at least, the Caffers and the Hottentots, who cannot very well bo
referred to either the Caucasian or the Ethiopic class. The Caffers arc a tall, well-proportioned, hand-
some people, nearly approaching Caucasians in figure, features, and (xpression, hut they have thick
lips, and curly though not woolly hair, and their complexion is a blackish grey, or, in some cases,
even jit black. The Hottentots, on the contrary, are rather an ugly race ; their hair is black, some-
limi's l.rowtiish, very short and woolly ; but their skin is dark brown or yellow, and not black. They
are the original possessors of the country which extends east and north of the Cape of Good Hope ;
having for their eastern neighbours the <'aflers, varieties of whom extend along flii^ coast from about
Algoa Bay to Solfali, but how far inland to the north-east is unknown. Of the languages of these
%'ariou3 races very little is known ; M. Balhi has, nevertheless, contrived to arrange them all into
great ethnographical divisions, and has presented us with the following
Tabic of the ('Idssificalion nf ihc People of Africa acairdituj to their Lnnrjuagcs.
The RKGION OF tiik NILE contains the following I'amilies or Stocks : —
The EfiYPTi a:» Eamit.v : the Copts, who are the descendants of the ancient Egyptians. After lliQ
introduction of Ulam, their language was g»'>dually replaced by the Arabic, and became entirely
806 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. CPhysical
extinct towards the middle of the seventeenth century. With respect to language, the Copts should
be regarded as Arabs, and as a branch of the Semitic family. It appears, nevertheless, that in the
mountains of Mathmotlia, near tlie Gulf of Kbabz, and in a district of Soudan, dialects of their lan-
guage are still spoken.
The Nubian Family: the Noubah and the Kenouz in Nubia. Several thousand Kenouz are found
in the principal towns of Kgypt, where they are improperly called ISarOary, Bereben; or Barabra. It
Is tlie feature^ of this family thai are seen on the monuments as those of the ancient Egyptians.
The Troglodytic Family : the Bishareens, the Iladendoa, the Hammadrh, the Amarer, &c. ; the
Adaiehs, of whom the Bartoum appear to be the least civilized, but, at the same time, the most
powerful tribe ; the Ababdes, who are confounded with the Bedwin Arabs. This family occupies that
part of Nubia which lies east of the Nile.
The Suiho-Ua.nkali Family : the Shiho, properly so called, who are found near the pass of As-
eouali ; the Uaxorta, near the p.ass of Taraiiia; the Danukil, a nomadic race on the coast from
Bab-el-Mandeb to Arkeko, the most powerful tribe of which are the Dumkoeta ; the Adaiel possess
the country between Bab-el-Mandeb and Zeyla.
The SniLOUKs, known also by the names of Nouha or Fongi, live along the Bahr-el-Abiad and in
Sennaar, of which they were the dominant people till the recent conquest by the Egyptians.
The Tcheret-Agow, occupy the centre of Abyssinia.
The FuRiANs, who form the mass of the people of Uar-Fur.
The Region of MOGHREB presents but a single family, to which bjlong all those of its inhabitants
who can be regarded as aboriginal: — It is
■^*>e Atlantic Family : tlie Amazig/is, called improperly Berehers or Berabers, and also ShelluUhs,
Ji.ii^yfs, &c. ; who occupy the high valleys of the Atlas, and a portion of the plains in Marocco,
Algeria, and Tunis, and are divided into many tribes, some of which are quite independent : the
Tuaricl,s, a numerous and warlike people, spread over the middle part of the Sahara; the Tibboos,
wlio possess nearly the whole of the eastern Sahara ; the people of Siuali and Angela ; the Sheilukhs,
in the southern part of Marocco, where most of them live under the rule of independent chiefs.
SOUDAN or NEGROLAND presents the following families:—
The VoLOFS or Iolofs. who are represented as the finest and the blackest of all the negroes ; they
possess the kingdoms of Bourb-Iolof, Cayor, and Baob, and form the majority of the people of Bon-
dou. Lower Yani, and Saluni.
The Mandingo Family: the Mandingocs, a powerful, somewhat polished, and industrious genuine
negro racs, in whose hands is found almost all the ivory and gold trade. Their original country is
the elevated territory of Manding, but they are now widely dift'used over all the region between the
rivers Gambia and Geba on the west coast, and possess the kingdoms of Bambouk, Kasson, Kaarta,
Barra, Kolar, Badibou, Upper Yani, Wooli, Dtntilia, and Kabou. They are also tlie most numerous,
and were the dominant people of Bambara before the division of that kingdom. They possess like-
wi>-e Kankan, Sambatikilla, Time, and other districts. To this family also belong the Souwu or
Sonzes. who occupy the coast between the Rio Nunez and the Kissi, and other parts of this region.
The FoULAiis or Fei.latahs, called also Foulans. TtUans, I'uules, &c., avery numerous and power-
ful people, who possess Fouta-Toro, Bondou, Koutah-Jalo, Fouladou, Brouko, Wasselah, Sangara, and
other countries, besides the large empire of the Fellano or Fellatahs in central Soudan. Tlie.v have
not the extreme negro character; they want the deep jet hue, the hat nose, and the thick lips; their
features, on the contrary, are high, with an olive tint, and an agreeable e-xpression ; they are probably
sprung from the intermi.\ture of the Atlantic family with the proper negroes.
The Jalonkes, who form a considerable part of the population of Fouta-Jalo, Kouronia, Baleya,
Firia, Sangara, Soulemana, and Boure.
The KissoDRS in the kingdom of Timbuctoo.
The Kai, ANNAS, the peope of the kingdom of Kalanna.
The Haoussa Family : the Haoussas, the principal people of Kashna, Gouber or Ghoober, Kano,
Doiiry, and other parts of the wide region of Haoussa, which forms the centre of the Fellatah empire.
The Yarribas, the dominant people of Yarriba.
The Mandaras, who occupy the country to the south of Bornou.
The Baguermehs and the Mobbas, the dominant people of Baghermeh and Mobba, in central
Soudan.
The BoRNOtJAN Family; the Bornouans, who form the principal mass of the people of Bornou,
and some other districts now separateii from the empire of Bornou.
The Ti.MMANiES, who live between the river Scarcies and Cape Shilling, in the neighbourhood of
Sierra- Leone.
The BoisLLAM, to the south-east of the Timmanies, along the coast and in the adjacent islands.
The AsHANTEE Family: the ^Ishanfecs, the dominant people of the empire ot Ashantee, and the
occupants of most of their tributary or vassal kingdoms.
The Dagou.mba Family: the people ot Dagouniba, vassals of the Ashantees.
The Akuas or Inkrans, in the kingdom of the same name, tiibutary to the Ashantees.
The Keruapees, a numerous people, divided into several peity states, almost all tributary to the
Ashantees.
The Ardrah Family: the T>aliomcys, the dominant people in the kingdom of Dahomey; the
Judahs, tributaries of Dahomey, the Ardrahs, tributaries to Yarriba; the Benins, the dominant
people in the great kingdom of Benin.
Ihe KiYLi Family: the A'«j/Z(i and the Gungoumes, in the kingdoms of Kayli and Gungoume, in-
land from the coast of Gabon.
The Congo Family : the people of Congo, Snnfio, Cacongn, Loango, Mayumha, Oanrfu, &c., who
speak different dialects of ttie same tongue; the people of //o, Cimcabella, and S<i/a, whose lan-
guage is a mixture of Aboundaand Congo. The Moluifis; the people of Mourangama, ilnrliingi,
Hume, Caisnn'X'i, Cutnto, Ginga, Holo-lio, Badundo, Bilie, and Portuguese Angola, all speak dialects
of the Aboutida language.
The Bkngi;ela Ka.milv: the people of Benguela, subjects of Portugal; the people of Quisama,
Liboto, Uuigne, Nano, Humbe, Monganguela, &c.
SOUTH AFRICA contains the following families:—
The Caffkr or Kaffir Family: the Koussat, the Tamhookiet and the Mambookiet, onthe coast;
the Hetchuatias, subdivided into Briquas, Tammahas, Barrolongs, Maquainas, Morolongs, and Gokas,
inland.
The Hottentot Family: the Korannas, the Goiiaqnru, the Xtimaquas, the Dainar-is, and others,
who are the Hottentots properly so called; the Saabs, commonly called Bosjesmans or Bushmen, the
least civilized of all the known tribtr of Africa. They occupy the wildest parts of the country be-
yond the frontiers of the Cape Colony.
EASTF.RN AFRICA exhibits the following families, several of which extend into Soudan and the
region of the Nile; —
The MoNOMATAPA Fajiily : t\\e Mongas, on the lower Zambeze; the Bororo, on the middle Zam-
GEOGRAPHY.] AFRICA. 80T
beze ; the Moeizat; the Maravi, who are now the most powerful people of the late empire of Mono-
matapa. The i/acouat, a very powerful negro race, who occupy the country to the westward of
Mozambique, along the coast from the Zambeze to Melinda. 1 he Monjuus, one of the ugliest of the
negro races, live in the interior, contiguous to the southern Macouas. The Soualel or Sauauli,i
very powerful negro race who are found along the coast from Magadoxo to opposite Mombaza.
TuK GALtA Family : the Gallas, a numerous and powerful race, celebrated tor their incursions
and conquests, which made them masters of a great part of the late empire of Abyssinia. They
appear likewise to occupy all the country between Abyssinia and the western frontiers of the states
which lie along the coast between Melinda and Magadoxo. The Mouzimbes or ZimOes, a nomadic
race who traverse the vast country watered by the supposed course of the river Zebee, and have
acquired notoriety by the terrible incursions which they made towards the end of the sixteenth cen-
tury as far as Melinda and Quiloa.
The SoMACLls inhabit the coasts of Adel and Ajan, along the sides of the great triangle of which
Cape Guardafui may be considered as the apex.
The GiSGiROS, who inhabit the kingdom of Gingiro, and whom old accounts place to the south of
the mountains of Abyssinia, along the banks of the Zebee.
The NiNEANAi, who occupy Bomba, of whom nothing certain is known.
Besides these families, who may be regarded as the aborigines of Africa, there are several other races
who have at various periods settled in different parts of the continent, and some of which have become
numerous and powerful. The people of Abyssinia, who speak the Gheez or the Tigre languages,
belong incontestibly to the Semitic stock; but appear to have been established in that region before
the period of history. The ^rabs, at a very early period, and, more lately, during the great conquests
of the first Khalifs,"invaded tlie region of the Nile and .Mcghreb, and spnad even into Soudan, where
they are found in great numbers. In the course of time they have introduced exclusively their lan-
guage into Egypt, a great part of Nubia, along the Nile in Shendy, Darner, Sheygya, &c., in all the
towns and grtat part of the country of Barliary, and part of the Western Sahara. They have also
established themselves in several states of Soudan, as Dar-Fur, Mobba, Biiglicrn]eh, Hurnuu, and
even within the Fellatah empire. They are also found in districts on the west coast and in the ad-
j.icent isles. The Urimulte ir Ottoman Tuj A* have become the dominant people in Egypt, Tripoli,
Tunis, and Algiers; and various European nations have also formed settlements along the coasts,
and mixed with the natives. '1 he Portugue-e settlements are in Lower Guinea and along the east
coast. A large territory, near the Cai e of Good Hope, is occupied by Dutch and British settlers.
Tlie English, Danes, and Anglo-Americans have settlements at various points on the coasts of
Guinea ; the Spaniards possess Ceuta ; and the French have conquered, and will probably colonize
the coasts of Algiers.
Religion Fetichism, or the worsliip of idols, is tlie religion of the greater part
of the Africans, and is professed by almost all the negroes, and by some blanches of
the Atlantic family. These people, nho see in the most common things which sur-
round them objects of adoration, appear, in general, to admit of a good and a bad
principle; they have lucky and unlucky days; their priests are dexterous jugglers,
and profess to secure both men and beasts from the influence of evil spirits. Islam is
predominant in ail the great states of Moghreb, in Egypt, the greater part of Nubia,
and among the Troglodytic family, although the Ababdes are not very strict in their
observances ; and the Uanakil have neither priests nor mosques. It seems also to
be professed tiiroughout the noith-eastern and central parts of Soudan ; and the
Mandingoes and other tribes have carried it even to the shores of the western ocean.
Christianity is professed by the Copts in Kgypt, and also in Abyssinia, where, how-
ever, it is mixed with many superstitious and idolatrous rites and notions. The
European colonists profess, of course, the religion of their native country, and are
protestant or popish, according to their descent. Judaism is maintained by a great
number of Israelites throughout Barbary, Egypt, and Abyssinia; and there are a few
Guebres, or votaries of Magism, in Mozambique.
Government All the various forms of government are found in Africa. The
little Arab state of Damcr, in Nubia, is a monarchical theocracy ; Fouta-Toro and
Fouta-Jalo, in Seiiegambia, are oligarchical theocracies; and tlie new kingdom of
Sus, in Moghreb, is a feudal oligarchy. The governments of Marocco, Benin, Yarriba,
and many others, are despotic , and the kingdom of Dahomey groans under a species
of despotism of which there arc few exami)les in the world. All tlie first-born males
belong to the king, who causes them to be brouglit up publicly; he lias even the
mono[>oly of all the women of his kingdom, and every man who wishes to marry is
obliged to |).ay him 2U,C00 cowries for a wife. Tlie king of Moropua is perhaps the
most absolute of all potentates, for he even prescribes to his subjects the time for
their amusements. Several of the kings and chiefs of Guinea and Eastern Africa also
exercise the most absolute power ; tliey send their emissaries to steal men from what-
ever country they choose, and afterwards dispose of them to strangers in exchange for
goods. It would, however, be a tedious tas.k to mention in detail the governments
of the ntnnerous (letty nations which p(0|)le this continent. The go\ernments of the
great states are all despotic; and, of the smaller communities, many are patriarchal,
and vary in diflereiit degrees between despotism and anarchy.
I.^DCSTRV AND COMMERCE. — Though thc more civilized ))coplo of Africa ar« very far from equal-
ling those of Asia in respect of industry, thiy are nevertleles.. luji so di graded as is ci ninionly be-
lieved. The peiipleof the | rincipal towns of E(jypt, Barhary. Ardrah, Diigouinha. Ashantec. Bornou,
and others, carry on various trades, and excel lii the manuiacturc of difl'. rent kinds ot cloth, and in
the dressing of skins. The district of TufUclt and several tow iis in Marocco, and Kashna In Soudan.
80S DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Physical
arc celebrated for the bcairty of their Icathov (Morocco) and the prepavation of fkins. For several
years imH the spun cotton of Daniiotta. Mansurah, Mehallct-el-Kcl.ir Fouah, &c. in Lower Kgypt
t '..,-> — .'. : , At the Isle of Zeibi, in Tunis, Imon cloth and sliawls are manulac-
nou make cotton cloth of tho finest and closest tissue ; and tlie goklsniith-work of Asiiantee, Da-
Koumba Sliendv, Jenneh, Tinibuetoo, and other countries and towns ot tliu interior enjoys a great
celebrity over all the continent ; tlie work being of admirable liidsli and resembling filagree. The
Hushinen of South Africa are good forgers, armourers, potters, and carvers ; the Maquainas are still
farther advanced, and work in iron, copper, and ivory. It is said the p?ople ot Haoussa make their
own fire-arms. Several tribes of South Africa work copper mines ; and others of them excel in the
nianufacl ure of p,/-H«, mats, and baskets, which are exported for the suiji-ly ot the interior countries.
Some of tlie -Moors of tho Sahara are good dyers, armourers, and goldsiniths. The people ot Whydali,
in Guinea and the Molouas in Congo, even cut precious stones and make ot them pendants for their
cars bracelets ' Jic. ; and in Bornoii it is sail tliat there are people who cut precious stones and
engrave seaN. In spite of tlie obstacles presented by mountains and deserts, and the want of navi-
cable streams, Africa has oxliibited, from tlie remotest antiquity, a vast inland commercial movement,
which still forms one of the most chaiactcristic features of tlie continent. Timbuctoo, Jenneh, and
other central towns of Soudan, are visited by caravans which set out every year from the extremities
of Africa to exeliange the produce of tlieir own countries or of Europe and Asia, for that of central
Africa. Mourzou!i, in Fezzan, and Cobbe, in Dar-Fur, are, as it were, the northern and the eastern
gates of Soudan ; and for several years the people of Angela have become the carriers of a great part
of the trade of Soudan with Egypt and Tripoli. Since tlie Mureccans lost their influence in Tom-
buctoo, the Arabs of Suz have possessed themselves of all the trade which that city carried on with
Marocco, and are bcooine, like the Fezzaners and Furians, the immediate agents of the commer-
cial enterprise of Soudan with Moghreb. The Foulahs and the Sousous, and particularly the Man-
dingoes, carry on its trade with the coast of Seiiegambia, and the l>agoumbas and Ashantees with
the coast of Guinea. In the region of tlie Nile, Cairo is the great mart for tiie trade between Africa
and Asia ; and this great city, by means of the people of Angela, Fezzan, and Dar-Fur, and the
merchants of Khartum and Herber, has commercial relations with the cities of Tunis, Algiers, Fez,
and -Marocco, and the great towns of Soudan, Nubia, and Abyssinia. The town of Berber, likewise.
has become the great mart between Soudan, Abyssinia, Nubia, Egypt, and --Vrabia ; and C'ommassie
has likewise become tlie mart of the trade between Soudan and the coast of Guinea. Speaking gene-
rally, we may say that commerce is to a certain e.vtent the principal occupation of several African
nations. Omitting the Jews, tlie Mandingoes, the Fezzaners, the Furians, and others already mentioned,
the following are the principal trading people: the Serrawoolis in Senegambia, who have long been
famous for their address and intelligence ; the Somaulis, who possess several ships, and exchange the
jiroduce of southern Abyssinia and tlie eastern corner of Africa for that of Arabia; tlie Gliibberti, a
tribe of Arabs auiong the Daiikali, who are the agents of almost all the trade of Abyssinia with Asia ;
the Movizas, who manage nearly all the commercial business of the interior of Monomotapa. It is
curious also to see the Lnoithe^, a people among the lolots, whose manners and customs resemble those
of the gipseys ; and the Kroomeii of the Grain coast and some oth.T negroes, living between Cape St.
Ann and Cape Palmas, who leave their cotmtry for certain periods to carry on trade, or hire them-
selves as seamen on lioard of European ships ; and also, to find a great number of the Foulahs and
Kenouz performing the same active and laborious duties which are performed in Europe by the Savo-
yards, Auvcrgnats, Tyrolese, Gallegos, Friulese, Irish, and others. The most important commercial
towns in Africa are : Fez, Marocco, Mogadore, and Tangier in Marocco ; Algiers ; Tunis ; Tripoli ;
Mourzouk and Gha'la'.nes in Fezzan ; Cairo, Alexandria, Khartum, Berber, Suakim, Cosseir, and
Massuah in Egypt and Nubia ; Adowa in Abyfsinia; -Angornou and Bornou, Kano, Saccatoo, and
Kashna in Central Soudan ; Konlfa in Nytfe ; C'ommassie, Grand- Hassan, Capo Lahou, Yaiidi, &c.
in .\sliantee ; Timbuctoo, Jenneh, Sego, Sansandiiig, Kaiikan in AVestjrn Soudan; Cape Coast, El-
niina, IJonny, Calebar, &c. in Guinea ; St. Louis, at the mouth of the Senegal ; Freetown, at Sierra-
Leone ; Cassanga, Yanvo, Bihi, Bailundo, Misr-cl, Holo-ho, &c. inland ; Cabenda, Ambriz, &c. on the
coast of Congo ; St. Paul de Loaiida, Benguela, Mozambique, &c. in Portuguese -Africa ; Berbera,
in the county of the Somaulis. The articles most in demand in the interior of Africa are : pistols,
muskets, sabres, Venice glassware, of which incredible quantities are still imported, coarse woollen
and silk stuffs, jiottery, brass, printed cottons, muslins, writing-paper, coral, ra:<ors, salt, perfumes,
and spices. The principal articles of export are : gold-dust, ivory, rice, wheat, gum, pepper, ostrich
feathers, raw hides, dressed hides, morocco leather, cotton, indigo, dates, senna, wax, aloes, copper,
natron, salt, teakwood, &c. ; to which we must still add slaves. Tliese formed, not many years ago,
the staple article of African trade, and, in spite of all the laws and regulations made to the contrary,
the trade is still carried on with the greatest activity on both the eastern and the western coasts, and
even across the desert by way of Tripoli and Egypt. The internal slave-trade, always great, appears
even to have increased in coihsequence of the ditHcultios attendin.: exportation by sea. The rulers of
Bornou, Baghermeh, Dar-Fur, and other Mahometan states, make frequent incursions upon their
idolatrous neighbours, for the purpose of procuring slaves lor sale; and even tlie pseudo- christian
-■Vbyssinians seize t'.ie Shangallas for the same unhallowed purpose ; and we may add, to their tharae,
that the Anglo-Americans, and BraziUan-Portnguese, are now t!ie grand encouragers of the traffic.
Among the different kinds of African money, salt, tibbar, and cowries deserve attention. Tibbar
or gold-dust, of which tho greater part is gathered in Centra; Souiian, is current throughout nearly
the whole of Africa, where, in places the most abundant in gold, at Sansanding, for example, tho
value of this metal in proportion to that of silver is as li to 1, while in Europe it is as 15 to 1. The
want of salt in several parts of tlie interior, and the ditncuity of transporting so bulky an article.
have so enhanced its value, that pieces of salt are used far money in many places. In" the country
of the Mandingoes, for instance, a piece of salt 2i feet long, 14 inches broad, and 2 inches thick,
IS worth from one to two pounds sterling ; in Dar-Fur 12 pounds weight of salt are equivalent to a
fiiave of U years of age; and in the market of -intalov,- in Tigre two or three | ounds of salt are
worth the thirtieth part of a dollar; at a greater distance from the place where it is (iroduced, the
value augments in proportion to the distance, till, according to Alvarez, a pound of salt is worth its
weight in gold ! Cowries, of no intrinsic value, are nevertheless the most common money in Soudan
and Guinea, and the table-land of Senegambia. These pretty little shells, which are fished in ini-
niense quantities at the Maldives, have, in the interior of .-ifriia, a value nearly ten times their worth
in Bengal, where 2o00 cowries are only equivalent to one shilling. The principal current moiicv in
Abyssinia couMsts of pieces of cotton worth a dollar ; and, when a smaller sum is required, the piece
IS cut into proportionate lengths.
SociAi, STATE.--The preceding details exhibit in a great measure the social state of the people of
Alnca; but the following a'lditional particulars will serve to give a more complete, though ueccj-
Geography.] AFRICA. 809
sarily a very imperfect view of this important subject. Africa presents several great indigenous
centres of civilization, while for others it is indebted to Europe and Asia. The first and the most
ancient, as well as the most important, is found in the region of the Nile, where, before the dawn of
history, the Egyptians and the people of Meroe appear to have cultivated the arts and sciences, and
where they have left the most imposing monuments of their industry and skill, along the banks of
the Nile and the Azrek, and in the neighbouring oases. The ancient civilization of Axum and Gon-
d.ir appeals to have emanated from Meroe, while the social state of middle and lower Nubia, and the
oajcs adjoining Egypt, appears to have originated tVoni Egyptian colonies. This, at least, is the opinion
of M. Kalbi ; but other antiquaries maintain that Egypt itself derived .ill its art and science from
Ethiopia, or the upper region of the Nile. How civilization origiiiated in Ethiopia, or in Egypt, if
it took its rise tliere, it is impossible to discover. The other centres of civilization which are "found
.n Soudan, deserve, no less than the first, the attention of philosophers. The particular character of
the social system among the Foulahs and the Sousous in Senegambia ; the progress made by the
Ardrahs and their neighbours, before they were invaded by the Dahomeys, a progress which had carried
them even to the invention of a kind of writing which may be conii)ared with the quipjjos of Peru ; the
imperfect civilization of the Dahomeys, Beninese, Dagoumbas, and other nations of Guinea and Congo,
of the Movizas, ou^hmen, Macquinis, and others in south Africa, atford some reason to believe that
these people, free from every foreign influence, have followed a particular direction in the develope-
nient of their intellectual Jaculties, and have advanced but very ."ilowly towards civilization. Among
the Ashanttes, the most powerful and most polished people of Guinea, there are several traditions,
customs, and laws, which, as Bowdich thinks, may be attributed to tl'.eir ancient connection with
Carthage and Egypt : and this remark may be applied to sevei-al other nations of inland Africa. The
peoile of Tombuctoo, Bornou, Kashna, Haoussa, and other countries ot Soudan, appear to have been
indebted to the Arabs, if not entirely, at lea: t in a great measure, for tl-.e state of civilization, imperfect
as it is, in which modern travellers have found them. As to the ancient and modern tribes of the
great Berber or Atlantic family, which has successively come in contact with the Phenicians, Car-
thaginians, Greeks, and Komans, and afcerwards with the Arabs, it is natural to believe that it is to
these polished nations that they owe their small degree of civilization. To these two kinds of iridige
nous civilization we have to add two others foreign to Africa, into which, since the dawn of history, at
four successive epochs, they have been imported liy two European and two Asiatic nations, naniely,
the Carthaginians and the .•Vrabs, of the Semitic family, and the Greeks and Komans of the Gra'co-Iatin
family, luit the influence of the Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans, never extended beyond the
Sahara. Towards the fourth century, Cliristianity was established in north Africa, along the slopes
of the .Atlas, in Nubia and Abyssinia, in the latter of which it still nominally i>revails. Three centuries
later the Arabs overran all northern Africa, crossed the Sahara, and passed along the east coast as
far as Sotfala, everywhere introducing Islam and its imperfect civilization ; and even yet, in those
countries, the Arabic language is almost the sole vehicle of civilization and science. But, beyond the
palo of Islam, the whole of Africa is barbarous ; most of the people are in the lowest state of savage
life ; and the modern Europeans have, for a period of three centuries, instead of endeavouring to in-
troduce among them the civilization and the religion which themselves possessed, rather treated them
as beasts, carrying them away in millions, as slaves ; fostering all their evil propensities, and spread-
ing desolation and misery over every region within the reach of their nefarious traffic.
Divisions.— Our imperfect knowledge of the geography of Africa does not enable us to divide the
continent into very distinct geograiihic regions ; and the great ninnber and the uncertainty of its
political divisions pre\ent us from talking tiiem as the basis of our descriptions. V>'e s-hall therefore
consider Africa imder the foUowir.g arbitrary heads of division : the llcgiuH nf the A'(7c, including
Abyssinia, Nubia, and Egypt ; Mo^/ireb, including Barbary and tlie Sahara; Sincdan or l^egruhinri,
including Senegambia, Guinea, and the basins of the Kawara and the Tchad; or, in other word<, all
the rigii/n between the Sahara and the ocean, easlw,ard to Abyssinia, and southward to the central
mountains of the Jloon : Suut/uin Jj'iica, including that portion of the continent which lies to the
iouth of Abyssinia and the mountains of the Moon ; and, lastly, (he Ulands.
810 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Nits.
REGION OF THE NILE.
This wide region comprises that portion of Africa which forms the western shore
of the Red Sea, extending from 7° to 32° N. lat., for about 1750 miles, and between
30° and 43° E. long., with a breadth varying from about 1000 miles at the south, to
130 miles or less at its northern extremity. It is usually considered as divided into
three large countries, named Egypt, Nubia, and Abyssinia ; each of which will form
the subject of a separate section, though the greater part of the region is now under
the dominion of the Pasha of Egypt.
The grand characteristic of the region is the river Nile, which traverses its whole extent from
south to north. According to the most recent information, the remotest sources of this famous
river appear to lie in the mountains of the Moon, about 7^ north lat. These unite to form a stream,
which, under the name of Ba/ir-el- Jbind (White river), flows north-eastward, through Donga or
Denka, and the country of the Shelluks, to 15^ 34' north lat., where it receives, on its right bank, the
Abawi or Bahr-el-Azrek (Blue river), from Abyssinia. The White river appears to have been the
true Nile of the ancient geographers ; but, in modern times, it is only after its confluence with the Az-
rek that tlie united stream is known as the Nile, under wliich name it flows, in a general direction,
though with various windings, almost due north, through Nubia and Egypt, into the Mediterranean
Sea by two principaf mouths. Its principal affluents, besides the Azrek, are the Maleg and the Ta-
cazze or Atbiirah, both on the right, from Abyssinia ; but from the left no important affluent is known.
In one respect the Nile is distinguished from every other river ; for, between the junction of the Ta-
cazze and the sea, a distance of 1500 miles, it does not receive a single affluent, but proceeds in soli-
tary grandeur through the desert, fertilizing only a narrow strip along its banks of a few miles in
breadth, which constitutes the cultivated portion of Nubia and Egypt. The Hahr-el-Abiad has been
explored by M. Linant, to the e.xtcnt of 132 geographical miles above its confluence with the
Azrek. As he sailed along he sounded occasionally, and found always from three to four fathoms ;
the river was, in many places, a mile and a half wide, and even then was far within its banks, which
sometimes seemed four miles distant from each other ; but even this is not the full width at its great-
est height. Tliere are several islands in the stream, and these as well as the banks are covered
with large trees of a splendid green, in the higher parts no longer obscured with brushwood, but
standing in groves amidst a rich lierbage of the finest hue, as in an English park. But, a few miles
above Aleis, where Linant stopped, the river, he was informed, is only knee-deep, in consequence of
its great width. Of its hiaiher course very little certain information lias vet been received. Ibratiim
Kashef, an officer of the Pasha, travelled for 35 days along its banks, partly on both sides ; and at
the highest point he reached, probably 10° N. lat., 29° E. long., the river was shallow, full of islands,
six hours in breadth, but with no mountains in sight. The great breadth, though perhaps ixag-
gerated, and not very intelligibly described, leaves little doubt that the river, even at this extreme
point, was much broader than at its junction with the Azrek, and seoms to indicate that its conforma-
tion is of an extraordinary kind, its origin being perhaps in a lake or lakes, supplied by streams from
a distant range of mountains. The existence, moreover, of lakes having a comunication with the
river only during floods, is rendered highly probable by a passage in Linant's Journal, which states that
at the time of the inundation of the Abiad, an incredible quantity of fish is brouglit down by the current.
Russegger learned, in 1837, that the White river rises in the country of the Galla and Shangalla, and
flows in a direction parallel to the Azreck. In 1841-2, Messrs. U'Arnaud and Sabatier ascend, d the
stream 500 leagues above Khartum, reaching the latitude of 4°42' N., almost in the meridian of Cairo.
They ;-aw no mountains, though they passed the place usually assigned to tlie Mountains of the Moon ;
but they observed immense marshes and large islands. It discharges a preater quantity of water
than the Azrek ; and, though somewhat narrower at the confluence than it is higher up, it is even in
this respect equal to the other. The colour also of its water is that which characterizes the united
stream in the dry season, the Azrek being then of a greenish hue, while the Abiad is always white, and
has a soapy appearance, even during the inundations. But, at the confluence, the Abiad is only IhOO
feet across, and, furtlier down, the general aspect of the river has mucli more of the character of the
Azrek than of the Abiad ; in every resj-ect resembling the former as to the nature of its banks and
adjoining scenery, width, sinuous course, sand-banks, and the want of large shells, surh as are only
to be found on the banks of tlie Abiad. Below, also, as along the banks of the Azrok, there are
comparatively few waterfowl, while near the Abiad these are innumerable — (Jour. II. Geog. Sue.
vol. II.) The Bahr-el-Azrek, however, has by many been considered to be the Nile. It rises l>om a
small marshy plain, in the country of the -A-gows, 125 miles S.S.W. of Gondar, and takes a circuitous
course through tlie lake of Dembea to the south-east, south, west, and north-west, in which last
direction neaily it continues through almost 6° of lat. till it meet the Abiad. It was the source of
this river that was visited by Bruce, as the source of the Nile ; and it is indeed well entitled, from its
size, and the length of its course, to dispute the honour with its rival ; at the confluence, it is at
least as wide tliough it discharges a smaller quantity of water. In th.> dry season its water has a
greenish hue ; but during the annual flood, it becomes reddish, from the nature of the mud brought
down by the Bahr Tuumat, which falls into the Azrek in the province of Fazuolo. The Azrek is tlie
Astapiu of the ancient geographers ; and its principal affluents are : the Vender, and tlie liehat, on
the right; the Romii, Yabiius, and Toumat, on the left. The only affluent of the Nile, below the great
confluence, is the Tarazze or Atbnrah, on the right, in lat. 17° 40' N. This stream has its source in
the high mountains of Lasta, and forms with the Nik' the famous peninsula of Meroe. Near its con-
fluence with the Nile it receives on the right the Bahr Mogren, which brings down such a quantitv of
black earth that it affects the general colour of the river. After the junction of the Abiad and "the
Azrek, the Nile makes a remarkable bend, like a great S, flowing 200 miles south, and then turning again
to the north, its width varying e.\ceedingly from more than a mile to less than a quarter of a mile,
and its channel beinir studded with innumerable islands, clothed with the richest vegetation. In its
progress through Nubia it forms six cataracts. The first occurs about midwav between Halfaiah
and Shendi ; the second, below Berber ; the third, above Meraweh ; the fourth, at Hannek ; the fifth,
at Wadj Haifa, is formed by a multitude of rocky islands, among which the river dashes amidst clouds
of foam, and is tossed in perpetual eddies; the sixth, and lowest, between I'liilse and Elephantine,
24° N. lat., where there is a considerable fall, the greatest height, however, being only five feet perpen-
dicular ; but the bed of the river is for several miles thickly strewed with granite rocks, and narrowed
to half a mile. These cataracts, however, are usually numbered upwards, the sixth being reckoned
Egtpt.] AFRICA. 811
the first, «nd the first the sixth. The Nile consists of too large a body of water to be lost in the Im-
mense desert through which it flows, but it diminishes gradually as it proceeds northward. It is
narrower at Cairo than at Siout ; and narrower at Siout than at Thebes ; but from Wady Haifa to
Thebes, its volume continues apparently the same. An immense quantity of the water is diverted
from the river, and exhausted in artificial irrigation ; and, when the great canals of Egypt were kept
in good repair, the river must have been still more diminished towards its mouth. At Assouan its
width is about 3900 feet ; at Hajar SilsUi, only 1700 ; at Oudi, 36 miles above Cairo, 2900 ; at Rosetta,
1800, and at Damietta, only 800.
^ 1. EGYPT.
Situation and Extent. — This ancient and celebrated kingdom, is situate in the
north-east corner of Africa, between 24° 3' and 31° 37' N. lat., and 29= and 35° 25'
E. long. ; but of this large space of 150,000 square miles, little more than a tenth
part is occupied by cultivable soil, the remainder consists of salt marshes, sandy plains,
or rocky and barren mountains. The cultivable land of Egypt consists of the long
narrow valley of the Nile, which measures above 500 miles along the course of the
river, with an average breadth of only eight or ten miles ; and a large triangular plain,
measuring about 150 miles along the sea, from which it extends about 100 miles in-
land to the point where it joins the valley. Besides these, there is likewise the pro-
vince of Faioum or Fyoum, which is watered by a branch of the Nile, and comprises
about 340 square miles.
The average breadth of the valley of the Nile between Cairo and Edfou is only
about 7 miles ; and that of the cultivated land, whose limits depend on the inunda-
tion, scarcely exceeds 5J, being in the widest part 10|, and in the narrowest, 2
miles, including the river. The extent of the Delta may be estimated at 1976
square miles, and the whole northern district, capable of being irrigated, including
the Delta, at 4500 square miles, or double the whole arable land of tlie valley, which
may be computed at 2255 square miles. That the irrigated part of the valley was
formerly much less extensive than it is at present, at least wherever the plain
stretches to any distance east and west, or to the right and left of the river, is evi-
dent from the fact of the alluvial deposit constantly encroaching in a horizontal di-
rection upon the gradual slope of the desert ; and, as a very perceptible elevation of
the bed of the river, as well as of the land of Egypt, has been constantly going on,
it requires no argument to prove that a perpendicular rise of the Avater must cause it
to flow to a considerable distance over an open space to the east and west. Thus
the plain of Thebes, in the time of Amunof HI., or about 1430 b. c, was not more
than two-thirds of its present breadth; and the statues of that monarch, round which
the alluvial mud has accumulated to the height of nearly 7 feet, are founded on the
sand which once extended to some distance in front of them. How erroneous, then,
is it to suppose that the drifting sands of the encroaching desert threaten the welfare
of this country, or have in any way tended to its downfal ; and how much more
reasonable is it to ascribe the degraded condition to which Egypt is reduced, to causes
of a much more baneful nature, foreign despotisui, the insecurity of property, atul the
effects of that old age which it is the fate of every country, as well as of every indi-
vidual, to undergo. It is true that the sand has accuuuilated about Bahnasa, and on
the irrigated land in its vicinity, as well as about Kerdassch, and a few other places,
owing to the form of the valleys, which open in these spots from the Libyan desert,
but this effect is not general throughout the valley of the Nile, even on this side ot
the river ; and the progress of the sand can never be very great in any part of Egypt,
however it may extend itself in Nubia over the exposed and narrow strip of land
which the western bank presents above the cataracts of Assouan. — (Wilkinson, I.
218, 219.) For the satisfaction of those who will be content with simple facts it
may be sufficient to state, that the breadth of the irrigated portion of the valley is
much more extensive now than it was at any former [)eiiod, and that this increase will
continue in spite of the very few local itn[)ediments winch the drifted sand may ac-
cidentally offer; and it is not irrelevant to observe, that no soil is better suited for
many kinds of produce than the irrigated edge of the desert (which generally consists
of a clay mixed with sand) even before it is covered with the fertilizing deposit of
the inundation. — (lb. 222.) From the first cataract of the Nile to the moutli of the
river at Rosetta, the perpendicular stratum of soil decreases in thickness as it ap-
proaches the sea; and thus a*^ Elephantine the land lias been raised about 9 feet in
1700 years, at Thebes about 7, and so on, gradually diminishing to the mouth.
There, indeed, the deposit is lessened in a very remarkable degree, nuich more than
the regular decreasing ratio, in consequence of the greater extent of the land, cast
and west, over which the inundation spreads; so that in a section representing the
accumulated soil and the lescl of the low Nile, the uiijle of iuclinatioii would 1m
812 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Egypt.
much smaller from the fork of the Delta to the sea, than from the Thebaid to the
Delta. The formation of Egypt and its extensive Delta are beyond the reach of in-
quiry, and of a date long anterior to the period at which that country or Ethiopia
was' inhabited. In the times of the earliest Pharaohs, of whom any record now re-
mains, the whole of Lower Egypt seems to have been densely iidiabited (lb. 9, 11);
and positive facts contradict the assumption that the Delta has been protruded into
the sea, to any great extent, within the age of history. If it had ancient citic?,
which were upon the sea-coast 3000 or 4000 years ago, and still are so, they ougb.t
now to have been far inland (Wilkinson, Jour. R. Geog. Soc. IX. 432.)
Gkneral Aspfxt. — The valley of the Nile is bounded on both sides by ranges
of mountains, which follow the course of the river from the cataracts to near Cairo,
where they diverge ; the western range extending from that point north-westward
to the neighbourhood of Alexandria, while the eastern range stretches castv.ard to tlie
head of the Red Sea. The general character of the western range is that of a lime-
stone formation, containing numerous fossil shells; but from Esneh to Assouan tlie
formation is sandstone alternating with limestone, and containing also slate and
quartz of various colours. Above Assouan the formation is granite, mixed with syen-
ite and some other crystalline primitive rocks. The eastern range differs somcwhiit
in character, as it rises more al)ruptly, and often approaches close to the margin of the
river. The limestone extends as far south as on the western side ; but the granite
formation commences earlier. Near Assouan the granite alternates with decomposed
sandstone ; and in the same neighbourhood are found the granite quarries which fur-
nished the materials of the ancient temples, obelisks, and statues. The elevation of
these mountain ridges is only a few hundred feet, and the northern branch, which
extends from Cairo to Suez, the Jebel Mokattam, and Attaka, does not exceed 400
feet. In both ranges there are numerous ravines which afford passages from the banks
of the Nile into the eastern and the western deserts. The great valley itself has the
same inclination as the waters of the river, which is about two inches in the mile ;
so that Assouan, being about 640 miles from the sea, should be only about 107 feet
above its level. The slope, however, is not gradual through all this distance. It is
greatest innnediately north of Assouan, where the fall of the water is seven inches
and a half in the mile, and diminishes almost to nothing as it approaches the Delta.
The bed of the river, however, does not lye along the bottom of the valley, but along
the top of a narrow ridge formed by the continual deposit of mud during the inunda-
tions ; and the same is the case with the Bahr Joussef, whose channel likewise forms
a narrow ridge, with a hollow between it and the Nile. The banks consist of a suc-
cession of rich plains of unequal width, studded with little groves of palm trees, each
of which hides a village. These groves, animated liy innumerable flocks of turtle-
doves, pigeons, and other birds, are surrounded with cultivated land, which is some-
times covered by the inundation ; ami on the retiring of the waters, or at other
seasons, by means of irrigation, is clothed with the richest verdure and the most
luxuriant crops. — (Hoskins' Visit to the Great Oasis, S)'c. Lond. 1837.)
At the northern end of the long valley, below the point where the mountains di-
verge, and between them and the sea, lies the alluvial plain of Lower Egypt, which
is almost a dead level, intersected by the two great branches of the Nile. These
branches form between them the celebrated Delta, a triangular island, measuring
eighty miles at its base, and about ninety in a straight line, along each of its other
sides, which, however, follow the windings of the river ; and are therefore very irre-
gular. On each side of the Delta is a level plain of the same character, the greater
part of which appears to have ])ecn formerly included witliiii it, when the Nile reached
the sea by seven branches. The whole of this plain, beyond as well as within the
Delta, is intersected in every direction by numerous canals, which convey the waters
of the river to all parts of it, thereby producing a continual verdure ; and, during the
period of the inundation, a great part of its surface is covered with water. Eastward
of the Delta is a singular valley, thirty-nine ^lilcsinleng-.h by two in width, and con-
taining about 20,000 acres, forn.t*. by two parallel mountain ranges which screen it
from the sands of the desert. The E-;-. is rich and productive, and is covered with an
exuijerant growth of shrubs and copse Nvood. It is crossed by the ancient canal, be-
tween the Nile and the Red Sea ; .. .d is supposed, with great probability, to have been
the land of Goshen, where the Israc'-'^.cs were settled. The western part of it is now
called Wady Toviylat, and the eastern, Wady Sabahyar. About sixty miles above
Cairo, a gap in the western mountains affords a passage for a branch of the Nile into
E large district called Fyoum or Faioum, through which the water flows in numerous
Streams to the Birket-el-Kcroun, or ancient Lake r^Iffris, converting a large portion
Egv?t.3 AFRICA. 8l3
of desert into the most fertile and the most beautiful province of the kingdom. Here
the eye is never weary with contemplating the smiling fields, which are covered with
a luxuriant and almost tropical magnificence of vegetation, and form a splendid con-
trast to the barren desert that everywhere surrounds them, and of which they seem
to have been once a part. The Faioum is densely peopled, and is never visited by
the plague. The aspect of the cultivated parts of Kgypt undergoes periodical changes
with the seasons. In our winter months, the verdure of Egypt is rich and beautiful.
The air is perfumed with the odours of the orange and citron trees, and of innumerable
shrubs ; and the flocks overspreading the plain add animation to the landscape. The
country now forms one delightful garden, though somewhat monotonous in its appear-
ance ; for, on every side, it presents nothing but a plain, bounded by whitish moun-
taitis, and diversified with clumps of palm trees. In summer, however, it exhibits
merely a brown soil, either miry, or dry, hard, and dusty; immense fields under water;
vast spaces unoccupied and uncultivated ; plains, in which the only objects to be seen
are date trees ; camels and buffaloes led by miserable peasants, naked and sunburnt,
wrinkled and lean ; a scorching sun, a cloudless sky, and constant winds which vary
onlv in force. It is not therefore surprising that travellers have differed very much
in their descriptions of this interesting country.
Beyond tlic limits of the cultivated regions are several portions of the deserts which
are worthy of notice. In tiie desert, south-east of Alexandria, are two parallel val-
k-ys, called the Basin of the Natron Lahe-i, and tlie Bn/ir-be/a-maie, or waterless river.
The former contains a series of six lakes lying in the direction of the valley, the
banks and waters of which are covered with crystals of chloride of sodium or sea-
salt, and carbonate of soda or natron. The Bahr-bela-niaie lies to the south-west of
the valley of Natron, from which it is separated by a small ridge ; it is about eight
miles wide, and is everywhere covered with sand. It is said to join Faioinn on the
south, and the Mediterranean Sea on the north-west, and is supposed to liave once
formed the bed of the Nile, or at least of one of its branches ; and, to strengthen this
conjecture, petrified trunks of trees and fish-bones have been found beneath tlie surface.
The vegetation in both valleys has a \\ihl and dreary aspect ; tlie palms are mere
bushes, and bear no fruit. The Natron valley is inhabited by Greek monks, who have
there four convents, which serve at once as their fortresses and their prisons. Farther
south are several oases or wahs scattered over the desert, within the nominal limits
of Egypt. Their pliysical character is pretty much tlie same, consisting of small
tracts or valleys irrigated by springs of water, and producing dates; the larger ones
yield wheat, rice, barley, clover, liquorice, olives, apricots, vines, pomegranates, and
other fruits. Tiic first wliieh occurs, in advancing southward, is tlie Little Oasis or
With-el-Baliryeh, or Wah-el-I3ehnesa or Behnasa, three days' journey soutli-west of
Faioum. It pays a yearly tribute of aliout £04-3 sterling, and has an armed f;)rce of
several hundred men to preserve the peace. A short day's journey south of it is the
small oasis of Wak-el-Haiiz ; and three days further soutli is that of Farafnii. West-
ward of Esneh on the Nile, between 2L>- and ;iO' E. long, is the Great Oasis, called
by way of eminence El Wall, which extends in length between 24^ 30' and •2V)'^ N. hit.,
aiiout 100 miles. It contains many springs and villages, witli the ruins of Egyi)tian,
Roman, Christian, and .Saracenic buildings. Its cliief town is IM-Kliargeii. Tliree
days' journey westward is tlie Wah-el-Da/ilile/i, DaLhel, vv d Oharhe, which contains
eleven villages or towns, and GOOO male inliat)itants. Its principal village, is Jtl Kusr
Dalihcl or Dakhleh, in 2.5'' .'i.j' N. hit. and 28' .0.)' E. long. Wah-Zerzoora, Wah Ge-
habo, and sonic others, lie still farther west. But tlie most interesting of all these
wahs is that of Siwah, .'110 miles due west of Benisouef on tlie Nile, which contains
the remains of the celelirated Temple of Amnion, visited Iiy Alexander the Great, and
other aiiti(iuitics ; a large and strongly fortified town, with a population of 2000, and
several villages. It was conquered by the Faslia of l>gy|)t in 1820. About 25 leagues
N. VV. of the capital is the salt lake of Arachieh. about six or seven leagues in ciicuin-
fercnce, with a rocky ish t, wliich the Siwahians say contains the s;ibre and seal <i(
the Great Pro[)het, or, according to others, the ring, sword, and crown of King .Solo-
inon-ben-Daoud, the great magician of the East (Hoshiiis' I'isit to the Great Oasis,
^'<^- ^'^O . • , • ,
The general character of the eastern desert is that of a mountuiiions region, wlucli,
though generally barren and rocky, contains a number of wadies or ravines, fertilized
by spring*, and clothed with vegetation. Mines of various inetiils, and quarries of
porphyry and other valuable stones are scattered among the mountains. A range of
hills, called Jebel Mokattam and Jebel Attaka, extends from Cairo to Suez; to the
south of the>^« are other ridges stretching nearly in the same direction, with inter-
eu DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Egypt.
veninsr valleys ; but, at Jebcl Tcncsep, fifteen miles south-east of Deir Bolos, tho
mountains diverge into the interior, veering south and south-west, towards the Nile,
and are succeeded near the sea by a range of primitive formation which extends south-
ward to Cosseir, at a distance of from twenty to thirty miles from the coast, the inter-
vening space being occupied by low limestone and sandstone hills. Jebd Ghrarib, in
the primitive range, about 28° 23' N. lat., is estimated at nearly 6000 feet above the
level of the sea, and its lofty peaks are said to resemble the aiguilles of Chamouni.
South of Cosseir the mountains continue to run parallel to the coast as far as Jehel
Zabarah or Emerald-hill, which is about eight hours' journey from the coast, and
stretch farther south-east to the ruins of Berenice.
The hlhmua of Suez forms one of the most important features of Egypt. It con-
sists of a tract of low lying land, composed of shell limestone rocks, mixed with strata
of silicious limestone, and partly covered with sand or salt marshes. In several places
the solid strata arc scarcely perceptible by their slight undulations. In the northern
portion, in particular, there is avast plain, varied only by the inequalities of the sand-
hills. In the middle of its breadth the ridges of the hills shew their bare heads in the
form of a series of large steps. It is skirted on the east, the south-cast, and the south-
west, by the mountains of Arabia and Egypt, and terminates almost in a point at
the head of the Red Sea, between which and the Mediterranean is a series of salt
lakes and dry hollows, interrupted only by strips of low ground. The breadth of the
isthmus in this direction is 378,844 French feet, or about 75 English miles. The sur-
face generally declines from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean, of the latter of which
the level is 30 feet lower than that of the Gulf of Suez. There is a similar descent
towards the Delta and the Nile, which, in its lowest state, has been found at Cairo
to be nine feet lower than the surface of the gulf at low water. But, as the Nile
rises 16 cubits during the inundation, its surface is then nine feet higher than the
Red Sea at high water, and 14 feet higher at low water. Besides these leading slopes,
there is a particular declination in the middle of the isthmus. Directly north from
Suez is a valley which extends like a hollow trough for 13^ miles, terminating at the
deep basin of the Bitter Lakes, which is 54 feet below the level of the Red Sea, the
waters of which would enter and fill it, but for a little sandy isthmus three feet higher
than the sea, which forms a complete bar to its progress northward up the valley. In
the opposite direction, the valley, called Wady Tomylat and Wady Sababyar, opens a
passage for the waters of the Nile into the Bitter Lakes during its rise ; so that it seems
quite possible to form a navigable communication between the Nile and the Red Sea
through this natural channel. Accordingly we find, that so early as the reign of
Sesostris (somewhere between eleven and seventeen centuries B.C.), that prince ac-
tually formed a canal, which was several times renewed, and kept up even till the
times of the Arab dominion. The coast of Egypt is very low, and so unvarying in
its formation, that there is great difficulty in making a safe approach to it. The land,
when first seen, rises ahead like a long ridge of sand, presenting the appearance of a
continued swell of the sea, or of a line faintly drawn on the horizon.
River, Lakes, Canals. — The Nile is the only river of Egypt; its general direc-
tion and character have been already described ; and it only remains for us to show
its beneficial influence on the country through which it flows. The celebrated
plains of Egypt would not be the abode of perpetual fertility were it not for the
inundations of the river, which both impart to them the requisite moisture, and
cover them with the richest deposit. The rise of the river, which is caused by
the heavy annual rains within the tropics, commences about the time of the sum-
mer solstice ; it attains its greatest height at the ai'tumnal equinox, remains sta-
tionary for some days, and then gradually diminishes till the time of the winter
solstice, when it is very low, though some water still remains in pools and in the
large canals. The soil has been, in the meantime, covered with a fresh layer of
mud, and at this latter period the lands are put under culture. At Assouan the
flood rises thirty feet above the ordinary level of the river, but from that point to
the sea its elevation diminishes gradually and insensibly. The breadth of the inun-
dation in Upper Egypt is comparatively small, for it does not every where reach to
the foot of the mountains ; but in Lower Egypt it overspreads great part of the
Delta and the adjoining plains, leaving only the towns and villages, like so many islands
in the midst of a lake. The prosperity, however, of Egypt, depends very much on
the river keeping a certain medium level during its flood ; too little or too much being
almost equally pernicious ; scarcity and famine result from the one, while the destruc-
tion of the villages is too often the consequence of the other. In some places, indeed,
these are built upon hillocks, natural or artificial; but in many cases, particularly in
Egypt.] _^ AFRICA. 815
Upper Egypt, they are defended only by fences of earth and reeds, which easily give
way before the strong pressure of the superabundant water. There are great disparities
in the statements of different writers respecting the height which the inundation ought
to reach to be beneficial. According to Wilkinson, who is probably the best informed,
the lowest rise is 18 cubits ; the canals are then cut; 19 cubits he calls tolerable ;
20, good; 21, sufficient; a rise of 22 cubits fills every canal; a rise of 24 cubits would
overwhelm and ruin the villages. A cubit exceeds 21 inches; hence, in order
fully to fertilize Egypt, a perpendicular rise of 38 feet is required. Besides the
prodigious quantity of earth brought down by the flood from the countries in the
interior, the banks of the river itself, in Egypt, are also undermined to a great extent,
and the material is carried down to be deposited at the base of the Delta, where
new accessions are constantly making to the alluvial formation of the coast, while
the direction of the channel of the river is perpetually changing. The salubrity of
the water of the Nile was highly extolled by the ancients, and is acknowledged by
most modern travellers. If Mahomet had tasted it, the Egyptians say, he would
have supplicated heaven for a terrestrial immortality, to be enabled to enjoy it for
ever. It is said to be laxative, owing to certain neutral salts which it contains ;
but, during the three summer months, before the inundation commences, it requires
to be filtered before it can be safely used. During the flood it first acquires a
green colour, sometimes pretty deep ; after thirty or forty days the colour becomes
brownish red ; and, again, during the low season it becomes quite clear. In many
circumstances the Nile differs from all other rivers: for 1500 miles it pursues its
course alone, without receiving a single affluent ; the country through which it flows
13 not liable to falls of snow or hail, seldom even of rain ; its waters, consequently,
receive no taint from the noxious qualities of earths or minerals, except those in its
immediate channel ; the air, pure and serene, generates no unwholesome fogs ; and
its banks are unpolluted by the filth of any great cities, as it flows for the most part
through rocky deserts or vast expanses of sand. In this long course, it exposes
generally to the sun and air a broad surface, and is gradually purified as it advances
towards Egypt. During the rainy season, and towards autumn, when it is filled
with torrents from the mountains, its waters are muddy and unwholesome ; and this
is accordingly the principal unhealthy season in Lower Egypt; but at other times
there is scarcely a river in the world whose water can be compared in quality with
that of the Nile. The average current of the river is about 2900 yards per hour,
but it is considerably increased during the period of the inundation. The prevalence
of northerly winds more than compensates to vessels bound upwards the rapidity of
the stream. The general depth at low water is about six feet (1.830 metre). There
is much danger, however, in the river, occasioned by sudden squalls.
At Farshout, in hit 26° 12' N., a canal, named Bahr Jousscf, Moye Snuhaj, &c.,
issues from the west bank of the river, and runs parallel with it for 250 miles to
Benisouef. where one branch diverges towards Faioum, while another flows onward
as far as the Delta. It is in some places several miles distant from the river, flowing,
like its parent stream, along the top of a ridge formed by the mud of its inundations,
leaving a space of low ground between them. Its breadth varies from 50 feet to 300 ;
and it has all the appearance of a natural river, though it is undoubtedly artificial.
The branch which flows into Faioum divides into numerous streams, which fertilize
the district, and ultimately find their way to the Birket-el-Kcroun, a large lake of
brackish water, about 30 miles in length, with a breadth varying from eight miles to
less than one. This lake was believed by the fincients to have been entirely arti-
ficial, and to have been dug by king Mroris, for the double purpose of preventing the
low country from being damaged by the superabundant overflowing of the Nile, and
of serving as a reservoir to supply water during the low season. Herodotus accord-
ingly reports that during one half of the year the Nile flowed into the lake, while,
during the other six months, a stream flowed out of it. Of the latter, liowever,
there is no remaining trace ; and the great works contrived by Mocris to regulate the
water have disappeared. The lake has at present every appearance of occupying a
natural basin, though, certainly, its only apparent feeders are derived from the Nile.
Mr. Wilkinson, moreover, insists that Ilerodotus's account of the wafer returning
from the lake to the Nile is totally inapplicable to the lake Mocris, the level of its sur-
face being about 100 or 120 feet lower than the bank of the Nile at Benisouef; which,
making every allowance for the rise of the bed of the river, and the proportionate
elevation of its banks, could never have been on a level, even in the time of Hero-
dotus, with the lake Moeris. It is the canal of Joussef to which, he says, the account
of Herodotus is alone applicable, as being the work of human hands, and returning
816 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Egypt
its water to the T\\-cT. — {^Tvpo(frapht/ of Thchcx, Sec 354.) The view of the Like of
Keroun is peculiiirly grand. It is eqiial in breadth to the lake of Geneva, between
Holies and Thonon,"aiui, though differing in its accessories from every sheet of water
in Europe, it presents, in the burning desert, tlie arid mountains, and the uncultivated
plains which surround it, and in its own unnavigated waves, features not less calculated
to excite in the mind the highest emotions of grandeur and sublimity. Towards the
east the shore is low, consisting of a series of wave-like sandhills, which, as the eye
turns westward, give place to rocky eminences, rising gradually into mountains, which
are barren and wild, and extend westward to the extreme verge of the horizon. Be-
tween this arid chain and the traveller who contemplates it from the verdant plains
of the Faioum, lies the lake. Absolute solitude prevails on all sides ; and nothing
presents itself to the eye that can suggest a reference to human society; but enor-
mous flights of aquatic birds, as pelicans, wild-ducks, gulls, petrels, and white ibises,
are seen, some rising, others lighting on the shores or swimming on the lake ; and
the waters abound with incredible multitudes of iish. Whatever may be the depth
towards the middle, the water is extremely shallow near the land, and the bottom
in most places consists of soft mud, such as is everywhere deposited by the Nile.
Mr. St. John, from whose work (Egypt and Mohammed AU ; or Travels in the Valley
of the Nile. By James Augustus St. John. London, 1834; vol. II. 238-41) we
have taken this description, found the water of a brackish taste ; not to the degree
mentioned by Pococke, who thought it " almost as salt as the sea;" but sufficiently
so to render it disagreeable, though not unfit for drinking The fisheries of the lake
and the Bahr Joussef were farmed at 500 purses per annum, or about £4000 sterling.
The Arabs call the lake Birket-el-Kcroun, or lake of the horns, but for what reason
is uncertain.
The only other existing canal which deserves particular notice is the canal of Mahmu-
diah, lately formed by the Pasha to afford a navigable communication between Alex-
andria and the Nile. It extends from Alexandria to the Nile at Atfeh, near Fouah, in
a serpentine course of about 40 miles ; its mean depth being much above the level of
the river, and its breadth averaging perhaps 200 feet. There is a sluice at each end.
to regulate the admission or escape of the water, but no means for the passage of
boats. The canal is in fact a large ditch, without science in the plan, or skill in the
execution. It is so crooked that the distance is increased about one-third, without
the slightest necessity existing for deviating from a straight line. Though origi-
nally constructed for the purpose of navigation, it likewise supplies Alexandria with
water, and serves for irrigating the lands on both sides. The making of this canal
was commenced in 1819 ; and from the severity of the labour, to which they were
unaccustomed, combined with ill treatment, and want of food and pure water, 23,000
persons perished in ten months, and were buried in the embankments.
The canal of Sesostris exists now only in name ; but vestiges of it are still found in
different parts of the valley between Suez and the Nile, and it has been seriously pro-
posed to restore it throughout. The Khalije, or canal of Cairo, leaves the river near
Fostat, and flows directly through the city to the Birket-el-Hadgee, or pilgrim's-pool,
so called from its being the place where the great caravan of INIecca assembles. Manv
other canals for the purposes of irrigation intersect the deltaic plains, and one travel-
ler has counted so many as 6000 ; but these channels, rapidly filling up by the annual
deposits, retain considerably less water than formerly; and the natural birkets of
pools, increasing in extent in proportion as they become shallower, spread over the
fertile fields, and diminish the cultivated land. Much of the water which should be
retained in these reservoirs is thus lost by evaporation, and in the canals by infiltra-
tion, and the insufficiency of the banks; and hence the inhabitants of the village caii
seldom command a supply of water for any length of time {St. John, II. 353.)
Besides the freshwater lakes already mentioned, there are several saltwater lakes along the coast,
as the Mareotis, Maudie, Etko, hourlos, and ilenznJrh. The lake Mareotis is a largo shallow lagoon
to the south-east of Alexandria, studded with islands, and separated from the £ea on its north-west
side by a long ridge of sand-hills. It is of great antiquity, but was dry for many centuries till the
sea was let into its bed by the British army in 1801, The lake Maudie or Aboukir iits to the north-
east of the Mareotis, separated from it by a narrow strip of land. The lake of Etko is a long narrow
lagoon, a little farther east. The lake Bourlcs lies to the east of the Rosetta branch of the Nile. The
lake Menzaleh lies to the east of Damietta, and is bounded on the north and north-east by a long
narrow strip of low land which separates it f-om th? soa. It communicates with the sea by two navi-
gable channels ; but the southern portion oi the lake itself, to the extent of about one-third of its sur-
face, is not navigable, and the rtniaiiider is very shallow. It measures about .iG miles in length,
from north-west to south-east, with a breadth varying from 12 miles to 30. It contains several
islands, and abounds with fish, which afl'ord employment and subsistence to a numerous class of
rather savage fishermen.
Climate. — From the nature of its surface, and the general aridity of the sur-
rounding deserts, Egypt is much hotter than most other countries under the same
Egypt.] AFKICA. 817
parallel of latitude. At some distance from the sea the heat of the plains is at all
seasons scorching; but it sometimes happens that the violent north winds depress
t*>e temperature, even near the tropic, to the freezing point. The general height,
however, of the thermometer, in the depth of winter, in Lower Egypt, in the after-
noon, and in the shade, is from 50° to GO^ Fahrenheit : in the hottest season it is
from 90° to 100°; and in the southern parts of Upper Egypt it is generally about
ten degrees higher. But though the suunner heat is so great, it is seldom very op-
pressive, being generally accompanied by a refreshing northerly breeze, and the atmo-
sphere is at the same time extremely dry. The nights of winter, on the contraiy, are
exceedingly cold in Lower Egypt ; and, indeed, the keenness of the night air at that
season is almost incredible. Every where in the shade it is cold, even by day, and a
strong breeze constantly prevails, which increases the sharpness of the atmospherc ;
rendering it prudent, even in the sunshine, to go warmly clothed. To the neglect
of this precaution may be attributed many of those dangerous attacks of fever and
dysentery which travellers frequently experience in Egypt. — (St. John, I. 139.)
The wind is very regular in June, July, August, and September, when it blows almost
without interruption from the north and north-east. During the day, at that season,
the sky is clear, without clouds or mists ; but after sunset the cooling of the air con-
denses the vapours, which are then observed to pass with a hurried motion from north
to south, which continues till after sunrise, when the solar heat rarities them anew, and
renders them again invisible. The period of the decrease of the Nile is accompanied by
intermitting winds, which, liowever, still blow from the north, but with intervals of
calm weather. In winter the winds are changeable ; but at that season the cloudless
atmosphere gives free scope to the solar rays, and the vegetation becomes luxuriant.
The only symptoms of moisture then in the atmosphere are the abundant dews de-
posited in the night, and the fogs which appear in the mornings, though the latter
are comparatively unfrequent. In the same season it occasionally rains in Egypt,
but chiefly near the sea. At Cairo there are, on an average, four or five showers
during the year, and in Upper Egypt only one or at most two. " Indeed," says
Mr. St. John, writing near Benisouef, " nothing can be more incorrect than the
opinion that it never rains in this part of Egypt. During the tirst week we were on
the Nile it rained at least ten times, not slightly or sparingly, as if the climate were
not used to it, but in long, heavy, drenching showers, which thoroughly soaked the
earth, and must have been greatly useful in forwarding the processes of vegetation."
— (I. 221). The approach of the vernal equinox (changes the appearance of the coun-
try; the hot south wind then begins to blow, and continues at intervals during a
period of somewhat more or less than 50 days (thence called the khamseen or hhum-
aseen), commencing in April, and lasting throughout May ; but it seldom blows for
more than three days in succession. During its contiimance the atmosphere becomes
troubled, sometimes acquiring a purple tinge ; a dry burning heat prevails every
where, and whirlwinds, like the blasts of a heated furnace, sweep over tlie country,
often raising the sand and even small stones to a considerable height, so as to form a
black cloud, and afterwards depositing them in large heaps on the ground. The fine
sand is forced into the houses through the smallest crannies, and every i)lace is filled
with it. These winds, though they seldom cause the thermometer of Fahrenheit to
rise above 95^ in Lower Egypt, or in Upper Egypt, above 105°,* are dreadfully op-
pressive even to the natives. During spring and sunmier the simoom blows occa-
sionally, coming from the south-east or south-south-east, and carrying with it clouds
of dust and sand. It is still more oppressive than the kliamseen winds, but sehloui
lasts longer than a quarter of an hour or "20 minutes. The season of the khaniseon
is the only time in which the atmosphere of Egypt is generally unhealthy, and it is
then that the plague, the fatal scourge of the Levant, is most severe. The ophthal-
mia, however, aiu)ther very common l'>gyptian disease, makes its greatest ravages
during the inundations, a circumstance which proves that it is not entirely owing to
the glare of the sun and the heat of the khamseen winds.
Vkgf.tabi.f. PiiontJCTioNs To its singularly constituted atmos[)licro, and to Ihe
regular inundations of the Nile, Egypt owes the advantage of containing within its
limits almost all the cultivated vegetables of the old world. The cultivated plants
may be divided into two great classes; the one consisting of those which grow in the
mud of the Nile; and the other embracing those produced on grouiui beyond the
reach of the inundation, but whii'li is watered artificially. In the first class are wheat,
' ' This is the toniperature in tlic s! ai\>\ At 'rii«l)cs I liave observed the thcriiKuiHttr to rise above
110^ during a kliuniascen wind in tlie sliade." — Lane, I. 3.
3 F
818 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Egypt
barley, spelt, beans, peas, lentil:*, sesainum, mustard, flax, anise, carfiainum or saf-
fronwood, tobaceo, lupins, vetches, barsiui or Egyptian trefoil, fenugreefC, pumpkins,
melons, cucumbers, and lettuce. The cucurbitaceous plants, ind also tobacco and
lupins, 'generally cover the banks of the river as the water subsides ; the melons and
cucumbers grow' almost visibly, but are generally watery and tasteless ; the tobacco
is weak, but is reckoned much pleasanter to smoke than that of America. The
plants produced in the irrigated lands are chiefly the holcus dhurra or durrah, which
forms the counnon food of the people; its leaves are used for feeding cattle, and its
stalks serve as fuel for the ovens ; sugar-cane, indigo, cotton, and pot-herbs. Cotton,
in particular, has lately become an article of great commercial importance ; it is culti-
vated in large quantities, and is generally of excellent quality, though produced with
little more labour to the cultivator than planting and watering it. The sugar-cane is
also now grown in consideral)le quantity, and the manufacture of sugar is in a flourish-
ing condition. Faioum is distinguished for its roses, which produce the much-used
rosewater : it also produces rice ; but the best quality of that grain is raised on the
the marshv grounds of Lower Egypt, and particularly near Lake Menzaleh, where it
was introduced in the time of the Khalifs Of fruit-trees, the almond, the walnut,
and the cherry are not found in Egypt ; the pear, the apple, the peach, and the plum,
are neither abundant nor good ; but citrons, lemons, oranges, pomegranates, apricots,
and bananas prosper abundantly ; and the colocynth or bitter apple has become an
article of considerable trade. The sycamore or Pharaoh's fig, less valued for its fruit
than for its deep and broad shade, the carob, the jujube, the tamarind, and other trees
are cultivated; but none of these are equal, in number or usefulness, to the date-
palm, which is cultivated alike in the lands that are naturally or artificially irrigated.
Groves of these palm-trees are to be seen containing 300 or 400, and sometimes con-
sisting of several thousands together. The olive tree is only met with in gardens ;
but there are some plantations, where the people preserve their fruits in oil, and sell
them all over Egypt. The vine, in ancient times, formed an interesting branch of cul-
ture, and produced the choicest wine; but at present it is only cultivated for its shade
and its grapes. But all these vegetable productions are not found every where ; they
vary in different provinces ; and some belong almost exclusively to particular districts.
Clover, so abundant in the Delta and Lower Egypt, is rarely cultivated in the The-
baid, where its place is supplied by gilban (latlnjriis sativus, L.J Kice belongs ex-
clusively to the Delta and the oases; and cole-seed, gortum, poppies, and lettuce,
are almost confined to Upper Egypt, where also the greatest quantity of durrah is
cultivated. Date-trees are more abundant in the north ; while vines, tigs, roses, and
olives, are limited to Faioum, and the gardens contiguous to large towns. — (^Wilkin-
son's Topo(jraplti/ of Thtbes, <^-c. 267.) There are plantations of mulberry trees at
Wady Somulat, in the provinces of Sharkiych, Mansourah, Menouf, Garbiyeh, KlIouI),
Dam:etta, Rosetta, and Gheeza, consisting altogether of about 3000 feddans of
land, and three millions of trees. — (Bvicrimj, 21). A large and beautiful fruit-tree,
celebrated among the ancients, the person/ of the Greeks, siems to have disappeared
from Egypt ; but another plant, which makes a conspicuous figure in ancient writings,
the lotus, still remains. The plant properly so called is a species of rn/mphaa or
water-lily, which, after the inundation, covers all the canals and pools with its broad
round leaves, among which the flowers, like cups of bright white or azure blue, rest
with inimitable grace on the surface of the water. The rose-lily of the Ni^e, or
Egyptian bean, which is sculptured on the monuments, is not now found in the coun-
try. 'J'he papyrus is still found, and the colocasium is still cultivated for the sake of
its large esculent roots. Many of the gar(!ens of Egypt are beatitiful in appearance,
and rich in the products which they yield; the most celebrated are under the care of
Europeans; that of Ibrahim Pasha, in the island of Rhoda, is one of the most attrac-
tive. It contains several hundred teak trees in a flourishing state, all of which have
grown from seed. The bamboo, the yam, the caoutchouc, the ginger, and the arrow-
root, have also completely succeeded, and may be cultivated without difficulty to any
extent. The custard-apple has likewise been introduced, and prospers. The culti-
vation of coffee and tea has also been tried, but without success; the soil does
not seem to be favourable to their production. But, though Egypt is so rich in cul-
tivated plants, it is entirely destitute of forests. The banks of "the river and of the
canals sometimes present coppices of acacias and mimosas, ami are also adorned with
groves of rose-laurel, willows, saules-kalef, casias, and other shrubs; and Faioum
contains impenetrable thickets of cactus, or the prickly pear; but none of these fur-
nish fire-wood, and all the fuel which is used in the country is brought from Carama-
nia. The peasants burn cow-dung, v.hich they collect with an almost ludicrous
Egypt.] AFRICA. 819
assiduity. The cultivable land of Egypt is never at rest ; every month has its flowers,
and every season yields its fruits. In January, lupins, dolichos, and cummin are sown
in Upper Egypt, while the wheat shoots into ear ; and in Lower Egypt the beans and
the flax are in flower Towards the end of the month, the orange, the citron, and
the pomegranate begin to be covered with blossoms. Sugar-cane, senna-leaves, and
various kinds of pulse and trefoil are then cut down. In February all the fields are
green ; the sowing of rice begins ; the first barley crop is cut ; cabbages, cucumbers,
and melons ripen. March is the blossoming season for the greater part of plants and
shrubs ; the corn sown in October and November is now gathered ; and the only trees
not yet in leaf are the mulberry and the beech. The first half of April is the time
for gathering roses ; nearly every sort of corn is cut down and sown at the same time ;
spelt and wlieat are ripe, as well as the greater part of the leguminous crops ; and
tlie Alexandrian trefoil yields a second crop. During May the reaping of the winter
crops continues; casia fistula and hennah are in flower; the early fruits, as grapes,
tigs, carobs, and dates, are gathered. In June, Upper Egypt has its sugar-cane har-
vest ; and the plants on the sandy grounds begin to wither and die. In July, rice,
maize, and canes are planted ; flax and cotton are pulled ; ripe grapes are abundant
at Cairo ; and there is now a third crop of trefoil. In August tlie nenuphar and the
jessamine flower; the palm-trees and the vines are loaded with ripe fruit; and the
melons are surcharged with water. Towards the end of September, oranges, citrons,
tamarinds, and olives are gathered, and a second crop of rice is cut down. In this
month also, and still more in October, all sorts of grain and leguminous seeds are
sown; the grass grows tall enough to hide the cattle; and the acacias and other
thorny shrubs are covered with odoriferous flowers. The sowing continues more or
less late in November, and before the end of the month the corn begins to spring;
narcissuses, violets, and rolocasias flower on the dried lands ; the nenuphar disap-
pears from the surface of the waters; dates and the sebcstan fruit are gathered. In
December the trees gradually lose their leaves; but the corn, the grass, and the
flowers every where present the spectacle of a new spring.
Animals The animal kingdom of Egypt will not detain us long. The want
of meadows prevents the multiplication of cattle ; which must also be kept in stables
during the inundation. Asse>:, mules, aiul camels appear in full perfection; the asses,
in particular, are fine animals, niul so t^prightly, that " as brisk as an ass'' has be-
come proverbial for a person in liiuli spirits. There are great numbers of buffaloes;
the Mnmelukes used to keep a beautiful race of saddle horses, and great attention is
still paid to this noble animal by tlie Pasha, for the mounting of his cavalry. In
Lower Egypt there are sheep of the Barbary breed. Large beasts of prey find
neither food nor cover ; and hence, though the jackal and the hyena are common,
the lion is but rarely seen. Crocodiles seem to be banished from the Delta, but are
still met with in the higher parts of Upper Egypt. The ichneumon still exists, and
has never been found any where else. Jerboas, hares, foxes, hedge-hogs, bats, and
rats, are also found. The birds do not dilfer much from those of Europe ; the fa-
mous ibis, according to Cuvier, is a sort of curlew, now called Abou-hannes. The
Nile is said to contain some singular species offish. The coluher-haje, an animal em-
ployed in the hierof,'lyphics as the emblem of Divine Providence ; and the coluher-
vij/era, the true viper of the ancients, are still found. The animal kingdom likewise
supplies vermin which very nmch detract from the comfort which might otherwise be
derived from the genial climate of Egypt. In spring, summer, and autumn, flies are
so abundant as to be extremely annoying during the day-time ; nnisr(uitoes are
troublesome at night, and sometimes even in the day ; and every house which con-
tains much wood- work (as most of the houses of the best class do) swarms with bugs
during the warm weather. Lice are not always to be avoided in any season, but they
are easily got rid of; in the cooler weather fleas are excessively lunnerous. — (Lane's
Account oj tlie Manners and Customs of the Modern Eijyptians, I. 3.)
People. — The inhabitants of Egypt may be classed as Arabs, Copts, Turks, Jews,
Greeks, Armenians, Franks, and other foreigners. The Arabs form the great body
of the people. They arc characterised by an oval face, darkish skin; forehead of mo-
derate size, seldom high, but generally prominent ; small, deei)-sunk, but spaikling
eyes ; an expressive physiognomy ; a general angularity of form ; short pointed beards ;
their lips habitually open, and shewing their teeth ; muscular arms; the whole body
more recnarkable for agility than beauty, and more nervous than liandsouu-. In ge-
neral the Egyptian Arabs attain the heij^ht of about five feet eight, or five feet nine
inches. In mature age most of them are remarkably well proportioned ; the men
820 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. CEgypt.
are muscular and robust ; the women very beautifully formed and plump ; and neither
sex is too fat. In Cairo, and throughout the northern provinces, those who have
not been much exposed to the sun, have a yellowish but very clear complexion, and
a soft skin ; the rest are considerably darker and coarser. The people of Middle Egypt
are of a more tawny colour, and those of the more southern provinces are of a deep
bronze or brown complexion, being darkest towards Nubia, where the climate is hot-
test (Lane, I. 31.) The peasantry, called /eZ/u/is, seem to have been all cast in the
same mould. They are every where attached to the soil ; their wretched cottages
exceed in filth and meanness the cabins of the Irish ; and the inhabitants are gene-
rally covered with rags. A few earthen pots, a large jar for grain, and a mat to sleep
on, constitute the whole of their furniture ; their ordinary food is durrah-bread and
onions ; a few eggs, or a coarse piece of buffalo-flesh is regarded as a feast. As their
poverty deprives them of all pretensions to free agency, they are universally cringing,
timid, and dissimulating. Fear is their habitual passion. Credulous, ignorant, su
perstitious, no man has originality enough to be a heretic. In religion, morals, man.
ners, and opinions, tiie son follows in the footseps of his father without inquiry or
reflection. The fellah marries and begets children, who run naked about the villages
till the age of puberty ; he then gives them a rag to bind about their loins ; when
they begin to work, become possessed of a few piastres, and, marrying in their turn,
run the same career as their parents. Incapable of forming any conception of the
higher affections, their love is purely physical, women being simply in their eyes a ne-
cessary of life like rice or durrah. Both sexes are highly profligate. Few Arabs
ever perform a journey to any large city without visiting the dancing girls, whose
numbers are so considerable, "that the tax which they pay forms a considerable item
in the Pasha's revenue. Their wives, on the other hand, if left for a short time to
their own guidance, easily forget their fidelity. Both in town and country the Egyp-
tian Arabs are scrupulous observers of the external rites of their religion; but, though
immersed in superstition, they are as generally lax in faith as in practical morality.
At Cairo, as in other capital cities, the inhabitants being engaged in a greater variety
of occupations, obliged to exercise a higher degree of ingenuity, and brought into fre-
quent contact with strangers, display more sociability and politeness than the fellahs ;
and the artizans and shopkeepers are distinguished for their industry and attention to
business. But, when not engaged in their professional or religious duties, they are
generally found in the coffee-houses, listening to the story-tellers, or in the public
places, where mountebanks, jugglers, and dancing girls are performing. The produc-
tive powers of the human race in the valley of the Nile are very great; and when,
for some years, there has been no call for conscripts, the towns and villages are
crowded with children. The disproportion of males to females is also very great ;
so much, according to the Government returns, as 100 to 135, and polygamy no
doubt assists in filling up the vacancies occasioned by the perpetual drafts of young
men. In a very few years, were the country in a state of rest, the population would
double itself, so easily is life supported, and so constant is the demand for labour. So
universal is early marriage, and so prolific is the Egyptian race, that a young woman
is seldom seen without a child on her shoulders. The rate of mortality, however,
is also great, though it appears to be diminishing; and the prejudices of the fellahs
against vaccination are gradually subsiding.
The Copts are said to amount to 150,000, of which number 10,000 are found in
Cairo. In some parts of Upper Egypt are villages exclusively inhabited by them;
and they particularly abound in the Faioum. They are distinguished from the Arabs
Dy a darker complexion, flat foreheads, and hair partaking of the woolly character ;
eyes large, and raised at the angles ; high cheeks ; short, though not flat, noses ; wide
mouths at a distance from the nose, and rather thick lips ; thin beards ; a want of
gracefulness in their shape ; bandy legs, ill adapted for agility ; and long flat toes.*
* This description is taken from Malte Brun's Geography, hut Mr. Lane's account does not exactly
agree with it. " The Copts," he says, " differ but little from the generality of their Mooslim coun-
trymen ; the latter being chiefly descended from Arabs and from Copts, who have erabr.iced the faith
of the Arabs, and have thus become assimilated to the Copts in features. I find it difficult, some-
times, to perceive any difference between a Copt and a Mooslim Egyptian beyond a certain downcast
and sullen expression of countenance which generally marks the former ; and the Mooslims them-
selves are often deceived when they see a Copt in a white turban. We observe in the latter the same
shades of complexion, in different latitudes of the country, as in the former, varying from a pale
yellowish colour to a deep bronze or brown. The eyes of the Copt are generally large and elongated,
Blightly inclining from the nose upwards, and always black : the nose is strait [straight?] excepting at
the end, where it is rounded and wide ; the lips are rather thick ; and the hair is black and curly. The
Copts are, generally speaking, somewhat under the middle size ; and so, as it appears from the
mummies, were the ancient Egyptians." " The people who bear the greatest resemblance at present
to the ancient Egyptians are the Noobehs (or genuine Nubians) ; and next to these the Ahyssinians
»ii(i the CoDts, who are. notwithstanUing, niucli unlike euch other."— II. S99. 10.
Egypt.] - AFRICA. 821
Several centuries ago the Copts still retained their ancient language, which is yet
employed by them in their religious worship ; but in common use it is now completely
superseded by the Arabic dialect of the country. In the villages, and throughout the
country, the Copts are devoted, like the fellahs, to agriculture, though many of them
follow trades. At Siout, for example, they are weavers ; in Faioum, distillers of
rose-water ; at Menouf, mat-makers ; and in Cairo, goldsmiths, tailors, masons, or
cabinetmakers. Under the Mamelukes, when they were the only educated class in
the country, they were employed as tax-gatherers and financiers ; but they are now
reduced to mere clerks. Bigotedly tenacious of their ancient customs, their women
pass their lives in extreme retirement, and never appear unveiled, even before their
nearest relations. As among other barbarians, the condition of the women is degraded
and servile ; but the mother of many children is held in higher esteem than she who
is barren. Under all circumstances, however, the husband and the wife neither cat
nor sit together, and live in a state of estrangement. Girls from ten to twelve years
old wear a white veil, and are often married before the age of puberty ; married
women are distinguished by a black veil, which is ominous of their melancholy state
of servitude. Severe in external observances, the Copts are no less lax in their morals
than their Arab or Turkish neighbours. Adultery is common ; and a kind of tem-
porary marriage is likewise practised, which differs but little from female prostitution.
The Copts are undoubtedly descendants of the ancient Egyptians, but are not an un-
mixed race ; their ancesto: s, in the earlier ages of Christianity, having intermarried
with Greeks, Nubians, Abyssinians, and other foreigners (Lane, II. 309.)
The Turks are the ruling class, and do not differ essentially in person, character,
or manners from their brethren in Asia. Many of them, however, are now, com-
paratively speaking, highly accomplished in literature and science; but they all ex-
hibit the same laxity of morals, and the same want of right principle, which every
where characterises the people of the East. The splendid Mamelukes, who so lately
ruled and tyrannized over Egypt, are completely extirpated.
The Jetcs are now fewer in number than formerly, and do not exceed 8000 at
Cairo, and 500 at Alexandria. In their persons tliey are dirty, covered over with
sores and scabs, and have watering eyes, all of whicli is the effect of the filthiiiess in
which they are born and live. — (Webster's Travels, II. 207.) Like the rest of the
inhabitants, they are generally reduced to poverty ; none indeed are rich, and but few
possess even a competency. The exceptions which occur are found at Alexandria.
The Jews are now exempted from persecution ; are hampered by no civil disability ;
and arc allowed to purchase lands and houses no less than the Mussulmans. Poverty,
however, confines them, at Cairo, to the worst quarter of tlie city, where tiiey live
in streets as filthy as can well be conceived, in whicli the plague commonly makes its
first appearance, and commits its most fearful ravages. Their character exiiibits in
Egypt the same peculiarities as elsewhere: they are averse to all useful productive
labour, and therefore seldom exercise any other trade than that of bankers or money
changers, jewellers or petty traffickers, aiul arc never found as labourers or husband-
men. At Alexandria, however, they lately monopolised the trade of butchers (St,
John, II. 385.)
The Franks in Egypt consist principally of French, English, Germans, Italians,
and Poles. Many of them are engaged in trade, and live, in a great measure, ac-
cording to the customs of their resjjective countries; not a few are employed in
the military and civil service of tlie Pasha, where some of them have attained the
high rank of begh or bey, i. e. lord. Other foreigners from all parts of Western
Asia and Northern Africa are likewise to be found in Cairo; but they form too in-
considerable a part of the population to require particular notice. Tlie inhabitants of
the deserts are liedwin Arabs of various tribes, of whom the principal are the Jieni-
Wasscl in the northern, and the Almbdc in the southern portions of the eastern
desert. They profess to be independent of the Pasha.
The numbers of the several classes of which the population of Egypt is mainly
composed are nearly as follow : —
Arab Moslems 1,750,000
Copts 150,000
'i'urks, 10,000
Syrians . 5,000
Greeks, . ... 5,000
Armenians, ..... '2,000
Jews, 5,000
Total, . 1,927,000
822 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Egypt.
Of the remainder (namely Arabians, Moghrebins, Nubians, Negroes, white slaves,
Franks, &c.) amounting altogether to about 70,000, the respective numbers are very
uncertain and variable. The Arabs of the deserts ought not to be included in the
population of Kgvpt.
Government The government of Egypt is at present a monarchical despotism
vested in the person of Moliammed Ali, a Turkish Pasha, who, though he acknow-
ledges the supremacy of the Sultan, is nevertheless quite independent, and is the real
sovereign of the country, which he has, within a few years, raised to a hii^h rank as
n military power. Under tlie Pasha, the government of Upper Egypt is administered
bv a kiaya bey, and each sub-province lias its mamoor or sheriff; under the niamoors
are nazers, or inspectors of districts, whose jurisdiction extends over seven cachefs
or kashefs, governors of towns and their environs ; and under each of these again
are seven or eight kayuiakanis, according to the number of villages in the district.
The duty of these last officers is to superintend the cultivation of the lands, and to
collect the taxes, assisted by the shekh-beled, or native chief of each village, who
is subordinate to the Turkish officers. A superintendent or nazer-shekh also over-
looks the shekh-beled, under the immediate orders of the kashef; while the
mobaslier, a Christian inspector, appoints the numerous Copt scribes, ai\d collects
their accounts. These officers are all paid from the government treasury ; and the
only person who has a direct and legal claim on the fellah is the shekh-beled,
who exacts the twenty-fifth part of the produce, with presents of every kind, accord-
ing to the means, or the fears, of the donor. But, besides these legal demands, the
fellahs are subjected to the most ruinous extortion, amounting almost to robbery, on
the part of the inferior governors ; against whose exactions they can obtain no re-
dress without such presents to the higher officers as are quite beyond their means.
In the neighbourhood of Cairo, where tliey have the fear of the Pasha before their
eyes, these functionaries are tolerably well behaved ; but, in the more distant pro-
vinces of Upper Egypt, they carry their spoliation and tyranny to great excess. And
the consequence is, that the fellahs, robbed of their property, and of the produce of
their labours, are kept in the most miserable poverty, and deprived of all encourage-
ment to improve their lands. Trees are seldom or never reared, or, if some few are
planted in the vicinity of the large towns, no inducement is hehl out to attend to
their culture, and the despondent fellah wilfully neglects them, to avoid the addi-
tional tax.
The power of the Pasha is maintained by means of a large standing army, discip-
lined in the European manner by European (chiefly French and Italian) officers ; and
which, in his wars with his master, the Sultan, proved a most efficient instrument.
It is composed of all classes of his subjects, even from the most remote provinces of
Nubia and Sennaar. Not content with his superiority by land, he has also equipped a
numerous and powerful fleet, to preserve his communications with Candia and the
coasts of Syria, which were for several years part of his dominions. He has likewise
established a number of schools and colleges, which promise eventually to diffuse
civilization among his people ; he gives every encouragement to active and intelligent
foreigners to settle in Egypt ; and has even sent many of the more promising youths
to be educated in France, from which some of them have already returned highly
accomplished in literature and science. But the necessities of his situation have
made him a hard taskmaster ; he has rather foi'ced than fostered the iiulustry of
the nation ; he has had recouise to monopolies for the purpose of supplying his pecu-
niary wants ; and he has shown himself, in other respects, only half informed as to
the best means of governing a kingdom, and improving the condition of its people.
He has nevertheless effected wonders ; and experience, perhaps, will point out to him
and his presumptive successor the best methods of attaining the object which they
seem to have in view, the possession of a rich and powerful kingdom. Mohammed
Ali, perhaps the most extraordinary political adventurer that the modern East has
jiroduced, is a native of Cavalla in Albania, and came to Egypt with the Turkish
army in 1801, in the capacity of bim-bashee, or colonel. By daring and intrigue he
contrived to get possession of the vice-royalty, and confirmed himself in it by the
massacre of tlie principal Mameluke beghs, and the exile of the others who escaped
with their lives. Subsequently, the Sultan is said to have made repeated attempts to
get rid of his too powerful subject by secret means, but these were always foiled by the
wary Pasha. At last their mutual jealousy led to an open war, in the course of which
the Egyptian army proved more tlaan a match for the imperial troops, defeating them
in three great battles, driving them out of Syrui, and through Asia- Minor, almost to
the neighbourhood of Constantinople, This war, which broke out in 1830, was ter-
Egypt.] AFRICA. 623
minated the following year by a peace, which left the Pasha master of Syria and Adana
in addition to bis former possessions ; but, in 1840, he was compelled, by the opera-
tions of the British forces, in conjunction with those of the Sultan, to abandon
Syria ; and the European powers have since agreed to secure to him and his family
the hereditary possession of Egypt and its dependencies, under the supremacy of the
Court of Constantinople.
The Pasha is the great landholder of the kingdom, and Lis revenues consist prin-
cipally of the land-rents, which are levied in proportion to the tbiee qualities of land;
the best paying from 40 to 30 or 20 real; the middling, from 18 to 14 ; and the lowest,
from 12to8, each feddan ; but the tax on the same land varies in proportion to the rise
of the iNile, the islands generally paying 20 even after a low inundation.* Each fruit
tree pays one piastre, equal to threepence sterling; and the use of tlie water wheels
is also paid for by the fellahs. But so wretched is tlie system of agiieulture, that this
rent, enormously increased, indeed, as it is by the illegal exactions of tlie collectors
and superintendents, keeps the fellahs in a state of tlie most aliject and hopeless
poverty; so much so, that in oider to eke out their scanty means of subsistence,
they are sometimes obliged to steal their own corn. As the Pasha publishes no ac-
counts, the amouiit of his revenue is unknown, but it has been variously estimated
by European travellers and residents at 25,000,000 of dollars ; ,12,100.000 sterling;
and even from £2,500,000 to £3,000,000. About the end of 1839 the actual force of
the Egyptian army was 159,.300 men, of which 1 12,800 were infantry, 13,180 cavalry ;
25,820 artillery ; 5000 Bedwins, 1000 Albanians 1500 Moghrebins and oilier irregulars.
The number of ships of war was 10; 1 of 3 decks and 136 guns, 1 on the stocks, and
2 fitting out, 6 frigates, 4 corvettes, and 8 brigs. The management of the army is
vested absolutely in the minister of war, assisted by a council, ot which he is presi-
dent, and which decides on all contracts for the supply of arms, accoutrements,
and materials of war. The general of artillery has the direction and control of the
arsenals, cannon foundries, gunpowder and salt-petre works, of the printing esta-
blishments and cloth manufactories, all of which are within the department of the
minister of war. The Nazers receive their orders direct Iroin the general of artil-
lery, with whom they are in constant correspondence. They are the chiefs or di-
rectors of the various works, manufactories, and departments, and are themselves
members of the council, which consists of 20, and meets every day for the desfiatch
of business. Under them are the Moudyers or governors of di-partments, of whom
there are 2 for Upper, 1 for Middle, and 4 for Lower Egypt. Their sub-delegates are
the Mamoors, whose duty it is to see tlie contributions punctually paid; the canals,
biidges, and dykes kept in proper order, and to superintend the manufacturing esta-
blisiiments. They are also expressly instructed to see vaccination enforced, and the
rigid execution of oiders for the levy of troops and workmen. The olbce used to
be lield by Turks, but is now also filled by natives, mostly tellabs. In tlie cliief towns
the general police is under the charge of the Baclie Aga; the markets are siqjerin-
teiided by the Mohteceb or Aga of provisions ; and both officers give a daily report
to the Kiahice or governor of the place, and receive his orders. In each quarter of
the town is an officer, Sheikh-el-tumn, who acts as a sort of justice of peace, or
commissioner of police. The citadel contains a spacious arsenal, where 900 work-
men are employed in manufacturing muskets and otlier military necessaries. The
cannon foundry employs 1500 men ; and the consumption of iron and fuel is immense.
There is aUo a musket work at IIod-el-Marsoud.
The administration of justice is more prompt and less capricious in Egypt than
in most Mahometan countries. Publicity usually accompanies the proceedings of all
the courts, whose decisions are generally just, though often rude and precipitate.
The highest court is the Mekermeh, which exercises a sort of religious jurisdiction.
It is the tribunal of final appeal, and its law is the Koran ; but a code so vague, and
so little suited to modern society, necessarily leaves great latitude for judicial de-
cisions. The Mussulman reverence for the Koran is so devoted, tliat any sentence
wlii<'h can find a justification or a sanction in the i)hraseology of the sacred volume,
is submitted to with the greatest reverence by the suitors. Indeed, their respect tor
all its dogmas is so unlimited, that it would be scarcely possible to intro<iuce a |)hilo-
sophica system of jurisprudence in tlie East, unless it could be connected in some
way o otiier with the doctrines of the Prophet. Another great difficulty would
• nilkinsnn't Topo/^riipln/ nf Tlielxi. !sc.,2r,^. A fiddan is ne.irlv I KriKlisli »cre; a rcil is 90 i mas,
or C;'l. sterling ; so tliat, lu i'.it^ihili, the iirccidiiiB htaleiiniit « ill read tlius:— Tlio last land i)ay»
from 20 to 15 or 10 shillings the acre; the iiiiddUng, Iroin 1/ to 7 shillings ; and U)e lowest from G ts
4 shillings.
824 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Egypt.
meet the legislator at the threshold, namely, the complete exclusion of a great part
of the community from the operation of the laws ; there is no power to penetrate
into the harem,* and whatever misdeeds are practised there, neither police, nor
laws, nor piihlic opinion can reach. The very organization of society thus stands in
the way of justice. The Mekermeh is also the court for the registration of landed or
other real property, and no legal transfer can take place without its authority —
(Bowrinij, p. I'il.)
PitoDi-CTivE Industry. — The agriculture of Egypt is in a very low condition ; the
fellahs or pea>ants are in a state of wretchedness ; they have neither proper imple-
ments nor the means of improving tlieir situation ; for the rapacity of the government
deprives them of all the fruit of their exertions. But the productive powers ot
the soil are incalculahle ; wherever water is spread there springs up a rapid and
beautiful vegetation ; the seed is sown and watered, and scarcely any other care is
required for the ordinary produce. Even in spots near the desert, which seem to
consist merely of sand, irrigation brings rapidly forth a variety of green herbs and
plants; and accordingly the most important branch of agriculture in Egypt, and that
which requires the chief consideration, is irrigation. The Pasha informed Dr. Bow-
ring that he had introduced not les than 38,000 sakias or machines for raising water.
Wherever there is water there is fertility ; and all the plants grown in summer are
raised by means of artificial irrigation in places beyond the reach of the inundation.
In fact, says Dr. Bowring, were there hands to plough, and water to irrigate, it is
rot easy to calculate what an immense tract of territory might be rescued from
waste. Still, to counterbalance, as it were, the productive powers of the soil, other
difficulties peculiar to eastern regions present themselves in Egypt. The hot winds
often destroy the hopes of the husbandman ; and there are seasons in which the
khamseen winds dry up whole districts, even after irrigation. In addition to this, the
prospect of large and productive harvests is at times suddenly cut off by the visita-
tions of locusts, which come in myriads, like an all-destroying plague, followed by
multitudes of hawks and other birds, filling the air for a vast space, and then de-
scending on the fields of corn, which they completely lay waste, and then wing their
way to another spot. Egypt is calculated to contain 3,000,000 feddans of cultivatible
soil ; but of that quantity only 2,000,000 are cultivated, when the Nile rises from 23
to 24 cubits; and when it does not rise above 19, the inundation is not permanent
enough to produce the desired effect. In the distribution of agricultural produc-
tions, the government generally assumes the initiative, by determining what quantity
of a particular article shall be cultivated in a given district, and at a price fixed
upon before the period of delivery. By this arrangement most of the produce of
the land comes into the hands of the government on terms fixed by itself ; and, in
fact, the government considering itself as possessed of the fee-simple of the lands, re-
gards the fellahs as labourers under its direction, who may, and who frequently do,
abandon the lands, whenever the conditions of cultivation are not satisfactory to
them. When the fellah is poor the government prices scarcely enable him to exist;
but when the holder of the lands has capital for seed, and can afford to wait for the
returns, he may have from 15 to 20 per cent, profit on his outlay. In bad years the
government supplies the fellahs with seed ; which must be repaid with interest
after the harvest. The principal articles of produce are wheat, beans, lentils, bar-
ley, maize, durrah, chick peas, lupins, helbeh (a seed of a bitterish taste, whose
flour is mixed with durrah by the fellahsj, sugar, cotton, flax, indigo, saffron, to-
bacco, hennah, silk, opium, and linseed. But of all these cotton is incomparably
the most important, and is an article the introduction of which is wholly due to the
Pasha. The average produce may be said to fluctuate from 100,000 to 150,000
bales, each about two hundred weight, and the price varies from 8 dollars to 20
per quintal. But the fellahs are very unwilling to engage in its cultivation ; for
they are pillaged most unmercifully by the government officers, and the price al-
lowed affords no profit; cotton, besides, produces only one crop a-year, while many
other articles yield two or three harvests. Raw silk is also an object of some
attention, and is likely to become more so ; great numbers of mulberry trees have
been planted, and the cultivation is still extending ; the quantity produced is not
yet equal to the demand in Egypt, and considerable quantities are therefore imported.
— (Bowririff's Eeporl on Eijypt and Candia. 1840.)
Education — A general system of education has been established, consisting of
primary, secondary, and special schools, through the whole of which pupils are com-
pelled to pass. Primary schools are to be spread in the provinces according to the po-
Egypt.:5 AFRICA. 825
pulation, to the extent of embracing altogether 5500 scholars, and are all to be con-
ducted on the same system ; each school is to be under the charge of a director and
two teachers. The scholars are admitted from the age of 7 to 12, and receive in-
struction for three years, during which time they are taught to read and write Arabic,
the first rules of arithmetic, and religious knowledge; and are also fed, lodged, and
clothed. The secondary schools receive their pupils from the primary schools, for
the purpose of fitting them for the special schools. Their course of instruction lasts
four years, but may be extended to five, and embraces the Arabic, Turkish, and
Persian languages ; with arithmetic, elementary algebra, elementary geography, gene-
ral history, general geography, penmanship, lineary design, and drawing. Each school
has one director, one sub-director, three prefects of study, twelve masters, twelve
professors of Arabic, Turkish, and Persian, one professor of history, one of geography,
three drawing masters, two sulus and two rika professors ; the courses of study are
arranged by the council of public instruction. The schools are subjected to military
discipline, and the scholars are lodged in barracks ; they form three battalion?, each
consisting of four companies, and each company of 125 scholars. There is one pre-
paratory school at Cairo for 1500 pupils, and one at Alexandria for 500. Tlie special
schools are for effecting translations from Turkish, Arabic, and French. The poly-
technic school for providing officers for the artillery, engineers, department of roads
and bridges, mines, and other services, is formed on the model of that of Paris ; it
was established in 1834, and in 1839 contained 225 pupils. Those who finish their
courses of study satisfactorily obtain the rank of sub-lieutenants ; those who are
rejected become non-commissioned officers. There are besides a cavalry school, an
infantry school, a medical school, and a veterinary school. The whole system of
education is under the superintendence of a council of public instruction, which is
charged not only with a general superintendence, but with the inspection in detail of
all the schools ; with the nomination of teachers for the approval of the minister ; the
appointment of all subordinate functionaries ; the punitory and retributive regulations
of the schools, and with all the correspondence connected with the business of in-
struction. The system is wholly compulsory ; a certain number of children from each
district is required to be sent to the public schools, where they are maintained as
well as educated ; and on this account parents are generally willing to send them ;
though in many cases nmch repugnance is felt lest the children should be detained
as soldiers. These schools are no doubt an improvement on those which preceded
them ; but are far inferior to the well-organised seminaries of Europe ; they labour
under a great want of qualified teachers and class-books. The whole system, indeed,
seems to have been formed more from a desire to introduce superior education for
the few, than general instruction for the many ; and to be wholly unsuited to a people
just emerging from ignorance and barbarism. But there are many prejudices to be
overcome, and the little which has been done, imperfect as it is, is highly meritorious.
Among Mussulmans, reading has been considered of little value, further than as it
enabled them to become acquainted with their sacred books ; and the spirit of the
Caliph Omar is still prevalent among the ulema (the learned), from whose lips is
sometimes heard language similar to tliat recorded of the Saracen conqueror. " The
koran," they say, " contains everything, and all that is out of thckoran is worthless."
As Europeans liave been the principal instruments in diffusing education in Egypt,
serious difficulties have also arisen from the different habits of thought and feeling
between Moslems and Christians, the diversity of their mental training, the variety
of their idioms, the embarrassments which European knowledge meets with at every
step in the pursuit of synonymous words or phrases in Turkish and Arabic, and the
prejudices, domestic, social, and religious, of the natives. It must also be added,
that among the Europeans themselves too few have been trained by proper educa-
tion at home to become instructors and directors of instruction abroad — {Bowriiujs
Heport, p. 125-140.)
Manufactures and Trade. — Not content with improving and extending the culti-
vation of the soil, and increasing the amount of its produce, the Pasha has also endea-
voured to enrich himself by the introduction of manufactures. lie has erected at great
expense mills and machinery for spinning and weaving cotton, and preparing various
other articles; but, owing to various causes, and principally to the indolence, inatten-
tion, incapacity, and want of personal interest, on the part of the persons eni[)loyed,
his speculations have proved an almost total failure, though they are still perse veringly
parried on. He has made himself at once the great landholder, manufacturer, mer-
chant, and general monopolist of the trade of the country ; everything is done at his
instigation, and for his profit. No one else has any interest in what is done and con-
sequently everything is ill done ; and were he out of fne way, all his manufacturing
829 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Egypt.
projects will probably fall to the ground. The trade of Egypt consists chiefly in the
export of her raw produce, particularly cotton, and of the articles brought from the
interior by the caravans ; but the principal article is Negro and Abyssinian slaves, who
are brought in great numbers to the slave-markets of Egypt, from which all the neigh-
bouring provinces of the Turkish empire are supplied. The principal articles of im-
port at Alexandria are wood, tarboushes, nails, spices, iron, pitch, cloth, cochineal,
paper, and lead; but the extreme poverty of the people, and the circumstance of the
great mass of them wearing scarcely any clothes at all, are such obstacles to the exten-
sion of the import trade, as only a complete change in the method of regulating their
industry, and rewarding their labour, will remove.
Public Works. — The number of the Pasha's works of this kind is considerable,
and comprehends establishments of every kind, as arsenals, manufactories, foundries,
workshops, schools, hospitals, mosques, palaces, barracks, canals, locks, terracings,
draining*, telegraphs, stables, sheepiblds, &c. But one of the greatest works he has
contemplated, is the barring up of the waters of the Nile by a huge dam with sluices,
near the fork of the Delta. The original suggestion emanated from the scientific
men of the French expedition; and Bonaparte is said to have expressed a favourable
opinion of it. M. Linant, who has had the direction of the work, estimates that it
will, if completed, irrigate 4,275,000 acres, even in the lowest iimndations, and
without the aid of machines ; and that with machines a very large additional number
of acres may be supplied with water, to the distance of eight leagues (20 miles)
above the barrage. He represents that it will meliorate the canal navigation, improve
both the Damietta and Rosetta branches of the Nile, give to the Mahmudiah Canal
sufficient water for the largest vessels to pass between it and the river, will, at a
small charge, enable the Government to make the canal of Suez navigable, and will
supply the Kalish of Cairo sulficiently all the year round. He objects to the present
system of irrigation, that the canals do not raise the level of the water, while every
year they become more and more filled with mud, and convey a smaller quantity of
water ; and shews, that in the uncertainty of the inundations no calculation can be
made of the probable agricultural produce of the country. He estimates that the
work will require five years for its completion, and that the expense will be about
a million and a half sterling. On this report, orders were given for commencing
the stupendous work; but it seems to have been begun without sufficient considera-
tion, and, after a large expenditure, has been again abandoned, or deferred. Im-
mense masses of materials have been collected ; a railway has been formed to connect
the Nile with the quarries of the Mokattam behind Cairo; arrangements were also
made for the supply of a large quantity of timber from the forests near Scande-
roon ; a large body of workmen were collected; and about £170,000 were expended
in the first operations ; but all is at present suspended ; and it is probable that the
scheme will be superseded by the introduction of less expensive hydraulic machinery.
The opinion is gaining ground that the barrage would neither be the safest, nor the
least expensive plan of irrigation (Buwriny's Report, p. 60 ) Besides the great
Mahmudiah Canal, from the Nile to Alexandria, which serves the double purpose of
navigation and irrigation, many other canals have been recently constructed. In the
Delta is the canal of Tantah, 54,000 yards long, and four wide, which preserves its
waters throughout the year ; the canal of Bouhyeh, 62,000 yards long, and four wide,
on the Damietta branch ; and that of Bahyreh, on the Rosetta branch, 104,000 yards
long, and five wide. The Pasha has also constructed 38,000 machines for raising
M-ater, making the total number in Lower Egypt now exceed 50,000 (lb. 14.)
Inter.nal Communication The Mahmudiah Canal and the Nile are the most
active, and indeed the only channels of communication for the principal markets of
Egypt. From the smallest cangias to the largest maashes, from boats of four or
five tons to vessels of 120 tons burden, there is a perpetual activity on these two
main arteries of trade. Boulak, the port of Cairo, and Atfieh, where the canal
joins the Nile, are the principal places of shipment and landing. The cost of
transit is subject to many fluctuations. The largest boats, or maashes, are only
employed during the period of high inundation, and convey from Upper Egypt
wheat, barley, and pulse. The navigation of the Nile employs a great number
of the natives, who are generally strong muscular men. They undergo severe labour
in rowing, pulling, and towing ; but are very cheerful. In consequence of the con-
tinual changes which take place in the bed of the river, the most experienced pilot
is liable frequently to run his vessel aground ; and, on such occasions, it is neces-
sary for the crew to leap into the water to shove off their boat with their back and
shoulders On this account, also, the boats are generally made to draw more water
Egypt.] AFRICA. 827
at the head than at the stern ; and hence the rudder is necessarily very wide. The
better kind of boats, which are very numerous, are of a simple but elegant form,
generally between thirty and forty feet in length, with two masts, two large tri-
angular sails, and a cabin next the stern, usually about four feet high, and occupy-
ing about a fourth or a third of the length of the boat; and in most of them the
cabin is divided into two or more apartments. Sudden whirlwinds and squalls being
very common, a boatman is usually employed to hold the sheet in his hand, so that
he may let it fly at a moment's notice, 'i'he number of boats on the river is about
4500. There are also large vessels, called jernis, which sail between Alexandria
and Rosetta, and are also employed in conveying merchandise from Damietta to the
outside of the mouth of the river, to be thence shipped in vessels lying out at sea.
In summer, these jerms even go as far as Cyprus and Syria, but they are often lost.
The ordinary mode of travelling and conveying goods through the deserts, which
border on all sides the cultivated land of Egypt, is by means of camels along un-
formed paths. The journey between Cairo and Suez, a distance of 80 miles, is
accomplished in one day, in vans drawn by four horses, and containing six per-
sons ; and five stations are formed on the road for the accommodation of travellers.
Sometimes travellers prefer to cross the desert between Cosseir on the Red Sea, and
Kenneh on the ISile ; and, to accommodate them, four wells have been put in good
order by the Pasha. Ladies perform the journey in tachtruans, a sort of palanquins
carried by camels. A project has been long in contemplation for a railway between
Cairo and Suez. The engineering difficulties are not many, for, with the exception of
a few miles of sand, innnediately on leaving Cairo, iind a short distance simihirly incon-
venient near Suez, there is a hard, stony, and level foundation throughout tlie line;
but, as the quantity of goods, and the number of travellers, could not furnish any-
thing like an adequate return for the outlay, the project has been postponed, if not
abandoned. There is a daily post between Cairo and Alexandria, which conveys let-
ters in from 30 to 3G hours, but takes only Government despatches, and such [)rivate
communications as the Government permits. The merchants of Alexainiria, how-
ever, have a post of their own, which connnunicates three times a- week with Cairo,
and delivers letters on the foin'th day. A line of telegraphs has also been established
between the two cities, by which conununications are frequently made. It is not
often interrupted by fogs, and news are conveyed by it several times a-day in case of
need. A regular post is established by Government for communication with all its
officers, from the one end of I'-gypt to the other; but, on especial occasions, messen-
gers are dispatched on dromedaries, which travel at the rate of seven or eight miles
an hour; and sometimes letters are sent bv messengers on foot. — {Bowiiny's Re-
port. 72.)
DIVISIONS.
I. Lower Eoytt or Uahari.
Provincet. Cities and Tuuns.
Cairo, . . . (aiko, Boulak, To-tat, Torrali, Suez.
Kelvocb, . . Kclyoub, Shoubra, El-Kliancali, Atiou-zabel, Shybjn-cl-Cantcr, Mataryeh,
Atob.
Kelhevs, . . . Htlbevs.
.'iiiiBEH, . . Sliibcfi, Tel-ba?tan, Ilchydch.
MlT-(. AMAR, . . Mit-Camar.
Mansourah, . . Blan-oiirah, Tmay-cl-omdifi.
Uamietta, . . J 'aii.ietta, Menzaleh, Karc-cour, San, Tennys, Tyiich or Tliinoh, El-Ari»h.
Menhallet-el-kedir, Meiihalkt-el-ktbir, Semenhoud, Abousir, iSahbtjt, Kounizalat.
Tantah, . . . 'laiitah, Zefli.
Mei.yo, . . . M lyjf, Shybyn-el-kOm.
Mfsouf, . . . Mtnoiif.
Keovleb, . . Nouykh, Tcrranth, Onini-dynar, W'ardan.
Fot'Aii, . . . I'ouali, Kashid or Ho-etta, Dtirout, Hereiibal, Sa-el-hajar.
J)ama.nhour, . , Danianliour, Habniaiiich, Kourat.
y\LEXAM>KlA, . . IsUandorych ( A Icxandria), Abuukir, Kl Keyt.
II. VosTANi and Said, or Middle and UrrEB Egytt.
Ji7.En, or Jyxeu, or
Gkeza, . . Jyzeb, Bcdreslieyn, Slitraliinch, SaUkara, Dashour, Abousir.
AtFiEH, . . . Atfieh.
Uenisouef, . . licniHouef. Bouili, Feslin, AbG-Jirjcb, Belincsch, Samallout, Ahnas.
FaIoum, . . . Midirn't-el-Faiouin, lU'siyg.
MiKiEli, . . • Mini' h-lbn-kba Im. Meilaoiii-cl-arish, Beni-hasban, Sheikh-Abadcli, El-Ttll,
Dar(i\it-i 1-Sbeiif, A-hniouiietn.
Mo;»FAl,oiT, . . Moiit'ibiut, El-(,'oiiRi(h, Saiiabou.
SIOUT, . . . Sioiit, Aboiilitt. Sadtth, Tahtah.
GiBjEH, . . . Girgch i>r Jirjtb, Mtnslifil-tl-iicde, lion, Akhmim, Kau, JIadfoiineh, Dcn-
dcah.
Kemxeii, . . Kcnnch, Cous, Keft, Ermcnt, Karnac, Lu.xor, Goumah, Mcdinct-Abou, Cos-
Btir.
E85EU, . . , Esncb, Edfou, Assouan, Koura-Oinbog, El-kab, El-Sag, El-hcif, Sclsclch,
82& DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Egypt.
Cities a!«d Towns Kaheibaii, or Qaherah, or Misr-kl-Kaherah (tho Grand Cairo of tho
IfranksK the capital of Egypt, and the largest city of Africa, is situate on a sandy plain about half
a mile from the east bank of the Nile, in 30^ north lat., and 31^ 18' east long., about %i miles above
the point of the Doha. Cairo, seen at a distance on the west side, is beautiful, and appears truly
■worthy t.) be tho metropolis of Egypt. Skirted by groves and gardens, its light airy structures seem
to be based on a mass of verdure ; long lines of buildings, of gaudy appearance, and infinitely varied in
form, rise behind each other ; and the palace and the citadel, cresting a steep projection of the Mo-
kattnm riilge, lead tho eve of the traveller, as he approaches from the Nile, to that vast rocky barrier,
which prot.'Cts the city from the desert blasts, and which, differing in this respect from all other hills,
appears red at a distance, even where its tops seem to blend with the sky. Viewed on the other side,
from thj citadel, Cairo appears a large crowded city, with grey, flat-roofed houses, and 130 minarets
of mosques peering above the houses and the trees. The city is in form nearly a parallelogram, about
two milos in length, by one in breadth, surrounded with stone walls, which are pierced with a num-
ber ol tine gates ; and a canal runs through the centre of the city, which is filled with water during the
inundation, hut with green mud, emitting pestilential vapour, in the low season. The streets are
narrow, winding, and unpaved ; some of them are indeel so narrow that twopersons may shake hands
from the projecting windows of the upper stories. The city is dividad into .'j3 districts or wards,
called harah, several of which are distinguished by their peculiar population ; as the Jewish, the Coptic,
the Greek, and the Frank quarter. There are, however, several large open areas, as the Kara-mi;idan,
the Hownelieh, the Birket-el-fil, and El-Ezbekyeh; the last two of which are covered with water
during the inundation of the Nile. Surrounded with houses, they present sometimes a magnificent
spectacle. The houses are built of earth or bricks ; most of them have two or three storeys ; but,
having their windows opening upon interior courts, their outside presents to the street the appear-
ance of so many prisons. The houses of the higher public functionaries, civil and religious, are distin-
guished by theirgreater size, thjir less faulty construction, and more ornamental appearance. A mul-
titude of mosques, some of them very elegant, covered witli arabesques in fine taste, and adorned with
rich and graceful minarets, give to the city an imposing and varied aspect. Four of these are parti-
cularly distinguished : that of Touloun, a vast work of the ninth century, considered to be the finest
Arab monument in Egypt, though now half ruined ; the mosque of El- Hakim ; that of El- Azhar
( Loub-el-Ozab), with a magnificent dome, and a college attached to it, where the most celebrated doc-
tors of Islam are educated ; and the mosque of Sultan Hassan, the most remarkable for the size and
the height of its dome, and of its two minarets, for the variety of its marbles, and the arabesque orna-
ments w^rought in hard stone, wood, and bronze. The citadel is situate on the east side of the city
on a spur of the Mokattam, which overlooks it, and renders it incapable of defence. Part only of the
old walls remain, the rest having been replaced by bastions and curtains in the European style ; and,
what is singular, the only portion regularly fortified is that least open to foreign aggression, the side
facing the city. It contains a palace of the Pasha, which is a magnificent building, and a new mosque,
which is the tinest in Cairo. The celebrated hall of Joseph, a building supported on lofty and hand-
some columns, was removed in 18'29 to make way for the new mosque : but Joseph's]well still remains.
It consists of two parts, the upper and the lower well, and a winding staircase leads to the bottom, a
depth of about i'Jd feet. Both the well and the hall received their name from the Fatemite Khalif
Yoosef, and not from the patriarcli Joseph, as has been sometimes alleged. Tiie city is supposed to
contain 3'i,000 inhabited houses, and about 250,010 people. Tliere are 31 public baths, 1200 coffee-
houses, and several fine bazaars. 'Without the walls, on the east side, are the tombs of the Mameluke
kings, a dynasty of Circassians who reigned from 1382 to 1517, when Egypt was added to the Turkish
empire by Sultan Selim. Attached to each is a handsome mosque, schools, and dwelling-houses ; but
they are now neglected, and are falling to ruin. AV'ithin a few years a good library has been formed
in Cairo, by the subscriptions of English residents, and the greatest liberality is shewn in admitting
strangers. Cairo was founded by Goher, a general of El Moez, the first of the Fatemite Khalifs of
Egypt, who, having been sent in the year of the Hejra 358 (a. d. 9G9) with a powerful army to invade
Egypt, and having succeeded in conquering the country, founded a new city under the name of El-
Kaheirah, which, in 3G2, became the capital. About a mile from the city, in a fine park, is the splendid
hospital and medical school of Casst>r-eO-Ein.
In the vicinity are Postal, or Old Cairo, on the eastern bank of the Nile, three miles south ; Boulak,
on the same bank, north-west, the port of Cairo, containing a custom-house, bazaar, baths, printin.;-
house, silk-manufactories, fine gardens, and about 18,000 inhabitants. It is now a large town, with
handsome new buildings, chiefly in the European style. Shoubra, a small village, with a fine summer
palace of the Pasha, on the river ; Abou-zabel, where there is a large hospital or infirmary, capable of
containing 1800 patients, and a school of medicine and surgery attended by about 300 pupils ; Jyzch,
or Gyzeh, or Geeza, or Ghceza, on the left, or western bank of the Nile, a little b jIow Fostat, a small
but industrious town, regarded by some travellers as the most agreeable place in all Egypt. Gyzeh
is the chief town of a prefecture or shire. Opposite to this towli is the island of Hhoiui or Roudah,
covered with fine gardens, and containing at its southern point the famous Silometer, which is a gra-
duated pillar in a well, shewing the height of the annual inundation,
Alexandria, called by the Turks and Arabs Isk.4.jjderyeh or Iskendereh, is situate at the
north-west corner of Egypt, on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea, in 31^ 13' N. lat. 20^ 53' E. long.
The modern town occupies a neck of land which joins the island Pharos to the continent. At the
beginning of the present century Alexandria was a miserable place, with narrow dirtv streets, and a
scanty population of about 7000. It is now the great naval station of the Pasha's fleet, and the em-
porium of the greatly e.xtended European c inmerce with Egypt, and already contains a motley po-
pulation of 60,0)0, composed of all descriptions of Africans, Asiatics, and Europeans, and has become
a respectable, if not a handsome city. The island of Pharos, which the Arabs call Uoudah el Tyn,
garden of fig-trees, which extends east and west on the north side of the city, consists of a dry saline
soil, and dazzling white calcareous rocks, and is bordered with reefs, especially on the west side. At
its north-eastern extremity, is situate the castle, a large, square, lofty building, surmounted by a light-
house in the shape of a minaret, occupying, probably, the site of the ancient Pharos, one of the seven
wonders of the world. The castle has been strongly fortified by the Pasha, and occupies a small
island joined to the larger one by an artificial dike formed in part of ancient granite pillars laid across.
This island and the isthmus occupied by the city, form two ports, the old port on the west, and the
new port on the east. The old port is at the end of an extensive roadstead, the entrance to which
lies through a chain of rocks which stretches from Cape Marabout on the mainland, to lias el Tyn,
fig-tree cape, the western end of the island. There are three channels into the road, the deepest of
which will admit frigates. The port itself is sheltered from the violent winds that blow between
north-west and north-east by the high coast of the island. The anchorage is good, and the port
might be made one of the best in the world. The new port has also a line of rocks across its entrance,
and is exposed to the violent north and north-east winds, which sometimes render anchorage im-
practicable. It is also very shallow in many parts. Upwards of 200 merchant vessels are frequently
to be seen in the port at the same time. From 5000 to GuOO men are constantly employed in the dock-
yard and arsenal. The naval hospital at Fig-tree point can hold 300 beds, in spacious, lofty, and well
aired wards ; there is another hospital in the arsenal for the w^orkmen, and a garrison hospital in the
•uburbs of the town for 400 patients ; there is also a lazaretto In the new port. But one great draw-
EGYPt.] AFRICA. 829
back is the want of fresh water ; the inhabitants have to depend upon cisterns tvhich are annually
filled partly by the winter rains, and partly by water brought from the canal. To the south of the
city, along the adjoining shore of the mainland, are the ruins of the ancient Alexandria, the city
erected by order of Alexander the Great, 322 b. c, but of which scarcely a vestige now exists. Great
part of the ancient site is enclosed by a double wall tlanked with lofty towers, built by the Arabs; but
it exhibits only shapeless heaps of ruins. It contains, however, at its north-east corner, two granite
obelisks, still very entire, the one of which i< erect, and the other lying near it on the ground. These
are commonly called Cleopatra's needles, and are nearly of the same size ; the whole height of the
erect one, including the pedestal and three steps, is 79 feet. Near the centre of the enclosure stands
the mosque of St. Athanasius, on the site of a church erected by tliat patriarch during the fourth cen-
tury, and which contained the famous sarcophagus, supposed to be the tomb of Alexander, which is
now in the British Museum. The cisterns also, for retaining the rain-water, are still in a great mea-
sure preserved, consisting of vaulted chambers supported by columns, which form arcades of two or
three storeys. On the outside of the walls is the remarkable monument, called I'ompey's Pillar, which
stands on a mound about -10 feet high. The shaft, a single piece of red granite, is about G7 feet high ;
and, including the capital and pedestal, the height of the whole pillar is about 94 feet. It is of the
Corinthian order, but in bad taste. On the west side"of the plinth of the base is a Greek inscription,
from which it would appear to have been erected in the time and to the honour of the lOmperor
Uioclesian. Its foundation rests on a piece of yellowish breccia, with hieroglyphics, placed with
the wrong end upwards. Near the south-western corner of the walls, in the calcareous rock which
faces the sea, are almost countless excavations which once formed part of the necropolis or burial
place of the Alexandrians. Fifteen miles north-east of the city are the castle, island, and bay of
Ahuukir, so renowned for the battle of the Nile 1st -August 1798, and the battle of Aboukir 21st
ilarch 1801.
The only other towns deserving notice in Lower Egypt are Rosetta, Damiefta, Menhalht, Tantah,
Semenhoud, ihtnsourah, Kl-Arish, and Sue::. Husetta, which stands on the western bank of the
western Nile, about five miles from the sea, is a well built town, surrounded by low walls, and con-
taining 15,000 inhabitants ; but the formation of the Mahmudiah Canal has diverted its trade to
t'ouiih, wliich is improving in extent and wealth at the expense of Kosetta. Damietta, or D<tmiatta,
or Dimyat, a large, irregularly-built town, stands on the right bank of tlie eastern Nile, about 7 or 8
miles from its moutli. It used to be the seat of a large trade, chiefly contraband, but it has no har-
bour, vessels being obliged to land and take in their cargoes at the mouth of the river on the outside
of the bar, and the goods are carried to and from the city in boats. Its population has been estimated
so high as 70,IXK) or sn.OOO ; but, like Kosetta, it is now a place of no importance, nor does its limited
populatton allow it to rank among the large towns. Menhallet-i'l-kebir, or the Great Quarter, which
IS considered the chief town of the Dtlia, is situate about ,55 miles S.K. by E. from Kosetta, 48 S.W.
from Damietta, and G3 nearly north from Cairo. It was also considered the most industrious manu-
facturing town in Egypt ; the chief fabrics being tliose of silk, and particularly a sort of linen cloth
with silk borders, used in the baths, with which it supplies the whole country. Population 17,000.
Tant'ih, 20 miles S.W. of Menhallet, a town of 10,000 inhabitants, chiefly suiiported by the pilgrims
that flock to the tomb of Seid Ahmed el Bedaouy, who died in the thirteenth century with great repu-
tation for sanctity. So many as loO.OOO persons sometimes assemble, and the mosque, whieli contains
the holy shrine, is one of the most splendid buildings of modern Egypt. Semenhoud, supposed to be
the ancient Sebi-nttytus, which gave its name to a branch ot the Nile, is situate on the wcbtern bank of
the river near Menhallet, and is a nourishing town of 4000 or 5000 inhabitants, ilansnurah is a large
town on the right bank of the Nile, 10 miles below Semenhoud. Kl-Arisli the frontier town of Egypt,
tow ards Syria, is a miserable place in the midst of a desert, on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It
stands on an eminence among sand-hills and chunps of trees, about half a mile from the sea ; and at
the distance of 174 miles E.N.E, from Cairo. It is supposed to be the ancient Jlhinocurura. Suez or
Souueii (i. e. the mouth or opening), is a very miserable town, situate at the head of the western gulf
of the Red Sea, about 70 miles almost due east of Cairo, by the shortest line, but the actual distance
on the usual road exceeds 78 miles. It is nevertheless important as the best naval station for the trade
carried on between the Mediterranean and the Red S-a. It is a poor ill-built town, situated in a
desert ; it receives all its provisions from Cairo, and had till lately no water nearer than 12 miles,
which even then was very brackish. In consequence, however, of experiments lately made, water has
been found in sufficient abundance at no great depth, in the desert. In the roadstead there is very
good anchorage for ships of 8ii0 or KXW tons. The hi-h road between Suez and Cairo has been fur-
nished with three stations for the accommodation uf travellers.
In Upper Egypt, the only towns of modern importance are Alfieh, licnisoitef, M edinet-el- Faionm
Hinieh, Ashmvunei7i or Eshmuunein, Ks-Siuut, Akiimim tjT F.klivnm, Girjuh, Kemuh, Ksneh, Kilfuu,
Aisouan, and Costeir. Atjie/i, or Alfi/i, a town of 4000 inhabitants, stands on the right bank of the
Nile, in lat. 29^ 28' north, and is the capital of a prefecture. Jlr7iisiiueJ', the residence of a mamoor
or governor of a province, is a place of some importance, on the left bank of the Nile, about (JO miles
above Cairo. It contains several mosques, caravansaries, and large private houses ; with an extensive,
well supplied bazaar, which is frequented once a-week by the peasants of the country round. The great
lugar plantations of Egypt commence a littk- to the north of Iknisouef ; and these, together with the
durrah, seem to occupy all the industry of the inhabitants, there being few fields of tobacco, wheat,
cotton, or indigo. Opposite to Henisouef is the road to the convents ot St. Anthony and St. I'aul, the
former named after the founder of monachism, the latter aftir the lirst hermit. St. Anthony or Dair
or Veir Antonios, is about 70 miles from the Nile, and 18 from the Red Sea, and stands on the south
side of the Wady el Araba. The other convent, called Deir liulos, lies beyond the eastern corner of the
Kalallah or Kalil mountains, only 9 miles from the coast. Medinet, the chief town or capital of
Faionm, is a large populous city, 50 miles S. W. of Cairo ; and occupies the site of the ancient Arsinoe,
on the canal of Joseph, just before its separation into nine branches. The city contains several line
mosques, and is surrounded with beautiful gardens. Miiiii h, on tlie left bank of the Nile, 28-^ 8' N. lat.
the capital of a large district, is a pretty town, with a cousiderabl ■ population. " The cily of Minieli,"
•ays .Mr. St. John, "contains several mosques, straight clean streets, and rather neat shops, and ap-
pears to be more opulent and populous than any of the towns farther dov\n the river." — (I. 251.) Mr.
Webster, however, says that •' the villiifre is small, with an innnense number of tombs, covering many
times the space itself occupies." Aihmounein, on the left bank, at a little distance from the river, in
^t. 27^ 48' N., is a town with a population estimated variously at 40(K), G0(K), 7000, or 10,000. I'.s- Siouf, or
At-Siuut, the capital of Upper Egypt, about amile and a half from the left bank of the Nile, 27 9' N.
»at., is a place of considerab'.e exliiit, nearly circular, half a mile from the river, and surrounded by
spacious gardens, in the midst of sand-hills. The population is about 12.000; the houses are neat and
■well built, and much cleaner than ordiiary. It carries on a considerable trade in linen cloth, earthen-
ware, natron, and opium. A cotton manufactory was estalilished here, several years ago, which gave
employment to HO(J men and bo\s ; but the climate seemed to militate against it. The dust brought
t>y the Khamseen winds insinuates Itself iniong the machinery, impedes its motion, and with the
heat, which warps and splits the wood-work, soon renders it useless. The dryness also of the atmo-
(phere weakens the strength of the cotton, and makes the threads snap. Akhmim or Hkhmim, on the
right bank, in lat 20^ 32', is a town of 10,000 inhabitants, with a large cotton factory, and the ruins of a
temple and catacombs, (jirgeh or Jirgth, formerly the capital of Upper Egypt, which derives Ita
830 _ DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Egtpt.
name from a monastery dedicated to St. George within the walls, is still a considerable place, con-
taining nine large mosques, wlioso elegant minarets and spacious domes standing in the midst of lux-
uriant date trees, which give tliu place the appearance of a grove when viewed from the river, have an
aspect of much grandeur. The city stands close to the rivor, on the left banlt, in 26^ 20 N. lat. The
private houses, two or three stonys in heiglit, with neat latticed windows, are built with sun-dried
bricks, and appear to bo larger and more commodious tliaii in the majority of Egyptian towns ; but
cleanliness is by no means the characteristic of its inliabitants. Keiineh or Ghmneh, on the right
bank of the .Nile. 2ti^ 10' N. lat., is famous for its manufacture of pottery called bardaks, made of po-
rous clay, and in great request all over Kgypt as water-coolers, 'llie town also derives some import-
ance from its situation on the road to Cosseir. so that the greater part ot the trade of that port with
Egypt passes through it. It is. on the fame account, tlie place of assemblage for the African hajees or
pilgrims on their way to Mecca. The road to Cosseir lies almost due east through the desert, a level
tract quite practicable for wlieel-carriages Ksneli. the last great town which occurs in ascending
the river, situate on its left bank, in 2.^^ 18' N. lat., in a plain of considerable extent, is a trading
place, and the rendezvous ol the caravans of Dar-Fur and Sennaar. It has manufactories of cotton-
cloth, pottery, and a kirid of shawls called niilayeh; and is fiimous throughout Egypt for a great
camel-markel or fair, it occupies the site of the ancient Lalopoli.t. among the remains of which is the
beautiful portico of a temple, now used as a cotton warehouse. Julfou, a small town of about 200a in-
habitants, on the lelt bank of the river, 25^ N. lat., where is made a kind of earthen vessels, of the
same shape as those rtpresente<l in the ancient paintings. Assouan or E' Suonn, in Coptic Souan,
which signifies " the opening," the Latin Si/<>ti\ on the right bank of the Nile, in 24° o' 30' N. lat., is
a small town with considerable trade. It is surrounded on all sides by dark and rugged mountains,
whicli consist of that rose-colour,.d granite which from tliis place is called syenite; and round the
town for several miles are the quarries from which the ancient Egyptians procured the granite used
for building their temples. The town is scattered in a straggling irregular sliape on the slope of a
barren hill ; it is, however, considered the most romantic spot in Egypt. The Nile here has the ap-
pearance of a narrow lake surrounded by bare but picturesque rocks, at the foot of which is seen a
belt of bright verdure, interspersed with scattered groves. There are but few ruins of the ancient
city. Cosseir, or Kossi-ir, or Kusiiir, or Kosiiyr. or (ioceir, is a port on the Red Sea. The town is an
a.~somblage of Arab huts, built of wood and mats, situate in a very poor and barren country, without
any good water but what is 1 rought from Arabia or the Nile. It has, however, a considerable trade,
though its harbour is small, and the anchorage unsafe for ships during several months of the year.
Cosseir is 111* miles from the Nile at Kenneh, but only 108 from Ko] tos or Ktft ; the road passes
over a perfectly level tract pas-able by carriages. It is situate in 2G° 'j' 5^" N. lat., and 34° 23' 30" E.
long. Between Cosseir and Kenneh there are eight wells, four of which have been put into good order.
Antiquitif.s.— Egypt possesses many charms for the traveller, and, in respect of antiquities, bears
the palm above every otlier country. The celebrated Pyiiamids demand our first attention. The
principal of these, three in number, are situate on a platform of rock, about 100 feet above the level
of the Egyptian plain, at the distance of five miles S.E. ot Geeza. The largest, called the pyramid
of Cheops, occupies a base of 7C7 feet square, and rises to the height of 47!>.'340 feet. It is built, like
the others, of large blocks of stone, which form so many gigantic steps (above 200 in number) to the
top, where there is a small platform, affording an extensive view over a landscape of the most extra-
ordinary leatures. To the south, scattered in irregular groups, are the pyramids of SaUkarah. Abou-
sir, and Dashour, glittering in the sun like enormous tents, and appearing from their number, and
the confusion of their arrangement, to extend to an unknown distance into the desert. On the west
is the wilderness of Libya, stretching to the edge of the horizon ; whose boundless undulations,
apparently destitute of the very princii'le of vegetation, seem to be the prey only of the sand storm
and the whirlwind. In the foreground the sand swells into hillocks resembling tlie kernels of new
pyramids. To the north and the east, the landscape presents a striking contrast to the savage scenery
of the other sides; the valley of the Nile is sejn luxuriantly covered with verdure and beauty ; corn
fields, green meadows, wood of various growth and foliage, scattered villages, a thciusand shining
sheets of water, and. above all, the broad glittering stream of the Nile itself, spreading fertility and
abundance like a beneficent god. Beyond this are tlie white buildings of Cairo, Houlak, and Roudah,
backed by the long lofty range of the Mokattam hills, reflecting the bright rays of the sun. Or, when
the Nile is in flood, this blooming valley appears like a wide sea, with a few scattered islands and date
trees peering above its smooth surface, » ith Cairo and the Mokattam hills forming its farilier sl'.oi-e.
This pyramid has long been open, and contains a small chamber, with a hollow sarcophagus, known
as King I'haraoh's tomb. Several other apartments and wimling passages have lately been discovered
in its recesses by persevering travellers, pariiculaily by Colonel Vyse, who has succeeded in revealing
its whole internal structure. The next adjoining pyramid is that of Ctphrenes, opened by Belzoni,
who discovered that he had been anticipated by Arab investigators, several cei.tui ies earlier, but he
still tound in a sarcophagus some bones, which are believed to be those of a cow or ox. It is about
4.')6 feet high. The next is the pyramid of Mycerinus ; and numerous pyramids are foun<l furtlier
south, for upwaids of twenty miles, at Abousir, Sakkara, and Dashour ; also in other parts of tlie
country, and even in Nubia ; but lor what purpose, by whom, or when, such stupendous fabrics were
erected, is quite uidiiiown. About 300 paces from the second pyramid is the gigantic statue of the
Sphinx. It was formerly covered to the neck with sand ; but that having been cleur^d away by Siguier
Caviglia, the length of the complete statue was found to be 125 feet from the fore part to tlie tail, with
its paws projecting .'iO feet forward. '1 he breast, shoulders, and neck are those of a human being, tiie
body is tliat of a lion. The head dress resembles an old-fashioned wig ; the ears project consider-
ably ; the nose is broken ; the taee seems to have been painted red ; the features are Nubian or ancient
Egyptian ; the expression is particularly placid and benign. It has been again covered up w ith sand
to the neck.
Thkbes, the city of the " hundred gates," the original capital of Egypt, now exists only in its ruins,
which exteiid for many miles on both sides of the river, a little to the north of the latitude 2.')° 40' N.
The principal ruins are situate at Luxor ( Lugsor, LI Ugsor, or El QosoorJ, Karnac and Med-amou,
on the right, and Mediuet- Abou and Gournah on the left bank of the river. The period of its greatest
splendour appears to have been under the kings of the bsth. 19th, and 20th dynasties, which Cliam-
pollion places between the years 1822 and 1300 b.c. At that time it appears to have been about 30
iniles in circuit, and contained temples and palaces filled with immense wt alth, which in later times
was carried off by Camhysos, king of Persia. Laid waste by king Ptolemy Philadelphus, and destroyed
(28 B.C.) by Cornelius Callus, this ancient city has never again been rebuilt, and now presents only a
mass of ruins, which may be regarded as the most magniticent, as well as the most ancient, in the
world. Among the ruins on the left bank of the Nile are an immense hippodrome or circus; the enor-
mous palace of Rhamses-Meiamoun, at Medinet-Abou ; the Memnonium of the Greeks, but which
Champoliion calls the Amenophionof the Egyptians, the ruins of which extend 1800 feet in length, and
contain more than 18 colossuses, the smallest of which is 20 feet high ; and near the bank of tbe river
are two colossi in a sitting posture, 61 feet high. The most northerly of the two is called M ninoii,
but appears to be the image of king Araenophis III. of the iStb dynasty, and the celebrated ^tatue of
Memnon, of which the Greek writers report that its lips uttered inusical sounds when they were first
Struck by the rays of the rising sun. Tiie head of the younger Memnon, of ejwlraordiuaiy beauty, and
Egypt.] AFRICA. -83..
weighing 1 2 tons, wa« carried cff by Belzoni, and presented by him to the British Museum . The tomb
of Osymandias, as it is called by the Greeks, but whose proper title appears to be the RhaniLsemu,
deriving its name from its founder Rhamses the Great, is the most ruinous of the monuments of
Thebts : among its most perfect portions are a large ball, of which 30 columns still remain entire;
and the enormous wreck of the colossal statue of Rhamses, which, though in a sitting posture, is .i3 feet
high above the base. The small temple of Athor is remarkable for its elegance and ornaments. The
great Syringe, with its long corridors and large subterranean apartments. The ruins of Gournah pre-
sent the imposing remains of the Menephtheum, or the palace of King Menephthah I. Along the right
bank of the Nile we find, at Luxor, the remains of an immense palace, built by Ameno^his-Memnou
(Ameiiothf III.) of the 18th dynasty, and Sesostris the Great. In iront of it were two obelisks, of 72
and 7.T ffct high, each formed of a single block of rose-coloured granite, of exquisite workmanship,
and beside them four colossal statues of the same material ; behir.d thi se is an immense front or gate-
way, 50 feet high, leading into a peristyle of 200 columns, the largest of w hich are about 10 feet in dia-
meter. According to ChampoUion this immense fabric was the wurk oi Rhamses the Great and several
other kings. The smaller of the two obelisks was lately brought to Paris. At Katr-Karnac is the
Sphinx alley, extending more than 6000 feet in length, between Luxor and Karnac, and containing so
many as 600 sphimxes of colossal size. But it is at Karnac tliat the magniticence tf the ancient kings
is fully exhibited. In the ruins of this wonderful palace the traveller is astonished by the grandeur ot
the buildings, which seem almost too great to have been the work of man. It contains an avenue of
single stone pillars, each 70 feet in length, but all of ihem thrown down ; a hall 318 fiet long by IGO
wide, having its roof supported by l.H pillars, the larj;est of which measures 70 feet high and II in
diameter ; and the circumference of their capitals being 64 feet, a hundred men may easily stand u^on
each of them ! In acother court are two obelisks, 70 feel high, but only one of them is ei ect ; and in
another hall or court is the largest of the existing obelisks, which is&l feet high. On the walls are
e-\hibited the portraits of most of the kings, whose deeds are represented in tablets of culo^sal size.
Among them areMeneftah I. fighting with the enemies of Egypt, and returning in iriumph ; the cam-
paigns of Rhamses the Great ; and also those oi Sesonchis, who is represented dragging at his feet the
Thehan trinity Amnion, Mouth, and Khous, witli the chiefs of more than 30 vanquished nations,
among nliich ChampoUion has found the name, in hieroglyj hies, of luuilu/i-vtelek, the king of Judah.
To tl e west of Meciinet-.Abou are situate the tombs of the kings of the 18th, ll)th, and 20th dynasties,
cut in the calcreous reck, at ditlerent levels, in a <lry valley, now called hit an el Moliik (tombs of
the kings), on the left bank of the Nile. They are all of extraordinary splendour; the largest and
most magnificent of them being that of king Rhamses- Meianioun, which is adorned with sculp-
tures ot the highest interest. One of its small side halls contains, among other things, a representation
of the operations of cookery; another, that of the richest and most sumptuous furniture ; a third
exhibits every sort of military arms and ensigns ; with the barks and royal barges fully decorated.
Several of these royal tombs contain on their walls numerous inscriptions, made by travillers of all
ajjes, from the days of the Pharaohs, the Persians, the Greeks, and the Romans, to the tiavelltrs of
the middle ages and those of our own times. The Secropvlis "f 'J/ifOes occupies an immense extent
of ground on the left Lank of the Nile, where are found tombs of all the kinds in use among the an-
cient Egypti;ins. It is in these tombs that the finest mummies and the most ancient i^apyri are lound.
'Ihe village of Gournah, indeed, partly consists of this necropolis ; the Arabs live in the very tombs,
whose former inhabitants they use for fuel. The trade in antiquities has been, since 1817, the only
occupation of this ferocious and brutalized tribe of thieves.
Memphis, the second capital of P^gypt in point of anti(iuily, stood on the left bank of the Nile, not
farlrom the great i yramids ; its finest biiildings were destroyed by Cambyses in the si.\th century
B. c. ; and, at last in the seventh century of the Christian era the city was taken by assault and utterly
d. stroked by the Arab conquerors. Almost every trace of it has now disappeared, having heencovired
up by the annual deposits of the Nile, and the city is now representi d by the villages of MemJ, Mitia-
liini h, and heilrethtm. Near Abousir, in this neighbourhood, also are lound the catacombs of birds
so famous in the i arratives of tiavelKrs ; they consist of extensive corridors filled from top to bottom
with little jars containing the mummies of these animals.
Sais, the capital of the last native kings of Kgyi t, before the Persian conquest, is now represented
by Sa-ft-lia<ijar, a miserable villuge in the Delta, 40 miles S E. of Kosi tta. It was represented as the
mother city of -Athens, whose latron goddess 1 alias-Athene, was the ^ciili of Sais, with the letters
of the name transposed in writing ; though this tact is disputed by some modern antiquaries. All
that now remairs of the spleiido r of Sais, consists of s-ome colossal mounds.
ilalaryek or Matiina, a small village, 6 miles N.E. by N. of (. airo, contains several nmains of build-
ings bi Iciigiiig to the ancient On or Heliupulis (Sun-town), so called by the tireeks on account of its
niagnificmt temple of the sin. It was one of the largest cities ol ancimt Egypt ; bit even so earh as
ti.e first century of tl.e Christ an era it was almost deserted, and many ot its fii.est ornaments were
carried cff to embellish Rome, and more lately to adorn Constantinople. The ruins of the temple are
s' ill found, V iih thereniains of a sphinx mentioned by Strabo, and a fine obeli- k, consisting of a single
block of granite, 68 I'rench (eet high, by 6J bi oad at the base. Jlflbt-yt or hutOiis, 24 miles tartlier N.,
in the same direciion, a village fortified by I onaparte in HiiS, is near the site of Uniim, where was
a Jewish temple, luilt on the model of that of Jerusalem, by Onias, son ol the high priest Oi.ias 111.;
where the sane rites and ceremoiiits weie practised as in tne parent tenijilc. It was closed by N es-
lasian, and afterwards fell to ruin. AV/n, a fishing village near the lake .Menzaleh, repicsents the
«nci nt city called '/.i,(iii by the Hebrews, and Taiiis by the (ireeks, and which was most prohiibly the
residence of the Hiaraohs of Moses, and the scene of his miracks. It still ci ntains several obelisks,
and also some othir remains. Near the south eastern corner of lake Menyaleh, is a Turkish fort called
'I'lnttU or Thiiieh, in the uciniiy of which are the ruins of I'llusiuni, the ancient bulwark of the
north eastern frontier of P^gypt.
iJK.NDKKAii, near the left Lank of the Nile, almost opposite Kennih, represents the ancient Ten-
tyri$. About three miles wi st ol the village Is the splendid and almost perfect timple of Athor, the
P^yi tian \'( nu«, which is considered as the masterpiece of ancient Egyptian architecture. It con-
t:.iii(il a >culi turtd zodiac or planisphere, which was carried to France in I82I, and is now in the
louvre at Paris. Near Girgeh, .'i miles \\ . fr<,ni the Nile, on the Bahr- Vusoul and the borders of the
desert, are the remains of yihyilns, accounted the second city of the Thtbaid ; and which contaimd a
l.alace ot Mimnon, and the tomb of Osiris. Its ruins are almost completely covered with sand ; but
Kline of the bui dings may be entered by the roof, whi re spacious apariments are lound entire,
adorned with hieroglyphs and 1 aintings, the colours of which are quite Iresli ami brilliant. Splendid
reniains of Kinples are also loui.d at Kdlou, the y/iiiillinnimlit nta^tiii of the Latins; at l.snch ; at hau
or (iau, the ancient Ariltiop"lii. on the right hank of the Nile, z'l^ N. lat. ; at C'uus, or yliuillmopolit
ptirra, a little to the north of Thebes; at Sl'eikli-ylbadeh. the ancient Andrwc or Ajiliwijwlu, on the
right bank, 27^ 48' N. ; at Koom- Ornliot. north of Svenc, and larious other places. The very l.ne
tl lajle of i/i-tnw/julit iniif-na, on the left bi-nk of the Nile, a little to the north of Antinoe, was a few
years ago undermined by the river, and destroyed. In its vlciniiy are still found the remains of a
vast necropolis. A little lar.her north than Hermopolis, but < n the light hank of the river, at the
village of Jirni- H(iM(ni, are the reniaint of a place called by the Greeks S/u'dt -Vi f(ni;rfu» (l)iana'»
grot/, containing innumerable hieroglyphics, paiutings, and other remarkable objects.
882 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Egypt.
Attouan or Et Souan, more tlian any other place in the world, presents that confused mixture of
monuments which, even in the history of tlie most powerful nations, reminds us of the impotence of
man. liercthe Pharaohs and the Ptolemies huilt temples and palaces, which are now half covered with
loose sand ; and the Uomans and Arabs constructed forts and walls ; while, on the ruins of all these
buildings, trench inscriptions bear witness to the presence cf the soldiers and philosophers of
modern Kurope. In the neighbourhood of this remarkable place are the catacombs or hypogees
of Svene. and opposite to them on the south is a chain of beautiful and fertile islets. One of these,
opposite Assouan, is the famous Elephnntiyie of the ancients, now called El-Sag, where the remains of
a nilometer are still to be seen ; but the materi.ils of its two temples have been curried off to build bar-
racks and magazines at Assouan. A little farther south is the island of El- Hiif, the ancient Philic, a
beautiful little island, about UX)0 feet long by 100 broad, rising in the middle of the river, and covered
with columns, propylons, and towers, the ruins of its majestic temples, of which Denun distinguished
eight, built apparently at different times, and quite separate, though some pains have been taken to
combine those which were contiguous. The lowest cataract of tlie Nile is between Phil* and Ele-
phantine. The ancient geographers and histori.-ins speak of it as a prodigious fall, whose sound
deafened the adjacent inhabitants ; but at present the fall is very inconsiderable, and the river exhibits
onlv a series of rapids, as it dashes through amidst the granite rocks that strew its bed. About 37
miles N. of Assouan, on the left bank of the river, is Ilajar SiUili, where are the most extensive and
remarkable quarries in Kgypt, perhaps in the world. No monuments which exist above ground con-
vey so grand an idea of thelabours of the K^ryptians as these quarries, the most remarkable of all their
works. Passages, wide as streets, cut in the rock, and rising perpendicularly to the height of ."iO or
60 feet on each side, sometimes straight, at other times winding, extend from the brink of the river
into the very heart of the mountain ; where the rock has been cut away and spaces cleared equal in
size to the largest squares in London. Towards the north are seen innumerable chambers, like the
dwellings of the Titans, and prodigious colonnades, extending round the base of the mountains.
The rough-hewn irregular roof is supported by huge, square, or polygonal columns of solid rock,
sometimes 80 or 100 feet in girth. Enormous blocks of stone, completely severed from the moun-
tain, are placed upon smaller pieces ready to bo moved ; and others still more vast have been cut and
carried away, the places from whicli they were taken exceeding 40 feet in length. — ( St. John's Egypt,
II. U.)
About IGO miles E.S.E. of Assouan, at the head of Foul Bay, on the shore of the Red Sea, are the
ruins of the ancient lierenice, where the main streets can still be distinguished, and even the materials
of the houses, consisting of corals, madrepores, and petrifactions, the product of the adjoining sea.
Opposite to the town is a very tine natural harbour, but too shallow for large vessels, and obstructed
by a bar of sand. The extent of the ruins is about 2000 feet by 1000, which might have contained about
10,000 people. The site is now quite deserted. About 20 miles inland are the famous emerald mines of
the ancients in the Jebel Zubara ; they have been opened by modern speculators, but have been found
to contain only a few emeralds of inferior quality.
This subject is very far from being exhausted ; but it is only the principal and more important ot
the ancient remains that our space will allow us to notice.
§ 2. NUBIA.
The name Nubia is vaguely applied by European geographers to the vast region which extends south-
ward from Egypt to the northern borders of Abyssinia, and eastward to the Red Sea. It never formed
a separate kingdom or political division of Africa; but has, on the contrary, been alwaysdivided among
a great number of tribes of diiferent lineage, and contained within its limits several contemporaneous
independent states. Of late years, however, it has all been subjected to the dominion of the Pasha of
Egypt, and garrisoned by his troops. Strictly speaking, it is only the northern part cf the region that
is called Nubia ; the more southerly districts, above AVady Haifa, stretching to the Red Sea and the
borders of Abyssinia, were formerly known as the Kingdom of Seniiaar, and are now called by the
Turks Bilad-es-Suudan, or the country of the lilacks, a name, however, which they extend as far
west as Bornou, including many countries not subject to the Pasha. The greaterpart of the country
consists of frightful deserts ; that which is called the desert of Nubia extends on the east of the Nile
from Assouan to Gooz. The traveller through it constantly traverses deep sand or sharp stones. It
is not, however, an unvaried plain; for it contains hills whieh rise above 1000 feet, and is interspersed
with wadys or valleys, that afford a supply of water, and support some trees, shrubs, and grass. In
several places, however, the ground is covered with a layer of rock-salt, or studded with masses of
granite, jasper, or marble. Now and then there occurs a grove of stunted acacias, or tufts of colocynth
and senna. The traveller often has access to no water to allay his tliirst, except what is brackish or
putrid ; for the savage inhabitants lie in ambush near the few springs which the country contains.
The western desert, less arid and less extensive, is called the desert of ISahioudti. Between these two
wildernesses lies the narrow valley of the Nile, which, though deprived of the advantages of the regular
inundations, in consequence of the height of the ground above the surface of the river, contains some
districts, and more particularly islands, where a high degree of fertility rewards the industry of those
who raise, by artificial means, the waters of the river to irrigate their lands. In many places the
cultivable ground is only a few feet in width, while it increases in others to a quarter of a mile ; but in
sorne places the desert approaches to the very edge of the river. The southern parts of the country,
which are watered by the Tacazze, the Azrek, and the Abiad, present a very different appearance.
Along the banks of these rivers are immense savannahs, exliibiting at times, wide, boundless forests
of gigantic grass, alternating with thickets of mimosa, leagues in extent, which are crossed and in-
terwoven with thorny parasitic plants, impenetrable to man, and are the retreat of lions, tigers, and
liyenas. Southwards, in the province of Fazuolo or Fasoglo, the plains are bordered with mountain.-i
of picturesque forms, but low, not exceeding, it is supposed, 3000 feet above the level of the sea. They
do not form connecttd chains, but stand isolated on the immense savannahs. — ( liusseg^er, in jllht-
neeum, Mny 5, 1838.)
From January till April the country is burned up with intolerable heat. The thermometer some-
times reaches ll'jc Fahrenheit, and the burning sands render travelling impracticable, except by night.
The rainy season lasts from June till September, with frequent irregularities, covering the h^ntwhle
country in the south with verdure ; but frequently, the extreme heat, with the rains, and the .*.^»id-
able swarms of the saltsalya fly spread desolation even over that region. The northern lin/ ', how-
ever, of the tropical rains is about 18^ N. lat. ; and the tract of country between that and Ti 'I.'^, or
even lower, is said to be the driest on the globe, and probably the hottest. The durrah and th j bammia
»re the principal sorts of grain, though wheat and millet^re also cultivated. Two sorts of senna aie
exported ; but the sugar-cane, whicii abounds along the banks of the Nile, is not turned to any ac-
count. The ebony tree predominates in the forests, which also contain many species of palms, parti-
cularly the date tree, of « hich so many as 20,000, between Ibrim and Korosko, are taxed by the Pasha.
The acacia-vera and mimosa-nilotica, extend from Egypt to l)ar-Fur. The grass of the plains attains a
height of twelve or fifteen feet, forming a mass as impenetrable as a wall ; it is even difficult to form
an idea of the grass forests which are found chiefly in the vicinity of the great rivers. Elephants, rhi-
noceroses, gazelles, ostriches, giraffes, and other usual .\frican animals, are found within the limits o
Nubia.] AFRICA. 833
Nubia. Wild dogs and foxes appear to be numerous, as Ruppell has discovered no less than four
species. Tlie variegated fox-dog is ochre-culoureit, with thick fur, variegated witli black ; it was
found both in Nubia and Upper Egypt, where it lives in the deserts, but does not burrow. The
Nubian dog or rather wolf, which appears to be rare, is light grey, marked with a few black spots
on the back, and has a black tail. The Kordofan fox occurs also in Nubia; it is nearly related to
the fennic, which was also found by Ruppell in the neighbourhood of Ambukol, and in the desert
of Korti, where it lives in holes dug by itself, and not on trees, as Bruce describes those of Abyssinia.
Several birds appear to be peculiar to this region, or at least have not yet been known to inhabit any
other part of Northern Africa ; such as the occipital vulture, first discovered by Kurchel in South
Africa. It inhabits the borders of both Nubia and .-Ibyssinia. Bustards, shrikes, thrushes, quails,
and partridfies, are also mentioned by travellers.
Tiie high lands of northern Nubia are inhabited by two nearly independent nomadic tribes. One
of these tribes occupy the western bank of the Nile, and are called the Barabras ; but they call them-
8elv;.'s Kuu'iah, Kenoux, &c. Barabra and Bereber is the general name by which the Nubians are
known in Egypt, and according to Burckhardt, it seems to be derivtd from Beiber, the name of a wady
or district of Upper Nubia, on the right bank of the Nile, about 18-^ N. lat. The Barabras are a very
lean race of people, apparently destitute of both fat and flesh, and consist of njrves and sinews with
a few muscular fibres, more elastic than strong. Their shining skin is of a transparent black and
brown ; but this is the only resemblance they bear to the negroes of Western Africa. Their hollow eyes
sparkle under an uncommonly projecting eyeljrow, their nostrils are large, the nose sharp, the mouth
wide, but the lips thin. The hair of the head and beard is thin and collected in small tufts. Wrinkled
at an early age, but always lively and nimble, they only betray their age by the whiteness of their
beards. Their physiognomy is cheerful, and they seem to be lively and.good-humoured. The Nu-
bians, says Mr. Holroyd, are a fine, strong, hard-working, industrious people ; they possess a consi-
derable share of pride and natural courage, and condemn most violently the unnatural propensities
which are common among the Turks anil many ot the Arabs. The women are remarkable for their
chastity, and their feelings are social and domestic. There are very few schools among them, and a
man who is able to read and write is accounted a person of consideration. The eastern deserts, from
Cosseir to the south of Nubia, are occupied by t!ie Abahdes, a people who differ entirely in customs,
lan:;uage, and dress, from the Arabs found in Egypt. They are black, hut have the tame form oi
head as Europeans. Theirheads are uncovered, but their hair is worn long. Their clothing consists
of a piece of cloth worn over the loins. They anoint their bodies, and particularly their heads, with
fat. They have no fire-arms, and few horses ; they rear a sort of camel which they call aguine,
which is smaller, better made, and more active than the common specie?. They are Mahometans,
but not very rigid in tlieir laith ; and they bury their dead by covering their bodies with stones. The
Sheygya, She^f^fiea or Shaykye, are a race of negroes once peculiarly roving, fearless, and warlike,
who occupy both banks of the Nile above Dongolah They had numerous slaves, whom they employed
in tilling the ground, and other laborious duties, while they devoted themselves entirely to arms;
but in consequence of a desperate battle with the Egyptian troops at Korti, in which they were
entirely discomfited, they are now, like the other Nubians, subjects of the Fasha. In 1837, Mr. Hol-
royd found them reduced to poverty and the greatest state of degradation by Turkish misrule and
despotism.
The Soahah are a gentle race of negroes, in the province of Scnnaar, with small features, woolly
hair, flat noses, and speak a soft sonorous language totally different from that of their neighbours.
They are idolators, and in some respects Sabians, for they always do homage to the moon. They
are circumcised ; but keep herds of swine, and eat pork freely. In 15U4, a negro nation, till then
unknown, came down the Abiad, and subdued the Nubians. They called themselves ShiUouks or
Shcllukhs, and founded the city of Sennaar on the Azrtk. They were originally idolators, but their
intercourse with Egypt has produced their conversion to Islam.
The people who dwell along the Nubian shore of the Red Sea appear to be of Arab origin, and still
preserve in a great degree the habits of the ancient Troglodytes or dwellers in caves. They speak
the Gheez language, a dialect of the Arabic. They are in the h^west stage of savage life, and derive
their principal support from fishir.g. Towards the north-east, however, near Foul Bay, area people
of somewhat better habits, calkd the His/iaierns or ISijahs, who lead a nomadic life ; deriving abundant
food from the milk and the ile.-h of their camels, cattle, and sheep. Bruce believed that they spoke
a dialect of the Glieez, but the Arabian historians of Nubia make them belong to the race of Berebers
or Barabras.
The old political divisions of the country have been obliterated by the recent Egyptian conquest,
and we are not aware that the country has yet been divided anew into provinces and municipal dis-
tricts. The cities and towns are few and unimportant; but the remains of ancient buildings and
cave temples, along the Nile, chiefly in lower Nubia, form very attractive objects of curiosity to tra-
vellers and antiquaries. Dongnlali, called also ylgouz Dongulan, or Old Uongolah, the largest, richest,
and most populous city of Nubia, during the middle ages, is now reduced to the size of a village,
with about 300 inhabitants. It stands on the right bank of the Nile, in 18-^ N. lat. and 31° E. long.
Mdrakiih. or New Dongolah, a large thriving and populous town on the left bank of the Nile, about 70
miles N'.N. W. of Old Dongolah, built several years ago by the Mamelukes, after their c.\p>ilsion from
Egypt, is the residence ot a Turkish Aga, whose government extends from Wady Haifa to \\ ady
Gammer. In the river to the north of Marakah is the magnificent islanil o/ ylrgo, about 30 miles in
length, and 'i or 7 in breadth, formed by the rich alluvial deposits of the Nile, which produces gniin,
cotton, indigo, and dates. Senrnxir, lately the capital of the kingdom of Sennaar, which extended
over the greater part of Upper Nubia, and is said to have once ha<l so many as 100,000 inhabitants,
is now almost deserted, the people having eniigrattd to Aleis, ten days' journey to the south-east, at
the period of the Egyptian conquest. The few who remain live in straw huts, with the exception of
two or three slave merchants whose houses are made of mud. It stands near the left bank of tho
Azrek, in IS'-* 37' N. lat. and 33^ 30' E. long. Kartimm or Khartum, at the confluence of the Abiad
and tlie Azrek, is now the seat of government ; it has sprung up since Soudan became subject to tho
I'asha, and contains about l.'j.OOO inhabitants. Shiudy, on tlie right bank of the Nile, about midway
l>etween the confluence of the Azrek and the Abiad, and the mouth of the Tacazze, a town of 800 nr
900 houses, and a population of 70<K), i» now in ruins. Before the Egyptian conquest it was the
principal commercial mart of Nubia, and a jjreat slave market, lying on the route from Dar-Fur and
Soudan to Smiakin, where merchants and pilgrims took shipping for Jiddah. At Assour or HaOiour,
a little village below Shendy, are the ruins of Meme, a city celebrated for its monuments, its com-
merce, its orivde of Amnion, and its pontiff king, chosen, as was believed, by the ^od hinisilf, iroin
among liis prie-sts ; and a little further down the river is the island of Kaingus, which contains three
groiipes of ancient mausoleums, of a pyramidal form. Below the jniiclion of the Tacazze, on tho
right batdv of the Nile, is Jlerber, a town of HOOO or 'JOOO inhabitants, which is the rendeir.vou» of tho
slave merchants from Sennaar and Kartoom, who proceed to Cairo by the desert of Korosko. Ditt,
the chief town of Lower Nubia, is a small place, with a thriving and increasing population, on tho
right bank of the Nile, about 130 miles above Assouan. A few miles further up is Ihrim, a fort or
castle on a jierpendicular rock ovirbaiiging the river; but it is now in ruins, having been destroyed
by the .Mamelukes. -Soiiakin. Suakttii, or Siidkum, the only seaport of Nubia, i'. situated on the West
3 U
834 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Abyssinia.
coast of the Bed Sea, In 19^ 1' N. lat., 37= 30' E. long. This town is built partly on an island and
partly on the mainland, and contains about 8(XK) inhabitants, who are chiefly Arabs and Bishareens.
It is now a dependency of Kgypt, and has one of the best and the most frequented harbours on the
Red Sea. It is one of the most commercial places of the region of the Nile, and is a great market for
AbiiuMmbal (Abasambal, Abousimbil, Ebsambal, Ebsambol, Ebsambool, Ibsambool, Ipsambul,
Ypsambuli, on the left bank of the Nile, about 50 miles above Derr, is the most remarkable place in
Nubia, and contains two temples which are considered as among tlie most precious remains of anti-
quity. The smaller of the two temples appears to have been dedicated to Athor (Venus) by the wife
of Rliani'^es the (.ireat, or Sesostris ; and the larger seems to have been the work of Rhamses himself.
They are both excavated in the face of the rock, and the larger one is adorned with colossal statues,
hieroglyphs, paintings, and sculptures, which represent the person and the exploits of Rhamses, with
the most curious and interesting details. This magnificent work was for a long time buried under
the .«and ; but Bclzoni, with the most persevering industry, succeeded in clearing it out ; and it is in
dangiT of being again overwhelmed. Other excavated temples and remains of buildings are found at
Deboil, Kahibshe, Oirs/ie, Dakki. Derr, Eshke, Soleh, and Jebel-el-barkel. The last is a lofty eminence,
near Slerawe, north-east of Old Dongolah, which presents, partly cut out of its rocks, and partly built
along its sides, seven or eight temples, the largest of which may vie with the most magnificent monu-
ments of Egypt. Near these temples are 17 pyramids, of no great size ; but at El-Hellal, on the oppo-
site, or lut't'side, of the river, at the distance of seven miles, is a very magnificent range of pyramids,
inferior only to the great piles of Egypt.
Ueyond the limits of what is considered Nubia, the Pasha of Egypt also possesses Fazuola, or Fa
soL'lo, a province of Abyssinia, to the south of Sennaar ; and Kordofan, to the west of the Bahr-el-
Abiad. Kordofan is, properly speaking, only an assemblage of little oases or wahs, separated by
vast deserts from Dar-Fur, and the Bahr-el-Abiad. The greater part of its inhabitants are negroes,
somewhat civilized, and principally employed in agriculture. The remainder consists of Congolese,
who are devoted to commerce, and of Arabs who wander over its deserts. Almost every person in
Kordofan is a slave merchant. El Obeid, the chief town, once a flourishing commercial station, is
now a mass of ruins ; but its name remains attached to three stations situate near the site which it
occupied, and named Wad// Naghele, Orta, and Wady Safec. The population of the three, estimated
by Ruppell at 5000, has now increased to 30,(M)0.
The Paxha's reveime in Soudan is derived from his monopolies of Abyssinian coffee, gold, indigo,
gum-arabic, and hides ; taxation on the water-wheels ; letting the customs ; and his purchase of
cattle and camels. But, though lie derives considerable advantages from these sources, Mr. Holroyd
was informed that his expenditure in Soudan exceeded his revenue annually by £14,000, and that he
holds this country under the present system of tyranny and oppression, because he has never for-
given, still less forgotten, the fate of Ismail Pasha, his son who was burned to death, at Shendy.
—(Report of Arthur T. Holroyd, Esq. on Nubia, Soudan, Kordofan, &c. Appendix E. to Dr. Bourintr'
Report on Egypt and Candia. London, 18-40.)
§ 3. ABYSSINIA
Is situ<ite between 7° and 16° N. lat. and 33° and 45° E. long. The accounts which we possess, how-
ever, do not admit of any exact specification of its boundaries ; and the empire of Abyssinia being
now entirely dissolved, the name has become a mere arbitrary designation of the large country of
indefinite extent, watered by the upper branches of the Nile, and corresponding to the southern por-
tion of the Aithiopia super Egyptum of the Latins. The Abyssinians still call themselves Itiopiauan,
and their country Itiopia ; but they prefer the name of Agazian for the people, and that of Agazi
or Gkez for the kingdom. The name of Habesh, from which Europeans have formed Abyssinia, is
an Arabic term, meaning " a mixed people," and is scornfully spurned by the natives.
Considered as a whole, Abyssinia forms a table-land gently inclined to the north-west, with two
great declivities on the east and south sides, the former towards the Red Sea, and the latter towards
the interior of southern Africa. This table-land is intersected with mountains, but very little is
known respecting their direction or height. Travellers only speak in general terms of their extraor-
dinary configuration ; they shoot up almost every where in sharp peaks, surrounded with rocks which
resemble the ramparts of ruined towns. Tellez considers some of these mountains to be as high as
the Alps ; but we nowhere find them capped with snow, except, perhaps, the Samen mountains in
Tigre, on whose highest peaks M. Salt saw snow on the 8th of April. The eastern border of the
coimtry is formed by a high range of mountains, nearly parallel to the Red Sea, which divide the
Alpine region of Abyssinia from the low country on the shore, and rise to such a height as to form
a complete separation of seasons between the countries on the opposite sides. This is called the
Taranta mountain, and may be considered as the wall or bulwark of the first of the terraces or table-
lands of which Abyssinia consists. In the interior of the country enormous volcanic rocks form
precipices on every side, and deep ravines, which are traversed by torrents. There are, in some
places, glens so narrow, that the traveller riding through them often bruises his elbows, and, if ho
meets a caravan, is sometimes obliged to retrace his steps for half an hour's journey. There are
also isolated summits 300 feet high, on the tops of which extend plains three or four leagues in length,
containing cultivated fields, springs, and churches, and which serve as retreats to defeated comba-
tants. These heights are generally impregnable, and some of them can be reached only by means of
a rope tied round the body, by means of which the fugitives are hauled up. It often happens, indeed,
that the low country is overrun and conquered, while the p°ople aloft, in these natural fortresses,
live undisturbed. These retreats are called ambas, and serve too often as places of refuge for turbu-
lent characters. One of the most distinguished, though not the largest or strongest, stands on the
southern frontier of Amhara, is named Amba-Geshen, and was formerly the place of confinement for
■the Abyssinian princes.
Besides the Nile and its branches, already described, the only rivers worthy of notice are the Chaala,
and the Hairash, both of which terminate in the lake Ausa or Assal, which is said to be 760 feet
below the level of the sea, between 11° and 12° N. lat. and 41° and 42° E. long.; and the Zebee
which drains a portion of the southern region, and probably falls into the Indian Ocean, near Zanzi-
bar. There are several lakes, the largest and best known of which is that of Dembea, nearly in the
centre of Abyssinia. It measures in Bruce's map 65 miles in its greatest length ; but the area of its
surface vai'ies considerably with the seasons. It receives the waters of a prodigious number of petty
streams from the mountains which embosom it ; but its principal feeder is the upper branch of the
Bahr-el- Azrek, which enters it on the west side, and flows out again at the south-east corner. The
lake contains, according to Ludolf, eleven islands, the largest of which is called Tzana, whence the
lake itself is sometimes called Bahr- Tzana, or the lake of Tzana.
Speaking- generally, the elevation of the country, and its abundant waters render the temperature
much cooler than that of Nubia and Egypt. The heat, judging by the feelings of the human body, is
much less than that indicated by the thermometer. Some of the provinces are even more temperate
than Portugal or Spain ; but in the lower districts the effects of a suffocating heat, combined with
Abyssinia.] AFRICA. 885
the exhalations of stagnant water, occasion elephantiasis, ophtl almia, and many fatal diseases." The
winter, in so far as weather is concerned, begins in June, and continues till the beginning of Septem-
ber, during all which time the incessant rain, often attended with thunder, and dreadful hurricanes,
puts a stop to agricultural labour and military operations. The other months are not entirely exempt
from inclement weather. The finest are those of December and January. But the mountainous sur-
face of the country occasions many variations of climate and season. In the east, below the moun-
tains on the borders of the Red Sea, the rainy season only begins when it ceases in the interior, and
that region is burned up at other times with intolerable heat.
Abyssinia is said to contain many mines of iron, copper, lead, and sulphur ; and gold of extreme
fineness is or used to be produced in Damota, and the shallow mines of Naroa. Bruce also informs
us that the finest gold is found in the western provinces at the feet of the mountains Dyre and Tegla ;
and along the western frontier M. Russegger has lately found a prodigiously large vein of quartzose
granite, consisting of quartz, with disseminated copper and silver ores of various kinds. At the
south-eastern border of Tigri there is a great salt plain which is said to extend from south-east to
north-west for four days journey, and which took five hours to cross it, when it was visited by Sir.
Coffin in 1809. For about half a mile the incrustation was slippery, and broke under the tread, but
farther on, he found it to be hard, rough, and irregular, like a sheet of ice. On the west side he found
the Abyssinians cutting out pieces like a mower's whetstone, which is done with tolerable ease, as the
salt lies in horizontal Hakes. The salt near the surface is pure and hard, but beneath, it is coarser,
and requires some exposure to the air before it hardens. In some parts the incrustation is three feet
deep ; but, in general, at the depth of two feet, it is too much mixed with earth to be fit for use in its
native state. This district supplies the whole of Abyssinia with salt ; and the mineral, when cut into
long flat pieces, is one of the principal mediums of exchange.
Though situate within the tropics, the character of the vegetable productions of Abyssinia is some-
what extra-tropical, bearing but little affinity to the vegetation of the opposite and western coasts of
Africa in the same latitude. The chief alimentary plants are millet, barley, wheat, maize, and teff.
All travellers concur in praising the fine wheaten bread ; but that is eaten by people of rank only.
The teff or tafo is a grain smaller than mustard seed, with an agreeable taste, and not liable to be
spoiled by worms. It is commonly sown in all parts of the country, and from it the bread is made
which is generally used by all classes. The bread made from it is soft and spongy, with a sourish, but
not disagreeable taste; and from this bread also, the people make bouza, a kind of beer, which is the
common drink of the country, by pouring warm water upon it toasted, setting it by the fire, and stir-
ring it frequently, till, after three or four days, it acquires a sourish taste. There are generally two
harvests ; one during the rainy season, in July, August, and September ; and the other in spring. At
Adowah and the neighbourhood, there are three crops. Some vines are cultivated, and wine is made,
though in small quantity. The people cultivate also great quantities of a herbaceous alimentary plant,
resembling the banana, which serves them for bread, and which Lobo calls ensete. The papyrus is
found also in the marshes as well as in Egypt; and Bruce asserts that the tree which produces the
balm of Judea and myrrh is indigenous in Abyssinia, or more correctly speaking, on the coast of
Adel. The whole of Abyssinia is scented with the perfumes exhaled from the roses, jessamines, lilies,
and primroses, with which the fields are covered. The coffee shrub is also said to abound in the south-
western parts of the country, and indeed is believed to have derived its name from the province of
Kapha or Kaffa, where it is indigenous.
The animals of so extensive a country present, as might be expected, a great variety; but the zoology
is very imperfectly known. It is only in the lower regions of forests that elephants and monkeys are
found. The two horned rhinoceros is common ; and both Lobo and Bruce think that the one-
horned rhinoceros is also to be found. Hyenas are very numerous and ferocious, and prowl in tha
towns during night. There are also wild boars, and gazelles or antelopes ; and, probably also, zebras.
The cattle are numerous and of large size, and have horns of enormous length ; there are also wild
buffaloes, which sometimes attack travellers. The ass and the mule supply the place of the camel ;
while the horses, which are small but very lively, are only used for the purposes of war. Lions, too,
with various kinds of leopards {one of which is black), and several species of dogs arc mentioned
by travellers. There are great numbers of serpents of remarkable species, and of enormous size. Thu
lakes and rivers swarm with river horses and crocodiles. The varieties of birds are not less numerous ;
one of which is the great golden eagle. Travellers speak also of many kinds of wild bees, which
build their nests under ground, and produce excellent honey ; but the most remarkable insect is a fly,
the saltsalya, the sting of which is dreaded even by the lion, and which forces whole tribes to change
their residence. In size it is little larger than a bee, and has pure gauzy wings, without spot or
colour. The head is large, and the moutli is furnished with three strong projecting hairs or bristle.-:.
As soon as this plague appears, and its buzzing is heard, the cattle forsake their food, and run wildly
about the plain till they die, worn out by fear, fatigue, and famine. The inhabitants of all the coun-
tries from the mountains of Abyssinia n<jrth»ard to the confluence of the Nile and Tacazze are once
a-ycar obliged to change their abode, and seek protection in the sands of Ikja. The locusts are still
more destructive, laying waste whole provinces, and involving the inhabitants in the miseries of fa-
mine. Bruce speaks also of a black ant, marly an inch long, which cut his carpets in shreds.
The At)y.ssinians or Agazians api)roach the Kurojieaii model, in resi^eet of their handsome forms,
features, and long hair; but they are distinguished from all other known races by a peculiar com-
plexion, which Bruce compares sometimes to pale ink, and sometimes to an olive brown ; and which,
according to the French institute of Kgypt, seems to partake of a bronze colour. The language called
the Ghcez, which is spoken in Tigri'', is regarded as a dialect derivel from the Arabic. The Amharic
language has also many Arabic roots, but gives evidence of a peculiar origin in its syntax. It would ap-
pear, therefore, that Abyssinia, first | copied by an indigenous or primitive race, lias received, more
especially in its northern and maritime parts, a colony of Arabs. The Abyssinians are nominally
Christians of the Jacobite sect, and used to have an ecclesiastical iirimate, called the Abuna, appointed
by the Coptic patriarch of Alexandria ; but in reality their religimi is a corrupt mixture of I'aganism,
Judaism, and Christianity of the lowest kind, and has very little liifluenco on their manners and con-
duct. They are <leeply sunk in superstition, and are altngetlier in a very low state of civilization.
They live in round huts with conical roofs of straw ; a light cotton dress, some pieces of carpet, and
a few articles of pottery, form their chief objects of luxury. Their children go naked till the age nf
puberty. The arts and mechanical professions arc chiefly in the hands of strangers, and especially
Jews, who furnish all the smitlis, masons, and thatchers of the country. The Gai.las are a savago
people who made themselves masters of the south-western provinces ; and are di'-tinguislied froni tlio
Negroes by their low stature, deep brown complexions, and long hair. They live ( ntirely on raw flesh ;
they besmear their faces with the blood of their encmies.'and hang their entrails round their necks,
or interweave them with their hair. Their ferocity and filthiness indeed surpass every Irlea that can
be formed of tbem. They worship trees, stones, the moon, and some of the stars ; and lieli. ve in
niapic, and a future state. The SHA.«i(iALLAiis inhabit the wooilcd heights called KoUa by the Abys-
siniiins, in the north-western parts and to the west of the Tacazze. They arc decidedly Negroes, of deep
black colour, with woolly hair ; but their fac.s are not unlike those (if apes. Tliey spend one part of
the year under the shadows of trees, and the rest in caves dug in soft rocks. Some of the tribes live on
elephants and rhinoceroses, others oa Uyns and boars, aud souio ou locusts. XUey go quite nuked, and
P36 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Abyssinia.
are armed with poisoned darts. The Abyssininns hunt them like wild beasts. The Aoows form
two tribes or nations i tlic one occupying the province of Lasta, around tlie sources of the Tacazze ; the
other around the sources of tlio Abawi, or Nile. I'osscssing fertile but inaccessible countries, cou-
rageous, and provided with good cavalry, they have maintained their independence against both the
(Sallas and the Abyssinians. Though they have been converted to Abyssinian Christianity, yet their
principal worship is addressed to tlie spirit who presides at the source of the Abawi; and ttiey every
year sacrifice a cow to this spirit. The Gafatks are a numerous people who live in Damota, and
speak a distinct language. Their country produces very fine cotton. The Guragt, a set of expert
«nd intrepid robbers, live in the hollows of the rocks in the south-east of Abyssinia, in a country
wldch produces musk, amber, sandalwood, and ebony. The Dobenah, a numerous tribe, live by
hunting elephants and rhinoceroses between the Mareb and the Tacazze. But of all the people of
Abvssinia, the Jews present the most extraordinary historical curiosity. They bear the name of
Faliyi or Falaslui, or the exiles, and seem to have formed for ages a state more or less independent
in the province of Samen, under a dynasty, the kings of which always bore the name of Gideon, and
the queens that of Judith. Althoug'h reduced at last to very narrow limits, they could muster in
Bruce'9 time a force of 50,000 infantry. Hut their royal family having become extinct, they appear
to be now dependent upon the government of Tigre. A great part of them also live among the Shil-
louks along the banks of the Abiad. They are even much more ignorant than the Christians ; they
are ignorant of the tribe to which they belong, and do not know at what period their ancestors came
into Abyssinia.
The old empire of Abyssinia was composed of several large provinces, of which the number and
the names vary exceedingly, as reported by travellers. For a long period the once powerful empire,
which during many centuries maintained its independence against the Moslems and the Galla, has
been a prey to anarchy, and, in fact, has been coinpletely dismembered. Among the many petty in-
dependentstates which have risen upon its ruins, the three following appCRr to preponderate ; namely,
the kingdoms of Amhara, Tigre, and Shoa; the first comprising the provinces to the west of the Ta-
cazze; the second, the provinces to the east of that river; and the third, the provinces to the south
and west. The last appears to have been less injured by the civil wars than the others.
The kingilom of Amiiara comprises the central provinces, and has long been in a state of complete
anarchy ; the members of the royal family are dispersed throughout the provinces, and live partly on
the bounty of the chiefs, and partly by their own industry. Gondar, the capital, is situate in a fine
plain to the north of the lake Tzana. It is very extensive, but, according to M. Ruppell, two-thirds
of the houses appear to be in a ruinous state, and its population does not exceed 6000.
The liiigdom of Tigre is the strongest, from its position, as well as the warlike spirit of its people,
and their commercial resources. Its chief town is Antnloiv, containing about 1000 houses ; but Shc'i-
cout, a large town or village, is the usual residence of the king. The palace, and the church, which is
considered to be one of the finest in Abyssinia, are its principal buildings. Tigre, properly so called,
may be regarded as the cradle of the Abyssinian empire. Its people are the true Abyssinians, and
have extended their dominion over the adjoining region, which has been dignified with the title of
kingdom, and is divided into several provinces ; it contains several important towns besides those
already mentioned, yidoicah, the most trading town of Abyssinia, appears to have about 8000 inha-
bitants, the greater part of wiiom are Moslem. They manufacture a cotton cloth which circulates
as money. It is a well built town, and was for sometime the capital of the empire. j4xum, formerly
the capital of a kingdom v hich extended over a great part of Abyssinia, and part of Arabia, is now a
small town oiabout GOO houses ; but it contains magnificent ruins, Greek inscriptions, and obelisks
•without hieroglyphics. Of the latter, two are still erect ; the larger, a single block of granite 60 feet
high, is covered with sculptures of elegant workmanship. At the northern end of the town is a fine
church, where was preserved and continued the authentic history of Abyssinia, called the Chronicle
of Axum. a copy of which was brought to Europe by Bruce. In the neighbourhood of .A.xum, is the
monastery of Abba Pantaleon, remarkable for a small obelisk, and for a large Greek inscription on a
rock, which Is as old as the year 330 of the Christian era, and records an exploit of the Emperor
Aeizanas.
The kingdom of Siioii or Situ-a, includes the southern portion of the late empire, and the king, who
is a member of the ancient royal family, has extended his dominion over many of the Galla tribes, and
Carrie, on an extensive slave-trade with his captives, whom he exports through Tajura, a sea-port town
to the south-west of the strait of Bab-el- Mandeb. His capital is ^nkobar, a small and unimportant
place. Abyssinia contains many churches dug in the rocks. Alvarez has given a plan of the ni7ie-
churches in a mountain of Lasta. These extraordinaay buildings arc surrounded by a cloister ;
their vaults or roofs are supported by pillars, and their walls are covered with sculptures, the greater
part of which consists of arabesques of remarkable execution. Tradition ascribes them to Saint
Lalibala, the most renowned of the emperors of the Zageen dynasty ; whose tomb is placed in the
church named Golgota. According to the same traveller, there are found in the plain, at the dis-
tance of some miles fi om these churches, buildings in ruins, which he compares to the ruins of Axum.
Mr. Salt visited in Tigre the vast church of Abouhasoubba, on the road from Genatir to Antalow ;
the walls of which are adorned with sculptures representing crosses, Ethiopic inscriptions, and paint-
ings containing the images of Christ, the Apostles, and St. George.
The Samara or low country, between the eastern mountains and the Red Sea, is nearly uninhabit-
able from excessive heat and the scarcity of water. It is occupied by a number of small tribes more or
less savage, who preserve their independence, and form as many states as there are chiefs. The
principal places are : Durora, a village on the Bay of Amphila, inhabited by the Durahoeta, the most
powerful tribe of the Danakil, a people who possess all the coast from Hab-el-niandeb to Arena ;
ZuUii or ylrlulh', a miserable town on Annesley Bay, the residence of the chief of the Ilazorta ; Mcis-
ruah or Massowah, a small town of about 2000 inhabitants, on an islet of the same name, with a
good harbour, the principal station of the maritime commerce of Abyssinia, but now in possession
of the I'afha of Egypt ; Arkiko or .-Irkeeko, a small town on the mainland, opposite Massuah, tl.e
residence of a naib, who recognises the sovereignty of Tigre, but is independent in the administration
of his petty state.
Dhalac or DahaJac, is a large island in the Red Sea, opposite Arkiko, 35 miles long by 18 broad, in
15° hZ' N. lat., and 40= 40' E. long. It is low, with a level surface, formed of coralline rocks covered
-A'ith sand, and in summer destitute of herbage, with the exception of what is barely sufficient to feed
a few antelopes and goats. In several places there are large plantations of acacias, but few of them
are higher tlian eight feet. There are no springs, and the only water is that preserved in cisterns and
tanks, of which there are a great number. The island contains 12 villages and two harbours for small
vessels, named Dhalac and Dobelou: There is no sort of agriculture ; the inhabitants consist of sailors
and fishermen, with their familio'
MoGHEKB.j AFRICA. 837
MOGHREB OR MAGHRIB.
Ardh el Moghreb is the name given by the Arabs to the countries of northern
Africa which lie to the west of Egypt. The name signifies the WEst ; and the people
of these countries are called by their oriental brethren Moyhrebins or Moyrubhins,
that is, Westmen or Westlanders. Moghreb is divided into four portions: 1. Bilad*-
ul-Beraber, the country of the Berebers, or Barbary, subdivided into Barka, Afri-
kirjah, Moghreb-uJ-Ausat (the Middle West), awA Moghrcb-ul- Aksa (the Far West, or
Marocco) ; 2. Bilad-ul-Jerid] (the country of dates) ; 3. Es Sahara ('the Desert) ;
and 4. Bilad es Soudan (Negroland, or the country of the blacks.) B'dad-ul-Jtrid
is, properly speaking, only the southern portion of Barbary, comprising the region
which occupies the southern declivities of the Atlas, as far as the Great Desert : it has
no definite limits, and is rather a common appellation than a proper name ; we shall
therefore consider the first and second of these Arabic divisions as one geographical
region, under the European name of Barbanj ; reserving a separate section for each
of the otlier two.
BARBARY.
Boundaries and Dimensions Barbary comprehends that long narrow tract of
country which forms the southern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, from Egypt to the
Atlantic Ocean, being bounded on the north by that sea, and on the south by the ill-
defined limits of the Great Desert or Sahara. It lies between the parallels of 28^
and 3G° N. lat., and between 11° 30' W. and 2T 12' E. long., extending about 2000
miles in length, and varying in breadth from a few miles to more than 400.
General Aspect The Atlas mountains form the nucleus of Barbary; the western
portion of the region is composed of these mountains, and their interjacent valleys,
with a border of tlat country of varying breadth, on each side of them, which slopes
towards the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean on the one side, and towards
the Great Desert on the other. Moghreb-ul-Aksa or Marocco, has its greatest length
from south-west to north east, and lies between the Atlas on the east, and the At-
lantic Ocean on the west. The country ajipears to rise by three great steps or ter-
races from the sea to the mountains ; and is divided into three portions by the rivers
Seboo and Om-erbergh. Of these, the nortliern portion, which extends from the
Strait of Gibraltar to the latitude of Fez (with the exception of the northern spur
of the mountains), is almost level to the foot of tlie Atlas. From the Seboo to the
Om-erbergh, the country di|)s considerably to the west, and still more so from the
latter river to the plain of Marocco. Throughout these plains there is a great want of
wood ; even on the skirts of the Atlas the timber does not reach a great size ; but
the capabilities of the soil ajjpear to be remarkable. From the foot of Atlas to the
Atlantic is one vast corn plain, which, liy means of irrigation, might be rendered
highly productive; but at present it is covered witli weeds. J Moghreb-ul-Ausat, or
the middle west, nearly corresponds in extent with Algiers, and is separated from
Marocco by the extensive desert of Angad. Of that portion of the region which lies
to the north of the Atlas, the soil and aspect are in general fertile and pleasant ; but
to the south of the mountains little else is to be seen than naked rocks, or plains
scorched by tiie sun, and cursed with incurable barrenness. Even on the northern
side, the fertile tracts are small in extent; vast plains destitute of trees, and bearing
but scanty marks of vegetation, occur at frequent intervals ; and the eye of the tra-
veller is seldom refreshed by the appearance of luunan industry and cultivation. In
Tunis, which comprises the greater part of Afrikiyah (i. e. the Roman province of
Africa Propria), the cultivable plains are of considerable extent ; and well-watered
valleys occur among the spurs of the Atlas. The soil has been cclel)rated for cen-
turies; it was once considered the granary of tlie world, and the most valuable pro-
vince of the Roman em[)ire. The fertility of the soil almost surpasses belief; the
ground is soft and yielding, and so rich and productive, tiiat it requires only to be
turned up with a stick in order to yield any species of crop without manure, care,
• This word Bil^id ha.s stvcral otlicr forms, when cxprossed in Roman letters, as Ihled, Iklkd, lil-
ted, lilad, lihd, ami means country, region, townshii), town.
t Jerid is tlie name of the dry branches of the date-tree, whioli are used as javelins.
t C»pt. Washington, Journal, K. Ceop. Hoc. Lond. vol. I. Hut M. Craherg do llemso docs not
exactly agrei! with him ; fur he tells us tliat in Morocco the land susceptible of cultivation does not
exceed one-fourth part of tho surface, though much of the other three parti consists of rich pas-
turage.
838 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPH [Bakbart.
or toil. Notwithstanding the greater part of it is left uncultivated, except near the
towns'; and, according to M. Desfontaines, the ground throughout nearly the whole
regency is impregnated with so great a quantity of sea salt, that the majority of the
springs are saline. Speaking generally, sea salt, or chloride of sodium, is spread over
the soil of Barbary in surprising abundance. In Tripoli, the desert presses forward
to the sea, leaving only a few fertile tracts among the hills, or along the shore. The
eastern portion of it skirts the greater Syrtis, the coast of which forms an extremely
wild and dreary region, interspersed with small valleys or oases, where a few Arabs
find pasture for their flocks and herds. It is not, however, entirely barren ; for, though
it is parched in summer, and then looks dreary, yet, after the autumnal rains, it is
covered with a luxuriant vegetation. The soil is indeed sandy ; but does not consist
entirely of sand. Barca or Barka, which extends from the Syrtis to Egypt, is, speak-
ing generally, a sandy desert ; but certain portions of it are very fertile, and only re-
quire the hand of industry to make them exuberantly productive. The north-western
tract which is separated from the desert by a chain of mountains, was the Pentapo-
lis of the ancients, and, from the care bestowed upon it by its inhabitants, arrived at
a very high degree of cultivation. To the eastward, however, on the confines of
Egvpt, the country increases in sterility: the few patches of cultivation which it con-
tains are situate near the coast, or form oases in the midst of the Lybian desert, which
constitutes the western border of the region of the Nile.
EiVERS AND Lakes.— The rivers and lakes of Barbary are few and unimportant ; only one of the
former, the Mejerdah, is partly navigable, and that merely after the rains. The principal rivers are :
the Mejerdah, which rises among the mountains of Ilanalak in Algiers, flows north-east, and enters
the Mediterranean Sea at Torto Farina, to the north of Tunis ; the Shelif, which rises in a place called
the Sebbein Ain or seventy springs, on the south-east side of Jebel Wanaseris, and falls into the Me-
diterranean a little to the north of 36° N. lat., and about 0° 12' E. long. ; the Molwiah or Mohalou,
which rises from the south-east side of the Atlas at the foot of the Shabat-Beni-Obud, and falls into
the Gulf of Melillah. It is reckoned the largest river of Barbary, though, in summer, it is often dried
up. The Atlantic Ocean receives the following : — The Aoulkos or Luccos, at El-Araish ; the Seboo,
which crosses the kingdom of Fez, from east to west, entering the sea at Mehediah, is said to be na-
vigable for boats to Fez. The Om-erbegh separates Fez from Marocco, and falls into the sea at Aza-
mor. The Tensift, called also Wady Mara-kash has its sources in tlie mountains to the east and
south-east of Marocco, passes a few miles to the north of that city, and enters the sea between Mo-
gadore and Asafy. It is fordable in many places in summer. There are also several rivers in Bilad-
ul-jerid which flow into the desert, and are absorbed by the sand, or form marshes, where their water
is evaporated by the heat ; but nothing positive is known concerning them.
Tlie Sibkah el Ludiah (Salt Lake of Marks), also named Bahirah Pharaoun {Pharaoh's Lake), is
situate in the southern part of Tunis, or Afrikiyah, to the south-west of the Gulf of Khabz, and
consists of a great extent of drift sand, some of which is dry and some wet, in which the tracks of
caravans are marked by trunks of palm-trees fixed in the ground ; from which circumstance it has
received its name. It is about 80 miles in length, by less than 20 in its greatest breadth. After the
rains it forms a great salt lake ; but in summer it is nearly dry, and covered with salt. It contains
several islands of firm soil, which are covered with groves of palms. This is the Palus Tfitonis or
Lybian Lake of the ancient geographers, the scene of many fables. Two lakes, named Al Shot or
Al Shat, the one about 140 miles S.E., and the other 250 S.W., of Algiers ; Melgig, not far west of
Sibkah ; and the lake Beni Gumi, to the east of Tafilelt, are large receptacles for the rivers of Bilad-
ul-jerid, and of much the same character with the lake of Marks. There are indeed several other lakes
of the same kind, all of which are denominated Sibkah (i. e. salted earth). In winter they are usually
covered with water, and then appear like so many great lakes ; but, when dried in summer, they very
much resemble large bowling greens, and are covered with beautiful turf. Some of them have hard
and solid bottoms, without any mixture of earth or gravel, which retains the salt, and forms a crys-
talline crust after the rains. The Lake of Bizerta is a large double lake in Tunis, near the sea,
with which it is connected by a broad canal flowing through the town. The lake Fezarah, south-
west of Bona, is said to be 10 geographical miles in length by 6| in breadth, but very shallow ; it
abounds with flamingoes and wild fowl, and its shores are frequented by snipes and wild boars. Along
the west side of the Gulf of Sidra or the greater Syrtis, tliere is an extensive marsh about 100 miles
in length, for 40 of which its breadth is between 9 and 15; and for the remainder, 2 or 3 miles.
The water spreads itself in pools over this wide tract of country, communicating occasionally with
the sea. Many of these pools are several miles in extent ; and the marsh is very dangerous, if not
wholly impassable, after heavy rains.
GcLFS — In the middle of the coast of Barbary are two Gulfs of great celebrity. The Joun-al-Ka-
brit (sulphur bay) or Gulf of Sidra or Sert, the ancient Syrtis Major, forms a deep indentation be-
tween Tripoli and Barca, measuring 246 geographical miles across its mouth, and the circuit of its
shore is 422. The Syrtis Minor or Gulf of Khabz, forms a similar indentation, but of much smaller
dimensions, between Tunis and Tripoli. It measures across the mouth only about 50 miles. The
coasts of both gulfs are covered with a succession of little flat islands, sand-banks, and places with
a small depth of water, the danger of which was much increased to the ancient navigators, by the flux
and reflux of the waves occasioned by the violent north and east winds.
IsiAHDS— The only large island is that of Jerbah (Jurbah, Gerbeh), 23 miles by 16, situate at the
south-eastern side of the Gulf of Khabz, and separated from the mainland by a channel scarcely a
mile wide. It was called by the ancients Lotophagitis or Meninx, and was celebrated as the abode of
the Lotophagi, or eaters of the lotus, a delightful fruit, said to have been so intoxicating that whoever
partook of it straightway forgot his own country, and wished only to spend his life in the happy re-
gion where it was produced. It is described as resembling in taste the date, but of a safl'ron colour,
no bigger than a bean, and growing in bunches like the myrtle berry. It is still found on the whole
of this coast, is in great repute, and sold in all the markets, under the Arab name of juieb. The
modern inhabitants are celebrated for their manufacturing industry. The Karkenah or Kerkeneh
islands, the ancient Cercina, lie on the north side of the Gulf of Khabz, are very low, flat, and covered
with date trees ; but otherwise not remarkably fertile. Penon de Velez, 77 miles S.E. of Ceuta, on
the north coast of Marocco, contains a strong fort, which is used as a place of banishment for Spa-
nish crunmals. The Jexirat-ul-Jafarin (or Zafarine, or Zaphran), are three small islands in the GuU
Barbary.] AFRICA 839
of Melillah, in lat. 36° 11' N., and long. 2° 26' E ; one of which rises to the height of 140 feet. Alboran,
a small island in the Mediterranean Sea, 125 miles E. of Gibraltar.
Climate The climate is, on the whole, temperate in the maritime districts,
which are protected from the hot winds of the desert by the high ridges of the Atlas,
and at the same time exposed to the cool sea-breezes. Rain is frequent during the
winter months ; it is less copious during spring, and rarely seen in summer, which is
consequently both unpleasantly hot, and often productive of formidable diseases.
This, however, is not every where the case ; for in the city of Tunis, notwithstand-
ing the drying up of the lakes in summer, the lowness of the country, and the want
of cleanliness which every where prevails, and produces the most offensive effluvia,
fevers are by no means frequent, and epidemic maladies are almost unknown, with
the exception of the plague, which is imported, and has visited Tunis less frequently
than the other great cities on the African coast. In the winter, or rainy season, the
mornings are usually sharp, and frost and snow are occasionally experienced ; but
these approaches towards cold are seldom either so rapid or so long continued as to
compel the people to have recourse to artificial heat. Winter is also the season of
verdure ; the gentle degree of warmth which then prevails, accompanied as it is by
rain, hastens the growth of a multitude of plants, and plants spring up in the open
country as they do in more northern countries at the return of spring. As the sun
advances northward, the rains become less copious, the heat increases, the rivers and
lakes dry up, the air becomes scorching, the leaves of the trees lose their verdure,
and every thing is burnt up. At this season, also, south and south-west winds ag-
gravate the evil, by diffusing the noxious atmosphere of the deserts. Towards the
end of August, the temperature, in general, becomes more moderate, and gradually
falls during the succeeding autumn, which ends in November, when the winter or
rainy reason commences. The easterly winds, which prevail from March till Septem-
ber, are usually dry, though the atmosphere is cloudy ; westerly and northerly winds
blow violently in March, and are loaded with moisture, which falls in showers during
the intervals of the gales. Notwithstan(hng, however, all its drawbacks, the climate
of western Barbary, below the Atlas, may be said to be generally very fine ; but in
the southern districts, the atmosphere in summer is so hot and oppressive that the
people quit their dwellings to live under the shadow of the palm-trees. In eastern
Barbary the climate is extremely unpleasant ; the heat of the day and the coldness of
the night being equally insupportable.
Vegetable Productions The vegetation of northern Africa differs little from
that of the northern and eastern shores of the Mediterranean. The soil of the plains
generally resembles that of the rest of Africa, being light and sandy, and containing
many stones; but the valleys of the Atlas, and those of the streams which descend
to the sea, are covered with a compact, fertile, and well-watered soil. Hence the
most common native plants flourish on their banks, or strike their roots deep into
the sand, while the rarest species grow in the marshes and the forests. The arid
shores are covered with numerous saline and succulent plants, and different kinds of
hardy long-rooted plants, mixed Iiere and there with helishopes and soldanella. The
dry and rocky table-lands which occur in the interior, greatly resemble the downs
(llanos) of Spain. They abound with scattered groves of cork-trees and evergreen
oaks, under whose shadow, sage, lavender, and other aromatic plants grow in great
abundance, and rise to an extraordinary height. The tall-stemmed genista, different
kinds of cistus, mignionette, sumac, broom, aloe, euphorbium, and cactus, adorn the
windings aiui the clefts of the rocks, where they furnish wholesome food and a shade
for the goats. Tlie forests which cover the nortliern sides of the mountains are com-
posed of different kinds of oak, the acorns of which are eaten by the people. The
mastic tree, tlie pistacia Atlantica, the thuya articulata, and the rhus pentaphyllum,
are frequently found. The large cypress, like a verdant pyramid, stretches its branches
towards heaven ; and the wild olive yields excellent fruit without culture. All the
valleys which have a moderate elevation form in April and May so many delightful
retreats; the shade, the coolness, the briglit verdure, the diversity of the flowers,
and the mixture of agreeable odours, combine to charm the senses of tlic botanist.
On the coasts, and in the plains, the orange tree, the myrtle, the lupine, tlie virgin's
bower, and the narcissus, are in January covered with flowc^rs and young leaves; but
in June, July, August, and September, the pardied and cracked S(jil is covered only
with the yellow remains of dead and withering plants. Yet at this season the roseliny
displays its bright flowers on tlie banks of all the streams, from the tops of the moun-
tains down to the deepest valleys. Among tlie cultivated plants are hard wheat,
barley, maize, the holcus sorghum, and the holcus saccharatus ; rice in the grounds
capable of being inundated ; tobacco, dates, olives, figs, abnonds, vines, njiricots
840 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Barbary
jujebs, melons, pumpkins, saffron, the white mulberry, the indigofera glauca, and
the sugar cane. The gardens yield nearly all the species of pulse known in Europe.
Wheat is sown in autumn, and gathered in April or May ; maize and sorghum are
sown in spring, and out down in summer ; oats grow spontaneously. Some of the
fruits, such as the fig, are inferior in quality to those of Europe ; but the acorns taste
like our chestnuts.
In Marocco, the cultivation of the land is pursued chiefly by the Moors and Arabs.
The only trees on which any care is bestowed are the olive, date, palm, lemon,
orange, apple, and pear. Wheat is the grain cultivated most extensively, and is of
a quality equal to any in Europe. It yields a return of twenty-five for one ; though
in Algiers it is said the produce is generally only twelve for one. Barley is used as
food by the Moors only in times of scarcity ; but it is extensively consumed by cattle
and poultry. It generally yields from twenty to thirty fold. Next to wheat, durrah
(sorghum or millet) is the most extensively cultivated grain in Marocco, where it
forms the principal article of food of the lower orders ; it yields 140 fold. IMaize is
grown chiefly along the sea-coast, and in the southern provinces, and forms almost
entirely the food of the slaves ; its produce is often 300 fold. Rye, which grows
in great abundance in the western provinces of the interior, is the only grain allowed
to be exported; it is, however, of little value, and is rarely used as human food.
The stalks of all these species of grain are burned on the ground for manure. Rice
is produced in the western provinces of Marocco, but is so bad in quality, that the
supply of the Sultan and his court is imported from America. Calavances are the
vegetable most generally cultivated, but other vegetables, of various kinds, grow in
abundance. Potatoes have been introduced, and thrive ia the northern provinces ;
but, as they degenerate after the second or third crop, a renewal of the seed is neces-
sary. There are also many other roots to which the Moors and Arabs have recourse
for subsistence in times of scarcity. Various fruits, and aromatic plants are produced
in abundance.
Animals — The animal kingdom comprises most of the species which are found in
the rest of Africa, excepting the rhinoceros, hippopotamus, giraffe, zebra, and several
of the monkey tribes. Barbary produces fine horses, and also two kinds of asses, the
one large and strong, the other very small. The cattle generally are small and lean ;
the cows yield but little milk, and that is of an unpleasant taste. Goats and sheep
are plentiful ; but swine, being held in abhorrence by the Moslem, are found only in
the houses of Europeans. Cats, dogs, and European poultry are common; and the
Arabs pay great attention to the rearing of bees. Of all the domestic animals, the
sheep are the most important in number and value. In Marocco alone (the only dis-
trict where we have any approach to accurate statistical information) they are com-
puted at forty or forty-five millions, of which no less than 700,000 are slaughtered
annually at the grand festival called A'id-ul-kebir, on the last day of the Moslem
year ; on which occasion every male above the age of twenty is required to kill with
his own hands one or more sheep, according to his means, and the number of his
family. The quality of the wool, especially in the provinces of Temsena and Bled-
Meskeen, is very fine, superior indeed to that of Europe, and is exported from Rabat
and Sallee ; the produce of the southern provinces, which is the most abundant, is
exported from Mogadore. The amount exported, however, does not exceed 40,000
stones annually. The goat ranks next to the sheep, and contributes to a variety of
useful domestic purposes, particularly as the cows yield but little milk, which is'the
case in all warm countries where they are not artificially fed. The goats in Marocco
are estimated at 10 or 12 millions; the number of camels at half a million, and, as
is well known, these form an important article in the wealth of an Arab. The horses
in Marocco are estimated at 400,000, and are not allowed to be exported, except as
a special favour. The asses amount to 2,000,000 ; the mules are found in still greater
numbers, and a good mule is more valued than even a good horse. As dogs are never
put to death in this country, they necessarily exist in offensive numbers, although
the scanty provisions of the people leave them but little food to spare for their dogs.
It is confidently asserted, that these animals are never affected with hydrophobia,
either in northern Africa, or, indeed, in any Mahometan country ; but, though they
escape, mules, it is said, are subject to this malady in Moghreb-ul-Aksa. Not the
least important among the animals of Barbary is the locust, whose multiplying power
is almost incredible. It is said that one female lays 700,000 eggs in the sand, which
are hatched in a short time. The locusts are eaten by the Moors.
People — The people of Barbary may be divided into seven classes : Moors, Arabs
Berebers, ShelUiklis, Jews, Turk=, and Njgroes.
Baubauy.J AFRICA. 841
The Moors are generally the inhabitants of the towns and cultivated plains ; and,
though they speak a dialect of Arabic, their physical constitution, their complexion,
which is whiter than that of the Arabs, their countenance, which is fuller, with a
less elevated nose, and less expressive physiognomy, seem to indicate that they are
a different race, descended probably from a mixture of the ancient Mauritanians and
Numidians with the various foreign races which have conquered or settled in the
country. At present they constitute the higher classes in all the cities of Marocco,
and fill all the chief offices of government ; while in Algiers and Tunis they form the
greater portion of the population. The men of the genuine Moorish race are above
the middle stature, muscular, and have a grave and noble carriage. They have
black hair, their skin is a little swarthy, but rather fair than brown ; their faces are
somewhat full, and their features are less strongly marked than those of the Berebers
and Arabs. The nose is generally rounded ; the mouth of middle size ; and the eyes
large but not lively. The men are rather fat, though sometimes handsome ; the
women are formed on a scale proportionate to that of the men ; they have all black
hair and beautiful dark eyes; and some of them are even extremely pretty. They
never wear stays; and as excessive obesity is considered the perfection of female
beauty, they do all in their power to become fat, and are of course very defective in
shape. They deem it also a mark of beauty to have hanging breasts ; and torture
their children in attempts to draw down and lengthen them into the most hideous
deformity. The children, however, of both sexes are extremely pretty, with a mild
expression, and beautiful eyes, and are generally more intelligent, for their age, than
their parents. The Moors exercise almost every calling known in Europe ; they are
joiners, carpenters, rcpemakers, coopers, weavers, shoemakers, tanners, embroiderers,
tailors, jewellers, watchmakers, blacksmiths, cutlers, armourers, and so forth. But
these several trades are generally still in their infancy among them ; and their work
is performed in the slowest manner ; but as they are very abstemious, while every
article of food is cheap, they contrive, with very little labour, to maintain themselves
and their families. All employment requiring exertion is shunned by them ; they are
fond, however, of riding on horseback ; and horsemanship forms the pride and amuse-
ment of those who can afford it. Their feats in this art are often very wonderful ; they
are particularly fond of galloping, and then suddenly stopping; some will even lift
articles from the ground while going at full speed ; but they have not the art of training
their horses to any sort of pace between a walk ami a gallop. " The character of
these Africans," says M. Grabeg de Hemso, " I can conscientiously aver, is made up
of all that is meanest and vilest in the heart of man. They are now exactly the same
barbarians as their ancestors were in the days of Sallust and Procopius ; that is to
say, they are fickle, perfidious, cruel, and incapable of being restrained by either fear
or kindness. Even their countenance has in it something sinister and revolting, which
cannot be contemplated without an involuntary shudder." Other travellers give much
the same account of them. " The Moirs," says M. Kozet (Voyayc dans la Rc(jcucc
d' Alger), " are vindictive and treacherous, though devoid of general bravery or mili-
tary talent. Neither are bad faith, perjury, and idleness, the only faults of this people ;
they are tainted with the most hideous and most revolting propensities. Their boasted
abstemiousness is a mere consequence of their idleness. Those among them who can
afford it live well ; many of them now drink wine and spirits, ami it is by no means
uncommon to see Moors reeling along the streets of Algiers drunk. Indeed several
public houses, kept by Spaniards ami Italians, are filled with them from morning till
night. Their known perfidy prevents them having any confidence in each other ;
their thieving propensities are beyond all belief; and there is no noble and generous
feeling among them. They massacre without pity their enemies when defenceless.
With so many vices they have no redeeming virtue that I know of" They are, oi
course, all Mahometans, of the sect of Malek ; extremely fanatical, and, like the
fanatics of other religions, consider their piety as a compensation for every moral
defect, and heresy as a stain which can scarcely be rendered more tolerable by the
brightest assemblage of moral qualities. In spite of their indolence, saya .M. Rozet,
they generally receive a better iducation than the people of France. Almost all the
men read, write, and know something of arithmetic ; but the Koran comprises almost
the only subject of their literary education. M. Rozet, however, met Moors at
Algiers who were really well-informed men, ami who spoke several languages, were
toleraJdy well acqtniinted with geography, and even knew something of liiscory. Music;
is nearly unknown among them.
The Arabs of liarbary do not differ essentially from those of I'lirypt and Arabia.
Those of Marocco are cliiefly Bedwins, or dwellers in tents, and lead u pastoral life.
842 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Barbaey.
They are hospitable, and faithful to their promise ; and yet they are noted as thieves.
They are a hardy race, slightly made, and under the middle size. The girls when
young are pretty ; but the women are very ugly, owing to exposure to the sun and
hard work. —('Capf. Washington, Journal R. Geoff. Soc. Land. I.) The Arabs of
Algiers may be divided into two great classes : those employed in cultivating the
soil, and who occupy houses and cottages ; and the Bedwins. They are generally
tall' and well formed ; their bodies fleshy, without being either fat or thin. Their
hair is black, their foreheads high, their eyes quick and piercing, their mouth and
nose well made, their face oval and their features rather long ; their skin is brown,
sometimes dark olive, and many of them are as black as negroes, without, however,
losing any of the other characteristics of their race. They are proud and valiant,
and cut olT the heads of their vanquished enemies, but seldom add torture, like the
Moors and Berebers. They are moderate in their use of food, able to endure much
hardship, are good riders, and skilful in the use of arms. Their women occupy them-
selves with keeping bees and silk-worms, and prepare the stuff for the clothing of
their husbands and the covering of their tents. The Arabs are all proverbially hos-
pitable. Their tents are covered either with a coarse cloth or with palm leaves, and
arranged in a ring, with the tent of the Sheikh in the centre ; and are frequently
surrounded with a thorn hedge, as a defence against the lions. These ring-camps are
called duar.
The Berebers and Shellukhs appear to be essentially the same people, though a
considerable difference is observable between them. They are believed to be the
aboriginal natives of northern Africa, and are extended across the whole breadth of
the continent from Marocco to Egypt. The Berebers form at present four distinct
nations: 1. The Amaziyhs or Amazirghs or Kahyles ; 2. the Shellukhs ; 3. the Tua-
ricks ; and 4. the Tihhoos, The meaning of the name Bereber is not accurately
known ; but, in its present shape it is known to be the Arabic plural of Berber ; and
it appears probable that the Arabs borrowed it from the Greeks, and used it as a
synonyme of their own word ajami (strangers, i. e. not Arabians). The Amazighs
or Amazirghs occupy the valleys, and higher parts of the Atlas, from Jebel Tedla, in
Marocco, to the Gulf of Sidra, divided, however, into many different tribes, who
speak as many cognate dialects. In Algiers they are called generally Knhayil (tribes,
the plural of Kahileh, a tribe), and in Tunis, Zowavah. — (M. Grabcrg de Hemso, in
Journal of Royal As. Soc. G. B. III. 106, &c.) They are remarkable for their robust
figures, handsome features, and fair complexions. There are many families among
them with blue eyes, and colour as florid as that of the natives of northern Europe.
The Amazighs are chiefly shepherds and hunters ; they live in a savage state, in vil-
lages planted on hill tops ; and not a few of them dwell in caves. In the more pro-
ductive parts of their valleys, they cultivate the ground, and rear many bees. The
Kabyles are described as being about the middle height, with brown complexions,
sometimes verging on black, and brown and glossy hair ; thin, but extremely strong
and robust ; with bodies beautifully formed, and an elegance in their attitudes which
is only to be found in ancient statues. There is, however, in their countenances, an
expression of savageness, and even of cruelty ; but they are active and extremely
intelligent. They are a remarkably industrious people, and, by working the mines in
their native mountains, procure lead, copper, and iron. With the lead they make
bullets for war and the chase ; and with the copper they manufacture ornaments for
their women. It is even said that they work gold and silver. They also make gun-
barrels, implements of husbandry, and various rudely formed utensils, which they sell
to the Moors and Arabs ; with knives, swords, and other sharp instruments, not very
elegant in form, but of good quahty. They likewise make gunpowder for their own
use, but do not sell it. One of their articles of trade is a kind of black soap, made
of oUve oil and kelp. The tribes on the borders of the plains, and some of the great
valleys, breed sheep and cattle in considerable numbers ; they have also numerous
flocks of goats, which supply them with milk, and of the flesh of which they are
very fond. Their beeves are small, but their asses and mules are the best in Barhary.
In their political state they are divided into tribes, each of which is governed by a
Sheikh, as among the Arabs ; and there are families among them which are recognised
as patricians. These tribes sometimes confederate under a Sheikh-zabo, for purposes
of war or plunder. They are a warlike race, and jealous of their independence ; but
have a very savage mode of warfare. They give no quarter to the enemy who falls
into their hands, and it is fortunate for him if they are satisfied with cutting off his
head ; for they often mutilate and torture their prisoners in the most cruel manner.
Knavery Is held in respect among them, and a breach of promise is not considered
Baebaey.] AFRICA. 843
dishonourable. The Berebers are nevertheless said to be faithful and hospitable to
friends, though cruel to enemies, and hostile to strangers. With respect to their
language, all the information which M. Graberg has been able to collect, confirms
the opinion that it presents a character highly original, approaching somewhat to the
Hebrew ; and he consequently believes it to be derived from the Phoenician. It has
no affinity whatever with the Arabic, except in a few words, as religious, metaphy-
sical, and technical terms, expressions of new ideas, and such like, which have been
adopted from their Arabic neighbours. They are generally Moslems. The Shellukhs
possess the southern ridges of the Atlas to the south of Fez. They are a people of
nearly the same character as the other Berebers, but they live separately ; and,
although their habitations are sometimes very near, they have no social intercourse ;
nor is an instance known of individuals of the two nations having intermarried.
Their languages, however, have certainly a great affinity. At present neither the
Berebers nor the Shellukhs know of any other written character than the Arabic.
The Tuarichs and the Tibboos are the possessors of the middle and eastern parts of
the Sahara.
The Jews are here, as elsewhere, a proscribed race. In Marocco they are confined
to certain districts, but reside for the most part in seaport towns and villages, being
employed in commerce, or as artizans and interpreters ; and it is through their agency
that all intercourse with foreigners is carried on. They are very numerous in Marocco,
and are chiefly the descendants of those who were driven out of Europe in the four-
teenth and fifteenth centuries. They contrive to amass wealth, notwithstanding their
state of degradation, and the persecution which they suffer from the fanatical Moors.
Those who live among the Berebers enjoy a comparatively happy lot, particularly
the ancient families known by the name of Pilistin, who are supposed to have been
established in the country from remote antiquity. In Algiers they enjoyed great im-
munities before the invasion of the Turks ; but under the Turkish dominion they lost
most of their privileges, and were treated with great severity. The trade of broker
is the only profession they now exercise there. The upper classes of them transact
business with the European merchants ; those of the middle and lower classes act as
agents to the Arabs and Berebers. At Algiers an Arab would not sell a couple of
fowls v.ithout the aid of a Jew, who has always a per centage for his trouble. In
Tunis they appear to be in a somewhat better condition. They are the best mecha-
nics ; occupy the highest situations among the tax-gatherers ; generally farm the
reveimes ; and regulate the value of the money. They are also entrusted with the
keeping of the jewels and valuables of the Bey; are thus his treasurers, private se-
cretaries, and interpreters ; and the little that is known of medicine, science, and art,
is for the most part confined to them. They are in possession of many monopolies,
and some of them are enormously rich. The total number of Jews in Barbary is
estimated at 700,000; of whom about 300,000 reside in Marocco, from 150,000 to
200,000 in Tunis, and the remainder are scattered in Algiers and Tripoli. With the
exception of those in Algiers, the Jews of Barbary arc governed by their own laws.
Those in Tunis have a kaid or governor appointed by the Bey, and who may be con-
sidered as their first magistrate in all things temporal ; but their spiritual concerns
are managed by the chief rabbi, who possesses great power, more than even the kaid
himself. The Jews are all a very laborious people ; and are in fact the only work-
ing class in Barbary.
The Turks have been for three centuries the dominant people of Algiers, Tunis,
and Tripoli, and do not differ in any respect from their brethren in Asia. Sprung
from them is a mixed race called Koulowjlis, consisting of the offspring of Turks by
Moorish women. They are generally a well-formed handsome people, possessing
most of the vices of the Moors, but displaying much more refinement and cleanli-
ness. With the Moorish features they have whiter skins, and are more comely ; they
lead a life of ease and indolence, being generally rich, from the inheritance of tiieir
fathers — an inheritance accruing mostly from the profits of piracy.
From time innnemorial the people of Barbary have possessed Negro slaves, brought
from Soudan. Almost all the Moors, with the exception only of the very poorest
classes, possess slaves, whose habits and manner of living are precisely the same as
those of their masters. They exercise all sorts of callings, and many of them arc
masons. The negroes may purchase their freedom cither witli money or by services;
and many persons when they die manumit all their shives. The latter tiieii l)ecomc
Moslems, if they were not so already, and inmiediately enjoy all tlie inwnunities of
free citizens. Such is the origin of the negro pojiulation now existing in Barbary.
They are distinguished from the .Moors only by tlicir features and coH)plexion, and
844 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Baebaby.
perhaps by a few superstitious practices peculiar to themselves ; but they enjoy every
political and civil privilege of the latter. They often enlist as soldiers, and are gene-
rally very brave. In MaiOcco they compose the Sultan's body-guard, which forms
the best portion of his army.
Besides the classes already mentioned, there are a few Christians, who are chiefly
European merchants, and also a small number of renegadoes in the principal towns ;
but Christian slavery no longer exists.
Barbary is divided into four large independent states : — Morocco, Algiers or Alye-
ria, Tunis:, and Tripoli, which last includes Barca.
' The Kingdom of Mabocco or MoonREn-cL-AKSA occupies the north-west corner of Africa, be-
tween 28= and SC^ N. lat , and W^ 30' W. and 2= 30' E. long., measuring above 700 miles in extreme
length, and ,300 in breadtli. It covers, according to Graberg, a surface of 24,379 square leagues, or
about 220,000 squaro English miles, with a sea-coast on the Mediterranean, extending from Twuiit to
Cape Spartel, 270 miles, and on the Atlantic 500 miles, from Cape Spartel to Cape Agoulon. Walli-
naer, however, makes the superficial extent only 130,000 square geographical miles, and Captain Wash-
ington 150,000 ; and, indeed, as tlic eastern border, towards the desert is ill defined, no certain estimate
of its extent can properly be formed. This kingdom, or empire consists, within its actual limits, of
the kingdom of Fez ( Fes' or Fas), to the north of the river Om-erbegh ; of that of Marocco, with a
part of tile late kingdom of Sus, to the south of that river, of the kingdom of Tatilelt, the country of
Sahara, and the district of El Hharits, all to the east and south of the Atlas. Marocco and Fez are
subdivided into 30 provinces, some of which are very large, while others consist of no more than a
town with the adjoining district.
The people of the empire are distributed by Graberg, according to their races, in the following
manner : —
i .«»,!,.„»,= I Berebers and Tuaricks, .... 2,300,000
Amazirghs, j g^g„^^].,,g_ _ ' 1,450;000
Moors and mixed Arabs, .... 3,.550,000
Bedwins and pure Arabs, .... 740,000
Jews, 339,500
Negroes, ....... 120,000
-,„, „„„ (Christians, 300
Europeans, I jjg„gg^j„g'g 200
8,500,000
. Other authorities differ very much from M. Graberg.
Jackson estimates the population at .... 14.S8G,000
Hoest (Danish Consul, 1760-68), 0.000,000
Chenier (French Charge d' Affaires, between 1770 and 1780), . 6.000,000
Washington, 1836, ....... 5,500,00!)
Balbi(Abrege, Sine, edition, 1837), .... 6,000,000
Their distribution in the different divisions of the empire should bo as follows : —
Sq. leasrues. Inhahitnnts.
Kingdom of Fez, . . . . . 98.53 3,200,000
Marocco, ..... 5709 3,600.000
Tafilelt and Sigelmessa, .... 3134 700.000
Al Draha and Sus, ..... 6033 1,000,000
24,379 8,-500,000,
which gives 349 individuals to the square league. The towns are neither numerous nor populous
Marocco contains only 50,000 inluibitants ; Mekinez, 50,000 ; Fez, 88,000. There are three other towns
with from 20,000 to 30,000 inhabitants ; two from 15,000 to 20,000 ; tive from 10,000 to 15,000 ; and si.x
from .5,000 to 10,000.
The government is simple despotism, in which the will of the Sultan is predominant. The Sultan
is head of both church ar.d state, whicli are inseparable. The laws are the will of a despot. In the
capital the Sultan administers justice in person ; and in the provinces the governors (styled khalifa
or bashaw) faithfully copy their imperial master ; yet, when these rulers have no personal feeling to
gratify, their judgments are generally correct, and always prompt. Their ruling principle of govern-
ment seems to be to keep the people poor and in a condition in which they are unable to rebel. The
revenue is derived from taxes paid in kind, one tenth of corn, and one twentieth of cattle, a capitation
tax on all Jews, and tines on districts where crimes have been committed ; but it is very uncertain ;
and often requires to be levied by force from some of the Arab tribes. Its amount is estimated by Cap-
tain Washington at £1,000,000, M. Graberg makes it 2,000,000 dollars, while the expenditure amounts
only to 990,000, leaving a large surplus to be buried in the imperial treasury. The regular military
establishment does not at present exceed 15,(<00 or 16,000 men, of whom one half are negroes. They
are distributed in garrisons and shifting camps, forts, seaports, and in the imperial residences. About
one half of the number is cavalry. This force can bt- easily increased tenfold, when required, by
levies of the civic militia, and Bedwin cavalry. The militia receive no pay, but are furnished with a
horses, and when those of the provinces visit the capital, they receive a trifling present ; they are
generally expert horsemen and good marksmen, but are destitute of any sort of discipline. At the
accession of Mulei Suleiman to the throne in 1793, the naval armament consisted of 10 frigates, 4 brigs,
14 schooners, and 19 sloops, manned by 6000 intrepid seamen. The naval force at present consists of
3 brigs, mounting altogether about 40 guns, and 13 sloops stationed at the mouths of the principal
rivers. AVhen piracy was put an end to by the superior power of the Europeans, armed vessels were
found to be of little use, and too costly. The present empire was established in 1547 by a sherif or
descendant of Mahomet, whose posterity still enjoy the sovereignty, after having survived frequent
revolutions. The sovi reign conjoins the title of sherif to that ot sultan. Some of these princes have
been able men ; but generally they have exhibited a peculiarly jealous and ferocious character ; and
Marocco has been ruled by some of the most blood-thirsty tyrants recorded in history. The dis-
tinction of sherif descends to all their male offspring, and consequently preserves them from the ob-
scurity which so soon involves the posterity of other Moslem princes. The sherifs, indeed, of thi.s
family may be said to constitute a very pov.erful clan, being not fewer, perhaps, than 40,000, who
chiefly reside in Tafilelt ; nor will their numbers surprise us, when we consider that Mulai Sherif, the
founder of the dynasty, had 84 sons and 124 daughters ; and that his son Mulai-Ismael possessed a
family of 824 sons, and 325 daughters ! The succession to the throne is generally disputed by several of
the sherifs ; and one of them lately (1810) founded an independent state (Bilad-Sidi-Hesham) in the
eouthcrn part of the empire.
Barbary.] AFRICA. 845
Industry and commerce are very limited. Tlie only Important manufacture is tbat of the leather
which bears the name of morocco ; one tannery in the capital employs so many as 1500 persons; and,
though the processes are slovenly, a fine yellow colour is produced, which Europeans camiot rival.
The other articles of exportation are almonds of very tine quality from Sus, dates from Tafilelt, ivoi'y
and gold dust from Soudan ; honey, wax, ostrich leathers, &c. In return, the kingdom receives the
usual articJes of European and colonial produce ; and its trade is carried on chietiy by the port of
Mogadore.
Marocco C Marakesh, Morocco), the capital, is situate near the northern limit of a large plain, 1500
feet above the level of the sea, in 31° 37 30" N. lat., and 7^ 36' W. long. Tlie city is six niiks in cir-
cuit, enclosed by a strongly-built machicolated wall of tapia-work, witli square towers, and containing
eleven double gates; but this area is far from being generally covered with buildings, it comprises
large gardens, and open spaces of 20 or 30 acres in extent. The streets are narrow and irro^'ular,
having the appearance of lanes, lined witli houses, usually of one storey, and llat-roofed. Tlie city
contains 19 mosques, 2 madreses or colleges, and 1 hospital. The principal mosque has a lofty square
tower of seven storeys, 220 feet high ; its height being apparently seven times its diameter, with a
small turret or lantern on the top. The palace occupies a separate enclosure on the south side of the
city, measuring about l-.OO yards by (JOO, occupied chiefly by gardens, pavilions, and otlier usual orna-
ments. The population is about 50,000. The city is placed in the midst of a forest of palms ; and
the plain in which it stands extends east and west between a low range of schistose liills to tlie north,
and the Atlas to the south, having a breadth of 25 miles, apparently a dead Jiat to the foot of the
mountains, but the limits as far as the eye can reacli east and west are undefined. The Wady Tensift
runs through it, and is crossed a few miles north of the city by a bridge (alkuntrah) of 30 arches. Tlio
city is supplied with water, which is brought from tlie Atlas, at the distance of 20 miles, by spacious
aqueducts.
Fex (Fes, Fas), the capital of tlie kingdom of that name, and once the metropolis of Moghreb-ul-
Aksa, is situate in 34^ G' N. lat., and 4^ oS' W. long., on the banks of an aftluent of the Seboo, in a
hollow valley formed by woody mountains. The houses, built of well made fire-burned bricks, are
fenerally two storeys liigh, containing a court in the centre, and flat-roofed. Tlie streets are (laved
ut narrow, winding, and dirty. Fez contains a number of mosques, with minarets 100 feet high; but
has no other remarkable buildings. It lias, likewise, sulphureous and clialybeate baths, wliich are
well frequented ; and Ali Hey (Balidia) who visited Fez about 30 years ago, speaks of its schools, as
celebrated over all Africa, and of its library, as being very considerable for such a country. The
population is reckoned about 88,000. 'Woollen coverlets, swords, and fire-arms, morocco leather,
gunpowder, and other articles, employ a great portion of its inhabitants, wlio also carry on a very
extensive commerce.
Mekinex ( Miknasah. Mequhiez) 33 miles W. by S. of Fez, is chiefly important as an imperial resi-
dence, and is situate in a well cultivated valley. The palace is a vast square fortified building ; and
the population of the city is reckoned at 5(i,000. Tlie other towns of the empire are unimportant.
Tetiuin, 20 miles S. of Ceuta, possesses the only harbour on the Mediterranean coast ; and has a con-
siderable trade and population. Tangier, a little to the east of Cape Spartel, has a good liarbour,
and a very active trade, and is an ordinary residence of tlie European consuls. F,l ylraish or Laras/ie,
at the mouth of the river I.uccos, is the ordinary station of tlie imperial fleet. S/a (Salee) at the
mouth of the Buregrcg, the resort of the formidable pirates who scoured ilie seas in the 17th and
early part of the 18th centuries, has very much declined, thougli it still contains about 10,000 inhabi-
tants, liahat or New Salee, on the opposite side of tlie river, is still one of the principal towns of the
empire, and has a population amounting to 2j,000. ^l Kazar, 82 miles N.AV. of Fez, a very decayed
city, still contains 8000 inhabitants. Mogadore, 130 miles W. of Marocco, in 31° 30' N. lat. ,"9° 47' W.
long., with 10,000 innabitants, which was regularly rebuilt in 17G0, fortified and provided with a har-
bour, which is now choked up witli sand, is the lirst maritime station, and the most commercial town
in the empire, ylgadir or ianta Cruz, 75 miles S. of JNlogadore, is a port on the Atlantic, formerly
belonging to the i'ortuguese. Taradatit, the capital of the province of Sus, lias an industrious popu-
lation of 20,000 or 22,000 souls ; and Tagaiost, in the same province, is said to be larger still. Of the
towns in Tafilelt and Sigelmessa little or notliing is known.
Sidi-Hesham's Cocntby (liilad-Sidi- Hes/ium), a new state, founded in 1810, by Sidi-IIesliam, tlio
son of the Sherif Achmed-ebn-Mousay, is composed of a part of the province of Sus, and extends to
the east and south of that country. Inhabited by an industrious, agricultural, mercantile, and war-
like people, it seems to have become the centre of the trade between Marocco and Timhuetoo ; the
Moorisli merchants preferring to stop here rather than cross the desert. Talent is the capital ; and
at Ilefi/i is the venerated tomh of the Sherif Aclimed, the father of llcshain. The southern part of
the state includes the large valley and river of H'ady-Sun.
Algkri.v extends along the Mediterranean Sea, eastward from Marocco, between 2° V»'. and 8° 30'
E. long., Ixing about G5U miles in extreme length; but, as it has no definite limits southwards, no
computation can be made of its breadth or superlicial extent. This region corresponds very nearly
to the Koman provinces of Numidia and .Mauritania Casariensis. In the beginning of the sixteenth
century the Moors of the country called to their assistance against the Spaniards a famous Turki.sli
corsair, I'aha llorush (Barharossa of the Franks), who made himself master of Algiers ; and, at his
death in battle in 151k, left it to his brollier Khair-ed-din ( Hyraddin.) The latter, in order to secure
his conquest, put himself under the protection of the Ottoman Sultan, Selim 1., who appointed him
Pasha and Regent of Algiers, and sent liini a body of janisarics. In the course of time the governors
became independent princes, with the title (jf Dey, elected by tlie Turkish soldiery, whose numliers
were always kept up by recruits from Constantinople and the Levant, and who formed a very licen-
tious and turbulent aristocracy. For three centuries the Algerines carried on a piratical warfare
against Christendom ; but at length in 1830, a Frencli army invaded Algicr > took the city, detlironed
the l)ey, and latterly expelled all the Turks. The French Government still retain their coiuiuest ;
but their influence and authority extend very little beyond the districts immediately adjoining to the
cities and towns which they have garrisoned. They have upwards of 7o,o;iO troops in the country ;
since tlie first invasion in 18.i0 about .50,000 have been slain, and alioiil ID.OUO are constantly in the
hospitals. Great numbers also die of fatigue and privation. \\ hen tliiy march each soldier carries
about a liundred-weight, which, under a burning sun, is an oppressive load ; and as they arc employed
in fighting and skirmishing night and day, sometimes within a few miles of the city, few return
home except as invalids. The expense of retaining this conquest is enormous ; and must be attended
with great saci ifices on the part of the mother country. The French, however, have possession of
all the coast from Bona to Uraii.
Under tlie IJeys the regency was divided into four provinces : 1. Al .Tezirah or Algiers proper ; 2.
Titterie, to the south ; 3. Conslantina, to the east ; and i. .Mascara, to tlie west ; the last tliree being
governed by beys, while tlie first was governed directly by the l)cy himself. At present Ahd-el-Kader
rules over a great part of the late beylicks of Oran and Titterie, Including .Ma.scara and 'Ininecen ;
Achmet possesses the greater part of Conslantina ; while the country actually possessed by the French
forms three military governments. The first, that oi Algiers, under the con.maml of the governor-
in-chicf, comprises, besides the city, a circuit of abont tlirie leagues and a half without tlio walls ;
»nd it is only within this space that the French rule is i>ositively established, and Uieir culooistt iu
846 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRArflY. [Barbary
Mfety. The »econd, called the Government rtf Oran, contains a territory of from 15 to 20 leagues in-
land ) but the governor has great inHucnce over the neighbouring country. The third, called the
Government of Bona, includes that town and Bouglah, with their respective territories : to which we
may now add Constantlna, and the road between that city and Bona. Besides these recent conquests,
France has possessed for four centuries a territory called the Concestions, which extends along the
coast from Bougiah to the frontier of Tunis, and Is composed of two distinct parts : the eastern,
which stretches from tlie frontier of Tunis to the river Suibous, which belongs entirely to France,
and on wliich are erected three forts, called the Bastion de France, At Kalah or La Calk, and the
Potte (/k Moulin ; the western, which extends from the Scibous to Bougiah, along the coast of which
the Dey had granted to France the right of fishing for coral, in consideration of a certain annual pay-
ment, which was latterly, by treaty in 1817, fixed at the amount of 200,000 francs. In 1825 the fishery
emploved 183 boats, amounting to 1791 tons, and manned by 1080 men, and the produce was valued at
I,8I2.4"tO francs. The most of these boats were Italian, but they all paid a duty to France. In 1827
the Poste du Moulin and La Calle were demolished by the troops of the Dey ; and, in return, the Dey
himself was, in 18.10, deprived of his capital and bis kingdom at the same time.
The territory south of the Atlas included in tlie late regency, consists of two extensive districts!
the Zaad, or the country of the Beni Mezziib. about 300 miles to the south of Algiers ; and the Wad
Reao or F.rimghah, as far to the south of Constantina, both of which stretch to the very edge of the
desert. Dates are tlie chief products of both districts. The Zaab is well watered by the river Adie-
dee and its affluents, but the M'ad-reag is very dry. There are no fountains or rivulets ; and, in order
to obtain water, tlie people dig to the depth sometimes of 100 fathoms, through difiTerent layers of sand
and gravel, till they come to a flaky stone-like slate, which is known to be immediately above the
Bahr talit elerd, or the sea below ground. This stone is easily broken through, and the flow of water
which follows the stroke is so sudden and abundant, that the person let down for the purpose is some-
times drowned, though pulled up with the greatest expedition.
Algiers (Al Jezirah, the island), the capital of the regency, and now the capital ofthe French ter-
ritories, is situate on the coast ofthe Mediterranean, in 3G^ 47' 20" N. lat., and 3- 4' 2b" E. long. It is
built on the side of a hill which rises to the height of 400 feet, the top being occupied by the Kasuba
or castle. The streets are very narrow, the widest having been only about 12 feet, till the French
formed a new one through the city. The houses are in the usual Moslem fashion, all square, with an
open court in the middle, and flat-roofed ; and as they rise in rows above each other on the hill side,
there is hardly one which has not a view ofthe sea. All the houses are whitewashed on the outside j
and as this is extended to the forts, batteries, and city walli, the whole have the appearance, at a cer-
tain distance, of a va<t chalk quarry opened on the side of a mountain. Towards the land the city
was defended by a wall flanked with towers ; but, towards the sea, there was a line of forts and bat-
teries mounting 237 pieces of cannon. The city contains 153 streets, 14 blind alleys, and 5 open places ;
but, with the exception of one or two streets, it is a confused labyrinth of narrow, gloomy, and
crooked lanes. It is, however, well drained by sewers, and well supplied with water, which is brought
from the neighbouring heights by four aqueducts, and supplies G4 public wells. Before the French
conquest there were 13 great mosques, with minarets, and about 70 small ones. The whole town is a
very curious specimen of Arab and Moorish ta«te in architecture, to which has now been added a
mixture of French, about a fourth part of the old town having been pulled down to make room for
fine houses, shops, and hotels. The harbour is formed by the island (al jezirah) from which the city
takes its name, and which is now connected with the mainland by a mole ; it is principally upon this
island that the formidable batteries were erected. On the land side the only defence was the empe-
ror's fort, which indeed commands the city, but is itself commanded by the upper part of Mount
Boujereeah. The hills which rise above and around the city are studded with country-houses, gar-
dens, vineyards, and olive groves. Algiers has also three colleges for the instruction of the ministers
of the Moslem religion, besides a great number of public schools, where children of both sexes are
taught to read and write. A medical school has been established, and a public library. The Algerine
Moniteur newspaper appears once a-week. The circuit of the city is litttle more than two miles ; its
population has been greatly exaggerated ; some authors have carried the amount to 80,100, and even
200,000. According to the census taken in April 1833, it was found to contain 11,850 Moors, 1874
negroes, b'j\9 Jews, 2185 French civilians, 1895 foreigners ; in all 23,753, bes-ides the garrison. Algiers
was first built about a. d. 935, by an Arabian chief, named Yussuf Zeri. Fourteen miles west from
the city is the bay and tower of Sidi Ferrej or Ferrush, where the French army landed in 1830. The
country all around Algiers is delightful, and the French are introducing great improvements in for-
tification, road-making, and public buildings.
Constantina ( Kosaniinak, Kostantinah), a large and very ancient city, 195 miles E. by S. of Algiers,
occupies a remarkable situation, and is at all points, except one, admirably defended by natural posi-
tion. A ravine 60 yards wide, and of great depth, at the bottom of whicli runs the Wady Rummel,
presents, as a scarp and counterscarp, a perpendicular rock equally unassailable by bombardment or
undermining; and which communicates with the adjoining plateau of Mansoura by a very narrow
bridge, defended by a double gateway of great strength. The greater part of the houses are built
from two to five feet above the ground on large square cut blocks of dark grey calcareous stones, the
remains of ancient buildings ; and are covered with sloping tiled roofs, which give the city the ap-
pearance of a Spanish rather than of a Moslem town. None of the mosques, public buildings, or
houses are remarkable for any beauty or architectural elegance. The Bey's new palace, built a few
years ago, is large, and in the interior very handsome. The city measures nearly 2700 yards in cir-
cuit ; and is surrounded by walls, built of Roman-wrought stones. The population may be estimated
at from 25,000 to 30,000, a considerable portion of which appears to have Iseen, before the French
conquest, very wealthy, and to have indulged in habits of luxury. The principal manufactures are
those of saddles, bridles, boots, slippers, and gaiters. A considerable trade was formerly carried on
with the south, from which, in return for corn, saddlery, and European goods, the Coiistantinians
received gold-dust, ostrich feathers, slaves, and the finer sorts of haiks, both of wool and silk. The
city received its present name from Constantino the Great, who caused it to be rebuilt; its more
ancient name was i'irta, and it is celebrated as the capital of the ancient Numidia. In order to secure
a communication to Constantina with the sea, at the nearest point of the coast, a new city, named
Philippemlle has been founded on the Bay of Storah, and is rapidly becoming a place of importance.
Bona (called by the Arabs Jnndbah — the place of jujebs), is situate on the coast, 93 miles N.E.
by E. of Constantina in 36° 53' 55" N. lat. and 5= 24' 38" E. long. The town was destroyed in 1832,
but is now rebuilt. Many good houses have been erected, and good shops, reading-rooms, coffee-
houses, restaurants, and even a theatre established. Several of the streets have been widened, and
carried in straight lines. About a mile S. by W. are the ruins of the ancient Hippo, the bishopric of
St. Augustine. Bougiah ( Boujayah, Boujeyah, BvgiaJ, a miserable place with a few steep and wind-
ing streets, on the slope of a hill, rising from the sea, with a spacious but insecure harbour, 120 miles
E. of Algiers. IVahran or Oran, a fortress, 240 miles S. W. by W. of Algiers, stands on the slopes
of two hills separated by a green wooded valley watered by a rapid stream which flows into the sea.
It was built by the Spaniards, and is surrounded with strong walls and ditches. The east side is
defended by the citadel, two forts, and a lunette ; and the valley is commanded on the north side by
fire strong towers, besides fort St. Philip. Merchant vessels can anchor with safety only before the
Barbary.] AFRICA. 847
town, and this merely in calm weather, or when the wind blows from the south. The inner harbour,
which was of considerable size, and intended for sheltering small craft, fell in, in November 1835.
Arzaw ( Arzeou, Arxew), the Partus Magnus of the Latins, a small town of 500 inhabitants, 24 miles
E.N.E. of Oran, has productive salines, and is the best harbour in the regency. Jielidah ( Blida),
."JO miles S.W. by S of Algiers, was lately a flourishing town of 15,000 inhabitants, but was entirely
destroyed by an earthquake in 1825 ; and, though afterwards rebuilt, has been reduced by the eilects
of war to a population of 4000. Medeya C Mehdyah, Medea j, 13 miles S. of Belidn, a pretty town of
COOO inhabitants, and situate in a delightful and fertile country, is the residence of the Bey of Titterie.
Mascara, the residence of Abd-el-Kader, and containing about 10,000 inhabitants, was taken by the
French in 1835, and reduced to a heap of ruins ; 50 miles E. by S. of Oran. Tremecen ( Tlemecen,
Tlemsihan, Tremezen), the most considerable city of the province of Oran, has a population of
above 10,000. Tuggurt C Tequort ), the capitaX ot yV&A-re&s^ 325 miles S. S. E. of Algiers, is a large
town of 4000 houses, surrounded with walls and gates, and a wide ditch crossed by three bridges.
The people are wealthy ; the country produces dates, figs, raisins, pomegranates, apples, apricots,
peaches, and other fruits. There is a salt-bed at Tuggurt ; and indeed the whole country abounds
with this mineral : there are no stones to be met with, but springs of water are numerous. The people
are black ; but one quarter of the town is possessed by a white race called Muhedjerin, who were once
Jews, but to escape death, made profession of Islam, and are now devoted readers of the Koran.
They possess great wealth ; their women appear in the market-places veiled, and converse in He-
brew among themselves when they wish not to be understood.* GImrdaieh or Ohardeyah, the chief
town of the Beni Mezzab, 3G0 miles S. by W. of Algiers, contains 2400 houses, including mosques,
with a large market-place, and two minarets. It is surrounded by a wall with two gates ; and the
water is entirely procured from wells. The Beni Mezzab are a powerful people, and speak the Ber-
ber language. They are of very white complexion ; when they ride they use camels ; and their food
consists chiefly of flesh and milk ; the country yields no grain, though the Wady produces dates.
They are Moslem dissenters, are very temperate, and neither smoke tobacco, nor drink wine. They
make, however, incursions into Jioudan, and carry off slaves, and other property. F,i;hua(it or Agh-
trath, a large town of about .'jOOO inliabitants, 260 miles S. by W. of Algiers, is surrounded by a wall
witli furtiticalions. It has four gates, and four mosques, but no minarets, and the houses are built
chiefly of clay or mud; tlie town is divided into two parts by the river Emzee. The region is very
mountainous. To the northward is a very high mountain called Jebel- Amour, whicli contains 100
springs of water, and furnishes every kind of timber.
Tunis extends along the coast of the Mediterranean, and is about 450 miles in length, from N. to S.,
by 150 in breadth, containing an area of 52,000 English square miles. It is bounded on the north and
east by tlie Mediterranean Sea, on the west by Algiers, on the south by the undefined limits of Bilad-
ul-jerid and Sahara, and on the south-east by Tripoli. This territory was formerly a province of the
Ottoman empire ; but came at lasfinto the possession of a hereditary Bey. who is now the actual
sovereign, and exercises despotic power. His military force was recently organized on the European
system by a British officer, and he has long maintained peaceful relations with the European powers.
The Mamelukes or body-guards form here a separate class, which is not numerous, but is on that ac-
count the more powerful ; they form the nobility or aristocracy of the court, and being all assembUd
round the person of the sovereign, and in his special service, they are considered as enjoying his pecu-
liar favour. Tunis, the capital, is a large but irregularlj-ljuilt city, with narrow and filthy streets,
situate on the west side of a shallow gulf, which conmiumcates with the Mediterranean Sea by a nar-
row entrance, named tlie Goleta. It has high ground to the south, but an extensive marsh on the west,
and yet is not unhealthy. The citadel, called El Gaspa, is on the west side of the city, but is com-
pletely commanded by the neighbouring heiglits. The Bey's fortified palace, named I'd J'urdo, is about
two miles N.W. of the city. The Goleta is well fortified, having its entrance defended by a castle of
the same name ; and, besides, the depth of the bay or lagoon inside being nowhere more than a fa-
thom, ships cannot approach the city. Tunis carries on a more extensive trade than any other city
of Barbary ; its population exceeds KXI.OOO, of whom 40,000 are Jews, and of these about (KX) are tailors,
and 1000 goldsmiths. On the sea-coast, north of the Goleta, and 13 miles N.E. of Tunis, is the site
of the ancient city of Carthage, of which nothing is left but heaps of stones and remains of walls, with
some cisterns and subterranean vaults. Keruan or Kairuan. 80 miles S. by E. of Tunis, a large town,
with G0,000 inhabitants, holds the fourth jJace in point of holiness in the Moslem world ; an honour
which it owes to the circumstance of its containing the tomb of the friend and barber of the prophet,
which is placed within a large mosque, said to be supported by 500 granite pillars. The mosque is
surmounted by beautiful cupolas and towers ; but being surrounded by a high wall, it has more the aj)-
pearanee of a citadel than of a church. Kairwan was long the metropolis of the Arabian empire in Africa,
and the seat of science ; Imt at present it is famous only for its sanctity, and its shoemakers, whose
morocco boots are considered as the bist in Barbary. Nothing can be more naked and lifeless
tlian the environs of the town, as far as the eye can reach. South-east of Kairwan, 30 miles, are the
remains ofa magnificc nt ampli it licat re, still very entire, at a place called ElJemm, the aneient Tysdriis ;
and 8.') miles S.W. by \V., at Sfetlnh or Sheitlah, are the fine ruins of the ancient Siifelula. Sfakns
or Sfiix, on the south-east coast, is a considerable town, with a flourishing trade, and surrounded by
.SO.fXX) gardens, of which 1 4,000 are attached to the houses. To the eastward are the Kirkina or Karkena
islands (anc. Ccrchia), Gerba, Ilamlnh, and Kouslia. The group extends about 30 miles in length N.E.
and S.W. ; they are all very low, and covered witli date trees, but otherwise not remarkably fertile.
Kluibz, Gabs, or Oiltis, on the south-west shore of the Little Syrtis, at the mouth of a rivulet, the
famous Tritiiuis of the ancients, but no%v chiefly valued from its watering extensive plantations of
henna, which afford a valuable article of export. Khabz is a largo town, with 20,000 or ;10,(HK) inliabi-
tants ; but its harbour is now accessible only for small vessels. Ilizertu or Utnxart, a large town,
about a mile in circumference, with about HOO'l inhabitants, on the sea-coast, 40 miles N.N.W. of
Tunis, represents the ancient Hivvo Zarutus. To the south are two large lakes, joined by a strait,
and connected with the sea by a broad channel flowing through tlie town. Tlie harbour is small,
and the most dangerous on the coast ; three or four miles off the sliore are the Frutelli or llrolhyrs,
two immense rocks, which rise 300 feet from the sea. The other principal places are : I'ltrtu J'drinii,
at the moutli of tlie river Mcjcrdah, 27 miles N. of Tunis; Ilammamct, on a wide gulf to which it
gives its name, on the east coast, south of Tunis ; Soma, and Mistir or Muttiuter, on the coast of the
gulf of Hammamet ; Ghafmli, Se/ta, and Tuzer, on the south-west frontier, west of the Little Syrtis ;
Mahndiah on the coast, east of Kairwan.
TRii'Or.l is a narrow territory whicli extends along the coast, from the frontier of Tunis fofhc fron-
tier of Egypt. The habitable part consi.sts chiefly of portions of the coast, which for a few miles In-
land are generally fertile and well cultivateJ ; but in some places the desert aiiiiroachi s close to tlio
sea ; and the interior is little better than a barren and sandy waste, occasionally traversed by rocky
ranges of hills. It was for upwards cf a century governed by a series of hereditary bashaws, of the
• Notes of a Journey into the Interior of North Africa, by Iladji Ebn-ed-din El Eghwati, translated
by W. B. Ilodson, Esq. London, 1830.
548 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Sahara.
Moorish family of Karamanll, who acknowledged the sovereignty of the Ottoman Sultan, and paid him
tribute, but were In other respects the independent sovereigns of tJ'^^°l\^*^y;„„P„'^°^^^^|P°^'^T^^*
recovered 1 - ■ • ■ -^ j.- t> -.. ._ ..^ ^ » ..-^^.r. o= r, oq™.„,„
andTa^'li' E long ' It is surrounded by an extensive wall, but a large portion or the Inclosed space
is unoccunied The caravansaries, mosques, bazaars, houses of foreign consuls, and of the better
classes of citizens, are generally built of stone, and regularly whitewashed twice a-year ; they are
usually two storeys high, but not equal to those of the same class in Tunis and Algiers. The popula •
tion does not exceed 25,000. Tripoli carries on a consider^ible trade with the interior of Africa, to
which it may be considered one of the principal shipping ports ; and its bashaw used to exercise con-
siderable inrfucnce over Fezzan and the tribes of the adjacent deserts. Close to the city are a fine Ro-
man triumphal arch and other antiquities. Along tlie coast E. and \V. of the city, between the two
Svrtes are the inconsiderable towns of Zoarah or Ezxvarah, Lcbidah (ancient Leptis :\Ia(;na), and
Mesuratii or Mitratah. To the eastward of the Great Syrtis is the dependent province or beylik of
Burca tlie principal places of which, likewise on the coast, are : liengaxt (ancient BereniaJ, with
.5000 iiihabitants, in the midst of a small fertile district, watered by a rivulet ; Teukeni and Dalmeta
(ancient I'tolemiis), once flourishing towns, but now reduced to insignificance ; and Dernah or Beled
at Sour the residence of the Hey, a town with 4000 inhabitants, on the north-east coast. But tlie most
interesting place in the district is Grennah or Kuren (ancient Greek Kurene, Latin Cyrene), the ruins
of which are finely situate on a high table plain, which descends abruptly to the sea by successive
stages. The most remarkable of the remains is the necropolis or burying ground, consisting of tombs
arranged in terraces along the mountain, and extending a mile and a half along the roads which lead
to the city, so as to present tlie appearance of splendid streets. Kurene was founded by the ancient
Greeks, and was for a long time one of their most flourishing colonies, but is now completely deserted.
In the southern part of Barca is the district of Angela, with a town of the same name, whicli derives
some importance from its being one of the stages on the great caravan road between Egypt and
Fezzan.
ES SAHARA, or THE DESERT.
The Sahara extends, as already mentioned, across the breadth of Northern Africa, from the valley
of the Nile westward to the Atlantic Ocean, and from Bilad-ul-Jerid southward to the borders of Sou-
dan. This wide region is covered more or less extensively with a quartzy and calcareous sand, though
in some places the surface is composed of naked clay or bare rocks ; fertile tracts also occur, but they
are few and far between, and also lakes, strongly impregnated with soda, forming the natron and salt
lakes mentioned by travellers. In the eastern parts of the desert the rocks are chiefly of the secondary
formation, as limestone, sandstone, gypsum, and rock salt, occasionally traversed by trap rocks ;
along the western sea-coast they are said to be principally composed of igneous rocks, and chiefly
basalt. The greater portion, indeed, of this vast space is one mass of bare rocky hills, and scorching
sands, without water, bird, or tree, or even the appearance of vegetation. Here and there, however,
there are to be found scattered over it i'ertile spots called wadys, wahs, or oases, which contain wells
of good water, and a considerable portion of tropical vegetation. These are most numerous about
the middle of the desert, extending southward from Tripoli to Bornou, and consequently that part of
it is the most frequented by travellers. To the westward the desert becomes more cheerless and for-
bidding, the watering places are at a greater distance from each other, and the vegetation which they
contain is more scanty. The wells frequently become dry, which occasions scenes of horror and misery
that exceed all description ; men and camels, disappointed of water, die in hundreds and thousands.
This western portion is also more sandy than the middle, and is consequently not only more subject
to the fearful simoom, but also to furious tempests of wind which roll the sands before them like the
waves of the sea. To such a degree, indeed, are the sands heated by the unclouded glare of the sun,
and to so great a degree of fineness are they reduced^by constantly shifting about, that the atmosphere
becomes tilled with the particles ; and to a great distance westward in the Atlantic Ocean ships often
find their sails choked with them. This portion of the desert may be pronounced to be almost desti-
tute of inhabitants ; except where the scanty vegetation, in certain spots, aff'ords pasturage for the
flocks of a few miserable Arabs, who roam from one well to another. In other places, where the supply
of water and pasturage is more abundant, small parties of floors have taken up their residence, and
live in independent poverty, secure from the tyrannical governments of Barbary. But the greater
portion of the desert, being entirely destitute of water, is seldom visited by any human being, unless
where the trading caravans thread their weary route across it. In some places, however, the ground
is covered with low stunted shrubs, which serve as landmarks for the caravans, and furnish a scanty
forage to the camels. Elsewliere, the unfortunate wanderer, wherever he turns, sees nothing but a
boundless expanse of sand and sky, a gloomy and barren road, where the eye finds nothing to rest
upon, and the mind is filled with painful apprehensions. In the midst of this solitude the traveller
sees the carcasses of birds which the violence of the wind has brought from happier regions ; and, as
he ruminates on the fearful length of his remaining journey, listens with horror to the voice of the
driving blast, the only sound which breaks upon the awful silence of the desert. — ■( Caitlie.)
The wild animals that inhabit these dreary regions are the antelope and the ostrich, whose swift-
ness of foot enables them to reach the distant watering-places. On the skirts of the desert, where
water is more plentiful, are found lions, panthers, elephants, and wild boars; but the only tamed
animal that can bear the fatigue of crossing the desert is the camel. The desert is traversed in va-
rious directions by numerous routes, varying in length from 30 to 90 days, which terminate at the
principal cities and towns of Soudan and Barbary, but deviate from the straight course in several in-
stances, according as trading towns or wadys lye nearly in the way.
The Sahara is inhabited by numerous tribes of various lineage, which are scattered in its wadys and
fertile spots. Moors occupy the coast of the Atlantic between Marocco and Senegal, and extend east-
ward to the limits of the Tnaricks. They are subdivided into a great number of tribes, most of whom
are distinguished for ferocity and love of plunder. They consist partly of pure Arabs, whose ances-
tors migrated from Arabia in tlie first centuries of the Hejrah, and partly of a mixed race, descended
of both Arabs and Berebers. The pure Arabs may be classed in two principal groups ; the one of
Ishmaelitish origin, and bearing the name of Ilelal, Ililel, or Hileil ; the other of Kahtanian origin,
and bearing the name of Maghylah, Mahchil, or Maguilla. Of the Helal the best known tribes are
the Beni-amer and Mustetnyn, who live near Cape Bojador, and the El Hharits, in the neighbourhood
of Darah. To the latter may be annexed the tribes of Tiknah, Modjat, Moghafera, and Tajacani,
with some others. Among the Maghylah the most distinguished tribes are those of the S<^bayn or
Walad- Abi-Seba, and Dclcmyn or fValad Deleytn, who all dwell near Cape Blanco, and are notorious
for their cruelty. Of the same lineage are the tribe of El Wadayah who possess the oases of VVailart
and fValatah; the tribe of Barboush or Berabysh, who possess Ttsheet; the tribes of El-Arousyuh,
Arkybat, and several others.
To the class of mixed Moors belong the numerous tribes who are confounded under the common
nam.c of Ssanagah, but are distinguished by the particular names of Terarxah, Beraknah, Duuish,
Soudan.] AFRICA. 849
&c. In the Terarzah are comprised the U'alttd-el-Haji-DarmaJio, who border on the Senegal ; the
Adjminah, robbers who infest the adjoining coast ; the Walad Mubarek, who dwell in the interior,
and a number of other tribes. In the Beraknah groupe are the Walad-Aviar, the Ludamar of I'arl;,
the Gegebah, the Tiikant, and many others. In the groupe of Doulsh are comprised the fValad- Ghayti,
better known by the name of Walad-Abon- Sciif ; the Kountah, and, perhaps, also the Zwat, who
occupy the country towards Arawan. To the same mixed class belong the Lamthah, comprising
the tribes of IPnlad- Nun, who inhabit Wadt/-Xun, to the south of Marocco ; the Masoufah, who
formerly worked the salt mines of Tahiimy or Tegiizze, which are now abandoned ; and, perliaps, the
Wirkalati, who possess the desert adjoining Bilad-ul-jerid, and who appear to be now the possessors
of Tuit. from which they derive that name.
The Turn irks are a numerous and warlike people who inhabit the middle portion of the Sahara, be-
tween Tripoli, Timbuctoo, and IJornou ; and have from the days of the Carthaginians and the Komans
furnished the conductors of the caravans, and even the mej'cliants who carry on the regular and active
commerce which has always e.xisted in this part of Africa. They are a fine race of people, tall, erect,
and handsome, with an imposing air of self-respect and independence. Their skin is not dark, except
where browned by the sun. They hold in contempt all who live in houses and cultivate the ground,
and derive their own employment and subsistence from the pasturage of theii- flocks, trade, and plun-
der. They keep all the borders of Soudan in constap.t alarm, and carry oft" thence great numbers of
slaves, whom they sell in Harbary. Yet, at home, they have been found frank, honest, and hospit.ablo,
paying an unusual respect to their women, and in their social life much resembling Europeans. They
nave even written characters, which they have cut on the dark rocks that chequer their territory. The
principal tribes are : The ll/uifiara, who occupy the country between Twat and Arawan, and like-
wise possess Ahyr or Hayr, and have WaVcn for their capital; they are notorious for perfidy and
cruelty: the Smcrka, who extend from Mabrouk to Jlnnie, and subject all their negro neighbours to
insolent exactions : and the Taghama and Kalluuri to the north of Ilaoussa, the latter of whom pos-
sess the oases of Ashen and G/iat, with the whole desert as far as I'ezzan. Of all the tribes those of
Hhagara and Matkara arc the least black, having only a brownish or tawny tint; the others have
complexions of darker shade in proportion to their vicinity to the negro races, with whose blood they
have mixed.
The Tibboos or Tibbos, who are found in the eastern part of the desert, are nearly as black as negroes,
but have a difTeront physiognomy; their hair is longer, and less curled ; their stature low ; their fea-
tures small ; and their eye quick. They live on the milk of their camels, and the scanty produce of a
few fertile spots ; to which they add the profits of a little trade, and not unfreiiuently the plunder of
caravans. They are themselves, however, exposed to a mightier race of spoilers, the Tuaricks, who,
once a year at least, make a foray into their territory, and carry off every thing, without resistance
from the cowardly Tibboos, whose only .safety is to ascend certain perpendicular rocks with fiat tops,
beside which they take care to build their towns. They are nevertheless gay and thoughtless, delight-
ing, like other Africans, in the song and the dance. The principal tribes are : The Tibboos of liitma,
between Fezzan and Aghaden, whose capital is liilma, a mean town, built of earth, but having in its
vicinity two salt lakes, from which immense quantities of salt are gathered, and taken to Soudan.
To the south of Bilma is a desert of 1,3 days' journey in extent, perhaps the most dreary tract on
the globe ; it contains not a drop of water, nor a vestige of animal or vegetable life. Tlie Tibboos
of (hmdii possess .Aghaden, and have thousands of camels ; they are notorious plunderers of the
caravans ; but of late have become more commercial and industrious, an improvement which they
owe to their intercourse with the merchants of Tripoli. They seem to be the most numerous of all
the tribes. Tlie Tibboos nf Triiita, to the south of the Gonda; those of Borfrou or Biri^ou, whose
chief place seems to be Ye7i. The Tili'joos of lii'siuideli or of the Koeks, so named from several of their
tribes living in caverns in the mountains of Tibosti. Abo appears to be their chief town. 'J'he Tibboos
of Ania, so called from their chief town of the same name. But the Tibboos have not the exclusive
possession of the Eastern Sahara : to the north liarca is possessed by Arabs, the best known of whom
are the Uliarabi/n and Oulad Ali ; and the series of oases which it contains along the borders of Egypt
are inhabited by Berber races. To the south wander the Arab tribes of Bcni-i'l-hasstm Dov;hnnah, F.l
Assala, and Siihinuit ; to the east the mixed Arab-Berber tribes of Lawiitah and Berdauah. The
middle region only belongs to the Tibboos.
The Sahara, as already mentioned, contains a number of fertile spots or iraJis (anc. oasis). Of
these we have already described those that border on Egypt, and acknowledge the supremacy of the
I'asha — fsee Eovpt;. Of the others, the principal and most important are those of Fezxan, Gha-
damis, Asbtn, and Tuat.
Fezxan lies immediately to the south of Tripoli, and is a very large oasis, being about 300 miles in
length, by 200 in breadth, but scarcely distinguished from the desert, as it does not contain a running
stream of the least importance. Water, however, is abundant under ground, and by raising it in wells
tlie ii'.habitants have formed a number of fertile si)ots in which dates and grain can be reared, and
where a few asses and goats, with numerous camels, are fed. The people are chiefly dependant on
the tradj that passes through Kezzan, which being situate midway between Egypt and .Marocco, and
between Tripoli and Bornou, is the point where lunnerous caravans cross and meet. There are also
merchants in the place itself, who carry on very extensive concerns ; and, from these resources, Kez-
zan is able to maintain a population of about 70,000. It is governed by a sultan, who is tributary to
the I'asha of Tripoli ; his capital is Mimrzouk, a considerable town in a low and unhealthy, but well
watered situation, wliicli is the chief seat of the trade. Gerina, the ancient Koman capital, is now
much decayed, but still contains some monuments of its former consequence. Znil<i, Temissn, and
Gatrone are small towns on the western frontier. 'J'riii.'hnn, in the south, bordering on the desert, is
an industrious place, witli a thriving manufactory of carpets. Sockna, in the desert to the north, on
the road to Tripoli, forms a great caravan station.
Ghudamis or Giidamis, an oasis to the north-west of Fezzan, derives some importance from the
passage of the caravans from Tripoli and Tunis to Timbuctoo, though these arc not so considerable
as tlio-ic which pass through Fezzan. The chief town, which is of the same name, '2iO miles H.W. of
Tripoli, is divided between two hostile tribes, each enclosed by a separate wall. Ghadamis and tho
surrounding villages exhibit many traces of having been occupied by the Komans.
Tho principal oases belonging to the Tuaricks are : Glint, whose inhabitants form a sort of oligar-
chical republic; in its chief town, of the same name, is held a great annual fair, which is nnicli fre-
quented by the tribe.sof the desert ; A/iir, a large and fertile oasis, but little known ; ilalirnuk, small
and unimportant ; Asbeii is one of the largest, and its cajiital, Af^lutiies, is said to be as large as Tri-
poli ; it is at lea-t one of the principal commercial marts of the Sahara.
In the western desert are the oases of 7V// ; Iluden or U'ltdun ; Tisheet ; Taudiivi ; Tnubdzn ;
Araiiun or Arimn ; and the two U'aMa or Gwibilii and U'lilit. Tuat, Kt'\ miles W.S.'W. of I'ripoli,
is very extensive ; it is inhabited by mixed Arab- Herber tribes ; its chief town is Affhabhi. It also
contains the town of y/(H-c^.9.M/(//J, visited by M.ajor l.aing, which derives its nanu- from certain
holy wells (Ain). Ilodm. Tislicet, and Tdudnn/. are cehbrated for their mines of rock salt. Arainin
contains a town with 3<J()0 inh.abitants. Giiniiln and H'alel are often confounded, though quite dis-
tinct ; the one being situate on the route bet wi en Senegal and Marocco, and belonging to the Wodayn;
the other on the road to Timbuctoo, and possessed by the Berabysh. The only place of nolo on tho
8S0 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [SoPDiW.
coast is the bay and banlc of Arguin to the south of Cape lilanco, containing an island which produces
rock salt. It is supposed, with great probability, to be the island of Ulil mentioned by Edrisi, the
Nubian geographer, as being situate a day's sail from the mouth of the Nile of the negroes (i. e. the
Senegal]).— C'lwify'/ Segroland itf the Arabs; Lond. 1841, p. 48.
SOUDAN or NEGROLAND.
The NEOKOt.ASD of the Arabs extends from the Atlantic Ocean on the west, to the region of the
Nile on the cast, or from the 17- W. to the 00= E. lonpritude ; and from the borders of the Sahara, on
the north, to the Gulf of Guinea and the Mountains of the Moon on the south, or from the 4= to the
17-^ N. lat. ; being about .1 MK) miles in leni,'tli from cast to west, and 920 from north to south. It
seems to be divided naturally into three distinct portions, namely : 1 . The maritime regions of Guinea
and i\-negiim/iifi ; 2. The basin of the river Kawara, which we may call Central Soudan ; and, ,'!. The
basin of the great lakes Tchad and Fittrc, eastward to the borders of Nubia and Kordofan, to which
■we may give the name Fasti rn Soudan. The grand characteristics of the region are one ^'reat range
of mountains, one great river, and one great lake, so that the physical geography of thf. country, as
far as known, is very simple.
The Mountains of Kong extend almost due east and west between the 9^ and 10° N. lat. from Mount
Loma, 9^ 40' \V., till they cross the bed of the Kawara, in 7^ E., approaching, however, in their east-
ern progress, within 80 miles of the Bight of Benin. From Mount Loma several branches diverge to
the north-east, north-west, west, and north, forming the watersheds of numerous rivers ; but of their
elevation and pliysical character nothing is known. At the north-east anj:rle of the Bight of Biafra the
Mountain of i'ainerouns rises to the great elevation of 13,000 feet, close to the shore, and seems to form
the commencement of a range of volcanic liills, which e.Ktend to the north-east, till it joins the Moun-
tains of Mandara, visited by Denham, and are probably a portion of the great JeOel-el-Kumri, which
are said to e.Ktcnd across the middle of ."Vtrica, and supposed to be continuous with the Mountains
of Kong ; but nothing is known of them except the name.
Rivers and Lakes. — The great river of Soudan is the Kawara, Quorra. or S'iger, namea in the upper
part of its course Joliba. So far as yet known, its principal source seems to be situate at the base of
Mount Loma, 250 miles E. by N. of Cape Sierra Leone. It flows tirst in a north-easterly direction for
about GOO miles, then almost due north for 180 miles, forming in its progress the large lake Debo or
Dibbie ; it then turns again to the north-east, but, from Tiinbuctoo to Yaouri, a distance of 600
miles, its course has not yet been explored. From Yaouri, 570 miles from the sea, it flows with a large
navigable stream, south, south-east, and lastly south-west into the Bights of Benin and 15iafraby
22 moutlis, of which the principal are the Furmoso or liicer of Benin, the Waree, the Hun, the Bonny,
and the Old Calabar.
Within a very short distance of its source it is already navigable, and at Sego it is, as Park de-
scribes it, " as broad as the Thames at Westminster," that is, about a quarter of a mile. Its princi-
pal known afHuents are, the Cubliie or Cobbie or Quarrama, which passes Saccatoo ; the Coudounia or
Kudunia, a large river from Nyffe ; the Tshiidda, which passes Funda, and joins it in 8-" N. lat.,
a very large river, reputed by the natives to be identical with tlie Stiary, one of tlie feeders of Lake
Tchad ; but which more probably has its sources only on the opposite side of the same mountains.
The course and termination of this great river loi^g formed one of the most interesting geogra-
phical problems. Herodotus relates in his history (Euterpe, 32) a few particulars of a journey into
the interior of Libya ijy five young Nasamones, who arrived at the banks of a larne river flowing from
west to east, and containing crocodiles. Beyond this scanty information the ancient Greek and
Roman geographers seem to have known nothing ; and even the tables of Ptolemy, who describes two
" very large rivers" in the interior by the names of Geir and Xi^eir, still remain an inexplicable
Suzzle to his successors. The detailed descriptions of these regions given by the Arab geographers and
istorians of the middle ages are still more perplexing. On their authority chiefly, aided by the
▼ague reports of the natives, the Niger or Nile of the negroes was considered by some geographers
during the l(jth and 17th centuries, as having its course from east to west, and as being the parent
etream of the Gambia and the Senegal. Others mad^; these two rivers and the Niger flow from a
common source, the Lake Maberia, in opposite directions ; the Niger being made to flow eastward
across Africa, to join the Egyptian Nile. In fact nothing certain was known respecting it ; and to
dispel tlie mystery in which it was involved was the principal object of Park's two journies. In his
iirst journey he reached it at Sego, and found it " flowing slowly to the eastward." The next object
■was to discover its termination. Park perished in the attempt ; and geographers continued to puzzle
themselves to no purpose, till its issue in the sea was proved by the Landers in 18.30.* Between Yaouri
and Boussa the river is divided into numerous channels by rocks, sand-banks, and low islands covered
■with tall rank grass, some of which the Landers fouiid to l>e so shallow, that their canoe was constantly
grounding ; but they were told, at Yaouri, that above that place, and below Boussa, the navigation
was not interrupted by rocks or sand-banks ; and that, after the wet season, canoes of all kinds pass
to and from Y'aouri, Nouft'c, iJoussa, and Kundah. At Boussa black rocks rise abruptly from the
middle of the stream, its waters are tossed in whirlpools, and in the dry season its largest" branch is
not more than a stonecast across. Sailing downward from Boussa the river was found to be com-
pletely navigable to a finely wooded island called Patashie, below which for 20 miles the channel was
so full of rocks and sand-banks as to render the passage very difficult. After this iriterruption, through
its farther course to the ocean, the Kawara is abroad noble stream, varying in width from one mile
to six, but being commonly between two and three, thus forming for several hundred miles an expanse
more resembling a lake or an inland sea, than a river. Its numerous branches form a vast delta, which
extends 300 miles along the coast, and contains 25,000 square miles, of a dreary swampy country,
covered with thick forests of mangroves, and other trees with spreading and luxuriant foliage, prin-
cipally palms. The length of its course is estimated at 2000 miles. On the whole it appears from the
unhealthiness of its climate, and difficult navigation, that the Niger, of which so muon has been ex-
pected, is likely to remain comparatively of little importance to the world as a medium of commerce
* In justice to a gentleman of distinguished zeal in the cause of African geography, we deem it ne-
cessary to mention that " in the latter end of June " 1820, two separate memorials concerning the
geography and trade of Africa, were laid before several of the most distinguished members of the
British Governjnent hy Mr. James Macquren of Glasgow ; and in the spring of the following voar, that
gentleman published " a Geographical and Commercial view of Northern Central ,\frica, containing
a particular account of the course and termination of the great river Niger, in the Atlantic Ocean,"
proving incontestibly, in our judgment, the important fact afterwards ascertained by the Landers.
His views however, being quite repugnant to the theories of certain influential persons, no attention
seems to have been paid to his book or niemoiials, and thev are now almost forgotten. AVe have never
observed them even alluded to. We read his book in 1821, and never afterwards doubted the fact there-
iti established. In 1841, however, after this nute was written, Mr. Macqueen rublishcd a second
edition of his book.
SouBAn.] AFRICA.' 851
with Africa. The best entrance yet known to the main body of the river, is by the branch commonly
called the Nun, but even that branch is not navigable during at least six months of the year ; while,
during the remaining six montlis, steam-vessels only, and those of a very light draught of water, can
accomplish the navigation. At Lever near Houssa, the bed of the river becomes so contracted and
obstructed with rocks that the progress upward is stopped.
The Senegal or Zanaga rises near Timbo or Teembo, 210 miles N.E. of Sierra Leone, where it bears
the name of Ba-fing iblack river). It flows first northerly, and then westerly, into the Atlantic
Ocean. lOl) miles" N. of Cape Verde. It receives a great number of aflluents in the upper part of its
course, but very few in the lower part. The principal of these are : the united stream of the Kukoro
and Ba- Wolima, from Manding ; the Faleme, from Bambouk and Sadadoo; the Serico, which flows
from a small lake named ?'ia/i, and which, in tbewet season, communicates with the sources of another
river Nerico, an affluent of the Gambia ; and the Sakham, from lake Kayor, near the west coast. In
the lower part of its course the Senegal forms a number of large islands, but ultimately reaches the
sea in a single stream. It is navigable for several hundred miles, and the length of its course is
about 9.50 miles.
The Gambia, under the name of Diman, has its source in the plateau of Fouta-Toro, and has a
north-westerly course of TOO miles into the Atlantic Ocean, which it reaches 100 miles S.S.E. of Cape
Verde. The navigation is uninterrupted from the sea to the falls or rapids of Haraconda, a distance
of about 41)0 miles, above which sand-banks and flats render it diflieult ; while the crowds of croco-
diles and river horses in the water, and of other wild bea.-ts on the hanks, render it alarming, and
even dangerous. Along the coast to the south of the Gambia, are several large rivers, the courses of
which are not yet well known, and some of which are said to communicate with each other and with
the Gambia by their branches: these are the Caxanunisa, the I'achm, the Jeba. and the Grande.
Proceeding along the coast are a great many other rivers, which it is sufhcient merely to name in
their order from west to east : — Campoonee, }<itnez, Po7iga, Vetnbin, Debn ka or Saiifiaria, Mahniah,
Morebiah, Tannah, Mellacvne, Great Scarries, Little Scarries, llukelle or river of Sierra Leone,
Kates, Karamaiika, C'urkbnro, Yallucka, Hagroo, Jong, lioum-h'iltani, Gallinat, Sulyman, Maima,
J'issou, Cape Mount, UalJ-Vape Mowit, I'o, St. I'aiil, Junk, St. John's, Grand Cestos, Rock Sesters,
Sanguin, Sinou, Droo, Half- Carally, St. Andrew, Tabetah, Fresco, Lahoii, Sueira da Costa, Assinee,
Seeriee, Chama or Pran, J'olfa or Adiri, Lauos ; the last communicates with the Kawara.
The TciHD, Tjad, Schad, or Chad, is tlie largest lake yet discovered in Africa. Its centre lies in
1.5- E. long., and 13^ 30' N. lat., its length being about 200 miles, and its breadth l-'iO; hut during the
rainy season its size is greatly augmented, and a broad belt of lowland is overflowed by its waters. It
contains a numlitr of islands inhabited by the Bidoomahs, a race of pirates who infest its coasts.
Its principal feeder is the Sliary, which enters the lake from the south-east, and was traced 40 miles
upward by Major Denhani, who found it to be half a mile broad at its moutli, and to flow at the rate
of two IT three miles an hour. The Yeou enters the lake on its w est side, but is a comparatively
small river, being only fifty yards broad in the dry season near its mouth, where it was crossed by the
British travellers. In direct opposition, however, to their testimony, that the Yeou flows eastward
into the lake, Capt. AVm. Allen and .M. D'Avezac suppose that it is really the outlet of the Tchad,
and flows southward to join the Tchadda. The Tchad was not known in Europe till tlie journey
of Oudney, Denham, and Clapperton ; though it figures in maps of the IGth and 17th centuries as
the lake of Bornou. It is probably the Lytian Lake of I'tolemy ; and on its eastern side there is a
valley called Ba/tr-el- Gazelle, resembling the deserted bed of a river, through which it is supposed
to have once communicated, and probably still conmiunicates occasionally in great floods, with Bahr
Littre, another large lake to the eastward, of which notliing is known but the name.
The coast of Senegambia is remarkably low, and the same flatness extends from the Senegal to
Guinea. Immense torcsts, the unchecked growth of centuties, with underground clothed with the
rankest vegetation, exclude the rays of the sun ; leaves and herbage fall and rot, perpetually increas-
ing the depth of a sour damp soil. The current of the rivers is sluggish, owing to the slight inclina-
tion of their channels, which are generally broad and shallow, and often contain bars someway up
the stream ; mud is deposited profusely on their sloping banks, and favours the endless multiplication
of mangroves. Inland the surface of the cotmtry contiiuies monotonously flat, for a considerable dis-
tance, to the foot of the first hills, which sw ell at last into the great range of the mountains of Kong.
The general appearance of the coast of Guinea from the sea may be conijiared, says Mr. Meredith, to
an immense furcst ; highlands are seen in difl'erent directions, crowned with lotty trees and thick
underwood. On a nearer prospect, and on a strict examination, the valleys will be foinid in many
places richly planted, and extensive plains beautifully studded and decorated with clumps of trees
and bushes are also to be seen. As we advance into the country, where there is more moisture
throughout the year than on the coast, and where the fertility of the soil produces the most vigorous
vegetation, the woods are so stopped up by its luxuriance as to be almost impenetrable; and the
surface is hid under a covering of shrubs, weeds, and herbs. The rivers are seen winding in difl'erent
directions, flowing rapidly in some (laces, and in others forming stagnant pools. — { ylrnnint of the
Gold Coast of Africa, liy Henry Meredith, I'.xj., Gorernor of Fort Wiiinebiih. London IHTi.) 'J'lie soil
In the vicinity of Sierra Leone consists chiefly of a slight stratum of brown gravel, on a seniivitritied
rock of the same colour. On the coast of Guinea, fri.m (ape Talmas to tlie river \olta, the soil,
within five or six miles of the shore, is of a silicious nature ; the cli nij s of hills, wliirh are to be met
with in every direction, are composed principally of gneiss aiul granite. I'arther inland the vandy
soil Ix-'comes more and more mixed with decayc d animal or vegetable matter, an<i in the valleys a
rich alluvial soil is met with. — (Martin's U'estirn Afrira, LTi!*.) Water, also, which en the coast is
scarce and brackish, becomes in the interior goo<l and plentiful. Fiuther cast the maritime fiat
C3untry becomes broader than on the gold coast, and extremely fertile, tirminating at last with the
swampy delta of the Kawara, which is profusely covered with rank vegetation. — (See \koet ation, in
tl;e general description of Africa.)
Of the jihysical features of the interior of Soudan wo arc unable to give any general satisfactory
account. 'I'he western part of the country consists of the basin of the Kawara, bordered on the south
and west l).v mountains, on the north by the desert, and having its (astern boumlary formed by a
range of hills and high ground which divide it from the basin of the 'J'chad. The latter Insiii. sup-
ported on two sides by mountains, is probably a table-land of considerable eleviition, the lowest | art
of which Is occupied by the great lake ; but in that respect, nothing is positively known. Its eleva-
tion, however, is certainly not so considerable as to raise it into tlie cooler regions of the atniosjihere ;
w?iile its situation in respect of the desert and the sea, open to the one. and secluded from the other,
necessarily renders the climate hotter than that of the maritime regions farther south and nearer the
equator.
The climate of Soudan is troiiical ; and the maritime region of Senegambia experiences the most
Intense heat. Tliere are only two seiisons, the one of whjeh may be considered as a mo<lerate sum-
mer, the other as a contini ance of burning dog-days. During the wiiole year the sun at mid-day is
insupportable. The north and north-west winds blow almost without interrui)tion. 'J he east or
trade winds are oidy leJt « ilhin 100 (jr l'J<i miles of the coast ; the south wind is very rarely felt. Uiiring
the great heats a dea<l calm pri'vails for about ;«) days, which enervates the most robust eonstitulions.
From the beginning ol June till the middle of October, sixteen or eighteen heavy ruins fall ; during
852 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Soudak.
th? rest of the vear there arc heavy dews. At Sierra Leone, farther south, the range of the ihermo-
"'etc? U very sru: theavora.e h^t ,> 82- ; the rains eo,Uh>ueiors>x months and flood the country ;
t ern ometer has been found as hiK'h as 93^ ; but the usual ncignt ouservea n ine noiiesi nionuis
was fro n 85= to 90-\ and that place is considered the hottest on the Gold coast. To the eastward of
Cape Coast Castle, he heat has been seldom known to exceed 87^ ; and has been observed so low as
■t/j ntWinnol^h i^n June .Tulv, August, and September, and not higher than 7f . The seasons are
(4-' at Wmneoan, Ul JUUL, ,jiu.v,^ubu=i^, „,'1„k<, ,1ivi,lnr1 ntn tbo wpt anfl thprlrv: of thfi attnr.
Tipratft latitudes, ana continue %v iniuuL iiii''=» »"'.'.'•"■• — ,, , " ■, -, '. i* i
Surtng the season is inconceivably great ; lowlands are overflowed and rapid streams are ormed
w tTaniazing celerity. After this flood the atmo sphere clears, and strong breezes common y tollo w ;
The heavy rains are not again expected, though showers fall at the changes of the moon w_h,ch pro-
duce as much water as would fall in England fro.n a whole day's ram. About the end of July tho
rahis are considered to be at an end ; and shortly after, the foggy season commences ; a season, it it
mav be so called which is very unhealtliy, but the only unhealtliy season that is known on tlie coast.
The connnencenient of the foggy season is a sure indication that the rains are over ; it commonly
terminates about the 10th of August, alter continuing two or three weeks. While it lasts the atmo-
sphere is thick and heavy, the clouds are very low, the sea breezes do not blow with their usual power,
and the land winds are scarely perceptible. The etiects of this season are much felt by asthmatic
people and those whose lungs are unsound. The second rainy season is not nearly so violent as the
first ; the rains do not fall in the same constant stream, and are not succeeded by togs 1 he dry sea-
son pommences in November, and continues for tlie remainder ot the year, that is, till May. Iho
winds are regular and mild.' The hand winds, which blow from the N. and N.N.W., and the sea
breezes, which blow from the S.^V. and W.S.W., prevail, with little interruption, throughout the sea-
son The sea breeze commences about 9 or 10 o'clock in the forenoon, and declines at six in the even-
ing ■; it ceases about 8 or 10, and is succeeded by the land wind, which blows till (i or 8 in the morning.
The sea breeze is stron-er tlian the land wind, and, at the full and change of the moon, generally
blows with considerable force. As the sun rises in the heaven this wind gains strength, and declines
gradually as he approaches the western horizon ; it is very refreshing, and is considered salubrious
In the dry se.ason the coast, from Cape Verde to Cape Lopez, or from lo^ N. to 1- S. lat., is viMted
bv two remarkable winds, called tornadoes and hannattans. The harmattan or harmanta, is an
easterly wind which prevails in December, January, and February ; it commences at any hour of the
day, at any time of the tide, or any period of the moon ; and continues sometimes only a day or two,
sometimes for five or six davs, and has been known to last 15 or IG. There are generally three or
four returns of it everv season ; it blows with moderate force, not so strongly as the sea breeze, but
somewhat more so than the land wind. A fog or haze always accompanies it ; and the gloom which
it occasions is so great as sometimes to render even near objects obscure. Ihe sun appears only for
a few hours about noon, and is then of a mild red colour, exciting no painful sensation to the eye.
E.vtreme drvness is another remarkable property of the harmattan ; no dew tails while it lasts, nor is
there the least appearance of moisture in the atmosphere ; vegetation is much injured ; tender plants
and most of those in the gardens are destroyed ; the grass withers and becomes like hay ; even the
vigorous evergreens feel its pernicious influence. The eyes, nostrils, lii.s, and palate ot men and
animals become dry and disagreeable ; the lips and nose become sore and even chapped, and, althougli
the atmosphere is cool, there is a troublesome sensation of prickly heat on the skin. It the harmattan
continue for four or five days the scarf skin peels off, first from the hands and face, and afterwards
from the other parts of the body, if it continue a day or two longer. To a European it produces the
sensation of a very slight frost. Salubrity forms a third peculiarity of the harmattan ; it is highly
conducive to animal health ; people labouring under fluxes and intermitting fevers generally recover
during its continuance ; and those who have been weakened by the disease or the remedies, recover
their vigour. It stops the progress of epidemics ; and infection cannot be communicated even by art.
Its effect on furniture is very remarkable ; it exposes the deceptions of the cabinet-maker in the
most singular manner ; it contracts flooring so much that light passes through. The process of evapo-
ration, indeed, proceeds with astonishing rapidity. Tornadoes most commonly commence in March,
and cease when the rain sets in. They sometimes blow before or after the second rains, and sometimes
precede a harmattan ; they are felt, however, with greater violence before the first rams. Tiny blow
invariably from the eastward ; that is from south-east to north-east; when they incline to the south-
ward of south-east they have more the appearance of steady gales of wind than of tornadoes. Torna-
does may be expected a day or two after the full and change of the moon, and give sufficient notice of
their approach, so that ships have time to prepare for them. When vivid and successive flashes of
lightning are seen in the east, attended by thunder and heavy clouds, while the horizon appears clear
and of a blueish cast, an approaching tornado is indicated. As the storm advances, the horizon be-
comes darkened, and soon the eastern sky is entirely overcast ; the lightning flashes vividly and in
quick succession, attended by slow and apparently distant thunder. By and by a gentle breeze is felt,
which increases almost instantaneously to violent gusts of wind, which are usually accompanied with
rain, and which, in general, do not continue longer than half an hour or fifty minutes. M hen the
violence of the blast is over, the rain falls with great rapidity and in considerable quantity. The
lightning and thunder again commence, followed by wind and rain ; but words cannot adequately
describe the awful sublimity of the scene. When the violence of tho storm is over, rain continues to
fall for several hours ; after which the sky clears up, but the sun continues obscured for the rest of
the day. During their continuance the thermometer falls 5^ or more in a very short time. The
heavy rains which accompany and succeed a tornado, refresh the earth, quicken vegetation, and cool
the atmosphere to such a degree that the natives endure the mid-day heat of those months without
inconvenience ; and, in July and August, when the people in the southern parts of Europe are exposed
to an oppressive heat, the natives and residents in Guinea enjoy a moderate and agreeable tempera-
ture, while vegetation proceeds with such rapidity, that the country, especially inland, exhibits a de-
gree of fertility inconceivable to those who are strangers to tropical regions — {Meredith, chap. I.)i
Of the mineralogy of Soudan very little is known; it produces abundantly in some places the pre-
cious article of gold. The kingdom of Bambouk is almost entirely a country of mountains, from which
flow numerous streams, almost all of which roll over golden sands ; but the principal depositories,
where the metal is traced as it were to its source, are the two mountains of Natakon and Semayla.
The former of these consists of an almost entire mass of gold, united with ear, iron, and emery.
Soudan.] AFRICA. 853
III Semajla the gold is embedded in hard sandstone, and partly in red marble. Gold, indeed, scim»
to abound throughout all the range of the mountains of Kong ; and a portion of Guinea has been
named tlie Gold Coast, from the abundance of that metal which is or used to be brought from the in-
terior. We know also that iron is forged in several places; and no doubt other metals will be found
in abundance, when the pioneers of civilization shall have succeeded in readiing their localities.
The forests contain coCoa trees, palms, mangoes, bananas, tamarinds, papaws, citrons, oranges,
pomegranates, and sycamores ; the locust tree, which yields an agreeable beverage ; the shea or
butter tree ; the tallow tree ; the teak tree, now become a valuable article of export ; and many others,
among which the immense baobab or adansonia stands pre-eminent. Its fruit, called monkey's bread,
affords abundant food to the negroes ; the whole of Senegambia and Guinea is adorned with its green
arcades ; and the name of Cape Verde (the Green headland) is said to have been suggested by the
hue of its foliage. Of aromatic plants are pimento, Spanish pepper, malagruette (cardamomum ma-
jus), and ginger. Cotton succeeds, and even excels that of Brazil; the indigo is excellent; and
the valuable gums which the country supplies furnish important articles of commerce. These aro
gum-guaiac, red astringent gum, guiu-copal, the inspissated juice of euphorbium, and gum-dragon ;
several dye-woods are also found. Alimentary plants are met with in great abundance, as maize,
millet, rice, yams, casada, potatoes, pulse, plantains, bananas, guavas, chillecs of all kinds, and other
tropical fruits. A mucilaginous vegetable (heluscus esculentus) is plentiful in the country, and is
much used by the natives in their soups. Another nmcilaginous fruit called entcraba is also highly
nutritious. European cabbage and eschallots are cultivated in some places ; the sugar-cane grows
spontaneously, and the black pepper has been discovered in the interior of the Gold Coast. The palm
tree is very profitable to the natives ; the trunk produces an agreeable, but intoxicating liquor, called
palm wine ; and the fruit yields an oil of great delicacy, which the natives use in all their dishes, and
which has now become a very important article of their trade with Europeans. Of its leaf they make
ropes and thread, which they convert into fishing lines and nets ; a finer thread is made from the
filaments of the leaf of the wild aloe and the pine apple. Tobacco grows every where abundantly, and
the negroes are extravagantly fond of smoking it. The exuberant abundance of the aloes, balsams,
tuberoses, lilies, and amaranths gives the flora of these countries a degree of magnificence which is
quite surprising to Europeans. But perhaps the most singular feature of the vegetation is the height
to which the Guinea grass grows. This plant forms immense thickets, from ten to thirty feet high,
■where herds of elephants and boars wander unseen. In the dry season it withers, and then, in order
to clear the ground, the natives set it on tire. When kindled, the fire spreads with great rapidity,
forming by night long lines of light, and by day filling the air with columns of smoke ; and it is this
practice which appears to furnish the most natural explanation of the " torrents of fire" seen by
Hanno the Carthaginian in his voyage of discovery.
No part of the world produces greater numbers of elephants, monkeys, antelopes, deer, rats, and
squirrels. In Soudan the elephant lives in a state of nature, and is no where tamed ; the river-horse
grows to a monstrous size ; but the rhinoceros seems to be unknown. The lion is less common than
the panther and the leopard ; the spotted or striped hyena is frequintly seen ; jackals are formidable
and destructive ; the tall giraffe is found in the deserts ; the zebra lives in droves, and is hunted for
the sake of both its skin and its flesh. Varieties of monkeys abound in all the forests, the most re-
markable being the kimpanzay (or chimpanze, Simia troglodytes) . It approximates less to the human
form than the orang-outang of the Eastern Archipelago, but perhaps surpasses him in intelli-
gence. Two remarkable animals, the lemur galago, and the lemur minutus, akin to the monkey
tribe, have hitherto been found only in Senegambia. The poto or sloth is common in Guinea. The
negroes catch the zibeth in a very young state, and tame it. The hoar peoples the marshy forests ;
but the pig is small and weak. The dogs are of the size of setters, but approach in form somewhat
to the mastiff; they do not bark, and their hair is short, coarse, and red, as in all warm countries.
The horses of the Gold Coast are small and ugly, but Adanson admired the horse of Senegal ; this
river is probably the southern limit of the Berber or Moorish breed. The ass is exceedingly hand-
some and very strong. The negroes rear beeves, buffaloes, sheep, and goats. The birds exist in
great immbers and in boundless variety ; some of the smaller species are remarkable for the beauty
of their plumage. The monoceros or trumpet bird is found in all the negro court-yards, along with
the armed swan, the Egyptian swan, the pintado, and the greater part of the poultry known in
pjurope. Of the wild birds we may specify the aigrette, whose feathers form an article of trade ; and
beautiful parroquets in unlimited numbers, numerous families of sparrows and humming-birds sport
round the huts of the negroes, and the baobab supports the nest of the solitary pelican.
The whole region is much infested with noxious and venomous insects and reptiles. Cameleons
are very common on the Gold Coast ; also crocodiles or alligators, lizards, land-crabs, guanas, scor-
pions, centipedes, and a variety of snakes, some of which are of enormous size. In the forests the
termites or white ants display their astonishing industry, and their destructive power ; but there are
also numerous swarms of wild bees, who.se honey and wa.x are objects of trade among the negroes.
Crocodiles, cachalots, and nianatis inhabit the mouths of the great rivers. Oysters are said to fasten
in great multitudes on the immersed branches of the mangroves, with which these rivers are bordered ;
they are large, fat, and very agreeable food, though loss cool and refreshing than those found in u:ore
northern latitudes. The lakes and rivers abound with mullet and other delicate fish; and the sea
swarms with fish of various kinds, which are caught in great abundance during the dry season ; turtle
also are often found.
All the inhabitants of Soudan are of the Negro or Ethiopic family (see nnti; p. 107), but among
them arc manerous varieties, some being more or less dark coloured, or making a near or more dis-
tant approach to the European character than others. Of these we must particularly distinguish the
Fuulnlis, who are widely diffused over Africa. The great majority of the nation are found al)out the
sources of the Gambia and the Uio-Grande ; but colonies of tlieni are also found on the banks of tlio
I'aleme and the Senegal : there are likewise tribes of them to the south of I'ez/.an, and on the con-
fines of Bornou, and even in the interior of that kingiloin, where they are called Fellatahs, Thoy
also inhabit the kingdoms of Massina and Timbuctoo on the Kawara, and have established a wide
extended empire in llaoussa. They have a reddish black or a yellowish brown complexion, longer
and less woolly hair than that of the negroes, less flat noses, and lips not quite so thick ; with fea-
tures which seem to indicate a mixture of Berber and Negro blood. They are a people of mild dis-
)iositions, with flexible dispositions and a natural aptitude for agriculture. They formerljrdid not livo
in towns, but were scattered over the country, attending to their herds and flocks, living in temporary
liuts, generally in the midst of inifiequented woods, aiwl seldom visiting the towns. But from this
condition they were roused by a coimtryman. Sheikh Othman Danfodio, a native of Ader, who built
for himself a town to which the I'ellatahs flocked, lie led them to war and conquest, till at length
doubly animated by the lust of plunder and the ardour of fanalioism, tliey have become a large and
powerful nation ; tliey are all -Mahometans. With res|)ect to the genuine negro races ; the names of
their families, tribes, and localities arc sufliciently indicated in M. Balbi's table, contained in our ge-
neral description of Africa. They are all in a low stage of civilization, living in the simplest manner,
and practising only the simplest arts ; but, at the same time, there is no part of the world whore the
influence of variety of government on the character of the people is more distinctly perceived tliMi
in Soudan. In general they have a great desire for gain, an<l will undergo many vlci«»itudcs and
854 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Soudan.
hardships to obtain It ; they are patient under misfortunes, and meet affliction with fortitude. Fru-
gality and temperance in eating generally prevail among them. Thev have a great genius for oratory ;
and, on occasions wliere they are obliged to display their eloquence, their expressions are accompanied
with much feeling and energy. They are disposed to singing, dancing, and music ; and seem to have
a strong feeling of harmony. The" women arc very industrious and remarkably prolific. Those
of the interior are almost all JIahomctaus, and the Mandingoes have carried that religion with
them even down to tlie west coa-t ; but the mountains of Kong seem to have formed an insuperable
obstacle to the progress of Islam into the maritime regions of Guinea, where fetichism is the pre-
valent faith.
Toi-ooHAPiiv.— Tlie maritime regions of Soudan are commonly divided by European geographers
into SiHi-jiambia and Guinea ; the boundary between them has never been precisely defined, but is
usually fixed on tlie coast at Cape Mount, "l75 miles S.E. of Sierra Leone; Senegambia extending
nortii ward from that point to the borders of the Sahara, and Guinea eastward to the river and moun-
tain of the Cameroons. With a few unimportant exceptions, Senegambia is possessed by a number
of nations or petty states, all belonging to the three great families of lolofs, Poules or Foulahs, and
Mandingoes, who are distinguished by the constitution and forms of government. This is every
where indeed monarchical, but is sacerdotal and elective among the Poules, hereditary and despotic
among the Mandinjroes, mixed and feudal among the lolofs. But in the midst of all these states
there exist mercantile villages, which are leagued together for mutual protection. The two principal
of these, that of the Serrawoltis, and that of the Diolas, have extended their transactions from the
coast far into Soudan, and are indefatigable in carrying on an extensive and varied trade.
The loLOF States are governed by princes whose titles vary in each ; the crown always descend.5
hereditarily in the same family, but in the collateral line, and the great vassals have a voice in the
choice of the sovereign. The principal states are as follows ; — fVallo, the king of which is called
Urak, is near the mouth of the Senegal, and completely under the influence of the French. Caior or
Kiiyar, whose king is entitled Darnel, extends along the coast from Senegal southward to beyond Cape
Verde, and is the most considerable of the lolof states. Its principal towns are Ghighis the caiital,
and Koki/, on the eastern frontier, a place with 5000 inhabitants. Baol, whose sovereign is styled
Te.vn, arid whose capital is l.anbaye, 190 miles E. by S. of Cape Verde. Syn^ to the south of Baol,
and whose king's title is Hour, /o/o/ itself, properly so called, formerly the nucleus of a considerable
state, but now much reduced, and of which all the other lolof states are only dismembered portions,
is governed by a Hour, who resides at iVarghogh, ll'arkor, or fVarneo, east of Cape Verde. The
country contains vast forests of gum trees, particularly of gum-copal. It produces also abundance
of ivory, skins, and honey. Salum, which is partly lolof and partly Mandingo, but principally be-
longs to the former, as is" indicated by its king's title, which is 13oar, is situate on the northern bank
of the Gambia.
The PouL or Foulah states were formerly governed by Saltiques or Siratiques (warriors); but
the sovereign power is now in the hands of a religious chief, who, like the Moslem caliphs, takes the
title of Emir el-moumenyn (commander of the faithful), vulgarly corrupted into Almamy. He is
chosen in each state by a council of kiernos or princes ; under whose controul he is, and can do no-
thing important without their assistance. Of the Foulah states the following are the principal : —
Fouta- Toro, which extends along the left bank of the Senegal, and is divided into three large pro-
vinces, which are subdivided into districts. These provinces are, Fouta proper in the middle, Tcro
to the west, and Damgaa to the east. Bundou, to the south-east of Fouta-Toro, is aslo divided into
provinces and districts ; the capital and residence of the Almamy, is Jebane, a small town surrounded
by clay walls, and containing only 1800 inhabitants. Fuuta-Jalo occupies the elevated mountainous
region which contains the sources of the Senegal, the Gambia, the Faleme, and the Rio-Grande. It
comprises the three provinces of Timboo or Teem/joo, Laby, and Temby, with their dependencies,
which extend both to the west and to the east. Timboo or Teemboo, 230 miles N. E. of Sierra Leone,
is the capital of the state and residence of the Almamy, and has a population of 9000. Kasso or
Cason, which formerly extended to the north of the Senegal, is now limited to the single province of
Logo, to the south of that river, near the falls of Felou and Gouina. FouUirloo or Fmdadougov, which
comprises the provinces of Bj ouko and Gangaran, is little known. The principal town seems to be
Bangdssi, the best fortified of all the towns of Western Soudan.
The Mandingoe States appear to form bodies politic less homogeneous than those of the lolofs
and the Foulahs. The principal are; — Kaarta, to the north-east of the Senegal, between the basin
of the river and the territory of Ludamar ; its capital was formerly Kemnioo, but is now at Joko.
Bambouk, between the Ba-ting or Upper Senegal and the Faleme, is an aggregation of districts, as
Niagala, Natiega, Tambaoura, Satadoo, Konkadoo, Camana, Waradoo. IJetitilia, on the left bank of
the Upper Faleme, noted for the industry of its inhabitants and its iron mines. Tenda, separated
from Dentilia by the wilderness of Samakara, which also bears the name of Tenda. Woolli, on the
north side of the Gambia, to the south-west of Bondou, from which it is separated by the wilderness
of Simbani. Its capital is Medina, with 5000 inhabitants. Yani, called also the kingdom of Katuba,
from its capital, on the north bank of the Gambia, between Woolli and Salum. F'urther west, towards
the mouth of the river, are the small states of Badiboo, SanjalU, Kular, and Barra. ancient depen-
dencies of the lolof kingdom of Salum. Kiiboo extends from the Gambia to the Jeba ; of which the
small states of Kuiitor, Tomuni, Jemaroo, Eropina, Yamina, and Jagrti appear to be dependencies ; it
also exercises sovereignty over the Binjras, Balantes, and Fapels, whom the Mandingoes have driven
down to the coast. Fouini comprises the provinces of Combo, jereja, and Kaen, and exercises do-
minion over the Feloopes and Banyons of the coast.
The indigenous states of Senegambia are : — Gabim or Kaytiga, which belongs to the Serrawollis,
is a narrow strip, along the left bank of the Senegal, and is divided by the Faleme into two provinces,
each governed by a prince, who bears the title of Tonka. Jallonkadoo, which comprises the provinces
of Kullo and Gadoo, is the last remaining possession of the independent Jallonkas. It is a country
covered with forests, and almost a perfect wilderness, watered by the upper branches of the affluents
of the Senegal. Farther south along the coast are : — Timmnni, a small country watered by the
Scarcies and the Lower Askelle, adjoining Sierra Leone. Kouranku, an extensive country to the east.of
Timmani, appears to be divided into several states, of which Kouranko Proper seems to be the prin-
cipal. Solima or Soulimana, to the north of Kouranka, is the most civilized state in the neighbourhood
of Sierra Leone. Falaba, a town with COOO inhabitants, is the residence of the king. The kingdom of
Cape Mount extends from the river Gallinas to the Grand Bassam, along the coast, and to a great
distance inland ; of which Couscta, near the source of the Cape Mount river, is the capital, and has a
population of 15,000 or 20,100.
GciNEA has been visited by European traders ever since the middle of the fifteenth century ; who
have divided the coast into four great regions, named from the principal articles which they pro-
duce. These are: I. The Grain Coast, so called from its producing the malaghetta, a species of
pepper, extends from Cape Mount or Cape Mesurado, to Cape Palmas. 2. From Cape Palmas t&
Cape ApoUonia is the Icory Coast, so called from the quantity of that valuable article produced by
its numerous elephants. 3. The Gold Coast, extending from Cape Apollonia to the Kio Volta ; which
was long the most frequented by European traders, not only for gold, but also for slaves. 4. The
Siave Coast includes the remainder of Guinea, extending eastward from the Rio Volta. The principal
SoPDAN.] AFRICA. 856
native states in Guinea are those of Ashantee, Dahomey, Ardra, Badagry, Lagos, &c. Ashantee has
become, within the last century, a powerful empire, extending along the coast from the river St. An-
drew, 6° W., to the Popo, a dependency of Dahomey, about 1° E. long., or altogether about 480 miles,
comprising a number of petty states, tribes, and nations formerly independent. The Ashantees
themselves amount to about 1,000,000 of people, inhabiting Ashantee Proper, a region of 14,000 square
miles inland from the Gold Coast. They are a very superior class of negroes, manufacture excellent
cotton cloth, smelt metals, and build large houses. The country is governed by a king, aided by four
chiefs as counsellors. His majesty's legal allowance of wives is 4000; and polygamy is carried to
a dreadful extent among his subjects. They are a brave, but savage people ; they sacrifice whole
hecatombs of human victims to propitiate the spirits of their ancestors ; and, on the death of any
member of the royal family, thousands are slain, to attend him in the other world. The capital of
the empire is Kommasi or Commassie, 120 miles N.N. W. of Cape Coast Castle, a large town with regular
streets, all of which are named, and each under the charge of an officer of police ; but the houses are
low, cemented with clay, and thatched. In the centre is the king's palace, inclosed with a wall, and
containing small chambers decorated with a great profusion of gold and silver ornaments, and sculp-
tures of birds and other animals pretty well executed. Commassie is the centre of a great trade, carried
on not only with all parts of the empire, but also with Timbuctoo and Kashena in Central Soudan. Its
permanent population is estimated at 15,000, but, on great festivals, 100,000 are sometimes assembled.
The other principal places are : St. Andrews, near the middle of the Ivory Coast, the residence of a
petty king, and the seat of considerable trade ; Cape Lahou, a larp:e trading town, which exports a great
qiantity of gold dust; Grand Bassam, a large town with a flourishing trade, particularly in the export
of gold dust; Accra or Ankrrni. the capital of a kingdom of the same name, and containing about
12,000 inhabitants. In the interior are, AhOradie and Dankara, the capitals of two petty tributary
states, which contain the richest gold mines in the empire ; Kickiwherry, in the kingdom of Assin,
and Vormiza, in a kingdom of the same name, whose inhabitants are more civilized than the Ashan-
tees; Diabbie, the capital of Amina ; SaWrgha C SiiremJ, the capital of tlie kingdom of Inta, which
extends to the lelt of the Rio Volta, and whose inhabitants are cliictly Mahometans, distinguished for
tiieir industry and civilization. Sallagha is one of the greatest commercial marts in the empire.
Yiindi, the capital of the great kingdom of Daguumia, is a very commercial town about as lar-e as
Kommassie, and the residence of a Mahometan king, who is tributary to Ashantee. The inhabitants
are very industrious, and the town contains an oracle of great repute among the negroes.
The kingdom of Dahomey appears to extend from the eastern frontier of the Ashantee empire to
the frontiers of Yarriba. It contains a number of large and populous villages ; the principal towns
are : Aliumey, the cai>ital, about 80 miles from the coast, a well-built town, with 24,000 inhabitants ;
but the king usually lives at Calmina or Aguna, where he has two palaces or country houses ; IVhy-
d'l/i, the capital of a kingdom of the same name, formerly independent ; Gregoy, a large town with
20,000 inhabitants; Grand' Fopo or Ifla, a considerable town on an island at the mouth of the Moussi,
and the capital of a small tributary state. The kings of Dahomey have been long famous for their
ferocity. Mr. Dalyell, who paid one of them a visit towards the end of last century, found the road
to the royal cottage strewed with human skulls, and the walls adorned, or almost covered, with jaw
bones. His government is the most rigorous despotism, the lives and properties of his subjects being
entirely at his disposal.
The kingdom of Ardrah, formerly tributary to Dahomey, but now belonging to Yarriba, is situate
on the coast to the south-east of Dahomey. Its capital, AHada or Ardrah, is a well-built and commer-
fvd\ town, with 20,000 inhabitants. Thekingdom of liadagry is a very small state, whose capital, of
the same name, is the place where several European travellers have landed on their way to the interior.
The kingdom of Lugai or A wane, is a small state at the mouth of the river Lagos. Its capital, of the
same name, has about .5000 inhabitants, and has become noted as the largest slave market in Guinea.
It is built on a small island at the entrance of Cradoo Lake, which extends about 70 miles parallel to
the sea, from which it is separated by a narrow bank, and communicates with the river of Benin.
Along the coasts of both Sencgambia and Guinea, several of the European nations have long had
settlements. Those of the French are situate on the Senegal, and along the coast between the desert
.•nid the Gambia ; the Portuguese stations are between the Gambia and Sierra Leone ; the Hritish and
Dutch settlements are on the Gold Coast, and the former also at Sierra Leone and Isle de Los in Senc-
gainbia.
The French Possessions are divided into the two arrondissements of St. Louis and Goree ; the for-
mer comprising the Island of St. Louis in the Senegal, and those of l.abogue, Sc/al, and Ghimbar;
and the different factories along the river, as Kamou, ilakana or St. Charles, Bakel, Dagana, and
I'lif; with tiie csrales or gum market:! of Cog, Darmankoiirs, and Trarzas ; and also that part of the
sea coast, which extends trom Cape Blanco to the Bay of /(/or Ynf, on the north side of Cape Verde.
The arrondissement of Goree comprises the island of Goree, and the coast from the bay of lof to the
numth of the Gambia, where is situate the factory of Al/ireda. But it may be remarked that the
I- rinch dominion does not extend over all the countries which border these coasts, most of which
are independent. The capital of the French possessiujis is St. Louis, a well-built town, on an island
or sandbank in the Senegal, near its mouth. It is the entrepot of tlie trade of that river, the prin-
cipal article of which is gum. It has an agricultural society, and contains about (>(K)0 inhabitants.
(i'tree, a small town, with about .'iOtX) inhabitants, is situate on a small island or rock, of the same
name, on the south side of Cape Verde. Hakel, on the Senegal, in Hondou, is a small place with only
4(K) inhabitants, but has a garrison of 100 soldiers. Dagana, a negro village in the kingdom of
Walo, with 1200 inhabitants. Makana or St. Charles, a factory built in 182."), on the site of Fort St.
.loseph, above Bakel. I'ortendik, on the coast, in the territory of the Moorish tribe of Aulad-.Ahmed-
Dabiiian, is inhabited only at the season for selling gum to European traders. It is about 170 miles
N. from the mouth of the Senegal, and there are large gum forests in the neighbourhood.
The I'urtitgwse SetlUments comprise only the small places or stations-of Cachao, Uissao, 'Ainghirhor,
I'lirim, and Gebd. all in the vicinity of the Kio Grande and Casamanza rivers, and San Domingo on
the Kio Pongo. Cachao, a. "mall town with a harbour, and 500 inhabitants, is the residence of the
governor.
The Hritish Possessions in SencgamV)ia are those of Sierra J^eone, the Isle de Los, and the Gamhia.
Sierra Leone (Lion Hill) is a peninsula, extending from the estuary of Sierra Leone to Yawry bay ;
presenting an irregular mass of peaked mountains, with valleys and prairies lying between them. 'I'lio
mountains are covered to their sunnnits with lofty forests, which give the scenery a beautiful, rich,
and romantic appearance. The river which forms its eastern boundary is a noble estuary extending
20 miles inland, varying in width from 10 miles at its entrance, to 4 where it terminates. The .'jettle-
nient was fortned in 17H7, with the view of commencinir the intrcduction into this part of Africa of
the bcneliis of Euroi)ean civilization. It has been largely colonized by maroons and negroes from
America and the West Indies, and captured slaves; and in 1833. contained 2!t,7<14 inhabitants ; but
its prosperity has advanced very slowly, and, so far as regards the objects originally inten<U-<l, the
settlement may be pronounced a failure. Throughout the [leninsula there are several villages ; bnt
the capital is Freetown, at the northern extremity, a well-built place, with regular and spacious
dtrects. The settlement has long lahoureil under the imputation of extreme unhealthiness, and has
been called " the white man's grave," burt It has of late years very much improved in thii respect, Mid
856 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Soudan.
is, indeed, now represented as not more unhealthy than any other place within the tropics, Europeans
bi'inir iiulebtcd for their great mortality more to their improper manner of living than to the cha-
racter of the climate. The h/i's de Los, in N. lat. y- IG', W. long. 16-^, live in number, about GO miles
N of Sierra Leone, are verv valuable as a station for tlio trade which is carried on with the rivers of
the adjacent continent, con^istin^ in the e.vchange of British goods, for hides, ivory, gold dust, &c.
There are several establishments on the Gambia. The principal is i<. Mari/'s Jsland, at the entrance
of the river, which it commands ; it is 15 miles long, but narrow and flat ; its chief town is Bathurst,
at the eastern point. Forl-Jumcs is situate on an island about 30 miles up the river, only 200 yards
long and oO broad, and imperfectly fortilied. Opposite the fort, on the north bank, is Jil/lfree, in a
healthv situation, and surrounded by a fertile district. On the south bank are f mtain, Tancroiail,
and Jotika-kimdii, of which the tirst is 2 leagues, the second 12, from fort St. James, and the last is
considerably up the river. Macarthy's Island is more than 300 miles up the river.
The British Settlements on the Gold Coast are Dix-Core, Sucundec, Comenda, Cape- Coast Castle,
Annantaboo, Tantum, Winnehah, and Accra. These were formerly in the possession of the African
company, and afterwards taken under the immediate charge of the British Government, but in 1828
were again placed under the management of the merchants of London engaged in the African trade.
The business in London is managed by a committee of three merchants, appointed by Government,
and accountable to the Secretary of State for the proper application of the funds allowed for the main-
tenance and defence of the setllements, which amount to £3^00 a-year. With this sum eighty men are
clothed, armed, and maintained, for their defence, and all other expenses provided for. The forts
are governed by a president and council. Cape- Coast- Castle stands on a rock of gneiss and mica
slate, about 20 feet above the level of the sea, in 5° 6' N. lat., and \° 10' W. long. ; it is an irregular
square, with a bastion at each angle (Mr. Martin says ".four bastions at each angle," which is cer-
tainly incorrect), the whole mounting about 80 guns. AVithin are spacious buildings for the accom-
modation of the residents. Outside there is a native town ; and the adjacent country to a consider-
able distance has been cleared and rendered fit for cultivation. The ruling natives are the Fantees,
a clever, stirring, turbulent race. Aitiiaritaboo, 10 miles E. of Cape-Coast Castle, is a good square
fort close on the sea, with a native town embracing it in the form of a crescent. At Accra, in 0=^ 5'
W. long., is the British station of James' Furt. The other settlements, says Mr. Martin, require no
separate notice. The trade of these settlements, and generally of Western Africa, is of considerable
importance to Great Britain, and is yearly increasing. The exports alone amount to the value of
£300,000.
The Dutch settlements consist of: Fort Antonius, near Axim, and Fort Hollandia or Fredericks-
burg near Pockeso, with several others. The principal settlement is Elmina, or Ht. George de la mina,
which is the residence of the governor-general. It is a well-built town, with a good citadel, and a
fort, a great trade, and about 10,0(:0 inhabitants.
The principal Danish settlement is Christiansborg, 2i miles from James Fort at Accra. The Danes
have several other small forts and factories along the coast.
In 1M21 a colony of free blacks from North America was founded on the Grain Coast of Guinea,
with the view of providing a place to which that class of the inhabitants of the United States might
be induced to remove, as well for their own benefit as for that of their native country, over which
they might gradually spread some part of the civilization which they had themselves acquired in the
new world. The managers of the colony have purchase J or otherwise acquired a tract of country ex-
tending about 225 miles along the coast, with a breadth inland of 20 or 30, to which they have given
the name of Liberia. The number of colonists amounts to about 4000. The soil is said to be fertile,
and the cUmate better than in most other parts of the coast. Rice, cotton, coft'ee, sugar, indigo,
bananas, cassava, and yams, are raised; and camwood, pahn-oil, ivory, hides, wax, and pepper, are
among the exports. The settlement is visited by traders from the interior; and some trade is
carried on with Europe and America. The local interests and minor affairs are confided to the
colonists themselves, who elect two legislative chambers ; but the government is substantially vested
in the agent of the American Colonization Society. Their chief town is ilonrocia, on Cape Mesurado,
N. lat G° 25'; W. long. 10^ Z(j', and contains 1200 inhabitants.
Central Socdan contains the following states and towns: — Sangaran or Sangara, a large
country inhabited by idolaters, under several independent chiefs, and containing the sources of the
Joliba. Boure, a small country inhabited by Jalonkcs, and governed by a Moslem chief, is a liill;
region with rich gold mines, the produce of which supplies the markets of both the coast and the
interior with that precious commodity. Its capital is Boure on the Tankisso, an affluent of the
Joliba on the left. Kankan, to the north of Sangaran, on the Milo, is a busy commercial town with
6000 inhabitants, all Mahometans, and is the capital of a state of the same name. Wassoulo, to the
north of Kankan, is inhabited by idolatrous Foulahs, who are nevertheless very industrious as shep-
herds and cultivators. The small village of Sigala is the seat of the chief, who is rich in his posses-
sion of gold and slaves. Bambarra lately formed an extensive and powerful kingdom, but is now
divided into two states, which may be called Upper and Lower Bambarra. In the former is Sego, on
the Joliba, a large town with 30,0:)0 inhabitants, according to Park, and the capital of the kingdom ;
Bammakoo, a commercial town farther up the river ; Marabou, Yamijia, Sami, Sansanding, and Silla.
The kingdom of Lower Bambarra was established some years ago by a Foulah chief, and is now the
principal power in Western Soudan. Its capital is Jenneh, a large well-built town at the end of a
small island in the Joliba, and is the seat of a great trade. El-khamdo-V Illah, 80 miles N.E. by N. of
Jenneh, was recently founded for the purpose of enabling the pupils at the schools to pursue their
studies away from the distractions and the noise of the capital. Jsaca, at the confluence of two branches
of the Joliba, is the port of embarkation for travellers to Timbuctoo. Mussina, on the Joliba, is the
capital of a kingdom governed by a brother of the chief of Je.ineh. The kingdom of Kong, noted for
the industry of its inhabitants, lies to the south of Bambarra, among the mountains to which it gives
its name. Its capital is a place of the same name. Further down the river, on the right bank, is the
state of Banan, inhabited by a commercial people resembling the Mandingoes. The country oj the
Birimans extends along the right bank of the Joliba from the lake Debo to the environs of Dire, a
village dependent on the king of Timbuctoo. Its chief resides at Alcodia. The kingdom of Ten-
boktoo (Timbuctoo), which extends along the Joliba, is now confined to much narrower limits than.it
once possessed, and is obliged to pay tribute to the Tuaricks to prevent them from plundering the cara-
vans which come from all quarters to the central point formed by the city of Timbuctoo. It is a large
open town, 3 miles in circuit, situate in a sandy plain, 8 miles N. of the Joliba ; the houses are mostly
built of brick, but have only a ground storey, and the streets are wide enough for three horsemen to
pass abreast. It contains seven mosques. 'Ihough its trade has much declined from what it was, yet
Timbuctoo may be considered as the principal mart of this part of Africa. Its port is at Kabra, a small
town on the left bank of the Joliba. Borgnu, chicfiy to the riglit of the Kawara, is a confederation of
several petty kings, the most powerful of whom are those of If'aica, Kiama, Ki/.i, and Boussa or
Susah. The capital is Boussa or Busah, on the lett bank of the Kawara, with about 1 2,000 inhabitants.
Kiama, on the flank of a chain of hills, the residence of the sultan of Yarro, appears to be tlie most
commercial and populous town of Borgou, and contains so many as 30,000 inhabitants. Waua, one
of the finest towns in the country, contains 18,000 inhabitants. The kingdom of Yaouri, situate
between Haoussa and Borgou, is tlie most powerful in this part of Soudan"] and its sultan has sue-
Soudan.] AFRICA. 867
ccssfully repelled the aggressions of the Fellatahs. Yaouri, the cajiital, is a large, fortified, popu-
lous, and commercial town on the left bank of the Kawara, in the north-eastern angle of intersection
of 11- N. lat., and 5^ K. long. The kingdom of ^V^^e or Tappa, to the left of the Kawara, is divided
between two brothers, one of them a Mahometan supported by the Fellatahs, the other a pagan.
The capital of the former is Tabra, a town with io.oOO inhabitants, on the Mayarrow, an atHuent of
the Kawara. Koulfou, a little to the east of Tabra, is the most industrious and busy town in Nyife,
•with 12,000 or 15,000 inhabitants. Rabba, a large, populous, and commercial town of Nytfe, near the
kft bank of the Kawara, seems to be in possession of the Fellatahs. It is a great entrepot of the
trade of Soudan, t^iisfd, to tlie right of the Kawara, a large and populous city, distinguished for
the commercial activity of its inhabitants, who possess a large number of vessels with which they
trade up and down the river. The kingdom of Yarriba, which extends from Pouka near Badagry, on
the slave coast, to the frontiers of Borgou and the right bank of the Kawara, in 10-^ N. lat., is one of
the principal states in this part of Africa ; the kings of Dahomey, AUadali, Badagry, and Maha, are
its tTibutaries, and Benin is an ally. The capital is Eyeo or Katunga, a large town 15 miles in cir-
cumference, built on the slope and round the base of a small chain of hills. It is surrounded by a
wall 20 feet high, and a ditch ; the houses are built of clay and thatched. The other principal places
are: Boliutt, a. large town, formerly the capital; Daffmi, with 15,000 inhabitants; Jannah, C/ttUi,
Kuuso, with 20,000 inhabitants. The kingdom of Fundah, Fandah, or Founda, which is very imper-
fectly known, extends along the Tchadda, and exercises dominion over a great part of the country
situate to the left of that river. Its capital is Fundah, on the river Okwah, a small affluent of the
Tchadda ; which is said by Mr. Laird to le as large as Liverpool, and to contain about 00,000 or
70,000 inhabitants, who manufacture cotton stuffs, leather, good beer, and iron. Jammahar or Yimahah
on ihe Tchadda, is t'.'ie port of Fundah in the dry season. The kingdom of Benin or Adou, one of the
most powerful in Soudan, extends along the coast from Lagos to Bonny, and 20 days' journey in-
land; thus including a large portion of the delta of the Kawara; but the interior is still very littlo
known. The capital is Benin, a town with about 15,000 inhabitants, 70 miles from the coast. Wait
a sniall town witli a population of 5(X)0, the capital of a small dependent kingdom of the same name,
is inhabited by the Jackeris, a negro race remarkable for their industry, and the mildness of their
manners, which form a singular contrast with the ferocious habits of their neighbours, the people of
Benin. Uminy, a town with 20,000 inhabitants, on an island at the mouth of a branch of the Kawara,
is the capital of an oligarchic republic tributary to Benin. It was recently the greatest slave market in
Guinea, and is still one of the most extensively commercial towns. Brass, a trading town on a creek
of the river Nun, west of the Bonny river ; with 2000 inhabitants. The kingdom of Qua extends from
the St. Anthony or Andony river to the Kio del Key. Its capital is Old Calebar or Bongo, and its
inhabitants, though idolaters, are somewhat civilized. The Old Calebar river forms a wide estuary,
navigable for large vessels up to Epliriiim town, which is governed by a chief who assumes the title
of Duke ; it contains about GOOO inhabitants. On the lower part of the Kawara are several places,
which our information does not yet enable us to assign to any of the great political divisions. Boqua,
Bockwey, or Icary, on the left bank of the river, immediately below the hills, is a sort of free port or
neutral place, where the people of hostde states may meet without danger. Aita or Itta, Addali or
Iddah, "P 40' N., also on the left bank, is a large town with 15,000 inhabitants. Damug^o, on the left
bank, 40 miles below Attah, is the seat of a chief who possesses a flotilla. Kirri or Kirree, a large
town on the right bank, 25 miles below Damuggo, is one of the principal markets in Soudan. Ibou,
Ebno, Ebboe, a small town of GOOO inhabitants, not far from the right bank of the Kawara, is the capital
of the kingdom of Ibou, and one of the principal marts of the lower part of the river.
The principal states included in the Basix of the Tchad are the following : — Bornou is situate
along the sides of the great Lake, and seems to consist of JJurnou Proper, to the south-west of the
lake; Kanem to the north and east ; hoggnn to the south ; a part of Mandara, to the south of Log-
gun ; and a part of the country of the .^i ungas or Afungowi to the north of the Yeou. The capital is
Birnie or New Bornou, a walled town with 1.5,000 inhaljitants, not far from the Tchad. The other
principal places are :— Kouka, a small and recently built town, the residence of the Sheikh El Kanemy,
who was the actual ruler of Bornou in 1820; Aitgornou, the largest and most commercial town in
the empire, with 30,000 inhabitants, besides strangers ; Digoa, a large walled town, with a population
of 30,000 ; Birnie or Old Bornou, on the Yeou, formerly the capital, is now entirely ruined ; but an e.\-
tensive space covered with the remains of buildings still attests its ancient importance, when it con-
tained 200,000 inhabitants. Gambarou, once a large town on the right bank of the Yeou, is also in
ruins ; lieUtw, sometime the capital of Mandara, with 10,000 inhabitants ; Mora, the present capital of
Mandara ; Maou, the capital of Kanem. The kingdom of ISag/iermeh, situate to the south-east of the
lake, borders on Bornou, t)ut its extent is unknown. The inliabitatits are noted among the Africans
for their bravery and their industry, Mesna appears to be its capital. The kingdom of Mobba called
l)ar Szaleh by the Arabs, IVadai, by the people of Kezzan, and Borj^ou by the Bornoucse, is too im-
perfectly known to be described. Its capital is liana, which is .said to be three times larger than
Boulak near Cairo. Only a part, however, of the kingdom seems to belong to the basin of the Tchad.
The same in.ay be said of Diir-Fur, a considerable territory situate between Dar-SzaUh and Kordo-
fan, and of which the capital is Kobbe or Cobbe, which was visited by Mr. Browne in \TSS. It is a
dry desert country, lying between the basins of the Tchad and the Bahr-el-Ahiad.
The Emi'Irk of the Koli.ahs or Fellatah belongs partly to the basin of the Kawara, and partly
to that of the Tchad, but the larger portion may be assigned to the former. It was.founded by the
Sheikh Othman Danfodio, who was a proficient in all the learning of the Arabs, and enjoyed the repu-
tation of being a prophet. He came originally from the woods of Ader or Tadela, and, havinj? settled
in Ghoober, built a town, where the Fellatahs soon began to collect round liim. Driven from it by the
Sultan, he again settled in Ader, where he built another town ; from all quarters Fellatahs rtoeUed
to his standard ; and in the course of a short time he acquired possession of the w liole of llaoussa,
with Kano Kubbe, Youri, and part of Nyfie, and extended his ravages almost to the sea-coast, llo
died in 1810, when his son Bello succeeded to the government of llaoussa; while the conquered ter-
ritories to the westward were given to his nephew. Sacratoo, the capital, is a large city on the top of
a low hill near an affluent of the Kawara, about four days' journey from the great rivir. It was built
in 1805 by Danfodio, and has been surrounded by Bello, with a wall 24 feet high, and a dry ditch. Us
population is estimated at 80,000. The other principal towns are : Kaslicnali, i'assinu, Kii.\/iiia, for-
merly a lar^e city, but now so reduced as to occupy only about a tenth part of the enclosure within
its wall ; hula u-aua, the chief town of Ghoober; Zirmi,tl\ti capital ofZanifra; Zariyti, the chief
town of Zegzeg, a new town built by the Fellatahs, and containing .50,000 inhabitants ; Miigariir. Ui
Ader, a fine town built by .Sultan Bello, Which is becoming daily more consider.ible ; Kano, tlie prin-
cipal mart of Central Alrica, a large town with 40,0(X) inhabitants, is about 15 miles in circumferenco,
and is surrounded by a wall 30 feet high and two dry ditclies ; but the interior is divided into two by
a bahr or morass, which forms a lake in the wet season; Baebaegie, in the province of Kano, is a
large town with several stone houses, and from 20,000 to 25,000 inhabitants, all devote d to conmierco.
KuCimko ; Xatigaiia ; Katagoum, on an aOlueat of the Ycou, ono of the principal fortrcssci of the
empire, with 7000 or 8000 inhabitants.
858 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Sohthebm
SOUTHERN AFRICA.
Thb whole of the continent soath of the equator is properly entitled to this appellation ; but the
limits of the division may be extended a little further north, so as to include the unknown regions
which have the great central chain, or supposed chain, of mountains for their northern border, or in
other words, to a line drawn from the Cameroons on the Bight of Biafra to the Gulf of Aden. The
region may be divided into four portions, the first three of which we shall describe>eparately, namely,
1. The Maritime Heirions on the West Coast; 2. Tlie Maritime Kegions of the East Coast; 3. South
Africa ; and 4. The Unexplored Interior, respecting which nothing is known.
§ 1. Countries on the West Coast.
These countries, in former times, were usually denominated Lower Guinea. The portion extending
from the Cameroons to Cape Lopez, is called the coast of Gabon ; but almost nothing is known of the
interior. The evidence, however, which we already possesson this subject goes to prove that along
the coast, through 1000 miles in latitude, and probably 40 miles to seaward, there is a constant evo-
lution of sulphuretted hydrogen gas, the breathing of which is extremely injurious to health ; and,
says Professor Daniel, it is not improbable that our cruisers on the coast are exposed to its exhala-
tions given out from the ocean under a tropical sun, over an area of 40,000 square miles in extent.
This he ascribes to the circumstance of the numerous rivers which flow into the Bight of Biafra, from
a richly wooded country, bringing down much vegetable detritus, and forming deposits of mud at
their mouths ; and that thus the most favourable conditions for generating sulphuretted hydrogen
are present, in this ver.v case in which so large a quantity of the deleterious gas is found.--( Friend
of Africa, Feb. 1841.) The only place of any importance on the coast is Naango or Georgetown, the
principal slave market. It is situate on the river Gabon, which flows into Corisco bay, to the north
of the equator.
I.oango appears to extend from Cape Lopez to the Zaire, or some miles farther, and includes a
numberof different states or petty kingdoms w hich we need not particularise. The coast is high and
abrupt, but the hills are covered with soil and luxuriant vegetation. The soil is generally a stiff
loam, and very productive ; but near the coast is an extremely fine sand. The lakes and rivers abound
with fish, and the forests with wild beasts. The climate is excessively hot. Rain sometimes falls ; but
the dews are sufficient for vegetation. Almost the only grains cultivated are manioc, maize, and a
species of pulse called msangen ; but the greater part of the country is covered with tall grass. The
finest fruits grow wild ; sugar-cane attains an extraordinary size ; palm-trees are very plentiful ;
potatoes and yams are also very abundant. The Chinese hog is the only animal reared for domestic
use. The people reside in villages, or clusters of straw huts in the midst of palm groves. They
are in the lowest state of degradation, indolent, debauched, filthy, cowardly, and superstitious. The
capital of all the country is Loango or Banza-Loango, situate in a large and fertile plain, about two
miles from the coast, in 4^ 36' S. !at., and is said by M. Grandpre to have a population of 15,000. The
other principal towns are : Kingulle, the capital of Ca-Congo ; Malemba, a great slave market on the
coast ; Cabenda, in Ngojo, in a beautiful situation, with a fertile soil, and a good harbour, is one of
the principal slave markets on the coast.
Congo, as originally known to the Portuguese, e.xtended from Cape Lopez to Cape Negro, including
not only Congo Proper, but also Loango, Angola, and Benguela ; but its limits seem to be now re-
stricted to a small territory, stretching along the left bank of the Zaire. Near the sea the country is
low and flat, traversed by numerous streams, and abounding in sandy deserts, but in general very fer-
tile. The climate is very pestilential. The interior consists of a number of terraces or acclivities,
forming a fine, rich, and populous region. The principal physical feature is the great river Zaire,
called also Couango, Barbela, Moienzi- Enzaddi, and Zembere, Vhich enters the Atlantic Ocean with
a great body of water in 6° 5' S. lat. Immediately off its mouth, in the current of its channel. Captain
Tuckey found no bottom with 150 fathoms of line ; and it was observed, that though the current
made a rippling noise, resembling that of a mill sluice, yet it was seldom found to exceed 4J or 5
knots an hour, and in many places not more than2|. At its mouth it is 10 miles wide; a little higher
up it diminishes to 7 ; and at 140 miles from the sea, narrows commence, and continue for 40 miles,
through which space the river is generally not more than from 300 to 500 yards wide, and generally
confined between rocks. Above the narrows, for about 100 miles, the river again expands to the
width of two, three, and even more than four miles, flowing with a current of two or three miles an
hour. Higher up. the natives stated to Captain Tuckey, that they knew of no impediment to the
continued navigation of the river, and that the only obstruction in its north-east branch was a single
ledge of rocks, forming a sort of rapid, over which, however, canoes were able to pass {'Sarratire
of an Expedition to Explore the Zaire, Sfc. in 1816.) Of its origin and affluents nothing positive is
known. It overflows in the rainy season to the height of 12 feet ; and has also risings in the dry season
to the height of 7 feet. The banks are clothed with a most luxuriant vegetation. The country is
divided into a number of petty states, each governed by a chenou or chief, acknowledging the supre-
macy of Blindy N'Congo, who resides at Banza-Congo. The Congoese belong to the least favoured
race of negroes, and are sunk in the lowest state of degradation and superstition. Their religion is
fetichism, with a mixture of Christianity introduced by the Portuguese, and idolatry ; but the people
are said to be sincere, hospitable, and compassionate.
Angola, Dongo, or Ambo.nde extends to the south of Congo, being about 3.')0 miles from E. to W.,
and .50 or 60 from N. to S. It is properly a part of Congo, from which, however, it has been politi-
cally separated since the middle of the 16th century. It is e-xtremely mountainous, being destitute of
plains, except on the sea shore, with some small flats on the sides or in the gorges of the mountains.
It is extremely well watered ; the principal streams are the Coanza, Benga, and Danda, the first and
last of which form the southern and northern boundaries of the country. The soil on the coast is
sandy but not desert ; in the interior, it is rich and productive. The climate is excellent, and the
heat temperate. Gold and silver have been discovered in the mountains near the coast ; but no gold
dust has been found. Iron is plentiful, and copper is also said to exist ; lead, sulphur, and petroleum
are its principal mineral productions. Every species of tropical vegetation is abundantly produced ;
and all the animals common to intertropical Africa are found The people are black, but have few
of the negro peculiarities in form or feature ; blue eyts and red hair are not uncommon among them.
The population is said to be dense. The capital, St. Paul or Loanda, is said to contain 8000 inhabi-
tants.
The Portuguese established a factory on the coast in 1485, and their power has been constantly e.t-
tending ever since ; they have one establishment 700 miles inland, and exercise great influence over
AFRIC/..J AFRICA. 859
the numerous petty chieftains among whom the country is parcelled out. The chieftains, however
are all subject to a sort of king, called the Ineue. The principal articles of export are ivory and slaves'
the latter of which are carried off in great numbers to Brazil.
BK.yoDELA extends along the coast from the Cowara river to Cape Negro, or from 9= to 16^ S. lat.
a distance of about 460 miles. It appears to be mountainous, and watered by a great number of
streams ; and the elevation of some parts of the country is so considerable as to occasion a great de-
gree of cold. Dense forests of cedars, palms, boobash, date-trees, tamarinds, and other tropical trees,
with some which belong to the temperate zone, clothe the sides and the tops of the mountains, mi.\ed
with vines, bananas, and other species of fruit-trees of the finest quality ; but, owing to the indolence
of the people, grain is not very abundant. Wild animals are extremely numerous ; and also cattle,
sheep, and goats. The mountains yield copper, sulphur, petroleum, and crystals. The coast is ex-
cessively unhealthy ; but the interior is salubrious. The rainy season lasts generally throughout
May and June ; but it is very irregular, and sometimes no rain falls for three years in succession.
The country is chiefly inhabited by petty tribes of independent and very savage barbarians ; the most
noted of whom are the Gagas, Gigas, or Jagas, a wandering set of robbers, who acknowledge no tribe
or nation. They destroy all their own children, and keep up their numbers by stealing others. They
are bold and skilful soldiers, but ruthless cannibals, without the slightest idea of art or industry, car-
rying destruction and desolation to every place they visit. The Portuguese have long had settlements
on the coast and in the interior; but their power does not seem to extend far beyond their forts.
Their principal settlement is San Felipe de Bengiwla, a small town with a fort in an unhealthy situa-
tion, on a bay of the north coast, 12= 40' S. lat. The rest of the coast to the south of Benguela is a
sandy desert without water, scantily peopled, or traversed by the Cimbebas and Damaras.
§ 2. The East Coast.
From Bab-el-Mandeb to Cape Guardafui, the coast extends eastward for about GOO miles, forming
the southern border of the Gulf of Aden. This, as well as the country of Ajan, to the south of Cape
Guardafui, as far as the river Juba, a little to the south of the equator, has no other distinctive name
than Barra Somauli, or the land of the Somaulis, a people who live in numerous independent tribes.
They are a mild race, of pastoral habits, and confined entirely to the coast, the whole of the interior
being occupied by the savage Gallas, and appear to be the descendants of the aborigines of the country,
who were early converted to Islam by the Arabs, who traded with them. The north coast, some-
times designated on maps ^del, has three towns, which are little visited by Europeans. Zeita, a
small town of 500 inhabitants, inclosed by ruinous walls, and possessing a shallow harbour ; and
Tajuriah, a mere village, of 70 or 80 wooden huts, but with a capacious harbour, and good anchorage,
were recently (1839) subject to the Pasha of Egypt, lierhera, Barbara, or Burburfen, remained
unknown in Europe till 182G ; it is situate on the coast, 220 miles S.E. of Bab-el-Mandeb, and may be
described as a large encampment, rather than a town, the permanent residents, during the hot season,
not exceeding 100 families; but from September to April, tliere is an annual fair or mart, at which
sometimes so many as 10,000 people are assembled, wlio live in tents formed of sticks covered with
skins. Their great object is to barter the produce of the inland country for goods brought from
Arabia. The chief articles exported are ghee, coftee, sheep, gum, myrrh, ostrich feathers, gold dust,
hides, skins, and slaves. Coffee is brought from a distance of 40 days' journey in the interior, and
as it forms the principal part of the return cargoes of the vessels, the quantity exported must be very
great. The whole trade is in the hands of Banians. Cape Guardafui, named Has Assere by the Arabs,
is a bold headland, immediately to the south of which is the Jebil Jordafun, a high mountain, from
which the European name of the Cape itself seems to be derived.
From Guardafui the coast extends in a south-westerly direction, but with various windings, to the
Cape of Good Hope, under the various names of Ajan or Ajen (Arab Ilazine, i.e. the rou)ih ground),
Zangtitbar, subdivided into Magadoxa, Mclinda, Zanzibar, and Huiloa ; Mozambico or Mozanihique ;
Sabia, Itihambane, and Cajj'raria. This long sweep of 3000 miles is chiefly occupied by negro tribes in
a state of great barbarism ; though some of them are numerous, and not quite destitute of arts and in-
dustry. Arab colonies are also to be found at varione places along the coast. The sovereignty, as far
as the river Mozimba, to the south of Cape Delgado, is claimed by the Sultan of Muscat ;'the re-
mainder, as far at least as Delagoa bay, Ijy the Portuguese ; but the only territory which the latter
really possess is the Captaincy of the Hiusde Senna, whichcontainsaboutSGOOsquareleagues. Thetown
of the same name is situate on the Zambeze river, in 17° 3(/ S. lat., 3')° 1,5' E. long. This Portuguese
territory is traversed by the great river Zambeze, which enters the Indian Ocean in lat. 18° S., by five
principal channels, named the Luaboel, Luaho, Omama, and (iuilimane. Its sources are unknown,
imt the river is said to be navigable for canoes for 300 leagues. The lower part, however, of its
course has been found to be scarcely navigable by larger vessels, even boats, owing to the great
rapidity of the current, and the numerous sandbanks with which its bed is choked and divided. It
has many considerable aftiuents ; and so great is the rush of the floods from its various mouths,
that, four miles from the land, the water is perfectly fresh.— (',7o«r?i(// It. Geog. Soc. Loud. II. 13G;
III. 204.) Proceeding along the coast southward from Cape Guardafui, the first place worthy of
notice is the peninsula of lla/onn, which projects a considerable distance seaward, appearing like an
inland. Magadoia, or Mttkdesim, or Mukdesha, 2^ 1' 8'' S. lat., 4')° 19' .')" E. long., is a considerable
town with an imposing appearance, the buildings Ijcing considerably large, and of stone, overtopped
by four minarets. Hut these are only tenanted by the dead, the living population being resident in
low thatched huts. Brann, within the territory of Magadoxa, is also a port of some importance. Me-
linda or Maleenda, once a flourishing city, has been totally destroyed by the savage Gallas. Minnbrtz,
4-' 4' S lat., a town in possession of Arabs, is only a mass of huts, hovels, and ruins. It is situate on
a small island on a bay or gulf, which forms, perhaps, one of the most perfect harbours in the world.
The island is surrounded by cliffs of nuidrepore, capable of being rendered, l)y very little labour,
almost imijregnable. Farther south are the two large islands of Pemba and Zanzibar. I'mtba is .30
miles in length by 10 in breadth, and 18 from the mainland ; it is low, and rests on a coral foundation,
but is covered by a most productive soil, yielding every kind of produce, especially rice, and hciiij; in
fact the granary of the neighbouring country. Zanzibtrr, 2.') miles S. of Pemba, is about twice the
size, but resembles it in almost every other respect, prciducing ab\indantly grain an<l sugar; but the
climate is unhealthy. They both belong to the .Sultan of Muscat. The foreign commerce of Zanzibar
Is considerable, and almost entirely in the hands of the Americans and English ; the .sultHu f;irm»
out the customs for about £.30,(KK) a-year. (luiloa ( Keelwa) once a large and flciurishiiig city, has now
dwindled to a mere village, gov.'rned by the Muscatesc officers. 0//w Dilnadn is sitiuitc in 10 10' 2"
8. lat. ; and immediately to the southward is the extensive line of the (iui-rimba hbrnd.!, which arc
all composed of coral, low, of various sizes, and abounding with excellent harbours, which atlnrd j'cr-
fect security in the heaviest gales.
Within the Portuguese territory, besides Senna, already mentioned, the princiiml placcH are: —
Mnzamhique, (Iuilimane, Snjala, Inliamhane, and llnhia de I,i>urevz(i Marquex or Haliia da /llnj^oa.
The liarbour of Mtizam/iiqw is formed by a de<'p inlet of the sea .'ij miles bro;id and G long. At the
entrance are three small islands, which, together with reefs and shoals, render the anchorage per-
fectly safo n the worst weather. The i*landj arc formed of coral, and named Muzambiqut, St.
860 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Southern
Otorge or Goa, and SarU' Jago or Senna. Mozambique, 15° 3' S. lat. 40^57' E. long., contains a con-
siderable but decaying town, with the fort of San Sebastian, which mounts upwards of 80 guns, and
is capable of a formidable resistance. It was once a place of great trade ; but latterly has been little
more than a mart for slaves. The Portuguese jurisdiction on the mainland does not extend 10 miles
north and west, and to the south not at all. Quilimanc is a pretty village on the marshy bank of the
north branch of the Zambeze river ; but is of some importance as the port of Senna. It is the
greatest mart for slaves on the east coast. Sqfula, the reputed Op/iir of Scripture, and a place of
great historical fame, consists only of a paltry fort, with a few miserable huts, the almost deserted
abodes of poverty and vice. Inhambani, a little to the south of the troi>ic of Capricorn, is situate at
the mouth of a river which forms a superb harbour, navigable eight miles from the entrance. The
trade consists principally in ivory and bees-wax. The town is by no means so rich as Quilimane, as,
from the small extent ot' its river, it has not the same facilities for procuring slaves, the source of
wealth to the latter place. The natives of the adjoining country are entirely independent of the Por-
tuguese. The Bay of Lourenxo Marques, named also Bahia Formosa (fine bay) and Bahia da Magoa.
or, as it is usually written in English, Dehii^oa, is situate in 20- S. lat. It is a large bay, open to the
north, but is a secure station for ships in all winds. It receives the waters of four large rivers. The
Poi-tuguese settlement consists of a factory and an ill -constructed fort garrisoned by a company of
soldiers from Mozambique. It is situate on the north bank of the entrance of the Rio do Espirito
Santo, opposite the Ilha da Inhaca, wjiich forms the northern point of the eastern shore of the bay,
terminating with Cabo Santa Maria (St. Mary's Cape.)— C Is'arratine of Voi/ages to explore the shores
Hf yffrica, Arabia, mid Madagascar, by Captain W. F. Owen, R.N. Lond. 1833. Karratine of same
Voyages by Captain Thomas Boteler, R. N. Lond. 1835. Me/noria Estatistica sobre os dominios Por-
tugezes na Africa Oriental par .Sehastiao Xarier lintelho Par do Reino. Lisboa, 18.35. Particnlart of
an Expedition up the Zambezi to Senna, ^c. in 1823. Journal, R. Geog. Soc. Lond. II. 13G.)
§ 3. South Africa.*
The name " South Africa," though properly applicable to the whole of that portion of the conti-
nent, which lies south of the Equator, is usually restricted by its European possessors to the colonial
settlements of the British and Dutch, adjoining the Cape of Good Hope, and to the countries possessed
hy the various aboriginal tribes with which the colonists have intercourse. In this sense the northern
limit may be fi.xed at the tropic of Capricorn, where the continent has a breadth of nearly 1-300 miles,
between the Atlantic and the Indian Oceans; while the country extends southwards through nearly lO^',
or 6^0 miles, to the latitude of Cape L'.\gulhas; or by a better division, the northern limit maybe formed
by a diagonal line drawn from Walvisch Bay, on the west coast, to Delagoa Bay on the east coast.
Of this region the Cape Colony occupies the southern extremity, to the extent of about 600 miles in
length, from east to west, with a mean breadth of 230, comprising an area of 130,000 square miles, and
having a sea-coast line of about 1120 miles.
General Aspect. — South Africa is generally composed of long mountain ridges, extending in a
direction nearly parallel to the sea-coast, witli intervening plains and valleys, which rise by successive
stages to the table-land of the interior. Within the colonial territory these mountains consist of
three distinct ranges. The first, named Langs Klonf, runs parallel to the south coast, at the distance
of from 20 to 60 miles. The second range, named Zu-arte Hergeti (Black Mountains), is considerably
higher, and more rugged, consisting often of double and even triple ridges. The bolt of land be-
tween this range and the former, is nearly equal in width to the low land on the sea-coast, but is at a
considerably greater elevation. Beyond another plain of 80 to 100 miles wide, soars the lofty Sieureldt
Gebirge (Newland Mountains), the hisihest range of South Africa ; the suminits of which are gene-
rally covered with snow, being estimated to exceed the elevation of 10,000 feet. Farther north, the
country slopes to the Gariep, and the greater part of the region yet explored forms the basin of that
great river with its tributaries. The Nieuveldt Gebirge are prolonged to the north-west, under the
tiiime of Roggei;eldt Bergen; eastward, they take the name of iVintcrbcrgen and Sneuwbergen ; and
are farther prolonged to the north-east to an unknown extent, forming, probably, a part of the great
range called the Back-bone of the World. The other two ridges are prolonged, in the same manner,
to the north-west, and to the north-east, with frequent interruptions, no doubt, but still with suffi-
cient continuity to warrant us in considering the prolongations as portions of the same range. The
principal summits of these mountains are : the Spitzkop or Compassberg, in Graffreynet, 7400 feet
high ; Komsberg, on the border of Beaufort, Clanwilliam, and M'orcester, 5100 feet ; Kamiesberg, in
the northern part of Clanwilliam district, 3000 feet ; Mr. Martin says from 4000 to 5000: and there is
a missionary station within 300 feet of its higl-.est peak. The Winicrberg, on the eastern frontier, is
believed to be the highest in the colony, but its height has not yet been ascertained. The plain be-
tween the sea and the Lange Kloof is covered with a deep and fertile soil, watered by numerous rivu-
lets, well clothed with grass, and containing a beautiful variety of trees and shrubs. Rains are fre-
quent, and the country enjoys a more mild and equable ttmperature tlian the other plains. The plain
or terrace, above the Zwarte Bergen contains a considerable proportion of well-watered and fertile
lands, but these are mi.xed with large tracts of arid desert, called karroo. Above the Zwarte Bergen,
the third terrace is chiefly occupied by the Great Karroo, a vast plain 3C0 miles long, by nearly 100
broad, which is raised about 300O feet above the level of the sea, and exhibits everv where ahard clayey
surface, thinly sprinkled over with sand, but studded with isolated hills, and a few stunted shrubs.
The eastern portion, however, of this terrace, along the foot of the Sneuwbergen, is a finely watered
and hilly tract, affording very rich pasturage in its numerous valleys. To the north of the Sneuw-
bergen, the country gradually becomes more open, and extensive plains spread before the eve, which
are covered with wild animals of every kind. The land declines towards the north, with many insu-
lated hills, which rise abruptly, and stand like sugar loaves upon a table. Farther to the north and
north-west, along the Cradock river, is an extensive and almost boundless landscape, adorned with
natural groves : and opening into extensive plains, covered with long grass, and studded with acacias
and in some parts thinly sprinkled with mimosas. Such is the countrv towards Latakoo, which
between that place and Delagoa Bay is described as equally fine. WestwaVd, down the course of the
Gariep, the country becomes more and more sterile, and extensive sandy tracts stretch for hundreds
of mdes on both sides of the river. The country west of the commencement of the Roggeveldt moun-
tams, between IV-' and 30= S. lat., appears to be a great inclined plain, the first part falling gradually
from the Nieuveldt ridge to the Gariep ; sprinkled over with singular piles of rocks which assume
the most grotesque appearances. Still further north, these plains are covered with low brushwood,
•with here and there beds of salt ; and, in one place, a valley of six miles wide occurs, which is entirely
composed of naked salt, and appears to be occasionally covered with water. This vast saltpan is sup-
• The usual appellations of the southern part of this region are. The Cape of Good Hope, or Thu
Cape Colony, the most awkward and inappropriate names that can be given to a large countrv. It is
probably not easy to find another ; but it has occurred to us that a good designation might be" formed
trom the Portuguese name of the Cape, slightly modified, namelv, Spbranza.
AriiicA.] AFRICA. 861
posed to be about 40 miles in circumference ; the surface is a fine dry salt, of a brilliant whiteness ; and
the soil of the country adjoining is composed, in some places, of a sharp gravelly decomposed schistus ;
in others, of a calcareous stratum strewed over with flints. The western part of this desert is pro-
longed beyond the colonial limit into Namaqualand, which extends along the coast, on both sides of
the Gariep, to about 200 miles north of the river, and for the same distance eastward, in which direc-
tion it is separated from the Bttchuana country by an extensive tract, which is uninhabitable tor want
of water. The soil of Namaqualand is in general light, sandy, and thinly clothed with tufted grass.
Some plains, however, are reported to be much more fertile in pasturage than the rest of tlie country ;
and here and there are scattered copious fountains which atl'ord eligible situations for permanent
villages.
At the very southern extremity of Africa is the Capo Peninsula, a singular tract about 36 miles long
and 8 broad, composed of a broken series of mountains, with flat or conical summits, which are con-
nected by lower gorges, and joined to the continent by a low, flat, sandy isthmus, 20 miles wide, be-
tween Table Bay and False Hay. The peninsula may indeed be said toconsist of two mountainous
tracts, separated by a sandy isthmus between Haut Bay and Fish-hook Bay. Within the peninsula
are several remarkable mountains, the heights and names of which are : Tahle Mountain, 3")82 feet ;
B^vil't Peak, SSI."); Lion's Head, 27GO ; Li mi's Hump, 1U3; Miiy-enberg, 2000; Khcy Peak, 1200;
Sinwn's Beri; or Sifsnal Hill, 2500; Vaulusberg, 1200; Constaittia, 3200; Cape Peak, 1000; Hanglip
Cape, 1800 feet. Of these the most conspicuous is Table Mountain, the northern front of which, di-
rectly facing Cape Town, and rising from tho bay like the ruined walls of a gigantic fortress, presents
an almost horizontal line of two miles in length, with a plain at the top of about ten acres in extent.
In front are two wings, named the Deril's leak, and the Lion's Head, which evidently formed, at one
time, a continuation of the table, and have their 1 ases still attached to Table Mountain, at a consider-
able height. The Devil's Peak is broken into irregular points; but the upper part of the Lion's Head is
a solid mass of stone, fashioned like a work of art ; and resembling, it is thought, in some points of
view, a dome placed on a high conical hill. The fiat summit of Table Mountain is occasionally over-
spread with a mass of white clouds, well known as the table-cloth, but the " magnilic.nt apparition
dwells only on the mountain's top." This is called the Table-duth by Fnglishnuii, but the Frencli
call it I'l perruque, the wig. It commences by a small white or fleecy cloud, which remains for some
time stationary over the summit of the Lion's Rump; it then gradually increases imtil it covers the
whole Table, when it becomes a dark grey in tlie middle, w bile its edges still remain white. After
continuing for some time, it slowly mingles with the atmosphere, until it finally disappears without
rain or mist. A strong south-east wind commences immediately after the mountain is completely
covered, which often blows in squalls excessively strong, and generally continues for two or three
days. It blows very hard through the gap which separates the Table from the Devil's I'eak, driving
the white clouds in rolling fleeces like wool along the sides of the mountains; ships are frequently
torn from their moorings, or bring their anchors home, and are driven out of the bay with all their
anchors a-head ; but the moment they are outside of the bay, they find nothing more than a single or
double-reef breeze. But this phenomenon presents itself only when a strong south-east wind may be
e.xpected. Though very rugged, the mountain m:iy be ascended on horseback ; the experiment,
however, is very dangerous.
Beyond the eastern limits of the British territory, the coast extends in a north-easterly direction to
Delagoa Bay. The most southernly portion is possessed by the Caffers, from whom it has received
the name of Caffiaria or Cajferland, and forms a tract of country clothed with the finest pasturage,
far superior, in general, to that within the colonial boundary. The face of the country evidently im-
proves as It extends farther to the eastward ; most of the streams are free from the admixture of saline
matter, which is peculiar to those adjacent to, and within the colony, and which renders thtm not
only unpalatable, but in some cases highly injurious. The coast is much bolder than that which
skirts the colony ; but, respecting the country beyond the mountains, nothing accurate is known. It
Is said, however, to be highly delightful, abounding with wood and water, diversilitd with ridges and
valleys, and clotlied with rich herbage. The mountains which separate it from the Betchuana country
on the north, and from the Amakosas on the south, are e.vceedingly riiggid, particularly the former
range, which is ofa very formidable and rugged character, presenting a succession of the mi st frightful
preeijices, supporting, like huge buttresses, the inland plains and deserts. The terrace plain betw een
the two ranges, extending from the colonial frontier to the neighbourhood of .Natal, a distance of at
least 400 miles, and comprising an area of about 24,000 square miles; and even the whole of the
country bitween the mountains and the sea, to a distance of 200 miles beyond the Amapondas, is un-
occupied by man : it may therefore be fairly calculated that the waste lands bordering on Catfraria do
not fall short of 40,000 square miles. From the Keisktinima to Delagoa Bay, the sea boundary, is one
of the most varied and interesting that can possibly be imagiiad, presenting every diversity that rich
hills and fertile meadows can produce ; the mountainous range which separates the sea border from
the interior is in some places 0000 feet hiv'h.— ( Owen's Vui/age, I. 70.) It is within this fine country
where there is such ample room for coloni.sts, that the British (lovernments have been strongly urged
to found a settlement at Port Satal ; where already a number of Dutch boors from the Cape territory
have established :in independent state. The country is well wooded with large timber, and watered
with upwards of 100 rivers and running streams, some of which are Inrger tlian the principal ri\ers
of the Cape Colony. The soil is so fertile as to iirodiice three crops of C afl'er and Indian corn In the
year. The rains are periodical, and the climate is cooler than that of the Cape, and highly salubrious.
The soil throughout the colony is very varied : in some places it consists of a naked sand, in others,
ofa stilTclay, and in many parts, of a rich dark vegetable mtjuld. Often the surface appears a dry
sand, but on digging to the deptli of a few inehe<, a black mould is found beneath ; the stiiVeliiyiy
soil, sometimes red an<l sointtimes yellowish, is very fertile when irrigated. The east coast-border
is generally an alluvial loam, a.s is the case with many valle.vs, particularly among the ravines and
windings of the Fish river. The surl'ace of the great Karroo is diversified : in many [daces the soil is
a stifl' brownisli coloured clay ; in some parts a bed of sandstone, crossed with veins of quartz, and a
kind of ponderous ironstone ; in others, a he:ivy sand, with here and tlu re a blackish loam. Near the
bed of the Buffalo river tlie whole face of the country i.s covered with small fragment-" of a de< p
purple-coloured slate, which have been detached from strata of long i>ar:illel ridges. Scattered iiinong
these fragments are black stones, resembling volcanic slags, or the scoria' of an iron furnace. Coiiie;il
hills, some of which are truncated, stand detached on the plain, and are composed of altrrnate layers
of earth and sandstone. Srime flat sandy marshes of the Karroo are overgrown with rushes, and
aboimd with strong salt springs, contiguous to which a kind of salt wort grows in jKrlVction ; the
surface around its roots is generally covered with a fine white nitrous i)onder.
Of y'ineralt few have yet been discovered. Indications of coal have been met with at the Kroom
river, and in gome other places. Near the Bushman's river, in I'itenhage, an e.\leMsive vein of alum
has recently been discovered, which is particularly l)eautiful, veiy iiiire, and valuable as an article of
commerce. At Camtoos bay a rich galena has been found in the sidesof a deep glen, in quartzoso
sandstone of a yellowish colour, which is easily broken. This ore, when assayed by .M.'ijor Van Dheii,
yielded from 20<l pounds weight, IW pomids of puie lead, and H ounces of silver. .Mineral waters
fxiht in different places : and there are numerous salt lakes and p( itds which sui'|>ly the colonists
with that necessary article. There are also several lingular salt-pans, some of whi<'h arj 200 niiloii
862 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPIIY. [SouTHERy
from the sea, and from 5000 to GOOO foot above its level, covered with hard salt, from 5 to C inches
thick The largest and finest of these is near the Zwartliops river, where the soil on all sides of the
pan is a deep vegetable earth, resting on a bed of clay, and without a trace of salt in its composition.
Along the east coast are found immense heaps of shells, in various places several hundred feet
above the level of the sea, and generally in the greatest quantity in sheltered caverns. At Mosscl
bav is a cave .TOO feot above the sea-level, which contains a large quantity of different kinds of shells
peculiar to the coast ; and behind Table .Mountain, at a similar height, are bods of shells buried
under vegetable earth and clay. Seven miles N.E. of Uiteuhage, and ten miles from the sea, are
Immense beds of sea shells, particularly of oysters, the fish of wliicli are petrified.
From the Cape, along the south coast, to Algoa bay, a bank with various soundings projects far
cut to se.i, called the fiaiik nf L' Jsiilhas. The extreme point is nearly in tlie longitude of Cape
A'aches, 'ii-' E., and 37J° S. liit., about 2nn miles from the shore, where it quickly converges, and
assumes a narrow conical form, with verv deep water at its southern end. It is probably the deposit
of the strong current which sets to the south and west, and is generally strongest during the winter
months, running with the greatest velocity along the edge of the bank, or a little outside of sound-
ings. When opposed by adverse gales a very high sea is thrown up, which sometimes lessons tiie
.strength of the current. By keeping on the edge of the bank a ship will be carried 80 miles a-day,
with an adverse wind, round the Capo into the Atlantic ; but towards the shore the rapidity of the
stream becomes gradually less, and the sea smoother.
CLI.MATE. In respect of heat, the southern portions of this region enjoy a very mild temperature,
which seldom rises above 100-^ of Fahrenheit. In a meteorological register, kept at Capetown, from
September 1813 to September 1821, the greatest heat was found to be 96^, the lowest 4')^ ; the mean
annual temperature scarcely 6A-' : of winter, GP, of summer, 89^; of tlie warmest month, 79^, of the
coldest, 57J^. In short, it corresponds as nearly to I'unchal, in .Madeira, in climate as in latitude,
though on the opposite side of the equator. The mean annual temperature is the same, with tliis
ditference, that the winters are somewhat colder, and the summers warmer. During summer, which
continues from September till the end of March, the wind blows from the south-east, and often
with great violence. From March till September the north-west wind prevails, and is accompanied
by pleasant weather, or rains, which are almost constant in June and July. In difforent parts of the
country, however, the meteorological phenomena are much varied, according to the direction and
height "of the mountains. In Albany and the eastern districts, the climate much resembles that of
England ; the mountain tops are occasionally covered with snow, which, however, rarely falls in the
valleys ; tlie winter nights are sharp and clear, while the summer heats are moderated either by the
sea breeze, or by the currents of wind which are continually at play among the hills and mountains.
The climate, generally speaking, is very salubrious, but the weather is neither steady nor always
agreeable ; nor is it suitable for agricultural purposes. The deficiency and irregularity of the rains
are great drawbacks. In the south-western districts rain, in the cold season, is profuse, but in sum-
mer it is of rare occurrence, and then the ground is parched up. In some of the northern tracts
bordering on the Great Karroo there is sometimes no rain for three years in succession ; and even in
more favoured districts tlie rain, when it does come, falls in torrents, and does great damage. Some-
times the south-east wind is at first, besides being excessively hot, loaded with impalpable sand ; but
as the breeze continues it gradually cools and becomes supportable.
VEOETAni.E Productions. — " The vegetation of South Africa is unique, varied, and beautiful.
Indeed, there are so many varieties of plants at the Cape, that when Linnseus received a large
number of specimens, he remarked to his correspondent, — ' You have given me the greatest pleasure,
but have thrown my whole system into disorder.' " Nowhere can the botanist find a richer and
more delightful field" for his pursuits than in Southern Africa. Tlie cr'cie or heaths have long been
acknowledged pre-eminent in variety and beauty, flourishing equally on stony hills or sandy plains.
An endless variety of frutescent or shrubby plants grows in wild luxuriance, some on the hills, some
in the deep chasms of the mountains, and others on the sandy isthmus of the Cape ; but it is singular
that of the numerous prutf'it. produced indiscriminately on almost every hill in the colony, the I'rotea-
argcntea is confined to the base of the Table Mount.ain, and has not boon found in any other part of
the world. The Conocarpa (Kreupet broom of the Dutch) grows along the sides of the hills; its bark
is used for tanning leather, and its branches serve for firewood. The r.alma-ohristi (casto:'-oil plant)
and the aloe are every where found in great plen'y. The dwarf mulberry flourishes, .ind the niyriea
cerifera. from the berries of which a firm and pure wa.x is procured by simple boiling, is found wild
in abundance on the heathy sides of the hills. Avenues of oak (durmast) trees, and plantations of
the white poplar, stone-pine, and others are to be seen near most of the country houses. The most
valuable trees, however, are the stink w-ood, a kind of quercus peculiar to Soutli .Africa, and the geel-
hout or yellow wood, both of which arc excellently adapted for building, furniture, and all domestic
purposes : these trees generally attain a height of 50 feet, with a diameter of 10. There is besides a
great variety of other useful timber-trees. In the neighbourhood of Grahamstown the coralo
dendron reaches the height of the oak, Ind in the spring produces large clusters of deep scarlet flowers
from a dark velvet calyx. It is scarcely possible to imagine the brilliancy and beauty of its appear-
ance, the whole of its branches being covered with blossoms. AVhat in Britain are considered beau-
tiful specimens of geranium, are here treated as garden weeds ; the colonists indeed often form their
garden hedges of the ivy-leafed geranium. The Karroo is chiefly covered with varieties of mesembry-
anthemum, crassula, stapelia, and euphorbia, and with tufts or" bunches of wiry grass, which expand
widely after rain. Several species of the indigo plant grow wild ; the cactus or prickly pear thrives ;
various species of the cotton plant flourish in the eastern dis^ricts ; the tea-plant has long been
reared in the country, but no attention has been paid to its culture, though the East India Com-
pany's monopoly (owing to which it was neglected, and tried to bo extirpated) is now abolished.
Flax yields two crops in the year, and tlie tobacco-plant is large and of good quality. Of fruit there
is every variety belonging to the tropical and temperate zones : oranges, lemons, citrons, figs, guavas,
grapes, melons, pomegranates, shaddocks, quinces, jambos, loquats, peaches, nectarines, pears, ap-
ples, plums, mulberries, raspberries, strawberries, gooseberries, almonds, walnuts, chestnuts, hazel-
nuts, are all large, and of excellent flavour. There are also a great variety of grapes ; a large white
Persian grape (haenapod or cock's foot) yields a delicious but costly wine; the grapes being fleshy,
they are generally reared for the purpose of being converted into raisins. The vine is generally
planted at the Cape in rows like gooseberry buslies ; in some vineyards, such as Constantia, it is sup-
ported on frames, raised a few feet above the ground, or on lofty trellices, along which it spreads in
rich luxuriance. On an acre of ground may thus bo planted .5000 vines, which will yield 5 leanuers
or pipes (5G0 gallons, of wine. The average wholesale price of the leaguer is 80 shillings. Culinary
vegetables of every variety and of the finest quality are grown. The various grains cultivated are
now much improved by the introduction of fresh seed from England, India, and Australia; new
grasses have been laid down, and the system of turnip husbandry, commenced in the British districts,
is extending among the Dutch farmers.
Animals. — In Southern Africa are found some of the largest and also some of the smallest mem-
bers of the animal kingdom. Among the beasts are the elephant, weighing 4000 lbs, and the black
streaked mouse, only a quarter of an ounce ; the giraffe, 17 feet high, and the elegant zonik or viverra,
Africa.] AFRICA. 863
only three inches ; the ostrijh, 6 feet high, and the creeper, a bird abotit the size of a cherry. Of the
thirty species of antelopes known in natural history. Southern Africa contains eighteen ; besides
which, there is the largest of the eland or oreas, 6 feet high, together with the pigmy or royal ante-
lope, which is little more than 6 inches. The springbok or leaping antelope is met with in herds of
4000 or 5000. The lion, the leopard, the panther, and various species of the tiger cat are indigenous.
The wolf, the hysena, and three or four different kinds of jackal are every where found ; H9. also the
ant-eater, the ironhog or crested porcupine, the viverra, the jerboa, and several species of the hare.
Buffaloes are numerous in the woods and thickets; and many of the plains abound with zebras,
quaggas, and gnus. In the mountains there are large troops of the dog-faced baboon, and swarms of
apes andmonkies of all sizes. Of the lion there are two varieties, the yellow, and the brown or black,
of which the latter is the stronger and fiercer. Indeed, the strength of this species is prodigious, there
being well authenticated accounts to prove that one can carry off an ox or a horse with nearly as great
ease as a fox carries a goose. Elephants are met with in the eastern districts, and are more numerous
as the country advances eastward. There are also two distinct species of the double-horned rhino-
ceros ; and hippotamuses are numerous to the eastward, and as large as those of the L'pper Nile.
Birds exist in great variety ; ostriches are numerous : the secretary bird (falco serpentarius) is pecu-
liar to the Cape ; it is the inveterate enemy of snakes, and on that account much cherished. Kagles,
vultures, kites, pelicans, flamingoes, cranes, spoonbills, ibises, wild geese, ducks, teal, snipes, bustards,
partridges, turtle-doves, thrushes, and humming birds of every sort are found in abundance. Many
other beautiful and curious birds might be mentioned, but we have only room to notice two of peculiar
character. The locust-bird, a species of thrush, congregates in places where locusts migrate, and
feeds upon the larvae of the insect. In 1828, Albany was overflown, and almost every vegetable sub-
stance consumed by locusts ; but in a short time these were followed by myriads of locust-birds,
which speedily cleared them off. The honey-bird, which is rather larger than a sparrow, is used by
the natives for a singular purpose. When the Hottentots are in want of wild honey they go to a
place which they think likely to contain the hives, and by a kind of whistle summon the honey-bird,
which is always lurking in the neighbourhood. The bird soon appears, and actually guides the hun-
ter to the very spot where the honey is deposited ; he then takes his station on a bush, and waits till
the honey is secured, when he l)ecomes possessor of the vacant nest, and the share of the spoil which
is invariably left for him. When the bird has eaten his fill, the hive is again closed with stones to
prevent the badger from destroying the young bees ; and, as there is always a plentiful supply of
flowers, the bees, however often robbed, never suffer from hunger, nor do they sting unless when
hurt. Ants are very numerous ; but the visitations of the locust are now rare. Reptiles are not
numerous ; snakes are found, but few accidents from them occur. The boa constrictor of a large
size has been killed near Natal, and also a new species of alligator ; large crocodiles have been seen
at Delagoa Bay. Fish are extremely abundant, and of every kind, in the bays and along the coasts.
During the winter season, whales, porpoises, and sharks enter the bays, and seals and penguins fre-
qiicnt various parts of the coast.
Of domestic animals, the colonists possess those of Europe in abundance. The Cape horse is not
generally large, but it is very hardy. The ox is large and clumsy, in consequcnceof his wide branching
horns and great limbs, ami is of considerable strength. A stall-fed Cape ux weighs from 800 to 'JOO
lbs. Dutch without the offal ; the beef is excellent, if the animal has not been driven far without food
across the Karroo. The Cape sheep are long-legged, small-bodied, thin in front, and have all their
fat collected upon the tail and the hind part of the thigh. The tail is short, flat, naked on tlie under
tide, and weighs from 6 to 12 lbs. The fat when melted is like a vegetable oil, and is used by the
Dutch ag a substitute for butter, and by the English for making soap. The general weight of the
sheep is from 40 to GO lbs; the wool, if it may be so called, is a strong frizzled hair, which drops oif
in September and October, and is scarcely fit even for stutting cushions. Merinos are now becoming
extensively introduced. The Namaquas possess the handsomest and most vigorous breeds of domes-
tic animals in Southern Africa. The oxen are equally strong as those of the colony, but are trained
into three different classes ; beasts of burden or draught, saddle oxen, and war oxen. The saddle
oxen are much superior to the horse in supporting fatigue, but are inferior in swiftness. The war
oxen seem peculiar to this nation. They are chosen from the most savage and ungovernable, and,
being driven against the enemy, rush on them like wild bulls ; they will even attack wild beasts.
People. — Of the white inhabitants of the colony, the most numerous are the original European
settlers, ,or their descendants, termed Africanders, and consist chiefly of Dutch, with a small in-
termixture of French Protestant refugees who left their coimtry after the revocation of the edict of
Nantes. In physical structure the Cape Dutchmen are a fine race ; in some districts their stature
and strength are gigantic ; particularly on the frontiers, where little vegetable food is consumed, and
wheri,- mutton stewed in sheep's-tail fat is the principal food throughout the year. In mental attain-
ments they are by no means deficient, when they are educated in youth, and when a proper stimulus
is given to the development of their talents. In the interior of the country corpulence is one of the
chief beauties of a Dutch housewife ; and the men are distinguished alike for their hospitality and
bravery. Those who live by grazing, termed Vee lioors. arc now the most numerous, and, probably,
the wealthiest class. A numerous colony of Hritish settlers was established in I'itenhagc, Somerset,
and Alhany, on the eastern frontier of the colony in 1H20. The other Hritish colonists are principally
confined to Capetown, or engaged in trade at different stations. Their character is similar to that
observed in other colonies; shrewd, generally intelligent, attached to political liberty, careful of
preserving it,^ hospitable, and enterprising.
The liberated slaves form the next most numerous class. They amount to .l.'i.OOO, and may be
divided into three classes : -Malays, Negroes, and Africanders ; the last being a mi.ved race, descended
from a European man anda Malay or Negro woman. These classes kiepthcmsclves perfectly distinct,
and will not intermarry. Many of them are nominally Christians; but the prevailing creed of the
Malays is islam.
The //(/«(;«/«/*, the aborigines of the country, arc the next in number, but the least in importance and
social worth, in the opinion of many of the colonists. At present, after two centuries of opiircssion,
tlicy probably do not amount to .lO.OKO. Wben young they are clean-limbed, and well proporl ioiied ;
with joints, liands, and feet remarkably small. In some the nose is flat, in others it is raised ; the eyes
are of a deep chestnut colour, very long, narrow, and distant from each other. The eyelids are
rounded into each other exactly like those of the ( hinese. Their complexion is a clear olive or
yellowish brown ; and the hair of the head grows in hard, knotted tufts, and when left to grow, hangs
on the neck in hard twisted, fringe-like tassels. Their cheek bones are high and promineut. forming
v.ith a narrow pointed chin nearly a triangle; their teeth are small, and exquisitely enamelled. The
tending of cattle is their principal occupation in the colony ; and for this purpose they hire tluni-
selves to the farmers. Some are employed as waggon-drivers, in which capacity tlwy are very sKiHiil
driving sometimes eight horses with perfect ease, over l.ad roads, avoiding every bole and rut. and
going at a smart gallop. Their fidelity and honesty, when well treated, entitle them to rank with any
Europeans. Their habits of life, however, are filthy and slovenly. Their villages, or Kraals, form a
confused mass of little conical huts, reared of twigs and earth, and so low that the inmates cannot
Stand upright. They carry on various little manufactures, such as tanning and dressing skins, form-
^CA DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Southekn
Ine matsof fl&gs and Imlruslies, bowstrinus from the sinews of animals, and even moulding iron into
knivos A numlwr of them were, a few years ago, located by Government at the Kat river, on the
border of Caflerland, and have conducted themselves in the most satisfactory manner. The colony
consists entirelv of coloured people, a mixture of Hottentots and I5astards,.about 3000 in number,
and have shewn themselves worthy of the liberal treatment they have received. They have gallantly
beaten off the Catfors, industriously cultivated the ground, and have now many thousands of horses,
cattle and sheep, thus proving that they are not so degraded as they have been represented. Several
varieties of the 1 lotteutot race exist on the skirts of tlio colony, under the names of Korannas Uosjes-
nians, Namaf|uas, Oamaras. and Griquas or Hastards.
The Kornnwis or Kor.u are a nomadic people of mild character, oocupyin? the country along the
banks of the Gariep, and are divided into a nuinbt-r of independent tribes. They aj.pear to he a mix-
ture between the Hottentots and the Catt'ers. They dress in sheep-skins, and their food consists of
curdled milk, supplied by their cows, which tliey seldom or never kill ; aided by berries, roots, locusts,
and game. A wild superstition supplies the place of religion.
The Botjesmatu or Bushmen, probably the aborigines of South Africa, are now reduced to a very
small number. They are short in stature, but well made ; of an olive colour, resembling the hue of
a faded beech-leaf; their eves are very small, deep-seated, roguish, and twinkling incessantly ; their
lips thick and projecting ; "and their "nose small and depressed. In cold weather a skin is used for
covering, and a mat, placed on two sticks over a hole in the earth, serves as a house. Their weapon
is a poisoned arrow, which inflicts a certain and speedy death. They ai-e adeiits in stealing cattle
and sheep ; and consequently many of the Dutch border farmers used to hunt them like wild beasts,
and even to boast of the number they had killed. Their language seems to consist of a collection of
disagreeable hissing sounds, all more or less nasal ; but in general they understand a little Dutch.
Sorcerers exist among tliem, and they seem to have a name for the Supreme Being ; but of their religion
it is difficult to olitain information. " All efforts to preserve the remnant of the Bushmen seem to be
abortive. They are to be found cliietiy between the Gariep and the northern borders of the colony.
The XamaqiKit are a pastoral people inliabiting the country on both sides of the Gariep towards
the sea-coast. They difl'er little from the Korannas in their habits ; like them they live chiefly on
milk, and lead a migratory life. Their country is, for the most part, an extensive plain ; the climate
is hot and dry, and the thermometer, in the summer months rises so high as 120^ Fahrenheit.
The Dumaras dwell along the coast, to the north of Xamaqualand, and by some travillers are be-
lieved to be of the Caffer race. Their country is considered fertile ; they grow various kinds of
pulse ; but flocks and herds form their principal wealth. They manufacture copper ornaments of a
rude kind ; and are associated in large villages, which are substantially built. Their weapons are the
bow and arrow and the assagais.
The Griquas are spread along the banks of the Gariep, about the middle of its course, for 700 miles,
and are in number from 1.1,000 to 20,000, of whom about .5000 are armed with muskets. They are a
n;ixed race, produced by the intercourse of Dutchmen with Hottentot women, on which account the
Dutch colonists call them Basfaards. They evince a bold, warlike, and industrious disposition ; possess
numerous flocks and herds, with many excellent horses. Their principal settlement is at Griqiiatoim
or Klaitruater (4S0 miles N.E. of Capetown"), where the elders of the people reside, and conduct the
affairs of the tribe, aided by two or three excellent missionaries, who are, in Southern Africa, the
pioneers of civilization.
The Caffers, Kaffirs, or Cajf'res live along the coast to the east of the colony, and extend to a consi-
derable distance inland. Kafiir or Infidel is a term of reproach applied to all the people of Southern
Africa by the Moslem inhabitants farther north. They have themselves no general name, and do not
form one political community ; but are divided into races and tribes, known by the various names of
Amakosas or Amaxosas, Amatembous, Amapondas, Amazoulah, and Tambookies. They are supposed
to l)e of Arabian descent ; but have no records of their origin. Mith the exception of the woolly hair, the
Caffers have no resemblance to the Hottentots or negroes ; for, though their colour is a dark brown,
nearly black, yet their features are regular, with an Asiatic cast, and their forms symmetrical ; the men,
in particular, being of a fair average height, and extremely well proportioned. The head is not, gene-
rally, longer than that of a European ; the frontal and the occipital bones form nearly semicircles ; and
the profile of the face is, in some instances, as finely rounded and as convex as that of a Greek or
lloman. The women are of short stature, vei-y strong-limbed and muscular ; and they attribute the
keeping up of the standard of the men, to their frequent intermarriages with strangers, whom they
purchase of the neighbouring tribes; tlie barter of cattle for young women forming one of the principal
articles of their trade. They are remarkably cheerful, frank, and animated, place implicit contidence
in visitors, and use every means to entertain them. In the warm season they prefer a state of nudity,
with a scanty apron ; but in winter they use cloaks of wild beast skins admirably curried. Their
arms are javelins, short clubs, and large shields of buffalo hides ; but their intestine wars, which
often arise about disputed pasture-ground, are generally decided without much bloodshed. They
never wear a covering for the head even in the hottest weather, and seldom use any kind of shoes,
unless during a long journey, when they strap a kind of leather sole to the foot. Both sexes have
their bodies tattooed, especially on the shoulders ; and young men who wish to pass for dandies,
paint their skins red, and curl their hair into small distinct knots like peas. They have no towns ;
but their kraals or villages generally consist of about a dozen of huts, like those of the Korannas ; in
these, however, they spend little of their time ; for the climate is so tine that they live chiefly in the
open air, and it is only at night, or in bad weather, or during sickness, that they remain within doors.
The sites of the villages and the cattle folds are chosen with reference to the pasture grounds, as the
increase and maintenance of their herds and tlocks seem to be their only and unceasing care. Their
diet is very simple, consisting principally of milk in a sour curdled state. Horses have been lately
introduced among them ; sheep and goats have also multiplied exceedingly. No regular system of
idolatry exists among them ; but they are much addicted to sorcery, spells, and charms, and some
scattered traces may even be found of the remains of religious institutions. The men are brave and
warlike, but seldom engage in war ; their principal occupation is that of herdsmen, in which they can-
not be excelled. Their govirnment is that of hereditary chieftains, who are legislators as well as
judges ; but they assemble, occasionally, theeldersof the tribes as a kind of jury, and also permit them a
voice in their decisions. Their laws are few, simple, and easily understood. Murder, adultery, sorcery,
and theft are the most frequent crimes ; but murder is seldom punished with death, the murderer
being generally fined in proportion to the importance of the person slain. Polygamy is allowed. The
Caffer tribes may now be considered as divided into six great divisions ; viz., the Mambookies or Ama-
pondas ; the Tambookies or Amatembous ; the Amakosas, in four divisions, under 1. Hintza, or his
successors; 2. Gaika ; 3. T'slambie; 4. Pato, Kama, and Cobus ; and their numbers previously to
the last war with the colonists were reckoned about ,39.5.000.
The Betchiianas, wlio inhabit the country to the north of tb.e Gariep, are superior to the Caffer? in
arts and civilization. They have large towns ; their houses are well built, and remarkable for neat-
ness ; they cultivate the ground, and store the grain for winter consumption. Their features arc more
European than those of the Cafi'ers, and often beautiful; their complexion is a briglitish brown.
Proceeding north-eastward, the traveller finds industry and civilization increasing at every step, and
beyond the Murutsi, tlie last of the Betchuana tribes, are the Maquainas, a numerous and powerful
Africa.]
AFRICA.
865
nation, equalling the Murutsi in industry, and far surpassing them in wealth and numbe-*. They are
known to all the southern tribes, as the people from whom all other nations receive their iron and
copper wares. All, indeed, of the South African tribes to the south of Inhamban habitually regard
each other as members of the same family ; they are, as they express it, one people, and, unless when
war disturbs their harmony, mingle- together without fear or mistrust. The industrious tribes of
the interior are not insensible to gain ; the mercantile character is fully developed among them ;
and they think of nothing, says Mr. Campbell, but beads and cattle. Their trade may be traced from
Delagoa Bay on the eastern, to Whale-fish Bay on the western coa-t ; and from Litakoo northwards
to the Zambeze. The most southern tribe of the Betchuanas is the Latdapis, whose chief town is
Litakoo or Latakoo, situate about 27° 6' S. lat., 24° 40' E. long., with a population variuuslv estimated
at from 4000 to 10,000. Its situation, however, has been several times changed within the present
century ; and Kruman, or liew I.itnkon, is the principal missionary statiun. Eastward from the Bat-
clapis are the Tammaluis, whose chief town is Masliow, 190 miles, or thereabouts, E.N.E from Lita-
koo, and containing about 10,0)0 or 12,000 inhabitants. North-east of the Tammahas are the Murutsi,
whose chief town is Kurrichane, about four times the size of Litakoo. AVest or north-west of the
Murutsi are the ly'ankitsi.
The Zuulalis, who live to the south-westward of Delagoa Bay, and round Port Natal, are a remark-
ably neat, intelligent, and industrious people, rich in cattle, cultivating a fine country, and inhabiting
large towns. They were originally few in number ; but have spread their conquests over a large ter-
ritory, and now form a nation composed of all kinds of tribes. They are, generally speaking, of a more
ferocious character than the southern Cafl'ers, and also more powerful ; but there is no w a desert tract
of 180 miles interposed between the Zoolahs and the Amapondas. Of late years, however, a great num-
ber of Dutch boors or farmers, discontented with the British government of the colony, have passed
the frontiers to the norih-east, and, after fighting their way through the intervening tribes, have esta-
blishid themselves, as an independent people, in the country of the Zoolahs, at Port Natal. Their
chief town is Pietermauritzturg.
Territorial Division of the Cape Colony. — The colonial territory is divided into two pro-
vinces, named the Western and the Eastern, the latter of which is under the charge of a lieutenant-
governor. These provincts are subdivided into districts, as stated in the following Table :—
White
Black
Total
Provinces.
Districts.
sq. miles
Popula-
tion.
Popula-
tion.
Popula-
tion.
Chief Towns.
r Capetown,
, ^'
14,041
5,702
19,743
Capetown.
Cape District,
3,.584
8,270
4,910
13,180
Simon'stown.
Stellenbosch,..
2,280
7,120
9,858
17,884
Stellenbosch.
Western. «
Worcester, . . .
24,100
6,02.5
3,489
9,514
AVorcester.
Clan William,..
18,011
7,000
1.015
8.015
Clanwilliam.
Swellendara, ..
9,000
13,346
3.314
21,859
Swellendam.
Beaufort,
20,000
2,916
2,872
6,908
Beaufort.
George,
4,.545
3,676
4,617
9,193
Georgetown.
Colesberg, .. ..
—
2,100
—
2,100
Colesberg.
[Albany,
1,792
U.-'iOO
228
11,728
Bathurst.
Eastern, i
i Somerset,
7,168
1 1 ,900
1,760
13,660
Somerset.
Graffreynet,. ..
22,000
7,531
7,407
14,938
Graffreynet.
L Uitenhage
9,000
4,628
1 00,0.53
6,391
51,463
11,019
158,741
Uitenhage.
J
Government The affairs of the colony are administered by a Governor, who resides at Cape-
town, aided by an executive council, which is composed of the Commander of the Forces, the Chief-
Justice, the Auditor-General, Treasurer, Accountant-General, and Secretary to Government. There
is also a legislative co\mcil, appointed by the British Home Government. The eastern districts have
been lately placed under the superintendence of a Commissioner-General, who resides at Uitenhage.
Each district or drostdy has a civil commissioner, who acts also as a resident magistrate, and is aided
by a number of unpaid justices of peace : a district is subdivided into a number of smaller divisions
called veld-cornetcies, over each of which a veld-cornet, a sort of petty magistrate, presides. He re-
ceives no salary, but is exempt from all direct taxes.
When the Caie became a British colony the Dutch civil and criminal laws were in operation ; but
these, particularly the latter, have undergone considerable modification. The laws are administered
by a supreme court, consisting of one Chief and two Puisne Justices ; and for the better execution of
the law, sheriffs and deputy-sheriffs of districts have been appointed since 1828.
Religion. — There is a variety of creeds among the Christian part of the population ; the most
numerous body being the Calvinists or adherents of the Dutch Reformed church. Missionary societies
have also been long labouring in the attempt to convert the Hottentots and Carters, and in some places
have met with considerable success. The South African Missionary Society confines itself to Cape-
town ; the London Missionary Society has stations at Capetown., the Paarl, Tulbagh, Bosjesveldt,
Zuurbraak, Pacalfsdorp, Hankey, Uitenhage, Bethelsdorp, Port-Elizabeth, Theopolis, Grahainstown,
Graffreynet, Kat river, Buffalo river, Cafferland, Philipolis, liushman station on the Caledon river,
Griquatown, Betchuana Mission, New Litakoo, Komaggas in Namaqualand, and Steinkoff. These
stations employ 32 missionaries or pastors with several schoolmasters and assistant teachers. The
Wesleyan missionaries are stationed at Capetown, Kamiesberg. and in Great Namaqualand, Grahams-
town, Salem, Bathurst, and Port-Francis m Albany district, and among the Caffersand Betchuanas.
The Moravians have stations at Gnadenthal, Groenenkloof, Enon, Hemelenarde, Elim and Shilob,
which employ 39 missionaries.
Staple Pbodl'cts. — Corn, wine, wool, provisions, oil, aloes, and fruits arc the staples of this
fine colony ; but many other articles are either produced in the colony or obtained from the neighbour-
ing nations There is an annual exportation of corn to a considerable amount, which brings, as flour,
a liigher price at the Mauritius and other markets than the best American. Barley, oats, and Indian
corn thrive well ; the last is admirably adapted for fattening swine, the export of wliieh, in the shape
of hams, bacon, an I salt iiork.is yearly increasing. Two crops of potatoes are raised during the year,
which are of a succulent yet mealy quality ; and the nutritive property of every article of provision is
abundantly exemplified iii the fat and healthy appearance of the people. Wine has long been a staple
export. The culture of the vine was introduced by the French Protestant refugees, and wherever the
quality has been attended to, the wine produced is equal to that prepared in any other part of the world ;
but the vine growers have unfortunately been hitherto more attentive to the quantity than the quality of
their wines, so that they are of very little repute in the European markets ; and the reduction of duty
on foreign wines imported into Britain since 182.5, has almost ruined the Cape wine-trade. Constantla.
near Capetown, was long celebrated for a peculiar and excellent wine. Wool will, in time, be one of
806 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Southern
the greatest and most profitjible stuples of the colony. The colonists are now actively engaged in
endeavouring to change their coarse wooled, or rather hairy slieop for the fine and pure breed of that
animal, whoso numbers now exceeil SO.OOO. Tiie settlers in Albany have talsenthe lead, and have im-
ported Saxon and MiTino rams from Kngland ami Australia. The fineness of the climate, which
renders winter provondor unnecessary, and the great extent of upland soil and park-like downs, with
the numerous salsola and saline plants, so well adapted to pievent the fuke or rot, shew the adaptation
of the c lony for a vast sheepfold, capable of supplying an almost indefinite quantity of the finest wool.
Hides and horns are rapidly increasing as a staple, and the quantity of ivory, ostrich feathers, gums,
and otlier articles procured from the native tribes, have proved a valuable branch of commerce. Horses
for India, live stoek for the Mauritius and other places are also staple exports. Aloe juice is exported
in consideralile quantity ; dried fruits, as apples, apricots, peaches, pears, Sec, have been long in great
demand. Kaisins are exported to New South Wales, JIauritius, and England. The fisheries have not
yet been sufficiently attended to. During the calving season whales come into every bay on the coast,
and tliHS in some years a considerable number of them are talvcn ; but there have l)een no vessels
fitted out for whale-fishing along the coast, or among the islands to the northward of Madagascar,
where the sperm whale abounds. The principal trade is with Britain ; the largest portion of it is
carried on at Table Ray ; and the annual value of the commerce of the colony may be estimated at
upwards of half a million sterling.
Intersat. Communications. — There are few roads; and the commimication throughout the
country is almost entirely obstructed by the numerous mountain ranges, the klonfi or pas.ses of which
are tremendous. A comparatively easy access from Capetown is to be found only by the small strip
of land between the western coast and the mountains of the Cape and Stellenboscli districts, while
the districts of Clanwilliam, Worcester, Beaufort, and Graffreynet, to say nothing of Somerset, are
in a manner shut out by the difficulties which the mountains present. To surmount the great bar-
rier between the Cape peninsula and the eastern districts, two works have recently been undertaken
and completed to the incalculable advantage of the colony. The first is a splendid mountain road
through French Hoeck Pass ; and the second, called Sir Lowry's Pass, was executed by order of the
Governor, Sir G. L. Cole, in 1830; farther east this road passes through the Houw Hoeck Pass,
from wliich there is an excellent natural path as far as the village of George, 300 miles from Cape-
town. The French Hoeck Pass leads to Worcester ; but the roads beyond it are extremely bad, and
could be improved only at an enormous expense. Every one who has read Barrow, Biirchell, or
other travellers of note, must have been appalled at the very description of the ascent or descent of a
waggon by the old Hottentot Holland Kloof, and will feel pleasure in learning that it may now ba
passed at a brisk trot over as good a road as any in England. Indeed, but for the mountain passes
the communications throughout the country would be easy, for, with the exception of a few sandy
spots of inconsiderable extent, tlie surface of the ground presents a good hard bottom covered witli
a crust of ironstone gravel, over which travelling may be performed at tlie rate of six miles an hour
on horseback, from five to five and a half in a horse waggon, and three in a waggon drawn by oxen.
— C On tlie Roads and Kloofs in the Cape Colony, by Major C. C. Mitchell, Surveyor- General. Journal
R. Geog, Soc. Land. VI. 1G8.)
Rivers. — The Gariep or Gareep* (Great River) has its principal sources in the mountains, to
the north-westward of Port Natal, and is formed by the union of two great branches, the Xu (blackl
Gariep, and Ky (yellow) Gariep, which meet a little to the south of 29° S. lat., and the east of 'U^
E long. The Nu-Gariep has its origin at the head of a long valley, which is formed between the Blue
Mountains and the Maritime Chain, 70 miles N. of Port Natal ; and, after a course of about 3i)0 miles
to the south-west, is joined by the Calcdon, which rises on the opposite or northern side of the same
mountains. The Ky-Gariep rises among the mountains, about 27° S. lat., and between 29° and 30°
E. long. ; but its principal affluent, the Donkin, seems to have its sources neartliose of the Nu-Gariep
and the Caledon. From the point of confluence the united stream of the Gariep flows westward,
entering the Atlantic Ocean, in lat. 28° 39' S. long. 16° 30' E. Its mouth is so barred with sand as to
be scarcely accessible for boats, and its course for several hundred miles is oljstructed by numerous
falls and rapids; and, from Griqua town almost to the ocean, a distance of .500 miles, it is accompa-
nied on its northern bank liy a parallel ridge of mountains. In 22° K. long, a great rapid is formed
between the mountains wliich approach on both sides, where the river forces its passage between the
hills, arched over to a considerable extent by immense cliffs ; and the roar of the water can be dis-
tinctly heard at the distance of many miles. Another magnificent fall occurs at 20° 30 E., where the
river is hurried over a rock 400 feet in heiglit, its breadth, wliicli above is trom 500 to (iOO yards, being
narrowed to a space of scarcely 100 feet. This was named King George's Cataract by Mr. Thomson,
who discovered it in 1824. Besides the Caledon and the Donkin, the other principal affluents are the
Great Fish Hirer, which drains tlie northern slopes of t!ie Middle Roggeveld, and joins the Gariep
near 21° E. long. ; the Bmk ; the Zeekoe or Sea-coir river; and the Hart or Malabareen.
The Olifant's C Elephant's) Hirer flows in a northerly direction, along the foot of the western
mountains, and falls into tlie Atlantic in 31° 30' S. lat. It is tlie only river of the colony wliich is
navigable with boats for more than 30 miles from the sea, to which distance it is affected by the tide.
The mouth is barred by a reef of rocks and a sandbank, which leave between them a channel always
open, and through which whale-boats enter for water and provisions. The Berg or mountain river
falls into St. Helena Bay. The Brede river falls into St. Sebastian's Bay, where it is nearly a mile
wide at its mouth. The Gatiritz, formed by two branches, the Big and the Little Gamka, rises in the
Nieureldt mountains, and flows into the Southern Ocean, between the districts of Swellendam and
George. Its principal affluents are tlie Buffet's (Buffalo), the Foutr, and the Olifant. The (amtoos,
formed by the union of the Kareeka and the Zout (Salt), flows through Uitenhage. The Ztcartkops,
a few miles farther east in the same district, is a stream which may be considi'rably improved for the
purposes of navigation and trade. Uitenhage also contains the Sunday, Kromme. and Bushman's
rivers, none of which are navigable. In Albany are the Karrega, tlie Kass'iitga, the Koivie, w liich falls
into Port-Francis, and the Great Fish Bii-er. The course of this last stream is not yet perfectly ex-
plored, particularly towards its source, wliich is 200 miles from tlie ocean. Its numerous branches
spring from the Sneuwberg, and other mountains farther east ; its upper course is extremely winding,
amidst stupendous mountains and precipices ; but below its last great bend at the Trompctter Drift
< Trumpeter's Ford), it flows in a direct line to the sea. Its mouth has a bar on which the surf breaks
high, but within this, the river expands into a magnificent sheet of water, extending 8 or 10 miles into
the country, and is wide and deep enough to afford anchorage to a large fleet. Its principal affluents
are the Little Fish, Kunap, and A'(7^ rivers. The Keiskamma forms the eastern border of tlie district
of Albany, separating it from Cafferland.
Bays, Gulfs, &c. — Donkn's Bay and Lambert's Cove, on Clanwilliam coast. St. Helena Bay,
* The Dutch colonists called this the Orange Hirer ; but wo have chosen to drop that name, be-
cause, however appropriate it may be in the mouths of Dutchmen, orange is in English the name of a
(iolour, and, when glTen to a river, as in this case, is very apt to convey the false notion that the
water is of that colour. The native name is much better, and should be decidedly preferred.
Africa.] AFRICA. 867
situate at the north end of Cape district, is a large semicircular bay, wi \. i:S.Mi ♦ Jkchorage, and well
sheltered from the south and east, but exposed to the north. Its mouth . IcAgnes wide, and the bay
Js 4 leagues deep, with regular soundings from 20 to 4 fathoms towards the southern shore. Saldanha
Bay, one of the best and most commodious liarbours in the world, is situate in 38^ 8' S. lat., 17- 55'
E. long. It extends about 25 miles from S E. to N.W., with a comparatively narrow entrance, not
quite 3 miles wide, which is forced through a ridge of liills, and on the north-west side, is divided into
two channels, by either of whicli it may be safely entered. It atfords at all seasons very excellent shel-
ter and anchorage. Table Bay is situate at the north end of the Cape peninsula, and opens to the
north-west. It affords secure shelter from September till May, and is the chief naval station at the
Cape during that portion of the year. Hout Bail and Chapman's Bay, two small openings on the west
side of the peninsula. False Bay is a large and nearly square gulf, about 30 miles deep and as many
wide, opening to the south, and forming the soutli-east side of the Cape Peninsula, and south s de of
its isthmus. On its west side is Simon's Bay, the naval station during the winter months. Mattel
Bay and Plettenbere; Bay, are both in George district ; the former is. ne.Ktto Simon's i?ay, one of the
safest havens to the east of the Cape, and is capable of receiving vessels of every kind ; the latter, 400
miles from the Cape, is equally safe, eligible, and commodious, affording safe ancliorage in 8, 'J, and
10 fathoms water, particularly during strong N.N. \V. gales. The fine harbour of the K>ii/s7i'i, a. little
to the west of Plettenberg's Bay, would contain fifty lar^e ships secure from all winds, but the en-
trance is narrow and intricate. Aliiua Bay includes all the coast iietween Capes Kecifte and I'alron
or I'adrao, and is the chief haven of the eastern districts, one of the winter harbours of the colony,
and a free port. It opens widely to the south-east, but during winter (from 1st April to 1st Septem-
ber) the wind scarcely ever blows from that quarter ; in some seasons, however, the surf rolls in with
great violence. I'oit Natal, on the east coast of Cafferland, in 29^ ^o' S. lat. and 3F 2S' E. long., is an
exceedingly tine harbour, but the entrance is narrow, and contains a bar of shifting sand. There' are,
however, «i feet water on the bar, with a run of (i feet, and at spring tides 14 feet of water. Delagoa,
or correctly, ^lifsua Bay (Bahin da Alagoaj, called .-ilso by the Peirtuguese Bahia de Lumno Slar-
qu's, and Baliia Firrmasa, is a large bay opening widely to the north-east, between 2 1-' 34' and 2G^ 22'
S. lat. The south-east side is formed by a long peninsula or Jutland, terminated by the islands called
the Great and Little Inyali.
Islands. — Jiohhen or Peyiguin Island, at the montli of Table Ray, 5 miles N. of Green Point, is six
miles in circumference, witii siuiken rocks and biealiers along its west and south sides. V,\\i there is
no danger for more than two cables' lengtli from the island, except from a sunken rock ealled the li hale,
which is a mile to the southward. Tlie island contains several springs of good water, and produces
a few grapes and culinary vegetables. It is a great resort of penguins and quails during their breed-
ing season, and a depot for convicts, who are employed in quarrving limestone and excellent blue
flags streaked with white, which are used in Ca|ieto« n. l)<is<en or Cuin'i/ Island. 10 leagues N. and
AV. of Green Point, and 8 to the southward of tlie entrance of Saldanha Bay, is about li miles in cir-
cumfevence, with little elevation and a sandy surface. The slioie is foul and dangerous on the south
and west sides, but bold and clear of danger on the nortli and east, where good anehoi aue may be
found close to the land. The passage between the island and the mainland is entirely free of dam-'er
two cables' length from either shore. Its only inhabitants are penguins and gannets. .Seal Island,
and Soah't Ark, are in False Bay. St. Cruz' Isles, Bird Islands or Chaos, and Doddmglon Buck, in
Ali;oa Bay. The CImos are rendered famous by their being the termination of tlie voyage of Diaz, in
I48fi, who got thus far eastward without seeing the Cape ; tlie I oddin>;ton Kock, whicli lies ,'i miles
K. from the Chaos, is so named from the Doddington Iridiaman having been wrecked upon it in the
vear 1755. Inyack lies on the east side, and Shrfeen islands on the west side of tlie mouth of Delagoa
Buy.
Capes. — The Cape of Good Hope is the south-western extremity of Africa, and is situate in
34= 23' 40' S. lat. and 18= 32' 25" E. long. It is formed by a peak 1000 feet high covered with piles of
huge stones, loosely thrown together as if giants had been at play, and presents a perpendiculai- cliff
to the ocean. Cape L' Atsnlhax (Needle Cape) is however the most southern point of the continent,
l)rojecting as far south as 34^ h2' S. lat, a little to the west of 20^ E. long. Grein Point is the western
extremity of Table Bay, on wliich a liglitbouse was erected in 182."), two miles N.W. from CH|)etown.
Cape Hanglip, the south-east jjoint of False Bay. Cape /{ecijlr. a long and low spit of rocks and
sandhills, forms the south-western ])oint of Algoa Bay. Ca/>e I'idul in Caflerland, 28-' 'J' S. lat. Cape
f'ollat, about six miles to the S. of the mouth of the Gariep, in 28' 27' 30" S. lat., Ifi^ 17' E. long, is a
high bluff point, with rocks running about half a mile out to sea, beyond which there is no danger.
Cape I'adron or I'adrao. at the east fide of Algoa Bay, is so called from its having had a pillar
erected upon it by Bartholomew Diaz in 148G. Cape Inyack or Cape St. Mary, the south-east point
of Delagoa Bay.
Towns, &c.— Capetown (Kaapstad of the Dutch) is situatconthc south side of Table Bay, at the
foot of Table .Mountain, on a plain which rises witli an easy ascent. It is regularly built, with straight
and parallel streets, crossing each other at right angles, and shaded with elm or oak trees. The houses
are mostly of red-brick or stone, of a good size, and generally liave a stoup or terrace before the door,
shaded wi'th trees, beneath which the inhabitants, British, as well as Dutch, delight to lounge, shel-
tered from the sun, or to inhale the fresh evening breeze. The squares are well laid out, the streets
are c.vtremely clean, and the public buildings nunurous and substantial. Throughout the week
there is a continual busy hum of industry ; and on the Sabbath the sounds of the clnirch bells, and the
groups of well-dressi'd'people flocking to tlu ir respective places of worship, readily make the travel-
ler forget that be is at the southern extremity of Africa. The castle, on the south-east side (jf the town,
is a strong fortification commanding the anchorage; and, if well (lelended, is capable of a suceessful
resistance to any force which may lje brought against it. It is pentagonal, with a broad diieli and re-
gular outworks ; and contains most (jf the public oflices, and barracks for 1000 men. There are several
other defensive works, and the anchorage is eominandid by a battery called the .M.iuille. A pli Tililid
supply of excellent water is brought to the town in pipes, and <lis! ribute<l to every part of it ; ships' boats
aresupjilied at thelanditig-place with a beverage equal to that of the Thames. 1 he population ixeeeds
20,(XK), of whom more than half are white ; and of tin se the majority are Dutch. An instituli<in, ealled
the South-African College, was tVjunded at Capetown in 1k2:i ; its affairs are under the superint( ndenco
of a council and senate ; and it has professors of mathematics, astronomy, classieal, English, Dutch,
and French literature, drawing, &c. There is also a .South-Atriean literary and scienlilic Inslitution,
with a museum attached to it ; a South- African public library ; a .Medical Society ; a liojal Observa-
tory, and several religious and benevolent societies.
The other towns of the colonv are generally mere villages. Th" only large town is Criihamslmer),
in Albany, situate on the Kowie river. 'iVi miles . ast of Capetown, and loo from I'ort-I.liz.ibelh on
Algoa Bay. It contains about 70*) hous. s, about 3 00 inhabitants, two public; lihran.s. a printing
oflice, and several exc^ellent public buildings and institutions. I'urt- l.lixahetli, in I'ilenbage. on the
roast of Algoa Bav, three miles north of (ape Kecifl'e. is rapidly rising in iniporlance, and being a
free port, bids lai'r to rival Capetown. I'llrnhatse. the capital of the district, is also n neat and
flourishing town, built on a large an<l well-watered plain, WO miles from Capetown. Cradoek, in So-
868 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Southeun Afuica.
merset district, on the direct road to the Guglra and Betchuana countries, is fast improving, and con-
tains 'lOO inhabitants. Graffrci/net is situate on a sort of basin, almost encircled iiy the deep chatniel of
the Sunday river, closely environed by an amphitheatre of steep rugged hills, and contains about 500
houses, almost all neat and commodious brick buildings, witli wide straight streets, which are planted
witli rows ol lemon and orange trees. Population between 2000 and 3000. I 'ort- Beaufort, at the mouth
of iirede river, in Swellendam district, enjojsa considerable coasting trade. Georgetown, in George
district, is pleasantly situate on a large plain, seven miles from the sea, is divided into several streets,
with handsome houses, and is rapidly improving, liatlturd, in Albany, occupies an elevated site, nine
miles inland from Port-Francis, and was intended for the capital of the district.
HisroHiCAL Epochs. — The Cape of Good Hope was discovered in I48G by Bartholomew Diaz. In
I6i0 two commanders of the English East India Company took possession of the country in the
name of King James ; but no settlement was then formed. In 1650 it was colonized by the Dutch
Government, and remained in their possession for 156 years. In ITW it was taken possession of
by a British armament, but restored to tlie Dutch in 1802. In 1806 it was again taken by the Britilh,
•oicoatirmed to them at the general peace in 1814.
Islands.] AFRICA,
THE ISLANDS OF AFRICA.
Madagascar, in the Indian Ocean, about 24f) miles lium tne coast of Mozambique, between 12^
and -26^ S. l»t., and 44= and 52^ E. long , is 930 miles in lengtli, by from 70 toUoO iii breadth, and con-
tains an area of about 236,000 square miles The population has been estimated a: 4,70ii,000. Alon» the
east coast extends a margin of low land from 20 to 30 miles in breadth, and along tlie west coast a
similar margin, from 70 to 100 miles broad, and between them is an elevated country, consisting of
extensive plateaux, running north and south, diversified with hills, luxuriant valleys, passes, and ra-
vines, craters of extinct volcanoes, forests, savannahs, rivers, and lakes, wliile almost every part of
the coast, particularly the western, is indented with spacious harbours and bays, some of which are ,50
miles deep, with soundings in every part, and sheltered from every wind. Though the island is not
traversed by any continuous chain, yet many parts may be called mountainous ; the highest point, An-
karatra, lat. \9'^ 40' S. long., 47= 20' E., is about 11,000 feet above the level of the sea. The most fer-
tile portions are the valleys, most of which produce rice and other vegetables, or are clothed with a
rich and luxuriant verdure. The clim-ate is extremely diversified : that of the coast is oppressively
hot, while in the interior the temperature seldom exceeds 85=. The heat at Tananarive, the capital,
ranges from 40° to 8.5° ; the middle of the day is often extremely sultry, but the mornings and even-
ings are always pleasant. The climate of the coasts is very prejudicial to Europeans, but in the cen-
tral regions, it is much less so. The weather on the coast is usually hot, damp, and rainy ; but in the
interior, the rains are periudical. The trade winds from the east and south-east prevail during the
greater part of the year ; while the rains are often accompanied by violent gales from the north-west,
west, and south-west. Earthquakes are sometimes felt. The soil in many parts is prolific, and higlily
susceptible of improvement ; and the island produces many valuable plants, including both those of
tropical and those of temperate climates. Among the animals may be mentioned five vaiieties of the
monkey, foxes, wild dogs and cats, hogs, goats, cattle and sheep similar to those of South Africa, cro-
codiles, serpents, somj of which are of large size, lizards, scorpions, and centipedes, parroquets, fla-
mingoes, falcons, kites, turtle-doves, pigeons, turkeys, and particularly bats of large size. The sea
abounds with fish, and oysters are plentiful on the coast. The people are all comprised in one empire,
form one nation, and speak various dialects of the same language : but tliey appear, nevertheless, to
be descended from dill'erent original stocks. The distinction of colour separates them into two great
classes, one of which are olive coloured, have handsome features, graceful persons, and lank dark hair,
while the other and more numeious class closely resemble the Papuans, being short and stout, almost
black, with low foreheads, broad flat faces, large eyes and mouth, and long crisped hair. \Vith the
exception of the Ovahs, who belong to the first class, and live in the interior, the Madegasses are little
better than barbarians, go almost naked, despise a settled life, are extrimtly superstitious, and prac-
tise most of the vices so generally prevalent among the savages of the adjacent continent. Their
diet consists principally of rice and manioc, with beef and poultry, and tlieir cookery is extremely
simple. Madagascar is divided into 28 provinces, each having a separate chief ; but latterly the Ovalis
have become the prevailing tribe, and their chief, who is in fact sovereign of the island, receives tri
bute from all the rest. The government is despotic, and the succession usually hereditary, though
the king has the right of appomting his immediate successor, and of settling the line through future
generations. The royal family are highly honoured, and no people can be more tenacious of etiquette
than his subjects, and of the respect due to rarik. The sovereign is also hiijh priest of the national
religion, which is a rude species ol polytheistic idolatry. Christianity was introduced with some
success by English missionaries between 1818 and 1830; but a royal edict, in 183.5, not only forbade
the profession of it, but legalised tlie persecution of all its adherents. Within the present century
the whole island was reduced to subjection by Radama, chief of the Ovahs, who proved himself to
be a wise and enlightened prince, anxious for the improvement of his country, and the civili.ation of
his subjects ; but since his death, and the succession of his queen to the sovereignty, there has been a
stagnation in the trade with England, the missionaries have been driven from the island, and every
means adopted to destroy the efiects of their past exertions in the promotion of religion iind social
improvement. The capital is Tdninutriio, situate on a lofty table-land, nearly in the centre of the
inland. Ta mat una on the east coast, is also a place of considerable importance. The capes of the
island are St. Mary, the most southerly point, and Cape Amino, the most northerly ; Cave East, on
the noith-east coast ; St. Sel/astian and Mattaml/ii/iu or St. y-/»inVt'U' on the north-west. The principal
bays are those of Antimnil, north-east, and .S7. A iigustim; south-west ( Ellis's llistury. Lond. 1837.)
The Comori) Ittantis are four in nuiuber, situate midway in the channel between Cape Delgado on
the continent, and the most northerly part of .Madagascar. Tliey are high and mountainous in the
interior, but the lower grounds abound in sliecp, cattle, and all kinds of troiiical grains and fruits.
The people are mild and industrious. Cumoro, the largest, is 'M miles in circumference, and contains
about 30.000 inhabitants, who speak Arabic, and profess Islam. It contains a mountain peak, sup-
posed to rise 60(X) or 7(100 feet above the level of the sea. Aiijouan or Jutiauna is the most flourish. ng.
The other two, .Vn/iilla and Mayiilta,aTi! comparatively small.
Bourbon, 440 miles E. of Madagscar, between 20= .50 and 21= 24' .S. lat., is 40 miles in length, by 27
In breadth, of an oval form, and contains about !/00 .square miles. It is divided into two parts by a
chain of mouniains, running north and south, and connecting two volcanic groups, or centres of vol-
canic action ; the one of which, in the north, the I'itan (Irs Xeijres, rises 10,355 feet above the level of
the sea; the other, in the south, the /'iVoh tie Euuniaisi', is an active volcano of 7218 feet in height.
There are no plains of aiiv extent ; the shores are not high, but there are no safe roads, nor any har-
bours. The climate is healthy and agreeable, especially on the eastern or windward coast. The atmo-
sphere is pure, and the sky generally clear, tliough this tranquillity is sometimes disturbed by violent
hurricanes. From December till May is the hot and rainy .season, when the mean temperature is kO ';
during the rest of the year the mean temperature is 7G-. The soil is very lertile, particularly near the
shore, where the cultivated land forms a belt round the island, ascending the mountain slojies in some
places to th ■ height of more than 3000 feet. The sugar-cane is extensively grown, about a tonrtb pai t
of the cultivated land be'ng so occupied ; coffee also in small quantity, cloves, cacao, and tobacco.
Wheat, rice, and maize are raised, but to the extent of less than a fourlii part of the quantity required ;
potatoes, beans, and other leguminous plants, and a great variety of fruits succeed remarkably v»ell ;
and manioc forms the staple food of the blacks. In 1837, there were on the island 32,240 swine, ((.500
deer and goats, .5.3.5) horses, and about 15,000 mules, sheep, and oxen, in nearly equal lunnbers. The
coasts abound with fish, large turtles, coral, and ambergris. The population, in 1830, ronsisted of
30,803 free colonists, and G;<,2'j6 slaves, of whom 57,340 were employed in agriculture. The free colo-
nists are < f French extraction; the slaves are African, mostly from .Madagascar; the latter are in gene-
ral huniaiiely and kindly treated, liourbon contains a college and ninnerous schools, 10 churches, %
670 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Islavdst.
hospitals, 2 poor's houses, and 2 prisons. Four newspapers arc published, in the island, St. Denis, the
chief town, contains a public library, and about 1'2,0<)0 inhabitants. St. I'aul, the second town, con-
tains lO.OiU) inhabitants ; but noitlier of thcni possesses a liarbour, and vessels have to Ije in open and
exposed roadsteaiis. Hourboii was discovered in 1545 by Mascarenhas, a Portuguese navigator, whose
n.in\e it bore till the Fiencli toolf possession of it in the next century, and gave it its present name.
It has a governor siiii don. Kruiite ; and iu on of tlio principal colonial possessions of that country.
Maukitibs, or the Isle ok Kuanck, siuiule in tho Indian Ocean, 90 miles E N.E. of Uobruoii,
between 21)-' an<l 21° S. hit., is of iin elliptical form, 41 miles N.S., 32 K.W., and contains 432, 080
acres or (i7li sijuare milts. It seems to be of volcanic origin ; the rocks are disposed in strata, wliich
rise from tho sea, and form, in tlie centre of the island, a high plain. The moimta ns form three prin-
cipal ridges, from I8()0 to 2800 feet above the level of tlie sta- and their summits are in general pointed
like coekscomlis. A coral bank surrounds the island, at the distance of a quarter oi a league from
tlie shore aiul the islets on the coast are all of coral formation ; but there is no trace of a crater.
Tlie soil is in many parts e.vceedingly rich ; in some places it consists of a black vegetable mould, in
others of a bed of solid clay or quaking earth, into which a stake of ten feet may be thrust without
resistance. The climate is saluhrious. Owing to the purity of tlie atmospliere the sky is of intense
blue ; and the mountains stand out in bold relief. Th' richest and rarest plants of the East have
been naturalized, and most of the plants, trees, and vegetables of Europe have also been introduced.
The principal branch of cultivation is the sugar-cane, and sugar forms about seven-ninths of the
yaluo of the exports of the island, the total amount ot which in 183G was £903,31)8. The white popu-
lation are mostly of French extraction, and amounted in 1836 to 30,411 ; the hlaoks, in the same year,
amounted to 53,791. The wliite and the coloured or mixed races are distinguished for their high
epirit, talent, energy, and industry. The British residents are few in number, and chiefly merchants,
aoldiers, or government servants. The island was discovered in 1595 by the Dutch, who gave it its
present name in honour of their stadtholder, Maurice Prince of Orange; it was subsequently taken
possession of by the French, and raised to a naval station of the first importance. It was named the
Isle of France, and became the capital of their possessions in tlie Indian Seas. Having become,
during the w.ar of the revolution, a resort of privateers, who infested tlie Indian Ocean, and committed
great depredations on the Hritish trade, it was attacked and captured in 1810 by a force from India;
and at the subsequent peace in 1814, the island was confirmed to Britain. The capital is Purt Louis,
a very neat town, with 26 000 inhabitants, has well supplied markets, and excellent water. The only
harbours are that of Port Louis on tho west coast, and Mahebmirg or Grand Port, on the S.E. De-
pendent on the government of Mauritius are the small islands of liodrisuez, Seychelles, Diego Garcia,
and others. Rodriguez, 300 miles E. of Mauritius, is 26 miles long and 12 broad, mountainous, and
inhabited by a few French colonists. On the nortli side is a bay, with excellent anchorage, secure
shelter for ships of all sizes, and abundance of wood and water. The air is delightful, the water
pure, and the vegetation luxuriant. The Si-i/r/ielles or Make Islands, between 4-* and 5^^ S. lat., and
54° and 57° E. long., consist of Make, containing 30,000 acres ; Praslin, 8000 ; Sillumete, ,5700 ; Im
Diuue, 2000; Curieuse,W)0 ; St. yinne, 500; Cerf, 400 ; Frigate, 300; Mariane, ibO; Conception, 120;
Feliciti',S00; N. Island, 500; Denis, 200; Fache, 200 ; Jride, 150; total, 50,120 acres; besides more
than fifteen others of a smaller size, all resting on a coral bank, which surrounds them to a great
extent ; but all the islands are themselves composed of granite. They possess many excellent har-
bours, and never being visited by tornadoes, their neighbourhood is mucli frequented by whalers.
The vegetation is extremely luxuriant, and the inhabitants carry on a lucrative trade in numerous
small vessels, with India, Mauritius, and Bourbon. The most extraordinary vegetable production
is the Coco do mar, a kind of palm, which grows only on Praslin and Curieuse, and has refused to
grow, after repeated trials, on any of the others. The islands are very healthy. The Set/cheltes and the
ylmiriinte Islands, a low and insignificant group to the S.W., at the distance of 80 miles, are under
the charge of an agent from the Mauritius, with 25 soldiers.
SocoTRA, a large island, east of Cape Guardafui, at the entrance of the Gulf of Aden, is 70 miles
in length, and 19 in breadth, and may be described as a pile of mountains, surrounded by a low plain.
The soil is hard and not susceptible of much cultivation, and the south-west side of the island is as
arid and barren as the worst parts of Arabia. The climate is cool and temperate ; the island has been
famous from the earliest period for the production of the aloe snicata, which appears to thrive only in
parched and otherwise barren places. The hills on the west side are thickly covered with the plant to
the extent of miles, but very little attention is paid to the cultivation and preparation of the aloe for
exportation. Next in importance is dragon's blood, wliich is collected at all s asons ; there are also
tamarinds, figs, dates, and other fruits : but agriculture is almost unknown, the only grain cultivated
being a kind of millet, which requires little attention. The inhabitants depend principally on their
date-trees .ind their flocks. The only animals seen by the British settlers were camels, sheep, goats,
asses, beeves, and civet cats. Socotra is inhabited by two distinct races of people ; the one called Bed-
wins, inhabit tlio mountains, and the high western parts of the island ; the other, who call themselves
Arabs, are a mongrel race, the descendants of Arabs, Africans, Portuguese, and others. But they
all wear the same dress, and have adopted the same language and customs. They are all Mahome-
tans ; and there is not throughout the island a single constituted authority. But though without
chiefs or laws, good order is pretty well preserved ( Memoir on the Island of Socotra, by Lieut. Wall-
stead, .Journnl It. Geog. Soc. Land. Y .)
The Capk Verdb Islands are a numerous group in the Atlantic Ocean off the west coast of Africa,
about 80 miles from Cape Verde, between 14° and 18° N. lat., and 22° and 2G° west long. The princi-
pal are .Santiago, Mayo, Foi-o, Brara, Boaoista, Sal, Santo Nicolao, Raza, Branca, Santa Luzia,
Santo Vicente, and Sunt' Antonio. They are all of volcanic origin, and Fogo still emits much smoke
from a crater 7884 feet above the level of the sea. In general the surface oi' them all is rugged, rocky,
arid, and unproductive. The chief article of produce is cotton ; there is also a very fine breed of
asses and mules, many of which are sent to the West Indies. Goats, poultry, and turtle abound. Salt
Is formed in large quantities by natural evaporation, particularly in Mayo. The islands belong to tlie
Crown of Portugal, and their governor-general resides at Porto Praya, ia Santiago. Tanafal or Tar-
rafal Bay, at tho south-west part of Sant' Antonio, is the most convenient watering-place connected
with the islands.
Fer>-a.M)o-Po, Principe, San Thome, and An.nobox, are situate in the Gulf of Guinea, directly
?outh of the delta of the Kawara. Fernando- Po was discovered by a Portuguese of that name in 1471 ;
it is of an oblong form, 120 miles in circumference, and very mountainous ; Clarence Peak, near the
northern extremity, rises to lo,<;55 feet. The mountains and valleys are covered w ith dense forests of
large and valuable timber ; but the climate is so unhealthy that it has been abandoned by the British
settlement recently formed upon it. It is, nevertheless, still inhabited by a lawless race composed of
slaves or malefactors from the neighbouring coast, which is only 20 miles distant. Principe or Prince's
Islarid, 9i miles long by 6 bruad, is high and wooded. St. Thomas is large and fertile ; but one half of
the island is mountainous, and towards its southern extremity it presents a mass of steep elevations,
•with a!)rupt craggy faces, and several pinnacles rising like gigantic ninepins. St. Thomas lies ini-
inediately under the equator. Annobon is a pretty little island, inhabited by a simple native race ; ii
about 4 miles long, by 2 broad, and rises to an elevation of 3000 feet. The last three islands are nomi-
nally subject to the Crown of Portugal.
Islands.] AFRICA. 871
St. Helena is situate in the Atlantic, 1200 miles from the nearest coast of Africa, in S. lat.
15° 15', and W. long. 5° 49'. It presents to the sea, throughout its circumference of 28 miles, a perpen-
dicular wall of rock from COO to 1200 feet high. On the summit is a fertile plain, interspersed with
conical eminences and fertile valleys. The climate is agreeable and temperate, though moist. There
are only four places of access from the sea ; and at the largest of these is Jainestoum, the capital, on the
north-west or leeward side of the island. Besides the indigenous plant?, coffee, banyans, bamboos,
aloes, apples, peaches, mulberries, have been introduced, and are found to thrive. Indeed nearly all tho
various kinds of tropical and European fruits ripen, more particularly in the sheltered valleys. Vines,
oranges, citrons, lemons, ligs, pomegranates, mulberries, tamai inds, mangoes, cocoa-nuts, sugar-cane,
and pine-apples, thrive well ; apples have succeeded tolerably ; but the climate seems not congenial
to cherries, currants, and gooseberries. Corn and pulse are little cultivated; nor is the climate
suitable for them, on account of droughts. Population about 5000. Tlie island was di^rcovered on
St. Helena's day (21st May), 1502, by Juan de Nova Castella, the Portuguese admiral, on his return from
India ; it was long in possession of the English East -India Company, but has now been transferred
to the Crown. It has acquired great celebrity from being the place of confinement selected for Napo-
leon Buonaparte, who lived in it from 1815 to 1820, and was buried in one of its valleys till 1840, when
his remains were transferred to Paris.
AscE.NSioN is a small island of volcanic origin, and of the most arid aspect, in the Atlantic Ocean, in
7° 57' S. lat., 14° 28' \V. long. It has been recently garrisoned by a small body of British troops, and
fortified at every accessible point, to serve as a place of refreshment for vessels employed on the
coast of Africa. The shores abound with large turtles ; and numbers of these animals are now kept
in ponds, from which they can be purchased at 50s. & piece, weighing from 200 to sOO lbs.
The Islands of Tristan da Ci nha, a small group, in 37° S. lat., 13° \V. long., are three in niimbeii
rising like hills abruptly from the water to a great elevation. The prineipal island rises at an
angle of about 45° to tlie height of 3000 feet, above wliich risi s a dome-shaped summit to'the
height of WOO feet, bearing the crater of an extinct volcano. The others are named Inaccessible find
Higlitin^ale Islands. They were discovered in 1506 by Tristao da Cunlia, a Portuguese, whose name
they bear, but remained uninhabited till the present century, when some British or Americans squat-
teid upon them, and make a livelihood by cultivating the soil, and furnishing supplies to the few ships
which visit them.
Bissu(!os or Bijougas, a group of small volcanic islands, off the mouth of the Kio-Grande, on the
coast of Senegambia, between 10° and 12° N. lat. The inhabitants are said to be brave, but treach-
erous ; they raise some maize, but are chiefly dependent on their cattle, goats, and fishing.
SUerbuio, a large island on the coast south of Sierra Leone ; utt' its most westerly point are the TurtU
Jtlattds.
Canary Islands — See page 651.
Madkiha, toRTO Santo, and Deskbtas.— See pageBoG.
872 [pHYSICAt
AMERICA.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY,
' Astronomical Position. — Between 35° and 170° W. longitude ; and 72° N. and
56° S. latitude.
Dimensions. — The greatest length from Point Beechey, on the Arctic Ocean, by a
curve line, drawn along tlie Rocky Mountains and the Cordilleras of the Andes, to
Cape Horn, is about 10,875 miles ; the greatest breadth of North America, along the
fifty-first parallel, is about 3250 miles ; and of South America, from Cape San
Roque in Brazil, to Cape Blanco, in Peru, 3200 miles. The narrowest portion of
the continent, is the Isthmus of Darien or Panama, which connects North and South
America, between the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Panama in the Pacific Ocean,
the breadth of which, at one place, opposite Mandingo Bay, is little more than 18
miles. The continent is divided by this isthmus into two large peninsulas of not
very unequal dimensions, but very different in form : North America contains about
7,400,000 square miles ; South America, about 6,500,000 ; and the West Indies and
other islands along the coasts about 150,000; or, altogether, the continent embraces
14,050,000 square miles. In these dimensions we have not included Greenland and
the Arctic Islands ; of which we shall give a separate account.
Boundaries Northern: — the Arctic Polar Ocean. Eastern and Sonth-Eastern :
— the Atlantic Ocean. Western and South-Western : — the Pacific Ocean. South
America terminates with a point in the Southern or Antarctic Ocean.
General Aspect. — According to the geographical system adopted in the old
world, America ought to be considered as two distinct continents, connected by the
isthmus of Darien. Between these there is a striking resemblance ; both are broad
in the north, and gradually contract as they advance towards the south, till they end,
the one in a narrow isthmus, the other in a narrow promontory. Each has a lofty
chain of mountains near its western coast, abounding in volcanoes, with a low ridge
on the opposite side, destitute of any trace of volcanic agency ; and each has one great
central plain which declines to the south and the north, and is watered by two gigan-
tic streams. In their climate, however, and in their vegetation and animal productions,
the two regions are very dissimilar. South America is a peninsula of a triangular
form ; its greatest length from north to south is 4550 miles, and its greatest breadth
from east to west is 3200 ; its superficial area contains about 6,500,000 square miles, of
which about three-fourths lie betwc'en the tropics, and the remainder in the southern
temperate zone. From the configuration of its surface this peninsula may be divided
into five distinct physical regions: — 1. The low country skirting the sliores of the
Pacific Ocean, from 50 to 150 miles in breadth, and 4000 in length, of which the two
extremities are fertile, and the middle portion is a sandy desert. 2. The basin of the
Orinoco, surrounded by the Andes and their branches, and forming a region of exten-
sive plains (llanos) either destitute of wood, or merely studded with trees, but covered
with very long grass during a part of the year. During the dry season the heat in
the plains is intense, and the parched soil opens into long rents, in which lizards and
serpents lie in a state of torpor. 3. The basin of the Amazon, a vast plain, em-
bracing a surface of more than 2,000,000 of square miles, possesses a rich soil and
a humid climate. It is covered almost every where with dense forests, which har-
bour innumerable tribes of wild animals, and are thinly peopled by savages, who live
by hunting and fishing;. 4. The great southern plain, watered by the numerous afflu-
ents of the Rio de la Plata. Open plains occupy the greater part of this region,
which is dry, and in some parts barren, but in general is covered with a strong growth
of weeds and tall grass, which furnish food for prodigious herds of oxen and beeves,
Geography.] AMERICA. 873
and afford shelter to a few wild animals of other species. 5. The high country of
Brazil, eastward of the Parana and the Araguay, which presents alternate ridges and
valleys, thickly covered with wood on the side next the Atlantic, and opening into
pasture lands in the interior.
North America may also be divided into five regions : — I. The narrow region which
separates the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea from the Pacific Ocean, tra-
versed throughout its whole length of 2500 miles by ranges of mountains, which
leave a narrow tract of low land along the sea-coasts, while in certain portions of the
interior, they form elevated table-lands. 2. The maritime region, between the Pa-
cific Ocean on the west, and the ridge of mountains which extends from Cape St.
Lucas in California, northwards to Alashka. 3. The elevated region, which forms a
sort of table-land between the Maritime chain above mentioned on the west, and the
Rocky Mountains on the east. lu its southern portion it presents the arid salt plains
of the Californian desert ; between 40^ and 45° N. lat., it comprises a fertile region,
with a mild and humid atmosphere ; but, beyond the last mentioned parallel, it is
barren and inhospitable. 4. The great central valley of the Missouri and Mississippi,
extending from the Rocky Mountains on the west, to the Alleghany or Appalachian
mountains on the east, and from the Gulf of Mexico northwards to the 45° or 50° N.
lat. Between these parallels runs in a waving line the watershed which divides the
basins of the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi, from those of the streams that flow to
Hudson's Bay and the Arctic Ocean. On the east side this region is rich and well
wooded ; in the middle, it is bare, but not unfertile ; towards the west, it is dry,
sandy, and almost a desert. 5. The eastern declivities of the Alleghany mountains,
and the maritime region, extending to the shores of the Atlantic. This is a region of
natural forests, and of mixed but rather poor soil. (5. The great northern plain beyond
the 50th parallel, four-fifths of which are a bleak and desolate waste, overspread with
innumerable lakes, and resembling Siberia in the physical character of its surface and
the rigour of its climate.
MorNTAiNS. — The Coudili-eras dk los Andes skirt the shores of the Pacific Ocean like a vast
rampart, alonjj the western coast of South America, from tlie 12- of N. to the .')3- of S. lat., where
they reach the Strait of Majiellan. Beyond this, the chain is continued along the western and
southern coasts of Tieria del Fuego, where it may be said to terminate at the Strait of Le Maire or
Statcn Island. The Andes derive their name from anti, a Peruvian word, signifying copper. Though
often described as a single cliain, they generally consist of a succession of ridges, separated by high
and narrow valleys ; but, instead of running in parallel lines, these rid-'es generally ramify from
central points in all directions, and thus present the appearance of a confused asseniblag of small
chains. Between lat. 33-^ and G- .S. they .--pread out to a breadth of SOOmiUs. and even much farther,
if we include the subordinate chains. In the intervals between the ridges are situate many lakes.
From G- S. to '2- N. the Andes contract their breadth, and form an elevated plateau ; one part of
which constitutes the paramo or desert of Assuay, a plain at the height of 13,1)00 feet above the level
of the sea, and presenting a surface of ."iO English square miles, where snow sloims are frequent,
and only a few alpine plants grow. Farther north is another range of table-land, from 0000 to iMOO
feet in height, near the northern e.\tremity of which is the city of Quito. On this elevated plain
are two lines of lofty summits, which stand detached, and are covered wiih perpetual snow, bearing
the celebrated names of Chhnhorazo, .'hilisayia, Picliinrha, &c. From Quito, a single chain e.xtends
to Popayan, where it divides into three branches. The western branch, which scarcely reaches an
elevation of 5000 feet, separates the valley of the river Cauca from the Pacific Ocean ; while a branch
proceeding from it passes onward to the isthmus of Panama, where it terminates. The seci^nd, er
central branch, maintains nearly the general elevation of the main trunk, and has summits which
rise into the regions of perpetual snow. It separates tlie valley of the Cauca from that of the Magda-
lena. The third, or eastern branch, sei arates the valley of the .Magdaiena from tlie pliins ot the
Rio .Mcta, and has its northern termination at Cape Vela, in '2' W . long. This, though lower than
the central chain, contains summits w hich reach an elevation of 1 1,000 feet. Between the central and
eastern ranges is siluate the plain of Bogota, which is about 8700 feet above the h vel of the sea ; fi om
the perfect level of its surface, and the barrier of rocks tliat enclose it, this plain appears to have hem
anciently a lake. The waters of the plain escape by a narrow outlet, and rushing down a cleft, leap
at two bounds to a depth of .'>73feet, forming the celebrated fall of 'J'lqwndarna, which, in respect of
beauty and sublimity, is said not to be surpassed in the world. The mean heijiht of the Andes in
Peru, or that of the continuous ridge, independent of projecting cones, is estimated by Humboldt at
11,000 or 12,000 feet ; in Chili, according to Mr. Miers, the highest summits, in 33- S. lat., only reach
the height of 15,000 feet, while the mean height of the chain is in some places so low as nfK)0 ; in Pata-
?;onia tlie elevation is still less, and may be estimated at about .'lOOO or GOOO ; none of the summits, so
ar as is known, exceed 900!). Til la'ely, the loftiest summits were suppo-cd to be those in Quito ; but
Mr. Pentland has ascertained that these are greatly surpassed by the mountains of l'|iper Peru, where
the Andes form two Cordilleras, or chains, separated by a large table-land, part at which is oceuj^ied
by the lake Titicaca. The eastern cordillera presents, between 11 and 17 .S. !nl., a range of snow-
capt peaks exceeding 20,000 feet in elevation; and among these are particulaily distinguished tiio
Sirado (Ik Surata, l.i 30' S. and the Nemdo d' Illimani, a little farther s<iutli. '1 he western cl ain is
lower than the eastern, but one of its summits reaches IH.gOOfeet. The niineml wealth of the re^iion
has attracted a large population to this table-land, which, with the exceiilion of Thibet, is probably
the highest inhabited country in the world. It was the primitive seat of the eini ire of the Inoas, and
the centre of Peruvian civilization. In Quito and Upper Peru, the back or crest of the ridge is tree
from snow, which only rests on isolated summits ; and the nifans of passing from the one side to the
other might perhaps he found wherever it is deemed necessarv. In < hili. beyond the latituilc ol 3i^
8., the highest point of the most fre()uented pass was found iiy .Mr. .Mieis to be ll.li-'O fe.t iibi.ve the
level of the sea ; and the courier travels it even in winter. In Peru and (luitii I'lanv ottlie passes con-
sist of deep clefts, called qwhrndai (breaks), apparently j roduced by ( nrtl.^.u.ikes. wliich are ex-
tremely narrow, and sometimes a mile deep. In i'afagonia, wliere the suow line is much lowir, tbo
passes must be few • tut there are some ; and this circumstance would of itsell Buthorisu the conclu-
874 DESCRIPTIVE oEOGRAPIIY. [Physical
sioii, that the genoral elevation of tho oliain U lower in that country than in Chili. But snow-capt
mountains, and even glaciers, are said to be frequent. ,,.,.,
Throe branches or tnmsverse chnins uroceed trom tho Andes, nearly at right angles, and stretch
eastward aoro^s the continent, about 18° S. and 4° and 9° N. lat. The most nortlurly of these is the
" ronliUora of the Coast," which lo;ives the main trunk mar the southern extremity of the Lake of
Maraca\bo reaches the sea at i'uerto Cabcllo, and then proceeds eastward through Caraccas to the
Gulf ol ra'iia, a distance altogether of about 700 miles, with a mean elevation ot 4000 to .5000 leet.
One of Its suinuiits, liowevcr, the Sil/a de Caraccas, has an elevation of 8400 feet ; and its western
part, at >ciuie distance from the sea, contains the Sierra de Merida, whose elevation is 15,000 feet. The
secoiui transverse chain leaves the main trunk between 3^ and 4^ N. lat., and, passing eastward, ter-
minates in French Guiana, not far Ironi tho mouth of the river .Amazon. It is sometimes called
the Cordillera of I'arime, but is named by Humboldt the "Cordillera of the cataracts ot the Ori-
noco," because that river, which flows among its ridges in the upper part of its course, forms the
falls of .Mavpureat the point where itdisceiids into the low country. The mean elevation of this chain
is estimated at 4(M)0 fe.t ; but only a small part of it has been visited by any European. It separates
the basins of the Orinoco and the rivers of (Juiana from that of the Amazon, and is covered with
magnificent forests. Its brcadtli is su|.po.-cd to he from 200 to 300 miles, and its length, about 1.500
miles. Tlie third transverse chain, wliich jjoars various names, and is little known, crosses the con-
tinent between \'P and 18° S. lat., connecting the Andes witli the mountains of Brazil, and sep.'ira-
ting the basin of tho Amazon from that of the I'lata. It is a broad and elevated plateau rattier than
a distinct Cordillera, and consists of low hills or uneven plains, with very little wood, presenting in
some places extensive pastures, and, iu others, tracts of a poor sandy soil. Its average elevation pro-
bably does not exceed 2000 or 301)0 feet above the level of the sea.
Tlie Muuntahi.t of Brazil, which aie of moderate height, and occupy a great extent of country,
form an irregular plateau, bri.-tled with sharp ridges and peaks. They extend from the shores of tlie
Plata to within a short distance of the Amazon, over a space of 200U miles, with a breadtli of about
100. Itaruliiiiii, about 2-')0 miles N. W. of Rio Janeiro, which is celebrated for its auriferous sands and
gravel, and contains the sources of three great rivers, the Parana, the San I'rancisco, and the Tocan-
tin, is considered the most elevated summit, and the nucleus of the whole group. The western ridges
of the grouj), which are near the ndddle of the continent, are supposed to be lower than those on the
coast ; but tluy are probably as high, if Dr. Spix be correct in stating that the mean temperature of
the year is below 65°.
TABLE OF THE CULMINATING POINTS OF THE ANDES.
Principal Chain, — Feet.
Andes of Patagonia,— . . CojfooafZo, on the west coast, . . 7,500
Yanteles 7,020
„ Chili,— Aconcitirua, ..... 2,'!,fl44
Bescubc(;a(la, 21,100
Volcano uf Maypo, .... 12,705
„ Peru, — C/(!picaM!, near Arica, .... 18,h96
Pichu-fichu, near Arequipa, . . . 18,600
Volcano of ylri'quipa or Guagna-l'litina, , 18,.300
NeEado de ChuquiOamba, . . . 21,000
Nevado de Sasuguanca, north-east of Lima, . 17,904
Chimboraxo, ..... 21,440
lUiniza, ...... 17,376
^o/taMo o/ P/c/i2«c/ia, near Quito, . . 15,936
Cotocache, 16,448
Volcano of Cotopaxi, .... 18,890
Volcano of Antisana, .... 19,1.50
Cayainbi; Urcu, ..... 19,648
NcDado de Surata, .... 25,400
Necadu a' lUiinani, first peak, 16° 40' south, . 24,450
„ „ second peak, . . 24,200
Volcano of Gualatieri, .... 2i,000
Cerro de 'Potod, 16,037
„ Colombia, — . . . Pfak of Tolima,, ..... 18,336
Sierra de Merida, .... 16,4'20
Neoado de Mucachies, near Merida, . . 15,986
Silla de Caraccas, .... 8,632
Tierra del
ego,- , ,„^^
Brazil,— Summit of the chain of Mantiquera, . 8,421
Itacolumi, Sierra do Espinhayo, . . . 5,710
Sierra de Piedada, near Sahara, . . 5,818
S/ena rfe i^Wo, near Villa-do-Principe, . . 5,8-50
Sierra d' Arasoiaba, south-west of San-Pauls, 4,093
Sierra Tingua, north of llio Janeiro, . . 3,519
The Mountains of North America form several distinct ridges, the principal of which stretch in the
direction of north and south. It has been generally supposed that the isthmus of Panama is traversed
by a mountain range connecting the Andes of South Araei-ica with the mountains of Mexico ; but
this is not the case. At the eastern extremity of the isthmus, between the moutii of the Rio Atrato
and the bay of San Miguel a level plaui extends from the one sea to the other, apparently not many
yards above the level of either. Here then the mountains ot Nortli America commence, but througli-
out the isthmus they are of small elevation, and the highest point of the road which crosses tho
ridge, between Panama and the mouth of the river Chagres, has been found to be only 633 feet above
the level of the Pacific Ocean. From that point to th« table-land of La I'uebla, 1400 miles W., no cer-
tain information has been obtained respecting tlie mountains. The most considerable elevations are
on the south-west side, and tliere are no less than 22 volcanoes within that space. From Puebla to
Durango the Mexican mountains spread out to form a table-land or elevated plain, from 5000 to 9000
feet above the level of the sea, and from 100 to 300 miles in breadth. Across this plain, in 19° N. lat. are
five volcanoes in a line east and west. Two of these, on the eastern side of the continent, with a group
of four or five other cones, between Xalaia and Cordoba, have an elevation of more than 17,000 feet,
and are the only mountains in Mexico that exceed the line of periietual snow, which is liere about
IS.O'iO feet above the level of the sea. JuruUo. the lowest of the five volcanoes, rose suddenly from the
midst of a plain, in September 1759. It is lOOU feet above its base, and is surroundi d by a number of
smaller cones or burning masses, within a compass of four square miles, which have been heaved up
in the form of a dome. Near the tropic the Mexic vi Cordillera divides into three branches, one of
which runs parallel to the eastern coast, at the dismoce of 30 or 40 leagues, and terminates in Now
oiua ae Laraccas, .... o,ooi
d1 Wi, f Mount Sarmiento, ..... 7,000
El r u- I y^^^^^^^ jjarwin 6,600
• • • • I Caue Horn, ...... 1,870
Geography.] AMERICA. 875
Leon ; another proceeds in a north-westerly direction and sinks gradually as it approaches the G\ilf
of California, in the province of Sonora ; the third or central chain passes through Diirango and New
Mexico, separates the sources of the Rio Gila from those of the Rio Bravo, and forms the eastern ridge
or main trunk of the Rocky Mountains. These, however, are divided from the Mexican chain by a
desert plain, which crosses the country about tlie 3i^ N. lat. from California to the Rio Bravo, rising
to an elevation of 4000 feet. From this point the liocki/ Mountains extend northwards, gradually be-
coming lower, till at la-t their elevation hardly exceeds 2000 teet. They also divide in their northern
poi'tiun into 14 oris ridges, separated by narrow valleys, which altogether occupy a breadth of about
aOO miles, and skirt the Icy Sea at a short distance. From the southern point of California, a lower
chain skirts the coast, as far as the volcano of Muuni St. Elius, G0° N. lat. ; and between this chain and
the Rocky Mountains several intermediate ridges occur, the whole forming apparently an elevated
plateau from 200 to 800 miles in breadth. Many of the summits of the Rocky mountains rise above
the snow line, and their elevation, where they were crossed by Lewis and Clarke, and also farther
south, has been estimated at 10,000 or 12,000 feet. A shorter route from the valley of the Mississippi
to the west coast has since been found, in the direction of the river Platte, 41° N. lat., where an open-
ing in the chain presents a passage so easy of access that a waggon drawn by horses might travel
through it.
The Alleghany or Appalachian Mountains, which form the eastern border of the great central
plain, consist of three, four, and, in some places, five parallel chains, extending from south-west to
north-east, from Alabama to New Brunswick, a distance of 1100 miles, with a breadtli varying from
100 to 150, and a mean elevation of -200(1 or 30(10 feet. Thty are almost every where clothed with forests,
and interspersed with delightful valleys. Tliey present their steepest side to the east, and the transi-
tion from their base to the maritime plain, which skirts the Atlantic, is very distinctly marked by a
rocky ledge over which the rivers fall, and to the foot of which, in the northern section, the tide
penetrates. Trenton, Philadelphia. Wilmington, lialtiniore, Georgetown, Fredcricksburi;, Richmond,
Sniithfield on the Neuse, Averysboro on Cape Fear river, Columbia. Augusta, .Milledgeville, and Co-
lumbus, stand on or neartlie edge of this ledge, which from the last-named place recedes to the north-
west through Alabama and Misj^is-ippi till tlie Atlantic plain merges into the Mississippi valley. Be-
tween the Alleghanies and the Kocky .Mountains the Ozark Mountnins extend along the middle of the
great valley of the Mississippi in a northerly and southerly direction. Tlie Arkansas and the Red
River are the only streams that have forced a passage through the^e mountains, which, tliough low,
occupy a great extent of country and are covered with wood.
From Labrador westward a line of elevated ground, not entitled to be called mountainous, as its
ffreatest known elevation does not exceed 2030 leet, forms the watershed between the basin of the
St. Lawrence and the great lakes, and the sticaiiis which flow northwards to Hudson's Hay. It is,
however, cut through by the Nelson river ; and, after separating the valleys of the Saskatchawan and
the Churchill, it either sinks down into tlie great plains of this region or extends north -east ward
between Hudson's Bay and the Great Slave Lake.
TABLE OF THE CULMINATING POINTS OF THE MOUNTAINS OF NORTH AMERICA.
Pbiscipal Chain,— F'^et.
Cordillera of Veragua, . • Silla de J'erag7ia (i&thniu.a'), .... 9,000
„ Guatemala,. Vulcano d' At^ua, ..... 14,S00
fm-go, 14,-00
„ Mexico, . . . Volcano of I'uuucatepetl, .... 17,735
Ori~abu, n,3»S
Jslaccihtiatl, ...... 15,700
Neradude Tuluca, ..... \5,lh6
Coffre de i'erote, . . . . . 13,514
Rocky Mountains, Spanish Peak, ...... 11,000
James- Peak, 11,320
Long's Peak or Bighorn, .... 13,675
Mount llooker, | Bet^^.^en 52- and 53^ N. lat. . ] j^'j"?
Mount Bt own, ) lio.uuo
Californlan or Maritime) iVou)// //'jof/, ...... 12,000
Range f MoutU Rainier, 10,<W0
Mount St. Helen's, ..... \-i,0(iO
Mount Baker, 10,000
Mount Biigecumhe S.OOO
Mount Pairueather, ..... 14,7.iO
Mount St. Elias, . , . . . 17,;>00
FmU Peak fuleano, Alaslika, . . . 8,500
Alleghany Range, .... Boan moutitams. North Carolina, . . . (j,038
Black Mountain, North Carolina, . . <i,476
Mount H'ashingtun, New Hauipsliire, . . <i,428
Mount Adams, do. . . . 5,yi.O
Mount Jejjirsun, ilo. . . . 5.8t>0
Mount Madison, do. . . . 5,620
Moujtt Monro, do. ... .SSIO
Mount Pranklin, do. . . . 6,050
Mount I'leasant, do. . . . ^•'•'.'^^
Moosheloc, do. . . . 4,(i30
(irand Munadnoek, do. . . ■ 3.150
Kearsargc mountains, do. . . . '2,4iiO
Kalahdin, Maine, .... 5,3k5
Bald mountains, do. . . . • 4.<'00
Mansjirld Mountain, Vermont, . . • 4,'.i«0
Camel's Hump, do. . . . 4,11'0
Killinuton Peak, do 3,(i75
Ascitlnei/, do. , . ■ 3,.l-'0
Saddle ilmmtain, Mass. .... 4,(HH)
Mount Marry, .New Vork, . . • 6,300
Bound Top. Catskill mountains, New Vork, . . 3.»04
Peaks of Otter, Virginia, . . • *>^^
8Bjts. GoLys, AMD St«ait» — I. In the Arrtic Occaw:— Kola hue Sound. PMon's I'oy, Vacl.> iizie't
Bay, Deate't Inkt, K. Srinlhs Bay. Ilairison's Bini. J.irerpnolBoi/. Praidtin Bay. DanU-yBay (■lorge
I V. Coronation Gulf, Balhurst Inlet, 'ind Hdrilte Sounil, pnuee Benmt Inl.t, lury and HeeUi
Sound. 2. On the Atlantic iSoa^t :— /ludsmt's Bay, a. large inland sea, between 51^uiid(>4 N- '»'•.
tod 78° and M^ W. long., stretching about 800 miles from N. to S. exclusive of Jamts'n Baj-, and 600
876 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Physical
from E. to W., and containing a surface of about 300,000 square miles. It is navigable only for a few
months in the year, being at other times frozen over, or obstructed by dntt ico. It is lull of sand-
banks Islands and reefs ; and its shores are rocky and barren. The southern portion, named James' t
Ban penetrate' southward about 2(i0 miles, with a breadth of 180. On the west coast are Chtsterfield
lule't a very narrow channel penetrating westward for 270 miles ; Wager River and Repulse Bay. Hud-
son's'Bay communicates with the Atlantic by Hurlsun's Slrait, which is about .^03 miles in length,
and at tlie narrowest part more than 80 miles wide. Cumberliind's Strait and Frobisher's Strait, are two
partially explored inlets on the west side of Davis" Strait. Gu'.f uf St. Laurence, a.\a.rg<i sea inclosed
by Newfoundland on the east. Nova Scotia, New I5runswicl<, and Canada, on the south and west, by
Labrador on the north, and coinmunicaiing with the ocean by the Strait of Billeisle to the north,
»nd a nameless ^t^ait to the south of Newtoundlaiid. Tlie Bau of Fumly separates Nova Scotia trom
New Brunswick ; it is about 180 miles in length by 33 in breadth, and contains an area of 6WiO square
miles The sho.cs are high and rocky, and the navigation dangerous, on account of the streniih of
the tides and the prevailing fogs. The tide sometimes rises 70 feet, and rushes up the bay with in-
credible velocity. I'assamaquoddy Buy, between Maine and New Brunswick, t'enob^cot Bay and
Massachusetts Bay, on the east coast ot New En:;laiid. Narraganset Buy in the state of Rhode Island.
Long- Island Sound, between Long- Island and Connecticut, 120 miles in length, by from 2 to 20 in
breadth, and communicating with New York harbour by a narrow strait named Hell Gates. Dela-
ware Buy, the estuary of the Delaware river, leading up to Philadelphia, is tilled with numerous shoals
and banks, among which there are several ship channels ; it is If. miles wide at the mouth, but higher up
expands to about 30. Chesapeake Bay, a noble estuary, between Virginia and Maryland, e.vtending N.-S.
about 180 miles, with a breadth varying from 2.5 to 7. It opens to the Atlantic between Cape Charles
and Cape Henry, usually called the Capes of Virginia, which are about 14 miles asunder. The bay is
generally deep, contains many commodious harbours, andaifurds asafe and easy navigation for vessels
of the greatest burden. It receives the waters of the large rivers Susquehanna. Potomac, Rappahan-
nock, York, and James. Mlicmarle Sound, an estuary on the coast of North Carolina, about (JU miles
in length, and from 4 to 15 wide, communicates with Pamlico Sound, a gulf which extends along the
coast southward for about UX) niiUs, with a breadth varying from 8 or 10 to 2-5 ; and is separated from
the ocean by a series of long and very narrow ridges, or banks of sand. It terminates south-west
with the two large estuaries of Pamlico River, and Neuse River, and communicates with the ocean
by Roanoke Inlet, \ew Inlet, Ocracock Inlet, and Core Sound, which extends south to Old Topsail
Inlet. On the outside of the banks is Ralfigh Bay ; and farther south is Onslow Buy, likew ise separated
from the mainlandby a series of narrow baiiks, wiiich form, inside, along and narrow channel navigable
by small vessels. Long Bail, between Cape Fear and Georgetown entrance, on the coast of Georgia
and South Carolina. St. Helena Sound, Port- Royal Entrance, Calibogue Sound, Daiifuskee Sound,
Wassaw Sound, Ossabaw Sound, St. Catharine's Sound, Saptlo Sound, Doby Inlet, Alatamaha Sound,
St. Simon's Sound, St. Andrew's Sound, &\\d. Cumberland iouwrf; on the coast of Georgia. The Gulf
of Mexico is a large inland sea, about 1 Kill miles in length from east to west, and about 700 or 800 from
north to south, bounded by the coasts of Florida, Alabama, Louisiana, and Te.xas on th- north-ea^t,
north, and north- west; by Mexico and Guatemala on the west, south-west, and south; and by Cuba
and the channels on each side of it, on the south-east. Along the coasts are the minor bays of cIm-
tham, Gallivan, St. Charles, Carlos or Charlotte Harbour, Espiritu Santo or Tampa, I'a rasausa , Stnta
Fe, Appalachee, Apalacliicola, St. Joseph, St. Andrew, Choctahatchee, and Fenxarola, in Florida ; Mobile
and I'ascagoula, in .■\labama; Chandelrur, Atchafaliya, Cote-blanche, and I'ermilion, in Louisiana;
Galceston, West, Espiritu Santo, in Texas; Campeche, between Mexico and Y'ucatan. This gulf is
free from banks, and contains only a few tmall rocky islands on the coasts of Yucatan, with the Flo-
rida reef near its eastern extremity. The shores are low, and generally lined with fiat sandy islands,
not far from the land. There are few harbours, and the rivers which fall into it are obstructed by
bars at their mouths, which render them all, except the Mississippi, iua:ly inaccessible for vessels of
large draught. The currents of the gulf are very remarkable. '1 he water which enters it fi om the
Caribbean Sea is soon divided into two portions, the one running east along the coast of Cuba, the
other westward, in a curve line tliroiigh the middle of the gulf round towards the straits of Florida,
where it meets the other currtn", and the two united !brm the Gu'f Stream, which passes with great
velocity through the comparatively narrow channel between Cuba and Florida. The gulf is also cha-
racterized by the high temperature of its water, which is generally 8G- ; while in the ocean, in the
same latitude, it is only 76^ or 78-, and even near the equati.r is only 80- or 81-'. The Gulf Stream
flows northward through the Gulf of Florida or the New Bahama Chaiinil, attaining its greatest ve-
locity at the narrowest part of the strait. The Caribbean Sea extends along the northern coast of
South and Central .America, from the mouths of the Orinoco to the Jlosquito shore, being about
1400 miles long, with a breadth varying from 35ii to 6.50. Its northern and eastern boundaries are
formed by the long range of the West India Islands, through which it communicates with the ocean
by numerous channels. The southern shores are generally high and rooky, and contain several large
gulfs. The Gulf of I'aria separates Trinidad from the continent, and is about 100 miles from E. to
W. by about 50 in width. It is shallow, with a muddy bottom, and being always placid, atfurds safe
anchorage for any number of vessels. The Gulf of Maracaybo or Venezuela, forms a deep and wide
inlet terminating with a navieable strait which communicates with the large Lake of Maracaybo ;
the Gulf of Darieii extends far inland, on the eastern side of the Isthmus of Panama ; Bluejield's
Sound, on the Mosquito sliere ; and the Bay 'f Honduras, a large oi en gulf between the Mo-quito
shore and Yucatan. The navigation of the Caribbean Sea is clear and open ; the islands being neither
numerous nor e.\tensive. A current from the ocean enters it through the channels among the '\\ ird-
ward Islands, by which its Ibree is broken ; and at all seasons a cuiTeiit sets from this sea into the
Gu.f of Mexico. Bahia de Todos os Sunt s. or All Saints Bay, a small round gulf on the ea.~t coast of
Brazil, forming a noble basin studded with islands, and afiording safe anchorage for any number of
ships. Lat. 13- S. Rio de la Plata, the large estuary of the rivers Parana and Uruguay, opens from the
Atlantic with a width of 170 miles, and gradually diminishes in breadth till it m^et' the livers about
200 miles from the ocean. It is much encumbered by sandbanks, and in the upiier part becomes very
shallow, so that the navigation is intricate and dangerous. Bahia de 6'. Mafhias, B. de San Joseph,
Bahia Xueca, Bahia de los Cumarones, Bahia de S. Jorje, Puerto Dese::do (Port Desire), and Bahia
Grande; on the east coast of Patagonia. The Strait of Ma'^ellan, between Patagonia and Tierra
del Fuego, extends from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific, for about 300 miles, with a breadth vary-
ing from 1| to 40 miles. Its shores are lofty, and generally rugged, and its depth is in some parts very
great. The passage is extremely dangerous, owing to the violent currents, and to the sudden and
severe tempests to which the Strait is subject. Gulf of Trinidad, Gulf of Penas, Gulf of Guayaquil,
on the west coast of South America, l-.ay of Panama, which forms the southern side of the great
isthmus, is about 130 miles in len^ith with a breadth nearlv equal. On its east side is the Bay ot Santo
iit^uel, and, on the west, the Gulf of 1 arita. Towards the ni.rth-cast shore are the Pearl Islands,
where small quantities of pearls are procured; and in the north-west are a few rockv i.-lai.d , which
form the harbour of Panama. Gulf of Nicoya, on the coast, souih of the lake of Nicaragua. The
Gulf of California or the I'trmiUon sea. extends northward between the mainland of Me.xico and
the peninsula of California, for about 700 miles, with a breadth varying from 40 miles to 1.50. Many
rocky islands skirt the western shore; and on the eastern is the large island of Tiburon, Pearls
Geography.] AMEJICA. 877
used to be collected here during the last century, but the quantity has diminished. It receives at iu
northern extremity the river Colorado. The Fort or Buy of San Francitco, on the coast of New Al
bion, extends inland about 50 miles, with a breadth of 20. It contains many good harbours, and re-
ceives the waters of three considerable rivers. Queen Charlolte's Smitid, a large navigable inlet or
strait, between the mainland and the island of Quadra and Vancouver. Noulka Suuyid, a place of
some notoriety, on the west or oceanic coast of that island. Xorfolk Sound, Cross Suimd, Admiralty
Bay, Prince William's Sound, Cook's Inlet, Bristol Bay, Norton Sound, all on the north-west coast.
Capes.— Wolstenhdme, the most westerly, and Chidley, the most easterly, point of the south side of
Hudson's Straits ; Charles, the most easterly point of Labrador ; Race, the most easterly point of New-
foundland ; Canso, the north-east point of Nova Scotia; iiambro Head, near the entrance of Halifax
harbour; A'ai/e, the south-east point of Nova Scotia; Capp -Inn, at the northern side, and (V/ue t' rf, at
the southern side of the mouth of Massachusetts bay ; Montauk Pvint, the east end of Long-island ;
' " ' " -' . — „ - north side, and
Henry, or the
. - „ --. , - J- , -r- 'ind Cape Fear,
on the coast of North Carolina ; Cape Remain, on the coast of South Carolina ; Cape Canaveral, Cape
Florida, and Cape ^atle, on the coast of Florida ; Catochc, the norih-east point of Yucatan ; San An-
tonio, the most westerly point of Cuba ; Cabo de Cruz, the most westerly, and Maysi, the most east-
erly point of the south coast of Cuba ; Negri/, the most westerly, and Mo'rant, the most easterly point
of Jamaica; Tiburon, the most westerly, and Ennano, the most easterly point of llajti; Gracias a
Dios, north-east point of Guatemala, in the Caribbean Sea; San Roque and St. Augustine, on the
north-east coast of Brazil ; Frio, on the coast of Brazil, north of the Tropic of Cancer ; Santa Ma-
ria and 5an Antonio, at the entrance of the Kio de la Plata; Sa7i Juan, the most easterly point of
Staten island ; Horn, the most soutiierly point of Tierra del Fuego ; Tres-montes cape and | enin-
sula, on the west coast of Patagonia ; Curriintes, on the west coast ot Mexico ; San Lucas, the most
southerly point of the peninsula of California ; Mendoci7io, on the coast of New California ; Romanznff,
Prince uf Hales, Lisburne, and Icy Cape, on the east side of Behring's sea and strait ; Point I'elee,
Point aux Pins or Landguard Point, and North Foreland or Long Point, on the north shore of Lake
Erie.
Rivers. — America abounds with rivers, some of which are the largest in the world ; and the larger
rivers are almost all favourably distinguished by the characteristic of being navigable throughout
the greater part of their course. We shall describe them under the two heads of North American
Hiveit and South American Rivers.
§ 1. Hii-ers of North America.
The Mississippi has its sources in thebrooks which form the small lake Itaska or La Riche. about 47°
10' N. lat.,on a high table-land about 1500 feet above the level of the sea, and 3200 miles from the mouth
of the river, following the windings of the stream, but only l:i.50 in a straight line. Rising in a region of
swamps and wild rice lakes, it flows at first through low prairies, and then in a broken course through
forests of t Im, maple, birch, oak, and ash, till, at the Falls of St. Anthony, 1 100 miles from its source, it
tumblesover a limestone ridge, with a fall of 17 feet. The river is here 600 yards wide. Below this point
it is bounded by limestone blufrs from 100 to 400 feet high, and first begins to e.xhiliit islands, drift
wood, and sand bars. Its cm rent is slii^htly broken by the Kock River and D.smoines Rapids, which,
however, present no considerable ob>tacle to navigation; and 850 miles below the Falls of St. An-
thony it receives from the west the great stream of the Missouri. Above the junction, the Mississippi
is a clear, placid stream, a mile and a half wide ; below, it is turbid, and becomes narrower, dei per,
and more rapid. Between the moi;th of the .Missouri and the sen, a distance of 1220 miles, it receives
its principal tributaries : — the Ohio from the east, and the Arkansas and lied liinr from the west;
and, immediately below the mouth of the latter, it gives ottin times of flood a poition of its surplus
waters by the outlet of the Atchajakiya. It is in tliis lower part of its course tliat the river often tears
away the islands and | rojeeting points, and, in the season of higli water, plunges huge masses of the
banks with all their trees into its current. \\\ many places it deposits immense heaps of drift wood on
its mud bars, which become as dangerous to tlje navigator as rocks and shoals at sea. Below the At-
chafalaya it discharges a portion of its wateisby the Lafourclie and the Iben-ilie; but the greater part
of its contents flows on in the main channel, which passes through a flat tract, by New Orleans, and
reaches the Gulf of Mexico at the end of a long projecting tongue of mud, formed by the dejiosits of the
current. Near the sea it divides into several channels, here called jjasses, with bars at their mouths, on
which are from 12 to IG feet of water. The water is white and turbid, and tinges the sea to the distance
of several leagues. The river begins to rise in tlic end of February or the early part of March, and
continues to increase irregularly till the niiddle of June, generally overflowing its banks to a consider-
able extent. Above the Missouri the flouiled bottoms are irom 5 to 8 miles wide ; but below that point,
they e.xtend to a width of 40 or 50 miles. Below the mouth of the Ohio, no part of the western bank
affords a spot suilalJe for the site of a large town, or hardly even for a roi;d secure from overflow.
On the eastern side there are several points where the hills approach the river, and present good sites
for towns ; but from .Memphis to Vicksburg, a distance of 3G.'> mill s, the whole tract consists of low
grounds subject to inundation ; and below Baton- Rouge, where the line of high land wholly haves the
1 iver, ar.d passes oft' to the eastward, there is no place where a settlement is practicable beyond the
edge of the river border, wlilch is higher than the marshy tract beyond it ; and by the construction of
artificial cmbanknitnts, called levees, a few feet in height, is entirely secure from iimndation. But
the tendency of this embankment is to shut up numerous outlets, by which the superfluous waters
formerly escaped, and thus to raise the volume and height of the river, and thereby to increase tliedan-
ger of overflow. Before the introduction of steam vessels, the river was navigated b.v keel-boats, which,
in going upward, were rowed along the eddies of the stream, or drawn by ropes along shore ; and by
this te<iioiis process more than three months were consumed in ascending from New Orleans to the
Falis of the Ohio, a passage which is now made in ten or twelve day.^^. The lirst steam-boat was in-
troduced in ISIO ; there are now upwards of .WO on the river.
The Missouni has a nmch longer course than the Mississipi, its extreme length, from its sources
to the Gulf of Mexico, being about 4-')00 miles. It is navigable to the foot of the great falls, about .18(K)
miles from the sea, and steam-boats have gone up the stream 2200 mil' s from its junction wllh the
Mississippi. It rises frciUi the Rocky .Mnuntains ; gome of its sources are only about a mile from
those of the Columbia. Its headwaters have not been thorouglily examined ; but, in the c arlier ) art
of its course, it lias been ascertained to te a foaming torrent, which forces its way out cf its moun-
tain barriers through a remarkable chasm of perpendicular rocks, nenrlv (i ndles in length, and 12(,0
feet in height, called the Gates of the Rocky Mountains. Sixty miles Ixiow the last mountain ridgo
it forms a succession of falls and rapids, interior in grandeur <.nly to those of Niagara. In a course
of 17 milts the river has a descent of .'iCO fe -t ; and in that space, besides tlu' (ireal I'nil of !«) feet
perpendicular and 300 yards wide, and a fine fall of 50 feet, there are sevenl otl.ers ol friun 12 to 20
f'^et. The Missouri now flows through vast prairies, and, soon alter rtceiving the l- //./». ^^/»(■ a, largo
878 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Physicai.
navigable rtream, takes a south and south-east course to the Mississtpj)!. A slight cause might have
turned its current towards Hudson's l!ay ; for the Souris or Mouse River, a branch of the Assini-
boine, rises within a mile of its bed, near the point where it begins to talie its southerly course. Its
principal tributaries are from tlie west ; tlie Plalte, a wide shallow stream, the Kamat, and the Otage,
are the principal. The Missouri not only lias a longer course than the Mississippi, but it brings down
• greater volinne of water, and imparts its own turbid cliaracter to the united stream ; yet it loses its
nanient the coiifiuence. It has an average velocity of .5 miles an hour when in flood, and of 4 or 4J
when lower, while that of the Mississippi is only about 3. The obstructions to the navigation of the
Mi-souri are of the same kind as those of the Lower Missi?si|)pi, but they are much more numerous
and formidable. The channel is rendered intricate by the great number of islands and sand-bars, and
in many places the navigation is hazardous from the rafts, snags, falling banks, &o. It begins to rise
early in March, and continues to swell till the middle or the end of July, when the summerfloods of its
most distant tributaries come down. During fliis period there is sufficient depth for steamers of almost
any draught; but during the rest of the year, the river is scarcely navigable through any great dis-
tance bv boats drawing more than two feet and a-half.
The Ohio (La Belle Riviere of the early French settlers) is, next to the Missouri, the most impor-
tant tributary of the Mississippi. The Alleghan;/, which rises near the edge of Lake Erie, and the
Mononsdhela, which issues from the mountains of Virginia, unite at Pittsburg, and take the name of
Ohio. From IMttsburg the Ohio has a course ofU-'iO miles to the Mississippi, receiving in its progress
numerous navigable streams on both sides : from tlie north, the Big-Beaver, Muskingum, Scioto, Mutmi,
and Wabash; and from the south, tlic Kanhaua, Big-Suriily, Kentucky, Green, Cumberlatifl, and Ten-
nessee. The whole region drained by this tine river includes an area of 200,000 square miles, rich
in the most useful natural productions, and enjoying' a miid and healthful climate. F'rom Pittsburg to
its mouth, the Ohio has a descent of 400 feet, or 5 inches to a mile ; its current is gentle, and is no-
where broken except by the rapids at Louisville, which do not obstruct the navigation at high- water.
The breadth of tlie stream varies from 400 yards to 1400. The annual range between high-water and
low-water is about .^0 feet, but soinetimes exceeds even that variation. In August, September, and
October, the water is at the lowest ; in December, March, May, and June, at the highest. The navi-
gation is usually impeded by ice in winter, and, in the upper part of the river, by drought in summer ;
but during the greater part of the year the stream is covered w ith all sorts of river craft and steamers,
carrying on an active trade.
The Arkansas exceeds the Ohio in size; but a considerable part of its course lies through barren,
sanriy tracts, and in its navigable qualities it is far inferior to the other. In the dry season the river
is shallow, and in some places wholly disappears, or leaves only stagnant pools, separated by sand-
banks ; even its floods are so uncertain, and their ri?e and fall so rapid, that the stream is nearly use-
less: for navigation. Steam-boats ascend, but w ith ditticulty. to Fort Gibson, only 420 miles from the
Mississippi ; though the whole length of the river is estimatid at 2,j00 miles.
The Red River rises in the Rocky Mountains, within the Mexican territory, and, flowing eastward,
joins the Mississippi in Louisiana. It is navigable for 1200 miles ; but its channel was formerly so
much choked up by accumulated masses of drift wood, through a distance of 160 miles, in Louisiana,
that the greater part of the water was forced out of the bed of the river into numerous Ijayous or lakes.
This ob-truction has been lately removed, at an expense to the United States of 300,000 dollars, and
steam boats can now ascend the stream throughout the whole of its navigable course.
The Illinois is formed in the nortli-eastern part of the State of the same name, by the junction of
two large streams, the Katthakee from Indiana, and the Des-I'lanes from Wisconsin, from which it
flows in a south-westerly course of 300 miles to the Mississippi. It is navigated for 260 miles to
the rapids at Ottawa ; when swollen by rain it overflows its banks, and the Mississippi, when full, sets
back its waters to a distance of 70 miles from its mouth. In some places the river expands to such a
width as to have the appearance of a lake ; and one expanse of this kind, 20 miles in length, has re-
ceived the name of Lake I'earia. The Kankakee rises in Indiana, within about two miles of the river
St. Joseph, which falls into Lake Michigan ; and in the wet season, boats may pass from the one river
to the other. The Des-Planes runs for some distance parallel to the shores of Lake Michigan, anij
not more than 10 miles from the lake, with which there is a natural communication through the
Chicago, which is often passed by loaded boats during the spring floods.
The names and length of the principal rivers of the Mississippi basin are stated in the following
Table :—
Mississippi,
Missouri,
Yellowstone,
Little Mlssoitri,
Shienne,
Quiciiurt,
Platte, .
Kansas,
Osage,
Gasconade,
Jacques,
Sioux,
Grand,
Ckarilon,
St. Peter's,
Penaca, or Tiu-kcy
Iowa,
Chacaguar,
Des-moines,
St. Croix,
Chippewa, ,
Wisconsin,
Rock River,
Miles.
3,200
Salt,
3,300
Maramec, .
1,000
St. Francis, .
300
White,
300
Arkansas,
500
Canadian,
1,200
Neosho,
800
Red River,
500
Washita,
300
Ohio,
600
.Alleghany, .
500
Monongalicla,
500
Kanauha, .
200
Kentucky,
500
Green,
200
Cumbeiian^l ,
350
Tennessee, .
200
Muskingum.
600
Scioto,
300
Miami, .
300
Wabash.
600
White River,
450
ITatohy,
500
Yazoo,
300
Big Black,
Miles.
250
200
450
60O
2,-500
1,000
800
2,000
800
1,250
350
300
450
360
300
600
1,500
200
200
175
550
200
200
Illinois, . . . .500 Yazoo, .... 300
Kaskaskia, . . . 300 | Big Black, . . .200
The St. Lawrence flows from the N. E. extremity of tlie X^ake Ontario, where its stream, for the
first forty miles, is divided by a multitude of islets, some consisting of bare rocks, some covered with
pine groves, and some presenting smiling meadows. This space is called the Lake vf the Thousand,
Isles ; but the real number of islands is said to be 1692. Ahout 110 miles from Lake Ontario, a series
of rapids interrupts the navigation, but they are now passed by the Cornwall Canal ; and below the
Lake St. Francis are the Cedar liapids and the Cascades, ditliculties which are avoided by a siiort cut
called the Military Canal. Below this, the river meets its principal tributary, the Ottawa, and the
two rivers together form three islands, named Montreal, Jesus, and Perrot. Between Montreal and
the southern shore is the beautiful but rapid and dangerous Sault St. Louis, which is passed by means
Geography.] AMERICA. 879
of the La Chine Canal. From this point there is no considerable obstruction to the navigation, but
the current of the rirer is in some places still rapid. Nearly midway between Montreal and Quebec
the river forms a wide expanse named Lake St. Peter; but further down the width continues pretty
rcffular, till it passes Quebec, below winch it encirclos the Isle of Orleans, and then gradually and
regularly expands into a wide estuary, which may I.e considered as terminating with the island of Aii-
tioosti, about 700 miles from Lake Ontario. At Qmbec the width of the river is only 13i4 vards ; at
the mouth of the river Saguenay, I20mi:es further down, it is 18 miles wide; at Cap de Monls, or
Mont Pelee, 130 miles below, it is 2o miles ; and where at last it opens into the gull', the estuary is
nearly lO.i miles across. Tiie tide is.pereeitible at Trois Kivieres, 43J miles above Antieosti. f ho
water becomes braeiiish 2\ miles below Quebec, and i~ quite salt at Kamonraska, 75 miles lowir
down. Vessels of (KK) or 7CK1 tons reach Montreal, which is .58(1 miles from Antieosti, with little diffi-
culty, as there is, during this distance, only one rapid, named Kiehelieu, -lb miles below Trois Rivieres.
Tiie river is here so contracted and obstructed by rocks as to leave only a narrow siiip channel, in
which, at ebb tide, a rapid is formed that cannot be passed without great "care ; but at high tide, when
tiie water rises 15 or i8 feet, the rapid disappears. Between Lake Ontario and Montreal, the river
bears the name of Kataraqiti, or Cntaragnan. Helow Quebec the St. Lawrence is never frozen over,
but the navigation is impeded in spring liy the large masses of ice which are Huated down from tho
upper districts, and kept in nunion by the camliimd action of tlie current and the tides, presenting
a most remarkable and almost terrilic scene. The channel does not become clear till about the second
week of May, and vessels attempting a passage sooner are often wrecked, or crushed to pieces by the
delating masses. The principal tributary is the Ottmia, which flows from Lake Temiscaming, and
much resembles the St. Lawrence itself in its great breadth and lake-like e.vpanses. At its confluence
with the St. Lawrence it spreads out into the Lake of the Two Mountains ; and 30 miles up its stream
ari3 the Long Sault Rapids, which are passed by means of the Grenville Canal. Steamers ascend to
Uytown and Hull at the foot of the Chaudieres or Kettle I'all-^, the principal of which is CO feet high.
Above these there are immerous rapids. The otlier [.rincipal affluents on the left bank are: the St.
Maurice, at Three Rivers; the Bilismn, the St. ^nne, the .hnques dirtier, and the Saguenay, a large
and broad river, the outlet of Lake St. John. On the right bank : the ()tuei;atchie, l,a Grasse, lia-
qui'tte, and St. Regis, from .New York; the Cluiteuwmaii, above Montreal; the Riclielieii, the outlet
of Lake Chainplain ; the Yamaska, St. Francis, mid Nico/et, at Lake St. Peter; tlie Besaiicuur, Gentilly,
Du-Chene, C/iaudiere, and /./c/iem/n, between St. Peter's and Quebec.
The KivKR St. John flows tlirough the disputed territory to the north of the State of Maine, and
the province of New Brunswick, into the Hay of Fundy. It lias a fall of 75 feet just after entering New
Brunswick, and is navigable to that point by flat-l.ottomed boats, tliough tlie lower part of its course
contains several rapids. Vessels of .'» i tons go up to 1 rederickton. The Miramirhi rises near the St.
John, and, interlocking with some of its tributaries, alfoids a good navigable channel almost across
the country.
The St Croix, the outlet of the Grand, Umquemengag, and Schoodie lakes, forms the boundary
between New Brunswick and Maine, and falls into Passainaqunddy Bay.
The Pesobscot collects its waters from thenoithcrn part of the State of Maine, and has a course of
about 3)0 miles into Penobscot Bay. It is navigable for the largest vessels to Bangor. tj'J miles from
tlie sea ; above which point there is a fall of (iO feet ; and the navigation even of the lower portion is
clo.scd for four or five months in the year by ice.
The Kknnkbec is the outlet of Moosehead lake in Maine, and flows south to the Atlantic. Its
channel is interrupted by falls, an<l is navigable only for small vessels 50 miles up to Augusta, wlier.?
the tide stops. N.ar its mouth it is joined by the .-Jiiiln scvggiti, when the united stream takes the
name of Sagndaliork.
The -Mkkbimack flows south through the mii'dle of Nov.- Hampshire, into tlie Atlantic, below New-
buryport, in Massachusetts. By the aid of short canals boats are able to go up to Concord, the capital
of the state.
The CoN.VECTicUT rises in the north-east corner of New Hampshire, forms the boundary between
that state and Vermont, and flows across Massachusetts and Connecticut into the eastern i)ait of
Long-island Sound. There is a sand-bar at its mouth which impedes navigation; but notwithstami-
ing vessels of 10 feet draft go up to Middletown ; those of 8 feet, to Hartford, .50 miles from the sea ;
and smaller vessels proceed 14 miles farther to the head of the tide at Warehouse-point, at the foot of
Enfield falls. Above Enfield, the river has two other falls, at South Hadley and Montague, but is
navigated by steam-vessels of lii;lit draft, which pass the falls by short canals. Higher up it is ren-
dered navigable for boats to Bath, in North Hampshire, by means of locks and canals. Length of its
course, 400 miles.
The HtDso.N, which rises in a mar-Iiy tract soutll-wc^t of Lake Chainplain, and has a southern
course of 3^5 miles to New York Bay, is the only river of the Atlantic slope whose navigation is not
terminated by its passage through the Apj alachian mountains. Its head waters rise at an elevation
of 4000 feet ; but the bed of the river, in the lower part of its course, lies deep below the surface of the
adjacent country, admitting the tide KJ'l miles up to Troy. It is navigable by sloops to Troy, and by
ships to Hudson', which is only 30 ndles lower down. Between 28 and :Vi miles above New York, the
Hudson forms an expanse like a Inke, named the Tappnn Sea, wliiili varies in width from 2 to 5 miles ;
and, for 20 miles farther down, the channel is Ixirdered on its western side by a range of perpendi-
cular cliffs, which rise from 100 to .500 fei t above the water, and arc named the I'allisades. The pic-
turesque beauty of its banks, and the legendary and hi-torieal interests associated with numerous
spots, combine to render tlie Hudson the classic stream of the I'niteil States. The M' h'lirk, its prin-
cipal tributary, is a turbulent stream, which, in a course of 150 mile', (alls more than 430 fe<'t.
The 1JKI,AW.\RE rises in the Catskill mountains, in New York, is formed by two niain branches,
and flows southwanls into the Atlantic, where it forms a wide estuary, b low I'liiladelphia, near
which it is jomed by its principal tributary, the Sclivylkil'. It is navigable dow nwiirds by rafts and
arks nearly from its source ; but at Trenton the navigation upward ;s stoppi d by a great fall, below
which it meets the tide 14 i miles from the sea. Sloops asceiul to this point, and the largi'st ship*
reach I'hiladelphia, .T) miles tielow. The Seliiiylkill is navigsible (i miles to I'liiladeljihia by ships of 30U
tons ; but above that the navigation is sto|.pedhy its great fall, and higher up by shoals and rapids.
The SusQi KHAH.NA is a long and bro.ad, hut generally shallow river, with a course of about fiOO
mile.<. chiefly through Pennsylvania, into thu head of the Chesapeake Bay. Its principal trunk is so
much olistructod by bars, and broken by rapids, as to afford comparatively little aid to navigation,
without artificial help ; but, as there is nowhere any perpendieular fall, rafts and flat boiits easily
descend to .Middletown, during the season of high water; and small steam-boats jdy between Wif.
kesbarre and Owigo.
The Potomac is formed by two branches, the most northerly of which rises in the great Hack Hone
mountain, at the west hordirnf Virginia and .Maryland, ami the southirn branch in Pendleton county,
a little further south. It has a very crooked c<mrse of 40'i inilrs into the ( liesapeakc, w hen- its mouth
is eight miles wide. .Seventy miles up, the channel is still three miles wide, and at .Vle.vandria, nearly
100 miles up. It is above one mile. BetwKn Wa.shington and the ChesnpeBke the de|)ih varii s from
18 feet to 120, but is generally about 8) or V); above Wa«hin(.toii it diminishes to 1(/ or 12. The tide
flows to Georgetown, a little above Washington, and to that point the river is na> Igable for vesiKsll of
880 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. fPavsicAL
moderate burden. Three miles above Georgetown is a series of rapids called the Little Falls ; and a
few miles higher up are the Great Falls, where the river descends 76 feet in the distance of a mile and a
half, making in one place a perpendicular plunge of 15 feet. The Great Falls form one of the grandest
scenes in the United States.
The Pati-xent flows through Maryland into the Chesapeake, in a course nearly parallel to that of
the Potomac, about midway between it and the western shore of the Chesapeake. It is navigable 40
miles to Nottingham for vessels of 250 tons, and for large boats to Queen Ann, 15 miles farther up.
Its mouth forms a wide estuary, 20 miles north of that of the Potomac.
The Rappahaxnock, rising'in the Blue ridge, in Virginia, receives the Rapid- Ann from the same
chain ; and, after falling over the primary ledge into the low country at Fredericksburg, where it
meets the tide, 100 miles from its mouth, becomes navigable for vessels of 140 tons; larger vessels
may go up GO miles. In the lower part, however, of its course, it is rather an estuary than a river,
e.xpanding to a width of five miles before it joins the Chesapeake.
York Kivbr, formed by the junction of the Matapont/ and the Pamunkey, in "Virginia, partakes,
throughout its whole course, rather of the character of a narrow bay than of an inland stream. At
West Point, the place of confluence, 40 miles from the Chesapeake, it is from 2 to 3 miles wide, with
18 or 20 feet depth of water. The Pamunkey and the Matapony are both navigable by schooners about
40 miles from their mouths.
Ja.mes River rises from the Alleghany mountains in the western part of Virginia, and emerges
from the Blue ridge over the Irish Falls. After clearing the hills, it descends into the low country,
at Richmond, liy a fall of 70 feet in the distance of eight miles ; below Richmond it gradually be-
comes wider and deeper, and, in the lower part of its course, e.xpands.into a long and spacious estuary,
with sufficient depth for the largest ships. Vessels of 600 tons go up to City Point, 75 miles from the
Chesapeake ; vessels of 15 feet draught reach Warwick, 30 miles farther up ; and, with the exception
of a bar, on which there are only 10 feet, there are 13 feet of water from this point to Rockets, the
port of Richmond ; above which, the depth is only si.x feet. The tide flows to Richmond, 110 miles
from the Chesapeake. Within the mouth of the estuary are Hampton Roads, a secure and spacious
anchorage, sufficiently deep for the largest ships ; and, connected with it, is the broad bay named
Elizabeth RiKer, which forms a capacious inner harbour.
Cape Fear or Clarendon river ; Chowan or Roanoke ; Tar, Taw or Pamlico, and Keuse, are all in North
Carolina ; but they, as well as all the other streams of that state, have short courses and shallow streams;
though, by artificial means, some of them have been made navigable to some distance inland. Nearly
the same character will apply to the numerous rivers of South Carolina and Georgia, the principal of
which we shall therefore merely name, in their order, proceeding southward, viz. IVaccamaw. Little
Pedee, Great Pedee, Lynchers river, and Black river, all of wliich have a common estuary in IVinyauj
Pay, which opens to tlfie Atlantic by Georffetoum Inlet; the Santee; the Cooper and the Ashley, whose
common estuary forms the harbour of Charlestown; Ponpon or Edisto ; Combahee; Coosaw ; Broad
river ; Savannah, navigable for steam-boatsof 150 tonsburden, for 250 miles from the sea ; the Ogechee
and Canoochee, which fall into Ossaba Sound; Alatamaha ; Turtle; Soilla ; Sutilla; St. Mary's ; and,
in Florida, St. John's. The last is a somewhat important stream. It flows northward through the
middle of Northern Florida, expanding into lakes, and forming at last a wide estuary from two to five
miles wide. The bar at its mouth is never passable by vessels of more than 11 feet draught, although
within the bar there are 15 feet water for 50 miles up the river. The other principal rivers of Florida
are the Oscilla or Ausilla ; St. Mark's ; Ocklockonee ; Apalachicola, navigable for 100 miles ; Econfina;
and Chocktawhatchee ; all of which flow into the Gulf of Mexico.
The Mobile, in .Alabama, is formed by the junction of the Alabama and the Tombekbee or Tombig-
bee, 50 miles above Mobile bay, in the Gulf of Mexico. A few miles below the junction it gives out a
large branch, called the Tensau; which also receives an arm from the Alabama, and reaches Mobile
bay below Blakely. The Tombighee is formed by the confluence of two large streams, the Tombek-
bee from Mississippi, and the Black IVarriour from the northern part of Alabama. It admits vessels
drawing six feet water to St. Stephen's, 93 miles from the bay, and steam-boats of moderate bur-
den to Tuscaloosa, on the eastern branch, 300 miles, and to Columbus, in Mississippi, on the western
branch. The Alabama is formed by the junction of the Coosa and the Talapoosa. both of which
have their sources in the western part of Georgia. It is navigable to Claiboine, luO miles from the
bay, by the same class of vessels that go up to St. Stephen's, and by the smaller steam-boats for some
miles above the confluence, along both branches. The rivers of Alabama flow in deep beds, and rise
at soma places during the spring floods 50 or 60 feet above their low-water level. Their utility as na-
vigable channels is much diminished by the excessive winding of their courses ; and during six or seven
months of the year the navigation is impeded, and for part of that period suspended, by the shoals and
bars, which become impassable at low water.
The Pearl River, in Mississippi, rises in the centre of the state, and flows through a populous
and fertile region into the Rigolets or outlet of Lake Pontchartrain. Its mouth is obstructed by
banks, besides which there are numerous shoals in the river ; but steam-boats have ascended to
Jackson, a distance of 200 miles, at high water.
The Sabine River flows into the Gulf of Mexico, forming the boundary between Louisiana and the
new republic of Texas. It is navigable about 390 miles upward, but its mouth is obstructed by a bar.
Near its mouth it expands into a large lake, which is nearly filled up with oyster banks, and which
also receives the waters of the Rio Kaches from Texas, which is navigable for 100 miles.
The Trinidad and San Jacinto both fall into Galveston Bay, which forms their estuary ; it is no-
where deep, and is crossed by bars with only five feet water in the highest tides. The main channel,
however, through the outer bar, has a depth of 13 feet, and within it, contains secure anchoring ground
in five fathoms. The Rio Brazos de Dios (God's arms) rises on the north-west border of Texas, and
reaches the gulf, after a winding course of 600 miles. The Bio Colorado is little inferior to the
Brazos, but is at present choked up by a jam of drift-wood about 10 miles from its mouth. The Rio
La Vaca, of Matagorda bay; the Guadalupe, and the San Antonio, which unite before entering the
basin of Espiritu Santo, and the Nueces, are inferior but navigable streams. The spacious but shal-
low bays which receive most of the rivers of Texa=, and the mouths of those that enter the gulf
directly, are barred by shifting sand-banks, through which the channels are often intricate, and sel-
dom have more than 8 or 10, never more than 12 or 13 feet of water.
The Rio Bravo del Norte, called also the Rio Grande or Large Riter, rises from the Sierra
Verde in New Mexico, about 40= N. lat., and has a long south-easterly course into the Gulf of Mexico,
where it formsthesouth-westernborder of the territory claimed by the Texians. It scarcely deserves
the name which it bears, as, when compared with the principal rivers of America, it cannot be consi-
dered a i^reat river. The lower part of its channel is generally only about 200 yards wide, and is so
shallow, in many places, that vessels drawing 5 or G feet of water cannot ascend more than 100 miles
in the ordinary state of the river. Its current is exceedingly rapid, and its banks steep. It is navi-
gable at all seasons for steam-boats drawing 3 or 4 feet of water, as far as Camargo, about 200 miles
from its mouth. Its whole course is estimated at 14Q0 miles.
The Usumasinta, a fine river of Central America, rises in the district of Peten in the province of
Verapaz, near the source of the Belize, and flows northward to the Bay of Campeche, which it enters
to the westward of the Lake of Terminos. Its principal mouth is at the port of Victoria.
Geography.] AMERICA. 881
The Rio Colorado falls liito the northern extremity of tlie Gulf of Calitornia. after a course of
640 miles ; but its sources have not been explored. Thedepth at its moutli is not more than six feet,
and the breadth scarcely exceeds 200 yards. Sixty miles from the sea it is joined by the Jiio Oila,
which rises from the Sierra Mongollon, in the Rocky Mountains, about 34- 20' N. lat. The country
through which these rivers flow is a sandy desert, destitute of good water, and subject to excessiva
beat.
The Orkgos or Columbia River rises in the Rocky Mountains, about .54^ N. lat , and lias a wes-
terly course of about 1000 miles into the Pacific Ocean, where it forms a wide estuai y ; bui it is infested
with breakers, and as the sea rushes over the bar with great violence, the ingress and egress are al-
ways difficult. About long. 121° W. it forms a great fall, where it descends in one rapid 57 feet ; and
soon after passes through a mountain chain, where its width is contracted to 150 yards. The tide at
its mouth rises 8j feet, and ascends the stream 180 miles. Vessels of 300 tons may reach the Multno-
mah, about 60 miles below the great falls, and sloops go up nearly to the rapids. It abounds with the
finest salmon, and with seals, whose skins form a principal article of export from the river.
Frasbr River rises from Moose Lake in the Rocky Mountains, and (alls into the southern part of
Quadra and Vancouver's Sound, or the Strait of .fuan de Fuca.
The Mackenzie River issues from the great Slave Lake, and flows with a broad and majestic
stream in a north-westerly direction to the Arctic Ocean. The Mackenzie may indeed be considered
as only a contiimation of the river Athabasca or La Biche, which rises at Mount Brown in the Rocky
Mountains, between .'island 56° N. lat., and flows into Lake Athabasca. The Ungijah or Peace Hirer
also flows from a valley of the Rocky Mountains, partly into the same lake, and partly into the AVac*
Hiner, which issues from it, and carries its surplus waters to the Great Slave Lake.
The Coppermine River, discovered by Hearne in 1771, falls into the Arctic Ocean at York Archi-
pelago.
The Thlexv-ee-cho-dezeth or Great Fith Rirer has its source in Lake Sussex, N. lat. 64° 26', W. long.
108° 20', and flows to the north-east, falling into a gulf which opens to the Arctic Ocean in N. lat.
6tj° and W. long. 9.5°. Its stream is broken by many falls, and forms a number of considerable lakes.
This river was first explored by Captain Back, in 1834.
The Satkatchawan Rirer flows in two great branches from the Rocky Mountains eastward into
Lake Winnipeg, which also receives the Assino/io.'n, Moose, Hed, and n'innipeg rivers, from the south ;
and discharges its surplus waters by the Nelton, which enters Hudson's Bay at Fort York. The .'>»
vern flows from Favourable Lake, and has a course of 2.50 miles N.E. to Hudson's Bay.
§ 2. Rivers of South America.
The Mab.ajcon, Obellana, or Kiver ok the .Vmazons, is forn;«d, in 5° 18' S. hit , 73" .50' \V. long,,
by the union of two streams : the Tmiguraeita, which issues from the lake Llauricoclia in Peru,
within 60 miles of the Pacific Ocean, in kVbo'^S. lat.; and the Ucayle, which is formed by the junction
of the Apurimac and the Faro; the former of which has its sources in the mountains to the north-
west of Lake Titicaca, and the latter, also najned Rio Btni, issues from a small lake to the souili-
east of Titicaca. From the great confluence the Maranon flows, with various windings, in an easterly
direction, entering the Atlantic Ocean under the equator, and in .50° W. long. The length of its
course from the source of the Apurimac to the sea, including all its windings, may be estimated at
4700 miles. The Maranon is studded with islands, many of which are large; and at its mouth forms,
with the Araguay, the large islands of Joanes and ( aviana. The mouth of its estuary is abnut IHO
miles wide, and the ri.'ie of the tide is felt at Obidos, 400 miles inland. Two days before and after full
moon the water rushes into it from the ocean, with prodigious force and noise, in two, three, and
sometimes four successive waves, each presenting- a perpendicular front of 10 to 15 feet, 'ihis great
river and its tributaries afford perhaps the greatest extent of inland navigation in the world. Tlio
Maraiion itself is navigable for 2000 miles in a direct line from the ocean, its channel is deep, unin-
terrupted by cataracts or rapids, and may be navigated by ships of any burden up to the confluence of
the Tunguragua and Ucayle, where, in March 183(>, no bottom was found with 35 fathoms or 210 feet.
Ijuring the swell in the rainy season, the current is rapid ; but at other times it may be stemmed not
only by steam vessels, but also by the aid of the east wind, which blows without interruption. Tlia
ordinary rate of the current is about ^ miles an hour when the river is full, but it is less in the dry
season. At Jaen, 78° W. long., the bed of the river is only 1240 feet above the level of the sea, so that
the fall is less than 6 inches a-mile. The country tlirough which it flows is almost in a stale of na-
ture, consisting of boundless savannahs and innnense forests, which afford cover and subsistence to
innumerable wild beasts and reptiles. During the lainy season a great e.vtent of low country, on both
sides of the river, is laid under water ; and so vast is the mass of water which it pours into the ocean,
that its current has been distinctly felt 3(X) miles from land. Its mouth was discovered in a. d. 1.5tK), by
Vincent Yanez Pinzon, one of the captains who sailed with Columbus on his first voyage ; and in 1.539
Its stream was traced downward from Peru by I'Vanoisco Orellana, a Spanish adventurer, by whoso
name it is sometimes called. The Spaniard has been almost deprived of the honour by his having
reported that he had met with armed women on its banks, on which account it received the name of
the river of the Amazons, which seems now to be the most generally adopted, though it is a pity that
geographers would not agree to drop both Amazon and Maranon, and give the river the more sono>
rous name of its first explorer, Orellana. Its principal affluents on the right are : the Yacari, which
is navigable for large boats 200 miles ; the Jutay ; the Jtiriui ; the Teffe ; the Coary ; the Furus ; the
Madeira, a very large river, with a course of 1800 miles, deriving its waters from a wide extent of
country between 12° and 20° 8. lat., and 58° and (i8° W . long. ; tlie Tapajoi ; the Xingu ; and the Ha-
napu : on the left, the Napo ; Putumayo or Ira ; the Japtna or Jupura i the united stream of tha
Negro and Branco, the former of which communicates with the Orinoco by means of the Casiquarl,
an affluent of the latter. At its mouth the Amazon conununicafes by a branch round the south
side of the island Joanes, with the Rio Vara, a stn^am nearly as large as itself, formed by the junction
of that branch with the Araguay, a large river which drains the central portion of northern BraziL
From the right the Araguay receives from the same region the large river Tocantini.
The Rio db la Plata (Silver River) is merely the estuary of the rivers Parana and Uruguay. Tha
Parana has its sources in the north-western slopes of the mountains which skirt the coast of Brazil
from Rio Janeiro to the island of St. Francisco ; and flowing tc the south-west receives, near Corrl-
entes, the great river Paraguay, which has its sources on the southern slope of the watershed which
separates the basins of the Amazon and the Plata, in the south-west part of Brazil, and collects in itii
progress southward the waters of tnaiiy large streams, the principal of which are the Pilcomiiyo and
the Vermpjo or Rio Grande, from Upper Peru. From Corrientcs the united stream of tho I'araguay
»nd the Parana flows southwards into the estuary, receiving from the right the Rio Salndn ( Salt
River.) The Uruguay rises from the Brazilian mountains, to the westward of St. Cjitherine's Island,
and meets the Parana at the head of their common estuary, the Plata. These streams pour down an
immense volume of water, which inundates the low country along their banks from February till .May.
In the lower course of the Parana the water rises generally 12 feet above the lowest level, and leaves
a deposit of grey slimy soil, which is very fttvourabia to vegetation. About 48,000 tquara uiIIm of
3 K
882 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Physical
country are said to bo subject to these porioiUcal inundations. Hefore it meets tlio Uruguay, the Pa-
rana divides into numerous In'anclies, I'orniing so many islands; and most of tlie channels are navi-
jtablo for boats. Tlie estuary ijradually increases from a l)readth of 2.'j miles, till it opens out to the
ocean, l>etween Monte Video and Las I'lodras, where it is 03 miles wide ; the water is generally iresh,
and its influence is felt loo or I'lO miles out at sea.
The Orinoco rises in a mountainous region in the centre of .Spanish Guiana, and flows with a very
circuitous course through that province into the Atlantic Ocean, which it enters by a great number
of mouths opposite the island of Trinidad. The current of the river, in the upper part of its course,
is generally very rapid ; and even at Angostura, 280 miles from its mouth, it runs wjth great rapidity,
especially at the time of floods, when it is said to flow at the rate of eight miles an hour. The most south-
erly and widest of its deltaic branches, named the Boca de Sarius, has a bar of 17 feet water, and the
tide ascends to Angostura. In the upper part of its course the Orinoco spends off a branch, the Cad-
?ui(iri, which has a course of l.TO miles, and joins the Kio Negro, an affluent of the Amazon, thus
orniing a navigable communication between the two great rivers.
The MAanvlKNA rises near 2^ N. lat. and flows northward through a long valley into the Caribbean
8ea, near Santa Marta, after a course of 840 miles. Its principal affluents are the liio Cauca from the
left ; the Sofiaiiwzo and the Caiiavera/is, from the right.
The Rio ^Itralo collects the waters of several mountain valleys to the eastward of the Isthmus of
Panama, and flows northward into the Gulf of Oarieii.
The Guarapichi' falls into the Gulf of Paria. Its course is only about 100 miles, hut it brings down
a great body of water, and is navigable almost to its source.
The Esscquibo, with its affluents the Massarnony and the Cm/uwini, the Berbice, Demerara, Suri-
nam. Marouini' or Miironi, and Corentyn, all flow into the Atlantic, in Guiana, between the mouths of
the Orinoco and the Amazon ; but, thougli generally navigable for some distance inland, they are com-
paratively unimportant.
The Rio DE San KrancIsco rises from the northern declivity of the Sierra dos Vertentes, about 3000
feet above the level of the sea, near 20^ S. lat , and flows in a north-easterly direction into the Atlantic
Ocean, in 11° S. lat. It is navigable, witliout interruption, for about 200 miles from the sea; farther
up, though still navigable to a considerable distance, the navigation is nmch interrupted by rapids and
falls. It enters the sea by two mouths of unequal size, of which the northern and larger is about two
miles w ide ; but has so little depth that only vessels of 60 tons burden can enter it at Ingh-water.
In the country to the south-west of the Plata are several rivers, which do not reach the sea. The
Rio Dulce (fresh water river) rises with several branches in the Andes of Despoblado, and flows in a
direction nearly parallel to the course of the Rio Salailo, an affluent of the Parana, for about 350 miles
into the suit lake Salagos delos I'arangos. The others are the liio Quarto ; the liio Quinto; the De-
tagufidi'ro of Lake Silvero ; the Rio Tunuyitn, named in the lower part of its course Nuei-o, and after its
junction with the Diamante, Rio Sulado, and which terminates in a bitter lake named Urre-lauqucn,
after being joined by the Chadi-Cubu. The Cobu^Leubu rises from the southern side of the Descabe-
zado peak in Chili, and flows in a south-east direction into the Atlantic, in 39^ 50' S. lat. The Cusu-
Leuhu or liio Negro, is formed by the union of the Neuquen or Rapid River and the l.imay Leiiliu or
liio de la Encarnacion, which flows from the lake of Nahuelhuapi, in 72° W. long , and 39-^ S. lat.
The united stream flows eastward into the Atlantic, near the north-eastern shore of the gulf of St. Ma-
tias. The Rio de Santa Cruz flows from tlie Lake Capar or Viedma, and after being joined by the Cha-
lia and the Chico, forms the harbour of Santa Cruz, in the Atlantic Ocean, opposite the Falkland
Islands.
The rivers on the west coast having very short courses, a"e unimportant. The principal of them,
proceeding northwards, are : the Penon, San Luis, Osoriio, which drains the large lake ot Iluenauca ;
Tolten, Cauten or Imperial, liiobio, at Concepcion ; Itata, Matilr, Rapel, Maypu, Aconcagua, Uuili-
mari, Huantilauque, Limari, Coquimbo, Huasco, Copiapo ; all in Chili.
Lakes. — North America is pre-eminently the country of lakes, and exhibits masses of fresh water,
unequalled in any other part of the world. The lakes of Canada are the most remarkable as well for
their extent as for their utility as channels of navigation ; and form just so many large inland seas.
Lake Superior, measured on a curve line passing through its centre, has a length of 420 miles, an ex-
treme breadth of 1C5, and a circuit of about 17.i0, follow ing the windings of the coast. Its surface is
623 feet above the level of the sea ; but as its depth varies from 500 to 900 feet, and is even supposed to
be in some places 1200 feet, its bottom lies far below the level of the ocean. The area of the lake con-
tains about 40,000 square miles ; that of the basin which it drains by m< ans of 220 rivers and brooks,
amounts to 100,000. Some of these rivers are considerable streams, and, though the sources of few
of them are more than 50 or 70 miles from the lake, yet their winding channels are often double that
length. Their sources are in general .';00 or 600 feet above the surface of the lake, and their currents
are much broken by rapids and falls. There is no regular rise and fall of the waters of the lake, but
the continued prevalence of a heavy gale from a particular quarter sometimes raises tliem several
feet, and the surface is perceptibly higher during the spring freshes after a severe winter. The water
is very pure and cold ; the bottom consists of an adhesive clay. The northern shore consists of lofty
rocks, from 300 to 1.500 feet high, and is lined with numerous islands which afford shelter for vessels.
The southern coast consists chietly of low, sandy beaches, interrupted by limestone cliffs, and desti-
tute of sheltered bays. The only islands, except those on the coasts, are those of Michipicoten or
Maurepas, and the Caribou Islands in the eastern portion, belonging to Britain, and Isle lioyale in the
western (lart, which belongs to the Unitid States.
Lake Hcron receives the surplus waters of Lake Superior through the river St. Mary, which
is about 30 miles in length, with a fall of 30 feet, 22| of which occur at the Sault or Rapids of St.
Mary, extending over a space of two miles. The greatest length of the Lake Huron from the mouth
of the St. Mary to the outlet of its waters, is 250 miles ; its greatest breadth in the northern part, is
220, but in the southern part it is much less ; its circuit is about 1200 miles ; its area, 25,000 square
miles ; its surface, 595 feet above that of the ocean ; and its depth about 450 feet. The shores on the
west and south-east are low, and little broken, forming long regular curvatures ; while in the north-
east and north they are high and indented. The long chain of the Manitoulin islands, which stretches
from the mouth of the St. Mary to within 10 miles of Cabot's head, has the same geological charac-
ter, and exhibits the same broken appearance as the northern coast. These islands almost com-
pletely divide the great expanse called the Georgian Bay, from the body of the lake. On the w est side
of the lake is a large inlet named Saginaw Bay.
Lake Michigan lies on the same level with Lake Huron, and is, indeed, properly a part of it, the two
lakes being connected by the Strait of Michilimacldnac or Mackinaw, which is four miles wide at the
narrowest part. The form of the lake is elliptical, and in general quite regular, the coasts extending
in long uninterrupted sweeps. The length is about 300 miles, the breadth from 80 to 90 ; the area 25,000
square miles j and the greatest depth about 900 feet. Green Bay, on the west side, is nearly detached
from the body of the lake by a long peninsula and several islands. The shores are generally low, and
their regular conformation almost deprives the lake of natural harbours. The outlet of lake Huron is
called the River of St. Clair ; which, after a course of about 30 miles, expands into a shallow lake of
the game name, about 100 miles in circumference. The outlet of this lake is the river Detroit, 30
Gf.ography.J AMERICA. 883
miles in length, which falls into lake Krie. These two rivers with the intervening lake are navigable
for vessels of 7 or 8 feet draught ; their hanks are low and level.
Lakk Erik is 265 miles lonjt by 63 in breadth at the middle ; its stirfaee is 565 feet above the level
of the sea, forming an area of 1 1,000 square miles ; but its depth does not uuicli exoeed 100 feet. The
shores are low. the northern consisting of sandy beaches and clay banks : and the soutliern, chiefly
of shingle beaches or sand-banks, interrupted by roeky clitf's. Towards the west there are extensive
marshes on both sides. The want of sheltered bays on both coasts has rendered it necessary to resort
to pier harbours ; the mouths of the rivers are also obstructed by sand-bars. The islands, 26 in num-
ber, are all in the south-western portion of the lake. The largest are Felee, belonging to Canada, and
Cunningham, to the United States. The Bcus hlnnds, a group of small islands, valuable for the shel-
ter and anchorage which they aft'ord, are within the American limits. The winds are generally up or
down the lake, and in summer blow up for two-thirds of the s>;ason. Vioh i;t and dangerous gales pre-
vail in autumn and winter, and the lake is usually covered with floating ice till May. The river Niagara,
33 miles in length, forms the outlet of Lake Erie, and has a descent of 334 fett to Lake Ontario. Of
these, 165 form one perpendicular fall, and 51, the descent of the Hapids in the half mile immediately
above the falls. Below the falls the Niagara flows through a deep rock-bound chasm, the sides of which
»re formed by mural precipices, nearly 3lK) feet high, as far as Queenstown, where the ground sinks
down almost to the level of the river. The great fall, 20 miles from Lake Erie, is divided by Goat Island
into two portions, one of which, named the Uorse-shoe fall, from its semicircular form, has a lineal
extent of 600 yards, on the Canadian side ; tlie otiier, an ext' nt of 300 yards, on the American side.
For grandeur and sublimity, the Fal/s <if Niafsaru, are hardly equalled, certainly not surpassed by
any other natural scene in the world. President Dwight ot Newhaven estimates the quantity of water
precipitated over the Falls at 11,299,375 tons an hour; Darby, at 1,672,704,000 cubic feet, per hour ;
and Picken, at 113,510,000 gallons, or 18,524,000 cubic feet, a minute. The river contains several
islands, one of which, named Oraiid Isle, contains 18,000 ucres of rich fertile soil covered with forests;
and another. Sari/ Island, which acquired some notoriety in the late Canadian insurrection. Grand
Isle is on the American, Navy Isle on the Canadian side.
Lake Ontakio is about '^O;! miles in length; its greatest breadth is 60; its circuit, 470; its area, 10,000
square miles ; its surface, 231 feet above the level of the sea ; its depth from 300 to 6u<l feet. The shores
are generally low ; but, between Toronto and the IJiiy of Quinte they are higher. The lake has but
few natural harbours ; those of Toronto and Kingston on the north, and Sackett's harbour on the
south-east, alone are good. There are about 20 small islands in the eastern part of the lake. Its great
depth renders it less liable than Lake Erie to be obstructed by ice. It emits its surplus waters by the
river Kataraqui, and the Ijiike of the Thousand Islands, which afterwards become tne St. Lawrence.
The other principal hvkes of Canada are : Si. John's, north of Uuebec ; Nipissing, Mi\sisxagua,
Muskoka, Trading, Simcoe, Cameron's, Sturgeon, I'igeun, Shemong, Trt/ut, Hice, liidtau, Mississippi,
in Upper Canada. The British territory to the north-west of Canada, contains a great many other
lakes, of which it maybe sufficient to mention the names and dimensions of the principal, viz.
The Lake of the Woods, west of Lake Superior ; Winnipeg, 280 miles long, breadth varying from 15 to
80; area, 9000 square miles ; fFirmepeg'ooj or Little M'innepeg ; y/#/irtAa.tfa, 3000 square miles ; Great
Slaiie Lake, 12.0(K) square miles ; Great Bear Lake, 8(K)0 square miles ; Wolhiston Lake ; Deer Lake ;
Big Like ; Abbitibbi and Misstassin, to the south and south-east of James' Bay.
Ill the United States : Lake Chainplain, between New York and Vermont, 120 miles in length,
from I to 15 in breadth ; area 5(i0 square miles ; 90 feet above the level of the sea. It is deep enough
for the largest vessels, but is commonly navigated by ships of 70 or 80 tons, which can get access to
the rivers and canals. It contains more than .50 islands, and the aspect of its shores is vai ied and
pleasant. It is connected with the Hudson river by a canal, and discharges its surplus waters by the
Kichelieu, which Hows to the St. Lawrence. Lake George, 36 miles long, and from three-quarters of
a mile to 4 miles broad, studded with several hundred islands, is remarkable for the purity of its water
and the beauty of its scenery, and has an outlet 3 miles long, with a rapid descent of 200 feet down
to Lake Champlain. Along the south side of Lake Ontario, within from 20 to GO miles, are the Lakes
Oneida, Otsego, Skaneateles, Owasca, Cai/uga, Seneca, Crooked, Ciinaiidaigua, lloneaoye. Hemlock, and
Canrsus ; all in New York. Cayuga and Seneca are the principal, the former being 36 miles in length,
and the latter 35; but both very narrow. In the western part of the same state is Lake Chateauipte,
a small but deep and navigable body of water, 1300 feet above the levil of the sea. It has been esti-
mated that one-sixth part of the surface of the State of Maine consists of water ; and, indeed, the
lakes are so numerous as to form one of the characteristic features of the country. Some of them
are remarkable for the picturesque beauties of their scenery, and many of them will be useful channels
of communication when the iitiglibourhood becomes more densely inhabited. In the north are the
Temiscouta. the Bnamchenungamork , and the Potigok unhem ; in the centre are Moosehead Lake, ,50
miles long, but of very irregular breadth, Chesuncook, 20 miles long, and Pemadumrouk. The Moose-
tognutguntic and the Umbagog are on the western frontier, and the Srhoodic and Vf>i>er Srhoodic on the
eastern. In New Hampshire are a great many small lakes ; the largest and most important of which
is Winnipiseogee, a picturesque sheet of water of very irregular form ; 22 miles in length, and from
2 to loin breadth. About 300 pretty islands are scattered over it, audits shores are indented by
beautiful bays, formed by gentle swells of land rising gracefully from the water. The lake abounds
in fish ; and is navigated by steam vessels. Lake Memphramaiiog, partly in Vermont and partly in
Canada, is 40 miles in length by 2 or 3 in width, and surrounded by a tract of fertile level country.
Novaoulite or oil stone is Kiund on an island of the lake, and sold under the name of Magog oilstone.
The lake discharges its waters by the river St. Francis, which falls into the St. Lawrence 40 miles
above <iuebcc. In Louisiana are the great lakes of I'ontcharlrain, Borptie, Ouacha, Grand, and others,
formed by the waters of the Mississippi ; Budeau; Cado, Bistinoe, Cannisnia, Bayou- Pierre, Spanish,
Black, and others, formed V)y the Red River and its branches. In Wisconsin is Lake Hitineliago,
formed by the Fox river, which falls into Green Bay in Lake Michigan ; the Four Lakes, in Dane
county ; Kushkanong, in Jefferson county, and Geneva, in Walworth county ; Bed Lake, near Ked
River, in the northern part of the territory.
The Tui.E Lakrs, in California, extend in the direction of the coast, from south-cast to north-west
for about 200 miles; they are said to be fordable at several places, in the dry season; and, during a con-
siderable part of the year, very little, if any, water runs into the lay of St. Francisco, which receives
the river that issues from their north-western extremity. The four lakes of /.umpango, Christorat,
Tezcuco, and Cluilro, are small bodies of water in the elevated plain of Mexico ; but the largest lake
in the country is that of Vhapala, in the plain of Xalisco, which is traversed by the river Santiaj^o. It
Is about 90 miles long, and from 12 fo 18 wide. Ita lake In Guatemala, about north lat 16 K , and
west long. 91^ 16', is 30 miles long by 6 broad, containing II islets, and surrounded with lands fertile
In the extreme. Golfo Duke, also in Guatemala, 28 miles long by 12 broad.
The Lake ofNiCARAOUA, in Central America, Ijctwoen 10- and 12' N. lat., and 84^ and 86° W.
long., is 120 miles long, an<l 40 in brea'lth. At a little distance from the shore it is from 6 to 20
Cathonis deep, and in some places mor« : it contains several islands, chiefly of volcanic furniatlon ;
the most remarkable of which is Ometew;, not far from the south-west shore, which contains a lofty
volcano. The surface of the lake is 134 feet above the level of the sea. It diKcharges part of Its w«ter»
by the river Tepltapa, into the Lakenf Managua, which is 45 niih » long, and l.i widi-, and deep luougb
884 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Physical
for large Tessels, but Ims no outlet. The greater part, howt ver, of the waters of Nlcaracua flow to
the Caribbean Sea, by the Kio di' San Juan, which Is about 120 miles in length. Both the lake and tho
San Juan are navijiated by small river barges of about two tons burden.
The I,AKK OF Maracaybo, near the northern coast of South America, is 120 miles In length by 80
In breadth. It receives the waters of nearly 1(X) rivers, and communicates with the Gulf of Maracaybo
by a channel 12 miles long, and 3 miles wide where narrowest. A bar runs across the entrance, with
only 10 or 12 feet water. The lake has a considerable depth, except towards the shores ; the water is
fresh, e.xcept during strong northern breezes, when it becomes brackish towards the northern end.
The Lake or Titicaca, in Upper Peru, occupies the lower portion of an elevated valley, about 13,000
feet above the level of the sea, and extends about 300 miles in length, by from 30 to 60 in width. The
lake covers a surface of about 4000 square miles ; and from its southern extremity issues a stream
called the Rio Desaguadero, which flows south-south-east, with a gentle current along the valley, and
Is lost in swamps and lakes near \S° S. lat. The surface of the lake, according to Mr. Pentland, is
12,795 feet above the level of the sea.
The Lake of Xurat/es is only an immense swampy plain, along the river Paraguay, between 15° and
90° S. lat., reaching in some places 100 miles in breadth from the river. It is overflowed for about
Bix months during the rainy season. A considerable portion of it is covered with a kind of wild rice,
on which innumerable flocks of water-fowl, especially geese, feed. To the westward are a number of
lakes called the Ingunas in the country of the Chiquitos, which are also supposed to derive their waters
from the overflowing of the Paraguay. The lake or lagoon of Yhera is a similar swamp, extending in
width about 30 leagues parallel to the course of the Parana, to the eastward of Corrientes. Spreading
far and wide to the south it occupies an area of about 1 000 square miles, and supplies four considerable
rivers. Its surface is covered with a prodigious quantity of aquatic plants and shrubs. The cele-
brated lake of Parima, in Guiana, is represented by the small lake of Amucu, only about three miles
In length, and almost covered with rushes ; but expanding, in the rainy season, to an inland sea.
The Lagunas de Guanacache, a singular chain of lakes, formed by the confluence of the rivers of
Mendoza and San Juan, which form the drains of the eastern side of the Andes, between 58° and 34°
8. lat. The Guanacache emits its waters by the river Tres Cruces, which carries them to Laks
Silnero, from which they are again carried by the Desaguadero into a vast lake named the Benedero,
below the town of San Louis, in 34° S. lat. This lake also receives a portion of the waters of the river
Tunuyan, the greater part of which, however, now flow by a new channel called the Rio Nuevointo the
Rio Diamante. The last named river flows from the Andes, and, after being joined by the Rio Nuevo-
and the Chadi-Cubu or Salt River, terminates in a great inland lake, without outlet, called the Urre-
lauquen, or Bitter Lake, from its extreme saltness. This lake is situated about 35° S. lat., and 66°
M'. long.
Geology The geology of the South American mountains, particularly of the
Andes, is distinguished, like their physical form and arrangement, by some remarkable
peculiarities. The first and most peculiar feature of this chain is, that it contains at
least 30 active volcanoes, irregularly distributed along the line from the one extremity
to the other ; but chiefly in Chili and Equador. Some of them only emit smoke ;
others throw out mud and water; only a few produce lava. The second peculiarity
in their structure is closely connected with the first : it is the prodigious space occu-
pied by the basalts, porphyries, and trachytes, that is, by rocks of igneous origin.
The base of the chain consists of granite, which may be conceived as forming a long
elevation of from 5000 to 10,000 feet. Overlying that are beds of gneiss, mica slate,
clay slate, and grey wacke ; but they are seldom all together, and probably in most places
rest on the sides of the granite, without covering its summit. Above these, some-
times in beds, but more frequently in amorphous masses rest immense deposits, first,
of an old porphyry, next, of a newer porphyry rich in metals, then of basalt, clink-
stone, and amygdaloids, with masses of trachyte and syenite interspersed. This order,
however, must not be understood as uniform or perfectly determined. These vol-
canic rocks, which occupy a trifling space in Europe, and never occur at great eleva-
tions, form almost every where the summits of the Andes, and exhibit in some places
the enormous thickness of 10,000 or 12,000 feet; constituting probably one-third
of the bulk of the whole chain. On the flanks of the Andes are found vast beds of
sandstone and coal, of limestone containing fossil shells, and of other secondary for-
mations up to the green sand. Shells and coal have been found at the height of
14,000 feet, and gypsum and rock-salt occur at various elevations. The third pe-
culiarity of the chain, is the abundance of its mineral treasures, which include ex-
tremely rich veins of gold, silver, copper, and most of the other metals. The
Andes are also distinguished by having their sides invested with a thick coat of clay,
in which deep gullies have been worn by the streams. The great diffusion of inter-
nal fire throughout the chain, the newness of some of the strata, the frequency ot
earthquakes, and the recent elevation of part of the western margin in Chili, to the
height of three or four feet above its former level, have led geologists to infer that the
Andes, though surpassing most other mountains in elevation, are among the last
which have been raised from the bottom of the ocean.
The transverse chain of the coast of Caraccas consists partly of primitive, and
partly of secondary formations. The cordillera of Parime, so far as hitherto exa-
mined, is wholly composed of primitive rocks, as granite, gtieiss, mica shite, and
hornblende ; the cordillera of Chiquito, which separates the basins of the Plata and
the Amazon, is only known at its eastern extremity, where it joins the mountains
of Brazil. These last consist of a great number of ridges generally running north
and south. Granite abounds in those nearest the Atlantic ; but the prevailing rock
Geography.] AMERICA. 885
every where else, as far westward as the mountains of Cujaba, 55° VV. long., is a quartzy
mica slate, intermixed with granite, gneiss, and quartz rock, with portions of secon-
dary sandstone resting on its sides, or in its valleys. This quartzy mica-slate, in
Brazil, is the matrix of the gold and diamonds ; the former of which is generally ac-
companied by platinum and iron. The direction of the strata approaches to north-
east and south-west, and the dip, where it has been observed, is from 50° to 70° S.E.
These mountains, like the Andes, are in many parts covered with a bed of clay.
The rocks of the great plains have been but partially examined. Humboldt thinks that
the northern llanos of Caraccas are of old red sandstone. Marls and clays, appa-
rently of the tertiary class, were found by Mr. Caldcleugh in the pampas of Buenos
Ayres ; and, since deposits of rock salt exist on the east side of the Andes, it is
probable that the whole plain of the Plata is occupied by secondary and tertiary for-
mations.
In North America the Alleghany mountains present their scarp or steepest side
to the east, where granite, gneiss, and other primitive rocks are seen. Upon these
lie, first, a thin formation of transition rocks dipping to the westward; and, next, a
series of secondary rocks, including a very extensive coal formation, which reaches
from Pittsburg to far beyond the Mississippi. The Ozark mountains exhibit similar
strata in the same order and position ; and therefore probably consist of a western por-
tion of the same beds raised to the surface by a slip or dislocation. In the rocky moun-
tains, primitive rocks are found in the centre or axis of the chain, with old red sand-
stone, coal, and new red sandstone, containing rock salt, leaning against its sides.
A great tract to the eastward of this chain is covered by granitic sands, and, near the
bed of the Mississipi, there is a deep formation of alluvium. The Mexican table-land
consists chiefly of transition slaty rocks, intermixed with which are two species of
limestone, and enormous masses of porphyry, trachyte, syenite, phonolite, basalt,
volcanic tuff, and other rock* of igneous origin. The veins of silver and gold are
found chiefly in the older porphyry, the granular limestone, the syenite, and the
transition slates.
TABLE OF THE MINERALOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OF AMERICA.
Diamonds. — Brazil, Minat- Geraes, &c.
Other Pbec:ous Stones. — Brazil, Minas-Geraes, &c. j Colombia, Cundinamarcd ; Chill; Peru.
Gold. — Colombia, Andageda, strata, San Juan, Cauca, Choco, f<c ; Brazil, ^linas-Gfracs, Goynz,
and Mattoeroiio ; Mexico, finieria-dUa in Simora and Sinnloa ; Chili ; Peru ; Bolivia; United States
of North America, ArisonCounty, North Carolina, Davidson County, South Carolina; Central Ame-
rica.
Silver. — Mexico, Guanaxuato, San Louii Potoii, Zacatecat, &c. ; Bolivia; Chili; La Plata, Men-
doza ; Central America.
Tin.— Peru; Mexico.
Mercury. — Peru : Mexico.
Copper. — Chili ; Peru ; Mexico ; United States, New York, Indiana, Sec.
Lead. — United States, Galena, in lUinoit, Washington County, Missouri, New York, &c. ; Mexico.
Iron. — United States, New Jersey, Penntylvania, Massachusetts, Connecticut, South Carolina, New
York, Maryland; Mexico; Brazil, St. Paul, Minas-Geraes, Sec; Canada, Mines of St. Maurice; Co-
lombia ; Central America.
Coal. — Cape Breton; Nova Scotia; United States, Pennsylrania, &c. ; Chili, Penco.
Salt. -La Plata; Brazil, Rio Grande do Norte. Para, &c. ; United States, Ommdafta County, New
York, Brimstaple County, Massachusetts, Kentucky, Gallatin County, Illinois, Missouri, Sec. ; Central
America Honduras, Sec. ; Colombia, Zipaquira, Sec. ; Mexico, Onxaca, New Calijornia ; Peru; Bolivia,
Yocalla, Chiquitos ; Bahamas, St. Kitts, and others of the Antilles.
Climate. — The latitude of the country and the elevation of the land in both
divisions of the continent, its position in reference to the sea, and the direction of
the prevailing winds, are the chief circumstances which determine the nature of the
climate. We have already stated that three-fourths of South America lie within the
tropics, and the remaining fourth in the temperate zone ; but, in both of these divi-
sions, it might be naturally inferred, that a huge wall like the Andes, rising into the
atmosphere to the height of two or three miles, and stretching across the course of
the tropical and extra-tropical winds, would exert a powerful influence on the tem-
perature, humidity, and the distribution of the seasons. This is actually the case ;
and it is this vast chain of mountains, with its prolongation in North America, which
affords a key to the most remarkable peculiarities in the climate of the whole conti-
nent. The subject, we think, has not been hitherto well understood, though it
admits of being explained in a very simple manner.
The trade- winds, which blow from the east, occupy a zone G0° in breadth, extending
from 30° S. to 30° N. lat. Beyond these limits the winds are variable ; but the prevail-
ing direction of their course in the open sea, where no accidental causes operate, is well
known by navigators to be from the west. Now these winds are the agents which
transport the equable temperature of the ocean, and the moisture exhaled from it*
surface, to the interior of the great continents, where it is precipitated in the form o{
fm DESCIUPTIVP: GP:0GRAPIIY. [Physical
rain. (lew. or snow. Momitaiiis attract the moisture wliidi tioats in the atmosphere;
they olistruct also the aerial current, and, presenting i^reat inequalities of temperature,
favour precipitation, llain, accordingly, in all countries, falls most abundantly on the
elevated land. Let us consider, then, what will be the effect of a mural ridge like the
Andes in the situation which it occupies. In the region within the 30th parallel, the
moisture collected by the trade- winds from the Atlantic will be precipitated in part
on the mountains of Brazil, which are but low, and are so distributed as to extend far
into the interior. The portion which remains will be borne westward, and, losing a
little as it [)roceeds, will be arrested by the Andes, and fall down in showers on their
summits. The aerial current will now be deprived of all the humidity which can be
separated from it, and will arrive in a state of complete exsiccation at Peru, where no
rain will consequently fall. That even a much lower ridge than the Andes may inter-
cept the whole moisture of the atmosphere, is proved by a well-known phenomenon
in India, where the Ghauts, a chain only 3000 or 4000 feet high, divide summer from
winter, as it is said ; that is, copious rains fall on their windward side, while on the
other the weather remains clear and dry ; and the rains regularly change from the
west side to the east, and vice versa, with the monsoons. In the region beyond the
30th parallel, this effect will be reversed. The Andes will in this case serve as a
screen to intercept the moisture brought by the prevailing west winds from the Pacific
Ocean ; rains will be copious on their summits, and in Chili on their western decli-
vities, while none will fall on the plains to the eastward, except occasionally, when the
winds blow from the Atlantic. The phenomena of the weather correspond in a remark-
able niainier with this hypothesis. On the shores of the Pacific, from Coquimbo, at
the 30th parallel, to Amotape, at the 5th of S. lat., no rain falls ; and the whole tract
is consequently a sandy desert, with the exception of the narrow strips of land skirting
the streams that descend from the Andes, where the soil is rendered productive by
irrigation. From the 30th parallel southward the scene changes. Rains are frequent ;
vegetation appears on the surface, and becomes more vigorous as we advance south-
ward. " At Concepcion," says Captain Hall, " the eye was delighted with the richest
and most luxuriant foliage; at Valparaiso the hills were poorly clad with a stunted
brushwood and a poor attempt at grass, the ground looking starved and naked ; at Co-
quimbo the brushwood was gone, with nothing in its place but a vile sort of prickly
pear bush, and a thin sprinkling of grey wiry grass ; at Guasca (lat. 28J°) there was
not a trace of vegetation, and the hills were covered with bare sand." It follows
from the principle we have laid down, that in this southern part of the continent the
dry tract should be foutid on the east side of the mountains, and such is the fact.
At Mendoza, in lat. 30°, rain scarcely ever falls ; and the district along the eastern
base of the Andes is known to consist chietly of parched sands, on which a few stunted
shrubs grow, and in which many of the streams that descend from the mountains are
absorbed before they reach the sea. The whole country, indeed, south of the Plata,
suffers from drought ; but on the eastern side this evil is remedied to some extent by
winds from the east or south-east, which bring occasional rains to refresh the soil. From
Anr.otape northward, on the other hand, the west coast is well watered and fertile;
a!id this change is easily accounted for. The line of the coast here changes its direction,
and trends to the north-east as far as the Isthmus of Panama, where the mountains
sink to a few hundred feet in height, and leave a free passage to the trade- wind, which
here often assumes a direction from the north-east, or even the north. The exhala-
tions of the Atlantic are thus brought in abundance to the coast of Quito, which is
in consequence well watered ; while the neighbouring district of Peru suffers from
perpetual aridity.
Our principle applies equally to the explanation of some peculiar facts connected
with the climate of North America. The western coast of Mexico, as far as St. Bias
or Mazatlan, in lat. 23°, is well watered, because, _/7rs^, the continent here is narrow ;
secondly, the table-land of Mexico, which is much lower than the Andes of Chili, is
not so effectual a screen to intercept the moisture ; and, thirdly, there is reason to
believe that a branch of the trade- wind, which crosses the low part of the continent
at Panama and Nicaragua, sweeps along the west coast during part of the year, and
transports humidity with it. But beyond the point we have mentioned drought pre-
vails. Sonora, though visited occasionally by rains, consists of sandy plains destitute
of herbage, where the streams lose themselves in the parched soil without reaching
the sea; and even Old California, which has the ocean on one side, and a broad gult
on the other, and ought apparently to be excessively humid, is covered with sterile
rocks and sandy hills, where (he vegetation is scanty, and where no timber is seen ex-
cept brushwood. This dry region extends as far as 33" or 34" ; but immediately beyond
Geography.] AMERICA. 887
this we have another cliange of scene. New California is described as in all respects
a contrast to the Old. It is rich, fertile, and humid, abounding in luxuriant forests
and fine pastures ; and the American possessions to the northward preserve the same
character. How can we account for this singular diversity of climate, except on
the principle which has been explained, namely, that in all regions where ranges of
mountains intersect the course of the constant or predominant winds, the country
on the windward side of the mountains will be moist, and that on the leeward dry ;
and hence parched deserts will generally be found on the west side of countries with-
in the tropics, and on the east side of those beyond them ? Our hypothesis applies
equally to the country east of the Rocky Mountains. For the space of about 300
miles from the base of this chain, the surface of the country consists of dry sands or
gravel, sometimes covered with saline incrustations, nearly destitute of trees and
herbage, and watered by streams flowing from the mountains, which are sometimes
entirely absorbed by the arid soil. The central and eastern part of the basin of the
Mississippi would in all probability have been equally barren had the configuration
of the land been a little different in the south. A tract of country extremely low
and level extends along both sides of this river ; and a portion of the trade-winds,
which blow from the Mexican Gulf, finding its motion westward obstructed by the
high table-land of the Cordillera, is deflected to the right, and ascends the valley of
the Mississippi and Ohio. This wind, whose course was first traced by Volney, bears
with it the humidity of the torrid zone, and diffuses fertility over a wide region which
would otherwise be the abode of barrenness.
Great misapprehensions have arisen respecting the climate of America, from com-
parisons being drawn between the east side of the new continent and the west side
of the old. We have already pointed out the influence of sea- winds in modifying
the state of the atmosphere over the land, both as to heat and humidity. When
this circumstance is attended to, and when the east and west sides of the old and the
new continents are respectively compared with each other, the difference is found
to be small, and easily accounted for. In the torrid zcme, and on the sea-shore, the
temperature of both continents is found to be the same, viz. 82° ; but in the interior
the difference is rather in favour of America. There is no counterpart in the new
world to the burning heats which are felt in the plains of Arabia and Gedrosia. Even
in the western and warmest portion of the parched plains of Caraccas, the hottest
known region in America, the temperature of the atmosphere during the day is only
98° in the shade, while it rises to 112° in the sandy deserts which surround the Red
Sea. At Calabozzo, farther east in the plains, the usual temperature of the day
is only from 88° to 1)0° ; and at sunrise the thermometer sinks to 80°. Tlie basin of
the Amazon is shaded with lofty woods; and a cool breeze from the east, a minute
branch of the trade- wind, ascends the channel of the stream, following all its wind-
ings, almost to the foot of the Andes. Hence this region, though lying under the
equator, and visited by almost constant rains, is neither excessively hot nor unhealthy.
Brazil, and the vast country which extends westward from it between the Plata and
the Amazon, is an uneven table-land, possessing an equable climate. At Rio Janeiro,
which lies low, and is exposed to a heat comparatively great, the temperature in sum-
mer varies from 16° to 22° of Reaumur, and the mean heat is only about 19° (74°
Fahrenheit.) Farther north, and in the interior, the Indians find it necessary to keep
fires in their huts; and in the country near the sources of the Paraguay, hoar-frost
is seen on the hills durir)g the colder months, while the mean temperature of the year
falls below 05° or 07°. On the declivities of the Andes, and on the high phiins of
Upper Peru, the heats are so moderate that the plants of Italy, France, and Ger-
many, come to maturity. Lower Peru, though a sandy desert, enjoys a wonderful
degree of coolness, owing to the fogs which intercept the solar rays. At Lima, wliidi
is 540 feet above the sea, the temperature varies from 5.3° to 82°, while tiie avcia^je
for the whole year is only 72°. In the plains of La Plata, the mean temperature ot tiie
year is very nearly the same as at the corresponding north latitudes on the east side
of the Atlantic. At Buenos Ayres, for instance, the mean annual heat is 19 7' of
the centigrade thermometer (08^ Fahrenheit), while that of places on flie same pa-
rallel in the old world is 19° 8'. The range of tem|)erature is |)r()l)ably greater in the
basin of the Plata; but as we advance southward, the diminishing l)readth of tiie
continent makes the climate approximate to that of an island, and the extri'mes of
course approach each other. In the Straits of Magellan the temix-rature of the
warmest month does not exceed 4.'{° or 4(P ; and snow falls almost dailv in tlic mid-
dle of uunnnrr, though the latitude corresponds with that of Ijiglaiid. But the in-
ference drawn liom this, that the climate is uncqualKd for severity, is by no means
888 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Physical
jtist, for the winter at Stateii Island is milder than in London. In point of fact, the
rliniHte of Patagonia in absolutely colder than that of places in the same latitude in
Europe ; but the difference lies chiefly in the very low temperature of the summer.
'I'his peculiarity no doubt arises chiefly from the f,neater coldness of the sea in the
southern hemisphere ; for beyond the parallel of 48° the difference of temperature in
the North and South Atlantic amounts, according to Humboldt, to 10° or 12° of
Fahrenheit's scale. If we push our researches a step farther, and inquire what is the
cause of the greater warmth of the northern ocean, we shall be forced to admit that a
satisfactory reason cannot be given. Something may be due to the influence of the
gulf stream, a minute branch of which is supposed to carry tiie waters of the tor-
rid zone to the shores of Shetland and Norway ; but so feeble an agent seems too
trifling to account for the phenomenon. The sum, then, of the peculiar qualities
which distinguish the climate of South America may be briefly stated. Near the
equator the new continent is perhaps more humid than the old ; and within the tro-
pics generally, owing to its vast forests, the absence of sandy deserts, and the eleva-
tion of the soil, it is cooler. Beyond the tropics the heat is nearly the same in the
southern temperate zone of America and the northern temperate zone of the old con-
tinent, till we ascend to the neighbourhood of Cape Horn, where we have cold sum-
mers, and a very limited range of the thermometer in the western hemisphere.
As nine-tenths of North America lie under the temperate zone, the climate follows
a different law from that which is observed in the southern peninsula, and presents
more striking contrasts to that of the best known parts of the old world. The long
narrow region now denominated Central America, which connects the two great divi-
sions of the continent, stretching from Panama to Tehuantepec, has in general a very
humid atmosphere ; but, for a tropical country, it must be only moderarely hot, as
every part of it is within a small distance of the sea. In Vera Paz rains fall during
nine months of the year. Mexico is hot, moist, and unhealthy on the low coasts ;
but two-thirds of its area, comprising all the populous districts, consist of table-
land, from 5000 to 9000 feet above the level of the sea. In consequence of this
singular configuration of its surface, Mexico, though chiefly within the torrid zone, en-
joys a temperate and equable climate. The mean heat at the capital, which is 7400
feet above the sea level, is 62^°, and the difference between the warmest and coldest
months, which exceeds 30° at London, is here only about 12°; but the atmosphere
is deficient in moisture, and the country suffers from drought. Beyond the parallel
of 24°, the western shores are hot and arid.
In the extensive region between the parallels of 30° and 30°, which comprehends
three-fourths of the useful soil of North America, there are three well-marked varie-
ties of climate, those of the east coast, the west coast, and the basin of the Missis-
sippi. On the east coast, from Georgia to Lower Canada, the mean temperature of
the year is lower than in Europe by 9° at the latitude of 40°, and by 12^° at the
latitude of 50°, according to Humboldt's calculation. Besides, the range of the
thermometer is greater than in Europe, the summer being much hotter and the
winter much colder. At Quebec the temperature of the warmest month exceeds that
of the coldest by no less than 60^ degrees of Fahrenheit ; while at Paris, which iu
)iearly under the same latitude, the difference is only 31°. The climate, moreover,
undergoes a more rapid change in America as we proceed from south to north, a de-
gree of latitude in the middle of the temperate zone producing a decrease of annual
temperature of IT 3° in Europe, and of T57° in America. The comparison is greatly
to the disadvantage of America when made in this form ; but when the east coasts
of the two continents are compared, the case is altered; the old world is found to
have no superiority over the new, for Peking has still colder winters and warmer
summers than Philadelphia, which lies under the same latitude. It is the west coast
of the new continent which ought to exhibit the climate of Europe ; and from the few
facts known, we have reason to believe that it is quite as mild and equable. At the
mouth of Columbia River, in lat. 46^°, Captains Lewis and Clarke found the rains to
be copious and frequent ; but they had very little frost, and saw no ice even in the
depth of winter. From observations made in 1822-3-4, it appears that the mean
heat of the warmest month was about 62°, that of the coldest about 36°, and of the
whole year 51°. Now, the latitude is the same as that of Quebec, where the snow
lies for five months, and the mean temperature during the three winter months is
18° below the freezing point. This single circumstance marks emphatically the con-
trast in the climate of the east and west coasts of North America. But the mouth
of Columbia River is also under the same parallel with Nantes at the mouth of the
Loire, where snow and ice arc not unusual in the cold season of the year. \A'e have.
Geografiiy.j AMERICA. 889
therefore, good grounds for concluding, that the west coast of America, in the middle
latitudes, has fully as mild and equable a climate as the west coast of Europe. The
climate of the great central valley, or basin of Mississippi, bears a considerable affi-
nity to that of the east coast. It was long a matter of dispute in what the differ-
ence between the two consisted; but this seems at last to have been clearly settled,
by the meteorological registers kept at the military posts of the United States. From
a comparison of four of these registers, kept at posts near the centre of this great val-
ley, with others kept on the Atlantic coast in the same latitudes, it appears that in
the hottest month the temperature is from 5° to 6° higher, and in the coldest month
as much lower, in the basin of the Mississippi, than on the coasts of New England.
The proportion of fair to cloudy weather is as five to one in favour of the east coast.
The climate of the interior, therefore, exhibits in still greater excess those extremes
of temperature which distinguish the eastern coast of this continent from the western,
and from the shores of Europe. The fourth region of extra-tropical America includes
the regions beyond Mount St. Elias on the west coast, and, in the interior, the plains
which extend from the 50th parallel to the Polar Seas. The intensity of the cold in
this tract of country is scarcely equalled by any thing that is known under the same
parallels in northern Asia. The most northerly spot in America where grain is raised,
is at Lord Selkirk's colony, on Red River, in lat. 50^. Wheat, and also maize, which
requires a high summer heat, are cultivated here. Barley would certainly grow as
far north as Fort Chippewyan, in lat. 583^, where the heat of the four summer
months was found by Captain Franklin to be 4^ higher than at Edinburgh. There
is even reason to believe, that this species of grain and also potatoes might thrive as
far north as Slave Lake, since the spruce fir attains the height of 50 feet three de-
grees farther north, at Fort Franklin, in lat. G5°. These, however, are low and
sheltered spots ; but in this dreary waste generally, it will not be found practicable,
we suspect, to carry the arts of civilized life beyond the 60th parallel ; and the de-
sirable country, capable of supporting a dense population, and meriting the name of
temperate, can scarcely be said to extend beyond the 50th parallel. At 65° snow
covers the ground in winter to the depth of only two feet, but small lakes continue
frozen for eight months. The sea is open only for a few weeks, fogs darken the sur-
face, and the thermometer in February descended, in one instance, to minus 58°, or
90° below the freezing point. At Melville Island, under the 75th parallel, such is the
frightful rigour of the climate, that the temperature of the year falls 1° or 2° below
the zero of Fahrenheit's scale. It is a peculiarity in the climate of America, that
beyond the parallel of 50° or 52°, it seems to become suddenly severe at both extre-
mities. At the one, summer disappears from the circle of the seasons; at the other,
winter is armed with double terrors. — (Ency. Brit. Article Amkkica, pp. 611-613.)
Vegetable Prgductio.ns The vegetable kingdom in America presents greater
diversity than that of any region in the old world, of corresponding climate ; and this
remark becomes more true as we make a nearer approach to the equatorial zone. Al-
though we are far from being fully acquainted with the flora of America, we may
nevertheless affirm that it is richer than that of any other part of the world. More
than 15,000 species of [)hanerogamous plants grow there spontaneously ; but we must
confine our attention specially to those which, differing in their structure from the
plants of other continents, are the peculiar product of the western continent.
The low countries which border the Polar .Sea and Hudson's Hay, produce plants
resembling those of the High A![»s in Europe ; and the flora of this region of Ame-
rica is nearly identical with that of Lapland. A few stunted willows, birches, pop-
lars, and pines, are the only trees which can resist the cold. A considerable number,
however, of herbaceous plants are remarkable for the large nize of their flowers, con-
sidering the shortness of their duration ; and the rigour of the climate is no obstacle
fo the development of cryptogamous plants. Mosses and lichens rover the ground
of this arctic country, and seem almost to exclude every other vegetable.
Canada and the basin of the St. Lawrence exhibit the transition from the frozen
to the temperate zone of America. In Newfoumlland are already found the plants
of the United States, though the northern flora still predominates. Farther south,
species multiply, and are remarkable for their beauty, which is much greater than
that of any plants produced in the Old World, in the same latitudes, or in climates
of the same temperature. And even among the plants of European species there is
greater diversity and elegance in the green-wood trees which decorate the forests of
North .America. A crowd of plants, produced only by cultivation in Europe, grow
naturally in the United Statcj, wh-re the mixture of northern and tropical forms, it
890 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Physical
to be seen. Michaux has given doscriptioiis of a number of species of native oak,
the timber of which is harder than the European qnercus robur. The coniferous
trees also exhibit forms extremely various; pines, firs, and junipers, are particularly
those most numerous in species. The myrica cerifera, a shrub of the amentaceous
family, is remarkable for the use which the Americans make of its fruit, thp waxv
cover of which serves for making candles. Among the herbaceous plants which are
interesting from their elegance, or the singularity of their organization, we may cite
several species of lobelias; and the famous Venus' flytrap, which grows in the marshes,
with the cabomba aquatica, found equally in Guiana and Carolina. A number of I'ai-
ropean plants also, besides those introduced by culture, grow naturally in this part of
America; as the Linnaa borealis, genliana pneumonaiuhi , suxifraga-aizoon, oryns
octopetala, &c. But these plants belong to the cold country, and contain the fewest
varieties.
The plants of north-west America have a close relation to those of the United
States, and of Siberia ; and it is from this region that, of late years, a number of
plants which now decorate European gardens have been brought.
If we now look to the southern parts of North America, we find a vegetation
different from that of the regions already mentioned, namely that of the equatorial
regions, modified by the elevation of the country. Thus, while the coasts of Mexico
and the shores of the Antilles present the plants indigenous to the warmest regions
of the globe, the mountains and high table-lands produce not only those which are re-
lated to the plants of temperate regions, but even several species of those which be-
long to the latitudes nearest the equator. The warm region rises from the level of
the sea to about 1900 feet; its mean annual temperature is about 79° Fahrenheit;
and the difference of temperature between the eastern and the western coasts of
Mexico, and the shores and interior of the islands, is more dependent on their ex-
posure to the prevailing winds, and their elevation, than on the difference of their
latitudes. Among the plants peculiar to these warm regions are several palms, bor-
ragines, legumes, labiatae, rubiaceae, and solaneae. In the temperate region, the mean
annual heat is about 78°; and many trees and frutescent plants are to be met with,
particularly oaks. Above this rises the cold region of Mexico, exceeding 7000 feet
above the level of the sea, and having an annual temperature varying between 33° and
64°. On the borders of the snow, which covers the tops of the mountains, are
found plants indigenous to more northern climates. In the least elevated spots are
a great number of plants of European genera, but differing in species. A tree, much
admired by travellers, as well for the beauty of its form as for the singular organiza-
tion of its flowers, grows near Toluca. It is the cheirostemon platanoides of Hum-
boldt and Bonpland, named also by other botanists cheiranthodendron, names which
correspond with its Spanish designation arboL del manitas, and convey an idea of the
conformation of its stamina, which much resemble the five fingers of the human hand.
There are whole forests of it to the north of Toluca
All the low countries of the equatorial region of America, from Mexico to Brazil
and Peru, are characterized by a peculiar vegetation ; but we must content ourselves
with mentioning the plants useful to man, and those which are so abundant in some
countries as to determine their character and aspect. Palms, with the exception of the
date-tree and some chamcsrops, grow in all the tropical climates ; some grow even on
the slopes of considerably elevated mountains, as the ceroxylon andicola, which has been
met with in the mountains of Quindiu in Peru. The natives gather from its bark a
kind of wax fit for giving light. The other palms in great variety are common in the
plains or the hills of all this part of America, principally in Colombia, Guiana, and
Brazil, in the last of which they are particularly abundant, and very various. These
regions present also to the European, when he first lands on their shores, an admi-
rable prospect in their arborescent ferns, which grow with all the majesty of palms
and pine trees. Numerous species of cyatheje, feterides, aspides, doradilles, &c., form
one of the characteristic traits of the flora of the Antilles, New Andalusia, New Gra-
nada, the valleys of Peru, and in Mexico, near Jalapa. We may also mention the
numerous cacti, with stocks resembling vast chandeliers, on the coasts of Cumana, and
particularly the cochineal cactus, so valuable to Mexico ; the araiicaria of Chili and
Brazil, the cacao, the rocou, the dye-wood of Campeche, the banana, the anana, &c.,
which are not only useful in their native countries, but have also become necessary for
the arts and manufactures of Europe. Several useful plants have likewise been intro-
duced and successfully cultivated in these countries, as the coffee-tree, sugar-cane,
cotton-plant, bread-fruit-tree, &c. In Brazil are found ipecacuanha, cinchona, &c. ;
and the high mountains of that country present a still greater number of |)lants than
Geography.] AMERICA. 891
the plains ; among which may be noticed the vellosia, a kind of amaryllis, of which the
species are found congregated, and whose expanded branches are covered with blue,
violet, or white flowers, as large as our lilies.
In the southern region of America, a vegetation analogous to that of Europe, is
found in latitudes nearer the equator. Thus the neighbourhood of Monte Video is
covered with plants, which, with few exceptions, belong to the same genera that
compose the flora of France. To complete this sketch of the vegetable productions,
we should now describe those of Chili, Peru, Buenos Ayres, Patagonia, and Tierra
del Fuego ; but with respect to Peru, we should only have to repeat much of what
we have already stated concerning the vegetation of Mexico and Brazil ; for countries
which correspond in character and temperature produce i)lants, if not absolutely the
same, at least very similar in tlieir organization. Peru, however, and Colombia, are
the native country of the febrifiigous cinchona : it was a long time believed that the
true cinchona, or Peru\ ian bark, grew only among the Andes, but M. Auguste de
St. Hilaire has found in Brazil three species which rival in their medicinal virtues
those of Peru. South America is also considered as the native country of two spe-
cies of vegetables particularly useful to man, the potatoe and maize ; but nowhere has
the potatoe been met with in a wild state ; though plants with tuberculous roots, of
similar appearance, are abundant in different parts of Chili, particularly near Quillota.
Maize seems to be indigenous to Paraguay.
Patagonia and the neighbouring islands are very little known ; but their vegetation
seems to be analogous to that of the north, though characterized by a very singular
appearance.
America does not contain a single species of erica (heath), nor has » poeonia ever
been found in it, except a solitary one observed by Douglas to the west of the Rocky
Mountains. That mountain barrier indeed divides two classes of vegetation, almost
as peculiar as those of two continents. On its eastern side the forests of North
America are distinguished by the variety of their oaks and juglandes, the magnificent
flowers of the rhododendron, the magnolia, the azalea, and the humbler beauties of the
actea and raccinium ; all of which are utterly unknown on the western side of the
ridge. America is the real habitat of the cinchonacese and the cacti, of the fuchsia,
the calathea, the mustisia, and all the bromeliacese.
Animals. — In most parts of America many new genera are met with in every
class of animals, distinct from those of the old world ; and few species are found,
which are not peculiar to it, with the exception of marine animals. The quadru-
inana, which range through 29° on each side of the equator, have the peculiarity of
either wanting the thumb on the fore paw, or having it so placed, or so imperfectly
developed, as not to be a real opponent to the fingers ; while the prehensile tails of
many, and the hairy buttocks of all, which shew that none of them sit erect, distin-
guish them from the individuals that most resemble them in the old world. The car-
nivora of America are almost all peculiar to it ; with tlie exception indeed of some of
the marine carnivora, and a very few terrestrial species, all are specifically distinct
from those found in other parts of the world. The whole order of marsupiata is
either American or Australian ; and the species of the one country are unknown in
the other. America exceeds every other country in the number of its rodentia; and
there is reason to doubt whether any of this order are common to the two great
divisions of the world. The edentata are found chiefly in South America, but all are
peculiar to the new world. Though America appears to have been, at one time, rich
in its pachydermata, as their fossil remains attest, yet at the fieriod of its discovery
there were not more than four or five s[)ccies of this order found on the continent.
They were all peculiar, and only one, the dicotyles torquatus or peccary, is connnon
to the northern and southern divisions. Among rnminantia we consider the American
rein-deer and elk as peculiar species ; and the identity of the ovis niontana of the
Rocky mountains and the Argali of Siberia as very doubtful. The order of cetacca
is probably connnon to both divisions of the world, with the exception of Cuvier's
inanatusamericanus, which is found on the coast of Florida, and also on that of Soutli
America. Dr. Richardson reckons that, out of '207 species of mannnibrs found in
North America, 16!) arc peculiar to that country; and. if we taker Tennninck's esti-
mate of tliis class, North America contains one-fifth of all the known species ot mam-
malia. The same author gives the innnber of Amirican birds at (iU*! species, of
which .54 are rojilorcs, 400 inscssorcs, .'W rnHorcs, 87 tjriillaliircn, an<l 122 iintatores.
Except in the la-t two orders, the species connnon to the old and the new world are
few, and ;i great many genera are wholly American. T"ie alligator, the boa-coiistric-
892 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Physical
tor, and the rattlesnake, are all peculiar to America. The first and the last are
widely diffused, and the rattlesnake is found even so far north as Canada.
In the northern region of America, beyond the 50° N. lat. the characteristic mam-
malia are the musk ox, the black American benr, the western wolf, the wolverine,
the rein-deer, the moose-deer, with several species of marmot, squirrel, lemming,
and other animals allied to the genus mus. The Arctic fox, hare, and beaver are
common to both divisions of the world; and the mustcla erminea and sea-bear seem
identical in both. The raptorial birds peculiar to the region are several species of
hawk, owl, and bustards. Most of the natatores are also found within its limits.
The country between 30° and 30° N. lat. may be characterized as the region of
the grizly bear, the bison, the wapeti, and the antilope furcifer. It possesses one
marsupial animal, the Virginian opposum, a species which ranges from the lakes of
Canada to the intertropical regions of America. But its most distinguishing charac-
teristic is the number of its rodentia, amounting to not less than fifty-three well as-
certained species, only one of which, the beaver, is found in the old world. The birds
are numerous, and among these the wild turkey is the most conspicuous and cha-
racteristic. Of the raptores it contains many falcons and hawks, and among them
Washington's eagle, a magnificent bird found in Kentucky. Of its numerous inses-
sores the greater part are peculiar to North America. The trochilidcE (humming
birds) first appear in this region ; of which it contains a considerable number of species,
but only three extend so far north as 33°. They resemble in structure the honey-
eaters of Australia ; but Professor Traill doubts the propriety of calling them sucto-
rial ; for, having dissected a considerable number of them, he invariably found their
stomachs crammed with minute insects. The rasores of this region are all, except a
single species of bustard, peculiar to America. Of the numerous grallatores a con-
siderable number also occur in Europe, and still more of the natatores ; but of the for-
mer order three species are peculiar to America, and of the latter, two. The alligator
lucius abounds in the valley of the Mississippi ; where very peculiar reptiles, the
syren lacertina of Carolina, and the meopoma giyantea, are also found, which have no
representative in the old world, except the proteus anguineus of the subterranean
lakes of Carniola. Among the numerous tortoises we may notice the serpentina, the
ferox, and the clausa. The serpents are numerous ; the most remarkable are the rattle-
snakes, of which four or five species are found in this region.
Equinoctial America, or the region which extends from the equator to about 30°
on each side, but exclusive of the elevated valleys and table-lands of Mexico and
Bolivia, is distinguished by the number of its quadrumana, all of which are furnished
with tails, and many of them have that organ prehensile, answering the purpose of a
fifth hand. It is also the region of the jaguar, a feline animal of great strength and
courage. The puma likewise abounds, which, however, has far less claim to be called
the lion of America than the jaguar has to be called the tiger of that continent. The
puma has a considerably wider range than its congeners now mentioned, being found
in the woods of America from Brazil to Canada. This region also abounds with the
tapir, the capybara, and the agouti. The rivers swarm with the manati, which wan-
ders far from the sea, as well as a species of porpoise which is as yet but imperfectly
known. The region is also distinguished by the splendid plumage of its birds, of
which numerous genera are either wholly peculiar to tropical America, or are almost
unrepresented in other regions. Its raptorial birds are often distinguished by their
size. To this region belong the magnificent king-vulture, and a very numerous spe-
cies of the same family, as large as a turkey, the vultur uruba ; the destructor and
harpy eagles, the giants of their tribe, are the tyrants of the lower provinces. The
insessores are very numerous, and some of them are remarkable for the magnificence
of their plumage. The bell bird (casmarhynchus carunculatus) is celebrated for the
deep tone of its simple note, which resembles the sound of a convent bell in the dis-
tance. The enormous goat-suckers, especially that of the Cave of Caripe, and the
momots or prionites, are peculiar to this region. The toucans and aracaris are conspi-
cuous for the size and structure of their bills, in which the organs of smell are largely
developed. Tropical America also abounds with beautiful parrots, among which the
ultramarine parrot, the scarlet and blue, and the blue and yellow macaws, are the most
conspicuous. The beautiful family of Crax or Pauxi, of Penelope, the singular Rhea
and serpent eater, are among its gallinaceae. The boatbill, cancroma, and the remark-
able species mycteria americana, and palamedea cornuta, the scarlet ibis, the trumpeter
or psophia crepitans, the jacana, are among its waders. This region also abounds with
snakes, some of which are remarkable for their enormous size, as the boa constrictor
and boa cenchrit ; others, like the canine boa, the garden boa, the Peruvian and the
Geographt.] AMERICA. 893
mourning snakes, are distinguished for the beauty or elegant pattern of their colours ;
others, like the rattlesnake or the bushmaster, are dreaded for the virulence of their
poison. The fluviatile fishes of the region are remarkable ; but we can only notice
here the electric gymnote, the soldier loricaria, and the salmo rhombeus ; the last of
which is the pest of the South American rivers. The papilionidce and phalanidte,
among its insects, are noted for their size and the splendour of their colours; and tiia
singular lantern-fly for the brilliancy of its light. The wounds inflicted by the large
bird-catching spider, the biting scolopendra, which grow to an enormous size, and
by a small species of scorpion, are much dreaded.
The animal productions of the Mexican region, though but imperfectly explored,
would seem to justify the inference drawn from its peculiarity of climate that this
portion of America should be considered as a distinct zoological kingdom. It has
been recognised as the point in which the fauna of North and South America meet.
There the wolf of the north and the monkey of the tropics range the same forests ;
the bunting and the titmouse nestle near the parrot and the trogon ; the phalarope
of the north searches for its food on the same beach with the jacana and the boatbill
of Brazil. Lichtenstein has pointed out several species of weasels and martins as pecu-
liar to Mexico ; the Mexican wolf is probably also a peculiar species. Mr. Swainsoii
states that out of 114 species of Mexican birds, examined by him, 67 are peculiar to
that country; yet, among so many species there was but one new genus, ptiliogonys,
which imites the tyrant shrikes with the caterpillar-eaters ; 36 species are common
to Mexico and the United States, and 1 1 to Mexico and South America, The lakes
of the valley of Mexico contain that singular animal the axocotl of the Mexicans, the
siren-pisciformis of Shaw, which seems to be intermediate between the other sirens
and the protei.
The vast elevation of the greater part of Bolivia and Chili has strongly impressed
the fauna of those regions with peculiarities. It is characterized as the region of the
guanaco, the alpaca, and the vicuria, three distinct species, which have been sometimes
confounded under the name of llama. They are the camels of South America, and
were almost the only mammalia subdued and domesticated by the ancient Peruvians.
This is also the peculiar region of the Condor, a bird as large as the laemergeyer of
the Alps, the largest of the European raptores. It loves to dwell among the snowy
solitudes of the Andes, perched on lofty piimacles, from which it pounces on its prey
in the subjacent valleys. The fauna, however, of these countries is still imperfectly
explored.
Of the region extending from 30° S. lat. to Cape Horn, including the pampas of
Buenoo-Ayres, and the southern part of Chili, the finuna has been little explored.
Among its quadrupeds are the numerous herds of wild horses and sheep, originally
introduced by the Spaniards, but now spread over a great part of South America.
The Antarctic and Chilian foxes seem to be peculiar. On its coasts many species of
seals are found. The extensive pampas are the chosen haunts of the rhea or -American
ostrich ; and, on its southern coasts, are found the huge, wingless, Patagonian penguin,
with the whole genus of pachyptila.
At the discovery of America by Europeans the continent was without the horse,
the cow, the sheep, the hug, the dog, and the common poultry of Europe ; all of
which are now spread over it in abundance, and in some places have relapsed into the
wild state, in countries suited for their subsistence. — (From the Article PiiysiCAh
Geography, by Professor Traill, in Ency. Britt. 1th edition.)
People The concurrent testimony of all travellers goes to prove that the native
Americans are possessed of certain physical characteristics, which serve to identify
them in places the most remote ; while they assimilate not less in their moral cha-
racter and usages. Tiiere are also in their multitudinous languages some traces of
a common origin ; and it may be assumed as a fact, that no other race of men main-
tains so striking an analogy through all its subdivisions, and amidst all its varieties of
physical circumstances, while, at the same time, it is distinguished from all the other
races by external peculiarities of form, but still more Iiy the internal qualities of mind
and intellect. But how are we to group the American nations into families, or, n»
some writers have attempted, into species? M. Bory de St. \'incent has eiideavoiircd
to show that the American race embraces four species besides the Ksijuimaux ; but
he has certainly failed to point out any such differences as establish a claim to a S|)e-
cific character. According to Ur. Morton, the most natural division of flic Ame-
ricans is into two families, which he calls the ToUvran and the American ; the former
of which bears evidence of centuries of half-civilization, while the latter eriii>races all
the barbarous nations of the new world, with the exception of the Polar tribeu, which
894 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Physicai
are evidently of Monu:olian oriiriti. In eacli of tlieso, however, there are several su
bordinate groups, whicii may l)e (iistinufuished as the Appalachian, the Brazilian, the
Pata()onian, and the Fiie(}ian. Tlie Appalaehiaii branch includes all the nations of
North America, except tlie Mexican?:, together with the tribes of South America,
north of the river Amazon, and east of the Andes. In this race the head is rounded,
the nose large, salient, and aquiline; the eyes dark brown, with little or no obliquity
of position ; the mouth large and straight ; the teeth nearly vertical ; and the whole
face triangular. The neck is long, the chest broad, but rarely deep, the body and
limbs muscular, and seldom disposed to fatness. In character these nations are war-
like, cruel, and unforgiving: they turn witli aversion from the restraints of civilized
lite, and have made but little progress in mental culture or the useful arts. The Bra-
zilian branch is spread over a great part of South America, east of the Andes, inclu-
ding the whole of Brazil and Paraguay, between the river Amazon and 35° S.
lat. Their physical characteristics ditfer but little from those of the A])palachian
branch ; they possess, perhaps, a larger and more expanded nose, with larger mouths
aiul lips. The eyes are small, more or less oblique, and far asunder ; the neck short
and thick ; the body and limbs stout and full, even to clumsiness. In character also,
they differ little. None of the Americans are less susceptible of cultivation ; and what
they are taught by compulsion seldom exceeds the humblest elements of knowledge.
The Patagonian branch includes the nations to the south of the Plata, as far as the
Straits of Magellan ; including also the mountain tribes of Chili. They are chietly
distinguished by their tall stature, handsome forms, and indomitable courage. The
Fuegians, who call themselves Yacannacuniiee, rove over the sterile wastes of Tierra
del Fuego, which is computed to be half the size of Ireland, and yet their whole
number has been computed by Forster at only "2000. The physical aspect of the
Fuegians is altogether repulsive. They are of low stature, with large heads, broad
faces, and small eyes. Their chests are large, their bodies clumsy, with large knees,
and ill-shaped legs. Their hair is lank, black, and coarse, and their complexion a
decided brown, like that of the more northern tribes. Their expression of face is
vacant, and their mental operations are to the last degree slow and stupid ; they
are almost destitute of the usual curiosity of savages, caring little for anything that
does not minister to their present wants.
Long, black, lank hair is connnon to all the American tribes, among which no
traces of the frizzled locks of the Polynesian, or the woolly texture of the African
negro has ever been observed. The beard is very deficient, and the little that nature
gives them they assiduously root out. A copper-coloured skin has been also assumed
by most writers as a characteristic distinction of the Americans ; but their real colour
is in general brown, of the hue most nearly resembling that of cinnamon ; and Dr.
Morton coincides in opinion with Dr. M'Culloch that no epithet derivable from the
colour of the skin so correctly designates the Americans as that of the brown race.
There are, however, among them occasional and very remarkable deviations, in-
cluding all the varieties of tint from a decided white to an unequivocally black skin.
That climate has a very subordinate influence in producing these different hues must
be inferred from the fact that the tribes which wander in the equinoctial regions are
not darker than the mountaineers of the temperate zone. The Puelches and other
tribes of the Magellanic regions, beyond 55° S. lat., are darker than the Abipones,
Mocobies, and Tobos, who are many degrees nearer the equator ; and the Botecudos
are of a clear brown colom*. sometimes approaching nearly to white, at no great dis-
tance from the tropic ; while the Guyac-as under the line are characterized by a fair
complexion; the Charruas, who are almost black, live at the 50° S. lat. ; and the
still blacker Californians are 25° N. of the equator. Everywhere, indeed, it is found
that the colour of the American depends very little on the local situation which he
actually occupies ; and never, in the same individual, are those parts of the body
which are constantly covered, of a fairer colour than those which are exposed to a hot
and moist atmosphere. Children are never white when they are born, as is the case
among even the darkest of the Caucasian races ; and the Indian ca9iques, who enjoy
a considerable degree of luxury, and keep themselves constantly dressed, have all
parts of their body, except the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet, of the
same brownish red or copper colour. These differences of complexion are, how-
ever, extremely partial, forming mere exceptions to the general tint which charac-
terizes all the Americans, from Cape Horn to Canada. The cause of such anomalies
is not easily ascertained ; that it is not climate is sufficiently obvious ; but whether or
not it arises from partial immigrations from other countries remains yet to be decided.
The characteristic brown tint is occasioned by a pigmental apparatus under the second
Geography.] AMERICA. 895
epidermis of the Americans; a peculiarity of structure common to them with the
African negroes, but entirely wanting in the Caucasian or white race. — (M. Flomens,
Annales des Sciences Nat. December 1838, p. 301.) The Americans might also ])e
divided into three great classes distinguished by the pursuits on which they depend
for subsistence, namely, hunting, fishing, and agriculture. The greater number
of them are devoted to hunting ; the fishing tribes are not numerous, and are wholly
destitute of the spirit of maritime adventure, and even of fondness for the sea. A
few tribes were strictly agricultural before the arrival of Europeans, but a muci
greater number have become so since. Many tribes regularly res^ort to all these modes
of subsistence, according to the seasons ; employing the spring in fishing, the summer
in agriculture and the autumn and winter in hunting.
The intellectual faculties of this great family appear to be decidedly inferior, when
compared with thos£ of the Caucasian or Mongolian race. The Americans are not
only averse to the restraints of education, but are for the most part incapable of a
continued process of reasoning on abstract subjects. Their minds seize with avidity
on simple truths, but reject whatever requires investigation and analysis. Their
proximity for more than two centuries to European institutions has made scarcely
any perceptible change in their mode of thinking or their manner of life ; and, as to
their own social condition, they are probably in most respects exactly as they were at
the earliest period of their national existence. They have made few or no improve-
ments in constructing their houses or their boats; their inventive and imitative facul-
ties appear to be of very humble capacity, nor have they the smallest taste for the arts
and sciences. One of the most remarkable of their intellectual defects is the great
difficulty they find in comprehending the relations of nmnbers ; and Mr. Schoolcraft,
the United States Indian agent, assured Dr. Morton that this deficiency was one cause
of most of the misunderstanding in respect to treaties entered into between the
United States Government and the native tribes. The natives sell their lands for a
sum of money, without haviiig any conception of the amount ; and it is only when
the proceeds come to be divided, that each man becomes acquainted with his own in-
terest in the transaction. Then disappointment and murmurs invariably ensue.
The Toltecan family embraces the civilized nations of Mexico, Peru, and Bogota,
extending from the Rio Gila in 33° N. lat. along the western shore of the continent
to the frontiers of Chili ; and on the eastern coast, along the Gulf of Mexico, in North
America. In South America, on the contrary, this family chietly occupied a narrow
strip of land between the Andes and the Pacific Ocean, bounded on the south by the
great desert of Atacama. Farther north, however, in New Granada, were the Bogo-
tese, a people whose civilization, like their geogra|)hical position, was intermediate
between that of the Peruvians and the Mexicans. But, even before the Spanish
conquest the Toltecan faniily were not the exclusive possessors of the regions which
we have assigned to them ; they were only the dominant race or caste, while other
tribes of the American race always constituted a large mass of the population. The
arrival of the Spaniards reduced l>oth classes alike to vassalage ; and three cen-
turies of slavery and oppression have left few traces of Mexican and Peruvian
civilization, except what may be gleaned from their history and antiquities. These
nations can no longer be identified in existing connnunities ; and the mixed and mot-
ley races which now respectively bear the name, are as unlike their predecessors, in
moral and intellectual character, as the degraded Copts are unlike the ancient Egyp-
tians. It is in the intellectual faculties that the great difference between the Toltecan
and the American families consists. In the arts and sciences of the former we see the
evidences of an advanced civilization ; their architectural remains every where surprise
the traveller and confound the antiquary. Among these are pyramids, temples, grot-
toes, bas-reliefs, and arabesques; while their roads, aqueducts, and fortifications, and
the traces of their mining oj)erations, sufficiently attest their attainments in the prac-
tical arts of life.
With respect to the American languages, it may be sufficient to state, that they
exhibit resemblances not less remarkable than those which we have noticed in the
physical and moral characteristics of the [icople. From Cape Horn to the Arctic
Sea, all the nations have languages which possess a common distinctive character,
but still apparently differing from all those of the old world with which w>; arc ac-
qnainted. This resemblance is not of an indefinite kind, but consists generally in the
peculiar modes of conjugating the verijs by the insertion of syllaidcs ; which pave rise
to the remark of Vater, that this wonderful uniformity " favours in a lingular man-
ner the supposition of a primitive people, which formed the common stock of the
American indigenous nations." — {Crania Americana, §c. hi/ Samuel Geonje Morton
806 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Physical
^f.D.\ vol. 4to., Pliiladelpliia 1839: p. 62 to 8G.) History and physical science
have hitherto completely failed to throw any hght on the orif^in of the indigenous
Americans ; and it is needless to repeat the numerous hypotheses ai d conjecture*
which have been hazarded on the subject.
According to M. Balbi the American nations employ more than 438 different lan-
guages, embracing upwards of 2000 dialects ; but all the people, he says, may be di-
vided into two great classes, namely, the indigenous or aboriginal Americans, and
those of foreign origin ; the latter being the most numerous, and, with the exception
of the negroes, now forming the dominant people of the whole continent. The num-
bers of all the various races he estimates thus : —
Europeans and their descendants, all of the white race, 14,600,000
Indians, or native Americans, of the brown race, - - 10,000,000
Unmixed Africans, of the black race, ..... . 7,400,000
Races produced by the intermixture of the pure races, . 7,000,000
Total, 39,000,000
And he then gives the following
Table of the People of America, classed by their Languages.
I. INDIGENOUS PEOPLE.
The Pecherah or Yacrtnncus. a very scanty race, who inhabit Tierra del Fuego, with some a'^jacent
portions of the continental coast. They lead a miserable life, only to be compared with that ol liomo
of the native Australians; tlicy live oii shell-fish, and squat themselves in places where these are
found most abundantly, moving their habitations only when the supply is exhausted. They are low
In stature, ill-looliing," and ill-proportioned, with a colour resembling old mahogany or rusty iron —
( See ante, p. 894.
The Tehuelhets, a numerous people of Patagonia, divided into several tribes, which, under different
names, wander in the vast solitudes of that country. Some of them are of large stature, and a few
even entitled to be called giants, a circumstance which seems to e.xplain the relations of old voyagers
that all the Patasonians were gigantic.
The Chilian Fami7»/ comprises several races, who occupy the high valleys of northern Chili, and of
eastern Chili, beyond the Andes, and also extend from southern Chili into Patagonia. The most
numerous of them, and the most remarkable, are: The Auais or Muloutiws, called by the Spaniards
Araucanians ; and those who live to the west of the Andes, forming the powerful Araucanian con-
federation. This warlike people, after long continued wars with the Spaniards, now live in poace with
the Chilenos. Their territory extends along the coast of the Pacific, from the river Hio-bio south-
ward, and is divided into four governments, called utlutl nuiput, each superintended by a toqui, who
Is independent in the administration of his territory. These four chiefs, with the subordinate go-
vernors of provinces and districts are hereditary in the male line ; presenting a striking resemblance
to the ancient feudal aristocracy of Europe. Tlie Araucanians have been considered the most civilized
of the native American races ; they are indeed highly susceptible of mental culture, but they despise
the restraints of civilization, and those of them who have been educated in the Spanish colonies have
embraced the first opportunity to return to the haunts and resume the habits of their nation. They
are a robust and muscular race, of a lighter complexion than the surrounding tribes, and roach old
age with few infirmities. They are brave, discreet, and proverbially cunning ; patient in fatigue, en-
thusiastic in enterprise, and fond of war. They soon discovered the value of the military discipline of
the Spaniards, and especially tlie great importance of their cavalry, and so early as 1568, only 17 years
after their first encounter, they had already several squadrons of horse in their army. They are, how-
ever, only less savage than their neighbours ; their agriculture is very imperfect ; they dwell in ill-
built houses, and have even made attempts to establish a regular form of government. They are tlie
most numerous race who still preserve their independence. After the Aucas come the f'uta- Huilliche,
who live to the south of the former along the west coast of Patagonia, as far as the strait of Magel-
lan ; their principal tribes being the Cunchi, Chonos, Foi/ui, and Key-viu. The mountaineers of this
family have in general a larger stature than the tallest Europeans. Mounted on horses like the Tar-
tars, they suddenly unite in troops, and make journeys of several hundred miles to ravage an enemy's
country.
The PuELCHES, who are divided into several tribes, of which some are called Pampas by the Spa-
niards, formed one of the most powerful nations of South .-Vmerica. They were found chiefly in tlie
southern part of the territory of Buenos Ayres, between the rivers Colorado and Negro ; but hava
now entirely disappeared from tlie plains, and the remnant have taken refuge in the Andes.
The ALOcOBV-AByi'ON Family, to which belong the Mocuhies, a very talland warlike people, esta-
blished in Chaco ; and the Abiponet, equally athletic, but reduced to a small number by their wars
with the Mocubies
The Pkruvian or Quichca Family, comprises : I. The Peruvians, who form the principal part of
the population of Peru, Bolivia, and Equador. Although the Peruvians were ignorant of alphabetic
writing, and their quippos and symbolic paintings were inferior to those of the Mexicans, they were
nevertheless, at the period of the arrival of the Spaniards, the most polished people of South'Ame-
rica. 2. The Aymaras or Aymares, also a numerous race, divided into several tribes, occupy the
diocese of La Paz, and part of that of La Plata or Chiquisaca, in Bolivia.
The Chiqlitos, a numerous people, who wander in the vast region which bears their name, in
Bolivia. A great part of them have embraced Christianity, and have become dependents on the Bo-
livian republic.
The Carapuchos, who live in Peru, along the Pachitea, an aflBuent of the Ucayle ; who are re-
ported to be cannibals.
The Gcarani Family comprises four principal nations, subdivided into a great number of tribes
and hordes, spread over Brazil and a great part of Spanish South America. The Guaranis, properly
so called, live along the Parana, the Uruguay, and the Ibicuy. Converted by the Jesuits in the
eighteenth century, they presented the singular spectacle of a th. ocratic or priestly government,
powerfully organized : but the seven missions in the Brazilian province of San Pedro, and the mis-
sion district to the right of the Parana, in Paraguay, are all that now remain of the Jesuitic empire.
The lirazilians. formerly spread, under different names, overall Brazil, but are now reduced to a
few tribes. The Omoguas, who are now few, and live along the Amazon, formerly acted a principal
Geography.] AMERICA. 897
part in the history of these regions. In " an enumeration of the various Indian nations, tribes, and
hordes, at present found in Brazil," Dr. Von Martius specifies -iiM resident in ditierent parts of the
emj)ire, the principal consisting of the various branches of the Tupin or Tapinambate fauiilv, of
which Balbi's 6uar»nis are only one. These Tupis or Tupinambases, were formerly the most power-
ful and most widely extended people in Brazil, but are now. through the predominance of the whites,
either losing their nationality and language, or becoming extinct. Their remains, now difficult to
be recognised, may be distributed into five distinct groups: 1. The Southern Tupis or Guaranis, in
Paraguay, Monte Video, and Rio Grande do Sul ; 2. The Eastern or proper Tupis, scattered along
the shore from St. Catharine's island to the river Amazon. They speak the proper Tupi tongue, now-
called the limrua geral (general language) of Brazil ; 3. The Northern Tupis, remains of whom are
found in Para, and on both sides of the river Amazon, as far as Topinambarana ; 4. The Central
Tupis, who are now the only portion living in a state of complete independence, occupy the upper
portion of the Rio Tapajos ; but we possess no accurate or detailed accounts of them ; 5. The Western
Tupis, who speak the West-Guarani dialect, and consist of the Chiriiruanas in the province of Santa
Cruz de la Sierra, the Cirionos, and the Guarayot. — (Journal R. Geoe:. Sue. Lond. II. 210.)
The BoTEcUDOs or E.\oeeec.moi'.so, known formerly by the names of Avmurei or .imlxjuret. fierce
cannibals, who occupy a space parallel to the coast of Brazil, between the Rio Pardo and the Kio
Doce. Their principal residences are found along the latter river and the Kio Belmonte, in the pro-
vinces of Bahia and Espiritu Santo.
The MrxDRUcrs, a very warlike and ferocious people, the most numerous and most powerful in
the province of Para, are found between the Xiugu and the Tapayos ; but of late almost all their
tribes have lived in friendship and alliance with the Portuguese.
The Pavagua-Guaycuru Family, which comprises five principal nations. The Pat/agiia, in tha
vicinity of Assomp^ion in Paraguay ; and the Guai/curiit, along both banks of the Upper Paraguay,
where they live by the chase, by fishing, ami the produce of their numerous herds of beeves. Tha
chiefs form a sort of aristocratic confederation ; and the people are divided into the three classes
of nobles, soldiers, and slaves. They have been sometimes called CamiUeirot, f:om their making
their military excursions on horseback, which rendered them formidable to all their neighbour..
But they now live at peace with both the Spaniards and the Portuguese. The Payagtut were fornur;/
numerous, and mastersof the navigation of the Paraguay, and accompanied the Guaycurus in all tln;ir
expeditions. They are generally tail, and it is not rare to find among them individuals of more tliaii
six fe«t.
Tlie GCA!«AS, a numerous people in Chaco, in the southern part of Matto-grosso, and in Paraguay
The gr>-ater part of them have become settled agriculturists.
The BoROROs, a numerous people in Matto-giosso.
The Carib-Ta-MAiNaque Family comprises several nations, of which the principal are: — Thj
Caribt, Caraibet or Carina, a very numerous people, who formerly possessed all the smaller An-
tilles, with an immense extent of the adjacent continent. They are still met witli in different pans
of Guiana, and along the Orinoco. Humboldt has remarked that, ne.xt to the Patagoniuns, the Caribs
are the largest and most robust people in the world. They formerly dealt in i-laves ; but, though
very cruel and ferocious, the Guiana Caribs never were cannibals like their brethern in the Antilles,
among whom this horrible practice was so common, that all mun-eaters have been called canni-
balt (properly carihaU), from their name. The Tninaiiaqties, formerly very powerful but now re-
duced to a small number, live along the right bank of the Orinoco; to them may be ascrilied tha
symbolical figure-> sculptured on the rocks, relating to the belief in Amalivaca, who is the chief my-
thological personage of equinoctial America. The Guaraunos, who occupy the delta of the Orinoco,
are a sort of sailors, who live on trees or in boats. They are, however, ot considerable political im-
portance, since it is in their pow.-r to facilitate any military expedition, which may be directed
against Colombian Guiana, by the way of the Orinoco. The Chuyinat and the Cununagottei, nume-
rous tribes established in the department of Maturin ; and the Arawaques, in the same department,
and on the banks of the rivers Berbice and Surinam. The H'araotu live on the coast of Pome-
roun, from Morocco creek near Cape Nas.sau to the Orinoco; they are few in number, but exhibit re-
markable skill in the construction of their piragues.
The Oyampos, a warlike and half nomadic people, now the most numerous race in Fn-nch Guiana,
where they live along the Upper Oyapock. and the Jari or Uouapiri an affluent of the Amazon.
The Gdahiva or Guaoivos, a numerous, nomadic, and ferocious race, wander along the lower
Meta, from the mouths of the Pautoand tlie Cassanara to its confiuence with the Orinoco. They
are a source of great terror to their settltd neighbours.
The Ottomaks, a miserable, ferociou.«, and dirty race, established along the Orinoco, between
its two affluents, the Sinaruco and the Apure, and particularly in the mission of Urunna. They
are in the practice of eating with impunity a kind of tarih, which during the period of the inunda-
tions, forms their principal food.
The Mawitivitamos, a ferocious and warlike people in alliance with the Portuguese, and estab-
lished on the banks of the Rio Negro.
The Marepizanos are neighbours of the Manitivitanos.
The Masaos, a people of the province of Para, are still numerous and warlike, though much lest
so than formerly, when they possessed the whole course of the Urarira, an affluent of the Rio Negro,
and extended as far as the Kio Chiuara. Great part of them have embraced Christianity, and liva
intermixed with other people along the Lamalonga, Thoinar, &c.
The Saliva Family comprises several races, of which the principal are . — The &(/iri or Salivas,
an agricultural people, were formerly powerful, but are now much reduced; they are, however, still
numerous in different parts of Spanish Guiana. They have a great ta.ste for music ; and the Jesuits
having cultivated that taste, the Salivi have become celebrated throughout the regii n of the Orinoco,
as expert instrumental musicians. The Mucot, or Mactiti, called I'iuruat by the Spaniards, a nume-
rous agricultural people, of gentle manners, are found along the Upper Orinoco and its affluents.
The Cavkbk-Maypube Family, of which the principal nations are : — The Cavern or (.abrn, for-
merly numerous, powerful, warlike, and addicted to cannibalism, are now reduced to a small num-
ber in the missions of the Orinoco. The Guat/punahit, established along the Upper Orinoco, are
Incontestibly cannibals, though, in other resijccts, the most civilized of all the dwellei s on tho
Upper Orinoco. The Maypure$, also on the Upper Orinoco, formerly numerous and powerful, are
now reduced to a small numljor. The Moxnt, a numerous race, occupy a large portion of the pro-
vince of Moxos in Bolivia ; but a great part of them are subjects of the .Missions.
The GoAHiBOS occupy the north-western part of the peninsula formed by the Gulf of Maracajho
and the Caribbean Sea. They maintain commen-ial relations with Jamaica, and several of Iheni
speak English. They hold in subjection the Cociiiai, another barbarous race who occupy tho eastern
coast of the same peninsula.
1 he Cdhaccnas, a warlike people, who occupy the eastern part of tho Isthmus of I'nnamn.
The Maynas or Mainas, a imu.erous and warlike nation long established in the country to which
they give their name, along the .Morona and the Lower Pastaza.
The CUANOVBliKS, a numerous, warlike, and cruel people, eRtahlisho<t in tha es'tcrn part of ( oit»-
rioa, in Central America, who are tha terror of all their neliilibi«ir».
.T I.
898 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Physical
The Taoka«, Towkas or Xicaqiies, to the south, the Moscos or Mos<»citos, in the middle, and
the PoYAis, to the north-west, are the three principal nations, who live along the coast of that part
of Central America, between Honduras and the Isthnms of Panama.
The Chols or Cholb", a numerous race, who dwell on the confines of Yucatan and Vera Paz.
The Lacandonks, a numerous people of Yucatan, where they occupy the banks of the river Pas-
sion, and possess a great many canoes.
The Maya Quiche Family. The Mayat or Yucatans, form the great majority of the people of
Yucatan, and of a part of Tabasco ; their ancestors were nearly as far advanced in civilization as
the Mexicans. The ilamei or Pocomams, a numerous people of Guatemala and San Salvador.
The Quiches, Kacliiqueles, and Kachis, are numerous tribes in Guatemala, where they were for-
merly dominant.
The Cu APA.NKQCKS, in Chiapa, who, at the period of the arrival of the Spaniards, formed a powerful
republic, and had subjected several neighbouring tribes. Their traditions speak of Vodan, grandson
of an illustrious old man, who was saved from the great inundation in which the greater part of man-
kind perished, by means of a raft. Vodan took a part in the erection of a great building by which men
undertook to reach the skies ; but the work was interrupted ; each family received thenceforth a
dififerent language, and the great spirit, Teoth, ordered Vodan to go and people the country of Ana-
huac. It is impossible, says the author of Views of the Cordilleras, not to be struck with the resem-
blance between these ancient traditions of the Americans and those of the Hebrews.
The MixTKQUES, a numerous people of Oaxaca.
The ZAPOTEftiES, a numerous people of the same state, whose ancestors were distinguished by
their progress in civilization, even before they were subjected by the Mexicans. Humboldt ascribes
to them the famous palace of Mitla.
The ToTONAQUES, a people extended over a great part of Vera Cruz and the district of Zacatlan,
in the state of Puebla.
The Mexican Family. The Mexicam or Aztechs occupied the country from 37° N. lat. to the lake
of Nicaragua. Their division of the year, more exact than that of the Greeks and Romans ; their
ideographic writing ; the art of cutting large blocks of stone ; their maps of their country, and of the
regions which their ancestors had overrun ; their cities, roads, dykes, canals ; immense pyramids very
exactly set to the cardinal points ; their civil, military, and religious institutions; altogether entitled
this people to be considered as the most civilized race found by Europeans in the New World. Their
monuments long forgotten, have recently attracted the attention of the learned in Europe and Ame-
rica. The ToUecks, to whom is attributed the construction of the pyramids of Teotihuacan and other
ancient monuments, have long since disappeared. They were regarded as the principal stock of this
family, to which belonged also the Mecos and the Pipits, the former of whom wander in the vast soli-
tudes of Durango, and disturb and harass their peaceful neighbours. The Pipils, descended from a
Mexican colony, live in San Salvador near Sonsonata, San Salvador, and San Miguel.
The Othoms, a numerous race, spread over the dioceses of Mexico, Puebla, Mechoacan, and
Guadalaxara.
The Tarasqces, a numerous people in Mechoacan, distinguished for the mildness of their manners
and their industry in the mechanic arts.
The Tarahumaka Family, a numerous people who are found in the missions of Tarahumara,
in the diocese of Curango, extending through a part of the valleys of the Sierra Madre, from the 24^
to the 30° N. lat.
The Yaqui or Iaeis, a numerous people of Sonora, who live along the Yaqui or Hiaki river.
TheMoQUi, a peaceable, agricultural, and somewhat civilized people, who live along the northern
bank of the river Yaquesila.
The Apaches, a numerous nation divided into several tribes, spread over the country from San
Louis de Potosi to the northern extremity of the Gulf of California. With few exceptions, these tribes
are nomadic ; they are very troublesome to their Spanish neighbours, whom they alarm with fre-
quent and terrible attacks. Their warriors are mounted on horseback, and armed with long lances.
The Panis-Arrapahoes Family comprises several nations. The Panis or Pawnees, a numerous
and warlike people, who occupy three large villages on the banks of the Wolf river, an aftiuunt of the
Platte. They are engaged in constant war with the Sioux, the Osages, the Konzas, the Corneilles,
and others. One of their most powerful tribes, the Skeye (Wolf-Pawnees), has abolished the hu-
man sacrifices which they used to make every year to the planet Venus, before commencing their
rural labours, in order to obtain a rich harvest. The Arrapahoet or Arrapahays, a numerous tribe
who live along the Platte, between the Pawnees and the Canenawish. These, and othtr kindred
tribes, who are warlike and excellent riders, form a sort of confederation, not only formidable to the
natives, but also troublesome to the Spaniards, particularly to those who are established along the
eastern and northern frontiers of Mexico. The letans. Teutons, or Tetam, a nomadic, powerful,
and still numerous people, named Camanches or Cumanches by the Spaniards, and Paducas by the
Pawnees and Osages, wander in the extensive countries comprised between the sources of the Mis-
souri, the Upper Arkansas, the rivers of Trinidad, Brazos de Dios, Colorado, and Rio Bravo del Norte,
and the Sierra Madre, and Sierra dos Mimbres. Like other Americans they have learned to ride on
horseback ; they pass with great rapidity over immense distances, carrying desolation and death
into the Spanish settlements, whose inhabitants are thus obliged to travel only in armed bodies.
The Columbian Family comprises a great number of independent tribes spread over the basin of
the Columbia River, and the upper part of the basin of the Missouri. The principal tribes are : The
Tiuhepaws, who live near the sources of both rivers, andextendfor somedistancedown the Columbia.
The Multnomah, whose principal tribe occupies the Island of Wappatoo, at the confluence of the Mult-
nomah with the Columbia. The Shahala, who live to the right of the Columbia, below the confluence
of the Canoe river. The Snake Indians, also named Aiiiatan and Skoshunees, wander along the
southern affluents of the Columbia, and particularly the Lewis and the Multnomah. It may be said
generally of all the members of this family, that they have mild manners, live in well-built cabins,
and subsist almost exclusively on roots and fish. Nearly the whole of them flatten artificially the heads
of their children ; on which account they have received the general English name of Flatheadt.
The Shoshonees, the Chopunish, the Sokulks, the Escheloots, the Eneeshurs, and the Chiiluckittequaws,
are good horsemen, and the first three tribes possess a great number of horses.
The Sloux-OsAGE Family comprehends a great number of independent tribes. The principal are
the Sityiu or Dacotas, called also Ochenti-shakong, Narcotah, and Nadowessies, who are the most nume-
rous, and most powerful of all the remaining North American races. They are subdivided into a
great number of tribes, of which the Dacotas and the Assiniloins are the most powerful. The Dacotas
properly so called occupy the vast region which extends along the Middle Missouri, the St. I'eter's
River, the upper Mississippi, the upper Red River, Lake Winnipeg, and their affluents, from the 42°
to the 47° N. lat. The Assiniboins, named Hoha (the Revolted) by the Dacotas, also Stone- Sioux
and Assinepotuc, live in alliance with the Chippeways, to the north of the Dacotas, and to the west of
Lake Winnipeg, to the north of the Pembina ; and along the Assiniboin, Saskatchawan and Mouse
rivers. They have a feud with the Blackfeet, and extend their excursions to the Rocky Mountains ;
and with their kindred the Dacotas, they have carried on an exterminating warfare since the com-
mencement of the nth century. AU the Sioux form a confederation of independent tribes, who unit«
Geoguaphy.] AMERICA. 899
in a general council on matters of common interest. To this council each tribe sends a deputy. "I'hd
8ioux begin their year at the vernal equinox, while their neighbours the Chippeways begin tlieirs at
the summer solstice. They have no «iivision by weeks, and reckon their time by sleeps or nights.
The Omawha or Maha, whose principal residence is at a great village on the Elk-horn, an affluent of
the Platte, are divided into several tribes. The M<mdanet, a scanty race, live along the banks of tlie
upper Missouri, in two villages. They are remarkable for the singularity of their religious faith, and
for the great whiteness of complexion of some of their members. The >f'atc»a*A, generally called Ota-
get, a brave and warlike nation, live in large villages, and carry on implacable hostilities with their
western neighbours ; but live in friendship with the Sakis and the Konzas. They are chiefly agri-
cultural, and occupy the district which bears their name, in the state of Missouri. They are divided
into three principal branches, several of which have embraced Christianity, and have made con-
siderable progress in civilization.
The Mobile-Natches or Floridian Family comprises six principal independent nations, each
subdivided into several tribes. The Natchet, now almost extinct, were formerly very powerful ; the ex-
isting remnant is dispersed among the Creeks, Chickesaws, and others. They were particularly re-
markable for their monarchical government, their great civilization, and for the worship which they
rendered to the sun, in a temple where they maintained a perpetual fire. The Mtitkohget or Creeht
occupy several fertile valleys comprehended within the States of Alabama and Georgia, where they live
in towns and villages. They have made great progress in civilization, and have instituted schools
for the instruction of their children. They are divided into two principal branches. The Upper
Creeks, or Creeks properly so called, occupy the higher parts of Alabama, where they form a powerfiil
confederation, with a president styled Myco. The Lower Creeks, called also Semmvlet, occupy the
filains traversed by the river Flint ; thejr are much less civilized than the Creeks ; but are very war-
ike, and have for several years maintained an obstinate and destructive warfare with the military
force of the United States, who are endeavouring to subdue or remove them. The Chirkatam, a nu-
merous people, now united with the Yazoujc, live in the northern part of the State of Mississippi.
They have made rapid progress in civilization, and liave already collected themselves into large vil-
lages, where they live by cultivating the ground : at the beginning of the 18th century they were the
dominant people of this region. The Chaclaut or Chmtaut, called also Flatheadt, are a numerous agri-
cultural people, who live in the States of Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Alabama. The 6'Aero-
keet, a numerous race, whose territory comprises the north-west angle of Georgia, the north-east of
Alabama, and the south-east of Tennessee; but by a treaty made with the United States they haveagreed
to transport themselves to the west of the Mississippi, where a tract of country has been allotted
to them. In 1818, about a fourth part of the nation, preferring the wild life of their fathers, removed
to the banks of the Arkansas, while the rest abandoned the savage state, and adopted the religion
and the usages of their civilized neighbours. They now occupy commodious houses, and possess 70
villages. Some of them have well-cultivated farms, and large stocks of cattle; while others, devo-
ting themselves to mechanical arts, manufacture stufls, and possess flour and saw mills. The most of
them can read, write, and cypher ; and almost all speak English. They have established a library, a
museum, and a weekly journal, called the Cherokee Phfcnix, which is published by a Cherokee, in the
national language, with an English translation ; and in 1827 they formed and promulgated a constitu-
tion, under which their government is composed of three distinct powers, legislative, executive, and
Judicial, in imitation of that of the United States.
The Mohawk, Hlron, or Ikoquois Family, consist sofa great number of tribes, comprising the re-
maining descendants of much more numerous and powerful races. The Mohnuks, now reduced to a
small number, dwell partly near Niagara, and partly on the bay of Kenty. They formed part of the
confederation called the Five Nations. The other members were the Senecat, Onmuiagoes, Oiieidat,
Cayugat, Tutcururat, Canoyt, A/«Atra7if, and Nauticoket. The first five are named Maqttat by the early
Dutch voyagers, and Iroquois by the French. At the period of the French settlement of Canada,
the Five Nations occupied the country between Montreal and lake Champlain ; at the time of their
freatest power they. subjugated the Chippewayan family, and were always the allies of the English,
n 1794 most of tliem began to devote themselves to agriculture and the breeding of cattle. The Mo-
hawks of Canada have adopted the European costume. The AV necas, who are now the most numerous
of these races, though they do not exceed 1600 individuals, live in the states of New York and Ohio,
and make the nearest approach to the whites in their dress and manners. The Iluront, formerly a
powerful nation, to the east of the Huron, are now reduced to a small tribe, who live on the western
shore of lake St. Clair; while a small part of them occupy the village of Loretto, nine miles from
Quebec, where they have become catholics, and devoted themselves to agriculture.
The Lenhappe or Lenape Family. The Shauanos. once a numerous and wide-spread peopio,
have only a few small remnants on the Upper Wabash in Indiana, near the sources of the great
Miami in Ohio, and in Illinois. The Meqrutchaquet, one of their trilHjs, like the LCTites of old, have
the exclusive charge of their sacrifices and religious services ; while the Kikkapoot are noted for
their warlike propensity. The Sakis, Saukees, and Otloaamiet, called also Foiet, are two other
fragments of the same great nation ; who live along the Upper Mississippi and its atlluent the Ayooa.
They are the allies of the Sioux, are stationary, and cultivate maize. The Mianiit and the Jllinutt are
the best known of all the tril>es of this nation, to which seem also tol)€long the I'ottnicatnnieh. The
most of them live in Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan. The I'otlaicatameh and Winnehagoet have
sold to the United States all their lands south of the Wisconsin, with the exception of a few lots.
The I^enni- Lerinape or Linopea, named Dclaunres by the English, and Laupt by the French, were
formerly very numerous, and spread over a great part of the east coast of the I'liitcd States. The res-
mains of them now live in Indiana and Ohio. The Mnhicawii or Mohicajit, and the AU-naqui are the
two principal branchesof a numerous nation, who formerly lived in New England and New York. The
most of them, now calle<l the Sturkhridne Indiant, have united v. ith the Five Nations ; but a small num-
ber are still found at the east end of Long Island. The Minnakt or (iatpitient, formerly very nume-
rous, and spread over all the east coa.st of Cana<ia. New RrunswicU, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland,
are now found only on the south-west coast of Nova Scotia, and in the interior of Newf<iundlund,
where they are still savage idolaters, while the others have all become Christians, and made rapid
progress in civilization. The Ak'nnquint and the Ckipptuays are the two principal and best known
branches of a nation spread over Canada, in Michigan, Huron territory, and the district of MamlaniK
in the United States. They are always at war with the Sioux, and uk<; liro-arins. The Ktiitli-naut,
a numerous people, scattered over all Lower Canada, part of Labrador, and New South Wales, and
still farther west. The Stmiicelik live along the Severn, and the AMiti'iit, along the river and lake
which bear their name. The Vhippevynnt or Chepayant, whose numerous tribes are spread over
the basin of the Mackenzie, the Copi>crinine river, and part of that of the Tacoutelie-'resKo. The
Carriert, in New Caledonia. The Indiant, who dwell in the neiglliourhood of Santa Barbara in Cali-
fornia, belonging to this family, are few in number, but remarkable for their civilization.
The WaEash or Nootka, a very warlike nation, live in large towns on Qumlra's and Vancouver'*
Island, which from them would be much more appropriately and less awkwardly nameil Nootka
Island. 1 iu
The KorccHX or KAi.OfiiF. Kaiiii.y, to which belong the peopl« who live along the coast Tronx
Jakutat to Queen Charlottes Iklands, arc all remarkable fyr their courage, their iiKhistry, and their
Ingenuity and practical skill in the construction of their hou.ies, canoes, and iniplementi of war and
900 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Physical
flshlni^. They also construct drinking vessels, pipes, and other articles of a soft argillaceous stone ;
and these objects are at once symmetrical in form, and elaborately decorated with figures.
The Esqniif ADX consist of Ave principal nations, of which one belongs to Asia. Those of the new
world are divided into three principal branches, namely, the Karalits or Kalalits. who inhabit Green-
land ; the Esquimaux properly so called, who live on the north-east coast of Labrador; and the
Wettem Etquimatu, who wander near the mouths of the Mackenzie and the Coppermine rivers, and
other places along the Polar Basin. To this family belong also the Aleutiafu, who inhabit the long
chain of the Aleutian Lslands, and the western extremity of Alashka. The Jglemoutes or American
Chuckchee, live under the protection of Russia, along the Nussegak. Other tribes of the same nation are
found in the islands of Nuniwok and Stuart, and aloni; a part of the adjacent coast. Others, under the
name of Kiti'grws, occupy the American coast from Behring's Strait to Kotzebue's Gulf. Some live
in the Isle of Chuakak, known also by the names of Chibono, St. Lawrence, Sindow, and Clerk Island.
Some writers suppose the Esquimaux to be a part of the same original stock with the other Americans,
partly because there is some resemblance between them in features, partly from partial analogy of lan-
guage, and partly from a determination to merge the American in the Mongolian. It is obvious never-
theless, says Dr. Morton, that the continent of America was originally peopled, as it is yet, by a very
distinct race, and that the Esquimaux arriving in small and straggling parties from Asia, necessarily
adopted more or less of the language and customs of the people among whom they settled, or with
whom they came in contact. Hence the Esquimaux, and especially the Greenlanders. are to be re-
garded as a partially mixed race, amon;; whom the Mongolian physical character predominates,
while their language presents obvious analogies to that of the Chippewyans, who are their neigh-
bours to the south. — C Crania Americana, p. 63. )
The Caucasian or White races wlio have settled in America belong chiefly to the nations of Western
Europe. The Spaniards colonized Mexico, the northern, western, and central portions of South Ame-
rica, and part of the West Indies ; the Portuguese colonized Brazil ; and the English colonized the east-
ern part of North America. French settlements were also widely extended along the St. Lawrence and
Mississippi ; and in Canada the French still form two-tifths of the population unmixed. Numerous
Dutch colonists settled in New York and in New Jersey. To these have been added Swedes, Germans,
Swiss, Scots both Celtic and Saxon, and Irish, in great numbers ; and out of all these has been formed
the great Anglo-American family, which is now rapidly spreading over all the habitable portion of
North America.
African negroes, in large numbers, have been, during the last three centuries, imported into
America, as slaves. Pure negroes still form nearly a fifth of the total population ; while the races
sprung from their intermixture with the white and brown races are also very numerous. The slave-
holding states are the southern portion of the American Union, Texas, the Spanish, Danish, Dutch,
and French colonies, and Brazil ; in the last of which the slaves are particularly numerous, and of
the most ferocious character. All the negroes in the British possessions are now free, and have shewn
themselves, since they acquired their freedom, to be a peaceable and well-disposed people. The ne-
groes and mixed races of Hayti recovered their freedom, and established their national independence
during the period of the French Revolution ; but as yet they have made no very great or rapid pro-
gress in civilization.
Religion All the European colonists, and many of the aborigines profess Chris-
tianity, but several of the independent tribes are still addicted to fetichism, or to
what may be called sabeism or dualism. It is very remarkable, that among all the
tribes, however savage, we find an idea, more or less clear, of a Supreme Being,
who governs the heaven and the earth; of an evil spirit who shares with him the
dominion of nature ; and of the immortality of the soul, or rather, of a future state
of existence. Several of the tribes have priests or conjurers; some have neither; but
all believe in the existence of invisible beings and of a future life. Some represent
God under the form of a star ; some as an animal ; some, on the contrary, see him
only in the phenomena of nature. A great number of religious creeds, based on
supposed revelations, as well as the religions of the ancient Mexicans, Peruvians, and
Muyscas, have disappeared with the conversion to Christianity of those who pro-
fessed them ; but some part of the creed and religious practices of the three last-
mentioned nations, seem still to be preserved among their descendants. It is even
curious to observe, in the ancient worship of Peru, traces of the Hindoo trimurti ;
to meet with the doctrine of transmigration in the creed of the Tlascalteks ; to see
the Pastoux, in the centre of South America, living on vegetables, and abstaining from
flesh ; and to find among the Mexicans, traditions of the mother of mankind having
fallen from her estate of innocence and happiness ; of a great flood, in which a
single family escaped on a raft ; and of a pyramidal edifice raised by the pride of man-
kind, and destroyed by the wrath of the gods ; ceremonies of purification at the birth
of children ; images made of maize flour, and distributed in portions to the people
assembled in the temples ; confession of sins made by penitents ; and religious as-
sociations resembling those of the monks and nuns of Europe. At the arrival of the
Spaniards human blood flowed in the teocallis or temples of the Mexicans and the
Mayas; and the Peruvians oflPered at Cuzco, before the appearance of Manco-Capac,
all the cruel sacrifices of the Hindoos. Even the worship of the sun, introduced by
the Incas, though a milder form of religion, was not free from human sacrifices ;
thousands of human victims were immolated on the tomb of the monarch. The
cannibals of Brazil had a less sanguinary worship, and their creed bore a very distinct
impress of dualism, which is still met with among the people of this vast continent.
The Cahetes, however, are said to have had neither creed nor religious ceremonies.
The people of the Upper Orinoco, Atapapo, and Inirinda, have no other objects
of worship than the powers of nature. They give the name of Cachimana, or the
Geography.] AMERICA. 00?
Manitou, to the Great Spirit who rules the seasons, and provides the harvests. Be-
sides Cachimana there is an evil spirit, named Jolokiaino, who is less powerful, but
more cunning and more active. Along the banks of the Orinoco, says Humboldt,
there is no idol ; but the bottito, or sacred trumpet, is an object of veneration. As a
qualification for a person to be initiated into the mysteries of the botuto, and become
B piache or conjurer, he must be of pure morals, and remain in celibacy. The initiated
submit to flHgellations, fasts, and painful exercises. There is only a small number of
the sacred trumpets; the most celebrated of which is placed on a hill near the con-
fluence of the Tano and Rio Negro. Women are not allowed to see this marvellous
instrument ; and are even excluded from all the ceremonies of worship. If one of them
should happen to see the trumpet, she is put to death without pity.
The Sioux, the Chippeways, the Sakis, the Foxes, the Winebagoes, the Meno-
menes, and other tribes of North America, all believe, perhaps, in a Great Spirit;
but there is no individual among them who has not a favourite object of reverence,
in some animal, tree, herb, or root. Every cliief of a family, every old woman, and
almost every individual, has a collection of herbs and medicinal roots, which they
call the medicine bag, and regard as the sanctuary of so many divinities. They keep
it carefully in their tents, and never separate from it when they are at war, or on a
journey. Among several of these tribes, when they are settled for a portion of the
year, there are huts, where girls are placed to watch over the fire which is kept
burning in the centre, like the Roman vestals, the Peruvian virgins of the sun, the
guardians of the prytaneum at Athens, and the Guebres of Persia and India. It seems
to be considered as an emblem of the sun, or at least is consecrated to that vivifying
luminary.
The religion of the Araucanians, Natches, Choctaws, and some other tribes, is a
kind of Sabeism. The Cahans make the most extravagant gestures in addressing
their prayers to the Supreme Being, whom they implore every morning. The Knis-
tenaux regard as spirits the fogs which cover the marshes of their country. The
Chippewyans believe themselves to be descended from a dog, and consequently regard
that animal as sacred ; they represent the Creator of the world under the figure of a
bird, whose eyes flash lightning, and whose voice produces thunder. They have also
traditions of a great flood, and of the long life of the primitive human race.
Among several of the North American tribes, and even among some of those in the
South, fanaticism occasions scenes not less cruel than those with which the Hindoos
celebrate their Currack puja; but our space does not allow us to enumerate cere-
monies which are almost as various as the tribes that practise them.
Christianity is professed by all the European colonists, and by many Indian converts.
The Catholic Church is dominant and exclusive in Brazil and all Spanish America;
but in some of the more remote regions, the natives preserve their ancient idols along
with the images of the saints ; crown them with flowers, and address them in secret
prayers. There are also a great many Catholics in the United States and in Canada.
In English America, or the United States and British territories, all the various sects
of Protestants are found, and also a few Jews.
Divisions America is naturally divided into three great portions, namely. North
America, South America, and West Indies ; but, politically, it is divided into a num-
ber of independent states and territories, with the foreign possessions of European
powers. These we shall describe in the following order : 1. Russian America; 2.
British Continental Territory in North America ; 3. United States of North America ;
4. Republic of Texas ; 5. Mexico ; 6. California ; 7- Yuc^itan ; 8. United States of
Guatemala, or Central America; 9. New Granada ; 10. Venezuela ; 11. Equador ; 12.
Peru; 13. Bolivia; 14. Chili; 15. United States of the Rio de la Plata; 10. Para-
guay ; 17. Uruguay, or Banda Oriental ; 18. Empire of Brazil ; 19. British, French,
and Dutch Guiana; 20. Patagonia; 21. The Islands. 22. To these we shall add the
Arctic Regionn, or Greenland and Spitzberyen.
I. RUSSIAN AMERICA.
Tliii! territory comprehenrts the north-western portion of the continent, extending from HchrinK'*
Strait eastward to the meridian of Mount St. Klias, along both the Arctic and tlio I'aciflc Oceans ; and
from that mountain southwards, along the maritime chain of hills, till it touch the coast, iilK)ut hi''
A(Y N. lat., forming an area of about .T.K),000 square miles. It Is in the immediate possession of the Rus-
lian American Company ; and the settlement originated with a company or association of merchantf
formed at Irkutsk, who obtained from the Emjwror Taiil the exclusive privilege of trading fur peltry
In the Aleutian Islands and the adja/rent coasts. This privilege was extende<l l)y the Kmperor Alex-
ander over all Russian America. The capita' and principal factory was first e-tablished at Kodlak t
but the increasing scarcity of sea-otters In the Aleutian Islands, and the necessity of pursuing them
farther south, led the then governor to lay the foundation of New Arkhangel, which has now becnm*
the capital. Th« Russian dominion, however, oyer th» vast iolitudwi of this region is mersly nonilna).
W2 PESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [British
Some of the tribes who live along the coasts, sell or barter furs with the Russians, and acknowledge
the sovereignty of the empire ; but most of them, as well as those in the interior, are quite indepen-
dent. We may even say that the greater part of tlio interior is quite unknown to the Russians, who
possess merely some small establishments on the coast, and some posts surrounded with ditches and
palisades, which are dignified with the title of forts. New Jlrkhannel, the capital, situate on the west
coast of Sitka Island, in N. lat. 57° 3', and W. long. 135° 13', is a town with about lOOO inhabitants, and
contains the boards and warehouses of the Company. The thermometer falls below 28° Fahrenheit in
January and February, whicli are the coldest months ; the mean temperature of these months is about
34° ; in August it is 57° 7'. The Russian.'^ have also a settlement at Bodega, on the coast of California,
38° 30' N. lat., where they cultivate a fertile tract which extends several miles inland. The islands
along the coasts, tvithin the Russian limits, are : — Quee^i Charlotte's Island, Prince of Wales' Island,
Sitka, AdmiraUy, Kaue, Mo^itastw, Kodiak, and the long chain of the Aleutian Islands, which extend
from Alashka to Kamtschatka, a distance of about GOO miles, and consist apparently of the summits of
a range of submarine volcanic mountains, several of which are In constant activity. Sehring's Island,
Attoo, Oonimack, and OonaUuhka, are the principal. Oonimack contains enoimous volcanoes, one
of which. Chichaldinsk, is about 8083 feet above the level of the sea. The volcano of Makouchinsk, in
Oonalashka, rises to 5491 feet. All the islands present a barren aspect, with high and conical sur-
faces, which are covered with snow during great part of the year. Vegetation is Bcanty, and there
are no trees or plants larger than shrubs and bushes. The inhabitants are of a middle size, of a dark
brown complexion, and apparently intermediate between the Mongolian and the American races.
Their chief occupation used to be hunting sea-otters, sea-lions, and seals ; but the unsparing massacre
«f these animals has now made them very scarce.
II. BRITISH CONTINENTAL TERBITORY
IN NORTH AMERICA.
This region comprises the Hudson's Bay Company's Territories, Canada, New
Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Honduras.
The Territory of the Hudso^i's Bay Company includes Labrador and Eatt Monte, on the east side, and
New North Wales and New South Wales, on the west side of Hudson's Bay, with the interior countries
farther west as far as the Arctic and Pacific Oceans, and the Russian frontier. The western portion
of this dreary country is intersected by numerous rivers, lakes, and marshes ; the ground is every
where barren and desolate ; the sea is open only from the beginning of July till the end of September ;
and, such is the severity of the climate, that even in 67° N. lat. the lakes freeze eight feet thick ; brandy
congeals; rocks split with a noise resembling that of the loudest artillery, and the shattered fragments
fly to an amazing distance. The weather is capricious, and the changes sudden. The aurora borealis
sometimes sheds a light equal to that of the full moon. There is great abundance of berry-bearing
shrubs, and culinary herbs. In some places terebinthines are common, and other trees attain a con-
siderable size. On Red River different kinds of culture succeed well. Animals are somewhat nume-
rous, as the buffalo, rein-deer, musk ox, fallow-deer, beaver, wolf, fox, catamount, wild cat, white,
black, and brown bears, wolverine, otter, racoon, musk rat, mink, pine-martin, ermine, porcupine,
hare, various squirrels, and mice. The northern and eastern coasts are inhabited by Mongolian
tribes of the Esquimaux family ; the interior and southern portions, by aboriginal Americans, who
all live by hunting and fishing, and by exchanging the produce with the European traders. The fur
trade of the region is carried on by the Hudson's Bay Company, whose head-quarters and principal
depot is York Factory, 5 miles above the mouth of Hayes River, in N. lat. 57° and W. long. 92° 26'.
The Company has nearly 1000 persons in its employment ; and has formed a settlement on Red River,
for the retired officers and servants.
Labrador is a triangular peninsula, bounded on the east by Davis* Straits ; on the south, by Canada
and the gulf of St. Lawrence ; and on the west, by Hudson's Bay. But it is as cold and barren as the
countries above described; and is, besides, constantly enveloped in fogs. The interior, however, is
somewhat milder than the coasts, and produces various trees, with celery, and other plants. The sur-
face is amass of mountains and rocks, interspersed with innumerable lakes and rivers, which abound
with the best species of fish. The country swarms with beavers and rein-deer, and bears abound.
The eider-duck and innumerable other birds frequent the eastern coasts. The Moravian brethren
have established three settlements, at Nain, Okkak, a.nd. Hoffenthal ; and, besides preaching the gospel,
have taught the Esquimaux many of the useful arts of life, and thereby partially civilized all within
their infiuence.
§ 1. Canada.
Situation and Extent. — This extensive region is situate between 42° and 51°
N. lat. and 61° and 81° VV. long. ; being about 1400 miles in length from east to
west, and varying in breadth from 200 to 400. In 1791 it was divided into the two
provinces of Lower and Upper Canada, which have been again united, for legislative
purposes, in the present year (1841). Canada fo.'-ms a long narrow tract of country,
extending south-westward from the sea, along both sides of the river St. Lawrence,
as far as the 45° N. lat , and from the point where that parallel crosses the river, it
stretches westward along the northern bank of the Cataraqui, and the northern shores
of the lakes Ontario, Erie, Huron and Superior, including the peninsula formed by
Lake Huron on the west, and Erie and Ontario on the south and south-east. The
river Ottawa forms the common boundary between the two provinces through the
greater part of its course.
General Aspect. — Canada is intersected by mountainous ridges, which extend
from the coast far into the interior, and between these lie extensive valleys, which
are generally fertile. On the northern shore of the St. Lawrence a ridge of heights
rises ne-ar the eastern extremity of Lower Canada, which stretches close to the river
for upwards of 100 miles, and forms its rugged banks as far as Cape Tourment, about
thiity miles below Quebec. Here the ridge, taking a direction west-south-west, ter-
miiiatcs on the river Ottawa, about thirty-eight leagues above its confluence with
Territory.] AMERICA. 908
the St. Lawrence, after extending from Cape Tourment along the course of the
river about 300 miles. The tract of country lying between it and the St. Lawrence,
which may be estimated at from fifteen to thirty miles in breadth, is beautifully pic-
turesque, well watered, and level. Towards the west, more especially, it may be
considered, in respect of population, soil, and skilful cultivation, as the choicest part
of the province.
That part of Canada which lies on the north side of this ridge is comprehended
within the Ottawa river on the north-west, the 81st parallel of west longitude, and
the 52d of north latitude. It is intersected by another and higher range of moim-
tains, which runs into the interior in a north-west direction, at the distance of about
200 miles from the former ridge, and which forms the watershed by which the tri-
butary streams of the St. Lawrence are divided from those that fall into Hudson's
Bay. Of this extensive wilderness, which has been but imperfectly explored, we
know only that it is covered with immense forests, whose dreary solitudes are inter-
rupted merely by hunting parties of wandering savages.
On the south side of the St. Lawrence, a ridge commences nearly 100 miles
below Quebec, which takes a south-west direction; and opposite to this city,
is about ten leagues distant from the river. The intervening country is a fertile
and well-cultivated level, with several insulated hills, or rather rocks, of a singular
form, and thinly covered with small trees near their summits. The same chain, conti-
nuing in a south-west direction, crosses the boundary line between Canada and the
United States to the west of Lake Memphremagog, and proceeds in the same course
until it meets with the Hudson river. The tract between this ridge and the St.
Lawrence, with the exception of some occasional ridges, is nearly level, and, from
the richness of its soil, is covered with populous and flourishing settlements.
Beyond this ridge, at the distance of about fifty miles, is another and a higher
range, generally denominated the Land's Height, because it divides the tributary
streams of the St Lawrence from those which flow towards the Atlantic Ocean ; and
its summit is also supposed to constitute the boundary line between the territories of
Great Britain and the United States. This range of mountains commences near
Cape Rosier, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and, stretching into the interior in a direc-
tion nearly parallel with the course of the river, and with the former chain, ter-
minates on the eastern branch of the Connecticut river, being in length nearly 400
miles. The country lying between these two ridges varies in its quality and ferti-
lity, according to its peculiar situation. From the 45th degree of north latitude,
which is the boundary line between Canada and the United States, to the river
Chaudiere, within a few miles of Quebec, there is a tract of excellent and fertile
land, divided mostly into townships, many of which are occupied and under culti-
vation. This part of the country, from its luxuriant soil, and from the great ad-
vantage of being contiguous to the United States, and also from containing the
main roads and principal points of communication between the two territories, will
probably become the most flourishing portion of the province. From the river Chau-
diere eastward to Lake Temiscouata the land is broken, irregular, and of an indiffer-
ent quality, interspersed, however, with some good and productive tracts, of which
the returns would amply repay the expenses of cultivation. From Lake Temis-
couata eastward to Cape Rosier, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the country has been
but partially explored. But it appears generally to be of a rugged and mountainous
character; and such parts of it as are known present an appearance of sterility which
holds out no encouragement to the labours of the farmer. On the banks of the St.
Lawrence, however, some fertile spots are to be found, on which settlements might
be established with advantage. On the south side of the ridge, down to the shores
of Gaspe and Chaleurs Bay, the country is generally barren and mountainous, inter-
spersed with occasional spots of excellent land, some of which, especially those on
the shores of Chaleurs Bay, are well inhabited. They contain about 3000 inhabitants,
most of whom, being employed in the fisheries, bestow comparatively little attention
on agriculture.
That portion of Upper Canada which has been laid out into townships extends
from the eastern frontier along the northern shore of the river St. Lawrence, Lake
Ontario, Lake Erie, Lake St. Clair, and the communication between it and Lake
Huron, in length about 370 miles ; and its breadth towards the north varies from 40
to 50 miles. Throughout the whole of this tract the soil is excellent, and is not ex-
ceeded in fertility by any other part of the American continent. It generally consists
of a fine dark loam, mixed with a rich vegetable mould ; but it is so hapt)ily varied ni
to present situations adapted to every species of produce. For about 170 miles from
904 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [British
the eatterii frontier of the province, to the head of the Bay of Quinte, on Lake Ontario,
the land is spread out into an almost uniform level of great beauty, which rises only
a few feet from the bank of the St. Lawrence. It is well watered in almost every
direction by numerous streams, whii-h are generally navigable for boats and canoes,
and which, at the same time, present the most desirable situations for the erection of
machinery. From the Bay of Qiiinte, at the distance of about 40 miles from the
eastern shores of Lake Ontario, to its western extremity, runs a longitudinal ridge
of no great elevation, a)id of inconsiderable breadth. Another ridge, called the
Queenstown Heights, extends from this point eastward along the southern shores of
Lake Ontario, between these and Lake Erie, into the State of New York. This
range never rises in any part more than 160 yards above the level of the lake. The
country which lies between the two lakes of Ontario and Erie, and which extends
round the western extremity of Lake Ontario to the Bay of Quinte, comprehending
the Newcastle, the Home, and the Niagara districts, is watered by a number of large
and small streams. The land throughout is uncommonly rich and fertile, and already
contains a number of flourishing settlements. A road leads from Toronto, near the
western extremity of Lake Ontario, and the capital of Upper Canada, to Lake Simcoe,
which is 40 miles long and 12 broad; and aloii^' this road a great number of emigrants
have been settled.
The remaining part of the tract we have been describing, which extends along the
northern shores of Lake Erie, from the river Ouse to the lake and river of St. Clair,
is an uninterrupted level, abounding in the most advantageous situations for settle-
ments ; and those portions of it which are already occupied and under tillage equal any
part of either province in the plentiful crops and thriving farms with which they abound.
That portion of the country which lies between Lake Erie and Lake St. Clair is per-
haps the most delightful in the whole province. The fertility of the soil, the diversi-
fied and luxuriant scene which everywhere opens to the view, the excellent fish which
abound in the rivers, and the profusion of game to be found in the woods, combine to
attract a continual supply of new settlers to this higlily favoured tract.
Climate In Canada, the opposite extremes of heat and cold are felt in all their
excess. The greatest heat experienced during the summer is from 96° to 102° of
Fahrenheit in the shade ; but the usual summer heat is about 80° or 82°. In winter
the thermometer is sometimes 60° of Fahrenheit below the freezing point, although
it never continues above one or two days so low ; and it is not above once or
twice in a season that this excessive cold is felt. In the winter of 1790 the
mercury was frozen at Quebec. The medium temperature of winter may be esti-
mated in general to be from 20° above to 25° below zero. The pure atmosphere and
cloudless sky which always accompany this intense frost make it both pleasant and
healthy, and render its effects on the human body much less severe than when the
atmosphere is loaded with vapours. In the vicinity of the sea, towards the eastern
coast of Lower Canada, fogs are frequently brought from the Gulf of St. Lawrence
by the easterly wind ; but to the westward they seldom prevail, and even at Quebec
they are almost unknown. In Canada, the spring, summer, and autumn are compre-
hended in five months, from May till September ; the rest of the year may be said
to consist wholly of winter. In October frost begins to be felt, although during the
day the rays of the sun still keep the weather tolerably warm. In the succeeding
month of November the frost increases in rigour, and one snow-storm succeeds an-
other until the whole face of the country is covered, and the eye looks in vain for one
solitary spot of verdure whereon to rest. These storms are generally accompanied
by a violent wind, which, driving along the snow with immense velocity, renders
them much more gloomy and terrific. The most severe snow-storms occur in No-
vember, and generally come from the north-east, from the frozen regions of Hudson's
Bay and Labrador. This gloomy and disagreeable weather frequently continues till
the middle or latter end of December, when the atmosphere clears ; an intense frost
then succeeds, the sky becomes serene, pure, and frosty, and of a bright azure hue,
and this cold and clear weather generally lasts till May. The snow covers the ground
to the depth of several feet, so that wheel-carriages can no longer be used. Their
place is supplied by carioles, a sort of sledges, which, being placed on iron-runners,
resembling in form the irons of a pair of skaits, pass over the hardened snow without
sinking deep. These carriages are generally light open vehicles, drawn by one horse,
to which the snow, after it is trodden for some time, and hardened by the frost, offers
very little resistance ; and in them the Canadians travel in the most agreeable manner,
and with inconceivable rapidity. So light is thedraught, that the same horse will
go in one day eighty, and sometimes ninety miles; and the inhabitants of this cold
Tebritoby.] AMERICA. COS
climate always take advantage of the winter, when they can travel so easily and
expeditiously, to visit their friends who live at a distance. Covered carioles are some-
times used to protect the travellers from the weather; but, in general, open carriages
ere preferred.
About the beginning of December all the small rivers are completely frozen over
and covered with snow. Even the great river St. Lawrence is arrested in its course,
and from the beginning of December till the middle of April the navigable communi-
cation is interrupted by the frost. During this period the river from Quebec to
Kingston, and between the great lakes, except the Niagara falls and rapids, is wholly
frozen over. The great lakes are never entirely covered with ice ; but the ice usually
shuts up all the bays and inlets, and extends many miles towards the centre of these
inland seas. In Lake Superior, which is farthest to the north, the ice extends 70
miles from the shore. The river is seldom frozen over below Quebec ; but the force
of the tides is continually detaching the ice from its shores, and these immense
masses are kept in such constant agitation that navigation is rendered quite im-
practicable. In some seasons, though rarely, the river is frozen completely over
below Quebec ; an event which happens when large masses of ice come in contact,
and fill the whole space between the opposite banks, in consequence of which the
whole becomes stationary. If this takes place ait neap tides, and in calm weather, the
intense frost gives it solidity before it can be deranged by the rising tides; and when
it has stood for some days, it remains firm and immovable, till it is dissolved and
broken up by the warmth of the April sun. When the river is frozen over, it is ot
great advantage both to the inhabitants of Quebec and to those of the adjacent coun-
try, as it affords an easy mode of transporting into the town all sorts ot bulky com-
modities, such as fire-wood and other produce. It thus reduces the price of these
necessary articles in Quebec, while, by diminishing the price of carriage, it opens to
the produce of the most distant parts of the country a quick and easy access to all
the most eligible markets.
The snow begins to melt in April, and the thaw is so rapid that it generally disap-
pears by the end of the second or third week. Vegetation then resumes its suspended
powers ; the fields are clothed with verdure, and spring can scarcely be said to exist
before summer arrives. In Upper Canada the winters are much shorter than in Lower
Canada, and the cold is not so intense. The spring opens, and the labours of the farmer
commence six weeks or two months earlier than in the neighbourhood of Quebec.
The climate is not liable to the same extremes either of beat or cold, and the weather
in autumn is usually favourable for securing all the late crops.
Natural Pkoductions The greater portion of Canada is still covered with
forests. The pine family and various species of evergreens are the predominant species;
but there are also various other kinds, as the silver and American firs, Weymouth
and Canadian pines, white cedar, maple, birch, ash, bass-wood, hickory, wild cherry,
and numerous species of oak. From the sap of the maple, as it rises in spring, sugar
is made in considerable quantity ; the districts that produce it are called sugaries, and
are considered a valuable kind of property. Most of the oaks are unfit for ship-build-
ing ; but the species called the live-oak, which grows in the warmer part of the country,
is said to be well adapted for this purpose. The various kinds of wood, which are
available for no other purpose, serve to supply the pot and pearl ash manufactories.
Tobacco, hemp, and flax, the different kinds of grain and pulse, are successfully culti-
vated; and likewise all the common fruits and vegetables of England. Melons of various
kinds abound, and are probably native ; also the strawberry and raspberry, the latter of
which grows luxuriantly in the woods. Pears and apples succeed well, both at Quebec
end Montreal ; and, on the shores of Lake Erie, the grape, the peach, and the necta-
rine, as well as all the hardier kinds of fruit, arrive at the greatest perfection. Among
the wild animals are the American elk, fallow-deer, bear, wolf, fox, wild cat, racoon,
martin, otter, various species of the ferret and weazel, the beaver, bare, grey and
red squirrel ; and in the more southern parts, the buffalo and the roebuck. Bears
usually hylwirnate, if the season has enabled them to acquire sufTicient fat ; if not,
they travel southward. Beeves, sheep, swine, and other domestic animals, multi-
ply with astonishing rapidity, and seem to improve by transportation to America.
Among the birds may be noticed the wild pigeon, quail, partridge, grouse of vuriotis
kinds, and numerous aquatic birds. One kind of humming-bird is indigenous, and
may be seen in the Quebec gardens. Fish in great variety and iitHindance are found
in the lakes and rivers; the sturgeon is comniftti, and the salmon and herring fish-
eries are considerable ; seals are also met with occasionally in Wiipe f>Iioalt, iii the
lower part of the St. Laurence. Fi^h-oil i* becoming an extensive article ot export,
906 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [British
as well as hides and horns. The rattlesnake is also occasionally met with. Canada
does not seem to be rich in minerals ; but iron abounds in some districts ; veins of
argentiferous lead have been met with at St. Paul's bay, 50 miles below Quebec ;
and coals, salt, and sulphur, are known to exist in the country.
People. — The greater part of the population of Lower Canada is of French ori-
gin; in 1831 the French inhabitants exceeded 400,000. They are frugal, honest, in-
dustrious, and hospitable ; but cling tenaciously to old customs and prejudices. They
retain indeed all the characteristics of the old French, and present the spectacle of an
old, uneducated, stationary society, in the midst of a new and rapidly-advancing coun-
try. A few families possess large properties ; but among the great mass of the habitans,
as they are called, there is an almost uniform equality of condition, property, and igno-
rance. They are a hard-working people ; and but very few of them can read or write.
At the colleges and schools between 200 and 300 annually finish their education, and
are dispersed throughout the community, chiefly as notaries and surgeons ; where they
possess great influence over their uneducated neighbours ; and generally take the lead in
all public matters. The rest of the population is chiefly of British origin, with the in-
termixture of a few foreigners ; and to them is owing the great development of the
productive resources of the colony. Their number is constantly increasing by immi-
gration from Europe ; in the year ending 1845, the number of immigrants amounted
to 49,944 ; but of these more than a half subsequently proceeded to the United
States, Native Indians still occupy portions of territory along the Lakes Huron
and Superior, and along the whole extent of the northern boundary ; but their
number is rapidly diminishing ; and little or no success has attended the various
efforts made to introduce civihzation among them and to improve their condition.
About l-38th part of the area of the province is estimated to be under some sort
of cultivation, and is divided into townships, or signories. The latter were created by
the French Government in favour of certain leading persons, who were bound to grant
or ' concede' a portion to any applicant ; the seigneur's profit being derived from
payment of a small rent, or from astricted services of the tenant ; from one-twelfth
of the corn ground at the seignorial mill ; and from a fine on the transference of the
property otherwise than by inheritance. To this system it is owing that the French
population has been confined to a comparatively small extent of territory, and has
never amalgamated with the British ; for by its enabling every person to obtain a
portion of land without any immediate outlay, young men were tempted to remain at
home; and being subject to feudal regulations and services, the occupiers were bound
to a routine system of cultivation. Hence, the French Canadians exhibit a singular
want of activity and enterprise ; and their portion of the province has a dense and
poor population, strongly attached to ancient habits. Under British rule various
methods of granting land have been practised ; but it is now all disposed of by auction
sales, at which the price is instantly payable.
With respect to religion, the French colonists are all Catholics ; their clergy are
numerous, and are under the spiritual jurisdiction of the Bishop of Quebec, who is paid
by Government. The Catholics have also a few female monastic establishments, and
several public schools and colleges, where not only their clergy, but also considerable
numbers of the habitans are educated. There is likewise an English Bishop of Quebec,
appointed by the Crown, with an archdeacon and clergymen in Lower Canada, and two
archdeacons and forty clergymen in Upper Canada. Episcopacy, however, is not the
prevalent form of church government ; there are a great many Protestant Dissenters,
who have places of worship and ministers in various parts of the province. The ministers
of the Church of Scotland are paid partly by Government, and partly by their congre-
gations ; the other sects support their own clergy. The system, and the means of
elementary education throughout the colony are still very imperfect. The Roman
Catholics have several endowed academic seminaries ; but there exists no means of
college education for Protestants in Lower Canada, so that many young men are an-
nually drawn, for that purpose, into the United States ; but in Upper Canada there
is a college and royal grammar school at Toronto, with upwards of 100 pupils. A
college also for the education of ministers of the Church of Scotland is in the course
of being established at Kingston, under the patronage, and with the assistance, of the
General Assembly of the Church of Scotland ; and, no doubt, the literary classes
of the institution will be made available for lay pupils.
Government The government of both provinces is vested in a governor-gene-
ral appointed by the Crown, and assisted by a council. Formerly there was a legis-
lative assembly for each province ; but, by an act of the British parliament, these have
been united into one assembly, which meets at Kingston in Upper Canada. For ad-
TtRRiTORY.] AMERICA. 907
niiiiistrative purposes the country is divided into districts, which are subdivided into
counties, parishes, and townships. Each district has its own judges, subject to the
general court of appeal ; a sheriff, and a grand voyer, or inspector of the roads, whose
duty it is to open new roads, and to see the established roads kept in repair. The
legislative assembly has the exclusive right of raising money for the internal expenses
of the colony.
Commerce. — The trade of Canada, from the period of its conquest by Great Britain,
was regulated by the strict maxims of colonial monopoly. The St. Lawrence was rigid-
ly closed against the entrance of all foreign vessels, nor was any Canadian vessel al-
lowed to enter a foreign port. But the prosperity of the colony during its infancy
was not materially obstructed by these restrictions, as the mother country offered at
all times an ample and advantageous outlet for its surplus produce. After the United
States achieved their independence, their vessels were excluded from the ports
of the British colonies ; and Canada was rewarded for its loyalty by the exclusive
privilege of supplying the West India islands with lumber, and provisions, namely
wheat, flour, biscuits, beef, pork, &c In this manner, as the colony was originally
injured for the supposed advantage of the mother country, one colony was by this
enactment injured in order to benefit another. The neighbouring country of Ame-
rica is the natural resort of the West Indies for lumber and provisions. The voyage
from New York or New Orleans to Jamaica is not more than 1000 or 600 miles,
wliile from Quebec or Montreal the distance must be above 2000 miles ; the freight
of lumber and provisions, which forms a great part of the expense, must be greatly
enhanced by the length of the voyage from Quebec, and still more if the articles are
shipped from the United States to Canada, and thence re-shipped for the West In-
dies. The effect of this regulation therefore is greatly to raise the price of these
necessary articles to the West India planter, to increase the expenses of sugar culti-
vation, and to lay the proprietors of Jamaica under contribution for the profit of the
Canadian husbandman or wood-cutter. The annual expense of these restrictions to
the West India planters is estimated by themselves at £1,392,353, which is, according
to the same estimate, 5s. 6|d. of additional cost on every hundredweight of sugar ;
and thus the wisdom of monopoly cannot compass, nor does it indeed aim at, any
higher end than to benefit one part of the empire by injuring another. By 3 and 6
Geo. IV., these regulations were so far relaxed that the wheat and lumber of the
United States were allowed to be imported directly into the West India islands on
payment of certain duties ; and an act which was passed in 1831 repealed all the import
duties on provisions and lumber imported from the United States into the Canadas, and
gave to these colonies all the advantages of a free trade. It does not appear, however,
that the Canadas ever possessed a sufficient supply of lumber and provisions for the
demands of the West India islands. The natural intercourse between the West Indies
and the United States was indeed greatly interrupted by these restrictions, and the
countervailing restrictions of the United States. Still considerable supplies have
always been imported from the latter country. Of late years, indeed, owing partly to
the retaliation of America, the trade was occasionally obstructed, and large supplies
of lumber and provisions were received from Canada, to the benefit of the wood-cutters
a.id husbandmen of that country, and to the proportional injury of the West India
planter.
With a view also to the improvement of her colonies, the mother country con-
sented to sacrifice an important branch of her own trade with the north of Europe.
Her commerce with those countries, namely, Russia, Norway, Sweden, and Den-
mark, consisted in the excliango of her manufactures for their rude produce ; and
among her imports from Norway, Sweden, and the countries contiguous to the
Baltic, timber was a staple article. The exchange was conducted on fair and liberal
principles ; it was mutually advantageous to both countries, aiui gave rise to an ex-
tensive and flourishing trade, which employed about 428,000 tons of British shipping.
In 1809 the duties on timber imported from our North American colonies were en-
tirely repealed; while the duties on timber imported from the north of Europe were
largely increased, and, by successive additions, were raised to £3 : 5s. per load. The
repeal of this duty greatly augmented the importation of Canadian tiuiber, and the
general trade of the colony with great Britain.
But this extension of the colonial trade was purchased by the sacrifice of the tim-
ber trade with the north of Europe, which now almost entirely ctasid, under the
withering influence of proliibitory duties. Canada profited exactly in proportion as
t;rcat Britain was injured. For the supposed litncfit of the cohmy. the mother
country was compelled to bu) the inferior timber of a distant province :it n high price,
DOS DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Britmh
in place oflhe timber of Norway, of a better quality and at a lower price ; and thus,
here as everywhere else, we recognise the evil genius of monopoly stunting the na-
tural progress of trade, by swelling out certain branches of it to an unnatural growth,
and rooting up others. It may be also in this case doubted whether monopoly has
been even subservient to its own immediate ends, and whether the undue encourage-
ment given to the wood trade of the Canadas did not tend to obstruct rather than
to promote the progress of the colony. In all newly settled countries the great and
the natural employment is agriculture, which generally absorbs all the capital, and
occupies all the superfluous hands which can be procured. The consequence is an
ample and continually increasing supply of the means of subsistence ; a great demand
for labour, and high wages ; and a constant and rapid increase of inhabitants. Thus
the colony advances in population and in wealth ; cultivation is spread over its desert
wastes; there is a great demand for labour, and ample means for its support ; and all
classes of the community enjoy ease and comfort. But there would be no demand for
labour, nor any high wages, unless the fund for paying these wages were previously
procured ; for no one would seek to purchase if he had not the means of paying the
price ; and hence it is evident that agriculture, by providing the fund for the support of
labour, namely, a surplus supply of subsistence, is the spring of all this prosperity ; and
that, the more abundantly its produce increases, the greater will be the increase of
inhabitants, and the more rapidly will the colony advance in wealth and greatness. In
this view, then, the undue encouragement given by the British legislature to the
wood trade of the Canadas, by diverting the industry of the country from agricul-
ture to less beneficial objects, is calculated to retard the growth of the colony, and
to render it less rich and populous than it would have been under a more free and
liberal policy. The clearing of the country is not aided, as might at first be sup-
posed, by the efforts of the Canadian wood-cutter or lumberer. It is only the tallest
and the finest trees which he selects, and not one in a thousand is esteemed suitable
to his purpose ; while it is the practice of the farmer svho clears the land for cultiva-
tion to consume all the trees on the spot. The author of the Statistical Sketches of
Upper Canada (the Backwoodsman), though he argues strongly in favour of the
existing monopoly, states, among the other pernicious effects of the trade, that •' it
draws the cultivators from their legitimate occupations, and makes them neglect the
certainty of earning a competence by a steady perseverance in their agricultural pur-
suits, for a vision of wealth never to be realised." Mr. Macgregor, in his late valu-
able work on the British colonies, though he is decidedly in favour of the forced ex-
portation of timber from Canada, observes that " the trees cut down for the timber
of commerce are not of the smallest importance in respect to clearing the lands, al-
though I have heard it urged in England as an argument in favour of the timber
trade." In another part of his work, which treats of Prince Edward's Island, he ob-
serves : " The timber trade has been for many years of some importance, by em-
ploying a number of ships and men ; but as regards the prosperity of the colony, it
must be considered rather as an impediment to its improvement than an advantage,
by diverting the inhabitants from agriculture, demoralizing their habits, and from its
enabling them to procure ardent spirits with little difficulty, which in too many in-
stances has led to drunkenness, poverty, and loss of health." It is a general remark,
that in all cases where the new settlers have been diverted from agriculture by the
timber trade, the fisheries, or any other object, the progress of the colony has been
retarded, just as the Portuguese and Spanish colonies in Brazil and Peru were im-
poverished by the mining speculations of the early settlers. Agriculture is the true
mine of wealth all over the world ; and it cannot be neglected for other objects, how-
ever plausible, without impairing the national prosperity.
The timber trade is attended with other disadvantages. The wood-cutters are gene-
rally men of dissolute habits, and in every respect an inferior class to the quiet, indus-
trious cultivators of the soil. Macgregor gives a very unfavourable account of their
morality and mode of life. " After selling and delivering up their rafts," he observes,
" they pass some weeks in idle indulgence, drinking, smoking, and dashing off in a
long coat, flashy waistcoat and trousers, Wellington or Hessian boots, a handkerchief
of many colours round the neck, a watch with a gold tinsel chain and numberless
brass seals, and an umbrella." After squandering their money, they return to the
woods before winter to resume their laborious pursuits. The life of a lumberer thus
alternates between dissipation and extreme hardship. He spends the winter in the
depth of the forest, under the imperfect shelter of his wooden habitation ; and in
ppring when the rivers are enlarged by the melting of the snows, he is engaged in
floating the timber which he has collected down the swelling stream. The water
Territory.] AMERICA. 909
at this season is extremely cold, yet be is day after day wet up to the middle, from
the time that the floating commences till the timber is delivered to the merchants,
which seldom occupies less than a month or six weeks. This constant immersion of
the body in snow-water undermines the constitution, occasions severe rheumatism
and other disorders, and at last brings on general debility and premature old age. In
no view, therefore, in which it can be considered is this trade deserving of any spe-
cial favour.
Furs have been a staple article of the Canadian trade from the first settlement of
the colony. These were originally procured from the Indians by the coureurs des bois,
who penetrated into the remote wilds of the interior, in exchange for shot, brandy, red
cloths, knives, hatchets, trinkets, and a few other articles of European manufacture,
and were brought to Three Rivers and Montreal. The French afterwards carried on
the trade by means of licences granted to a limited number of gentlemen and old offi-
cers, any interference with whose privileges was forbidden on pain of death. From
twenty to thirty canoes, each carrying from six to seven men, were employed in pro-
curing supplies ; and they were usually accompanied in their return by fifty or more
canoes of Hurons and Ottawais, who descended to Montreal, for the purpose of selling
their cargoes to more advantage than at Michilimakinnak. The fur traders are ex-
posed to many perils and hardships. It is only in bleak, wild, and snowy deserts,
which abound in animals requiring a thick covering to protect them from the inclemen-
cy of the seasons, that furs of any value are to be found ; and the trader has to brave
the dangers of savage tribes, inland seas, deep and trackless forests, cataracts, and
rapids. He has to make his way through the ice and the snows of winter, and amid
every species of annoyance in summer from the attacks of mosquitoes and other va-
rieties of tormenting insects. All these hardships, however, are voluntarily endured
by private adventurers, by whom, after the conquest of Canada, the fur trade was
carried on, aided by the coureurs dea bois. Among these rude adventurers in the
interior of the desert, and beyond the reach of legal authority, jealousies and quar-
rels, followed by scenes of violence, frequently took place, till they were at length
associated, by the exertions of the late Sir Alexander Mackenzie, and formed into
the famous North West Fur Company of Montreal. By this company the fur trade
has been prosecuted with extraordinary vigour ; and a spirit of enterprise has been
infused into its numerous servants, under the influence of which they have surmounted
fatigue and danger, and penetrated into the remotest extremities of the continent.
The American expedition of Captains Lewis and Clerk, who ascended the Mississippi,
and, crossing the Rocky Mountains, penetrated to the Pacific Ocean, has been already
fully detailed by these enterprising travellers. Since this period the bold adventurers
of the North West Company, eagerly embracing every opportunity to extend their
trade, have established a line of stations or forts from Canada to the mouth of the
Columbia river on the Pacific Ocean. There is from Canada, in a north-west direc-
tion, an imperfect water communication for about 1590 miles into the American wilder-
ness to Cumberland House, a fort and storehouse of the North West Company This
communication is carried on from the St. Lawrence, through the great Lakes Erie,
Huron, Superior, the Lake of the Woods, Winnipeg Lake, and by intermediate
rivers, occasionally interrupted by rapids, through which the light craft employed in
the service are pushed l)y the unrivalled skill and courage of the Canadian boatmen,
and by cataracts, past which the boats must be carried for several miles. At Cumber-
land House the river Athapescow, descending from the Rocky Mountains, runs into
one of this series of lakes. This river is asceiuled to its source in small boats; and
a land journey across the great mountain barrier which separates the streams that
flow westward into the Pacific from those that flow eastward into the Atlantic
Ocean, brir>gs the travellers to the sources of the Columbia, on which they embark,
and descend the stream to its mouth in the Pacific Ocean. In this perilous jour-
ney, of from 4000 to 3000 miles, they are exposed to many accidents in travelling
between the distant stations of the company, and frequently encounter the hos-
tility of the savage tribes scattered over the desert. Courage, raininess, and pre-
sence of mind, are (jualities whidi are greatly in request among the traders. 'I hey
always carry with them tlie formidable rifle, with which they take a certain and
deadly aim, depending on it as they do both for safety and for food. They are thus
equally prepared to trade or to fiKht with their savage customers, arul to pay them
for their furs either in gold or lead. After Lord Selkirk established his coioiiy on
Red River, to which, from the beginning, the North West Company showed an inve-
terate hostility, long, obstinate, imd bloody contests took place between these rival
traders. Regular hostilities were carried on, lives were lost and prisoners taken; and
910
DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.
[British
in one encounter in the desert, far beyond the limits of legil authority, about
twenty or thirty of Lord Selkirk's men lost their lives. This violent opposition
was terminated in 1821, by the coalition of the rival companies, namely, the Hud-
son's Bay and the North West Company.
The foreign trade of Canada is carried on through the ports of Quebec, Montreal,
St. John's, Coteau-du-lac, and Stanfield. The principal articles of export consist of
timber and ashes ; the imports are coal, metals, cordage, East India produce, and vari-
ous kinds of British manufacture from Europe ; sugar, molasses, rum, coffee, and hard-
woods from the British West Indies ; with beef, pork, biscuit, rice, and tobacco, from
the United States. The total value of the imports for the year 1844, was £2,385,196 ;
and that of the exports, £1,758,199. There are small manufactories of different articles
at Montreal and Quebec ; and soap and candles are now exported. A cloth manufac-
tory has been established in the township of Ascot ; the number of looms in Lower
Canada is supposed to be about 13,500, which produce annually 1,500,000 yards of
coarse cloth, 990,000 yards of flannel, and 1,370,000 yards of linen. Iron- works are
carried on to a very great extent at St. Maurice, in the district of Three Rivers ;
there is one iron-foundry in the district of Quebec, and six in that of Montreal.
Internal Communications. — The roads are generally very bad, and the lines of
communication very incomplete. The St. Lawrence, however, and the lakes afford
the most ample means of transport during summer, when they are clear of ice ; and
in winter, travelling is performed in sledges, which pass with great expedition over
the frozen snow. The falls and rapids of the St. Lawrence have been avoided by short
cuts (See ante, Rivers) ; but, to make the communication more complete and secure,
two extensive lines of inland navigation have been executed. The Rideau Canal ex-
tends from Bytown, on the Ottawa, to Kingston, on Lake Erie, a distance of 135
miles, of which, however, only 20 consist of excavation, the rest being natural chan-
nels or slack water produced by dams. It has been executed at the expense of the
British Government, and cost little less than £1,000,000 sterling. The Wetland
Canal extends from the south-western part of Lake Ontario to Port Maitland. on
Lake Erie, a distance of 42 miles. By means of the latter the insuperable falls of
Niagara are avoided. The communication is large enough for vessels of 125 tons ; and
has been executed by a public company, at the cost of more than £500,000.
Divisions As already mentioned, Canada is divided into two provinces, named
Upper and Lower. Lower Canada is divided into the four districts of Quebec,
Montreal, Three Rivers, and Gaspe ; Upper Canada is divided into eleven districts,
named Home, Gore, Niagara, London, Western, Eastern, Johnston, Ottawa, Bathurst,
Newcastle, Midland. These are subdivided into counties, the areas and population of
which, as in 1840, are stated in the following tables : —
I. UPPEK CANADA.
Countiet.
jlrea in
Square
Milei.
Popula-
tion.
Countries.
Area in
Square
Miles.
Popula-
tion.
York,
1904 fionsfi
1314
392
3034
964
600
6&5
1940
377
442
467
1281
641
11,352
10,839
9,829
8,550
8,469
8,467
8,434
6,565
5,431
4,fi25
2,620
2,585
1623
658
1898
1721
918
1380
310
859
678
799
35,216
25,544
23,741
20,059
18,383
15,6%
15,106
14.886
13,593
13.579
13,212
12,537
12,451
12,094
Northumberland
Leeds,
Norfolk,
Kent,
Prince Edward, 334
Oxford, 897
Frontenac 1363
Russell,
Total
27,832
393,9^5
Unsettled
120.000
Territory.]
AMERICA.
II. LOWER CANADA.
911
Countiei.
Area in
Square
Mikt.
Popula-
tion.
Counties.
Area in
Square
MUet.
Popula-
tion.
Saguenfty, (a)
72,000
7,396
69
13,200
8,640
783
9,810
5,760
208
299
3,100
979
34,669
316
710
242
239
194
211
192
367
477
384
8,385
3,743
4,349
10,257
12,.'i50
6,991
12,909
20,255
12,767
9,461
16,623
20,905
4,786
13,111
16,857
11,419
18.497
4,486
15,483
12,319
14,149
15,366
18,115
363
632
749
2,786
1,674
283
475
735
1,465
342
1,987
581
3,034
4,328
8,840
3,188
4,108
8,801
10,306
6,087
7,104
3,566
9,496
12,504
9,191
2,283
11,928
11,900
13,.529
13,518
14,5.57
10,001
5,003
8,109
27,297
25,916
4,000
2,000
Montmorency, (a)
Stanstead, . ,
Portneuf, (a)..^
St. Maurice, (a)
Berthier, (a)
Nicolet, -
L' Assumption
La Chesnaye
Megantic,
Two Mountains
LIslet,
Remouski „.
La Prairie,
Town of Montreal
,, „ Quebec
„ „ Three Rivers,
„ „ Wm. Henry, .
RLcbelieu
St. Hyacinthe,
194,815
499,739
The counties marked a extend indefinitely north, but, except near the river, are almost unlit for
lettlement.
In Upper Canada, the unsettled territory consists of about 120,000 square miles, and in Lower Ca-
nada, of 7174 ; the total area of both provinces is about 355,000 square English miles.
Cities and Towns.
QcEBEc, the capital of Lower Canada, is situate partly on a bold headland rising 350 feet above the
left bank of the St. Lawrence, between it and the River St. Charles, and partly on the narrow margin
of the river, below the rock. The principal part of the upper town is inclosed with fortifications which
are considered to be impregnable, and the summit of t ape Diamond is crowjied by the citadel, a very
strong fortress. Population in 1840, 25,916. The Hotel Dieu, or General Hospital, the Roman Catholic
and Protestant Episcopal Cathedrals, the Jesuits Barracks, the Parliament House, and the obelisk
erected to the memory of Wolf and Montcalm, are the principal objects of interest, tiuebec is situate
in N. lat. 46° 48', and W. long. 70° 72', 420 miles from the Gulf of St. Lawrence ; and is accessible to
the largest ships. Montreal, situate on an island of the same name, at the mouth of the Ottawa, is
frettily placed at the foot of a hill which commands a delightful prospect. Population in 1840, 27,297.
t is accessible for large ships, though 600 miles from the Gulf, and its trade is very extensive. The
Roman Catholic Cathedral is a very fine building, capable of containing 1 2,(X)a people ; and some of the
convents and hospitals are striking objects. The island is a beautiful oval-shaped tract, 32 miles long,
by 10 broad, with an almost level surface, there being only one hill of considerable elevation, and ono
or two of smaller dimensions. It forms one seignory belonging to the Catholic clergy. Lachine, a
village nine miles above Montreal, owes its prosperity to the rapiofs below, which have made it the land-
ing and shipping place for goods passing between Slontreai and the upper country ; some part of the
trade, however, is carried past it by boats through the Lachine Canal. Coteau-du-lac, at the foot of
Lake St. Francis, and above the Cedar rapids, owes its rise to similar circumstances. La Prairie, on
the south side of the St. Lawrence, a few miles above Montreal, is the great thoroughfare of tratlic
between that city and the United States. A railroad, 15 miles in length, connects it with St. John, on
the Richelieu, at the foot of the navigation for lake vessels. At Cluimbly, below St. John, there is a
strong British military post. Surel or Wiltidm-Kenry, at the mouth of the Richelieu, is a less con-
siderable town than miglit be expected in such a situation. Its population is only 2000. There are a
military post and garrison on hie aux Noix, above St. John. The hanks of the river between Montreal
and Quebec, are lined with numerous pretty villages, which are rendered conspicuous by their largo
stone churches, with shining tin-covored roofs and spires. Hut there is no place of much importance
except the town of Three liiveri, at the mouth of the St. Maurice, on its left bank, which is a iilace of
some trade and mechanical industry, and has a population of 4000. Below Quebec the scttleiuents
are few, and consist generally of fishing villages. In the Saguenay country, and the Domain, the only
white occupants are found at the trading stations of the King's Posts Company, which possesses thi-
exclusive privilege of taking furs and fish in this quarter. Staiuteiid, with 1200 inhabitatits, and
Sherbrooke, with 800, are the principal towns of the Eattem Tmrnshipt, a tract of 6,(K)0,(XX) acres, bi'-
hind the French seignorial settlements, on the borders of New Hampshire and N'crinont ; and which,
during the last few years, have been colonized by upwards of .50,0<K) British and American Iniinigrnnt.H.
There are also some thriving little towns on the left bank of the Ottawa, in Lower Canada, whcru
the lumber trade is actively carried on. Hull, opposite Bytown, with which it is connected by a
chain of remarkable bridges across the falls, is the principal; its population is about 1.500.
ToBONTO (late York) the capital of Upper Canada, contains about 1 2,(KM) inhabitants, and nncupies
a good situation on a fine bay of Lake Ontario, which affords access to vessels drawing 15 feet water,
and is sheltered by a low, circular, sandy, peninsula op]>osite the town, hin/filon, with .VKK) inha-
bitants, is very advantageously situate at the hea<l of tlio Cataraijui river, and of the Kideaii canal,
on the site of the old French fort Frontimac. The harbour is well sheltered, convenient, and acces-
sible to ships of 18 feet draught, and contains the royal naval station on the lake. The entrance Is
strongly fortified. I'urt Hope and Cul/mtrir are thriving towns l>ctwecn Toronto and Kingston, but
occupy exposed situations on theshore of th? lake. UrockviUe, t'rejcutt, and CornirnU, are ci>n«iderablo
towns on the St. Lawrence, with populations of from 1200 to 1.50 i. Prescott U situate at the foot of
the navigation for large vessels and steamers; but small steamers ply in the river between It and
Coteau-du-lac, iiassing the Long-Sault rapids above Cornwall by means of a ciinal. Iif/limm, at the
mouth of the Rideau river, on tUa right bank of the OtUwa, is a thriving town with l.'MXJ inliabitauts.
912 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [British
Perth, U an tncreasinft town, about midway between the Ottawa and Lake Ontario, and Is connected
with the Rideau canal by a lateral cut of 1 1 miles. Hamilton, at tlie head of Lake Ontario, lias lately
risen into importance, in consequence of the rapid occupation of tlie fertile country to the westward.
At the mouth of the Niagara is the town of Niagara, formerly called Neivark, which has a good
harbour and an active trade, though the Welland canal diverts some of its business. Uueenstuuit
stands on the Niagara, at the foot of the ridge through which the river has cut its deep channel.
Here a battle was fought in 1812, and a monumental pillar subsequently erected to the memory of the
British general Brock, who fell in the action ; but some miscreant has lately almost destroyed it by
blowing out its Inside with gunpowder. The other principal places worthy of notice in Upper Ca-
nada, are: Chippeicatf, a village above the falls ; Fort Erie, opposite Buffalo; Sherbrooke, at the mouth
of the Ouse, on lake Erie; Victoria, Charlottemlle, and Fort Norfolk, on or near the bay formed by the
Long Point in Lake Erie ; Amherstburg, at the mouth of the Detroit, with a good harbour and a mi-
litary post; Sandivich, opposite the city of Detroit; Goderich, on the eastern coast of Lake Huron ;
Chatham and London, on the river Thames, which flows through a very fertile country into Lake St.
Clair; and Guelph, 45 miles W. of Toronto. There is also a fort, garrison, and naval station, at
Penetanguthene, on Gloster bay, at the south-east extremity of the Georgian bay of Lake Huion.
§ 2. New Brunswick.
This province consists of a compact territory of 27,700 square miles ; bounded on the north by the
Bay of Chaleurs and the river Restigouche : on the south by the Bay of Fundy ; on the east by the
Gulf of St. Lawrence ; and on the west by Lower Canada and the State of Maine. The face of the
country is in general pretty level, or moderately undulating, but it is diversified by several isolated
groups of hills, particularly in the northern part. It is profusely watered by rivers, which in general
form fine navigable streams. The province is divided info ten counties, which are subdivided into
townships. The population, amounting to about 13(1,000, is chiefly concentrated on the Hay of
Fundy, the lower part of St. John's river, and the section between it and the St. Croix. Timber and
fish are the staple articles of export ; to which may be added some ashes and agricultural produce.
The total value of the exports is about £400,000; that of the imports, £600,000. Frederickto-n, the capital,
is situate at the head of sloop navigation on the St. John's, 85 miles from the sea. Population .30iX).
St. Andrews, on Passamaquoddy bay, is favourably situated for trade, and contains about 50(X) inha-
bitants. The city of St. John't, at the mouth of the river, contains about 8000 inhabitants. Newcattle
and Chatham, on the Miramichi river, will probably become important centres of trade, when the
country in the interior is more fully occupied. Dalhoiisie, a rising town at the western extremity of
the fine Bay of Chaleurs. Bathurst, on a bay of the same name, on the south Side of the Bay of Cha-
leurs. Liverpool, on Richibucto harbour, on the east coast.
§ 3. Nova Scotia and Cape Breton.
This province comprises the peninsula of Nova Scotia and the island of Cape Breton, which li
separated from the north-east coast of the mainland by the narrow Gut of Canso. The isthmus which
connects Nova Scotia with New Brunswick between Chignecto Bay and Bay Verte is only 10 miles
across. Including both portions, the area of the province is about 17,500 square miles, of which about
a fourth belongs to the island. The surface is in general moderately undulating, and contains no
considerable elevation. The southern shore of the Bay of Fundy from Cape Blomidon to Briar's Island,
is lined by a lofty mural precipice of trap rocks, from 300 to liOO feet high, against which the impetuous
tides and waves of the bay dash with great violence. This dyke is broken through in several places,
which afford by the Annapolis CJut access into the interior. The Highlands of the south-west part of
the peninsula have not been explored. Nova Scotia has been unfavourably represented as a bleak and
foggy region ; but the summer fogs which prevail on the southern and south-western shores do not
extend far inland. Although the winters are long and cold, yet they are not more so than in the ad-
jacent parts of New England, and the climate is rem .rkably healthy. The soil is well adapted to
agriculture ; and the cultivated portion chiefly on the southern shore, which contains about a fifth part
of the surface. The mineral wealth of the province is uncommonly great ; but hitherto it has been
turned to little account. The Cumberland, Pictou, and Sydney coal beds, the magnetic iron ores of
Annapolis county, and the bog iron ore of various places, granite and freestone of excellent qualityfor
building materials, the latter affording the blue grits so much esteemed in the United States for
grindstones, and the former, excellent millstones ; writing and roofing slates, gypsum and lime, lead and
copper, copperas ore, alum earth ; pipe claj ; red and yellow ochres ; and salt, are enumerated among
its minerals. About 100,000 tons of gypsum are annually exported for the United States ; and also large
quantities of coal from the Pictou and Sydney beds. The population of the province is about 200,000, and
is composed of a small number of Acadian French, the descendants of American loyalists and German
emigrants, and of British emigrants. The principal trade of Nova Scotia is with the West Indies,
Britain, and the United States. Lumber, fish oil, furs, &c. are exported to Britain ; lumber, dried
and pickled fish, flour, salt provisions, cattle, &c. to the West Indies and the southern States ; coal
and gypsum to the northern and middle States. Halifax, the capital, is a large town with 15,000 in-
habitants, pleasantly situate on an inlet of the sea, which forms one of the finest harbours in the
world. It is easily accessible, and large enough to accommodate any number of vessels. Halifax is the
principal British naval station in North America, and contains a royal dockyard on an extensive
scale. On the coast south-west of Halifax are Lunenburg and Liverpool, important from their fine
harbours, fishery, and flourisliing trade. They have each a population of 2(100. Shelburne, still far-
ther south, once contained about 12,000 inhabitants, but is now almost deserted, though situated on
one of the best harbours in the world. Yarmouth, on the south-west coast, is noted for the enter-
prise of Its inhabitants, who carry on an active coasting trade, and a thriving traffic with England
and the West Indies. Windsor, on the Mines basin, is the seat of King's College. Pictou, on the
fine harbour of that name, is the principal tow n on the north-east coast ; its population is about 2000,
and its fishery and lumber trade are considerable. The village of New Glasgow, on East river, has
risen with the coal trade, and small vessels are loaded there ; but larger ships receive their cargoes at
the mouth of the river, to which the coal is carried down in lighters. Eight miles off the mouth of
the harbour, is the small island of I'ictou. Guyshora, on Miliord haven, at the head of the noble
expanse called Chedabucto Bay ; Wilmut on Canso Harbour ; and Sherbrooke at the head of the navi-
gation on St. Mary's River, are small towns north-east of Halifax.
Cape Breton Island comprehends an area of about 2,000,000 acres, and is almost divided into two
parts by a deep gulf named the Bras d'or, which has two very narrow entrances from the Gult of St.
Lawrence on the north-east, and approaches at the south-west to within a mile of the Gut of Canso.
It affords several deep and capacious harbours, and is valuable for its fisheries. Coal, salt, and gypsum
are found here. The principal coal field lies between Miray Bay and Sydney harbour, and contains
the Sydney and Bridgeport mines, from which increasing quantities are annually shipped. Sydney, on
Spanish River or Sydney harbour, on the north-east side of the island, is the principal town and the
only military post. Its population is about IO(K) , and its trade and fisheries are extensive. The liar-
Tereitoby.J
AMERICA.
913
bour Is one of the most secure and capacious in North America. Louitlourg, on the southern shore,
so famous in colonial history, is now occupied by a few fishermen. Arichat, on Isle Madame, at the
southern extremity of Cape Breton, is a large fishing village, with a pretty extensive trade. To the
north of Cape Breton is the little island of St. Paul, directly in the track of vessels entering the Gulf
of St. Lawrence. It has long been dreaded by seamen, on account of the dense fogs which prevail
there, and the deep water almost close to its shores ; but a lighthouse has recently been erected on it,
which tends to diminish its dangers and terrors.
§ 4. Honduras.
Honduras is situate on the eastern coast of Central America, between IG- and 18'N. lat. and Ss^^and
90° W. long, and contains an area of 62,740 square miles. The coast is flat, and is bordered with ret fs
and lowgr^en islands called keys, which are divided by intricate and dangerous channels. From tlie
coast the ground rises gradually into an elevated region covered with forests and marshes, and inter-
spersed with rivers and lagoons. The climate is moist, but is said to be less unhealthy than that of
the West Indies, especially during the wet season. The average annual temperature is'si- ; but, ilu-
ring the greater part of the year, the heat is moderated by sea breezes. The rains are very heavy, and
are accompanied by violent thunder storms ; and during the wet season, which lasts five months, the
thermometer sinks to 60-^. The shores and river l)anks are covered with a deep and rich alluvial sofl,
capable of yielding most European as well as tropical products. The forests abound with some of the
finest timber trees, including mahogany and logwood, which are the staple productions of the settle-
ment, and the cutting of which is the principal employment of the settlers. The profits, however, of
the Mahogany trade are very precarious. Logwood cutting is nmch less expensive ; but the price
fluctuates even more than that of mahogany, varying from £7 to £14 a ton. Cassava, yams, arrow-
root, and maize are grown, but only for home consumption ; the sugar-cane, cotton, and coffee, suc-
ceed well, but are little cultivated ; cocoa and an inferior kind of indigo are indigenous. Oranges, and
many other fine fruits are very abundant. European cattle aud other domestic animals thrive greatly.
The jaguar, tapir, armadillo, racoon, grey fox, det>r of various kinds, and a vast nunilxT of monkeys
abound in the settlement ; birds and fish are in great variety, and shell-fish are particularly plentiful.
Many turtles are also taken on the coasts and sent even to London. Honduras is governed by a super-
intendent nominated by the Crown, and by seven magistrates elected annually by the people, who to-
gether form a council. The only town is Halize (the Spanish form of If'aJlis, the name of a noted
buccaneer), at the mouth of the river of the same name, which consists of about .5(X) houses, chiefly
wooden, and elevated only ten feet from the ground. The total population of the settlement scarccij
exceeds 4000, of whom only 300 are whites.
STATISTICAL TABLE of the SETTLED BRITISH PROVINCES IN NORTH AMERICA.
Is'ame.
Date of
Selllftnent
or jirqtii-
tilion.
Arpa in
Square
Miles.
Population.
Capitalt.
17.59
1760
1»;30
16231
17.58 »
17.58
1.5.S3
1670
194.m5
147,000
27.700
17,500
2,134
35,913
62,740
499.7.39 1
393,925 f
130,000
199,870
3»,6<i6
81,517
3,958
Kingston.
Frederickton.
Halifax.
Charlotte-town.
St. John's.
Balise.
I'pper Canada,
Prince Edward's Island,"
Newfoundland
5.57,802 I 1,343,675
3 M
914 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [United
III. THE UNITED STATES
OF NORTH AMERICA.
Situation, Extent, Boundabies. — The United States of North America are bounded
on the north by the British provinces of New Brunswick and Canada, the Great Lakes,
and the territory of the Hudson's Bay Company, from which last they are divided by
a line drawn under the parallel of 49 north latitude from the Lake of the Woods west-
wtird to the Strait of Juan de Fuca, and along the middle of that strait to the Pacific
Ocean ; on the east by New Brunswick and the Atlantic Ocean ; on the south by
the Gulf of Mexico, and a line drawn along the Rio Grande, or Rio Bravo del Norte,
from its mouth upwards to the southern limit of New Mexico, then along the south-
western limits of New Mexico northerly to the first branch of the Rio Gila, then
along that river to its junction with the Rio Colorado, and a straight line from that
junction to a point on the Pacific Ocean one league south of the southernmost
point of the Port of San Diego ; and on the west by the Pacific Ocean.
By the treaty of 1783, with Great Britain, the eastern boundary was fixed at the
river St. Croix, from its mouth to its source, and a line drawn thence due north to
the highlands which divide the waters of the Atlantic from those of the St. Law-
rence. The position of the dividing ridge, which was to form the northern boun-
dary in this quarter, was long a subject of dispute ; but was at last settled by compro-
mise in 1842. Following that ridge, to the north-western head of the river Connecti-
cut, the boundary line then passes down the middle of that river to lat, 45°, west-
ward on that parallel to the St. Lawrence, and then through that river and the
great lakes to the north-western comer of the Lake of the Woods. From this
point it was stipulated that the line should run due west to the Mississippi ; but as
it was afterwards discovered that the Mississippi did not reach so far north, and, as
the acquisition of Louisiana by the United States had left unnsettled the northern
boundary west of that point, it was stipulated, that from the north-western comer of
the Lake of the Woods, it should run due north to the parallel of 49°, and thence
westward along that parallel to the Rocky Mountains. Beyond these the boundary
likewise remained unsettled tiU 1846, when it was fixed, as above stated, at the 49th pa-
rallel of north latitude and the Strait of Juan de Fuca ; both Governments previous-
ly claiming the whole Oregon territory along the Pacific between 42° and 54° 40'
N. lat.
The whole of the vast region included within the boundaries above specified, con-
tains an area of nearly 3,000,000 square miles, with a frontier line of 10,000 miles,
of which about 6000 are sea-coast, and 1200 lake-coast. A line drawn across the con-
tinent from the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic, near the middle of the States, is about
2500 miles in length ; and the greatest breadth, from north to south, is nearly 1400
miles. But the portion of country comprised within the limits of the actually or-
ganized States and territories, is bounded by a line running north from the Sabine to
the Missouri, and following the latter to the mouth of the White earth-river, and may
be estimated to contain about 1,300,000 square miles. An almost straight line, how-
ever, drawn from the river Des Moines to Green Bay, but curving a little to the
north-west, would mark the actual limits of occupancy, thus excluding about 270,000
square miles, still owned and inhabited by Indian tribes east of the Missouri.
General Aspect. — Three great systems of mountains (See ante, p. 875) divide the
country into three distinctly marked sections, the Atlantic table-land and slope, the
Mississippi valley, and the Pacific section. The Alleghany or Appalachian mountains,
which separate the first two sections, are more remarkable for their length than for
their height. The mean elevation of the chain is not more than 2000 or 3000 feet, of
which one half consists of the elevation of the country which forms their basis. Be-
tween the sources of the principal rivers of Alabama and Mississippi, and the great lakes,
and the St. Lawrence, and about midway between the Atlantic and the Mississippi
lies a vast table-land, which occupies the western part of the Atlantic States and the
eastern part of the adjoining States of the Mississippi valley. On this table-land, which
carries a somewhat tempered northern climate into the region south of the river Ten-
nessee, rise five or six parcel mountain chains, of which the most remarkable are
the Blue Bridge in Virginia, the Kittatinny mountains, and the Alleghany ridge, both
in Pennsylvania. The highest range of the AUeghanies is found in New Hampshire,
States.] AMERICA. 915
under the name of the White Mountains, so called from the greyish- white colour of
the bare rocks that form their summits. Mount Washinyton, the highest point, rises
to the elevation of 6234 feet, and there are several others, which exceed 4000 and
3000 feet (See ante, p. 875). In Vermont, the ranges take the name of the Green
Mountains, from their summits being covered with a spongy green moss and their sides
with forests ; their elevation, however, does not exceed 3500 feet.
The second mountain system, which forms the western boundary of the Missis-
sippi valley, and is known under the various names of Rocky, Stony, Oregon, and
Cliippewyan mountains, is a prolongation of the Cordilleras of Mexico ; but it has
been only partially examined. The average elevation of the summits above the base
is estimated at 5000 feet ; but some of them probably reach 8000 or 10,000. The
elevation of the base itself is about 3000 feet above the level of the sea. The Black
Hills, which stretch between the Upper Platte and the Missouri, below the mouth of
the Yellowstone, are probably an outlying chain of this system ; but little is known of-
their course and elevation. The Ozark mountains extend from the Rio del Norte to
the vicinity of the Missouri, below the Osage river, attaining in some places an ele-
vation of 3000 feet. Farther west is the prolongation of the snowy range of the
mountains on the Pacific coast, which stretches northward from California to Alashka.
Along the whole Atlantic coast of the United States, from the river Hudson to
the Florida channel, and gradually widening from a few miles broad in the north,
to upwards of 150 in the south, is an extensive level tract very little elevated
above the surface of the sea, and which has been appropriately termed the Atlantic
Plain. The western limit of the plain is very distinctly marked by a rocky ledge
over which the rivers fall, and to the foot of which, in the northern section, the
tide penetrates. Extensive morasses and swamps, sluggish streams, and wide arms
of the sea stretching far inland, are among the features of this plain, which slopes
gently eastward, and may be considered as continued under the sea from the soundings
which are given by all this part of the coast. The irregularities of its surface have
been caused rather by the excavations which have been made below the general level
by the action of running water than by any considerable elevations above it. The
table-land which rises along the western border of this plain, has a general elevation
of from 800 to 1200 feet, but is in some places considerably higher. A similar, but
more elevated table-land lies between the heads of the Platte, Arkansas, and Mis-
souri, and the western littoral chain of mountains ; and between these two table-
lands, and the mountains which rise above them, lies the great Mississippi valley,
which presents the appearance of having once been the bed of a sea, or of a series of
fresh-water lakes, and to have emerged from the waters at a comparatively recent
period. It is in general characterized by uncommon fertility, though it contains great
diversities of soil, from the richest alluvium to the most sterile flint knobs ; and
from the most entangled cane brakes to the poorest pine hills. There are, besides, near
the Rocky Mountains, wide sandy belts, either completely barren, or only covered with
a scanty vegetation of weeds and coarse grass. In some parts indeed there are wastes
of moving sand, like those of the African Sahara. The eastern portions of the valley,
where it is yet uncultivated, are covered with forests ; but to the westward and north-
ward extend vast prairies, or undulating tracts of country clear of trees, and rising
to a considerable elevation in the centre. The surface of prairie, for 100 leagues
west of the Mississippi, is probably, in comparison with the wooded country, in the
proportion of twenty to one ; the little timber which is seen occurs only on the skirts
of the water-courses ; ajid as the traveller recedes from the margins of the rivers,
the prairies become more dry, sterile, and destitute not only of wood and water, but
of all vegetation. The middle part of this great valley forms a plain, the elevation
of which throughout its whole extent, leaving out of view a few unimportant local
inequalities, varies only a few feet. There is, however, a gradual declination from
the north-east towards the south-west. From Pittsburg the Ohio river has a descent
of only 700 feet to its mouth, a distance of 1 100 miles. The plains of Kentucky
and West Tennessee are nearly on the same level as the country around Pittsburg,
and ()roceeding westward, up the Missouri or Arkansas, we reach similar elevations,
which form the exterior limits of the plain. The numerous rivers that run through it,
instead of forming separate valleys, only indent narrow lines or grooves in its surface,
which are barely sufficient to contain their floods. These river channels, as the cur-
rent rolls on, must form a declivity ; and towards the lower parts they therefore sink
deep into the plain. Hence the large rivers, Ohio, Missouri, and others, seem to be
bordered with abrupt hills of several hundred feet in elevation ; but the tops of these
hills are on the level of the great plain, and are formed by smaller streams which fall
into the large rivers, where their channels are thus worn down. Tiie plain rests on an
916 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [United
almost horizontal bed of limestone, of such thickness that it has never been pierced
through, although, in many places, the auger has penetrated from 400 to GOO feet,
in search of salt water. The rock lies but a few feet below the surface, and supports
throughout its whole extent strata of bituminous coal, and saline impregnations. To
the decomposition of this limestone may be attributed, in part, the fertility of the soil;
while its absorbent and cavernous character prevents the accumulation of swamps
and standing pools, and renders the whole plain dry and salubrious in a remarkable
degree.
Climate. — The climate of the United States embraces every variety of tempe-
rature, from the cold sea air of Passamaquoddy to the dry, elastic, and severe tem-
perature of the White and the Green Mountains ; rising through all the degrees of
the thermometer to the climate congenial to the olive, the sugar cane, and the orange.
It is, however, excessive, and subject to great and rapid changes. Captain Smith,
in his account of the Chesapeake Bay, presented to Queen Anne, says, that in this
country the summer is as hot as in Spain, while the winter is as cold as in France or
P^nghiiid ; and Mr. Jefferson, in his " Notes on Virginia," says, " The extremes of
heat and cold, of 6° below zero, and 9S° above it, are distressing." He adds, that
in 1780 the Chesapeake Bay was frozen from its head to the mouth of the Potomac;
and at Annapolis, where it is 5^ miles between the nearest points of land, the ice
was from five to seven inches thick, so that loaded waggons crossed over. Severe
colds, rheumatisms, intermittent fevers, and agues are the natural consequences of
such extremes as these. On this account the climate will not allow the inhabitants
to take the exercise necessary for health, without running great risks, and very often
contracting colds and chills, which end in consumption. The climate on the sea-
coasts of the Eastern States, from Maine to Baltimore, is the worst of all, because, in
addition to the sudden changes, cold and damp easterly winds prevail, and occasion a
great deal of disease. The Americans, however, are fond of their climate, and con-
sider it the best in the world. But, if the climate is not healthy, it is certainly
beautiful to the eye ; the sky is so clear, the atmosphere so dry, the tints of the foliage
so inexpressibly lovely in autumn and the early winter months; and at night the
stars are so brilliant, that it is not surprising the Americans should praise it, and feel
proud of its apparent superiority. The climate of Britain, though unprepossessing to
the eye, and depressing to the spirits, is nevertheless much more healthy than the
exciting and changeable, though beautiful, atmosphere of the United States. But
though in the eastern states consumption is very prevalent, in the western regions the
disease is scarcely known. The American diseases generally are neuralgic, or those that
affect the nerves, and are common to almost all the Union. Ophthalmia, and parti-
cularly the disease of the optic nerve, is very common in the eastern states, and there
are annually more diseases of the eye in New York city alone than are perhaps found
all over Europe. The tic doloreux is another common complaint over all America,
indeed so common, that one out of ten suffers from it more or less, the majority being
women. In short the climate is one of extreme excitement, and the American people
are in consequence more excitable, and more rapid in muscular movement than the
European stocks from which they are descended. The winters of Wisconsin, loway,
Missouri, and Upper Canada, are dry and healthy, enabling the people to take any pro-
portion of exercise. Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, and part of Ohio, are very unhealthy
in autumn, from the want of drainage ; the bilious congestive fever, ague, and dysen-
tery, carry off large numbers of people. Virginia, Kentucky, North Carolina, and the
eastern parts of Tennessee, are comparatively healthy. South Carolina and the other
southern states are subject to visitations of the yellow fever, and many of the inha-
bitants consequently migrate at the end of each season to the northward, not only to
avoid the contagion, but also to renovate their general health, which suffers from the
continual demands made by the climate on their physical energies ; the atmosphere of
the western and southern country being even more exciting than that of the east.
Vermont, New Hampshire, the inner part of New York, and all the other States that
border on the great lakes, are healthy, owing to the dryness of the atmosphere being
modified by the proximity of so large bodies of water. The excitement which pre-
vails throughout the Union, and forms so remarkable a feature in the American
character, is occasioned much more by climate than by any other cause ; though,
unquestionably, the peculiarity of the national institutions affords constant aliment
for this excitement to feed on, and therefore seldom allows it to repose. The cli-
mate seems also to be, in some degree at least, the cause of two bad habits to which
the Americans are much addicted, namely, the use of tobacco, and of spirituous
liquors. The effect of tobacco is narcotic and anti-nervous; it allays irritation and
States.] AMERICA. 917
enables the American to indulge in stimulating habits, without the accompaniment
ot" their immediate evil consequences. To the rapid changes of the climate, and to
the extreme heat of summer, must also in a great degree be ascribed tiie exces-
sive use of spirituous liquors. The system, depressed or disordered by the sudden
changes, requires stimulants to equalize the pulse. The variableness, however, of the
climate, says Mr. Flint, has been generally overcharged. The range of the thermo-
meter is indeed great and sudden, sometimes amounting to 23^ or 30^ in a day ; but,
in his opinion, the corresponding flexibility of constitution whi<'h it produces, is be-
neficial. The country and climate, he adds, in configuration, character, and produc-
tions, correspond more nearly to those of China than to any other ; and are probably
as favourable to population, comfortable occupation in the open air, and longevity,
as those of countries much more celebrated in these respects.
Vegetable Productions. — The United States have already made astonishing
progress in industry and wealth. Agriculture has ever been the staple pursuit of
the North Americans; and agricultural products have aUvnys constituted thfir prin-
cipal articles of export. The fust exports of the early colonists were the natural
products of the forest: furs, lumber, pitch and tar, pot and pearl ashes, with some
cattle and provisions, constituted the chief articles of trade from the northern pro-
vinces in the early part of the eighteenth centtny ; but rice and tobacco had even
then become important items of exportation from the southern colonies. At a later
period wheat became the great staple of the middle and western states, and cot-
ton that of the more tropical sections of the country. Flax and hemp thrive particu-
larly in the rich soil of Kentucky. Maize, being suited to a great variety of soils
and situations, is so universally cultivated as to have received the name of corn, as
a distinctive appellation. Oats for horses, and rye for distillation, are the prevalent
species of grain in the northern states; while, in tlie extreme south, the sugar-cane
is found to flourish, and to supply about one-half of the American consumpt of sugar.
Grapes for wine, and beet for sugar, are articles of prospective culture, rejrarding
the value of which sanguine expectations are entertained. Cotton, the great staple
of the United States, is raised in small quantities in Virginia and Kentucky, and is
chiefly produced in the country farther south. It is the produce of the herbaceous
or annual cotton-plant, and is of two kinds, the sea-island or long staple, and the up-
land or short-staple. The former, which is of a superior quality, is g-own only
along the sea-coasts of South Carolina and Georgia. Cotton was first sown in the
United States in or about 1787, and was first exported in small packages in 1790;
in 1836 the cotton crop produced 480,000,000 lbs., of which 380,000,000 lbs.
were exported. It is estimated that good lands yield on an avernge from 250 to
300 lbs. of clean cotton per acre, and inferior lands from 12.5 to 150; and that
the capital invested in the cultivation is nearly 800,000,000 dollars, or about
£180,000,000 sterling. Of late a valuable oil has been obtained from the seeds.
A new species, called Nan-king cotton, of a rich, ytllowi^h colour, and fine qua-
lity, is also beginning to be cultivated. Tobacco has been the staple of Virginia
and Maryland from their first settlement, and is also extensively grown in Ken-
tucky, Ohio, Missouri, and other states. It is decidedly superior in quality to the
tobacco of most other countries; and, besides the large quantity made into cigars,
■^rmff, and twist for chewing, there is an annual exportation of from 8((,()()0 to JM),()0()
hogsheads of leaf tobacco, of the value of about £1.200, OCX). The sugar-cane is
cultivated with success in Louisiana, where several varieties are reared. The cane
does not produce seed any where in Louisiana, but it liloonis on the sea-coast.
'ihe annual crop is about 100, 0(X) hhds. of sugar, with 03,000 hlids of molasses.
Rice was first cultivated in South Carolina in 1094, since which time its culture has
been so successful, that, in addition to siip[)l\iiig the home consumption, it affords
an annual surplus of from 130,000 to 150,(M)0 tierces, of the v;ilue of £40(t,000 or
£500,000, for exportation. We have no means of estimating the value of the graiti,
sheep, and cattle, raised in the United States. Indigo was formerly produced in large
quantities in Carolina and Georgia, but, since the introduction of cotton, the cultiva-
tion of this plant has almost entirely ceased.
MiNKRAL Pkoductions. — The United States are richly supplied with valuable
minerals ; but it is only of late that the mines have begun to be a source of wealth;
nor are they yet worked in a manner or to an extent worthy of their great importance.
Gold, iron, and lead, are extensively diffused ; coal and salt exist in abundance;
while beautiful and durable building materials are furnished by the mariile, freestone,
and granite quarries of differerii sections of the Union. The gold region, so far an the
mining operations have yet been attempted, may be considered as extending along th«
918 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [United
ciistern foot of the Blue ridge, from the Rappahannock in Virginia, to the river
Coosa ill Alabama ; but indications of gold ores have been met with as far north as
Vermont, and as far south as the Gulf of Mexico ; and it is asserted that there are
richer ores and more valuable diluvial deposits of gold in the United States than are to
be met with at Gongo-Soco in Brazil, or in the Ural mountains. The gold has
hitherto been procured mostly from North Carolina, Virginia, and Georgia, and chiefly
from washings ; but several mining companies have lately introduced the powerful in-
struments of scientific mining, and are pushing their operations with great activity and
success. Iron is abundantly distributed ; and many new branches of iron manufac-
ture have been introduced within the last few years ; but still about one-half of the
hardware and cutlery consumed is imported from Britain. Steam-engines, and all
kinds of machinery, nails, fire-grates, and stoves, chain cables, agricultural and me-
chanical tools of all sorts, fire-arms, &c., are among the articles manufactured in the
country. The process of smelting iron by means of coke has been applied with suc-
cess, and will afford new facilities in the prosecution of this important branch of
industry. The lead mines of the United States are extremely productive, but
hitherto they have been worked but very imperfectly. They are situated in Missouri,
between the Gasconnade, the head waters of the White river, and the Mississippi ;
and in Wisconsin territory and Illinois, between the Wisconsin and Mississippi
rivers, and on the opposite side of the latter. A very rich and extensive deposit
of lead also occurs in St. Lawrence County, New York ; and there is another in
the south-western part of Virginia. The annual produce of the Missouri mines
is about 3,000,000 lbs., that of the mines on the Upper Mississippi amounts to
8,000,000 lbs. The American manufactures of shot, and of red and white lead,
now nearly supply the domestic consumption. Salt is chiefly made from the brine
of springs, which are plentifully distributed throughout the country, and particularly
in the Mississippi valley. In 1835, 2,000,000 bushels of salt were made at the Onon-
daga springs in New York ; 1,000,000, in the western part of Pennsylvania ; 2,000,000,
at the Kanbawa springs in Virginia ; 500,000, in Ohio ; about the same quantity in
Massachusetts from sea- water ; forming altogether, with the quantities made in
the other states, an aggregate of about 7,000,000 bushels. Coal of excellent
quality is very widely and copiously distributed, and is daily becoming of greater
importance, as it is more extensively used in the manufacture of iron, glass,
and salt, in driving steam-engines, and for domestic purposes. There are two
sorts of coal, the anthracite and the bituminous. The former is found and largely
worked in Pennsylvania, from three distinct beds; two of which lie between the
Lehigh and the Susquehanna, and the head waters of the Schuylkill and the
northern branch of the Susquehanna, the third lies on both sides of the Lacka-
wana river, and of the northern branch of the Susquehanna, above and below the
mouth of that tributary. This coal is largely consumed in the middle states and
New England, nearly 900,000 tons being brought to market annually. The bitu-
minous coal is found all over the valley of the Mississippi, on the head waters of the
Potomac, and on the James river in Virginia. We have no data for determining
the total consumption, but it is estimated that about 250,000 tons are annually
consumed in and about Pittsburg ; 150,000 in the salt manufacture of Western Penn-
sylvania ; and 300,000 in the salt-works of the Kanhawa ; to which, if we add the
consumption of the towns in the valley for domestic purposes and manufactures, it
will not be doubted that coal mining is already an important branch of the natural
productions of the country.
People The great mass of the citizens of the United States are the descendants
of emigrants from Great Britain and Ireland ; but many are also sprung from French,
German, and Dutch colonists, particularly in Louisiana, Pennsylvania, and New York ;
and daily accessions are making to their numbers by immigration from Great Britain
and Ireland, Switzerland, Germany, and other countries of western Europe. But the
English language and literature are universally diffused ; the children of immigrants
from other nations soon lose their national peculiarities, language, and character by
intermarriages, and a common education ; and the Anglo-Saxon spirit completely pre-
ponderates throughout the heterogeneous mass, except in the eastern parts of Pennsyl-
vania, where a large community of German settlers have long clung with great tenacity
to their paternal language and habits. They have, however, of late begun to yield
a little to the spirit of the times, and to the feelings and habits of their fellow-citi-
zens. The total population of all the States amounted in 1840, to 17,120,527 ; and,
when we consider that this civilized and industrious multitude exists in a region which,
two centuries ago, supported only a few hundred thousands of half-clad and half-fed
States.]
AMERICA.
91 »
savages, and look at the rapid and steady increase which has marked its progress, we
see a new and most striking phenomenon in the history of the human race. Though
there has been a great accession of numbers by immigration from Europe, ever since
the first settlement of the country, yet there is no reason to doubt that the growth
of the population is chiefly owing to the natural increase of a community multiplying
itself without any check from difficulty of subsistence, or want of unoccupied lands.
Nor is it a less interesting consideration, that this same facility of self-multiplication
will continue to exist for an indefinite period ; and that, should no external or acci-
dental cause interfere, the United States will, before the end of the present century,
form the most numerous Christian community, speaking one language, in the world.
The first official census was taken in 1790, since which period there have been six de
cennial enumerations ; their results are stated in the following table : —
Year.
Whitei.
Slaves.
Free
Coloured.
Total
Coloured.
Total
Population.
1790
1800
1810
1820
1830
1840
3,172,464
4,304,.502
5,862,004
7,872,71 1
10,537,378
14,189,705
687,897
893,041
1,191,364
1,543,688
2,009,043
2,487,355
59,466
108,398
186,446
238,197
319,599
386,293
757,363
1,001,439
1,377,810
1,781,885
2,328,642
2,873,648
3,929,827
5,3a5,941
7,239,814
9,664,596
12,866,020
17,069,463
The black population of the United States, in which are included not only the
negroes, but also the mulatto and mixed races, forms somewhat more than one-sixth
of the total population. The free blacks are not generally admitted to political pri-
vileges ; in some States their testimony is not admissible against a white man, and they
are subject to some other civil disabilities. Slavery has been abolished in t'^e eastern
states and in New York, and prospectively in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, and
has never existed in the north-western States to the north of Kentucky. The
maritime slave-trade has been declared piracy ; but a great and active inland trade
is carried on from the Atlantic slave states to the new settlements in the south-west ;
and it is believed that, the number clandestinely introduced into the country from
the other side of the Atlantic has been considerable, even since the trade was declared
illegal. Slavery may be said to exist in thirteen states, namely, Delaware, Maryland,
Missouri, Arkansas, and all the states south of the Potomac and the Ohio. The
slaves form rather more than one-third of the population of the slave-holding states ;
but they are unequally distributed, and the whites generally preponderate.
The aboriginal races, or Indians resident within the territory of the United States,
are not included in any of the enumerations. Their total number within the con-
stituted states and territories is estimated at about 96,000 ; between the states and
the Rocky Mountains, 150,000; west of the mountains, 50,000; total, 296,000.
Education Various provisions have been made in all the states for the literary
and scientific education of their citizens ; in most of them common and free schools
are widely distributed ; and high schools, gymnasiums, and colleges, are numerous.
The necessary expense is provided for either by means of " school funds," accumu-
lated from various sources, or by taxation ; and, in the new states and territories, a
thirty-sixth part of the public lands is reserved for the purposes of education. But in
several of the latter, no general system of instruction has yet been introduced ; and
indeed, throughout the Union, there is neither any general system, nor is education
carried to that extent and degree of efficiency which seem necessary, under so de-
mocratic a government, to render the people capable of beneficially exercising and
performing their important political duties and privileges. " One of the most com-
mon errors, in my opinion," says Mr. Combe, " committed by foreigners who write
about America, as well as by the Americans themselves, is greatly to over-estimate
the educational attainments of the people. The provision in money made by law for
the education of all classes is large, compared with such countries as Britain or Aus-
tria ; but, contrasted with what is necessary to bestow a really good education, it is
still very deficient." And, owing to various causes, which he specifies, the education
received by probably nineteen-twentieths of the children in the agricultural districts
is extremely defective (Notes, III. 103.) The Secretary of the American Common
School Society estimates the total number of children in the United States between
the ages of four a/id sixteen years, at 3,500,000 ; and of this number 600,000
do not enjoy the I>enefit8 of a common school education. — (Jh. III.) Lecturing to
the peoplt in lyceums is extensively practised, and as a mode of public instruction
920
DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRArHY.
[United
it is well calculated to advance their intelligence ; but hitherto, in consequence of
the defects of their education, in the primary schools, it has not yielded half its ad-
vantages. Education, however, in tlie higher branches of science, literature, and
{)rofessional knowledge, is amply provided by a great number of universities and col-
eges, whose names, situations, &c. will be found in the following lists : —
COLLEGES IN THE UNITED STATES.
1
JVom*.
Place
FoHttded.
7b-
ttrMc.
tor$.
A-o. of
Alumni,
VolumttiH
Librariet.
Bowdoin.
Brunswick,
Me.
1794
8
971
25,450
2
Waterville.*
Waterville,
do.
1S20
6
237
3
Dartmouth,
Hanover,
N.H.
1769
9
2j!7
16|5<MJ
10,000
4
University of Vermont,
Burlington,
Vt.
1791
6
403
5
Middlebury.
Norwich University,
Middlebury,
do.
IbOO
7
852
7,054
1,000
82,000
6
Norwich.
do.
1834
7
lo7
Harvard University,
Cambridge,
Mass.
1638
20
6,131
6
Williams,
Wiliamstown,
do.
1793
9
1,581
8,600
20/JOO
4,300
9
Amherst,
Amherst,
do.
IS21
11
858
10
Holy Cross, §
Wo'-cester.
do.
1843
9
11
Brown University,*
Providence,
R. L
1764
7
1.613
26,000
12
Yale.
New Haven,
Conn.
1700
17
6,762
46.0(W
13
Trinity,!
Hartford,
do.
1824
9
257
9,IX)0
U
Wesleyan University,!
Middletuwn,
do.
1831
7
306
12,000
15
Columbia.t.
New York.
NY.
1754
13
1J84
14,000
;6
Union,
Schenectady,
do.
1795
12
2,762
16,000
17
Hamilton,
Clinton,
do.
1812
10
551
10,000
IS
Madison University,*
Hamilton,
do.
lsl9
9
200
7,000
19
Geneva,!
Geneva,
do.
1823
8
5,400
20
University of New York,
New York,
do.
1S31
U
320
4,000
21
St. John'3.§
St. Paul's,!
Fordham,
do.
isll
16
10
10,000
22
College Point,
do.
1837
11
380
2,800
23
College of New Jersy,
Princeton,
N.J.
1746
13
2,867
14,500
24
Rutgers,
Burlington,!
New lirunswick.
do.
1770
9
513
1,500
25
Burlington,
do.
1846
15
26
University of Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia,
Penn.
1755
7
531
5,000
27
Dickinson.J
Carlisle,
do.
1783
12
679
12,iX)0
28
Jefferson,
Canonsburg,
do.
1802
8
1,000
10,000
29
Washington,
Washington,
do.
1806
g
441
3,300
30
Alleghany.t
Meadville,
do.
1815
5
82
8,000
31
Pennsylvania,
Gettysburg,
do.
18.(2
11
121
2,300
32
Lafayette,
Easton,
do.
1832
7
101
5,000
33
Marshall,
Mercersburg,
do.
1836
11
94
1,300
34
West. University of Penn..
St. Thomas of Villanova,^
Pittsburg,
do.
1819
9
11
35
Near Philadelphia
do.
5
36
Delaware,
Newark,
Del.
1833
6
71
3,600
37
St. John's,
Annapolis,
Md.
1784
5
143
4,000
38
St. Mary's,!
Mount St. Mary's,§
Baltimore,
do.
1799
9
187
12,000
39
Emmetsburg,
do.
1830
24
137
4,000
40
St. James's,!
Near Haggerst'n,
do.
1842
10
3
8,750
41
Washington,
Chestertown,
do.
1783
5
1,200
42
Georgetown.§,
Georgetown,
D. C.
1789
12
180
25,000
43
Columbian,*
Washington,
do.
1821
10
200
6,000
44
William and Mary.!
Williamsburg,
Va.
1693
5
5,000
45
Hampden-Sidney,
Prince Ed. Co.,
do.
1783
6
1,500
8,000
46
Washington,
Lexington,
do.
1812
^
6oO
5,UO0
47
University of Virginia,
Charlottesville,
do.
1819
10
1,236
1,700
48
Randolph-Macon,J
Boydton,
do.
1832
H
124
6,000
49
Emory and Henrv.t
Glade Spring,
do.
1839
4
6,640
50
Rector,*
Taylor Co.,
do.
1839
3
2,600
51
Bethany College,
Bethany,
do.
1840
Q
16
82
Richmond,*
Richmond,
do.
1832
Q
1,200
&)
University of N. Carolina,
Chapel Hill,
N. C.
1789
9
905
10,000
54
Davidson,
Mecklenburg Co.,
do.
1838
3
3
31
1.150
55
Wake Forest,*
Wake Forest,
do.
1838
11
4,700
56
Charleston,
Charleston,
S.C.
1795
6
124
3, (XX)
57
South Carolina,
Columbia.
<lo.
1804
8
1,700
5»
Erskine,
Abeville Dist.
^:
59
Franklin,
Athens.
1785
9
558
13,000
60
Oglethorpe,
Milledseville,
do.
1836
3
53
3,U(X)
61
Emory,J
Oxford,
do.
1837
6
78
3.000
62
Mercer Lniversity,*
Penlield,
do.
1838
5
16
3,000
6i
Christ Coll. and Epls. Tnst ,!
Montpelier,
do.
18:;9
4
94
University of Alabama,
Tuscaloosa,
Ala.
1828
9
149
4,440
(.6
La Grange.J
La Grange,
do.
1831
6
130
3,l»X)
66
Spring iiill,§
Spring Hill,
do.
1830
'I
6
4,000
67
Howard,*
Marion,
do.
1841
1,500
6o
Oakland,
Oakland,
Miss.
1830
69
7,000
W
Centenary,!
Jackson.
La.
1841
IS
4,400
70
St. Charles,^
Grand Coteau,
do.
1838
21
4
4
2
2
6
6
6
7
4
4
5
17
5
4
7
i
2
4,000
71
Baton Rouge,
Baton Rogue,
do.
1838
300
72
Franklin,
opelousas.
do.
l&:i9
73
Greenville,
Greenville,
Tenn.
1794
110
3,000
74
Washington,
Washington Co.,
do.
1794
110
398
1,0(X)
75
University of Nashville,
Nashville.
do.
1806
10,000
77
Franklin,
Near Nashville,
do.
18H
Q
1,000
76
East Tennessee.
Knoxville,
do.
1807
112
4
3,980
7»
Cumberland University,
Lebanon,
do.
1844
2,500
79
Jackson,
Columbia.
do.
1830
43
2,000
80
Union.*
Murfreeshoro",
do.
1842
300
81
Transylvania,
Lexington,
Ky.
1798
610
14.000
82
St. Joseph's,!
Bardstown,
do.
1819
150
7,IXX)
83
Centre,
Danville,
do.
1819
237
60
4.500
84
Augu8ta,{
Augusta.
do.
1825
2,500
86
Georgetown,*
Georgetown,
do.
1830
65
5.2(0
66
LJ
Bacon.
Harrodsdurg,
do.
1836
1,800
JJTATES.]
AMERICA. 921
COLLEGES IN THE UNITED STATES— (Con riNCEo).
Name.
riace.
Fotimled.
In.
strut-
ton.
No. of
AUmni.
Librariet.
87
Western Military Institute,
Georgetown,
Ky.
1S46
6
bH
University of Ohio,
Athens,
Ohio,
1821
5
ISl
3,500
89
Jliami University,
Dxfoni,
do.
1M9
6
343
8.000
90
Franlilin,
New Athens,
do.
1825
4
90
2.200
91
Western Ecserve,
Hudson,
do.
1826
10
138
6,at7
92
Keyon.t
Gambler,
do.
1826
6
146
8.'.il0
93
Granville,*
Granville,
do.
1832
5
30
4,0<X)
94
Marietta.
Marietta,
do.
1832
6
91
6,250
95
Obcrlin Institute,
Oberlin,
do.
1834
7
147
4,000
96
Cincinnati,
Ciiiciimatl,
do.
1819
8
97
St. Xavier,§
Cincinnati,
do.
1810
14
6.000
9X
WoodwarJ.
Cincinnati,
do.
1831
5
17
1,400
99
Oliio Weslevan University^:
Delaware,
do.
18U
5
4
2,000
KiU
Indiana State University,
BI<X)minsrion.
Ind.
1827
4
231
2..3liO
101
Hanover College,
S(nith Hanover,
do.
1829
7
100
2,200
102
Wabash.
Craw fordsville.
do.
1833
5
49
4.801)
lo;t
Indiana Asbury University,!
Oreencastle,
do.
1839
6
60
2,700
IM
8t. Gabriel's,!
Vincennes,
do.
1813
7
1U5
Franklin,
Franlilin.
do.
1837
5
1
aw
10«
Illinois,
JacliSoMville,
III.
1829
6
81
3,000
107
8hurtleff.«
Upper Alton,
do.
1835
6
3
1.600
lOH
McKendree,t
Lebanon,
do.
183S
5
27
700
109
Knox.
GalesburS,
do.
1837
6
16
3,000
110
University of St IiOuis,§
St Louis.
Mo.
1832
17
25
12,(X)0
HI
SU Vincent's,
Cape Girardeau,
do.
1843
12
5,009
112
Masonic,
Marion Co.,
do.
1831
5
13
113
Missouri University,
Columbia,
do.
1840
12
26
lU
St. Charles,!
St CharKs,
do.
1S39
5
19
115
Fayette,
Fayette,
do.
2
116
Michigan University,
Ann Arbor,
Mich.
1837
7
4,500
117
St. Philip's,^
Iowa University,
Near Detroit.
do.
1839
4
3,000
U8
Iowa City,
Iowa,
1846
The Colleges marked thus (») are under the direction of the BaptisU ; thus (+), Epfteopaliant ; thus, (t) Itfiho-
ixiiM ; thus (§), Cntholirs. With respect to the Colleges which are unmarked, the prevailing religious influence of
those that are In the New England States is CongregaUonalitm ; of most of the others, Pretbuterianitm.
By instructors in the above table is meant tho.se connected with the undergraiinates; and by ttudenit, except
the Roman Catholic Institutions and a few of the Colleges in the Southern and Western States, is meant under-
traduaieM, or members of the four collegiate classes ; not including such as are pursuing a professional education,
or such as are members of a preparatory department. Some of the Colleges above enumerated are not in full
operation, and scarcely deserve a place in the table. The column of Libraries includes the number of volumes
In the College Libraries and iu the Students' Libraries.
MEDICAL SCHOOLS.
Name
Place.
rounded.
Prof
■Sludenli.
Oraduales.
Maine Medical School,
Brunswick, Me.
1820
4
81
&8I
N. H. Medical School,
Hanover, N. H.,
17ft7
6
50
735
Castleton .Vedical College,
Castleton, Vt.,
Woodstoik, Vt.,
1818
7
104
555
Vermont .Medical College,
lK.35
7
96
3:12
Medical School. Harv. Univ.
Cambridge, Ms.,
17k2
6
165
M7
Berkshire Medical School,
Pittslield, „
1823
5
lii3
473
Medical Inst. Yaie College,
N. Haven, Ct..
N. York.N. Y.,
1810
6
85
830
Coll. I'hys. & Surg. N. Y.,
1807
6
219
852
Med. Inst. Geneva Coll.,
Med. Faculty Univ. N. Y.,
Albany Medical College,
Geneva.
1M5
6
158
98
New York, „
lNi7
6
421
597
Albany.
lKi9
8
114
58
Med. IJep. Univ. Pcnn.,
Philadelphia Pa.,
I7f,5
8
0<iH
4.952
Jefferson .Medical College,
•*
18?4
8
480
MIU
Med. I)ep. I'enn. College,
»•
1K19
8
99
Franklin Medical Collegn.
^
1846
8
44
15
Philadelphia College of Med.
7
69
Med. School, Univ. Md ,
Baltiiliore, Md",
1807
6
KHI
909
Washington .Med. College,
Med. .School, Columb. Coll.,
1^27
6
25
Wasliington,
Charlottesville,
1825
6
40
81
Med. .School, Univ. Va.,
1825
3
45
Richmond Med. College,
Richmond Va.,
1»38
6
75
14
Winchester Med. College,
Med. Coll. State of S C.,
Winchester „
5
Charleston. S. C,
1833
8
l.'X
Med. College of Georgia,
Augusta, Ga.,
IKtO
7
11-^
124
Med. College of Louisiana.
N. Orleans, La.,
1K)5
r
30
Memphis Medical College,
Med. l)ep. Transylv. Univ.,
Memphis. Ten.,
7
Lexington, Ky.,
18;«
7
211
i;i6i
Lousvllle Merlical In»tit.,
Louisville, „
Cleveland, Oh.,
1K17
R
242
51
Western Hcserve Med. Coll.
IM44
2M
'.16
Medical follege of Ohio,
Cincinnati, „
1819
8
l.'IO
ail
Indiana Medical College,
Laporte Ind.,
7
un
19
Uusli Medical College,
Chicago, III.,
1842
n
70
l«
Med. Dcp. of Kemp. Coll.,
Med. Coll. .St. Louis Univ.
St. Louis, Mo.,
IMI
9
75
19
.,
IKIfi
N
.'lO
14
Wllloiighby Med. College,
Med. Coll. Missouri Unlv ,
Wlllouehby...
Columnla, .,
18.14
IMo
7
I'.'ii
92
67
922
DESCRirTIVE GEOGRAPHY.
THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS.
[United
Karnt.
Place.
Dtnowtinatio*.
11
t
3
•J
\i
37
1
1
•0
.J
«|
Pnnpor Theological Seminary,
Bangor,
Me.
Congregational,
Methodist,
181(!
202
7,000
Theological Seminary,
Concord,
N. H.
69
Oilmanton Theol. Seminary,
Oilmanton,
do.
Congregational,
1835
3
23
4,300
N. Hampton Theol. Seminary,
Theological Seminary,
New Hampton, do.
Baptist,
1825
2
36
2,(IO(i
Andover,
Mass.
Congregational,
Cong. Onit.,
1807
5
93
1,006
21,2JO
Tllvlnlty School, Harv. Univ.,
Cambridge,
do.
1816
2
23
238
3,(J(KI
Theological Institution,
Newton,
do.
Baptist,
1825
3
33
201
5,500
Theol. Dep. Yale College,
New Haven,
Conn.
Congregational,
1822
4
36
515
900
Theol. Inst, of Connecticut,
Rast Windsor,
do.
do.
1834
3
17
151
6.000
Theol. Inst. Episc. Church,
New York,
N.Y.
Prot. Episcop.,
1817
s
64
336
10,000
Union Theological Seminary,
do.
do.
Presbyterian,
1836
5
lU6
2H
18,000
Theol. Seminary of Auburn,
Auburn,
do.
do.
1821
4
30
680
6,000
Hamilton Lit. and Theol. Inst.,
Hamilton,
do.
Baptist,
1820
4
41
133
4,000
Hartwlck Seminary,
Hartwick,
do.
Lutheran,
1816
2
5
62
1,250
Theol. Sem. Ass. Kef. Church,
Newburg,
do.
Ass. Ref. Ch.,
1836
1
11
143
3,200
Th. Sem. Dutch Ref. Church,
N. Brunswick
N.J.
Dutch Ref.,
1784
3
36
179
Theol. Sem. Presbyt. Church,
Princetown,
do.
Presbyterian,
1812
5
I53
1,626
11,000
Seminary, Lutheran Church,
German Keformed,
Gettesburg,
Pa.
Evang.Luth.,
Germ. Ref. Ch.
1826
3
30
195
7,500
Mercersburg,
do.
1825
2
18
121
6,000
Western Theol. Siminary,
Alleghany T.,
do.
Presbyterian,
1828
2
48
252
6,000
Theological School,
Canonshurg,
do.
Asso. Church,
1792
2
33
147
2,000
Theological Seminary.
Pittsburg,
do.
Asso. Ref.,
1828
3
35
86
1,500
Western Theological School,
Meadville.
do.
Cong. Unit.,
1844
4
40
9
8,000
Theological Seminary.
Philadelphia,
Fairfax Co..
do.
Ref. Presbyter.,
3
13
Episcopal Theol. School of Va.,
Va.
Prot. Episcop.,
1822
4
38
229
^000
Union Theological Seminary,
Prince Ed. Co.
. do.
Presbyterian,
1824
3
20
175
4,000
Virginia Baptist Seminary,
Southern Theological Seminary,
Richmond,
do.
Baptist,
1832
3
67
1,000
Columbia,
S. C.
Presbyterian,
1831
2
16
83
4,000
Theological Siminary,
Lexington,
do.
Lutheran,
1835
2
10
20
1,800
Furman Theological Seminary,
Fairfield Dist.
, do.
Baptist,
1826
2
30
30
1,000
Mercer Theological Seminary,
Penfield,
Oa.
1833
3
4
1,000
Howard Theological Institution,
Western Bap. Theol. Institution,
Southwest Theol. Seminary,
Marion,
Ala.
do.
1843
2
10
1,000
Covington,
Ky.
do.
1840
4
18
9
2,0(XI
Maryville,
Tenn.
Presbyterian,
1821
2
24
90
6,000
Lane Seminary,
Cincinnati,
Ohio.
do.
1829
3
36
257
10,500
Theol. Dep. Keynon College,
Gambler,
do.
Prot. Episcop.,
18.8
5
4
4,500
Theol. Dep. Wes. Res. College,
Hudson.
do.
Presbyterian,
1830
3
23
41
80
Granville Theol. Department,
Granville,
do.
Baptist,
1832
2
8
600
Oberlin Theol. Department,
Theol. Sem. Ass. Kef. Church,
Oberlin,
do.
Presbyterian,
1834
4
27
97
400
Oxford,
do.
Asso. Ref.
1839
1
12
Indiana Theological Seminary,
S. Hanover,
Ind.
Presbyterian,
10
Alton Theological Seminary.
Upper Alton,
111.
Baptist,
1835
LAW SCHOOLS.
Place.
Name.
rrofestor„.
Students.
95
Cambridge, Mass.,
Harvard University,
3
New Haven. Conn.,
Yale College,
3
41
Princeton. N. J.,
College of New Jersey,
3
Carlisle, Pa.,
Dickinson College,
1
6
Williamsburgh, Va.,
William and Jlary College,
1
32
Charlottesville, Va.,
University of Virginia,
1
72
Chapel Hill, N. C,
North Carolina University
Tuscaloosa, Ala.,
Alabama University,
1
Lexington. Ky.,
Transylvania University,
3
75
Lebanon, Tenn.,
Cumberland University,
I
25
Cincinnati, Ohio.,
Cincinnati College,
3
26
Bloomington, Ind.,
Indiana State University.
1
18
Schools for the study of law are much less frequented than schools for the study of the other pro-
fessions. The first institution of this nature, of much note, that was established in the United States,
was the Law School at Litchtield, in Connecticut, which had from 1798 to 1827, 730 students ; but it
is now discontinued.
Religion There is, in the United States, no national religion or established
church : every citizen is left to choose for himself; but the great bulk of the people
profess Christianity according to some one or other of its numerous forms and creeds ;
and the churches and the clergy of all sects are supported entirely by the voluntary
contributions of their members. In the newer States the supply of ministers and
churches is rather deficient ; but in the older and more densely-peopled State? both
are provided for in a manner not surpassed by the establishments of any country,
with respect to the number of active ministers of religion, their comfortable sub-
sistence, and the respectability of their character and attainments. The following
table contains an approximative statement or summary of the principal religious deno-
minations, with the number of their churches or congregations, ministers, members
orcommunicants, and the amount of population belonging to each denomination: —
States.] AMERICA.
SUMMARY OF THE RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS.
923
Names.
Roman Catholics ,
Protestant Episcopalians, ,
Presbyterians, Old School, ,
Presbyterians, New School
Cumberland Presbyterians,
Other classes of Presbyterians,
Dutch Reformed,
German Reformed,
Evangelical Lutherans,
Moravians,
Methodist Episcopal
Methodist Protestant Church,
Reformed Metliodists,
Wesleyan Methodists,
German Methodists (United Brethren),...!
Allbright Methodists (Evangel. Associ'an),
Mennonites,
Orthodox Congregationalists
Unitarian Congregationalists,
Uni versalists,
Swedenborgians,
Regular Baptists,
Six-Principle Baptists,
Seventh-Day Baptists,
Free-WiU Baptists,
Church-of-God Baptists
Reformed Baptists, (Campbellites), ..,
Christian Baptists (Unitarians),
Churches.
907
1,232
3,376
1,651
S70
530
276
261
1,452
22
1,800
600
400
1,727
300
1.194
42
7,883
20
63
1,165
130
1,800
650
JUinisters.
717
1,404
1,713
1,551
800
293
289
803
598
24
8,042
740
75
600
500
250
250
1,584
250
700
30
4,651
22
58
771
90
1,000
782
Communicants.
1,190,700
67,550
179,453
155,000
60,000
40,500
32,840
75,000
150,000
6,000
1,112,756
64,313
3,000
20,000
15,000
15,000
58,000
179,176
30,000
60,000
5,000
655,536
3,400
6,943
63,000
8,000
160,000
35,600
The Presbyterians are the prevailing sect throughout New England, New York,
New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and the western parts of Maryland and Virginia; they
are also numerous in the north-western States. The Methodists are more generally
diffused throughout the States than any other sect. They are least numerous in
New England and Louisiana, and most numerous in the middle States. The Baptists
predominate in Rhode Island, Virginia, Kentucky, and most of the States farther
south. The Catholics are numerous in the cities of the middle States, in which
there are many French and Irish ; they are spread over Maryland, have many con-
gregations in Missouri, Illinois, and part of Kentucky, and predominate in Louisiana,
They have one archbishop, who resides at Baltimore, and ten bishops. The Epis-
copalians have congregations in all the Atlantic and in most of the western States ;
they are most numerous in Connecticut, the middle States, Virginia and South Ca-
rolina; but in none do they hold more than the third or fourth rank in respect of
numbers. They have twelve bishops in the Atlantic States, one in Ohio, and one
in Kentucky. The Unitarians have churches in all the large cities of the eastern
and middle States ; but, except in Massachusetts, they have made little progress
among the country population. The Quakers are most numerous in Pennsylvania;
they have also congregations in New York, Virginia, North Carolina, and New Eng-
land. Besides the distinct sects mentioned in the table, schisms occasionally arise,
by which congregations become separated into two parts, each following its favourite
pastor, without any change of denomination, discipline, or mode of worship.
GovERN.MENT The Government, as established by the constitution of 17B7, is in
form a federal representative democracy. The executive power is vested in the Pre-
sident, who holds his office for the term of four years. He is chosen by the electoral
colleges of the several States, each of which consists of a number of electors cfjual
to the whole number of the senators and representatives of flie State in Congress.
These electors are themselves appointed in the manner prescribed by the State le-
gislatures ; being in some cases chosen directly by the people, and in others by the
legi.slatiires. A majority of the aggregate number of votes given is necessary to the
President's election ; but if none of the candidates has such a majority, the House
of Representatives of the General Congress chooses one of the three candidates who
have the greatest number of votes ; atid, in doing so, the volt- is taken by States,
the representatives of each State having only one vote, wliicli must of course be
924 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY, [United
determined by the majority of their number. The Vice-President is chosen in the
same manner, and for the same term ; but, in the case of tiierc being no choice by the
electors, the vacancy is supplied by the Senate choosing one of the two persons who
have the highest number of votes. No person can be President, or Vice-President,
unless he is a natural born citizen of the age of thirty-five years at least, and has
been fourteen years a resident in the United States. The President is conunander-
in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several
States when in the service of the Union. With the concurrence of two-thirds of the
Senate he has power to make treaties ; and, subject to the same restriction, he
appoints the principal civil and military officers. He has also a qunlified veto on
the bills presented to him by (Congress ; but, notwithstanding his disapproval, any
bill becomes a law if passed by a vote of two-thirds in each House. He receives
ambassadors and other public ministers; takes care that the laws are faithfully
executed ; and grants commissions to all the officers of the United States. He has
a salary of 25,000 dollars, and " the white house" at Washington for his official
residence. The Vice-President is president of the Senate ; and, in case of the death,
resignation, or removal of the President, the powers and duties of that office de-
volve upon him for the remainder of the term. This provision came into operation
for the first time in the year 1841, in consequence of the death of General Harri-
son, the ninth president, after he had held the oflSce only one month.
The legislative power is vested in a Congress, consisting of a Senate and a House
of Representatives. The Senators are chosen by the legislatures of the several States,
for the term of six years, each State sending two Senators ; and no other qualifi-
cation is required than that the person so chosen shall have attained tlie age of
thirty years, and shall have been nine years a citizen of the United States. The
Senate, in addition to its legislative powers, has a concurrent voice with the Presi-
dent in the ratification of treaties, and on executive nominations, and has the sole
power of trying persons impeached by the House of Representatives. The Represen-
tatives are chosen for the term of two years by the people of the several States, the
electors being those qualified to vote for the niost numerous branch of the State le-
gislature. The number of the representatives of each State is regulated by the amount
of its population, three-fifths of the slaves being included in the population of the
slaveholding states (that is to say, five slaves being counted as three persons) ; and
there is one representative for each 47,700 inhabitants. The House of Representa-
tives choose their own speaker and other officers ; they have the sole power of im-
peaching public delinquents ; and all bills for raising revenue must originate with
them. No person who has not attained the age of twenty-five years, and been seven
years a citizen of the United States, is eligible as a representative. The Congress
must assemble at least once a-year. It has the power to impose and collect taxes, du-
ties, imposts, and excises, except on articles exported ; to borrow money on the
credit of the United States ; to regulate commerce ; to coin money, and regulate
the standard of weights and measures for all the Union ; to establish post-offices and
post-roads ; to make laws for the punishment of piracies and felonies committed on
the high seas, and of offences against the law of nations ; to declare war and grant
letters of marque and reprisal ; to raise and support an army and navy ; to provide
for calling out the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections,
and repel invasions; to provide for arming, organizing, and disciplining the militia;
and to make all laws necessary to carry into execution the powers vested by the
constitution in the government of the United States. Congress also holds the same
direct authority over the district of Columbia, as is held by the State legislatures
over their respective territories. Congress meets on the first Monday of December
each year, and continues to sit till the business is disposed of; but an extraordi-
nary meeting may be called by the President. Every member is paid for his attend-
ance, and has his travelling expenses defrayed to and from Washington. The allow-
ance to each member is eight dollars a-day during the period of his attendance in Con-
gress; and eight dollars for every twenty miles travel in the usual road, in going to
and returning from the seat of government.
The Department of State was established in 1789. The Secretary of State con-
ducts the negotiations with foreign powers, and conducts the correspondence with
the public ministers abroad, and with those of foreign powers to the United States.
He has the charge of the federal seal ; preserves the originals of laws and treaties ;
has the control of the patent office; and keeps the evidence of copyrights. To his
States.] AMERICA. 925
department are attached a diplomatic bureau, a consiular bureau, a home bureau, the
archives, and the patent office.
The Secretary of the Treasury superintends the financial concerns of the govern-
ment ; he is required to report annually to Congress the state of the finances, and
to recommend measures for improving the condition of the revenue. To this depart-
ment are attached, besides the secretary, two controllers, five auditors, the register,
the treasurer, the solicitor of the treasury, the mint, and the land office. The prin-
cipal mint was established, in 1792, at Philadelphia, and still remains there ; but
branch mints have been established at Charlotte, in North Carolina ; Dahlonega, in
Georgia ; and New Orleans.
The War Department is charged with the direction and government of the army ;
the constructing of fortifications ; the execution ot topographical surveys; and the
direction of Indian affairs. Attached to, and under the direction of the Secretary at War,
are the engineer department, ordnance department, topographical bureau, office of
Indian affairs, requisition bureau, bounty-land bureau, pension office, paymaster-
general's office, adjutant-generalW office ; quartermaster-general's office, conmnissary-
general's office, &c.
The Secretary of the Navy has the management and control of the navy in gene-
ral. This department was instituted in 1798: and, in 1815, the Board of Commis-
sioners for the Navy, three in number, was instituted. The board, under the super-
intendence of the secretary, execute the ministerial duties of the department relative
to the construction and employment of ships, &c.
The post-office is under the cliHrge of the postmaster-general, who has the appoint-
ment of the postmasters throughout the country, and the power of making contracts
for carrying the mail. To this department belong the contract office, the appointment
office, and the inspection office. The mimber of post-offices in the United States,
in 1847, were 15,146 ; the length of mail routes in the sime year was 153,818 miles.
The reventie for the same year was 3,955,893 dollars, and the expenditure 3,979,570
dollars. The amount paid to Postmaster 1,060,228, and for the transportation of the
mails 2,476,455 dollars.
The army is under the command of the major-general, who is styled the General-
in-Chief, and who resides at Washington. 'I'here are two divisions of the army, at
tlie head of each of which is a brigmlier-general. The western division comprehends
all the country west of the Mississippi, with head-quarters at New Orleans, Louisi-
ana ; the eastern comprises the country east of the Mississippi, with head-quarters
at New York. Motives of economy and politic<al jealousy have combined to keep
the force of the army exceedingly low. It consists at present of 57 officers of the
general staff, 83 of the medical department, 19 of the pay department, 3 of the
purchasing department, 43 of the corps of engineers, 36 topographical engineers,
323 of the ordnance department ; two regiments of dragoons, mustering 1498 ; fi)ur
regiments of artillery, 3020 ; eight regiments of infantry, 7496 ; total, 12,539. The
ranks of the army are chiefly filled up by foreign immigrants, the necessary discipline
being quite uncongenial to the feelings and habits of free citizens, and the pay being
much less than good tradesmen or labourers can earn by any other employment. Tlie
militia of the States is very formidable in point of numbers, amounting in 1848 to
1,888,538 men ; but this vast body is imperfectly armed and organized, and either
extremely deficient in, or utterly destitute of, discipline and subordination.
The navy acquired much reputation in the last war with Britain ; but principles of
economy have here also interfered, and kept it below the state which the exigencies
of the country require. In August 1848 it consisted of 11 ships of the fine, of from
74 to 120 guns ; 1 razee of 54 guns; 12 frigates of the first class ; 2 of the second
class; 22 sloops of war; 4 gun-brigs; 10 schooners; a few steam-ships; 6 storo-
Bhips and brigs ; and 5 boml>-vessels.
The federal judiciary establishment consists of a supreme court, nine circuit-courts,
and thirty district courts. The judges are appointed by the Senate, on the nomina-
tion of tlie President, and hold office during good behaviour. The supreme court is
composed of a chief justice and eight associate justices, who lidld a court annually
at \Vashington ; each justice also attends a certain circuit, wbicli comprises several
districts, and, with the distiict judge, forms a circuit-court, which is held in each dis-
trict of the circuit. The district couits are held by the respective district jndgits
alone. There is a district attorney in each flistrict, whose duty it is to i)rosecute all
offences cognizable by the law of the United States, and to manage all civil actions
in which the Kxecutivt' are concerned as parties. The marshal of each district
attends the district and circuit courts, and executes the precepts (iireete<l to hint
926 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [United
under the authority of the United States. This supreme court has an extensive ju-
risdiction, and performs a most important part in preserving the integrity of the union.
Its judicial power comprehends all cases, in law and equity, arising under the con-
stitution itself, or under the laws of the United States; all controversies to which
the United States are a party ; controversies between two or more States, or between
dtizens of different States, and many others. The judges are men of great talent
and erudition, and their decisions are highly respected.
Such is the general government of the United States ; that of each of the sepa-
rate States is formed very nearly, if not entirely, on the same model ; the legislative
power in all matters within the territorial limits of the State, being vested in an elec-
tive body, styled the Legislature, the General Court, or the General Assembly, and
consisting generally, though not in all cases, of a Senate and a House of Represen-
tatives; the executive being vested in a governor, secretary of state, and other
officers; and the judiciary, in courts of law and equity, which have authority over
all the citizens of the State, in matters not falling under the jurisdiction of the su-
preme Court of the United States. The mode of fleeting and appohiting the mem-
bers of the legislative bodies, and the executive and judiciary officers, is regulated by
the constitution of each State, and is a matter with which the general government
has no right to interfere. The constitutions of all the States are subject to periodi-
cal revisals by the citizens ; that of Rhode Island is the only one which has suffered
no change since its origin ; it is still regulated by the charter granted by King
Charles 11.
Finances. — The revenue and taxation of the United States are moderate in pro-
portion to the wealth and extent of the republic. The customs, or duties of imports
and tonnage, form the most productive branch of revenue. In 1816 the receipts of
the customs amounted to 36,306,874 dollars ; from that period till 1825, they fluc-
tuated between 13,000,000 and 20,000,000; from 1825 till 1834, from 20,000,000
to 30,000,000 ; in 1846, they amounted to 26,712,667 ; and in 1847 to 23,737,864
dollars. The second great source of revenue is the public domain, or public lands,
which consists of tracts of territory ceded to the general government by the several
States : of the lands in the territoiy of Louisiana purchased from France, and of those
in Flcrida purchased from Spain. The sale of these lands in 1846 came to 2,694,452 ;
and iu 1847 to 2,498,355. After thus acquiring a claim to unoccupied lands from the
individual States, or from individual powers, the Indian title to the soil is next ex-
tinguished by purchasing it from the native tribes by whom it is occupied. The
lands are then accurately surveyed, according to a general system, so that the whole
country is divided into townships of six miles square. Each township is subdivided
into thirty-six sections, and these are still further subdivided into quarter, half-quarter,
and quarter sections. The lands thus surveyed are offered for sale by proclamation
of the President ; and by law must be sold by public auction, the minimum upset price
being one dollar and twenty-five cents (about five shillings) an acre, ready money.
One section in each township is reserved for the support of schools ; and all salt
springs and lead mines are reserved from sale, unless by special order of the President.
The amount of revenue derived from these and other minor sources, is stated in
the following table : —
States.]
AMERICA.
927
BTXTEME.VT 0» DCTIIS, BETINDE9, AND PDBLIC EIPENOITURKS IN TH« riSCiL TIlBSSNDIHa ITTXI 30 Ie4«, AND /CHI 30, 1817.
i,From a Report of Ike Secretary of Ike Treatury, December B, 1847.>
The Receipts into the Treasury were
as follows. —
From customs, viz : —
During the first quarter.
During the second quarter.
During the third quarter.
During the fourth quarter,
Total customs.
From sales of public l<\nd3.
From miscellaneous sources.
Total Receipts, exclusive of Ioans,<&c.
Bal. in the Treas^ July 1,1&15 and It^,
Total, exclusive of loans.
Avails of Treasury-notes, underact of
July 22, 1846, less Z).1,931,UU0 funded.
Avails of Treasury-notes under act of
Jan. 28, 1847, less i). 1,221,850, funded.
Avails of loan, act of July 22, 1846,
Avails of loan under act of Jan. 28,
1847, less /).40,3sU, funded
Total means.
The ExpENDixrBES, exclusive of trust
funds, were as follows :—
Ct«tJ Lilt.
I^iegislaturet
Executive, ....
Judiciary, ....
Governments in the Territories,
Suneyors and their clerks,
Officers of the Mint and branches.
Commissioner of the Public Buildinirs,
Secy, to sign patents for public lands,
Total civil list.
Foreign J%terco%r$e.
Salaries of Ministers,
Salaries of Secretaries of Legation.
Salaries of Charges des Affaires,
Salary of Minister resident to Turkeyi
Outfits of Ministers and Charges
des Affaires,
Salary of Dragoman to Turkey, .
Contingent expenses of all the mis-
sion! abroad.
Renewal of diplomatic Intercouse
with Mexico,
Contingencies of foreign intercourse.
Salary of Consul at Syria <fe Palestine,
Salary of the Consul at London,
Belief of American seamen,
Clerk-hire, office-rent, Ac, to Ameri-
can Consul, London,
Intercourse with Barbary powers,
French seamen killed or wounded
at Toulon, ....
Interpreters, guards, Ac, at the Con-
sulates in Turkish dominions.
Payments under the ninth article of
treaty with Spain,
Compensation for certain diplomatic
services, ....
To Commlssr. to Sandwich Islands,
Outstanding claims of missions to
China, ....
Commissioner and Secretary to re-
side in China,
Total foreign intercourse, .
MUcellaueout.
Surveys of public land«.
Maintenance of lighthouses.
Marine hospitals,
Buililini; marine nospitals.
Public buildings in Washington,
Furniture of the President's house.
Support of the penitentiary in Dlit.
Columbia, ....
Patent Fund.
Distribution of the sales of lands.
Payment of Maine & Massachusetts,
for expenses incurred In protecting
the heretofore disputed territory.
Building custom. houHCS, Ac,
Survey of the coast of the U. States,
Mint establishment.
Relief of sundry individuals.
Surveyor the n.-eas tern boundary line.
Auxiliary watch in Washington,
Expenses incidental to loans and
Treas. notes,
Supportoflunatlcs for DIst. Columbia,
Three per cent, to Illinois,
Five per cent, to Michigan,
Five per cent, to Arkansas,
Two per cent, fund to MissisBippi,
Three per cent, to Ohio,
Five per cent, to Florida, .
Relief of cities of Dist. of Columbia,
Debentures and other charges, .
Additional compensation to collec
tors, dtc
2,01)0.00
67,126.62
2,800.00
8,WS.24
1,000.00
1,900.00
6,000.00
397,933.29
153337.66
40iy(77.29
6h,67B.7o
42,»K7t49
36,656.95
11,368 Ji»
17,40O.«7
42,12>(.70
25,125.23
66,754.63
115,940.00
100,000.00
92,771.50
6S 31 4.94
75,000.00
6,176.00
2,400.00
5,;)25.79
26,0H7.45
1,259,93
l,7'*.7fl
146,823.75
122,516.49
322,SJB.17
im.
Dollar*,
6,153,826.59 |
3,641,192.22
6,3I9,041.4»
7,633.K)4.38
23,747,664.66
2,49!s355.20
100,570.51
26,346^90.37
9,126,43908
35,473,229,45
11,149,300.00
4,888,149.45
4,134.950.00
25,679,199.45
61,t52,42e.90
974,324.14
875,71«.NJ
67 1, 377. «8
36,9^7.9-<
66,:)8o.75
43.725.00
1.994.44
1,500.00
2,562,008.99
62,914.26
14,01$.80
68,713.29
8,500.00
56,750.00
2,000.00
35,365.95
4,500.00
17,809.80
1,997.27
2,000.W)
87,370.99
2,800.00
6,300.00
600.00
2,329.00
440.00
3,000.00
6,417.12
6,079.47
6,776.61
26,1M.34
6.770.46
17.2l«i.95
1,262.48
M70.62
68,749.0»
976.80
117.471.62
43<J ,868.00
Miteella»eo»t—*.Mtt-\uiua,
Payment of horses, 4c., lost.
Duties refunded under protest,
Repayt. for lands erroneously sold.
Refunding purchase-money for land
sold in the Greensburg district,
Louisiana, ....
Testing the electro-magnetic tele-
graphs, ....
Results and acct. of the Exploring
Expedition. ....
Preparing Indices to the manuscript
papers of Washington, .
Clerk to commissioners on goods
destroyed by fire in New York, .
Payt. of books ordered by Congress,
Expenses in relation to insolvent
debtors of the United States,
Manual for custom-houses in relation
to sugar, ....
Purchase of lots in rear of P. 0. De-
partment,
Deficiency in revenue from postage.
Postage of departments, and U" 1b46-
47) of Congress,
Additional compensation to judges
in Missouri,
Proposed edition of the Laws and
Treaties of the United States,
Building light-houses,
Statues for east front of Capitol,
Smithsonian Institution,
Payments of sundry certificates.
Documentary history of the U. 3,
Discriminating tonnage duties.
Certain duties refunded, .
Expenses of mineral land ser\ice.
Boundary line between united United
States and British provinces.
Salaries of Assistant treasurers and
clerks, act of Aug. 6, 1 846,
Contlngences under said Act,
Compensation of special agents to ex-
amine accounts, &c.,
Plans and drawings made by topo-
graphical officers.
All other items of a miscel. nature.
Total miscellaneous, .
Under tke direction of tkl War
Department,
Army proper, ....
Military Academy, .
Fortifications, and other works of
defence, ....
Armories, arsenals, and munitions
of war, . . , ,
Harbours, roads, rivers, <6c..
Surveys, ....
Pensions, ....
Indian Department, .
Claims of the State of Virginia,
Arming and equipping the militia.
Payments to militia and volunteers,
.Mexican hostilities, .
Individual and miscellaneous Relief,
Total under direction of War Dep.,
Under tke direction of tke A^ary
Department.
Pay * subsist. Includ. medicines, Ac,
Increase, repairs, armament, and
equipi.^nt, . . i .
Contingent Expenses,
Navy vards, ....
Navy hospitals and asylum.
Magazines, ....
Individual and miscellaneous Relief,
.Marine corps, ....
Pensions to Invalids, widows, Ac,
Mexican hostilities,
Total under direction of Navy Dep.,
J'utlic Debt.
Paying the old public debt.
Interest on the public debt.
Redemption of trie loan of 1M41, .
Redemption of Treasury-notes, .
Interest on Treasury-notes,
Interest on Mexican indemnity, .
Redemption of Treasury-notes pur-
loined. Including interest,
Total public debt,
Total expenditures,
Balance in the Treasury, July l,
1846 and 1b47, .
1&16.
1847.
Dollar:
34,330.46
859,974.77
24,734.18
Doltare.
18,424.71
660.483.37
23,335.12
19,877.95
6,876.51
7,617.30
21,747.26
26,252.40
1,252.00
2,000.00
1,000.00
9,338.55
107Vs71.27
92.91
3,200,00
22,150.00
650,000.00
226MIO.0O
160,231.62
311,298.99
6,206.79
4,000.00
17,500.00
lOJOO.OO
7,099.37
7.500.00
2,926.73
3.861,442.35
1,049.929.05
140,852.36
1^)31,327.60
1,112,813.18
239,625.49
74,783.64
l,7^4,98»^.:^0
944,451.26
2H,731.45
193,011.44
644,346.;)3
3,4O4,64.-.04
32,117.21
13,579,428.35
3,252,'«).29
1,481,514.35
484 .928.60
5li6,224..)9
48,567.02
472.11
184,238.55
214,653.12
12y,774.K»
147,019.40
6.450.H62.7I)
32„Vi8.07
f>3.)J)5:l.75
46.(ih2.17
29«,14!>.WI
8,769.52
1JI7.H2.I 31
28,031,114.20
257,584.07
4,250.28
25,245.00
2,801.29
128,'<55.20
7,500.00
26,000.00
11,102.61
6,000.00
4,9-»8.()0
5,665.49
3,762,732.01
17jt80,842.91
124,339.21
932,962.08
1,617,216.28
36,117.07
3M21.4I
1,726,785.7.
l,22.>-,2fi0.40
23.160.06
162,597.66
1 .SOS ,709. 40
16,001,226.42
141,247 50
4 1. 2» 1, 6116.62
2,516,573.97
1,29«,5(13.33
467,!lfl5 00
e9l.K44.l8
a-jrr.ii
1.447.:i3
169.0r7.KJ
27",hM.<ai
l!5,l««.6»
2;<64,29I.6I
7,931,6:«.68
2,361,:):C.(>7
5.WW7.70
7.147.20
■30.:i8«.89
3.522 .i«-2.37
69,46 1, 1 77. 66
»,126,43».0lt . 1.70l.aaiJt
i
928 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.
COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE FINANCES OF THE STATES.
[United
states.
Absolute
Debt.
Contin-
ifebt.
7).5,b59!555
192.719
33.212
1,567,190
5,348.000
1,432,876
977,000
2ob",000
5.()bb'ooo
14,857,505
8^*^891
425,000
Total
Debt.
Annual
Interest on
Absolute.
Debt.
Amount of
School
Fund.
Other
'roductive
Property.
Other
Property
not now
productive.
Ordinary an-
nual Kxpen-
iiture, exclu
sive of Debts
and Schools.
Maine,
New Hampshire,
Vermont, .
Massachusetts,
Rhode Island,
Connecticut,
New York, .
New Jersey, .
Pennsylvania,
Delaware. .
Maryland, .
Virginia,
North Carolina,
South Carolina,
Georgia,
Florida,
Alabama,
Mississippi, .
Louisiana, .
Texas.
Arkansas,
Tennessee, .
Kentucky, ..
Ohio. .
Michigan,
Indiana,
Illinois,
Missouri,
Iowa,
Wisconsin. .
0.1,008.200
None.
None.
1,152,031
41,000
None.
22,879,390
37,000
40,578,»i9
10,(«7',062
7.880,302
None.
3,622.039
1,5; 9,875
12.223',033
2.271,707
1,380.566
11.050,201
2.769 ,:i36
3.3:57 ,856
4.608,735
19,233.487
"2.290.768
6,221,778
14,042,718
684,997
55,000
None.
Z>. 1.008,200
None.
None.
6 201,5'6
233,719
33,212
24,446,580
37,000
40,578,949
16.V75'.062
9,313.178
977 WO
3,622.039
1,779,875
12.223!o33
7,271.707
16,238.131
11,050.201
3,618,227
3,337,856
4,608,735
19.233,487
2.715.768
6,221.778
14,042,718
6.-^,997
55,000
None.
i>.66,000
*58',888
2,460
1,262'.5«1
2,200
2,002,240
649,623
462,228
217,322
94,792
666.'000
136.000
;78.914
i64'.660
177,426
276.524
1,163.509
137.446
224,228
700.000
73.100
5,550
8,521,671
9.072.939
9,930,052
/).350,000
None.
None.
645.888
4:«.6.i5
2,077,611
6,450,342
370,742
1,472",971
263',000
1,015,856
1,346,068
1,221,819
1,519,372
496,000
2,195,149
279,763
0.598,265
None.
None.
6,662,507
*406,000
30,987,336
226,253
30.721,376
4,608,970
6,644,041
4,37l',255
4.kV7',430
2,725.500
17.951,194
698,619
i".V,500
764".671
620,000
16,52K915
4,395,381
2,'owi',ooo
2,416,938
l.lbl'.390
3,000,000
771,674
0.125,000
75,000
90,000
336,000
45.000
90.0011
820.000
100,000
350,000
18b'.300
530,000
2r5",2»T
113,9 -.6
40 000
86.0(»
207,000
615.207
80,000
33,830
165,000
250.000
190,(J00
95.000
90,000
125,000
100.000
14,700
^,0625To
6,435,285
6,455,186
Total, .
Total. Jan. 1, 1847,
Total, „ 1846,
169.776.030
165.129.900
179.635,022
35,932,0118
51,781,654
44,388,805
205,70S()38
216,911.554
224,023,827
20.:i38.246
17,631,553
16,608,719
111.6)8.746 1 31,498,469
108.643.3-4 30,660,945
110,396.552 1 23,232,715
These tables are believed to be very accurate, being compiled almost exclusively from official reports made by
the Treasurers and Auditors to the Legislatures of the several States, near the 1st of January 1843. The account
of the State debts, in particular, is full, and may be depended upon; that of the several kinds of property owned
by the States of course is more defective, — for the State archives seldom afford complete materials for accurate
accounts of this sort, and the property is sometimes estimated at a nominal valuation, which is much above its
market value.
So far as the general interests of the State are affected by State debts, there is no difference between
bonds issued and lent to corporations, .ind those issued to procure money for constructing public works by
the State. In both cases the stock is disposed of in tlie foreign market, and the specie must be sent from
the United States to pay the interest ; and it is material to the credit of the stocks, that all loans of credit
certificates to incorporations should be at once recognised and acknowledged as State debts.
The state of New York commenced issuing stock in June 1817, thirty-one years since; and none of
the States had issued stock previous to 1820, except for some small amounts to satisfy revolutionary claims.
The stock issued by the several States, for each period of live years since 1820, is as follows : —
From 1820 to 1825 D.12,790,728
From 1825 to 1830, 13,679,689
From 18.30 to 1H35 40,002,769
From 1835 to 1840 108,993,39-2
175,466,578
The Bank of the United States has issued its bonds, post-notes, and other evidences of debt, and put them
afloat in Europe, to the amount probably of 20,000,000 dollars. There are, also, a class of moneyed incor-
porations, which possess, or have assumed, the right of issuing bonds, and these have been sold or hypothe-
cated in Europe, to the amount of several millions of dollars, which form an addition to the debt agiiinst
this country. Shares in the capital stock of the Hank of the United States, and other banks and loan
companies, are held abroad to the amount of millions of dollars, and the dividends on these stocks are to be
paid from the resources of this country. If the whole sura on which the United States are paying interest
or dividends to foreign capitalists was fairly ascertained, it would greatly exceed 200,000,000 dollars, and
the specie drained from the country on this account, cannot be less than 12,000,000 dollars annually. For
it is fair to presume, that this sum must be paid in specie, since the enterprising character of our country-
men will induce them to import foreign goods to the full amount which can be paid for by the surplus pro-
ducts of the country.
From 1820 till 1830, it is shown by the table of debts, that less than twenty-six millions and a half of
stocks were issued. And during the same period the imports from foreign countries exceeded the exports
by about 40,0(;0,000 dollars. The exports of specie during this period exceeded tlie imports by several mil-
lions of dollars.
From 18.30 till 1840, the amount of stocks issued, including Florida and the city of New York, exceeded
160,600,000 dollars. During the same period, the imports exceeded the exports by about two hundred
MILLIONS OF DOLLARS ; and the imports of specie exceeded the exports by more than fifty millions of
dollars.
Productive Industry. — The principal occupation of the people is agriculture.
Possessing abundance of fertile land, they are able not only to supply their own wants
abundantly, but also to furni.sh distant countries with raw produce cheaper than they
can themselves grow it. In most parts of the country, too, the population is not suffi-
ciently dense to admit of that division of labour which is essential to the successful
prosecution of manufactures ; and as slavery exists in one half of the States, it is gene-
rally believed that manufiictures can there less easily encounter the disadvantages of
States] AMERICA. 929
slave labour than agriculture. Tlie piiiicipal iigricultural prodiirtions of the country
h:ive been already mentioned ; L'ut no means exist of ascertaining their amount in
quantity or value.
§ Maiiufdctitres.
During the war of the revolution some maimfacturcs sprung up in the States ; and,
on the adoption of the new constitution, provision was immediately made for the sup-
port of the trades, handicrafts, and manufactures of the country, by protecting du-
ties, which are still continued. From the endless variety of soil and climate, which
produce in abundance nearly every species of the raw material, and the cheap and
inexhaustible supply of moving power furnished by the torrents and rivers, combinr-d
with the improvements which are daily making in the best machinery, the United
States seem destined ultimately to cope with any other nation in manufacturing in-
dustry. At present, however, but a small proportion of the labour of the country
is applied to this branch of industry, and only a few of the finer fabrics are produced.
Cottons. — The first cotton mill was erected at Providence, Rhode Island, in 1790;
and power-looms were introduced at Waltham in 1815 ; in 1840, the i-eturns col-
lected under that census exhibit the number of spindles as 2,284,631, employing
72,199 persons, and furnishing material for the manufacture of articles to the value
of £9,600,000. The capital invested was calculated at £13,202,000 ; and the value of
their produce about fifty millions of dollars, or £10,000,000 sterling. The Ame-
rican cotton stuffs are more substantial and durable than the English, and they are
in consequence, preferred in the foreign markets to wliich they have been carried.
Theyinclude sheetings and shirtings, printed calicoes, jeans, carpeting, sail-cloth, &c.
Woollens. — The manufacture of woollens has been carried on in families for do-
mestic use from an early period ; but it is only recently that large establishments
have been formed for the purpose ; some of wiiich are supplied with the most im-
proved machinery. The number of sheep in the United States, by the census of
1840, amounted to 19,311,374, producing 85,802,114 pounds of wool, and from four
to five millions of pounds are also imported. The woollen trade employed 21,342
individuals. The value of the goods manuirctured amounted to £4,500,000, and
the capital embarked to £3,153,025. Among the products are broad cloths, cas-
simeres, satinets, flannels, blankets, carpets, &c. Five hundred looms produce an-
nually upwards of a million of yards, of ingrained Venetian and Brussels carpeting.
Li'uthcr, ^c. — The leather manufactures, including boots, shoes, saddlery, trunks,
ki\ are an important branch of industry ; and foreign hides to the value of nearly
£500,000 are annually consumed. Not only is the home trade supplied, but there
is a surplus for exportation. The value of the manufacture is estimated at £9,000,000,
and that of hats and caps of wool, fur, and leather, including £'200,000 worth of
straw-l»onnets and palm-leaf hats, is supposed to amount to £3.000,000 amuially.
Linens, ^'r. — Hemp and flax are manufactured in considerable quantities, though
the general use of cotton has in a great measure superseded linen as an article of
clothing. In 1810, 23,.503,5L)0 yards of linen were made in families, and this cloth is
still made in that way only. About 4,500,000 yards of bagging for cotton are manu-
factured annually ; and the yearly value of cables and cordage, to the spinning of
which very ingenious machinery has been applied in some places, is estimated at
£1,000,000. Some sail-cloth is also made.
Glass and pajier were early objects of manufacturing industry in the colonies. The
value of the produce of the glass furnaces was estimated, in 1831, at £()(Kt,0()0, but is
now much larger. The value of the paper made in the United States is estimated to
be from £1 ,000,000 to £1 ,2.00,000 annually ; which, con.-idering the great consumption
of the country, and the small amount imiiorted, would appear to be ratlicr below than
above the truth. From the report of the York Convention of the Friends of Domes-
tic Industry, it appears that, in I83I, there were tiiirty chemical establishments in
the United States producing chemical articles u<ed in the arts to the value of
£200,000 a-ycar. The annual value of the cabinet-ware upwards of £1.52(»,<)(l(».
Horn, wfxxl, ivory, and shell combs are made, to the value of about £160,000 ; and
buttons to nearly the same ainoinit. Both articles are exported. The total amount
of capital embarked in manufactures in 1840, was £53,545,316.
§ Fisheries.
The Fisheries have been pursued by thcNew Englanders with a rare spirit of hardy
enterprise, from an early [)eriod. The whale-fishery is prosecuted in the Atlantic
Ocean chiefly to the south of the line, for the black whale; and in tlic Southern,
Indian, and I'acific Oceans, for the spermaceti uliale. It is carried on cliielh licwn New
3 N
930 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [United
Bedford and Nantucket ; and also, but on a smaller scale, from New London, Sag
Harbour, Falmouth, Bristol, Hudson, and other places. About 10,000 men are en-
gaged in it, and the seamen are paid, not by fixed wages, but by a certain share in
the profits of the voyage. The vessels in the Indian and Pacific Oceans are often
absent for two or three years. Seal oil and furs are also obtained in the Antarctic
seas. The annual produce exceeds the value of £1,000,000 sterling. The cod fishery
IS pursued on the banks and coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador, and employs up-
wards of 60,000 tons of small craft, some of which make several trips a-year. Those
engaged in the coast fisheries generally remain longer. The produce of this fishery
may be estimated at about £300,000 sterling a-year, about one-half of which is ex-
ported. The mackerel fishery employs about 50,000 tons of shipping, and produces
about £400,000 annually.
§ Commerce.
The commerce of the United States has attained an amazing magnitude ; there is
no part of the globe which is not visited by American merchantmen ; and the foreign
trade, the coasting trade, and the inland trade carried on over an unequalled extent
of artificial and natural lines of communication, are all on an equal scale. The do-
mestic commerce may be divided into three branches: 1. That which is carried on
coastwise, up the bays and large rivers, and on the great lakes in schooners, sloops,
and steam-boats. 2. That which is carried on chiefly in steam-boats, but partly in
rude flat-bottomed boats, on the Mississippi and its affluents. Of the steam-boats there
are said to be upwards of 500 continually plying on these streams ; but most of the
flat-bottomed boats make but a single voyage down the river, at the end of which
they are sold, and broken up for the materials of which they are constructed. The
great centre of this trade is New Orleans ; which, situate at the only outlet of the great
valley, is necessarily the entrepot of all the produce destined for exportation, and of all
the foreign articles required to supply the wants of the people of the Western States.
3. The overland trade between the Western and Atlantic States consists principally in
hogs, horses, cattle, and mules, which are driven every year to the Atlantic States to
the amount of many millions of dollars. But the difficulty of conveyance has hitherto
prevented any other return than money. To obviate this disadvantage several canals
and railroads have been undertaken, and partly finished, which will be used for the
transport of merchandise as well as passengers, across the mountains. The four ma-
ritime states of New England are those most devoted to navigation and trade ; and
Massachusetts, though it contains less than one-twentieth of the population of the
United States, owns more than one-fourth of the shipping tonnage. Next to the
New Englanders, the people of New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland, are the most
commercial. Such of the inhabitants of those States, and of the Atlantic States to
the south of them, as live near the mouths of the rivers, or on the great bays and
estuaries, are generally of sea-faring habits. They are extremely skilful in building
and managing those fast-sailing schooners and small craft which are perpetually cross-
ing these broad waters in every direction.
The exports consist chiefly of agricultural produce, and the naval stores, lumber,
and other productions of the forests. On an average of eight years, from 1803 to
1811, the produce of agriculture constituted about three-fourths in value of all the
exports; of the forests, about one-ninth; of the sea, about one-fifteenth; and of ma-
nufactures, about one-twentieth ; and on the average of ten years, from 1821 to
1830, the produce of agriculture constituted a little more than three-fourths in value
of the exports; of manufactures, about one-twelfth; of the forests, about one-thirteenth;
and of the sea, about one-thirteenth. The imports consist chiefly of manufactured
articles of all sorts, particularly the finer kinds ; of tropical productions, as sugar,
coffee, spices; of tea, hides, wines, spirits, fermented liquors, &c
States.] AMERICA. 931
1. EXPORTS OF THE PRODUCE OF THE UNITED STATES.
Value of the Exports of the Growth, Produce, and Manufacture of the United States, during the two Teart
ending June 30, 1847.
The Sea.
Piikeries.
Dried fish, or cod fisheries.
Pickled fish, or river fisheries (her-
ring, shad, salmon, mackerel).
Whale and other fish oil.
Spermaceti oil,
Whalebone,
Spermaceti candles.
The Forest.
Skins and furs.
Ginseng, ....
iVodiKH of WoQd.
Staves, shingles, boards, hewn tim-
ber, ....
Other lumber.
Masts and spars.
Oak bark and other dye,
All manufactures of wood.
Naval stores, tar, pitch, rosin, and
turpentine,
Ashes, pot and pearl, .
AoaicrLTCRE.
ProducU of .4«i»««l».
Beef, tallow, hides, horned cattle.
Butter and cheese.
Pork (pickled), bacon, lard, live hogs,
Horses and mules.
Sheep,
Vegetable Food.
Wheat,
Flour,
Indian corn,
Indian meal.
Eye meal.
Eye, oats, and other small
and pulse.
Biscuit, or ship-bread.
Potatoes,
Apples,
Rice.
Tobacco,
Cotton,
Wool.
All otker Agricultural Product).
Flax-seed, .
Hops,
Brown sugar.
Indigo,
MiNDriCTCKES.
Soap and tallow candles, .
Leather boots and shoes.
Household furniture.
Coaches and other carriages.
Hats, ....
Saddlery,
Wax
Spirits from grain.
Beer, ale, porter, and cider.
DoUari.
gram
230,495
946,298
1,063,009
237,662
2,319,443
324,979
21,682
61,382
957,790
1,085,712
73o,6»9
2,474,208
l,U63,0!-7
3,883,8h4
3s2,3f)2
30,303
1,681,975
11 66f,669
1,186,663
94.i,0W
13»,U0
6:i8,221
366,688
69,934
69,252
2,564,991
8,178,270
42,767,:mi
203,996
165,438
41,692
7,235
90
630,041
346,516
317,407
87,712
74,722
24,357
162,790
73,716
67,735
136,221
1,070,659
738,456
671,601 i
191,467 I
747,145
&4,46(>
1,849,911
342,781
23,270
1,495*,924
759,221
618,000
2,434,003
1,741,770
6,630,842
277 A39
29,100
6,049,350
26,133,811
14,395,212
4,301,334
225,502
1,600,962
656,266
109,062
92,961
3,005,8%
7,242,086
63,415,848
89,460
1,346
150,654
26,483
10
606,798
243,816
225,700
75rl69
69,536
13,102
161,527
67,781
68,114
Manufactures — Contiuucd.
Snuflfand tobacco. ^
Linseed oil and spirits of turpentine.
Cordage, ....
/roB.
Pig, bar, and nails.
Castings, ....
All manufactures of, .
Spirits from molasses.
Sugar, refined.
Chocolate, ....
Gunpowder,
Copper and brass.
Medicinal drugs, .
Cotton, Piece Ooods.
Printed and coloured.
White
Nankeen, ....
Twist, yarn, and thread.
All other manufactures of.
Flax and hemp, bags and all manu-
factures of, . . .
„ „ cloth and thread.
Wearing apparel.
Combs and buttons.
Brushes, ....
Billiard-tables and apparatus.
Umbrellas and parasols.
Leather and Morocco skins not sold
per pound, ....
Fire-engines and apparatus, .
Printing presses and type.
Musical instruments, .
Books and maps.
Paper and stationery.
Paints and varnish.
Vinegar, ....
Earthen and stone ware, .
Manufactures of
Glass, ....
Tin
Pewter and lead.
Marble and stone.
Gold and silver, and gold leaf.
Gold and silver coin.
Artificial flowers and jewellery. .
Molasses, ....
Trunks, ....
Brick and lime.
Domestic salt, . ,
Lead, ....
Articles not cuunerattd.
Manufactured,
Other Articles, ...
Government stores to the army, from
New York, ....
Dollars.
695,914
668.950
159,915
498,110
62,775
27,054
122,225
168,S17
107,905
68,889
921,652
929,778
268,652
293,609
392 312
124,824
2,177
1,6.53
140,879
88,397
62,088
64,980
200,505
165,793
380,549
281,320
l,97s,:«l
3,346,902
848,989
8,791
81,813
108,132
255,799
338,375
10,765
8,305
1,384
477
45,140
47,101
35,945
17,026
3,110
2,967
l,dc«
615
2.477
2,150
26,667
29,856
9,-02
3,443
43,792
17.431
25,375
16,9-7
6.1,667
44,731
124,697
8^,731
62,182
54,116
17,4,-9
9.526
6p21
4,7 J8
90,860
71,155
8,902
6.;i63
10,278
13,694
11,2.)4
11,220
3,6<iO
4,268
423,861
62,620
24,420
3,126
l,d-.l
26,939
10,613
6,270
12,678
17,623
30.620
42,3:13
614,518
124,981
1,379,566
1,108,984
1,490,303
1,199,276
326,800
Total,
1 102,141,893 1 150,637,464
2. VALUE OF DIFFERENT ARTICLES IMPORTED.
Value of Ooods, Wares, and Merchandise imported into the United States from
December 1, 1846, to July 1, 1847,
Species of Merchandise.
Value in
Dollars.
Species of Merchandise.
Value in
Dollars.
Free of Doti.
Merino shawls of wool.
590,714
Bullion.
Blankets,
475,083
Gold,
128,926
Hosiery and arts, made on frames.
156.022
Silver,
34,971
Worsted stuff goods.
1,469,550
Specie.
Woollen and wonsted yarn.
79,157
Gold,
21,024,765
Woollen and worsted, embroi-
Silver,
1,568,776
dered, &c..
4,524
Tcis,
2,800,733
Manufactures of, not specified,
391.591
Coffee, ....
5,784,033
Flannels,
21,231
Copper.
Baizes,
51,918
In plates, for sheathing ships.
610,211
Carpeting.
Cotton, unmanufactured.
3,623
Wilton, Saxony, and Aubusson,
3,173
Adhesive felt for sheathing vessels.
2,107
Bru.s.sols, Turkey, and treble in-
Plaster, unground,
22,760
grained.
Ulfi.SfiO
Produce of U. S. brought back.
186,745
Venetian .and other ingiained.
4,557
All other articles,
358,788
Not specified.
Manufacture! of Cotton.
2,017
Total, .
32,532,460
Printed, stained, or coloured.
7,54 3,535
White or unooloured,
2,422,075
MEBCnANDISE PATINO Dl'TIES AD
Tamboured, cords, gimps. &c..
171,325
Valorem.
Velvets, and hatters' plush.
87,899
Mantifaetures of Wool, Isc.
Hosiery and art. made on fromeg.
779,581
Cloths and cassimcres,
2,969,768
Twist, yarn. and. thread.
365.447
932
DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAniY.
Species of Merchandise.
Value in
Dollars.
242,490
Species of Merchandise.
Value in i
VoUarlt.
1,423
Manufactures of, not specified,
Wire .and screws.
Manufactures of Silk.
Braziers' and copper bottoms.
3,341
Piece goods.
4,534,487
Manufactures of, not .specified.
82,950
Hosiery and artii-les made on
lirass, and Manufactures of.
frames.
201,7.59
In pigs, bars, and old,
134
Sowing-silk,
340,196
Wire .and screws.
2.374
Articles tamboured, hats and
Manufactures of, not specified,
8 7,31;!
bonnets.
579,342
Tin.
IMaiiufactures not specified.
712,335
In pigs and bars.
263, .S85
Floss,
12
In plates .and sheets.
600,!»."il
Raw,
161,624
Foil,
10,647
Bolting cloths.
18,600
Manufactures of, not specified.
8,754
Silk and worsted goods,
1,079.465
Lead.
Camlets of goats' hair or mohair.
7,995
Pig. bar, shot, and pipes.
3,27)
Manufactures of Flax.
Manuf.ictures of, not specified,
2,164
Linens, bleached and unbleached.
3,563,369
Pewter, manufactures of.
1,188
Hosiery and articles made on
Manufactures of Gold and Silver.
frames,
318
Laces, galloons, tassels, &c..
13,262
Articles tamboured or embroi-
Epaulettes .and wings,
570
dered.
110
Gold and silver leaf.
88
Manufactures not specified.
347,631
.lewellery,
47,865
Manufactures of Hemp.
Gems, pearls, &c., set or not.
68,340
Sheetings, ticklenburgs, osna-
Manufactures of, not specified.
18,017
burgs, &c.,
224,539
Gliiziers' diamonds,
75
Articles not specified,
50,362
Clocks
11,842
Sail duck,
107,653
Chronometers,
7,416
Cotton bagging.
10,396
Watches and parts of watches.
780.224
Clothing.
Metallic pens, .
22,535
Ready made,
36,209
Square wire for umbrellas,
4,876
Articles of wear,
419,750
Pins in packs and otherwise.
9,686
Laces, thread, cotton, braids, &c.,
398,514
Buttons, metal and other, .
172,543
Floor-cloth, patent, painted, &c.,
4,835
Glass.
Oil-cloth of all kinds.
19,271
Silvered, paintings, &c., and
Hair-cloth and hair-seating.
63,201
m.-inufactures of, not specified.
298,736
Lastihg and mohair cloth for
Polished pl.ates.
110,477
shoes, &c..
46,080
W.atch-crystals and spectacle-
Matting, Chinese and others of
glasses,
9,551
flags, &c.,
66,657
Apothecaries' vials, .
933
Hats, caps, bonnets, <§fc., of
Bottles, .
25,014
Leghorn, straw, grass, chip, &c..
781,181
Demijohns, .
15,716
Palm-leaf, whalebone, &c..
28,166
Window-glass,
76,079
Manufactures of Iron and Steel.
Manufactures of Paper.
Muskets and rifles.
2,395
Writing,
42,150
Arms, fire and side,
102,008
Bank-note and copper-plate.
18,414
Other articles,
2,296,589
Binders' boards, box & sheathing,-
1.497
Bonnet-wire,
3,794
Papier mache.
21,384
59,051
All other.
8,825
Paper-hangings, ,
Nails,
52,803
Fancy boxes, &c.,
18.409
Spikes, . .
265
Manufactures of. not specified,
8,64 6
Chain -cables,
207,802
Blank books.
1,351
Mill, cross-cut, and pit-saws,
490
Books printed.
Anchors and parts thereof,
rS,6C5
In Hebrew,
344
Anvils and parts thereof,
64,871
In Latin and Greek,
9,240
Smiths' hammers and sledges,
1,356
In English, .
134,894
Castings, vessels of,
4,638
In other Languages,
4 1,007
„ all others.
Braziers' rods from 3.16 to 10.16
9,218
Illustrated periodicals, &c., .
3,4 72
Leather.
inches.
16,349
T.anned bend and sole, .
347
Nail-roads, slit, rolled, or ham-
Tanned and dressed upper, .
12,990
mered.
7,994
Skins, tanned and dressed.
95,617
Band or scroll, slit, rolled, or
„ tanned and not dressed.
2,637
hammered.
3,736
Skivers, .
18,016
Sheet and hoop iron,
399,042
Manufactures of Leather.
Pig iron,
472,088
Boots and shoes,
12,099
Old and scrap
34,868
Gloves,
285,039
Bar manufactured by rolling.
1,695,173
Manufactures of, not specified.
50,857
Bar manufactured otherwise.
266,386
Wares.
Steel.
China, porcelain, earthen, and
Cast, shear, and German,
529,782
stone,
1,302,792
All other.
134,198
Plated or gilt,
90,673
Copper, and Manufactures of.
Japanned, Britannia, and Wedg-
1 In pigs, bars, and old.
94,750
wood,
46,697
States.]
AMERICA.
Species of Merchandise,
Value in
Dollars.
Species of Merchandise.
Value in
Dollars.
Silver-plated and silver or plated
In bottles, .
60,915
wire, . .
1,591
Vinegar,
5,181
Saddlery, common tinned, plated.
Molasses,
2,342,917
and brass,
153 456
Oil of Foreign Fisheries
Furs.
Spermaceti, whale, and other fish.
3,539
Undressed, on the skin, .
174,643
Olive in casks,
21,045
Hatters' furs, dressed or un-
Linseed, .
349,916
dressed, not on the skin.
82,449
Castor, rapeseed, hempseed, and
Dressed, on the skin.
46,916
neat's foot,
Hats, caps, and manufactures
Cocoa,
34,907
not specified,
7,290
Sugar.
Wood.
IBrown,
8,020,318
Manufactures of.
84,643
White clayed or powdered.
416,933
Unmanufactured,
198,543
Loaf and other refined.
66,084
Dye-wood in sticks.
154,778
Fruits of all kinds.
600,049
liark of the cork-tree,
57,788
Spices of all kinds.
459,022
Marble,
34,168
Camphor, crude and refined.
19,678
Quicksilver,
3,634
Candles, wax, tallow, &c.,
254
Brushes and brooms.
68,995
Cheese,
8,217
Black-lead pencils.
10,599
Beef and pork.
599
Slates of all kinds.
66,811
Hams and other bacon,
1,780
Raw hides and skins.
1,529,948
Bristles,
25,243
Boots and bootees of silk and
Saltpetre, crude and refined,
262,300
prunella, .
20
Indigo, . ,
474,583
Shoes and slippers of do.,
13,662
Woad or pastel, . ,
1,172
Grass-cloth, . .
3,370
Ivory or bone black, .
4,210
Gunny-bags,
49,832
Bleaching powder, . ,
131,637
Umbrellas, &c., of silk.
25,004
Cigars,
662,512
„ „ all other,
186
Paints.
Flaxseed or linseed.
106,190
Ochre, dry and in oil.
24,203
Thibet, Angora, and other goats*
Red and white lead, ,
30,776
hair and mohair, . ,
1,736
Whiting and Paris white,
2,939
Wool,
250,473
Cordage, tarred and untarred.
44,G70
Wines in Casks.
Twine and seines.
29,599
Madeu-a,
5,717
Hemp unmanufactured.
89,447
Sherry or San Lucar,
56,061
Manilla, sun, hemp, &c..
233,761
Port,
3,791
Cordilla unmanufaetiu-ed,
14.792
Claret, .
119,844
Rags of all kinds.
158,492
Tencriffe and other Canary,
11,491
Salt, ....
683,289
Fayal and other Azores,
3
Coal,
213,349
Sicily and other Mediterranean,
24,230
Wheat, barley, rye, and oats.
1,112
Austria and other of Germany,
4,779
Potatoes, . . ,
13,717
Red, not enumerated,
119,411
Fish, dried or smoked,
16,082
Wiiite, not enumerated.
69,831
„ pickled, ...
388,80,5-
Burgundy in bottles,
512
Merchandise not enumerated.
685,163
Champagne,
85,886
At 5 per cent., .
658,900
Madeira,
579
At 10 „ „
503,621
Sherry,
7,829
At 15 „ „ .
823,926
Port,
1,760
At 20 „ „
1,463,674
Claret,
43,788
At 25 „ „ .
47.409
All other.
12,337
At 30 „ „
825,654
Foreign Distilled Spirits.
Brandy,
At 35 „ „ .
58,316
675,631
From grain.
14 3,549
Value of Merchandise paying duties
From other materials,
57,806
ad volorcm, . , .
69,049,068
Cordials,
9,128
„ free of duty.
32,532,460
Beer, Ale, and Porter.
In casks, . .
17,092
Total,
101,581,528
Year rndinj Jh%» 30, 1846.
Year ending June 30, 1K14.
Merchandise at si)ecific duties.
86,263,605
Merchandise at specific duties.
31,352,863
„ „ ad valorem,
60,660,453
„ „ ad valorem,
52,315.291
„ ,, free of duty.
Total,
24.767,739
,, „ free of duty.
Total,
24,760,881
108,435,035
121,691,797
r.or tnJing Junt 30, 1S45.
.\ine monlht ending June 3(J, 1K43.
Merchandise at epecific duties.
36,914,862
, Merchandise at specific duties,
12,494,340
„ „ a<l valorem.
60,I91,8f,2
1 „ „ nd valorem.
16,684,875
,, .. free of duty, .
Total,
22,147,840
1 ,, „ free of duty, .
Total,
85,574,,')84
64,7.'.3,79o
117,2.14,564
934 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.
3. IMPORTS FROM, AND EXPORTS TO, FOREIGN COUNTRIES.
[United
liable, exJdbiting the Value of Imjwrts from, and Exports to, each Foreign Country,
during the Year ending 30th June 1847.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
J3
24
25
26'
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
Russia,
Prussia,
Sweden and Norway,
Swedish West Indies,
Denmark, .
Danish West Indies,
Holland,
Dutch East Indies,
Dutch West Indies,
Dutch Guiana,
Belgium,
Hanse Towns,
Hanover,
England,
Scotland,
Ireland,
Gibralter,
Malta, ....
BritLsh East Indies,
Mauritius,
Cape of Good Hope,
British West Indies,
British Guiana,
British Honduras,
British American Colonies, .
Other British Colonies (Australia),
France on the Atlantic,
France on the Mediterranean,
French African Ports,
French West Indies,
French Guiana,
Miquelon and French Fisheries,
Bourbon,
Spain on the Atlantic, .
Spain on the Miditerranean,
Teneriffe and the other Canaries,
Manilla and Philippine Isles,
Cuba, ....
Porto Rico,
Portugal,
Madeira,
Fayal and the other Azores,
Cape de Verde Islands,
Italy, .
Sicily,
Sardinia,
Trieste and other Austrian Ports,
Turkey,
Mexico,
Central Republic of America,
New Granada,
Venezuela,
Brazil,
Argentine Republic,
Cisplatine Republic,
Chili, .
Peru,
Republic of Ecuador,
China,
Hayti,
South America generally,
Asia generally,
Africa generally.
West Indies generally, .
Pacific Ocean (whaling),
Sandwich Islands,
Tci AL.
Value of
Value of Exports. 1
.
Impwts.
Dollar
Domestic
Produce.
Foreign \
Produce.
Total.
Dollars.
Dollars.
Dollars.
924,673
626,332
124,118
750,450
7,608
182,259
19,907
202,166
613,698
391,847
28,340
420,187
110,062
3,659
113,721
475
198,952
4,943
203,895
846,748
836,672
152,631
989,303
1,247,209
1,885,398
129,936
2,015,334
894,982
91,902
108,238
200,140
279,038
217,214
16,355
233,569
69,355
43,840
388
44,228
948,325
2,874,367
348,190
3,222,557
3,622,185
4,068 413
266,225
4,334,638
6,469
6,469
65,170,374
70,223,777
834,921
71,058,698
1,837,014
3,645,460
162,013
3,807,473
690,240
12,397,698
31,488
12,429,186
26,969
365,360
55,026
420,386
25,096
22,541
47,637
1,646,457
237,783
135,454
373,237
36,275
1,233
37,508
36,041
106,172
106,172
947,932
3,973,252
20,140
3,993,392
19,125
621,903
1,816
623,719
197,232
261,398
40,519
301,917
2,343,927
5,819,667
2,165,876
7,985,543
33,289
33,289
23,899,076
17,420,385
449,046
17,869,431
1,001,765
1,172,146
56,041
1,228,187
1
5,491
5,491
151,366
569,126,
34,038
603,164
47,775
58,287
1,990
60,277
435
52,557
52,657
274,708
770,748
10,115
780,863
1,016,551
1,188,340
41,063
1,229,403
61,864
15,148
15,418
494,056
32,480
44,760
77,240
12,394,867
6,005,617
972,089
6,977,706
2,141,929
825,079
33,985
859,064
283,330
56,893
1,335
58,228
95,857
105,031
1,389
106,420
34,564
9,466
525
9,991
2,399
71,084
17,848
88,932
1,279,936
1,056,022
93,333
1,149,355
550,988
56,899
7,218
64,117
287
630,232
16,870
€47,102
187,341
1,175,375
73,348
1,248,723
577,710
61,570
65,672
127,242
746,818
536,641
155,787
692,428
80,581
73,322
23,246
96,568
156,654
53,655
19,405
73,060
1,322,496
571,474
43,739
615,213
7,096,160
2,566,938
376,840
2,943,778
241,209
123,954
52,135
176,089
112,810
180,536
56,303
236,839
1,716,903
1,461,347
210,263
1,671,610
396,223
192,978
34,559
227,537
27,253
571
27,824
5,583,343
1,078,655
124,229
1,832,884
1,391,580
1,187,017
111,756
1,298,773
10,500
44,427
6,213
50,640
308,481
161,679
105.565
267,244
559,842
700,431
44,499
744,930
118,137
1,539
119,676
44.588
310,187
49,887
1 360,074
21,039
146 545.6"i8
150 637,464
8,nn.io8
158. 618. 622
States.]
AMERICA.
985
4. IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF EACH STATE,
During the Year ending ZOth June 1847.
Slale$.
Value of Exports.
Value of Imports. 1
Domtstic
Produce.
5";^" T-"-
/« Awieri-
canYesseli.
7» Foreign
Vessels.
Total.
Dollars.
1,614,071
1.407
231.985
9,262,777
191,434
598,702
44,816,480
18,428
8,263,311
235,459
9,632.360
124.269
Dollars.
20,132
283
282,313
1,985,685
935
490
5.027388
700
281,080
i29,8M
'l2,706
' '3,371
"2i361
^3,330
Dollars. | Dollars.
Dollars.
128,311
3,785
16,2871770
4,414
3.953
13,082.954
771
743,743
270
503,671
"63'.036
5,901
378,747
59.666
40,118
309,669
1,784,974
265
"2,300
■■"234
■'9',739
Dollars.
674.056
16,935
239,641
34,477,008
305.489
275323
M,167,352
4,837
9,587,516
12,722
4,432,314
25,049
386,127
142,384
1,580,658
207,180
143,298
390,161
9,222,969
336
1.256
167,195
90.681
26,958
37,603
266
New Hampshire
1.690
514,298
11,248,462
192,369
599,192
49314,368
19,128
8,544,391
235,459
9,762,244
124,269
6,658,374
2»4,919
10.431,517
6,712,149
1310,538
9,054,580
42,051,633
■778,9W
"93^795
62,100
13.150
239,641
18,189,238
301,075
271370
71,084,398
4,066
8,843,773
12,452
3,928,643
25,049
333.091
136,483
1,201,911
147,514
103,180
80,492
7,437,995
81
1,256
167,195
88,381
26,956
37,369
266
20,087
Massachusetts,
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania,
Maryland
District of Columbia,
North Carolina,
South Carolina
2M,919
10,4'28,U6
5,712.149
1,808,177
9.054,580
41,788,303
778,^1
93,795
62,100
Ohio
Michigan
Illinois
Total
150,637.464
8,011,158
158,648,622
113,141,357
33,4M,281
146,545,638
5. TONNAGE OF THE SEVERAL STATES AND TERRITORIES,
From 1830 <o 1847 inclusive.
Enrolled
Reg. Tonnage
Enrolled an
d Licensed Ton
nage employed in |
in Whale
Coasting
Cod
Uaelcertl
Whale
Tonnage,
Fishery.
Trade.
Fishery.
Fishery.
Fishery.
1830
676,675
615J11
38,911
616,978
61,554
35.973
792
1M31
620,451
• 647-i94
82,315
639.723
60,977
46,210
4m 1
1K32
686,989
752,460
72,868
649.627
54,027
47,427
377
1833
75<J,128
856.123
101,158
744,198
62,720
4k,725
478
1834
857,438
901,468
108,060
7>-3,6!8
66,4(13
61,082
364
1835
885.821
939,118
97,640
792,301
72,374
64,443
IKW
897,774
984,328
144,680
873.023
63J07
46,424
1,573
1837
810,447
1,086,238
127,241
956,980
80,551
46310
1394
1838
822,591
1,173,047
119,629
1,041,105
70,064
56.649
5,229
1839
834.244
1,262,234
131,N45
1,153.551
72,25-J
35,9.s3
439
1840
:899,764
1,280,999
136,926
1,176,694
76.033
28,269
IMl
945,803
1,184,940
157,405
1,107,(167
66,551
11,321
1842
975358
1,117.031
151,612
1,045,763
54,8(4
16,096
377
1843
l,0fJ9J05
1,149,297
152 J74
1.(176,153
61,224
11,775
142
18U
l/)68,76i
1,211,330
I6S293
1,109,614
85,224
16,170
320
1H45
1,095,172
1,321329
190,695
1,190,898
69,825
21,413
206
1846
1,130,286
1,431,799
186,980
l,2^9.870
72,516
3ti,463
430
1847
1,241,312
1,597,732
193,858
1,452,623
70,177
31,451
Banking Systkm The Banking institutions of the United States are joint-stock
companies, with fixed capitals, incorporated by the respective States; they are all banks
of circulation, and their bills form the principal circulating medium of the country.
Since President Jackson withdrew the charter from the National Bank of the United
States at Philadelphia, the Union has been inundated with bank-notes of the value of
a dollar and upwards, without any efficient machinery for regulating the exchange of
them ; and as New York is the centre of a vast commerce, notes of banks in every
degree of credit, and whose head-quarters, where alone they are payable in specie, lie at
every degree of distance, are there in circulation. The profession of bill-broker lias in
consequence sprung up to meet the wants of society, and appears to be at once an ex-
tensive and a lucrative employment. Pamphlets are published containing lists of all
the banks in the Union and in Canada, and stating the value of their notes ; and
columns nearly a yard long and in small type, may be seen in some of the New York
newspapers, embodying the same information. In short, it has become a science
nearly as extensive and difTicult as entomology or coiichology to know the value of
the currency of this great country. — (Comhe's Notes, I. 2(J.) The over-issue of notes
by so many banks has fostered sjieculution to an extreme degree, and placed the trade
of the country on a most unstable footing ; and, to aggravate the evil, mo>t of the
banks have of late suspended the payment of their notes in specie.
93C
DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.
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■3-30
States. 1
AMERICA.
937
Internal Communications — Besides nuineroiis roads of the ordinary construc-
tion, few of which are very good, lakes, and navigable rivers, the United States now
possess a series of canals and railways, of which we present a condensed summary
in the following table : —
A CONDENSED SUMMARY OF THE CANALS AND RAILROADS IN THE UNITED
STATES; WITH THEIR LENGTHS AND TERMINATING POINTS.
Name.
Maine. — CanaJ, —
Cumberland and Oxford
liai/ruad, —
Bangor and Orono, .
New Hampshire. — Canals, —
How Falls,
Hookset Falls,
Amoskeag Falls,
Union
Sewall's Falls,
Itdilroads, —
Eastern,
Nashua and Lowell,
Boston and Maine,
Vebmont. — Canals, —
■White River Falls, .
Bellows Falls,
Watirquechy,
Massacucsets. — Canals, —
Middlesex,
Pawtucket,
Blackstone,
Hampshire and Hampdei
Montague Falls,
South Hadley Falls,
liailroadt, —
Eastern,
Boston and Lowell,
Boston and Portland,
Lowell and Nashua,
C;harlesto"'n,
Boston and Worcester,
Millburj Branch,
Western
Boston and Providence,
Dedhani Branch,
Taunton Branch,
Taunton and New Bedford,
Norwich and Worcester,
Q,uincy,
RuonE Island. — Hailrnad, —
Providence and Stonington
Connecticut. — Canals, —
Farinington,
KiiHeld Falls, .
llailni'ids —
Norwich and Worcester,
New Haven and Hartford,
llousatoiiic,
NhW \ciKK.— Caiinls, —
Krii-
Chaiiifilaiii,
(liciiango,
IMack River,
Oswego, ....
Cayuga and Seneca,
Croolied Lake,
Chemung,
Branch of Chemung,
Delaware and Hudson,
<Jeiie.see Valley,
Dansville Branch,
Harlem, ....
Croton Aqueduct,
Railri)ud.i,—
Long Island.
Harlem,
Hudson and Berkshire,
Catskill andCanajoharie,
Rensselaer and .Saratoga,
Mohawk and Hudson,
Saratoga and Scluncotady,
Utica and Kchciii daily,
Syracuse and I Mica.
.^Nracusc and AuIihiii, .
Auliiini and Ko, ln>|i;i,
Tonawanda, .
from Near Portland,
„ Bangor,
to Long Pond,
„ Orono,
Massachusets Line,
Do. do.
Do. do.
Portsmouth,
Nashua,
E.xeter,
Boston,
Lowell,
Providence,
Connecticut Line,
Boston,
Boston,
Wilmington,
Lowell,
Charlestown,
Boston,
Worcester, .
Boston,
Mansfield,
Taunton,
Worcester,
Granite Quarry,
Providence,
Norwich,
New- Haven,
Bridgeport,
Albany,
West Troy,
Utica,
Rome, .
Syracuse,
Seneca Lake,
Pennyan,
Seneca Lake,
EIniira,
E<ldvville, .
Rochester,
Mount Morris,
Hudson River,
Croton River,
Brooklyn,
New York, .
Hudson .
Catskill,
Troy,
Albany,
Schenectady,
Sehenectadv,
lUic-a,
Syrai'U.sc,
Auburn,
Rochester,
Chelmsford,
Worcester,
Northampton,
N. Hampshire Line,
Lowell, .
N. Hampshire Line,
N. Hampshire Line,
Worcester,
Milllniry,
West Xtockbridge,
Proviilence, .
Dedliam,
Taunton,
New Bedford,
Connecticut Line,
Q,uincy Landing,
Stonington,
Massachusetts Line,
Worcester,
Hartford,
New Milford,
BufTalo. .
Whitehall,
Binghaniton,
< arth.'ige,
O.swego.
Cayuga Lake,
Seneca Luke, .
Elmira,
Kno.vville,
Laeka\va.\en,
Olean,
Dansville, .
East Hiver,
New York, ,
HicksviUe,
Harlem,
West Stockl.ridge
(^anajoharie
Ballston,
Schenectady,
Saratoga,
I'tica,
S\niciisc.
Aubinn,
Ho.'hesl.r,
Attica, . .
Length
in Miles.
20.50
10.00
*i:,A
938
DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.
Name.
Nbw York — Railroads, (continued)
[ United
Length
in Milei.
Buffalo and Niagara Falls
Lockport and Niagara Falls,
Buffalo and Black Rock,
Rochester,
Ithaca and Oswego,
Bath, ....
Port Kent and Keesville,
New Jersey Canals, —
Delaware and Raritan,
Morris
Salem, ....
Bailroads, —
Camden and Amboy, .
Trenton Branch,
Jobstown Branch,
Paterson and Hudson,
Camden and Woodbury,
New Jersey,
Trenton and Brunswick,
Morris and Essex,
Elizabethport and Somerville
Pennsylvania. — Canals, —
"Central Division, .
Western Division,
Susquehanna Division,
West Branch Division,
North Branch Division,
Delaware Division,
LBeaver Division, .
Schuylkill Navigation,
Union
Lehigh, ....
Lackawaxen,
Conestoga,
Codorus, ....
Bald Eagle,
Susquehanna,
Minor Canals,
SaUroads, —
Columbia and Philadelphia,
Portage, ....
Philadelphia City, &c.
Valley,
West Chester,
Harrisburg and Lancaster,
Cumberland Valley,
Franklin, ....
York and Wrightsville
Strasburg,
Philadelphia and Reading, .
Little Schuylkill, . .
Danville and Pottsville, . „
Little Schuyl. and Susquehanna, „
Beaver Meadow Branch,
Williamsport and Elmira, .
Blossburg and Corning,
Mount Carbon,
Schuylkill Valley, .
Branches of Schuyl. Valley,
Schuylkill, ....
Mill Creek,
Mine Hill and Schuyl. Haven
Mauch Chunk,
Branches of Alauch Chunk,
Room Run, ....
Beaver Meadow,
Hazelton and Lehigh,
Nesquehoning,
Lehigh and Susquehanna, .
Carbondale and Honesdale,
Lykens Valley, „
Pine Grove,
Philadelphia and Trenton, .
Philadelphia, Ger., and Morrist'
Germantown Branch,
Philadelphia and Wilmington, „
Delaware. — Railroads,—
New Castle and Frenchtown, „
Railroads from New Castle to Wilmington,
Canal, —
Chesapeake and Delaware,
Maryland. — Railroads, —
Baltimore and Ohio,
Washington Branch,
Baltimore and Port Deposit,
Baltimore and Susquehanna,
Eelstertown Branch,
from
Buffalo, .
Lockport,
Buffalo, .
Rochester, .
Ithaca,
Bath, .
Port Kent,
Bordentown,
Jersey City,
Salem Creek,
Camden,
Jobstown,
Jersey City,
Camden, .
Jersey City,
Trenton, .
Newark,
Elizabethport,
Columbia,
Johnstown,
Duncan's Island,
Northumb:;rland,
Northumberland,
Bristol,
Beaver,
Philadelphia,
Reading,
Easton,
Delaware River,
Lancaster,
York,
West Branch Canal
Wrightsville,
Philadelphia,
HoUidaysburg,
Morristown.
Columbia Railroad,
Harrisburg,
Harrisburg,
Chambersburg,
York, .
Cumberl. Val. R. R
Philadelphia, .
Port Clinton,
Pottsville,
Tamaqua,
Lindner's Gap,
Williamsport,
Blossburg,
Mount Carbon,
Port Carbon, .
Schuylkill,
Port Carbon,
Sch. Haven,
Mauch Chunk
Mauch Chunk,
Parryville,
Hazelton Mine, .
Nesquehoning MinC;
White Haven,
Carbondale,
Broad Mountain,
Pine Grove,
Philadelphia, .
Philadelphia,
Philadelphia,
Niagara F»11g,
Niaeara Palls,
Black Rock,
Port Genesee,
Oswego,
Crooked Lake,
Keesville,
New Brunswick,
Easton, Pa.
Delaware River,
South Amboy,
Trenton,
Craft's Creek,
Paterson,
Woodbury,
New Brunswick,
New Brunswick,
Morristown,
Somerville,
HoUidaysburg,
Pittsburg,
Northumberland
Farrandsville,
Lackawana,
Easton,
Shenango River,
Port Carbon,
Middletown,
Stoddartsville,
Honesdale,
Safe Harbor,
Susquehanna River,
Bellefonte,
Havre de Grace,
Columbia,
Johnstown,
Columbia Railroad;
West Chester,
Lancaster,
Chambersburg,
Williamsport,
Wrightsville,
Strasburg,
Pottsville,
Tamaqua,
Sunbury,
Williamsport,
Beavir Mead. R.
-Elmira,
Corning,
Norwegian Creek
Tuscarora,
Valley,
Coal Jline,
Mine Hill Gap,
Coal Mine,
Coal Mine,
Coal Mine,
Beaver Mead. R.R
Lehigh River,
Wilkesbarre,
Honesdale,
Millersburg,
Coal Mine,
Morrisville,
Morristown,
Wilmington,
New Castle, . . „ Frenchtown, Md. . 16.00
and from Wilmington to Nanticoke Creek, are proposed.
from Delaware City,
Baltimore,
Patappco River,
Baltimore,
Baltimore,
6 m. from Baltimore,
to Back Creek,
„ Harper's Ferry,
„ Washington, .
,, Havre de Grace,
„ York, Pa.
Reistertown,
13.63
60.50
30.35
36.00
&6.00
$.00
States.]
AMERICA.
939
Length
in iftiet.
Marylawd.— Rai7roarf*, (continued). —
Wilmington and Susquehanna, from
Havre de Grace,
to Wilmington, Del. .
32.00
Annapolis and Elkridge, . „
Washington Branch,
„ Annapolis, .
19.75
Canal,—
Chesapeake and Ohio, . „
Georgetown,
„ Hancock,
136.00
Virginia — Railroadt, —
Richm.,Fredericksb.,& Potomac,,,
Richmond,
„ A quia Creek,
7S.0O
Louisa Branch, ... „
24 m. from RIchm'd,
„ Gordonsville, .
49 00
Richmond and Petersburg, . ,,
Richmond,
„ Petersburg,
23.00
Petersburg and Roanoke, . „
Petersburg,
„ Weldon,
59.00
Greensville „
Near Hicksford,
„ Gaston, N. C.
18 00
City Point, ...
Petersburg,
„ City Point,
12.00
Chesterfield „
Coal Mines, .
„ Richmond,
13..iO
Portsmouth and Roanoke, „
Portsmouth,
„ Weldon, N. C.
80.00
Winchester and Potomac, . „
Harper's Ferry,
„ Winchester,
32.00
Canals,—
Alexandria Canal, . . „
Georgetown,
„ Alexandria,
7.2.5
James River and Kanawha, „
Richmond,
„ Bucliannan,
175.00
Dismal Swamp, . . . ,,
Deep Creek,
„ Joyce's Creek,
23.00
Branches, .... ,,
11.00
NoRXH Carolina. — Rnilroads,—
Wilmington and Raleigh, .
Wilmington,
„ Weldon, .
167.00
Raleigh and Gaston,
Raleigh,
,, Gaston,
87.00
Canals,—
Weldon Canal, ... „
Weldon,
„ Head Roanoke Falls,
12.00
Club Foot and Harlow, . „
Club Foot Creek,
„ Harlow Creek,
1.50
SoDin CKnot.mk.— Railroads,—
South Carolina, . . „
Charlestown,
„ Hamburg,
13.5.75
Columbia Branch, . . ,,
Branchville,
„ Columbia,
68.00
Canals, —
Santee, .... „
Cooper River,
„ Santee River,
22.00
Winyaw, ,
Kinloch Creek,
,, Winyaw Bay,
7.40
Saluda,
Shoals,
„ Granby,
. 6.20
Drehr's, „
Saluda Falls,
„ Head of Falls,
1.33
Lorick, .... „
Broad River,
„ Head of Falls, .
1.00
Lockharts „
Head Falls Br. River,
„ To Foot,
2.75
W^ataree, .... „
Jones's Mill,
„ Elliot's .
. 4.00
Catawaba, .... At various points on the Catawaba, .
7.77
Gkouqijl..- Railroads,—
Georgia, .... from
Augusta,
to De Kalb County,
16.5.00
Athens Branch, . . . „
Georgia R. R.
„ Athens,
3.1.00
Western and Atlantic, . „
De Kalb County,
„ Tennessee River,
130.00
Ontral, „
Savannah, .
„ Macon,
193.00
Monroe,; .... „
Macon,
„ Forsyth, .
25.00
Macon and Talbotton, . . „
Macon,
„ Talbotton, .
70.00
Canals,-
Savannah,
„ Alatamaha River, .
16.00
Brunswick, ... „
Alatainaha,
„ Brunswick,
12.00
Florida. — Railroad, —
Wimico and St. Joseph, . . „
Lake Wimico,
„ St. Joseph,
28.00
AhABAUA.— Railroads, —
Alabama, Florida, and Georgia, „
Pensacola,
„ Montgomery,
1,56.40
Montgomery and West Point, „
Montgomery,
„ West Point, .
45.00
Tuscumbia, Courtland, and
Decatur „
Tuscumbia,
„ Decatur,
46.00
Selma and Cahawba, . . „
Selma, .
„ Cahawl)a,
10.110
Wetumpka, ... „
Wetumpka,
„
10.00
Canals, —
Muscle Shoals Canal, . . „
Head of Falls,
„ Florence,
a5.75
Huntsville, ...
Triana,
„ llunt>ville,
16.00
JiUsBlBit F PI.— Railroads,—
West Feliciana, . . . ,,
St. Francisville, .
„ Wooilville, Mp.
7.75
Vicksburg and Clinton, . „
Vicksburg,
„ Clinton,
54.IK)
Grand Gulf, . . . . „
(irand Gulf, .
„ Port Gihson, .
7.25
Jackson and Brandon, . „
Jackson,
„ Brandon, .
14.00
Loci HI AX A .— /teiVrwirfj, —
Pontchartrain, . . . „
New Orleans,
„ Lake Pontchartrain,
4. .50
West Feliciana, ... „
St. Francisville,
„ Woodville, Ml).
20,00
Atchafalaya, ,
Point Coupee,
„ Opelousas,
.•{ll.iM)
Alexandria and Chcneyvillc, „
Alexandria,
„ Clieniyville,
.'(('.iiO
New Orleans and Carrolton, ,,
New Orleans,
„ Lafayette,
11 25
Orleans Street, ... „
New Orleans,
„ Bayou St. John,
1.50
Canali,—
Orleans Rank, . . „
New Orleans,
„ Lake Poiitchnrtrain,
4.15
Canal Carondclct, . . „
New Orleans,
„ B.ivou St. John,
2.10
Barataria
Near New Orleans,
„ Berwick's Hay,
85.00
Lake Verct,
„ La Fourche River,
8.00
TKXHKnuEK—Railrriadf.—
La Grange and .Memphis, . „
La Grange, .
„ Memphis,
so.oo
Homerville Branch, . . „
Moscow,
,, Homerville.
16.00
Highwassee, . . . . „
Knox vi He, .
„ West. *c Atlan. H. U.
98.50
KKKTViKv—Railroiidi.—
Lexington and Ohio, . ,,
Louisville,
,, Lexington,
92.75
Portage, „
Bowling Green,
,, Barren Kivcr,
i.ao
IlLINOlB. — Itailroads.--
Mcrcdosia and Jacktonvillc, ,,
Mcrcdosia,
„ Jacksonville,
20.00
040
DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.
Name.
tLuaois.—Railroadt, (continued).—
Coal Mine Bluffs,
Canal, —
Illinois and Michigan, .
I.NDIAHA. — Canals, —
Wabash and Erie,
Wliitewater, ....
Railroad, —
Madison and Indianapolis,
Ohio. — Canals, —
Ohio and Erie,
Columbus Branch,
Lancaster Branch,
Hocking, ....
Zanesville Branch,
Walhonding Branch, .
Miami,
Warren Branch,
Sandy and Beaver,
Mahoning, ....
Riihoads, —
Mad River and Sandusky City,
Ohio,
Michigan. — Railroads, —
Central,
Erie and Kalamazoo,
ypsilanti and Tecumseh,
Detroit and Pontiac, .
from Illinois,
„ Chicago,
Lafayette,
Lawrenceburg, .
Madison,
Portsmouth,
Columbus,
Lancaster,
Lancaster,
Zanesville,
Walhonding River,
Cincinnati,
Middletown, .
Bolivar,
Akron, .
Tiffin,
Manhattan, .
Detroit,
Toledo, .
Ypsilanti, .
Detroit,
to Coal Mine,
„ Near Peru, .
„ Lake Erie,
„ BrookviUe,
„ Indianapolis, .
„ Cleveland, .
„ Canal,
„ Canal,
,, Afliens, .
„ Canal, .
„ Canal,
„ Defiance,
„ Lebanon,
„ Ohio River,
,, Beaver River,
„ Sandusky City,
„ Sandusky City,
„ Ann Arbor,
„ Adrian, .
„ Tecumseh,
„ Pontiac, .
[United
Length
in Miles.
6.00
. 105.90
187.00
30.00
95.00
307.00
10.00
9.''0
50.00
14.00
23.110
178.00
20.00
76.110
77."0
36.00
40.00
44.00
33.00
2.5.00
25.00
AGGREGATE LENGTHS OF CANALS AND RAILROADS IN THE SEVERAL STATES,
AS STATED BY MR. TANNER.
States.
Canals. Railroads.
States. ' Canals.
1
Railroads.
50.50
11.13
79.50
38.00
61.50
931.25
170.75
97-1.06
13.63
136.00
196.25
13.50
52.45
28.00
51.75
10.00
30.47
407.31
47.00
188.46
677.11
215.30
953.58
19.19
262.00
361.50
250.00
201.75
616.00
307.46
99.25
2.50
777.00
217.00
105.00
83.00
97.25
164.50
94.25
70.00
131.00
95.00
26.00
12^00
N. Hampshire,
Massachusetts,
Kentucky,
Ohio
Pennsylvania,
Florida,
Texas,
Georjjaa,
Oregan Territory, ...
District of Columbia,
Aggregate length of Canals in the United States, as stated by Mr. Tanner,
Aggregate length of Railroads in the United States, . . .
3,909.02
.5,320.13
Remark. — The above table of the Aggregate Lengths of Canals and Railroads in the several States
is compiUd from " A Description of Canals and Railroads of the United States, by H. S. Tanner ;
New York, 1840 ;" but it will be perceived, that there is a diffeience, in many instances, between the
aggregate lengths here stated, and the sura of the lengths of the canals and railroads in the several
States, as given in the preceding " Condensed Summary."
A number of the canals and railroads enumerated in the " Condensed Summary" are not yet com<
pleted ; and some which are not mentioned, are in progress.
Divisions. — The Union consists at present of 28 States, three Territories, and
one Federal District. The States and Territories are subdivided into counties and
townships; hut these are too numerous for us to specify them, nor is it very neces-
sary ; for when they are mentioned, it is always with the name of the State or terri-
tory attached, so that there can be no difficulty in ascertaining their situation. The
original thirteen States which joined in the Declaration of Independence in 1776. are
distinguished by asterisks.
States.3
AMERICA.
941
Names.
8 g .
Populatiun
in 1840.
ii
Seats of Government, with their
distances from lyashiugton.
Dist. of Columbia,
D. C.
Maine.
N. H.
Vt.
Mass.
R. L
Ct.
N. Y.
N.J.
Pa.
Del.
Md.
Va.
N. C.
8. C.
Ga.
Ala.
Mp.
La.
Ten.
Ken.
Ohio.
In.
111.
Mich.
Mo.
Ark.
Fl.
Wise. »
Iowa, j
Tex.
100
35,0(i0
9,490
10,(KIO
7,800
1,225
4,764
48,000
7,276
46,000
2,100
13,500
70,000
50,000
33,000
62,000
50,000
46,.50i)
48,500
45,000
40,500
45,000
36,000
54,(K)0
58,000
68,000
54,000
55,000
27l!,0OO
367,087
43,712
.iO 1,973
281,574
291,948
737,699
108,830
309,978
2,428,921
373,306
1,724,033
78,085
470,019
1,239,797
753,419
.594,398
691,392
590,756
375,651
3)2,411
829,210
779,828
1,519,467
685,866
476,183
212,267
383,702
97,574
54,477
30,945
43,112
143,205
4,694
"l
5
17
4
674
64
2,605
89,737
448,987
245,817
327.038
280,944
253,532
I9.->,211
168,452
183,059
182,2.58
3
3
331
.".8,240
19,935
39',06{
Washington.
Augusta,
Concord, .
Montpelier,
Boston,
( Providence am
X Newport,
1 Hartford and
1 Newhaven,
Albany, .
Trenton, .
Harrisburg, .
Dover,
Annapolis,
Richmond,
Raleigh, .
Columbia, .
JUUidgeville, .
Tuscaloosa,
Jackson,
New Orleans,
Nashville,
Frankfort, .
Columbus,
Indianapolis,
Springfield,
Detroit,
JeHerson city,
Little Rock,
Tallahasse,
Madison,
Burlington,
Austin,
595 N.R.
. 474 N.K.
.524 N.N.E.
. 432 N.E.
1 394 & 403 N.E.
J335 &301 N.E.
376 N.N.K.
. 166 N.E.
110 N.
. 114 E. byN.
37 K.
. 122 S. by W.
286 S.S.W.
. 500 S.S.W.
642 S.S.W.
. 858 S. W. by W.
1035 S.W.by W.
. 1203 S.W.
714 W.S.W.
. ,551 W. by 8.
396 W. by N.
. 57.1 W. by N.
801 W. by N.
. 526 N.W.
980 W.
. 1068 W.S.AV.
896 S.W. by S.
. 872 W.N.W.
9.56 W.N.W.
. 1111 S.W.
*New Hampshire,..
♦Massachusetts,
*Rhode Island,
♦ Connecticut,
*New Jersey,
•Pennsylvania,
•Maryland,
•North Carolina, ...
•South Carolina....
•Georgia,
Louisiana,
Ohio,
Illinois,
Michigan,
Missouri
Arkansas,
Florida Territory,
Wisconsin Ter
Iowa Territory,....
Texas (1847),
'17,212,ft)8
2,.'')27.415
The States of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode-Island, and Connecticut,
forming the north-eastern part of the territory, bear collectively the name of A'ci<; England; and
their inhabitants are distinguished from other Americans by the name of Yankees, which is said to
be an Indian corruption of Eii^lish. They are also sometimes called tlie Eastern States. New York,
New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland, are called the Middle States ; Virginia, the Ca-
rolinas, Georgia, and Alabama, are called the Southern States, or the South. Louisiana, Mississippi,
Tennessee, Arkansas, Missouri, Kentucky, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Wisconsin, and Iowa, are all
situate in the great Western or Mississippi valley. Michigan consists of the peninsula between lakes
Huron and Michigan, and includes also the whole of the west sliore of Lake Alichigan and the eastern
part of the peninsula between that lake and Lake Superior. Florida forms a long peninsula, project-
ing southward between the Gulf of Me.\ico and the Atlantic Ocean ; the intirior consists of swamps,
which render a passage across it not every wliere nor always practicable. The district of Columbia is
a small area, ten miles sciuare, situate on both sides of the river Potomac, whicli was ceded by the
States of Virginia and Maryland to the United States for the site of the federal capital.
§ Cities and Towns, Sfc.
DISTRICT OF COL UMIilA Washington, the capital of the United States of North Amo-
rica, is finely situate on undulating ground, in the angle formed by the junction of the navigable
river Potomac with the Eastern branch, in 38^ .53' N. lat., and 77-' 1' W. long., abdut 80 miles from
Chesapeake Bay. The plan of the city, as originally laid out, forms nearlj' a parallelogram of about four
miles by two and a half, consisting of streets crossing each other at right angles in the direction of
the cardinal points, and traversed obliquely by larger avenues, 'named after tb.' several States of tho
I'nion ; but only a small portion of the plan has yet been executed, and the city consists of straggling
cUisters of houses placed at inconvenient distances. Almost the only part that is compactly built is
thai which extends for about a mile along Pennsylvania avenue, between the President's liouse and the
('a|)itol, both of which are haiuLsome buildings of white free-stone. The Capitol contains the halls
of the Senate and House of RepresentAtives, the Library of Congress, and numerous other apart-
ments, some of whicli are spacious and tastefully embellished. It is a large building, surmouiite<l in
the centre by a mas.sy dome; its eastern front is adorned with a Corinthian colonnade, and surrounded
by grounds tastefully planted and laid out. There are various other public builaings, of neat and
substantial, but unpretending architecture, as the City Hall, the Halls of Columbian College, thu
Penitentiary, 21 churches, the (General Post Office, the Patent Office, &c. There is one room in the lat-
ter which is considered one of the finest in Ainerir^i. About a mile S.E. of the Capitol is the .Navy yard,
on Eastern Branch, which is of sullieient deptli along shore for the largest ves.sels, and inunediately above
It is the Naval Hospital. At the junction of tfie two rivers sUiiids the United SLites Arsenal. The prin-
cipal Educational Rstablishment is Columbian College, founded by tho Baptists, with nine iiistnictors,
besides four professors connect€<l with the medi(»l department The city was foumled in 1791, and became
the seat of government in 18(K) ; in IH40 the population araoimted to 23,:«!4. During the Sessions of
Congress it is erowde<l with strangers. Notwithstanding its advanUvgeous situation on a large navigable river,
and in tlie centre of a proiluctive country, Washington has never become the seat of trade ; and itJt growth
is to be attributed solely to the e.\[)endituro of government and the public functionaries. It hxs a bridge
one mile in length over the Potomac, lejiding to Ale.xan<lria ; an<l two bridges across llaslern Mninch. The
Baltimore r:iilroa<l ulTords an easy connimiiication with the north ; the ('hesajieake and Ohio canals con-
nect it with the west; and the Pot<Miuic to different points, on which regular lines of steam packets run,
with the south. AUxandrin stJinds on the Virginian siile of the P.itdinae, about six miles below Wash-
ington, and part of it is within the State of Virginia. The city is regularly laid out, with streets crossing
each otlier at right angles, and is prettily situate at the foot of green and gently swelling hilU. Alexandria
942 DESCRirTIVE GEOGRAniY. [United
is a port of entry, and the shipping belonging to it amounted, in 1840, to 14,470 tons. Its trade is exten-
give, and tlie population had increased, in 1840, to 8459. Ocorjielown is situate on the west side of Washing-
ton, from which it is separated by llock Creels, and liad 7312 inhabitants in 1840.
MA I N E. — Atu;usta, the capital, is situate nearly in the centre of the State, on the right bank of the
Kennebeck, which has here been dammed across, and gives the command of an almost unlimited moving
power for manufacturing estiiblislunents. The city contained, in 1840, 5;U4 inlialiitants. It is ac-
cessible for vessels of 100 tons ; but those of 150 tons can only come up to IlallovxH, two miles below
the city. Portland citp, which is the largest and most important town in the State, is finely situate on an
elevated peninsula, projecting into Casco Bay. It is well laid out, and neatly built ; and the harbour is
deep, safe, spacious, easily accessible, and always open. The shipping belonging to the port, in 1840,
amounted to 5(>,i;!5 tons. Population, in 1840, 15,218. The city of Banflor, at the head of the navigation
of the Penobscot river, 60 miles from the sea, communicates wifti an extensive interior country by means
of the wide-spreading branches -of the Penobscot, and possesses in the falls immediately above the town
every facility for manufacturing purposes. Population in 1820 only 1221 ; in 1840, 8627. The other
principal towns of the State are Eastjiort, Luhec, and Calais on Passamaquoddy bay ; Machias, Castitie,
JBucks/ort, Belfast, Thomastown, Warren, Waldboro, Bristol, Wiscasset, Saco, Brunswick, Bath, Gardi-
ner, Waterville, Norridgwock.
NE W 11 A MPS II IRE. — Concord, the capital, is a small town on the river Merrimack, which haa
been rendered navigable by several small canals round its falls. Portsmouth , near the mouth of Pisca-
taqua river, which fonns one of the finest harbours in the world, is a neatly built town, with 9000 inhabi-
tants, who carry on the coasting trade and fishery with some activity, and prosecute some branches of
manufacture. It contains one of the navy yards of the United States. Dover, the next largest town, is
10 miles W. of Portsmouth, and contained about 6580 inhabitants in 1840.
VERMONT. — Montpdier, the capital, is a small town, in a wild and rugged country, between the
eastern and western chains of mountains, but occupies a beautiful situation on the Onion river, which
runs to Lake Champlain. The other principal towns are, Burlintjlon, a fine town of 50U0 inhabitants, on
the east side of Lake Champlain ; St. Albans Swanton, Verr/ennes, a new city near Lake Champlain ;
Middlcbury, the seat of a college ; Pittsford, Rutland, Manchester, BcnniJu/ton,,Neu-lmrt/, Brattleboro,
which contains the Vermont asylum for the insane ; Rockinyham, Windsor, Woodstock, Norwich, the
seat of a university, and Danville.
MA SSA CII US ETTS. — Boston, the capital, is pleasantly situate on a small hilly peninsula on the
west side of Massachusetts Bay, at the mouth of Charles river, with a safe and commodious harbour, pos-
sessing sufficient depth for the largest vessels, and perfectly secure. The buildings have also extended into
South Boston on the mainland, and to East Boston on a large island in the bay ; to the north is Charles-
town, also on a peninsula, and Chelsea; and to the west Cambridf/e and lloxhury. Tliese may be all con-
sidered as one large town connected partly by bridges, and partly by regular ferry stations, and containing
altogether, in 1845, 114,366 inhabitants. As a commercial town, Boston is second only to New York ; the
shipping belonging to the port at the end of 1840, amounted to 220,243 tons ; thevalueof the imports from
foreign countries, to £3,200,000 ; and of exports, to £2,000,000. Several large steamers sail regu-
larly between this and Great Britain. Boston is also distinguished for its schools and the literary
character of many of its citizens. Charlesto\vn contains a United States dockyard, and Bunker'g
Hill, so celebrated for the battle fought there 17th June 1775. The event is commemorated by a
granite obelisk, intended to be 220 feet high, but not yet finished, which is erected on the top of
the hill. Cambridge is the seat of Harvard University, which is about four miles from Boston city;
and has a permanent fund of £120,000 in property, and an yearly income of £4400, besides fees. About
a mile farther is the cemetery of Mount Auburn, in a very beautiful and picturesque situation. Salem, 15
miles N.E. of Boston, a considerable town, with 13,000 inhabitants, who have been always distinguished
for their comraei-cial enterprise, frugality, and industry. Newburyport, a prettily situate and neatly built
town at the mouth of the Merrimack, carries on a considerable trade, especially in the cod, mackerel, and
whale-fisheries. Population in 1840, 7161. Lowell, at the confluence of the Merrimack and Concord
rivers, 20 miles N.W. of Boston, with which it is connected by a railroad and a canal, is one of the prin-
cipal manufacturing towns of the United States. In 1820, its site contained only about 100 inhabitants ;
in 1840, the population amounted to 20.796 ; and there were in operation .■?2 cotton-mills, with 166,044
spindles and 5183 looms, besides woollen and other manufactures. Nantucket, a sandy island, on the
south coast, contains a population of 9012 inhabitants, who are distinguished for their enterprise in the
whale-fishery, and other maritime occupations. Four leagues south-east are the dangerous shoals and
breakers called the Na7itucket Shoals. Fall River, at the mouth of Taunton river, 45 miles S. of Boston,
contains 6738 inhabitants, who are largely engaged in the cotton manufacture ; and farther up the river,
at the head of sloop navigation, is Taunton, also a manufacturing town, with 7645 inhabitants. Plymouth,
on the coast, 36 miles S. E. of IJoston, a small town with 5281 inhabitants, is memorable as the spot where
the exiled Independents of Yorkshire, usually called " the pilgrim fathers," founded the first settlement in
New England, 11th December 1620. Worcester, on the railroad, 45 miles W. of Boston, a rapidly in-
creasing town, with a population, in 1840, of 7497. Springfield, a thriving manufacturing town, on the Con-
necticut, with about 10,000 inhabitants. The other principal towns are, ^dam.?, Williamston, Northamp-
ton, Deerfield, and Greenfield, all west of the Connecticut ; Province-town, at the extremity of Cape Cod ;
New Bedford, the princii)al seat of the whale-fishery, on the Acushnet, an inlet of Buzzard's Bay ; Barn-
stable and Sandwich, in Barnstable county, the south-east part of the State ; Edijarton, the chief town,
and Holme's Hole, a safe and capacious harbour in the island called Martha's Vineyard, off the south
coast.
RHODE ISLAND. — Prowdc?!<;e is advantageously situate at the head of the north-western arm
of Narragansett Bay, which forms a harbour sufliciently deep and capacious for the largest merchant
vessels, but is sometimes obstructed by ice. It carries on an active trade, and contained, in 1840, 23,171
inhabitants. It possesses also a number of cotton factories, iron works, and other branches of industry,
in which business to a considerable extent is carried on. Ncwpoi't, situate on Rhode Island, five miles
from the sea, has a capacious harbour, and is generally resorted to as a pleasant summer retreat, and for
sea-bathing ; but it is otherwise unimportant. Population about 8000. Bristol, on Warren River, a
creek of Providence Bay, a neat and busy commercial town, is distinguished for the enterprise of its inha-
bitants, who are actively engaged in foreign commerce, the coasting trade, and the whale and sea-fisheries
in the South Seas. Population 3000. The river Pawtucket, above Providence, is the seat of numerous
mamifacturing establishments ; and the whole district usually called Pawtucket, contains about 6000
inhabitants,
CONNECTICUT. — Hartford stands on the right bank of the Connecticut river, ina fertile district,
aliounding in neat and thriving villages, which enjoy the advantages of numerous mill seats, and an easy
conmumication with the sea. Population, in 1840, 9468. Newhaven, the principal town in the State,
beautifully situate on a small bay off Long Island Sound, is a regular and prettily built town, with 12.t)(S0
States.] AMERICA. ■ 943
inhabitants, who are extensively engaged in several branches of manufacture and trade. It contains also
the buildings of Yale College, one of the oldest, and where the highest scientific education is to be had in
the United States. The other principal places are, Saybrook, at the mouth of the Connecticut ; New Lon-
don, at the mouth of the Thames ; Bridfieport, to the west of the mouth of the Housatonic river ; Bir-
mingham, and Waterbury, on the Naugatuck, and Merida^ on the Quinipiak, which are seats of extensive
manufactures, chiefly of iron, brass, tin, and copper.
NEW YORK.—T\i% city o( New York is the largest, most wealthy and flourishing in America.
It occupies the southern part of Manhattan, a narrow island, H miles long, formed by the Hudson and
the East river, and extends three miles along the bank of the former, and four along tliebank of tlie latter
river. Below the city. Long Island, Staten Island, and the mainland of New Jersey, form a land-locked
bay or harbour, of easy access, sheltered from storms, deep enough for the largest ships, and sufficiently
large to contain all the navies in the world. No city possesses greater advantages for foreign commerce
and inland trade ; two long lines of canals have increased its natural advantages, and, connecting it with
the remotest west, have rendered it the great mart of a vast region, now occupied by industrious millions,
while its facilities of communication with all parts of the world have made it the great thoroughfare of
the continent. Its progress in population, trade, and wealth, has probably never been paralleled. In
1650, it contained only about 800 inhabitants ; in 1700, 6000 ; in 1756, 10,381 ; in 1790, 33,131 ; in 1800,
60,489 ; in 1810, 96,373 ; in 1820, 123,706 ; in 1830, 202,589 ; in 1840, 312,710. The greater part of
the city consists of streets running in straiglit lines, but not always parallel or crossing each other at right
angles. They are well paved and well lighted, and most of the buildings are of brick, marble, or granite,
although there are still many of wood. Broadioay, the principal street, is a long and spacious avenue,
three miles in length and 80 feet wide, bordered by commodious and elegant houses, and containing long
rows of rich and showy shops. Here is a continual stream of carriages, waggons, drays, omnibuses, and
all other sorts of vehicles destined for business or pleasure, and crowds of pedestrians sauntering or hur-
rying along. The southern point of the island, on both sides of Broadway, is the principal seat of business,
and the banks of both rivers are lined with forests of masts, bearing the flags of all countries. WaU
street, occupied by bankers and brokers, -is the centre of money transactions. Till 1842 the inliabitants
were Imperfectly supplied with water by wells, cisterns, and some small aqueducts ; but measures were
taken for bringing into the city, by tlie Croton aqueduct, 41 miles in length, such a quantity of water
as affords a daily supply of thirty millions of gallons. This great work cost £'2,000,000 sterling. Among
the public buildings may be mentioned, the City Hall, a handsome edifice, in the Park, near the
southern part of the city ; the Hall of the University, in Washington square ; the New York Hospital ;
the Custom-house ; the Merchants' Exchange, in Wall Street ; the halls of Justice, or collect prison, a
massive building in the Egyptian style ; Astor house, in Broadway, a hotel, built of granite, contain-
ing 390 rooms, and furnishing 600 beds ; the alms houses at Bellevue, on East river ; and 220 churches.
The churches are more distinguished for their accommodation and comfort than for size and splen-
dour ; nor are the other public buildings either so numerous or so striking as in the cities of Europe.
Of places of public amusement there is a great number, including five theatres, which are well filled
every night. The civil or municipal government is vested in a mayor, aldermen, and common council,
elected annually by universal suffrage and the ballot ; whose jurisdiction extends over the city and the
surrounding waters. The offices are not largely paid, and the occupants of civic power are not accom-
panied by much patronage, and are seldom considered as thereby invested with much additional dignity.
But it is chiefly as the great mart of foreign commerce and inland trade that New York is distinguished.
In 1786 the whole shipping of the port did not exceed 120 in number, with a tonnage of 18,000. In
1836, it consisted of 2293 vessels, of which there were 599 ships, 197 barques, 1073 brigs and galleys, 412
schooners, and 4 sloops; with a burden of 35l>,000 tons. In 1791, the whole amount of the exports
was £501,093 ; in 1816, onlv twentv-five years Liter, the mere duties on merchandise imported at New
York alone, amounted to £3,200,000 ; and in 1840, the value of the exports amounted to £6,146,304 ;
and of imports to £15,053,603. The inland and coasting trade is immense ; but of its actual extent and
value there is no account. Near the northern end of Mahattan is the village of llarlaim, connected
with the city by a railroad six miles in length ; and on Long Island, opposite New York, stands the city
of Brooklyn, with a population of 36,233 in 1840 ; to the north-east of Brooklyn is WUliamsbvr<j, an-
other subiu'b of the great emporium ; and on Wallabout bay, lying between these, is the United States'
navy yard. Several steam-boats at the ferries keep up a constant comnuniication with New York, and
a railroad runs eastward through Long Island to Ilicksville, a distance of 27 miles. Several of the large
Atlantic steamers sail regularly between it and Great Britain.
Albany, the capital of the State, is pleasantly situate on an eminence on the western bank of the
Hudson, 145 miles above New York Its wealth and trade have l)een greatly increased by the open-
ing of the Erie and Champlain canals, which terminate in a large basin within the city ; and its situa-
tion renders it the gre,it thoroughfare for travellers on the northern and western routes. The Hudson
and Mohawk railroad, which is a prolongation of the Saratoga and I'tica railroads, also terminateg
here. The numl)er of travellers who pass through the city yearly exceeds (iOO,000 ; the totiil number
of boats which arrived at and departed from Albany, in 1836, wjis 10,226 ; to which must be added about
400 coasting vessels. Several iron works, breweries, tanneries, and other manufactories, add to the
wealth of this thriving city. Population in 1840, 32,721. Hudson, on the left bank of the river, at the
head of ship navigation, 117 miles from the sea, is a prettily situate, and well-built town, with an ex-
tensive and increasing trade, and a population, in 1840, of ,5672. To the north-west is the village of
New Lebanon, a favourite watering-place, in a delightful situation, with warm springs; and in the
vicinity of the springs Ls a society of Shakers, consisting of about (iOO members. Calskill, IhjIow Hudson,
on the opposite bank, is a large village with, in 1840, ,5339 inhabitants. At Shiri-Hnifi, on the left
bank of the Hudson, .35 miles above New York, is the state prison for criminals, and nt Witt I'nint,
12 miles further north, but on the right bank, is the academy where the officers of the T'niteil States'
army are educjited. Neirhurt/h and Pniif)hheptie, farther up the river, the former on the rifiht, and
the latter on the left hank, are two of the most flourishing towns in America. They contain each a
population of 10,000, which is rapidly increasing. Troy, on the east bank of the Hudson, six miles above
Albany, a well-built town, with regular and spacious streets, on the alluvial flat of the river, has be-
come the seat of an active tra<le ; and there are nunu'rous manufactories and cotton-niills in the
neighbourhood. Population in 1840, 19,3.'t4. besides .5000 in the village of West Troy, on the opposire
bank of the river. Troy is situate at the liejid of the tide and sloop navigation, and is connected by
canals with the lakes tothe north and west. jMtitinlmrii, above Troy, with '.VXW inli.iliitarits, i- a busy
place, Lirgelv engaged in the river trade, and contains a great number of manufiiitorics ami work-
shops. N.W'. of Troy, 20 and 24 miles, are linUliin Spa and Stiratixja Spriwn, two cdi-brated watering-
places, much frequented in summer; and to the north of these are two places cilehnited in the wars
of last century. Ticimihrmia, at the outlet of Lake George, and Vrmrn I'ohit on Lake Chaniplnln.
PlaMntra, a flourishing village, also on l/ike Champlain, acquire<l some notoriety during last war for
the capture of a British flotilla, and the defeat of a land force. These places are situate in V.vtx and Clin-
ton counties, which contain 222 saw-mills, and 51 iron-works. iK'sidus tanneries, pot an<l |>eari asbcri.*,
cotton-factories, Ac. O/rfc/ix'/i/r-/, on the St. Lawrence, at the mouth c>f the OswiKalchie, aid op|K)»it«
944 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [United
to Prescott in Upper Caniida, is ndvantafjeously situate at the lowest point to whlcli lake steamers navi-
gate tlie river. It is a port of entry, and lias a population of 250(). Sackdt's Harbour, at the east end
of Lake Ontiirio, is S|>acious and safe, with dei)tli of water sufficient for the largest ships close along the
nhore. It was the naval station during the last war, and has barracks for the acconnnodation of 2000 troops.
It is a port of entry, has considerable trade, and about 1800 inhabitants. Ten miles from the lake on Ulack
Hiver, which falls into Sackett's Harbour, is WaUrtoivn, a large and rapidly increasing village, with 3.')()0
inhal)itants, most advantageously situate for mills, the river having a fall of 90 feet within the space of a
mile. Sc/wnfctadi; is a flourishing town on the banks of the Mohawk, intersected by the Erie canal, and
by railroads from Albany to Saratoga and Utica, and increased its population from 4268, in 1830, to <)784
in 1840. Litlle Falls, on the Mohawk river, is most advantageously situate for the employment of ma-
chinery, and has a population of 3881. Utica, on the southern branch of the Mohawk, at the junction
of the Chenango and Erie canals, is a rapidly increasing town. It stands on a beautiful inclined plane,
and contains well-built streets, with a population of, in 1840, 12,782. About 15 miles N.N.E. of Utica
are Trfiilon Falls, on the West Canada creek, an affluent of the Mohawk, which are much visited on
account of their picturesque scenery. Ronte, at the junction of the Erie canal with the Mohawk, had,
in 1840, 5{i80 inhabitants, and has the prospect of becoming a place of considerable importance. Os-
uyi/o, one of the most flourishing towns in the State, is situate on Lake Ontario, at the head of the
Onondaga or Oswego river. It is the chief commercial port on the lake, and its trade has been vastly
increased since the oi)ening of the AVelLind canal, which has made it the centre of nmch of the trade
of the upper lakes. Population in 1840, 4051. Saiina, a town in Onondaga county, 30 miles S. by W.
of Oswego, contains a great salt spring, from which large quantities of salt are made. It has
11,013 inhabitants, with large salt-works, from which, in 1840, 1,107,825 bushels were manufactured.
Syracuse,!!, mile distant, is increasing so rapidly that the two villages will probably soon become united
into one large town. Si'ncca Falls, at the outlet. of Lake Seneca, is one of the most prosperous towns in
the State, haviiig.increased its population in the ten years preceding l>-35 from 205 to 4281. It owes its
rapid growth to the water-power furnished by the river, which is estimated to be sufficient for 200, ()(»(»
spindles. Waterloo, several miles further uj) the river, participates in the advantages, and rivals the growth
of Seneca Falls. It contains a population of 2000, with a great number of flour, saw, and other mills, and
is noted for its wooden-ware. Geneva, an old town in this region of new cities, is the seat of a college,
and contains 3000 inhabitiints. It occupies a beautiful site, at the north end of Seneca lake. Canandai(jua ,
at the north end of a flne lake of the same name, rivals Geneva in the beauty of its situation, and the ele-
giince of its houses, is a more busy town, and contains 2000 inhabitants. I'ennyan, on the Crooked lake
canal, a thriving manufacturing village, with 1500 inhabitants, derives its singular name from the circimi-
stance of its having been founded by about an equal number of Pennsylvanians and Yankees, lio hestfr,
on the Genesee and the Erie Canal," a most rapidly increasing town, whose population increased from
1500, in 1820, to 20,191 in 1840. It is well built, with spacious streets, and carries on a great trade in
wheat and flour, as well by the canals as by the lakes, the steamers of which ascend the river to its
port oi Carthage. Its carpet manufacture has attained high excellence. Other branches of the woollen
trade, and various other manufactures, are also very flourishing. Lixkport, a flourishing town, situate
at the place where the Erie canal rises from the Koehester level to that of Lake Erie, by means of Hve
double locks, was founded in 1821, and in 1840 contained 9125 inhabitants. Bif^to, the great empn-
rium of the lakes, is situate at the point where the Erie canal joins the lake of that name, at the head
of the Niagara river ; and increased its population from 2095, in 1820, to 18,213 in 1840. It is a well
built town, with spacious streets, and neat and commodious buildings. A railroad extends from Uuf-
falo to the Falls of Niagara ; and another connects it with the flourishing village of Bl^jck liocks, at the
entrance of the canal. These celebrated falls are now crossed by a bridge. Schlosser, a small place with a
harbour, formed at the mouth of Gill Creek on the Niagara river, just above the falls, opposite the
Canadian village of Chippeway. Auburn, avillage at the outlet of Lake Owasco, Cdntains the western
penitentiary of the State, which has 600 cells, and spacious work-shops. ..The establishment is ma-
naged on the principle of solitary continement by night ; but the prisoners work and eat together
during the day. One of the most remarkable objects in the State of New York is the Erie rawil, which
extends from the Hudson at Albany, to Lake Erie at Huff'alo, a distance of .S63 miles, which wasconi-
mencedin 1817, and completed in 1825, attheexpenseof about £2,200,000 sterling. The trade on the canal
is already very great, and is every year increasing, so much so, that by a recent act of the legislature,
its breadth is to be increased from 40 feet to 70, and its depth from 4 to 6, with a double set of locks,
at an expense of £2.000,000 more. The State of New York also includes Long-Island, which extends
120 miles eastward from the city, being 20 miles broad, and is traversed by a range of low hills.
NE IV JERSE Y Trenton, the capital, at the lower falls of the Delaware, is a small town, with
only .S925 inhabitants. Princeton, 10 miles N.E. of Trenton, is noted in the history of the revolu-
tionary war, and contains the halls of New Jersey College, and a Presbyterian theological seminary.
Newark, the largest and most important town in the State, stands on the river Passaic, 3 miles front
Newark Bay, and 10 miles west of New York. It contains numerous manufactures of various kinds, and
20,000 inhabitants. Paterson, one of the most important towns in the United States, stands on the
Passaic at its lower falls, and contains numerous manufactures, for which it possesses water power
equal to 175) horses. Its population increased from 7731 in 1830, to above 12,000 in 183(;. Paterson
communicates with the Hudson by a railroad. Jersey City, formerly Paulus Hook, stands on Hergen
Peninsula, opposite to New York, on the right bank of the Hudson, where the river is a mile wide, and
at the eastern termination of the Morris Canal, and the Paterson and New Jersey railroads. It is a
rapidly improving town. A few miles up the river is the village of Hohoken, a famous summer resort,
and the battle field of the New York duellists. The other principal places are : Elizntjethtuun, four
noiles from Newark Bay; Bridgetowv, a little further south ; Pert/i Amboy and Suutli Amboy, at the
mouth of the Raritan river, to the south-west of Staten Island; fiew Brunsirirk. at the head of
Bloop navigation on the Raritan, and at the termination of the Delaware and Raritan Canal, with
6000 inhabitants. .Vorristowti, where Washington fixed his head-quarters in the winter of 1779 ; Bur-
dentown, on the Delaware, below Trenton ; Burlington, further down the river, and Cambdcn, a busy
thriving place opposite to Philadelphia.
PENNS YL V ANIA. — Philadelphia is situate on a plain, between the rivers Delaware and Schuyl-
kill, extending about five miles N.-S. along the former, and two miles K.-W., being built on a very regu-
lar plan, with spacious streets crossing each other at right angles, which are lined with good houses,
mostly built of red brick, and planted with rows of trees. Though 100 miles from the sea, it has nut only
all the advantages of a maritime station, but also those of a double port ; for the Schuylkill is acee>sii>le
to vessels of 300 tons, w hile the Delaware which is here one mile wide, admits the large^t merchant ves-
■els to thedoors of the warehouses, and is at once spacious and secure. The population, in lf<3ii. anidiuit-
ed to 167,836 ; in the year 1840, 220,423. The manufactures are various and extensive, and the forei-;n
commerce is considerable, though inferior to that of New York ; but the inland and coasting trad^' is
extensive, and is rapidly increasing. The city is noted for the number and excellence of its beuevuient
and literary institutions; and among its public buildings may be mentioned, the Old Stiite House, in
wliicli the declaration of independence was signed in 177G; the United States Bank; the Pennsyl-
vania Bank ; the United States Mint ; and Girard CoUeye, a magnificent building erecting according
States.] AMERICA. 943
to the bequest of M. Girard, a banker in the city, who left his fortune of £1,500,000 for the purpose
of educating orphan children. Philadelphia was founded by William Penn in 1682, who gave it its
present Quaker-like name, which means brotherly love.
Harrisburg, the capital of the State, is situate on the left bank of the Susquehanna ; but is a
small town, with less than 6000 inhabitants. Pittsburg is situate on a low alluvial point at the junc-
tion of the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers, extending about a mile and a half along the former,
and one mile along the latter. Perhaps the site is unrivalled in the world ; commanding a river navi-
gation of about 20,000 miles, which gives it access to the most extensive fertile region on the globe,
as well as to the sea; surrounded by inexhaustible beds of the most useful minerals; connected by
canals and railroads with the principal commercial marts of the Atlantic coast, and by others with
the great lakes. The population in 1800 was only about IGOO; in 1840, including that ot its suburbs
of Alleghany, LanrenceviUe, and Birmingham. 33,72,5. This astonishing increase is owing to the
rapid growth of the manufacturing establishments. In 1833 there were 90 steam-engines at work,
and in 1836, there were 125 ; 10 rolling-mills, 19 iron-foundries, macliine-shoi>s, and steam-engino
factories, 10 glass-works, 8 cotton-facturies, besides numerous other establishments, as breweries,
tanneries, brass-foundries, smitheries, s^aw-mills, oil-mills, grist-mills. The value of their annual
produce is estimated at £2,500,000 ; about 250,000 chaldrons of coal are annually raised in the neigh-
bourhood; the trade is extensive; and the amount of the mercantile transactions, in 1837, was esti-
mated at £.3,775,000. The city is regularly built, but the clouds of smoke, in which it is constantly
enveloped, give it rather a dingy appearance. The suburb of Lawrenceville contains the Alleghany
arsenal of the United States. The other principal places are : Reading, on the Schuylkill, with
8000 inhabitants ; Chester, on the Delaware below Philadelphia, lOOO ; West- Chester, in the fine valley
of the Hrandywine, 1500; Lancaster, 04 miles west of Philadelphia, 7704 inhabitants, chiefly Germans,
or of German descent ; Easton, on the Delaware, 5000 ; Hamburg, on the Schuylkill 3.500, ; Carlisle,
on the Conedogwinit, 3707 ; Pottsrille, on the Scluiylkill, whose population had increased from 300
in 1825 to 3.300 in 1835; Wilkesbarre, on the Susquehanna, in the vale of Wyuming, 31K)0 ; Erie, a
small but thriving town, with one of the best harbours on the lake of the same name, at the termina-
tion of a railway which connects it with the Alleghany.
DEL A WA RE. — Dover, the capital, is a small town with 1.500 inh.ibitants, near the centre of the
State, 7 miles west from the shore of the Delaware. Wilmimjtim, the principal and only considerable
town, stands on a narrow neck of land between the Christina Creek and the IJrandywine, just above their
confluence, a few miles from the Delaware. It is a busy and prosperous place, with 8367 inhabitants in
the year 1840. There are about 100 mills and factories in the immediate neighbourhood, which produco
flour, paper, gimpowder, ironware, cotton, and woollen goods ; and the city'is itself the seat of some
branches of mechanical industry. Nevxaslle, an old town, with a harbour on the Delaware, at the termi-
nation of a railway which leads to Elk river, on the Chesapeake. Por^.f tjin, opposite Reedy Island on the
Delaware, is a convenient shelter for vessels when the river is obstructed with ice.
it A R YL AN D. — Annapolis, the capital, is a small scattered town, of about 2500 inhabitants, on
the west bank of the Severn river, near the Chesapeake. Baltimore, a large and flourishing commercial
city, on the Patapsco'river, an arm of the Chesapeake, 37 miles N.E. of Washington, and 200 miles from
the sea by the ship channel. It has two capacious harbours, where 2000 vessels may lie in safety, and
an inner basin, where vessels drawing 10 or 12 feet may approach the quays. Ualtimore is a well built
town, with broad, straight, and regular streets, and in 1H40 contained 102,313 inhiibitants. It formerly
possessed a great foreign trade, which has now been considerably diverted to New York and Philadelphia;
but the coasting trade has been much extended. The shipping belonging to the port in 1840, .amounted
to 76,022 tons, one half of which was engaged in the co.asting trade. The manufacturing industry of Haiti-
more has, of late years, received a gre:it im|)etu3, and has now become important for its extent ; within
10 miles of the city there are above 70 manufacturing estal)lishments with a capital of £550,000 ; and the
Baltimore shipbuilders are famed for the construction of fast-sailing vessels, which are in demand in fo-
reign ports. The city is'.well supplied with water, and, though formerly considered unhealthy, and repeat-
edly suffering from the ravages of the yellow fever, is now one of the healthiest cities in the Union,
owing, undoubtedly, to the draining of the marshes and the paving of the streets. I'rederick, a flourishing
town, with 7000 or 8000 inhabitants, on a branch of the Haltiniore and Ohio railway. Cumherland,
in the western part of the State on the Potomac, at the eastern terminus of the great national road, has
lately become important from its valuable coal seams, which are rendered accessible by the Chesapeake and
Ohio C'anaL
yiRGINIA. — Richmond, the capital, is pleasantly situate on the left bank of the James river, be-
low its lower falls, about 100 miles south of Washington. Including Manchester on the opposite side
of the river, and connected with it by a bridge ; the population exceeds 20,00(». The Capitol, or State-
house, though occupying a commanding situation, is only a large brick building, on the model of the
Maison Carre of Nismes. Richmond is 150 miles from the mouth of the river, which has 14 feet of
water up to Warwick, 5 miles below the city, and is navigable for boats 220 miles above the falls. This
advantageous position enables it to carry on an extensive trade ; and the annual value of its exports
is estiniixted at .£'(iiK),0OO. Petersburg, now a thriving manufacturing town, on the Apponiatox river,
with 11,136 inhabitants in 1840, is cuunected by a railroad with liichmond on the north, and the
Koanoke on the south. City-point, a mere hamlet at the confluence of the Apponiatox with the James,
lias a deep and spacious harbour, where wharfs have been built fur loading such large vessels as can-
not go up to Richmond or Petersburg. Sur/ulk, on Klizabeth river, 8 miles from Hampton roads, mar
the entrance of the Chesapeake, is a considerable town with about I2,W)U inhabitants, including those of
the sutmrbs of Portsmouth and Gosport, which contain one of the principal naval stations and dt-pots
of the United States, llamvtim roads, below Norfolk, and within the mouth of James river, are pro-
tected by Fort Monroe, on Old Point, a formidable fortress, designed to mount 412 cannon ; and on tlio
opposite point, named the Rip-raps, and IW)0 yards distant, is Em t Calhoun, which is capable of mount-
ing 232 guns. To the south of Norfolk is the Dismal Suamji, containing about 1.50,000 acres, in sonio
places covered with a dense growth of large trees, cedars, cypresses, or pines, and in others beariii(j
only tall reeds and grasses. The soil is in some places a soft trembling bog, in others firm, but CDVcred
knee deep with water ; and in the centre is Lake Drununonil, about 20 miles in circuuiference,with a
depth of 12 or 15 feet. It is now crossed by a canal which carries its timber to Norfolk. Yurk toii-n, at
the mouth of York river, near the ChesaiK'ake, is celebrated in the history of the revolutionary war,
for the surrender of Lord Cornwallis and his army, which took place here in October 178! . H'iili<ims-
burg, once the capital of the province, is now a decayed town, aliout midway between the York and the
James. Mount Vernon, on a high bank of the Potomac, 7 miles below Alexandria, once the seat otVVash-
ington, now contains his tomb, which is merely a brick vault in the garden. Eredrrirktburf^, a tlirivinif
town, at the head of the navigation on the Rappahannock. Mimticelhi, 64 miles W.N.W. ol Rii-hniond,
formerly the seat of President Jefferson, contains his tomb, which is marked with a simple granite obe-
lisk. CharlotleimUe, the seat of the University of Virginia, near Monticello, is a small town with less
than 1000 inhabitants, of whom one-half are blacks. Lynchburg, one rifthe greatest tobacco markets in
the coimtry, it situate on Uie Jauies, and iu 1840 coiitaiuca 03yj iuliabitants. In Rockbridge county
30
946 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY [Uniteb
U tbe celebarted natural bndge, which is, according to Jefferson, " the most sublimo of nature's worki.**
It is an arcb reaching across a deep and narrow chasm, and 215 feet above the water which flowi
throueh the bottom of the ravine. In the same neighbourhood are several remarkable limestone caves.
JVinchester, a thriving town west of the mountains, with 4000 inhabitants, is a great thoroughfare for
■outhern and western travel ; and its millseats are another source of its prosperity, though but pap-
tiallv turned to account. It is connected witli the Potomac by a railway. Newtown, tVoodttock, New-
market, and Harrisonburg, are busy and thriving villages, with 1000 inhabitants each, and Staunton, a
regular built town, with 2000 inhabitants, all in the valley of the Shenandoah, south of Winchester. In
the upper valley of the James are Lexington and Fincattle, each containing about 900 inhabitants ; and
the former having Washington college, and a State arsenal . Wheeling, on the Ohio, one of the most
flourishing manufacturing towns in the country, owes its prosperity to the inexhaustible beds of coal
which surround it, and to the easy means of tranq>orting its manufactures through tlie vast agri-
cultural regions of the west and south-west. In 1820, its population was only 1567 ; in 1830, 5221 ; and
in 1840, 7885. Its manufactures consist of ironwork, glass, paper, leadworks, boots and shoes, furni-
ture, saddlery, copper and tinware, tanneries, &c. producing annually goods of the value of £500,000.
It also carries on a considerable transport trade, being situate at the head of the steam navigation on
the Ohio, during the season of low water, and at the western terminus of the Cumberland road.
WeUtburg, farther up the river, owes its prosperity to the same cause. Population about 2000. Par-
hersburg, a thriving village at the confluence of the Little Kanawha with the Ohio. Charleston, at the
bead of navigation on the Kanawha, contains about 1000 inhabitants. A few miles above it commence
the great saltworks, which extend about 12 miles along the valley of the Kanawha, and produce an-
nually about 3,000,000 bushels of salt.
NOR Til CARO L I N A.— Raleigh, the capital, is a thriving town with 2,244 inhabitants in 1840,
connected by a railway with Richmond in Virginia. Wilmimjton, 20 miles from the sea, on Cape-fear
river, is a thriving commercial town, with 4000 inhabitants. Fayetteville, at the head of boat navi-
gation, on the same river, is a busy and flourishing town, with 3000 inhabitants. Newbern, on the
right bank of the Neuse, 80 miles from Pamlico Sound, is a well built town, with considerable
trade, and 3690 inhabitants in 1840. Beaufort, on Newport river, a few miles from the sea, has the
best harbour in the State, a little to the west of Cape Lookout, from which dangerous shoals stretch
10 miles into the sea.
SOUTH CAROL IN A . — Charletton stands on a point of land at the confluence of the Ashley and
Cooper rivers, six miles from the sea. The site is almost a dead level, only eight or ten feet above
high water-mark, and is subject to inundation when the sea is driven in by violent winds. It is well
built on a regular plan, and contained in 1840, 29,261 inhabitants. The harbour is of difficult access
and the bar forms an almost continuous line of breakers extending about 10 miles opposite the city.
Moutinecille, on Sullivan's Island, is a pleasant little town, much resorted to in summer and autumn,
when the refreshing sea breezes restore health and vigour to the system exhausted by the unwhole-
some air of the swamps. Georgetown, on Winyaw Bay, a place of some trade, with 2000 inhabitants.
Is situate among swamps, and very unhealthy. Columbia, the capital of the State, situate on the
Congaree river, is only a small town, with 4000 inhabitants. Hamburg, on the Savannah, opposite to
Augusta, in Georgia, is the most flourishing town in the State. The first building was erected in
1821, and, at the end of six years, the population exceeded 1000, and is now more than twice that
number. It stands at the head of steam navigation on the river, and is connected with Charleston
by a railroad. Spartansburg, a pleasant village, with 1000 inhabitants, 185 miles N. W. by N. of Charles-
ton. To the north of it is Coivpem, the scene of an engagement in the revolutionary war.
OEOROIA. — MilUdgeville, the capital, is a small town on the Oconee river, with 2000 inhabitants.
Savannah, a flourishing commercial town, containing, in 1840, 11,214 inhabitants, is situate on a high
bank of Savannah river, 15 miles from the sea, but is accessible to large vessels. Auffusta stands on the
Savannah, at the head of steam-boat navigation, 240 miles above the city of Savannah. It is a well built
and thriving commercial town, with about 8000 inhabitants. Macon, on the Ockmulgee, contained, in
1823, only a single cabin ; in 1840 the population had increased to 5045. It is the depot of a populous and
fertile country, and has an extensive trade. Columbus, on the Chattahoochee river, 430 miles from the
Gulf of Mexico, by the windings of the stream, was first laid out in 1828, and in 1844 had already acquired
a population of 7000 souls. Steamers run regularly to New Orleans, and carry thither the produce of this
inland region.
ALAB A MA. — Tuscaloosa, the capital, is a small but thriving town, with 2000 inhabitants, near the
centre of the state. Mobile, at the mouth of the great river of Alabama, has become the seat of an ex-
tensive trade ; about 250,000 bales of cotton are annually shipped from its wharfs ; and the popula-
tion, which in 1830 was only 3194, had increased, in 1840, to 12,672. St, Stepheti's on the Tombigbee, is
a flourishing town with 12.000 inhabitants. Montgomery, near the head of the Alabama, is a prosper-
ous town with 2000 inhabitants. Wetumpka, five miles above the junction of the Coosa and the
Tallapoosa, stands at the head of steam navigation on the former ; it was laid out in 1832, and in 1837
contained 3000 inhabitants, having become the depot of a highly fertile region. Florence, at the
head of steam navigation on the river Tennesee, below the muscle shoals, is a thriving town, with
2000 inhabitants. Waterloo, lower down, is at the head of navigation during the season of low water,
when steam-boats cannot pass Colbert's shoals. Above the Muscle shoals, and about 10 miles N. of
the river, with which it is connected by a canal, is Huntst'lle, the principal town of Upper or Nor-
thern Alabama. It is surrounded by a fertile, populous, and well -cultivated country, and has about
2500 inhabitants.
MISSISSIPPI. — Jackson, the capital, isasmall town newly laid out, with a state-house, peniten
tiary, and other buildings, and about 1200 inhabitants. Natchez, on the left bank of the Mississippi,
consists of two parts ; one called the landing, or Natchez under the hill, which is built on a dead level
on the bank of the river, from 100 to 200 yards in breadth ; the upper town stands on a lofty bluft' or
bank, which rises abruptly to the height of 300 feet, and is the residence of the better class of citizens.
Through 380 miles from rtie mouth of the river it carries on a considerable foreign trade, and large
ships come up to the town ; its river and inland trade, however, is much more extensive. The popu-
lation in 1830 was 2790, but in 1837 exceeded 6000. Six miles from Natchez is the village of Washing-
ton, with 800 inhabitants, and the seat of Jetferson college. At Seltzertou-n, near Washington, there is
A remarkable group of mounds, from which numerous relics have been obtained. There is also a simi-
lar group near Natchez. Woodville, a pretty and growing town, with a port named Fort Adams, on
the river, .50 miles below Natchez ; and 35 miles above Natchez is Rodney or Petit Gulf;a.nA still higher.
Grand Gulf; the latter a finely situate town, with 1500 inhabitants. A railroad connects it with
Port Gibson, on the Bayou Pierre, which is accessible for steam-boats, except during low stages of
the river. It is situate in a charming country, and is one of the prettiest and most flourishing towns
in the state, with 1200 inhabitants. Vicksburg stands on the southern declivity of the Walnut hills,
SpO miles from the mouth of the Mississippi. The citizens nevertheless carry on direct trade with the
northern 'and foreign ports. Population in 1840 above 3653. Warrenton, a thriving village below
States.] AMERICA. 947
Vicksburg. Colunvnu, on the Tombigbee, at the head of the ordinary steam navigAtion, contains
about 3000 inhabitants.
LO U I SI AN A. —New Orleam, the capital, is situate on the left bank of the Mississippi, 100 miles
from its mouth, but only 15 from the bay called Lake Borgne, and four from Lake Poiitchartrain.
Steam-boats and coasting vessels come up to the landing-place oa the latter, where an artificial har-
bour has been formed, and from which a railroad and two canals extend to the city. In front of the
city, on the river, the largest merchant-ships lie close along the shore, and discharge and receive their
cargoes by means of a moveable platform adapted for the purpose. The river is about 1 60 feet deep, and
about half a mile wide. The city is built on a flat of soft and marshy ground, declining from the river to
the swamps in the rear, which, spreading all round, emit noxious exhalations during tlie hot season,
and render the place a dangerous residence to strangers. The older part of the city consists of nar-
row streets, with old-fashioned French and Spanish houses, most of them only one storey high, and
built of wood ; but in the newer quarters tall brick-houses, in the American style, are most conmion.
The population in 1836 amounted to about 70,000, who display the greatest variety in manners, lan-
guage, and complexion. French and Spanish Creoles are mingled with immigrants from all parts of
the Union, from various countries of Europe, and with coloured persons of every shade. But the
police is efficient and vigorous, and disturbances or acts of violence are rare. New Orleans is the
emporium of the whole valley of the Mississippi. Thousands of huge arks and rafts float down the
mighty stream for thousands of miles, loaded with the produce of the country. From 1500 to 200O
flat boats, from 50 to GO steamers, and a forest of masts of sea-going vessels, are often to be seen at
once along the levee, which protects the city from the river. The whole value of commercial trans-
actions during the year probably exceeds £16,000,000 sterling. The banks of the river for 50 miles
below the city are covered with sugar plantations ; and a little lower down, at Plaquemine bend, the
approach is defended by Furti Jackson and St. I'hilip. Below these there are no settlements, except at
the little hamlet of Haliza, 4 miles within the bar, occupied liy a few pilots. The State contains no
other important towns ; but it possesses a great number of thriving villages, among which we may
mention Alexandria, on the Red river, and NaMiitochci, on the same river, 90 miles above it, and lyo
from the Mississippi, with a population of 2500.
TENNESSEE.— NathviUe, the capital, and chief commercial town, is situate on the left bank of
the Cumberland river, in a highly picturesque and fertile country. It is a neatly-built town, with, in
1844, 11,000 inhabitants, and carries on an extensive trade. Kno.rville, in Kast Tennessee, has a popula-
tion of 2000, and is a place of considerable trade. Memphis, on the Mississippi, is a rapidly-increasing
town ; and three miles below it the city of Giran has been founded. There are no other towns in the
State, but a number of thriving villages.
KENTUCKY. — Frankfort, the capital, a small town with 2000 inhabitants, stands on the right bank
of the Kentucky river, 70 miles from its moutli. Louisville is situate above the falls of the Ohio, and is a
rapidly-increasing and well-built town, with 28,643 inhabitants in 1843, having various and extensive manu-
factures, and a great trade. The falls are only perceptible at low-water ; at other seasons they present no
Mrious obstruction to navigation ; but at all times the Louisville and Portland canal enables large steam-
boats to reach Louisville. Below the falls are the villages of Shippimjport and Portland, with good
harbours. Lexington, one of the oldest towns, and formerly the capital of the State, is spacious and well-
built, with 6997 inhabitants in 1840. It is 70 miles E. of Louisville, with which it is connected by a
winding railroad. Kentucky contains, besides, a number of thriving villages.
OHIO. — Co?um6u», the capital, is a regularly laid out and well-built town, on the Scioto, near the
centre of the State, with 6048 inhabitants in 1840. Cincinnati, a large city on the right bank of the
Ohio, haa grown with the most astonishing rapidity to its present extent and importance. It was founded
in 1789 ; in 1800, its population amounted to 750 ; in 1820, to 9642 ; in 1830, to 24,831 ; and in 1840, to
46,33**. In that year it contained 43 churches. It is built on a very regular plan, with many elegant
houses and public buildings ; and has become the seat of large and numerous niiinufacturing establish-
ments, and of an extensive trade, particularly in the article pork, so many as 160,000 swine being
ilaughtered there in a year, l)esides what is brought from other places. Cleveland, on Lake Erie, at
the mouth of the Cuyahoga creek, in a plain, 80 feet above the level of the lake, with spacious and regular
Streets, neat buildings, and 6071 inhabitants in 1840. The town is rapidly increasing, and promises to
rival or even to take the precedence of Buffalo, owing to the lake in this quarter becoming sooner
clear of ice. Cleveland has a safe and commodious harbour ; and on the opposite side of the creek is
Ohio city, with 2000 inhabitants. Fairport, Astdbula, Conneaul, and Huron, towns on the lake, with
harbours. SanditJiky city, on the southern shore of Sandusky bay, has a poimlation of 20<K), and is
connected by a railroad with Monroe Ville and Tiffin. Toledo, a growing place, whose situation, at
the mouth of the M.iumee, will enable it to command the trade of north-western Ohio, norih-ejistern
Indiana, and south-eastern Michigan. Its trade is already inii>ortant. The village of Manhattan,
three miles below, lias been fixed on as the terminus of the Wabash and Miami ciinals. I'errynbiir;;,
higher up the river, is also advantageously situate, and may become a formidable rival to Toledo.
//amiY/on, on the Miami, is a busy prosperous town with 2.500 inhabitants; and higher up is Dayton,
with 38'K). Sprinijfield, on the Mad river, a rapidly-increasing, manufacturing, and commercial
town, which doubled its population between 1830 and 1840 ; in which latter year it contained 2349
inhabitants.
INDIA N A contains no large towns, but only a number of thriving villages ; though one of them,
Maditon, on the Ohio, is advancing so rapidly as to have trebled its population in six years, the numher
of inhabitants in 1840 Ijcing H874. Iruliaruipolii, the capital, stands on a tieantiful plain, at the con-
fluence of Fall creek with White river ; and contained 2692 inhabitants in 1840. New AUMxny, below the
falls of the Ohio, shares in the pros|>erity of Louisville, and has already above 4226 iuhabitants in 1840,
with a considerable trade, several iron and hnus foundries, &c
//. L IN O IS.— The towns of Illinois are small, but some of them arc rapidly growing in importance,
and there is, besides, a great number of thriving villages. Spritif^ctil, the capital, is situate near the
centre of the State, and has a poimlation (jf 'irxX). Ahmg the Ohio are Shamuitown, (inlruuila. Supo-
leon, Triniti/, Cairo ; along the .Mississppi, <lownwards, Galina, Saranna, Fort Artnttrotiff. Sliremi^tt,
Jtorkport, New liuttim, Oi/uauka, Appannon-, Commirfe, MimtcM/o, H ursnu; (iumni, (iili'iid, Mwtn,
Cra/ltm, Altrm, Kaiknikia ; on the Illinois, J«//it'<, Dretdiii, MnrsitUi'i. Ottaua, Jl<t,ti,f)iu, I'eoria,
Pckin, lieardstuu-n, Fric, HuthritU', Mired<itia, Naplei, Carrulllon, Auifuttn ; on the \S al>u»b, Diirtrm,
Pa'eiline, Mount Carmel ; OreK<>n city on Kock river. Chicano, on lake .Michigan, is the l«r(;est town
in the Slate. In 1h.32 it contained only 2.S0 irhabitants ; In 1H37, its po|,ulatiou ninoiinteil to WKX). It
atanils at the point of the lake which mokes the nearest approach to the Mi8si»>ippi. mid must ne-
cessarily become a great commercial station, as the adjoining country lieconies more populous.
MICHIGAN. — Detroit, the capital, is neatly and regularly built on the wist bank of 1)( irolt river,
and is bicoming a place of great importance. In lh30 the population was 2220 ; in lM:i7, W23. Mon-
roe, 3 miles from the head of lake trie, on the river Kaisin, which it accessible for tlic largest lake
046 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Un. States.
vessels np to the city. Monroe has become a great thoroughfare for western travellers, and its busl-
ness and population are rapidly increasing. Frenchlown, opposite Monroe ; Mount Clemens, on Clin-
ton river, 6 miles from Lake St. Clair; Newport and Palmer, on the river St. Clair ; Huron, at the foot
of Lake Huron ; in the interior of the eastern section, Pontiac, Ypsilanti, and Ann- Arbour, the seat of
the University of Michigan, on the Huron river ; Tecumseh, on the Raisin ; and Adrian, on Beaver
Creek, a branch of that river. On the western side of the peninsula, New Buffalo, at the mouth of
Galien river ; St. Joseph's, Niles, fonstantine ; Naples, at the mouth of the Kalamazoo ; Kalamazoo
and Marshall above ; Grandharien, at the mouth of Grand river ; and JacksonOurg, near the head of
that river, in the centre of the State. Mackinaw, on an island at the entrance of the lake Michigan.
MISSOURI. — Jefferson city, the ca.\iits\, is situate on the south bank of tlie Missouri. St Louis
stands near the centre of tlie great Mississippi valley, on the right bank of the river, 18 miles below tlie
mouth of the Missouri, 175 above the mouth of the Ohio, 1350 from the Gulf of Mexico, 860 below tho
falls of St. Anthony, 850 by the post routes from Washington, and 1200 from Santa F«5 in Mexico, by
way of Independence. It was founded by tlie French in 1764 ; in 1820 its population was 4598 ; in 1830,
6694 ; and in 1844 considerably exceeded 30,000. St. Louis is tlie commercial emporium of the Missouri
end the Upper Mississippi ; tlie principal depot of the American P'lir Company ; and the centre of the
overland trade witli Mexico. Two miles below the city is a United States' arsenal, and 5 miles below are
Jefferson Barracks, an important military station , and the head-quarters of the western division of tlie
array. St. Charles, a flourishing town on the Missouri, with 2000 inhabitants. The other towns of the
State are mostly mere villages ; but some of them are increasing rapidly.
ARKANSAS. — Arkopolis or LiltU Rock, the capital, stands on a high bluff on the right bank of
the river, and contains about 1500 inhabitants. There are no considerable towns or even villages, the
population being mostly distributed in scattered settlements.
FLORIDA. — Tallahassee, the capital, stands on a high and healtliy ridge of land, about 180 feet
above the level of tlie sea, in a fertile district, and lias become a place of considerable business. A
railroad, 21 miles in length, connects it with the harbour of St. Mark's on Appalachee Bay. St. Augus-
tine, the oldest town in the United States, which was founded by the Spaniards in 1564, is rather a de-
cayed place, with only 459 inhabitants, on the Atlantic coast.
WISCONSIN. — The government of this territory was organized in 1836, and in 1840 it contained
a population of 30,945. Madison, the capital, on the Four Lakes, is a small town recently founded ;
Wisconsin city, on Rock river ; Milwaukie, on Lake Michigan, founded in 1835, and containing, in 1845,
7500 inhabitants. It has the best harbour on the coast, and promises on that account to become an
important place. Navarino, at the mouth of Fox river on Green Bay.
IOWA is separated from Wisconsin by the Mississippi, along the western banlj of which it extends,
from the borders of the state of Missouri to the British frontier. It was erected into a separate territory
In 1840. In 1844 it contained a population of 22,859, and in 1846, 78,819. Burlington, on the Mississippi,
is the seat of government. The other principal towns are Madison, Bloomington, Dubuque,- but none of
the towns have yet risen to any degree of importance.
THE INDIAN, or WESTERN TER RITO RY isan extensive region set aside as a permanent
home for the Indian nations, whose removal beyond the limits of the States has been going on for several
years. The tract thus appropriated extends from the western boundary of Arkansas and Missouri, to
that of the United States, lying between the Red River on the south, and the Punca and the I'latte on
the north, and contains an area roughly estimated at 225,000 square miles. The eastern section is the
only portion that is yet occupied by the emigrant and indigenous tribes, whom the Federal Government
are endeavouring to fix in permanent abodes, and to educate in the arts of peace, so that, whenever their
advance in civilization shall warrant the measure, and they desire it, they may be admitted as a State
to become a member of the Union. In 1841 the tribes numbered 342,058.
WESTERN DISTRICT. — The vast region extending from the Pbtte to the 49° N. lat. and
from the Missouri and the White-earth rivers to the Rocky mountains, has been but partially explored,
and has received no official name. It contains an area of 300,000 square miles, and is occupied by wild
tribes of independent Indians, who have had little coinniunication witli the whites ; though traders have
established several posts and trading stations in the country. The natives have no domestic animals
but the horse and the dog, but they roam in pursuit of the bison, which is the principal source of
subsistence to many of tlie tribes. The women, however, act as the agriculturists, and generally raise
a little maize. Tlie skins and furs of the wild animals also furnish them with an important means of
traffic with the whites who scour the country.
THE OREGON TERRITORY extends westward from tlie Rocky mountains to the Pacific
Ocean. By convention with Spain in 1817, its southern boundary was fixed at the 42" parallel of N.
latitude. Till 1847, the whole territory as far south as the Spanish frontier was claimed by both Great
Britain and the United States, and the subjects of both proceeded to colonize it ; but in that year nego-
ciations were concluded between the two powers, by which the mutual boundary Avas fixed as the 49"
of latitude. The whole territory extends from 42» to 54" 40' N. latitude, and contains about 480,000
square miles, of which about 7-12th8 belong to the United States. Nearly the whole region is drained by
the river Columbia with its tributaries, which takes its name from the ship of Captain Gray of Boston,
•who was the first to ascend the stream, in 1792. The name Oregon, as applied to both the river and
the country, has arisen solely from the statement of the traveller Carver, that, when on the Upper Missis-
sippi, he heard of a great river in the interior, flowing westwards, and which he called the Oregon or
Oregan, or River of the West. The only establishments of the whites, are the Hudson's Bay Company's
posts and settlements, and the missionary stations of the American Board of Foreign Missions ; the
country generally being still in possession of the native tribes. Population not known.
Fort Vancouver, the Company's principal depot for Columbia district, stands on the northern bank
of the river, 100 miles from its mouth, in tho midst of beautiful and fertile prairies. The fort is merely
a stockade inclosing the Company's buildings, and outside are about 50 huts occupied by the me-
chanics and labourers, with their Indian wives and slaves. There are several other forts of the same
kind scattered over the country. A Company's ship arrives every year in the Columbia in spring,
with goods for the Indian trade, and returns in the autumn, after having made a trip to the Sandwich
Islands with furs. A company's ship, brig, schooner, sloop, and steam-boat remain on the coast to
traffic and bring in the furs ; and every spring numerous parties leave Fort Vancouver in boats loaded
■with goods for the Indian trade, at the ditterent inland posts. The whole number of persons con-
nected with the establishment is about 800, who are mostly Canadians, half-breeds, and Indians. The
mission board has two stations, and employs nine missionaries and teachers.
Fur the preceding account of the United States, we are chiefly indebted to the very excellent " Illus-
trated Atlas, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical, of the United States, and the adjacent countries,
CyJ. G. Bradford, Boston, 1838," The Statistical Tables are taken frovi the American Almatiac,
Un. States.] AMERICA. 949.
III. TEXAS.
Texas or Tkms (See note to page 531) formed till 1845 one of the states of the Mexican confederation,
in conjunction with that of Coahuila. This union was very unpopular with the Texians, and led to
disagreements with the Central Government. In 1835, General Santa-Anna having violently dissolved
the confederation, and established a central government in its stead, the Texians declared themselves
independent, and successfully resisted all efforts to subdue them. Since the defeat of Santa-Anna at San
Jacinto in April 1836, the republic enjoyed uninterrupted repose, and its independence was acknowledged
by Great Britain, the United States, France, Holland, and Belgium. In 1845 it adopted the constitu-
tion, and was admitted as one of the members of the United States. It is now the southernmost state of
the Union, and is situate between 26* 42" N. lat. and 94" 110"' W. long, including an area of 324,018
square miles, with an estimated population of 200,000. Its coast extension, along the north-western
shore of the Gulf of Mexico, is about 400 miles. The state is divided into 36 counties. The surface along
the shore, and to the distance of from 50 to 100 miles inland, is low and level, with occasional swamps
and marshes, but is generally composed of arable prairie traversed by lines of wooded river bottoms.
Above this low maritime plain the country l)econies moderately undulating, no where attaining any con-
siderable elevation, but is agreeably diversified by gracefully rounded swells, gentle slopes, and broad
plains. This region is mostly prairie, or unwooded land, the trees being chiefly confined to the river
valleys, and to scattered clumps, which rise, like islands, in the midst of a wide grassy expanse. These
fine natural pastures were formerly tilled with large herds of buffaloes or bisons, and droves of mustangs
or wild horses, which have now been almost entirely exterminated, or driven farther north. On the
west several outlying ridges of the Sierra Madre, "or great Mexican Cordillera extend, around the
heads of the rivers Nueces and Guadiiluiie, across the Colorado to the Bnizos, wliere they subside uito
the elevated plains of Northern Texas. In the north-west are spread out vast luiwooded plains, over
which the wild native Indians still roam. The coast contains no good ship harbours, and but few
inlets even for the smaller class of vessels. The spacious but shallow bays wliicli receive most of the
rivers, and the mouths of those rivers which enter the Gulf immediately, are barred by shifting sand-
banks, the channels through which are often intricate, and rarely have more than 8 or 10, never
more thiin 12 or 13, feet of water. From April till August, however, ships may ride at anchor
securely on the coast in 6 or 8 fathoms ; but during the rest of the year the heavy swell renders that
impossible.
The climate may be described generally as mild, agreeable, and healthy. Tlie maritime plain is,
liowever, comparatively unhealthy, though fanned by the sea breeze during half the year. Scarcely
any rain falls between March and November, and the vegetation often suffers from droughts, la
November north winds from the mountains set in, and heavy rains begin to fall. These winds blow,
with little deviation or intermission, during the months of December and .Tanuary, when the moun-
tains are covered with snow, and the cold is sometimes severe; but snow seldom lies long in the
lower districts. In the early spring the rains are very copious. The live-oak is found of large size
in the maritime region, chiefly between Galveston and Matagorda Bays ; the white, red, post, and
Spanish oaks, the cottonwood, ash, elm, and sycamore or buttonwood, the black walnut, hickory,
pecan, locust, muskit, bow wood, wild cherry, mulberry, persimmon, &c., are among the native
productions of the forests. Between the Colorado and the Brazos are extensive cane brakes ; almost
every variety of grape is found growing spontaneously in many places ; and it is believed that the most
valuable grapes of Kurope may be advantageously introduced. The soil and climate are favourable to the
growth of the sugar-cane, indigo, vine, tobacco, rice, maize, sweet potatoes, and, in some parts to the
cultivation of wheat, rye, oats. The prairies afford excellent pasture all the year round.
In 1821, Stephen Austin, an American citizen, obtained a grant of land in Texas from the Mexican
Government. This was followed by other grants to him and to other persons, and, since the dedanition
of independence, a constant tide of immigration has set into Texas, and the Anglo-American population
of the State is estimated already to exceed 200,000. About 70,000 or 80,000 Mexicans are also resident
within the limits, but chiefly along the banks of the Itio Grande. The Indians are estimated at 30,000 ;
while the total number of negroes is stated by some to be only 6000, but by others, more than 10,000. A
sound administration of justice has been established; schools and colleges have been founded; public
buildings have been erected ; the different parts of the country have been connected by roads, and by the
improvement of the natural means of communication along the rivers.
Austin, the seat of government, is situ;ite on the left bank of the Colorado Biver, 200 miles from the
sea. Houston is a town of great and growing importance, situate at the head of Buffalo-bayou, a sort
of creek or river, which runs into the north-western corner of Galveston Bay. It has sprung up with
astonishing rapidity, and is already the centre of an extensive trade. The other principal towns are, Na-
coffdochet, St. Awjustine, Brazoria, Columbia, Marion, Santa l''i', Washinylon, Jiaslrop, and SanC Ati'
tonio de Bexar. Galveston Island stretches along the Gulf of Mexico for about 30 miles, opposite to
the entrance to Galveston Bay. On the eastern part of it is the City of Galveston, which, though not
central to the sea-board of Texas, may Ije made, by means of railroads of moderjvte extent, the depot for
the produce of the most fertile sections of the country, and will probably become in consequence its
principal commercial station.
{Article Texat in Bradford's AUat ,- Jlitlory of the RcvoUilion in Texas.- tcith the latest fjeofjraphical,
tnpofrraphical, and statistical Accounts of the Cmintr;/, liy the Jlev. C. Setccll. New York, 1838, Texas ;
ill Rise, Progress, and Prospects i by William Kennedy, 1841.)
IV. MEXICO or MEJICO.
( .See Note to page ^>3\.J
This republic or confederation occupies the narrow tract of country between the Gnlf of Mexico
and the Pacific Ocean, from the l.'j to the 3.'l^ N. lat., being alxnit UOO miles in length, with a
breadth varying from about 140 miles at the south to 7.'>0 at the north, and including an arra of about
l.'i.'JO.OiKi square miles. The surface is extremely v.irieil ; the country Is traversed through its centre
by the great cordillera or central mountain chain of North America, which not only forms a complete
watershed between the Atlantic and the I'aciflc Oceans, but also divides into two branches enclos-
ing between them an elevated table-land, which rises abruptly from both coasts, and occasions a Kreat
diversity of climate, within a narrow space ; so that, while the low country on the coasts is hot and
unhealthy, the tatde-land generally enjoys a mild and equable temperature, rising, howevor. In it<'"ia
places to an arctic rigour. The most remarkable portion of this plateau is the Vale of Mexico, whicll
is of an oval form, .')5 miles long and .37 broad, surrounded by riilgcs of porphyritic and basaltic rocks,
and containing a scries of five lakes, which wore formerly "f considirable extent, but arc now aU
mliiishcd bj loeiuis of ft great drain which carriet their waters to the rlrcr I'anuco. The water of
950 : DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. : [Mexico.
the lake of Tezcuco, the lowest of the five, is salt, but that of the other four is fresh. Mexico is rery
rich in the precious metals ; and Humboldt states that at the period of his visit there were 3000 mine*
of ^old and silver in the country, but the ignorance and misrule which prevail have much diminished
their value as a source of wealth.
The temperature and climate are extremely various, The country is divided into three regions
named respectively the tierras calientes, or hot regions ; the tierras templadas, or temperate regions ;
and the tierras frias, or cold regions. The first include the low grounds on the east and west coasts,
under the elevation of 2000 feet ; the mean temperature is about 77° Fahrenheit ; the country is espe-
cially suited for the growth and cultivation of sugar, indigo, cotton and bananas, which all flourish
luxuriantly ; but is almost inaccessible by sea for one half of the year, owing to the prevalence of
boisterous gales and north winds ; and during the other half is extremely unhealthy, from the op-
pressive heat and the great quantity of rain that falls. The coast then becomes the seat of pesti-
lential fevers ; and a European arriving for the first time at Vera-Cruz, or any other part of the
coast within the tropic, in August, September, or October, has little chance of escaping the yellow
fever. But, at the height of 2000 or 2500 feet above the level of the sea, that scourge is quite un-
known. The temperate regions, which are of comparatively small extent, occupy the slopes of the
mountains from about 2500 to 5000 feet of elevation. The mean heat of the year is from 68^ to 70°,
and the extremes of heat and cold are alike unknown. The Mexican oak and most of the fruits and
cerealia of Europe flourish in this genial climate ; fogs, however, are frequent, occasioning great
humidity ; but producing great beauty and strength of vegetation. The cold regions include the
table-lands and the mountains elevated 5000 feet and upwards above the level of the sea. The mean
temperature of the table-land generally may be about 62° ; but in the city of Mexico it sometimes,
though rarely, falls below the freezing point. In the cold season the mean heat of the day varies
from 55° to 70° ; while in summer it seldom rises in the shade above 75°. Above 8000 feet, the cli-
mate is severe and disagreeable ; and, under the parallel of Mexico, the snow line varies from 12,000
to 15,000 feet above the level of the sea. The climate of the table-land is on the whole favourable to
human life, and the prevalent diseases are believed to be more owing to the bad habits of the people
than to the qualities of the soil and climate.
The classes of the population are singularly varied, and are characterized by distinctions more
striking than those in any other country. Four distinct and rival classes m.ay be enumerated : 1.
The Chapetons or pure Spaniards, few in number, and now considered a degraded class ; 2. The
Creoles, or natives of European descent, forming the wealthiest and most powerful part of the popu-
lation ; 3. The Indians, or native Mexicans, forming the great mass of the labouring population ; 4.
The mixed classes, comprising mestizoes, mulattoes, zambos, &c. But, so far as political privileges
are concerned, all distinction of colour has been abolished, and persons of all complexions are
admitted to the enjoyment of equal civil rights. The actual amount of the'population is unknown ;
but it has been variously estimated between 5,000,000 and 8,000,000.
The government is based on a constitution dated 4th October 1824, and modelled on that of the
United States. Before the late war with the United States, the country was divided into nineteen
States, besides the federal district, containing the capital and three territories. These are given below,
as the definite arrangement between the two powers are not yet known. Each of these divisions
managed its own internal affairs ; while the general interests of the confederation were entrusted to
a Congress, consisting of a liouse of representatives, a sen.ate, and a president. The government is
extremely unsettled ; insurrections are continually taking place ; the laws are powerless, and general
tranquillity is unknown. The Roman Catholic is the only publicly recognised religion, though others are
tolerated ; but religion has little influence over the white population, and the hold of the church over the
Indians is fast diminishing ; as they are all more or less inclined to return to their ancient idolatry.
The necessity of education is recognised by the constitution, which requires the priests to teach all
persons to read and write ; but in practice it is little attended to ; and the progress of science, Uterature,
and the arts, has been completely checked by the unsettled state of the country since the revolution which
separated Mexico from the dominion of Spain.
With respect to productive industry, every branch of it is in the lowest state. Agriculture is ne-
glected, and even the lands which were cultivated by the Spaniards are now lying fallow. Artiticial
irrigation, which is necessary to fertilize the lands, is almost abandoned ; and the agricultural imple-
ments are of the rudest kind. All this is owing in some measure to the very excellence of the soil and
climate, which produce the necessaries of life with so little labour that the mass of the people, with-
out motive for exertion, are habitually indolent and unenterprising. The mines of gold and silver
have always been considered the main sources of wealth. Before the revolution about 21,000,000 dol-
lars in silver, and about 2,000,000 in gold, were annually produced from somewhat more than 3000
mines ; but, notwithstanding the introduction of Euroi)ean capital and skill into some of these mines,
the general production has diminished considerably, owing principally to the total want of security
for working the mines or conveying the produce ; but also in some degree to the wantof honest and
efficient labourers. But the mineral wealth of the country is inexhaustible ; and there is only required
a vigorous and honest Government to make the production greater than ever. The foreign trade is
quite insignificant, and manufactures are scarcely known. Soap is the chief manufacture, and the
country possesses great advantages for its production. Tallow is plentiful and cheap ; and the car-
bonate of soda abounds in the table-land of Anahuac and in many other places. There are large es-
tablished manufactories of this article in Mexico, Puebla, and Guadalaxara, and elsewhere.
The states and territories which composed the confederation were : Las Chiapas, Chihuahua, Coahuila,
Duranfjo, Guanaxuato, Mexico, Mechoacan, New-Leon, Oaxaca, Puebla, Queretaro, San Luis Potosi,
Sonora and Sinaloa, Tabasco, TamaiiUhas or New Santander, Vera-Criu, Xalisco, Yucatan, Zacatecas;
the Federal district ; and the territories of Neto Mexico, Colitna, and Tlascala.
Mexico or Mejicn (anciently Tenochtitlnn), the capital, is situate on a group of islands, formerly sur-
rounded by the lake of Tezcuco, which, however, has been so much diminished by draining, that its
margin is now 2i miles from the city, the intervening space remaining a swampy flat, and crossed by
elevated causeways. Mexico stands about 7426 feet above the level of the sea, in N. lat. 19° 25', and Vf.
long. 101° 25'. It is said by Humboldt to be undoubtedly one of the finest cities ever built by Europeans
in either hemisphere ; being inferior only to St. I'etersburg, Berlin, London, and Philadelphia, in re-
spect of the regularity and breadth of its streets, and the extent of its public places, of which, the
Plaza Mayor, or great square, is one of the finest to be seen in any city. It contains on one side the
cathedral, a large and imposing pile, of mixed Gothic and Italian style, built on the site of the great
temple of the god Mexitli, and containing several rich ornaments and curious remains of antiquity.
The population amounts to 137,000, of whom one-half are Creoles, and only about 6000 Europeans.
The two sea-ports of Mexico are Vera-Cruz and Acapulco, the former on the" east coast, the latter on
the west. Vera-Cruz (founded by Cortes, who named it Villa Jiica de la Vera- Cruz, rich city of the
true cross), is situate on the shore of the Gulf of Mexico, in N. lat. 19° 11'. It is a well-built and
handsome town, but extremely unhealthy. Opposite the town, at the distance of half-a-mile. on an
island, is the strong castle of San Juan d'Ulloa, commanding the harbour, which is a mere anchorage,
and exceedingly insecure. Acapulco is a small town, on a very fine bay of the Pacific S.8.W. of Mexico.
It was formerly the seat of the trade between Mexico and the Philippine islands ; but, in the present
state of affairs, is comparatively unimportant. Xalapa or Jalapa, a large town of 12,000 inhabitants
Calwoenia.] AMERICA. 851
stands on a little platform abore Vera- Cruz, about 4335 feet above the level of the sea. It was for-
merly a place of great trade, but is now merely a resting-station between Mexico and the coast. Pue-
bla de lot Angeles ( Angels* town), is a large manufacturing and well-built town, with 34,000 inhabitants,
70 miles S.L. of Mexico. The other principal towns are : Queretaro, San Luit Potosi, Guadalazara,
Zacatecat, Burango, Monterey, Guanaruato, VaUadolid, and Tiiniptco.tothe north and west of Mexico;
jitlizco, Guauchinango, Ametopeo, Tepeaca, Tehuacan, Hapa, Zacatlan, Oaxaca, Tehuantepec, and
Ciudad Real, to the south-east ; St.Blat, a small sea-port town, on the Pacific, 400 miles W.N.W. of
Mexico. At Cholula, to the north of Puebla, is a great pyramid, which rises by several stages 177
feet, from a base of 1423 on each side. A smaller but more elegant pyramid stands in the northern
part of the state of Vera-Cruz. It is formed of large blocks of porphyry, highly polished, and rises
by six stages 65 feet high, from a square base of 82 on the side. The mountains of Tezcuco, east of
the lake of Mexico, are nearly covered with the remains of ancient buildings and cities. Near San
Domingo de Palenqti^, a village in Las Chiapas, are the imposing remains of an ancient city named
Culkuacan, which, after being buried for ages in a thick forest, were first rediscovered in 1787. Tha
ruins present the most curious and most remarkable monuments of the new world, consisting of tem-
ples, fortifications, tombs, pyramids, bridges, aqueducts, houses, vases, idols, medals, musical instru-
ments, colossal statues, and well-executed figures in low relief, adorned with characters which appear
to be real hieroglyphics. Every thing announces that the city was formerly the residence of a people
far advanced in architectural skill, in sculpture and painting, a people whose tall and elegant figures,
fine proportions and figures, bear no affinity to anything Asiatic, African, or Malay. The ruins ex-
tend for more than twenty miles along the summit of a ridge, which separates tlie country of the
Mayas from the state of Chiapas, and must anciently have included a city and its suburbs. — (See
Jour. R, Geog. Soc, LondJ
V. CALIFORNIA.
California was formerly subject to Spain, and afterwards to Mexico ; but in 1848 the northern part
of it, called Alta California, was anne.\ed, by treaty with Mexico, to the territories of the United States
of North America. The country is naturally divided into two parts, the Old or Lower, and the New or
Upper. Old California comprehends the long peninsula, between the gulf and tlie Pacific Ocean, and ex-
tends about 700 miles in length, with a breadth varying from. "?() to 100, comprising an area of about 38,000
square miles, with a scanty population of 14,000 or 15,000. A chain of rocky mountains, not exceedingSOOO feet
in height, runs through it from south to north ; and the surface of the country consists of groups of bare rocks,
broken by ravines and hills, interspersed with barren sandy tracts, fonniiig altogether one of the most barren
and unattractive regions within ihe temperate zone. It is said, however, to be rich in metals. Tlie climate is
e.\cessivelj dry and hot, and violent hurricanes are frequent ; timber is very scarce ; and the greater
part of the country is incapable of producing a single blade of corn. Some sheltered valleys only
produce maize, and a variety of fruits, as dates, figs, &c. which are preserved and exported ; wine is
also made, and a kind of spirit is distilled from the must. Cattle are somewhat numerous ; wolves,
fCixes, deer, goats, snakes, lizards, and scorpions are among the wild animals. The pearl fishery in
the gulf has been famed from its first discovery ; at present it produces annually pearls to the value
of from 50O to 1000 dollars. Pearls, tortoise-shell, hides, dried beef, dried fruits, cheese, and soap con-
stitute all the exports, which are mostly sent to Mazatlan and San Bias in small coasting vessels. The
people are a feeble and indolent set of Indians, whom the Jesuits have partially converted to Chris-
tianity ; but they are little advanced beyond the rudest stage of savage life, and depend for their sub^
sistence on hunting and fishing, with the spontaneous produce of the soil.
Upper or New California extends from the Pacific'Ucean to the Kocky mountains; but the only
tract inhabited by European settlers is the narrow strip of land along the coast of the Pacific, which is
bounded inward by the maritime ran^e of hills, at the distance of about 40 miles from the sea. The
surface of this region is very diversified, and consists of hills and plains of considerable extent ;
along the coast there are several good harbours, of which San Francitro, in lat. 38°, is one of the
largest and best on the west coast of America. The rainy season is in winter, from November till Feb-
ruary. During the rest of the year there is no rain, but a few showers fall in some places. In summer
the heat i« very great. The country offers nevertheless a striking contrast to the peninsula. There is
a profusion of forest trees on the western side of the mountains along the coast ; and many fine fruits
are easily cultivated, though few are indigenous. Among these is a species of vine, which pro-
duces grapes of considerable size, and so plentiful, that considerable quantities of brandy are dis-
tilled &om them. Among the wild animals are reckoned the American lion and tiger, buffaloes,
stags, roes, elks, bears, wolves, jackals, wild cattle, foxes, polecats, otters, beavers, hares, rabbits, &c.
Birds of various kinds are exceedingly abundant. But the great and most important article of pro-
duce is black cattle, the multiplication of which has been really prodigious. In 70 years the number
had increased from 23 to 210,000 branded cattle, and probably 100,000 unbranded ; and it is found ne-
cessary to slaughter C0,0O0 annually to keep down the stock. Sheep have increased with nearly the same
rapidity, but areat present of little importance to the trade of the country. Between the maritime chain
and the Rocky Mountains is a dry and sandy plain or desert, 700 miles in length, by 100 in breadth at its
south end, and 200 at the north, which is traversed by the rivers Colorado .nnd Gila, and forms the
eastern limit of the inhabited, and indeed only habitable part of the country. The natives were a poor,
filthy, pusillanimous set of Indians in the most primitive state of barbarism, except those who hav»
been converted nominally to Christianity, and who have been taught a few of the simpler arts and prac-
tices of civilized life. These resided in missions, where the men are employed in agriculture, or in the
warehouses or workshops of the mission, while the women are occupied in spinning, grinding corn, and
other domestic duties. They were in fact slaves to the monks who possessed the mi.s.si(ins ; and the
greatest part of the land, and especially that to the south of Monterey, was in the hands of the mis.iion-
aries. Since the annexation to the I'nited States, a most extraordinarily productive gold region liax lH>en
discovered in the northern part of Up|)er Califoniiii, commencing near the mouth of the .Sucriiinento river
in 39" N. lat. about 100 miles N.K. of the IJny of Siin Francisco, and extending up the main valley north-
wards, and into several side valleys eastwards. Almost the whole population h.us taken to tlie " diggings,"*
and the news of the discovery are attractinj crowds of immigrants from both America and Euroj>e.
952 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Ydcatai^.
VI. YUCATAN,
This State forms a large peninsula, situate between the Gulf of Mexico and the Bay of Honduras,
between 17° and 22^ N. lat., and 86° 30' and 91° 20' W. long. ; is nearly 400 miles In length Irom
north-east to south-west, by about 200 in breadth, and contains an area of about 76,000 square miles.
The central part of the peninsula is occupied by a ridge of high ground, which becomes gradually
lower as it advances to the north ; at the southern extremity its elevation is about 3000 feet, but
near Cape Catoche, it sinks to a few hundred. On the west side the ridge is skirted by an exten-
sive plain, which, towards the north, is about 100 miles wide, and becomes narrower towards the
south. Its surface is, however, so sandy and arid, that from the Bay of Carapeche to Cape Catoche,
there is not a single spring of fresh water along the coast. To the south of Cape Catoche on the
eastern side of the peninsula, and also on the west coast, to the south of the Rio Francisco, near
Campeche, as far as the mouth of the river Usamasinta, the country is undulating, and even hilly.
The soil, except on the very shores, is less sandy, and the country is chiefly covered with lofty forest
trees. The climate is hot but healthy. In some parts of the territory, maize, frijoles, rice, cotton, pepper,
tobacco, and sugar, are raised ; but the aridity of the soil is a great drawback to agriculture ; the rainy
season is very uncertain, so much so, that in some bad years the inhabitants are obliged to have re-
coirse for subsistence to the roots which the woods supply. Bees' wax is collected in considerable
quantity in the eastern districts. There are no mines ; and the extensive trade which Yucatan once
carried on with the Havanna, was stopped by the revolutionary war, and has not since been renewed.
Yucatan formed, till recently, one of the members of the Mexican confederation ; but the people have
now separated from the union and declared themselves independent, on the same grounds as the
Texians, and have established a constitution on the most liberal political, religious, and commercial
principles. The population was estimated in 1837 at 570,000. They are chiefly whites, but there are
also many Indians of the Maypa nation, who had attained a considerable degree of civilization before
the arrival of the Spaniards, and some of them have maintained a sort of independence.
Merida, the capital, a very fine city, with asplendid cathedral, is situate on the arid plain, about 24
miles from the north coast. It carries on some trade in agncultural produce by means of the small
harbour of Sizal, which is formed by a sandbank, and has little depth of water. Population, 36,000.
Campeche, a fine handsome town, completely fortified, on the west coast, has a population of 18,000, and
exports considerable quantities of wax, and of the dye-wood which goes by its name. Its harbour is not
very safe ; and large ships cannot lie near the town, on account of the shallowness of the water. Con-
siderable quantities of the same wood are also exported from Bacalar, a town on the Rio Hondo,
which flows into the Bay of Honduras, north of Belize. In the eastern part of the State, and particu-
larly to the south of Merida, there are the remains of several ancient stone structures ; one of which,
called by the natives Oxmutal, is still in good preservation. It is about 600 feet square, the rooms,
corridors, and pillars are ornamented with figures, in half relief, of serpents, lizards, &c., in stucco.
There are alsofiguresof men, in the attitude of dancers, and resembling in every respect those which
are found in the ruins at Palenque.
VII. THE UNITED STATES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
These States include the narrow tract of countrywhich extends from Mexico to the isthmus of Pana-
ma, between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, being about 1000 miles in length, and from 90 to
250 in breadth. They comprise an area of 136,000 square miles, with a population of about 2,000,000, di-
vided into the five States of Guatemala, Honduras, Xicaragtca, Salvador, Costa Mica, and the federal dis-
trict of San Salvador, besides the almost independent territories of I'oyais, and the Musquito Indians on
the north-east coast. The country is chiefly occupied by a long range or ranges of mountains, which, as
in Mexico, form a table-land in the central parts of the country, reaching the general elevation of about
6000 feet above the level of the sea. There are also two large plains, those of Nicaragua and Comayagua,
besides many of smaller size on the banks of the rivers, and along the sea coasts, which contain many
deep and capacious gulfs and e.xcellent harbours. The low country on the coasts is exposed to violent
heat, and is extremely unhealthy. At Izabal on the Golfo Dolce, the heat is often from 90° to 100, and at
Ystapa, on the Pacific coast, it ranges between 86° and 90° in June. In the interior, however, an
equable and agreeable temperature may be obtained at the difl'erent elevations ; the city of New
Guatemala, for instance, enjoys a temperature of perpetual spring, the thermometer ranging between
62° and 68°. The dry season lasts from October till the end of May, during which the north winds
prevail. The rest of the year is called the wet season ; but the rains, though heavy, fall only at night,
and the days are generally fair and cloudless. Earthquakes are very frequent ; and are supposed to
be caused by the numerous volcanoes which are scattered along the southern shores, the loftiest
and most remarkable of which is the Volcano d' Aqua (Water Volcano), near the city of Guatemala la
Antigua, 12,620 feet above the level of the Pacific. This mountain has never emitted fire from its crater,
but only torrents of water and stones. The country likewise abounds with warm and medicinal springs.
The gold mines of Costa Rica, and the silver mines of Honduras, are rapidly increasing in their pro-
ducts. The soil is everywhere extremely rich. The great staple productions of the country, and its prin-
cipal articles of exports, besides the precious metals, are indigo, cochineal, sarsaparilla, hides, mahogany,
cedar, dyewoods, balsam of Peru, sugar, and rapadura, or panela. The last is a kind of brown sugar,
chiefly used for the distilling of spirits. The country also pi oduces tobacco as good as that of the Ha-
vanna, cocoa, cotton ; wheat, abundantly in Quesaltenango and other places ; vanilla, coffee, pimento,
pitch and naphtha, caoutchouc, and various medicinal plants, balsams, gums, and drugs. The tea
plant also abounds, and silk may be successfully cultivated. Two species of locusts are remarkable,
the brown and the green. The seas abound in pearls, tortoises, whales, and fish of various kinds.
The birds are celebrated for their great variety, and the extraordinary beauty of their plumage. All
the kinds of fowls common in Europe are reared. Cattle, horses, asses, sheep, goats, and hogs are in
abundance ; and though the horses are not good, yet the mules are of a very superior breed. The popu
lation is divided into the four grand classes of Indians, whites, blacks, and ladinos or mulattoes ; the
relative numbers of whom are : Indians, 685,000 ; whites, 475,000 ; ladinos, 740,000. The number of
blacks is very inconsiderable. The constitution grants equal rights and privileges to all.
The independence of Central America was established in 1823, when the people adopted a consti-
tution providing that the government should be vested in^ Federal Congress, a Senate, and a Presi-
dent, appointed, not directly by the people, but by means of electoral colleges. The monkish orders
have been wholly abolished, but Catholicism remains the religion of the State. The Spanish laws
have also been entirely abolished, and Mr. Livingston's Louisiana code established in their stead.
The cities of the federation are twenty-nine in number. The first is San Salvador, the seat of the
general government in the federal district, which forms a circle round the city, twenty miles in dia-
meter, with a further extension of ten miles towards the south, so as to include the roadstead of
Libertad, on the Pacific. The State of Guatemala is divided into seven departments, namely, Guate-
mala and Escuintla, Chiguimula and Zacapa, Vera-paz and Feten, Quesaltenango and Socunusco,
Totonicapan, Sacatepequez and Chilaaltenaiigo, Sololo and Sucbitepequez. In 1834, " The Eastern
Columbia.] AMERICA. 955
Coast of Central America Commercial and Agricultural Company," established in London, obtained
from the Government of Guatemala a grant by charter of the whole of the department of Vera-paz,
which is about 250 miles in length, and as much In breadth, lying between 15^ and 19^ N. lat., and 88°
and 92=> W. long., and comprismg at least 14,000,000 of acres ; and subsequently a further grant of
the port and district of Santo Thomas, containing about 1 ,000,000 of acres, which extends to the Bay of
Honduras, between the river Motagua, on the south, and the Golfo Dulce with its outlet on the north.
The company have already established a number of British and German settlers in Vera-paz, where
they have founded two cities, one named Abbottmlle, on a branch of the river Polochic, about 100
miles from the sea, and another named New- Liverpool, on the river Cajabon, two miles above its
confluence with the Polochic. They have also engaged to build a town at the splendid harbour of
Santo Thomas, on the Bay of Honduras, between the river Motagua and the entrance to the Golfo
Dulce, both of which are navigable for a great distance inland, and form the principal Atlantic out-
lets of the State of Guatemala. This harbour resembles in form the edge of a horse-shoe, with an en-
trance two miles across, and five fathoms deep ; within, the breadth is about six miles, with a depth
of six fathoms up to the very shore, and protected from every wind. The river Polochic, which forms
the highway between the sea and the settlements in Vera-paz, runs from west to east-south-east for
a direct distance of about 70 geographical miles, and falls into the Golfo Dulce, a fine lake, 24 goo-
graphical miles in length, by 10 in breadth, with an average depth of G or 8 fathoms on a bottom of
bluish clay. The outlet of the lake forms a navigable river, which runs six miles, and then forms
another lake, 9 miles by 2, named the " golfete" or little gulf, from which it runs 8 miles farther to
the sea, between two ranges of hills, covered with impenetrable forests, and so overhung with verdure,
as to be almost hidden at the entrance. The bar at its mouth has only 5 feet 9 inches water, and the
Polochic is navigable only for vessels drawing loss than 2i feet.
distance <
town with 40,000 Inhabitants. Old GiuitemaUt (la Ayitigua Guatemala, or Sa?itiago (
Guatemala) is also a fine town amidst ruins, in a delightful valley, eight leagues west south-west of the
new city, and containing 12,000 inhabitants. It has been several times destroyed by earthquakes and
Tolcanic eruptions, and has been abandoned as the capital since the fatal earthquake of 1773. Totoni-
capan, the capital of the department of the same name, has a population of 12,000 ; Quesaltenaugo,
14,000; CoAan, in Vera-paz, 14,000 ; .Saizmd, on the Polochic, .5000 ; /zaAa/, a village of about 40 huts,
3 houses, and a court-house, on the southern shore of the Golfo Dulce. The greatest part, however, of
the export and import trade of Guatemala is carried on by the port of Ixabal, and by that of Oinoa,
on the left of the entrance to the gulf.
The cities of Costa Rica, are, San Jose, Cartage, Esparta, jilijuela', Eredia, Esirella ; of Nicara-
gua, Leon, Granada, New SfgoDia; of Honduras, Comayagua, Tegusigalpn, Gracias, San Pedro
Sula, Olanchito, Sonaguera, Trujillo or Truxillo ; o( Salvador, San Vicente, San Miguel, Santa yina,
Somunate. The principal ports, besides Izabal and Omoa, are Truxillo, in the Bay of Honduras, San
Juan de Nicaragua, Main, and Bocatoro in the Caribbean Sea ; Calderas, El lieahjo. La Union, Li-
bertad, Acajutla, and Ittapa, in the Pacific
VIII. COLOMBIA, comprising the JRepubUcs of VENEZUELA, NEW
GRANADA, and ECUADOR.
After the revolt of the Spanish colonies, those in the north-western part of South America were
formed into a large State, which assumed the name of Colombia or Columbia, in honour of the great
discoverer ; but, since 1831, Colombia has been divided into the three independent republics of Vene-
zuela, New Granada, and Ecuador or Equator; the first occupying the north-eastern, the second, tho
north-western and central, and the third, the southern portions of the country. Colombia is situate
between 12^ 25' N. and .5^ S. lat., and between 00^ and 83^ W. long.; being about 1320 miles from east
to west, and 1100 from north to south, and comprising an area of 1,1GO,000 square miles. The country
is now divided among the new republics in the following proportions, namely, Venezuela, which com-
prehends 450,000 miles, with 90{),000 inhabitants; New Granada, 380,000 miles, with l,f)«7,000 inhabi-
tants ; and Ecuador, 3i5,(J00 miles, with 600,000 inhabitants. The country is naturally divided into
three zones or belts. The first comprehends the portion between the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean
Sea and the Andes ; the second, the mountainous region ; the third, the immense savannahs which
stretch southward and eastward from the Andes to the river Amazon, with the mountain border of
the basin of the Orinoco. The coast along the Caribbean Sea extends 2000 miles, and is indented
with bays and inlets; that along the Pacific extends 1200 miles.
VE:«EznEi.A comprises the eastern part of the country, stretcliing along the Atlantic Ocean and tho
Caribbean Sea, from the river Essequibo to the west side of the gulf of Maracajbo ; and is divided
Into four departments, whose names and principal towns are stated in tlie following table : —
Departments. Cities and Towns.
Venezuela, . Caracas, La Guayra, Vittoria, Maracay, Calabozo, Los Reyes ; Valencia, Pucrto-
Cabello, Tocuyo, Carora, San-Carlos, S.in Felipe, Aroa.
Matuhi:!, . . Cumana, Barcelona, Assumpcion,Cariaco, Giiiria, Carupano, Cumanacoa, Maturln,
Aragua, Maniquarez, El I'ao, San Diego, Piritu, I'ampatar.
Ori.'«OCO, . . Varinas, A chagua, Angostura ; Guanare, Obispos, Araure, Oipino, Nutrias, San
Fernando, Mantecal, I'ayara, Esmeralda.
ZuLiA, . . . Maracaybo, Coro, Truxillo, Merida, Gibraltar.
Caracas, the capital, is situated in a delightful valley, at the foot of the peak of Silla, .130 feet above
the level of the sea ; but having been entirely destroyed by an carthiiuake in 1812. it lins scarcely yet
risen from its ruins. It is, however, the centre of a great trade with the Interior, and contains up-
wards of 20,000 inhabitants. I^i-Gu/iyra, a small sea-port town, with 4000 iiihabitnnts, has a bad
harbour, and an unhealthy climate, but is of great importance as the port of Caracas. IHIenria, a con-
siderable town, with 15,000 inhabitants, in a fine situation, with a healthy climate. Puirtn-i'iilnUn,
an important sea-port town with a good harbour and a great trade, but in an unhealthy situation, and
having only a population of 3000; GH^ \V. long. <'utnana, a decayed city, with 10,000 inliabit.ints,
is rendered important by its fortifications, lra<le, and fine bay, which is capable of receiving all tho
navies of Europe, with excellent anchorage for large ships, but the climate is intensely hot; W. long.
61-' 16'. Varintts, south of the Lake of Maracaybo, was once a flourishing city, but has now declined to
a population of about 3000, Angostura or Sew- Gui/ana, a small episcopal city on the Orinoco, with 3(K>0
inhabitants. Is important from Its situation as a !-hipping port on the river. Mararai/fto, a fine town
on the west side of the strait which coimects the lake with the bay of the same name, possesses a
college, a piiot-school, several building giips, and is defended by three forts. Population 2n,(KlO.
Merida, a small city with .5'KX) inhabitants, contains a university of the serond rank, and a college.
The Uland of Margarita i« situated off tho coMt ol Cumana, from which it i« separated by a channel
9M DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. ' [Peec.
so mile* wide, through which all vessels coming A-om Europe, or windward of Cumana,' Barcelona,
snd La Ouavra must pass in going to those ports. The island is 37 miles long and from 5 to 20 wide,
with a population of 15,000. It deriTes its name from the pearl fishery, for which it was once much
celebrated, but which has greatly declined. The island is of little value. The chief towns are
Astumpcion, the capital, in the centre, and Pampatar, on the south-east coast, with a good harbour,
and anchorage in seven or eight fathoms water.
New-Granada comprises the isthmus of Panama, and the adjacent north-western part of South
America. It is divided into four departments, whose names and chief towns are stated m the follow-
ing table : —
Departments. Cities and Towns.
Cdndinamarca, . Bogoti (or Santa Fe de Bogoti), Medellin, Neyba, Honda, Antioquia.
Cadca, .... Popayan, Pasto, Iscuande, Quibdo.
IsTHMO Panama, Porto- Velo (Portobello), Chagres, Santiago de Veragua.
Maodalena, . . Carthagena, Mompox, Santa-Marta, Rio-Hacha.
BoTACA, .... Tunja, Pamplona, Cucuta, Socorro, Pore.
Bogota, the capital, is situate at the foot of two mountains which shelter it from the violent east
winds, on an elevated table-land, 8G50 feet above the level of the sea, in N. lat. 4° 37' and W. long.
74° 10'. The temperature of the atmosphere is fine and equable, but the climate is exceedingly humid,
though not unhealthy. Externally, the city has an imposing appearance, but the streets are generally
narrow though regular, with low houses. Nearly half its area is occupied by religious buildings, there
being 26 churches besides the cathedral, 9 monasteries, and 3 nunneries. Population about 30,000.
(See ante, p. 873). Popayan, a fine city, in a beautiful situation, near the sources of the river Cauca,
contains a mint, a university, and about 7000 inhabitants. Panama is a well-built city, on a peninsula
of the southern coast of the isthmus to which it gives its name. It has no harbour, but only a bad
roadstead, and the population does not exceed 10,000. Porto- Veh or Portobello is a very small town or
village on a fine natural harbour, but in so unhealthy a situation that it has acquired the title of the
grave of Europeans. It stands on the north side of the isthmus, nearly opposite Panama. Chagres, a
small town west of Portobello, derives its importance from its situation at the mouth of a river which
affords an accessible passage from the north coast to within a short distance of Panama. Carthagena,
an episcopal city on a sandy island off the north coast to the westward of the Rio Magdalena, possesses
one of the finest harbours in America. It is strongly fortified, and contains about 18,000 inhabi-
tants ; and though much decayed, is still the centre of a considerable trade. Santa-Marta, a forti-
fied town, on the coast to the eastward of the Magdalena, with considerable trade and 6000 inhabitants.
Rio- Hacha, farther east, is a small town with only lUUO inhabitants, but is noted for the pearl fishery
m its vicinity.
Ecuador is so named from its lying under the equator, and extends only a few degrees of latitude to
the north and south of it. It is divided into three departments, as stated in the following table : —
Departments. Cities and Towns.
Ecuador, .... Quito, Antisana, Tacunga, Esmeraldas, Riobamba, Ibarra.
Guayaquil, . . . Guayaquil, Puerto-Viejo.
AssuAY, Cuen^a, Loxa, Caiiar, Giron.
Quito is a large but ill-built city, in a valley enclosed by two ranges of the Andes, 9630 feet above
the level of the sea, with a population of about 70,000. Riobamba is also a large town, with 20,000
inhabitants. Guayaquil is a commercial and seaport town, on a bay of the Pacific, with 22,000 in-
habitants. Cuenca is a well-built city, with 20,000 inhabitants. About 30 miles from Cuenfa is th*
famous Paramo a Assuay, where many travellers perish from its terrible storms.
IX. THE REPUBLIC OF PERU.
This Republic is situate on the western side of South America, having Ecuador and Brazil on
the north ; Bolivia and the Pacific Ocean on the south ; Brazil and Bolivia on the east ; and the
Pacific Ocean on the west; between 'A° and 22° S. lat., and between 6.^° and 81° 20' W. long., being
about 1500 miles in length, by 900 in breadth, and comprising an area of considerably more than
500,000 English square miles. The western portion of the territory is occupied by the highest
ranges of the Andes, with their offsets and intervening valleys, while the eastern part slopes down
into the great plains which occupy the centre of the continent, and are drained by the affluents of
the La Plata and the Amazon. The independence of Peru was declared on the 15th, and more for-
mally announced on the 28th of July 1821. In May 1822, a congress, which assembled at Lima, formed
the plan of a constitution on the model of that of the United States of North America. But the go •
vernment is still extremely unsettled, and in 1837 the country was placed under the protection of the
president of Bolivia. It is divided into seven departments : —
Departments. Cities, Towns, Sfo. \ Departments. Cities, Towns, ^c.
Lima, . . Lima, Callao, &c. | Ayacucho, . Huamanga, Huancabelica, Jauja.
Arequipa . Arequipa, Arica. j Junin, . . Huanuco, Pasco, Junin, Baiios.
PcNO, . . Puno, Chucuito, Lampa. Libertad, . Truxillo, Sechura, Payta.
Cuzco, . . Cuzco, Abancay, Tinta, Urubamba. I
In 1836, however, the representatives of the four southern provinces assembled at Sicuani, de-
clared their separation from the republic of Peru, and their incorporation as an independent state,
under the title of Estado Sud Peruana, The South Peruvian State. This new State embraces the
four provinces of Cuzco, Ayacucho, Puno, and Arequipa ; the largest portion of its territory is
situate among the Andes, or in the valleys which descend from the Cordillera. They are inhabited by
a very numerous, agricultural, and industrious Indian population, and have hitherto formed the
fairest portion of the Peruvian State. The assembly of Sicuani placed their country under the pro-
tection of General Santa Cruz, the enlightened president of Bolivia, whose administration of that re-
public, since 1829, had rendered it the model of good government, internal tranquillity, and financial
prosperity.
Lima, the capital, is situate on the river Rimac, in a delightful valley, between 500 and 600 feet above
the level of the sea, at the distance of six miles from the Pacific, in S.lat.l2°2', and W.long. 77° 17'. It
is surrounded by a parapet wall about 7 miles in circuit ; and, when seen from a distance, has an im-
posing appearance. The interior is divided into squares of houses, with streets crossing each other
at right angles ; but, on account of the frequency of earthquakes, few houses are more than one storey
high, and the roofs are uniformly flat ; and, till of late years, few of the windows had either glass or
Bashes. Besides a great many convents and nunneries, with churches attached, the city contains 57
churches and 25 chapels. The cathedral, founded by Pizzaro, and containing his remains, is a large
fine building, with a magnificent interior. Several of the conventual churches are also remarkably
rich. Lima is still the emporium of the trade of Peru, in which most of its inhabitants are engaged ;
the manufactures are insignificant. According to a census in 1818, the population amounted to 54,098.
Chili.] AMERICA. 955
CaUao, the port of Lima, Is connected with the city by a straight road, six miles in length. It is well
fortified, but the houses are poor and mean, consisting of mud walls and flat roofs. The roadstead is
the best in Peru ; and there is a rudely constructed pier, at which vessels may load and unload. Jrequipa,
in the valley of Quilca, 7700 feet above the level of the sea, from which it is 30 miles distant, in S. lat.
16° 30', is a large town, with about 30,000 inhabitants. Arica, a seaport town on the Pacific, in
8. lat. 18° '28', a poor town, is the natural outlet of one of the principal mining districts of South
America, and of a large extent of country ; but, owing to the heavy surf which l>eats upon the shore,
it is always difficult, and sometimes impossible, to efl'ect a landing, e.\cept in the balsas of the natives,
which are a sort of floats made of inflated seal-skins. The town has only between 200 and 300 inhabi-
tants. Puno, the capital of a department, is said to have 18,000 inhabitants. Cuzco, the ancient
capital of Peru, is nearly as large as Lima, but not quite so populous, the number of its inhabitants
amounting, in 1826, to 46,123. It is situated in a vallev or plateau 1 1,380 feet above the level of the sea,
about 400 miles E.8.E. of Lima, in S. lat. 13= 30'. The cathedral, and the convent of St. Augustine,
»re said to rank among the finest religious buildings of the New World. It still contains several
remains of the architecture of the Incas, and many of the private houses belong to that era. The
people are said to be industrious, and to excel in embroidery, painting, and sculpture. Cuzxo contains
manufactories of cotton, linen, and woollen stuffs, leather, and parchment ; and has a considerable trade
in these and the products of the adjacent district. Huamanga, the chief town of the department of
Ayacucho, is a large and flourishing commercial town, with 39,000 inhabitants. Truxilh is a fine city,
with 14,000 inhabitants, on the coast, 300 miles N.N.W. of Lima. The desert of Atacama divides
Peru from Chili, and is nearly 10 miles in length, through which a river abounding in salt flows.
It seems to have been the favourite burying>-plaoe of the Peruvians for successive ages. The climate,
salt, and sand dry up the bodies, and the reuiains of whole generations may now be seen there, after
the lapse of perhaps thousands of years.
X. BOLIVIA or UPPER PERU
Is situate between 9° 30' and 2.5° 40' S. lat., and 58° and 71° W. long., having Lower Peru, on the
north and north-west ; Brazil and Paraguay, on the east ; Chili and La Plata, on the south ; and the
Pacific Ocean, on the west. It is about 1100 miles in length N.-S., and about 7.')0 in breadth, and
comprises an area of about 320,000 English square miles. In the west it is traversed by lofty moun-
tains, while in the east it stretches into immense plains. Upper Peru remained in possession of the
Spanish Government till 1824, when it was rescued from their grasp by the battle of Ayacucho, and
its independence declared in August 1825. The government is still unsettled, and has already e.xpiri-
enced many changes. The statistics and present state of the country are very imperfectly known,
and the population of both the country and the cities is very variously estimated. Halbi states the
general population at 1,300,000 ; Brackenridge, at 1,710,000 ; while some estimate it so low as 050,000,
More than three-fourths of the people are believed to be aborigines ; but though in a low state of civi-
lization, they have been converted to Catholicism. The country is very unfavourably situated for
communicating with foreign nations.
Chuquhaca, formerly Charcot, the capital, is a considerable town, with 12,000 inhabitants, situate in
a plain 9250 feet above the level of the sea, on the east side of the Andes. Im I 'az d' A i/acucho is aiargo
episcopal city, with 40,000 inhabitants, in a deep valley, 10,883 feet about the level of the sea ; a few miles
to the south-east is the Nevado d'lUimani, the highest peak of the Andes, after that of Sorata. Tiahua-
nacu, near the lake of Titicaca, is celebrated for its ruins, which are believed to be the remains of a
people who possessed the country before the rise of the empire of the Incas. The islet Titicaca,
which gives its name to the lake, is celebrated in Peruvian history as the place where Manco Capac
received the divine call to be the lawgiver of Peru. The Peruvians consequently regarded it as a sa-
cred place, and the Incas built upon it a temple of the sun, which they covered with plates of gold ;
and to it people brought from all parts of the empire rich oft'erings of ^old, silver, and precious stones ;
all of which are said to have been cast into the lake at the arrival of the Spaniards. I'ototi, a large
but decayed city, at the foot of the Cerro de Potosi, which has been celebrated for the prodigious
quantity of silver obtained from it since the mine was first discovered in 1545. The mountain is
pierced with mines in every direction. The great square of the city is 13,314 feet above the level of
the sea. At the time of its greatest prosperity the cit^ contained 160,000 inhabitants ; but in 1826 the
number was reduced to 9000. Cochahamba is a large city, with 30,000 inhabitants, in a fertile and well-
cultivated country. Santa- Cruz-de-la- Sierra is a small and ill-built episcopal city, in the midst of an
immense plain, with 9000 inhabitants.
XI. CHILI or CHILE (TSHEELEE)
Is situate between 25° and 44° S. lat., along the coast of the Pacific, and comprises the country be-
tween the crests of the Andes and the sea. bcin^ about 11.50 miles in length, by 120 in breadth, and
containing an area of 130,000 square English miles. The shores are mostly high, steep, and rocky;
but have almost every where deep water : there are several tolerable harbours, the iK'St of which are
those of Valdivia, Conception, Valparaiso, and Coquimbo. The climate is equable and hralthy. Both
the climate and the soil of the southern and the cetitral parts aresuited to the culture of European
grains ; but only the middle provinces produce a sufficient quantity of corn to admit of exportation.
Wheat is the staple, and, in the north, almost the only grain cultivated. Barley is grown in the south ;
but agriculture generally is in a very backward state, ; the breeding of cattle is tne most important
branch of rural industry. Some farms feed from 10,000 to 15,000 head : some even so many as 20,000 ;
and the smallest contain froTn 4000 to 500(1. The horses, mules, and asses, are well made, an<l useful
animals; the sheep are said to be very inferior. The people are chiefly of Spanish and Indian de-
scent ; but there are some negroea and mulattoes. '1 neir religion is the Roman Catholic ; but the
clergy are not numerous ; other religions are tolerated, though the exercise of their public worship
U not allowed. The executive government is vested in a president and council ; the legislative, in a
congress of .56 members, who are elected by the provinces. The Chilenos are good jiofter'', and
make light and strong earthenware jars which rin(? like metal. Canvas, conlage. soap, copper-wares,
leather, brandy, tallow, and ohnrcoal, are the chief articles manufactured. The roninieiee li».« <if
late years been rapidly iiicreaalng. Most of the foreign traile is mniiitained with (Irent Britain;
the exports are cliieHy bullion, copper, hides, tallow, pulse, wheat, fruit, and drugs. I alixmiitu is the
principal port, and the centre of the foreign trade. There is little means of internal conmiunication.
The only towns of any importance, except the capital, are situate on or near the eoa-l, at a gicul dis-
tance from each other, and there are few or no roads which are pii.ssable by carts.
Santiago, the capital, is situate on the hanks of the river .Mapocho or Topocalma, in a vast plain,
and has a delightful climate. It is well built, with several tine |)iiblic building.', and contains nbout
.55,0(Ki inhabitants. I'atpnraitn, a fine newlv-built town, with .O.IXK) inhabitants, is the prlncioal sea-
port and the centre of the foreign trade of (;hill. It has a line harbour, with an ea«y entrance, ihelterGd
from all winds except the north wind, which blows violently in winter. Cixfuimhit, n considerable s«»-
port, with 12,000 inhabitants. Concepcion, a regularly built town, with 10,000 inhabitanla, near th«
Province of Catamarca,
. from 30,000 to 35,000
La Rioja,
. „ 18,000 „ 20,000
San Luis,
. „ 20,000 „ 35.000
Wendoza, .
. „ 25,000 „ 40,000
San Juan, .
. „ 22,000 „ 25,000
From 600,000 to 075,000
936 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [La Plata.
mouth of the river Biobio, was completely ruined by an earthquake in 1835. Valdivia, a small forti-
fied town, in the Araucanian territory, with a superb natural harbour, which is considered as one of
the finest in America. Population about 5000.
XII. THE UNITED PROVINCES OF LA PLATA, or THE
ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.
These provinces, with the exception of Paraguay and Banda Oriental, comprise the whole of that
T.ist country which lies between Brazil and the Cordillera of Chili and Peru, and extends from tlie
22'' to the 41-'' S. lat. They comprehend altogether an area of 726,000 square miles, with a population
of 600,000 or 700,000 inhabitants. This vast territory is now divided into thirteen provinces, wliich
govern themselves independently to a certain degree ; though, for all general and national pur-
poses, they are confederated by conventional agreements. From the want of a more defined national
executive, the provincial government of Buenos- Ayrcs is temporarily charged witli carrying on the
business of the Union with foreign powers, and with the management of all matters that concern the
republic in common. The executive power of that government is vested in the governor or captain-
general, aided by a council of ministers chosen by himself, and responsible to the junta or legislative
assembly of the province by whom he is elected.
Estimated Population of the Provinces in 1836-7. , •
Province of Buenos Ayres, from 180,000 to 200,000
Santa Fe, . . „ 15,000 „ 20,000
Kntre-Rios, , „ 30,000 „ 35,000
Corrientcs, . . „ 35,000 „ 40,000
Cordova, . „ 80,000 „ 85,000
Santiago, . . „ 45,000 „ 50,000
Tucuman, . . „ 40,000 „ 45,000
Salta, . . . . „ ,50,000 „ 60,000
Besides the independent Indians within the territory claimed by the republic.
Excepting only along the western and the eastern borders, where the offsets of the Chilian, Peru-
vian, and Brazilian Andes are found, the whole of this region is a vast plain, traversed in its north-
ern and central portions by the numerous affluents of the Plata, and stretching out to the south-west
into the boundless pampas. These plains, reaching from the eastern terminations of the Andes to the
shores of the Plata, appear to be one immense bed of alluvium, tranquilly deposited during the lapse
of ages, and now presenting a uniformly level surface, which is covered with long grass. Towards the
north-west, between the provinces of Cordova, Santiago, Catamarca, and La Rioja, between 28° and
30° S. lat., is a vast sandy plain, from 30 to 40 leagues in breadth, which is for the most part covered
with a saline efflorescence, and produces a salsola, from the ashes of which soda is extracted. It is
called the Travetia or Las Salinas, The country is capable of producing, in its northern and central
gortions, all the usual productions of tropical countries, and in the south it yields good wheat ; but
itherto the staple articles of produce have been animal and mineral only. Gold, silver, and copper,
are exported in small quantities ; but ox-hides, horse-hides, and horns, in enormous quantities ; with
beef, horse-hair, sheeps'-wool, chinchilla skins, tallow, sheep-skins, &c., in smaller quantity. The
value of the ox-hides exported in 1837 was 3,294,540 dollars ; of horse-hides, 38,046 dollars ; of horns,
416,192 dollars ; and of the total exports, 5,637,138 dollars, or £1,127,427 sterling. The hides and horns,
which form two-thirds of the value of the exports, are the produce of the vast herds of horses and
beeves reared mostly in the pampas, which are no longer a useless and unappropriated waste, in which
the animals run wild as formerly, but have been carefully measured out and allotted to individuals, who
are obliged to set up and preserve their marks of possession. It is calculated by the best authorities,
the most extensive proprietors in the province, that the present stock of cattle, in the territory of
Buenos Ayres alone, may be from three to four millions ; and it is supposed there may be above
another million in the other provinces. From this we ought to calculate upon an annual exporta-
tion of nearly a million of hides, with a gradual increase. — (Buenos Ayres and the Provinces of the liio
de la Plata, their present State, Trade, Sfc, by Sir Woodbine Parish, K. C. //., Sgc. Lond. 1839.^
Buenos Ayres, the capital, is situated on the south-western shore.of the Plata, in S. lat 24° 36'. It is
built on a regular plan, with streets crossing each other at right angles, which are now tolerably well
paved, and provided with foot-paths ; but contains no public buildings of any importance, except,
perhaps, the cathedral, a large and handsome building, the interior of which is profusely decorated
with carving and gilding. The population amounts to about 100,000 ; of whom from 15,000 to 20,000
are foreign, chiefly English and French. Though close to the river the city has no harbour, and ships
drawing 16 or 17 feet water anchor in the outer roads, 7 or 8 miles from the shore, loading and un-
loading by means of lighters. Between the outer and the inner roads there is a dangerous bar, and
the water becomes so shallow on the beacli, that even boats cannot come close to the shore, but are
met in the water by ox-carts, in which tlie goods are deposited, at no little risk, and sometimes
with much loss. The climate of Buenos Ayres is influenced not so much by its latitude as by the
wind, a change of which produces an alteration of 20° or 30° in the thermometer. The heat in
summer is at times almost intolerable ; the thermometer being perhaps at 90° within doors, and all
nature gasping for air ; but on those very days the most experienced of the natives are clothed in
warm woollens instead of linen jackets, for fear of catching cold. During the greater part of the year
the prevailing winds are northerly ; and these passing over the marshy tracts of the interior, and the
broad expanse of the Plata, bring with them a great degree of humidity, which produces a general
lassitude and relaxation, and induces great liability to colds, sore throats, and other evil conse-
quences of checked perspiration. Buenos Ayres is, liowever, free from agues and fevers, which are
rarely known. But from the bad elTects of the north wind the atmosphere is occasionally most effec-
tually cleared by the pamperos or south-west winds, which, originating among the snows of the
Andes, and rushing with unchecked violence across the pampas, become often hurricanes before they
reach the city, and not unfrequently bring with tliem clouds of dust, which occasion almost total
darkness. Sometimes also the pampero is accompanied by the most terrific thunder and lightning,
than which nothing can be more appalling. The city of Corrientes, founded in 1588, is situate in S.
lat. 27° 27', at the junction of the rivers Parana and Paraguay, which afford every facility for an active
commercial intercourse with the most remote parts of tlie republic, as well as with the sea ; but,
without steam navigation, which has not yet been introduced, these cannot be made available. Cor-
doi-a is situate in S. lat. 31° 26', 172 leagues distant by the post-road from Buenos Ayres, in a plea-
sant valley, on the banks of the river Primero. It contains many churches, and is the seat of a
university, once held in great repute, but now dwindled down to the dimensions of a provincial
school. At present Cordova forms a sort of centre of communication between the upper provinces
and Buenos Ayres. Santiago-del- Estero, a miserable, ill-built place, with 4000 inhabitants, in S.
lat. 27° 47'; and, 40 leagues beyond Santiago, is the city of San- Mij^uel-de- Tucuman, in an elevated
plain, where the climate, though hot, is dry and salubrious ; and where nature has been so prodigal
Bkazil.] AMERICA. 957
of her choicest gifts, that the province of Tucuman well merits its appellation of the garden of the
United Provinces. The city contains from 7000 to 8000 inhabitants. Catamarca, 60 leagues S.W. of
Tucuman, contains about 4000 inhabitants ; the city of Salta, in lat 24'^ 30 . and 414 leagues from
Buenos Ayreg, contains between SOOO and 9000 ; Mendoza, 32^ 52' S. lat. and G9° 15' W. long., and 4891
feet above the level of the sea, contains about 10,000 inhabitants. About 106 miles W. by N. of the
city is the volcano of Aconcagua, one of the highest of the Andes. The most southern settlement of
the Buenos Ayreans is the little town Del Carmen, on the Rio Negro.
XllL PARAGUAY
Is situated between 20° and 28° S. lat., extending along the eastern bank of the river Paraguay, from
the Kio Farana to the Kio Blanco, about 450 miles, with a breadth of 180 miles ; and is bounded on
the south and east by the Parana. It comprises an area of about 80,000 square .English miles, with a
population of about 250,000. Besides tlie natural productions common to the region and climate,
Paj aguay produces a species of tea, called yerba-mate, which is as much in general use and demand
through all the provinces of La Plata, Chili, and many parts of Peru, as the teas of China are in
Europe. The plant which produces it (Ilex Paraguayensis) of which there are three species, is an
evergreen, about the size of an orange tree, which grows wild and in great abundance in the denso
forests of the northern and eastern parts of the province, to which the people repair yearly in nume-
rous gangs to collect it. When the colonies revolted in 1810, the people of Paraguay refused to ac-
knowledge the central government established at Buenos Ayres, declared their absolute independence,
and established a government, the whole power and direction of which fell ultimately into the hands
of Dr. Don Jose Caspar de Francia, who has ruled the province for many years as absolute dictator,
exhibiting a systematic selfishness, cruelty, and despotism, almost unparalleled in the history of any
country. His revenue arises chiefly from properties confiscated, and from tithes in kind on all articles
of produce. The principal expenditure consists in the maintenance of a large militia force, in which
every person capable of bearing arms is enrolled and obliged to do duty in liis turn. Francia is of
course commander-in-chief of the army, and is head of tlie church, the law, and every other branch
of administration. The only trade has been carried on on his own account, and merely such as has
been necessary to further his policy of habituating the people to look to him and to him only for tho
supply of all their wants. — ( Parish, 226, &c.)
j^tuncion (Assumption) the capital, is finely situate on an eminence on the left bank of the Para-
guay, in S. lat. 20^^ 16'. It is an ill-built town, with unpaved streets, and houses little belter than huts,
but contains about 10,000 inhabitants. It is the centre of a considerable trade in hides, tobacco, tim-
ber, yerba-mate, wax, &c. ; and the adjacent country is comparatively well cultivated and populous. —
{Jiobertsoii's I'araguay, I. 238.)
XIV. URUGUAY, or the BAND A ORIENTAL.
This is a very compact territory, extending along the northern shore of the Plata, and is bounded on
the west by the river Uruguay, on the south-east by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the north-east and
north by the Brazilian territory ; comprising an area of about 75,000 square English miles, with a po-
pulation of about 120,010, which is rapidly increasing. It was formerly a portion of the vice-royalty of
Buenos Ayres ; being afterwards subdued by the Portuguese, it became a province of Brazil ; but, at
last, by an article in the treaty of peace between Brazil and Buenos Ayres, it was declared jndepen-
dont.
Mi/nte Video, the capital, is a fortified town with a citadel, situate on a peninsula on the northern
shore of the Plata, 12') miles E. by S. of Buenos Ayres, and contains 10,000 inhabitants. The houses
are built of stone or brick, but are seldom more than one storey high, and fiat-roofeJ ; and the streets
are unpaved, so that they are either clouded with dust or loaded with mud, as the weather happens to
be wet or dry. The town is ill supplied with water, and contains no public buildings of any importance;
but the harbour is the best on the Plata. It is a large circular basin open to the south-west, and hav-
ing on its western side the hill ( Munte Video), from which the city derives its name. On the top of
the hill is a lighthouse, the lantern of which is 475 feet above the level of the sea. Maldimado, Hi
miles E. of the capital, is a fortified seaport town on the Plata. It is a small quiet town, with scarcely
any trade. Cotonia del SaciuuieiUo is a seaport town at the Plata, nearly opposite Buenos Ayres.
XV. THE EMPIRE OF BRAZIL.
'This extensive territory stretches along the Atlantic Ocean from 4^ 17' N. to Si-' S. lat., about
4000 miles, occupying the eastern part and a large portion of the centre of the continent to the extent
of about 2,500,000 square miles. Nearly two-thirds of the country consist of high lands and moun-
tains ; and the cultivated lands bear a very small proportion to those still lying in a state of nature.
The total population has been estimated at 5,300,000. The most celebrated of the natural productions
of Brazil are diamonds, which are found in the provinces of Minas-(jeraes, Minas-Novas, Goyas, and
Matto-Grosso. The most celebrated mines are those of Serra-do-Frio, which are also known by the
name of the Arrayal Diamantino, or Diamond district. This district is surrounded by almost inac-
cessible rocks, and used to be guarded with so much vigilance that not even the governor of the pro-
vince had the liberty of entering it, without the special permission of the director of the mines. Gold
and silver are also supposed to exist in great abundance; and, after Mexico and Peru, Brazil has
furnished Europe with the greatest quantity of these precious metals. Iron abounds in the mountain
chain of Morro near Villarica, and in other places ; while in the province of .Minas-Geraes, there is a
mine of magnetic iron-stone, containing from 80 to 90 per cent, of pure iron. iMatijia and copper have
also been found in Minas-Geraes. Precious stones abound in Brazil, especially tojiazes, ot which
there are a great many varieties. Among the vegetable productions are sugar, coffee, cotton, cocoa,
rice, tobacco, maize, wheat, mandioc, beans, cassava root, bananas, ipecacuanha, ginger, yiinis, oranges,
figs. Of these the most important are sugar and coftee, which have indeed become the staple pmduc-
tions of the empire. Sugar is mostly produced in the vicinity -of Bahia, and coffee, mar Kio, but
the cultivation is rapidly extending in other provinces. Cotton is grown in the province of Pirnam-
buco, and, in respect of quality, is inferior only to the sea island cotton of North America. 'I'lio
forests furnish almost every variety of useful and ornamental timber, with logwood, and other dyo
woods, of which the most valuable is tho Hrazil-wood, which produces a beautiful reil colour. Tl.o
cocoa tree is plentiful on the sandy soil along the coast ; and the carrassato or ca.'^tur-tree, is nnicli
cultivated for the sake of the oil which is extracted from its seed. The useful animals, ns horses,
beeves, and sheep, all introduced from Europe, have increased astonishingly ; and hides, tallow, Jerked
beef, horns, and bones have long formed ieading articles of export. 8lieep, however, havf not in-
creased so rapidly as horses and Ixjevcs. Manufactures can hardly be saiil to exist, and are restricted
to the production of tho coarsest kinds of cotton cloth, the taiming of liatlur, and sumo others o(
the simplest useful arts. The trade, however, is very extensive, and the ronimerrinl system is ono
of great freedom and liberality. Nutwithstauding a convention between Great Britain and Brazil,
958 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Guiana.
whereby it was stipulated that the maritime slave trade should cease in 1830, negroes from Africa still
form the most important article of import, the number being estimated at not less than 78,000 annu-
ally ; and there seems little hope of the number being speedily reduced so long as the empire offers
such a boundless extent of fertile and unoccupied land so admirably suited for the growth of sugar,
coffee, cotton, and other colonial staples. The total number of negro slaves in Brazil amounts to about
three-flfths of the population, or upwards of 3,000,000. The Portuguese and the white Brazilian Creoles
together amount only to 900,000 or less than a fifth of the population ; the free mestizoes and mulattoes,
to about 600,000 ; the mestizo and mulatto slaves are about '250,000 ; free negroes, about 180,000 ; con-
verted Indians, 300,000; independent Indians, Europeans, and others, 150,000; making a total of
6,300,000.
In 18i4, Brazil, formerly a colony of Portugal, was formed into a free and independent empire,
monarchical, hereditary, constitutional, and representative. The Emperor, who is the head of the
Portuguese royal family, is vested with the executive government, which he exercises by means of
responsible ministers. In the general assembly resides the legislative power, subject to the Empe-
ror's sanction. This assembly consists of two chambers, one composed of 54 senators, elected for life
by the provinces ; the other of 548 deputies, elected for four years. The revenues amount to about
13,600,000 dollars, derived from customs and excise duties, the produce of the diamond district,
and other items. The public debt is about £15,000,000. The land forces amount to 60,000 men ; of
whom one-fourth are regular troops, the remainder consisting of militia called out when required for
service. The established religion is the Roman Catholic, but all others forms are tolerated ; literary
education can hardly be said to exist ; and monasteries and nunneries are extremely numerous. In short,
the moral aspect of Brazil is one of the darliest on the face of the globe ; and there seem as yet to be
no elements at work to effect such a regeneration as the state of its society requires. For adminis-
trative purposes, the empire is divided into the eighteen provinces of Bio-de-Janeiro, San Paulo,
Santa Catherina, San Pedro, Malta- Grosso, Goax, Minas- Geraes, Espiritu Santo, Bahia, Sergipe or
Seregipe, Alagoas, Pemambuco, Parahyba, Bio- Grande, Ciara or Ceara, Piauhy, Maranhao, and Para.
These are subdivided into comarcas.
San Sebastiao de Bio-de-Janeiro, the capital, usually called simply Bio, is a large city on a beautiful
bay of the Atlantic, on the south-east coast, in S. lat. 22^ 53'. The city is tolerably well built, much
in the European style, and contains about 200,000 inhabitants. The bay is about 60 or 70 miles in cir-
cumference, studded with islands, and opening to the Atlantic by a deep entrance, scarcely a mile
wide, which is formed by two bold projecting headlands, and defended by several forts. Rio is the seat
of a great trade, much of which is carried on by British merchants. Cidade de San Salvador da Bahia
de todot OS Santosf The Cityofthe Holy Saviour of the Bay of All SaintsJ, orsimply Bahia, S lat. 13^ 5',
is a fine city, consisting of two towns, one built on the top of a scarped hill 600 feet above the level of
the sea, and the other placed below it on the shore of a projecting point of land which forms the eastern
entrance of the magnificent Bay of All Saints, one of the finest harbours in America. The cathe-
dral in the upper town, built of European marble, is considered the finest church in Brazil ; and
generally, with respect to its public buildings, Bahia ranks first among the cities of the empire. The
population is variously estimated between 120,000 and 160,000. The bay extends 28 miles inland
N.-S., by 20 in breadth, and has two entrances separated by the island of Itaparica; the eastern, five
miles wide, is used by large vessels, the other being only two miles wide, and only navigable by coasting
craft. The country round the bay to the distance of from 12 to 29 miles inland is known by the name of
Reconcavo, and is the most fertile and productive in the coraarca. In this district is situate the town of
Cachoeira or Caxoeira, which carries on an extensive trade with the interior, and has a population of
16,000. Cidade do Recife, commonly called Pemambuco, in S. lat. 8° 3', is composed of 3 towns, namely
Berife, which is built on a peninsula, and the most commercial place ; Santo Antonio, situate on an
island of the river Capibaribe, joined to Recife by a great stone bridge ; and i?oa-B»>/a, on the continent.
They are the seat of a great trade, and contain about 60,000 inhabitants. Above the town, on a range
of rocky hills, is the ancient city of Olinda, now much decayed, and containing only 7000 inhabitants.
The harbour is formed by a recife or reef of rocks running parallel to the shore, and beating off the
heavy sea which continually breaks upon it. San Paulo, on the coast south-west of Rio, is a large
episcopal city, with 18,000 inhabitants. Its port of Santos, on the southern shore of the island San
Vicente, has a safe and good harbour, considerable trade, and 8000 inhabitants. San Ltiis or Ma-
ranhao (Maranham), situate on the west side of the island of Maranham, on the north-east coast, is a
flourishing commercial town with 28,000 inhabitants. Para, a well-built episcopal city, on the east
side of the estuary of the Rio Para, and the place of export for the productions of the wide range of
country drained by that river, has about 20,000 inhabitants. Victoria, the capital of the province of
Espiritu-Santo, 21° S. lat., has a good harbour, and 12,000 inhabitants. Villa-bella, the capital of
Matto-Grosso, has 25,000 inhabitants.
XVI. GUIANA, GUYANA, or GUAYANA
Is the name of that wide region which lies between the Orinoco and the river Amazon. More,
however, than one-half of Guiana is now included within the northern limits of Brazil, about a fourth,
within the limits of Venezuela ; and the remainder is divided into three portions named British
Dutch, and French Guiana.
British Guiana is the most westerly of the three, and comprises the country watered by the rivers
Essequibo, Demerara, and Berbice, to the actual extent of about 12,000 square miles ; but the extent;
claimed is no less than 64,000 square miles of additional territory within the limits of Portuguese and
Spanish Guiana. The smaller and undisputed portion extends along the coast of the Atlantic from tho
Essequibo to the Corentyn, about 100 miles. An alluvial flat borders the coast, to the breadth of from
10 to 40 miles, terminating at the foot of a range of sandhills, from .30 to 120 feet high. Farther south
are several ranges and groups of hills, one of which, about o-" N. lat., composed of primitive rocks,
crosses the beds of the rivers from west to east, forming large cataracts ; and about a degree farther
are the Pacaraima Mountains, which likewise form cataracts inthe largerivers, and contain the sources
of the secondary streams. The larger rivers have their sources in the Sierra d' Acaray, and its conti-
nuation the Serrania de Tumucuraque, which form the watershed between maritime Guiana and the
basin of the Amazon, and extend from west to east between 1"^ and 2° N. lat. The shores are skirted
by mud banks, which extend from 12 to 15 miles seaward, and at their outer edges have. only 3 or 4
feet of water, in consequence of which the approach to the coast is difficult, and at times, even to small
boats, impracticable. The whole surface of the coast, in its natural state, is on a level with tho high
water of the ocean; but when drained, embanked, and cultivated, the ground consolidates, and sinks
fully a foot, so that unremitting attention is required to keep out the water. The interior, with the
exception of some savannahs, and the swamps on the Berbice, is mostly covered with hills<and dense
forests. The mean temperature of the year at Georgetown is 81-" 2' ; the maximum, 90' ; and the
minimum, 74° on the coast. There are two wet and two dry seasons in the year. The preat dry sea-
son begins towards the end of August, and continues till the end of November ;. after which there are
occasional showers till the end of January. 'Ihe short dry season then commences, and continues till
the middle of April, when the rain begins to fall in torrents, and the rivers to overflow. During the
rains the winds are generally westerly ; in the dry season they blow chiefly from the ocean, particu-
Patagonia.J AMERICA. 959
larly during the day. Hurricanes are unknown, and gales nnfreqnent. Thunder storms occur at the
changes of the seasons. The low and swampy coasts are unhealthy, but the interior is more salu-
brious. The forests abound with trees of immense size, yielding the most valuable timber, with many
medicinal plants, dye woods, and woods for cabinetmaking. Jrtiotto grows wild on the banks of the
upper Corentyn ; and there is another indigenous plant, called the hat-arry, a papilionaceous vine,
the root of which is powerfully narcotic, and is commonly used by the Indians to poison the water for
the purpose of taking fish. The staple vegetable productions are sugar, coffee, and cotton ; of which
the first is the principal, the two latter being now less extensively cultivated than formerly ; and,
since 1837, there has been a rapid decrease in the growth and exportation of them all, which may bo
ascribed, partly at least, if not entirely, to the cessation of slave labour. The total value of the ex-
ports amounted in 1836 to £2,135,379 ; but in 1839, only to £986.013. The government is vested in a
governor and a court of policy, which consists, besides the governor himself, of the chief-justice,
attorney-general, collector of the customs, the government secretary, and an equal number of unoffi-
cial persons elected from the colonists. The revenue is derived from taxes on produce, incomes of
600 dollars and upwards, imports of foreign manufacture, and horses, carriages, wine and spirit
licences, &c. In 1836 it amounted to £106,081, and the expenditure, to £113,'J46. The population is
partly Dutch and partly British, most of whom are Protestants of various sects; and in 1838, 11,363
persons were receiving instruction in the public schools. Tlie colony is divided into the three coun-
ties of Esieouibo, Demerara, and Berbice, and contained, in 1834, 96,581 inhabitants, of whom only
3576 were white. The territory was a Dutch colony acquired l5y conquest in 1803.
Georgetovm, the capital, is situated on tlie eastern bank of the Demarara river, and contains about
20,000 inhabitants. The streets are wide, and traversed by canals ; the houses are of wood, and few are
more than two storeys high. Within a mile of the town, near the mouth of the river, is Fort William
Frederick, a small mud fort. New Amsterdam, on the Berbice, is a small town with 5000 inhabi-
tants, and is reckoned less unhealthy than Georgetown.
' Ddtch Guiana extends along the coast from the river Corentyn, which separates it from Berbice,
to the Maroni, which divides it from Cayenne ; its length being about 250 miles, and its area, about
38,500 square miles. The aspect of the country, the climate, and natural productions, are much the
Mme as those of the British territory. The principal river is the Surinam, which has a course of
300 miles, and gives its name to the northern part of the colony. The Government is vested in a
governor-general and a high council. The population, exclusive of Indians and Maroons, is about
65,000, of whom 6000 are white and free coloured people, mostly Dutch, French, and Jews ; the re-
mainder consists of negro slaves. The capital is Paramaribo, a town with 20,000 Inhabitants, neatly
laid out in the Dutch style ; and situated on the right bank of the Surinam, 18 miles from its mouth,
where the river affords excellent anchorage. The fort of Zeelandia, a little north of the town. Is the
residence of the governor, and the seat of most of the government establishments. The inhabitants
inaintain an active commerce with Holland.
Fbemch Guiana is the most easterly of the three colonies, and extends along the coast from the river
Maroni to the river Oyapok, which forms the boundary of the Brazilian territory, as settled by a
convention in 1817. Its length along the coast is about 230 miles, and its breadth 2.50, comprising an
area of 27,560 square miles. The coast is an alluvial tract of great fertility ; the high lands are also
Tery fertile ; and few countries are more abundantly watered. The coasts are low, and the sea so
shallow that, except at the mouth of the river, ships cannot approach the shore. There is only one
roadstead, that of Cayenne, where vessels can ride in security. The climate and natural productions
■re in every respect similar to those of British Guiana, with the addition of pepper, cloves, cinnamon,
and nutmegs. The colony is divided into two districts, Cayenne and Sinnamary, and fourteen com
munes or townships. The government is vested in a governor, assisted by a privy council ; and there
is besides, the colonial council of sixteen members elected by the colonists; the public revenue
mmounted in 1837 to £9384, and the expenditure, to £60,279. The population in that year, besides the
garrison and colonial functionaries, amounted to 21,648; of whom 5056 were free; the rest being
slaves.
Cayenne, the capital, which is situate on the coast of a large island, about 18 miles in length by 1 1
In breadth, is strongly fortified, and a hill within the enclosure commands the whole town and the
anchorage. It is an ill-built and ill paved town, and the greater part of the population are negroes
or people of colour.
XVII. PATAGONIA
Is an extensive region, forming the southern extremity of the continent, and stretches from the Rio
Negro, iK'twecn 39= and 40° S. lat., to the Strait of Magellan, in 52°, nearly 900 miles. The western
part of the country is formed by the southern portion of the Cordillera of the Andes, which there
approaches the sea, and forms a number of lofty i.><land.s and peninsulas, which line the coast frmn
Chiloe to the Strait. The general elevation of the chain is only about 3000 feet. The character ^iven
of this western region is very unfavourable. Wood and water are indeed abundant everywhere ; llsh
are easily caught, and ducks, geese, and other birds are numerous ; but of any other useful produc-
tions tlie country is quite destitute. The forests are very dense, and the ground always wet, so that
the country is uninhabitable by civilized man ; though the climate is niiM, and tlie temperature sur-
&risingly uniform throughout the year. The eastern coast is comparatively low, and the country
eyond it is undulating, with extensive pampas covered with grass, but distittite of trees. The soil is
dry and sterile, as the westerly winds leave all their moisture on the niountaiiis that line the coast ;
wliile easterly winds, which alone bring rain to Kastern Patagonia, are very rare. It is also exposed
to severe cold in winter, and excessive heat in summer. Great and sudden changes of temperature
take place, when, after very hot weather, cold winds rush northwards with the fury of a hurricane.
The indigenous inhabitants are a tall and robust race. They possess no towns, but lead a wander-
ing and unsettled life. (See Psoi'Lk.)
XVIII. ISLANDS OF AMERICA.
The AacTic TsLAKDS of America form a numerous group, between Hudson's Bay and Baffin*
Bay ; but being entirely barren, and only partially inhabited by a»few wandering Esquimaux, » e may
pass them over without farther notice ; tiiough the exploring of them has been the object of many
voyages, for the purpose of finding among them a north-west passage to China.
NKWK0C5DLAr»D is a large island which forms the eastern side of the Gulf of .St. Lawrence, bet ween
46^ 49' and 52° 30* N. lat., being about .300 miles in length, by about 225 in its greatest breadth, and cmi-
taining an area of 36,WiO square English miles. The coast is indented by a number of deep >"le|" *''ieli
afford commodious and secure harbours. The interior abounds in large lakes, and is traversed by con-
siderable rivers. The surface, in general, is not heavily timbered ; but there is no deflcu-ncy of wood.
The climate is severe, and the winter long, while the coasts are often visited by cold and dense fogt ;
the heat of the summer is sometimes oppressive in the day time ; but the mornings and evenings aro
temperate and agreeable. The island Is however generally salubrious. The rich pasturages adapt
it peculiarly to the rearing of cattle, and good barley and oats might be grown ; most of the corowon
960 AMERICA. [Islands.
English fruits ripen ; yarious grasses grow spontaneously in all the plains, and potatoes, cabbages,
turnips, carrots, parsnips, pease, radishes, and other culinary roots, yield most abundant crops. The
wild animals are nearly the same as those of the adjacent parts of the continent. The Newfoundland
dog is a well known animal ; but it is believed that the genuine breed now exists only on the coast of
Labrador. The important staple produce of Newfoundland is cod fish, which are caught in profuse
abundance on the great banks, which extend to the south and east of the island, over an area as large
as itself, or larger ; and the principal settlements, between GO and 70 in number, are scattered along
the eastern and southern sides of the island, their inhabitants being mostly employed in, or dependent
on, the fishery. St. John's, the capital, is a considerable town, having a good harbour, on the south-
east coast, with a resident population of about 11,000. I* is defended by numerous fortifications and
batteries. The total population of the island is estimated at 86,000. The public business is managed
by -a house of assembly of 15 members chosen by the people, and a legislative and executive council.
Anticosti, a large but barren island at the mouth of the St. Lawrence, has not a single Rood har-
bour, and is uninhabited, except by the keepers of the lighthouses, one of which is at the east end and
the other at the west.
i'KixcE Edward's Isl.ind, on the south side of the gulf of St. Lawrence, to the north of Nova Scotia^
contains 2,130 square miles, and about 3.i,000 inhabitants. The surface is gently undulating, the soil
good, the climate milder than that of theadjoining continent, and the coast has several good harbours.
About 100,000 acres are under cultivation ; but the fisheries and the lumber trade have almost entirely
occupied the attention of the inhabitants. The island is, in civil matters, an independent colony,
with its own lieutenant-governor, council, and house of assembly ; but in respect of military aftairs,
it is under the charge of the commander of the forces of Nova Scotia. Charlottetown, the capital, has
about 20,000 inhabitants.
The Magdalen Islands, are a group of small islands in the middle of the gulf of St. Lawrence, to
the north of Prince Edward's Island. Grand Miquelhm, Fetite Miquellvn, and Siiint Fierre, three
small islands belonging to France, near the southern coast of Newfoundland, are of great utility to
the French fishers, of whom about 14,000 are employed on the Newfoundland banks. Sable Island is
a long ridge of sand, about 90 miles S.E. of the most easterly point of Nova Scotia, and infamous for
shipwrecks. It is about 27 miles in length by one or two in breadth, and in some place.s ri.ses into
hillocks 130 feet high. The only vegetation is coarse grass, with some low bushes. It lies directly in
the way of vessels sailing to and from the British colonies, and the dense fogs which so often pre-
vail, and the extensive shoals which surround the island, make it e.vtremely dangerous and much
dreaded. An establishment for the relief of shipwrecked mariners is kept on the island.
The WEST INDIES comprise five large, and about 40 smaller islands, besides numerous rocky islets,
called cayos or keys, surrounded by or interspersed with coral reefs and sandbanks. They are situated
between lO^'and 28'-' N. lat., and 59^ 30' andS.i^ W. long., and are generally divided into three groups,
named the Lucayos or Bahamas, the Great Antilles, and the Lesser Antilles or Caribbean islands.
The Bahamas comprehend fourteen principal islands, besides innumerable smaller islands and keys,
extending in line from the coast of Florida to near Hayti, about 750 miles. The names of the princi-
pal islands are : New Providence ; Eleuthera ; Abaco ; Great Bahama ; Guanahani, called also St. Sal-
vador or Cat island, the first land seen by Columbus in his first voyage ; E»uma ; Long Island, Wal-
ling't Island, Crooked Island, Mariquana, Great Inague, and the Kayques. They are chiefly of coral
formation, low, flat, scantily covered with soil, and most of them are uninhabited. The climate is mild
and agreeable. Nassau in New Providence is the seat of government, and contains 6,)0ii inhabitants.
The Great Antilles are Cuba ; Haiti or Hayti; Porto Rico ; and Jamaica. The Lesser Antilles form
a long chain, extending in a curved lino from Porto Rico to the Gulf of Paria, usually called the
Windward Islands ; and of a smaller and more scattered group along the coast of Venezuela, usually
called the Leeward Islands. But English writers give the latter name to the most northerly part of
the first group, from Dominica to the Virgin Islands, restricting the appellation of Windward Islands
to those between Dominica and Trinidad. Their names are : The I'irgm Zs/«n(/f, including yinegada,
Tortola, Virgin-gorda, St. Thomas, St. Jo/ui's, Santa Cruz ; Anguilla, Saba, St. Martinis, St. Uartholo-
rru'w, St.Eustatius, St. Christopher's or St.Kitts, Nevis, Keduiida, Mnntserrat, Barbuda, Antigua, Gua-
deloupe, Mariegalante, Dominica ; Martinique, St. Lticia, St. Vincoit, liarbadoes, Grenada and tlie
Grenadines, Tobago, Trinidad ; and on the coast of Venezuela, Bucnayre, Curafoa, Oruba. Most of
the islands contain isolated peaks or mountain ranges, the summits of which, in the larger islands,
attain a great elevation. St. Lucia, Martinique, Dominica, Guadeloupe, Montserrat, Nevis, St. Kitts,
and St. Vincent are volcanic islands, and several of the craters have thrown out smoke and ashes since
the middle of last century. The volcanoes of the larger islands seem to be extinct. The otlier
Caribbean islands are of "secondary formation, and are not much raised above the level of the sea.
The elevations of their principal mountains are :
Feet.
Cuba, . . . Slount Potrillo, ..... 9,000
„ , . . Sierra de Cobre (Copper Mountains), . . 8,<;0')
Jamaica, . . Blue Mountains, .... 5,000 to 7,150
Hayti, . . . Cibao Mountains, Scrranai, .... 8,'JOO
St.Kitts, . . Mount Misery, . . , , . 3,712
Nevis, . . . Central Peak, ...... 3,000
Dominica, . . Highest Peak, ..... G,000
Martinique, . . Mont Pelee, . . ... 4,400
St. Vincent, . Morne Garou, ..... 4,800
Guadeloupe, • . Soufriere, ..... 6,500
Saint Lucia, . . Crater of Volcano, ..... 4,000
Porto Rico, . . Sierra de Languilla, ..... 3,G78
Numerous streams descend from these mountains, which, though they do not reach the size of rivers,
yet serve to water the fine plains and valleys, whose fertility is mainly owing to their influence.
The West Indies, with the exception of some of the Bahamas, lye within the tropics, and are there-
fore subject to great heat. Yet, even in the warm season, the length of the night, the sea-breezes,
and the elevation of the land in some of them, tend to modify the sun's influence. The interior high-
lands of Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica, and Porto Rico, enjoy throughout the year a mild and delightful tem-
perature, and several of the smaller islands possess the same advantage. But the lowlands, which
are subject to the combined influence of great heat and moisture, have proved too often fatal to
northern constitutions, and have given a bad character to the whole group. The fatality, however,
is said to be owing more to intemperance and the Utile regard paid to that observance of time and sea-
son which the climate requires, than to its natural insalubrity. Both Europeans and negroes, who
accommodate their manner of living to the climate, enjoy as good health, ami live as long in tho
West Indies, as in any part of Europe. The yellow fever used to rage as an epidemic in this hot re-
gion, which rises to an elevation of 1200 feet above the level of the sea; but above that height com-
mences what may be called the temperate zone of the West Indies. Ice sometimes forms in Cuba
after a long continuance of the north wind, but snow never falls, and the inhabitants complain of cold
when the thermometer falls below 70^. The year, as in most tropical climates, may be divided into
two seasons, the wet aud the di-y, though there is sufficient variatiou to mark the four seasons of more
Islands.]
AMERICA.
961
temperate regions. The spring may be said to commence in April, when a bright and beautiful ver-
dure, with a rapid and luxuriant vegetation, makes its appearance ; and, during May, gentle showers
fall almost daily, breaking up with thunder-storms. From May till October, the tropical summer
reigns in full vigour ; and before the sea-breeze or the trade wind sets in, the heat is scarcely support-
able. The sea-breeze begins in the forenoon between 11 and 12 o'clock, and blows with great re-
gularity. The mean height of the thermometer at this season is 80^. The nights are beautiful, and
are tempered by a land wind, which, especially in the mountainous islands, blows gently off the shore
from about ten o'clock till daylight. With October commence the autumnal rains, when the water
pours down in torrents. This continues till December, between which time and April, serene and
pleasant weather prevails. From December tUl March the trade winds blow regularly from the east
and north-east, diffusing a refreshing coolness. In March they begin to decline to the south-east, and
decrease in strength ; but they continue to blow, though with diminished force, till June, when they are
often interrupted by calms. In August the hurricane season begins ; these winds often do great da-
mage in some of the islands ; but they are rare in Cuba, and are never felt in Tobago and Trinidad.
They happen most frequently in August, but also occur occasionally in July, September, and October.
The rich and varied productions of the West Indies give them an important place in the com-
mercial world. To their valuable native plants art and industrv have added others not less valuable.
The sugar-cane, yielding its threefold tribute of sugar, molasses, and rum ; the coffee plant, the
pimento or a!l-spice, the plantain and the banana, the pine-apple, the anana, the yam, the sweet
potato, maize, cassava, manioc ; with cacao, tobacco, cotton, various dyewoods and stuffs, as fustic,
logwood, indigo, cochineal ; and medicinal plants, as liquorice-root, arrow-root, ginger, jalap, ipeca-
cuanha : mahogany, and lignumvita;, are among the vegetable productions. To tliis list must bo
added the bread-fruit, cocoa-nut, mango, papaw, guava, orange, lemon, tamarind, tig, cashew-nut,
mammee, grenadilla, vanilla, pandanus, &o. The cattle are generally of diminutive size ; only a
few of the islands contain sheep and goats ; few horses, asses, or mules are reared, and consequently
great numbers of these animals are imported from the continent. Hogs are more abundant than
other domestic animals. There are few wild animals, but wild swine, tajassoes, monkeys, rats, and
some smaller animals. The maiiiiti is found in Trinidad and Tobago. The cayman and various
other lizards, and snakes, are common. Fish and turtle are abundant. Parrots, flamingoes, and
humming birds are also common. Musquitoes, cockroaches, centipedes, scorpions, ants, and chigos,
abound in the islands.
The indigenous population of the islands has long been extinct, except a few hundreds in Trinidad.
At the time of their discovery the southern islands were inhabited by the fierce and warlike Caribs ;
the more northern, by a gentler race, the Arrowauks. At present the population is European and
African, partly pure and partly mixed. The negroes of pure race form nearly two-thirds of the
whole; the whites are about one-fifth ; and the mixed races, one-seventh. The population is dimi-
nishing ; though in the Spanish islands the loss is continually supplied by importations from Africa.
The following table contains the names, extent, and population of the principal islands : —
Area in
Sq. Miles.
I. British.
Anegada,
Anguilla,
Antigua,
Bahamas,
Barbadoes,
Barbuda,
Bieque or Crab,....
Cayman,
Culebra,
Dominica, [
Grenada, ;
Grenadines, i
Jamaica, i
Muntserrat,
Nevis,
Roatan, '
St. Kitts ;
St. Lucia '
St. Vincent, [
Tobago, !
Torlola '
Trinidad, I
Virgin-gorda j
II. Spanish.
Cuba !
I'orto Kico '
III. French. I
Desirade, "»
Guadeloupe, /
Maricgalante, |
Saintes
St. Martin's, N. part, ,
Martinique, j
IV. Dutch.
<'uravoa, '
St. I!ustatiu9,
Salia
St. .Martin's, S. part,.
V. Dam<h. \
Santa Cruz \
St. John,. ;
St. Thomas,
VI. Suedish. |
St. Bartholomew
VII. Inilependcnt.
Ilayti '
.50
!jO
lOH
4,440
1G4
72
40
60
12
27.T
120
,30
5,520
47
20
28
<;.s
275
1,070
15
4,3,.'!80
3,805
16
534
60
t\
10 1
20 /
10
2r>
29,400
White
Population.
.305
1,980
4,057
14,959
810
801
30,000
330
700
1,012
881
1,301
280
477
4,'201
311,051
102,311
2,5(K)
l.V)
8(X)
Free
Blacks.
Slaves.
2,715
33,432
:13,916
87,956
17,990
27,322
318,844
7,329
10,722
23,060
I7,'207
'25,821
14,021
6,188
41,083
106,494
1 '27,287
1,200
2iO
286,942
34,240
95,009
78,076
.30.800
2,01 K)
9,.'>00
6,000
:} V
Total
Population,
3,080
35,412
18,573
102,912
18,830
28,123
348,844
7,6,")9
11,422
■25,272
1H,I48
27,122
14,901
0,905
45,284
704,487
57,080
127,fi08
110,031
12,IK)0
18,(»00
34.000
;t,(HK)
7,(nm
15,000
600,000
962 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Islands.
CcBA, the I&rgcst and the finest of the West India Islands, is about 790 miles in length, Tvith a
breadth, throughout four-flfths of its length, not exceeding 50 miles. The length of its coast line is
about 1800 miles, containing many good harbours, but the greater part of it is beset with shoals, reefs,
keys, and rapid currents, which render the navigation difficult and dangerous. A chain of moun-
tains runs through the length of the island ; lofty in the cast, but gradually decreasing towards the
west, till they become slightly undulating hills, and rise with a gentle ascent only from 250 to 350
feet above the level of the sea. Altogether about four-fifths of the surface consist of low lands. Cubft
was long considered by Spain merely in the light of a military key to her great possessions in tl»a
two Americas ; the value of its produce did not equal that of some of the smallest of the Antilles ;
its commerce, restricted to the single port of the Havanna, was insigniticant ; and, up to the close of
last century, the money necessary for the support of its civil administration, and the payment of its
garrisons, was drawn from Spain. But so rapid has been its progress in wealth and population
during the last fifty years, that it is no w one of the richest European colonies in any part of the w orld.
A more liberal and protecting policy has been adopted by the mother country ; the ports of the island
have been thrown open ; strangers have been encouraged to settle ; and the island has become a place
of general refuge. Negro slavery has increased enormously ; and the condition of the slaves has been
deteriorated just in proportion to the increasing wealth and the increasing rapacity of their masters.
The great bulk of the population now consists of slaves in the lowest state of degradation. It is cal-
culated that they are wrought out on an average of ten ye;irs, and that an annual importation of up-
wards of 70,000 is required to keep up their number. Though the African slave trade is prohibited
by the mother country, yet the law is openly evaded, and the trade carried on as briskly as ever. The
principal articles of export are sugar, rum, molassos, cofiee, wax, tobacco and cigars, hides, honey,
feather, cotton, fruits, and mahogany. The principal articles of import are, corn and grain of all
kinds, dried fish and salt provisions, and lumber, chiefiy from the United States ; with cotton goods,
hardware, and various other manufactured articles, and objects of luxury. The total value of the ex-
ports for the year 1836, amounted to 16,545,908 dollars or £3,309,181 ; and that of the imports, to
23,921,251 dollars or £4,784,250. Cuba is under the charge of a Captain -general, whose authority in
military matters extends over all the island ; but for civil affairs, the island is divided into two pro-
vinces, the western being under the Captain-general, and the eastern having an independent gover-
nor only responsible to the Home authorities. The military force consists of 30,000 regular troops
and militia. Cuba is also divided into three military districts, whose names and principal towns are : —
Districts. Towns, uith their Population.
Western Department, ( Havanna, 112,000; Jlatanzas, 14,000; Jarues, 1000, Guanabacoa, 5000 ; Bata-
Population 408,536. 1 vano, 300 ; Guines, 3000 ; Santiago, 200; Mariel, 800.
Central Department, (Puerto-Principe, 49,000; Santa-Clara, 9000; Nuevitas, 800; St. Espiritu,
Population 164,497. I 11,000; Trinidad, 13.000 ; Reraedios, 5000 ; Xagua, 800.
Eastern Department, < Santiago de Cuba, 27,000; Baracoa, 3000; Gibara, 300; Higuany, 2000; Hol-
Population 131,4.35. \ guin, 8000 ; Bayanio or San Salvador, 7500; Manzanillo, 3000.
Haranna, the capital, situate on the north shore of the western department, is one of the largest
and most flourishing cities in the New World. Its fine harbour, capable of containing a thousand
ships, is strongly fortified ; and there are besides extensive arsenals and dock-yards. The streets are
generally narrow, crowded, and dirty ; but the recently built suburbs are in a better style, and some
of the churches are handsome. It still possesses about two-thirds of the trade of the island. The
population in 1827 was 112,000, but has much increased since that time. The climate, however, is con-
sidered unhealthy. Matanzas also on the north coast, 60 miles E. of Havaima, is now tlie second
commercial town ; it has a capacious and safe harbour, and 15,000 inhabitants. Trinidad i^ one ot
the most thriving towns on tlie south coast ; its harbour is capacious but exposed, its trade con-
siderable, and its population about 12,500. I'wrto- Principe, in the interior of the south-eastern part
of the island, is a poor, and ill-built, but large town, with 30,000 inhabitants. Nuevitas, lately founded
on the north coast, serves as its port. Santiago is one of the oldest and best built towns in the
island. Near the western extremity of Cuba, on the south side, is the Isla de Pi7ios, about 30 miles
in diameter, a mass of high rocks, forming a bold shore, and rising towards the centre to an elevation
of more than 3000 feet. The mountains are covered with fine forests, but the population amounts
only to about 3000.
PoRTO Rico is about 180 miles in length, by 36 in breadth. It is traversed by a lofty mountain
ridge, with rich and beautiful, well watered and well wooded valleys on each side, beneath which
stretch fertile alluvial plains, studded with thriving towns. The principal productions are sugar, coffee,
molasses, rum, and tobacco ; the annual value of the exports is about 4,000,000 dollars ; and that ot
the imports, 3,000,000. San Juan de Parto Rico, the capital, is a larg'e and well-built town, on the
north coast, with a safe, capacious, and strongly fortified harbour, and 30,000 inhabitants.
Hayii (formerly Hispaniula and San Dumingu), situate between Cuba and Porto Rico, is about 420
miles in length, by 1.50 in breadth. Several ranges of mountains cross the country, many of which
are rugged and bare ; others being less abrupt, are covered with forests of mahogany, dyewoods, and
other valuable timber. Rich and beautiful valleys are interspersed among the mountains, and there
are several extensive and fertile plains, which are watered by numerous rivers. The natural vege-
table productions, and particularly the flora, are extremely rich. The principal useful products are ;
in the west and south, coftee, sugar-cane, and cotton ; in the north, cott'ee ; in the east, cattle, with
some tobacco. The amount of the population is not known with any degree of certainty ; the esti-
mates vary from 360,000 to 1,000,000, but there seems to be no means of verifying any of them. About
one-tenth of the wliole are said to be coloured, that is, of mixed descent, there are also several hundred
whites ; but the great bulk are pure negroes. About four-fifths, comprising those in the western or
French part of the island, speak a language composed of French and several African dialects ; those
of the eastern part speak a similarly corrupted Spanish. The people are generally ignorant, lazy, and
superstitious, but good-natured and honest. The Roman Catholic is the established religion ; but it
is mixed with dogmas of African origin, and the priests are few. White people, of whatever tiation,
are prohibited by an article of the Constitution from acquiring or exercising any right of property or
mastership in the island. The value of the exports in 1832 was about 4,000.000 dollars, and tliat ot
imports, 4,160,000. The government is nominally republican, but actually a military monarchy.
The chief executive officer, the president, holds his office for life, and has the right of naming his
successor, with the consent of tite senate. He has also the sole right of proposing laws ; the delibera-
itons of the legislature being confined to the subjects which he lays before them. The Senate con-
sists of 24 members, who are appointed for life by the House of Representatives, on the nomination of
the president. The representatives themselves are chosen for the term of six years by the people,
who take very little interest in the elections. The revenue amounts to about £300,000 a-year ; the
expenditure is usually more, and the treasury is burdened with a heavy debt, due to the expelled colo-
nists. The army consists of 45,000 men, by some said to be badly armed and disciplined ; by others, to
consist of effective troops, bold, hardy, and fairly trained to arms. There is, besides, a national guard.
Port-au-Prince, the capital, is a town built of wood, with unpaved streets and 15,000 inhabitants,
situate on the innermost recesses of the Bay of Gonaives, on the south-west coast. It carries on a
eontiderable tradewith the United States and Jamaica. Cape Haytien, a large well-built city, on the
Islands.] AMERICA. 963
north coast, with 10,000 inhabitants, has a fine harbour, and is fortified ; the streets are paved, and the
site is agreeable. San Domingo, the oldest existing European city in the new world, founded in 1502,
was formerly a flourishing town ; and its wide, straight streets, its fine cathedral, handsome churches
and convents, its hospitals, barracks, arsenal, and neat dwelling houses, still attest its former splen-
dour. It has a good harbour, and a considerable trade ; population, 10,000. The west side of Havti
forms a deep bay, in the middle of which Is the large island of Gonare. Near the west end of the north
coast is the small island of Tortuga, noted in the history of the Buccaneers.
Jamaica is the largest and most valuable of the Britith islands. Its greatest length is about 150
miles, with an average breadth of 40. The Blue mountains, a lofty range, run through the length of
the island ; sending down upwards of two hundred rivers and streams to water its fertile savannahs
and fine valleys. On the coast there are sixteen well sheltered harbours, besides many roads and an-
chorages. The climate has been considered unfavourable to Europeans ; but much less so to the
negroes. But that it is not naturally injurious to the human constitution, is evident from the long lives
and good health enjoyed by both Europeans and negroes who live temperately. Of late years, too, the
yellow fever has almost if not quite disappeared. Jamaica presents every indication of being of volcanic
origin, but it contains no active volcano. The soil is generally deep and fertile. The chief articles of
production and export are sugar, rum, molasses, and pimento, of which last, in 1832, 4,672,827 lbs. were
exported. The value of the imports, of late years, has generally averaged £1,()00,(X)0 a-year ; but great
part of them are only sent to Jamaica as an entrepot for subsequent exportation to the Spanish main.
Jamaica is divided into three counties : Middlesex, in the centre ; Surrey, in the east ; and Cornwall,
in the west ; and these are subdivided into twenty-one parishes. The executive power is vested in a
governor appointed by the Crown, with a council of 12 members, who are appointed in the same manner.
The legislative power is vested in a House ot Assembly of 45 members, 2 for each i arisli, and I for
each of the towns of Kingston, Spanishtown, and Port-Royal. The military force consists of about
3000 regular troops, with a white militia of 16,000 or 18,00n men. Tliere is a rector for each parish,
under a Lord Bishop, whose see includes also Honduras and the Bahamas. Education is somewhat
widely dilfused. The public revenue and expenditure amount to about half a million a-year. The go-
vernor's salary is XooOO a year ; the bishop's, £4000.
Kingston, the principal town, stands on the north side of a fine harbour, in a beautiful plain near
the east end of the southern coast of the island. It has an extensive trade, and about 30,000 inh.Tbitants.
Two miles N. is Vp-park- Cnmp, the only government barracks, about 2lli' feet above the level of the
sea, with comfortable accommodation for 1300 European soldiers. Suntiat'o de la I'rga (St. James of
the valley) or Spanishtouyi, the seat of government, is situate in a fine valley 16 miles west of Kingston,
and contains 5000 inhaliitants. Port-Hnyal, situate on the tongue of land at the entrance of Kingston
harbour, once a splendid and opulent town, has been at several times almost completely destroyed by
earthquakes and fires ; it still contains the royal dockyard, and is strongly fortified. On the west side
of the entrance to this harbour, and on a low neck of land, is tlie fortress called Fort Augusta, nhQaXlhy
station, with well-ventilated barracks. Sttmyhill Barracks, capableof containing 500 men, are situate on
a mountain ridge, 2000 feet above the level of the sea, 9 miles north of Kingston. ISh'wtields and Sa-
vanna la Mar, in the western part of the island, are places of some trade. Mo7tti'go-liai/, on the north
coast, is a considerable trading town, with 4000 inhabitants. Falmouth and St. Ann are villages on the
Eamo coast. The Grand-Cai/man, the Little-Cayman, and Cai/man-braque, three small islands to tlio
north-west, are appendages to the government of Jamaica. "(Jrand Cayman is the only one of them
whicli is inhabited.
St. Christopher's or St. Kitts, is a long island, in shape resembling a guitar. In the interior of
the northern part it is rugged and mountainous, its principal summit Mount Misery rising to the ele-
vation of 3712 feet ; but along the sea it contains a fine plain of great beauty and fertility. ISasseterre,
the capital, on the south-west coast, contains about 60(K) inhaliitants. The principal military station
is Brimstone Hill on the west coast. i<evit is a small but beautiful and fertile island, lying close to
the southern extremity of St. Kitts, and consists of a single conical mountain rising 3000 feet above the
level of the sea, with a border of level land, possessing a very fertile soil, which produces excellent sugar.
The only town is Charlestown, a neatly-built place, with a good roadstead. Anguilla, or Snake Island,
is low and level, and contains a valuable salt pond. The Virgin Islands, belonging to Britain, are
Tortilla, yirgin-gorda or Fenniston, Anegada or Drouned Island, the last of which is so low, that the
Bca sometimes breaks over it, and is surrounded by a dangerous reef. Tortola consists of a mountain
mass, with a few tracts of Hat ground along the shore, and has a town of the same name, on a fine
harbour. All these are included in the government of St. Kitts.
AsTioCA is tolerably level and well cultivated ; a range of hills called the Sheckerly mountains, rises
in the south and west, to the elevation of 1.5(XJ feet ; but the only other irregularities of tlie surface are
slight elevations, broken grounds, and a few water courses 'J'lie climate is healthy ; hut the island is
subject to great droughts, and is deficient in springs and brooks. It is nevertheless a valuable island,
and has a great number of excellent harl)Ours ; but, as it is almost surrounded by reefs and shoals, the
approach is difficult except on the south-west. St. .John's, tlie capital, on the north-west coast, is
niiich admired tor the beauty of its situation and its neat appearance. It contains about 16,000 inha-
bitants, and derives importance from its being the station of the (iovernor-General of the Leeward
Islands. On the south coast is the important naval station of F.nglish Harbour, containing a ro^al
dockyard. Montsirrat derives its name from its rugged appearance, and is more noted for its pic-
turesque beauty than for its productiveness. It consists of a mass of rocky hills diversified with val-
leys. Part of the coast is rendered inaccessible by coral reefs, and there is no harbour. Fit/mouth, a
ueat little town, is tlie capital.
IJOMINICA is a lartje and fertile island, though some parts of it are very rugged. The valleys and
plains are watered by about thirty rivers and numerous smaller streams. The island is of volcanic
origin, and contains several Soufrieres or volcanic vents, which throw out sulphur. Sulphureous and
thermal springs are also numerous. High mountains, considered to be the loftiest in the Antilles,
occupy the central parts; their slopes are very steep, and terminate in bold and precipitous coasts.
The climate is unhealthy, liosseau or Charl'ittitovn, the capital, is a well built town, with HKKI inlia-
bitants; but its roadstead is unsafe in the hurricane months. Prince Kuiiert's Bay, farther north,
affords a roomy, deep, and safe harbour.
ijT. LcciA is a mountainous island, the high peaks of which at the south-west extremity, railed
Pitoiis by the French, ami Sugar-lnaves by the English, arc visible at some distance, and form strik-
ing objects at sea. The range of hills to which the Pitons belong, contains an active volcnno, the
last eruption of which took place In 1812 ; but its crater, 4(J00 feet aliove the level of the sea, contains
liollows filled with boiling water and mud. The soil is fertile, but the climate is iiioisf, variable, and
unhealthy. There are several good anchorages; unA Fort I'astriis <tr ( aretiage. is one ot tlie tie.st
harbours in the West Indies. The town of the same name has a l>opulatioii of about :)(K»0. 'Uie po-
pulation of the island is French.
St. Vi."«cf.:«t is the most beautiful of the Windward Islands. The mountains are bold and lofty,
and the valleys highly productive. In 1812 the Soufriere, which had loii){ Iwen quiescent, threw out
ashes and scoria;, together w ith a stream of lava. '] he climate is exceedingly humid ; but the island
is nevertheless oomparatively healthy. Kingston, the capital, is a neat town, with 7<x>o inhabitatiti.
CaUiaqua, on the south side of the Island, Is a little village with a fine coniinodious harbour.
964 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Islands.
Grrvada has been styled the gem of the ocean ; the mountains, though lofty, are not rueged ; the
Talleys are fertile and picturesque ; and its beautiful scenery has been compared to that of Italy. Its
rivers are numerous but small, and the thermal springs and sulphur which abound prove its volcanic
origin. There are several commodious harbovira on the coast, that of St. George, on which stands
the capital, is one of the best in the West Indies, and is strongly fortified. The town of St. George has
4000 inhabitants The Grenadines or GrenadUlus are small islands lying between Grenada and St.
Vincent ; they consist of low rocks without water ; but cotton and sugar are raised on some of
them. Cariacou is the largest.
Bardadoes, theoldest and most improved of the British possessions in the West Indies, is the most
easterly of the Windward Islands, and lies considerably out from their line, in the Atlantic, being
more tiian 100 miles eastward from St. Vincent, the nearest of them. Its surface is generally level,
the soil productive, and the climate healthy ; but hurricanes are frequent and violent. A coral reef
runs along the northern and eastern sides of the island, so that these coasts cannot be approached by
vessels. The climate is more healthy than that of most of the other islands. Bridgetoun, the capital,
is one of the largest, gayest, and handsomest towns, and also one of the strongest military posts, in
the West Indies. It has a population of 20,000 ; and its fine harbour is often touched at lor refresh-
ments. It stands on Carlisle Bay, on the south-west coast.
Tobago is a small but fruitful island to the north-east of Trinidad, beyond the track of the hurri-
canes, and enjoys a temperate climate. It is a mass of rocks rising with a steep ascent on the
north-east, and descending gradually to the south-west, with some intervening small but delightlul
valleys. The coast abounds in tine bays, among which, on its north-western side, is Man -of- war's
Bay, which is deep, capacious, and secure. Scarboroueh, the capital, has about 3000 inhabitants.
Trixidad was so called by Columbus, from the double circumstance of bis having resolved to give
that name to the lirst land he should discover on his third voyage, in 1498, and from the first land seen
consisting of three mountains, which he considered an emblem of the Most Holy Trinity, in honour
of which the name was given. It is separated from the continent of South America only by two
straits, the Dragon's Mouth, 15 miles wide, and the Serpent's Mouth, 10 miles wide, which form the
entrances to the Gulf of Paria, a large and always placid expanse of 5000 square miles of water, with
anchorage throughout, on a bottom of mud and gravel, and receiving on its southern coast some of
the branches of the river Orinoco. Trinidad is crossed from east to west by three rani^ts of hills,
with intervening plains or savannahs ; but, though extremely fertile and beautiful, and inferior in size
only to Jamaica, the population is less than that of some of the smaller islands. The vegetation is
remarkable for its richness and magnificence ; and a pitch lake and mud volcanoes are among the
curiosities of the island. The northern, eastern, and southern shores are nearly destitute of har-
bours. Puert I de Espaiia or Port of S/jain, the capital, is a handsome town, finely situate on the
west coast, and has about 12,000 inhabitants. Naparima has also a good harbour, and 2000 inha-
bitants.
With the exception of St. Lucia and Trinidad, the one of which is a French colony and the other
Spanish, and both governed directly by the colonial secretary, witliout the intervention of a local legis-
lature, each of the larger British West India islands has a governor, council, and a^sembly of its own.
The Bahama islands have one assembly for the whole group ; Anguiilalias a deputy in the assembly of
St. Kitts, and there is one council and assembly for the Virgin islands. Nevis and Montserrat have
each a separate council and assembly, but are attached respectively to the governments of St. Kitts
and Antigua.
The French West Indies include the important islands of JIartinique and Guadaloupe, with the
smaller dependencies of Uesirade or Deseada, Mariegalante, Saintes, and the northern part of St.
Martin's Martinique is a large and fine island lying between St. Lucia and St. Vincent ; the centre
rises into lofty volcanic mountains, from which copious streams descend to water the low grounds.
Less than two-fifths of the surface is under cultivation, yet the island produces a great quantity of
sugar, cotton, cocoa, and coffee. The capital is Fort liojial, a well-built and strongly fortified town,
with 7000 inhabitants ; but the most important commercial town is St. Pierre, ^thich has a popula-
tion of 18,000. Its excellent roadstead has rendered it the entrepot of the French trade with all this
part of the world. Guadeloupe consists of two islands, separated by a narrow channel ; the eastern,
named Grande-terre, is low and comparatively arid ; the western, named Basse-terre, contains some
lofty heights, at the base of which are fruitful and well-watered plains. The town of Basse-terre,
with a population of 9000, is the capital ; but its roadstead is unsheltered. Pointe a Pitre, on the west
side of Grande-terre, has a good harbour, and carries on almost all the trade of the island. Its popu-
lation amounts to 15,000. The smaller islands are of little importance. They are hilly ; and the
Saintes consist of a little cluster of rocks which enclose a very safe harbour.
The Dutch islands are St. Eustatius and Saba, to the north of St. Kitts ; and Curai,oa, Buenayro,
and Oruba, on the coast of Venezuela. Curai;oa, the largest, is arid and unfertile ; but was formerly
important on account of its contraband trade with the Spanish colonies. Its capital, Williumstadt,
has a fine harbour, with some trade, and about 8000 inhabitants. .SaJacontainsno harbour. St. Eustatius
is highly cultivated, and its town of the same name, with 6000 inhabitants, carries on an exte"sive
smuggling trade. St. Martin's belongs partly to France and partly to Holland.
The Danish Islands of Santa Cruz, St. Thomas, and St. Joint, belong to the group of the Virgin
Isles ; but only Santa Cruz is of much importance. Its surface is a plain, diversiiied by slight undu-
lations ; and the soil is good and well cultivated. Sugar is the staple, but the island also produces
some fine fruits, cotton, and provisions. Its capital, Ckristianstadt, has 5000 inhabitants. Nearly all
the population of St. Thomas is contained in its capital, of the same name, which is an important
smuggling station.
St. Bartholomev:, to the north of St. Kitts, is the only Swedish possession in the AVest Indies.
GiatacM, the capital, acquired some importance dui-ing the last continental wars, when it was the only
neutral port in these seas.
Old Providence and Santa Catalina, two small islands dependent on New-Granada, 160 miles S.E.
of Cape Gracias a Dios, on the Mosquito shore, have acquired notoriety as the haunt of the bucca-
neers, and some modern pirates. They are both very hilly, and present a great variety of beautiful
scenery. The highest point of Old Providence rises 1190 feet above the level of the sea. To the north-
east are the Serenacays or Serranillas, a mass of low sandstone ; and to the south by east is the island
of St. Andrews.
The Bermudas or Somers' Islands are a group of seven or eight low islands, with several hundred
rocks, far out in the Atlantic, about GOO miles east of South Carolina, in N. lat. 32^ 20' and ^W . long.
64-^ 50'. They are estimated to contain about 20 square miles of surface ; they enjoy an uninterrupted
spring, and are covered with perpetual verdure ; but they are of little value, except as a naval station ;
for which purpose large sums have been expended by the British Government in forming and forti-
fying a dock-yard. They contain some good harbours, which pre, however, of difficult access. They
have a house of Assembly of 36 members, chosen by the 9 parishes into which the islands are divided.
St. George's, the capital, is a small town, with about 2000 inhabitants. The people possess about a hun-
dred sail of small vessels, which are employed in the carrying trade between North America and the
West Indies ; and the whale fishery employs about 12 boats with their crews during three months of
the year. There is great variety of fish among the reefs ; and the islands abound with poultry of the
Islands.] AMERICA. 965
best kind, and produce peaches, oranges, grapes, melons, and fig?, besides the ordinarr tropical fruits
They were discovered in 1522, by Juan Hermudez, a Spaniard, from wliom their conimcn raiiie is
derived. In 1609, Sir George Somers, on his voyage to Virginia, was wrecked on them, from which
circumstance they obtained their other but less usual name.
Off the coast of Brazil are the Ahrothos. a cluster of islets and banks, between 17= and 18= S lat.
The islands are low, and are covered with grass and a little scattered brushwood. Thev consist of
gneiss and sandstone in horizontal strata, and their highest point rises about ICK) feet abo've tlie level
of the sea. Fernando Noronha is a small island used as a pinal settlement by the Brazilian govern-
ment, in S. lat. 3° .V2', and W. long. 32= 25'. Miirthi las is a group of very small islands ; and Tiini-
dade is a larger island, between 32= and 35° W. long., and about 20= 30' S lat. St. Catherine't is a.
considerable island close to the coast, between 27= and 28= S. lat., forming, inside, a good harbour
and anchorage.
The Falkland Islands, a group in the South Atlantic, occupied by Great Britain, but claimed by
Buenos-Ayres. There are said to be so many as 200 islands ; but only two of them are oi consider-
able size. They are situate between 51= and .52= 45' S. lat., and 57= 20'"and Gl= 4G' W. long., about 2,")0
miles N.E. of Tierra del Fuego. The islands are all of very irregular shape, and much indented with
bays and inlets, and contain many excellent harbours. Between the two large islands is Falkland
Sound, from 7 to 12 miles in width, and navigable for ships of any class. The shores are for the most
part low ; but in the western part of the group, there are many high precipitous clift's, and ridges of
rocky hills, about 1000 feet above the level of the sea. The highest hills, which are in tlie eastern large
island, rise about 1700 feet. Tlie climate is variable, though not quite so much so as tliat of Kiiglaiid,
and is said to be quite as healthy. Snow seldom lies long, and the frosts are slight ; but the winds
are violent and excessive. A small British garrison is stationed at Port Louis, at the head of Berke-
ley Sound, towards the north-east extremity of the eastern island. There are also a few liuenos-
Ayrcans and Europeans ; and the islands are frequented by numbers of Americans, English, and
French whalers and sealers.
TiEKRA DKL FuEGu ( Land of Fire) was the name given by the early Spanisli navigators to the coun-
try which forms the sout'.iern side of the Strait of Maiiellan. Its coasts ha\e been recently surveyed,
and it has been found to consist of seven large, and many smaller islands and rocks, separated by chan-
nels of various widths. Cap<> Hunt, the most southerly of the group, is a small island, rising lei7o feet
above the level of the sea, in S. lat. 5.>= 58' 40'', and W. long. G7= IG' ; and the eastern extremity is
Staten Island, which forms the eastern side of the celebrated Strait of Lt- Mnire. The southern and
western parts of tlie tierra may be briefly deserihed by saying, that deep but narrow arms of the sea
intersect high mountainous islands, wliose summits are covered with snow, while their steep and rocky
shores are more than partially covered with evergreen wood. In the eastern portion the wooded
mountains of the west sink into hills, and these again into level land, which is partially wooded.
Throughout the year, cloudy weather, rain, and niiicli wind prevail ; line days are rare ; frost and
snow are constant on the mountains : but near the level of the sea, neither tlit" frost nor the snow is
so severe as might be expected in so high a southern latitude, and in the vicinity of snow-covered
mountains. The climate of the eastern portion is somewhat milder than that of the western. The
country is thinly inhabited by the wretched Pccheres.
Along the west coa^t of I'atagnnia are innumerable islands and peninsulas, all much of the same
character as the worst parts of Tierra del Fuego, forming the ui)per parts of a great range of moun-
tains, whose bases are sunk in the ocean. They are barren to seaward, but impenetrably wooded to-
wards the mainland ; and are always drenched by incessant rain, which is never dried up by evapo-
ration. Clouds, winds, and rain only cease during the very few days on which the wind is easterly or
perhaps southerly. But the climate is mild, and tlie temperature is surprisingly uniform throughout
the year. The princiial of these i.'ilands are IWllitmlim, (innlirid<^i', Adelaide, Uannmr, Rcmiel, Pi-
axzi, Chatham, iU^f/re rff Z)/us (God's Mother ;) with the peninsulas of Tiiytiit and Tresmontis.
ChiliiK is a large island, forming the most southern province of Chili, and the last inhabited part of
the west coast of .South America. It is about 120 miles in length by 40 in breadth ; population of it and
3G adjacent islands, about .50,(hki. The island is mountainous and covered with wood ; and the climate
is healthy but damp. It feeds great herds of sheep, hogs, cattle, horses, and other animals ; and tho
principal articles of export are planks, hams, brooms, hides, woollen cloths, fic, to the value of 25.(K)0
dollars a-year. The chief towns are San ('(trios, which is fortified, and has a population of 2(K)0 ;
Castro, and Maulin. To the southward extends the long Clumus Archipclnfio, the physical character
of which is little better than that of the South I'atagonian Island-. It is almost uninhabitable. In-
deed, to the south of Cliiloe there are very few acres of land capable of cultivation, and no placo
which is fit for the permanent abode of civilized man.
Mocha, a small island off the coast of Chili, in south lat. 3H= 19', is high, with deep water round it,
but strangling and dangerous rocks lie near it towards the south-west. A few Chilenos live on it for
the sake of catching seals on the rocks.
1'he Islands ok Jla.n Fkhnandes, discovered by a Spaniard of that name in 1.5G3, consist of two
principal and several smaller islands in the Pacific Ocean, 4(K) miles W. of the coast of ("hili, in 33 ' 40'
8. lat. The larger island named Mai-a-tierra (nearest land), is from 10 to 12 miles long and G broad,
elevated in the north ; less lofty, but rocky and barren in the south. The fig and the vine flourish on
tho hill sides ; and, among the larger trees, are the sandal, cork, and a species of palm called chuta,
which bears a rich fruit. Goats are found in a wild state in the interior ; seals, walrusses, and Crus-
tacea, on the coasts. The island has been taken on lease from the Chilian government liy an .\merican,
who has brought to it about l.'iO families of Tahitians, with the intention of cultivating it, so as to
make it become the resort of whalers and other vessels navigating the Pacific. Off its south-west point
is the small island of Santa Clara or (iuat Island. The smaller island, named Mas-n-fuera (farthest
out), is a lofty volcanic rock, 90 miles farther west. The highest mountain of Mas-a-tierra is 3000feet,
and the summit of Mas-a-fiiera is 2300 feet, above the level of the sea.
The hies of St. Ictiz are a small group, between 25= and 2G° S. lat., and 79= and 81= W. long.
The (Jalai'a<;os are a grou|> of volcanic islands, situate under the equator, between 89" and 92°
W. long. They are all of comparatively recent formation ; and the lava is very hard, so that vege-
tation makes small progress. On five islands there are fertile spots, at one of which, on Charles's
Island, a small colony has bc(-n establi.slud by the government ol (Juayaquil. There are six principal
and seven smaller islands, besides many islets and rocks. The largest isfiOmihs in length, and 15l>ruad;
and its summit rises 1000 feetabove the level of the sea. At first latnling on their shores, tlisinal look-
ing lieaps of broken lava everywhere meet the eye, with inininierahle crabs, hhleoiis iguanas, and
great elephant tortoises. The two latter species of animaN are peculiar to the islaniN ; and. indee(l, it
Is from the last that the group derives its name of hlas dr las (iiilapaj^os or Islands of I.aii<l Turtles.
The Isles of neritlanincdo. Utween 18= and 20= N. lat. and 109 and 115 W. long., west hy soi.lh
of Cape Corrientes in Mexico, are four in number, named San lltin ditto, Dd Socorro, llocca-iKirlida,
and Santa Uosa. They arc almost in the »an e line of latitude with the volcanoes of Colima. .lorullo,
Popocatepetl, and Orizaba ; and jiumice stones are found among them, proving them to he of volcanic
origin. 'To the north-west is a small island named Shrlruck's, ahout 20<i miles south-west of Cajie
St. I.ucas in California. Clip/iertoti's Island, and dallfgo, are two small ishinds between those of
Kevillagigedo and the Galapagos ; tlie former in 10'^20' N. lat.. and the latter in 1 10 N.
960 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Islands.
Nootka, named also Quadra and Vancouver's Island, is a large island close on the coast of North
America, to the north of the Columbia river, and crossed by the 50° N. lat. It is separated from the
mainland by Queen Charlotte's Sound, and the Strait of Juan de Fuca. It contains about 30,000
square miles ; is rocky and elevated, but no part of it attains any ^reat height. The coast farther
north is lined by a number of large islands, bearing the inappropriate names of Queen Charlotte's,
Prince of IVales's, and such like.
THE ARCTIC POLAR REGIONS.
North America and the Islands connected with it may be considered as terminating at Lancaster
Sound, which extends about 500 miles westward, and forms a wide separation between them and the
regions which constitute the northern and eastern sides of Baffin's Bay. The country immediately
adjoining Lancaster Sound, consist of a number of large islands or peninsulas, separated by wide straits ;
but towards Baffin's Bay it has of late been found to be a continuous mass of land, extending north-
ward to Sir Thomas Smith's Sound, wliich forms the north-western limit of Greenland. This land
has been called North Devon, and the islands to the westward, Parry's Islands; the most westerly
of them yet known being Melville Island, where Captain Parry wintered in 1819-20. The shores con-
sist of steep rocks, while the interior is occupied by mountains always covered with snow. North
Devon seems to be uninhabited ; but Parry's Islands contain a few families of Esquimaux.
Greenland appears to form one continuous mass of land, extending along the eastern side of Baf-
fin's Bay, from Cape Farewell, in 60° N. lat., to Smith's Sound, in 78°, more than 1260 miles ; and ex-
panding in width from Cape Farewell to the most northerly part known, where the breadth exceeds
600 miles. It is a barren mountainous country, nearly the whole surface of which is covered with
perpetual ice and snow ; which in many parts form glaciers extending to the very shores, where they
appear as icy cliffs, several hundred feet high. The eastern coast generally rises in high masses of
rock or ice, close to the shore, and is beset during the whole year with enormous masses of ice, which
render the vegetation exceedingly scanty, and the fishing very precarious. Accordingly, only a few
Esquimaux inhabit it. The western shores are high, rugged, and barren, but are indented by deep
inlets, some of which penetrate 100 miles, and on the sheltered low grounds along their banks there is
some vegetation ; the sea being less encumbered with ice than on the east coast, the inhabitants are
able to prosecute, for a considerable period during summer, the fisheries, on the produce of which
they subsist. The climate is also less severe, though the ground does not begin to thaw till the end
of June ; but in July the thermometer rises to 92°. The atmosphere is pure, light, and healthy ; but
in winter the cold is sometimes very intense. The vegetation in the northern districts consists of
lichens and mosses ; but, farther south, there are a few annual plants, and some berry-bearing
shrubs. In well-sheltered valleys birch and mountain-ash grow to the height of a man, with a stem
three or four inches thick. Potatoes, and a few other culinary vegetables, are raised ; and a few
sheep are kept by the European settlers. Rein-deer, hares, fo.xes, and white bears, are the only wild
animals ; and the only domestic animal possessed by the natives is the dog, which they use for draw-
ing sledges. Sea-fowl and fish, especially cod and caplin, are plentiful ; but seals supply the most
essential wants of the natives, with their fur, skins, and oil. The inhabitants are Esquimaux, who
live on the west coast, as far north as 77° N. lat, and on the east coast to 76°. Their principal occu-
pations are fishing and seal-hunting ; they are under the dominion of Denmark, forming 13 colonies,
with 15 minor commercial and 10 missionary establishments ; the most northern station is Upper-
navic in N. lat. 72° 30'. Many of the people have embraced Christianity, and are becoming some-
what civilized ; though the circumstances in which they are placed must ever operate as a bar to
their great improvement. The trade between Greenland and Denmark employs five or six vessels.
The exports consist chiefly of whale oil, seal, bear, and rein-deer skins, eider down. Sec. Coffee, to-
bacco, snuft', and brandy, are the principal articles of import. The total population is estimated at
between 6000 and 7000 Esquimaux, and 150 Danes or other Europeans.
Baffin's Bay, and Davis' Strait, which divide Greenland from America, extend in the direction
of N. by W. from the North Atlantic Ocean, for 1300 miles, with a breadth varying from 160, at the
narrowest part of Davis' Strait, under the Arctic Circle, to about 300 miles, opposite Lancaster Sound.
This great sea is navigable only in June, July, August, and September ; navigation during the rest
of the year being rendered impossible by icebergs. It is of great but variable depth, with a muddy
bottom. There are strong currents which set towards the south in Davis' Strait, but in the upper part
of the bay they seem to run north. Indeed, it is said that a strong current sets in from the ocean
round Cape Farewell, and continues along the eastern coast to N. lat. 67°, where it crosses over to
Cape Walsingham, and thence flows southward along the western shores of the bay, and those of
Labrador and Newfoundland. The black whale is very abundant in these seas, on which account
they are visited every summer by a great number of whaling vessels, which, since Captain Parry
showed them the way, even cross the Bay and penetrate Lancaster Sound. Davis' Strait was dis-
covered by John Davis in 1596 ; Baffin's Bay, by Robert Bylot and AVilliam Baffin in 1616 ; but it was
not till the summer of 1818 that they were again followed in their track round the bay. The seas
are remarkably free from islands and rocks.' The largest is Disco Island, on the east coast, in 70°
N. lat.; and Hare or Waygatt Isle, a little farther north, has acquired some celebrity, as the place
where experiments have been made with the pendulum to ascertain the figure of the Earth.
The Spitzbergen (Pointed Mountains) are a group of four large and many smaller islands in the
Arctic Ocean, to the eastward of Greenland, between N. lat 76° and 81°, and 7° and 27° E. long.
Their shores are no where flat ; but, on the contrary, in every direction, consist of conical mountains
which rise abruptly from the sea to an elevation of between 1500 and 3700 feet, being separated by nar-
row valleys, which generally open to the sea, and are all occupied by glaciers. In summer, streams of
water flow from some of them, and form cascades; but, in general, the glaciers are covered with snow
all the year. Not a plant deserving the name of tree or shrub enlivens the desolate scene ; and of the
47 species of plants which the country produces, most are mosses and lichens. The arctic fox is the
most common quadruped ; but there are also white bears, rein-deer, and numerous sea-fowl. The
surrounding seas teem with life ; with whales, seals, walrusses, cod, ling, herring, torsk, and skate ;
but the most abundant marine animals are of the molluscous aud crustaceous classes. The climate
is intensely cold; but the atmosphere is pure and dry, and so serene and refractive, that objects are
clearly seen through it at vast distances. The dominion is claimed by Russia, and a few Russian hun-
ters continue on the islands, even during winter, to pursue the seal and the walrus. To the south-
west of Spitzbergen, nearer the coast of Greenland, is the rocky island of Jan Mat/en, which rises to
an elevation of 7000 feet above the level of the sea, and contains an active volcano.
Malaysia.] 96T
OCEANICA OR OCEANIA.
This name has been employed by the French geographers, and adopted by those of
other nations, to include the innumerable islands scattered over the great ocean
which extends from the south-eastern shores of Asia to the western coast of America.
From Asia, Oceania is separated by the Gulf of Martaban, the Strait of Malacca, the
Chinese Sea, the Channel of Formosa, and the sea to the south and cast of Japan ; and
from America, by the wide expanse of ocean, which is free of islands, between the
■western shores of that continent, and the most easterly parts of Polynesia. Oceania
may be divided into three distinct portions, which we shall treat of separately, under
the names of Malaysia or Malaisia ; Australasia ; and Polijtiesia.
I. MALAYSIA.
General Description. — Malaysia includes the numerous islands immediately ad-
joining the south-eastern coasts of Asia, to which they have been hitherto usually
considered as an appendage, under the name of the Indian Arckipelayo. The group
has been named Malaysia from the circumstance, that almost without exception people
of the Malay race possess the coasts, at least, of all the large islands, and are, indeed,
the dominant race of the archipelago. It is situate between 12"^ 40' S., and 20° N.
lat., and 92° and 134° E. long. The archipelago is arranged into groups and chains
of islands, which, being thickly strewed, form numerous straits and passages, the
intricacy of which would render the navigation dangerous, were not the seas distin-
guished beyond all others, by the proximity of large tracts of land, by their pacitic
character, and by the uniformity of the prevailing winds and currents. The whole
of Malaysia is situate within the tropics. There is accordingly a great uniformity
of climate, of animal and vegetable productions, and in the character of its inhabi-
tants. It possesses the common characteristics of other tropical countries ; heat,
moisture, and luxuriant vegetation. The islands are throughout of a mountainous
nature, and the archipelago is traversed by several great lines of volcanic action.
From Luzon, where there are three active volcanoes, one line extends through Min-
danao, Sanguir, the north-eastern extremity of Celebes, Gilolo, and the Moluccas,
where it is met by two other great volcanic lines, the one of which extends oast
and west from Barren Island in the Gulf of Martaban, through Sumatra, Java, IJali,
Lombok, Sumbawa, Sandelwood, and others, and the other stretches through Borneo,
Celebes, Banda, with New Guinea, New Britain, New Irelaml, and various other
islands of Polynesia. The islands contain few plains, and no arid deserts. Where
not cultivated, they are generally covered with forests of stupendous trees. They
are distinguished from every other group of islands in the world, by the presence of
periodical winds ; and from all countries whatever l)y the peculinr character of these.
If not the most extensive, Malaysia is at least the most widely spread region, and
the region of the most curious and various productions in the immediate neighbour-
hood of the equator. The insularity of the region, the contiguity of the isliuids,
and the facility and rapidity of the navigation, are also prominent and characteristic
features. The animal and veijetalde jiroductions either ditfer wholly from those of
Other countries, or consist of important varieties of them; ami the productions of
the intervening seas are not less remarkable for their abundance and variety than
those of the land.
Though there is much diversity in the physical character of the islands and their
inhabitants, the whole are capable <jf being classed uiuler five natural divi.xions.
Beginning from the west, the first division comprehends Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lom-
bok, and about two-thirds of the western portion of Borneo, as far as IKJ' V,. long.
The animal and vegetable productions of this division are peculiar, and have a higher
character of utility than those of the other <Iivisions; the soil is more fertile, and
better suited for rearing vegetable food of the highest quality. Tlic ci^ili/cd inhabi-
tants have a general similarity in manners, langiuigc, and political institutions; thej
968 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY [Malaysia.
are much more civilized than those of the other divisions, and have made considerable
progress in arts, arms, and letters. Rice is their principal food, and is generally
abundant. Celebes is the centre of the second grand division, which comprehends,
besides that great island, the smaller islands on its coast, as Boutong and Salayer, the
whole chain of islands from 116° to 124° E. long., with the east coast of Borneo up
to 3° N. lat. The animal and vegetable productions have generally a peculiar charac-
ter; the soil is less fertile than that of the first division, and less adapted for produ-
cing rice or other grain of the first quality. The civilized inhabitants have made
considerable progress in the useful arts, but their civilization is of an inferior kind to
that of the first division. In language, manners, and political institutions, there is a
surprising similarity among them, but they differ widely from their western neighbours.
Rice is their principal food, but is not abundant, and sago is occasionally used. The
third division, which extends from 124° to 130° E. long., and from S. lat. 10° to N.
lat. 2°, differs remarkably from all the rest. The character of the monsoons is liere
reversed. The eastern monsoon, which is dry and moderate to the west, is here rainy
and boisterous ; the western monsoon, which is rough and wet in the first two divisions,
is here dry and temperate. The greater number of the plants and animalsof the first two
divisions disappear in the third, which possesses remarkable productions of its own,
unknown in any other part of the world. This is the native country of the clove and
the nutmeg, and the only region that produces them in perfection. For raising the
higher kinds of vegetable food the soil is less suited. Rice is scarcely produced at
all, and the staple food of the people is sago. In language, manners, and institutions,
the people agree among themselves, but differ essentially from their neighbours.
They are far inferior in knowledge, skill, and civilization, to the people of the first
two divisions ; and have never acquired the use of letters. The fourth division is
the least distinctly characterized ; but it is nevertheless marked by points of dissimili-
tude sufficiently striking to entitle it to be considered separately. It extends from
116° to 128° E. long, and from 4° to 10° N. lat., including the north-eastern corner
of Borneo, the large island of Mindanao, and the Sooloo archipelago. The clove and
the nutmeg are indigenous, but of inferior quality ; sago is much used, but rice is the
principal food of the inhabitants. In civilization the people are superior to those of
the third division, but inferior to those of the first and second. Their language, man-
ners, and institutions are peculiar, agreeing with each other, but differing from those
of all their neighbours. The fifth division is the well known group of the Philippines,
which extend from 10° to 15° N. lat. A geographical position so different from that
of all the other countries of Malaysia occasions much difference of climate and natural
productions. It is the only portion of Malaysia within the region of hurricanes, and
this circumstance alone gives a peculiar character to the country. The soil is of emi-
nent fertility. It is particularly favourable to the growth of tobacco and the sugar-
cane, but does not produce the pepper of the first division, the spices of the third,
nor the delicate and peculiar fruits which characterize the islands within 10° of the
equator, and are unknown to all other regions of the earth. The manners, cus-
toms, and institutions, and, above all, the language of the people, differ from those
of the inhabitants of all the other divisions. Rice is the food of the more civilized
races.
People. — These distinctive features have necessarily produced the most extensive
influence on the character and civilization of the inhabitants. The most abject races
only, those secluded from the sea, are hunters; there are no pastoral tribes ; and all
migrations are made by water. Their boats and canoes are to the Malays what the
horse and the camel are to the Tartars and the Arabs ; the people are by necessity
navigators and fishermen, and from this condition the progress of civilization among
them is to be traced. Predatory warfare is the only kind suited to their genius.
The inhabitants consist of two perfectly distinct races ; the one fair or brown
coloured, with lank hair ; the other black or sooty coloured, with woolly or frizzled
hair. The brown coloured tribes agree so remarkably in appearance with each
other, that one general description will suffice for all ; and the varieties may gene-
rally be considered as objects of curious rather than of useful distinction. Their
persons are short, squat, and robust. Their medium height may be reckoned, for
the men, about five feet two inches, and for the women, about three inches less.
Their complexion is generally brown, but varies a little in different tribes ; neither
the climate nor the habits of the people seem to have any effect upon it. The fairest
races are generally towards the west, and some of them, as the Battas of Sumatra, are
under the very equator. The Javanese, who live the most comfortably, are among
Malaysia.] OCEANIA. 069
the darkest people of this race ; while the wretched Davaks or cannibals of Borneo,
are among the fairest. The hair of the head is long, lank, harsh, and always black I
on every other part of the body the hair is scanty ; the beard in particular is very
defective. The Mahometan priests among them are fond of wearing beards, but the
utmost they can obtain by great care and assiduous culture, is a few straggling
hairs, which only serve to make them ridiculous. The rest of the community pluck
out what no pains would render respectable. Compared with Europeans, Arabs, Per-
sians, Tartars, Burmans, and Siamese, they may be considered as an ill-looking race.
They most resemble in person and complexion the people of Siam and Ava ; but
nevertheless differ essentially from these, and are, in short, a distinct race, maintain-
ing among themselves a remarkable congruity, but are, at the same time, very unlike
any other people. Their standard of perfection in colour is virgin gold ; but their
complexion is scarcely ever clear, and a blush is hardly at any time discernible in it.
This circumstance, however, distinguishes them from Europeans more than from
Asiatics.
The Pua-puas, Papuas, or woolly-haired race, resemble dwarfish African negroes.
Mr. Crawford says that he never saw any of them whose stature exceeded five feet,
and he has seen full-grown men of only four feet nine inches. Besides their short sta-
ture they have spare and pimy frames ; and their complexion is of a sooty colour. Sir
Everard Home draws the following distinction between them and Africans : " The
skin (of the Pua-pua) is of a lighter colour ; the woolly hair grows in small tufts, and
each hair has a spiral twist. The forehead rises higher, and the hind head is not so
much cut off. The nose projects more from the face. The upper lip is longer and more
prominent. The lower Hi) projects forward from the lower jaw to such an extent
that the chin forms no part of tlie face, the lower part of which is formed by the
mouth. The buttocks are so much lower than in the African negro as to form a
striking mark of distinction ; but the calf of the leg is as high as in the African. It
is only, indeed, in the mere exterior stamp that the puny negro of Malaysia bears any
resemblance to the African, who, in vigour of frame, and capacity for endurance, is
superior to all the Asiatic and American races. The Pua-puas are evidently a dis-
tinct variety of the human species, and a very inferior one. Tlieir puny stature and
feeble frames cannot be ascribed to tlie poverty of their food, or the hardships of their
condition ; for the ])rown races, who live under circumstances equally precarious,
have vigorous constitutions. Some islands, indeed, they enjoy almost exclusively to
themselves, yet they have in no instance lisen above the most abject state of bar-
barism. Whenever they come in contatrt with the fair race, they are hunted down
like wild beasts, and driven to the natural fastnesses of the mountains. Those of
them, however, who inhabit New Guinea and the islands to the eastward, tiiough
hideous in appearance, arc snid to be rol)ust men of a shining black com|)lexion."
The question of the first origin of hotli of these races appears to Mr. Crawford to
be one far beyond the compass of human reason. " By very superficial observers,"
he says, " the one has been supposed a colony from Africa, and the other an emigra-
tion from Tartary. Either hypothesis is too absurd to bear tlie slightest touch of
examination. Not to say that eacli race is radically distinct from the stock from
which it is imagiiK^d to have proceeded; the ])liysical ^tate of the globe, the nature
of man, and all that we know of bis history, must be overturned to render these vio-
lent su[)[)osiiions possible." — (Jlisl. Lid. Arcliificlaija, I. 27.)
.Such was the result of Mr. (Jrawfiird's imjuirics ; but later and more minute re-
searches have established the existence of a third race of Malaysians, as black as the
Papuas, or nearly so, but with straight or lank hair, and different features, sonu'tiiiu'!*
resembling those of the Hindoos. They seem, however, generally to be of the same
lineage and physical character as the Australians, and to be tiie aborigines, or oldest
known inhabitants of the larger island-. They are every where extremely liarbarous ;
and, where not reduced to slavery, the difrcrent tribes retain a general similarity in
their habits of life. They are termed Aljouioiis, jirafui<is, Arafnids, or llarafdrdx,
and speak a great variety of languages. They are found in New (iuinea, the .Mo-
luccas, Celel)es, and the Philip[iines ; the barbarous people of the interior of Borneo
belong, in part at least, to tlie same race; and the savages of the interior of Sumatra
are probably a tribe of the same description.
For a people below the middle size of Europeans, and living almost solely on
vegetable food, the brown Malaysians are strong and athleti<' ; not agile and active,
Imt persevering. They are uncleanly in their habits and persons, but temperate and
even abstemious in their diet. They may be considered industrious or indolent in
proportion to their degree of civilization or barbarity. Wherever they enjoy tran-
970 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Malaysia.
quillity and security they are found to be industrious like other people in the same
circumstances. Their frames are suited to the climate they live in ; they have no
constitutional listlessness or apathy ; and, whenever they have a reasonable pro-
spect of advantage, they labour with vigour and perseverance. But, as civilization
among even the most improved is but in an early stage, and even their best forms of
government are wretched, and confer little security of person or property, their cha-
racter feels the influence, and they may all be pronounced an indolent race, many of
them approaching to listlessness and apathy. They are gifted with a large portion of
fortitude, but their courage consists rather in suffering with patience, than in braving
danger. With respect to their intellectual faculties, they may be pronounced slow
of comprehension, but of sound, though contracted judgment. In quickness, acuteness,
and comprehensiveness of understanding, they come far short of the civilized nations of
Europe, and in subtlety they are not less inferior to the Hindoos and the Chinese.
Their weakness of reason and pruriaiicy of imagination make them wonderfully cre-
dulous and superstitious. But though their faculties are feeble, they are not perverted
by false impressions, nor distorted and diseased by the influence of false refinement and
erroneous education, like those of most of the Asiatic nations ; while they possess
an abundant share of laudable curiosity, with an anxious desire for knowledge. They
are also honourably distinguished from the Asiatics by a regard for truth ; they have
no capacity for intrigue, and have never been known at any time to pursue those dex-
terous expedients, and cunning practices, in which the whole lives of some Asiatics
are so frequently spent. They are capable of attachment, gratitude, and fidelity ; are
grave, reserved, cautious, courteous, and obsequious ; but neither litigious, avaricious,
nor rapacious, though sufficiently tenacious of their rights. They are not cruel and
unfeeling ; in their legal punishments there are no symptoms of refined cruelty, the
origin of which can be traced to their own manners ; they are good-humoured and cheer-
ful to a remarkable degree, and very slightly irascible ; and hospitality is almost univer-
sally practised. But, on the other hand, the absence of public security, and of a regular
administration of justice, leaves in a great measure in the hands of private persons the
power of avenging injuries ; and, accordingly, every man has arms in his hands. The
point of honour is, in consequence, often as much observed by the peasant of Malaysia,
as by French or English gentlemen. In their demeanour there is a large share of natural
politeness ; among the more scrupulous, a contemptuous or haughty manner, still less
an abusive expression, or a blow, will not be tolerated for a moment ; the kris is ever at
hand ready to avenge the insult. Every man knows this, and the consequence is a
guarded demeanour and a universal politeness. AH the tribes of the Archipelago
pride themselves in this, and never suffer an indignity even to a stranger who could
not defend himself. They are neither bigoted nor intolerant, with respect to any class
of opinions or practices, whether civil or religious. They bear no rancour towards
strangers, but readily tolerate their peculiar manners, customs, and forms of religion.
They are, however, simple, credulous, and superstitious; it would require a volume,
says Mr. Crawford, to describe all the forms luider which these weaknesses are dis-
played. They believe in dreams, omens, lucky and unlucky days, casting of nativities,
supernatural endowments, invulnerability, sorcery, enchantments, charms, filtres,
and relics. There is not a forest, a mountain, a rock, or a cave, that is not supposed
to be the habitation of some invisible being ; and, not content with their own stock
of these, their comprehensive faith has admitted the deities of Western India, Arabia,
and Persia. These superstitions are generally harmless ; though, at times, their de-
lusions operate in the most formidable manner. But over all their good qualities and
weaknesses, revenge, the vice of all barbarians, is predominant. They can hardly
forgive an injury, and are capable of harbouring the longest and most deeply-rooted
resentment ; and in seeking to gratify this feeling, they sometimes break out into those
fits of furious madness, which have become proverbial under the name of muck,
where the madman assails all who come in his way till he is himself cut down. Ano-
ther vice, incident to their state of society, is a disregard for human life. They live
in a state of turbulence and anarchy ; the power of the law is scarcely felt ; death is
familiar to them ; and the great body of them are in such a state of degradation, that
life is neither valued nor valuable ; every man's life has its price, and that not a very
high one ; murders and assassinations are common. In their social and domestic
state, thefts and robberies are extremely frequent ; but these crimes are generally
perpetrated only by the meanest and most abandoned of the people ; and even the
common peasantry are remarkable, more generally for honesty and fidelity than for
the opposite vices. But, in their intercourse with strangers and enemies, the treachery
of the Malaysian character is fully displayed. Of all the people of the East, with
Malaysia.] OCEANIA. 971
whom Europeans have had an extensive commercial intercourse, the Malaysians are
by far the most uncivilized and barbarous. The singular value of the productions of
their country, and its peculiar convenience for trade, have occasioned an extent of
intercourse scarcely compatible with their state of civilization ; the results of which
are those acts of piracy and other lawless attacks on the property of strangers, which
are insiduously perpetrated in accordance with the aggressive spirit of all people in
such a state of society. Among a hundred nations of independent barbarians, the
plunder of the stranger and the traveller are no more looked upon as crimes, than
among the Arabs ; while, on the other hand, as among the latter people, the same
stranger, if destitute and forlorn, would find an hospitable reception.
Marriage is universally observed ; and the lot of the women may, on the whole,
be considered as more fortunate than in any other country of the East. They are,
in general, not immured at all ; and when they are secluded, the seclusion is but
partial, and is free from that jealous restraint which has become proverbial with
Asiatic manners. The husband invariably pays a price for his wife ; but nevertlieless
women are not treated with contempt or disdain. They eat with tlie men, and asso-
ciate with them in all respects on such terms of equality as are sur[)rising in tliat state
of society ; and this equality is most thoroughly recognised among the most warlike
tribes ; women are frequently raised to the throne, and the practice is most frequent
where the society is most turbulent. Polygamy and concubinage are tolerated ; but
may be looked upon rather as a vicious lu.vury of the great, than as a general practice.
With respect to female purity there is the greatest difference of manners and opinions
among them, some of the tribes being veiy lax, while others are the reverse ; though
jealousy cannot be said to be a vice belonging to any of them.
With respect to the amount of the population of M:ilaysia there are no data upon
which any estimate can be formed. M. 13albi has arranged the Malaysians according
to their languages, as in the following table : —
The Javanese, who seem to be the most numerous, as they form two-thirds of the population of
Java, may be regarded as the most polished people of Oceania, while their literature is the richest and
most important. They have been at three dillerent epochs tlie preponderant nation of .Malaysia : the
first of which was towards the second half of the fourteenth century, when tlie eini^iri' of .Majiaiiahit
embraced almost the whole of Java, the kingdom of PaleinhaniJ in Su'inatra, tlie island of liali, and the
petty states in the southern part of IJortieo ; the second, in the tirst half of the lilteentli century, w hen
their dominion extended not only over all Java, but also over Sabrang, Goa, .Macassar, and others in
Celebes, Banda. Sumbawa, EInde, Timor, Sooloo, Ceram, a part of Horneo, ami Palemhang in Suma-
tra; and the third, in the first half of the seventeenth century, when the empire of Mataram nearly
equalled that of .Majiapahit. The intellectual character of the Javanese ranks lower tlian that of
almost any other people who have made equal progress in external circumstances, aiul their litera-
ture, like their religion, is almost entirely derived from Southern .Vsia, and e.\i»ts in a vtry low and
precarious state.
The Mountaineers of IJantam, Batavia, Buitenzoorg, Prcangan, and Cheribon, occupy a large por-
tion of that part of Java named Sundu by the natives.
The Islanders tif Dili are among the most polished people of Oceania, although without an indi-
genous literature. Their religion and institutions are a faithful representation of those which formerly
prevailed over all .Malaysia, and particularly at the court of .M;ijiapaliit.
The Mitlai/s occujjy the late empire of .Menangcaboo, Siak, raleniban;,', and other parts of Sumatra ;
the islands of I.ingen and Bintan.', the greater part of the coasts of Borneo and the Moluccas, and
the chain of islands extending from Sumbawa to Timor. They possess a literature as ricli as that of
the Javanese, though l.ss original. Besides the empire of -MiMumgcaboo, which comprised the greater
part of Sumatra, tliis people possessed another emijire not Kss powirlu! and more celebrated, that of
Malacca, which, towards the end of the Uih century, uiuler the brilliant reign of the Sultan .Moham-
med Shah, comprised nearly the whole coasts of the Malay peninsula, the islands of Lingen and
Bintang, and the districts of Canipar and Arou in Sunuitra.
The liiittnkt or ISnItas, who are tound in Smnatra, present perhips the most extraordinary mixture
of civilized and barbarous, or rather ferocious maimers. For a long time they have written their lan-
guage in a peculiar character; thi> greater part of them are able to read and write, and they possess
an original literature, rich, though little known. They have a code of laws of high aniiquity ; but,
from respect to these law s and to the institutions of their ancestors, they are still cannibals. This codu
condemns to 1m; eaten alive — 1. Those who are guilty of adultery ; '.i. Those who counnit a tlielt undir
niglit ; 'A Prisoners taken in imiiortant w ars, that is to say, in the wars of one district against another ;
4. Tho.se of the same tril>e who intermarry, a praeiici' strictly forbidden ; .'>. Those who treachenuisly
attack a village, a house, or a person. Whoever connnits one of these crimes is judged and eonilemnr<l
by a competent tribunal ; the prisoner is then tieil U> a post, cut in piiccs, and eaten by the people.
IJut men only partake of the feast; the eating of human flesh is fortiidden to womin. However re-
volting these executions may be. they are nevertlieless the result <d' the calinest deliberations, and are
seldom the effect of immediate or private vengeance, e.veept perhaps in the ease of prisoners of war.
They were formerly also in the habit id' eating their i>arents when tliese became too old to work ; but
this practice has long ceased. It is calculated that the number of people eaten in time of peace is
from fJO to IWI yearly.
The Acliinese, who possess the northern jjart of Sumatra, were during the Ifilli and I7lh ecnturii s,
the predominant people of .Malaysia, being in alliance with almost all the commereini nations from
Japan to Arabia, and comprising under their dominion considerabli' jiortions (d' Sumatra and .Mulayn.
Although fallen from their ancient importance the .\chinesi; are si ill much clevoted to eonimerce and
navigation.
The Bimri, who occupy the greater part of Sumbawa, and are a somewhat polished peojile. The
Belhit and the l\ aikinai divide betwron them the greater p.irt of Timor.
The HuL' is or Hi/./u ( Uoo-ghe-ze ; are the most i.iwcrfiil p oplo of <'.|i b. ■=, .-inil tlie mo5t com-
mercial nation of .Malaysia, loriiiing tl:u crew, of almost a-1 Ih.r traiiin- pr:ibi's. Tin y pos.-e-» a
native literature, and are con idere<l as tho original stock of botli the .Mal.iyii an<l tlio Javanese.
972 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Malaysia.
The ^facflssars or Mangkaaara occupy the south-western peninsula of Celebes, and ■were at ona
time the principal maritime people of Malaysia. They possess a native literature, but it is less rich
than that of the Bugis.
The Turajat possess the middle part of Celebes, of which tliey seem to be the most ancient inhabi-
tants. They are also called Alfourous by some voyagers ; and are by some writers considered to be
the original stock which has peopled Polynesia.
The Biajous, a numerous, warlike, and industrious people, possess a portion of the interior of Bor-
neo. They are cannibals, and extremely ferocious.
The Datiaks of Borneo appear to be identical with the Ilaraforos and Irlans of the interior of that
great island. Their features, manners, customs, language, and religious faith present the most inti-
mate and incontestible relations with the physical and moral characteristics, not only of the peojtle
who inhabit the interior of the larger islands of the Philippines, the Moluccas, and Celebes, but also
of many of the natives of Polynesia. But very little is yet known concerning them, or of their origin
and afiinities.
The Ta'jalos occupy the greater part of Luzon. They possess a peculiar alphabet ; but their lite-
rature consists chiefly of translations of Spanish works.
The IlioFus inhabit the province of that name in the island of Luzon.
The Bissayos inhabit the islands of Samar, Leyte, Zebu, Calamines, Mindoro, Masbate, Panay,
Tieao, Burias, and others of the Philippines.
The Sooloos possess the archipelago of that name ; and are famed as pirates. The Mindanaoese are
the principal people of the island of that name.
Religion Islam is the religion professed by the Javanese, Malays, Achinese,
Bugis, Macassars, Sooloos, the people of the Moluccas, the Mindanaoese, and Illanos
in the island of Mindanao, the greater part of the people of Samar and Leyte, and by
some tribes of Lampongs and Kejangs in Sumatra, with some of the Haraforos of Bor-
neo and the Moluccas. Christianity is professed by a considerable number of people :
Catholicism, by the Spanish subjects in the Philippines, the people of Timor subject
to the Portuguese, and several others in Sabrao, Flores, and others of the soutliern
chain of islands: and Calvinism, by a great number of the people of the Moluccas,
particularly in Amboyna, and other Dutch settlements. Buddhism is professed by the
Chinese, who are found in great numbers at Batavia and other parts of Malaysia, and
by a portion of the people of Bali ; Brahminism, by the greater part of the people of
Bali and Madura, and by the Kelangs, a petty tribe in Java. The religion of the
Battas in Sumatra acknowledges a sort of Trinity, a paradise, and a hell; and several
of its dogmas, with some of the names of its subordinate deities, seem to be of In-
dian origin. Nothing is known of the religion of the Haraforos of Mindanao, but
that they have temples and priests, and practise augury. The Rejangs of Sumatra,
who have no form of worship, believe in the metempsychosis. The religion of several
of the independent tribes of Luzon, and others of the Philippines, consists in the ado-
ration of good and evil spirits, and though they have no temples, altars, or idols, they
have nevertheless priestesses, sacrifices, and sorcerers.
Government The forms of government exhibit every shade and variety, from that
of isolated families living without laws or magistrates, to that extremity of despotism
which characterizes the monarchies of Java. The most of the civilized inhabitants of
Celebes, Sumatra, Borneo, and Mindanao, are governed by elective kings, who have
very little authority. The government of Acheen, in Sumatra, fluctuates continu-
ally between anarchy and despotism ; that of the Shushunan or emperor of Sura-
carta, and of the Sultan of Djocjocarta, was lately despotic, the power of these so-
vereigns being only limited by certain national customs ; one of which is, that each
village, with its district, forms a sort of body politic, governed by its chief, who is
elected by the people. During the first century of Mahometanism in Java, the mos-
lem priests formed a real hierarchy, which possessed the prerogative of choosing the
sovereign ; but of this they were deprived by the powerful fimily of Mataram, which
rendered the throne hereditary. The throne of Sooloo is hereditary, but the Sul-
tan's authority is limited by that of the datus or hereditary nobles, who form a coun-
cil of state ; by the Maharajah-lelah, who is a sort of censor, charged with watching
the conduct of both the Sultan and the datus; and by the Orang-kaT-mallik, a sort of
tribune of the people, whose duty it is to defend their rights. All tlie states of Ce-
lebes may be considered as aristocratic republics, where the sovereign power resides
in an hereditary nobility, M'ho choose, and may even depose the king, to whom they
allow very little authority. The only foreign powers who have possessions in Ma-
laysia are the Dutch, the Spaniards, and the Portuguese. The Dutch possess, or
domineer over, the whole of Java, and the greater part of Sumatra, where they are
continually extending their dominion over the native states. They possess also the
Molucca islands, and generally exercise a predominant iniluence over all the southern
portion of the Archipelago. The Spaniards possess the island of Luzon, and several
other portions of the Philippine group. The Portuguese possess only a portion of
the island of Timor.
Industry With respect to industry, the Malaysians present the most marked
Malaysia.] OCEANIA. 97;}
differences. While the negro races every where live in the forests among the ourang-
outangs, in almost total ignorance of the arts and trades which are most indispensable
to society, the numerous tribes of the brown race have generally reached a certain
degree of civilization, and the most advanced among them have applied themselves
with great success to agriculture, navigation, fishing, and even, in some places, to the
working of mines. The people of Celebes, the Bugis, the Rejangs, the Javanese, the
lllocos, the Camarinas, and the Malays, are excellent weavers. Several of them also
shew great dexterity in the working of jewellery, gold and silver ornaments, and par-
ticularly in filagree, in the last of which the people of Manado, the Achinese, the
Menangcaboos, the Rejangs, and the people of Padaug, in Sumatra, particularly excel.
The Malays of Borneo and the Javanese are acquainted with the art of cutting and
polishing the diamond and other precious stones; and the latter work in wood with
such distinguished skill, that they supply with furniture all the Europeans who reside
throughout the Archipelago. A great commerce is carried on by the Malaysians in
exchanging the products of their different islands, and of their industry. Tlie Bugis,
however, are the most commercial people of the Archipelago, and those of tlie State
of Wajou monopolize the greater part of the foreign trade. The latter have colo-
nies established in all the ports of Malaysia, from Acheen to Manila, and furnish
almost all the crews of the Bugi proas which navigate the intervening seas. Nearly
all the princes and chiefs of the maritime states of Malaysia and their princi[)al officers
trade on their own account, and in some places exclusively. Among the foreigners
in Malaysia the Chinese carry on the most extensive trade. They are in the Archi-
pelago what the Jews were in Europe during the middle ages, and still are in Asia,
Africa, and eastern Europe. But, more active and more industrious than the Jews,
besides trading both by wholesale and retail by sea and land, the Chinese also ejier-
cise the professions of gardeners, tailors, shoemakers, painters, distillers, and potters j
they manufacture all the furnishings required by the civil and military establishments,
levy the taxes, excise, and customs, work the mines, and coin the money. The insular
position of the greater part of tlie Malaysians has made them expert and intrepid ma-
riners ; and they have carried to a high degree of perfection the construction of their
various kinds of vessels. The Achinese and the Siaks of Sumatra, the Macassars and
Bugis of Celebes, the Tagales of Luzon, and the natives of Mindanao, Sooloo, and
Bali, excel all the other Malaysians in this art. The vessels of the Achinese, the
Siaks, the Sooloos, and the Mindanaoese, are the largest, and are furnished with guns.
The Tagales and others of the brown races of Luzon or Manila are almost univer-
sally employed as cannoneers or [)ilots, for both of which professions they are emi-
nently qualified. At the same time, however, that Malaysia exhibits so active a com-
merce, it is infested by a great number of pirates or corsairs, the most notorious of
whom are the Achinese and Siaks of Sumatra, the people of Lingen, Kali, and Tnli-
tuli, on the north-west coast of Celebes, the Tedongs a tribe of Dayaks, and the
people of Sambas in Borneo, the people of Mindanao, the Ulanos, and the Sooloos.
But owing to the exertions of the British and Dutch cruizers, this public nuisance
has been of late years much checked in those parts of Malaysia which are frequented
by their subjects. The energy exerted by the present Rajah, Sir .fames Brookes,
with the assistance of the 15ritish navy, has gone far to extirpate the jiirates from
Borneo and the Malaysian seas. The slavery, wliich is recognised and sanction-
ed by law throughout Malaysia, with the exception of Java, the ferocity of
some tribes, and tlie weakness and low condition of others, give occasion to tho
same kinds of abuse, violence and atrocity, for which the African slave- trade has
been so justly decried. All the nations which we have nienticiiicd as the most ad-
dicted to jiiracy, are also the most actively engaged in this trade, which has received
a great extension from the demands of the European, and particularly the Dutch,
settlements for slave labour.
The principal articles of export are : nutmegs, cloves, cinnamon, pepper, cofTce,
rice, tin, gold, diamonds, pearls, ivory, edible birds'-nests, sandalwood, indigo, cotton,
sugar, tobacco, camphor, turpentine, betel leaf, ambergris, ('(jal, corn, horses, furs,
lint and wool of the finest quality, whale-oil and balein, tortoise->lu'll, liolothiiries, birds
of [laradi-e, cocoas, ginger, sai,'o, canes, rattans, areca nuts, bamboos, bnad-lrnit,
wood of various kinds for building and cabinetmaking, and particularly, teak, coal,
&c. Tiie principal articles of iinport are : oiiium, salt, cloths, silks, porcelain, cojjper,
oil, soap, wine, liqueurs, fire-arms and other wca|ions, gunpowder, and a great
variety of Eurojiean articles. The principal trading places are: Batavia, Samarang,
Sourabaya, in Java; Rhio ; Amboyna; Coupang, in Timor; Macassar, in Celebes;
Manila, in Luzon; Borneo; and Acheen, in Sumatra.
974 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [MAr.AVsiA.
For the purpose of topographical description, Malaysia may be divided into six
groups of islands, namely — 1. Sumatra, and the smaller islands adjacent ; 2. The long
chain of islands which extends east and west from the Strait of Sunda to New Guinea,
including Java, Madura, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Comobo, Flares, Jindana or San-
delwood, Adenar, Solor, Lomblem, Pantnr, Ombay, Timor, Semao, Rotte, Savit, Cam-
bi. Wetter, Serwatty, JSabba, Timorlaut, &c. ; 3. The Banda and Molucca Inlands ;
4. Celebes and the smaller adjacent islands; 5. Borneo and adjacent islands; 6. The
Philippine Islands.
1. Sumatra stretches from N.W. to S.E. about 1050 miles, with an average breadth of 180, being di-
vided into two almost equal parts by the equator, and extends from 5° 56' N., to 5° 56' S. lat. It is
broadest in the south, and becomes gradually narrower towards the north. A chain of mountains
runs through its whole length, keeping nearest the west coast, forming in some places double and
treble ranges, which vary in height from 3000 to 5000 feet, wliile some of tlieir peaks rise to more than
double that height. Mount Kassoumha. under the equator, is about 15,000 feet high, and Mount
Ophir, 13,800. Between the ranges are elevated plains, where the air is cool, and which, being clear
of wood, are the best inhabited parts of the island. These also contain many large and beautiful
lakes : but very little is known respecting the interior. The low land on the western coast is very nar-
row, scarcely any where exceeding 20 miles; but, in the southern part of the east coast, there are
broad plains, which are intersected by large rivers. This diversified surface occasions considerable
variety of climate ; but the heat, even in the lowest parts of the coast land, are more moderate than
in other tropical regions. At the most sultry hour in the afternoon the thermometer generally fluctuates
between 82° and 85°; and Mr. Marsden says that he never saw it higher than 86° in the shade, and that
at sunrise it is usually 70°. Inland, as the country ascends, the heat decreases so rapidly that, be-
yond the first range of hills, the people require fires in the morning, and till the day advances ; but
frost, snow, and liail are unknown in any part of the island. The hill country is exposed to a dense
fog, whicli rises every morning, and seldom disperses till three hours after sunrise. The island is sub-
ject to the monsoons ; the south-east monsoon or dry season, commencing in May and abating in
September ; the north-east or wet monsoon, commencing in November and continuing till March, du-
ring which period the country is deluged with almost constant rain. There is also a daily change
of sea and land breezes, the latter of which is cold, chilly, and damp ; exposure to it is dangerous
to health, and sleeping in it proves almost certain death. Thunder and lightning are frequent and ter-
rific, especially at the chansje of the monsoons ; and destructive earthquakes frequently occur. The
soil is generally a stiff, reddish clay, covered with a layer of black mould, from which there springs
a perpetual growth of rank grass, brushwood, or timber, aftording abundant cover for wild beasts.
The most important article of produce is rice ; next to it is the cocoa-nut, which also serves as a
general article of food, while its oil is used for anointing the hair, and for lamps. There are also
large plantations of betel-nut trees and bamboos, sago-trees, and a great variety of other palms.
Sugar-cane, maize. Chili pepper, turmeric, ginger, coriander, and cummin seed are raised. Pepper
is a very important article ; it seems to flourish in any kind of soil, and is a great article of trade.
Camphor, benzoin, cassia, and cotton are also produced, and form articles of export. Hemp is ex-
tensively cultivated, not for any useful purpose, but for producing bang, an intoxicating liquor, which
is smoked in pipes with tobacco. No country is more distinguished for th§ variety of fine fruits which
it produces spontaneously. Among these are the mangustin, pine-apple, orange, shaddock, limes,
lemons, bread-fruit, jack-fruit, mango, papaw, pomegranate, tamarind, and various nuts and almonds.
Owing to the equable temperature throughout the year, there is an uninterrupted succession of shrubs
and flowers, which diffuse a pleasant fragrance, and many of which are used in medicine and the use-
ful arts. Among these are the castir-oil plant, caoutchouc, ubar, a rod wood resembling logwood in
its properties, and the upas or poison tree, whose deleterious qualities have been so much exaggerated.
The zoology is distinguished by some of the most remarkable -animals. Elephants and tigers are
numerous and destructive. A small black bear is common ; deer abound in great variety, and mon-
keys of all kinds are innumerable. There are also sloths, squirrels, stinkards, civet cats, tiger cats,
porcupines, hedgehogs, armadillos, bats, alligators, hippopotamuses, guanas, cameleons, flying lizards,
tortoises, turtle, and buffaloes both wild and tame. The latter supply the people with milk, butter,
and beef, there being no bovine animals. The breed of horses is small, but well made and hardy ;
there are also sheep of a small breed, goats, and swine both wild and tame, otters, cats, rats, and dogs.
Frogs, toads, and reptiles of every kind abound in the swamps ; snakes are common, but of very few
of them is the bite mortal. There is, however, the poisonous viper and the hooded snake ; the boa
constrictor is the largest, growing sometimes to a length of thirty feet, with proportionate bulk and
strength. Birds are extremely numerous, including peacocks, eagles, kites, vultures, crows, jackdaws,
kingfishers, the rhinoceros-bird, storks, snipes, coots, plovers, pigeons, quails, starlings, swallows,
minas, parrots, parroquets, geese, ducks, teal, &c. The Sumatran pheasant is a magnificent bird ;
the plumage being, perhaps, the richest among all the animals of the feathered tribe. The island may
be said literally to swarm with insects, many of which arc extremely annoying and destructive ; and
the surrounding seas abound with fish. Sumatra is rich in minerals. Gold is chiefly found in the
mountainous districts of the interior, in a pure metallic sts:te. There are no silver mines ; but the
copper mines contain a very rich ore, which resembles Japan copper in presenting the appearance of
a mixture of gold. In the country of Menangcaboo, in the centre of the island, iron ore is collected,
smelted, and formed into metal, and steel is manufactured of a peculiar temper, and with a degree of
hardness which lias never been equalled in Europe. Tin is one of the great mineral products ; it
abounds chietiy near Palembang on the east coast. Sulphur abounds ; also yellow arsenic and salt-
petre. There is also coal in various places ; mineral and hot springs ; edible birds'-nests ; bees'-wax
in great abundance, and an important article of trade ; gumlac, and ivory.
The inhabitants are distinguished as Sumatrans and Malays, but the language of the latter is spoken
every where along the coasts ; it also prevails in the inland country of Menangcaboo, and is under-
stood in almost every part of the island. The Malay character has been already described (see p 752),
and is every where the same. The Sumatran has many of the Malay vices, and a few negative virtues.
He is mild, peaceable, and forbearing, but implacable in his resentment. He is temperate and sober,
abstemious both in meat and drink ; his diet consists of vegetatiles, and water is his only drink. The
people are continent, modest, and courteous, grave in deportment, seldom e.xcited to laughter, and ha-
bitually patient. On the other hand they are litigous, indolent, and addicted to gambling. They
have made no great progress in manufacturing industry and the useful arts ; and their proficiency
in science is equally limited. They have no notion of astronomy or geography; they do not even
know that their country is an island ; they are entirely destitute of history and chronology, the
memory of past events being only traditional. They are fond of music, but their instruments are
chiefly of the noisy kind ; they have no musical science, and only a few simple tunes. Their medical
art consists in the application of a few simples, but chiefly in certain charms. They have no written
Malaysia.] OCEANIA. ; 975
laws, and no persons invested with legislative powers. Their disputes are settled according to ancient
usage by the chiefs of districts, who are both civil and criminal judges. They purchase their wives,
who become to all intents and purposes their slaves, and may be sold again. Land is so plentiful
that it is scarcely considered as a subject of property. They have few capital punishments ; murder
is compensated by money, and adultery is punished by a fine, e.\cept among the Battas, whose fero-
cious customs we have already mentioned (p. 971 ).
Sumatra is partly independent, and partly under tlie dominion of the Dutch, who seem to be aim-
ing at the possession of the whole island, as tliey have now extended their conquests along the whole
eastern coast to the neighbourhood of Acheen. That territory, with the country of the IJattas, and
the possessions of other tribes among the mountains, are probably all that can now be considered in-
dependent. Acheen or Achin (Atsheen) is a large city at the very north-western extremity of the
island, about a league from the sea, consisting of about 8000 bamboo houses, situate in a thick forest
of cocoa-nut trees, bamboos, ananas, and bananas, through which runs a i-ivcr covered with vessels
which are engaged in an active commerce. The authority of the sultan, once very extensive, appears
now to be limited to the city and its immediate environs ; the rest of his territory being in the pos-
session of independent chiefs, and subject to continual anarchy. To the south of Acheen extends the
country of the Battas, who form a sort of confederation, consisting of a great number of chiefs of dis-
tricts ; and farther south, along the east coast, are the kingdoms of Siak, Jambi, Pulembang, and
Latnpong, all now subjected to the Dutch, who.-e dominion also extends along the greater part of the
west coast ; but no wh'jre are there any cities or towns of the least importance. The prii cipal places
on the west coast are at Natal, Pontchang'Catchil or Tappanouli, Padang, Fart ilarlhortrugh, for-
merly the capital of the English settlements in Sumatra, and Jiencoolcn which formerly contained
10,000 inhabitants, but has now much declined. Meimngcabno, near the centre of the island, formerly
the capital of an extensive empire, is still regarded by the Moslem inhabitants as one of the principal
sanctuaries of Islam.
Along the coasts of Sumatra is a number of considerable islands. The principal on the west coast,
going northward, are £n?nno. Mega, Sanding, South Pagai, North Pagai, Sai-berout, Baton or Mintao,
Claps, Nias, Baniak, Bahi or Hog Island, and Cocus. On the east coast are liatiku, Billiton, Sinkrp,
Lingen, Bintang, and a number of smaller islands, which form together the kingdom of Lingcn, wh'^se
sultan is a vassal of Holland ; Carimon, Panjore, Rantau, Bankalis, Roupat, and the Arrua islands, in
the middle of the Strait of Malacca. Banka is a large but thinly peopled island, containing rich mines
of tin, which is always found in alluvial deposits, seldom more than twenty-five feet from the surface.
The tin of Banka is carried to almost every part of the world ; but China and India are the priiicipal
markets. The island is inhabited by hill-people, sea- people, Malays, and Chinese, of the last of whom
there are about 20,000, who perform all the labour of cultivating the pepper and working the mines.
Billiton is noted for its iron mines. 'Vheislet of Tanjong-pinang, adjoining Bintang, was recently ceded
by the sultan of Lingen to the Dutch for an annual pension of C0,000 florins. It contains the town of
Wiio or Riouw, which the Dutch have declared a free port, and which is advantageously situate for
becoming a great entrepot for the trade of Malaysia, and a rival to Sincapore.
To the north of Sumatra are the small islands of Way, Rondo, and others ; and farther north, the
two large groups of the Nicobar and Andaman Islands, which seem to form, the connecting links
between the mountains of Sumatra and the chain of Anapectomiou, which terminates at Cape
Negrais. The Nicobar islands are twelve in number; the principal of which are Sambthmg, Caruico-
har, and Nancou-ry ; which are hilly and woody, and abound in cocoa-nuts. The inhabitants are of the
brown Malaysian race, and are a peaceable and well-disposed people. The Danes have at different
times formed settlements upon them, and claim possession of the group The Andamans consist
principally of two long islands, the larger of which extends about 140 miles N.-S. They are moun-
tainous, woody, and in some places veiy picturesque. The inhabitants are negroes, who exist in the
lowest condition of savage life. They go quite naked, live in hovels fornud of twigs, and never
cultivate the ground, but subsist chiefly on fish, which they spear with great dexterity. To the oast-
ward of the Great Andaman is Barren Island, a noted volcano. Wlien seen from the ocean this i>land
presents a surface of bare rocks rising HBO feet above the level of the sea ; but the interior forms a
great circular basin filled with sea water, and bordered all round with steep rocks, and in the midst
rises a volcanic cone, which is very frequently in activity, but can only he seen through a cleft in the
outermost rocks.
Tothe south-west of the most routhern point of Sumatra, between 12° and 12- 14' S. lat., and about
97° 4' E. long, are situate the Cocos or Keelina's Islands, a low coral group of a circular form, sur-
rounding a lagoon, and protected by a reef. *rhe interior of the islands is in gineral not more than
from .3 to 6 feet above the level of the sea ; the soil is mainly composed of line calcareous sand, with
a small mixture of vegetable earth. The climate, though warm, is very salubrious; the range of
the thermometer in the hottest season is from 78° to 8G- ; in the coldest, from 72° to 81°. A seltle-
mont has been formed upon them by two English gentlemen, who have introduced several Malay
colonists, with various kinds of cultivated plants, cattle, goats, hogs, poultry, ducks, geese, and
turkeys. Turtles arc very numerous, and fish arc found in great abundance.
2. Jata, called by the natives Tana (the ItindJ Jaua or Misa (the island), isscparatcd from Sumatra
by the Strait of Sunda, and extends east and west about f/J.') mile-, with a breadth varying from .')(i to
13G. It is situate between lf]5°ll' and 114 3.3' cast long, and .'> 38' an<l 8° 4f>' S. lat., and contains
about .50,000 square miles. It is traversed through its length by a range of mountains, the middle
part of which is the most clevnted. The north coast is low and swampy, intersected by a great num-
ber of rivers, indented with fine bays, and contains many towns and villages. Tiie south coast
rises abruptly into high and rugged hills, against which the surf dashes so \ioh'ntly, that, with the
exception of a few bays, it is almost inaccessible. The great mountain range contains the craters of
at least thirty-eight volcanoes, hut of these none are at present known to he in activity, thou^ih ninny
emit smoke after heavy rain. In their neiKhbourhood are numerous mineral springs. The climate
Is various. Along the low northern coast it is hot and sultry ; but inland, on the higher groiind, the
atmosphere becomes keen ami pleasant. In some places among the hills, and even in many dI'iIk' iidnnd
towns, it is often go cold as to render a fire desirable. At Weltcrvreden the! thermometer is i^enerally
at 8*1-' in the dry season, or during the south-east monsoon, which extends from April till Oetoher ;
and from Ki- to 90°, in the wet monsoon, from November till .March. The monsoons. ho«ev4 r, are
not reiiular. Heavy rain seldom sets in till l)ereml>cr, and tin- heaviest falls in Kehruary and Mareli.
There is a constant succession of land and sea breezes every day and niKht I'erhaps in no p:irl of the
world is vegetation .so richly luxuriant, nor are the wants of man so easily supplied, without any trouMo
in cultivation. In the lowlands there are extensive rice fields. Aromid eviry cotlane and village a
variety of esculent fruits and vegetables may be.gathered throii;:hout the year. <Mi the mountains
are lofty trees siiitalile for masts, while forests of teak of the best <puilily supply *'"' l''"<^" of oak for
building ships of all classes. The principal articles of prorluee exported are rotl'ee, sunar. rice. Indigo,
and tin. The island contains a populatif>n of about 6,(KK),00'i, of « h<un 4,(H»n.0(Ki speak the .lavanesc lan-
guage, LiWOiOOO the Sunda, and half-a-tnilUon, the Malay, besides about W.OOO or GO.OOO Chinese. Tho
976 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Malaysia.
Javanese are a nation of husbandmen, and their subsistence depends entirely on the produce of the
soil. Only about one-third of the surface is supposed to be under cultivation; yet Java produces
not only enough of corn for its own consumption, but is, besides, the granary of Malaysia. Within a
few years, however, the cultivation of all its staple products has been very much increased ; the Dutch
Government has given full permission to cultivate spices ; and the progress of the island lias been
altogether more reniarkal)le than that of either Brazil or Cuba. About three-fourths of the island are
immediately under the Dutch Government, and the remaining fourth is divided between the Shus-
hunan or emperor of Java, whose capital is Suracarta, and the sultan who resides at Djocjoearta.
Both of these princes are" the descendants of the emperors of RIataram, who acquired great power
towards the end of the Iflth century. In 1755 the Dutch divided tlie remaining portion of the empire
between them. The religion of both of these States is Mahometan, which prevails over almost the
whole country. The Dutch territory is divided into nineteen provinces styled residences, each go-
verned by a European resident, and all under the control of the governor-general, who resides at Ba-
tavia. The land force consists of 1 1 battalions of infantry, a corps of pioneers, 2 battalions of artillery,
a regiment of hussars, and a few lancers. There is also usually a considerable marine force; and a
tiotilla of cruisers, manned by native Javanese, is attached to each residence. Notwithstanding the
heavy e.vpense of this large establishment, Java, in ordinary years, remits a considerable reveime to
the king of Holland.
Batania, the capital of Java and of all the Dutch possessions in the East Indies, is situate near the
west end of the north coast, in (P 12' S. lat., 106° 64' E. long. It is built in marshy ground at the
mouth of the river Jiliwong, on tlie site of the ancient city of Jaccatra ; several of its streets are tra-
versed by canals, which are crossed by numerous bridges, and have their banks lined with trees in the
Dutch style. The houses are old-fashioned, many of them being only hoTels, tenanted by natives and
Chinese, and the whole has a cheerless and even squalid appearance. The city covers a large space,
but the houses are far apart, and the grounds attached to tliem are extensive. The population, in 1824,
was only 53,8(J1, of whom 7000 were Europeans ; but it has since very considerably increased, and the
city and its environs, witjiin a circuit of 20 miles, are now estimated to contain about 300,000, of whom
30,000 are Chinese. All the Europeans reside in the country, at fVeltervrcden, Cornells, and other
places ; sleeping in the town even for a single night, exposed to the noxious vapours, being almost
certain to occasion fever. Batavia is the depot for the produce of all the Dutch possessions in the
Arcliipelago; but its transport trade has much declined since the establishment of the free ports of
Sineapore and Rhio. Buite.nxoorg, the residence of the governor-general, is about four hours ride or
39 miles from Batavia. The sea opposite Batavia is covered with innumerable islets, which are
clothed with luxuriant vegetation. Bantam, an ancient city west of Batavia, is now completely decayed ;
its bay, formerly a great rendezvous of European shipping, is clicked up by coral reefs and islands of
mud. The Dutch aliandonedit in 1817, fertile more elevated station of Cecam or Sirang, 7 miles inland.
Angler, still further west, on the coast of the Strait of Sunda, is the place where sliips passing in
the favourable monsoon generally call for supplies of water and provisions. It is situate on a largo
plain, adorned with extensive groves of cocoa-nut trees, and flanked by an amphitheatre of the most
diversified and picturesque hills. A small fort, a bungalow, and a native village stand in close proxi-
mity near the shore. The other principal Dutch towns are Cherihon, Samarang, and Suurabaya, all
on the nortli coast. Cherihon is a small town ; but Samarang is a large city, built, like Batavia, in
the old European style, with a flourishing trade, and about 38,000 inhabitants. Sourabaya is situate on
the shore of a narrow strait which separates Java from Madura. It possesses the only perfectly secure
harbour on the nort'h coast, and the only one in which the shipping can be well defended by batteries
on sliore. The population is estimated at .')0,000. Not far to the south-west, in the midst of the im-
mense teak fore-ts which cover tlie western part of tlie province, are the ruins of the ancient city of
Majiapahit, the capital of the Javanese in the most flourishing period of their empire ; they extend
for several miles along the banks of the river Kediri. Suracarta, the residence of the J^niperor of
Blataram, is a large city, built in the Javanese style, near the centre of the island, 270 miles S.S.E.
of Batavia. It is, however, rather an assemblage of villages than a town; its population, in 1815,
■was estimated at 105,000. Djucjocarta, the residence of the Sultan, is also a large city, built in the
same style, about 15 miles from the south coast, with a population estimated at 100,000. At Bram-
banan, between the two cities, are several ruined temples ; and at Boro-hodo, near the northern fron-
tier of the territory of Djocjoearta, are the remains of a large Buddhist temple, whicli crown a small
hill, and consist of seven stages or enclosures, decreasing in a pyramidal form to the top, whicli ter-
minates with a dome. The walls contain about 400 niches, each with the statue of a person sitting
cross legged, and as large as life. It much resembles the temple of Buddha at Gaya, in India. Tliere
are many other ancient remains in tlie island ; the most remarkable n.atural object, besides the vol-
canoes, is an extraordinary valley called by the niitives Guwo-upas (I'oisoned Valley), three miles
from Balor, on the Djiang. It is about half a mile in circumference, of an oval form, 30 to 35 feet
deep, and quite flat at the bottom, which is witliout vegetation, and strewed with large stones and
skeletons of human beings, quadrupeds, and birds. It is generally about half filled with a noxious
gas, which destroys life in a few minutes.
The island of Madura, separated from the north-eastern coast of Java by a narrow strait, forms one
of the Dutch provinces or residences. It is 85 miles long, and from 20 to 30 broad. The people gene-
rally profess Hinduism, and are governed by three native princes, subject to the Dutch. Bali or Bally,
separated from the east end of Java by a strait, is about 70 miles long, and about 50 broad at the east
end, from which it diminishes almost to a point at the west, forming a sort of irregular triangle. It
is rugged and mountainous, and inhabited by an idolatrous people, under eight chiefs, who are despo-
tic and independent. Hinduism is tho prevalent faith. Loinbok, to the east of Bali, from which it is
separated by a wide strait, is of a compact form, about 53 miles by 45, rugged and mountainous, Ijut
populous, fertile, and well cultivated. The people are Mahometans, very civilized, and carry on a
considerable trade. The people of both Bali and Loinbok devote almost their whole attention to agri-
culture, and export large quantities of rice. They also produce considerable quantities of hides,
tobacco, cocoa-nut oil, and coffee. Their cotton is of excellent quality, and is considered the best in the
East Indies. Sumbaua ( Siimbava, Sumbhava) east of Loinbok, is about 180 miles long, but of very
irregular form, the northern side being indented by a large gulf which nearly divides the island. It pro-
duces sappan-wood, rice, horses, saltpetre, sulphur, wax, birds'-nests, tobacco. Near the N.E. end of
the island is situate the town of Bima, remarkable for its excellent harbour, which is considered as
one of the finest in the world. At the western extremity of a long peninsula on the north coast, is the
volcanic mountain of Tomboro, of which there was a terrible eruption in 1815. The sound of the explo-
sions was heard over a range of 1500 miles, as far as Bencoolen on the one side, and Ternate on tlie
other, and the shocks were felt at the distance of 1000 miles. The ashes were carried 200 or 300 miles,
covering the sea with pumice and cinders, and making the day darker than niglit over a space of .500
miles. To the north of Sumbawa is a large group of low coral islands, named tlie Paternosters ; to the
north-east of these is a similar group named the Fustilions ; and to the westward tiie island of Kange-
lang, forming the southern side of another large group of coral formation. Adjacent to the north-
east coast of Sumbawa is the insulated volcanic mountain of Gunong-Api ; and 500 miles farther east,
in the Banda sea, is another insulated volcano, of the saine name. Manggary ( Magaray, Comobo) a
Malaysta.] OCEANIA. ^-jj
considerable island to the eastward of Sumbawa, is dependent on the Sultan of Bima, who is himself
a vassal of Holland.
Flares ( Floris, Ende, (Ende, Floresjica, Great Solor or Manggary) is 220 miles in length E W by
50 in breadth. It is traversed by a range of volcanic mountains, and subject to earthquakes ; it pro-
duces slaves, cocoa-nut oil, tortoise-shell, sappan-wood and wild cinnamon ; but the interior has never
been explored by Europeans. The western part belongs to the Sultan of Uima in Sumbawa ; the rest
appears to be divided among independent chiefs, some of whom useil to be subject to the Portuguese
government of Larentuca, situate at the eastern extremity of the island, A fine harbour on the south
coast belongs to a colony of Bugis who refuse to acknowledge the Dutch supremacy. To the south-
west of Flores is the large island of Sumba, Jindana or Sandaluood, which abounds with buflaloes,
horses, poultry, and pheasants, and produces cotton and sandalwood ; the latter, however is exported'
only in small quantity, owing, it is supposed, to the superstition of tlie natives, who are unwilling to
cut down the trees, as they believe them to bo the abodes of the souls of their ancestors. The island
is possessed by independent chieftains.
Timor is above 290 miles in length, by .50 or GO in breadth, and is described by vovagers as a beautiful
island, of an irregular and picturesque surface, having its limestone hills covered w"ith trees and shrubs.
It is divided into 63 petty states, all vassals to the Dutch or the Portuguese, who both have settle-
ments in the island. Dilli, on the north-east coast, a small town, with 2000 inhabitants, is the residence
of the Portuguese governor. Cuupang, on a tine bay at the S.W. extremity of the island, is the chief
Dutch settlement ; which has been declared a free port, by way of rivalry with Port Raffles in
Australia. The governor resides in the fort of Concordia. To the S.M'. of Timor are the smaller
islands of Simao or Semuo, Kotte, Sam, Ilenjoar and others ; to the north. Witter, Kisser, Cambi ; and to
the west, between Timor and Flores, Ombat/, Pantar, Lomblem, Adtnar, and Sulur.
• 3. The Band A Islands are a very scattered group to the eastward and north-eastward of Timor, and
are distinguished by the German geographers into three divisions :— the Group of Banda ; the south-
west chain ; and the south-east chain. The first of these divisions is composed often islets, all more
or less unhealthy, and subject to frequent and violent earthquakes. Of tliese, Banda, Lonthoir, and
Ptdo-Aij, are the most important, inasnnich, as they have been exclusively reserved (or the culture of
the nutmeg. The average produce of these islands has been estimated at 500,000 lbs. of nutmegs,
and l.')0,000 lbs. of mace, which is the innermost covering of the nut. Banda contains the small town
of S'ussau, the residence of the Dutch governor ; the forts ISel^ica and Xassan, on this island, and
IlulUindia on Lonthoir, defend the fine bay formed by these two islets and the insulated volcanic moun-
tain of Guntng-Jpi, the third cf the iianii? which we have had occasion to mention. The south-west
thain consists' of several islands subject to the Dutch. The principal are Letti, Moa, Lackar. Ser-
matta or Serawathy, Kisser, and Wetter; the last two of which have been already mentioned as l)eing
adjacent to Timor. The south-east chain consists of a number of larger islands, as Timorlaut, Lanit,
Teyvmber, the Great Key and the Little Key ; but the only one of them which is of any importance is
the Great Key, which contains the town of Ely, the seat of a great trade carried on by the Bugis.
'ITie Molucca Islands are situate to the north of the sea of Banda, and include the large islands
of Ceram, Bourn, Gilo/n, and many smaller islets. By some geographers the Banda Islands are also
classed under this name. Ceniin, 220 n)iles in length, by .50 in breadtli, is traversed by a range of
mountains, and is very populous. It is divided among several chiefs, all of whom are vassals of Hol-
land. Bouro lies to the westward of Ceram, and is 120 miles in length, !)y CO in bre>adth. Cajtii, at the
east end, is the residence of a Dutch governor ; but the chiefs of the island are independent. To the
eastward of Ceram is the small island of Gornm, only remarkable as the most easterly point which the
religion of Mahomet has rcaehcd. To the south-west of Ceram, and close to the coast, is the celebrated
island of Ainboyun, the principal seat of the cultivation cf cloves. It is 32 miles in length, by about 10
in breadth, and contains an area of 4.34 square miles witli a jiopulation of 4.5,000. Its surface is moun-
tainous, and isdivided by a long gulf or bay into two unequal peninsulas. The soil is a rich red
loam ; the climate is healthy ; the average heat of the year is 82- of Fahrenheit ; the lowest temperature,
72° The Dutch governor resides at Fort I'ictaria, on the south-east side of the great bay ; and imme-
diately adjoining is the townof Amhoyna, which contains about 7(H)0 inhabitants. The Molucca Islands,
properly so called, consi>t of GiU/ln, Ternate. Tidor, Motir or Miitr/ian, Biitrhian, Grand Ohy, Mysol,
J'upo, Morlay, Sniibuba, Mengis, and many others. The largest of them is Gilo'o, « Inch is 220 miles
in length, but of very irregular breadth, consisting in fact of four peninsulas, which meet near the
centre of the island. Ternate, a small island on the west side of (iilolo, contains a lofty volcanic peak,
whose recent eruptions have almost destroyeil the surface of the island. It was previously cele-
brated for the pn;duction of cloves, nutmegs, and mace, and was considere<l of great importance by
the Dutch as a commercial and military station. Tidor, to the south of Ternate, and smaller, is u
still more populous island than the latter was, and also contains a lofty peak.
4. Celkbes, one of the principal islands of Malaysia, extends 'i'B miles in length between its)
north-eastern and south-western extremities, but is very narrow, and of the most irregular fopin,
consisting, like Gilolo, of four peninsulas, which arc separated by three large gulfs. Its area is com-
putpd at 7.5,fK»0 square miles. It abounds in extensive grassy plains, which all'ord cover and abundant
pasture tor deer, wild hogs, and a variety of other game. Kice, niai/.e, and cassava, are the principal
agricultural products. The middle part of the island is said to be inhabited by Ilaraforos ; but tho
greater part of the population are of the brown r:ice, divide d into a great number of tribes or nations,
of whom the Bugis are the most considerable. Most of the native st.\tts are dependent on the Dutch,
who have their principal station at Fort Jtotlrrdam and the small town of I'/ardingen. both erected on
the site of the ancient city of Macassar, which has a fine and secure roadstead, near tlie south-west
extremity of the island. The principal nati>e state is the kingdom of /!o7iy or Bnni, on the east coast
of the south-western jieninsula ; its actual capital is lioi/oa, atowi. of WHK) inhabitants. The niiddlo
part of the island is occupied by the kingdom of n(/(/>,'inhabited by Bugis, and governed by an elec-
tive king or chief, assisted by a council of forty chiefs, who deciilc on ill! questions of peace aJid
■war. Adjoining Celebes is a number of islands, some of which a^c of considerable extent, as Snnuuir
and Siiio, off the north-east point ; Znla-mantinln, Zutn-hasi, Batipay, Ilutntitif;, I'eliug, Bnnkii, Wax-
tcry, W<iiuiiiifry, BoHlo7ig, I'anjasang, and Toukang-biiii /i/</, oft' the east coast; Cambyna, .Suliiyer,
Tiger Itlei, Schiedam Islet, Cromfia, Kalntoa, Madou, olV the south coast.
.5. BoBNEo, called by the Malays Pulo Klemantan, is a very large island, of a compact form, about
7.50 miles in length, by .3.50 in breadth, and contains an area of 2i'>o.0iK) sqimre miles. It lies imme-
diately under the equator, extending from 4" 10' S, to 7 N. lat. The interior of this great island is still
a complete blank in geograuhy, an<l even of the coasts hut little is known. The geological fornintion
of the mountains is generally granitic. The island is said to be rich in minerals, and produci h gold,
tin, diamonds, camphor, spices, and other valuable articles of conmicrce. The several coasts ar«
inhabited bv people of difl'erent races, totally unconnected, governed by their own laws, and baying
their own peculiar customs: the west coast, by Malays and Chinese ; the north-west, by the iiilxod
descendants ofthe Moors of Western India; the north, by Coehin-(hinese ; th. unrlheRstby hooluot;
and the east and south, by Bugis. There arc, bcsidet, three distinct irib. s, who li>c In prabus, nloin
978 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY, [Malaysia.
the coasts; the Lanuns, from Mindanao; and the Orang-badju, and the Orang-tldong, of unknown
origin. The interior and part of the north-west coast are inhabited by Dayahs or Dyaks, a. aSLVnge
people, who are scattered in small tribes over the island, and are believed to be its aboriginal inhabi-
tants. Theyare of the brown Malaysian race, and of mild and prepossessing manners; but, as they have
suffered greatly from the Malays, they now generally avoid strangers. Some parts of the interior are
also inhabited by people of the negro race, named Dayers or Iffolotes. Borneo is divided into a great
number of petty states, most of which are independent ; but some of those on the west coast are sub-
ject to the Dutch, and those of the north-east, to the Sultan of Soloo. The principal of the indepen-
dent states is the Kingdom of Borneo (Bourni), on the north-west coast. Borneo, the capital, is
situate on a considerable river, and intersected by canals. It contains about 10,000 inhabitants, many
of whom constantly live in boats. The Kingdom of I assir, on the east coast, is possessed by a Malay
Sultan, who resides at. Cotti or Gonty. His subjects, as well as those of Borneo, are notorious pirates.
The Dutch have several settlements, divided into two residences or provinces. The Residence of the
west coast comprises— 1. The States of the Sultan of Sambas, whose capital is Sambas, a smalltown
with a Dutch fort ; 2. The country of Mumpawa, which extends very far inland, and contains the
rich gold mines of Mandor or Muntrado, which are worked by Chinese ; 3. The kingdom of Ponii-
anak, whose capital of the same name is a small town, with a fort, and 3000 inhabitants; 4. The
countries of Landak and Sandou, in the interior to the eastward of the preceding ; Landak is re-
nowned in the East for its rich diamond mines, where in 1815 was found a diamond weigling 3(j7
carats uncut, and which Balbi considers to be the third largest in the wurld ; 5. The country of Sim-
pang ; 6. The State of Malan, or the ancient empire of Succadana, the throne of whicli was long occu-
pitd by princes of Javanese origin, vassals of the king of Bantam ; 7. The territory of Kandawagan.
The Residence of the south and east coasts, or of Banjerinassing, comprises tlie countries of Komaay,
Pambuan, Mandawa, Great Dyak, the Peninsula ot Tanah Laut, and several other adjoining dis-
tricts in the interior. Banjermassmg, a town of 7000 inhabitants, with an active trade, situate on a
river of the same name, is the capital. The smaller islands geographically attached to Borneo, are the
Natunas, Anamhas, Tambelan, St. Esprit, St. Barbe, Daton, Caramuta, Kumpal, on the west coast; Lau-
rot, Moress, I'ulo Laut, Triangle-rocks, Little Paternosters, Donderkom, Bemige, Maratabou, on the
east coast ; Bulambangan, Banguy, Malauali, Cagayan-sooloo, on the north-east coast ; and tlie Sooloo
Archipelago, extending between Borneo and Mindanao. This Archipelago comprises a great num-
ber of islands, of which about 60 are inhabited ; they are subdivided into three groups, but furm only
one kingduni, under the Sultan of Sooloo, whose subjects are devoted to piracy. His capital isBewaii
or Soung, a town of 6000 inhabitants, in the island of Sooloo.
6. The PHitrppiNB Islands are the most northerly group of Malaysia, extending between o-'and
20° N. lat. and 116° and 120° E. long. The groupconsistsof about a thou sand islands, of which nine are
remarkable for tlieir extent, namely, Luzon or Lugon, Samar, Leyte, Mindanao, Zebu. Negros. Fanay,
Mindoro, and Pafaivari. 'Ihey are all mountainous and volcanic ; and their surface is diversified not
only by numberless torrents and straits, but also by marshes, mossy grounds, and lakes; there is but
little regular firm land. During droughts the miry and spongy soil is full of chinks ; earthquakes occa-
sion drtadful ravages; the islands are also frequently visited by violent hurricanes and drenching rains;
yet it is to the great humidity that the Philippines owe their fertility. Thty contain wide forests
of stupendous trees, and the greatest part of the birds, beasts, plants, and fruits fur which Asia is
remarkable are there found of a superior class, besides many productions not met with elsewiiere.
The sea, rivtrs, and lakes abc-md with tish, and the earth teems with valuable minerals The climate
is generally very uniform, and usually mild, but is nevertheless exposed to great and sudden changes.
The trees never lose their leaves, aiid the ground always wears a green and smiling aspect. The
plants and flowers are beautiful and aromatic ; the fruits are nutritive and of exquisite taste ; the air
Is salubrious, and the natives live to a good old age, though foreigners, from the effects of too copious
a perspiration, are not generally so healthy. 'When the Spaniards tirst arrived at the Philippines,
they found scarcely any other food than rice ; now, wheat and other grains are abundant, as well
as most of the other productions of the Old World, as coffee, sugar, cocoa, hemp, tobacco, cotton, in-
digo. The same increase has extended to horses, horned cattle, hoiis, and detr ; sheep alone have
degenerated, owing to the humidity of the climate. The prevalent diseases are intermittent levers ;
contagious distenn ers, except the small-pox, are unknown ; cutaneous diseases, however, are very
common, and this the natives ascribe to the great use of fish. The population is numerous, but only
a few hundreds are Europeans ; tlie remainder consisting of Creole Spaniards, Mestizos, Malays, and
aborigines. The latter are of both the brown and the negro Malaysian races, the la-t mostly occu-
pying the secluded portions of the uplands, to which tliey seem to have receded as the lighter coloured
people advanced. Very few of them have ever been domesticated by the Spaniards ; and generally
ft has been found impossible to civilize them ; it is observed that their numbers have greatly diminish-
ed, owing to the inclemency of the weather, diseases, particularly the small-pox, and their precarious
supply of loud. 'Ihe brown races possess all the coasts and low country, some as subjects of Spain,
and some belonging to independent piinces. The Philippines were discovered in 1.521 by Magellan,
who lost his life in a skirmish with the natives of Leyte. They were colonized by the Spaniards in
1570 ; but the total number of settlers of that nation is estimated at no mure than 40W), of whom 3000
are in the city of Manihi.
Luzon, the largest of the Philippines, is about 3.50 miles in length, but of a very irregular form and
breadth, and comprises an area nearly equal to that of all the other islands together. The portion
subjected to the Spaniards is divided into sixteen alcadies or provinces ; the independent portion,
which comprises the east coast and almost the whole of the interior, is parcelled out among a num-
ber of petty chiefs, some of whose subjects are very ferocious and entirely savage. Manila, the
capital of the Spanish settlements, is situate on the south-west cua-t, not far from the mouth of the
river Passig at the head of a large and beautiful bay. It is a well built town, and is divided by the river
into two parts, which communicate by a fine stone bridge. The palace of the captain-general, the cathe-
dral, and two of the principal convents, are the finest biuldings ; several of the churches are richly
decorated. There is a theatre, a college, several schools, and a patriotic society, founded in 1781.
There are several manufactures and other works, and the commerce of the city is very important.
The city proper is said to contain only 10,000 inhabitants ; but, including all the suburbs, the amount of
the population has been estimated from 160,000 to 17.5,000 ; but there are no means of ascertaining it.
The only other town of any importance is Cai-ite, on the Bay of Manila, with about 6000 inhabitants,
containing tine ship-building slips, an arsenal, large magazines, and a fine harbour, which also serves
for the port of Manila during six months of the year. The Spaniards also possess Samar ; the west
coast of Leyte ; Zebu and Bohol ; the coasts of Negros and Panay ; the small group of the Calamines;
a small part of Mindoro ; the small group of the Babuyanes to the north of Luzon ; Grafton, one of
the Bashee islands ; and three small isolated districts in Mindanao, including the town of Samboan-
gan, at the south-western extremity of the island, a small place, with lOOU inliabilants, and a fort. The
other two districts are Misaitiis, near the middle of the north coast, and Caraga, on the east coast.
All the other islands and parts of islands are independent.
The Kingdom of Mindanao or Magindanao, comprises nearly the whole of the east coast, and the
greater part of the best portion of the island, with the small group of ilangi* to the south-east. Se-
Malaysia.j OCEANIA. 979
langnn is the residence of the Sultan ; the city of Magindanao, which is separated from It by a river,
is almost wholly abandoned. The people of this kinndom are formidable cors^airs, as are also the
Illanos, whose territory extends to the we-tward of that of Mindanao, and who form a confedera-
tion of IG sultans and 17 chiefs. The independent part of the west coast is occupied by savage tribes.
Palawan or Paragon, one of the largest of the Philippines, is about 2M1 miles in length, but seems
no where to exceed 35 in breadth ; it is, however, very little known. The interior is occupied by inde-
pendent tribes ; a great part of the coasts is subject to the Sultan of Sooloo ; and the Spaniards possess
only the small district of Tay-tay, on the north-east coast.
The most northerly islands of Malaysia are the Bashee Islands, situate about midway in the channel
beween Luzon and Formosa. The group consists of several small islands, ruled by independent chiefs,
except that of Grafton, where the Spaniards have a small establishment. The other larger islands are
Bayal or Orange, Batan or Monmouth, and Eathee or Goat Island.
Having thus gone over all the islands, we shall conclude our account of Malaysia with a list of the
principal seas, bays, gulfs, straits, and capes.
Seas, &c. — The Strait of Malacca, between Slalaya and Sumatra ; the Strait of Sunda, between
Sumatra and Java ; the Strait of Bali, between Java and Bali ; the Jara Sea, between Java and Bor-
neo ; Banca Strait, between Banca and Sumatra ; Gaspar Strait and Clement's Strait, between Banca
and Billiton ; the Caramata Passage or Billiton Strait, between Billiton and Borneo ; the Strait i\f
Lombuk, between Bali and Lombok ; Allass Strait, between Lombok and Sumbawa ; Sapy Strait,
between Sumbawa and Comobo ; Majidgerai Strait, between Comobo and Flores ; Timor Stiait, be-
tween Timor and Ombay ; Flores Sea, to the north of Flores and Timor ; the Bandu Sea, between
Timor and Ceram ; the Molucca Passage, between Gilolo and Celebis ; Tomini Gulf, Tolo Gulf, and
Bony Gulf, on the east side of Celebes ; Marassar Strait, heiween Celebes and Borneo; Celebes Sea,
between Celebes and the Philippines ; the Sooloo or Mindoro Sea, between the Sooloo Archipelago and
Palawan.
Capes. — Acheen Head, the northern extremity of Sumatra ; Jara Head, the western extremity of
Java; Cave Bojeado and Cape Enganu, the two northern extremities of Luzon; Cape Kspiritu Santo
the north-eastern extremity of Samar ; Cape St. Augustine, the most easterly point of Mindanao.
Borneo. — Of late years our infonnation respecting this great isLind has been much extended, and
principally throuijh the exertions of Sir .James Brooke, now Rajali of Sarawak, and governor of Labimn.
This gentleman having, in a voyage to China in search of health and anuiseinent, first become acquaint-
ed with the great islands of Malaysia, formed the project, not only of visiting and exploring them, but
also of introducing the blessings of civilization. His enthusiasm and wealth enabled him to overcome all
preliminary difficulties, and he commenced his operations in Borneo in the summer of 183y. He ha.s
now acquired for himself in perpetuity, the district of .Sarawak, on the north-west co.tst. Tlie adjoining
island of Labitan, or Labuhan, has also been ceded to the British government, and he has been appoint-
ed its first governor.
In its geographical features Borneo presents great variety. It has high mountains, magnificent rivers,
large lakes, and probably in the nortliern part, considerable plains. Its mineral productions are of tlie
richest kind. Coal is abundant in Labuan, and Borneo proper. Antimony is found in large quantities,
especially in Sarawak; and iron in most parts of the island. Tin, nickel, and quicksilver also form parts
of the mineral wealth of this important island. Cold abounds in the sand and gravel of the rivers, in alluvial
soil, and in the caves and crevices of the limestone rocks. Diamonds likewise are met with in large num-
bers, and often of considerable size. The climate is healthy, and to Europeans not ojipressively hot.
The .soil, so far as yet known, is extremely productive. The sugar-cane grows with the greatest luxuriance.
Nutmegs and almost all other kinds of spices flourish, with little trouble to the cultivators. Coffee and
tobacco thrive well, and cotton is likely to prove an important article of produce. Indeed, most of the
ordinary vegetable products of tropical regions are in abimdance. Among the more curious is the gutta-
percha, now becoming so extensively used for various purposes. The celebrated upas tree is al»o there,
but its poisonous influence seems to have been much exaggerated. Labuan is situated between 5'^ 10'
north latitude, and 11.5" 2,3' east longitude. It is about 1 1 miles in length, and six in breadth at its southern
extremity. As a station commanding Bruni, and the whole of the north-western coast of Borneo, it is of
the greatest importance ; and its coal, which is of excellent quality, and found in abundance both on the
island, and on the adjoining mainland, will render it a possession of the utmost value. Sir James Brooke
has also, by his admirable and energetic conduct, aided by the exertions of Captain Keppel, H.N., and the
vessels under his command, almost suppressed the piratical hordes iu Borneo and the Malaysian seaa, who
infested tliem.
980 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Australasia.
II. AUSTRALASIA.
The astronomical position of this central region of Oceania is between 1° N. and
65° S. lat., and 112° and 180° E. long. It is bounded on the west by the Indian
Ocean ; on the north-west, north, and north-east, by an imaginary line drawn between
New Holland and New Guinea on the one side, and Timor, Timorlaut, Ceram,
Mysol, Gilolo, the Pelew Islands, Carolinas, Feejee Islands, &c., on the other; on the
east, by the Southern Pacific Ocean ; and on the south, by the Antarctic Ocean.
Australasia includes Australia or JVew Holland ; Van Dieman's Land ; New Zealand ;
Papuasia or New Guinea ; New Britain, New Ireland, Solomon Islands, New Cale-
donia. New Hebrides, Queen Charlotte's Islands ; Solomon's Archipelago ; New Hano-
ver; Admiralty Isles ; besides many smaller islands scattered over the intervening
seas.
AUSTRALIA.
Astronomical Position and Dimensions Between 10° and 40° S. lat., and
112° and 154° E. long. Greatest length from east to west, 2400 miles; greatest
breadth, from north to south, 1970 ; superficial area, 3,000,000 square English miles ;
length of coast-line, about 8000 miles.
General Aspect. — Australia presents a very compact mass of land, with few
gulfs or bays penetrating to any considerable distance inland, and, so far as has yet
been discovered, no large navigable rivers. With the exception, however, of the
south-eastern corner, extending from Spencer's Gulf on the south coast, to Moreton
Bay on the east, and a small district in the south-west, the interior, beyond what is
visible from the shore, is quite unknown. The east coast, throughout its whole ex-
tent from Bass's Strait to Torres's Strait, is bounded by ridges of steep, .and in some
places, lofty mountains, at various distances from the sea, approaching in some parts
within 30 miles of the coast, while in others they recede to double and treble that
distance, and leave between them and the ocean a belt of cultivable land, intersected
by short rivers, and terminating seaward with a high and sometimes precipitous coast.
The southern coast, on the contrary, from Cape Leeuwin to Spencer's Gulf, is gene-
rally low and sandy, with only a few scattered eminences, and scarcely any wliere
presents mountains in the interior. The eastern coast of the Gulf of Carpentaria is
no where higher than a ship's mast-head ; the south and west coasts are more hilly
and broken. From Cape VVessel to Cambridge Gulf, the coast of Arnheim's land is
flat and wooded, and interspersed with low hills, which present generally flat summits ;
but, from Cambridge Gulf to Cape Cuvier, the north-west coast exhibits irregular
ranges of detached rocky hills composed of sandstone, which rise abruptly from ex-
tensive plains of low and level land, while in some places the adjoining sea is studded
with numerous sandstone islands. Farther south the coast seems to resemble that of
New South Wales, and to be lined at a short distance by ranges of mountains.
Seas, Bays, GfLFs, Straits. — The Cidfof Carpentaria, a large expanse of sea on the north coast,
650 miles in length, north and south, by 400 in width. Shelburne Bay, Temple Bay, Brincess Charlotte
Say, Bathurst Bay, Trinity Bay, Rockingham Bay, Hali/a-- Bay, Cleveland Bay, Edgeciimbe Bay, Re-
ptilse Bay, Broad Sound, Shoaluater Bay, Keppel Bay, Port Curtis, Bustard Bay, Herrey Bay, Wide
Bay, Mo^-eton Bay, Tryal Bay, Port Macqttarrie, Port Stephen's, Fort Hunter, Broken Bay, Port Jack-
ton, Botany Bay, Lake Jl/auarra, Shoathaven, Jervis Bay, Sussej" llaren, Bateman Bay, Twofold Bay,
Corner Inlet, on the east and south-east coast, between Cape York and Wilson's Promontory.
Bass's Strait, a large open channel, 140 miles wide, between Australia and Van Dieman's Land, tirst
discovered by Mr. Bass, a surgeon of the navy, in an open boat in 1798 ; Western Port, Port Phillip, Port-
land Bay, Discovery Bay, Encounter Bay, Gulf of St. Vincent, Investigator Strait, Spencer's Gulf, Cof-
fin Bay, Anxious Bay, Streaky Bay, Smoky Bay, Pouter's Bay, the Great Australian Bight, Esperance
Bay, Doubtful Island Bay, King George's Sound, Torbay, Wilson Inlet, Parry Inlet, Flinders' Bay,
on the south coast. Bate du Geographe, Cockbum Sou7id. Gage Road, Jurieu Bay, Geehink Channel,
Gantheaume Bay, Shark Bay, Geographe Channel, Exmouth Gulf, on the west coast. Desault Bay,
Lagrange Bay, Roebuck Bav, Sunday Strait a.n& Cygnet Bay, Collier Bay, Camden Sound, Port Georsic
ly.. Prince Regent River, Brunswick Bay, York Sound, Prince Frederick's Harbour, Montague Sound,
,/idmiralty Sound, Vansittart Bay, Cambridge Gulf, and Anson's Bay, on tlie north-west coast. Van
Dieman'sGulf, formed by Melville and Bathurst islands and Coburg peninsula, and opening to the
Bea by Clarence Strait and Dundas Strait, Port Essington, Bou-in Strait, Mountmorris Bay, Junction
Bay, Castlereagh Bay, Brou'n Strait, and Arnheim Bay, on the north coast.
Capes. — On the east coast: — Cape York, the north-eastern point of the continent, from which in
order proceeding southward we find Orford Ness, Cape Grenville, Fair Cape, Weymouth Cape, Cape
Direction, Cafe Melville, Cape Flattery, Cape Bedford, Cape Tribulation, Cape Grafton, Double Point.
Mount Hinchinbrook, Cape Cleveland, Cape Bou ling-green. Cape Upstart, Cape Hillsbnrough, S'ade
Foint, Cape Paimerston, Cape Townshend, Cape Cap^ricom, Break- Sea- Spit, and Sandy Cave, Cape
Australasia.] OCEANIA. 981
Moreton, Cape Buron, Smokt/ Point, Cape Hawke, Sugar-loaf Point, Cape Solander and Cape Banki.
the two points which form the entrance to Botany Bay ; St. George's Head at Sussex Haven; Mourit
Dromedary, Green Cape, Cape Howe, Ram Head, t'oint Hicks, and IViUon's Promonton/, a rocI;y mass
which forms the most southerly point of Australia, at Bass's Strait. On the south coast, going west-
ward;—Cape Liptrap ; Cape Paterson ; Cape Wallomai eiud Point Grant, at the entrance of Western
Port ; Cape Schank ; Point Nepean and Point Lonsdale, at the entrance of Port Phillip ; Flat-top Point,
Cape Patton, Cape Otway, Bold Head, Cape Sir William Grant, Cape Kelson. Cape Uridgewater, Cape
Northumberland, Cape Buffon, Cape Lannes, Cape Bernotiilli, Cape Morad ; Cape Jervis, at the south-
eastern side of the gulf of St. Vincent, Cape Spencer and Cape Catastrophe, at the opposite sides of
Spencer's Gulf ; Cape Willoughby, Cape Linnis, and Cape Borda, on Kangaroo Island ; Cape Radstock,
Point Brown, Point Bell, Point Fouler, Cape yldieu. Cape Pasley, Cape Knobb, Point Suyts, Cape
Chatham, Point D' Entrecasteaur, Cape Beaufort, and Cape Leeuwin. On the west and north coast,
eoing northward r — i'oi/if Naturaliste, Cape Leschenault, '.'ape Ronsan, Cape Cucier, Cape Farquhar,
Korthwest Cape, Point Gantheaume, Cape Leveque, Cape Bnugainrille, Cape Londonderry, Cape I'ail
Dieman, on Melville Island, and Cape Arnheim, at the entrance of the Gulf of Carpentaria.
Islands. — Along the north-east coast there is a very great number of small islands, whose names
we need not specify. The same coast is lined by a long chain of coral rocks namtd the Barrier Reef in
the inside of which there is a navigable but intricate channel. Proceeding southwards the first islands
worthy of notice are Moreton Island and Stradbrokc Island, which form the eastern side of Glasshouse
and Moreton Bays ; the Solitary Isles, in 30^ S. lat. ; Black-head Isle, to the north of Port Stephen's ;
Montague Island, 36- 20' S., Seal Islands, Hogan Islands, Moncur Islands, Rodondo, and Glennie't
Islands, to the east, south, and west of Wilson's Promontory; Phillip Island and French Island, in
AVestern Port; Lady Julia Perci/'s, and Lawrence Islands, in Portland l?ay; Kangaroo Island, off the
Gulf of St. Vincent, about 100 miles in length, and from 25 to 30 in breadth, separated from the main-
land by Investigator Strait and Back-stairs Passage, abounding with salt and game fur the sports-
man; >4/Wor/J Wtznf/, S.E. of Cape Spencer ; Thistle's Island, If'illiam's Island, Reeresby's Island, in
Spencer's Gulf ; Boston Island, in Port Lincoln ; Investigator's, Flinders', and IValdi-grace's Islands,
I<'Uyt's Archipelago, &c. on S.W. coast of South Australia; Archipelago of the Recherche, on the south
coast of Nuyt's Land ; Rottennest Island, off the Swan River, in 'Western Australia ; Houtman's
Ahrolhos, a cluster of rocks and shoals, separated from the mainland by Geelvink Channel, between
28^ and 29^ S. lat. ; Dirk Hartog's Island, Dorre Island, Bernier Island, Faure Island, and Peron't
Peninsula, off and in Shark's Bay ; Dampier's Archipehn^o, Ilowley Shoals, Lively Coral Beef, Scott't
Reef, Cartier Island, and many others, on the north-west coast ; Bathurst Island. Melcille Island,
Cobourg Peninsula, Croker's Island, and Wes.sel Island, on the northern coast of Arnhiim's Land, or
North Australia; Groote Eylandt (i.e. Big Island), Rickerton Island, Sir Edward Pelew's Islands, and
M'elU'sley Islands, in the gulf of Carpentaria.
Climate As nearly a third of the area of Australia is situate to the north of the
tropic of Capricorn, the climate of this portion necessarily partakes of the heat of the
torrid zone ; but little concerning it is known, since only the coasts have yet been
explored. On the north coast, however, a wind from the south raises the temperature
with extreme suddenness, and as the same effect is produced by a north wind in the
interior of New South Wales, it may be inferred that the wind, in both cases, passes
over a highly-heated country, probably over a range of sandy deserts. The other
two-thirds of the area lie within the soutliern temperate zone, ajul towards the south-
east and south the climate is really temperate and delightful ; it nevertheless expe-
riences sudden changes, there being instances of the thermometer having varied 25°
in fifty minutes, in consequence of a sudden change of the wind. The north-west
winds produce so great a degree of heat as to become scorching, and the thermometer
then rises suddenly from SO'' to 110°. The south-east winds, on the contrary, are
very often cold and piercing, especially when there is a sudden change from a hot
north-west wind. But in spite of such occurrences, which are to be considered as
exceptions, the climate is generally delightful ; and the evenings and mornings are
as pleasant as in southern Italy. On the lower parts of the coast the thermometer
ranges in summer from 3G^ to lOG^; and in winter, from '11^ to 98°. The average
temperature of the spring months is about 65°; of sunnner, I'l'; of autumn, GO^ ; and
of winter, 55°. At Sydney the thermometer rarely falls below 40' in winter ; but
at Paramatta, only J5 miles distant, it is frequently so low as '27°; and, in the neigh-
bourhood of the Australian Alps, where the snow is perpetual, the wind from the
mountains produces occasionally a sort of snow storm in the low country. As the
ground rises the temperature decreases: the winter at Batluirst, west of Sydney, and
1970 feet above the level of the sea, is much colder than on the sea shore, and warm
winter clothing has been found necessary even in April, which corresponds with our
October. Heavy snow storms also sometimes occur in these elevated regions ; and
though the gnow does not lie in the valleys, yet the elevated tiats and downs
remain covered for many days ; frost also is there frequent, and very intense. Tiie
mean annual temperature of these moimtain terraces is nearly equal to that of Kng-
land, but the extremes arc much greater. The low interior is always hot, \yhether
dry or flooded. In South Australia, the thermometer has been known to rise in sum-
mer to 101° in the shade; in a tent exposed to the sun it was observed one day at
113°; the next day, 1 17°; the third, 1 15°; but, on the fourth, only Gl°. Tlie climate
of that province is indeed very changeable, " ten times more so than that of Kngland,
according to one writer; and, though generally salubrious, it is found to be better
suited for invalids and persons who have passed' the meridian of life, than for young
people in robust health and of strong constitutions. It is very dry, though much lest
982 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Australasia.
so than in New South Wales; rain frequently falls in South Australia, whereas re-
cently in New South Wales there was a continued drought of eighteen months.
The prevailing winds in summer are from north-east to south-east, and in winter,
from north-west to south-west ; the atmosphere is generally clear and dry ; but dews
are frequent and heavy, and sometimes assume the form of a drizzling rain ; while
in summer the hot winds, which however are of short duration, seldom continuing
more than two days at a time, and often less than six hours, are the sure harbingers
of a squall or thunder storm which fills the air with a volume of impalpable sand, but
clears away every thing noxious, and restores afresh the usual serenity. During sum-
mer also a regular sea breeze sets in daily, and much refreshes the inhabitants of the
coasts, where, besides, the hot winds are not felt so severely as at some distance in
the interior. The most remarkable peculiarity, however, of the Australian climate,
is its general dryness, although a great quantity of rain usually falls throughout the
year ; but it falls in torrents, and is not regularly distributed in showers. The rain,
when it does fall, is generally confined to certain months, which vary on the opposite
sides of the mountains ; floods on the coast occurring simultaneously with dry weather
in the interior, while, on the contrary, the latter has its rains when the coast is dry.
May is usually the rainy season on the coast ; between September and February the
rain falls in the interior. There are, however, periods when no rain falls for one,
two, or even three years together, and unmitigated drought prevails. These periodical
droughts seem to occur at regular intervals of about twelve years ;, in close succession
follows a period of floods or heavy rains, which are at first continuous and as general
as the preceding droughts, but decrease with every succeeding year till the period of
drought returns. It is only in the years that are intermediate between these extremes
that a regular annual succession of seasons is observed ; and even then, the seasons
are more distinctly marked in the high than in the low country. The seasons, of course,
occur at the periods of the year opposite to those of Europe, January being the middle
of summer, July, of winter. Summer extends from November till March ; and spring
and autumn are brief but well defined. Tlie spring months are September, October,
and November; the summer, December, January, February; autumn, March, April,
May; winter, June, July, and August.
The climate, however, is proverbial for salubrity ; endemic diseases are unknown,
except a species of ophthalmia, which occurs in October and November, and is oc-
casioned by the prevailing winds of that season. Of a community of 1200 persons
only five or six have been known to be sick at one time, and at some of the military
stations seven years have elapsed without a soldier dying. Old people, on their arri-
val from Europe have suddenly found themselves restored to much of the hilarity of
youth, and several persons have been known upwards of 100 years of age. Dysentery
is the most prevalent disease; but deaths from disease are exceedingly rare, and all
disorders yield with facility to the simplest remedies. The diseases, in short, which
do occur, are represented as being, in three cases out of four, the result of moral
causes. Excess in the use of animal food and of ardent spirits, is in Australia, as
every where else, the great promoter of disease. Temperance in eating and drinking
will be found by the emigrant the most effectual means for the preservation of health ;
while excessive indulgence, especially in the latter, is more likely than even at home
to undermine his constitution, and to blast his prospects with still more fearful and
fatal rapidity. '
Vegetable Productions The plants of Australia are to a very considerable ex-
tent so peculiar in their organization that a large proportion of the genera, and some
of the entire natural orders are quite unknown beyond its shores or those of the de-
pendent islands. But it is principally in the south that this peculiar vegetation ap-
pears ; for it changes in character as it approaches the north, till it finally assimilates
itself to that of Malaysia. The great mass of the vegetable productions of Australia
belongs to the natural orders proteaceae, myrtacese, and compositse ; but the most
common genera are the eucalyptus and acacia, which, if taken together, and consi-
dered with respect to the bulk of vegetable matter which they contain, nearly equal
all the other plants in the country. Of the former above 100 species have been dis-
covered, most of which are trees remarkable for their great size and height. Of the
acacias nearly 100 of the leafless species have been observed. The epacridae, with
their allied genera, are nearly as numerous, and hold the same rank in Australia as
the ericae at the Cape of Good Hope. The orchideae are found in great variety, be-
ing highly curious in the intertropical parts of the country, and chiefly land plants.
Of palms only six species have been discovered; and of the genus causurina, 13 spe-
cies. The coniferae are few in number of species, but very fine ; in particular, the
AusTEALASiA.J OCEANIA. 988
celebrated Norfolk Island pine (araucaria excellsa) occupies an extent of 900 miles
along the coast. Among the aspodeleae the genus xanthorrhea is the most remarkable ;
all the species yield a gum, and the xarhorea produces above its leaves a foot-stalk re-
sembling a sugar-cane, 20 feet long, and terminating with a spiral spike not unlike an
ear of wheat. Their stem is used by the natives for spears ; the tree yields a fragrant
yellow resin which has been found very balsamic. Of the genus urticae there are nu-
merous species ; many of these nettles reach 20 feet in height, and are of proportion-
ally robust habit, with leaves so highly stimulating as to blister severely on the
slightest touch. The leguminosae and compositae comprehend one-fourth of all the
dicotyledonous plants, while the grasses form an equal proportion of the monocotyle-
donous ; but of the latter only one-tenth part of the species have been observed in
other parts of the world. Of the cryptogamic plants tlie greater number are the
same as those of Europe, but some of them are also peculiar to Australia. The tree»
used by the colonists for domestic purposes are the iron-bark tree (eucalyptus resine-
fera) for building, but generally for fencing; the blue-gum (eucalyptus pipenta) for
shipbuilding and wheels; the black-butted gum, for the same purposes; the grey gum
for fencing and buildnig ; the stringy-bark for boards, building, &c. ; the box, for
wheels and ploughs; the forest-oak (casuarina torulosa), and the swamp-oak (casu-
arina paludosa), for cabinet work and shingles; the cedar (ccdrela australisj, for
cabinetwork; the turpentine tree, for boats; the sassafras, for flooring; the mountain
ash, for carriage work ; the sallow, for gig-shafts ; the pear, for gun-stocks ; the apple,
lor building; the white cedar, for building and boats; the Norfolk Island pine, for
cabinet work; and the bark of the curragong, for cordage. Some of these trees rise
to an astonishing height ; and Mr. Martin says, that he has seen a vast forest with
scarcely a tree of which the height was not 50 to 80 feet without a branch, while the
general height of the whole trees was nearly 130 feet. Se\ eral trees yield gum-arabic,
resins, and mauna.
The culinary vegetables and fruits are numerous and of a delicious flavour ; but
they have been almost all introduced by the British colonists. Among the vegetables
may be mentioned potatoes, cabbages, carrots, parsnips, turnips, cauliflowers, onions,
asparagus, peas, beans, cucumbers, raddishes, lettuce, spinage, brocoli, capcicums,
artichokes, cliardoons, celery, knohl, brengall or egg-plant, vegetable marrow, sweet
potatoes, and sea-kale. Among the fruits may be mentioned grapes of every variety,
strawberries, raspberries, pine-apples, oranges, lemons, citrons, guavas, love-apples,
mangoes, English and Brazilian cherries, pears, apples, jieaches, apricots, plums, figs,
mulberries, loqtiats, grenadillas (great flowering pas>ion-flower), pomegranates, che-
rasnolia, sweet and water melons, bananas, plantains, quinces, litches, olives, chest-
nuts, filberts.
Altogether, the Australian flora was estimated by Mr. Brown, in 1811, to contain
4200 species ; many more have since been discovered ; ])ut our limits prevent us
from giving any general account of them, or even naming them. A few, however,
are sufficiently remarkable to require particular notice. The New Holland lily is a
stately plant which grows to the height ot 20 to 25 lect, bearing on its crown blos-
soms of the richest crimson, from which tliel)ir<ls sip a delicious honey The pitcher-
jjlant is remarkable for having among its leaves ascidia or pitcher-shaped vessels
which contain several ounces of a watery fluid with a slightly sweet taste. A singular
and interesting plant has lately been discovered, which produces a fruit larger than a
Spanish chestnut, with the same taste. The foliage is beautifully green, and affords
a good shade.
Animals. — The native animals of Australia are few in number of species, ami of
a very peculiar character. There are 5H species of mammalia, of which 40 are pecu-
liar to the country, and of the other 12 species five are cetacea and four seals, leaving,
in fact, only three land mammals coiiunon to Australia with the rest of the world,
and of these one is the large Madagascar hat, another, a species ot jerboa, and tlie
third, a species of dog. There are no quadrumana, insectivora, pachydermata, or
ruminantia; but there are two species of cheiroptera, eight carnivora, six rodcntia,
fourcdentia, and thirty-six marsupialia, of which four-sevenths are exclusively limited
to Australia and the adjacent islands. The largest quadruped is the kangaroo, of
which, however, there are many varieties, differing in si/e from the kangaroo rat to
the forester, which stands four or five feet high ; but these beautiful animals are fast
disappearing before the pursuit of the colonists. The opossum tribe are very numerous,
and generally take up their abode in the hollows of decayed gum trees, where they
are pursued by the natives with a singular dexterity in climbing. Tlic native dog in,
next to the opossum and the kangaroo, the most numerous species of quadruped. It
984 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [AusTnAr..\su.
somewhat resembles the Indian jackall, being about two feet long, and two feet high,
with a head like a fox, and erect ears ; the colour is generally a reddish brown. It
does not bark, but sometimes yelps, and utters a dismal howl. It is extremely tena-
cious of life, very destructive to sheep and poultry, and is consequently hunted with-
out mercy by the settlers. A considerable degree of animosity likewise exists between
European dogs and these wild aborigines. But the most remarkable animals are those
which we have mentioned above as belonging to the edentata, though, strictly speak-
ing, they bear little analogy to the other animals of that order. Two of the four spe-
cies are echidni or porcupines, the one entirely covered with thick spines, and tiie
other clothed with hair, in which the spines are half hidden. The other two species
are ornithorhynci, animals which have the body and habits of a mole, the feet and
bill of a duck, and the internal structure of a reptile, leading a burrowing life amidst
the mud of rivers and swamps. Horses, cattle, sheep, and swine, have been intro-
duced by the European colonists, and the country has proved to be remarkably well
adapted for the breeding of these useful animals. Indeed no other country in the
world seems to be so well adapted for the rearing of sheep, and the production of fine
wool. The wool of Australia now enjoys the highest reputation in Britain and
America ; and most of the beautiful and soft woollen fabrics which go by the names
of Indianas, merinos, and schallis, are manufactured from it. ISlany of the cattle have
become wild, and Major Mitchell mentions that on two occasions he foiuid himself
surrounded by wild herds, the one amounting to 800, and the other to about 1600
head. Goats and rabbits have also thriven and multiplied, but not to the same extent.
A fine breed of asses has also been introduced from South America, but they are not
numerous.
Birds are numerous, of great variety, and many of them of beautiful plumage.
No order of birds is without its representative in Australia; and there are but
two species entirely peculiar to it, though these are more numerous than the
others. The most singular bird is the emu, which is fast disappearing. The gigantic
crane is a stately bird about six feet high, gregarious and carnivorous, easily domes-
ticated, and frequently seen on the borders of rivers and lakes, where also the black
swan abounds. The bustard or native turkey weighs from 15 to 18 lbs., and forms
agreeable food. Eagles and hawks are every where to be met with. There are about
thirty varieties of pigeon ; and countless varieties of beautiful parrots, parroquets, and
cockatoos ; gr en, red, crimson, and purple lories, with many other elegant and curious
birds ; as that singular one, the lyre-tail, which belongs to the gallinaceous order ;
spur- winged plovers ; pheasants of two species ; and three kinds of magpie. The
common crow and the swallow are every where found ; and the Australian sparrow
is a very pretty bird with varied plumage, in which a red or scarlet tinge is inter-
mixed. A butcher bird, which destroys snakes and other reptiles, is named the
laughing jackass, from its note resembling the coarse and boisterous laugh of a man,
but louder and more dissonant. The coachwhip is a small bird whose note resembles
the crack of a whip. Snipes, quails, kingfishers, and coots are abundant. The in-
sectivorous birds are comparatively few; but the suctorial species, or honey-suckers,
are numerous. The scansorial creepers are limited to two species. The toucans
find their Australian representative in the channel-bill ; the fly-catchers and warb-
lers resemble those of Africa ; there are two or three small finches of Indian genera;
and the cuckoos and orioles are not much unlike those of Europe, Asia, and Africa.
The aquatic tribes are nearly similar to those of other countries, as the pelican,
penguin-goose, duck, teal, widgeon, frigate-bird, noddy, petterel, gull, and other sea
birds. The genus cerespis, however, is found only in New South Wales ; it is of
a light grey colour, and as large as a goose. The musk duck is a curious bird, and
has wings so short that it cannot fly.
Insects are very numerous, and of every variety ; locusts are common in some parts
of the colony of New South Wales ; bees are of three species, and all without stings,
producing a great deal of delicious wild honey ; English bees, which have been recently
introduced, multiply fast ; the ants are of several varieties, those named the gigantic
ant are nearly an inch in length. Their houses are not so high as those of Africa,
but they are more solid and compact. Some species are, at one period, furnished
with wings, and may be seen issuing from a hole in the earth, flying about in every
direction, and then suddenly disappearing, strewing the ground with their wings.
Flies are a nuisance in summer, and the blow-fly taints and putrifies every thing it
touches. Spiders are generally large ; caterpillars sometimes, at intervals of years,
swarm in incredible numbers, blighting the finest crops in a few hours. Musquitoes
are occasionally troublesome, but are disappearing before advancing civilization ; and
Australasia.] OCEANIA. 985
those other creatures which accompany the want of cleanliness in England, are
equally abundant and unpleasant in Australia. In South Australia fleas exist in in-
credible numbers.
Reptiles are not very numerous. There are, however, several varieties of snakes,
some of which are poisonous. The largest is the diamond snake, which reaches the
length of fifteen feet, but is not poisonous. Several water snakes have been found,
and some have been seen at a good distance out at sea. There are also scorpions,
centipedes, and tarantulas ; with numerous lizards, frogs, and adders.
Fish are plentiful along the coasts, but few are found in the rivers, especially in
those on the east side of the Blue Mountains, owing to the rapidity of their currents.
Whales frequently come into the bays to calve, and seals are found in different coves,
especially towards the south. The codfish is taken in the fresh water rivers west of
the Blue Mountains, in great quantities and of a large size. Both these and the eels
are delicious food. Perch abound in the rivers of the eastern coast ; there are
many varieties of other fish, with which the markets are well supplied. Large sharks
are also sometimes seen. The shells of the Southern Ocean are highly prized, many
of them being of great beauty and of elegant forms. Fresh-water mu^els and shrimps
are obtained in great numbers. Oysters are extremely plentiful, and, though gene-
rally small, have a delicate flavour.
People. — The aborigines of Australia are considered as belonging to the Ethiopia
or black race of mankind, but differ very considerably from the negroes of Africa,
particularly in having the hair black, long, and coarse, with the exception of those on
the south coasts, whose hair is woolly. The nose, though large, is not so flat as that of
the Africans, indeed it sometimes approaches the Roman form ; the features generally
aie far from being disagreeable ; the lips are not thick, and the teeth are white and regu-
lar. The forehead is high, narrow, and formed at the crown like the roof of a house.
The skin is of the colour of wood-soot, or chocolate. The beard is of the same co-
lour with the hair of the head, and is bushy and thick. The colour, however, of tlie
skin seems not to be every where the same ; some, even when cleansed from their lilth,
are nearly as black as Africans, while dthers have a tint not deeper than that of the
Malays. In form, the Australians are generally tall and slender, with small muscles ;
and are remarkable for agility rather than for strength. They are weak and puny
in comparison with the negroes of Africa ; and are as much inferior in moral and in-
tellectual qualities and attainments. The Atistralians are the cnly people that go
nearly naked. Of arts and manufactures they have scarcely any idea. Their nearest
approach to ingenuity is the li>liing net, which is prepared by the women from fibres
or grassy filaments. Their only cutting tools are made of stone ; and their arms of
offence consist of spears, bomerangs, a singular sort of projectile, waddies or clubs,
and tomahawks. Of agriculture, even in its rudest form, they have not the smallest
knowledge ; they have no herds and flocks ; nor do they seem even to have any no-
tion of barter, except where intercourse with Europeans has taught them to give
their labour for a regular supply of food. They have no houses, but live in holes, or
under the slielter of b:irk screens rather than huts. Tliey seem to have no notion of
property; but, on the contrary, hold every thing in coniinon, except their women.
They are among the lowest and most degradid of mankind, ami are as comi)lete]y
barbarous as can well be imagined. In short, they may be descril)ed as rather gre-
garious than social ; for though some personal respect is occasionally seen to be paid
to a kind of chief among a tribe, it would seem to be entirely personal, and indepen-
dent of any elective hereditary right. They believe in good and evil spirits ; but it
does not satisfactorily appear that they offer them any worship or homage. They
seem to be incapable of civilization, and will probably, like the far nobler red men
of North America, disappear entirely before the white intruders. In general it uiay
be said that the whole of the aborigines belong to one stock ; though it is not a
little singular that their languages differ so much, tliat tribes at sliort distances
from each other, unless inhabiting the banks of the same river, are entire strangers,
^^hile almost every community or family, as it may be termed, has its own peculiar
dialect. Of their immber no estimate can be formed; but depending entirely, as
they do, for subsistence on the produce of fishing or the cliace, or on gum or bulbous
roots, it cannot be very great; and indeed the country is known to be very thinly
inhabited.
Of the white inhabitants we need say nothing more than (hat the great l>ulk, or
almost the whole of them, arc of British origin ; only a few foreigners i>cing intermixed
with them.
966 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY, [Australasia
Divisions. The greater part of Australia is still without any political or ad-
ministrative divisions; but several British colonies have been planted on the shores;
and these we shall proceed to describe, under their respective names of Neio South
Wales. South Australia, Western Australia, and North Australia. Various portions of
the coast have also received particular names from the navigators who explored them ;
as, New Holland and Tasman Land, on the north-west coast ; Arnheim's Land, between
New Holland and the Gulf of Carpentaria, corresponding with what is now called
North Australia; Carpentaria, the peninsular region between the Gulf of Carpen-
taria and the Eastern Ocean ; De Witt's Land ; Endrac/ht Land ; Edel Land ; Vlaming
Land; Leeuwin Land, on the west coast ; and Nuyt's Land, on the south coast. These
portions were discovered and named by Dutch navigators in the early part of the
seventeenth century. The whole of the east coast was first explored by Captain Cook
in 1770, and named by him New South Wales ; the greater part of the south coast
was explored in 1800 and 1802, by Captains Grant, Baudin, and Flinders, who be-
stowed no general names on their discoveries.
§ 1. New South Wales.
General Description This territory, according to the terms of the Gover-
nor's commission, " extends from the northern cape or extremity of the coast, called
Cape York, in the latitude of 10° 37' S., to the southern extremity of tlie said ter-
ritory, or Wilson's Promontory, in lat. 39° 12' S., including all the country inland to
the westward, as far as the 129th degree of E. long., with all the islands adjacent in
the Pacific Ocean within the latitude aforesaid of 10° 37' and 39° 12' S., and also in-
cluding Norfolk Island, lying in or about the lat. of 29° 3' S., and 168° E. long.,
saving and excepting that part of the said territory hereinbefore described, which is
called and known by the name of ' The Province of South Australia,' and which lies
between the meridian of the 132d and 141st degrees of east longitude, and between
the Southern Ocean and the 26th degree of south latitude, with all and every the
islands adjacent thereto, and the bays and gulfs thereof." But within these wide
limits only a comparatively small portion of country has yet been explored and colo-
nized.
That small portion forms the south-eastern corner of Australia, extending along the
coast from about Moreton Bay, in 27° S. lat., to the eastern border of South Aus-
tralia, at Discovery Bay on the south coast, and inland to the river Darling, or the
hills immediately beyond it; being altogether about 860 miles in length, from More-
ton Bay to Port Phillip, and 550 miles in breadth, on the paiallel of Sydney. The
country is naturally divided into two very distinct portions : the first of which ex-
tends along the south and east coasts, between the sea and the mountains, which form
a continuous watershed, in some places scarcely exceeding 100 miles, but for the
most part at a much less distance inland ; and the second forms a boundless extent of
plains, interspersed with hills, and intersected by rivers, all of which flow north-
ward, westward, or southward, to form the Murray, the largest river yet discovered
in Australia, and which flows to the south-westward to Lake Alexandrina at En-
counter Bay. Within the limits of the defined counties, which extend along the east
coast for 325 miles, with a breadth from 80 to 190 inland, sandstone predominates so
much as to occupy about six-sevenths of the whole surface ; and wherever this hap-
pens, little besides barren sand is found in the place of soil ; deciduous vegetation
scarcely exists; no turf is formed, for as the trees and shrubs are inflammable, confla-
grations take place so frequently in the woods during summer, as to leave very little
vegetable matter to be converted into earth. In the regions of sandstone, in short,
the territory is worthless, and is, besides, very generally inaccessible, thus presenting
a formidable obstruction to any communication between isolated spots of a better
description, which occur only where trap, limestone, or granite rocks exist. The ag-
gregate extent, however, of these fertile spots is so small, that out of twenty-three
millions of acres, only about 4,400,000 have been found worth possessing, while
the owners of this appropriated land within the limits have been obliged to send
their cattle beyond them for the sake of pasturage. And so extremely arid is the
country beyond the mountains, that all the surface water which flows from the vast
territory west of the dividing range, and extending north and south between the
river Murray and the Tropic of Capricorn, a distance of about 1000 miles, is insuf-
ficient to support the current of one small river throughout the year. The country,
however, to the south of the Murray is not so deficient in this respect, for there the
mountains are higher, the rocks more varied, and the soil consequently better. Every
Australasia.] OCEANIA. 987
variety of feature may indeed be seen in these southern districts, from the lofty al-
pine region on the east, to the low grassy plains in which they terminate on the west.
The Murray and its affluents flow through extensive plains, irrigating and fertilizing a
great extent of rich country, the soil of which is formed by the decomposition of trap,
granite, or limestone. Falling from mountains of great height, these rivers have
a perpetual current, whereas in other parts of Australia the rivers are too often dried
up, and seldom indeed deserve any other name than chains of ponds. Hills of mode-
rate elevation occupy the central region between the Murray and the southern coast;
they are thinly or partially wooded, but are covered with the richest pasturage. The
lower country along the skirts of these hills, on both sides, is mostly open, slightly
undulating towards the coast on the south, and generally well watered. The grassy
plains which extend northward from these thinly wooded hills to the banks of the
Murray, are furrowed by the channels of numerous streams, and by the more permanent
and extensive waters of numerous deep lagoons ; and, indeed, a finer country for the
pasturing of cattle can scarcely be imagined. In the western portion small rivers
radiate from the Grampians, an elevated and isolated mass, presenting no impediment
to a free communication through the fine country around its base, to which Major
Mitchell, who first explored it, gave the name of Australia Felix. Towards the sea
on the south, and adjacent to the open downs between the sea and Port Phillip, is a
low tract of country consisting of very rich black soil, which seems to be well suited
for the cultivation of ^ain. Between Port Philip and Sydney a great part of
the country remained till recently unexplored ; but during 1840, Count Streletsky,
a Pole, performed a zigzag pedestrian journey of 2200 miles through it. To-
wards the sources of the Morumbiiigee and its affluents, he found the country particu-
larly favourable for grazing and agriculture, both the hills and the valleys furnishing
abundant natural and artificial crops. Farther south, and beyond the range of the
remotest squatters, in the valleys of the Murray and its upper affluents, he found the
country rich and well watered. Crossing the dividing range, he entered a country to
which he gave the name of Gipp's Land, in honour of the governor, and which, on
account of its extent, its richness as a pastoral country, its open forests, means of
inland navigation, rivers, timber, climate, proximity to the sea, and its gradual eleva-
tion, rather hilly than mountainous, holds out cheering prospects to future settlers.
It extends along the coast, between the sea and the Australian Alps, from the meri-
dian 148^ on the N.E. to Corner Inlet and Western Port on the south and south-
west. Barometrical measurements give to Gipp's Land, on a line drawn between the
dividing range and the sea, from the N.E. to hit. 38^ 8' S. an average elevation of
268 feet. Scarcely any spot, in the opinion of Count Streletsky, either within or
without the boundaries of New South Wales, on a large or a small scale, can boast
of greater advantages than Gipp's Land. On an extent of 5600 square miles it lias a
se;i-coast line of 250 miles; two harbours already known, those of Corner Inlet and
Western Port; eight rivers, besides a navigable lake and lagoons; 3600 square miles
of forests, plains, and valleys, which, in richness of soil, pasturage, and situation, can-
not be surpassed; 2000 miles of coast range, with the most excellent quality of blue-
gum and black-butt timber. The natives he found peaceable ami inoffensive.
MocsTAlxs. — These, commencing near the coast of Portland liaf, in the sotitli-wcst, extend in an
almost continuous line, parallel to the coast, beyond the northern limits of the .settlemints. In Aus-
tralia Felix are the Gnimpium, the main body of which extends above .M) miles from north to south,
with an outlyinx ridge to the westward named I'tctoria range. From their eastern flank a range of
grassy hills, named the y^uttrnlian Pv'^emfs, diverges to the E.N.K. and connects tlie Oramiiiuns
with the H'lirriiifmw or j4ustrfili(in Alpi, the liinhest range yet discovered in ihe country. Tli<semny
l>e described as extending N.N.E. from Wils<in's Promontory to the .ifilh parallel, where they attain
their greatest elevation ; they are then divided into two ranges, tlie one running to the north-wist be-
tween the valleys of the Murray and the Morumhidgee. and the other to the north-east, where it forms
the watershed between the coast land and the great plains of the interior. Mtiiint U'llliam, the highest
of the Grampians, ri>es only 4.')(XI feet above the level of the sea; Mount Coli; the highest of the Py-
renees, about .3000; but the highest of the Alps hiing covered with peri)etunl snow, their elevation,
though not ascertained, cannot bo less than l.'i.OOO feet. To the westward of Sydney the ranges have
been named the lilue Mountairu. and long formed an impassableobslacle to the progress ot di.soivery
in that dlrecton. It was only in ISKi, five-and-twenty years after tlie foundation of the colony, that
a road was found across them. These mountains form the connection In'twcen tlic Australian Alpi
and the Livi-rpml H/inf^e, which extends east and west, through three or four degrees of ImiKitutlo,
tmder the .ifith parallel, and presents a very formidable ol)stacle to any passage across it. The HIuo
Mountains attain no great elevation. Mount Yiirk, their highest peak, being no more than .111'-' feot
above the level of tiie sea; but the valleys and plains which occur among its ridges are very elivated.
King's table-land is 2727 feet high; the Vale of Clwvdd, IVJn feet; and U«tbur-t pliiins. l.'iTO feet,
above the level (jf the sea. The highest peaks of the l,lveri)ool r.inge rise iMtwH'ti Cloo anil "IKKI feet.
This range is-crosscd by some frightful ravines, one of which, named l)y .Mr. O.vley. I'andorn's Pass,
is described by him as l>eing from two to three miles wide at the top, and ."KKH) fiH't in deiitb, wliilc Its
width at the bottom, which forms tlie bed of a river, is only betw. en in*) and 2iKi feet. More practi-
cable passes, however, have been, and are still being discovered across both the Liverpool rangi* and
the Ulue .Mountains. The only volcanic mountain yet discovered in Australia, is situate between tha
Grampians and the sea, at Portland Bav ; It is called by the natives Murciii. but Major .Mitchell ha«
988 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Australasia.
given it the name of Mount Napier. It is extinct, but vesicular lava is abundant in the neighbour-
hood.
Rivers. — The Rivers may be arranged in two classes ; those wliich flow from the dividing range di-
rectly to the sea ; and those which flow to the interior, and find their ultimate issue by the Murray.
Proceeding along the coast from north to south, the rivers of the maritime region occur in the follow.
Ing order : — The Brisbane and the Lo^an, which fall into Moreton I5ay ; the I'erri/, into Slioal Bay ;
tlie Aptley, into Tr.val Bay ; the Hastings, which terminates in Port Macquarrie ; the Manning, which
divides, near its mouth, into two brandies which form Farquhar inlet and Harrington inlet ; the
Wallomba, Richard, and Maclean Rivers, whicli fall into VVallis Lake at Cape Hawlie ; the Myall and
Karuah, into Port Stephens ; the Hunter rises from the southern flanlc of the Liverpool range, Ije-
tween 151° and 152° E. long., and flows first to the south-west, where it is joined by the Goulbourii, and
then turns to the cast by south, entering tlie sea at Port Hunter ; the Hawkesbury, which terminates
in Broken Bay, is formed by the Macdonald, Cole, Nepenn, Wallawlilly, Coxe's tiirer, and numerous
other streams, which drain a large portion of the eastern flank of the Blue Mountains ; the S/ioalharc7i
Rirer enters the sea at Shoalliaven, to the south of Sydney. In Gipp's Land are the Thomson, Riley,
and Macarthur, which flow into Lake King ; tlie Perry, Dunlop, and Barney, which enter the sea in
one stream farther south ; the Mac^nochie and tlie hatrobe, wliich also form one stream, and enter the
sea to the eastward of Corner Inlet. Farther west tlie only important stream is the Glenelg, which
falls into Discovery Bay, to the eastward of Cape Northumberland. These rivers having very short
courses, are comparatively unimportant; but several of them are navigable for small vessels to a con-
siderable distance inland.
The Murray or Millewa has its sources in the elevated valleys of the south-western flank of the
enowy range of the Australian Alps, between 3G° and 36'-' 40' S. lat., and on both sides of the llStli
meridian. From the point where it leaves tlie mountains it flows, with various windings, in a general
direction west-north-west till it reaches the 140th meridian, beyond which it turns to the south, and
enters Lake A!e.\andrina at Encounter Bay. It is navigable for boats through the greater part of lis
course, the length of wliich, including windings, is probably not mucli less than 3000 miles. Its prin-
cipal affluents from the south are the Wiimnera, Loddon, Yarayne, Hovel, Goulboicrn or Bayungim, tlie
Ovens, and the Mittamitta. The affluents from the north are the Morumbid-see and the Darling. The
Murray was first explored in 1830 by Captain Sturt, who sailed down the stream from the mouth of
theMorumbidgeeto Lake Alexandrina. Tlie Morumbidgee rises from the northern side of the snowy
Alps, and, flowing in a westerly direction, joins the Murray near the 143° E. long., after a course of
1000 miles. It receives from the north the large river Kalare or Lachlan. which drains the western
slopes of the mountains to the south-west of Sydney. The Darling or Karaula rises south-west of
Moreton Bay, and, flowing south-west, joins the Murray between 141° and 142° E. long. Its princi-
pal affluents are the Dumaresque, Guydir, Nammoy or Peel, Castlereagh, fVamboolor Macquarrie, and
Bogan. But the Darling is rather a water course than a river; for, in dry seasons, it lias sometimes
no current, nor even water, for many miles ; in the summer of 1840, its ciiannel was dry for thirty
miles up from the Murray. When first visited by Captain Sturt, he found its water intensely salt ;
but, six years later, Major Mitchell found it fresh at the same place, but salt for 1| mile, about 50
miles lower down. Its affluent the Macquarrie and also the Lachlan, when first explored by Mr. O.xley,
■were found to terminate in wide expanses of water, which gave him reason to conjecture the exist-
ence of one or more large inland seas ; but tliese expanses have been since found to exist only in
wet seasons, while, on the contrary, in dry seasons, they are only dry clayey tracts, traversed by
chains of ponds ; so that tliough they are'both large streams in the upper part of their courses,
they contribute really very little water to their main rivers. In short, the basin of the Murray
and its affluents is estimated to comprise an area of 400,000 square miles, but, as all their water
is received only from the mountains on the eastern and southern borders, while the country through
which they flow is very arid, instead of increasing, like other rivers, as they proceed, they rather de-
crease gradually, till at last the hulk of water carried by the Murray to the sea is too small to force
a clear navigable outlet. It therefore expands into a large lagoon, about 50 or 60 miles long and 30
broad, but only four feet deep, and salt for one-half of its breadth.
Lakes. — The Lakes are small and unimportant, though very numerous. Lake George, in Murray
County, was, in 1828, a sheet of water 17 miles long and 7 wide, but in 1830, had dried up to a grassy
plain.
Natural Productions The grand staple product of Australia is wool. Since
sheep were first e.xtensively introduced, great improvement has taken place in the
quality of the wool, and it has been much more extensively used in the manufac-
ture of fine goods in Britain. In 1830 only 973,330 lbs., or about 5000 bales, were
imported into England from New South Wales. In 1844, the collective exports amount-
ed to L.l, 349,481 ; and they arc annually increasing. In consequence of the aridity of
the climate, and the general barrenness of the soil, agriculture is an anxious and uncer-
tain pursuit. Owing also to the greater profit which is more easily made by sheep, the
attention of the colonists has been so much directed to that pursuit, that compara-
tively little attention is devoted to agriculture, and the colony is very much dependent
on supplies of corn from abroad. It has been hitherto supplied chiefly from Van Dieman's
Land and the Cape of Good Hope, and sometimes even from North America ; but, even
with all these supplies provisions have recently risen sometimes almost to famine
prices. The aridity which makes agriculture so hazardous and unproductive, is owing,
however, not so much to the small quantity of rain which falls, as to the unequal dis
tribution of that quantity throughout the year, and throughout periods of years ; de-
luges of rain being often followed by long-continued droughts. If the actual quantity
of rain fell regularly and seasonably, agriculture might in some places succeed as a
pursuit, where at present it is merely carried on as subsidiary to grazing, and where it
is only possible to carry it on in this way ; but in the course of time, when capital
accumulates, this irregularity maybe partly remedied by artificial irrigation, and large
tracts of land now consigned to sterility may be rendered productive. This, bow-
ever, on a large scale would not be profitable in the present state of the colony ; and
for many years to come it will be more profitable for the colonists to devote their
Australasia.] OCEANIA. 989
principal attention to sheep and cattle, for which they have advantages over all the
other nations of the world, and to import all the grain they require, except what is
grown in those places which are favourable to its cultivation, such as the alluvial
banks of the rivers in the vicinity of the coast. In 1838, the quantity of land under
cultivation amounted to 92,912J acres, whereof 48,060 were in wheat; 25,043, in
maize; 2922, barley; 3767, oats ; 429, rye; 39^, millet; 1788, potatoes ; 92o^, to-
jacco ; sown grasses, 9939. And the produce, in that year, was 469,140 bushels of
wheat ; 356,268 bushels of maize ; 32,103 of barley ; 13,416 of oats ; 4878 of rye ;
353 of millet ; 3496 tons of potatoes ; 41)52 cwt. of tobacco ; and 6960 tons of hay.
But though the country is unfavourable to the production of grain, it is likely that the
culture of the vine would succeed ; and the experiment has been made to a certain ex-
tent. Wine of superior quality has already been produced in some places, and there is
no doubt that in many situations good wine may be made in abundance. Coal has been
found in various places, as in the district of Hunter's River, among the Blue Moun-
tains and the Darling ranges, and in the Port Phillip district. Mines have been
wrought for several years at Newcastle on the river Hunter, by the Australian Agri-
cultural Company, who have exclusive right of working it within the limits of the
territory. Coal has also been found near the heads of several of the branches of the
Hunter, more than 100 miles from Newcastle, as well as at various intermediate
points ; and from these indications there seems reason to believe that a continuous
bed of coal extends throughout the whole valley of that river, which may, in conse-
quence, hereafter become the great manufacturing district of Australia. New South
Wales likewise possesses abundance of iron ore of the richest quality ; and in these
two articles, coal and iron, is supplied with abundant elements for the future Indus
try and prosperity of a numerous and active population.
The whale fishery has in past years been a source of wealth to several of the en-
terprising colonists, and it n;ay continue to be so ; but tins pursuit partakes more of
the nature of a gambling speculation than of a regular branch of industry; its profits
are so uncertain and precarious. It is nevertheless eagerly pursued. In 1828 the
produce amounted to the value of £38,000; in 1835, it had increased to £214,000.
Population Besides the few aborigines, of whom we need take no further no-
tice (See ante, p. 9S5J, the population consists of British emigrants and their descen-
dants, with the intermixture of a very few other Europeans. The colony was established
in January 1788, as a penal station for criminal convicts; and for nearly thirty years
continued to make very slow progress in population, very few free emigrants finding
their way to it: but, after the general peace in 1814, public attention was directed
to Australia as a suitable place for emigrants of a better description than the early
settlers. It soon experienced a rapid and continually advancing increase, and,
at 31st December 1847, amounted to 205,009. But though the country has
been largely indebted to the labour of the convicts, it may yet bo doubted
whether or not the value of their forced industry is not more than counterbalanced
by the moral contamination which they have communicated to the whole society.
The first colony, established at Sydney in 1788, consisted of 1030 individuals, ot
whom more than 700 were convicts. In 1810, the population of the colony amounted
to 8293; in 1821, to 29,783; in 1828, to 36,598; in 1833, to 71,070; in 1836, to
77,096, and in 1841 to 130,856. Of that number, 87.298 were males and 43,558
females: whereof free males, (51,074 ; free females, 40,425. Of the males, 18,802
were married; of the females, 17,551. The number of Roman Calliolics was 35,(;9();
of Presbyterians. 13,153; Methodists, 8,236; other Dissenters, 1857; Jews, 856;
Mahometans and Pagans, 207; all others, reputed members of the Church of England,
73,727. There were 4477 landed proprietors, merchants, bankers, and members oi
the liberal professions ; 1774, shopkeepers and retailers; 10,715 mechanics and arti-
ficers ; 12,948 shepherds; 9,823 domestic servants; others, not classified, 72,317.
The greater part of the convicts, upon their arrival, were formerly [)rovi(!ed for by
being assigned as servants to the free colonists ; but, according to a new system recently
introduced, all convicts arriving in future are to be transported to Norfolk Isliind.
and are not to be assigned to private individuals during any part of their servitude.
After serving for a certain time with a good character, tlu; |)risoner becomes entitled
to a " ticket of leave," which gives the holder of it all the advantajjes of a free |)crson
throughout the district over which the leave extends. When the ticket is held for
a certain number of years without forfeiture for misbehaviour, the liolder is entitled
to a " conditional pardon," which is not liable to be forfeited at the will of the
Government, but is limited in its sphere of operation to the colony, in which respect
it differs from an " absolute pardon," which restores the convict to all the rights and
990 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Australasia.
privileges of a British subject. Under the operation of this system, many convicts
have become useful members of society, and not a few of them have risen to be the
most enterprising and wealthy among the merchants and cultiviitors. But people of
this class are still distinguished by the name of " emancipists ; " among many of the
free emigrants there is a strong prejudice against associating with them ; and through
the force of this prejudice a bill introduced by the Government into the legislative
council last year (1840) for constituting muncipal corporations in the colony, and
allowing emancipists to hold muncipal offices, was defeated. But, as the emancipists
have not " the nobility of the skin "to contend against, like the free negroes of Ame-
rica, this prejudice will no doubt gradually give way, even as respects themselves,
while with respect to their descendants, it can hardly, if at all, be said to exist.
Religion The colonists, like their countrymen at home, are generally professors
of Christianity, but the variety of sects and creeds is just as great among them as
in Britain. In 1836, there were 77,096 Protestants, 21,895 Roman Catholics, 477
Jews, and 100 Pagans. The ministers of all sects are provided for by the Govern*
ment, and a seventh part of the whole territory is set apart as church and school
lands for the general purposes of religion and education without reference to sect.
The English Episcopal church is under the charge of the Bishop of Australia, who is
appointed by the Crown, and resides at Sydney. There are also branches of the
Church of Scotland, and of various others of the British sects. The Roman Catholics
are under the charge of a Vicar-General.
Education Considerable efforts have been made for the diffusion of education ;
but no general system has yet been established by public authority, though there are
many schools which are supported by the Government, and also numerous private
seminaries. Of the former there were in 1837-8, thirty-seven for children of members
of the Church of England, and eleven for Roman Catholics, besides a considerable
number supported partly by Government and partly by private contributions. An
attempt was made by the Government in 1839 to introduce a general system of edu-
cation on popular principles, which was defeated by the Church party, headed by
Bishop Broughton. At Sydney there are two colleges ; one named the Sydney Col-
lege, established by private subscription in 1830 ; and the other named the Australian
College, instituted in 1831 on the model of the Scottish universities, with a principal,
and professors of English, Latin, Greek, Mathematics, and Natural Philosophy ; and
combining a series of schools for elementary instruction, with a gradually extending
provision for the higher branches of education. At Liverpool and Paramatta there
are two establishments called the Male Orphan School and the Female Orphan School,
each containing 125 destitute children, who are reared from infancy, educated and ap-
prenticed out, and subsequently portioned when married.
Government The executive government is vested in a governor, who is aided
by a council, consisting of the colonial secretary and treasurer, and the bishop of
Australia; the legislative power is vested in a council, consisting of the governor
and executive council, with the addition of the chief-justice, the attorney-general,
the chief officer of the customs, the auditor-general, and seven private getitlemen of
the colony, who are appointed by the Crown for life. The laws of England are those
of the colony, except only in so far as they are affected by the acts of the legislative
council. The laws are administered by a supreme court, consisting of a chief judge
and two puisne judges, an attorney-general, and a solicitor-general. Circuit courts
are held in various places by these judges, for the same purposes as those held by the
judges of England in their circuits. There are also courts of general and quarter-
sessions held by the justices of peace, with the same powers as those of England, and
with the summary cognizance of all crimes, not punishable by death, which are com-
mitted by convicts whose sentences have not transpired, or have not been remitted.
There is also a vice-admiralty court for maritime causes ; an archdeacon's court for
clerical matters ; and courts of requests for the summary determination of claims not
exceeding the value of £10 sterling, with certain exceptions. Juries have been intro-
duced in both civil and criminal cases. Lawsuits are very frequent, and large fortunes
have consequently been made by barristers and solicitors. The executive administra-
tion of the law is vested in a sheriff of the colony, who has a deputy in each of the
counties. The police forms an important establishment, and is well managed. There
are benches of stipendiary as well as unpaid magistrates in Sydney and the other prin-
cipal towns, aided by head constables, and a civil and military police force at eacli
station. The only military force consist of regiments of the line ; no militia force ha»
ever been organized. The police law is very strict.
AUSTRAI.ASIA.J
OCEANIA.
991
The rapid extension of settlements over Australia renders it expedient that new
arrangements should be made from time to time, for the administration of its af-
fairs ; and her Majesty's Government have come to the conclusion that it is desirable
that the present territory of New South Wales should be divided into three dis-
tinct portions or districts, under the names of a northern, a middle, and a south-
ern district. Suspending for the present any directions about the northern district,
the Secretary of State, in his dispatch of 3 1st May 1840, announces that the
middle and southern districts are to be divided by the boundaries of the two
southern counties of New South Wales, as proclaimed by the governor on I4th Oc-
tober 1329, and from the limits of these counties by the whole course of the river
Morumbidgee and the Murray, till it meets the eastern boundary of South Australia ;
and that the crown lands in both districts shall hereafter be disposed of at the fixed
price of £1 sterling per acre. Against this proposal the legislative council have made
a strong remonstrance, as tending greatly to injure the prosperity of the middle dis-
trict ; but, if there must be a division, they wish the southern boundary extended
along the coast to Cape Howe, and from that point westward along the course of the
Murray.
Finances. — The public revenues are derived from various sources ; their nature
and amount are stated in the following table, for the year ending 31st December
1840:—
Sydnev.
Customs, . . . £
Buty on Spirits Distilled in tlie Co-
lony, and Licenses to Distil,
Licenses to Retail Fermented and
Spirituous Liquors, .
Auction Duly, and Licenses to Auc-
tioneers, ....
Post Office,
Fees of Public Offices,
Fines Le\ied by Courts of Justice
and Petty Sessions,
Licenses to Hawkers and Pedlars,
Collections by the Ajient for the
Clergy and School Estates, .
CroWB Lands,
Licenses to Depasture Stock on
Crown Lands,
Assessment on Live Stock beyond
the lioundaries of Location,
Licenses to Cut Timber on Cro«n
Lands,
Fines collected by Coniniissiontrs
of Crown Lands,
RentsotToUs, Ferries, Market s,a;i J
Government Premises,
Interest on Public Monies deposited
in the Colonial Hanks. .
Crown's share of Seizures made by
the lepartment of Customs,
Collected for Water Mi|iplied to
Shipping from her .Maj' sly's IJocK
Yard, ....
Proceeds of the Sale of Public Pro-
lan y, ....
Proceeds of the Sale of Projierty
found in the possession of Convic-
ted Felons,
Proceeds of the Sale of Forfeited and
L'nclaimed Property in the pos-
Dession of the Police,
Sundry small Receipts,
Surcharges recovered,
XlH.rviH 8 1
Proceeds of the Sale of Wheat and
Hice imported by Goveriunent, ^1,2h0 13 ."i
182,058
G
G
13,228
14
C
13,0.58
10
0
l,-,.fi4.-,
13,413
1. 5,318
18
1
10
10
0
10
03
8
0
1
0
4,l.->3
10!(,lsl
13
10
10
11
7,73.j
0
0
8,.-. 12
s
G
c.-)-
0
0
131
5
0
3,;)3.-.
2
11
I,."!l3
U3
G
;»03
17
4
3v;
y
0
r,i.l
\r,
0
2.'.3
4
1
4
2'jy
1
0
10
10
0
11
I Brought over . £422,835 1 G
IRepayment by Poor Settlers of
I >\ heat distributed to them by Go-
vernment, . . . 33) 14 7
Proceeds of the Sale of Provisions
and Stores landed from Inuni-
I grant Ships, . . . 3,303 19 1
j Proceeds of the Sale of Property left
on board by Emigrants who De-
: serted, . . 14 18 6
1 £420,481) 13 a
PoBT PniLLir.
Customs, . £21,4%
Licenses to Retail Fermented and
Spirituous Liquors,
Auction Duty, and Licenses to Auc-
tioneers,
Post office.
Fees of the Harbour Master's Office,
Fees and Fines collected by the se-
veral Courts of Petty Sessions,
Licenses to Hawkers and Pedlars,
( rcjwn Lands,
Liieiisos to Depasture Stock on
Crown Lands, .
Assessment on Live Stock beyond
the Houiid;irie^ of Location,
Licenses to Cut Timber on Crown
Lands
Fees and Fines collected by ("oni-
niissioners of Crown Lands,
Proceeds ottlie Sale of Government
Property,
Surcharges recovered,
2.V2,578
Proceeds of the Sale of Provisions
and Stores Landed from Lnmi-
grant Ships, . . . L-^'O
Rei-avinent for Equipments retain-
ed f>y Surveyors, . . IAS
1,434
10
0
3,199
778
18
4
8
15
0
«
0
1,139
2.5
17,127
8
0
IG
0
0
0
,5,000
0
0
1,707
5
3
272
0
0
250
14
3
.52
7G
G
2
0
-.2
Carry over,
£422,835 1 G
Total of both Districts,
253,;)»3
.£'GH(i,473
8 4
9 8
0 0
18 0
II H
The revenue of llie colony in 1824 wa^ only £4!J,4T1 : •'} : 9, including £27!' : 7 : 9
for the proceeds of land sold. From that period it has been cons-tantly ri.-.iiig to its
present amount.
Commerce. — The Commerce consists in exporting the raw produce ot the colony,
and importing in return the articles required for the use of the colonists. 1 ho j)rin-
cipal exports consist of wool and whale-oil ; and the total amount and value ot both
992
DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.
[AUSTEALASIA
branches of trade, for 14 years, are stated in the following table, which is an ab-
stract of various tables in the Appendix to the Report of the Debate in the Legis-
lative Council, on 10th December 1840, on the subject of the proposed division of
territory.
Vessels Inwards.
Vessels Outxcards.
Quantity of\ Value i>f
Year.
Imports.
Exports.
Wool Ex-
ported.
Wool Ex-
ported.
No.
Tonnage.
No.
Tonnage.
1826
£360,000
£106,600
62
17,178
60
17,020
/4j. 552,960
£ 48,384
18'i7
362,324
76,314
103
26,508
63
14,501
407,116
24,306
1828
570,000
90,050
137
32,559
69
20,186
834,343
48,851
1829
601,004
161,716
158
37,342
168
37,586
1,005,333
63,555
1830
420,480
159,659
157
31,225
147
28,822
899,750
34,907
1831
490,152
324,168
155
34,000
165
35,252
1,401,284
70,979
1832
604,620
384,344
189
41,350
194
42,857
1,515,156
73,559
1833
713,972
394,801
210
50,164
213
49,702
1,734,203
103,692
1834
991,990
587,640
245
58,532
220
53,373
2,246.933
213,628
1835
1,114,805
682,193
2Gi)
63,019
269
66,964
3,893,927
299,587
1836
1,237,406
748,624
269
65,415
264
62,834
3,693,241
369,.324
1837
1,182,222
747,876
260
67.360
262
64,596
4,273,715
320,527
1838
1,506,803
774,770
291
80,060
273
81,325
5,749,376
405,977
1839
2,236,371
948,776
563
135,474
548
124,776
7,213,584
442,504
Before 1817, the circulating medium consisted principally of the private notes of
merchants, traders, shopkeepers, and publicans, sometimes for so small an amount as
sixpence. To remedy the evils attending such a state of things, the Bank of New
South Wales was established with a capital of £20,000 sterling, raised in £100
shares ; which almost from the first has yielded to its shareholders a dividend of from
15 to 20 per cent. The Bank of Australia was instituted in 1826, with a capital of
£220,000 ; but its transactions are limited to discounting bills which have not more
than three months to run. It has been highly prosperous, and has paid dividends of
from 12 to 15 per cent on the paid up capital. A third bank, named the Commercial
Banking Company of Sydney, was instituted in 1834, with a capital of £300,000; and
in the same year a London company was incorporated by Royal Charter, under the
name of the Bank of Australasia, with a capital of £200,000, for the purpose of
establishing banks of issue and deposit, not only in New South Wales, but also in
Van Dieman's Land, and other parts of Australasia. The whole amount of British
coin in the colony in 1836 was estimated at £445,000; and the amount of bank-
notes in circulation, at 31st December of that year, at £99,487. But a great propor-
tion of the circulation is carried on by drafts or cheques on the banks, the mass of
pecuniary transactions centering in Sydney, and almost every person of property having
an account with one of them, in which, for security, a large portion of his money is
lodged.
The more settled parts of the colony are traversed by excellent roads, some of
which have been executed by Government at very great expense, especially tliose
leading over the mountains.
Division's The country immediately around Sydney, the capital, is divided info
twenty counties, named Argyle, Bathurst, Biigh, Brisbane, Camden, Cook, Cumber-
land, Durham, Georgiana, Gloucester, King, Macquarrie, Murray, Northumberland,
Phillip, Roxburgh, St. Vincent, Wellington, Westmoreland, Hunter. By a |)roclama-
tion issued by the Govermnent in May 1839, the Crown lands beyond the limits of
these counties were divided into nine districts, named: — Port Macquarrie. New
England, Liverpool Plains, and Bliijh, along the northern border, between the sea
and the Macquarrie river ; Wellington, between the INIacquarrie and the Lachlan ;
Lachlan, between the Lachlan and the Morumbidgee ; Morumbidijee, between that
river and the Murray ; Maneroo, on the east coast between the Moruya river and
Cape Howe ; and Port Phillip District, " comprising the whole of the lands lying to
the south of the main range, between tlie rivers Ovens and Goulburn, and adjacent
to Port Phillip." In the last named districts two counties have since been formed,
the one named Bourhe, on the north side, and the other Grant, on the west side of
Port Phillip.
§ Cities and Towns.
Sydney, the capital, is situate partly in a narrow valley, and partly on the sides of gentle slopes
rising from the shores of two of the branches of Port Jackson, named Sydney Cove and Darling
Harbour. The streets are long, wide, and quite English in their appearance ; the houses are gene-
rally lofty and well-built, being interspersed with cottages fronted by small neat gardens, which in
Australasia.] OCEANIA. ©93
some parts of the toTirn are attached to every house. Along the water side are wharfs, stores, ship-
yards, mills. &c. ; behind these the houses rise in terraces, giving variety to the scene, and b\- their
neatness and elegance conveying the idea of a prosperous community. Many of tlie shops are tilUd
up with great taste ; the hotels and inns are numerous and excellent ; but the puldic buildings are
neither numerous nor elegant. The govcrnuient-house, though delightfully situate in u cliarniing
desmesne which overlorks the liarhour, can searcily lie cu;uid,r d more than an overgrown cottage.
The churches, cliapels. -..od meeting houses a e plain and mode t struoiu es, e.vcept tnut of tlu Ito-
nian Catholics, in wh ch an atteiiH^t at imposin.' grandeur seems to liave absorbed every ..tber id a.
Tlie town is ahoi.t three milo- in 1 ngili, having two-t i dsof its eir^-nmierL nee wasli.d tiv the navigable
waters ol Port Jack-on. It was founded by C;iptain Philli|., t!i.- t rst governor of Neu South Wa.es in
January US-<. nnd now contains a population upwards <jf 50,000. Sydnev Core is protected bv Fort
Macquarrie aitd Dawe's battery, situate on the two p lints of land a"t its" entrance. Port Jackson is
one of the finest harbours in the world. Its t ntrance, on tlie east coast, is tor, c- quarters ot a-mile
wide ; within, it e.\pands into a spacious basin 15 miles long, in some places 3 wide, and nayigalile for
ships of any burden 15 miles from tlie etitrance, or 7 miles above Sydney ; and for \> miles farther,
the Paramatta river, which falls into it, can scarcely be considered more than an estuary. Ships come
up close to the wharfs at Sydney, and the cargoes are hoisted at once into the war. houses. On the
lofty south head at the entrance a fine 1 ghthouse was erected by (ioveri.or .Macqua'rie. It stands in
33^ 51' 40" S. lat.. and 151= 16' 51)" E. long. The li;;lit can be seen at the liisiance of 8 or 10 leagues.
The other principal towns round Sydney are : — Par>imatta, 18 miles distant by water and 15 by land,
at the head of Port Jackson, with .3000 inhabitants, oiid a large factory or penitentiary for female
convicts ; IViiidsor, on the Hawkesbury river, 1 10 miles from the ^ea, to which it is navigable for
vessels of 10()tons; liichmonil, 3(j miles from Sydney; Licet pool, on tlie George river, which fall.s
into Botany Bay, and is navigable for vessels of ."(i tons up to the town; VumplieUloun. \1 miles from
Liverp ,ol, all in the county of Cumberland. Xeiraistlp, on the coast, at the mouth of Hunter river,
is a flon ishing town fast rising into importnce, not less from its position at the mouth of a tine navi-
gable river, than from the vicinity of the coal mines, which are now actively wrought. Mait/aml, on
the Hunter, 25 miles above Newcastle, is also a ti urishing town, and the seat of the executive for
tlie county of Nortlnimberland. Bnt/innl, an inland town, 122 miles W.N.W. of Svdiiey.
Mrlbiitane, the capital of Port Phillip District, was founded so lately as 1837 ; but is already a
flouri-hing town, \yitli good houses, shops, inns, hotels, and several thousand inhabitants. It is finely
situate on a rising ground three miles from the northern shore of Port Phillip, on the north bank of
the liver Yaria-y;irra, which is navigable up to the town, a distance of U miles, lor vessels of 2IKJ tons ;
but for the accommodation of larger vessels a shipping port has been establislied at H illiiinistuun. on
the projecting point of the west side of Hobson's Bay. I'mt Phillip is a beautiful land-locked basin,
from 30 to .50 miles in length and breadth, according to the mode of measuring it, and having a nar-
row entrance, about a mile and a half wide, which opens to the south-west. Ships of the largest size
can approach within 7 or 8 miles of Slelbourne, on the side farthest from the sea, where they may i ide
in safety in any weather, there being numerous sandbanks about the middle of the basin, v\ Inch Lreak
the force of the waves when the wind is southerly. It is surrounded by a picturesque and beautiful
country. The nucleus of a settlement has been established at Ci'ilniiif. about 50 milesW.S.W. of
Alelbonrne, at tlie western e.\tremity of a deep indentation or gulf, which e.Mends inland from the
west side of Port Phillip ; and another on the north-west shore of I'urthiitd Bn}/, where there is a rich
alluvial soil ; and inland, a splendid tract of country westward of the Grampians, with luxuriant pas-
tures and abundant water, lies open for location.
§ 2. South Australia.
This province was establislied as an c.vperimcnt oii a great scale of a new sys-
tem ot colonization. Tiic various defects in tlie niaiiaf,'einent of tlie original Australian
colonies, and more particularly tlie wide spreading out of the population, which tended
to deteriorate society, or at least to obstruct the advancement of social impro\ement,
and the moral contamination [.rodticed by so large an in fusion of convicts, having engaged
the attention of several political iii(|uiicrs, they promulgated a very simjile principle,
by which not only these defects should lu; obviated, but a suiierior colony established
with all the vigour and resourcis of the others, and securing the enjoyment of comfort,
happiness, and morality, on the part of the settlers. The principle was, that convict
Ia!)ourers can be dispensed with, abundance of free labourers su[)plied, and the evils of
dispersion avoided by this obvious expedient, namely, that no hmd should be granted as
afree gift, but sold at a price sutricient to defray the e.\[)cnse of [irocuriiig labourers from
the mother country to cultivate it, and make it available; tind that the whole price
should be applied exclusively to that purpose. By this means the [iroper gradation would
be preserved between the capitalist and the labour<T, and the land lie duly cultivated,
because it could only be acrjuired liy persons of adequate means ; while facilities would
be given for iiitrodiunng a virtuous labouring population of free emigrants, who would
have no prospect of raising themselves above their natural rank and vocation, except
by industrious exertion. These projectors had intliience enough to force their views
on the attention of Government ; and in IH-'U an act of Parliament was obtained for
establishitig a colony on the principles adverted to. The act provides for the erection
of a province under the name of South Australia, extending from the 132' to the 141^
E. long, and from the south coast, including iheadjacent islands, northward to the trojiic
of Capricorn. The whoh; territory within these limits to be open to settlement by
British subjects ; not to be governed by laws applying to other parts of .Australia,
but only by those enacted exfire^sly for this colony ; in no case to be em[)loycd as a
station for transjiorted convicts; no waste or public lands to become [irivate property,
save by one means only, vix. Iiy purchase at a li.ved minimum price, or as much above
that price as the competition of [luiilic auction may determine; the whole ol the pur-
chase money to beemr)l<)yed in conve\ing labourers, nali'cs of tlir British islands, to tia*
3 R
994 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Australasia.
colony, so that the purchasers of land may obtain the greatest amount of labour where-
with to cultivate the land, and of population to enhance its value. The whole pro-
cess is to be under the charge of Commissioners appointed by the Crown, who are
empowered to borrow money, and whose authority is " to continue until the colony
having attained a certain population, shall, through the means of a representative
assembly, to be called by liis (or her) Majesty, undertake to discharge the colonial debt,
and to defray the cost of future government ; when the colony is to receive such a
constitution of local government as his (or her) Majesty, with the advice of the Privy
Council, and with the authority of Parliament, may deem most desirable." The
population of the province must amount to 50,000 at least, before it be lawful for the
Crown to frame a constitution of local government for the colony. The province, as
above defined, contains an area of nearly 300,000 square English miles, or 192,000,000
acres.
The most highly-coloured and flattering accounts of the beauty, salubrity, and
agricultural capabilities of the province were published in Britain, and thereby several
thousand people were induced to try their fortune in this terrestrial paradise, but
only to be disappointed ; for the country has proved to be, like all the rest of Aus-
tralia, generally ill adapted for agriculture, and the most of it suited only for pastur-
age. The principle of concentration has been in consequence entirely abandoned ; the
sale of land h is ceased to be confined to the narrow tract originally laid out in sec-
tions ; speculators are picking out the best lands, for which they obtain special surveys,
in every accessible part of the province ; and the people are spreading in all directions,
in order to suit themselves to the circumstances of the country; while, at the same
time, the moral pestilence, \vhich was dreaded so much, has been introduced by eman-
cipists and runaway convicts from New South Wales and Van Dieman's Land. 1 his
experiment in colonization would ii;deed have proved a complete failure, but for
the vicinity of these two older colonies, from which alone the requisite number of
sheep and cattle to stock the new settlements of South Australia could have been
procured at such an expense as the colonists could bear. So that, instead of the
virtuous, happy, and concentrated agricultural population which was contemplated,
there will be only a scattered pastoral people in the interior, while those on the coasts
are devoting themselves to whale-fishing and maritime and commercial pursuits. Still,
however, as might be expected in so large a province, there are tracts of rich soil
capable of producing abundant cereal crops; and the climate is much more humid
than that of New South Wales, which is sometimes parched up by long-continued
droughts, while frequent rains fall in South Australia, brought by the south-west
winds, which prevail for nine months in the year. But, notwithstanding these ad-
vantages, it is admitted that for a series of years, the prosperity of the colony must
mainly depend on its herds and flocks.
While private speculators have thus been obliged to alter their views, the public
aifairs of the colony have been so mismanaged, or at least the previous calculations of
expense have been so much exceeded, that the Commissioners have beeri obliged, after
expending all the money that has come into their hands, to apply to Government for
pecuniary assistance, which has been given them by a vote of credit for £155,000.
The greater part of the province is still unexplored, and it is oidy of the south-
eastern portion, along the coasts of Spencei's and St. Vincent's Gulfs and Encounter
Bay, that any thing is known. The first settlernents were formed in December 1836,
on the east side of the Gulf of St. Vincent, about fifty miles from the ocean, and the
city of Adelaide founded there, in one of the most singularly unfortunate spots, we
believe, ever selected for the site of a capital, it is six miles from the sea, on the
banks of an unnavigable river, which has been very appropriately named the Torrens,
for it is in fact a torrent, with a continuous stream in winter, but presents in sununer
only a chain of pools, and terminates before reaching the sea, in a marshy flat named
the Reed Beds. The town and neighbouring country were laid out in sections ; spe-
culation in lots rose to a perfect mania; the most extravagant prices were given for
building ground ; for a time the new city made the most rapid progress, being sup-
ported by the continual influx of immigrants ; and the population soon exceeded 60U0
inhabitants. But the tide of immigration has been diverted to the more eligible sta-
tion of Port Lincoln, on the south-western shore of Spencer's Gulf, which will now
probably become the centre of South Australian colonization, while Adelaide, from
Its disadvantageous situation, and having nothing intrinsic to support it, will conse-
quently decliiu^, or at best remain statinnary.
The two gulfs already mentioned form very deep indentations in the southern
coast, and are separated irom each other only by a long, narrow, and barren Jutland,
Australasia.] OCEANIA. 995
named York Peninsula, which terminates with Cape Spencer. Between the Gulf of
St. Vincent, and the Lake Alexandrina and the lower Murray, there is another penin-
sula terminating with Cape Jervis, and intersected by three great mountain masses,
named the Mount Lofty, Mount Barker or Great Imnstone, and Mount \Vakefield
ranges, which form among them table-lands and valleys of considerable elevation,
presenting a beautifully undulating and lightly wooded country. But in some places
there are sharp precipitous ridges, rising from 1800 to 2000 feet This tract is roughly
estimated to consist of one-third of sandy soil adapted for agriculture or pasturiige,
one-third of stringy-bark forest, and the remaining one-third is covered with brush-
wood or rock, which might perhaps be suitable for the vine. From the vicinity of
Adelaide, a range of barren heights extends northward along the eastern side of
both gulfs, rising in some places to a considerable elevation, and terminatini:, in 29'
20' S., with Flinders' range, which is inclosed in a peninsula formed by one of the
most singular lakes yet known. This lake counnences not lar from the head of Spen-
cer's Gulf, takes a circuitous course of fully 400 miles, with a breadth of from 20 to
SO miles, following the sweep of Flinders' range, and nearly encircling it in the
form of a horse-shoe. The greater part, however, of the viist area contained in its
bed is, or at least at the time of the discovery was, dry on the surface, and consisted
of a mixture of sand and mud of so soft and yielding a character as to render per-
fectly ineffectual all attempts to cross it, so as to roach the edge of the water, which
appeared to be at the distance of two or three miles. It was discovered by Mr
Espy in 1840 ; but on one occasion only was he able to reach and taste the water,
which proved to be as salt as that of the sea. The whole region surrounding it ap-
peared to be one vast low and dreary waste. He named it JmIx Torrcns, in lionour
of Colonel Torrcns, the great promoter of the colony. The south-eastern porticm,
however, of the supposed lake has been subsequently visited by other travellers,
and found not to exist. Instead of it tliey found only a low, sandy, salt plain. Such
a country seemed to offer no inducement to the extensioii of settlements in that
direction ; but more lately, in the hills to the northward of Adelaide, have been dis-
covered very rich ores of copper and lead, easily worked, and favourably situate for
transport to the sea. Some of the ores consist of almost pure copper ; and near Mount
Arden, about 45 miles from the head of Spencers Gulf, there is a conical liill, said
to be literally a mass of Copper, which it would take ages to remove.
The best and most fertile portion of the colony seems to be that to the east of
Adelaide, between the Gulf of St. Vincent aiul Lake Alexandrina, where several por-
tions of rich soil have been found iuterjpersed amidst extensive tracts tit only for
pasturage. The whole of it, however, is beautiful in appearance, very modeialely
wooded, principally with oaks and mimosas, and contains abundance of enms and
kangaroos. The banks of the Murray alford an inexhaustil)le >u[)ply of wood for fuel ;
but no coal has yet been discovered in the province. La/te Akxundi ina is a large
expanse of water, 50 miles in length, by 20 or 'M in breadth, formed by the river Mur-
rav, the free outlet of which has been daunned up l)y a sandy ridge, wl.ich extends
along the shore of Encounter Hay. The lake is piirtly fresh, partly brackish, and
partly salt, and has a depth of only four feer, with a bottom of nutd ; the eastern
part of it forms a distinct basin about 50 miles in circuintereiiee, which has lieen named
Lahe Alheit, and is surrounded by a tine country. The south side, however, ot Lake
Alexandrina is not one continuous ridge of land ; it consists of several islands, the
largest of which is skirted on the cast by Sturi's boat channel, while the main channel
or outlet of the lake runs close into the mainland to the wcstwa.-d of the island tor a
space of IG miles, and joins Sturt's outlet at the distance of less than a mile Irom the
sand-liills on the coast. This channel lornis a noble stream, with a width v.nyiiig from
500 yards to a mile and a-half, and a depth of from 4 to 10 fathoms. On its western
bank are several tine fresh-water inlets, with dec|) water, forming so muny natural
and ready made wharfs. In September 1840, a navigable clianml, from the sea into
this river, was discovered by Mr. I'uUen, the colonial marine surveyor, containmg a
depth of 12 or 13 feet over the bar at high water, but surrounded by shoals and break-
ers. The governor has given it the name of Port PulUn ; and there is every reason
to think that in moderate weather steamers, and in Kad.iig winds sniliii;,' vcs>eN, of
six feet draught of water or under, may with safety run into the Murray; while in
rough weather there will be shelter lor surh vessels at lio.clta C-.ve, Vutnr llailwur,
and Freeman's Noh, from 9 to 14 miles distant. The i-ountry to the eastward, along
the coast, forms a low and sandy shore.
The City of Jde/ai'h is built on two limestone lieiRhts. on the opposite banl;« of ft chain of pooli
tamed the Torrei.s, In a bare sandy tract, »iJC niUes Iroiii the »ia, and about luur .ui.ci Iron. tb» .Mount
090 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Australasia.
l,ofty range of hills. It consists of two towns, laid out In regular streets, but the houses are built of
every kinil of material, from the humble mud hut to the neat brck building with plastered front. A
spacious government house has also been erected at the cost of £15,000 ! The only supply of good
water is from very deep wells dug with great labour and expense in the sandy soil, the water of the
Torrens being bad and unwholesome. The city has two ports on the cast side of St. Vincent's GulC.
The one, named I'oit Adelaide, 7 miles north-west of the city, is a muddy salt-water creek about seven
miles in length, and about 70 yards wide at the entrance, witli two bars, over which there are 10 or 12
feet of water in ordinary tides. The country around is low and swampy, frequently overfiooded, afford-
ing little or no shelter for the shipping ; and vessels cannot put to sea out of it without a fair wind,
the channel being so very narrow as to prevent the possibility of working to windward. Cireat exer-
tions, however, are making to improve it; and a railroad to connect it with the city is in contemplation.
The houses at the port are built on a (ilaring and loose sand-hill. Tlie other port, named G/iii' If;; is
about the same distance to the south-west of Adelaide, also at the entrance of a creek, which is the
occasional mouth of the Torrens, when it has water enough to reach the sea. Ships anchor in Hold-
fast Bay, an open roadstead, quite exposied to the south-W(.'Sterly gales, which cause a tremendous sea
to run into it ; and for nine months in the year the wind is from that quarter.
^or< Li7(ro/»< is a magniticent harbour, or rather a series ofthree harbours, with two entrances formed
by Boston Inland, hut nevertheless mostly land-locked. It is of a semicircular form, almost surround-
ed by hills wooded to the water's edge, sufficiently high to be picturesque, but neither so high nor so
steep as to form a barrier to tlie interior. Deep water close in shore washes a beach of gravel or
stones, except on the soutli side, where lor a short space it is sandy and comparatively shallow. The
hills are generally of one character, open she-oak forest somewhat stunted rising Irom a soil siv or
eight inches in depth, over a stratum of limestone. Some of the hills, however, are barren, and covered
with granite or ironstone ; but most of them have sufficient grass for pasturing sheep, while tlie val-
leys might support a limited number of cattle, or partly admit of cultivation. The scenery is splendid,
but the country beyond, and towards the interior, seems not to be very inviting in point of fertility
and adaptation for culture. Nearly opposite Port Lincoln, on the catern shore of Spencer's Gulf,
is an available harbour named Fort Victoria ,- and on the eastern side of York Peninsula, nearly in
the latitude of Port Adelaide, is a safe and commodious anchorage, which has been named I'urt St.
Vincent.
§ 3. Western Australia .
This province lies between 31° and 35° S. lat., and 115° and 12S° E. long. ; in
the south-western corner of Australia. The distinguishing features of the territory
are three distinct parallel ranges of primitive mountains bordering on the sea coast
in the direction of north and south. The highest and most easterly range terminates
near King George's Sound ; the second, named the Darling Range, passes behind the
Swan River, and terminates with Cape Chatham; the third and lowest range extends
from Cape Leeuwin to Cape Naturaliste ; but 300 miles farther north, another range
appears on the coast in the same line of direction, and is probably a continuation of the
same formation. Indeed both the soil and the climate are much the same as in the
other parts of Southern Australia, the country being generally better adapted for pas-
turage than for agriculture. So far as it has yet been occupied, the territory appears
to rest on a granitic basis, and the soil is very thin. The wet season commences in
April with slight showers, which continue to increase in number and force throughout
May, June, and July ; after which they begin to decrease, until they cease altogether
in November, when the dry weather begins. These two seasons, with an intermediate
spring following the conclusion of each, embrace the circle of the year. The wet
season is usually called the winter, and the dry season the summer; but neither of them
has the character of the corresponding season in Europe. The prevailing wind at sea,
o£F Cape Leeuwin, is westerly throughout the year; but on the coasts, during summer,
there is a regular daily alternation of land and sea breezes. In winter, gales from the
north-west and south-west are very frequent, and are usually accompanied by heavy
falls of rain. In summer the atmosphere retains so little moisture, that none but hardy
and fibrous plants can withstand the drought ; the atmosphere is then so clear, and the
reflection of the sun so great, that the thermometer, in the shade and near the ground,
sometimes reaches 105°. The hottest months are January, February, and March ; but
the evenings and mornings are generally cool and pleasant ; the mid-day heats are
tempered by a refreshing sea-breeze from the south-west ; and a land breeze from
the east prevails in the morning. Slight fogs occasionally hang over the rivers, and
a refreshing dew falls at night ; but as there are no considerable marshes, the country
is free from malaria and noxious vapours. The winter months are June, July, and
August; the two latter of which are the most rainy. There are sometiniCs smart
frosts, and now and then a little ice ; but all traces of them disappear at sunrise. Hail-
stones of very large size occasionally fall ; but snow is unknown. The greater part,
however, of the winter is remarkably temperate and fine, but the changes of tempe-
rature are often sudden ; and during the rest of the year nothing can be more d.light-
ful than the climate generally, and its invigorating inriuence on the human constitution
renders it very suitable for invalids. The principal diseases are rheumatism, dysentery,
scurvy, and catarrh, in winter ; and, in summer and autumn, a kind of subacute
purulent ophthalmia, which is endemic, and is the only disease that can be strictly so
considered. Cases of fever are seldom met witli. The average mean temperature of
the year it from 60° to 64° ; the seasons have hitherto been found to return steadily
Australasia.] OCEANIA. 097
and uniformly ; and the agriculturist is enabled to carry on his operations wnth less
interuption than in any other part of the world. All kinds of domestic animals
generally thrive well; but sheep and cattle are sometimes attacked with a disease
which carries them off in a few minutes. The disease has chiefly appeared in flocks
recently imported and in feeble condition, and in cattle engaged in long journeys in
the bush, where the food is scrubby and coarse. Flocks kept on low damp ground
near the coast, or in high scrubby ground destitute of healthy grass, or in passing the
Darling range into the interior through a scrubby country, have too been generally
affected. Horses are fed on the same ground without the smallest injury.
This colony was established in 1829. The settlers at first met with many difH-
culties and discouragements; the land near the coast was found to be poor and sandy;
but, subsequently, on exploring the interior, fine pastoral and agricultural tracts have
been discovered; the gradual introduction and multiplication of sheep and cattle,
has begun to enrich the settlers; and the colony is at last, though slowly, beginning
to prosper. At the end of 1829, the number of residents in the colony was 850;
in 1839, the number had increased only to 2154, of whom 1302 were males, and 852
females. The colony has a lieutenant-governor, and a legislative council appointed by
the Crown ; but the laws are still strictly those of England, so far as they are api)li-
cable to the circumstances of the country. The territory has been divided into fourteen
counties, named Tiviss, Perth, York, Murray, Granlham, Wtllinyton, Wicklow, .Sus-
sex, Nelson, Lanark, Goderich, Stirling, Hay, and Planlagenel ; but these are far
from being generally occupied. The principal part of the colonists were established
on the Swan river, a considerable stream which flows into Cockburn Sound, on
the west coast; the remainder are settled nt King George's Sound, on the south-east
co;ist; and it is principally from these two points that the settlements are exteiuling.
A company has been formed in London for the purpose of establishing a new colony
at Port Leschenault, on the coast of the Bale du Geographc, in Wellington county,
about midway between the two older settlements; to which the name oi Australind
has been given. The principal towns are Perth and Freemuntle on the Swan river,
and Albany on King George's Sound.
§ 4. North Australia.
This province forms the most northern part of the continent, and extends westward
from the Gulf of Carpentaria, corresponding with the Arnheirn's Land of the Dutch
navigators. The only settlement yet established is at Port Essington, a deep inden-
tation on the north side of Cobourg Peninsula, where a new town named Victoria
was founded in 1838. The harbour is a splendid one; the deep-water anchorage
under Point Record would contain twenty-five sail of the line ; and in and about the
anchorage off Victoria 500 sail of merchant-men might lie. The outer anchorage or
roads is capable of containing the whole British navy.
North Australia is within the range of the Indian monsoons, of which the north-
west usually sets in aliout the beginning of November, and that from tlu? south-east
in the early part of April ; but they sometimes vary a whole month in the [leriods of
their recurrence. The average annual temperature at Melville island, to the west-
ward of the peninsula, is about 83' ; the average winter temperature, 80^; of sum-
mer, 86^ ; and the extremes are 75" and 87'. During the raitiy season in the first year
of the settlement, the heat was oppressive; very little rain fell, and the thermometer
on shore in the tents seldom fell, during the day, below 95^; it generally stood at
100°. On board it varied from 80^ to 90^. The nights on shore were, however,
com[)arativelv cool, no cases of sickness occurred, with the exception of extreme annoy-
ance from musquitocs apd sand flies the climate proved mo-t healthy. A south wind
from the interior raises tTie temperature with extreme suddenness. The sinnmtr mon-
soon is attended with very heavy falls of rain ; but these seldom contiiuie above two
or three hours at a time. From June till Septembi-r no rain falls; a great (jiiaiitity
of moisture must nevertheless be always suspended in the atni()sj)here, even during
the prevalence of the dry or south-east monsoon ; for iron articles are kept from rust-
ing oidy by incessant care ; and the exposed surfaces of the rocks along tlie coasts, are
so generally coloured by the oxide of iron, that they miKht, without impro|)riety, he
described as red. Among the native fruits and plants have been found a species o
nutmeg of tine flavour, and the cotton-tree; and there is no doubt that every kind of
spice, with sugar, rice, and cotton, might be produced in this province.
Norfolk Ithnri, 900 milc5 E.S.K, of Sydney, in 20" 1' S. Lit. nn-l K-t' 10' K. Iohr., contains about
1 1 .fKiO acres of lan'l, gencrallv of a ri<-li l.rowii mouM. It is rxlrpiiicly Ijcautiful, atfordinii fine tropical
»';cnery of hill and dale. It producvs llic N^w Ztalanl llnx of groat size, nnd >>»v«ral cabbago palm*
998 ' DESCRIPTIVE GriOuivApHY. [aostealasia.
but the roost peculiar and valuable part of Its vesetation is tlie ma^^nlflcent araucaria excelsa, or
Norfolk Island pine. In 1791 it was colonized by the government of New South Wales, for the pur-
pose of raising -lupfilles for that colony ; but is now used as a prison exclusively for convicts, where
they are to Ite subjecte.i to a new vilan of treatment introduced by Captain Macoiiochie, and whicll
is expected to produce tha best etfjcts in reforming them, and fitting them to be restored as useful
members to society. 15 'tween Norfolk Island and the coast of Australia there are several small islands
»nd r.efs scattered ove; t(ie ocean. The principal of them are: Lord Howe't lihind; Seringapatam
Inland: Middktun't Uland; Xelson Bank, and Sutitari/ Iilet.
TASMANIA or VAN DIEMAN'S LAND.
Situation and Extent.— Between 41° 20' and 33° 40' S. lat., and 144° 40' and
148° 20' E. long. The greatest extent from north to south is estimated at about 210
iniies, and from east to west, ahout 150; the snperticial area contains about 24,000
square English miles, or a little less than Ireland.
General Aspect The face of the interior is very diversified, and decidedly
mountainous. It consists, however, not of mountain ranges, but rather of isolated
peaks, varied by lofty table-hinds and extensive fertile valleys and plains. In the
south, nothing can be more rude or bold than the general appearance of the landscape ;
hills rising above hills, all thickly covered with trees, with here and there a majestic
rocky eminence towering aloft, form the prospect. On proceeding into the interior,
the country loses much of its stern and forbidding aspect ; there many fine open spots
are found very lightly timbered, and extending in some instances for several miles, but
always locked by mountains. Near the middle of the island there are beautiful plains,
intersected in some places by streams, and extending as far as the eye can reach; and,
on proceeding northward, every diversity of hill and dale, woodland and plain, forest
and tillage, enlivens the scene. The western portions have as yet been but imperfectly
explored; but they are represented as generally bold and mountainous, although
possessing well watered and fertile spots. Much of the land in that direction, as well
as that towards the east coast, lies high and exposed.
MoDNTAiNS. — There are several mountains of great elevation. Mount lVellin<;t on or TalU Moun-
tain rises 3795 feet above the level of the sea, behind Hohart-town. It has a bold and ruirged aspect
and is snowcapt for tight months of the ye ir, but is seldom ohscured by clouds. The mountains on the
soutii-west coa<t, near Port Uavey. are siill hi;;lier, and are snowcapt for a great pa t of the year.
They Ibrm a \oni mass stretch ng inward for several m les, and rise in some places .iO 10 feet. The
hilly character, indeed, of the southern side of the island is but little interrupted, the hills being not
only frequent but coniinuous. Some of the principal masses have been named: Motmt Directum,
Frankland Hills, /Irthur Hills, the Hiirtx Muvntitins. Adamson I'eak, Muurit De H'itt, all in the south-
west, between Port Macquarrie and Storm Hay. In the north-east, Benlimimd rises 4200 feet. The
Table Mountain, in Tunb. idge county, near the centre of the island, rises 3830 feet ; the I'eak of Tene-
riffe or Wylde's ' raig. < .5 miles N. W. of Hobart-town, 4S00 ; (jicambi/'t Bluff, south-west of Launceston,
3500 ; Muunt Field, 3000 ; St. Paul's Dome, 42 miles S E. of Launceston, 2500.
Rivers and Lakes. — The Derwent issues from Lake St. Clare, which is 10 miles in length by 3 in
breadth, 70 miles N of Hobart-town, and Hows to the south-east, where it forms a noble estuary, ter-
minating in Storm Bay. It varies in width from its entrance to Hobart-town from G to 12 miles, hav-
ing every where deep water, without rocks or sandbanks, and is navigable at all seasons with perfect
ease and sa'ety. Its principal affluents are : the Sii;e. the Dee from Eclio Lake, a small circular basin ;
the Ouxe, joined by the Shannon from the Clarence or Great Lake, a large and beautiful ma s of
vater in Westmoreland county, about InOmiles in circumference, following the wmding ol its shores ;
the Clyde from Crescent Lake at the foot of Table Mountain; the Jordan from Lake Tiberiat in
Monmouth county, 30 miles N. of Hobart-town ; all on the left. On the right it receives no impor-
tant affluent, thit side of its bed being bordered by a continuous series of hills, which pour down only
small streams, with short and rapid courses.
The Huim flows from Peder Lake, at the foot of the Frankland hills, and forms a fine estuary which
opens into D'Entreoasteaux chaimel, south-west of Hobart-town.
The Tamar is a long estuary formed liy the junction of the North Esk and the South Esk. at Laun-
ceston, and extending northward to liass's Strait. It is navigable to Launceston, but requires great
skill and management to take up or down large vessels with safety, on account of a bar and other
intricacies. The North Esk and the South Esk have their sources in the hill country eastward of
Launceston. The principal affluent of the latter is the Macquarrie from the Nineteen Lagoons in
Somerset county.
Along the north coast are : Piper's Hirer, to the east of the Tamar. the Rubicon, Mersey, Don,
Forth, I^ev<n. Bli/the, Emu. Cam, Tret, Duck, Mont tgue, H'elcome, all to the west. On the west
coa^t : the Arthur and Hellyer; Pedder: Kinir's Hirer; the Gordon, which runs into Macquarrie
Harbour ; the Dacey. On the east coast is the Pros.ier. Besides the lakes already mentioned, there
are La'<e Sorell, a large round basin, near the middle of the island ; Arthur Lakes, two large masses
of water a little to the north-west of Lake Sorell, and which are connected by running streams with
each other and with Wood Lake, a small basin to the south ; their outlet is Lake Bicer, an affluent of
the Macquarrie; Petrarch Z,«A-f, whose oullet, the river Cuvier, flows to Lake St. Clare; Edgar Lake,
whose outlet is one of the feeders of the lluon river.
Bays, Goi.fs, &c — Besides the estuaries of the Derwent and the Tamar, there are numerous other
bays and harbours which afford secure anchorage. Storm Buy is a large open gulf on the south-east
coast, between Tasman Peninsula and Biune Island. It terminates inland with the Derwent. Frede-
rick Henry's Biy, and Norfolk lay or Port liuache. Inside of the Derwent is a land-locked gulf
named Ralph Bay. D' E72treca^leau.r Chaurnl extends upwards of 40 miles in length, between the main-
land on the west, and Brune I land on the east side, which divides it from Storm Bay. It forms a
navigable passage to ihe Derwent, with the mouth of which it communicates by a narrow strait. On
its west side are the estuary of the Huon and Suan-Port, Esperance I ay or Adamson's Harbour; Suuth-
Porl or Muscle Bay, and Recherche Bay. On the east side of Brun6 Island is Adventure Bay, a large,
open gulf; and, at its south end, Bad Bay. On the west side of Tasman's Peninsula is Wedge Bay j
AusTEALASiA.] OCEANIA. 999
on the south side. Port Arthur, the penal station of the colony ; on the east side, Fortfsque Bay, and
Moiige or Pirate's Bay. Farther north, and along the ea>t coast of the island, are : Fndenck Heiidrick'i
Bay, Mariuft Bay, Prosstr's Bay, Spring hay or Port ilimbasin. Grind^lune I at/. Little Siian-lort,
Oyderl.ay. aluge open gulf beiwten the mainland and a long peninsvda terminating with Gtograp/te
Strait, which divides it from Schouten island; the Great Suan-I'ort, at the head of Oyster Bay;
Thouin Bay, on the east or outside of the peninsula; Genrge Hay. Aiisun I ay. a river. On tlie north
coast: Biiigarouma Buy. Port Dairy tuple, the moutli of tlie Tamar; I'urt Sorrel, loit Frtdrrirk, l.mu
Bay, FreeUune Cove, Pebbly Bay, East lay, and hest Lay, en tlio opposite sides of the isilmais of
Circular Head; and Duck hay. On the west coa-t: StuilUmd Bay, Macqiuirrifi Harb iir, a large
land-locked basin, 22 miles in length, and from live to seven in breadth, with a narrow entrance to the
north-west ; Port Damy, a deep indentation of the south-west coast, with Cuckbwn Cuce on the one
side, and LatUurst HarLn-ur on the other.
IsLA.NDS, Rocks, Pexinsuhs. — Prune or Bruni Island, between Storm Bay and D'Entrerasteaus
Channel is 35 miles in iengtli, but very narrow, and consists of two peninsulas joined by a verv narrow
istlimus. Bet'y Island, and Irunvut Island, two islets near the mouth of the Derwent jatnun't
Peninsula. 27 niiles in length by IG in breadth, on the east side of Storm Bay, is connectvd by a narrow
isthmus witli a smaller peninsula named Furrestier. Tids peninsula is now the penal station of the
colony ; the principal settlement of whicli is at I'ort Arthur; and a strong military giard is Kej.t at the
isthmus wliich coimects Forrestier with the mainland. Oft' the touth-tast point ol Tasman's Penin-
sula is the small i-laiid named Tasman's Island or Tlie i tllar. Maria Island, en the east coast, 13
miles Rng, consists of two peninsulas, in the most northerly of which is a mountain mass, named the
Bishop and CKrk, rising 300) feet aliovethe level of the sea. Otl'llie north point is the He du Surd,
or 6r< en Island ; and b.tweeii Maria Island and ti e mainland, is I.aclilan or Middle Island. Sclunden
lilind, at the south-east side of Oyster J?ay. Oft' its soith poir.t is Taillifer hUmd ; and opposite the
mouth cf ttyster Bay is the White Hock or Seal Island. King George's Hocks, Black B'vks, Sua7i
Isles, Fuineaui's Islands, aid Kent's Islands, lie oil' the north-east coast, in Bass's Straits. The
largest of turneau.x's Islands, named Flinders or Great Island, is now the aliode of the small nmnant
of the natives of Van Dien an's Land, wlio have been transj oited to it by the Colonial government.
H'aterliouse Island and Little Island, on the west side of Hingarooma Bay. Ilel-e Beef, at the mouth
of Port JUalryrni le. Circular Head, a peninsula projecting 7 miles, near the west end of the north ctast.
Hunter Islands, a group of large islands otf the north west point of Van Dieinan s Land ; and named
Barren Island, yiliatross Istind. Three Hunnnock Island. Walker's Island, Bobbin Island, Pirkin's
Island, Petrel Isles, i etiguin Lland, Slack Hand. Harbour Island, I.unti Itand, Short Island, Trefoil
Islind, Sheephead Islatid. Black Bock. &c. Kinp's I land, a lar>;e island in the middle ol the western
part i.f Bass's Strait. Pyramid Island, on the north side of Point Hibbs, on the we t ceast. De U'nt's
or Maat-^ukiii Islands, ^'ecule Bock, and Isle du Golte, on the south cuast, betneiii South Cape and
Soi.th-west Capj.
Cai'ES — On the north coast : Circular Head, a. mass of basalt, exactly resembling a huge round tower
orlortress; Bocky Cape, Table Cape, If'est head of Vurt Scroll, Pornt Flmd-rs, Fice-mi e B njj, Sianey
Head, Double San' y Point, ii'ati rhouse Point, and Ca}:e Portliind. On the east Cuast : Eddyslnne
Point, GranCs Point and At. //(/mi 'if (y;n^ both at the entrance of GiOrue River ; Cape Lodi, Cape Tour-
rille. liipe Forrestier, Cape Dej.erando, and Cape Sotineiat, on tlie east, outside tif Oyster Hay ; Cape
Biiilli, Cape Bougaincille, Cape Bernier, Capi- Frederick llendrick. Cape Sitrrille, Cape Petou, the
most southerly puint of .Maria Island ; Cape Pillar, the south-east, and Cape Baoiil,[hc soi.tli-wi st point
of Tasuian s Peninsula; Cape Frederick llendrick. Fluted Cape, a beautiful mass of I aalticcoluiims,
which rise like the barrels of an organ, and 1 asnuin Head, on the east si<:e ol lirune Island ; Cape
Zf>t/ne, the soulh-we>t point of the same island. On the south coast : IVhale Head, .'ioulh Cape. anA
South-vest Cape. On tin- west coast; Cape Grim. Grem I'oint. li'esl Boint, Blulf Point, Urdnanca
Point, Sandy Cape, tape Son <-.', at the entrance of Maeejuairie Harbour, i'uuit Hibbs, Hii;li Bucks, two
peninsular promontories, and Bocky P. int.
Gkology, &c. — Trap is believed to forin the principal siibstratiiin of the island. All
along the coast it presents itself in precipitous rocky heights standing on beaiititul
columnar pedestals; and, in the interior, Mount Wellington, the Western Table Moun-
tain, and the precijiitous banks of many of the mountain streains are comjioscd ot it.
In some places the columns appear in isolated masses, springing up at once from the
surface, like obelisks or huge needles, and piesent a very singular nppearance.
Argil appears in the form of excellent roofing slate; and in the lorm of mica it is
found in large masses on the rocks around I'ort Davey, where it is so much worn by
the weather as to assume the appearance of snow. Excellent sandstone tor building
is found in almost every part of the island; flints in great plenty tire scattered on the
hills ; and other species of silicious matter are found in various ])laces, as hornstone,
Bchistus, wood-opal, bloodstone, jasper, and cat's-eye. Limestone and maiblc likewise
abound, and indications of coal have beeti found all across the island, from South Cape
northward by Hobart-town, Coal River, Jerusalem, Jeiicho, and other places. »Iron
ore is also very generally diffused, some of which affords 80 per cent, of the metal ;
specimens of red and green co[)per ore, lead, zinc, manganese, tind, as some say, of silver
and gold, have occasionally been met with. Fossil vegetable remains, entire ly con-
verted into silicious matter, and capable of the finest polish, are occasioiiiilly fotind in
difFerent places, and we have seen s[iecimcns of wood cemvertcd into a seirt eif iron-
fctoiie, fioin the bed of the 'I'amar. 'I'he soil is very various; being in some |)lacfs a
rich black alluvial mould, in others, sandy or aigillae-cous. It inodnccs e'xcellcnt
crops, and may be cultivated for a succession of years without rest or maimre.
Cllmati;. — Making allowance for the higher soutliern latitude, ami the greater
coolness and humidity arising from its insular ptjsilion, llie climate ol \ an l)ieman'»
Land is not vtry different from that of tlie settled maritime parts ot New ."-onth
Wales. Generally speaking, throughout the summer the atmosphere is cooled by
alternate land and sea breezes, the influence of the latter of which is Iclt at the
1000 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Australasia.
distance of many miles from the shore. The average height of the thermometer is
70°, though it occasionally rises to 100°, or even 110°, when a parching hot wind
blows from the north or nortli-west; but this high temperature seldom lasts long,
and the rain which always follows it, soon cools the atmosphere. Tliuiider storms
are not frequent, and are never violent. September, October, and November form
the spring, when the weather is usually bright and clear, but with occasional rain and
high winds. The thermometer during these months has an average range from 50°
to 60°. December, January, and February, are the summer months. In general very
little rain falls during this season, and the vegetable productions of the earth arrive
at maturity about a month earlier than in England. March, April, and May are the
autumn, and by far the most pleasant season. The atmosphere is then clear and bright ;
and the sky is free from clouds and vapours. The average heat is about 65^, and the
nights are cool and refreshing. June, July, and August form the winter. In the in-
terior, particularly on high and exposed situations, frosts are sometimes severe ; and
a good deal of snow falls, but it never lies throughout the day. The winter, indeed,
is contemplated by the colonists as a season of moderate and genial rain, which prepares
the earth for the ensuing spring, rather than as the cold and dismal season of higher
latitudes. The average range of the thermometer is from 40° to 48^ ; but it some-
times falls for a day or two several degrees lower. The seasons, however, appear to
undergo a change every nine or ten years, but varying in intensity every third series
or thirty years. But, as a general rule, it may be affirmed that the atmosphere is
extremely dry and elastic, and contains a greater proportion of oxygen than in most
countries of the old world. It is in consequence very salubrious and fecundating to
both animal and vegetable life. In 1839-40, however, the colony was visited by
a virulent typhoid fever, which seems to have originated in the gaols.
Vegetable Productions. — The vegetable productions are much the same as in
the contiguous portions of New South Wales. In many parts of the island there is no
underwood ; only scattered trees are found shooting up to a great height. Much of
the timber is very serviceable, particularly the stringy-bark, gum-trees of several sorts,
peppermint wood for building; huon-pine, black and silver mimosas, pencil cedar,
and sassafras for interior fittings and cabinet-making. Among the ornamental woods
are light-wood, she-oak or beef-tree, honey-suckle, myrtle, and the cherry-tree. All
the trees are evergreens, and some of them, particularly the mimosas, put forth very
rich blossoms in spring. The foliage, however, is generally dark or sombre green,
without any of the agreeable variety presented by forests of deciduous trees. The
species and varieties of shrubs and plants are numerous and beautiful ; and among the
most valuable yet discovered in the island may be enumerated tne pepper-tree, the
bark of which has been proved to possess many valuable medicinal qualities ; and the
tea-tree, the leaves of which serve as a substitute for the tea of China. All the
cerealia, and every sort of fruit, herb, or vegetable that grows in England thrives
equally well in ^'an Uieman's Land. The vine also arrives at perfection in favour-
able situations, particularly in the northern districts ; and a good imitation of hock
is produced in the neighbourhood of Launceston.
Animals These also are much the same as in New South Wales. There are three
species of kangaroo, diiTcring principally in size ; the hysena-opposum or tiger, which
is very destructive to the Hocks; and another animal called the devil, of the same
species, which is extremely ugly, nntameable, and also destructive to the flocks.
There are also porcupines, wombats, duck-bills, and wild cats, which destroy the poul-
try and young lambs; kangaroo rats and mice, opposums of several sorts, and bandi-
cootes, which prey on the potatoe crops. The birds are of various species, and many of
them of beautiful [)lumage ; as emus, cocatoos, parrots, parroquets, magpies, the laugh-
ing jackass, eagles, hawks, kites, ravens, and crows ; gulls, pelicans, king-lishers, black-
swans, wild ducks, musk ducks, teal, widgeon, quails, snipes, a species of pigeon of a
splendid bronze colour, in flavour resembling a partridge, besides many others. There
are several kinds of snakes, some of which are extremely venomous; guanas, lizards,
centipedes, scorpions, tarantulas ; many curious and beautifid beetles ; three or four
species of ants, some of which are an inch in length, and sting sharply ; various sorts
of spiders and musquitoes, and a numerous tribe of the insects which arc common in
all countries. European domestic animals all thrive well and increase in size; am.ong
them are European rats and mice, which have been unwittingly imported with other
lir3 ftock, and have found their way to all parts of the colony. The inlets and bays
arci.;d the island swarm with fish, as salmon, perch, rock-cod, bream, mullet, whit-
i^gs, flatheads, leather-jackets, taylors, parrots, guard-fish, cray-fish, oysters, eels.
Australasia.] OCEANIA. 1001
skate, and shrimps ; one of the most admired tish is called the trumpeter. The lakes
and rivers abound with very fine eels ; but other freshwater tish are of little note,
except the mullet, of which considerable quantities are caught near the falls at New
Norfolk. A sea-fish supposed to be a species of toad, and found on the coast, is
strongly poisonous. The black whale, during the breeding season, resorts to the
deep estuaries, bays, and inlets, and forms a profitable object of pursuit.
People — The aborigines belong to the Ethiopic class, and differ but little from
those of Australia, with this exception that they have woolly hair, a perfectly black
complexion, with the face and general appearance more nearly resembling those of the
African negro. With respect, however, to mental capacity, they are considered to
be inferior even to the Australians. They are now very t'cw in number, and the race
will probably soon become extinct. The European settlers consist partly of convicts
and emancipists, and i)artly of free settlers, wlio have been rapidly pouring into the
island during the last five-and-twenty years. TJie free population, in 1824, amounted
to 3781 males and 2-248 females; in 1838, to 14,6U2 males and 11,303 females.
The number of convicts, in 1824, was 5467 males and 471 females; in 1838, lC,0t)9
males and 20G4 females. The military and their families, in 1824, amounted to 2()t3
males and 70 females; in 1838, to 1171 males and 405 females. Total population
in 1824, 12,643; in 1838, including aborigines, 45,846. Of the free population, in
1838, 10,094 were classed as belonging to the Church of England; 2551, to the
Church of Scotland ; 2288 Catholics ; 1289 Wesleyan Methodists ; 635 Independents ;
175 Baptists ; 132 Jews; and 80 Quakers. The educated British convicts are now
all sent to Port Arthur, on Tasnian's Peninsula; young male convicts are also sent
there, and placed under teachers qualified to make them useful in several trades; co
lonial convicts, and prisoners re-convicted, are likewise removed to this great Peni-
tentiary, where they are employed in felling, sawing, cutting, splitting, and loading
timber; in building ships, j)ris()ns, barracks, &c. ; shoemakiiig, tanning, and in various
other ways. They are all subjected to the severest disci[)line and privations, the ten-
dency of which is utterly to demoralize tliem, and make them recklessly ferocious.
Hence murders among them are of frequent occurrence, without premeditation or
cause.
Government. — The Goverimient is precisely similar to that of New South Wales.
The chief authority is vested in a lieutenant-governor and executive council, and in
a legislative council. There is a su[)reme court of law with a chief judge and two
puisne judges at Ilobart-toun ; but the judges also hold circuit courts in other
places.
PuoDfCTivE IxDUSTKY About two-thirds of the population are employed in agri-
culture, or dependent on it , about one-third is engaged in conmierce ; and one-eighth,
in arts and manufactures. In 1838, the total quantity of land in cro|) amomited to
96,639 acri;s, whereof 41,796 were wheat; 13,525, barley; 21,660, oats; 870. |)ease ;
127, beans; 354S, potatoes; 91(;4, turnips; 17,760, Kngli>h gia-ses; 443, tares.
The produce in that year amounted to 551,2i^5 1)u^1k-1s of wheat ; 183,604 of barley ;
251,4:»1 of oats; 12,4<iO of pea>e ; 1031 of beans; 11, .j33 tons of potatoes; 12,396
tons of turin'ps; and 15,992 tonsol hay. The ainoimt of stock, in 1828, was: horses,
2034; cattle, 84,476; sheep, 553,698; goats, 708. In 18o8, hor.-es, 98S4 ; cattle,
77,153; sheep, 1,222,511 ; goats, 2(i24. The arts and manufactures are various but
unimportant in amount, being chiefly confined to such articles as are of innnediat<!
necessity, or such as cannot bear the expense of importation, or cannot be conveni-
ently exercised any where else, as brewing, printing, mills, tanning, i<^c.
The commerce consists in exporting the raw produce of the island, and imi)oiting
the manufactured produce of other countries. The total value ot both branches of
trade, for the fifteen years from 1824 to 1838, are stated in the following table; to-
gether with the value of the two jirincipnl articles of export, whale oil and wool, and
the amount of shipping and tonnage.
1002
DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.
[Australasia.
year.
Value nf
Imports.
I'cdue (tf
Exports.
Vessels Inwards.
VesseU Outwards.
Value of
Whale Oil
Exported.
Value of
Wool Ei.
ported.
No.
Tonnage.
No.
Tonnage.
1824
£02,000
£14,500
33
11,116
35
11,004
1825
88 1C1
23,837
52
13,455
54
12,435
....
182*;
99.747
44,498
54
12,184
56
12,.523
• . *•
1827
152.(127
59,902
97
18,893
91
l(i,004
1828
241,382
91,461
131
23,741
133
24,116
182U
272,189
126,984
110
24,717
111
25.742
1830
255,298
14.),980
101
26,5''2
92
2.5,015
1831
298,774
141,745
94
2.3,184
102
2.5,451
18:t2
392,666
157.906
142
31,724
128
28.019
1831
3.52.894
152,967
167
37,442
159
36,250
1834
476,617
203,522
150
33,441
134
32,192
1835
583,646
320,679
234
.55,833
225
53,560
i:5V,398
i:i42'921
183'i
6.58,240
420,123
292
.58,142
274
52,780
52.960
171,009
1837
,56.), 144
540,221
314
60,960
363
.57,945
08,7.57
220,739
1838
702,956
5S1,475
370
04,454
309
03,392
121,270
171,599
The circulating medium consists partly of specie and partly of the notes of the Der-
went, Van Dieman's Land, Commercial, Union, Tauiar, and Australasian, banks.
The estimated amount of coin in circulation, in 183S, was £136,000; of bank-notes,
£54,557.
Divisions The settlements of the colonists extend chiefly through the middle
of the island, from Port Dalrymple to Storm Bay ; few have yet extended towards
the east coast, and fewei- still, if any, into the western districts. The middle and east-
ern portions of the island have been divided into the counties of Kent, Buchinr/ltam,
Monmouth, Pembrolie, Glamorijan, Somerset, Cumberland, Westmoreland, Devon,
Dorset, and Cornwall ; and these already are, or are intended to be, subdivided into
hundreds and parishes.
Towns. — Hob art-Town, the capital, is a large, and in many parts, a neatly built town, on Sullivan's
cove, oil the right bank of the Derwent, about 20 miles Irom Storra Bay. The public buildings are
numerous, and some of them commodious and handsome There is only one English episcopal
church ; but there are several places of worship for other denominations, and the number is regularly
increasin?. The manufactories of the town consist of distil!eiie«, breweries, tanneries, limber and
flour mills, soapwoiks, and candleworlcs, kc. Around the town there are handsome villas and enclo-
sures in every direction ; and along the water's edge a noble wliarf has been constructed, so as to
allow vessels of the largest burden to lade or unlade close ahmgiile. Hobait-town w.is founded in
1804. The population oi the town and district in 1838 amounted to 14,382. Three miles north, on the
main mad to Launceston, is tlie pretty village of Neutoirn, remarkable for its elegant and picturesque
villas, its race-course, gardens, tine fruit, and bay.
Laujicpxtiin, 121 miles N. of Holmrt-Town, and connected with it by a good road, is situate on aflat
of the richest land in the island, backed hy gently rising hills, at the confluence of the North Esk
and South Esk rivers, which there form the Tamar, 45 miles fmm its mouth in Bass's Strait. It is a
very thriving town, being the centre and the shipping port of a well-inhabited district ; vessels of
SCO tons come up to the town, and h ad and unload along the wiiarts : tlie population of the town
and district in 183s amounted to 0136. Geuigetoun, at the mouth of the Tamar, on the rinht bank,
is also a thriving town, where many vessels stop rather than encounter the trouble and the risk of
going up to Launceston. In the interior there are several thriving country towns, as New 'Sorfulk,
on the Derwent, 22 miles above Hobart-town ; Erijrhtan. and Richmund, to the north of Hobart-town,
on the east of the river ; Hatniltim, Jiothwell, and (Srantham, on the Clyde; Oatlanrls, 40 miles north
of Hobart-town, Longford, Pertli. and Campbdltovn, both to the south of Launceston ; Weslbury and
Delorame, both to the west of Launceston ; and Ltewdlin, to the south-east on the South Esk.
NEW ZEALAND.
Situation and Extent. — This group of islands is situate in the South Pacific
Ocean, between 34= 25' and 47° 19° S. lat., and 1G6° and 179° E. long., about 1400
miles S.E. of New South Wales. It consists of two large islands and one smaller
one, which extend in a line from north to south, about 1 100 miles, including the width
of the straits which divide them ; but the breadth is extremely irregular, varying from
5 miles to 200. Their total area is estimated by some to contain 87,400, and by
others, 95,000 square miles, or 55,936,000 acres, two-thirds of which are considered
to be capable of cultivation. The most northeily island, named Eaheinomawe, is 540
miles in length ; but the northern half of it consists of an extremely irregular series
of peninsulas, no where exceeding the breadth of 50 miles, while some of the isth-
muses are less than five, and one of them is only three miles across. I'he southern
portion is more compact ; its smallest breadth being 50 miles, and its greatest, about
200. The southern large island, named Tavai-Poenamoo, is about the same length,
but is of a more regular form, and varies in breadth from 50 miles to 150. The
most southern or small island, named Stewart's, is of a compact roundish form, mea-
suring about 50 miles by 40. The coast line, following the various indentations of
the land, probably exceeds 3000 miles.
AusTEALASIA.] OCEANIA. 1003
General Aspect — The two large islands are traversed from N.E. to S.W. by
a range of lofty mountains, skirting the south-eastern coast of the Northern Island,
and approaching the west coast of the Southern Island, which are intersected by
beautiful valleys, and watered by fine rivers. In the Southern Island some of the
mountains are said to be continually snow-capt, which, in this latitude, would infer
an elevation equal to that of the Alps ; but they have not yet been explored, nor
has their elevation been accurately ascertained. " There are likewise several subor-
dinate ranges of hills, and a few detached outlying mountains of vast dimensions, as
Mount Egmont on the west coast, and Mount Edgecumhe, on the Bay of Plenty
both volcanic, and the former reaching an elevation of 8839 feet. In the interior
several volcanoes are said to be in active operation ; and the sides of the mountains
in which they are situate contain deep and frightful caverns. A few of the smaller
mountains are barren, or clothed only with fern, but the greater number are covered
with magnificent forests, containing trees of enormous size, and embracing a great
variety of species. Between the mountains and the sea, on both sides, is an im.
mense extent of forest, plain, and pasture land, which is almost every where acces-
sible by means of luimerous tine bays and navigable rivers. The coasts of the
Northern Island, however, are bounded by a belt of sand hills, within which a scries
of low flat lands extends for many miles, covered in summer with a reedy vegetation,
and, in wet weather, converted into swamps. This forms altogether a large extent
of territory, and contains in many instances some of the most valuable land in the
country, requiring only to be drained, and redeemed from its present state of useless-
ness. Seaward, the whole west coast is beset by rocks or shifting harriers of sand.
Bays, Gulfs, and Straits. — On the east side of the Northern Island : Sandy J!oy ; Niini'n- Otinou
Pay ; DoubtU-xt or Ouiioii- Oudou I ay ; ICanuayna Ban, lat. 35^ S., a beautiful, romantic, and s) acious
ba-in, c.-ii able of containing the largest fleet, and atlbrding good anchorage in from s to 1 1 fathoms,
completely sheltered Irom the sea and all winds. The entrance is only 2 lO yards wido, but there are
no hidden danger?, and tliere is gooii anchorage outside. The shores are sieen, with suflicient depth
of water for any vessel w ithin a few yards of them. The B.iy tf Islands, 3')^ 10' S., so named by C ook
from the number of rocks with which it is studded, is nevertheless a remarkably line and capacious
harboiir, and afford." shelter in all seasons and in any weather. Its entrance is 1 1 njiies w ide ; tlicre is
deep water close to thi- shore, and it branches into several tine harbours ; the two which are most used
by shipping are \he Buy of Karurarika am\ the river Kaun-kaua. Ila/igniura, U'a)i;.aniuiiia, and
Tutuf.iika, are three harbours tit only for small vessels, between the Bay of Islands nnd H'lijigari
Bay, which is an extensive roadstead protected from north to north-east by Hream Head. an<l with
soundings from 6 to 10 fathoms. The Gulftif Shouraka or Hoiiraka is an open roadstead, with an
entrance V'l miles wide, open to the north, aii'l terminating southwards in tlie estuary of the river
Thames. It contains two fine harbours, Kailiu'n\ the hay o( Mahitianfri, and fyaih tnala. \\\i\ch is
Beiiarated only by a narrow isthmus from the port of ManuKao or .Manukou, on the west coast.
Wilianfii or Mt'rrurt/ Bay, is situate on the eastern or outside of tlie peninsula of tShouraka, ana has
a rocky entrance of ditticult ingress and egress. The Bay nf PUnly. a widj e.vpanse of 130 miles, open
to the north, between Sbouraka and Capo Runaway, contains the harbour of Tauraii^a, a few
leagues t ibe south of Mi rcury Hay, which is resorted to by small craft, trading for tla\. Taam-roa
or Pocerty B ly, on the south east coast of the Northern Island, 38' 45' S. is in the form of a half- moon,
surrounded by a samiy beach, llauki's Bay. 30 miles farther south, a large open, and unsheltered ex-
panse, between 39- and 40- S. lat. Conk's 'strait divides the two large islaiids ; its western entiance
IS 'j8 miles acro.-^s ; its eastern about 4s. and the middle, or narrowest part, is )_'. A little way wiihin
its eastern entrance, on the north side, is HaiifffiKdlera Buy, or Pint S'ii/ndi.ii, w hicli extends in« ard
12 or 14 miles, with a breadth of from 2 to 4, atfotding safe anchorage and completi' shelter for any
number of vessel", and containing room to beat out in any wind. It terminates with a large, broad, and
de p river Paliistr Bay, to the south-west, termii^ates in a large lagoon. On the we-.t coa^t of the
Northern Island : iVharn, an oj.en roadstead, about 20 mih s S. of (ape Maria Van Dieman, with good
anchorage on a firm, tenacious sandy beach. n7u()i;.'<//)i, 2(1 miles S. of W baro. exti nds (i or 7 miles
inland, gradually widening, from 200 yards at theintrance, till ittxpamls into a biautilul bay, measur-
ing G miles by 3. Hills rise abruptly to a great height on botli sides of the entrance, ami are covert d
with forests ; but round the bay, between it and the bills, there is a space ot finetlat land, from a quarter
of a mile to 2 miles in breadth, which is clear of wood. //i/Ai(/n(,'u, aheautiliil estuary, HO mih s S.K. of
Cape .Maria \ an Di< man. in 3.")- 32' S. lat.. and 173 27' t. long, extending inland about 30 miles, is
deeply indented by small bays and creeks, and receives the waters <d' twmty ri\ers and streams, most
of them navigable for boats and small craft, and sulHcient for floating the largest timber. There is
good anchora>,'e for ships of .'lOO tons on all sides of the channel up to the head of the I ay. kaipara
Harbiiur, CO miles S. ol Ilokianga, lias an entrance 5 or G miles wide, but expands into a linebay trom
V> to 30 miles in length from north tosouth, and sheltered from every wind. Opposite to the ei. trance
there is a sandbank in mid-channel ; but on each side of it there is a channel with abunilant wai( r to
carry in a vessel ot any tonnage at any time of the tide, the smallest depth being In lathoms at low
wa.*«r. Purt Ma7iukaii or Maiinkint, .'{() miles S. of Kaipara, has an enlrai.ee about a mile wide. « Inch
afterwards expands to a width of 20 miles ; it is s<'parated from the Gulf of Mioiiraka by an i-thmiis
of only three miles acro's. IVaikalo llniiaur, 2.'> luiles along .^hore. soulh-easl of the i niraiii'i' of
Tort Manukou, is formed by the navigable rivers Waikato and A waroa ; < lie of the allluents ot the
former, the Iloroteu, is said to flow Irom a large inland lake called Kdhiroa. The aiironeb to
tlie estuary is rendered diUicult and dangerous by a bar, anil there is no s^te harbour inside. H am-
gar on, a bar harbour, 2.') miles south of Waikatf) /tutm llarlaur. 10 miles south of \\ aiiigaroa, has
a winding channel two or three miles long, which expands to a bay lOmilen »idi>. Kaum llar>'''iir,
10 miles farther south, is a bar harbour, but hus a good clear channel, three (juaiters of u mile at the
entrance.
In tlie Southern Island :— Blind <,r Tannan Bai/ . a large triangular indent at ion, with Maitarrr llni/ on
its west side; Admirally I ai/ ; P„it Hardy, in DTi ville'i Island; I'oit Gar'', the lurrrutBatiii. a
strait connecting HIind jsayand Admiralty Hay; tjurm I'hailidti't Sound, «hic-h extendi inland for
80 miles, with an entrance 2ii miles wide, but soon narrowing to ten ; ('InudyHay ; nil on the north roast
of the island, and on the south side of Cook's .Strait. I.unkcr'i-oti Hay, I'lfiatm Bay, on the north
1004 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Australasia.
side of Banks's peninsula ; Jkcroa, a remarkably fine and safe harbour at the south-eastern extremity
of I5anks's peninsula ; Otas^o Dai/, to the north of Cape Saunders ; all on the south-east coast. Fo-
veattx Strait between Tavai-poenamoo and Stewart's Island ; Knowxiey Bay or lliKer an estuary on
the north side of the strait, whieli extends inwards for about 100 miles. And at the south-western ex-
tremity of the island, Purl Preservation, Port Chalky, and Duxky Buy. The s-hores of Stewart's
Island form a series of excellent bays and harbours, but they are encompassed by a great number of
small islands and rooks. The island possesses, however, the very fine harbour of Port Pegasus, on its
south-east coast, ecjual in every respect to that of Sydney, and superior to it in this respect, that it has
three safe entrances.
Capes. — Cape Otou or Korth Cape, 24° 2-")' 30" S. laf., where New Zealand terminates in barren pre-
cipitous sandhills, called the Reinga or Flight; and where the foaming Pacitic unceasingly dashes
against the towering black rocks which skirt the shore. Westward from North Cape, and separated
from it by a deep sandy bay which affords no anchorage, is Cape lieirma or Maria fan Dieman, so
named by Tasman in honour of the daughter of the Governor of the Dutch Kast Indies. About six
miles oft" the Cape N.N.E. is a dangerous ledge of rocks named the Columbia Reef, over which the
■westerly winds cause the surf to rise to a great height ; but in fair weather they are unseen. Knuckle
Point ; Point Surritle ; Point Pocock and Cape Brett, both at the entrance of the Bay of Islands ; Cape
Bream, Point Rodney, Aiguilles Point, Barrier Cape, Cape Colcille, Point Charles, Cape Runaway,
Cape IVareku-heka, Cape H'ai-apou or East Cape, immediately behind which rises a remarkable high
land about 3000 feet above the level of the sea ; Cape Cable ; Cape Table ; Malamawi or Cape Kidnap-
pers ; Black Head or Cape Topolo-polo; Cook's Turnagain ; Castle Point ; Point Tehouka-kore ; Pant
Obtuse ; Cape Palliser or Kawa-kawa, a tine, high, bold point ; all on the east coast of North Island ;
Cape Toura- Kira ; Cape Poliuero ; both on the north side of the eastern part of Cook's Strait. Reef
Point ; Woody Point ; Albatross Point ; Cape Egmont ; on the west side of North Island. Cape Fare-
well, Point Lambert ; Point Jackson ; Cape Koamaroo ; and Cape Campbell ; on the south side of Cook's
Strait. Behind Cape Campbell rises Mount Tako, a lofty snow-capt peak, which is visible at a great
distance, and serves as an excellent land-mark for making Cook's Strait on this side. Cape Saundert,
on the south-east side of Tavai-Poeiiamoo ; Cascade's Point ; Bald Head ; Cape Foulu-ind , and Rocky
Point ; all on the west coast of that island ; South Cape, the most southern point of Stewart's Island.
Islands and Peninsulas. — Manaica-tatca or the three kings, 35 miles N.W. of Cape Reinga ;
Didi-houa ; Motoukaua or Ca.ralle ; Tauiti-rahi or the Poor Kyiights ; Hen and Chickens or Moro-
tiri ; Taranga ; Moko-hinu ; Fanal ; Shoutourou ; 0/fa; y/j/(/e; all to the north of Shouraka Gulf.
Shouraka, a large hilly peninsula, which forma the eastern side of that gulf. Curier; Haussez; Court
of Aldermen ; to the cast of Shouraka. The Mayor or Toulioua ; High Island ; Mutiti ; Plate Island;
Moutohura ; Pouhia-i-uakadi or tVhite Island, an insulated mountain, like Stromboli, which con-
stantly emits smoke, and affords a beautiful spectacle by night, in the columns of tire which issue
from the crater at its summit, in the Bay of Plenty. Houana-kokeno, to the south of Kast Cape.
Tera-kako Peninsula forming the north-east side of Hawke's Bay. Mana or Table Island ; Entry
Island; Gaimara Islands; D'Vrcille Islatid ; in Cook's Strait. Banks's Peiiinsula, projecCing ii miles
from the east side of Tavai-Poenamoo, and connected with it by a low sandy isthmus, forms a high
table-land which rises abruptly from the sea, white, and visible from a great distance, It has beeti
taken possession of by a French colony. Solander Islands, at the western entrance ; Bench Island and
liouabouki, at the eastern entrance of Foveaux Strait.
Rivers and Lakes.— Of these nothing is known beyond what has been already mentioned in con>
nection with the Bays.
Climate — The peculiar position of these islands, which lie north and south, gives
a different degree of temperature to nearly every few miles of country; and, owing to
the generally narrow widtii of the land, and to the almost uninterrupted chain of
mountains which runs through their whole length, mists and e.xhalations, drawn from
the surrounding ocean, overspread the country, imparting to it a constant humidity,
which produces a luxuriant vegetation, and a constant su[)ply of water to the niune-
rous streams which flow through every valley. The climate of the Northern Island
is uniform and genial. In winter the thermometer on the coast rarely falls below
45^ ; and, during the height of summer, seldom ri-es abo\e 85^. At Queen Char-
lotte's Sound in the Southern Island, Captain Cook found the thermometer, in the
middle of summer, not to rise higher than 66°; in .Tune or midwinter, it never sunk
below 48°. This agreeable temperature contributes much to the unusual vigour of the
ve/etation, which is chiefly composed of evergreens ; and allows the agriculturist to
raise annually as many crops of leguminous plants as he chooses. The rains through-
out the year fall in moderate refreshing showers, particularly in Eaheinomawe ; du-
ring winter, rainy weather predominates in Tavai-Poenamoo. Spring, summer, and
autumn, are extremely pleasant ; being attended with none of the overpowering heats
and sudden changes of New South \Vales. At these seasons the rains fall heavily,
but seldom for more than two days together. In winter, the winds from the east or
south-east are seldom unaccompanied by rain. Westerly winds are, however, the most
prevalent. They commence in the forenoon, rising to a smart gale ; but subside at
sunset to a placid calm. The whole range of the west coast then becomes a lee shore,
and on that account is little frequented by shipping, for the surf, dashing to a great
lieight, renders approach to the harbours impossible ; and equally prevents vessels
from quitting them. The westerly gales are also frequently accompanied by heavy
squalls, which render it almost impossible for a vessel near the land to preserve an
olfing. The sea rises in proportion to the wind ; and yet these violent storms are
accompanied by fair weather overhead. In Cook's Strait these heavy gales are of
frequent occurrence, a circumstance which causes it to be avoided by ships. The
neighbouring mountains of Kai-kohuda arc overloaded with vapours ; and not onlj
Australasia.] OCEANIA. IO05
increase the furious force of the blasts, but alter their direction in such a manner
that no two gusts follow from the same quarter ; and the nearer the shore the more
their effects are felt. The west and south-west winds blow almost without intermis-
Bion from May till September. North winds are least frequent throughout the year;
and seldom more than four violent gales are felt from that quarter during the season.
Vegetable Productions. — Among the most distingui?hing characteristics of New
Zealand are its splendid forests, in which trees of many varieties are often met with
of amazing girth, and all flourishing with the most lu.vuiiant vigour. Those of the
pine tribe command the principal attention, from their towering height, witiiout a
branch protruding to destroy their symmetry. The Cauri or yellow pine, in particu-
lar, will challenge comparison with any trees of the pine family, in beauty or utility ;
and there are, besides, many other species. The palm tribes exist in great number
and variety ; supplejacks grow to a great length, and render the dense forests almost
impassable ; the heart of the delicious palms, called e'rito, is highly esteemed ; the
kourou is equally prized, and also the saccharine roots of the ti or cabbage-tree. The
fruits indigenous to the country are few, and of little value. The principal is the
haraka-maori or native fruit, which grows in clusters, and is about the size and form
of the Spanish olive; it is of a bright yellow colour when ripe. The tawara is a
parasitical fruit which grows among the decaying branches of tlie rata and other trees ;
it has the form and whiteness of the head of a cauliflower, and is of a sweet yet acrid
taste when perfectly ripe; but when unripe it is exceedingly bitter. The taro (arum
esculentum) of several species, a very farinaceous legume, is planted in the islands,
especially to the southward. There are likewise various other fruits; but the most
valuable of these to the New Zealander. as an article of food, is the kumera or sweet
potatoe, of which there are many varieties, and some of them very farinaceous. It is
said by the natives to have been brought from Tou-wahai, or the distant regions, by
their earliest ancestors ; it is in consequence regarded with veneration, and lias many
superstitious legends attached to it. The European or American potatoe, fir>t intro-
duced by Cook, and many other European esculent roots, are now cultivated with
success. The turnip is found in a wild state over the whole country, as also wild
radishes, garlic, celery, cress, &c. Pumpkins are much culti\ated, aiul grow to a
large size. The vegetable marrow plant and calabashes are of great use for containing
liquids; and gourds of every kind are now found in all the plantations. Indian corn
grows to a large size ; and wheat yields at the rate of 40 bushels an acre. Grapes are
largely cultivated to the northward of the river Thames ; strawberries and raspberries
overrun the soil wherever they are planted ; olives, pomegranates, figs, quinces, nec-
tarines, peaches, apples, pears, and cape gooseberries, thrive in abundance, 'i'he sugar-
cane flourishes in Hokianga, and several tropical exotics at the Iloreke settlement.
Flowering shrubs which require the shelter of the greenhoiwe in England are not
affected by exposure to the open air throughout all the seasons of New Zealand.
Of the rohi or fern upwards of sixty distinct varieties liave been noticed by bota-
nists. It is found growing to the height of twelve feet ; and plains and slo[)ing
grounds are often rendered impassable by its entangling libres. i5ut it never growg
on bad land, and the quality of the soil is generally indicated by the size and strtiigth
of the fern which covers it, inferior land producing only a stunted and puny vegeta-
tion. When sown with English grasses the fern-land produces excellent pasture, and
clover in particular grows luxuriantly. There are many shrubs witli myrtle leaves;
the tea plant, kaikatoa, covers the plains, not exce|)ting the jutting headlands which
are exposed to the fury of every gale. The ground in the vicinity of the root> of trees,
which extend to a great distance in the forests, is carpeted with mosses and lirlicns
of beautiful varieties, which flower twice a-year. Funguses of great size and hard-
ness cover the decayed trees which block up the forest paths; while the bark of the
live trees is covered with hands, flowering convolvuluses, lichens, mosses, and ivies.
There are many species of laurel ; of which we may menlion tlu^ phiiantlnis or seaside
laurel, and a species of the retiring mimosa, or .sensitive plant, sheltered by the
drooping branches of the dwarf palm. The erilhnnim or samphire abounds near the
shores which are waslied by the tides; and sea-weed in great vluiety, the most com-
mon of which is the fucus filum or threaded sea-weed, which strews the coast, and
has its roots in the corals and rocks in deep water. Nightshade and various nettles
grow extremely large; there are, besides, many species and varieties of minor veije-
tation, all of which have the same undying appearance in winter a-< the forests. Hut
the most valuable native plant is the flax (phormium teiiax) which flourishes in great
abundance, and chiefly in tht vicinity of swainp«. Of this plant there m a consider-
iOOe DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Australasia.
able variety, principally caused by difference of soil and climate : some flax plants to
the northward scarcely attaining the height of six feet, while others in the south
reach sixteen. In appearance it resembles the common flax. Of the leaves of this
plant the natives make all their valuable apparel, with their fishing lines and every
kind of cordage ; and by merely splitting them into strips and tying them together,
they construct their fishing nets and seines, some of which are of enormous size. It
appears to be the strongest of all vegetable fibres, and possesses this advantage over
hemp and European flax that it is of a brilliant whiteness, which gives it a satiny
appearance, so that it does not require to be bleached. It is also a handsome and
vigorous plant.
Animals There are no quadrupeds indigenous to the country. There is a species
of dog, named pero, which according to tradition was introduced into the country
in remote times by a number of divinities (probably the Spaniards) who landed on
their shores ; but it has dwindled away to the lowest grade of the canine family,
owing to its bad treatment by the natives. The puorka or hog has also become
naturalized, and now abounds in a wild as well as domestic state throughout the
islands, where the loose mould of the valleys forms no obstacle to its snout in grub-
bing up the roots of the fern and the succulent thistle, on which it loves to teed.
Cats and rats have also been recently introduced, and are valued by the natives as
good food ; the former are also prized for their skins, so that Europeans cannot get
their cats kept for the thievish native gourmands. Sheep have been introduced, but
seem not to be adapted to the country otherwise than as food. Cattle, horses, and
asses have also been introduced, and thrive well. Birds are numerous, but are gene-
rally small. Among these are mocking-birds, parrots, parroquets, cuckoos, in great
variety; and wood-pigeons, which abound in the woods, and are delicious food; besides
many others, whose native names it would be useless to specify. European poultry
have been introduced, as the turkey, duck, and goose, which, however, the natives
seldom use as food, preferring to dispose of them at high prices to shipmasters. Tro-
pical birds of the palmipede genus, and sea birds of many varieties likewise abound on
the coasts.
There are no noxious reptiles ; but there are a few harmless lizards, and the gigan-
tic lizard or guana is found principally in the large Southern Island. There are no
serpents or snakes of any kind ; but leeches, toads, and frogs abound in the swamps.
Fleas and the namu or sand-fly are mischievously troublesome ; musquitoes abound
in the numerous swamps ; there are also butterflies of various kinds, but not remark-
able for beauty, with locusts, grasshoppers, dragon-flies, black ants, beetles, scorpion-
flies, flesh-flies, gad-flies, American moths, snails, grubs, earthworms, caterpillars,
spiders, and also scorpions and centipedes, which, however, are of very small size,
and quite harmless.
The coasts formerly abounded with seals of every variety, but they have been almost
extirpated by Europeans. Black whales also frequent the coast in vast numbers in
the winter season, or from May till September; and at a moderate distance from the
land the sperm whale is occasionally found in large herds. There are also sharks,
pilot fish, flying fish, and the hammer-headed shark, which appears in great shoals, and
is preserved by the natives as winter food. Both the sea and the rivers abound with
fish in great variety, and equal in taste and flavour to any in Europe. There is also
abuiulance of lobsters, crawfish, oysters, prawns, shrimps, clams, poppies, mussels,
limpets, and cockles. Some gigantic mussels grow to a foot in length, and are found
in mud banks at low tide. There are also various zoophytes, madrepores, medusae,
which are found in large glutinous masses at the edge of the tide.
People — The New Zealanders form one of the finest branches of the Malay family,
and embrace several varieties. Captain Crozet divides them into three classes: white
or copper-coloured, brown, and black; but properly speaking, the colour varies oiily
from the olive tinge of the southern Europeans to a brown black. The olive or
copper-coloured race are a noble people, being often above six feet in stature, mus-
cular, and active. The higher classes are amply chested, remarkably well formed,
and of dignified appearance, 'iheir countenances are often very pleasing ; their hair
is glossy, black, and curling ; and their features approach the European standard.
Tfie lower classes, and particularly the natives adjoining the East Cape, are short in
stature, with lank or frizzly hair, a brown complexion approaching to black, and a
bad expression of countenance. The females of the latter class differ but little from
the males in appearance, but the ladies of the upper class are quite different, and many
of them would grace a page in " the Book of Beauty." The difference between the
AusTEALASiA.] OCEANIA. 1007
distinct races whtcli have inhabited the country is more remarKabie in the women than
in the men. Those of Malay origin are easily distinguished from the Papuas ; but the
flat nose, full lip, and projecting mouth of the latter are but rarely aeen. In both races
the female stature is less than the male. The features of the women are generally
regular ; the hair is often jet black, long, and profuse ; ahd the teeth extremely white.
The forms of the women are elegant and interesting ; but marriage, and the servitude
with which it is accompanied, cause early old age and decay.
The character of the New Zealanders exhibits, with great boldness of relief, many
both of the virtues and the vices of the savage state. As individuals they are remark-
able for a vigour of mind and a forethought, which distinguish them from all other
savages who have made so little progress in the arts of civilized life; while their dis-
cernment in appreciating the advantages of civilization, is not greater than the energy
and self-denial which they manifest in the pursuit of distant advantages. As a com-
munity, they are chiefly remarkable for the ferocity which they exhibit in the perpe-
tual wars which ravage the country ; for that contempt of human life which seems to
be the natural result of a species of warfare that aims at the extermination or captivity
of enemies ; and for the practice of eating the flesh of the enemies they have slain,
and even of their own slaves when pressed by hunger. The New Zealander's point
of honour is revenge, and this he pursues in spite of danger and difficulty, encoun-
tering every fatigue, and submitting to every privation in pursuit of his object ; and
he would be disgraced among his tribe were he to allow the spirit of his friend or re-
lation to remain unappeased by the blood of his enemy. With this is united a nice
feeling of honour on cither points that concern his dignity, which leads him imme-
diately to perceive and resent any slight or insult offered to his person. But he is
not more distinguished for ferocity aiul cruelty to enemies, than for a strength of
attachment to his tribe and kindred, which dissolves the savage warrior in tears on
the neck of his friend, whom he meets after a long separation ; nor is he less suscep-
tible of gratitude for kindness, than of resentment for injury.
The New Zealanders are'ignorant of some of tlie commonest arts; their clothing
is rude, and their agriculture imperfect ; they have no ki\ow]edge of metals, or of
writing; and yet they exhibit the keenest sense of the value of those acquirements
which render Europeans so gre;itly their superiors. There is a natural politeness and
dignity in their deportment, a love of poetry, music, and the fine arts, and a wit and
eloquence that remind us of the Greeks of Homer. Their language is rich ami sonorous,
abounding in nice distinctions ; it is radically the same with that of Tahiti and otlier
Polynesian islands, and has been reduced to writing by the missionaries. 'Iliey have
abundance of poetry of a lyrical kind, and are [lassioiiately fond of music. They
excel in carving, of which their war canoes are fine specimens; they display tiieir
talents also in astronomy, hnving given names to the stars, and divided them into con-
stellations; and they spend great pint of the summer nights in watcliing tljcir motions ;
but they have connected with ti;em some curious traditions, which tiicy hold in super-
stitious veneration. They are quite fiee from idcjjatry, and have many just and admi-
rable notions of God, whom they call Atmi, and l)elieve to be a spirit infinite and
eternal, governing the woild liy his providence. They believe in a future state of
existence. Tiiey believe also in an evil spirit or devil, whom they call \Viio, and to
whom they attribute all the evils which befall thtm. They have also priests among
them ; but, as there are no idols to worship, these are rather teachers than priests ;
though they are em|)lo)ed to ba|)tizc and name the children.
The number of the population camiot be ascertained with any degree of accuracy;
but it is loosely estimated to amount to ICO, DUO, of whom at least l()(),(]l)0 are in
the Northern Islaml. They are divided into a great numlier of petty tribes ; and no
general dominion seems ever to have [)revailcd over any great jiortion of the coimtry.
But property in land, and the sovereign rights of their chiefs are well establi>hed in-
stitutions. They have no towns, and their villages are mere collections of huts;
though some of them arc strongly fortified with palisades.
Discovery and Colonization. — New Zealand was first discovered by Tasman,
the Dutch navigator, in December 1<;4"2; hut he seems only to have toiielied at ilie
northern point. It was not visited again till MCii), when Ca(itain Surville touched nt
a bay on the north-east coast; and Captain Cook sailed round all the islniuls. and
passed the strait which now hears his name.
In 1«14, the m)rthern |)art of the Northern Island began to he the resort of sliips
engaged in the whale fishery, and men occasionally <icseriid from their ships and took
up their residence among tl}e natives. About the same time, a few of the nuti\e«
occasionally made their appearance at Port Jackson, and being seen and conversed
1008 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Australasia.
with by the Rev. Samuel Marsden, he conceived the idea of establishing a mission in
the islands, which he accordingly visited for the purpose ; and although not imme-
diately successful, the ultimate establishment of a mission was the result. Since that
period, the Wesleyan Methodists and the Catholics have established missions, all of
which have of late years extended their influence, bringing the natives into familiar
intercourse with the Europeans, and generally promoting their civilization, in spite
of some questionable practices on the part of the church missionaries, which have
brought them somewhat into disrepute. But the missionaries are not the only white
men to whose influence the New Zealanders have been subjected ; other settlers of
a very different class, the very outcasts of a depraved population, have found their way
to the country. Convicts who escaped from the penal settlements ; runaway sailors
from whaling ships ; needy adventure's, whose improvident habits and evil courses had
made them men of no country ; with a small admixture of worthy and energetic men,
such as will iind their way into all eligible fields, but who formed too inconsiderable
a minority to curb and neutralize the bad passions of the majority, formed the bulk of
the European population in 18e19. In 183G, an association was formed in London for
the express purpose of colonizing these islands; but having failed in their object of
engaging the Government and Parliament in their cause, the association became vir-
tually dissolved ; and instead of it a joint-stock company was formed for the purpose,
which, early in 1839, became possessed, by purchase, of some extensive tracts in the
Northern Island. More lately their agent in New Zealand acquired for the company
the whole of the territory on both sides of Cook's Strait, including Port Nicholson,
where they have since formed their principal settlement, and founded the town of
Wellington. The attention and business of the company is " confined to the purchase
of tracts of land, the promotion of emigration to these tracts directly from the United
Kingdom, the laying out of settlements and towns in the most favourable situations,
and the gradual re-sale of such lands according to the value bestowed upon them by
emigration and settlement. It is also proposed, that to facilitate the transmission of
capital between England and New Zealand, the company shall act as agents for that
purpose only." The first colony consisted of 1125 persons, of a very select class, in-
cluding several persons of birth, education, aud refinement ; but having been landed
in the country without any provision being previously made for their reception, they
have had to endure such hardships as have disgusted many of them, and occasioned
grievous complaints.
Neither the New Zealand Association of 1837 nor the New Zealand Company of
1839 could gain the sympathy or even the countenance of the Government. By the
energetic operations of the latter body, however, the Government were forced into
action; and just as the first colony was ready to start. Captain Hobson of the navy
was sent to New Zealand for the purpose of ultimately erecting it into a British
colony. Unfortunately, New Zealand, or rather the northern portion of the Northern
Island, had been treated in 1831 as a sovereign independent state, and Captain Hob-
son was instructed to begin by calling himself consul. He was then to obtain a ces-
sion of the sovereignty from the chiefs, and to declare so much of the country as should
be ceded to him, and also such part thereof as should be in possession of British
subjects, a dependency of New South Wales. Of this portion he was to cease to
call himself c.onml, and was to become lieutenant-governor under the governor of
New South Wales. In other words. New Zealand was treated as a foreign country,
over which her Majesty could have no authority, until it sliould be obtained by formal
cession, from the date of which sovereignty, witli all its consequences, would com-
mence. From this course of policy much difTiculty has since arisen, and more will
yet arise. It is a well-imderstood principle of international law, that discovery ai;(l
occupation give to the discovering nation a right of sovereignty o.s ayainst ull civilized
powers. The relations which the discovering country may establish with the native
tribes does not in any way affect this right of sovereignty. The Americans, for in-
stance, recognise a certain modified sovereignty as continuing in the Cherokees and
other aboriginal tribes, but they nevertheless assert the sovereignty of the union as
against all European nations. Of our original sovereignty over New Zealand no
one ever doubted, until it was lately repudiated or renounced by the colonial depart-
ment. Acts of sovereignty had frequently been exercised. Magistrates had been
appointed ; criminals had been arrested, sent to Sydney, tried, and punished many
years ago ; and yet it was determined that Captain Hobson should take a new lease
of sovereignty, dating from a first cession or cessions from the natives. One of the
consequences of this was, that New Zealand, which had all along been respected by
foreign powers, was immediately thrown open to colonization by any European
Australasia.] OCEANIA. _ 1009
power. France at once took the hint, and sent out the Comte de Paris transport
with about sixty settlers, to found a French colony there. This expedition was only
twenty days too late to take possession of the Southern Island in the name of France;
Captain Hobson having at last, in May 1840, issued a procliunation, declaring the
sovereignty of Britain over both islands, and thus antieipatini,' the French.
The New Zealand Company have settled their lirst colony at Port Nicholson,
which is described as one of the finest harbours in the world ; and they expect that
the town of Wellington, which they have founded tliere, will become tlie ureat com-
mercial metropolis not merely of New Zealand, but of the whole of Australasia. The
Bay of Islands is, however, the place which, above all others, appears to have been
destined for the seat of a great commercial city. It combines every advantage which
could be wished for supplying the wants of a large population, while it is at all times
easily accessible for shipping. The town of Kororarika stands in a l)eautiful situ-
ation, embosomed among gently swelling hills, from which tlow several fine streams,
and already contains a church, and a great many houses. The government capital has
been established at Aucldand, on Waitemata harbour. There is to be a town named
Churchill at Hokianga, and one named Russell, at the Bay of Isl:inds. The New
Zealand Company have also colonies at Nelson, on the south siae of Cook's Strait,
and at Ncw-Plijmouth, on the south-west coast of the north island.
In the great ocean to the south-oast and south of New Zealand are svcral smaller islands. The
Chat/ia/n IsI'Didt, 420 miles E.S.K. of Cape Palliser, witb discovered in 17'Jl by Lieut. Hroughton,
the larKCSt of which is aboutSG miles in length, of a compact form, well wooded, and abounds in flax.
The others are considerably smaller, and are named the Tun sisters, Puramid, and Cdniiraltis. The
group extends 120 miles from S. E. to N., between 43=38' and 41- 40' S. lat., and 177- and 17;i- W. long.
The inhabitants are a branch of the New Zealand family, and speak the same language. The Uoutity
Isles were discovered by Captain Bligh in 17i»8 ; they are thirteen in number, within a space of three
miles and a half, in 47= 44' S., and 17«J= 47= W. long. Antipodes Islind was discovered in 1800 by
Captain Pendleton of the sealing vessel Union, who gave it this name from its being the nearest land
to the antipodes of London. It is situate in 49= 40' S., 177= 20' K. CampbeH'i Island was discovered in
1810, in h-l-' 43' S. lat., 107= 2' E. long. It is 30 miles in circumference, with a rocky coast, rising in the
interior into peaks of considerable height. The Aucklund Islands were discovered by Captain Uris-
tuwin 1807. They are situate in ,5'J= 40' S. lat. 104= E. long. The principal i.-land is JOmiles by 8, with an
elevated coast, and a lotty mountain, visible for .')0 miles in clear weather. The smaller islands aro
named EndcrOy, Disappointment, a.mi Adinn't Islands. They are well covered with vegetation, and the
forests contain trees of large size, and of a variety of species. The only quadrupeds are rats ; but there
are many beautiful birds, and the coasts abound with tish. The Marquarrie IsUttids were discovered
in 181 1, the principal of which is 1!» miles long, by 6 broad, and contains two opin anchorages. At a
little di-tance north are two rocky islets, named the Jud^'e and Clerk, and to the south, other two
Fimilar islands, named the Bis/tup and Clerk. The middle of the group is situate in 54- 3K' S., iJti- 21'
E. long.
AEW GUIAEA, S^-c.
New Gui.fKA is situate to the north of .Vustralia, from which it is scparatid by Torres" Strait, be-
tween 0= and 10= S. lat. and 131= and 141)= E. long. ; bting about 1100 miles in length, by 330 at its
greatest breadth. It is of an irreijular form, the western jiart being indented bv deep bays, wliieli
almost cut it off from the more compact la.'-tern portion. It is generally remarkable fur its great
elevation above the level of the sea ; the northern coast in particular is high and mountainous. Jt is
described, however, as being every where a rich and magnificent country, and probably contains the
most precious vegetable productions ot the Asiatic Lslands. Hut no European colonists Imve hitherto
fettled on its shores ; and no traveller has yet exiilored the interior. The only (piadrupeds that aro
known to e.vist in the island are dogs, rats, and wild hogs ; but the birds are of great beauty and va-
riety. It is the original habitat of the be.iutiful birds of paradise. The people are of the Malaysian
negro, or Puapuan race, and are invariably described by \oyagers as hideously ugly, with large eyes,
flat noses, thick lips, wonUy hair, and a black shining skin. Ibis natural \iglincss they increase
hy passing bones or pieces of wood through tl-.e cartilage of the nose, and fri/zio:.? out their curly
locks like a mop to an enormous si/e. They npptar, however, to be scunewhat fartlu r removed from
extreme barbarism than the Australians, for they have permanent house , and bolli nun and women
wear wrappers round the waist. In the interior tliere are said to be some very nli^orable llaiaforos,
who live in trees, but cultivate the ground, and bring tlieir produce down to the ciiast. The wliido
of New Guinea is indented with deep bays; and llie coast is surnmnd'd by intiltitud s of small
islands, all peopled by I'apuas, except those or. the north-west, uberc < liinese and Malays have intro-
duced them.selves. 'I'he trade of the coasts is monopolized by the ( . r.imi .e, who have inspired Ih«
Papuas with an inveterate hatrea of all other foreigners. 'I'lie iiuanliiy ol nrsoi or mas>oy-bark, nut-
megs, trepang, tortoise-shell, pearls, e<lil>le birds'-nests, birds id paradise, and other articles of value,
purchased by the Ceramesc on the coast for an almost numinul pi ice, and ca! ried by them to ball and
Sincapiire, is Incredible.
OHTthe soiitb-w.st coast, at the distance of about 40 miles, and lOO miles >'. E. of Timnrlaut, are the
ylrru I'ltinds, a group of some importance. 'I'hey are small, rarely e.\ceeding 0 ur 7 milr-. in cireumle-
rence, but so closely grouped that a number of ihem, when viewed from a liistanec, .-.( iiutiincs appi ar
like a continuous land. According to Mr. liarle, they are hilly, but not MKUinlaiiioos. ami llicuphiiids
are covered with trees; but, according to Captain Stanley, they are low and flat in »| pcariiiiee, and eon-
sist chiefly of a mangrove swamp, intersected by numerous chains, thickly w..o'l«<l u itli lir tries. '1 ln'V
are thickly inhabited by an Industrious people, who seem to be a mixture between t'lc brown and the
black races of .Malaysia. They are largerand more powerful than the Javanese aiel .Mal.ivK; their hair
is short and curled, but not woolly ; their wonu:n are well tr.ateil ; the majority are ra;;nns ; but
there arc also many Christians ami .Mahon •■tans. They ari' noted for tli.dr honi-ly, and are not
easily otr.nded. The islands are the entrepot for the productions of the-neight«)iirnig .ouiilries. and
much connnercial intercourse is maintained, chiefly with tin- < bin. se, llugi.-, ar.d other native •■'adcri.
Tortoise-shell, bees" wax, ambergris, inassoy-bark, birds of larailisc, trepang or sii'liig. and edil^Io
birds'-nests, are the principal exports. Kresli i)rovisions and Mipplic for shipping niay lu procurojl
io abundance. To the w eslward is another group, named the Ai or AVy islands, the largest ol whirli
1010 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Australasia,
is 45 miles in length, by 4 in breadth, mountainous and thickly covered with trees. Its highest point,
near the centre, rises to the height of 3310 feet.
The remaining islands of Australasia, situate to the N. E. and S. E. of Kcw Guinea, though some
of them are of considerable size, are in otiier respects so unimportant, that it is sufficient merely
to mention their names. They are mostly inhabited by varieties of the same negro races, except
those to the S.E., where the negroes become mi.\ed with the Polynesians. The principal of them are ;
the jldmiralty JsUinds, New Hanover, New liritain, and New Ireland, to tlie north-east of New
Guinea, from which they are separated by Dampier's Strait; Lnuisiade, a long chain of isles and reefs,
extending to the eastward of the most easterly point of New Guinea; the Soi.omon Islands, includ-
ing iJowAa.iJoK^ainc/We, Choiseul, Isabel, George, Guadalcanal, Gower, Jrsacides, Buenavistn, Rennel,
San Chrhtoi'al,&nA many others ; the New Hebrides, including Tierni del Espiritu- Santo, Mallicollo,
St. Bartholomev, Isle of Lepers, Santa Cruz, Du^ Isles, Tabouai, ran/A-oro, where Pcrouse was wreelied
in 1788, Recherche, Mitre, Cherry, Tucopia, Bttgh, Hunks, Aurora, Pentecost, Apec, Sandwich, Erro-
mango, Tanna, Hunter, and Walpole; the Loyalty Isles; and New Caledonia. The last named
island is 250 miles in length by 30 in breadth. It bears a great resemblance to New South Wales, con-
sisting of barren rocky mountains, interspersed with fertile valleys ; and many of the productions are
similar. The people, however, are different, and are represented as strong, robust, active, and well
made, courteous and friendly, and apparently a mi.\cd race. Hetween New Caledonia and Australia
is situate the Coral Sea, which is encumbered with shoals, reefs, and low islands.
1011
III. POLYNESIA.
General Description — This division of the world, as its name implies, consist*
of a great number of islands scattered over the Pacific Ocean, and extends from Asia,
Malaysia, and Australasia on the west and south-west, to the wide open sea which
washes the western shores ot America. But, though innumerable, these islands, in
respect of their general physical characteristics, may all be included under one gene-
ral description. They are divisible into three classes ; the mountainous, the hilly,
and the low coralline. The isl.inds of the mountainous class are, with few excep-
tions, truly splendid. The mountains rise gradually from their bases till their sum-
mits are lost amongst the clouds. Some of them are broken into a thousand fantastic
shapes, and have their sides clothed with bright verdure of various shades. Beauty,
grandeur, wildness, and sublimity are so fantastically blended and contrasted, as to
excite the most varied and delightful feelings. The bases of the mountains are bor-
dered by fertile and luxuriant valleys, adorned with stately bread-fruit trees, and
many other tropical productions, some of which are of gigantic growth, and of the
richest foliage, all equally beautiful, but each having its own peculiar hue, from the
darkest shade of green to the lightest tint. The plumes of the cocoa-nut tree over-
topping the whole, and waving majestically in the passing breeze, give an exquisite
finish to the landscape. The mountains in the islands of this class have geneially nn
elevation of from 2000 to 10,000 feet; in Hawaii alone they exceed 13,000. All
of them exhibit evident traces of volcanic agency ; in many the rocks are c()m[)osed
of a fine-grained black basalt ; in others there are juHnice and other atones of varied
appearance, which have evidently undergone the action of lire ; innnense masses of
conglomerated rubble are iilso met with. Whatever may have been their origin, it
is evident that they must all have been under water; for on their loftiest smmnits,
coral, shells, and other marine substances are found in great abundance. The islands
of the second class are rather hilly than mountainous, being generally from 100 to
500 feet in height. They are in general equally beautiful in appearance, and eiiually
luxuriant in their foliage with those of the first class ; but are less sublime and roman-
tic. The rocks consist of crystallized carbonate of lime, very much in ap[)earance
resembling the aragonite of the Giant's Causeway. The third class embraces the low
coralline islands, most of which rise oidy a few feet above the surface of the sea. They
are generally small ; though Tongataboo is 100 miles in circumference. The soil upon
them is in many places veiy thin, so that there is little vegetation besides the cocoa-
nut trees, pandamis, some stunted hibiscus, with a few other trees of dwariish growth,
and a quantity of brushwood. 'J'ongataboo, however, and all the Friendly I>lands
may be considered as exceptions ; the soil there being much deeper, and every [)roduc.
tion of the islands of the first and second classes grows in them with luxuriant profu-
sion. All the Society l^lands, and also many otiiers, are surrounded each with a belt
of coral rock, from two or three to twenty yards in width, aiul situate at distances
varying from a few yards to two miles from the shore. Against this barrier the loii^,
rolling waves of the'Pacific are driven with terrific violence ; and towering in one vast
sheet to an amazing height, roll over their foaming tops with majestic grandeur. Tlie
waters of the lagoon, between the reef and the shore, are phirid and transparent ; the
bottom and the sloping sides present a most enchanting picture ; for coral of every
varied shape and hue is seen intermingled in rich profusion, suggesting the idea of a
submarine flower garden or shrulthery of exquisite lieauty ; while aniong the tortuous
branches of the madrepore, and the wide-spreading leaves of other corals, the zebra
fish and many others, of every colour and size, are seen gambolling in conscious secu-
rity.— (Williams' Missionari/ Kntcrfirinc. )
The coral islands are classed as circular, flat, long-narrow, and those which cnc;rcle
high land. The islands in the Dangerous Archi|)ehigo are all of the first class, and
consist of strips or circular lielts of coral from 400 or .'iOO yards to one mile across,
and always inclosing a lagoon ; they are seldom more than four or five feet above
the water, and abrupt towards the ocean, which rapidly deepens on the outside td
more than 120 fathoms. The i-lands themselves vary from 2 or 3 to l.'>0 miles in
circumference; the ring being often divided across by a ti?siire wlii<-li permit-' ships
to enter the lagoon. These are all the work of the coral insects, which are said to
commence their labours at no greater depth than from 15 to 20 fathoms. The bottoms
1012 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Polynesia.
of the lagoons are seen in calm weather at the depth of 100 feet or more, strewed
over with shells and fragments of coral, rarely showing any living specimen be-
low IG or 17 fathoms, at which depth smaller reefs rise within the lagoon; and
beyond it broken masses of rock may be seen without any living portion attached.
Islands often occur of a flat or tabular form, generally oval or irregularly rounded ;
of which kind are most of the Friendly Islands. There are also many crescent-shaped
reefs, having the convex side highest, which often show their position to the mariner
only by the breaking of the waves over them, while the horns of the crescent gra-
dually sink into the deep. In a few instances, however, as in Gambier's Island,
they are high enough to be covered with vegetation and to be inhabited. Of those
that form long narrow strips there is one called Tchuro near Tahiti; but the grand-
est example known is the Great Barrier Reef, which extends along the north-
eastern coast of Australia, for more than a thousand miles, in the course of which
space there is one continuous portion of more than .350 miles, with scarcely a break
or passage through it. Of the last class of coral groups or reefs, those encircling high
land, the Society Islands offer striking examples. These are mostly surrounded by
reefs 400 or 500 yards from the shore, with a deep channel inside, containing nume-
rous openings through which ships can enter, and afterwards anchor in perfect safety.
These breaks are in most instances opposite the mouths of fresh-water rivulets. The
islands of Raiatea and Otaha are enclosed in the same reef, the openings through which
are in most cases marked by high and green points covered with cocoa-nut or other
trees. Ships can enter at the windward side and get to sea again through the lee-
w-ard channels, by passing through the strait which separates the islands. But of
all these varieties of coral islands, the form must very materially depend on that of
the base on which they happen to be reared ; hence their circular, crescentine, oval, or
irregular forms denote the shape and even the nature of the subjacent rocks. In
most cases the bases of the small islands appear to be volcanic craters, either entire
or broken ; islands of volcanic rocks, as Tahiti, are surrounded by rings of coral ; but
the elevation of the coral islands seems to be owing not merely to the accumulation
of matter produced by the rough action of the sea, but to a gradual rising of the low
islands, and a violent subterranean movement of the high ones, like Tahiti, which
bears on the top of one of its highest hills a distinct and regular bed of half fossil
coral ; and near it, but on a lower level, a volcanic crater with two lateral gorges
(Phillips s Geology, p. 308-10.)
Climate and Natural Productions The greater part, and indeed almost the
whole of these islands being within the tropics, the climate is necessarily warm, and
little varied ; the heat, however, is delightfully tempered by the presence of the vast
body of water by which they are surrounded, and their climate and physical charac-
teristics altogether may be said to justify the descriptive accuracy of the following
lines: —
" And, glittering in the sun's bright beams,
Places there are where Ocean smiles,
Meandering in a thousand streams.
Among as many blooming isles :
Seeming to the delighted eyes
On earth a heavenly paradise."
But it is the smile of a giant who is not always pacific ; for he sometimes rises in
wrath, and dashes with tremendous fury on the rocky barriers of the blooming islands,
which are saved from destruction only by the labours of their tiny architects. The
vegetable productions are, of course, all tropical ; and the soil of the volcanic islands
in particular is so fertile as to produce spontaneously in abundance, almost every thing
necessary for the support or the enjoyment of man. The principal products are : the
bread-fruit tree, of which there are many varieties, and the fruit of which affords a
nutritive food, while the trunk supplies timber for buildings and canoes, a gum which
serves for pitch, and a species of bark which is manufactured into a substantial
cloth ; the cocoa-nut tree, which supplies meat, drink, cloth, and oil ; plantains and
bananas of many sorts; yams and sweet potatoes; taro-root ; sugar-cane, and vari-
ous other edible roots and fruits. The only quadrupeds found on the islands when
first visited by Europeans were hogs, dogs, and rats ; but birds were numerous, con-
sisting of poultry, pigeons, turtle-doves, parrots, tropical birds, &c. The shores
abound with sea-fowl, and the sea teems with excellent fish, swimmers as well as
Crustacea, and moUusks, which the natives capture with great dexterity.
People The Polynesians seem to belong to the Malay variety of mankind.
and a general resemblance pervades them all ; somewhat modiMed, of course, by the
Polynesia.] OCEANIA, 1013
circumstances of climate, occupation, and lialnts. Their persons are generallv short,
squat, and robust ; their lower limbs large and heavy ; their arms fleshy ; their liands
and feet small ; their face somewhat of a lozenge shape, the forehead and chin being
rather sharpened, but the cheekbones high and broad, with hollow cheeks. The eyes
are black, small, narrow, and obliiiuely placed, like those of the Chinese ; the nose
broad, but not flat ; the nostrils open and circular ; the mouth rather wide ; the hair
lank, coarse, and black. Their complexions are of various hues of brown, generally
olive or light copper, but making in some cases an approach to white or black. Every
where they follow the same custom of marking their skins with indelible figures,
often in elegant forms, but which have sometimes the effect of concealing their com.
plexion, their faces in many cases being entirely covered with them. This process they
call tattooing. They have been found to be all very nearly in the same state of civi-
lization — the very children of nature ; some of them indeed gentle in manners, but all
addicted to serious vices; carrying on tlieir petty wars with savage ferocity, and ma-
king lawful spoil of the persons and properties of every stranger who comes in their
way, and can be mastered. As the climate of their islands renders little attention ne-
cessary in clothing or habitations, their arts with respect to these graiul objects of
more civilized conununities were very simple; but in regard to instruments for pro-
curing food and carrying on war, they display great ingenuity, though the want of
metal has been a serious drawback. Their canoes tliey manage with great dexterity,
and the ingenuity of their ti.shing tackle can only be exceeded by their skill in using
it. Their hooks, however, are only made of pearl shells, bones, and hardwood.
Language and Govfrnment Dispersed as the Polynesians are, and rarely and
purely accidental as any communication between distitnt islatuls must have been, it
is nevertheless certain that the different dialects which they speak are all referable
to the same common language, which seems still to form the original portion of the
Malay ; but their origin, with the time and manner of their migration and settle-
ment in these inninnerable islands, are problems which still remain to be solved.
In manners, customs, institutions, superstitions, and religion, the general accordance
of the Polynesians is as remarkable as in the case of their language. They have all
the same form of government, the autliority of which is generally divided among a
number of hereditary chiefs, though there are also sometimes a sort of kings or su-
perior chiefs to whom the others are subject, and to whom they pay great respect
and even reverence. The peo|)le seem iiuleed in some of the i>lan(Is, if not in all,
to be divided into three classes or castes, the chiefs, the i'rcc proprietors, and the
lower class, or serfs. In the whole of Polynesia the nol'ility are incredilily proud,
and hold the people in a degree of hiunble subjection, of which it is dillicult for
people in Europe to form an idea. In Tahiti the distinction of caste was formerly
carried to such an extent in the case of the royal family, all the members of which
were regarded as sacred in the highest sense of the word, tliat whatever any of
them happened to touch became sacred also; if the king enteied a liouse the
owner was forced to abandon it ; and if he walked on a footpath it was death for ii
plebeian to walk on it afterwards. In the Friendly Islands the castes are still
better defined ; but the priestly caste ranks highest, the high-priest or Tooitongii
taking precedence of the king himself That singular institution indeed, or super-
stition, called tabno, by virtue of which the king, the nobles, and the priests con-
trived to appropriate any thing to themselves, was lately prevalent throughout the
whole of Polynesia. By means of it the peojjle were contented to be robbed of their
property, and to suffer without nuirnuiring any privations which might be imposed
upon them. When their liouses were tabooed, they dared not enter them ; when
their taro-roots, or their hogs were tabooed, they surrendered them without a struggle,
when the morals ortem[)les were tabooed, they dared not approach tliem. In short,
whenever this mystical word was proclaimed, all action in reference to the matter or
tiling tabooed, became fori)idden to the (icople.
REi.UiiON. — Their religion is polytheistic; every family has its guardian spirit,
wliose image they set up and worship ; but they have m1>o a god or gods of a supeiior
order, whom tlicy call Atooa or Eatooa, or some other form of the same word ; but to
tliese they address their prayers only in times of the greatest distress, or on some pe-
culiar exigency ; supposing thern too exalted to be troubled with mutters of less mo-
ment than the illness of a chief, storms, general deva-lations, or some other great
calamity; and on these occasions they sometimes (iropitiate tlu; deities with human
sacrifices. Their priests are numerous, and have ph nty of cmiiloynient ; they arc
required to be present and to officiate on all occasions of birthu or deaths, fea«ti or
lOit DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Polyntsia.
sickness, and are the physicians as well as the clergy of tlio islands. They gene-
rally believe in a future state of existence ; but not in a place of punishment ; for
they believe that all will enjoy degrees of eminence and felicity in proportion as
they have been acceptable to the gods while on earth. They regard indeed the
spirits of their ancestors as exalted into eatooas, and seek to secure their favour by
offerings and prayers. Every sickness and untoward accident they consider as a judg-
ment ; and on all such occasions the priest is employed to pacify the offended deity.
They believe also in dreams ; but it were endless to repeat their superstitious no-
tions, which in fact they only hold in common with savages in every part of the
world ; though unhappily some of their most cruel and most unnatural customs are
connected with them.
Divisions. — Some of the islands are collected into groups of various dimensions,
while others are scattered solitarily, far in the ocean. The groups are exceedingly
different in their number and extent, as well as in the nature of the islands that com-
pose them; the following classification will be found to embrace them all: — 1. The
Jionin or Arzobispo Islands ; 2. The Ladrone or Marian Islands ; 3. The Caroline
Islands, including the Palaos or Pelew Islands at the one extremity, and the Ra-
lick, Radick, Marshall's, and Gilbert's Islands at the other ; 4. The Feejee or Fidji
Islands ; 5. The Tonga or Friendly Islands ; 6. Navigator's or Samoa Islands ; 7.
Cook's or the Hervey Islands; 8. The Society, Georgian, and Loio Islands ; 9. The
Austral Isles; 10. The Marquesas and Washington Islands; 11. The Hawaiian or
Sandwich Islands ; 12. The Kcrmadec Isles ; and 13. The Scattered Islands uncun-
nected with these groups.
§ 1. The Bonin Islands or Islas del Arzobispo,
These are a group of small islands situate to the south-east of Japan, between 24^ and 30° N. lat.
and 140° and 150° E. long. They are 89 in number; but 19 of these are only reefs or shoals. The
northern islands are inhabited by a Japanese colony. One of the largest, named by Captain Beechy
Peel IsUind, contains a harbour called Port Lloyd, which is situate in 27° 5' N. lat., and 142° 11' E.
long. AVater, wood, turtle, fish, and the cabbage-tree, are abundant. A number of British subjects
have recently settled on the Bonin Islands, from which they carry on a contraband trade with Japan,
or engage in the whale fishery. To the south of the Bonin Islands, properly so called, is a volcanic
group, where there are still active volcanoes in Sulphur, St. Alexander's, and St. Augustine's is\a.nds.
To the south-east are the scattered islands of Guadalupa, Malagrida, Grampus, Volcano, and Meares ;
to the west, Kendrick, Dolores, and Borodino.
§ 2. Ladrone or Marian Islands.
This group extends from south to north between 12° and 21° N. lat. and 144° and 148° E. long.
They all belong to the Spanish Government of the Philippines ; but only the five southmost are in-
habited ; all the others being entirely uninhabited, and overrun with wild cattle, hogs, and goats.
Their geological formation is almost entirely volcanic, and they seem to be merely so many fragments
of land of a very barren and unpromising aspect. The coasts consist chiefly of black and brown rocks,
while the interior rises into hills and even mountains ; but they also contain fertile valleys, and abound
with every thing necessary to human subsistence. Guam ( Guajam, Guahan or San Juan,) the largest
of these, contains the capital and seat of Government, named Agana, which has a population of .3000.
The others are : Sat/pan or St. Joseph ; Rotta, the most populous after Guam ; Aguijan, and Tinian.
The last two are remarkable for the monumental remains of the ancient inhabitants. In the Island
of Aarigan a small Anglo-American colony has been planted with the permission and under the do-
mination of the Spaniards. Assomption and Pagan are noted for their volcanoes ; but Captain Beechy
found the latter not only quiescent and free from smoke, but covered to the summit with vegetation,
and rising to an elevation cf 202G feet.
§ 3. The CaroUnas or Caroline Islands.
These, including the Polew, Ralick, Radick, and Marshall's Islands, extend through forty degrees
of longitude, between 133° and 173° E. and between 3° and l(i°N. lat. The Carolinas Proper are classed
by Captain Lutke into forty-six groups, containing several hundreds of isles and islets. The largest of
them seems to be Ualan, which is 24 miles in circumference, divided by a valley into two mountain
masses, the summits of which rise respectively to 18.54 and 18G7 feet above the level of the sea. In
productions they resemble the rest of Polynesia, except that the bread-fruit abounds only in the eastern
islands, and the hog only in the Palaos. They are situate in a very tempestuous part of the ocean, and
are exposed to violent hurricanes ; yet their inhabitants are more addicted to the seafaring life than
most others of tlio Polynesians. They even equip large sailing barks, in which they maintain a com-
mercial intercourse with the Ladrones. The Palaos or Peletc Islandsforma western appendage to the
Carolinas, from which they do not differ materially in character. They are of moderate elevation,
rise into beautiful hills, and are well wooded ; but they are bordered by dangerous coral reefs. They
became an object of interest in Britain towards the end of last century, in consequence of the ship-
wreck, on one of them, of the Antelope, Captain Wilson, whose crew was most hospitably received by
the natives. The principal island is Babeltliouap. Ralick, Radick, Marshall, and Gilbert islands, to
the east and south-east of the Carolinas, consist of a crowd of low coral islets, affording but a scanty
supply of food, and entirely destitute of any land animals except rats. The inhabitants are described
more favourably than almost any other in the South Seas, as friendly, courteous, and amiable ; free
from the thievish propensities and dissolute conduct that are so general. To the southward of the
last named groups are the small islands of Grand Cecal, St. Augustine, Nederlandish, Peyster, Ellise,
Independence, Jesus, &c.
§ 4. The Feejee, Fidji, o^ Viti Islands
Are situate to the south of the preceding group?, and to t!;e eastward of the Now Hobrides. Tha
largest and moit important Is named Fiii- Leoo'c ; the next, l'a!:oi'.:i-LebaK ovPuu or Pucir or Sandal
Polynesia.] OCEANIA. 1015
wood Island, for the supply of whicli article it has been mucn resorted to by the Anglo-Americans.
Mywoltu or Sawihi. Lewou, Amboa or Bao, is remarkable for its extent and its peak, which has an eleva-
tion of 360() feet. The islands are well peopled by a race, who. if not altogether negroes, have at least
several negro features ; and are probably of the same lineage as the Haraforos of Malaysia. Though
somewhat advanced in civilization, they are. nevertheless, fond of war, perfidious, ferocious and
iiicuntestibly habitual cannibals. To gratify this horrid propensity thev iniUe war, murder kidnap
and absolutely rob the grave of its prey ; and it is said, on cro lible autli-jvity, that 200 human bodies
have been known to be devoured at one great feast — i,^s. Journal, Oct. 1833, p. 103.) The whole
group, and even individual islands, are divided into petty independent states, which are often at war
with each other. The total number of islands is reckoned to be two large, two small, and fifteen
smaller, besides innumerable islets, shoals, and reefs.
§ 5. The Tonga or Friendhj Islands.
This group consists of four principal islands named Tonga C Tongitaboo of Cook), Anamouka,
Vamo, and Eoua, besides a great number of islets and rocks. They formed lately one state under
King Finow I., but are now divided amom,' a number of independent chiefs. Tonga is the largest and
mostpopuluus; it is about 100 miles in circumference, but perfectly Hat, and rises only a few leet above
the level of the sea. The soil, however, is very rich, and carefully cultivated, so tliat it supports a nume-
rous population. Anamouka is said by early voyagers to have had two active volcanoes ; and there is
still one which is very active, in Tqfoua, a little to the north, /'uraoand the islands which surround it
consist of masses of barren rocks, of compact crystalline limestone, from 30 to more than 100 feet high,
and many of them inaccessible. Vavao itself, however, is covered with limber, and contains the best
harbour in the group ; e.\cellent, perfectly landlocked, of great extent, and with numerous entrances,
all to the west. To the westward is the Island of Lutte, which contains a lotty peak. The ILipai
Islands lie midway between Tonjia and Vavao ; and form a cluster of 30 or 40 small coralline islands,
<.f which about the half are inhabited. The principal island is Lefuga. The inhabitants of all these
islands are of a dark brown comple.vion, and many of both se.ves present almost perfect models of the
human figure. Their behaviour to Captain Cook was so friendly, that from that circumstance ha
gave their islands the name which they now bear. They have exhibited, nevertheless, in more recent
times some of the worst features of the savage character ; their wars are carried on with reckless
ferocity, and they make no scruple to murder the crews of such vessels as fall into their hands. They
are equally perfidious and cruel to strangers ; and yet among themselves they are said to be well-
tehaved, and even ardent iu their attachments.
§ G. The Navigator's or Samoa or Ilamoa Islands.
These islands arc situate to the north-east of the Fidji and Friendly Islands; they are eight in
number, named .Vaunu, Oiosmra, Ofu, Tutuilii, Upolu, Manone, Aborima, Sit\(i Sacaii. The parallel of
14^ S. ana the meridian 170^ W. pass through the centre of the group. ManOa is circular, and so high
as to be visible at sea for 40 or 50 miles, with a bold and lofty shore. Tutuila is a line romantic island,
80 or 100 miles in circumterence. Upolu is from 150 to 200 miles in circumference, and so lofty as to
be visible for 50 or tO miles, richly veidant to the top, and possessing several fine harbours. Savaii,
the largest of the group, is 3")0 miles in circumference, with raountaiiis visible for GO or 70 miles, all
clothed with noble forests, and pre>eiitiiig a scene ot beauty, which in extent and importance yields to
that of few islands. Aborima is only two miles in circumference, and 200 or 300 feet high ; it is the
crater of a volcano, precipitous and inaccessible outside, but forming a fine amphitheatre within. Tlio
islands produce abundance of the usual vegetable food of Polynesia, and abound with dogs, poultry, and
hogs. The men are of colossal stature, and finely formed; their complexion is very light. In talent
and character they much resemble their neighbours.
§ 7. Cook's or the Hervey Islands.
These are seven in number, between 18' and 23" S. lat., and 157' and 160' Vt'. long., and are named
Maulce, Miliaro, Atiu, Raroluiiga, Ilnrvey'i Island, Ailutaki, Siiid Mangaia. They are, however, small
and unimportant. Karotonga, the larjjest, is about 30 miles in circumference, surrounded by a reel",
and rises into a ma.-.s of mountains of romantic appearance. It has several good boat harbours.
The others are of much the same character, only moderately hilly, but verdant and beautiful. The
state of society is similar to that of Tahiti, and the missionaries have succeeded in converting a consi-
derable number of people.
§ 8. The Society, Georgian, and Low Islands, with the Dangerous Anhij.elitgo.
These together form a widely extended group, situate between 124' and 157' W. long , and 14' and
25^ 8. lat. The western portion is generally named the Society Islands ; and the central, including
Tahiti, the Georgian ; while the Low Archipelago consists of a very numerous group to the cast and
r.orth-east of the two former. Tahiti or Otu/wHv, is the largest of them all. It consists ol two peninsu-
lar mountain masses, connected by a low isthmus i the larger of which is almost round, with a circum-
ference of nearly 90 miles ; and the smaller, oval, with a circumference of 50 ; both are surroui.did by a
coral reef. Kach of the p.ninsulas is bordered by a belt of low land, Iroiii al'urluiig to a mile in widih,
from which thecentral mountains rise by a slow and gradual slope. The suiiimit ol the large peninsula
Is between 6000 and 7(H)0 feet above the level of tl;e sea, and is said U> contain a lake ol yellow water,
probably the crater of an extinct volcano. There is another curious lake about I.VIO leet above the
level of the sea, and about a mile in circumference, in the bottom of a deep (•irciil:ir valley, »ui round. <1
by precipitous niountains. The lowland and the valleys, with their intervening rid^-rs, are Uaut fill,
being clothed with a great variety ol trees and abounding with every veK'eUhlf product ion suited to tho
soil and climate. Since the beginning of the present century, the Kuava shrub was introduced from
Norfolk Island, and in spite of every effort to check its progress, now encroaches on all the moist and
fertile land, so that all the woodlands and bush, for miles in extent, an- composed ol this shrul., which
bears a profusion of large and delicious fruit. 'Ibe indigenous animals are hogs, doK«, and rats ; but
saddle horses, imported from .South America, are now in general use; cattle arc also ntimeroun, and
ships may be supplied with beef of good quality at 2d. a-pound. Cats have also Ucn naliiriini*rt,
»nd are found to be extremely useful. Common poultry are ubundant ; and the woods are niled l.y
vast numbers of parrots and pigeons. The shores abound with sea fowl, and the s.a with excellent
fish. The inhabitants arc of an olive colour or light copper. The men are generally above the mmmo
size ; the chiefs are almost uniformly tall, muscular, and well limlwil ; the women of the upper raiiks
are also tall, with limbs finely turned, and soft an.l delicate skins; black, snark iiig, snd exprcssiv*
eyes ; beautifullv white nn<I re«ular t' etli ; jet black li.tir. g'ner.-.llv ori.;imenle.l w .th I ow.rs. nnd ^ tlr;!-,
ea.sy, and graceful gait. J b.j have advan.cl but litlUiii -ivih/ed hali.ts. s.n. <• t.)'- '.«y» ' I >» a lb'.
»nd Cook; their dwelling'- are still niucli the sariic .isdescrilcd by their cnrlicsl vi^C's; and buio-
1016 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Polynesia.
pean clothing is adopted, but to a very small extent. They have been nearly all converted to Chris.
tianity ; but their principal improvement consists in religious observances, and in Uie acquisition to
agreat degree of the elements of literary education. They amount to about 18,000 or 20,000, under the
pastoral care of eigtit missionaries. At Tiiliiti and all the Society Islands, elephantiasis prevails to a
great extent, not only among the natives, but also among the Europeans. The commerce of the
island is confined to the exportation of pearl shells and pearls, sugar, cocoa-nut oil, and arrow root ;
and it is conducted entirely by foreigners, the natives not possessing any vessel larger than a double
canoe. The island, however, is much frequented by British and American shipping, and consuls from
both nations have been appointed to reside at Tahiti. The government used to be administered
by a king or queen, and in tlie di^tricts by chiefs, who formed a sort of feudal aristocracy ; but the
island has been recently (in 1812) taken possession of by the French government, and must now be
reckoned among the colonies of France. The other principal islands of the Georgian and Society
group are: Fitneo ; Teturoa; Tapamnnoa or Saunder's Isle; Iluaheine ; Hainiea ( IJUtea of Cook);
Otii/ia. BulaboUi or Borabora ; and Mmtruu. They are all, like Tahiti, lofty, volcanic, and fertile ; and
their inhabitants are generally better Christians than the Tahitians. The Low Islands and Dangerous
Archipelago consist of a few high or hilly islands, and 70 or 80 groups of islets surroimding lagoons,
like the attoUons of the Maldives, besides many mere reefs. The Dangerous Archipelago is deserving
of the name ; for nmnerous coral reefs only a few feet above water obstruct navigation, while cur-
rents and strong squalls add to the risk. Most of the lagoons have harbours accessible to shipping.
§ 9. The Austral Isles
Form a long chain to the southward of the Society and Low Islands, and might indeed be considered
as a part of the same group. Tlie principal are /irmatoi-a, Oheteroa or Burutu, Toubouai, liaivavai,
Osborne, Opirro, llass, and Rapa. They are high, fertile, and beautiful. To the south-south-west of
Rapa, at the distance of about G40 miles, is a solitary reef named Lancaster.
§ 10. The Marquesas and Washington Islands.
These are properly one group ; the former name was bestowed upon them by Mendana their first
Spanish visitant in 1595, in honour of the Marquis of Mendoi^a, the viceroy of Peru ; the latter name
has been applied by Anglo-American voyagers to one portion of the group, in honour of their great
president, as having been first explored by thcni. The centre of the group may be reckoned about
9" 30' S. lat., and 139° 30' W. long. They belong to the class of high islands ; their mountains, some
of which rise to the height of 5(M)0 or 6000 feet, are extremely broken and craggy, with a sandy belt of
land between them and the sea ; but the intervening valleys are singulaily fertile and picturesque, be-
ing copiously watered by streams, which form numerous cascades, one of which, in Noukahiva, is said
to have a fall of 2000 feet. The men are described as tall, robust, and among the most finely formed of
the human race ; their complexion even is said by some voyagers to be little darker than that of Eu-
ropeans ; but is completely hid in the elder people by tattooing. Captain Waldegrave, however (in
1833), says that their complexion is a dark copper. The women have handsome features, but a slouch-
ing gait and ill formed limbs ; and are not remarkable for modesty or propriety of conduct. The
character of the people is that which generally belongs to savages. In their ordinary intercourse they
are friendly, open, and engaging ; but thoy carry on war with the most deadly ferocity, piercing the
brain of the vanquished enerny, and eagerly drinking his blood. The islands have, like Otabeite
been taken possession of by the French. The principal islands are Koukahioa, Ouahouga, Fetow/ou
( Huod Island of Cook), Ohivoa or Dominicd, Motane or San Fedro, Fatouiva or Madalena, Tauwatte, or
Santa Christina, Lincoln, Ouapoa or Trenennen, llaiou, &e.
§ 11. The Hawaiian or Sandivich Islands.
These form a solitary group far to the north of those we have been describing. They are thirteen
in number, eight of which are of moderate size, while the other five are mere islets. They are situate
between 19- and 22° N. lat., and 155'' and 100° W. long. The names of the eight larger islands are :
Hawaii or Ouhyhee ; Maui or y.owee i Kahoolarce or Tahauraue ; Molokai, Morokai or Morotoi ;
lianai or Lanai; Oahu or H'onhoo ; Kauai, Tauai or yltooi ; Nihau or Onehow. They all are hilly and
mountainous, exhibiting in strong contrast luxuriant verdure and volcanic sterility, and some of
them present a very forbidding aspect. The soil is chiefly composed of decayed vegetable and volcanic
matter, and is capable of producing any thing ; indeed, its fault is that of being too rich. The native
vegetable productions are yams, taro, sweet potatoes, plantains in great variety, bread-fruit, sugar-
cane, nono, oheai, turmeric, ginger, cotton, and sandalwood. European and West India fruits flou.
vish, and require little attention. Taro forms the principal food of the natives ; but many European
vegetables are now produced, and sold in the markets ; particularly tobacco, melons, water melons,
rice, grapes, cucumbers, cabbages, beans, oranges, pine-apples, and the cloth plant. 'The indigenous
quadrupeds found by Captain Cook were hogs, dogs, and rats ; but there are now horses, asses, beeves,
and goats ; fowls, ducks, and geese are abundant. The people call themselves Hawaiians, after the
principal island. The common people are of moderate stature; but the chiefs, both male and female,
are remarkable for their great size and flabby obesity. Their comilexion is olive. They are now a
mild race, tolerably docile and capable of improvement ; they are expert at athletic exercises, and as
swimmers, are unrivalkd. In 183G the population of the inhabited islands was as follows :
Hawaii,
Oahu,
Maui, .
Tauai or Atooi,
Molokai.
Lainai,
39,193
Kahoolawe,
27,798
24,195
Total, .
9,927
Total in 1832,
6,000
1,200
Decrease in fc
108,393
129,814
21,421
The Hawaiians have been Christianized by American Calvinistic missionaries, who are supported by
a society in the United States ; but their system of instruction is so entirely religious, and so exclu-
sively directed to the observance of the Calvinistic forms of worship, and the inculcation of Calvin-
istic doctrines, that it has proved of less social advantage to the people than might have been expected.
The labours of the missionaries consist exclusively in preaching, and in teaching schools. They havo
undoubtedly exercised a very beneficial influence on the people, who may now be called a Christian
nation ; but they have Christianized without civilizing them. 'They have overlooked the fact that the
Bible teaches neither political economy nor agriculture. The government, in consequence, remains
in all respects the same as it was before the missionaries landed. It exhibits a decidedly monarchical
character ; there being one sovereign chief or king, under whom subordinate chiefs keep the people
in the most abject dependence. To the missionaries, however, is due the credit of havmg reduced ths
language to writing ; they have also translated the Bible into the native tongue ; and from the mis-
lion press there is now issued a journal called the Hawaiian Monitor, filled with extracts from the
Bible, scraps of natural history, and other subjects calculated to interest the people.
Polynesia.] OCEANIA. 1017
When firstdiscoveredby Cook, the inhabitants were in the s.ime state of civilization as the other Poly-
nesians ; but the islands beinjf most conveniently situate as a station for vessels sailinjr between China
and the north-west coast of America, they were in consequence frequently visited both by Kuropeans
and Americans, who introduced some of the arts, and not a few of the vices of Europe. The islands
formed likewise so many independent states ; but towards the end of last century and the beginning
of the present, they were all subjected to one monarchy by King Tamehameha I." who seems to have
fully appreciated the advantages of European improvements. He was a great reformer as well as
a conqueror, but adhered tenaciously to the faith and customs of his forefathers ; and it was only
his son and successor Riho-Riho, or Tamehameha II. who abolished idolatry, so far as connected with
the government, and laid the foundation of social improvement among liis subjects. This happened
in 1819: in the following year missionaries were first alloncd to settle in the islands; and though the
novelty of the new religion has now lost its effect, and the people have relapsed, in a great measure
into their former habits, yet the seeds of civilization have been sown among them, and may at some
future time produce good fruits.
Honororu or Honololu, in the island of Oahu, is the seat of government and trade. It is a considerable
town, containing 6000 or 7000 inhabitants, and several comfortable houses ; and is protected by a small
fort. As a port it possesses many advantages, and supplies for shipping are abundant, and reasonable
in price. The commerce, which is chiefly carried on by Anglo-Americans, consists in the importa-
tion of cattle from California and Mexico, for which either Chinese or American produce is returned ;
or of sandalwood, and furs from the north-west coast of America, for the Chinese market.
Hawaii or Owht/hee, the largest island in the group, and indeed in Polynesia, is .nbove 100 miles in
length from north to south, and about 70 or 80 in breadth, forming a sort of triangle with irregular sides.
It contains three lofty volcanic mountains, and, besides these, contains also the Largest active volcano
at present known. Mouna-kea or Mouna-kaah (White Mountain) rises to the elevation of 13,704 feet
above the level of the sea ; Mouna-roa or Mouna-Loa, to i:i,130 ; and Uuararai or fMiaiarni, to 8-l.')7.
The ascent of Mouna-kea is comparatively easy. Up to 87u0 feet it is covered with luxuriant vege-
tation ; from that point to 12,000 feet, the flanks of the mountain are broken into deep chasms and
ravines, interspersed with numerous small e.Ktinct craters ; at 12,700 feet, a vast table-land or plain
IS spread out, covered with sand, gravel, stones, and scoria-, above which rise eleven peaks or humps,
forming the summits of the mountain, which, however, do not roach the line of perpetual snow. The
ascent of Mouna-roa is more difficult ; the limit of veget.ation rises to 10,724 feet ; but all above that
IS an immense dome of lava, entirely destitute of verdure; and on the very sunnnit is an enormous
crater, GJ miles in circumference, enclosed in a larger one, whicli is 24 miles round. Both of these
mountains were ascended, and their elevations barometrically ascertained, by Mr. David Douglas,
the botanist, in January Xx.'M. — f Jouraial R. Geog. Sor. I.ond. IV. 333.) They are both situate con-
siderably inland, and form together the nucleus of the island. Uuararai is situate on the west coast,
but has not been in activity since 1300. There .ire many other dormant or extinct craters; but
Kiiauea or Kirwa excels all the others in extent and terrific grandeur. It is situate at the eastern base
of Mouna-roa, about 3873 leet above the level of the sea, according to Mr. Douglas, or, according to
others, 4104. It differs from all other volcanoes in not forming a cone-shaped mountain; it is, on
the contrary, a vast sunken pit, of an oval but somewhat irregular shape, about Knni feet dee|), with
very steep and almost perpendicular sides. The bottom consists of lialf-cooled scoria, intermixed
tt'ith torrents of earth in igneous fusion, and gases, constantly effervescing, boiling, spouting, and
rolling in all directions, like the waves of the sea in a storm, and dashing like an infuriated surf on
tlie edges of its cauldrons. .\t the south-south-west point is the haule-mau-mau or great abvss, to
which the Hawaiians used to consign the bones of their cliiefs, and where they made their offerings to
the goddess I'ele, who presided over the scene. This e.xhiliits a most frightful area of bubbling red
hot lava, incessantly changing its level, sometimes rolling long curling waves, with broken masses of
cooled crust, to a side, and again furiously turning them back with a terrific noise. Around are blocks
of lava, scoriae, and slags, in every variety of form and combination ; here forming deep and rugged
precipices of numerous layers, there all dispersed, ciackeil, and broken. In extent, grandeur, and in-
tensity of action, Kirauea is unrivalled among volcanoes : but, though from time iunnemorial it has
been prodigiously active, it has never lieen known to overflow, except in the year 1787, when a dreadful
eruption took place, which lasted seven days and nights. The accounts given by those who have visited
the place are extremely various ; which maybe accounted for by the circumstance of the interior
of the pit undergoing continual changes. Dr. Goodrich Gardner, as lie slates in a notice read to the
Royal Geographical Society, has conversed with natives not more than thirty or forty years of age,
who have seen salt water at the bottom of the crater. There were then four ledges of rock between
the upper margin and the bottom ; it has since filled up so far as to leave only one ; and as the others
are said to have been of almost equal depth (8(X) feet) the bottom must have been then nearly at the
level of the sea. -At the time, there was a saltwater lake at the bottom of the one end of the crater,
wliile lava was boiling up at a little higher level at the other. A new volcano broke out in 1832, on
the north-eastern declivity of Mouna-roa, about 20 miles from Kirauea, but has not been active since.
Dr. (Jardner saw no trace.* of stratified rocks in the lower regions of Hawaii, near the sea shore; and
he states it as a curious fact, showing the influence of moisture on vegetation, that on .Mouna-roa the
forests are limited to tlie sides extending from north to south-east, there Iwing hardly any wood on the
sides extending from north-west to south-west, which renders the ascent on that side the nio^t easy.
A line of craters stretches almost across the island, in a direction east and west to Mouna-roa.
§ 12. Kermadcc Islanda.
These arc a small group, ronsisting of three small inh.iblte<i islands, with some deseit Inlets and
reef^, situate about midway between the Friendly Islands and New Zealand, in lat. .30 S. The na *
of the three inhabited islands are lUwul or Huiidny ,■ Kcc/un/ic or Macnulmj: and Ciirlif. To the south
of them are L' Esjieniiici: Jtack'.
§ 13. Scattered Islands.
To the westward of the Sandwich Islands extends a long chain of scattered inlets and rocks, In
the following order : liirrl't hlf; Acrki-r .- H,i.ix,- fniinaisi- ,■ a,inln,r; Tim Hrothrit Hmk . M.iro lUf/ .■
hmmn: Lisiantki ,- riiHiulHphia ; Pearl and llnnirn Hank; C.nr ,■ /l/irrf ,- Valro.inio .- Moiyll . H^ro
</-• I'Utta Cretpo ; Hha dc ()rn of the Spaniards ; liicii de (/rit or Aor.f U,/. .- C«!ii„ax .- (.-aii.vi. U c.k I
lii-if; Krutmslern Hock, to the south-west of l.aysun; and MrHisU Hank, north of llyers. _
I'letween Gilbert's Islands and the New Ilel.rides on the w. »t ; the Kidji, Krlen.lly. and Navigator ■
Islands, on the south ; the Society, Low Islands, and Marquesas, on the soutli-ia"! ; and lb.- .sand-
wich Islands on thi,- north, the following may be mentioned: llmilaml, Arthur, hrniurt J.rrti
Birnni, Pha-nix. Si/diiri/, Ihikr n/ Ynrk't. Dakr nf Clarnnr'i, Snlitaria. Dawit-r or SI. llrrnardo, I>uk*
AUxandn- I., Ilumiihrrv, Huvarar, Prrrarinn. Pnirhi/n. Wnndtt.irk. CaroUnr, S.ir 'iork. Slarhnck, > p-
luntttr, Maldon, Urook,' Bunker, thrittmat, Palmyra, )laihini;lo)i, fantiing, ]f alkcri, .SmtfA t.
1018 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. [Antautic
To the eastward of the Low Islands : — Oeiio, Giimbier, Pitcaiin, Elizabeth, Ducie's, Easter, Stila-y-
■Gomez, IVaihou. Gambler Islands, consist of live large, and several smaller islands, all within one;
reef, through which there is a navigable ship channel to the lagoon. The largest rises 1428 feet above
the level of the sea. Pitcairn Island is only three miles in length by one in breadth, but has acquired
some notoriety as being the place where several of the mutineers of the ISounty, in 1789, established
themselves, and planted a small colony. It is volcanic, of a fertile soil, and its peaks rise about 1000
feet above the level of the sea. Its village, named Adamstown, is situate on the north side, in 25° 4'
S. lat., and 130° IG' W. long. Easter Island, or Vahou, 20° E. of the Low Islands, in the direct route
between them and Cape Horn, is only 20 miles in circumference, but is bold and rocky, strewed with
lava, and contains numerous volcanic craters, which are now extinct. It formerly contained some
traces of ancient civilization, in the shape of colossal statues, representing, though rudely, the upper
parts of the human body ; but these have now disappeared.
ANTARCTIC REGIONS.
Ddriko the sixteenth and seventeeth centuries, cosmographers entertained the opinion that there
must be a continent towards the south pole, to counterbalance the mass of land which occupies so
large a portion of the northern hemisphere ; and, accordingly, in the maps of those centuries, this ima-
ginary continent is represented under the name of Turra-Australis- Incoynita. This notion conti-
nued to prevail till after the middle of the eighteenth century, when it was dispelled by the result
of Cook's second voyage; that illustrious navigator having in the years 1772-3-4-5 traversed the
Southern Ocean, in ditferent directions, round the globe, without discovering any other land than
the Island of Georgia and Sandwich land. In 1816, however. Captain William Smith discovered a
group of lofty snow-capt islands, to which he gave the name of New South Shetland, to the S. E. o..
Cape Horn. A few years later. Captain Weddell discovered the New Orktuys, in the samg quarter,
and in 1823 penetrated to 74° 15' S., the farthest point yet reached. Trinity Land was discovered
by tlie Russian navigator, Bellinghausen ; and in 1829, two small islands, named Peter and Alexander,
between 69° and 70° S. lat., were also discovered by the Russians. In 1831, Captain Biscoe discovered
Enderby's Land, under the Antarctic Circle, S. E. of the Cape of Good Hope ; and in the following
year, Graham's Land, Biscoe Isles, and Adelaide Island, in the same latitude, but lying due south of Cape
Horn. In January 1839, a French expedition, under Captain D'Urville, discovered a tract of land, ex-
ftnding about 150 miles, between 66° and 67° S. lat., and 13G° and 142° E. long,, with a medium ele-
vation of 1300 feet above the horizon. The snow and ice, which covered it, gave its surface almost a
level appearance; but little else was observable than ravines, inlets, and projections, which pre-
sented not a single trace of vegetation. Captain D'Urville named his discovery Terre Adelie (Adelia's
Land.) On the very same day, an American scientific expedition discovered land in 64° 50' S. lat.,
and 154° 18' E. long. ; and one of the ships, the Vincennes, Captain Wilkes, ran down the coast, from
154° 18' to 97° 45' E. long., about 1700 miles, within a short distance of the land, being often so near
as to get soundings with a few fathoms of line. In February 1839, Captain Balleny, of London, dis-
covered the Balleny Islands, the central one of which lies in 66° 44' S. lat., and 163° 11' E. long. In
1840, an expedition was titled out in Britain, under the command of Captain James Ross, R. N., for
the purpose of making scientific, and particularly magnetic, observations in the Southern Ocean, and
of ascertaining the position of the southern magnetic pole. Captain Ross first sailed to Ilobart
town, in Van Oiemen's Land, and in November 1840, left that place for his first summer's research
in the Antarctic regions. He first steered eastward to New Zealand, and leaving the Auckland Islands
on the 12th of December, he proceeded to the southward, and entered the Antarctic circle on the 1st
of January 1841, where his farther progress was stopped by the pack-edge of the ice. On 5th of January,
he succeeded in entering the ice about lOJ miles farther east, in lat. G6° 45' S., and long. 174° 16' E. ;
after penetrating, a few miles, he was enabled to make his way to the-soufliward with comparative
ease and safety; and on the morning of the 9th, after sailing more than 200 miles through the pack,
he gained a perfectly clear sea, and bore away south-west towards the magnetic pole. On the morn-
ing of the 11th, land was discovered in the distance, which, as it was approached, ro~e in lofty
mountain peaks of from 2000 to 12,000 feet in height, completely covered with snow, with descending
glaciers projecting many miles into the ocean, and presenting a perpendicular face of lofty clilfs.
On the 12th Captain Ross lande 1 on a small'island, and took possession of the country in the name
of Queen Victoria, whose name he has bestowed upon it. The island is composed wholly of igneous
rocks, and is situate in 71° 56' S. lat., and 171° 7' E. long. Pursuing his course " along this magni-
ficent land," on the 28th " a mountain, of 12,400 feet above the level of the sea, was seen emitting
flame and smoke in splendid profusion. This magnificent volcano received the name oi Mount Erebus,
and is situate in 77° 32' S. lat., and 167° 0' E. long. ; an extinct crater to the ca-tward, of somewh.at
less elevation, was caWeA iluunt Terror ;" both alter the ships which coninosed the expedition. The
mainland preserved its southerly trending, and Captain Ross continued to follow it till his further
progress in that direction was stopped by a, lofty barrier of ice, extending E. S. E. Pursuing the
examination of this barrier, hetraced itscontinuity for 300 miles, and reached his highest latitude,
78° 4' S. ; but was prevented by the ice from reaching t'.!S magnetic pole, or finding shelter for his
ships on any part of the coast, whicii he found at last to terminate abruptly in 70- 40' S. lat., and
16) E. long. The second yePLr was spent in traversing the Antarctic Ocean, without making any re-
markable discoveries. In the third year, the expedition left the Falkland Islands, 17th Ueconiber
1842, and sail'ng to the south and west of Capo Horn, discovered land on the 28th. On the 31st they
succeeded in reaching a volcanic island, situate in S. lat. 64° 12'. and V.'. lorur. .'6° 49', in the lioson'i
of a great gulf, about 40 miles wide, and about the same extent inland, bordered on its western side
by snowy ranges, among which rises a magnificent table-toiit mountain to the height of 70(K) feet.
This gulf has been named the Gulf nf F.rthns and Terror. Ti,e island, thoiigh not more than two
miles in diameter, projects a perfectly formed cone to the heigl^t of 3500 feet above the level of the
sea. The expedition subsequently ascertained the insularity of tiie lar.d discovered by Brandfeldt in
1820, and named by D'Urville, in 1839, Louis- Philippe's land; and returned to England in August
1S43.
Besides these new discoveries, there are within the limits of the Southern Ocean several islands, too
far distant from any of the great continents to be considered as belonging to them, and therefore not
yet noticed in this work. In 1772, two French Captains discovered a group of high and barren is-
lands to the eastward of the Cape of Good Hope, which, from them, have been named Marion and
Oioxet's Islands ; the two most westerly were afterwards named by Cook, who passed between them in
Regions.] OCEANIA. 1019
December 177G, Prince Edward's Ulnnds, in honour of the late Duke of Kent, father of her Mnjesty
Uueen Victoria. Farther east, between 48- and 50° S. lat., and 65^ and 67'^ E. long., is Kenruelen's LkiihI,
or the Island o/ Desolation, discovered by Captain Kerguelen in 1772. It is about 100 miles in length,
and about GO in breadth ; but, owing to the coldness and moisture of the climate, it is almost totally
destitute of vegetation. It is indeed represented as one of the bleakest and most desolate spots on
the globe ; but fossil wood and coal have been recently discovered in it by Captain Ross, in the course
of his scientific expedition to the South Magnetic Pole. It seems to be cliii-Hy composL-d of trap and
other igneous and volcanic rocks, which rise into hills fromSOO to 250<l feet high. Thecoast is deeply
indented with bays and inlets, and the whole surface is intersected by lakes and water-courses. .Nurtli-
east of Keri;ueleu's land are two small solitary islands, named St Paul's and Amsterdam, which wer*
discovered by the Dutch navigator Vlaming in 16"J6. Vlaming, it appears, applied the name of Jnuterm
dam to the northern island, and St. Paul's to the southern ; but ttie islands have been confounded by
Knglish navigators, and the names transposed, so that the southern island is generally called .Amster-
dam, aid the northern, St. Paul's. But, be this as it may, the northern island is situate in 37° oi' S. lat.,
and 77° 3(i' E. long., and has an elevation of 27C0 feet. It is 12 miles in circuit, and in line weather may
be seen from the anchorage of the southern island, a distance of GO miles, on the same meridian. The
latter, the original St. Paul's, is 9 miles in length by h in breadth, of volcanic formation, without a
tree or shrub, and destitute of vegetation, except coarse grass, and a kind of rushes or reeds. It
abounds with hot springs, the water of which is wholesome, though somewhat offensive to the smoll
and taste. It contains a magnificent oval-shaped basin, large enough to contain the whole Uriti^U
navy, which is evidently the crater of an e.xtinct volcano, with deep water, and an entrance 25 yarcs
vide {Journal It. Geog. Sac. IX. "517. Staunton's Accinint nf Macartney's Embassy, I. 25ti.)
Sandu-irh Land, discovered by Cook in 177.5, between 57° and 61° S. lat., and 27° and 30° W. long.,
has since been found to consist of a number of islands, v.hich are constantly covered with snow.
The Isle of Georgia, between .53° 57' and 54° 57' S. lat., and 38° 13' and 3.')° 34 W. long., about 21
leagues in length, by 10 in breadth, is also a bleak and barren region, traversed by very lofty moun-
tains, constantly covered with snow ; the heat of summer being sufficient only to melt the snow on
the low ground of the N.E. side.
1020
POPULATION.
[GUEAT Br.lTAIX
GREAT BRITAIN.
COMPARATITB Staismemt of the POPULATION in 1801, 1811, 1821, 1831, and 1841, showing the
I.scREASE or Decrease in each County.
ENGLAND.
Counties.
Bedford,
Berks,
Buckingham
Cambridge,
Chester
Cornwall,
Cumberland
Derby,
Devon,
Dorset,
Durham,
Essex,
Gloucester,
Hereford,
Hertford,
Huntingdon, ,
Kent
Lancaster,
Leicester ,
Lincoln,
Middlesex,
Monmouth,
Norfolk
Northampton, .. .,
Northumberland,
Nottingham,
Oxford,
Rutland,
1801.
Somerset
Southampton (Hants), .
Stafford
Suffolk
Surrey,
Sussex,
Warwick,
Westmoreland,
Wilts,
Worcester
York (East Riding),...
City of York & Ainstey,
York (North Riding),..
York (West Riding), ..
G3,393
109,215
107,444
89,346
191,751
18»,269
117,230
161,142
343,001
ll.%319
lG0,3fil
226,437
250,809
89,191
97,577
37,568
307,624
672,731
130,081
208,557
818,129
45,582
273,371
131,757
157,101
140,350
109,620
16,356
167,639
273,750 ! 12
219,656 12
239,153 21
210,431 11
269,043 i 20
159,311 : 19
208,190 : 10
41,617 i 10
185,107 ' 5
139,333 15
110,992 16
24,393 ! 12
158,225 7
565,282 16
1811.
1821.
70,213 I 19
118,277 11
117,650 ' 14
101,109 20
227,031 ' 19
216,667 ; 19
133,744 17
185,4S7 15
383,308 ! 15
124,693 16
177,625
2.52,473
285,514
94,073
111,6.54
42,208
373,095
828,309
1.50,419
237,891
953,276
62,127
291,999
141,353
172,161 j 15
162,900 ' 15
119,191 15
16,380 ] 13
194,298 ; 6
303,180 I 17
245,080 i 15J
295,153 17
234,211 15
323,851 23
190,083 22
228.735 , 20
45,922 12
193,828 15
160,546 15
134,437 14
27,304 12
169,391 11
655,042 22
83,716
131,977
134,068
121,909
270,093
257,447
156,124
213,333
439,040
144,499
207,673
289,424
335,843
103,243
129,714
48,771
'426,016
1,052,859
174,571
283,058
1,144,.531
71,833
344,368
162,483
198.965
186,873
136,971
18.487
206,1.53
3.55,314
283.298
345,895
270,542
398,658
233,019
274.392
51,359
222,157
184,424
154,010
30,451
187,452
801,274
1831
•*" a.
95,483
13-
145,389
10 2
146,529
6-4
143,955
142
334,391
18-4
300,938
13-3
169,681
4-8
2.37,170
14-7
494,478
7-8
159,252
97
2.53,910
27-2
317,.507
8-6
387,019
11-4
111,211
2-
143,341
9-6
.53,192
10-3
479.1.55
14-4
1,336,854
24-7
197,003
9-5
317,465
111
1,358.330
16-
98,130
36-9
390,054
6 7
179,336
109
222,912
122
225,327
10-8
1.52,1.56
61
19,385
10-
222,938
7-2
404,200
78
314,280
12-9
410,512
24-2
296,317
6-3
486,334
19 7
272,340
10-
336,610
194
55,041
2 5
240,1.56
8-2
211,365
10-4
168,891
14 6
35,.362
83
190,756
7-2
976,350
18-2
England 8,331,434 14J 9,538,827 \~i 11,261,437 [ 16 I 13,091,005
Counties.
1801. ! t=:i 1811
Anglesey,
Brecon
Cardigan,
Carmarthen, . .
Carnarvon,. .. .
Denbigh,
Flint
Glamorgan, . . .
Merioneth
Montgomery,. ,
Pembroke
Badnor
Wales,
33.806
31,633
42,956
67,317
41,521
60,352
39,622
71,525
27,506
47,978
56,280
19,050
541,-546
10 ,
19 I
17
15 1
19 !
6
17
18 '
4
8
7
9
13 ; 611,788 i 17
37,045
37,735
*0,260
77,217
49,336
64,240
46,518
85,067
30,924
51,931
60,615
20,900
911,603
Great Britain.]
POPULATION.
SCOTLAND.
1021
ISLANDS IN THE BRITISH SEAS.
Itlandt.
1801.
1"; 1811.
£t ! 18-21. t^ 1831.
■St.
1841.
47,54 1
28,521
47,97'.
Jersey,
Guernsey, Alderney, Sark, Herni,\
_1"_
__ 1
... 1 ...
... 2S,G0O 27-9 30,582
... 20,827 ' 25-4 j 2G,128
30-
9-2
... 40,081 2-2 1 41.000 17-
Total,
... [ f.9,.'J08 15-8 j 103,710
19-G
124,040
SU.MMARY.-GRKAT BRITAIN AND ISLANDS IN TIIK HKITISH SKAS.f
i 1801. ' rt : 1811. ' t^
18-21.
IG
12
UKil.
t: ! 1841.
■ss.
England 8,331,4.34 14} i 9,538,827 17}
11,201.437
717,438
13,091,005 : 14-5 14,995, l.TH
806,182 , 13- 1 911,0(13
1
.. .. -.0,0
Wales, 541 54<i 13 | 611788 17
Persons a!=certain-~|
ed to liave hpcn 1
travelKngbvKail- ! ,
ways or Canals,^ •■ , ••
during tlie night 1
of Junes, 1841, ..J 1
England & Wales, 8,h72,980 14 10,150.015 17 ; 1 1 .g'S-S-."! 10 13.8!i7,187 14 5 I5.!/11.T57
Scotland 1,599,0C8 14 l,813,0ss 10 j 2,093,450 13 2,305,114 111 2,02'Mh4
Islands in the Bri-1 | (.y,..,08 ; 13-8 10.3,710 19 6 124,040
tisli Seas J 1 1 '1 1 ' ,
Great Britain,..,' 10,472,048 1 14 1 ll,901,.303 1 . . ,14,101,839 115 10,306,011 14- lv.''>.''-«l
♦ This Return inrliides only siirli part of the Army, Navy, and Merchant Seamen as werr i
of the Census within the kingdom on .^huru
1022
POPULATION.
[Grkat Britain.
SCOTLAND.
Accou.M of the Populatiow within each Parliamentary Boundary in 1841.
Name of Cities or
Royal & Parliamen-
tary Burghs.
Cities returninst Two
Members each : —
Edinburgh
Glasgow
Cities and Towns re-
turning One Mem-
ber each : —
Aberdeen
Dundee
Greenock,*.
Paisley,*.. ..
Perth
COMnlNED BUROHS, &
Towns or Dis-
tricts returning
One Member : —
.4yr District —
Ayr, and Newton \
upon Ayr J
Irvine,
Campbeltown,
Inverary,
Oban,*
Persons.
Males. I Females Totals.
,58,3G5
120,044
2G,80«
28,729
17,318
21,811
Total,
Dumfries District —
Annan
Dumfries and Max- \
welltown, )
Kirlfcudbright,
Lochmaben,
Sanquhar,
Total,
Elgin District —
Banff and Macduff, . .
Cullen,
Elgin,
Inverury,
Kintore,
Peterhead,*
Total, ,
Falkirk District^
Airdrie,*
Falkirk,* ,
Hamilton,* ,
Lanark,
Linlithgow
9,293
7,106
3,105
2,8!I7
504
G04
14,217
74,GI2 j 132,977
135,606 255,650
35,117 61,923
34,144
18,327
62,873
35,645
25,884 47,695
10,874 t 20,167
8,613 I 15,749
4,207
3,8-*5
588
794
7,313
6,782
1,092
1,398
18,117 ! 32,<i34
Total,
Haddington District -
Dunbar,
Haddington
Jedburgh,
Lauder,
North Berwick, . . . .
9,490
2,34G
713
2,184
808
220
2,470
8,741
6,677
3,995
4,056
2,131
2,082
18,941
Total,
Inverness District —
Forres,
Fortrose,
Inverness,
Nairn,
Total,.
1,356
1,779
1,518
578
486
5,717
1,587
411
4,989
1,027
7,714
1,802
7,389
1,527
515
905
12,133
2,963
851
2,880
871
245
3,289
3,32)
13,088
2,588
931
1,700
21,G2S
5,309
1,564
5,064
1,679
465
5,759
11,099 I 19,840
5,731
4,208
4,633
2,3;iG
1,927
18,835 ' 37,776
12,408
8,203
8,689
4,467
4,009
1,622
1,970
1,759
570
551
2,978
3,749
3,277
1,148
1,037
6,472 j 12,189
I,8S6 \ 3,373
544 ' 955
6,579 i 11,568
1,357 I 2,384
10,36G 18,080
Name of Cities or
Royal & Parliamen-
tary BCKOHS.
. Persons.
Kilmarnock District -
Dumbarton,
Kilmarnock,*
Renfrew,
Rutherglcn,
Port Glasgow,* ...
Total,
Kirkaldy District -
Burntisland, .. ..
Dysart, ,
Kinghorn
Kirkaldy
Total
Leith DUtrict —
Leith,*
Portobello,*
Musselburgh,*
Total,
Montrose District —
Aberbrothwick or 1
Arbroath, (
Brechin,
Forfar,
Inverbervie or Ber- \
vie, (
Montrose
Total,
St. Andrew's District —
Anstruther, Easter,.
Anstruther, Wester,
Crail,
Cupar
Kilrenny
Pittenweem,
St. Andrew's
Total
Stirling District -
Culross, ,
Dunfermline, .
Inverkeithing, ,
Queensferry,. .
Stirling,
Total, ..
Wick District -
Cromarty,* .
Dingwall, ...
Dornoch, .. .
Kirkwali, ....
Tain,
AVick,
Total
Wigtoivn District -
New Galloway, ..
Stranraer,
Whithorn
Wigtown
Total,.
2,160
9,191
949
2,815
3,132
18,247
Females
2,231
10,207
1,063
2,808
3,811
20,120
813i 1,046
3,230: 3,827
6551 887
4,481 6,297
Totals.
4,391
19,398
2,012
6,623
6,943
3 8 ,367
1,859
7,057
1,542
9,778
9,179j 11,057
11,952' 14,032
1,403; 2,185
2,850 3,266
16,205 19,483
6,764 7,8
20,236
i
25,984
3,588
6,11G
2,672;
3,C45;
424|
6,316
3,231
4,336
440
7,936
19,821 i 23,747
446
148
6171
2,326'
7911
575'
1,941!
562
191
704
2,811
928
734
2,508
35,688
14,568]
5,903
7,981
864'
14,252
43,568
I
1,008
339
1,221
5,137
1,719
1,309
4,449
6,744' 8,438 15,182
I
227;
6,7 19[
840,
.5891
4,989;
360,
6,577!
987 1
644!
5,712
58'
13,296
1,827
1,233
10,701
13,3641 14,280 27,644
812
770
198'
1,230
843
2,595
6,448
212
2,170
682
843
3,907
1,124
962
250]
1,816
1,029
2,927
1,936
1,732
448
3,046
1,87
5,522
8,108 14,550
218 430'
2,708 4,878'
831 1,513
1,017! 1,860
4,774 8,681
* Burghs which have a Parliamentary Representation, but are not Royal Burghs.
INDEX OF PLACES.
r!?* The letters B or Q, C, I, L, SI, R, at the end of names, signify B,iy or Gidf, Cape, Island,
LaK-e, Mountain, Itiver. Names beginning with the prefix Sew, will be found under N ; those with
the prefix Saint, San, SI., under S ; those with Fott or Port, under F or P. Spanish names begin-
ning with X or J, may be looked for under either of these letters, the pronunciation of both being
the same, and the use of them indifferent. Names beginning with C or K, if not found under the
one of these letters, may be looked for under the other. Russian, Turkish, and other oriental names
usually beginning with J, if not found under that letter, may be looked for under I or Y, the latter
of which gives the correct pronunciation.
A
Adam's Peak
. 739
Air point .
ISO
AALBOaa, . page 482
Adamson Peak
998
Aire R.
182
Aalen . • .
409
Adana .
. 050
Aire . . 352
350
Aarau .
373
Addiscomb
249
Airlie
272
Aarberg
370
yidel
. 859
Airolo .
374
Aarburg
373
Adelaide
995
Airth
273
Aargau
373
Adelaide I.
. 1018
Airv.ault
300
Aarhuus
482
Adelie-terre
ib.
Aisne . . .342
, 347
Abancay
n:ii
Adelsberg
. 440
Aix .
348
Abano .
.580
Aden
GOl
Aix I. . . .
317
Abasambal
834
Adenar I.
. 974
Aix en Otlie
347
jibastia .
7N.5
Adershach
442
Aix-la-chapelle
475
Abbeville .
3G0
Adige R.
. 5fi0
Aix-les-bains
570
Abbeyleix
313
Adieu C. .
981
Aizcnay
300
Abbey St. Bathans
271
Admiralty I. 9
02, 1010
Ajaccio
349
Abbotsford
290
Admiralty S.
. 980
AJiui or yjjen
859
Abbotshall .
272
Admiralty B.
1033
A j mere
719
Abbotsville
9,53
Admont
440
Ajmerghur . 718
,720
Abcheron
783
Adoni .
. 722
Ajunta
Akaba
726
Abdie
271
Adonis R. .
052
003
Abercorn
272
Adour R.
. 318
Akermar. .
529
Abercrombie
273
Adowah
830
Akeroa H. .
1004
Aberdare
312
Adria .
. 580
Akhalt-ike
783
Aberdalgie
273
Adrian
948
Ak-liisar
048
Aberdeen
282
Adrianople
. 010
Aklimim .
829
Aberfoyle
271
Adriatic Sea
02,138
Akiska .
783
Abergavenny
243
Adulle .
. 836
A kola
725
Aberlady .
272
Adur R. .
182
Akrobatpass
677
Aberlemno
272
.\dventurc B.
. 998
Ak-shehr
048
Aberlour .
270
Adwanny .
722
Ala ...
434
Aberncthy . 270
, 289
Aeng l'a«s
. 716
Alabama R.
880
Abernvte
271
Affjihajiislan
074
Alahamii
941
Abertarff .
270
Afi'fln-karahisar
. 048
Alais
351
Aberystwith .
2.5.5
Afbica
801
Alaj.ihis.-ar .
012
Abingdon .
232
Agadir .
. 815
Alajuela .
953
Ab-i-Standeh L. .
G77
Agde .
.352
Ala-kotil 1,.
777
/tbkhnzia .
785
Agen
. 353
Alak-tou-koul L.
ib.
Abo
,52.5
Aghadcs
819
Aland 1. .
500
Aboo M. .
730
Aghrim
. 313
Alatri .
.581
Abouliont
048
Agincourt
356
Alba
574
Abousimhil
834
Agnone .
. 588
Albacoto
549
Aboyne .
272
Agoada
735
Albanian pass .
7.S1
Abrantes .
.5.5.5
Agordo
. 580
All.ano I,. .
.500
Abreswiller .
.%54
Agosta
.591
All.ano
581
Abrolhos 1.
90.5
Agra
. 719
Albany . ;;13
. 997
Abrud-banya .
4.-.9
Agrafa
Oil
All.arraein .
548
Abouzabel
828
A gram .
. 4.58
Alb:itro-s 1.
!»99
Aba M. .
730
Agrigentum
Agtelek .
,591
Albatross Point .
1004
Abury
252
. 457
Albemarle Sound
870
Abydos
831
Agulhas ('.
HI 13
Albenga
.574
Abyifinin .
834
Agullias Bank
. 802
Albert
.300
Acajutla
9.53
Ahir .
819
All.inen
374
Acapulco .
9.50
Ahmednuggur
. 7l!5
Alboran I.
h;)!)
Accra .
856
Ahmcdpore
7.'i2
Albuera
5.0
Achagua .
953
Ahwaz
. 072
AlbuferaL.
53 1
Achcen, or Achin
97.5
Aia-burun .
500
AllnKineiipie
515
Achil I. . . .
294
Aigues .Mortes
. a5i
Alby . .
300
Aconcagua vole.
874
Aigues ViTcs
3.1
Alca<u.r .le Sal .
.5.54
Afores 1. •
,5.56
Aiguilles Pt.
. 1004
Alcala de llenarez
,'>47
Achill head .
294
Alguillon .
353
Alcanio
.592
Aci Realc .
.591
Allsa 1.
. 203
A lean 1/,
54H
Acqul
.574
Aimargiies
351
Alcantara
.5.50
Acre ,
C52
Ain
342, 317
AlceMcl.
755
Acton
243
Aintal)
o:.2
Ali-ob.iva . .-.51
.5.55
Adams
942
Aiquepersc
. :)50
Alr.iy
549
Adam's bridge
C82
Airaincs
m)
Aldboroiigl! .
219 '
Adams I,
1009
Airdrie .
. 2'5S
AldborouKli ( Vork)
.312;
Aldan hills
C25
Aldan R.
. 7»9
Aldea-gallega
555
Aldearn
. 273
Alderney Race
181
Alderney 1.
181, '^56
Aldstone
. 311
Alen^on
3.55
Aleppo
. 051
Alessandria
.574
Alet
. 348
Aleutian I.
902
Alexander .
. 1018
Ale.vandria 82S
941,947
A 1 ford
. '271
Algarv6 .
Algeria
. .551
. 845
Algeziras .
550
Algiers
. 846
Algoa B. .
807
Albania
. 549
Alliandra
555
Alhucemas
. .551
Alicant
5.19
Alipee .
. 727
Alipelly .
7'27
Aliubarota
. 555
Allahabad
718
AUassac
. 319
Allauch .
318
Alloa .
. '2S4
All Saints li.
870
Alleghanny .M.
. 875
AUeghe .
580
Allemont
. 352
Allen L. .
295
Allendorf
. 411
Aller R. .
394
Allier
:!12, 317
Allygbur
. 718
Alnmda
545
Alnmilon
. 517
Alniagro .
5 15
Alinanza
. 549
Almaraz
.5.50
Almei<la
• 5.56
Alnieria
545, .519
Alniodovar
545
Alniora
. 720
Alniinioear
545
Aln R.
. 1N2
AllMMOUth
2M
AlM.'ss
. 271
Alnwick .
244
A lost
. ;)H3
Alps.M. .
146
Alpes (Ha.'Sr.'.i
.112. .347
Alpcs (llauteM
312,347
Al|.uJarra.H .M.
143
Alresf..rd
. 313
Al«aee
.341
Alsnu'T
. 47.5
Alxen I. .
470
AUfeM
. 412
Altai .M. .
025
Altainurk
. .'.Ha
All-AraJ .
%:>»
1024
Aliens
Altcnau
Altenberg
AUenbruck
Altenburg
Altenriff .
Althorp I.
Altkirch
Alton
Altona
Altorf
Altringham
Alstahong
Alstetten .
Altun-kupri
Alva
Alvah
Alvar-tinnevelly
Alves .
Alvie .
Alwar
Alwur .
Alyth
Alzoy
Amack I. .
Amalfi .
Amarapoora
Amasia
Amazons R.
Ambelakia
Amberg
Ambert
Ambleside
Amboise .
Amboora
Amboy
Amboyna I.
Ambras
Ameland I.
Amelo
America
America Central
Amersfort
Amersham
Araesbury
Ametopec .
Amhara
Amherst .
Amherstburj;
Amherst Isles
Amiens
Amirante I.
Amjheera
Amlwch
Ammerschwihr
Amol
Amoo R.
Amoor or AmQi
Amoy
Amplepuis
Ampthill
Ampturias
Amritsir
Amron I. .
Arasancto L.
Amstel R. .
Amsterdam .
Amsterdam I.
Amucu L.
Anapa .
Anadir Gulf
Anadoli
Anagoondy
Anamour C.
Anaradhapoora
Ancenis
Ancerville
Ancona .
Ancrum
Andalusia .
Andelys (Les)
Andernach .
Andes M. .
Andorra
Andover
Andrezieux .
Andrychow
Andujar
Anduze
Anegada
Anfar bank
. 474
Angad Desert
. 803
. 417
Angara R.
78s
413, 415
Angers .
. 353
417
Angler
976
. 415
Angola ,
. 858
371
Angora
650
. 9S1
Angostura
. 953
ai7
AngoulCme
34S
31i, 947
Angoumois .
. 341
482
Anguilla L
Anhalt .
9G0
371,409
. 416
311
Anholtl. .
476
. ,504
Ani
. 650
372
Aniane
352
. G56
Aniches
. 355
. 273
Anjar
730
273
Anjar L
. 673
y 722
An^ediva I.
710
271
Anjengo
. 727
. 270
Anjou
341
730
Anklam
. 472
. 731
Ankobar
836
272
Ann C. .
. 877
. 412
Annaberg .
413, 415
476, 482
Annah .
. 655
. 588
Annaliffey R.
295
. 746
Annamaboo .
. 856
649
A?i-natn
748
. 881
Annan .
. 285
611
Annapolis .
945
. 407
Annecy .
. 576
356
Annobon I.
870
. 312
AnnoeuUin
. 355
352
Annonay .
347
. 726
Anopshehr .
. 718
944
Anost
357
. 977
Anson's B. .
. 980
431
Anspach .
409
. 386
Anstruther .
. 288
391
Antalow .
836
. 872
AUTARTICRKa
ONSlOlg
I 952
Antequera
549
. 391
Antibes
. 360
232
Anticosti I.
960
. 252
Antilles
. ib.
951
Antinoe
831
. 836
Antioch
. 6.51
750
Antioches I.
317
. 912
Antioquia
. 954
755
Antiparos I.
620
. 360
Antipodes I. .
1009
870
Antigua
960
. 728
Antisana M.
. 954
255
Anti-taurus M.
628
. 357
Antivari
. 611
670
Anton R. .
182
. 776
Antoura
. 653
' R. 771
Antrim
309
. 768
Antwerp
. 383
357
Aiiweiler .
408
. 311
Anwoth
. 272
548
Anxious li.
980
. 733
Anzin
. 355
476
Anzo C. .
559
. 561
Aosta .
574, 575
386
Aotca C. .
. 1003
. 389
Apaniea
. 651
. 1018
Apennines M.
151
884
Ape's hill
. 802
. 785
Apolda
415
797
Apollinopolis
. 831
. 647
Appanooce
947
725
Appalachian M
. 875
. 641
Appenzell
372
739
Appin .
. 272
. 353
Appleby
251
354
Applecross
. 272
. 585
Applegarth
ib.
272
Apt
. 360
545, 549
Aquapendente
585
3.50
Aquila .
. 588
. 475
Aquileia
441
873
Arabah .
. 663
. 361
Arab-cir .
649
312
Ara/iia , ,
. G58
. 353
A mean
716
444
Arad I. .
. 660
. 550
Aradus
652
351
Aragon
. 545
. 960
Aragoiia .
591
317
Aragua .
. 953
INDEX OF PLACES.
Araish (El) . 845
Aral Sea . . 777
Aranda de Duero 545
Aramon . .351
Aranjuez . . 547
Ararat 628, 724, 784, 1020
Araure . . . 953
AravuUi M. . 680
Arawan . . 849
Araxes R. . . 782
Arbe I. . . . 461
Arbela . . 656
Arbesau . . 443
Arbirlot . . 271
Arboga . . .499
Arbois . . 352
Arbon . . .373
Arbroath . . 287
Arbuthnott . .271
Arcachon . . 316
Archipelago . . 596
Arcis sur Aube 347
Arco . . .434
Arcole . . ,580
Arcot . . . 723
Arctic Regions 966
Aroueil . . 358
Ardchattan . . 272
Ardclach . . 273
Ardebil . . 670
Ardeche . 342, 347
Ardee . . 313
Ardelan , . 669
Ardennes . 342, 347
Ardersier . . 273
Ardfert . . .313
Ardfort . . 309
Ardglass . . 313
Ardjisch . . 613
Ardmore point . 294
Ardnamurchan 272
Ardnamurchan C. 263
Ardrah . . 855
Ardres . . . 356
Ardrossan . 283
Aremberg . . 420
Arendal . . 503
Arensburg . .474
Arequipa . . 954
Arevalo . . 545
Arezzo . . 582
Arfeuilles . . 347
Argaum . . 726
Argeles . . 356
Argentan . . 356
Argentat . . 349
Argenteuil . 359
Argentine Republic 956
Argenton . . 352
Arghana-maden 655
Argo Isle . . 833
Argos . . .619
Argostoli . . 623
Arguin B. and I. 850
Argyro-castro . 61 1
Arica . . 9.54
Arichat . , . 913
Aride I. . . 1004
Ariege . 342, 347
Ariege R. . . 318
Arjish dagh . . 637
Arimatliea . 654
Arkadia . . 620
Arkansas R. . 878
Arkannas . . 941
Arkeeko . . 836
Arkhaiigel . . 526
Ariko . . 836
Arklow . . , 308
Arkona . . 475
Arkopolis . . 948
Arlanc . . 356
Aries . . 348, 3.")6
Arlesheirn . . 372
Arlon . . . 384
Armagh . . 308
Armenia . . 637
Armenia (Russ. ) 783
Armenienstadt . 4,59
Armentieres . 355
Arna . . .620
Arnay le due
. 349
Arngask .
Arnlieim C.
273
. 981
Arnheim B.
980
Arnhem
. .T.tl
Arno R.
569
Arnstadt
. 416
Aroa .
l'.53
Aroan
. 849
Arolseu
413
Arona .
. 574
Arpa-chai R.
7s3
Arpajon .
358
Arpino .
. 588
Arqua
680
Arques .
. 356
Arrabida M.
555
Arrah .
. 714
Arran
284
Arran I.
263, 294
Arranmore I
294
Arras
. 3-56
Arroe Islands
659
Arroe I.
476, 752
Arrou
. 3.50
Arroquhar
271
Arru I. .
1009
Ars .
349
Art
. 370
Arta .
611
Arta G.
. 596
Artaxata .
784
Arthur Hills
. 998
Artois
311
Arudy .
. ,^6
Arun R. ,
18-.'
Arundel
. 2.-.0
Arzew
847
Ashen
849
Ascension I.
. 871
Aschaffenburg . 409
Aschersteben
. 475
Ascoli
585
Asha7itee
. 8.55
Ashburton
311
Ashby de la Zouch 241
Ashford
311
Ashkelon
. 654
Ashkirk .
273
Ashmounein
. 829
Ashruf
670
Ashtah .
. 728
Ashtead
. 250
Asia .
625
Asia-minor
. 637
Asiago
580
Askeaton
. 313
Asperg
410
Aspern .
. 438
As pet
351
Aspusi .
. 64<»
Assal L.
834
Assam .
. 715
Assaye
726
Asseerghur
. 725
Assen
391
Asses-ears I.
. 754
As-Siout .
829
Assisi
. 585
Assouan
830, 832
Assunipcion
. 953
Assye
726
Assynt .
. 271
Assynt point
262
Astabula
. 947
Asti .
574
Aston
. 235
Aston-under-
ine 241
Astorca
. .547
Astrabad .
670
Astrakhan
. 529
Asuncion .
957
Asyn-kalesi G
. . C41
Atacama .
954
Atenah .
. 649
Atfieh
829
Athelstaneforc
1 . 27i
Athenry
313
Athens .
. 619
Atherstone
251
Ath>s
. 353
INDEX OF PLACES.
102o
Athlone
308
Arignon
,?60
Baixas
356
Banks C. .
9h1
Athos M.
. 611
Avila
647
Bakewell
. 2.)5 : Banks Feninsul
a 10 4
^^I'y « •
308
Avilas .
545
Bakhtcheserai
528 , Bann R. .
295
Atlas M.
. 802
Avio .
434
Bakonyer wald
. 445
Bannalec
. 3.-.0
Atlixco
951
Aviothe .
354
Baku
783
Bannotkburn
290
Atrato R.
. 882
Aviona
611
Bala
. 312
Banos
. 9.4
Atschinsk .
796
Ariz
554
Bala L.
182
Banswarra
71
Attauree
. 733
Avoeh
271
Balaclava
. 5'J9
Bantam
. 976
Attigny
347
Avon R.
182
Balaghaut
721
Bant y
313
Attina .
. 588
Avondale .
272
Balasore
715
B.TnyuU-sur-M
r . 3 6
Attok
IM
Avranehes
354
Balasore roads
tS2
Banz
408
Attoo I.
. 902
Awadsi I. .
798
Balaton L.
. 415
Bapaunie
. 356
Atooi I.
. 1016
Awatska
797
Balbeis
831
Bar le Due .
. 3.">4
Attoor .
. 722
Ax . . .
347
Balbriggan .
. 313
I'ar sur Aul>e
347
Attruck R.
673
Axel
390
Bald Head
. 1004
liar sur Seii.e
. 347
Aubagne
. 348
Axum
836
Baldernock .
. 271
Barabinsk
ItH
Aube
342,347
Ayasalouk
647
Baldock .
311
Baracoa
Aubenas
. 347
Aylesbury
311
Balearic I.
. 533
Bara.ila
. ' "457
Aubervilliers
35S
Ayr
283
Bale .
372
Barai
. 733
Aubiere .
. 356
Ayton
284
Balfron .
. 271
Baray
35..
Aubigiiy .
319
Ayuthia
747
Balfrush .
670
Barbadoes I.
. 960
Aubiii
. 348
Azant
648
Balkashl L. .
. 777
Barbara
8.^9
Auburn
944
Azerbijan
669
Bali I. .
. 974
Bailniiy
. S37
Auch
. 351
Azmerigunge .
713
Balize
913, 947
Barbentanne
348
Aucheraele
272
Azov
527
Balkan M. .
. 594
Barbeiieux .
. 34s
Auchindoir .
. 271
Azov, Sea of
506
Baikh
779
Barbuda .
too
Auchinleck
271
Ballahulish .
. 270
lliircit
. 848
Auclinacloy .
. 313
B.
Ballantrae
273
Barcellos .
.554
Auchterarder
271
Ballary .
. 722
Barcelona
54f<, 953
Aucliterderran
. 272
Baamehenunga-
Ballatcr .
312
Baro'lonetta
. 548
Auchtergaven
271
mi)ck L.
883
Ballenstadt .
. 416
Haroelointto
347
Aucliterless .
. 273
Baalbeck .
653
Balleny I.
. 1018
Barceloru
Til
Auclittrliouse
271
Haar
371
Ballina
. 313
B.rchly
. 786
Aucbterinuchty
. 287
Haba-burun C.
641
Ballinasloo
313
Bardowieck
417
Auchtcrtool
272
Habahassan
611
Ballingray
. 272
Bards.y I. .
. I8l
Auckland
. 1009
Habba I.
974
Ballinrobe
313
liareilly .
720
Auckland I.
ib.
Hal)-t'l-mandeb
659
Ballon .
. 3-.S
Barentun
. 354
Aude
342, 348
Habolna . 44
3, 457
Ballstall .
372
BartU ur C.
316
Aude R.
. 318
Babylon
655
Ballyhay
. 313
Barse
574
Audouick
a56
Baht/hnia
639
Ballyca^itle
313
Bargemont .
. 3(«)
Auerback
. 413
Bacalar
952
Ballyconnel
. 313
Bail .
5n8
Auersberg .
420
Baccano L.
560
BalIvg;iwlov
313
Barjac .
. 3.-.1
Augela .
. 848
Baccarat
354
Balhbei^hB.
Ballymanon
. 293
Ban. .Is
Barking
360
AuKeroUes
356
Backergunge
713
313
. 311
Aughrim
. 313
Bacijueville .
359
Ballymena
. 313
Jliirkut
769
Augsburg .
408
Bactra
779
Ballynioney
313
liarletta .
588
Augst .
. 372
Bad B. .
9!-8
Ballynahinch
. 313
Barmen .
. 474
Augusta 946,
942, 947
Badajos
550
Ballynakill
313
Bainiuor .
236
AulapoUy .
727
Badakhshan .
779
Bullyshannon
. 309
Bainic.uth
. 25.5
Aumale .
. 359
Bad-ems
413
Ball J wan .
313
Barnard-castle
236
Aunis
341
Baden . . 37
3,410
BalmaclcUan
. 272
Barnes .
. 250
Aups
. 3ii0
Baden (Aust.)
4;i8
Balmagbie
272
Baiiiet
239
Auray
3.54
Badenweiler
411
Balmerino
. 271
Barnoul
. 796
Aurich .
. 417
Bad-gaslein .
431
BalmesdeMon
tBrulai7
ISarness
2'.i
Aurillac
348
Badminton
2.f8
Balquliidder .
. 271
Barnsley
. 2.53
Auriol
. 348
Badonvilliers
354
Balsan
724
Barnstable
942
Auronzo
TtHil
Badulla
7.18
Balsora
. 657
Barnstaple
236,311
Aurungabad .
. 726
Baebaegie
857
Balston Spa
943
Baroclie
724
Ausa L.
8.J4
Bacza
5.5(J
Bait Head .
. 180
Buroda .
. 728
Aussee
440
Bafto
611
Baltic I'ort .
. 525
Harr .
271,. 156
Austral I.
. 1016
Baffin's Bay
9«i
Haitic Sea
1.38
Barra-liead
2<.3
AUSTHALA8IA
980
Baguy Point .
180
Baltimore
313, 945
Barraekpore
. 714
Auttralia
. 980
ISaghdad .
C56
Baltinglas .
313
I'aree
728
Auttralifi N.
997
Bagbermeh .
857
Balu I. .
. 750
Barregea
. 3.Vi
yluttraiia S.
. 993
Bagncres de Bigor
e .15'.
JIam/.ara .
8-.6
Barren 1.
9'.i9
jiustralia W.
. 'JiK,
Bagneres de Lucho
n 351
Bamberg
. ilfJ
Barrier C.
1004
Australian Big
at 980
Bagiiolles .
3.55
Bamborough Castle 214 Ham.sa .
6..0
Australind
991
Bagnulg
ISanama C.
351
Banibi'jch .
652 Barrow K. .
. 29.^
Auttrian Empi
re 422
876
Bnmean
. f;77 , Barry
271
Austerlitz
. 443
Babamas I.
960
Bimioo
7.)(; 1 liarr.v 1.
. 181
Auterive .
3.51
Bahar . 71
3,71)
Baniplon
246, 31 1 1! ruiislein
4>'9
Auteuil
. 3.58
Bahawulpore .
7.3:.'
Bunagher
.(. s Bartlild
. 4.57
Autun
3;58
Bahia .
958
Banliridge
311 Burili
472
Auvergne
319, 341
Babiouda .
K3i • Banbury .
. ■ 2V> Barton .
. 311
Auvillars .
3(X)
Bahrein
6.59 Hancbiirv-devcnick 27'i l?i'r\as
272
Auxerre
. 361
Bahr-bfln-niBio
8!3 BanclKirwternan 272 Bhh
. 3.VI
Auxuiine .
3»9
Bahr-el-Cazelle
8.51 Haiida 1
974. 977 a. .
317
Auxy lo Chatea
u 356
Bahr-el-margi .
614 Bandn Orienta
1 !,,'.7 Ba.Ml
. 372
AuiM.
3i->6
Baia
587 li.iiidi.n
. nm l!u^l..•<• I.
97'.*
Ara
. 716
Baian .
6.0 Ban. Ion R.
XL, Hasi.loh
. 6,3
Avallon
361
Haibout
. ih. H..iitr .
. '.^Hl BlLsiMHSlokO
ai'i
261
. kh3
Avt-iro .
. .556
Uaiilvanath
714 BiinK'nl.ro
723 Ba».« I.
AvfUiiio
5H8
Baikal L.
789 Biingor .
. •/ :, H»»» I».
Avencbo
. 374
Bailijborough .
313 Bangor (Ire.)
313 Buj.1.1. Sirail
9H't
. 724
Avtnes
3r)5
Haillcil
3'.5 Bangor
, UVi llaKftin
Aveniercg
. 3j'i2
Bailli C. .
9;.9 llaiiialoiika
i;]2 BasMtrrri"
'.CS, '.»<\
. 441
316
. 319
3lU
n . 347
A vcr7.a
588
Bain
■Ti'i Baiiia*
. (V,3 Ba-oM/.;»
AVOJTOII R. .
. 318
BllillH
:i52 lianj.Tria.'siiig
1177 B miU' K..»d
Aveyron
342, 348
Kainnth
4l>!i liankn
. liT'i lln»l.li>a
Arczzano
. 588
Bais .
:t.vj li.iiikii.f.r .
711 lln.tla
Aviemore .
312
Bai^ieux
X.:>
Bankok
. 71;
H..»llilr<lu MfO
3 T
1026
INDEX OF PLACES.
Bastrop
949
Beilan
652
Berka .
415
Bimber
. 733
liassano
5S0
Bcinhoim
. 356
Berkeley .
238
Bimliapatam
722
IJassenthwaite L.
182
Beit-el-fakih
66 1
Berkshire
231
Bingen
. 412
liatun .
G50
Beith
. 272
Berlaimont
355
Bingley
253
Katz .
353
Bekaji Valley
640
Berlin .
471
Bintenne
. 738
l?atalha
S^S
Bolaspore
. 718
Berlingas I.
533
Binwihead
294
IJatavano
9G-2
Belbeys .
831
Bermudas I. .
961
Bir
. 655
Hatavia
97G
Belcuchy
. 713
Born
369
Bird I.
867
Hate
728
Beles
655
Bernagur
713
Birkenfeld .
. 413
Kate I.
740
Belfast 291,
3'.j8, 942
Bernardin
374
Birket-el-keroun 815
IJateinan 1?.
980
Belford .
. 244
Bornay
350
Birmingham
251, 943
Hatticaloa
738
Belfort
351
Bernburg
416
Birmah
744
liath . . 247
942
Belgaum
. 725
Berncastol .
474
Birnie .
. 271
Bathgate
288
Belgium ■ .
376
Bernier I.
981
Birr .
308
Bathurst 8G8, 912
993
Belhelvie
. 270
Bernier C.
999
Birsay .
. 271
Bathurst Bay .
980
Belida
847
Bernouilli
981
Hirse
272
Bathurst I. . 981
999
Bellac
. 361
Berriedale
271
Birterbuy Bay
. 294
Batipnolles Mon-
Bellamcontah
722
Berry
341
Biscay
546
ceaux
358
Bellanamallard
. 313
Berry Head .
180
Bischeim
. 356
Batrun
G52
Bellas
555
Bertheaume
316
Bischoft'sheim
356, 408
Battaglia .
530
liellemc
. 355
Bertry
355
Bischoffzell
. 373
Battersea
250
Belleville .
358
Bervle . 271
,288
Bischofsheim
410
Battlcolah
722
Belley .
. 347
Berwick
256
Bischwiller .
. 356
Bavaria
407
Bellie
273
Besancon
350
Biscoe Isles
1018
Baud
354
Bellinzona . '
. 373
Bosicha B.
&n
Bishnath
. 714
}5aiinh .
678
Bellislo
317
Besitun
672
Bishop Auckland 236
Bauloah
713
Bellisle Strait
• 876
Bessan
352
Bishop Stortford .311
Baumc les Dames
350
Bcllood
726
Besse .
360
Bishop & Clerk 181, 1009
Bausset
3C0
Bell Point .
. 981
Betanzos
547
Bishop's Castle
312
Bautzen
415
Bell-rock .
263
Betlis
651
Bishop I.
. 1009
Bayamo
962
Belluno
. 580
Bethisy St. Pierre
355
Bisova
728
Bayazid
650
Belmont
353, 652
Betliune
356
Bissagos I. .
. 871
Bayeux
348
Belogorod
. 527
n=thelehem
654
Bissaher
718
Baylen
550
Beloochistan
677
Betrich
475
Bissunpore .
. 713
Bayona
545
Belper .
. 311
Betsy I.
999
Bistinoe L.
883
Bayonne .
356
Belsa
749
Bettiah
714
Bisztritz
. 459
Bazardjik
612
Belt
. 476
Betwe I. .
386
Bitche
355
Bazas
351
Belturbet .
313
Bevedero L.
884
Bithore
720
Bazouyes-la-Perouse352
Belves .
. 350
Beveland I.
386
Bitlis
. 651
Beachy Head
180
]}elvoir Castla
212
Beverley . 25-
,312
Bitoglia
610
Beaconsfield
311
Belur-tagh >L
. 627
Bcvern .
383
Bize-Nistos .
. 356
Beardstown
917
Benares
718
Bewan
977
iiizerta
847
Bear Islands
797
Bench I.
1004
Bewdley
252
Blackburn .
211, 257
Beam .
841
Bencoolen
975
Bcyhar
713
Black Head I.
. 981
Beath
271
Bender
. 529
Beyrut .
653
Blackeney .
243
Bcaucaire . .
351
Benderegli
G50
Bex .
374
Blackford
. 271
Beaufort . 353
946
Bendocliy
. 272
Bexar .
•949
Black-forest
410
lieaufort C.
981
Bendorf
474
Bezau
434
Blackness Castlt
; . 283
Bcauge
353
Benevente
. 545
Beziers
352
Black pagoda
715
Beau^ency
Beaujeu
353
Benevento
584
Bezommar
653
Black Rock .
. 181
aJ7
Benfeld
. 356
Bliamo
746
Black Rocks
944
Beaulieu . 349
352
Bengal
712
Bhawulpore
732
Black Sea
. 595
Beaumaris
255
Bengazi
. 848
Bhenanah
733
Blacksod Bay
294
ISeaumctz
35G
Bengore Head
. 294
Bbilwarra
731
Blackwater R.
. 295
Beaumont 356
,360
Benifuela
859
Bhooj
729
Blain .
353
Beaumont sur Olse
358
Benholrae
. 271
Bhopal
728
Blair-Athol .
. 271
Beaumont surSarthe 358
Benidorme L
533
Bliotan
7a5
Blairgowrie
272
Beaune
349
Beni-Hassan
. 831
Bhurtpore
728
Blamont
. 354
Beaupreau .
353
Benin
651
Bhutnere
720
Blanc Nez .
316
Beauqueno
360
Benin
. 857
Biala
444
Bianco C.
. 803
JJeaurepaire
352
Benisouef .
829
Bialistock
529
Blankenburg
4.6
Beauvais .
355
Benlomond .
161,998
Biberach .
409
Blandford
. 311
Beauval
360
Benmore C.
294
Biberich
413
Blantyre .
272
Beauvoir sur Mer
360
Bennan Head
. 263
Bibilly
722
Blasquets I. .
. 294
Beawr
720
Bennington
942
Bicanere
730
Blavet R. .
317
Bebir .
612
Bentheim
. 420
Bidassoa B.
534
Blaye .
. a5i
Beccles
249
Benthen .
473
Biddeford
311
Blazienzella
415
J5ech-tau M.
787
Benzart
. 847
Biddulph's group
659
Bleiberg
. 440
Bedarrides
360
Beran
726
Bideford
236 Blenheim .
2 Ui, 409
Bedarrieux .
352
Herat
. 611
Bidford
251
Blenod .
. 354
Beddington
250
Beraytch .
728
Bielau
473
Blessington
313
Bedford
231
Berbera
. 859
Bielefeld
474
Bletchingley
. 249
Bedford level
233
Berber
833
Bielitz
443 Blewfields .
9f.3
Bedford C. .
980
Berchtesgaden
. 407
Biclla .
574 Bleyberg M. .
. 475
Bedlis
651
Berck
356
Bieloe-ozero L.
508 Bloodyforeland
294
Bedminster .
247
Bercy
. 358
Bielsi L.
789 Bloomington
• 948
Bednore . .
722
Beregh
457
Bielukha M.
625 Blois .
a52
}5edrule
272
Bereiklei
. 786
Bienne .
370 Blotzheim
. 357
Bedwin
312
Berenice .
832
Biesbosch
386
Bluefleld's Soun
d 876
Bedworth
251
Beresov
. 795
Biesheira
357
Bluff Point
999
Beeder
726
Berezina R.
507
Biggar
288
Blyth R.
. 182
Beoma R.
684
Bergamo
. 579
Biggleswade
231
Boa Vista I.
95«
Beeralston
311
Berganson I.
317
Bihacz
612
Bobilee .
. T22
Begard
349
Bergedorf
. 420
Bijnee .
713 Bobbio
575
Begumpoora
726
Bergen
463, 504
Bikanair .
730 Bocage .
. 348
Behaban
673
Bergen-op-zoom
. 390
Bilbao .
548 Bocatoro .
953
Behrings Straits
797
Bergerac .
350
Billawul .
728 Bocca-tigris R.
. 755
lieia .
555
Bergheim
. 357
Billom .
356 Bochenheim .
412
Bejapore
727
Bergonianero
574
Bilma
840 Bochnia
. 444
Bejar
545
Bergovacz
. 611
Bilson
384 ' Bocholt
574
Beierland I.
386
Bergues .
355
Bima R. .
684
Booking
. 237
INDEX OF PLACES.
1027
Bocklet
Bocognano
Bofieaw L.
Bodega .
Boden See .
Bodiiiin .
Boglipore .
Bogota .
Jiohemia
Bokhara
Bobaiii
Boharin .
Boitzeiibiirg
B.jador C.
}5ois-le-duc
lSoIal>ola I.
Bolan I'ass
liolaruni
Bolhec .
Bololii)i-ilnicn
Boli'lioilnien L
Bold Head
15oleskine .
}5oli
Bolingbroke
li'jlinia ,
Bolleiio
Bollin R.
Bologiio
Bolseiia
Ijolsena L.
I5ol^ove^ Moof
JJolton
liolton le Moors
Bolus head
Bolzininden .
Boinliarak C.
JJomliay
Bon C.
Bona
Boiuhios
Bo'ness .
Bonefacio .
Bon;,'neer .
Bon-.) .
Bonhill
lioniii I.
Bonn .
Bonneville
Bonnetable
Bonny
l!o^l^heim .
]Sookhani
Boom
Boosnah
B<>(.|)ard
15orda C. .
Bordeaux
Bordentown
Bordercs
J!or>.'o-a-mazzano
Borxo-Sessia
Uor^rue
Borgue I,.
Boria ('. .
Borkurn I. .
Bonnlo
Borneo I.
Bornholm
/lurnim
Borodino .
Borroinean Islands
Boroughbridi-'e .
Bort
Borthwick . 271
Bo<ikowitz
Bosna- Serai
Hiimiit b'j'<, oW!
BoRphorus
Boston/ Lino. )
Boston (Mass. i
Boston I.
Bosjt C.
Boszrah
Botel-tobago I
Botany Bay .
Bothkinnar
Bothnia <j. ,
Bothwell
Botriphnie
409
349
883
902
364
234
714
955
441
778
347
270
418
803
390
lOlG
G76
725
3o9
508
782
981
270
650
311
954
360
18-2
585
585
560
2:!5
272
2tl
294
416
673
724
813
846
355
2s8
319
857
271
1014
474
574
•558
857
412
250
3S3
713
735
475
981
351
944
356
5t*2
. 574
272
. KM3
6i2
. 3><6
578
974, 977
4t3
612
598
212
942
431
I Botzen .
Bouches du Rhone
342,318
Bougainville C. 981, 9ti9
846
355
353
317
647
384
828
355
351, 358
356
1009
347
869
360
27-',
Bougiah
Bougonville
Bouguenais
Bouin I.
Bouja .
Bouillon
Boulak .
I Boulay
Boulogne
Boulogne sur Sler
Bounty Isles
Bourbon
Bourbon I.
Bourbon- Vendee
Bourhon-areham
bault . . 347
Bourbonnais . 341
Bourbonneles Bains 354
Bourbourg . 355
Bourbriac
Bourg Argcntal
Bourg d'Oysans
Bourg-en-Bresse
Bourges
Bourgopnc
Bourgueil
Bourlon
Bourlos L.
Bourtang
Bourtrie
Bourg St. Andcol
Bourget
Bourgit L. .
Bourgoin .
Bourgncuf
Bourmont
Bournabat
]5ourne
Bouro
Boiissa
Boussiere
Bou.vwillcr
Bovcs
Bowden
Bowon St. .
Bower
Bowling-green C.
Boyle .
Boyne R. .
Boyndie
Bra .
Braake
Mmhrn.f
Bracailale
Bracciano L.
Braek-v-1'wl C.
Bradford . 2:
Bradley
Brad^ea I. .
Braeniar .
Braga
Braganca .
Brahniaptura R.
Brailow
Bralntrce .
Brain her
Branco C.
Brancourt
Brandenburg
Brascy en i'laino
Brass
Braltlcboro
Brava
Bravodel Norte R
Braunau
Braunsberg
Bray .
Uriizil .
Brazoria
Brazza I.
Brealiead
Bread Sound
Break-sea Spit C:.
I'riani (',.
Bnebin
Breeon
Urrda
381,
;i;i2
316
354
311
977
K,r,
350
356
360
272
574
684
613
237
312
803
434,412
. 171
313, 3.58
461
294
9M)
Brotlenhopf
Bregenz
Brehat I.
Brehniadasuni
Breisaeh
Breitenbach
Breles .
Bremen
Brenienhafen
Breniervorde
Brent R.
Brentford
Brentwood
Brescia
Breslau
Bressay
Bressuirc
Brest
Bret ague
Breteuil .
Brett C.
Brevcnts .
Brian^on
Briansk
Briare
B] id.enorth
Bridgeport .
Bi-id-eton
Briiigi'town .
Brid^ewater
liridgewater C.
Bridp..rt .
Bridlington .
Brie C'oiute Robert
Briec .
Brieg . 374,
ISrirnnc le Chateau
Uriel
Bricy
Brighton . 250,
Briu-nclles . .
Briliuega
Brilon
Brindisi ,
Brinon
Brionde
Briiiuibec
l!ri.~ach
Bri>t.d . 257,
llristol B.
Brives lu Gaillarde
Brix
Brixen
Brixhani
Brixlegg .
Broadstairs
Brock
Broekville .
lirod .
Brody
Broken Islands
Broken B.
Brond)erg
Bromley
BromoMt .
Bronisgrove .
Brondolo .
Bronte .
IJrooklyn
liru.piies
Brosely
Bruu
Broughton
Brow 11.
Brown I". .
Brown Strait
Browiiston Iliad
Bruehsal
liruek 373, 131,
Bi iiekenau
Brue B.
Bruir
Unigis
Brullle St. Aiiiand
Brumalb
Brune C. .
Bnineekcn
Bruni I, . ■
Brnnn
Brunenii
Urunnwick 416, :
461,
243,
1'i'nrnwiv'k B.
Brusa
Brussels
Bruyeres
Bruxe I.
Bua I. .
Buhry
Buceari
Buchan-ness
Buehi'nan
Bucholz
Biiehorn
Buokehurg
Buekii!i;hani
Bueksfori
Bucciuoy
Buda
liuddaul
lUidrnn
ru.k-e-b.idge
Blldingel\ .
Bndukhshan
liudweis .
Buenos .Ayres
Buenavre 1.
BuiiUlo .
Huttl,h<-n .
Bnir.m C.
ling 1{.
Bwg H. .
Buitiiizoorg
Buitlle .
Bukliarest
Bid;lv. -liord .
Bukkup
r.uKki.r
nulr.iniporo
Buhih.l.-huhr
lii:n:dra .
Buiu-raii.i
lUindleci'ud oi
delklnind
i;ui,.leniir U.
DuniU
Ihniguv
Buiik.r's Ili.l
r.unkle
Bunting I.
Kill liurei'n
Burdnan .
Burg
Burgh-liead C,
Bwigluad
Burgos
Burhampore
Burliaiipore
lturlin,:itcn 91J
Burncys l>le
Burnlrv
Burntisland
Bnri.t Iskm is
Burr.no-
I!iirrnw-hend
Bursl.ni .
Burton
BurlM heid
lUiry St. Kdim
Bin"/, I
Bus.-a
Bo-iii;ih I. .
Blislnrc .
l;n>hniills
Bu-i.nv
Buliinlo
BussMiMh .
ragr
Bii-.
Bo-.i:ird B
lluttriu
Butt o|
Bull ^ .
liult' n
Bulu .<
But w
Binnr
Be»y
980
648
;i82
.^61
751
461
354
458
410
413
232
(150
713
4:2
960
94 J
41.5
981
463
507
612
1.38
7.1.3
547
797
311
2''8
710
271
475
219
.117
574
673
672
313
2s«
■,■63
1028
INDEX OF PLACES.
Byculah .
724
Cam R.
. 182
Cardiff .
. 255
Castille
Mi
Byedera
. 733
Camaiore
682
Cardigan . 255,260
Castillon
351
Byggonbarry
713
Camaran
. 669
Cardigan I.
181
Castine .
942
Bylan Pass .
. 652
Camaret .
316
Cardinaux L .
. 317
Castlebar .
309
Byragurh
72G
Cauibay G. .
. 682
Cardona
548
Castle Bellingham
313
Byron C.
. 981
Cambay
728
Cardross
. 271
Castle Blakeny
t*.
Bytown
Oil
Camberwell .
. 250
Carentoir
. 354
Castle Blaney •
ib.
Cambi I. .
974
Carenton .
354
Castlecomer . 308, 313
c
Cambo
. 35l>
Cargill .
. 271
Castle Derg
313
Cambon
353
Carhaix
350
Castleaiaine
U>.
Cabenda
S.'iS
Cambodia
. 748
Cariaco .
. 953
Castlereagh B.
9hO
Cabeza do Buey
. 545
Cambray .
355
Carical
736
Castlerea
313
Cable C .
1004
Cambridge
232, 942
Carignano
. 674
Castle Rising
311
Cabrach
. 271
Cambridge G.
980
Carinthia .
435
Castieton . 235
, 272
Cabrera I.
533
Cambuslang
. 272
Carli
. 725
Castle Townshend
313
Cabul
. 676
Cambusnethan
. 272
Carlingford 294, 308
Castlewellan
ib.
Caceres
550
Camden Sound
980
Carluke
272
Castres
360
Cachar .
. 716
Camerino
. 585
Carlisle . . 234,945
Castrl
Giy
Cachemere
734
Cameron .
273
Cariow
308
Castro .
965
Cadaquea
. 648
Cameroons M.
. 850
Carlsbad
. 442
Castro-giovanni
591
Cadder
272
Campan
356
Cariscrona
499
Castrovillari .
688
Cadenet
. 360
Campanella C.
. 559
Carslruhe
. 410
Casvin or Casbin
671
Cadcrousse
ih.
Campbell C.
1004
Carlstadt .
499
Catalonia
545
Cadiz
. 549
Campbell I. .
1009
Carmel .
. 640
Catamarca
957
Cado L.
883
Campbelton S
93, 1002
Carmel M.
652
Catania
591
Cadore .
. 680
Campbeltown
283
Carmichael .
. 272
Catanzaro
689
Caen
349
Campechd
. 952
Carniunnock
272
Cataraguay R.
878
Caerlavrock
271
CampechiS B.
876
Carmylie
. 271
Catastrophe C.
981
Caerleon
. 243
Camperdown
. 390
Carnac (France)
355
Caterline
271
Caffraria .
861
Campobasso
588
Carnac (Egypt)
. 830
Cathcart .
272
Cagliari
. 577
Campo-formio
. 580
Carnatic ».
721
Catmandoo .
734
Cagnes
360
Campo-grande
556
Carnbee .
. 273
Catmose .
246
Cagoletto
. 675
Carapsie
272
Carndonagh
313
Catoche C. .
877
Cahir
310
Campsie hills
. 159
Carnew .
. 313
Catskill .
943
Cahirciveen .
. 313
Camraigne
749
Carnsore Point
294
Cattaro
461
Cahors
3o3
Cana
, 652
Carnwath
. 272
Cattegat .
476
Caicus R.
. 648
Canada
902
Carolina
550
Caucasus
628
Caipha
652
Canandaigua
. 944
Carolinas L
. 1014
Caucasia7i Isthmus
781
Cairnbulg II.
. 262
Canandaigua L.
883
Caromb
360
Caucasus M.
781
Cairnie
273
Cananore
. 723
Carouge
. 375
Caudan
354
Cairnonterrel
. 352
Canar
954
Carora
953
Caudebec
359
Cairo (Italy)
674
Canara
. 721
Carpathians M.
153
Caudry .
355
Cairo ( Grand)
. 828
Canary Islands
551
Carpentaria( Gulf of ,980
Caumont
360
Cairo (Am.)
947
Canaveral C.
. 877
Carpentras
360
Caussade
360
CairstoD
. 271
Cancale
352
Carpi
. 581
Cauterets .
356
Caithness .
284
Candala
. 725
Carrara.
ib.
Cauvery R. .
684
Calabozo
. 953
Candas
360
Caribbean Sea
. 876
Cauveryporam
722
Calahorra
547
Candelay L.
. 739
Carrickfergus .
309
Caux
352
Calais
356, 942
Candia I.
613
Carrick-on-Shannon 309
Cava .
588
Calantan .
752
Canesus L. .
. 883
Carrick-on-Suir
. 310
Cavaillon
360
Calatayud
. 548
Canine
585
Carriden .
272
Cavan
309
Calatrava
545
Canisbay
. 271
Carrington .
. 271
Cavarzere
579
Calcaud
. 722
Cannas
588
Carrion
545
Cavers
272
Calcutta .
713
Cannes
. 360
Carr-rock
. 263
Cavite .
977
Caldas do Geres
. 556
Cannstadt
409
Carrolton .
947
Cawdor
273
Caldas da rainhi
I 655
Canobie
. 272
Carron .
. 291
Cawnpore
720
Calder R.
. 182
Canouge
720
Carsphairn
272
Cayenne .
958
Q^lder
272
Canosa
. 588
Carstairs
. 272
Cayeux
360
^Ideras
faldew R,
. 953
Canossa
581
Cartago
953
Caylus
360
182
Canso C.
. 877
Cartaret C. .
. 316
Cayman
963
Caldiero
. 680
Canso Harbour
912
Cartilage . 847, 944
Cayuga L.
883
Caldy I. .
181
Cantal
342, 348
Carthagena 549, 954
Cazeres
351
Calebar
. 857
Canterbury .
. 239
Cartier I. .
981
Cazoules lesBezieres 352
Calenzana
349
Cantin C.
803
Carupano
. 953
Cebazat
356
Calf of Man I.
. 181
Canton .
. 768
Carvin-Epinoy
366
Cefalonia
621
Calhuacan
951
Canvey I. .
180
Casale
674
Cefalu .
691
Calicut
. 723
Cape Breton
. 912
Cascaes .
. 664
Ctlano L.
561
California G.
876
Cape Coast Cast
le 856
Caserta
587
Celebes I.
977
California
. 951
Cape Corse
349
Cashel . 310, 313
Celle
417
Calimere C.
682
Cape Haytien
. 962
Cashgar
. 771
Cellerfeld
417
Callao .
. 954
Cape Horn
965
Cashmere .
734
Celles
356
Callas
360
Cape L'Agulhas
. 867
Caskets I. . 181, 256
Celorico
554
Callen .
.313
Cape of Good II
ope 867
Cascade Pt.
1004
Ceram I.
977
Callendar .
313
Capelshamm
499
Caspian Sea . 522, 632
Cercina I.
838
Callender
. 271
Capetown .
867
Cassaba
647
Cerdon
347
Calliaqua
963
Cape Verde I.
. 870
Cassel . . 355,411
Ceres
271
Callinger
. 718
Capo di ponte
580
Cassina
857
Cereste
347
Callington
234
Capo d' Istria
. 441
Cassius M.
. 628
Ceret
357
Callumpton .
. 311
Cappoquin
313
Castanheira
664
Cerigo
621
Calmar
499
Capraia I.
. 559
Castelamare .
. 587
Cernay
357
Calne
. 312
Capri 1.
559
Castel-gandolfo
584
Certosa
578
Calpentyn
738
Capricorn C.
. 981)
Castellanue .
. 347
Cervera . 545
,548
Calpie .
. 718
Capua
588
Castello liranco
554
Cervetere
5H5
Caltanisetta
591
Caputh .
. 271
Castellon de la Plana 549
Cervia .
685
Caltura
. 738
Cass6 le Vivien
354
Castellorizo
650
Cervin Mt.
375
Caluire et Cuire
357
Caracas .
. 953
Castelnau . 348, 353
Cesena .
585
Caluso
574
Caraldstone
271
Castelnaudary
. 348
Ceton
355
Calvados
342, 348
Caramania .
. 647
Castelnuova 574, 581
Cette
352
Calvi
349
Carawatty R.
684
Castel-Sarrasin
360
Ceuta
551
Calvisson
. 351
Carcassone .
. 348
Castelvetrano .
592
Ceylon I.
736
Calw
409
Carcei
360
Castera Vivent
. 351
Cezimbra
£55
INDEX OF PLACES.
1029
Cliab . . .672
Chabenil . 350
Chablais . . 675
Chablis . . 361
Chabris . . 352
Chackie . . 714
Chad L. . . 851
Chagny . . 357
Chagres . . 954
Chalabre . . 348
Chaldwa . . 639
Chalky Port ' . 1004
Challans . . 360
Chalonnes . 353
Chalons sur Marne 354
Chalons sur Saone 358
Cham . . .371
Chamalieres . 356
Chambery . . 676
Chambly . . 911
Chanibon . . 353
Chambord - 352
Chanibouline . 349
Chamouni . 676
Champagne . . 341
Champagney . 357
Champagnole . 352
Champlain L. . 883
Champlitte et le Pre-
lot . . . 357
Champniers . 348
Chandah . . 726
Chandernagore . 714
Cbandpore . 713
Changmai . . 749
Channelkirk . 272
Cbanoiiry . . 271
Chantibon . 748
Chantilly . . 355
Chaource . . 347
Chapel- of- Garioch 272
Chapelle-basse-nier 353
Chapelle(La) . 3i8
Charcas . . 954
Charente . 342, 348
( harente R. . 317
Charenton le pont 358
Charitie . . 3.55
Charlemont . 313
Charleroy . . 384
Charles C. . 877
Charles Point 1004
Charleston . 946
Charlestown 942, 963
Charlesville . . 347
Charlieu . , 363
Charlottenburg . 471
Charlottetown 960, 963
Charlotteville . 912
Charlottes-ville . 945
t harmes . . 361
Charoles . . 3.")7
Charioux . . 347
( liartn-s . . 350
Chazelles sur Lyon 3.53
Chateaubriand . 3o3
C bateau Chinon . 3bb
Chateau du Loir XW
Chateaudun . 3o0
Cliateau-(iontier . 354
( hateaulin . 350
Chateau-neuf-sur-
Cher . . 349
(hateau-nenf . 3.').')
Cliatcau I'onxit . 361
(^iiattau Porcien 347
C'hateau-Kenard 3-lS
( bateau Henaud . 3.52
ChateaurDUX 347,352
(bateau Satins . 354
(l.atoau-Tbierry . 347
Cbatellerault . 3<il
(.'batonois . . 3.'>6
Chatham . 239,912
Chatham C. . 981
Chatham 1. . KXJ'J
Chatillon . . 3.V2
< hatillon-sur-Lison X'M
Chatillon- sur- Loing 353
Chatillon-sur-Ueine 349
Chatswortb . . 235
Chaudes Aigues
Chautfailles
Chaufsade
Chaumont
Chauny .
Chaussey L
Chau de fond
Chaves
Cheam .
Chedabucto
Cheduba L
Che-kiang
Chellaston
Chelmsford
Chelsea .
Cheltenham
Chemille
Chemnitz .
Chenab R.
Chenecy
Chenivari
Chepstow .
Cher
Cherasco
Cherbourg
Cheribon
Cherpoolcherry
Cherry I.
Chertsey
Cherwell R.
Chesapeak B.
Chesil Bank
Chesme
Ches-iie
Chester
Chesterfield
Chesterlield I.
Chester-leStreet
Chesuncook L.
Cheviots M.
Chevreuse
Chevy C'iiace
Chiavara
Chiavenna
Chicago
Chichaldinsk I.
Chichester
C'hiclana
Chidley C.
Chisti
Chilaw .
Chili
Chilka L.
Chilkalurpadu
Cbillambarum
Chillii.jiliam
Cbilluiiibrum
Chilniary .
Cliilniinar
Chiloe I.
Chillon
Chiinborazo M.
Cbiniora
dim- India
China
Chin-Gliew
Chincbilla
Chincboor
Chinglcput
Chiiig-Kiang-fou
ChinK-hae
Cbiiik .
Chinon
Chinoor
Chiii-sl.arr I.
Chinsiira
Chiog^'ia .
Chi| pel. bam
Chirii.-ide
Chirrapui Joe
Chi-wick .
Chilriil
Cliittagoiig
ChltteMroog
Chittore
Cbitlra .
( hiuHa
('liiusi
Clii^a
Cbivafso
Choczim
242,
348
357
3.55
354
347
317
375
554
250
912
716
754
235
237
942
238
363
415
C83
350
347
243
, 349
574
354
976
722
4b6
250
181
876
181
647
375
,94.5
235
875
311
883
1.59
3,58
245
575
575
947
902
2.50
5.50
877
688
736
954
685
722
723
244
723
713
672
L65
374
874
611
742
7.53
7»i«
649
725
722
72.)
7311
Choisy le Roi
3.58
Clipperton's I. .
965
ChoUet
3.53
CKgheen .
313
Cholula
951
Clogher .
. ih.
Chooroo
731
Clogher head
. 2JH
Chorley
311
Clonakilty
313
Chorum
649
Clones .
. ih.
Choucheh
7H4
Cloncurry .
ih.
Chouchouk
733
Clonmel
. 310
Choiii K.
776
Clonniiness
313
Choulim K.
788
Closeburn
. 273
Choung
733
Cloudy 15 .
Clougli point
1003
Chowsar •
714
. 263
Chouze sur Loire .
352
Clovne
313
Christchurch .
312
Clumber
. 245
Christiania ".
503
Clunie
271
Christiania-fiord
138
C'luny
272, 3.57
Christiansuiid
504
Clyde R. ,
262, 998
Christiansand .
ib.
Clyne .
271
Christiansborg
856
Clvthness
. 262
Christianstadt 499
964
Clywyd, H.
ls2
Chrudim
442
Cnidus .
. 6.50
Chucuito .
9.54
Coalport
246
Chudleigh
311
Coban
. 9:.3
Chuquisaca
954
Cobl>e
857
Chuljshman R.
788
Cobbam
. 2..0
Cbunibul R.
684
Coblentz
474, 373
Chumpancor
732
Coblenz
415
Chunarghur
72U
Coburg .
. 415
Chundrapore
716
Cobourg
. 911
Chiiprah .
714
Coburg P.
981
Cbur
373
Cocab L
. 752
Churchhill
1009
Coeliabainba
964
Chusan L
751
Cuchin
. 727
Cicacole
722
< iicl.nichina
. 748
Cilly
431
Cockburn Sound 9nO
Cincinnati
917
Cockburnsi>ath
. 271
Cinque Ports
2:i9
Cockeni:ie
31 i
Cintegabelle
a51
Cuokerniouth
. 235
Cintra .
5.55
Cocker R.
Im2
Ciotat
348
Cockpen
. 271
Chippenday .
912
Coel .
71li
Circars i Northern)
722
CcEle Svria
. 640
Circassia
78.5
Cottin H. .
98' 1
Circelo C. .
.551/
C..:,>'esliall .
. 237
Circular Head
91)9
Cognac
349
Cirencester 238
,311
Coinibatoor
722
Cirey .
3.51
Coiinbra
. 556
Cirta
846
Coire
373
Citta-no\a
411
Coiabah
. 724
City.point
915
CulairL. .
6x5
Ciuda.l Real
647
C.ilar .
. 722
Ciudad Rodrigo .
647
Collirandspath
271
Civita Casttllana,
58.)
Colcboter
. 2.W
Civita Vecchia
ih.
<oldfurd .
311
Civitella del Tronto .588
Coldingbam
. 271
Civray
361
CoMit/.
41.
Clackmannan
2>*5
Cold>t(jiic
• 2^.
Clagcnturtli
440
( Oldtitn am
2"
Clairac .
353
Colebruok Dale
. 211.
Clairvaux .
317
Cohraine .
.'»ii9
Claniecy
3,".5
Col.roon R.
. t.!<4
Clapham .
250
Coligny
375
Clare
313
(■..Hilda
. 713
( lare I
2!t4
Colint.in .
271
Clarence L. .
998
C.dlnce
. 273
Clarence Peak .
870
Cul|..Hsie .
271
(Clarence Strait 67;
, 9s0
Collier H.
. 9M»
Clarendon K.
8K()
Collioure .
3vi
Clarens
374
< iil!.)i.ii res
. 3'.0
Clary
3.55
Colb.n
M.t
Clatt .
271
Colniar
. .•■57
Clausen .
4:.4
Colmar.i
317
Clay .
213
Ci.lnienar
. .515
(.'iazomentB .
617
( i-lmciiell
273
(bar C. and I.
2! '4
( i.lne
. 311
Ckder .
,■(.50
C.il.ignc .
474
( Icgncrcc .
354
C.d.Kl.b.!.
. ;».-.8
Cle..-b .
271
<-..l..n.l.o .
7.5H
Clerk I.
liH.;/
0.l.,mu,
. 9 3
(Iirk's Island
7:<7
< ..l..nla Sai-ram
•nl..;'57
Cleriiioiit . .^52
. .■(55
( <d..nMH C. .
619. 1.21
Clerniiint-l'iTraiiJ
.kVi
Col.inxlo K.
HO
Cleveland .
i'47
Cohimbnt.-. 1.
.5.0
Cleveland H.
ilHO
( .>luiiil.in DiHtr
<t 941
( l.velnnd C.
9s<P
Collllubi* .
.<!'. 949
eleven
474
C..|..i>.bia K.
. KHi
Cl.w bay .
2-14
( ..liiml.ia K.v f
lixU
( licby la Garenne
XM
( ..liiinl.iix
'46. ;'47
Clilton .
•i.ix
<'..lt.nd .
•271
Cli«i..i .
4''l
(nIvill.'C. .
1(1.4
CllfW.n .
3.-4
( ulXlun
311
1030
INDEX OP PLACES
Comayagim .
fi-.3
Cork Head .
. 294
Conibacomiin .
7-.>3
Corleono .
591
Combelle
3.-.(;
Cornions
. 434
Combe-Martin .
311
Cornells
976
Comblcs
oGO
Corner Inlet
. 980
Combourg
352
Corneto
585
Comenda
85(i
Cornwall
234,911
Coninierco
;m7
Cornwall C.
180
ConiorcoUy .
713
Cornwallis I.
1009
Comillah .
713
Coro
. 953
Coniines
355
Coromandol
721
Comino
592
Coronata I. .
. 461
Commasaie .
855
Corran of Ardg
DUr 270
Commcntry
347
Corregglo
581
Coinmerey .
354
Correze
342, 349
Como
578
Corrib L.
295
Coino L.
5(;()
Corrientes C.
803, 877
Comobo I.
974
Corrientes
. 956
Oomorin C. .
fi82
Corsena
582
Comoro I.
8G9
Corseul .
. 349
Compiegne .
355
Corsica
342, 349
Compostella
547
Corsill point
263
Comrie
289
Corso C.
. 559
Comptah
72G
Corstorphine
271
Comulmere .
730
Cortacliy
, 272
Concan
7'23
Cortailod .
375
Concepcion .
954
Corte
. 349
Concord
942
Cortona
582
Coiidachy
736
Corunna
. 647
Condapilla
722
Cosenza
588
Condat .
348
Cosseir .
. 830
Conde
355
Coswig
416
Conde sur Noircau
348
Cossinibazar .
. 713
Condom
351
Cossyah
716
Condrieu .
357
Custa liica
. 953
Cone
355
Cotamalie
739
Coney T.
807
Coteau-du-lac
. 911
Conflans
570
Cote d' Or
342, 349
Contlans Sainte Ho
_
Cotes du Nord
342, 349
norine
358
Cotignac
. 360
Confodah
644
Cotswold M.
237
Confolens
348
Coueron
. 353
Congleton
311
Coul .
272
Congo
853
Coupang .
977
Congoon
072
Courbevoie .
. 358
Coni
574
Courmayeur
575
Conjiveram
722
Cournon
. 356
Conn L.
295
Cours
357
Connaught 306
309
Courrieres
. 356
Conneant
947
Coursan
348
Connecticut
941
Courset
. 356
Connecticut R.
879
Courtheson <
360
Conojera I. .
533
Courtisols
. 354
Constance
411
Courtray .
384
Constantia (Ind.)
727
Contois .
. 785
Constantina
816
Coutances .
354
Constantino
948
Coutommiers
. 358
Constantinople
607
Couvet
375
Consuegra
545
Cove
. 313
Contin
271
Coventry .
251
Conway
255
Covilhan
. 556
Conway R. .
182
Covington
. 271
Cooks I. .
877
Cowpens .
946
Cook's Islands
1015
Coylton
. 271
Cook's Strait .
1003
Cracow
530
Coorg .
721
Cradock
. 867
Cootehill .
309
Cradoo L.
. 855
Copenhagen .
482
Craig .
271
Copet
374
Craigie .
. 271
Copeland I. .
294
Craigleith 1.
263
Copnaliow-hoad
203
Craignish
. 272
Coppemiina K.
881
Crail .
288
Coquet I. .
180
Crailing
. 272
Coquet R.
182
Craniond I.
263
Coquimbo
954
Cramond
271, 280
Coral Sea
1010
Cranborne
311
Corbach .
413
Cranbrook
. ib
Corbeil
359
Cranganore
722
Corbigny .
355
Cransac
. 347
Coroubion B.
533
Cranshaws
271
Cordes
300
Cranstoun
. ib.
Cordouan I. 317
, 352
Craon
354
Cordova . 550
,956
Craponne
. 353
Corea
772
Crathie
. 27-2
Corfe-Castle
311
Crawford .
(■/'.
Corfu
621
Crawford-John
. ib.
Coringa . 722
723
Crecy sur Serrc
347
Coringa I.
740
Crediton •
311
Corinth
620
Creetown
. 313
Corisco Bay .
858
Crcil
355
Cork . 233
309
Crcilsheim .
. 409
Cremioux
352
Cuvier I.
. 1004
Cremaon
. 571'
Cuxhaven
420
Crescent L.
998
Cuzco
. 954
Cressy
355, 300
Cygnet B.
980
Crest
. 350
Cyprus I.
. 641
Creuse
342, 350
Cyrene
848
Creuse C.
. 5:!3
Cysoing
. ai5
Creusot
357
Cyzlcus
048
Creutzburg .
. 416
Czarskocclo
. 5'>5
Crevecoeur
355
Czernowicz
444
Crichton .
271, 286
Czervenicza
. 457
Cricklade
. 252
Criech
271
D
Crieff .
. 289
Crimea
528
Dacca
714
Crimond
. 271
Uafar .
. 614
Cr oatia
446
Daghestan
785
Croia .
. Cll
Dago I.
Danalac I.
. 5(K)
Croix Rousse
. 357
83i>
Croker's I.
. 981
Dahomey
. 855
Cromarty
290
Uailly
271
Cromdale
. 270
Dairsie
. 271
Cromer
311
Uakki
834
Cromford
. ib.
Dalarossie
•>72
Cronstadt
524
Dalavich .
'ib.
Crooked h. .
. 883
Dalgety
. 271
Crookhaven
293
Dalhem
384
Crossmichael
. 272
Dalbousie
. 912
Crotoy
360
Dalhousie Castl
0 286
Crow Head .
. 294
Dalkeith .
ih.
Crowland .
311
Dalkey I.
. 294
Crown Point
. 943
Dal L.
734
Croy
. 273
Dallas .
. 272
Croydon
. 249
Dalmatia .
461
Crozon
350
Dalmellington
. 271
Cruden
. 271
Dahneny .
272
Crummock L.
182
Dalmeta
. 843
Csaba
457
Dairy
272
Csepel I.
. 446
Dalrymple
. 271
Ctesiphon
656
Dalserf
272
Cuba
. 960
Dalton .
. 272
Cuckmere R.
182
Dalziel
272
Cuckfield
. 312
Dam
. 472
Cucuta
954
Damascus .
653
Cuddalore
. 723
Damaun
. 735
Cudda-pah
722
Dambach .
366
Cuen a .
545, 954
Damietta .
829
Cuers
. 300
Dammartin .
. 368
Cufa
656
Dampier's Arch
ipel-
Cuges .
. 348
ago
. 981
Cuiscaux
357
Dampier Strait
. 1010
Cuisery
. 357
Danaikencontah
722
Culm
443
Danemora
. 499
Culna
. 713
Dan-gali .
733
CuUoden .
28S
Dangerous Arch
ipe-
Cults
. 271
lago
. 1015
Culpee
713
Danish I. .
964
Culross
. 289
Danodhar .
730
Culsalmond
272
Dantzic .
. 473
Cultcr .
271
Danube R.
392
Cumana
953
Danville :
. 942
Cumanacoa
. 953
Daoodputra
. 732
Cumania .
448
Daoudnagur
714
Cumberland
. 234
Dapourie
. 625
Cumberland St
870
Dara .
655
Cumberland
945
Darabgherd .
. 672
Cumbernauld
. 272
Darahnuggur
. 718
Cumbertrees
271
Darapooram
722
Cumbraes
. 284
Darawal
. 732
Cumnock
271
Darbungah
714
Cunlhaut
. 356
Dardanelles .
. 5Sfi
Cupar- fife
2S7
Darent R.
181
Cupar-angus
. 272
Dar-Fnr
. 857
Curachee
731
Dariel Pass
781
Curaooa
. 9C0
Darjeling
. 727
Curia-muria G
659
Darlington
236
Curische-haf
. 462
Darmen R. .
. 182
Currackpore
714
Darmstadt
412
Current Basin
1003
Darnetal
. 359
Currie .
. 271
Darra
713
Curruckdeah
714
Dar Szaleli .
. 857
Curzola I.
. 461
Dartmouth
236
Cushnie
271
Daridin .
. 947
Cusset .
. 347
Das Barbas C
803
Cutch
729
Dassen I. .
867
Cutch-Gundav,
I . 677
Dattenberg .
. 475
Cuttack
715
Dauder
078
Cutterah
. 718
Daventry
. 214
Cuttin L.
295
Davercondah
725
Cutwa
. 713
Daviot .
. 27i
Cuvier C.
981
Davis' Straits .
906
INDEX OF PLACES.
1031
182,218,
248,
803
Dayton
Deadman Point
Dead Sea .
Deal
Dean Forest
Deanston
Deben R. .
Debod .
Debreczin
Decize
DeeR.
Deedwal
Deedwana
Deedwanaa L.
Deeg
Deer
Deerfleld .
Deerness
Deesa
Degendorf
Degerando C. .
Deligong
Dehiee
Dehli .
Dehra
Deir Antonios
Deir Bolos
Deir-el-kamar
Delagoa B. . 860,
Delamere Forest .
Deliiware
Delaware B.
Delaware R.
Delcarmen .
Delemont
Delft
Delftshaven
Delf-zjl
Delgado C. .
Delhi
Delli
Dellsperg .
Delly .
Delmenhorst
Delonia
Dt'loraine
Delphi .
Dolting
Delvenau R.
Delviiio
Deniavend M.
Demb<'a L.
Dtnieiif'alva
Demigny .
Dcinniin
Deniotica
J)enain
Dcndcrah
Dtiiia
Deniiio
Dciiniiirk
Diiiny
D'Knlrecasteaiix C
D'Kiitrecasteaux 1
lAol.UIl
D.i.t'biir
Dc-..!.-.
li(l.tlV>rd
i>cra-di en-[iunah
1'' ra-glia/i-Klijin
IHrii-iMiijicl-khan
l>iTaivch .
I>.il.."nt
I I.: by
I'lnii.-mi
DcrK I..
I»crr
J'cniah
l)i rrv
Dcrivciit K. Is;
Iicrwciitwater I..
I>i saiK'xs .
I)i".inlt B. .
Dt^inzano
J>.sktMrd
I>C'Solaliori I.
Dc^poto-dagh -
U«»!>au .
I'-Uni.Id
iJOroit
352
947
180
C43
240
189
289
182
834
457
355
998
733
731
6k5
728
271
942
272
728
407
9!'9
731
719
ib.
721
829
829
6,53
867
189
941
876
879
957
370
390
390
aoi
855
719
ib.
370
719
418
611
1002 i
619
271 I
477
611
671
834
456
357
■iVi
610
355
831
515
273
476
273
Detroit R.
Dettingen
Detwiller .
Deux-ponts .
Deveh boyini
Deventer
Deville les Rouen
Devil's-bridge .
Devizes
Devonport
Devon R.
Devonshire
Devres
Dewas
De Witt's I. .
De Witt Mount
Dewsbury
Deynse
Deyra-dhoon
Dharlac I.
Dhar
Dliaraja
Dharwar
Dholpoor ,
Dhowler
Dhuniterry
Diala R. .
Diamond Harbour
Didihona I. .
Die .
Dieppe .
Dicrnstein ,
Diessenhoffen
Diest
Dietrichstein
Dietz
Dieu-le-fit .
Dieuze
Dignano
Digne
Digoin .
Dijon
Dillenburg
Dilli . . 719
Dillingon
Dilnian
Dinan
Dinant
Uinapore
Diiiagepore
Din.liL'ul
l>illdill^' I.
Dingle
Dingle Bay
Dingwall
DiiiKcI-l.uhl
Dioniodes I. .
Dios-giar
Direction C.
Direction Mount
Dirleton
Dirk Ilartog's \.
l>i>appoiiitiiiciit I.
Di.seov.ry I!.
Dismal Swamp
Di.-stntis
Din . . 735,
Din head
Di.\-('i)ve .
Divarbekr .
Dizlul
Dizy le Cros
Djocjooarta
Dn( ipir H.
DiH-ijter l£.
Doal) .
Dolicran
I)i,lKln
D.iIkMow
D..hiiit/.a
D<,bortfeo
Doil.liiigton Rock
Dn.wth
Dofre-lield
Dol..
Dollar
Dollart
Dol.,
D'llphiiigton
DulpliiiiH-iio
Doiiiaisc
882
409
356
409
650
391
35y
371
252
2:(5
182
235
356
728
999
99S
253
3m3
733
726
673
714
lOfU
3.50
359
438
373
383
420
413
3.50
354
441
347
357
319
413
977
408
67(»
319
3-(4
irjn. :
Doman-tagh . 648
Domesnet C. . 506
Donifront . . a55
Dominica I. . 96>o
Domremy . . 361
Domo d'bssolo 574
Donaghadee . 3o^t
Doi.au worth . 4o5
Donard . . 313
Dunaueschingen 411
Doncaster . 254
Doiutra . . 7;w
Donegal . 294, 313
Doncraile . . 313
Donetz R. . 507
Dongo . . . 578
Dongolu . . H.33
Dungurpore . 731
Donuai R. . 742
Donnas . . 574
Donninuton . 311
Donnybrook . 3'iS
Don R. . 182, 5(I7
Donzenac . . 349
Donzy . . 3.')5
Doopaud . . 722
Dur . . . OMi
Dorak . . • 672
Dorat . . 3<il
Dorchester . . 236
Dordogne . 342, 350
Dordogne R. . 318
Dores . . . 272
Dorjeeling 727
Dorking . . '250
i Dorlisheim . ,3.)6
Dornacli . . 357
Dornbirn . 434
: Dornoch . . 291
I Dornoch Firth . 262
• Dornock . , 271
Dorpat . . 6.i5
i Dorre I. . . 981
Dorsetshire . 236
Dort . . . 3li0 1
Dortmund . 474 ;
Dotis . . . 457 I
Douai . . 355 [
Douarnenez . . 316 j
Double Point . 9-o !
Double Sandy Point 9;'9 i
Doubs . 312, 351)
Doubtful B. . !i'0 !
DoudeviUe . . 359 '
Done . . 3.V{
Douglas . 256, '.^72
Douglas R. . . 1x2 •
Duukns . .■i60 1
Domie . . . '2V) 1
Dourdan . . 35K I
Douro R. . . .513
l>ovc R. . . \s>
Dover . 2:i9, 942, 9 15 ;
Di.vev (ir Dyli K. Is2
Dowally . . ■-■71
Do.\latabad . 7J'l
Downpatrick . .'Id'i
DoVMie It. . . 179
Dnieli.nhohlc . -I.Ji
I iraguiu'iian . .'<' o
Dr:igon(ra . 6.1
DiML'oneia I. . 5:i !
Dniiny . . 271
Dninia . . . 610
i ir.-ininieii . .'.o,')
Drive R. . . 4 15
Drci-born . . S. J.
Droi>^iL'ac';er . II ■
Drinlbe
Dreux . . . .'I."
Dr. vien . 41 I.'' 1,'
Dril.urg . .171
DriHiel.l . . .ilJ
Droehobicz . .4 11
l»r.iKli.da . . .■!'■'
Dr.iitwich - '^■'-
Drome . .tl.'. :..')
Dnim..larv .M. . I'^l
Dr ore . . 31. i
Dr.;n . . 27 1 ,
Droullaiiii •■ •* ;
Drumblade .
273
Drumelzier
1*.
Drumoak
270
Drybur^'h AbK-y
2h«
Dryfosdale
272
Drymen
271
Dublin . . 294
,307
Dubuque
918
Duck B. .
999
Dudden R. .
W>
Duddingston
271
Duderstadt .
417
Dudu'eon Shoal
Iv)
Dudley .
2.".2
DuHus
271
Duino
411
Duirnoss
273
Duirnish
Duisburg .
47 1
Dukagin
611
Duleigno
lb.
Dull
273
Dulmcn
474
Duhvich
2(:(
Dumbarton
•2x5
Duinlilane .
2sy
Dum-dum
714
Dumet I. .
317
Dumfries
285
Dumroy
713
l>un
271
Dunaburg
529
Dunary head
294
Dunbar
2S7
Dunbarney
273
Dunbog
271
Duncannon fort
313
Ducnansbay Head
26-2
Dun.lalk . 291
308
Dundas Strait .
9h0
Dundee .
2S7
Dundonald
271
Duiidurcus .
270
Dunferudino
2^8
Dungannon . 309
313
Dungaree .
724
Dungarvan
3:3
Dungarvon .
310
Dungarvon Bay .
2:.3
Dungeness
ISO
!>uiigi\en
313
Duid<elil .
2M!)
DuMkeld f Little!
271
)unKirk .
3.-..5
Dunleer .
313
Dunliarv . 30-<
313
DMlleek' .
31.1
l)un-le-roi
319
)unlop
272
)uiiiiianus bay
'.'93
>unmanway
313
)uninore ' .
,/,.
Hinmoreliead .
■2;'i
>unm..w
2.1 ;
JUMIIi t
luiUiet ili'ad
..nini.-b.u
?7 1
l>un«i.b .
Dunworli li.nl
|.„l.,r.j:i .
Dur.inn.i
Dii.;.//.. .
D.U'ii .
|.ui.-nlli
l>..lh:il,.
D .il i.. UM .
lMii;,..h
Diir..r
47 1
Kl7
1032
Durranngdra
Durren
Durris
Durrisdeer
Durrow .
Dursley
Durtal
Dusky B.
Dusseldorf
Dutchbank
Suthie
Dutteah
Dutweiller
D'Urville I.
Dvina R. .
Dwaraka
Dyce
Dyke
Dysart
Eagle I.
Eaglesham
Ealing .
Earlaferry
Earl 3 ton
Easingwold
East K.
Eastbourne
Easter I.
Easter Kilmuir
East Maine
INDEX OF PLACES
728
475
270
273
313
238
a53
10(14
474
, 2';3
270 i
. 728
475
1004
506
, 72!)
270
. 272
288
. 294
272
. 243
288
. 284
312
, 999
250
1018
273
902
Eastern Townships 91 1
Easton . .
Eastport .
Eauze
Ebboe
Ebbw-Vale .
Eberbach
Ebersbach
Ebersdorf .
Eberswald
Ebingen
Eboo
Ebro R. .
Ebsambal
Ebsambol
Ebsambool
Ecbataua
Ecija
Eccles .
Ecclesmachen
Eccloo
Echagur
Echo L.
Echt
Eckford .
Ecluse (Fort)
Ecommoy
945
942
. 351
857
. 243
410
. 415
416
. 471
409
. 857
533
. 834
ib.
. ib,
670, 671
550
. 271
272
383
. 714
998
. 272
ib.
. 347
358
Ecourt St. Quentin 356
Eoiador
Edam
Eddertoun
Eddlestone
Eddraehillis
Eddystone
Eddystone Point
Edenderry
Eden R.
Edessa
Edfou
Edgarton
Edgecumbe B. .
Edgehill
Edgeware
Edgeworthstown
Edinburgh
Edinkillie .
Edlip .
Edmonton
Ednam .
Edrom
Edzell .
Eela
Effingham
Eger
Egerdir L.
Egesta
Egga
Eggermuhl
953
390
273
273
ib.
181
999
313
. 182
610, 655
830
. 942
980
. 251
242
308
279
272
651
242
272
271
ib.
771
250
442
644
592
857
471
Egham
Kgin .
Egina I.
Eglisau
Egmont C.
Egnatia
Egnlsheim
Kgripo
Enuilles
Efnipt
Ehiugon
Ehrang
Ehrenbreitstein
Ebningen .
Eibenschutz
Eibenstock .
Eichstadt .
Eider R.
Eidgeer
Eil(>nburg
Eilgundel .
Eimeo 1.
Eimbeck .
Einsiedeln
PMseiiach .
Eisenberg
Eisenerz
Eisenstadt
Eiselben
Ekhmim
El-Arish .
El-Jemm
El-Kbatif .
El-Pao .
El-Realejo
El-Taka L. .
Elba I.
Elbassan
Elbe R. , .
Elberfeld
Elbeuf
Elbing .
Elburg
Elch
Elburz M.
Eleiihanta I.
Elephantine I.
Eleusis
Elgin
Eliealpine Shoal
Elizavetgrad
Elizavetpol
EUesmere
Ellichpore
Elloor .
Ellon .
Ellora .
Elmina
Elne
Elphin
Elsfeld
El-fleth
Elsinore
Eltville
Elvas
Elven
Elwangen
Ely
Emba R.
Enderby's land
Embden
Embrun
Eminabad
Emineh Burun
Emmerich
Ems R.
Encounter B.
Endicen
Enfield
Engadine .
Engers
Engheln
Enghelbert .
England
English Bazar
English Channel
Engurl
Enkhuisen
Enna .
Ennerdale L.
Ennis , •
250
649
620
369
1004
357-
fi20
348
811
409
474
475
409
. 443
413
407
. 477
725
. 472
725
1016
417
, 370
416
. 415
431
. 456
472
. 829
ib.
. 847
664
. 953
953
. 651
559
, 611
394
474
359
, 473
628
, 549
670
, 740
832
, 619
286
, 741
. 528
783
, 246
726
, 722
271
, 726
856
, 356
309
, 415
418
, 482
413
. 555
354
409
233, 288
776
. 1018
417
347
733
596
474
394
980
410
242
373
. 475
359, 384
. 371
177
713
138
650
389
591
182
313
Enniscorthy
Enniskerry I.
Knniskillen
Ens
Enschede
Ensisheim
Entre Rios
Entrovaux
Entry 1.
Enos
Enzillee
Eiiehy .
Eperies
Eporlecques
Epernay
Ephesus
Kphrainitown
Kpinal
Eppiiig
Epsom
Eraclea
Erbach
Erbil
Erce
Erce-en-lamee
Kredia .
Eregli
Erfurt .
Ergelszoll
Erebus, vole
EriboU G.
Erie
Erie L.
Erie Canal
Erivan
Erlangen
Erlau
Ermenonville
Ernani
Erne L.
Ernee
Errol .
Erromango I
Erskine .
Erstein
Erzingan
Erzroum .
Escarbotin
EsoheUes
Eschweillcr
Eschwege
Escurial
Esdratlon
Esher
Eshke
Esk R. .
Eskdalemuir
Eski Sagra
Eski-shehr
Esmeraldas
Esneh
Espalion
Esparsa
Espeja .
Esperance B.
Espicl'.el C.
Espinosa
Essen
Essequibo R.
Essex
Essie
Essington Port
Essling .
E^lingen
Essonne
Essoyes
Estagel
E ste .
Estergom
Esterhaz .
Esterhazy
Estremos .
Estissac
Estrella
Estremadura
Eszek
Etables
Etain
Etaires
Etampes
Etang de Berre
308
294
379
434
391
357
9.-6
347
1(K)4
610
670
3ti0
457
356
354
617
857
, 361
237
250
579
412, 420
650
. 347
352
. 953
618
. 472
431
. 1018
262
945, 947
883
944
784
408
457
3,55
546
295
354
271
1010
273
356
650
ib.
360
576
475
411
546
640
250
831
182
272
610
648
954
830
348
953
. 545
980, 998
533
545
474
882
236
272
997
438
409
358
347
356
580
456
ib.
420
545
317
953
545, 550
. 458
349
354
355
359
348
Etavies
. V^t^
Etaples
356
Etawah
. 718
Etko L. .
816
Etna M.
. 589
Eton .
232
Etreux .
. 317
Etruria
2W
Etelmiiadzin
. 784
Etteriok .
2;<
Kttlingen
. 410
Eu .
360
Eubaea I.
. 6.0
Euganean hills
563
Eubo R.
. 755
Eu:>atoria .
529
Eupon
. 474
Euphrates R.
642
Eure .
342, 350
Eure et Loir
342, 350
Euripus
. 621
Europa Point.
533
Europe
. 137
Eutin
418
Evesham
. 252
Evie .
272
Evora . .
. 555
Evran
319
Evreux
. 350
Evron
354
Ewell ,
. 250
Ewes
272
Exeter .
. 235
Exilles
574
Exmouth
. 236
Exmouth G.
980
Expailly
. 353
Eye .
249
Eyemouth
. 284
Eyguires .
348
Eylau
. 473
Evmoutiers
361
Ejo
. 857
Eyragues .
348
Eyrecourt
. 313
Ezwarali .
848
F
Fabriano
. 585
Faches
355
Fadei I.
. 795
Faenza
585
Falilun .
. 499
Faido
374
Fair Cape
. 98J
Fairhead .
294
Fair Isle
. 263
Fairlie
2S3
Fairport
. <j\l
Fala and Soutr
a 271
Falaise .
. 318
Falerii
585
Faliah .
. 733
Falkirk .
291
Falkland
. 287
Falkland I.
965
Fallow .
. 313
Fall River
942
Falmouth
234, 963
False Bay .
682, 867
Faraagosta .
. 6)1
Famiuh
651
Fanal I.
. 1004
Fano
621
Fano I.
. 476
Fano
5s5
Farewell C. .
. 1004
Farnham .
219
Farnwell
. 271
Faro
556
Far-out-head
. 262
Farquhar C.
9sl
Farr
. 273
Faroe Islands
477
Farringdon .
. 411
Fars .
672
Fatsisio I.
. 800
Faucigny .
575
Faure I. .
. 981
Faversham
340
INDEX OF PLACES.
1033
Fay ...
353 [
Fleurier
. 375
Foulwlnd Cape
1004
Fulham
242
Fayence
3601
Flinders B.
980
Four I.
317
Fullodee •
731
ib.
Fayetterrille
946 1
Flinders I.
. 981
Fourgeray
. 1S2
Fulta
Fayl-BUlot
354
Flinders Point
999
Four Lakes
883
Fiiinav . ,
347
657
857
Fazoslo
834
Flines-les-Raches
355
Foveaux St. .
1004
Funchal
Fazuolo
834
Flisk
271
Foverau
•271
Fundah
Fear C. . . .
877 1
Flitchin
311
Fowey
. 234
Funen I.
476
Fearn
273 !
Flixecourt
360
Fowler's Bay
980
Funf kirchen
458
Fecamp
360 i
Floddeh
. 245
Fowler Point
. 9-1
Fured . ,
ib.
Feejee Islands
1014 \
Florae
153
Fowlis
271
Furneaux I.
. 999
Feistritz
434
Florence . 581,946
Foyle lough .
. 294
Furrah
677
Feldkirch
ib.
Florensac .
352
Fox ford
313
Furruckabad
720
Feldsberg
ib.
Flores I.
. 974
Frails L
. 294
Furstenberg
Furstenfcld .
420
Felujah
&» j
Florida C.
877
Franche Comte
341
. 434
Feineren I. .
476
Florida G. .
. 876
Francisco K.
. 8S2 \
Kurth
4'.>9
Fenain
355
Florida Territory
941
Franconia
108, 520
Fusina
579
Fenestrelle .
574
Flotte (La) .
349
Franeker
. 391
Kultehghur
720
Fenwick .
272
Fluelen
371
Frankenberg
411
Futtehpoor-Sikri
719
Fere-Charapenoise
354
Flushing
. 390
Frankenhausen
. 416
Fuitehpore
Futtehjung
Fuviau
. 733
Fere en 'I'ardenols
347
Fluted C
999
Frankenstadt
443
ib.
Ferganah
Ferlach
779
Fochabers
. 28»
Frankenstein
. 473
. .'!48
440
Fodderty .
271
Frankenthal
40H
Fyvie
373
Feriiioselle
545
Foggla .
. 58S
Frankfort
119,947
Fyzabad
. 779
Fernio
5S5
Fogo
271
Frankfort on the
Fyzabad (.India)
727
Fernioy
313
Fohr I.
. 476
O.ler
471
Fern
271
Foinitza
GVi
Frankland hills
. 99»
G
Fernando NoronhaLyCo
Foil . . 341,347
Fraustadt
47.1
Fernando Po I.
870
Fokia
647
Franzensbrunnen . 442
Gabon
858
Ferney .
347
Fokien
. 754
Frascati
5h4
Gabs
. 847
Fern Islands
180
FoUmbray
347
Fraser R.
. 881
Gatliimit
849
Ferns
313
Foligno
. 585
Fratelli rocks
847
Gaeta
. 5»>t
Ferozepore
720
Folkestone
240
Frauenberg .
. 473
Gage Road
9S0
Ferrara
586
Folvar .
. 458
Frauenfeld
373
Gaillac
. 360
Ferrieres .
347
Fontainebleau .
158
Frautenau
. 442
Gainiara Islands
loot
Ferrul
547
Fontaines
. 357
Frazerburgh
282
Gaingoondaun
. 722
Ferry.port-on-Craig 273
Fontarabla
646
Frederiksord .
. ;'9!
Gainsborough .
212
Ferte-Bernard
358
Fontenay-en-Puisaye
Frederiksborg
482
Gairloek par.
. '272
Firto L. .
446
361
Frederikshald
. 50.i
Gais .
572
Fithard
313
Fontenay le Comte SfJO
Frederikstad
504
Galacz .
. 613
Fetlar
271
Fontenoy
384
Frederick
. 945
Galapagos L
!«i.5
Fi-ttercairn
ib.
Fontvieille
. 348
Fredericksburg
945
Galashiels
. 290
Fetteresso
ib.
Forbach
355
Frederickstlial
. 475
Galatina
.Vs8
Fez
845
Forbes .
. 271
Fredericklon
912
Galatz .
. 613
Fezarah L. . •
838
Forcalquler
347
Frederikliafen
. 410
Galena
947
Ff-zzan
849
Forchenstcin
. 466
Frederikshannn
525
(ialicia (Spain)
. .545
Fidra I. .
2G3
Fordoun .
271
Frederikshavn
. 482
Galiciat Polish)
446
Field M.
998
Fordyce
. 272
Frederikstein
,503
Gallargues
. 351
Fiesole
SSI
Forfar
287
Fre leriksvorn
. I*.
Gallego I. .
965
Fifeshire
286
Forgan
. 273
Freoerik Hendrick's
Gallevhead .
. '^94
Fifeness .
262
Forgandenny
. »6.
B. . . .
999
Gallipoli . .V
18, 610
Figeac .
353
Forglen
ih.
Frederik Henderick
(Jalloper Sand .
180
Figueira .
556
Forgue
. ih.
B.
. ih.
Galstoii .
. ^271
Figueras
548
Forli .
5Ho
Freemantle
997
Galveston City .
949
Fiuies
364
Formentera L
. 5U
Freeman's Nob
. 995
Gal way . 21
4, ;<<)9
Finale .
581
Formosa C.
Sl)3
Free-tone Cove
999
Gambia R.
S51
Finale-marina .
574
Formosa L
. 755
Freh.K'.
. 316
Gambler I.
. 1(118
Fiticastle
f-46
Forrix
2h6
Frii-ing .
407
Gambrim
673
Finchliy .
242
Forrestier C
. 91'9
Fr.JMS
*iO
Gaiiirie .
. 273
Finglas
3!3
ForrL'Stier Point
ib.
FrCnav .
French I. .
. 358
(ian
356
Finham
360
P'ort Armstrong
. 917
9m 1
Gaiulia .
. 515
Fiiiistere . 342, 3/)0
Fort Augusta .
063
Frenehtown .
. 94H
Clanges R.
6-3
Finisterre C.
533
Fort Augustus
. 2'<H
Knncli Itocks
723
(;ang,s . .
. 352
Finland (j.
i:)8
Fort fallioun .
945
I'rf nis .
. 355
Gannpore .
718
Fiunan-ness
2ii2 i Fort Erie
. 912
Frenov le Grand 347
(ianjali
. 7^3
Finsteraar-horn \
. 371) Fi.rteviot .
273
Fresfnrd
. 313
(laiijam
722
Fintona
313 Fort George .
. 28H
Fresnay
316
(iannat
. 317
Fintray
2;0 1 Fortingall
273
Freudenstadt
. i'f.t
(iaiitbeaume B.
!•«')
Fioronzuolo
580
Fort Jackson
. 947
1 Frevi nt
.356
Ganthiaiime P»ll
t ;.si
Firininy
3.S3
Fort Monri'e
915
Freylierg
. 414
G.p . . .
.347
FIrn.y
348
Fort N<.rtulk
. 9!2
j I rev burg .
Frcystadt
411
<;anl . . 3
42. 3.1 1
Firozeabad
672
Fort Philip
947
. 434
(; .rda L. .
um
Firth
271
Fort Uotttrdam
. 977
Krcywaldau
443
(Jarduiue
. 34 S
Firtli of Forth
2*i2
Fort Koval
9t;4
Fricdherg
. 412
Gardiner .
942
Fir.iz-koh
671
Fort Vancouvi r
. 91H
Fri.d.ok .
443
(iar.loch
. 2-5
Fish River
881
! Fort \\ illiam
288,714
Friedland
418, 473
GnrtfUiuiock
•273
Fittre L. .
8-.1
1 Forte'ipie B.
. !«<9
1 I'riciiilly Ixtand
» 1015
(;arii p R
. s';6
Fiunie
4.')8
Fortiliid Island
710
FTi.T>s-Fuillou(
1 317
Garigliuno R.
.V.(l
Fiumicino
5H»
, Fosa
. 27.) Frio C.
H77
(lar.iiine . 3
12, .r.i
Five Mile Bluff
'Ml
Fo-sano
574
Fribouri^
. .371
Garonne H.
318
Fladslrand
482
Fossaway
. 271
Fri.sland
:Wi
Garron Point
. '262
Flanianville C.
316
Fostat
828
1 Fringy Bazar
71.1
Ga.tly
•271
Flamborough H.
180
F<jtherlngBy .
. 244
Frische-baf .
. 462
(Jnrtopo
. 773
Flanders 341,37
6, 3->l
Fouesnant
.V)0
Frobiiher Strai
»<76 GKr\iik-h
313
Flatholm I.
IHl
I Fouf
. 6<;4
Fronic
•2 47 (.arval.l
. 272
Flattery C. .
. 9M)
Fougere!! .
x^l
; Frome R.
. 1H2 ; (;i.rvu,-k .
•271
Flat-top I'uint
•JHI
Foiigirolles
. .157
Front! nac
911 «ia«f.i,y
. 311
Flayi)sc
.360
Fi'U iliac .
3i3
Front ignan .
. .'1.2 lia^k C.
271
Fleetwood on- Wyrciovo
Foiild.-n
. 271
Kriislnone
.''Ml
(.u«k
. 673
Flen.sborg
4H2
Foul l-lnnd
716
Knigcs
. X^,
1 Ganl.in
411
Flers .
. 3 5
FouMk, wester
. 27 1
KtlCK.T
4.-0
(;«!« c.
. .'i.U
Fleisellei
360
Foulness 1 .
W>
1 ulda
. 412
, Gatcliina
524
lOU
INDEX OF PLACES.
Gatehouse of Fleet 313
Giessen
412
Gombroon
073
Graulhet
360
Gateshead
. 23«
Gifford .
. 312
Gommi Passage
375
Grave
390
Gatrone
84<J
Gigha and Cara 272
Gonasser
710
Gravelincs
355
Gattoii .
. 249
Giglio I.
. 559
Gondar
830
Gravesend
240
Gavl .
574
Gignac
352
Gonesse
358
Gravosa
461
Gawiilgurh
. 72(5
Gijon
Gilead
545, 547
Gonnehem
a50
Gray
357
Gayau
714
640, 947
Gonfaron
300
Great Fish R. .
805
Gaza
. 654
Gilgit .
. 774
Good-Hope C.
803
Great Grme's Head
180
Gobail
652
Gilnhausen
412
Goodwin Sands
180
Great Swan Port
999
Geel
. 383
Gjlolo I.
. 977
Goolc
254
Greece
014
Geelvink C.
980
Gimont
351
Goonisurgurh
722
Green Bay
882
Geer C. .
. 803
Gincla .
. 348
Gooroodwara .
720
Green C. .
981
Goeza .
820
Gingee
722
Gooty .
722
Greenfield
942
Gefio
49!)
Giovenazzo .
. 588
Goppingen
409
Green I.
999
Geislingen
. 409
Giran .
947
Gorabunder
725
Greenland
966
Geispolsheiin
. 356
Girdleness
. 262
Goragot
713
Greenlaw .
284
Geelong .
. 993
Girgeh
829
Gorcum
390
Greenock
290
Gelderland
386
Girgenti
. 591
Gordon
272
Greenore Point
294
Geldcrn
. 474
Girnar M.
729
Gore I.
797
Green Point
999
Genappe
383
Giromagny .
. 357
Goree I. . 38f
, 855
Greenwich . 224
,240
Generac
. 351
Giron
954
Gorey
313
Greitswaid
472
Geneva
375, 944
Gironde R.
316, 318
Gorgona I.
659
Grein
434
Geneva L. .
364, 883
Gironde
342, 351
Gori
783
Greitz
416
Genoa
575
Girshe .
. 834
Gorlitz
473
Grenada I.
900
Genoa G. .
138
Girsupah .
723
Gort
313
Grenade
351
Gentilly
. 358
Girthon
. 272
Gorz
421
Grenadines .
900
Geographe H.
. 980
Girvan
271,283
Gorze
355
Grendelbruch .
356
Geographe C
980
Gisors .
. 350
Gorice
441
Crenelle
358
Georghievsk
. 787
Gitschin .
443
Gosport
248
Grennah .
848
George I. .
883
Giulia Nuova
. 588
Gosslar
417
Grenoble
352
Georgetown
751, 808
Givet
. 347
Gotha .
415
Grenville C.
980
Georgetown 9
12, 946, 953
Givors .
. 357
Gothland I.
480
Greoux
347
Georgetown
(Afr.) 858
Givry
ib.
Gottenburg .
499
Gretna Green .
285
Georgia
. 941
Gladova
. 612
Gotteschee
434
Grignon
359
Georgia I. .
. 1019
Glass
273
Gottiugen
417
Grim C. .
999
Georgia (As.l
. 782
Gladsmiiir
. 272
Gottorp
482
Grirama
413
Georgian B.
832
Glammis
ib.
Gottweih
434
Grimsby .
242
Georgia I.
. 1015
Glarus .
. 371
Gouda
390
Grimstad
503
Gera .
416
Glasgow
281
Goudet
353
Grindelwald
370
Geraoe .
. 589
Glaslough
. 313
Gouija
771
Grinstead
312
Gerardmer
361
Glasserton
273
Gour .
714
Grindstone B. .
999
Gerheh I.
. 838
Glassford
. 272
Gourdon
353
GrisNezC. .
316
Gerbevilliers
354
Glatz
473
Gourgan R.
673
GrisoUes .
300
Gorgy
. 857
Glauchau
. 413
Gourin .
354
Grisons
373
Germa
849
Gleiwitz
473
Gournay .
359
Groden
431
German Ocea
1 . 138
Glenans
. 317
Gouroch
290
Grodno
629
Gernierslieim
409
Glenarm
313
Gouzeaucourt .
355
Groeden
434
Gernrode
. 416
Glenbervie .
. 271
Govan .
272
Groix I.
317
Gerolstein .'
. 475
Glenbucket
ib.
Gowhatti .
715
Groningen 380
,391
Gerona .
. 548
Glencairn
. 273
Gowrah
313
Groote I. .
981
Gers
342,351
Glencaple
285
Gozo
592
Grosbliederstroff .
355
Gersau .
. 370
Glencross
. 271
Graa I. . . .
669
Gros Nez 0.
310
Gerzat
356
Glendevon
ib.
Grabow
418
Grosseltingen
411
Gespunsart .
. 347
Glenelg
272, 996
Gracias
953
Grossenhayn
413
Gex .
347
Glenholm
271
Graciasa Dios. C.
877
Groseto
582
Geyer .
. 413
Glenisla
. 272
Gradisca
441
Gross-messeritz
443
Ghab valley
640
Glenmore-nan
Grado
ib.
Grosswardein
157
Ghndamis
. 849
Albin
. 260
Craffreynet .
868
Grotto del Cane
503
Ghafsah .
847
Glenmoriston
270
Grafton
947
Grouais I.
317
Gharra R.
. 683
Glenmuick
. 272
Grafton C. .
980
Gruissan .
348
Ghat .
849
Glennies I.
981
Grahamstown .
807
Grunberg
473
Ghauts M.
. 680
Glenorchy
. 272
Grain
664
Grunenplan
416
Ghazespfir
720
GlenR. .
182
Grain Coast
854
Grunz .
417
Ghazipore
. ih.
Glensliiel
. 272
Graitney
271
Gruyeres .
371
Gheeza
828
Glogau
473
Gram at
353
Guadalaxara 547
,951
tlhelonjik
. 785
Glorael
. 349
Grampian M.
158
Guadalcanal
550
Ghenneh .
830
Gloinmen R.
486
Gran .
450
Guadalquiver R. .
534
Ghent .
. 383
Glons
. 384
Granada . 549
, 953
Guadalupe
547
Ghergong .
715
Gloucester
237
Granard
308
Guadalupe R.
880
Gheuljik L.
. 644
(iluekstadt .
. 482
Grand A nee .
310
Guadeloupe I. .
90(1
Ghilan
070
Ghiiras
347
Grandchamp
358
Guadiana R.
534
Gliisoni .
. 349
Giurns
. 434
Grand Chartreuse
352
G uadix
549
Ghiustendil
Cll
Gmund
4(j9, 439
Grand Gulf
940
Gualata
849
Ghiznee .
. 676
Gnesen
. 473
Grandhaven .
948
Guanabacoa
902
Ghoorka
733
Goa .
735
Grand Miquellon
900
Guanacacheo C. .
884
Ghoosghur
. 718
Goal para
. 715
Grandson
374
Guanare .
953
Ghor valley
640
Gobi Desert
630
Grand Vay
310
Guanaxuato .
951
Ghulguleh
. 677
Godalming
. 219
Grandvilliers
354
Guards
554
Ghuiuli
729
Godavery R.
684
Grange
273
Guardaful C.
859
Ghuznee
. 676
Goderich
. 912
Grangemouth
291
Guastalla
580
Giabar
655
Goerz
441
Granja
540
Guatemala
953
Giannuti I.
. 559
Goes
. 390
Gran R.
445
Guanchinango
951
Giant's Cause
way 294
Gohud
718, 728
Grantham 242,
1002
Guayaquil
954
Giaveno
. 574
Golconda
726, 947
Grant Point 981
,999
Guayaquil G.
876
Gibara .
962
Goldberg .
473
Granville .
358
Guben .
471
Giborough
. 312
Gold Coast .
. 854
Grao
548
Gubbio
585
Gibraltar
550, 953
Goldenbridge
313
Grasholm I.
181
Guebersehwihr
357
Gibraltar Poll
It 180
Golfo Uulcc .
. 883
Grasse
300
Gucbwiller
357
(iicch
. 421
Golling
439
Grassmere L. .
182
Guelph
912
Gieii .
353
Golspie
. 271
Gratz
431
Guemcno .
353
Giengen
. 409
Gomabio L.
060
Graudenz .
473
Guer
354
INDEX OF PLACES.
1035
Giicrando .
Gueret .
Guorigny .
Gmriie
Guhiau
Guibray
Giiiclien
Giiiclan
Guicowar
Guuiel .
Giiit'iinc
Guillotiere
Guiiiiaraens
Guiiua
Guines
Guingiimp
Guipavas .
Guipry .
Guipuscoa .
Guirgevo
Guiiia
Guise
Ciii.iirat
(;uirat .
GukcliaL.
Gulf Striam .
GullaTi-ness
Gull St nam .
(;uinl>iniun
Gumish-khaneh
Ciiiinri
Giiiiilava
(Iiindivi
Guns
Guii»terl)lum
Guiitour
Guntsburg
Giirhwuil
(Juriel
GiirktVld
Guniightl .
Gurrah .
Gustavia
Gustruw
Guthrie
(Juvsboro .
Guzcl-liisar .
(Juzgotta .
G week .
Gy .
Gyzeh
H
Habshc'im .
llacketstown
}laikiicy .
Ilaildiiigton .
Jlacrleni
llao-tan I.
Ilafi/.abad
llafnerzell
llalbon, pen.
Haireii
llagotmau
Hague
Hague C.
Hagueuau .
Haiderabad
l(:iigirloch .
llaileybury
llai-iiaii I. .
llaiusl>urg
Hainault
llaiuault fore-t
llajar-.Sil.Hili
Ilajvpour
I'alj'i .
Il■lll.lr^tadt .
llalcs-oweii
llalicarna-su3
llalidon-biil
Halifax
Halifax li.
Halkirk .
Hall .
Hallo
nalliiii
Halli'tirourt
Mallcwcll .
Hall's Gfuii. 1.
G9,
353
a-.o
3r)5
3i->4
\)M
348
3.V2
3.>)
7-iS
.354
341
3.-.7
S.'O
, 8.')4
, yG2
349
3-)0
.S.'ii
,54fi
G13
953
347
733
724
7H3
870
2(52
121
473
fi49
783
(578
724
450
412
722
408
717
784
, 440
370
,730
!)(i4
418
271
912
357
828
357
313
243
. 287
3«0, 38!l
754
733
407
h5;»
474
35'2
3:io
310
350
731
411
239
754
714
732
V4G
05')
253,91V
. 271
4( 9. 131
Hallstadt .
439
Ilalnichen
413
Halsbruck
415
Halys R.
042
Ham . . 2'K
, 300
Hamadan
071
Haiuali
051
Hambangtotte
738
Hamburg 419,94.
>, 940
Ilambye
354
Ham el 11
417
Hamilton 288, 91'
!. 947
Hamilton .
1002
Hamm .
474
Hammamet
847
Hamme
383
Hammerfcst
.W4
Hammersmith
242
Hannnoaze
235
Hampshire
238
Hampjtead
243
Hampton 24
2, 945
Hampton Roads 8»
0, 945
Hamrun hills
628
Hanau
412
Hang-chow-fou
708
Hanglip C.
807
Hanky .
248
Hanover .
417
Uansi
718
Hanwell
243
Haouran plain
WO
Hapa .
951
Ilapai Is.
1015
Hapsburg .
373
Haraoutee
730
Harbonnieres .
300
Harburg
417
Harbour I.
9it9
Hardcrwyk .
liia
Hardy islands .
710
Hartleur
359
Haridwar .
720
Harlacm
943
I'arliiigen .
391
Harnes .
356
llarrach
421
Harran .
()55
H array
271
Harrington .
235
Harriorporc
713
Ilarrisburg .
945
Harrisonburg .
940
Harrow
242
Harrowgate
254
Hartford
!/42
IlaiLland .
311
Hartland I'oint
IHO
Hartlepool
230
Haitnell
232
Hartz M. . 41
7, 998
Harwich
237
Harzgerodo
410
Hasan-kaleli .
05')
Hasdin
350
Ha'ilar .
•lU
Ila-ilcmcro
249
Haslingdiii .
311
Hasii"'!"^"
350
Hasprcs
355
Hassan dagh
(i:t7
Hiissan-palanka
012
Hassli
,370
llusiingi
•250
Hatl.erkigh
311
Hatlen .
.■!.)7
Hattiras C.
h77
Hattiab I.
740
Ilattras
7U
Haulbounlin .
. :i.N5
Haus-,(Z 1.
I'XU
Haussy .
;!55
Ilaute-Combe .
570
Ilavamia
. I 02
llavant
.'i 1 2
HaMrf.ird
. 255
3s.i, 472 Havre
iinii Ida
Hawa-li K.
Hawes \Vater L
Hawick
Hawke C.
Hawke's 1!.
Haves .
Havie
Hayti .
Hazareebaiigh
ILazibrouok .
Heailford .
Hebe Ueef .
Hebron
Hechingcn
Heddernbeim
Hedio L
Hedjas
Hedon .
Htgenheim
Heidelberg . 41
Heidenlieim
Heilbron
HeibbiTg .
Hekla Volcano
Helbre I. .
Heldor .
Helensborongh
Helige-damm
Heligoland
Heliopulis .
Uelliis .
Hellespont
Hell Gates .
Helmstadt
Hehnund K. .
Helsingbnrg
Helsingfors .
Helston
Helvoetsluis .
Helwickbead
Hem
Heniel Hampstead
Hemlock I,.
Hen and Chickens
Hendon
Heiiin-I.ietard
Heidy on Thames
Henloixjn C .
Hennebon
Hennepin
Henry's B.
Henrv C.
Herat
Herault . . 342, 352
Herault K. . 318
Hcrbemont . . 38J
Herbigiiac . 353
HerbitzhcMn*,
Herculaiieum
Herdt .
Hereford .
Herlbrd
11 eric
Hericnurt
Heriot
llerisau
lleristal
Herm 1. . 18
llermai;stadt
llerudes
llerumiicdis
llermu- II. .
Heme Hay
lleriibutt
llernusatid
llerli''belm .
llersfeld .
Ilerilnrd
Il.vtwis
11.. V .
Il.rvev I!.
Her\( \'.< l;-lan.I
Herzb.rg .
lie
11.
11.
H.
lb'
lle-.lil.g I
II vt-bui,
llil.b^ T'O
lliek H I'll,
in
182
290
9!S|
1003
■243
234
90i 1
714
a55
313
909
6.M
411
413
317
002
312
357
1, 410
409
410
473
482
181
3h9
28.5
418
483
831
014
.590
234
390
294
355
311
Sh3
1004
212
350
311
877
354
947
9:iH
Hielniar I,.
lUerapidis
Highgate .
Ilighmcadow-w
llignany
IliKlbiirgliausen
Hildesheim
Hillah .
Hillsborough
Hillsborough C
Hilscnheim
Hilton
Ilimakaya M.
Himmelsfurst
Hinchiubroke M.
Hiiidia .
Hin.lon
Hindoo koh .
HindiUtati
Hinghenghat
Hinglaisgurh
Hinkley
Hippo
Hippo-Zarytus
Hirschberg
.Hirschenstand
Hirson
Hirsova
Hispalis
Hissar (India')
Hit .
Hitzkireh
H'l.assa
Hobart Town
llohkirk .
Ilob(d<en
Hoehfelden
Hochstet
lloddam
Hodeidah
Hoden
Huf
Hotr.ntbal
IIotr«yl
H,f-gastein
Hofgoismar .
Hogan I. .
Hog I. . .
Hohenelbe
llobenems
Holieiikuben
Hchenlinden
llnheidulie
Hoheii-fein .
llolienzdllern
Holiesebeid .
Hcilm..>teiu
lloho-iior
Ibik-cbew
H.ikiaiiga I!. .
Holbeach .
Ilidburn Head
Ibd.schau
llolguin
Holkam .
Ilolkan .
Ilullan.l (Kng. ;
Ih.ll.ind
HolUntlial
Hdlme
IlulMH-'^. Hole
llt.lvhead
Holv I
ll„;vwell
llolvwoud
!|..l/»p|iel
llHinberg .
Il.iiul.urg
lloiii.rl.n
lliim*
Mi5 II. .nan
•117 II..O..U
411 II. null
II.
II. .11
lira* H.
.....w' I.
■i,;.i.K- 1-
1036
INDEX OF PLACES
Honololu or H
3no-
Ibou .
857
Inverury
. 283
Jaffna
739
roru .
. 1017
Ibrahim R. .
. 652
Invekeithing
273, 288
Jaicza
612
Hood I.
. 1016
Ibrail
613
Inverkeillor .
. 271
Jaipore
730
Hoogly R.
. 683
Ibrim
. 833
Inverleithen
273, 289
Jai'arun
731
Hooksiel .
418
Ibris I.
263
Inverness
. 288
Jalapa
950
Hoorn .
. 389
Ibsambool
. 834
Investigator I.
981
lallais
353
Hope's Nose C
180
Iba .
8.-i7
Investigator St.
. 980
Jalliuu
352
Horde .
. 474
Iceland .
. 482
Inyack C.
867
Jalnah .
726
Horn
413
Ichtiman .
611
lot' B. .
. 855
Jaloun
7'28
Horn C.
. 877
I-colm-kill
. 283
lona .
283
Jamaica
960
Horncastle
311
Iconium
648
loanina
. 611
James' !?. .
875
Hornsea
. 312
Icy Cape
. 877
Ionia7i Islands
. 621
Janus R
8MI
Hornsey .
242
Idle R.
182
lonzac
349
Janisary C.
641
Horsham
. 250
Idria
. 440
loimi terr.
. 941
Janze " .
352
Hoshan Volcano 629
Idstuin
413
Ipsambul
834
Jaour-khouri
65.-.
Hoshungabad
. 721
Ideo
. 800
Ipswich .
. 248
Japan
798
Houana-kokeno I. 1004
lekaterinburg
797
Irak-ajemi
671
Jarnac
34!.
Iloiiat I.
. 317
lekatrinoslav
. 627
Irawady R. .
. 742
Jarues .
962
Houdan
358
lelton L. .
530
Irish Sea .
138
Jaroslaw .
444
Hou-quang
. 754
lenesei R.
. 788
Ireland's Eye
. 294
Jaslo
ib.
Houlya L.
642
lenidge-vardar
610
Irkutsk
796
Jasmund .
463
Hounslow
. 243
le i-bazar
. 612
Irongate
. 461
Jassay •
613
Houston .
273, 949
lenikak'h .
529
Ironpot I.
999
Jativa
549
Houtman'sAbrolhos 981
leni-shehr
. 611
Irtish R.
. 788
Jauer
473
Howe C. .
981
If
348
Irvine
283
Jauernick .
443
Howley Shoals
. ib.
Iffendie .
. 352
Trvinestown .
. 313
Jauhiah
7'26
Hownam .
272
Iglas
613
Irwell R .
182
Jaufa
954
Howth .
. 313
Iglau
. 443
Isackchi
. 612
Java I. . .
974
Hoy . .
271
lie Jourdain
351
Ischia I.
559
Jaxastes R.
776
Hradisch
. 443
Iletski .
. 530
Ischim Steppe
. 788
Jaxtteldt
409
Huaheine I.
. 1006
Ilfracombe
236
Iscbl
439
Jebail
652
Huamanga .
. 954
Illardarra L.
. 980
Isle aux Noix
. 911
Jebebel-barkel
834
Huancabelica
ih.
Ille .
356
Isle of France
870
Jebel-Teir 1.
659
Huanuco
. ib.
Ille et Villaine
342, 352
Iscuande
. 954
Jebel Zubara M. .
832
Hucknall .
245
Illiers
. 351
Isenburg .
421
Jebilee
652
Huddersfield
. 253
Iltinnit
941
Iseo L. .
. 560
Jeboul .
651
Huddiksval
499
Illinois R.
. 878
Isore .
342, 352
Jedburgh .
290
Hudson
. 943
Illyrian coast
435
Iserlohn
. 474
Jefferson Barracks
948
Hudson's B.
875
Ilir.en L.
. 508
Isernia
588
Jefferson City
ib.
Hudson R.
. 879
Ilmenau
416
Ishim R.
. 78S
Jehangirabad
718
Hue .
. 748
Imbro I.
. 696
Isigny
348
Jekil-irmak R.
641
Huelva
. 550
Imeritid
784
Iskardo
. 774
Jellalabad .
676
Huen
486
Imola
. 585
IsisR.
181
Jellalpore
733
Huesoa
. 548
Imphy
355
Islambad
. 714
Jellasoi-e .
713
Huesden
390
Imst
. 434
Islampore
ib.
Jellinghy
ib.
Huete .
. 545
Incaffl
580
Islam nuggur
. 728
Jemmappes
384
Hull
254,911
Inch
270, 273
Isle de Leon
533, 550
Jena
415
iUill R.
. 182
Inchcolm .
. 263
Isle du Gotte
999
Jenneh
856
Hulst
390
Inchgarvey
ib.
Islington
. 243
Jennidah
713
Hulwud
. -28
Inchinnan
. 273
Isllvno
610
Jerahi R.
673
Huniber R.
179
Inchkeith .
263
Ismail
. 529
Jerash
654
Humble
. 272
Incbture
. 271
Ismid
648
Jerbah I.
838
Hume
ib.
Inderabia I.
673
Is-nik
. ib.
Jericho
654
Hummock I.
. 999
Indejan
. 780
Isny .
409
Jersey City .
944
Hungary .
445
India
679
Isola
. 441
Jersey I. . 181
,256
Huninguen .
. 357
Indiann
. 941
Isola-grossa I.
461
Jerusalem
654
Hunsoor .
723
Indianapolis
947
Ispahan
671
Jervis C .
981
Hunter I.
. 999
Indigirka R.
. 789
Issoire .
. 356
Jervis B.
980
Huntingdon
239
Indo- China
742
Issoudun .
352
Jessore
713
Huntsville
. 946
Indore .
. 000
Issyk L.
. 777
Jever
418
Huntly
273
Indos
713
Ista
529
Jeysulmere
730
Huon"R.
. 9!<8
Indre .
342, 352
Istakhar
. 672
Jeypur .
ib.
Hurdwar .
720
Indus R. .
. 682
Istapha
953
Jhansi
;28
Hureeka
. 733
Indre and Loir
342, 352
Istib or Istip
. 610
Jhodpoor
730
Huron
947, 948
Ingelheim
. 412
Istres
348
Jhubber
,■33
Huron L.
. 882
Ingenbruch
474
Italica .
. 549
Jhung .
ib.
Hurry al
. 713
Ingersheim .
. 357
Itchin R. .
182
Jhyhira R.
683
Hurst Point .
. 180
Ingolstadt
407
Iterchanskoy
. 797
Jiddah .
663
Husseinabad
721
Ingouville
. 359
Ithaca
621
Jihoon R. .
642
Hussingabad
. 721
Ingwiller .
357
Ithome M.
. 620
Jillifree
856
Husun-abdaul
733
Iniirande
. 353
Itkul L.
788
Jindana I.
974
Huttenberg .
. 440
Inhambane
860
Itza L. .
. 883
Jirgeh .
829
Button
271,272
Injelee .
. 713
Ivi a L
533
Jitomir
529
Hutton's I. .
. 755
luistiogua
313
Irory Coast .
. 854
Joachimstahl
442
Huy .
384
Inistrahul
. 294
Ivoy le Pre
349
Job .
356
Hydra .
. 620
Innerkip
272
Ivrea
. 574
J ohangeorgenstadt
415
Hydrabad . .
725, 731
Innerwick
. 271
Ivry . . .
350
Johannisberg
413
Hyeres
360
Innerwick (Pert
h) 273
Iwuy
. 355
JohnO'Groats house 284
Hyeres I.
. 317
Innis-bofin
. 294
Izabal
. 953
Johnstown
313
Hythe
239
Innes Glora
294
Johore
752
Innishowen C.
. 294
J
Johnshaven .
312
I
Inniskea
294
Johnston .
272
Ifmis-lark
. 294
Jablunka
. 443
Joigny .
361
lablonoikrebet
. 625
Innes-turk
294
Jaca
. 548
Joinville
354
I.kutsk
796
Innsbruck
. 431
Jackson
946
Jonhopping
499
laik R.
. 507
Insch
27-2
Jackson Point
1004
Joonaghur
728
laik or Ural R.
789
Insterburg
. 473
Jacksonburg
948
Jooneere .
7-'5
lalta
. 529
Inverarity
272
Japn
. 550
Jordan R.
642
lana R.
785
Inverary
. 283
Jaffa .
654
Jordan
998
larosalav
. 526
Inveraven
270
Jaffierabad
. 725
Jorukh R.
641
Ibarr
954
Inverchaolan
. 271
Jafferabad
7-28
Josephstadt
442
Iberville R. .
. 877
Inveresk .
286
Jagerndorf
. 443
Josselin
304
INDEX OF PLACES.
Joudpore
Jouffelnheim
Jouarre
Jouria
Joux
Jouy
Joyeuse
Jubbulpore
Judca
Judenburg
Judge and Clerk '.
Juggernath
Juggut
Jugiiut Point
Juliers .
Juliet
Julfa
Julra-patun
Jumeaux
Jurnilhac .
Jummoo
Juninah R.
Junction B. .
Jungi'raw-horn
Junin .
Junk-ceylon
Jura dept.
Jurbah I
Junglebarry
Jurien B. .
Juslipoor
Jussey
Jyepore
Jyntiahpore
Jyzeh
Kabz .
Kachas .
Kach'h
Kaffa
Kajfiriitan
Katila
Kaihn B. ,
Kainsk .
Kaipara H.
Kairah .
Kairwan .
Kaisanlik .
Kaisareia
Kaisariyah
Kaiserslautern
Kalabagh .
Kalabshe
Kalaniata .
Kalamazoo
Kalat-el-Medyk
Kalinino I.
Kalisch
Kallinger
Kaloiimno I.
Kalpie .
Kaluga
Kaiiiakh
Kayiihiijii
Kainenitz
Kaiiuiiz
Kaiiiiiiic'C
Kaniongrad
Kainptpe
Kiinitirhiitka
Kanawha Saltw
Kandahar
Kaiidy .
Kangaroo I,
Kanaruc
Kano .
Kanoliin
Kanoge
KanpOr .
Kan-suh
Kanturk
Karahaugh
Kara-burun C.
Karada>h C.
Kara-hisar
Karagatch G.
Karakootii
Kara-korum M
Karamau .
ork
730
3i7
ais
728
), 37-4
359
347
721
, 641
431
1009
715
728
682
475
947
784
731 I
356 !
350 I
733 j
683 I
980 i
370 i
954 I
743 i
i, 3.-)2
838
713
980
718
357
730
713
828
847
749
739
529
774
4!5
10(13
796
1003
724
847
610
652
619
409
676
834
620
948
651
641
530
718
641
718
527
650
748
458
415
529
612
720
97
is916
676
739
9h1
715
857
CM
7i!0
ih
754
313
7H1
611
ih.
649
6^)0
775
627
648
Karansebes
Kara Sea .
Karass .
Karatova .
Karaveria
Karg-algydim L
Karkasia
Karkeiiah I.
Karlowitz
Karlsburg
Karlshafen
Karlstadt
Kamabat
Karnac .
Karos
Kars
Kartoom
Kaschaw
Kashan
Kashenah
Kashmir
Kashna .
Kaskaskia
Kasmean
Kassandra I
Kastoria
Katagoum .
Katakecaumeno
Katherinenburg
Katregam
Kattegat . .
Kattiwar
Katunga
Katunya R. .
Katwyk
Kai;fbeuren .
Kaunitz
Kawara R.
Kawia H. .
Kawa R.
Kawa-kawa C
Kaye I. .
Kayersberg
Kazan
Kazar (Al.)
Kazerun
Keady
Keauk-feo
Keban-maden
Kedah
Kcdleston
Kedgeree
Ktft .
Kehl
Keig .
Keighley
Kerr .
Keish I. .
Kcis3 .
Keith
Keith-hall
Kells,
Kelso
Kelton .
Kemamang
Keiuhack
Kcnie
Kern nay
Kempt n
Kenipten
Kendal
Kencry .
Kenpunpore
Ken.lworth
Kcnmare •
Kenniore
Kenniare R.
Kenn I. .
Kennel)eck
Kcnneh
Kennet R.
Kennoway
Kent
Kentlshtown
Kent's I. .
Kmturk'i
Kei)lH.l n.
Kerahiiun
Kerbelah .
Kerenipe C
erenim
crcnsK
Kcrc
610
»7;.
789
655
838
460
459
412
408, 458
612
. 830
8<;o
. 650
833
. 457
672
, ai7
734
. 857
9^7
. 656
5'jO
. 610
857
, 637
, 738
138
, 728
857
788
390
. 408
421
. 850
1003
ib.
1004
902
3.)7
529
84.5
672
313
716
649
752
235
713
830
400
271
253
273
673
271
273
272
!, 313
290
272
7'i2
273
526
. 272
391, 473
. 408
251
724
7.n
312
313
273
2!i3
673
879
830
iK'i
272
239
243
WJ
941
9H0
619
656
641 I
5^9
Kerguelen'3 land 1018
Kerkonah I. 838, 84
Kerkuk
Kerlouan .
K rniadec Islands
Kernian
Kermaushah
Kerns
Kerowley
Kerowly
Kerrigotto
Kerry Head
Kertch
Keruan .
Kesrawan
Keswick
Kesteven .
! Keszkemet
Keszthely .
Ket R. .
Ketley
Ketsho .
Kettenhof
Kettering
Kettins
Kettle .
Ketton
Kexholm
Key I.
Kezdi-va?arhely
Khabiir R.
Kiiandeish
Kharak I.
Kharkor
Kharput
Khartous .
Kh.irtum
Khatmandu
Khelidonia C.
Kherson
Khevenhuller
Khimlassa
Khis I. .
Khira
Kho
Khodabad
Khoi
Khojend
Khokand
Khopah
Khorasan
Khoten
K'houthaissi .
Khubbees .
Klmnduz
Khuzistan
Khybcr pass
Khynsir C.
Khyrahad
Khvrpore .
Kiakhta
Kiang-nang
Kiang-sl
Kicbenev .
Kidderminster
KIdderpore
Kief
Kiel .
Kiels
Kilarrow
KilbHrchan
Kilbeggan
Kilberry
Kiil.iriiio .
Kilbrandon
Kilbrannan Sou
Kllbri.le
Kilbnrho .
Kilburn
Kilehonian
Kilcbrenni n
Kiloolmoiiell
Kilf()ni|i.har
Kil'lnltun .
Klldare
Kildonan .
Kililriiniiny ■
Kilearimn
Kllfinuben
Kilflnnnn
Kilkenny
6.56
3.S0
1017
. 673
671
, 371
731
, 730
621
, 294
529
. 847
646
, 235
242
. 456
458
. 788
240
, 749
434
, 244
272
271
246
525
1009
, 459
643
, 724
673
527
649
783
833
734
641
528
, 421
718
641
780
742
732
670
779
649
670
771
785
673
779
072
076
041
728
754
529
252
273
313
2; I
2 13
272
271
272
271
3^M
1037
Kilkerrin Bay 294
KirkintuUoch . 272
Killala . . .309
Killaloe . . 313
Killarney . . 310
Killarney L. . 295
Killearn . . 271
Killean . . Tii
Killin . . . 273
Killenaule . 313
Killybeggs . . ib.
Killybeg's B. . 294
Kilmacolm . . 272
Kilmadock . 271
Kilmalie . . 270
Kilmallock . 313
Kilmaniraig . 270
Kilmany . . 271
Kilmarnock . . 283
Kilmaronock . 271
Kilmartin . . 272
Kilmaurs . . tft.
Kilmichael-glassary ib.
Kilmodan . 271
Kilmoraek . . ib.
Kilmore . . 272
Kilmorv . . i7<.
Kilmuir (Skye) 273
Kilniun . . 271
Kilninian . . 272
Kilninver ih.
Kilpatrick . .271
Kilrca . . 313
Kilrenny ,' . . 286
Kilrush . . 313
Kilspindie . . 273
Kilsyth . . 272
Kiltarlity . . I'A.
Kiltern . 271
Kilwinning . . 272
Kilworth . . 313
Kimpuria . .612
Kincardine 271. 289, 273
Kincardine O'Neil 272
Kinclaven . 271
Kinl'auns . . 273
Kingarth . . 271
King Edward . 273
King(:eorge'sSound980
Kinghorn . . 2x8
Kinglassio . 272
Kingoldrum . ib.
Kingsbarns . 273
King's I . . 999
Kingsbridge . 311
Kingston 250,911,963
King-te-tshin . 769
Kingussie . . 270
Kinkell . 272
Kinloch . 271
Kinlechbervio . S73
Kinlochopelvie . 272
KInloss . . ih.
Kiiniaird . . 271
Kinnaird Head 262
Kiiineff . . 271
Kinnell . . ib
Kitjneller . - 270
Kinnetliniont . 271
Kinnettles . • 272
Kiiinuul . . 273
Kinn.ss . . 288
Kiiisni . 768
Kin-ale 293, 3'I9, 313
Kintail . • 272
K int. ire . 272, 2k3
Kipi.en . 271
Kinmea volcano 1017
KirelilMTg . 413
Kirchnin. . • <'«
Kirghiz Sl«>i>pes 77.5, 777
Kirci.l.ly . . 288
Kirl.l>enn • . 271
Kirl.rr,lni . . 273
Klrlx.liii Point V-3
Kirli<-..nii. 1 . . 273
Kirki-dwnn . th.
Kirkni.lbright . 2kJ»
Kirk.leii . 271
Kirke,. . . TLS
Kirkgiiiueon 271
1038
INDEX OF PLACES.
Kirkhill
. 272
Konitz .
. 4T3
Kurile Islands
797
Kirkilissa
010
Konitza
Oil
Kurnool .
723
Kirkinner
. 'in
Konkcir
. 720
Kur it. . 073. 782
Kirkintilloch
2S-,
Konkclnugger
718
Kurrunipore
733
Kirkliston
. 272
Konkui\
. 723
Kursk .
527
Kirkniabrcck
273
Konstantinogorsk 787
Kurslice
779
Kirkinalioe .
. 271
Koom
672
KusUaiiong h.
883
Kirkniaiden
273
Kooniaroo C.
. 1004
Kiisnacht .
370
Kirkinicliael 270
,271,272
Kooni-onibo3
831
Kussel .
408
Kirknewtou
. 271
Koonda
. 714
Kussoor
733
Kirkoswald .
. ib.
Koondooz
779
Kustendil
611
Kirkpatrick-Durham/ii.
Kooneh .
. 718
Kustrin
471
Kirkpatrick-Fleminsi'A.
Koorket
720
Kutabya
048
Kirk Patrick- Iro
iigr. ib.
Koprili
. 010
Kuttack
715
Kirkpatrick-juxta 272
Koptos
830
Kuttenbcrg .
442
Kirkton
ih.
Kordiifan
. 834
Kuttrah
718
Kirkurd
. 273 Kororarika B.
. 1003
Kwang provinces
753
Kirkwall .
2SS
Kornah
. 050
Kwan-Iun M. .
620
Kirpee C.
. 6tl
KorncT
415
Kwetta .
076
Kirryniuir
2S7
Korn-neuburg
. 438
Kyook-phyoo .
716
Kishonagur .
. 713
Koroo R. .
. 752
Kyraghur
726
Kishengunge
727
K03 I. .
. 041
Kyrodcen .
733
Kishengi.rh .
. 730
Kosair
830
Kishme I. .
673
Kosen-defile .
. 474
L
Kishon H.
. 642
Koslin
. 475
Kislar
787
Kosseir
. 830
La Bassee .
355
Kislavodsky
. ib.
Kostamboul
050
La Chatre
352
Kissingen .
409
Kostamuni .
. ih.
La Chapelle sur
Kistnah R. .
. 684
Kossova
OH
Loire
352
Kitzengen
408
Kostroma
. 526
Lachine .
911
Kiu-Siu I.
. 798
Kotagheri
722
La Cote St. Andre
352
Kivalur
722
Kotah .
730, 731
La Fere
347
Kivei-chew .
. 754
Kotais
785
La Ferte Gaucher
35S
Kizil-irmak R.
642
Kotatis
. ib
La Ferte Mace
3.55
Kizil-koom .
. 775
Kotelnoi I.
783, 797
La Ferte Milon
347
Kizilozen R.
673
Kot-kumalia
733
La Ferte-sous-Jou
Kladova
. 612
Kottbus
. 471
arre
358
Klausenburg
459
Koturabah
714
La Fleohe
ib.
Klausthal
. 417
Kotyana
. 728
Lafourche R. .
877
Klissura
611
Kotzebue S.
875
La Franfaise
360
Kloster-neuburg
. 433
Kouba .
. 780
Lagrange B.
980
Knapdale .
272
Kouban R.
782
La Guayra
953
Knaresborough
. 254
Koueit .
. 604
La Guerche
352
Kniebis
410
Kourgos I.
833
La Guiolle
348
Knin
. 461
Koutais
. 785
La Tour d'Aigues
300
Kniphausen
418
Kragojevacz
612
La Magistere
360
Knobb C.
. 981
Krainburg
. 434
La Marche
361
Knockando
270
Krajova
013
LaMothe S'^.Heraye 300
Knocbain
. 271
Krasnol
. 526
La Motte
349
Knock head
202
Krasnoyarsk
796
La Mure
352
Knocktophor
. 313
Krasnoi-iar .
. 529
La-nouee
3.54
Knotoschin
473
Krefeld
474
La Palisse .
347
Knoutwyl
. 370
Krementchug
. 527
La Palud
360
Knowsley B.
1004
Kremnitz .
456
La Paz d'Ayacuchc
954
Knoxville
. 947
Kremsior
. 443
La Plata R. .
881
Knuckle Point
1004
Kremsmunster
439
La Plata .
956
Knysua H.
. 867
Kressevo
. 6i2
La Poote
354
Kochem
475
Kreuznach
475
La Prairie
911
Kochendorf .
. 409
Krio
. 050
La Reole
351
Koch-hisar L.
043
Krishna R.
084
Largentiere .
343
Kodiak I.
. 902
Kronaoh
. 409
La Salle . 347
,351
Koesfeld .
474
Kronberg
4i3
La Salvetat .
352
Koesmark
. 467
Kroneberg
. 482
La Seyne .
360
Koethen
416
Kronenburg
474
La Teste
351
Kohat .
. 676
Kronstadt
. 459
La Tour du Pin
352
Koisou R.
786
Krumau
442
La Union
953
Kokan
. 779
Kruschevacz
. 012
La-valette
300
Kola .
520
Krutzberg
457
Lavillette .
352
Kolapore
. 726
Kshaf .
. 050
Lavoute
347
Kolberg
475
Kuren
848
Lavoche en Breuil
349
Kolgouev I. .
. 506
Kuban R.
507, 782
Laa
434
Kolima R. .
789
Kubinsk L. .
. 508
Laabron-foss
503
Kolkythi G.
. 621
Ku lutein .
421
Laach
475
Kolomea .
444
Kukcha L. .
. 783
Laaland I.
470
Kolomna
525
Kulburga .
725
Labiau
473
Kolotscha
450
KuUancote
. 731
Labong .
749
Kolymsk
. 790
Kullianee .
725
Labrador .
902
Konieh
048
Kulni .
443, 473
Lacauno
360
Komorn
. 456
Kulmbach
40 S
Laccadives I.
741
Komulmair
730
Kulpia Mines
. 784
Lachlan L .
999
Kondatchie
736
Kumaon .
718
Ladakli .
773
Kong .
. 856
Kummummett
. 725
Ladik
648
Kong Mountains
850
Kumney .
243
Ladoga L.
507
Kongsberg
. 503
Kunawur
. 718
Ladrones L
754
Konigingratz
442
Kungawar
071
Ladrone Is. .
1014
Konigsberg .
471, 473
Kuiiybeg I. .
. 294 :
Lady Julia Percy's I. 981
Konigsee .
431
Kunyraore I.
294
Ladykiik
271
Konigsegg
. 421
Kurdistan
. 039
Laft .
673
Konigshutte
417
Kurachi
. 731
Laggan .
270
Konigstein .
. 414
Kui an R.
. 073
Lagnieu
347
Konigswinter
474
Kuriiaul
720
Lagny ,
358
Lagong
749
Lagorgue
. as.'i
Lagos
8.55
Lagosta I.
. 401
Lahijan
. 870
Lahn R. .
394
Lahore
. 7.33
Lahr .
410
Lahsa
. 062
Laiglo
35d,'a56
Iiairg .
. 271
Lakha M.
. on
Lalita-patan
734
Lamay I.
. 7.55
Lamb I.
263
Lambach
. 434
Lamballe .
349
Lambay I.
. 294
Lambert Point
. 1004
Lamberton
. 271
Lambese .
348
Lambeth
. 249
Lambezellcc
350
Lamb head .
. 294
Lamego
556
Lamington .
Lamlash B.
. 271
262
Lamont Point
. 263
Lampa
. 954
Lampedosa I.
. 559
Lampeter
255
Lanark .
. 288
Lancashire
240
Lancaster
240, 945
Lanciano .
588
Lanfon
. 348
Landau
409
Landerneau .
. 350
Landes
342, 352
Landour
. 721
Landrecieg
355
Landsberg
409, 471
Land's End C.
180
Landshut
. 407
Landskron
442
Lane-end
. 248
Lanesborough
. 313
Langeac
353
Langensalza
. 472
Langenbogen
ib.
Langenschwalbach 413
Langholm
272
Langogne
. 353
Langon
. 351
Langonnet
354
Langres
. 354
Langrune
348
Langeland I,
. 476
Langton .
271
Laniscat
. 349
Lanjee
720
Lannes C. .
. 9S1
Lannilis
. 350
Lansinburg
943
Lannion
. 349
Languidic
354
Laon
. 347
Laos
. 749
Leipnick .
443
Lar
. 073
Laranda
048
Larbert
. 273
Larca
549
Larek I.
. 673
Largo
273
Largs .
. 283
Larjac
348
Larissa
. 653
Laristan
673
Lark R.
. 182
Larnaka
. 641
Larne
313
Lassa
. 772
Lassay
354
Laswade
. 271
Laswaree •
719
Latakia
. 051
Latheron
271
Lauban
473
Lauch Hammer
. 472
Lauder
284
Laudun
. 351
Lerida .
. 548
Laufen
372, 407
Lerin's I. .
317
Laufeiiburg .
. 373
Lernia .
. 545
Launceston 234, 1002
Lero I.
C41
I^aurence I.
981
Lerwick
. 289
Laurencekirk
. 271
Leschenault C.
981
Laurvig
503
Lesgista7i
. 785
Lausanne
. 374
Lesina L
461
Lautorbourg
357
Leslie
. 272
Lauterbrunnen
. 370
Lesneven .
350
Lau/.erte .
3G0
Lesparre
. 351
Laval
. 354
Lesquelles St. G
er-
Lavaur
360
main
347
Laxenburg
. 433
Lessoe I.
. 476
Laybach
. 440
Les Riceys
347
lea R.
181
Lesseillon
. 576
Leamington ,
. 251
Les Vans .
347
Leatlierhead
250
Leswalt
. 273
Leathcs water I
. 182
Lethendy .
271
Ltbo L. .
. 463
Letlinot
. »■«.
LeIiaJoa
619
Leuca C. .
559
Lelianon
. 628
Leucate .
. 348
Lebanon cedars
653
Leuchars .
. 2-3
Lcbidah
. 843
Le Val .
. 3G0
Le IJlanc
352
Leven
421
Le Huis
. 350
Leveque C. .
. 981
Le Cateau
355
Levi C.
316
Ltcco
. 588
Levita I.
. 641
Lecco
578
Levroux
352
Leek
. 243
Lewes
. 250
Le Croissie
353
Lexington
940, 947
Lccropt
. 271
Lezburgh
. 373
I-pctourc .
351
Lezignan .
348
Lidl)iiry
. 233
Lczoux
. 350
Lee R.
295
Liant C.
742
Leeds .
. 253
Libberton
. 271
Leek
312
Liberia
856
Leeuwarden .
. 391
Libertad
952, 953
Leewin C.
981
Llboume
351
Lefkosia
. 641
Lichfield
. 248
Leer .
418
Lichtenstein
413
Leers
. 355
Lido
. 579
Lefuga I. .
1015
Liebenstein
415
LeKe
. 353
Liege
. 3m4
Legcrwood
272
Lienz
4.i4
Leghorn
. 582
Lierre .
. 383
Lelienstein
415
Liestall
372
Leicester
. 241
Liff & Binvic
. 271
Leignitz
473
Lifford
313
Leiiister
. 30%
414
Liffol le Grand
. 361
Lei|)zig
Lifford
309
Leissnitz
. 413
Ligny .
. 354
Leitrim
313
Lignieres .
349
Leigh
. 237
Ligor
. 752
Leiglilin (Old;
313
L'lle .
360
Lcigliton-buzzar
d 231
Lile
. ib.
Leinengen
. 421
Lilicnthal
417
Leiria
555
Lille
. 355
Leitani R.
. 642
Lillebonne
359
Leith
285
Lillers .
. 3;56
Leitnicritz
. 443'
Lilliesleaf
273
Leitsmischel
442
Lillo
. 383
Leixlip
308,313
Lima
954
Le Loroux
353
Limbourg
. .384
Le Luc
. 300
Liinburg
413
Le Lude
358
Limerick
. 310
Le -Mans
. 358
Limoges .
361
Lenias I. .
754
Limoux
. 348
Leinl)acli
. 3.57
Linaro C.
559
Lornl)erg .
355, 444
Lincoln
. 242
Leingo .
Lenilun marshes
. 413
Lindau
40!>
642
Lindisfarnc L
. 180
Leiniio I.
. 596
Lindsey
242
Lempdes .
356
Linharcs
. .554
Le .Muy
. 360
Lingby
4h2
Lena R.
789
Linis point .
. 180
1.1 liiicp
. 474
Linkopping
499
Lennox
2H5
Linlithgow .
. 2m8
Lens
. 3.W
Linois C. .
981
L..)ben
431
Lino.sa C. and L
• 559
Leobschutz .
. 473
Linthal
.371
Leominster
238
Lintin L
. 751
J.ion
547, 953
Linton
272
LeostofT .
■249
Linton rWcst)
. 273
Le Pin .
. 3.6
I.intrathan
272
Lenp.ddbafen
410
LIntz
. 4.38
Lepanto
. 619
Lipari I .
5.59
Le I'in
355
Li)>azza .
. 411
L" I'av en Velaj
. 353
Lip|,e . .
413
LepMna
. 619
l.ii.pstadt
. ih.
Lu Uutnoj
5.55
Liptrap C.
981
INDEX OF PLACES.
Liria
Li.^niahagow
Lisbon .
Lisburn
Lisicux .
Lisniore 272,
Lispore .
Lissa I.
Lissa
Listowel .
Litth' ISukharia
Little I.
Little Falls
Little Swan Tort
Little Thibet
Livadia
Lively Coral R.
Li%-erpool 240,
Livingstone
Livno
Livron .
Lixuri
Lizard Point .
Llanelly
Llanidloes
Llerena
Llowellin
Llobregat R.
Loan go .
Lobaii I.
Lobenstein
Lobejiin
Lobkawitz
Locana
Lochalsh
Lochbroom
Loches .
Locbcarron
Locliiel .
Lochgoilhead
Lochgilphead
Lochiee
Lochleven
Lochmaben
Lochrutton .
Lochs .
Lock R.
Lockern
Locle .
Lockport
Lockuni .
Locri .
Lodeeana
I.odere
Lodi
Lodi C.
Lol'oden L
Logic . .
Logie-Huclian
Logie-ea.ster
Logie-i)ert
Logierait
Logrono
Loheia .
I.olir
Loja
Loir et Cher
Loire
Loire R.
Loiret
Lonibardy
Lonibez
Loniblem I.
Lonibok L
Loinme
Lomond Hills
London . 223, 91 i
Londonderry . 3o;»
Londonderry C
Long L
Long 15. .
Long I. Sound . ih.
Long Uitton . 2.50
Longford . 30^, 100'2
Longforgan . 271
Longformaeus . iV;.
Longforties . 263
I.ongjinneau . ,35(1
Lonniay . . 271
Longin . , . .3.55
Longobuco . 589
554
309
348
,310
,313
357
461
473
313
t
771
999
944
rt
999
774
619
981
912
, 993
272
612
350
623
180
255
255
545
1002
531
858
438
416
472
421
.574
272
ib.
352
272
271
ib.
272
271
265
2K3
285
271
272
336
383
375
944
417
589
720
352
.578
999
436
271
272
271
■273
-71
•273
C44
408
549
342
■i5'2
342
,•(.53
317
342
35.1
567
577
.351
355
1.59
9n1
999
1059
Longpr6 . . SCO
Longside . . 271
Longport . . 248
Longship's Rocks 181
Longtown . .311
Longuo . . 353
LonguevilleSt.Avold3.55
Longuyon . 3.55
Longwy . . 355
Lonsdale Point 931
Lons le Saulnier . 352
Loo-choo 1. . 773
Loodiana . . 720
Looc . . 311
Looker'.s-on B. . 1003
Look-out C. . 877
Loonie It. . . 6s4
Loop Ilead . 294
Looz . . 3i4, 421
Lopatka C. . 797
Lopez-gon.salvo C. 803
Lord Howe's L 9.'8
Loreto . . . 585
Lorgues . . 360
L'Orient . . 354
Loriol . . 3.50
Lormes . . 355
Loriacli . . 410
Los ( Isle dc) . 8.55
Los Beyes . 953
Lostwiihiel . . 234
Lot . . 312,3.53
Lossnitz . . 413
Lot et Garonne 342, .353
Loth . . . 271
Lothing L. . 219
Loudeac . . .■M9
Loudoun . . 272
Loudun . . 361
Loughborough 24 1
L(jiigbglin . . 313
Lon^hrei 309, 313
LoHlians . . 357
Louisiado I. . 1010
Luuisiuna • . 941
Louisbourg . 913
Louisiille . . 947
Louragat . . 349
Lourdes . . 356
Louth . 242, 313
Louvain . . 382
Louvicrs . . 3.50
Louvigne du desert 352
Low I. . . 1015
Lowell . . . 942
Lowenstein . 421
Lowers . . 370
Lowestoft . 249
l.owesins-ter L. . 1.N2
Loxa . . 549, 9.54
Loyalty I. . . Kilo
Lozere . 342, 353
Lubeck . .41!*
Ltibee . . 942
LuliiTs.ac . . 349
Lublin . . 5;i()
Luc . . , ;M8
Lucan . . 313
Lucca . . . 582
Luce . . 273
Luce B. . . 262
Lu.era . . .588
Lucerne . , 370
Lucienstiig . 373
Lueka . • .415
l.uekiporo . 713
Luekiput . . 7:!0
Liiclviiow . . 727
I.uvon . . . aU)
Ludgershall . 312
Ludlow . . j^.
Ludwigsburg 410 418
Ludwigsliaiun . 410
Liienburg . . 912
Lugano . . 374
Lugano L. . . 560
Lugo . . 517
Luichart . . ■271
Luknmnl(-r 373
Lulea . . 499
Lunii'h»nRu . 273
271
6«5
493, 499
271
181
182
417
352
3)4
371
802
3n7
313
580
475
413
313
271
441
231
431
472
391
357
831)
473
236
312
945
273
243
180
357
138
356
10-10
Lunan .
iMiu'tr L. .
I.uii.l .
Lundie
Liiiidy I. .
lAIllO R. .
Luneburg
Luiiel
LuneviUe
I.ungern
Lupata M.
Lure .
Lurtjan .
Lurigliano
Lurleyberg
Lusatia
Lusk
Luss .
Lussin-piccolo
Luton hoo
Luttenburg
Lutzen ■ .
Luxemburg
Luxeuil
Luxor .
Lyk .
Lyme-regis
Lymington
Lynchburg
Lyne
Lynn-regis
Lynn Well
Lyon
Lyon's G.
Luz
M
Maas R. . . 336
Maaslandshuis . 390
Mabrouk . . 849
Macaluba . .591
Macarthy's L . 85')
Macao . . . 769
Macassar . . 977
Macclesfield . . 234
Macduff . . 284
Macerata . . 585
Machecoul . 353
Machery . . 731
Macliias . . 942
Mackenzie R. . 881
Mackerston . 272
Mackinaw . . 948
Maeander R. . 642
Ma/on . . . 358
Macon . . 946
Macroom . .313
Macquarrie Harbour 999
Macquarrie I. . 1009
Maori . . . 650
Madagascar I. . 869
Madeira I. . . 556
Maddalonl . 588
Madderty . .271
Madison . 947, 948
Madjicosinia 1. . 773
Madras . . 722
Madrid . . .546
Madridejos . 545
Madura . . 722
Madura I. . 974
Maelar L. . . 486
Maelstrom . . 485
Maestricht . . 391
Maeyen . . 474
Mafra . . . 555
Magadoxa . 859
Magdalena R. .882
Magdalen's 1. '. 960
Magdeburg . . 475
Magellan Strait 876
Maggiore L. 560
Maghera . . 313
Magherafelt . ib.
Maghrib . . 837
Maglai . . 6i2
Magnac Laval . 361
Magra R. . 560
Mahabaleeshwar
Hills . . .727
INDEX OP PLACES.
Mahabalipuram
Mahadiah .
Mahanuddy R.
Mnhe .
Maheidpore .
Mahi R. .
Mahim .
Mahmudpour
Malirisch-neustadt
Mahon .
Mahoor
Maidenhead .
Maidstone
Maiduck
Maimatshin
Maina
Maine
Maine et Loire
Mains
Maintenon
Mairta .
Mais .
Maitland
Majorca I.
Makariev
Makouchinsk
Makullah
Malabar
Malacca
Malaga
Malainocco .
Malatiyah
Malaucene
Malavelly
Malay penin
Malaysia
Malborget
Malchin
Maldives I.
Maldon
Slaldonado
Malemba .
Maletroit
Malghore .
Malines .
Malin head
Maliia .
Mallow • . .
Malmaison
Malmedy .
Malmo .
Malmsbury
Malo-iaroslavetz
Malool
Mai pas
Malplaquet
Malta L
Malton
Malvern
Malwah
Malzeville
Mamers
Manaar G.
Managua L.
Mana I.
Manargoody
Manasarowara L.
Manawa-tawa I
Manbej
Manchester
Maiidal
Mandar IM.
Mandara
Mau'lavee
Mandeure
Mandouthee
Mandulgurh
Manfredoiiia
Manga .
Mangaia I.
Mangalore
Mangoup-kaleh
Manhattan
Manheim .
Manickdroog
Manickpore
Manikyala
Manila
Maniquarez .
Man, Isle of
Manissa
723
847
C85
735
732
684
724
713
443
551
726
232
239
7-25
796
7.^3
941
342, 353
. 271
350
731
650
993
533
526
902
664
721
751
549
579
6J9
360
723
751
967
434
418
740
237
957
858
354
579
383
294
. 728
309, 313
. 359
475
499
252
527
653
311
384
592
254
252
711-
354
358
682
883
1004
722
773
1004
. 652
240, 942
. 5"4
714
857
729
350
718
731
588
733
1015
723
529
947
411
733
977
953
255
647
Manitoulin I.
Manlos
.M.inningtree
Manor .
Manosque
Mansfield
Mansourali
Mmitchouriii
Mantes
Manthausen
Matitinea .
Mantotte
Mantua
Manukao Point
Manytsch R.
Manzanares .
Manzanillo .
Maracay
Maracaybo
Maracaybo L.
8-*2
348
311
273
347
245
829
771
;<59
431
620
739
579
1003
782
, 545
9tj2
, 953
ib.
. 883
Maracaybo L. and G. 876
Maragha . . C70
Marakah . . 833
Maran . . 360
Maranham . . 958
Maranon R. . 881
Marano . . 441
Marans . . 349
Marash . . 650
Marathon . 619
Marbach . . 409
Marbella . . 549
Marburg . 412, 431
Alarcelcave . 360
Marc en Baraul . 355
Marchiennes . 355
Marcigny . . 357
Marckolsheim , 357
Marcoing . . 355
Mardin . . 655
Marennes . . 319
Mareotis L. . 816
Maretz . . . 355
Marpuca . . 735
Margate . . 240
Marghilan . 780
JIargita I. . . 446
.Marguerittes . 351
Maria I. . . 999
Marian I. . 1014
Maria-pitzing . 438
Mariataferl . ib.
Maria Van Dieman
C. . . 1004
Mariazell . .431
Mariegalante I. 900
Mariel . . .962
Marienbad 442
Marienburg . . 473
Marienwerder ib
Maringues . . 3.56
Marion . . 949
Marion B. . . 999
Mar on and Crozets
I. . . 1018
Maritza R. . . 597
Marken I. . 386
Market Hosworth 242
Market-Deeping 31 1
Markethill . .313
Market-Rising . 311
Market VVeighton 312
Markinch . . 272
Mar borough . . 312
Marleiiheim . 357
Marlow . . 232
Marly . . 3.59
.Mannande . . 3.53
Marinora Sea . 59G
Marniorice G. . 650
Marmoutier . 3"i7
Marnock . . 273
Marocco . . 844
Marocco city . 845
IMarinemme . .'559
Maroscl) II. . . 445
JVlaroch-ujvar . 4.59
Jlaros-vasarhely . ib.
Marquesas I. . 1016
Marquette . . .355
Marquise . . 356
Marr's bank .
Marsac
Marsala
Marseillan
Marsillargues
Marseille .
Mai'seilles
Marsballl .
Marsiwan
Marston-moor
Martaban
Martel
Martgues
Martha's Vineyard 94J
Martignano L.
Martigne .
Martigny
Martinique I.
Martin Vas I.
Martres de Veyre
Marva . .
Marvejols
Marwar
Maryborough
Maryculter
Marykiik
Maryland .
Maryport
Marjtown
Masiat .
Mask L. .
Massa
Massachusetts
Massachusetts B
Massacre B.
Massat .
Massevaux
Massina
Massouree
Massowah
Massuah
Masulipatam
Massuri
Masyad
Matagorda
Matamawi C.
Matanzas .
Matapan C. .
Matai'ia
Mataro .
Mataryeh .
Matera .
Matlock .
Matsmai
Matterhorn
Matura .
Maturin
Maubeuge
Mauchline
Maudie L.
Mauer-see .
Mauke I.
Maulbourguet
Mauldah
Mauleon
Maulin
Maulmain
Maundee
Maundoo .
Maure .
Mauriao
Mauritius I.
Mauron
Maurs .
Marua I. .
Mauze
Mavromati
Ma\ton .
Maxwelltown
May I. .
May C.
May L.
Maybole
Mayenfeld
Mavenne .
Mayet
Maykuang R.
Maynooth
Mazaraet .
Maze
! Mazenderan
560
352
374
960
965
356
556
353
7.30
308
270
271
941
234
'271
652
295
581
941
876
1003
347
357
856
721
836
ib.
723
721
652
.550
1004
962
621
831
548
831
588
235
800
375
738
9n,-J
355
'J71
816
463
1015
356
713
356
965
7.50
713
718
.152
348
870
.354
348
1016
360
6-0
273
288
2f3
8T7
3.53
283
373
342, 354
. 358
742
308
360
353
C70
INDEX OF PLACES.
1041
Mazeroa
347
Mersebiirg . 4
'0, 472
Minsk
£29
Monedie
273
Mazzara
592
Mersey R. . 1
92, 219
Minto .
. 272
Monein
3-56
Meariis .
273
Mersingen .
. 370
Mira .
579
Monestiers
347
Meaux
358
Mersthani .
2.50
Mirauiiche B.
. 913
Monuhir .
714
Mecca .
6H2
Jlerthyr-Tydvil
. 255
Miranda de Corv
■> 554
.M<.ngibello .
58;*
Mechlin
383
Mertoiin ".
272
Mirande
351
Mongolia
770
Mecklenburg
418
Meru
. 355
Mirandola
. .581
Monitieth .
271
Medollin .
951
Meru-shah-jelian
671
Mirebeau .
.361
Monikie
ib.
Med^nblik .
3sn
Mervilie
. 355
MirboweR. .
. 7.52
Monimail
ib.
Medevah .
847
Merzifoun
649
Mirecourt
361
Monistrol
353
Medina .
663
Meshid Ali .
. 656
Miremont
. 350
Munivaird
271
Medina del Campo
547
Meshid Hussein
6.56
Mirepoix .
317
Monklaiid
272
Medina Sidonia
550
Mesopotamiii .
. 638
Mirzufferabad
. 733
Monkton .
271
Medinet
8i9
Messine
620
Mischkolocz
457
Monmouth
243
Mediterranean Sea
6J3
Messina .
. 591
Miseno
. ,587
Monopoli .
.588
Medway R. 181
•>19
Messina Strait .
558
Miseno C.
.5,59
Monqubitter
273
Meerpore
-:«
Mestre .
. 579
Misitra .
. 620
Monreale
.591
Meerta
731
Mesurado C.
856
Misratah .
848
Monroe
947
Meerut .
72(»
Mesurata
. 848
Missa
. 612
Monrovia
856
Megalopolis
620
Meteora
611
Mixtissijii
911
Mons
384
Megara .
(.19
Methlic .
. 271
Mississippi R. .
877
Monstra
724
jMegaspelion
620
Methven
273
Missolonghi .
. 619
Monserrat
960
Megget
273
Mctz
. 355
Missouri
941
Monsheim
412
Mehadia
46(1
-M'tz en Couture
356
Missouri R. .
. 877
Montagnac
.•152
Mehidpore
732
Meudon .
. 359
Mister
847
Montague I. 902
9sl
Meidling .
438
Meulan
358
Mitchain
. 250
MontaL'ue Sound
980
Meigle .
272
Jieung sur Loire
353
Mitchellstown .
313
Montaftu
360
Meillonas .
317
Meung sur Yevre
349
Mitiaro I.
. 1015
Montargis
353
Meinara R. .
742
Meursault .
349
Mittau
525
Montaulian .
360
Meinau I. .
364
Meurthe . 3
12, 351
Mitterburg
. 434
Montnud
3,13
Meiiider R. .
642
Meuse . 3
12, ail
Mittun
676
Montauk Point
877
Meinini^ou
415
Mexico
. 950
Mitweyda
. 413
.M<uitl)ard
349
M issLn . . 413
414
Mexico G.
87(;
Miyako
799
Montbeliard
3,50
Meissenhcini
412
Meymac
349
Mizen Head .
. 294
Mont Blanc 148
375
.Mei^■'ex .
3.")6
Mevn R.
. 394
Mobile
946
Montbrehain
317
.^1ei>tratzheitn
3.57
Meze .
352
Mobile R.
. 880
Montbrisoii
a5;j
M"jirdah R. . •
8:!8
Mezetlow
. 650
Mocaluba .
.591
Muntbron
348
>'elconibe-regi8
256
Mezen
526
Mocha .
. 965
Montcoriiet
347
M.'lHa 1. .
461
Mezin .
. 353
Mochrum .
273
Mont Dauphin
?6.
-Melpg L.
830
Me/.iores .
347
Moduin
. 656
Mont de Marsan
352
Melilla
551
Mezohe^'ves .
. 416
M odbury .
311
Montdidier
360
Melinda
85!^
Mezzovo
611
Modena .
. 580
Montebello .
917
Melk .
434
Mhar .
. 727
Modum
503
Moiitebourg
.^54
M.Iksham .
252
Mhow
711
Moelan
. 350
Monle Casino
58>«
Mi'Uay
36(1
Mhur .
. 730
Moelmyn .
750
Monte Ceiiere .
374
Melrose .
290
Mliye R. .
6H1
Moen 1. . 4
76, 506
Monte Christo I. .
55!t
Melton- Mowbray
241
Miana
. 670
Moflat
285
Monto d' Argentaio
M Itungen
411
-Miask
530
Mogadore
. C45
C.
5.'.;»
Melun .
3-iH
Miattiu I.
. 755
Mogam Plain
670
Montefiascone
.58.1
Melvill,- C.
980
Michelstadt
412
Mu^ h reb
. C37
Montego B.
96.1
Melville 1. . OV,
981
Micli'nan
. 911
Mo-;;oung
746
Monte Leone
S><9
Meniel .
473
Michigan L.
882
Moguer .
. -.-m
.Montelini.ir
350
Meniel R. .
463
Mickrv I.
. 263
Mohacz
45S
Moiiteiugro .
601
Meinmingen .
408
Midcalder . 2
72, 2m6
Mohannnerah
. 657
Monte-Pulciano
5H2
Memphis . 831
947
Midd.-Unirg 3
jO, 912
Mohil.v .
529
Montcreaux
35y
Mcmphra Magog L
HS3
Middlebie
. 271
Moiion .
. 351
Monterey . 545
951
Menai St .
180
Middlesex .
223
Moiii
9.53
Moiite Santo 441
611
Menangcaboo
975
Middleton
. 313
Moira
. 313
Montesquieu
3a'
Mende
35:j
Middleton's I. .
998
Muisl.-xins .
360
Monteux .
3S
Menrlig .
475
Middlewich .
. 311
Moisnac
. ifc.
Monte Vergino
588
Mendoza .
957
Midhi rst .
312
Moiaisk
526
Monte Video
957
Meneac .
354
Midm.r
. 272
Mokha .
. 664
Moiitevilliers
359
Mcnhallet .
829
Mi(lii:.p.jre
713
Mokiindiirra
731
Monlfalcone
441
Menin
3S4
Mi..vie . .
. 272
MoKo-binO I.
. 1001
.Monitlanquin
3.53
tieninfp 1. .
H.-iK
Mikliulich .
648
Mold
312
Montfort .
34 H
Menmuir
271
Milun . . 5
"8, 917
MuUlarUi
. 613
Montt'ort I'Amaury
3.58
Mennevret
317
Milford
255
Mol- R.
181
Montlort bur Men"
3.2
Mcnfz
112
MiUorcl Haven
. 180
Molletia
. 588
Montlrin
351
Menzaldi I,.
H|6
Milhau
318
Molina
545
.Montgomery
916
Mcnziljnsk
530
Miihaud
. :iil
Mollitivoe
. 7;)8
Monticello
945
>ftppel
391
Millas
.•(.56
Molsheim
357
.Montiers .
576
Meppcn .
417
Milledgeville
. 946
Molucca Islands 9
74, 977
.Montign.ac
;«!
Mcquinez .
815
MiUerv
3.57
Molwiah K. .
. BUS
MontiniMlle
946
Afer
352
Millstreet
. 313
Monibaz
H.59
Monljoie
474
Mcran
431
Millv .
358
Mornpcjx
. 954
.Mdnllherv
358
M(rash .
650
Miliia I.
. 461
Monaco
575
Mont Louis .
3.57
Mercara
722
Milnathort
313
Monaghan
. .-JO".*
.Mont Lu\on
347
Mercury B. .
10,;3
Milton .
. 240
Monaster
M17
M./MtlU.l
iit.
Merdin
655
Miltoin M.
802
Mooastier (Le)
. 353
Monlinartro
3.58
Merdupht
672
Milwaukie
. 948
Monastir .
610
M(..,tnie.ly .
3.4
Mere.U.Hia .
9 17
Minching-Hanipt
on 311
Moiiate I-.
. 560
Montmiilian
571
Mereville
359
Mindanao I.
977
Monbuiy .
515
MoMlnion ncy 3.58
.^■.!»
Mergaon
735
Minden
. 474
Moiicalieri
. 574
Monlmoiillon .
.361
Mergenthelm
409
MIndivee .
-•M
M(jncl)ique
556
.Montolioni 1.
loin
Mergui
7.50
Minchead
. 217
Moncontuur .
. 349
Monlnir
;v.3
Alerida 5.')0, !*52
953
MitiKreliii
784
Moncovr.ih 1.
710
.Montulc
3.52
Meriden
943
Miniac Morven
. .V,2
Mon.ur 1. .
. 9K1
.Montona
441
Merinville .
348
Minieh
H29
.M.indeifo K.
5;u
.M.Milp.li..r
912
Meroe
8;!3
Minni(?afT
. 27,1
Mondoi.-.lo
517
.\lontp.lli.r .
352
Merrimack R.
H79
Minorca I.
5.i;i
MondoiihlcHM
. 352
Moiiipevroux
352
Mcriea I. .
180
Minsh
. 262
MoiMovi
574
M.. ntr.il . 348
911
3 L'
1042
INDEX OF PLACES.
Montrejean . 351
Montrt'uil . . 356
Montreuil-Bellay 353
Montreuil-sous-bois 358
Montrose . . 287
Montrose pitts . 2H3
Mont Rouge . 358
Montserrat . 548, 963
Mont St. Michel
Monyinusk
Monza .
Monzie
Moodgul
Moonzie
Moorley
Moorshedabad
Moosehead L.
Moosetogamaguntic Jb.
Moradabad
Morad C.
Mortagne .
Morales .
Morant Point
Moras
Morat
Moravee
Moravia
Moray Firth .
Morbecque
Morbihan
Morbihan dep.
Mordington
Morea
Morebattle
Morecambe B.
Moreham .
More-head
Moresnet .
Mo ret
Moreton B.
Moreton C.
718
. 9S1
355
. 545
877
. 350
371
. 728
443
. 262
355
. 316
342, 354
271
. 614
272
. 180
272
. 262
475
. 358
980
981
Moreton- HampsteadSl 1
Moreton I.
Moreuil .
Morgarten
Merges .
Moric
Moritzburg .
Morlaix
Mormoiron .
Morotiri I.
Morpeth
Morriston .
Mors
Mortain
Mortara
Morteau
Mortefontaine
Mortlach
Mortlake .
Morton .
Morton (Half)
Mort point
Morungen .
Morven .
Mosbach
Moscow
Moselle dep.
Moselle R,
Mossel bay
Mostar
Mosul .
Motiers
Motokawa I.
Motril
Motupalli
Moudania .
Moudania G.
Moudon
Moukden
Moulin
Moulins .
Moulraein .
Moulsey
Moultan
Mouna-Kaah, vole. 1017
Mouna-Roah vole ib.
Woungpai . . 749
Mounts, of the Moon 802
Mount Vernon . 943
Mount Dilly C 682
Mountmellick . 313
981
. 360
371
. 374
360
. 414
351
. 360
. 1004
. 244
944
. 474
354
. 574
350
. 355
. 273
250
. 273
272
. 180
473
. 272
410, 413
. 525
342, 355
317
867
612
656
375
1004
549
722
648
641
374
772
271
347
749
250
734
I Mountmorris B,
' Mountrath
Mount's B.
' Mount Talbot
Mourzonk
' Moiisewald
Mousk
I Mouy
Mouzay
Mouzon
Mow .
j Mowee I.
' Moy .
Moyenvic
; Mozambique
Mozdoo .
Much-Wenlock
Muckairn
Muckart
Muggia .
Muhlhausen
Muhlheim
Muhr R. .
Muiden
Muiravonside
Muirkirk
Muktul
Mulhausen
; Mulka
Mulkher
i Mullargoor
MuUingar
Mull of Cantire
Mull of Galloway
Mulsae
Mulzig .
! Mumble's Head
Munahpaud .
Mundee
Munden
Mundlah .
Mungahpett .
Munich
Munipoor
Munsingen
Munster306,309,
Murana .
Murany
Muras .
Murat
Murau .
Murcia
Muret
Murg-ab R
Murghab
Murroes
Murviedro
Muscat
Muscle B.
Mushed
Musselburgh
Mussouri
Mussy sur Seine
Mustapha-palanka 61 1
Muthil
Muthill .
Muttersholtz
Muttrah
Muzuffergurh
Mycale C.
MycenjB
Mysore .
980
313
180
313
849
, 272
651
355
354
347
714
1016
272
3i4
859
787
312
272
271
441
472
474
445
390
272
271
725
357
733
725
ib.
308
263
ib.
733
. 357
180
. 722
733
. 417
718
. 725
408
. 716
409
357, 474
. 579
457
. 545
348
. 434
549
. 351
673
. 672
271
. 548
664
. 998
671
. 286
721
347
271
313
357
720
733
641
619
N
Naas . . 308, 313
Nablous . . 654
Nabobgunge . 713
Nab Rock . .181
Nacogdoches . 949
Naefels . .371
Nagore . 713, 730
Nagpore . .726
Naguldinny . 722
Nagy-enyed . . 459
Nahe R. . . 394
Nahr-el-kelb R. . 653
Nain ... 902
Nairn . . .288
Naitraviitty . 722
Nakchevan or Nakh-
chivan . . 784
Nalande
Naniur .
Nancy
Nanga-ounu B.
Nangasakl
Nangis .
Nan-king .
Nant
Nan-tchang-foo
Nanterre
Nantes
Nantua
Nantucket
Nantucket Shoals
Nantwich .
Nant-y-glo
Naours
Napa Kiang .
Naparima .
Xaplfs
Naples City
Naples
Natchez
Napoleon .
Napoli di Romania 619
Napoli di Malvasia 620
Nara
Narangur .
Narbonne
Narcono M.
Narew R.
738
384
354
1003
800
3.58
768
348
769
358
353
347
942
ill.
311
. 243
3(J0
. 773
964
. 586
587
947, 948
. 946
947
Nam
Narnol .
Narym R. .
Nasaurah
Narbada R.
Narva
Naseby
Nashville
Nassau
Nassova
Natchitoches
Natal Point
Nat'hdwara .
Natore
Natron lakes .
Naiuraliste Point
Nauders
Nauheim .
Naumburg
Navan
Navarino
Navarre
Navia
Navigator's Is.
Navy I.
Naxia
Nay
Nazareth
Naze .
Neagh L.
Neath
Nebelhohle .
Nedjed
Needle Kock .
Needles C.
Neeloo
Neemuch
Nefta .
Negapatam .
Negonibo .
Negrais C.
Negril Point
Negro C.
Kegroland
Neilston
Nele .
Nellore
Nelson
Nelson's Bank
Nelson C
Nelson B. .
Nemi L.
Nemours .
Nen R. .
Nenagh
Nenthorn
Nepaul
Nepean point
Nerac
Nerbaddah or Ner-
buddah R.
800
713
348
663
463
585
731
788
733
684
524
244
947
412
612
947
867
730
713
813
981
. 434
411
. 472
308
620, 948
. 545
ib.
. 1015
883
620
356
652
180
295
312
410
662
999
180
733
731
847
722
738
742
877
803
850
273
360
722
1009
998
981
881
560
358
182
313
272
734
981
353
347
684
271
408
375
415
350
359
361
443
4';i
434
3)8
413
Neris
Nermadda R.
Nesting
Neuburg
Neuchatel
Neu-eybau
Nsufbourg
Neufchatel
Neufehateau
Neuforstwald
Neu-Gradiska
Neuhaus
Neuilly
Neukii-chen .
Neumagen
Neumarkt
Neusatz
Neusiedler Sea
Neusohl
Neuss
Neu Strelitz
Neustadt 408
Neustadt 438
Newstadt-an-der
dosse .
Neustaedtl
Neutitschen
Neutra
Neuvilly
Neuwelt
Neuwerk
Neuwied
Nevers .
Neviansk .
Nevis I.
New-Abbey
New Albany
New Arad
Newark
Newark-on-Trent
New Arkhangel
Newarp Sand
Newbattle
New Bedford
Newbern
Newborough
New Boston
Newbottle
New-brandenburg
New Britain I.
New Brunswick
New Brunswick
New Buflalo
New burgh . 288, 943
Newburn (Fife) . 273
Newbury . 231, 942
Newbury port . 942
New Caledonian I. 1010
Newcastle . 244, 91J
Newcastle 945, 993
Newcastle (Ireland) 313
New'castle-under-
line
Newent .
Newera-ellia
Newfoundland
New Forest
New Glasgow
New Granada .
New Guinea
New Hampshire
New Hanover I.
Newhaven
434
456
446
456
474
418
410, 416
457, 473
471
440
443
456
355
443
420
475
355
791
960
271
947
458
944
245
902
180
271
942
946
313
947
28S
418
1010
912
944
943
New Hebrides I
Newhills
New Ireland I.
New Jersey .
Newlands .
New Lebanon
New Liverpool
New Machar .
New Malton
Newmarket
243
311
739
959
189
912
953
1009
941
1010
250, 942
1010
270
. 1010
. 941
273
. 943
953
. 270
312
233, 946
New North Wales 902
New Orleans . 947
New Park . . 189
Newport 243,255,313
Newport . . 942, 918
Newport- pagnel . 311
New Ross . . 308
New Ruppin . .471
Newry . . 309
INDEX OF PLACES.
1043
New Segovia
953
Xordstrand I. .
476
Obdorsk
. 796
Oporto
W6
New South Wo/e* 902,<)86
Nore
. ItiO
Oberbronn
367
Oppein
470. 173
Newspynie
271
Norfolk . 243, 945
Oberhergheira
. ib.
Oppenau
410
Newsteadabbey
245
Norfolk B.
998
Obernay
357
0,'penheim
. 412
Newton . 255
,271
Norfolk I.
997
Oberseebach .
. ib.
Opus
461
Newtown .
946
Norfolk Sound .
877
Oberstein .
418
Oquawka
. 947
Newton Ards
313
Norhain
236
Obi R. .
. 788
Oradour sur Vayres361
Newtown Barry
ib.
Norridgwock
942
Obispos
953
Oran
. 81'i
Newtown Butler .
ib.
Norkopping .
499
Obrovazzo
. 461
Orange
,360
Newton- Forbes
ib.
Nort .
353
Ocafia
545
Orange E.
. 866
Newtown Limavady ib.
Northallerton
254
Och
. 780
Oranicnbaum
416, 525
Newtown Stewart
ib.
Northampton 244, 942
Ochills M.
159
Oranieiiburg
. 471
Newtyle
272
Northberwick
287
Ochiltree
. 271
Orbec
348
A>u» York
941
North Cape
139
Ochrlda
611
Orbey
. 357
New York City .
943
North C.
1004
Odense .
. 482
Orbitello .
582
New Zealand .
1002
Sorth Carolhia .
941
Oderau
443
Orchies .
. 355
Neyba .
951
North Esk R.
998
Oder R.
. 394
Ordiquhill .
272
Nhatrang
749
Northey I.
180
Odessa
628
Ordnance Point . 999
Niagara
912
North Foreland
i6.
Odiham .
. 312
Ord of Caithness 262
Niagara Falls .
8K3
Northmavin
27)
Oedenburg
456
Oregon R.
8S1
Niamtz
«13
North Sea
138
Oehringin
. 4(J9
Oregon City
. 947
Nicaragua
953
North Shields .
- 244
Oels .
416, 473
Oregon territory 948
Nicaragua L.
8><3
Northumberland 244,259
Oelsnitz
. 413
Orel
. 527
Nice (Turkey)
«48
Northumberland
311
Oencia
545
Orellana R.
881
Nice (Italy; .
575
Northumberland C
. 981
Oerebro .
. 499
Orenburg
. 531)
Nicopoli
012
Northwest C
ib.
Oesel I.
506
Orense
547
Nicolsburg
443
Northwich
311
Oettingcn
. 408
Orfah .
. 655
Nicotnedia
(548
Norungah
714
Ofanto R. .
560
Orford Ness
980
Nicopolis
Gil
Noruai/ . 48
1,499
Orenburg
. 410
Orfui C.
. 803
Nicosia
641
Norwich . . 24
3,912
Otfenbach .
412
Orgelet
352
Nicoya G.
876
Norwood
249
O^'densburg .
. 943
Orgon .
. 318
Nidd K
182
N OSS-head .
262
Ohio State
941
Orgunge .
780
Niederbronn
a)7
Noto
591
Ohio City
. 947
Origny S'". Benoite 347
Niederlauterbach
?57
Nottingham
245
Ohio R. .
878
Orihuela .
519
Niemen K.
463
Noukahiva I. .
1016
Ohrdruff
. 415
Orinoco R.
. 8'^2
Nienburg .
417
Nouvelle
348
Oise dept. .
342, 355
Orinoco
953
Nieppes
355
Nova Berda .
611
Oisseau
. 354
Orissa
711,713
Nieuwdiep
3«9
Novaia- Ladoga
5-J4
Oissel
3.59
Orkney Islands . 263
Nieuwkerk .
391
Novaia-Sibir I. 78
<, 797
Oisy
. 356
Orleans
353
Nieuport .
384
Novaia Zemlia
5(16
Okhotsk .
796
Ormi.-ton
. 271
Nievre . . 342
3.i5
Novailora .
581
Okkak .
. 902
Ormus I. .
673
Ni-er R. .
850
Novara .
574
Okna
613
Ornans .
. a50
Nigg . . 270
Nightingale I. .
Nikolaef
273
Noea Scotia
912
Oknamare
. ib.
Orne .
342, 355
«71
Nova-Zembla
.506
Okna-teleaga
612
Orne E.
. 317
528
Novgorod .
5-J6
Oianchito
. 953
Orontcs R.
642
Niksar
649
Novi . . 57
1, 612
OUind I. .
486
Orphano
. 610
Nile R. . 810
814
Novi-bazar
61',i
(Jidenburg
. 418
Orphir
271
Niles
948
Nowanuggur .
728
Oldham
241, 258
Or era .
. 441
Nilgherries M. 72."?
GsO
Noyal-l'ontivy .
351
Oldbamstocks
. 271
Orsova
460,612
Nimbhera
731
Noyal sur Vilaine
352
Old Head .
294
Orta L. .
. 560
Nimes .
351
Noydn .
355
Old Mcldrum
. 272
Ortega! C.
5.33
Nimeguen
391
Nuddeah
713
Old Providence
I. 9(i4
Ortenburg
. 421
Nineveh
656
Nuevitas
962
Oleapour
. 713
Orthes
3.56
Nin^-po
768
Nueyur
730
Oleron
356
Oruba
. 960
Niort
3'.0
Nugeeana
718
Oleron I.
. 317
Orvieto
585
Niphon I.
798
Nugger
730
Olinda
958
Orwell .
. 271
Nirmada R. .
68 J
Nugur
Kiifiia
722
Oliva
. 473
Orwell R. .
182
NishapOr .
671
832
Oliven(,a
550
Osaka .
. 800
Nishc'grod or Nish-
Nuits
319
Ollioules
. 360
Oschatz
413
nei-novgorod
526
Nuldingah
713
OIniutz
443
Osey I. .
. 18(»
Neisse
473
Nulsbi .
ib.
Olney
. 232
Osma .
545
Nitra .
456
Numantia .
517
Olonetz
526
Osmanstadt
. 415
Nive R.
998
Nun C .
803
Olot
. 548
Osnabruck
. 417
Ni Telle R. .
378
Nun R.
850
Olrick
. 271
Ospino .
. 9.53
Nivelles
383
Nundidroog .
723
Olteu
. 372
Ossun
3.56
Nizampatnam
722
Nuneaton .
251
Olympus M.
611
Ossuna .
5.50
Sixiim'i Slate .
725
Nungul .
733
Oniaiih .
309, 313
Ostend
38t
Nizza . . 574
611
Nunklow .
714
t)man
662
Osterode
. 417
Noah's Ark L
867
Nurnberg
408
Onibay I.
. 974
Oster R. .
182
Nocera .
588
Nurodeen-Serai
733
Ombrone R.
5(i()
Ostheim
. 416
Nogat R. .
463
Nur»inghur .
728
Omcrpore
. 733
Ostia .
584
Nogent sur Seine
347
Nusseerabad . 72
0,731
Omniersclianz
391
Ostrohnka
530
Nogent le Bernard
358
Nutrias .
953
Omoa
9.53
Oswestry
. 24(>
Nogent le Koi .
XA
Nuttam
722
Oinrawutty .
. 726
Otago B. .
Otcliakov
1004
Nogent-le-Hotrou
350
Nuyfs Archipelag
o 981
Omsk
796
52H
Noir R.
295
Nuyt'H Point .
981
Onate
. .548
Otca I. .
. KOI
Noirmoutier I.
317
Nyffe .
8.57
Onega
526
Otou C. .
ib.
Nola .
588
Nyon
374
Onega \..
. 507
Otxego L.
Ottajano .
. mi.
Nona
461
Nyons
3.50
Onrglia
575
Ml
Nontron
3.V)
Oneida L.
. 8H3
Ottawa
. 947
Noon-maimce
733
0
Ongar
31 1
OtterbiTK
408
Nootka I. .
9W
Onnaiiig
. \',h
OtwavC.
Ouacha L.
. 9m I
Nootka Sound
877
Oa . . .
272
Oiiore
. 723
883
Norba
584
Oahu I. .
1016
Ontario I-.
. 883
Ouch6
. 374
Nord . . 342
, XV,
Oakham
246
Ooch
. 732
Oiidc
727
Norden
418
OakinKliam .
2:(2
Oonalashka I.
. 902
Oudonardo
. .383
Nordetiipy
ih.
f )ase» of Kgypt
M3
Oonimack I.
>h.
Oudewater
390. .3;il
Nordhaii!<en
472
Oathlaw
272
Ooroba
. Tin
Oudoypore
. 73(1
Nordheini
■117
Oat lands .
1002
OoHt.'rhi.ut
390
Oudou-Oudoi
R. KKIJ
Nord-Kvii C. .
139
Oiixara .
9.'.1
Ootaontnnnd
723
Ougein or On
J.ln 73'i
Nordliiigcn
408
(J ban .
283
Ophir M.
. 7.M
Ouiidlu
ail
1044
INDEX OF PLACES.
Ourem .
. 654
Pantura
738
Uurga
771
Panwell
. 725
Ourique
. 555
Papa .
4,57
Oiirouiidjova
610
Papenburg
. 418
Ouroux
. 357
Paplios .
. 641
Oursuintsi
769
Pappenheim
421
Ouse K.
182, 998
Para
. 958
Outreau
356
Paraclete .
348
Outre-Furens
. 3.53
Paraguay
. 957
Ovar
656
Paraguay R.
881
Over Flackee I.
. 386
Paramaribo .
. 958
Ovoryssel
386
Paramatta .
993
Ovidiopol
. 528
Paramo d'Assuay 9)4
Oviodo
547
Parana R. .
881
Owasca L.
883
Paravadi
. 612
Oswego .
. 944
Paray le Monial
357
Ov-fer's Shoal .
181
Parbusir
. 731
Owiiyhee I. .
. 1016
Parchim
418
Oxford
215
Parenzo .
. 434
Oxnam
. 272
Parga
611
Oxus R. .
776
Paria G.
. 876
O.ve
. 356
Parigny I'Eveque 3-58
Oyne
272
Pari ma L.
. 884
Oyonnax
. 347
Paris .
343
Oyster B.
999
Parita G.
. 876
Oyster Rocks
. 740
Parkersburg
946
Ozark M. .
875
Parkhurst
. 189
Parma
580
P
Paros I.
. 621
Parret R. .
182
Pachete
. 713
Parry Inlet .
. 980
Padaram C.
742
Parry's I .
966
Paderborn
. 474
Parthenay
. o60
Padion
545
Parton
272
Padron C.
803, 867
Pas de Calais Strait 316
Padstow .
234
Pas de Calais dept. 342
Padua
. 579
Pas de Calais dept. 356
Pago I.
461
Pasargadje
672
Pahang .
. 752
Pasco
. 9.54
PaimbOBuf .
353
Pasewalk .
472
Paimpol
. 349
Pasley C.
. 981
Paimpont
352
Passage
313
Paint Pe
. 356
Passage de riroise 316
Paisley
289
Passage du Raz
. ib.
Palinam
. 748
Passage du Foui
ib.
Palais
351
Passages
. 518
Palamcottah
V 722
Passaro C.
559
Palaraow .
714
Passau .
407, 409
Palar R.
. 684
Passy .
358
Palatia
647
Pastd .
. 954
Palawan
. 979
Patagonia .
9)9
Palcote
711
Patani .
. 752
Palee .
. 731
Paterson .
944
Palencia
547
Paterson C. .
. 981
Paleirao
. 591
Patialah
720
Palestine .
947
Patmos I.
. 641
Palestrina
579, 584
Patua
714
Palhanpore .
. 728
Patras
. 720
Paliano
584
Patton C .
981
Palinurus Shoal
. 659
Patuxent R. .
. 880
Palks Straits
682
Paw .
3.^6
Pallanza
. 574
Paukpetten .
. 733
Pallee
730
Pauillac
351
Palliser B. .
. 1003
Paulovsky
. .524
Palliser C.
1004
Paulus Hook
944
Palmas C. .
. 803
Paulytanna .
. 728
Palmer
948
Paumbaun Strai
t 682
Palmerston C.
. 980
Pavia
. 578
Palmyra
651
Pawtucket
942
Palmyras C.
. 682
Paxo
. 621
Palos
5.50
Payta .
954
Palos C.
. 533
Pearl R. .
. 880
Paltupane
738
Peaule
354
Pamer .
. 779
Pebbly B.
. 999
Pamiers
347
Peccais
351
Pamir .
. 627
Pe-che-lee
. 754
Pamlico S.
876
PecUham .
250
Pampatar
. 9.53
Peder L.
. 998
Pamplona
648, 954
Pedro-talla-galla
M. 736
Panama
. 954
Peeleebheet .
. 718
Panama B.
876
Peepun
731
Panbride
. 271
Peebles .
. 289
Pancsova .
460
Peel .
256
Pandoorna
. 726
Peel morass .
. 3n6
Panghoo I.
755
Pegasus B.
1003
Pangi .
. 735
Pegasus Port
. 10i'4
Faniput
. 720
Pegu .
746
Panisieres .
353
Pehoe I.
. 755
Panlar I.
. 974
Pei-ho R. .
ih.
Pantellaria I.
659
Peipug L.
. 508
Pantin .
. 3.58
Fekin .
947
Pe-king .
. 767
Peterswald
443
Pelee I.
317
Peterswalda .
. 473
Pelee Point .
. 877
Peterwardein
460
Pelew Islands .
1014
Petigorsky
. 787
Pelior I.
. 673
Petit Gulf .
946
Pelissanne
348
Petite .Miquellon
960
Pella .
. 610
I'etrel I.
. 999
Pelleray
349
Petra .
6ii3
Peloponnesus
. 614
Petrovich
. 611
Pelusium .
831
Pelropaulovski
796
Pelussin
. 353
Petrozavodsk
. 526
Pelworm I.
476
Pettau
431
Pemadumcook L. 883
Petee
. 7:i3
Pemba I.
. 859
Peiteril R.
182
Pemes
357
Pettigoe
. 313
Penaliel .
. 545
Petty .
272
Penaug I. .
751
Petworth
. 312
Penaranda
. 545
Peyrais
347
Penarth C.
180
Peyrehorado .
. 352
Peuas C.
. 533
Pevensey .
312
Peiias G. .
876
Ptzenas .
. 352
Pencaitland .
. 272
Pfaflenheira
357
Pendennis Castle 234
Pfeffers .
. 372
Penetangushene
. 912
Pforta
472
Penguin I.
867, 999
Pforzheim
. 410
Penicuick
. 271
Phalsbourg
354
Penisoola .
549
Pharsala
. 611
Penniark
. 317
Phasis R. .
782
Penniark C.
316
Philadelphia (Asia) 648
Peunar R. .
684
Philadelphia (.Am.) 944
Penne
. 353
Philte I.
. 832
Penningham
273
Pbilippeville .
384, 846
Pennsylvania
. 911
Philippi
610
Penn-yan .
944
Philippine I.
. 977
Penobscot B.
876
Philippines
390
Penobscot R.
. 879
Philippoli
. 610
Pen on de Velez
551
Philippsburg
410
Pcniith .
. 235
Pbilipsthal .
. 411
Pentevedra
547
Philipstown
3(J8
Pentire C.
. 180
Philoti .
. 611
Pentland Hills
159, 262
Phillip I. .
981
Pentland Firth
. 262
Piano L.
. 560
Pentland Skerries 203
Pjanosa L .
559
Penza .
. 529
Pickering
. 312
Penzance .
234
Pictou
912
Penziiig
. 438
Pinerolo
. 574
Peoria
947
Pigeon Island
740
Perak .
. 7o2
Pictou I
. 912
Percy
3.-)4
Pie de Luco
585
Pergamo
. 648
Piedmonte
. 68S
Pergine
434
Piere .
434
Periapatam .
. 722
Pierre
. 357
Periers
354
pierrelatte .
. 350
Perigueux
. 350
Pierre-Pertius
370
Perim I.
659, 740
Pignan .
. 352
Perkins I.
999
Pignans
360
Perm
. 529
Pih-shan vole.
. 629
Pernambuco
958
Pilate M. .
370
Pernau .
. 525
Pillau .
. 473
Pernes
360
Pillar I. .
999
Peronne
. 360
Pillnitz .
. 414
Perons Peninsula 981
Pilsen
442
Perpignan
356
Pinang I.
. 751
Perrysburg
. 947
Pin-dadun-khan
733
Persaim
746
Pind-mulik-ulea
. ib.
Persepolis
. 672
Piney
347
Pershore .
312
Pipiey
. 713
Peroi
. 441
Pirano
441
Persia
665
Pirate's B. .
. 999
Persian Gulf
. 659
Pire
352
Pertabgliur
726, 727
Piritu
. 953
Perth 289, 912, 997, 1002
Pirmasens
408
Pertius
. 360
Pirna
. 414
Peru .
954
Pisa .
682
Peru Upper •
. ib.
Pisang I.
. 752
Perugia
585
Pischtian .
456
Perugia L.
. 560
I'istoia .
. 581
Pesaro
585
Pitcairn I.
1018
Pescadores I.
• 755
Piihiviers
. 353
I'eschiera .
579
I'itsligo
271
Pescia .
. 681
Pittenain
. 272
I'eshawer .
C76
Pitteuweem
288
Peso da Regoa
. 556
Pittsburg
. 945
Pesth .
4,55
I'itsford .
942
Peterborough
. 2,44
Pitzounda
. 7^5
Peterculter
270
I'izzighettone
579
Peterhead
. 282
Plabennec
. 350
Petersburg
945
Placentia .
550, 680
Peterhof
. 525
Pladda I.
. 263
Petershausen
411
Plaintel
349
Petersthal .
. 410
Plaii-tuit
. 352
INDEX OP PLACES.
104»
Plassey
713
Platana .
649
Platen
421
Plat«ae .
619
Platsburg .
943
Platten see .
445
Plauen
415
Pleaux .
348
Pledran
349
Pleiben .
3.')0
Pleiber-Christ •
ih.
Pleif
373
Pleine-Fougeres
352
Plelan .
.A.
Pl.lo . . .
349
Pless
473
Plemet .
319
Pleiiiy
ih.
Pleiife-jugoii
ib.
Plenty B. . .
1(103
Pleriii .
349
Plessala
tb.
Plc.-sc- .
3-.3
Plegtin
319
Pk-ubian
ih.
PktteiihLTg
421
Pletteiibcl-g B.
8<i7
Pleudihen
349
Plock .
53U
Ploerdut .
354
Ploenuel
ih.
Ploneour-Menez
350
Plonevez du Faou
ib
Ploubaslanec
ib.
Plockton .
•iTl
Ploerneur . .
3.54
Plouaret .
350
Plouasne
ih.
Plouay
ail
Plouberre
350
Pli udalmezeau .
ib.
Ploudaiiiel
ih.
I'louer . .
ih.
Plwuc .
349
Pioezal
ib.
Ploucscat .
350
I'loU^'SUViT .
ib.
Plouezec .
ih.
Ploiigasnou .
ih.
riougai^tel
ih.
I'loiigenicau .
ib.
Plou^uriitvel
ih.
Plougouveii .
ib.
Ploiiguenast
ib.
Plouha .
ib.
Plouider .
ib.
Plouigiieau .
ib.
Plouiiiillian
■ih.
Plouiievei-Loclirist ib.
Plourin
lb.
Plouvorn
ib.
I'lojesli
612
Plud.nz
434
Pluiiicliau
354
Pluiiiieux
350
Pluvigiier
354
I'ljiMouth 23'), 942
, 903
Plymouth H.
179
I'lyriiptori-Earle .
311
Pockliiigtnn
312
Pococ^k Point
1004
Poilgorze .
444
PoCNneck
415
PiEHtuin
ftH8
Point de Galle
7.19
Pointe a litre .
'JU
Poire sous Uourbon 3'.0
Pois!*y . . 3:)*
, 359
I'oili'TS
*;!
I'okur .
721)
Pola .
441
J^of'/nd .
.WO
Point Krgwnt 'jm.
10.8
Poligny
.352
Poliwers C. .
1004
Polkcrris IJ.
179
Polloek
273
Pollo(k»haws .
313
Polotsk
529
I'oUava .
827
I'olwarth
271
1011
349
348
651
470
352
254
, 353
349
Polynesia .
Poinard
Poniayrols
Pombal
Ponieraiiia
Pomerols
Poinfi tt .
Pommeraye
Pompadour
Pompei . . 587
Ponang or Ponany 722
Poiidchery . 735
Pongokwalieiu L. . 883
Pons . . 349
Pont Audemer . 350
Pont I'Abbe . ib.
Pont a Mijusson . 354
Pont de Beauvoisin 352
Pont du Cliateau . 35G
Pont du Gard . 351
Pont de Vaux . 347
Pont St. Esprit 351
Pont St. Meaxence 355
Ponts de Ce . 353
Pontarlier . . 350
Poiitacq . . 3oG
Pont de Lago Scuro 586
Ponte Corvo . 585
Pont-y-Pool . 243
Pontchartrain L. . 883
Poiitchateau . 3.53
Pontiac . . 948
Poinian Islands 5.^9
Pontlvy . . 354
Pontatell . . 434
Pontine Marshes 561
Poiitoise . . 3.^9
Pontreraoli . . 582
Po H. . . 559
Poogli Becpsie . 943
Poole . . 236
Poolewe . . 272
Pooiiah . . 725
Poorbunder '. . 728
Pooto I. . . 7.54
Poore . . .715
Pooiloocottah . 722
Popayan . "95 4
Populsdorf . 474
Popcringhe . .381
Pordic . . 3.")0
Pore . . . 954
Porentrui . 370
Portaferry . . 313
Port Adelaide . 996
Port Anlmr . 998
Port Beaufort . 868
Port Castries . 963
Port Curtis . 9n0
Port Dundas . 27n
Port Uownie . ib.
Port Elizabeth . 867
Port Essington 997
Port (.eorge IV. . 980
Port Gibson . 946
Port Glasgow . 290
Port Gl'nore . 313
Port Hardy . . I0j3
Port Hope . 911
Port llopetoun . 278
Port Hunter . 980
Port Jackson . 993
Port Leschenault 997
Port Lincoln . 996
Port Louis 316, 3.55, 965
Port Mactjuarrie 9si)
Port Maboii . 5,33
Portinoak . .271
Port ot Menteith ih
Port Nicholson . I0o3
Port PulDck 271, 291
Port _^(gasus . 10**4
Port ^enii . . 915
Port^^bililii . 9!i3
Port ^ulbii . . 995
Port Koyal . 963
Port Ku^h . 313
Port of Spain . 9*4
Port Sainte .Mario 3,53
Port St. Vincent , 996
Port 8U'phen"s . 9m
942,
980,
286,
531,
Port sur Saon*
Port Vendres .
Port Victoria
Portadown
Portalegre
Portarlington
Port au- Prince
Port indik
Portici .
Portland .
Portland I.
P.-rtland B.
Portland Bill
Portland C.
Portnahaven
Portobello
Porto-Farina
Porto Glorioso
Porto Leone
Porto Maurizio
Porto-novo
Porto-Ro
Porto Itico
Porto-Santo
Porto Vecchio
Porto Vclo .
Portree
Portsea
Pol■t^lno^ith
Portsoy
Puitugal
Pofen
Poslikun
POsSUKUO .
Potenza
Poti .
Potomac R. .
Pcitockio Islands
Potosi
I'otrone
Potsdam
Potten I.
Pottendorf
Pottsville
P<-uance
Poutiia L
Pouilly
PouUaouen .
Poulton
Pourrieres
Poussan
Poverty B. .
Powangurh
Pownar
Pownee .
Po-yang L. .
Prades
Praga
Prag ue
Prato de MoUo
Prawlepoint
Prccy
PraNagas .
Pre en Pail .
Pre St Didier
Pregel K.
Priles
Prcnieira Rocks
Preinithi
Premnay
Pr^ mont
Premontre
Prenzlau
Preparis I.
Presburg
I'resoot
Prescott
Preservation Point
Presteign
Preston
I'r stonkirk
Prestonpans
I'rettl^au
Priuilly
Pre^au
Prevena .
Priepecz H.
PrinC'- Kd.nrd
Prince Eilward'
Prince Fnderlel
Harbour
241
357 1
ib. '
996
313
5.50
308
962
855
5h7
947
181
993
180
999
272
954
847
441
619
674
723
458
960
657
349
954
288
247
942
312
551
473
5.S8
78")
879
7.55
954
5h9
471
ISO
434
915
353
1004
355
350
241
360
352
1003
733
726
ib.
755
356
530
442
3^)6
180
349
717
3.54
675
463
358
740
611
272
347
ib.
471
743
456
311
911
10:14
312
, 258
271
2x7
373
.V)2
443
<.ll
.507
lOIK
Prince Regent B
Prince of Wales I.
Prs. Charlotte's B.
Princeton .
Principe I. . .
Prisreiidi .
Pristina
Privas
Probischcr-thor .
Procida I. .
Prome
Proniontore
Prosnitz
Prosser B.
Provunyal I.
Proviiience
Provincetown
Provins
Pruin
Pruntz
Prusa
Prussia
Prutli K.
Pshad
P:.kov .
Przmysl . .
Pubna
Pucculoe . .
Puekler
Pud. ig Bay
Puel'la .
Puerto
Puerto Cabello
Puerto Vieso .
Puicirda
Puiseaux
Puis.serguier .
Piittceala .
Pulawy
Pnlicat L.
Pulo
Pulparrah .
Pultani
Pulteneytown .
Pultusk .
Puna .
Putmah
Punnair R.
Puno
Punukha .
Purainda
Purbeck I.
Piirtieet
Purmerend
Purneah
Pursaek R.
Pusiano L. .
Punderpoor
Putch R.
Putiaux
PiitU' y .
Puttbus
Puttelango
Puttmi
I'utturi-Sidliporo .
Puttun-Somnatli
Puy de Dome 342,
I'uy de Till
Puylaurens .
Puz/.noli . .
Pwllhely
Pvlos
Pyramids of Egypt
PyrHnii<l I. . 99;»,
Pyrenees Depts 312
Pyrenees M. 631,
Pyrmont .
Q
Qocier
(iuadt-isny
Uuambv's llluff
t|uang--i
Qiiang-tong
tinarlf .
Ciuariidon .
Ciuaimro
tiuuroube
Cluatre Krat .
UuelH)C
980
9)2
980
944
870
611
ib.
347
413
6)9
746
441
413
91)9
641
942
ib.
358
474
733
643
462
507
785
523
444
713
16.
421
463
951
962
953
9.54
648
353
35a
720
630
685
742
724
738
284
530
725
720
684
954
735
725
181
237
390
713
642
660
727
752
358
2.50
475
355
728
ib.
ib.
, 356
317
360
687
255
G2O
830
1009
356
,53.5
413
830
421
9:18
753
16.
272
2.35
441
3M
sat
811
1046
INDEX OF PLACES
Q,uedah
758
Rappahannock E. 880
Quedlingburg .
475
Rapperschwyl
. 372
Qvieeuborough .
311
Raratonga I.
1015
ttueen Charlotte's 1. 902
Ras-al-had C.
. 659
<iueen Charlotte's
Ras-al-khyma
664
Sound . 877,
1003
Raselm L.
. 393
Queenston
912
Ras-el-Shakaa
641
Quelpaert I.
7ft5
Ras Mohammed
. 659
Quelus
555
Ras Mussendon
ih.
Quenoy sur Deule
355
Ras Reccan .
. ih.
Queretaro
951
Rastadt
410
Uueriinba I.
859
Rastenburg .
. 473
Queban I.
754
Rathcormac
313
Queatembert
354
Rathdrum
. ib.
Uuetta .
(J76
Rathen
271
tiuibdo
954
Rathenow
. 471
Uwiberon 3I(
,355
Rathfryland
313
Uuievry
355
Rathkeale
. ib.
Quiliiiiane R.
859
Rathlinl. .
294
Uuiloa
ib.
Rathmelton or J
ta-
Quiloii .
727
milton
. 313
Quimper .
350
Ratho
271
Uuimperlfe
ih.
Rathven
. 272
Quincy . 35S
,947
Rathvilly .
313
Uuinhone
749
Ratibor .
. 473
Quintiii
350
Ratisbon .
407, 408
Quislsana
587
Ratnapora
735
Quito
954
Ratoath
. 313
Uuorra R.
850
Rattray
271
Rattray Point
. 262
R
Ratzeburg
418, 482
Raree R. .
683
Raab
456
Ravenna
. 585
Raab R.
445
Ravensburg
409
Rabba
857
Rawan rhad L.
. 773
Kabastens
360
Rawilpindee
733
Rabat
845
Rawitscli
. 473
Racca
655
Rayleigh .
311
Race C.
877
Rayberry head
. 263
Rachur
722
Rayne
272
Racouigl .
574
Re . . .
. 750
Radtierg
414
Re I. .
317
Radioofani
582
Reading
231, 942
Radkersburg 431
,434
Realmont ,
360
Radstock C .
981
Realville
. ib.
Raepore
726
Reay .
271
Raflford .
272
Rechberg
. 421
Ragonautpour .
713
Recherche Arch
-
Ragusa
461
pelago
. 981
Raiatea I. .
1016
Recherche B. .
998
Raichoor
725
Reshstein
. 421
Raimbeaucourt
355
Reciffe C. .
867
Raimes
ib.
Recklinghausen
. 474
Rajah-kairah
728
Rechnitz R.
394
Rajamundry
722
Reculver
. 311
Rajanagur .
713
Redgorton
273
Rajaor
733
Redhead
. 262
Rajmahal
714
Redonda .
960
Rajpootana
730
Red Lake
. 883
Raleigh .
946
Redon
352
Ralph B. .
998
Redout-kalih
. 785
Ramas C.
682
Red River
877, 878
Rambervillieres
361
Red Sea .
658
Rambouillet .
359
Reef Point .
. 1094
Ramehead .
180
Ree L. .
. 295
Ram jeer
725
Reevesby's I.
981
Ramgur
714
Reggio
581, 589
Ram Head .
981
Reguisheim
357
Ram Hormuz .
672
Reichenbach .
370, 413
Ramilies
384
Reichenberg
442
Ramiseram 1. .
740
Reichenhall .
. 407
Ramlah
654
Reichenstein
473
Ramnad
722
Reichnau
. 415
Ramnagur
719
Reichshoffen
357
Ramnegurh
733
Keigate .
. 249
Rampore
718
Reiha
651
Ramree I. .
716
Reinga C.
. 1004
Ramsay . . 256
,311
Remain C.
877
Ramsey I. .
181
Reraedios
. 962
Ramsey mere L. .
182
Remiremont
361
Ramsgate .
240
Reraollon
. 347
Ramteak
726
Remoulin .
351
Ramtereh .
733
Remscheid '.
. 474
Ranee K.
317
Renaix
383
Randalstown
313
Renfrew
. 289
Rangamatty .
713
Rennes
3.^
Rangoon .
746
Repalle .
. 722
Rann
431
Repulse B.
876, 980
Raon I'Etape
361
Requena
. 545
Raphoe .
313
Requista .
348
Rakos-mezo
456
Rerrick ■
. 272
Rescobie . . 272
Resht . . 670
Resina . . . 587
fiethel . . 347
Retournac . . 353
Reus . . . 548
Beuss . . 416 j
Reuti . . . 434
Reutlingen , . 410 I
Revel . . 351,525 \
Revigny . . 354
Revin . . 347
Rewah . . .728
Rewaree . . 718
Reze . . .353
Rhadunpore . 728
Rhe . . .671
Rheidiol R. . 182
Rheims . . . 354
Rheina . . 474
Rheinau . . 369
Rheineck . . 372
Rheinfolden . . 373
Rheingan . . 413
Rhense . . . 475
Rhetiers . . 352
Rhieux . . . 355
Rhin dept. 342, 357
Rhine R. . . 394
Rhoda I . . 828
Rhode Island . 941
Rhodes . . 641
Rhodez . . .348
Rhonaszek . 457
Rhone dept. . 343, 357
Rhone R. . 318, 305
Rhonitz . . . 456
Rhu-Rea-head . 262
Khymney . . 243
Rhynd . . 273
Rhynie . . . ib.
Rhynland . . 390
Rians . . .360
Riazan . . 527
Ribadavia . . 545
Ribadeo . . ib.
Ribble R. . .182
Ribeauviile . 357
Ribemont . . 347
Riberac . . 350
Riccarton . . 271
Richelieu . . 352
Richibucto . . 912
Richmond 250, 254, 312
Richmond 945, 993, 1002
Rickerton I. . 981
Rickniansworth 311
Ried . . .434
Rieti ... 685
Riez . . .347
Riga . . . 525
Riga G. . . . 138
Rigi-berg . . 370
Riguewihr . . 357
Rillenaule . . 313
Rimatava I. . 1016
Rimini . . . 585
Rimnik . . 613
Ring Point . . 294
Rinkan-foss . S03
Rinteln . . .411
Rio . . . 958
Riobamba . . 954
Rio Brazas . 880
Rio de la Plata 876, 881
Rio Dolce . . 882
Rio Hacha . . 954
Riom ... 356
Rioni R. . 782
Bios de Senna . 859
Rio Seco . . 547
Riou I. . . 317
Ripley . . .250
Ripon . . 254
Ris ... 369
Ritzebuttel . 420
Riva . . .434
Rive de Gier . 353
Rives .... 352
Rivesaltes . . 366
Rivoli . . 874
Rlxheim
Riza .
Roanne .
Roanoke I.
Robben I.
Rubbin I.
Roberton
Robertoun
Robin Hood's
Roeamadour
Rochdale
Roehechouart
Rochefort
Rochcfoucald
Rochelle
Rochemaure
Rochester
Rochford .
Rochlitz
Koch R. .
Rockbridge
Rockingham
Rockingham
Rockport .
Rocky C.
Rocky Point
Rocroy .
Roda .
Roding R.
Rodney
Rodney Point
Rodondo I.
Rodosto
Roebuck B.
Rogart .
RogKendorf
Rohilcund
Rohitsch .
Rohtuk
Rokelay
RoUe
RoU^a
Romania C.
Romans
Rome
Romhild .
Romilly
Romilly sur Seine
Romney
Romo I.
Romorantin
Romsey
Ronciglione
Ronda
Ronneberg
Ronsan C.
Ronsdorf
Roquefort
Roquemaure
Roqueraire
Roraas .
Roree
Rosas
Rosbach
Roscarberry
Roschach .
Roscoff
Roscommon
Roscrea
Roseketn
Rosemarkie
Rosenau
Rosenberg
Rosetta
Rosetta Cove
Rosheim
Rosieres
Rosieres-aux-Sa
lines
Roskild
Roslin .
Rosneath .
Rosny .
Rosocolmo C.
Ross
Rossan Point
Rossberg
Ross Head
Rostak .
Rostock
Rota
857
649
353
876
8fi7
9S9
273
272
179
353
241
361
319
34H
319
347
239, 944
311
413
182
945
942
980
947
999
999, 1004
. 347
415
iKl
946
10(14
981
610
9kO
271
475
717
434
718
738
374
555
742
350
583, 944
415
350
347
239
476
352
312
5»5
549
415
981
474
348
351
348
504
732
548
472
313
372
. 350
309, 313
;'/,.
273
271
457
4il
829
995
357
360
a54
482
. 286
271, 285
. 359
5.59
2.38
2!;4
370
2(j3
664
418
S60
INDEX OF PLACES
RotM
734 ( Saarbnicken
475
Rotasghur
. 718
Saardam
389
Rotha R. .
182
Saba .
960
Rothe-hutte .
. 417
Sabaquien 1.
659
Rothenburg 40S
,411,472
Sabenico .
461
Rotherham .
. 253
Sabermutty R.
684
Rotherturm
459
Sabine R.
880
Rothes .
. 270
Sable
358
Rothiemay
273
Sable C. .
877
Rothiemurchu
. 270
Sable I.
960
Roth say
284
Sables d'Olonne
360
Rotschenalm
. 525
Salzhemniendorf .
417
Rotte I.
974
Saccatoo .
857
Rottenberg .
. 409
Saehsenhausen
419
Rottenest I.
981
Sachsen Schwelz
414
Rotterdam
. 390
Sackett's Harbour
944
Rottweil .
409
Saco
942
Rouabouki I.
. 1004
Saddell
272
Roubaix
355
Saddleworth
241
Roudah I.
. 828
Sadras
722
Rouen
359
Sadulapore
733
RouflTach
. 357
Safed
652
Roulers
384
Saffron Walden
311
Rouiidstone B.
. 294
Sagaing
746
Roveredo .
431
Sagan
473
Rovigno
. 441
Saghalien I. .
772
Rovitfo
580
Saginaw B.
882
Roville
. 354
Sagres .
556
Row .
271
Saguntum
548
Roxburgh
272, 290
Sahagun
545
Royan
349
Sahara
802
Roye
. 360
Sahara
848
Royston
311
Saharunpore
720
Roy-bareilly .
. 728
Saibgunge
713
Rozah
726
Saigon
749
Ruad
. 652
Saikwah
715
Rubeland .
416
Sainghin-en-Weppi
S3.55
Rubiera
. 581
Saintes
349
Rudersdorf
471
Saintes I.
317
Rudesheim
. 413
St. Abb's Head
262
Rudolstadt
416
St. Aignan .
352
Rue
. 360
St. Alban .
353
Ruel .
358
St. Albans . 239
942
Rueile .
. 348
St. Alban's Head
180
Ruffec
i/j.
St Aniand 349
, 355
Rugby .
. 312
St. Amarin
357
Rugen I. .
463
St. Ambroix .
351
Rubles .
. 350
St. Amour
352
Ruhla
415, 416
St. Anastasia
S87
Ruhrort
. 474
St. Andre de San-
Rukberg
461
gonis
352
Rully . .
. 357
St. Andreasberg .
417
Rurnburg .
443
St. Andrews 287
912
Rumfurd
. 311
St. Andrews I.
446
Rumilly .
3.55
St. Andrews Lhan-
Runa I.
. 506
bride
271
Runaway C.
1004
St. Ann
963
Runcorn
. 234
St. Ann's Head
180
Rung pore
. 713
St. Antheme .
350
Runn of Cutch
. 6»5
St. Antonin
3<^0
Runny mead
250
St. Antonio .
877
Runswick B.
. 179
St. Asaph .
2.55
Ruons
347
St. Aubert
355
Rupelmonde
. 383
St. Aubin
312
Rureinond
391
St. Augustine 877
948
Rurutu I.
. 1016
St. Augustine .
949
Rush
313
St. Austle
234
Ri.shville
. 947
St. Avoid .
3.55
Rusoer
503
St. Hartbolomcw I.
960
HusM'l .
. 1009
St.BausilledePutoi
s352
Ruszt
457
S<". BazeiUes .
3.53
Ruthven
. 272
St. Beat
351
Ruthwell .
271
St. Bees Head .
180
Rutlaum
. 728
St. Bernard M. .
374
Rutland
246, 942
St. Bertrand de Com
-
Ruth
. 371
ininges .
.351
Rutschuk
611
St. Bias
9.'-:l
Ruttuniiore .
. 726
St. Blasicn
411
Ryan C. .
262
St. Rennet Iechateau353
Rvdal L.
. 1H2
St. Boswell's .
273
Ryde
312
St. Brandan .
319
Rye
. 250
St. Bride's Bay
1x0
Rj iial)ad .
713
St. Brieuc . 316
349
Ryswick
. 390
St. Bris
361
Rzeszow
444
St Calais
358
St. Catherine C
803
s
St. Catherine's I.
965
St. CerC- .
353
Banlfeld
. 415
St. Ccrnin
34M
8a«rlouig .
475
St. Chanias
H>.
8aaria
. 663
St. Chaiiiond
353
St. Charles . 948
St. Chef . . 352
St. Chely . 348, 3.53
St. Chinian . . 352
St. Clair R. and L. 882
St Clare L. . 998
St. Claude . . 352
St. Cloud . 3->9
S'". Colombo . 348
S'". Croix au.Y mines 357
S'". Croix en plaine ib.
St. Croix R. . . 879
St. Crux L . 867
St. Cyprien . . 3.50
St. Cyr . 3.59
St. Cvr au Mont D'or357
St. Cyrus . . 271
St. Davids . 255
St. David's Head . 180
St. Denis . . 358
St. Didier le Sauve 353
St. Die
St. Dizier .
St. Donat
St. Erme .
St. Espiritu .
St. Etienne
St. Etienne de Bai-
goray
St. Etienne de Lug-
dares . . 347
St. Etienne de Mont
Luc . . . 353
St. Eufemia G. . 558
St. Eustatius L 960, 964
St. Fargeau . 361
St. Feliz Islands . 965
St. Fergus
St. Fiorenzo
St. Florentin
St. Flour
S'^ Foy . ■
St. Gago
St. Gall
St. Galrnier
St. Gaudens
St. Genet Malifaux 3.53
St. Genies . . 318
St. George 349, 352, 964
St. George's Head 981
St. Geoire . . 352
St. Germain-en-laye 359
St. Germain Lem-
bron
St. Gervais .
St. Gilles .
St. Girons
St. Gobain
St. (iothard M. .
St. Goven's Head
St. Helen
St. Helena Bay .
St. Helena 1. .
St. Helena Sound
St. Helen's Point ,
St. Helen's Road
St. Hilaire
St. Hilaire du Har
eonet
St. Hippolyte 350,351, 3)7
St. Honorine . .■).56
St. Ives . 234,239,311
St. Ives' Bay . . 180
St. James . . 3.54
St. Jean Bonnoford 353
St. Jean d' Aiigely .349
St. Jean de Bouniay 352
St. Jean de Fos . i/i.
St. Jean de Lone 319
St. Jean de Luz.
St. Jean de Mont
St. Jean du Gard
St. Joachim
St. Jolin . . 960,964
St John's 912,960,91.3
St. John K. . 879
St. John's R. . 8K0
St. Joseiih . 948
St. Juliendc Concel-
Ins . . . 353
St. Julicn en Jarrct 353
361
354
350
347
962
353
356
356
352
351
347
373
180
311
866
876
876
999
179
355 I
■354 !
356 :
360
.351 i
353 i
1047
. Junlen . 361
Just . . .311
Just sur Loire 353
Kitts I. . 900
Lambert . . 384
Laurent . 356
Laurent de Medoc351
Laurent du Pont 352
Laurent les bains 347
Lawrence G. . 876
Lawrence R 878
Leger surDheune 358
Leonard . 361
Livrade . . 353
Lo . . 354
Louis . 85.5, 948
Louis Potosi 951
Loup . . 357
Lucia I. . 960
Madoes . . 273
Maixont . 360
Malo . . 352
Marcellin . ib.
Mards . . 347
Marguerite I. 317
Marie aux mines 357
Marino , 585
Marks . . 948
Martin . 349
Martin C. . 533
Martin en Bresse3-58
MartinesVignes 347
Martins 273, 964
Martins I. 740, 960
Marton . 456
Martory . .351
Mary C. 803, 867
Mary's R. and
Falls . . 882
Mary's Rocks 740
Maure . 352
Matthew's I. . 797
Maurice . 374
Maximin . 360
Menehould 354
Michaels B. . 316
Michael Mont 3.54
Mihiel . . 354
Mungo . 272
Nazaire 353, 360
Neots . 239
Nicholas . 383
Nicolas . 3.54
Nicolas d' Alier-
mont . . 359
Ninians . '273, 290
Omer . . 356
Oucn . 312,3.58
Patrick's Bridge 294
Paul . 356, 913
Paul's C. . . 803
Paul's Dome M. 998
Paul's I. . .1018
Paul en Jarrct 353
Paulien . . ib.
Peray . . 347
Petersburg . 524
Philibert . 3.53
Pierre 312,349,3.56,960
Pierre le Moutier 355
Pierre les Calais .356
Pierre sur Dives .'148
Pithon . 3.55
PoBlten . . 4;i8
Pol . . 356
Pol de Leon 3.50, 351
Pons . . 352
Pdurvnin . .117
Quentin 347, 351
Uuirin . .'1.54
Quivox . . '271
Kainbert 317, .(53
Ueniy. . .348, .3.56
Home dc Tarn 348
SaiiiH . . 359
Saulieu . 360
Sanvrur . . .^56
Savinien . 349
Servan . . 3.52
Sever . . ih.
Stephens . 94«
1048
INDEX OF PLACES.
St. Sulplee . 375
8c Sviiiphorien d«
Lay . . 353
St. Tlieogoneo . 350
St. Thomas I. . 964
St. Thomas's Mount ^2^2
St. Tron . . 384
St. Tropes . 360
St. Urbaiii . . 370
St. Urs'inne . 370
St. Vaast . 3.i4
St. Vnllery . . 360
St. Valery sur Som-
me . . ih.
St. Vallier . . 3.58
St. Valuers . 350
St Veil . . 440
St. Victoiro . 348
St. Vijreaiis . .271
St. Vincent .533, .574, 960
St Vincent C. . .5a3
St. Yriei.x . 3(;i
St. Zaeharie . 360
Sais ... 831
S-iiss.ic . . . 348
Sikaria R . 642
Salas^ora . .611
Salaiiieh . . 653
Sala 1 560
Salami . . 953
Salamanca . . 547
Salamia . . 6.55
Salamia . .619
Salanpore . . 752
t ilcey forest . 189
PiMana . . 545
Saldanha B. . . 867
Saloo . . . 845
Salem . . . 942
Salem (Ind.) . 722
Salen . . . 272
Salernes . . 360
Salerno . . . 5*8
Salford 240,241,311
Salies . . . 356
Salina . . .944
Saline . . 271
Salins . . . 352
Salisbury . . 252
Salm ". . . 421
Salmbach . . 3.57
Salon . . .348
Salona . . 461
Saloniki . . .610
Salop ... 246
Salour . . . 722
Salsette I. . . 740
Salta . . 956
Saltcoats . . 312
Saltees I. . . 294
Saltfleet . . 311
Saltoun . . .272
Saltrange M. . 733
Saluen R. . . 742
Saluzzo . . 574
Sahadar . . 953
Salvaterra . 555
Salzburg . . 439
Salzwedel . . 472
Samakof . .611
Samanah . . 718
Siiraara . . . 656
Samara . . 8.'16
Samarang . . .976
Samarcand . 779
Samaria , . 641
Samasanna I. . 755
Sambas . . .977
Samber L. . 6-'5
Sambilang T. . . 7,52
Sambor . . 444
Sameon . . 355
Saminoruggur . 731
Samos I. . .641
Samothraki I. . 596
Samour R. . . 786
Samsoe I. . . 476
Samsoun . . 649
Samsoun G. . 641
San Carlo? . 953, 9fi5
San Clemente . 54.5
San Daniiano . .574
San Diego . . 953
San Domingo 951, 963
San Felipe . 953
San Felipe d'Austin 949
San Felipe de Ben-
859
951
877
588
582
880
588
5.50
guela
San Francisco .
San Francisco B
San Germano .
San Giuliano
San Jacinto K. .
San Leucio
San Lucar . , .
San Lucas
San Luis
San Miguel .
San Paulo
San Pedro Sula
San Remo .
San Roque
San Salvador
San Salvadore .
San Sebastian
San Sebastian C
San Vicente .
Sanabria .
Sancerre
Sandal Wood I.
Sandec .
Sandheads
Sandhurst , .
Sandomir .
Sand o way
Saudsting
Sandusky City .
Sandwich 239, 912, 942
Sandwich Islands 1016
Sandwich land 1019
Sandwick . .271
Sandy B. . . 1003
Sandy C. . 980, 999
Sandy Hook
Sangershausen
Sanguddee
Sannois .
Sanquhar .
Santa Anna .
Santander .
Saiit" Antonio
Sanf Antonio de
Bexar
Santa Catalina I.
Santa ('hristina I
Santa Clara
Santa Cruz 845, 954. 962
Santa Cruz 964, 966
Santa Fe . 549, 956
Santa Maria 533, 5.50, 588
Santa Marta . 954
Santa Maura . 621
Santarem . . 555
Santa Saba . . 654
Santiago 954, 956. 962
Santillana . . .545
Santi Petri R. . .5.50
Santen . . . 474
9.58
. 953
058
. 953
570
550, 877
. 952
:u\
. 548
803
953
545
349
1014
444
682
232
530
716
272
967
877
472
726
358
285
953
547
958
949
964
1016
962
Santos
958
Saone dept.
343
357
Sarabat R.
642
Saragosfa
.54 S
Sarai .
530
Saransk .
529
Saratoga Springs
943
Saratov .
530
Sarcelles .
358
Sardinia I.
.576
Sardinia Km.
567
.573
Sardis
647
Sarepta .
530
Sargans
372
Sari
670
Sark I.
181
256
Sarlat
350
Sarnen .
371
Saros-patak
4.57
Sarallie .
355
Sarrebourg
.354
Sarrcguimines
3.55
Sarre- Union
.357 1
Sart
647 ;
Sarteno
Sarthe .
Sartrouville
Sartz
Sarzana
Sarzeau .
Sas-de.Gand
Sassenage
Sasseno I. .
Sasseram
Sassuolo
Sataljik .
Sateiiapalli
Saterland
Satiniungaluui
Satarah .
Saubzoir
Saugor
Saugor \. .
Saugues
Saugur
Saulieu .
Sauniur
Saundor's C. .
Saurat
Saure
Saiit de Doubs
Sautpoora M. .
Savaii L
Savanna
Savannah
Savanna la Mar
Savellan M.
Savenav
Save R'.
Saverdun
Saverne
Savigliano
Savigny sur Braye
Savona
Savoy
Savu I.
Sawuntwaree
Saxony
Saxe (duchies)
Sayans-kean >L
Saybrook
Saza .
Scaer
Scaggerac .
Scala nova
Scala nova G.
Scalloway
Scalona
Scanderoon .
Scarborough
Scarpanto I. .
Sceaux
Schabacz
Schad L. .
Schaft'hausen
Schandau .
Schaiik C.
Scharding .
Scharnitz
Schasberg .
Schemnitz
Schenectady
Scherwiller .
Soheusingen
Schiedam
Schiermonnick
Schiltigheim .
Schinznach
Schladming .
Sclilan
Schlangenbcrg
Schieitball,
Schleitz .
Schleswig ,
Schlitz .
Schlosser .
Sohlufselburg
Schnialkalden
Schmoelnitz .
SchmoUa .
Schneeberg .
Schockland I.
Schopmborg ,
Schsesburg
Scbouau
349
343, 358
353
412
574
354
390
352
597
718
581
611
. 418
. 726
a55
. 721
740
. 353 ,
721 i
. 349 ,
353
. 1004 I
347
. 351
375
680
1015
947
. 946
963
669
. 353
445
. 347
356
574
352
575
ih. ;
974 !
726
413
415
625
943
672
350
476
647
641
. 289
&54
. 651
254, 964
. 641
358
612
851
372
413
981
434
ih.
421
456
944
357
472
390 j
386 !
357 i
373 :
434
442]
791, 796 !
357
Schonbom
431
Schonbrun
43»
Scbonburg
421
Schonebeck .
472
Schoneberg
471
Schonhausen
ih.
Scbonbeide
413
Si'honingen .
416
Schonwald
411
Si-hoodic L. .
8H3
Sohoonhoven
o90
Schopsheim .
410
Schowen L
38'i
Schreckhorn .
370
Sohupforta
472
Schutt I.
416
Scliwabach
408
Schwarbach .
439
Schwartzburg .
416
Schwarzenburg
421
Schwaz
431
Schwedt
471
Schweidnitz
473
Schweinfurch
. 408
Schwelm
474
Schwenningen
. 409
Schwerin
418
Schwetzingen
411
Schwitz
370
Scbwochat .
438
Sciacca
591
Scilla .
589
Scilly Islands .
181
Scindiah
. 732
Soio L
641
Scone . . 27
3, 289
Scoonie
272
Scopia .
. 610
Scotland .
260
Scotfs Reef .
. 981
Scutari
609
Scutari Alb. .
611
Seal I. 867, 98
1,999
Seang-hae
768
Sebaka
654
Sebastopol
528
Seboncourt .
347
Secbura
954
Seckingen
411
Seclin
355
Secrole
719
Secunderabad
725
Secundra
719
Sedan
317
Sedi-keui
647
Seedapore
723
Seerpore
713
Seetabuldee Hills
72(i
Seetpore
733
Sego .
856
Segorbe
549
Segovia
547
Segre
353
Segura R.
534
Sehwun
732
Seine dept. 34
3, 358
Seine R. .
317
Seistan
673
Seix .
317
Selbridge
. 313
Selbv
254
Selefkeh
650
Selestat
356
Seleuoia
656
Selimno
610
Selinga R. .
789
Selingenstadt .
412
Selinginsk
796
Selinus
592
Selkirk
290
Selles-sur-cher
362
Selmas
670
Selongev .
349
Selsea IJill .
180
Sellers . 41
3,474
Seltz
357
Seltzertown
946
Selva
373
Semao I. .
974
Semendria
S12
Semenhoud
iia
INDEX OF PLACES.
1049
Seniipolatinik
. 796
Sherbrooke 911, 912
Sinsheim .
410
SoUies-pont .
360
Semlin
460
Sherwood
189
Sinub
649
Solms
421
Sempach
. 370
Shetland Islands
263
Sion .
374
Soiofra .
.58.8
8emur
349
Shevagunga
722
Sira
733
Solomon Is.
1010
Seneca L.
. 883
Shields .
236
Siragosa
591
Solor I. .
974
Seneca Falls
944
Shikarpore
732
Sindeltingen
409
Solta I
461
Senegal R. .
. 851
Shildai: .
272
Sirdhana .
720
Sohvay Firth
183
Senegambia
851,854
Shrinagur .
720
Sir E. Pelew-s I.
981
Somaing
365
Senlis .
. 355
Shipping Port
947
Sirgoojah .
718
Soniirsetshire
247
Senn
656
Shiraz
672
Sirliind . , .
720
Somklieti .
783
Senna
. 6(i9
Shirvan
783
Sirinagur .
ib.
Sonima \
587
Sennaar
833
Shittabgurh
733
Sirmoor
717
Sonnne dept. . 343
3bO
Seniicey le Grand 358
Shiur-rud
673
Sirohi
730
SommeR. .
317
Sennwald
372
S/ioa .
836
Sirowy .
ih.
Somniic-res
351
Senones
. 361
Shoalhaveii .
980
Sir R. ■• .
776
Soii.orrosti'o
548
Sens .
ib.
Shoalwater B. .
980
Sirr L. .
685
Sonaj;ucra
95:t
Sepsi-szent-Gyorgy 459
Shogr .
652
Sirsa
721
Sondcrshuusen .
416
Seraiiig
3>(4
Shoojuabad
734
Sir W Grant C.
981
Sondrio .
578
Strajcvsko .
. 612
Shoreham
250
Sisteron
347
Soimenberg
415
Serampore
714
Shorndorf
409
Sistova .
612
Sonnenstiin .
414
Seravezza
. 582
Short I.
999
Sitka I.
902
Sonnerat C.
!.99
Strchio U.
560
Shot L.
837
Sittavo .
391
Sonsonate
953
Seies .
. 610
Shotts .
272
Sivas .
649
Soo-choo-foo
768
Seringhain I.
. 723
Shoubra
828
Siwah .
813
Souktrtal
718
S-eriiigapatam
ih.
Sliouraka B.
1003
Sizuni
350
Sooket
733
Seriiigapatam I.
. 9S8
Shouraka Penin-
Sizziole .
441
Soonda .
722
Seri;jnan .
3.52
sula
1004
Skagen C. .
110
Svoiigariu
769
Serniaize
. 354
Shousha
784
Skager-rack .
l.i8
Soonput
718
Seronge
718
Shoutouru I.
1004
Skaneateles L. .
883
Sophia
611
Serpa
. 556
Shrewsbury .
246
Skaw C.
476
Soprony
456
Serpents Isle .
5ii6
Shropshire
ib.
Skelatskoi noss C.
797
Sorby
273
Serrieres
. 347
Shuhri Bababy
673
Skene
270
Soioy
354
SiTris
714
Shuhr-Subz
779
Skerries I.
181
Surel
911
Sort
. &55
Shujuabad
734
Skibbereen .
313
Soreze .
31,0
>eriikhs
671
Shumla
611
Skipness
272
Sorgues
ib.
Servance
. 357
Shus
672
Skirling .
271
Soria
.547
Sirriii
612
Shuster
ib.
Skoruer I. .
l8l
Sorn .
271
Servian
. a-)2
Shiia
836
Sla
845
Sorrel C.
999
Servola
441
Siam
746
Slade Point
9 HO
Sorrento .
587
Serwatty I. .
. 974
Siberia .
7h7
Slaines .
271
Sospello
574
Sttchuen .
754
Sibkah-el-loudiah
8.i9
Slaniannan
272
Sosva R.
7N8
Setubal
. 555
Sieie C.
316
Slane
313
Sotteville
359
Seurre
349
Sicily I.
5>9
Slaney R. .
295
Souakin
8:;3
Sevan L.
. 783
Sidhout
722
Slanika .
612
Soucliom-kakh
785
8ev.-n Wfcs
317
Sidi-gazi
648
■Slarmiiit
446
SiUfiiiii
850
Seven Oaks .
. 311
Sidlaw Hills
1..8
Sleaford
311
Soiiilhac
319
Seven Pagodas
723
Sidon
653
Sleat .
273
Souillac
353
Severndroog 1.
. 740
Sidra Gulf
838
Sleat Point .
263
Soiijouk-kaleh
785
Sevirn R.
181,219
Siebenburgen
458
Sligo . . 29
4,309
SouUgoum-kaleh
ib.
Severo-vostochniC- 7W
Siegberg .
474
Slitobanmi
499
Souli
611
Sevijrnacco
441
Siegen .
ib.
Slough
232
Soultz
367
Seville .
. 549
Sieghards .
434
b-luis
390
Souhzmatt .
ib.
Svvre R .
317
Siena
5'S2
Siyne Ileu.l
294
Scmltz sous ForCts
lb.
Sevres .
. 3.59
Sierok
355
bmaillioliii
272
Sound
476
Sevres dept.
343, 360
Sierra Leone
h.i5
Small Isles par.
273
Sourabaya
976
Seychelles I.
. 870
Sierre
375
Smalls I.
iHl
Sourbourg
357
Seyssel
317
Sinfihur
7^5
Smoky B. .
98i)
Sourdeval .
;t.54
Pfamis or Sfax
. 847
Signiaringcii
411
Smoky Point C.
981
Sousa
847
Sfetlal.
ib.
Sign
461
Smok n^k .
526
.South Jj'rica
8(»
Sliaftfsbury
. 311
Signa .
5x1
SniNiiia .
647
Southampton
247
Slialialiail
728
Signes
,S6()
Snaith
.'(12
South V. . 999,
UKI4
Sliairinadavy
. 722
Signy I'Abbaye
317
Siie.k .
y.n
Soutbei n-ness
263
Sliaino Desert
6(0
Siboon R.
642
Sniaiyn
444
South lisk R. .
99*
Sliaiiashygotta
. 713
Sijian
318
Snizurt .
273
^outlKli-an
272
Slian^-liai
-i;>i
Sijeia
733
S( are R. .
1H2
South Portland
180
Slianiiun
293, 2;'5
Sikini
727
Sobie-le-Cliattau
:i',r>
South Stack .
181
Sliaiinun R.
998
Sikoke 1. .
798
Sobral
5.'>5
Soulliwar.i . 224
, 2 19
Sh;.iisi .
. 754
Sikpo
76m
Sociity Is.
1015
Soutl. West C.
999
SliHiitung
ih.
Silana
7-'8
Sockna
819
SoutliwoUl
249
Sliapooni
. 720
Silbwberg
473
Sueeoro
;i5 1
.•Miuweis
829
Shap .r
672
Silesia . 41
3, 470
Socotra I. . 87
J, 876
^o\vR.
1H2
Klinrk B
. 9'<0
Silhet .
713
Soder .
417
hptnn . 531
, 537
Sh.-.t el- A rah
6 13
Silisiria
611
>(HSt .
474
^pal.lro
461
Slmwneitown
. 947
Sillce
. 714
Sotaia
81. It
S|.:,ldiMK' .
311
Sheei.head
999
Sille le Giiillaunie
3.)8
Sogdiaiia .
77X
^1 aim.-.dore 1.
641
Slie^'p Islands
. 317
Silvero L. .
8SI
Sohagrj ore .
7lN
>paii(laii
471
Shcergotty
714
Siniaiicas
547
Soliar
661
Span... nbiMg
412
Mii-cniess
. 240
Simbirsk .
529
Solio
-.5 1
S].ai.isl,to« 11
9'i3
Shef.en I. .
867
Simla
720
Sobo I.
7.'..i
Sp:,i-Ia .
620
M.ellield
. 253
Simon's Bay
h67
Soissoiis
;ii7
.Sl.:.rt, moling .
946
Sli' ikliiipina
733
Simplieropol
:>2H
Solander ('.
;.hi
hpait.-K.
81 13
Miellmriie
. 912
Simplon .
.374
Solander I. .
10.11
^p.irliv. tito V. .
.',59
Shi llmnie I?ny
9S0
Sinai M. . 663
1020
S.d.b
8:i4
^pei.-.r C.
981
ShdifR.
. 83H
Sinrapore I.
751
Solemes .
355
S,,,.ii<-ir's(;iilf .
9h')
Shi It on
21H
Sinceny AutrevilU
;J47
SiiU-nt Strait
1,9
Sp 0"Art.uiidof
831
Shendy
. 8:«
Sinde
731
Soltur.' .
371
Sp,Mi:oiUh
271
Hhenni
754
Sindeedroog I.
740
Scllalara vole. .
5ii3
Sp.//ia . .575
6.'0
Sheppy 1.
. \H()
Sincd ('.
5;«3
Soli
6,(1
.■"pi-zzirt <;.
r,M
Shepton-nialli't
247
Singapore
751
SoliKHii.«k
629
Si.liacl.iiH I.
f,in
Sherborne
. 311
Siiiir-Hing
943
Solinv-. n
171
Spi.ll«.ig .
^^^
Sherboro I.
)'7I
SiiiigHglia
L,^,
.-solitary I. . f'-
. '■•'.'H
Siinliiin-^re
\hi
1050
INDEX OF PLACES.
Spire
409
Stonehenge .
. 262
Sumbawa I. .
. 974
Tal-hou L. .
. 788
Spital .
434
Stonehouse
235, 272
Sumbhulpore
718
Taillifer I.
999
Spithead B.
179
Stoney Head .
. 999
Sumburgh Head
. 262
Tain
290, 350
Spittal .
256
Stonyhurst col.
241
Sumene
351
Tai-wan I.
755
Spitzbergen I. .
966
Stonykirk
. 273
Sumpthur
. 728
Tako M.
. 1004
Splugen
373
Stony Middleton 235
Sunday Sound
980
Takht-i-Su-\
leiman j
627, 670,
Spoleto
585
Storah .
. 846
Sundeep 1.
. 740
780
Spott .
271
Storm B.
998
Sunderland
236
Talantia
. 619
Spring B.
999
Stornaway
. 290
Sundidi'oog I.
. 740
Talavera .
545
Springfield . 942
,947
Stourbridge
252
Sungur
733
Talisli .
. 783
Sprouston
272
Stourhead
. 262
Suntpore
. ib.
Tallahassee
948
Spurn Head
180
Stourport .
312
Superga
574
Talmas .
. 360
Sravana-belgula .
723
Stour U.
. 182
Superior L. .
. 882
Tallevende le Grand 348
Srebernik
612
Stow .
272
Supplingen
411
Taman I. .
506
Stack I. .
999
Stowe . . '
. 232
Suracarta
. 976
Taniar R.
. 998
Stade .
417
Stowmarket
312
Surai-khojake
733
Tambov
527
Stadion
421
Stow on the Wold 311
Surat
. 724
Tame R.
. 1S2
Stadtliagen .
413
Strabane
309, 313
Surdham .
728
Tamer R. .
ib.
Stadtilm .
416
Strachan .
. - 272
Surmenah
649
Tampico
. 951
Staffa .
283
Strachur
. 271
Surrey
249
Tamworth
248
Stafford .
248
Stradbally
313
Sursce .
. 370
Tanasur
. 720
Stalirenberg
421
Stradbroke I.
. 981
Surville Point
1004
Tandeh
728
Staines
242
Straiton
271
Sus
. 672
Tanderagee .
. 313
Stair
271
Stralau .
. 471
Susa .
574
Tangalle .
7.38
Stalimen^ I.
596
Stralsund .
472
Susiana .
639, 672
Tangier
. 845
Stamford . 242
312
Strangford L.
. 294
Susquehanna R
879
Tang-nou M.
625
Stanislawow
444
Stranorly .
313
Sussex .
. 250
Tango .
. 746
Stanmore
242
Stranraer
. 291
Sussex Haven
980, 981
Tanis
831
Stanovoi M.
625
Strasbourg
357
Sussex L. .
881
Tanjore
. 723
Stanchonau
443
Strasznitz
. 443
Sutalury
. 713
Tankerton
271
Stanstead
911
Stratford .
313
Suttlej R.
683
Tana I. .
. 1010
Stanz
371
Stratford le Bow . 243
Sutton .
. 250
Tannadice
272
Staples I.
180
Stratford-on-Avon 251
Sveaborg .
525
Tanah .
. 725
Staria-maidar
612
Strath
273
Swabia
408, 420
Tanou
746
Stargard . 472
473
Strathaven
. 272
Swakem
. 833
Tantah ,
. 829
Stark Point .
262
Strathblane
271
Swale R. .
182
Tantalem .
742
Start B. .
179
Strathdou
. ib.
Swan I.
. 999
'I'antum ;
. 856
Start Point .
180
Strathmartine
ib.
Swan Port
998
Taormina .
591
Btaubach R.
370
Strathniiglo .
. 287
Swan River .
- 996
Tapian
473
Staunton
946
Strathy
273
Swansea .
255
Tapty R.
. 684
Staunton I.
755
Strathy Head
. 262
Swanton
. 942
Tarlaiid
, 272
Stavanger
504
Straubing .
407
Sweden
484, 491
Taradant
815
Stavropol .
787
Streaky B. .
. 980
Swilly Lough
294
Tarai .
. 680
Steckborn
373
Streatham
250
Swinemund .
. 472
Taranga I.
. 1004
Stecknitz R.
477
Streevygoondum . 722
Swinton
271
Taranto
. 588
Steel I. . . .
755
Strelitz
418
Switzerland
. 362
Tarare
357
Steenwerck
355
Stricathro
. 271
Swiss Lakes
364
Tarascon
. 347
Steenwoordie
ib.
Strichen ■ .
. ib.
Swords
308, 313
Tarazona .
548
Steepholm I.
181
Stroma isle
263
Sydney
912, 992
Tarbet .
. 273
Stein
372
Stromboli I. .
. 559
Syene
830, 832
Tarbet-ness
262
Steinach .
434
Stromness
289
Sylt I.
476
Tarbert
. 313
Stein-am-anger
457
Stromza
. 611
Symi G.
, 641
Tarbes
356
Steinfurt .
474
Strontian .
272
Symington
271
Tarbolton
. 271
Stenay .
354
Stroud .
. 238
Syra
. 620
Tarifa
550
Stenchol .
273
Strumble Head
180
Syracuse
591, 944
Tarki .
. 786
Stendal .
472
Studland B. .
. 999
Syria
638, 640
Tarkow
786
Stennis . 271
289
Stuhl-weissenburg 458
Syriam
746
Tarn R.
. 318
Stenton .
271
Stupinigi ,*
574
Syrod .
. 352
Tarn dept.
343, 360
Steppes of Russia
505
Sturniinster' .
. 311
Syrtes Gulfs
837
Tarn et Garonne
Sternberg . 421
, 443
Stuttgardt . "
410
Szamas-Ujvar
. 459
dept.
343, 360
Sterzing ; .
434
Styria .
. 435
Szarvas
457
Tarnopol .
444
Stettin .
472
Suadcah
. 651
Szegedin
. 458
Tarnow
. ib.
Stettiner hof ,
462
Suakem
833
Szeklerland
459
Tarnowitz
473
Stevenage
311
Sulihatoo
. 721
Szent Miklos
. ib.
Tarquinii
. 585
Stevenson .
947
Subiaco
584
Szigeth
457
Tarragona
.548
Stevenston .
272
Subunreeka R.
. 685
Tarrapore
. 714
Stewarton
ib.
Sucundee .
856
T
Tarsous
650
Steyer .
438
Sudbury
. 249
Tartan L.
. 501
Steyiiing
312
Suez
829
Tabariah .
652
Tartash-davan
M. 626
Stilo
589
Suez Isthmus
. 814
Tabariah L. .
. 644
Tarves .
. 271
Stilo C.
559
Sunderbunds
683
Tabas
671
Tarvis
434
Stilton .
239
Sudiyah
. 715
Tarbagatai M.
. 626
Tashkend .
. 780
Stirling
290
Sufttid-koh M.
627
'I'able-bay .
867
Tasidong
. 727
Stitchell
272
Suffeid-rQd .
. 673
Table C. . 9
99, 1004
Tasman Head
999
Stobo .
273
Suffolk
248
Table L .
1004
Tasmaii's B.
. 1003
Stoke-Newington .
243
Sugarloaf Point
. 981
Table M. .
861, 998
Tasman's Peninsula 999
Stoke on Trent
248
Sugeres
356
Tabor M. .
652
Tasmania .
998
Stoke point .
180
Siiggur
. 725
Tabriz .
. 670
Tassing I.
. 476
Stoke R. .
182
Suhl .
472
Tacunga .
954
Tassisudon
735
Stockerau
434
Suippes
. 354
TafTR. .
. 182
Tatarbazardjik
. 610
Stockesley
312
Suir R.
295
Tafilelt
844
Tatta .
731
Stockham I. .
181
Sukareah
. 720
Taganrog
. 527
Taudeny
. 849
Stockholm
498
Suk-tl-Sheikh
656
Tagavost .
845
Taujepour
713
Stockport
234
Sukur .
. 732
Taghaza
. 849
Tauk-kesra .
. 656
Stockton . •
236
Suleimanyeh
656
Taghmon .
313
Taunton
247, 942
Stolberg
472
Sulmona
. 588
Tagilsk
. 791
Taunus M. .
. 412
Stolbovoi I.
797
Sulphur I.
773
Tagliamento R.
560
Taurus M.
628
Stollberg . 421
475
Sultaniah
. 671
Tagus R.
. 533
Tauranga Head
. 1003
Stolpe
475
Sulzbach .
475
Tabaurawe 1.
1016
Tavira
5.56
Stone .
312
Sulze
. 418
Tahiti L
. 1015
Tavistock
. 311
Stonehaven
288
Sumatra I. .
974
Taief .
663
Tavium
. 649
INDEX OF PLACES.
1051
Taroy .
750
Thetford .
243
Tawiti-rahl I.
1004
Thenkaushee
. 722
Taxis . .
409
Theux
384
Tchad L.
ail
Thiaki .
. 621
Tcherkask
529
Thian-chan M.
626
Tchernigov .
527
Thibet .
. 772
Tealing
271
Thiers
356
Tebhe .
733
Thionville .
. 355
Teean-shan M. .
626
Thirlemere L.
182
Tecumseh
948
Thirsk .
. 254
Tedjen R.
673
Thistle's I.
981
Tees R.
182
Thoissy
. 317
Teflis
782
Tholen I.
386
Tegel . . .
471
Tholing
. 773
Te:;usigalpa
953
Thomar
555
Tehuantepec
951
Thomastown
313, 942
Tehuacan
. ib.
Thoinn B.
999
Tehran
671
Thonon
. 574
Tehree .
728
Thorenburg
459
Tehur
733
Thorigny
. 354
Teifi R.
182
Thorn
473
Teignmouth
236
Thornhill
. 285
Teignmouth shoal
660
Thorpe
250
Tekrit
656
Thouars
. 360
Telari .
783
Thousand Isles
L. 878
Tellicherry
722
Thrapston
. 311
Tells' Chapel
370
Thrasimenus L.
560
Teltsch
443
Three Points C.
. 803
Teme R
182
Three Rivers
911
Temes R. .
445
Thun .
. 370
Temeswar
457
Thurles
313
Temiscouta L. .
883
Thunesur
. 720
Temissa
849
Thur Desert
681
Temourtou L. .
777
Thurgau
. 373
Temp6 .
611
Thurso
284
Temple
271
Thusis .
. 373
Temple Bay .
980
Thyatira .
648
Tenasserim
750
Tialiuanacu
954
Tenboktoo
856
Tibbermore .
. 273
Tenby
312
Tiber R. .
560
Tence
353
Tiberias L. .
. 998
Teneriffe .
551
Tibet
772
Teneriffe Peak .
998
Ticonderoga
. 943
Tennetsee
941
Tideswell
23o
Tenterden
311
Tider .
. 977
Tepeaca
951
Tieffurth .
415
Tepe .
442
Tierra del Fueg
J 965
Tepelene
611
Tiflis
. 782
Tepitapu L.
883
Tighe
836
Tepla
456
Tigris R.
. 642
Ter R.
534
Tihany . .
445
Tera-kako P.
1004
Tikeri .
611
Teramo
588
Tilburg
. 390
Terek R.
7h2
Tilbury
237
Tergovist .
612
Till R. .
. 182
Terki
786
Tillib'.jdy .
273
Termini
591
Tillicoultry .
. 271
Ternate .
977
Tilsit .
473
Terneuse
390
Tim R. .
. 788
Terni
685
Timbuktoo
H5r,
Terracina
584
Timor I.
. 974
Terra de Annun-
Timorlaut I. .
ib.
ziata .
587
Tinchebray .
. a'j5
Terregles
271
Tingwall .
272
Terrible Rocks I.
740
Tinron .
. 273
Teniel .
548
Tinta .
954
Ter-schelling I.
386
Tipperah
. 716
Tesa
672
Tipperary .
313
Teschen
443
Tiran I.
. 659
Tessin .
373
Tiraspol
528
Test R.
182
Tireh .
. 647
Tetura Is. .
1016
Tirhala
611
Teukora
818
Tirrah .
. 647
Tewkesbury
238
Tirlemont
3h3
Teint
949
Tiruvalur
. 722
Tixtl I.
386
Tiryns
619
Thaluen R.
742
Tisluet
. 849
Thaiiet I.
IHO 1
Titicaca L.
883
Thani'sur .
7^0 1
Tittel .
. 460
Tharaiidt
413 1
Tiverton .
311
TbapsBcus
6i5 '
Tivoli .
5H4
Thames R. 181
220
Tja.l L.
. 851
Thames DItton
250
Tobago I.
960
Thaso-pulo 1.
596
TolR-rmory .
. 283
Thaxted .
311
Tobol R. .
7hh
Thcbcn
456
Tobolsk
. 79:>
ThelK-8 . r,\'J
830
Toruyo
953
Thelss R.
445
Todtnau
. 410
Theresicnstndt 4'13
456
Tooriiig
421
Thermopylae
619
Tokat
6)8
Theriiey I. .
iKl
Tokay .
. 457
Toledo . 547, 947
Tolentino . . 585
Tolfa . . . ib.
Tolmezzo . . 580
Tolna . . .457
Tomantoul . 270
Tomb I. . . 673
Tomsk . . 796
Tonestein . . 475
Tonga Is. . . 1015
Tongaboudra R. . 684
Tongata-boo . 1015
Tongland . . 272
Tong-ting L. . 755
Tongres . . 384
Tongue ". . 273
Tonney-Charente 349
Tonneins . . 353
Tonnere . . 361
Tonningen . . 482
Tonquin . , 748
Tonsberg . . 603
Toolumba . 733
Tooting . . 250
Topletz . . 460
Toplitz . . 434,443
Topsham . . 311
Torbay . .179, 980 ;
Toree . . 714 '
Tordesillas . .645
Torgau . . 472 '
Toro . . . 645 :
Toronto . . 911 i
Torosay . . 272 ,
Tornea . . 625
Torphichen . , 272 ;
Torquemada . 545
Torre de Greco . 587
Torres Vedras . .555
Torres Strait . 1009
Torrington . 311
Torry I. . . 294
Torryburn . 271
Torthorwald . ib.
Tortola . . 960
Tortona . . 574
Tortosa . 548, 652
Tortuga . . 963
Totomcapan . 953
Tottenham . . 242
Tough . . 271
Toul . . .354
Toulon . . 360
Toultcha . .612
Toulouse . . 351
Toura-Kira C. . 1004
Tourcoing . 3i5
Toure . . .271
Tourlaville . 3.")4
Tournan . . 358
Tournavos . 611'
Tournay . . 3-<4 I
Tourn .n . 347, 353 j
Tournus . . 358
Tours . . 352
Tourves . . 360 J
Tourville C. . 999 !
Tout< ncourt . 360
Touzla L. . 612 1
Tove R. . . 1K2
Toward Point . 263
Towey R. . .182
Townshend C. 980 I
Tozer . . . 847 '
Trafalgar C. . 550 ;
Traghan . .849
Traiskirchen . 434 |
Trajan's Bridge . 612 I
Tralee . . 309,313
Tralles . 647
Tramore . . 313
Tramore Bay . 29.1
Tranent . . 287
Trani . . 5hM
Tranqiiebar . 722, 7.'15
Trnn-^ylvanla 45H
Trapaiii . 591
Traqiiair . . 273
Trarback . . 475
Tr.-ui . . 461
Trauenslcin . . 4i>7
Traunik .
612
Trautmansdorf .
421
Travancore
727
Trave R. . 39'!
,477
Travemunde
419
Travers
375
Trebigno
612
Trebitsch
443
Trebizond
649
Treboli
ib.
Tredegar
243
Trefoil I. .
999
Trejune
350
Treignac .
349
Trembl de(La) .
ib.
Tremecen .
847
Tremiti I.
659
Trent
431
Trent R.
182
Trenton .
944
Trenton Falls
ib.
Trentshin .
456
Treport
360
Trequier .
350
Trets
348
Trevi;
350
Treves .
475
Treviso
580
Trevose Head
180
Trevoux .
347
Treysa .
411
Triagons I.
317
Tribulation C.
980
Trichindoor
722
Trichinopoly
723
Triesch
443
Triest .
440
Trik.ri
611
Trikhala
ib.
Trillo
545
Trim
308
Trimbuck .
725
Trincomalee
739
Tring
239
Tringano
752
Trinidad I.
960
Trinidad
962
Trinidad G.
876
Trinidad R.
880
Trinity .
947
Trinity Bay
980
Trinity-gask
271
Trino
574
Tripetty
7'23
Tripoli
847
Tripoli (Africa) .
848
Tripoli (Syria) .
652
Tripolit/.a
620
Tristan da Cunba
871
Tritd.iis K. .
847
Trlvanilrum
727
Trocbteltinyen
411
Trogen
Troitsk .
372
530
Trollhattan
499
Tromsoe
.504
Trondbeim
ib.
Troon Bay
283
Troppau
443
Truciuier
271
Trotternish C. .
263
Troup Head .
2(12
I'rowbridgo
252
Troy (Asia) .
648
Troy ( America)
913
TroyoH .
347
Trubau
443
Truro .
•2;t4
TrujilloorV,,,^,,.,
t,954
Truxillo 1 '
Tscliany 1..
7h9
Tscbukt.schl noss C
797
TsKunpit
748
Tsotig-ming I. .
7.5.%
'luam . 309
313
Tuat
849
Tubbus
071
luliiiigen
410
Tul.ise
3H.1
Tucuman
9.56
Tudola
Mfl
1052
TuggMrt . . 847
''yeima;'"-}627,670,780
INDEX OF PLACES.
leiraan
Tula .
Tule Lakes
TuUamore
Tulle .
Tulliallan
Tullins .
Tullow
Tulljnessle
Tuln
'i'umen .
Tunbridge
Tundergarth
Tundra
Tungouska R,
Tunis
Tuiija .
Tunshali .
Tuiisted
Tuptee R.
Turokheim
Turenne
Nurin
Turkestan
Turkestan
Turkey in Europe
Turkey in Asia ,
Turkuiania
Turnberry head
Tunihout .
Turon B.
Turon C. .
Turrach
Turriff
Turshiz
Turtle I. .
Tus
Tuscaloosa
Tuscany
Tuscar I.
Tuticorin
Tuttlingon
Tutukaka B.
Tuy .
Tver or Twer
Tweedmouth
Tweedsmuir
Twofold B.
Two Sisters I.
Twynholm
Ty Desert .
Tyne R. .
Tynemouth .
T.vningham
Tvpinsan I.
Tyre .
Tyrie
Tyriiau
Tyrol .
Tyumen .
'1 zana L.
Tzaritzin .
u
TJba T,. and R.
Uch or Ooeh
Udiiio
Udny .
Ud-vai'liely
rdriyal Head
Ueberiingen
TJt'a or Outa
Uffholti
XJgijar
Uig
Uitenhage
Uleaborg
Uiil I.
tJlitea I.
IJllapool .
UUeswattT L.
rim .
Ulster
Ulva .
Ulverstone
Umbagog 1..
IJmbalia
Unibiitjir
527
8H3
308
349
271
352
313
271
438
795
240
272
788
ib.
817
954
G48
235
684
357
349
574
775
780
593
637
780
203
383
749
742
434
273
671
871
671
946
581
291
723
409
1003
647
626
256
273
980
1009
272
663
182, 220
. 244
271
773
653
271
456
435
797
834
530
411
530
357
649
272
867
525
850
1016
272
182
410
308
272
311
883
721
733
Umea
Uramerapoora
Umstadt
Ungarisch-Brod
Uniel)
Unish C.
United StatesofN. A.QU
Unkietunkie .
Unna
Unst I. .
Unterseen .
Unterwalden
Uphall
Upolu r.
Upi-ingham
Upsal
Upstart C.
Urach
Ural R.
Ural M.
Uralsk
Urbino .
Ure R.
Urga
Urgel
Uri .
Urk I.
Urlingford
Urmeny
Urquhart
Urr .
Urray
Urre-Iauquen L
Urris Head
Urrugne
Urubamba
Uruguay
Uruguay R. .
Urumiah .
Urumiah L. .
Usedom I.
Ushant I.
Usingen
Usk
Usk R.
Uskup .
Ussel
Usson
Ust-urt
Usuraasinta R.
Utica
Utiecht .
Uttoxeter .
Uxbridge
Uzerche
U.es
725
474
271
370
371
272
1015
246
493, 498
980
. 409
507, 789
. 627
530
585
182
771
548
370
386
313
456
270, 271
271
if).
8S4
294
356
951
957
881
670
G69
463
317
413
243
182
610
349
353
775
880
944
390
312
242
349
351
Vadran
Vadutz
Vaels
Vagharshabad
Vaise
Vakh R. .
Valais
Valarsapat
Valbenoite
Valdai
Val d' Ajoj .
Val de Peiias
Val de Kuz
Val de Sagne
Valdivia
Valen ay .
Valence
Valencia
Valenciennes
Valengin
ValensoUe
Valentia I.
Valenza
Valetta .
Val Travers
Valincourt
Valladolid .
Vallauris
Vallerangue
Vallet .
Valle Veronese
Vallon .
293,
547,
785
418
391
784
357
788
374
784
353
526
361
547
375
ib.
954
352
,360
,953
355
375
347
294
574
692
375
356
951
360
351
353
580
347
Vallore
Valouise
Valognes .
Valona .
Valparaiso
Valreas .
Valsainte .
Vals
Van city .
Van Lake .
Vanaes
Van Oieman C.
Van Dieman's G.
366
347
354
611
954
360
371
347
651
G43
499
981
980
Fayi Dieman's LandS'Ji
Vandoeuvre
Vangarten
Vannes
Vannes G.
Vansittart B
Vanvres
Varades
Varalla .
Var dept. .
Varil . . .
Varennea
Varennes le Grand
Varesch
Varese L. .
Varhely
Varinas
Varloy Baillon
Varna
Var R. .
Varzy
Vasarhely
Vaserhely .
Vosges dept.
Vassy
Vatan
Vathi .
Vatians C.
Vaucluse
Vaucouleurs
Vaud, Canton
Vaugirard
Vaulx
Vauvert
Vavoa I.
Vayda-Hunyad
Vegesack
Vejir .
Velez el Blanco
Velez Malaga
Velez Rubio
Vellaur R.
Velleia .
Velletri
Vellore .
Veltrus
Venaria-reale
Vence
Vendee .
Vendeuil .
Vendome
Venezuela
Venice .
Venloo
Vera Cruz
Verd C. .
Verden .
Verdenberg
Verdistan C.
Verdun
Verdun surGaronne360
Verdun sur Saone .358
Vercelli .
Vergara
Vergennes
Verlingliem
Vermaiiton
Vermont
Vernon .
Verneuil .
Vernoux
Veroespatak
Verona .
Versailles .
Versetz .
Vershnei-Udinsk
Versoy . ,
Vertaizon
347
. 410
354
316, 354
980
. 358
353
. 574
343, 360
418
. 354
358
. 612
560
. 459
953
. 360
612
318, 569
355
. 458
457
343, 361
348, 354
352
. 623
5n9
343, 360
354
. 371
358
. 356
351
. 1015
459
. 419
650
. 649
ih.
. ih.
684
. 5h0
584
. 7l'3
442
. 574
360
343, 360
347
. 352
953
567, 579
391
. 950
803
. 417
434
. 673
354
Vertou
353
Verulam
. 239
Verviers .
384
Vervins .
. 347
Vesenberg
525
Vesoul .
. 357
Vesuvius M.
563
Veszprim
. 457
Veules
359
Vevay
. 374
Veyne
356
Vezelay .
. 361
Vezelise
354
Vialas .
. 353
Viana
556
Vianen .
. 390
Viareggio .
682
Vias
. 352
Viatka
526, 599
Viborg .
. 482
Vibraye
358
Viburg .
. 625
Vic .
354
Vic Bigore
. 356
Victnza
580
Vic Tezensac
. 351
Vich .
548
Vichy
. 347
Vicksburg
946
Vic le Comte
. 356
Vico .
587
Victoria 912, 958, 997
Vidal C.
. 867
Vido .
621
Vitillevigne
. 353
Vienna
435
Vieime 343, 352, 361
Vierlander
Viesly .
Vieiix Berquin
Vieux Conde
Vierzon
Vigan (Le) .
Vigevano .
Vignacourt .
Vigo .
Vikkur .
Vilaine R.
Villa- bella .
Vil!ach
Villafranea
Villa Real .
Villa Viyosa
Villedieu .
Villefort
Vil!e Franche
Villefranehe .
Villemur .
Villenauxe
Villeneuve
Villeneuve d'Agon
Villeneuve d' Avig-
non
Villeneuve de Berg 347
Villeneuve 1' Arche-
veque . . 361
Villeneuve la Guiard ib.
Villeneuve le Koi ib.
Villers-Bretonneux 360
Villers-Cotterets 347
Villers-Ghisiain
Villers Outreau
Villevrayac
420
. 355
ib.
. ib.
349
. 351
574
. 360
547
. 732
317
. 958
440
574, 575
556
. ib.
354
. 353
3-18
351, 357
551
317
348
363
351
Villingen
Vilna
Vilvorde
Viraiera
Vimoutiers
Vinay
Vinca
Vincennes
Vindhya M.
Vingorla rocki
Vintimiglia
Vinuconda
Vire
Vere R.
Virgiii-gorda L
Virginia
Virginia
Virginia C.
355
ib.
352
410
629
655
355, 356
352
366
358
680
740
675
722
348
317
960
313
941
877
INDEX OF PLACES.
lOo.'J
803,
Virgin Is.
Voisew
Vishny Volotschk
Visiapore .
Viso
Vissoko .
Vistula R.
V tepsk
Viterbo
Viti-Levon I
Vitiin R.
Vitre
Vittoria
Vitry
Vitry le Fraiifa
Vivara I. .
Vivicrs
Vizagapatam
Vizanamir
Vizierabad
Vizille .
Vlaardin?en
Vladikaiikas
Vladimir .
Vlieland I. .
Vodina
Vogheia
Voiron
Voisey .
Voitzberg
Volga R.
Volgsk
Volney .
Yolo .
Vologda
Voltas C. .
Volterra
Voltri
Volturno R.
Volvic
Voorn I.
Vorcli-heim
Vordenbcrg .
Voreppe
Voroiiije
Vostitza
Vourla .
Vourla G.
Vouzicrs
Vraduk
Vraiia .
Vrogtland
Vukovar
w
Waag R.
"Waal K. .
Wadeiischwyl
Wadowice
Madriag
Wady MQsa
Wac-sland
Wajrani
■\Vaidtiofen
Waigaich Strait
\Vailiato Head
M'aiteniata B.
M'aitzeii
Ual<eH.Id .
Waliheren I.
Walrihoro
Ualiibott
ANald.ck .
Waldrgravc I.
AValdcnliurg
■Wiildlicim .
Waldshut .
Waleni
\Val(,-t
Walkonbiirg .
Walktr Is.
H'ltltiirhia
\Vallajaliabad
M a;iasia I. .
Walldiirn .
AVall.ridaii .
Wallfiistadt
Wallers
Wallingford
Wallis .
445
3hG
3'i9
444
8i(;
fii.3
:iM:)
4:18
HXi
506
lO'Ki
ib.
451;
'J."..l
ax;
'JV>
4'Jl
413
OKI
413
ih.
411
cn
84!l
4i;i
Wallamai C.
Walls .
Walls and Fluta
Walmer Castle
AValmoden
Walsall
Walscheid
Walshain
Walsiiigham
Walton
Walston .
Waltorshausen
Waltham
Wanipliray
WandcU
Wandsworth
Wandiwach .
Wangari B.
Wangamuma B
Wangaroa B.
Wangorura B.
Wannenoatera B
Wantage
Wantziiiau
A\ aiikaneer
Wardeliuus .
Ware .
Warek-heka C.
M aren
AVareham
Warendorf
Wari
Wark Castle
Wannbrunn .
Warniinsta
Wartiemunde
Warnou R
Wariisdorf
M'arnaton
Warren
Waireiiton
Warrington .
A\arsaw
Wartcnburg
Wartlia
Wnningnl
Warwick
Wane
Warzicli
M asli G. .
Wasbington!)41
Wasbiiigton Is.
Massclonne
Wastwater L.
Watchit .
M'atr-rburg
Watirliouse I
931
272
271
2.)9
421
248
354
311
ib.
2.'j0
271
415
237
272
. 271
250
, 722
1003
ib.
ib.
. ib.
ib.
, 311
357
728
. 504
2:)9
, 1004
418
. 311
474
. 857
245
. 473
252
. 418
394
. 443
384
. 942
946
. 241
530, !(47
416
473
250
383
7h;!
179
946, 949
. 1016
3.-.7
182
312
943
999
Wattrliouse Point ib
Waterloo 383,
Watertiiwn
Watcrville
ANatfM-ford
Watford
Wat ten .
Wattiviller
Wattrclos
Wa.xliolin
Waygatz I. .
Mazciiiines
«c-ald .
Wear K. .
Weaver R. .
Weehta
Wednesbnry
Wedge Bay
Weeni .
We.rdt
Welilau .
We.blingen
Weiehell.urg
Weiehsel .
Weicliselmundc
Weilbueh .
Weillmrg .
WCiniar
Weiiifeldcn .
W einheini
Weiss.nfells .
Wei«sUirrhen
Welland K. .
WelloRlcy I.
944, 946
914
. 912
294, 310
239
271
3.')7
35'.
499
9Wi
355
. 178
182, 220
. Ih2
418
248
998
273
:)91
473
409
431
413
473
413
413, 43s
415
37.1
410
472
443
182
9HI
Wellesley Province
751
Wildhaus
372
Wellingborough
244
Wildinisicn
413
Wellington 24ti, 247
,1009
Wilkesbarre .
94.'^
Wells . 243, 247, 312
Willems .
355
Wellsburg
946
■SVillemstadt .
390
Wels
4.34
Wilier
a57
Welshpool . 255, 312
'William Henry
911
Weltervreden
976
Williamsburg . 943
, 915
Weniyss
272
Williams I.
981
Wendover
311
WilUanistadt
964
Wener L.
4^6
"Williaii.ston
942
Weiisbeck R.
000
Willianistown
993
Werden
474
Willougbby C. .
981
Werfen .
434
Wilmar .
413
Werl
474
A\ ibiiiiigton 945
940
Wernigerode
472
Wilinot
912
Werscbitz .
458
Milna .
529
Wertcliinsk .
796
Wilncoot .
251
Wertbeini . ,
410
Wilson inlet
980
Wesel .
474
Wilson's I'romon-
Wesor R. .
391
tory
981
■Wessel 1.
981
Wilton . . 252
,272
West B .
999
Miltsbire .
252
Westbiiry . 252
1002
Winiborn-minster
311
West Chester
945
Wimpfen
412
Westerburg
413
Wincbelsea
312
Westerkirk .
272
Winchester . 247
,946
Western Islands
656
Winandermere L.
182
Western Port
980
Windisch .
373
Westhotren
357
Winiisclioten
391
M'esthead C. .
999
Windsheim
408
West In (1 hit
960
Windsor Castle
232
West-Kaiielle
390
Windsor 912,942
,993
Westminster
224
Winicky
444
Westmoreland
. 251
Winnebago L. .
8s3
Westphalia
420
Winnebah .
856
Westphalian Gate
474
U innipeg L.
883
West Point
999
AVinnipiseoge L .
ib.
Westport
309
Winterlbur
369
Westruther
272
AVintZenheim
357
Wetherby
312
AVirkswortli
311
Wetter 1. .
974
AVirteniberg .
4o9
Wetter L.
486
AVisbeach .
233
Wettin
472
AVisby .
499
Wettra
434
AViscasset .
942
Wetiuiipka
946
H'isc()7iii?i Ter
911
Wetzlar
475
AVismar .
418
A\'c.\ford . 29
4, ;i08
AVisegrad
45(;
"» ey R.
181
AVissenibourg .
357
Weybridge
2'.0
AVissenstein .
372
Meyda
416
A\ istoun .
272
Weyerslieim
357
AVitbam K. .
182
Wevinoiith
236
AViti-angi B.
1003
W evniouth ('.
980
AVitney .
246
Whale Head .
999
NNittinberg
472
Wlianipoa
769
\Mttgenstein
421
Mbangapi B.
1003
AViitlich . 474
, 475
Whatigbo R.
755
AMistock .
471
Mbarie K.
181
AVobi.rn
231
Wbaro H. .
1003
AVoeilitz .
416
M'beeling
946
AV.dlVidmttel
16.
Wliiehwood forest
189
AVollsberg-
434
Whitburn .
272
AVol^;aU.
,507
Whitbury-ness
262
AVolL'ast .
475
Whitby
254
Wollin I.
463
Whitehaven .
231
Wol^tenbol . e C.
877
Whitehorse vale
232
\\ iilverbanipton .
2 18
White I.
10114
\V il.ri.Ue .
219
Wliitekirk .
271
Woo.lsL.ck 246, 94-.
,946
Whiten Head
262
Woodvibe .
946
White Sea .
.506
W.iodv I'.dnt .
1IHI4
Whithorn
291
MOider .
244
Wbitsonie .
271
Wo.dwich
239
Wbitllebury .
189
Wo.i-teaoii-sba .
7.'i5
\\ hittlescaniere L
lK-2
\Nii(itl.iU-l),iSset
312
Wbiitinghani
271
Wor.-ben
434
Wiek
281
W.)tl()ii-tinder-eili:»
23H
Wicklow
30K
Worcester . 2.1.'
912
Wi<'klow Head
294
Working .
•2..0
Widdin
612
\\orl,iH>;ham
311
WiileB. .
9H'i
\\<.rkiiigion .
2.! 1
Wied
421
W,.ik-o,.
'24 ">
Wielirzka
414
W i.iiiis Head .
IH 1
WieriiiLMii I
3s6
Wornil out .
3:<5
Wiesbaden
412
\\orriis
412
Wiesenthal .
413
W.i.msl. .
5 6
Wignn 21
1 . 2.-|H
AVrath < . .
21.2
Wight I. . IH
, 255
WreUe li
Ih2
Wigion 23
1, 2;<i
Wris.n
471
Wildbad
410
Wutl.lls
.■)74
Wildmhaiisrn .
418
Wiilb.r 1,. .
7J4
1M4
Wurame R. . 394
Wunsiedl . . 408
■\Vurni L. . . 394
Wurtzburg . 408,409
Wuttuch R. . .394
Wuxa R. . . 507
Wvcombe . 232, 258
M^yeR. . . .182
Wve ... 223
Wyk ... 391
■Wyk-le-Duerstede 386
Wyke- Regis . . 224
Wymersley . 223
Wymondham 204,311
M'ynaud . . 723
Wyoming . . 945
Wyragur . . 726
V^yreR. . . 182
"Wyre Forest . 189
Wyrley . . 220
W'yvis, Ben . . 160
X
Xagua . . 962
Xalapa or Jalapa 950
Xalon R. . . 533
Xanten . . . 474
Xanthe, M'. . 153
Xarayes L. . 884
Xenil R. . . 534
Xenil or Jenil R. 534
Xeres de la Front era 550
Xeres de los Caval-
leros . . 545
Xucar R. . .535
INDEX OF PLACES.
Y . . . .
386
YaikorUralR. .
789
Yakutsk .
796
Yale
224
Yalta
529
Yambo .
663
Tamish L.
789
Yanaon .
735
Yang-tse-kiang .
755
Yanina
611
Yaouri
857
Yarausk
529
Yarbo rough
223
Yardley .
204
JTare R.
182
Yarmouth [Isle of
Wight] . 253
,259
Yarmouth FNor-
folk] 243
,258
Yarmouth [Nova
Scotia]
Yarmouth Roads
Yarriba
Yarrow
Yarrow R.
Yarkhand
Ybera L. .
Ye .
Yedo .
Yedington
Yell .
Yell I. .
YeltonL. .
Yellow River
Yellow Sea
Yembo .
Yemen
Yenesei R. .
Yenikaleh— jee Bos
phorus.
Yeo R.
Yeovil .
Yester
Yetholm .
Yetminster .
Yeu I.
Yevenenes, S"
Yezd .
Yezdikhast .
Ynys Cynon
YofB. .
Yonne
Yonne R.
York .
York Ainstey
Y'ork, Vale of
York C. 224,252,257,312
York R. . . 880
York Sound . . 980
York Factory . 902
York Town . . 945
Yeovil . . 274
Yeu I. . . . 317
Youghall 293,306,309,310
182
274
272
272, 313
. 224
de
317
143
672
ib.
217
855
343, 361
. 317
253, 258
2.-72
178
Younsmere
Yoxhall
Ypres .
Ypsambul
Ypsilanti
Yssengeaux
Ysselmond I.
Yssel R. .
Ystadt .
Ytersen
Ythan R.
Yucatan
Yun-nan
Yun-tai-shan I.
Yuzgat .
Yverdun
Yvetot
. 649
. 374
359, 360
Zaab ... 846
Zaardam — see Saardam.
Zab R. . . . 643
Zacatecas . 951
Zacatlan . . ib.
Zackhorn . 149
Zafar . . 644
Zafarine I. . . 838
Zafra . . . 545
Zagora, Ml . 152, 153
Zagora . . 611
Zagrab . . . 458
Zahle . . . 653
Zaire R. . . 858
Zaizkofen . . 408
Zalathna . . 459
Zaloszcyki . . 444
Zambese R. . . 859
Zamora . 545, 547
Zamosz . . 530
Zanguebar . . 859
Zante . . 621
Zanzibar I. . . 859
Zara ... 461
Zaraii=k . . 527
Zarzuela . . 546
Zaslavl . . 529
Zatas R. . . 534
Zaule . . 441
Zealand 386, 389, 390
Zealand I. . 142, 481
Zebee R. . . 834
Zebid . . .664
Zederick . . 386
Zeelandia . . 958
Zeinde-rud . 673
Zeithe . . .416
Zeitz . . .472
Zelania C. . 139
Zele . . .381
Zell [Hanover]— see
Celle.
Zell [LowerAustria]434
Zell [Styria] . 439
Zella . . . 415
Zeller-see • 364
Zemmai . . 749
Zemplin . . 455
Zenjan . . . 671
Zenkoo . . 527
Zenta . . . 456
Zerah L. . . 673
Zerbst . . .415
Zerka R. . . 642
Zernetz . 373, 459
Zetland — $ee Shetland.
Zeulenioda . 416
Zeiilenroda . . ib.
Zevia . . 578
Zeyst . . . 391
Zezere R. . 534
Ziegenhain . .411
Zieriksee . 390
Zill . . .434
Zinari I. . 641
Zips . . . 455
Zirk L. . . 418
Ziiknitz . . 440
Zittawa R. . 443
Zittau . . 413, 415
Zizanibes R. . 555
Zlatoust . . 530
Zloczow . . 444
Zmievoi I. . . 506
Zna R. . 507, 523
Znaym . . 443
Zoan . . .831
Zoarah . . 848
Zoffingen . . 373
Zogno . . 577
Zolkiew . . 444
Zolotronecha . 627
Zombor . . 456
Zoppot . • 473
Zschoppau . .413
Zuckmantel . 443
Zug . . 368, .371
Zug L. . 151, 364
Zug der Russen, 371
Zuider Zee . 138, 386
Zuila . . .849
Zulla . . 830
Zulpich . . 474
Zuri I. . . 461
Zurich . 368, 369
Zurich L. . 150, 364
Zurmentzallo M'. 152
Zurrah L . .673
Zurzach . . 373
Zusam R. . . 393
Zutkerque . 356
Zutphen . . 391
Zvornik . 612
Zwart-sluis 389
Zweybruken . 409
Zwickaw . 413
Zwieselberg . .155
Zwingenberg . 412
Zwoll . • 391
Z;dorgk> Hory ■ 154
1055
INDEX OF THE NAMES OF NATIONS,
TRIBES, AND FAMILIES OF MANKIND ; RELIGIOUS SECTS ;
AND MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION.
uibahdes, . . . page 833
Abbassians, . . . 785
Abyssinians, . . . 805, 835
Adam of Bremen, his account of the North, 7
Aff'jham,
674
Africa, account of discoveries in.
24, 850
African nations and languages,
117,805
Africanders,
863
Afshars,
667
At/oirs,
. 836
Agriculture of
England and Wales, .
. 201
Scotland,
276
Ireland,
. 202
France,
322, 336
Switzerland,
. 367
Belgium, .
377, 380
Holland,
386, 388
Germany, .
398, 403
Austrian Empire,
. 429
Hungary, .
453
Prussia,
. 467
Denmark, .
480
Sweden,
. 496
Norway,
501
Russia,
. 522
Spain,
540
Portugal,
. 553
Italy,
568
Sicily, .
. 589
Turkey,
598
Ionian Islands,
. 622
Asiatic Turkey,
646
Persia,
666, 669
India,
708
Ceylon,
. 736-7
China,
765
Ladakh,
. 774
Turkestan,
778
Siberia,
790
Egypt,
824
Al)yssinia,
. 835
Barbary,
839
Soudan and Guinea,
. 853
South Africa,
862-3-5
Canada,
. 906
United States,
928
West Indies, .
. 961
Australia, .
988
Van Dienian's Land, .
. 1001
Agrippa, his account of tlie Roman
Empire,
5
Aimakg,
667
A'inox (people of leso),
H0(»
Akhar the (ireni. Emperor of Delhi.
his tomb.
. 719
Akha/ieg, .Seikh fanatics,
127
Akutkat,
, 786
Albanians, or Skipitars,page 173, 600, 617
Alexander the Great,
Alfourous,
Altitude, quadrant of,
Amazighs,
Amber, production of,
America, discoveries in.
4
969
44
842
. 468
2, 13, 14, 15, 19,
20,21,23,24
American Indians, character of the, 893
nations and languages, . 117,896
Amphiscii, . . .36
Anabaptists, . . . 121
Angles, .... 478
Anglican Church, . 121, 175, 194
Anglo-Saxons, . . .173
Anian Strait, . . . 13
Animals, geographical distribution of, 93
fossil remains of, . 100
Ansarians, .... 64.')
Anscaire, ... 7
Antarctic Circle, . . .36
A ntes, ancient name of tlie Russians, 5 1 2
Anthropomorphism defined, . 118
Anti-pirdo-baptists, . . 121
Atitoeci, . . . .36
Anzeyreys, ... 36
Arabs ov Arabians, . 660,841
Araforas, . . . 969
Aramrran or Semitic family of
nations, . . Ij 116, 635
Arauranians, . . . 896
Archdukes of Austria, . . 426
Arctic Circle, . . .36
Arctic Ocean, explored by Russians, 17, 22
Arians, . . . .120
Aristotle, as a geographer, . 3
Armenians, . 119, 120, 635, 645
Arminians, . . . 121
Arnauts or Albanians, . 600,617
Artemis, the goddess of Ephesus, 11!*, 617
Asiatic nations and laiiguages, 116, ()35
Assassins, . . . 124
Atmosphere, constitution and motions
of tlx', . . . .73
Augustus-Ca-sar, his Greek title, 649, 654
Aurora Borealis, account of, . 86
Aurungzebe's tomb, . . . 726
Austrian Imperial Family, history of, 426
Austrian Lloyd, nccouiit o{ it, . 44 1
Australinns, . . . 9115
^r'j/ancAfji, account of, . . 364
Arars, .... 7H6
Alii of the Earth, . . . 30
Baber, founder of the Mogul Em[iire,
his tomb, . . 676
Back, Caj)t.'iin, his discoveries in North
America, . .24
1056
INDEX OF NAMES OF NATIONS, &c.
Baffin and Bylot discover Baffin's Bay,/). 15
Balboa, (Vasco Nuilez de) discovers
the Great South Sea, . 13
Balleny, Captain, his discoveries in the
Antarctic Ocean, . . 1018
Banians, or Banyans . . 694
Baptists, . . . .121
Barahras, . . . 833
Barbara (Josaphat), his travels, . 1 1
Barentz (William), Arctic voyager, 15
Barometer described, . . 73
Bashaw, — see Pasha.
Bashkirs, ... 794
Basques, . . . 173, 174
Basque Language, . . 117
Bastaards, .... 864
Battas, . . . . 971
Battles, . . . • 694
Baudin explores coast of Australia, 2 1
Bazighurs, . . . 695
Beddas or Veddas, . .737
Bedouins or Bedwins, . . 660
Begum Sumroo, her history . 720
Behring, Arctic voyager, . 19
Bejahs, .... 833
Belqians, . ■ . 173, 377
Be/l, Great, of Moscow, . . 526
Bell of Antermony {John), . 630
Beloochees, .... 677
Beltires, . . . 792
Beni-Mezzah, . . . 840
Berdurani or Berdouraunees . 675
Berebers, .... 842
Betchuanas, . . • 864
Bhanras, .... 694
Bhatties, ... ib.
Bheels or Bhills, . . . ib.
Bhooteas or Bhutiahs, , . ib.
Bhorani, — see Kali.
Bianco's charts, . . .11
Biriusses, . . . 792
Birmans, .... 744
Birman pronunciation of the letter R, 750
Births and Deaths, proportion of, . 1 14
Biscoe (Captain), his discoveries in the
Antarctic Ocean, . . 1018
Bise or Bize wind, . . 75, 321
Bishareens .... 833
BlumenbacK's classification of mankind, 107
Bohrahs, . . .-694
Boniface, Apostle of Germany, . 7
Booriuts, . . . 792
Booteas, . . . .694
Bosjesmen, . . . 864
Botanical Regions or kingdoms, . 87
Bouganville, voyager, . . 19
Brahminical Hindoo'', ■ 124, 129, 691
Brahoes, . . . 677
Brehon's chairs, . . .310
Bretons, . . . 1 74
Bringaries or Brinjarahs, . . 694
British Empire, tabular view of, 311
Broughton (Lieut. W. R.), voyager, 20
Browne (W. G.), African traveller, 25
Bruce of Kinnaird (James) African
traveller, . . . ib.
Buddhists, . 12.5,127,702,715
Budhuks,
Bugis or Boogees,
Bukhliari, .
Bulgarians,
Buriates,
paae 6.94
971
. 667
173,600
. 792
Burkhardt (African travelloi'), . 27
Burroughs (Stephen), Ai'ctic voya<^er, 15
Byron (Captain), Circumnavigator, 18
Cabot (John and Sebastian), explore
the coasts of America, . 1 3
Cabrdlo (Rodriguez) explores theN.W.
coast of America, . . 14
Ccesar (C. Julius), as a geographer, 5
Cafres, . . . . 8G4
Caille (Rene), African traveller, . 27
Calatans, . . . 537
Calendar, nature and use of the, . 52
Calijyhs, successors of Mahomet, 123
Caltinids, . . . 120, 175
Ca7nel undDromedary distinguished, 98, 634
C'awrt/s of England, . . 217
Scotland, . . . 278
Ireland, . . . 305
France, . . .341
Belgium, . . . :\8l
Holland, . . .386
Germany . . . 394
Denmark, . . .481
Sweden, . . . 497
Russia, . . .523
Spain, . . . 544
Italy, .... 573
Egypt, . . . 815
China, . . . 765
Canada, . . . 910
United States, . . .937
Cardinals of Roman Church, . 568
Cardinal points of the compass, . 29
Carelians, . . . 512
Carihs, .... 897
Carpini travels in Tartary, . 8
Carteret (Captain), circumnavigator, 18
Cartier (Jaques), voyage to Canada, 14
Cassiterides, Islands, . . 3
Castes,— llmdoo, . 124,691
Ceylonese, . . .737
Birman, . . . 745
Chinese, . . .757
Castilians, . . . 537
Cataracts, — see Waterfalls, . . 67
Catholics, . . . 118
Caucasian variety of mankind, . ] 07
family of languages, . 116
Celts, people and language, 117, 173, 174,
] 90, 269, 299, 325
Chaloms, .... 750
Champlaln (Samuel), founds the French
colony of Canada, . . 15
Chancellor (Richard), Arctic voyayer, ib.
Chancery (Court of), in England, . 198
Chandalahs, Hindoo outcastes, . 693
Charlemagne, his tomb, . . 475
Charts of the irorld in the middle ages, 1 1
Checkenzies, .... 787
Cheremisses, . . . 512
Cheroiis, .... 694
INDEX OF NAMES OF NATIONS, &c.
1057
Chinese,
page 7oG
('hristianity, doctrines and sects,
ll"8, 127
(.'hronometers,
40
Chuckchee, .
. 794
Church, Roman,
118,175
EastOTD,
. 119
Anglican, .
121,194
Protestant,
. 121
Evangelical,
121
of Scotland,
121,269
Churasches,
512
Circassians,
. 785
Circuits of England and Wales,
223
Clapperton (Captain Hugh), African
traveller.
26
Classification of mankind,
107
Animals,
94
Plants,
90
ClaTijo's embassy to Tamerlane,
10
Climates, nature and theory of,
73,79
Coal, production and mines of
England and Wales,
186,203
Scotland, .
266, 267
Ireland,
. 297
France,
320
Belgium,
. 377
Germany,
396
Austria and Styria,
. 435
Hungary, .
454
Prussia,
, 468
Sweden,
489
Russia,
. 508-9
Spain,
535, 542
Portugal,
. 553
Syria,
653
India, .
. 686
Birmah,
744
Tenasserim,
. 750
Nova Scotia and Cape Breton, 912
South America,
. 884
United States of North America, 918
Australia,
. 989
Colonies of Great Britain,
314
Franco,
. 361
Holland,
392
Denmark,
. 482
Sweden,
961
Spain, .
. 551
I'ortugal, .
556
Columbus, his voyages,
12
Commerce and Trade of
Great Britain,
. 207
France,
339
Switzerland,
. 368
Belgium,
380
Holland,
. 388
Germany,
405
Austrian Empire,
. 429
Prussia,
467
Denmark,
480
Sweden,
496
Norway,
. 501
Russia,
522
Spain, .
. 542
Portugal, .
554
Italy, .
. 572
Turkey,
605
Commerce and Trade of
Greece, . . pajc 618
Ionian Islands, . . 622
Ottoman Asia, . .646
Arabia, . . . 661
Persia, . . .670
India, ... 708
South-East Peninsula, . 743
China, ... 766
Turkestan, . . 775-80
Siberia, . . . 794
Africa, . . .807
Egypt, . . . 825
British America, . 902-13
United States, . . 930
Spanish America, . 949-56
Brazil, ... 957
Malaysia, . . . 972
Australia, . . . 991
Commons, House of, . .198
Compass (mai'iner's), . . 48
Confucius, . . . .118
Congelation, line of perpetual, . 82
Congregationalists, . . .121
Consubstantiation, . . 120
Cooh (Capt.) his voyages and discoveries, 1 9
Coolies, . . . . 694
Copts, . . .119, 805, 820
Coreans, . . . 772
Cornice, road in Italy, . . 573
CortereaVs voyage to America, 1 3
Cortes or Cortez conquers Mexico, . 1 4
Cosmogonies (Homeric and Hesiodic), 2
Cossacks, . . . .615
Cossyahs, . . . 694
Counties of —
England and Wales, .223,275,311
Scotland, . . . 275,312
Ireland, . . 305,313
Canada, . . . 910
Hungary, . . . 454
Creoles, . . . . 109
Croatians, . . . .447
Crusades, ... 7
Currents of the ocean, . . 68
Custos liotiiloriim, offii.'c of, . 198
Cycles, account of, . . . 53
Cymri, . . . . 174
Cyrus, tomb of, . . • 672
Czechcs, . . . . 442
Dalai-lama, Sovereign Poiitifr of
Thibet, . . 125,770,
Damaras, ....
Dampler, his voyages, .
his account of winds and breezes,
Danakill,
Danes, ....
Daoodp-iitnis,
Davis (.Jolm), arctic voyager,
Dayaks, ....
Days, — solar, sidereal, and mean, .
civil ami astronomical,
mrHh; of ascertaining their length
by the artificial globe,
/)r-//vv.s- (/ Latitude, history of attempts
to ni'ii'iur'' tlicni,
.". X
17
75
836
478
694
14
972
37
5)
47
40
1058
INDEX OF NAMES OF NATIONS, &c.
Decrees of Latitude, measure of tliree dif-
ferent denominations in each parallel
from the equator to the poles, pa(je 54
Denham (Major), African traveller, 26
Dervishes, . . . .123
Deserts of Asia, 630, 640, So8, 665, 681,
770, 775, 780
of Africa, 802, 813, 832, 848, 860
of America, . . 873,915
Deutsch or Germans, , 171, 174, 399
Dhenwars, .... 695
Diaz (Bartholemew) discovei's the Cape
of Good Hope, . . 12
Dioceses of England and Wales, . 1 94
of Ireland, . . . 306
of France, . . . 328
Distances (itinerary), . . 51
Ditmar of Merseburg, . . 7
Ditan, Turkish, . . 603
Dor/s of Mont St. Bernard, , . 374
of Domaun Tagh, in Turkey, 648
Dominical l&ter, . . .54
Dooraunees or Durani, . 675
Drake (Sir Francis), circumnavigator, 4
Dromedary, — see Camel.
Druidical remains, — Stouehenge, . 252
Abui'y, ... ib.
Stones of Stennis, . . 289
in Ireland, . , 310
at Fougeres, . . . 352
at St. Philibert, . . 353
at Camac, . . . 955
Druses, people of Syria, . 645
Dualism, . . ■ .117
Duperry (Captain), his voyages, 22
Durville (Captain), liis discoveries in
the Antarctic Ocean, . .1018
Dusserah, a Hindoo festival, . 704
Dutch, . . . .387
Dutch Colonies, . . . 392
Earth, its form and dimensions, . 40, 43
Easter, festival, ... 54
Ecclesiastical divisions, — see Dioceses.
Eclipses, . . .38, 39
Ecliptic, . . . .34
Education, ratio of scholars in dififerent
countries of Europe, . . 196
Education in
England and Wales, . . 195
Scotland, . . . 274
Ireland, . . .301
France, ... 328
Switzerland, . . . 365
Belgium, ... 378
Holland, . . .387
Germany, . . . 400
Austrian Empire, . . 424
Hungary, . . . 448
Prussia, . . . 464
Denmark, . . . 479
Sweden, . . .493
Norway, . . . 500
Russia, . . . 518
Spain, . . . 538
Portugal, . . .552
Italy, ... 566
Education in Turkey, . paf^e 602
Greece, . . . 618
Ionian Islands, . .621
Persia, ... 667
India, .... 699
China, ... 758
Egypt,. . . .824
United States of North America, 919
Australia, . . . 990
Egyptians, . . . 819
Eimauks, .... 667
Electric phenomena of the atmosphere, 85
Elzevirian Republics, . . 18
Emperor of Germany, liis titles, 475
Ensyrians, .... 645
Entrecasteaux, his voyages and dis-
coveries, . . .20
Epact, in chronology, . . 53
Episcopalians, . . .121
Equation of time, . . 38
Equator, Equinox, and Equinoctial line, 35
Equinoxes, precession of the, . 37
Eras, Christian and Mahometan, 123
Hindoo, . . .125
Jewish, . . . 118
Eratosthenes, the geogi-apher, . 4, 40
Erse language, . . .173, 269
Erythrcean Sea, periplus of the, . 6
Escualdunac, or Basques, . 174
Esterhazy family, . . . 456
Ethiopian variety of mankind, . 1 07
Ethnographic stock or iaxmly, . 116
Eudoxus of Cnidus, . . 3
Eurasifins, or East Indians, . 698
European nations and lan-
guages, . .117, 172, 174
Euzofzyees, . . . 675
Evangelical Church, . . 121
Exiles of Siberia, . . 792
Ealr of Nishnel Novgorod, . 527
Fakirs, Mahometan vagabonds, 123
Falasha or Falasja, . . 836
Falling stars, ... 86
Fasts and Feasts of the church, . 54
Fata-Morgana, . . 85, 559
Fellatahs, . . . .857
Festivals, Hindoo and Mahometan, 704
Fetishism, . . . .117
Feyak, . . . . 771
Finances of Great Britain, . . 198
France, . . . 333
Switzerland, . . . 366
Belgium, . . . 379
Holland, . . .387
German States, . . 401-420
Austrian Empire, . .426
Prussia, . . . 465
Denmark, . . . 47a
Sweden, ... 495
Norway, . . .501
Russia, . . . 520
Spain, . . . .540
Portugal, . . . 552
Italian States, . 567-589
Turkey, ... 603
Greece, . . .618
INDEX OF NAMES OF NATIONS, &c.
1059
Finances of the Ionian Islands, page 622
Persia, . . . 660
India, ... 707
China, . . .763
Egypt, ... 822
United States of North America, 926
Australia, . . . 991
Finns, . . . 173, 491, 512
Firth, etymology and meaning of, . 263
Fisheries of England, . . 202
Scotland, . . .277
Ireland, ... 303
France, . . 325,338
Holland, ... 388
Denmark, . . . 480
Sweden, . . . 496
Norway, . . .501
Russia, . . . 522
Italy, . . . .572
United States of North America, 929
Fite points of controversy between tlie
Arminians and the Calvinists, 121
Flinders (Lieut.), voyages in Australia, 21
Fo, religion of, . . .125
Formations, geological, . 72, 184
Fossil organic remains, . .100
Foulahs, . . . 853
i'^ranWin (Sir John), travels in America, 24
Friends, society of, . . 121
Frisons, . . . 387, 399
Frobisher (Martin), Arctic voyager, 14
Gafates, . . . 836
Gallas, . . . .835
Gallegos, . . . 537
Galli (Francisco), Spanish voyager, 14
Gama's (Vasco da) voyage to India, 12
Garrows, .... 695
General Assembly of Kirk of Scotland, 269
Gentium officin a, . . .114
Geography of the middle ages, . 1 1
principles of mathematical, . 29
physical, . . 57
— political, . . .110
Geograj)hical discoteries, history of, 1
Geological formations of the Earth's
crust, . . . 72,184
Georgians, . . . 782
German Commercial Union, . 406
German Emperors, their titles, 475
German mediatized I'rinces, • 420
Germanic Confederation, . . 401
languages, . . 117,174
Germans or Deutsch, . 173, 174, 399
Ghorkhas or Goorkhas, . G95
Gilbert (Sir Humphry), his voyages, 14
Gigas, a people of South Africa, . 859
Gipseys, . . . 175,695
Glaciers, general account of them, 64
of Switzerland and Tyrol, . 362
of Spitzbergen, . . 966
Globes and Maps, account of, . 44
Goands or Goonds, or Glionds, G95
God, live one, at Chinchoor, . 725
CroWcn i'7(!«ce, order of kniglithood, 426,540
number, in chronology, . 53
Gooroos or Gurus, Hindoo clergy, 127, 7*>')
Goths, . . . page 173
Government, general principles of, 129
Goternment of
England and Wales,
Scotland,
Ireland,
France,
Switzerland,
Belgium,
Holland, .
Germany,
Austrian Empire, .
Hungary,
Prussia,
Denmark,
Sweden,
Norway,
Russia,
Spain, .
Portugal, .
I tidy, .
Turkey,
Greece,
Ionian Islands,
Asiatic States,
Arabia, ,
Persia,
India, .
Bii-mah,
Siam,
An-nam,
Malay States,
China,
African nations,
Egypt, _
Abyssmia,
Barbary,
South Africa,
Canada,
United States,
Spanish America,
Brazil,
Australia,
Oceanica,
Greek cosmography and geography,
Greek Church, account of it, 118,
Greeks, or Hellenes,
Griqnas,
Grottoes, — de la Madeleine,
of Adelsbcrg,
of Corgnal,
of Draclu'uhohle, .
of Baradla,
of Antiparos,
Gurus, — see Gooroos.
Gurungs,
Giistuff-Adolj>Vs Denkmal,
197
276
302
330
866
379
387
401
425
449
465
479
494
600
520
539
552
567
602
618
622
636
661
670
705
743,5
743,7
743, 8
752
763
807
822
836
844, 1
865
906
923
949 59
957
986
1003
2
20,618
173, 600, 617
864
353
440
441
456
457
620
695
472
4 48
10
9(;:»
Ilaidnrks, .
JIaitho\i Oriental history,
Jfarafuras,
JJannattan, or Ilarmanta, a wind in
Guinea, . . . 75, 852
JIaroun-al-rasrhid,\\\». Utxnh, . 671
y/'<rrtr<;/is, people of Affglianistan, . 675
Heat, distribution of, . . 80, 82
Hebrew qiograj'hy, account of the, . 1
1060
INDEX OF NAMES OF NATIONS, &c.
Ui'ijira, or Hejirah, or Hejrah, Ma-
hometan era, . . J"«</« 1 23
Jlellenes, niisealled Greeks, 173, 600, 617
Henry Duke of Viseu, the father of
modern mai'itime discovery, . 12
Jlernhutters, . . . 122
Herodotus, his travels, and geographical
knowledge, ... 3
his account of the interior of
Africa, . . . 850
Heruli, . . . , 172
Heteroscii, . . . .36
Hindoo festivals, . . 704
Hindoos, . . . .691
Hippalus discovers the character of the
monsoons, ... 5
Hipparchus, his geographical system, 4
Hippocrates, his work on physical geo-
gi-apliy, .... 3
Hollanden, or Neider Duytsch, 387
Homer's cosmogony and geography, 2
Hooly, a Hindoo festival, . . 704
Horizon, rational and sensible, . 32
Horneman, African traveller, . 25
Hospice of Great St. Bernard's, 374
of the Doraaun-tagh, m Turkey, 648
Hottentots, .... 863
Hudson (Henry), his voyages, . 15
Hugenots, or French Calviuists, 1 20, 352
Human life, {}m.va.i\on oi, . 114
Hundreds of England and Wales, . 223
Hunyadi Janos, (John Hunniades), Re-
gent of Himgary, . . 459
Huzaras, .... 675
Hydrography, phenomena and princi-
ples of, . . . 63
Idols, remarkable —
Our Lady of Puy,
353
Arrabida,
555
Virgin at Ensiedehi, .
370
Passau,
409
Mariataferl,
438
Mariazell,
439
Wartha, .
473
-^— Cologne,
474
Kieft',
527
Juggernaut,
715
Ignes fatui, meteoric phenomena,
86
lUyrians, . . ■
73, 174
Imam Ileza, his tomb at Mushid,
671
Imams, Musselmaun priests,
123
Independents, or Congregationalists
, 121
Indian (East) orders of merit.
708
Indians of America,
893
Indo-Britons,
698
Ingushes,
787
Inorganic matter, .
55
Inundations, remarkable,
70
lolofs, or Joloffs, or Yolofs,
854
Iron crown of Lombardy,
578
Islam, or religion of Mahomet, 1
22, 127
Ismailys,
645
Isothermal lines,
80, 82
Italians,
565
Jtinerarium Hierosolym itamun.
6
Itinerary distances, measure of, .
51
Jacobites,
Jagas, or Giagas,
Japanese,
Jarejalis,
Jariyahs,
J cits, or J aits, .
Jazygers,
page 119
859
. 798
695
ih.
ih.
448
Jevcs, 118, 127, 175, 513, 601, 695, 822, 843
Juda'ism, account of its tenete, . 118
Juggernaut, an incarnation of Vishnu, 715
Kahyles, .... 842
Kajars, . . . . 667
Kali, wife of Siva, Hindoo goddess, 701
Kalendar, in chronology, — see Calendar.
Kalmucks, . . . .771
Kamtschatdales, . . . 795
Karaboolaks, . . .787
Karyens, . . . 750
Kasi-coomyks, . . . 786
Katkaris, . . . 695
Katodis, .... ih.
Katshini, . . . 792
Katties, . . . .695
Kazaks, . . . . 777
Kenouz, . . . .833
Keyakur, . . , 771
Khaliffs, — see Caliphs.
Khalkas, . , . 771
Kkasyahs .... 694
Kholies, . . . ih.
Khunds, . . . .695
King {C&pt. Philip), Australian voyager, 2 1
Kirghiz, . . . 777
Kistes, . . . .787
Knighthood, — see Golden Fleece.
Spanish orders of, . . 540
Kookies, . . . 695
Korannas, .... 864
Koriaks, , . . 794
Kossiyahs, .... 694
Kotzebue (Captain), his voyages, 21
Kouloitglis, .... 843
Krim-tatars or tartars, . . 513,528
Krishna, a Hindoo demi-god, . 700
Kroomen, . . . 808
Krusenstern (Captain), his voyages, 20
Kubashas, . . . 786
Kurds, or Curds, or Koords, . 644
Kures, . . . . 511
Kutukhtu, Mongolian pontiff, . 125
Kyberees, . . . 675
Ladakhians, a people of Ladakh, . 774
Ladin language, in Switzerland, 365
Xaf/rowgs, or pirates of the Eastern Seiis, 758
Laing (Major A. G.), African traveller, 27
Lakes, definition, and general account of, 66
Lakes of Cumberland, . . 1 82
Laks, .... 667
Lamas, priests of Buddhism, 125, 770, 772
Lamthah, ... 849
Land, phenomena of the, . . 57
Lander (John and Richard), discover
the mouth of the Niger, . 26
Languages, immbers, distribution, and
classification of, . . 116
INDEX OF NAMES OF NATIONS, &c.
1061
Languacjes, Asiatic,
rnge
116,635
African,
117,805
American,
1 1 7. 806
European,
117,174
Oceanic,
117,
Langue d'Oc,
. 325
d'Oui,
ih.
Laos, or Shuns,
749
La-Perouse, his voyages and discoveries, 20
Laps, or Laplanders, . . 491
Latin familij of languagfs, . 117,174
Latitude, meiUjurenient of degrees of, 41
Latourd 'Aurergne,utu\a.r fii-st grendier
of France, . . . 408
Ledyard (John), hi.s travels, . 25
Le Maire, and Schouten, circumnavi-
gatoi-s, . . . .16
Leo Aj'rican us, liis geography of Africa, 25
Lesghis, people of tlie Caucasus, . 786
Lcttons, . . . . 511
Lighthouses of England and Wales, 1 80
Scotland, '. . . 262
Lightning, phenomena of, . . 85
Lingam, a Hindoo idol, . . 701
Lithuanians, . . .512
Lironians, . . . ih.
Llamas, an animal of Peru, . 893
Jjorh and Lough, meaning of, . 295
Lulos, . . . .757
Lombards, . . . 172
Longitudes, . . . 33
Loo-choo-ans, . . . Hi
Loodanahs, .... 694
Jjords, House of, . . 197
Jjord-Lieutenant, nature of the office, 198
Lnnctas, . . 695
Lutherans, . . . 120,175
Marqueen (James) proves the termina-
tion of the Niger in the Atlantic, 850
Madegasses, peoi)le of Madagascar, 869
Magellan, his voyage to the I'acific, 1 3
J/ a^ism, or religion of Zoroaster, . 126
Magnetism, phenomena of, . 87
Magyars, dominant people of Hun-
gary, . . . 423, 44 7
Mahometan religion, . . 122, 127
sects, . . . .124
Mahrattas, . . . 695
Mainotes, . . . .617
Mairs, .... 696
Malaria in Italy, . . 562
./)fa/a_(/ variety of mankind, 107
Malays, character of the, . . 752
Malasians, . . ■ 968
Mandarins of China, . . 762
Mandcheirs, or M'intrhoos, 771
Manderille (Sir John), liis travels, 10
Mandingoes, . . . 806, 85 1
Mankind, geogniphii-al distrihution of, 105
varieties of, 1 07
cla-ssification of, . . 1 1 6'
— ^ languages of, . ih
cla.ssed according to religions, 1 17
mixture of races of, . 109
infhiencoHof external causes on the
social condition of, . 110
J\lannekin-piz, a fountain at Brussels, />. 382
Maps, charts, nnd globes, . . 44
Mapellahs, or Moplays, . 696
Mararas, .... ih.
Marcellinus ( Ammianus), as ageographer, 7
Marchand, his voyages, . . 21
.^fareo-Polo, account of his ti-avels, 8
Marian religion, . . .119
il/ariner's <;y»)/ir(i's described, . '18
Marinus of Tyre, liis geograpliy, . 6
Maronites, . . . ' 120, 646
Marriages, Scottish, , . 285
Mary, the Virgin, — see Idols, . 119
Materialism, . , . 117
Mathematical geography, principles of, 29
Mechis, .... C96
Mediatized Princes of Germany, . 420
Mela (I'omponius), his geogi-aphy, 6
Memaceni, .... 667
il/c«(/rt?i«, his voyages, . . 15, 101 (i
Menonists, . . . .121
Mercator's geographical system, 1 8
projection, . . .51
2ieridians, or degrees of longitude, 30, 45
Mista, a Spanish corporation, . 54 1
Meteorological 2>henomena, general ac-
count of, . . • 73
jifeteors and Meteorites . . 8()
Methodists, . . . 122
Mctwallis, . . . .646
Miaotsl, independent tribes in China, 757
Mexico, discovery and conquest of, 14
i1/i7(7«J7//ci;-ce of Great Britain, . ],9.9
Fi'ance, . . . 334
Switzerland, . . . 366'
Belgium, . . . 379
lIollan<l, . . . 387
Germany, . . . 407
Austrian Empire, . . 427
Prussia, . . . 466
Denmark, . . . 480
Sweden, . . . 495
Norway, . . . 501
Russia, . . . 521
Spain, .... 540
Portugal, . . . 552
Italv, .... 567
Turkey, . . . 604
Persia, . . . 660
India, . . . 707
China, . . . 764
llgypt, . . . 822
Morocco, . . .844
Tunis, . . . 84 7
P'nited States of North America, 925
M I nerol oijlciU tahle o\ V.wroYio, . 169
Asiii, . . . 633
Africa, . . . 803
Anu.'rica, . . . 885
Mhienil jiriidtirtions of VMroY>c, . 1 6'9
England, . . . 203
Sc.itiand, . . . 265
InlaiKl, . 296
Franc.-. . . 3_1K
Hilgiimi, . . . 377
Gci-niany, . . . 3.'"i
Au.4lrian l'',in|iirr, . 428
a X 2
IUG2
INDEX OF NAMES OF NATIONS, &c.
pruj,
467
48!!
508
540-5,53
. 571
593
• 633
646
. 666
683
. 744
746
. 765
777
791
803
885
917
. 784
85
787
Mineral productions of Prussi
Sweden and Norway,
Russia,
Spain and Portugal,
Italy, .
Turkey, .
Asia, .
Asiatic Turkey,
Persia,
India,
Birmah,
Siam,
China, .
Turkestan,
Siberia,
Africa,
America,
United States,
Mingrelians,
Mirage, a meteoric phenomenon,
Mistdjeghis
Mohurrum, a Moslem festival in India, 704
Mock Suns, — see Parhelia,
MofussU, provitxcial, country stations
in India,
Moluccas, explored by the Dutch, 16
Money, nature and principles of, . 1 30
Mongolian variety of mankind, 107, 636
Mongoliems or Morgols, . . 770
Monophysite, or Eutychian churcli, 119
Montefige Arabs, . . . 644
Montenegrins, . . . 601
Months, in chronology, . . 38
Moon, motions and eclipses of the, 38
astronomical elements of the, 55
Moors, . . . .841
Moplays or Mapellahs, . . 696
Moravians, . . . .122
Morduins, . . . 512
Mortality, Thtio of human, 1 14, 193, 327, 516
Moslems or Mahometans, . 123
Mother of God, Roman Catholic title of
the Virgin Mary, . . 119
Mother of the So'W,an incarnate goddess
in Thibet, . , . .773
Motoualis, . . . 646
Mountains, physical characteristics of, 59
absolute and relative heighths of, 60
arrangement of, . . ih.
— — structure of, . . . 62
ages of, . . . 63
Mountain system of Europe, . 142
of Asia, . . . 625
of Africa, . . 802
of America, . . 873
Mughs of Arracan, . . .696
Murghsees, . . . 677
Muscovites, or people of Great Russia, 512
Musselmans, . . . 123
Mythological naturalism, . . 126
Nadir, definition of the word, . 32
Nahrosees, . . . 677
Nairs of Malabar, . . .696
Namaguas, . . . 864
iVawefcism, religion of the Seikhs, . 12G
Nassaries or Nassarians. . 645
Natural bridge in Virginia, . page 945
Nary, classification of ships in the R., 200
Nayakadias or Nayaks, . .696
Nearchus, his voyage, . . 4
Negroes,
Nestorians,
Nesturiun Church,
Neicars,
New Zealanders,
Niadis,
107, 109, 806, 853
896, 919, 958, 961
. 119,644
. 118
696
. 1006
693
725
Nizam, the chief of Ilydrabad,
Nizam-Adawhit, criminal courts in
India, . . . 706
Noabah, . . . .833
Noceres, Nocires, Neceres, . 645
Nog ay Tatars, . . .528
Non-conformists, . . 121
Norsemen discover, America, . 13
Northwest passage, voyages to discover it, 23
Norweigians, . . . 499
Noubuh, .... 833
Nurughes, ancient towers m Sardinia, 577
Ocean, general division of the, . 67
currents of the, ... 68
Ochthere, his voyage in the North Sea, 15
Oderio of Portenau, his travels, 10
Officina gentium, . . .114
Olive, production of the, , 633
Oorians, .... 696
Optical phenomena of the atmosphere, 84
Orders of knighthood, . 426, 540
Organized beings, geography in relation to, 88
Ortelius, the geographer, . .18
Orthodox church, . . 119
Orthographic projection of the sphere, 49
Osmanlee Turks, . . 599
Ossetes, . . . .787
Ostiaks, .... 793
Ostrogoths, . . . .172
Othmanlee, or Ottoman Turks, . 599
Otmankhail, . . . 675
Ottoman Turks, . . . 599
Ovahs, of Madagascar, . . 869
Pamperos, winds at Buenos Ayres, 956
Panacfia, Greek title of the Virgin
Mary, . . . .119
Pantheism AefmeA, . . 117
Papal goternment, account of it, . 568
Papuas, or Puapuas, . . 969
Parameras of Spain, . .532
Parhelia, or mock suns, . 87
Pariahs, Indian outcasts, . . 693
Park (JIungo), his travels, 25, 26, 850
Purliamentiiry representation of
England and Wales, . • 257
Scotland, . . . 291
Ireland, . . .310
Parry (Captain), his voyages, . 23, 966
Parsees, .... 696
Pasha, Pacha, or Bashaic, Turkish title
of honour, . . . 603
Passas, .... 750
Patagonians, . . , 896
Patuns, or Affghans, in India, . C96
INDEX OF NAMES OF NATIONS, &c.
10G3
Pawnees, . . . page 898
Pearl fishery, in the Persian Gulf, 659
at Ceylon, . . . 736
Pecheres, people of Tierra del Fuego, 896
Pegolettl's Itinerary, . . 9
Peguans, .... 744
Pe-lienKiao, a secret society in China, 763
Perch at Kaiserslautern, . . 409
Perioscii, ... 36
Periphis of the Erythraean Sea, . 6
Permians, . . . 512
Persians, .... 666
Peutinger's Tables, . . 6
Phansygars, . . . 698
Phoenicians, ... 1
Phosphorescence of the ocean, . 65
Physical climates, account of, . 79
Physical geography, in relation to the
inorganic part of the earth, . 57
in relation to organized beings, oS
Pilgrimages of the middle ages, . 7
• places of —
St. Patrick's Purgatory, . 295
Ensiedeln, . . . 370
I'assau, . . . 409
Mariataferl, . . .438
Mariazell, . . . 439
Kings of Cologne, . . 474
Kief, . . 527
Nuestra Seuora de Guadalupe, 547
Santiago de Compostella, . 547
Nuestra Seiiora de Pilar, . 548
■ — — de Montserrat . . 549
Our Lady of Arrabida, . 555
Santa Maria delle Grazie, . 579
Madona de la Corona, . 580
St. Francis of Assisi, . . 585
Our Lady of Loreto, . ib.
Sta. Rosalia at Palermo, . 591
Palestine, . . . 652
Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem, 654
Meshid-Ali, and Meshid-IIussein, 656
Mecca and Medina, . 662, 663
-Mount .Sinai, . . . ib.
Meshed-Imani-lleza, . (i71
Koom, .... 672
Gayah and Deoghur, 714
Juggernaut, . . .715
Prayagas, or Holy Junctions of the
<janges, . . (i8;>, 7 1 8, 720
Benares, . . .718
Aguncre, and I'o^likur, Taiiesur,
and Ilardwar, . . 720
Tripetty, Coinljacoimm, . 725
Pulparrali at Surat, . 72()
Temple of Bhowani at Mahoor, 726
Tomb of .Sivagee and I'underpoor, 7-7
Mundatta, Puttun-S(jnmatli, ami
Paulytana, . . 728
M'. (jiniar and Dwaraca, . 729
Nathdwara and .M'. .\iioo, 73((
Hala in .Scinde, . . 7->2
Umritsir, . . . 73/}
Adam's Peak, Crylon, 7^!9
IJamiseram and .^angor Island, 71')
Shoe-dagoi), at llangnon, . 716
Praliat, in Siani, . 717
Lasf<a, in Thibet, . . 7/2 \ /'
Pilgrimages, places of —
Lake Manasarowara, . page
Nara, in Japan,
Tanta, in Egypt,
Kairwan, in Tunis,
Pi)tjra-piol, an hospital for animals at
Surat, ....
Finzon, explorer of America, .
Pirates of Malaysia, . 752,
Pizarro conquers and explores Peru,
Planifjjheres, account of,
Pliny, ancient geographer.
Poisoned valley in Java,
Poles of the earth and heavens,
Poles, a people of Europe,
Polestar, ....
Pollars,
Political geography.
Polo (Marco), his travels in Asia
Polyandry, in Thibet,
Polynesians,
Polytheism,
Population of the earth,
ratio of its increase,
773
800
829
847
734
13
973
14
48
Population of Europe,
England and VValos,
Scotland,
Ireland,
France,
Switzerland,
Belgium,
Holland, .
Germany,
Austrian Empire, .
Prussia,
Denmark, .
Sweden,
Norway,
Uus.'-ian Empire,
Spain,
Portugal,
Italy,
Turkey,
Greece,
Ionian Islamls,
Persia,
India,
Ctnlon,
ijirmah,
Siiiui,
China, .
•lai>an,
i;gyiit,
.Ninrocco, .
.South Africa, .
America,
Canada,
iiriti-'li Amrrii'an piM\ im
I'nitcd .Mates, .
\\'c.st Indies,
New .'<omll Walrs
Van l)ii nwin's Land,
]\,rl,s d.'s Main,!,.', .
J'l/rlihiid'i'c )i'iiii'>\ pronunci.'iti
l'ii.i'(d'iiiini', astroii'Min !• .■iml
j^raj.ii.T,
tuillr in Tliilii t.
976
30
511
30
693
110
8, 630
. 772
1012
. 118
. 109, 127
114,192,327,
516, 919
172, (i23
. 191,311
269, ib.
. 299, ib.
. 326
365, 368
378
389
407
422 3
4(;4
478
492
500
513
538, 545
552
567
601
618
. 621
667
(if)9, 711
738
74 4
74 7
i, 767
82!
811
8<i5
896
fill)
!ti;i
Kiiii
CO
1064
INDEX OF NAMES OF NATIONS, &c.
Prect'ssio/i of the Eqithioses,
Presbyterians,
Presbyteries of Scotland, their names
and constituent parts,
Priests and Pabbis (Jewish) dist
guished, .
Procopius, ancient geographer, .
Productive industry of
England and Wales,
Scotland,
Ireland,
France,
Switzerland,
Belgium,
Holland,
Grermany,
Austi'ian Empire, .
Prussia,
Denmark, .
Sweden,
Norway,
Russia,
Spain,
Portugal,
Italy,
Sicily, .
Turkey,
Greece,
Asiatic Turkey,
Arabia,
Persia,
India,
South-Easteru Peninsula,
China,
Turkestan,
Siberia,
African nations,
Egypt,
British America, .
United States,
Australia, .
Projections of the sphere,
Pronunciation of Scottish letter Z,
of Sclavonian names, .
201
276
302
939
367
380
388
403
429
467
480
496
501
522
540
553
568
590
605
618
646
661
670
708
743
765
777
794
807
824
902-13
928
1001
48
263
512
of Spanish and Portuguese names, 531
of Birman letter R, . 750
'"rotestant churches, . .120
Proteus- Anguineus, . . 440
Proven fal language, . .174
Ptolemy, his geography of the world, 6
of Central Africa, . 850
his system of astronomy, . 34
Puapuans, or Papuans, . 969
Pucharries,or Puharries, . . 697
Puranas, sacred books of the Hindoos, 701
Puritans,
Pyramids of Egypt,
Pyramid of Cholula,
Pytheas of JMarseilles,
37
121
270
118
121
830
951
4
Quadrant of Altitude, . .44
Qwafers, or Society of Friends, . 121
Qidros, his discoveries in the South
Seas, . . . .16
P., Burman pronunciation of the letter, 750
Rabbin, ov Pabbies {ii:\\K\\), . 118
Railways of England and Wales, page 221
Scotland, . . . 278
Ireland, . . 165,304
France, . . . 340
Belgium, . . .381
Germany, . . . 394
Austrian Empire, . 433
Russia, . . . 523
Italy, .... 433
United States of North America, 937
Rain and Clouds, general theory of, 78
Rainbow, account of the, . . 84
Raji>oots, . . . 697
Raleigh (Sir Walter), his voyages, 1 4
Rama-Chandra, Hindoo demi-god, 700
Ramoossies, . . . . 697
Raskolniks, Russian heretics, . 119
i?af/(is, in Ireland, . . 310
Rectificaiion of the artificial globe, 48
Reformed Church, . . .121
Religions, account of the varieties of, 117
Religions, numerical amount of the
followers of different, . .127
Rice, cultivation of . . 634
Remonstrants, or Arminians, . 121
Rinds, .... 677
Rivers, geographical distribution of, 66
table of the lengths, area of the
basins, «S:c. of the principal rivers of
the world, . . .66
Roggewein's voyage round the world, 1 8
Rohillas, . . . .697
Roma'ic language, . . 617
Roman Catholic religion, . 118,175
colleges in Britain, . 241
Roman names in Switzerland, . 365
Romance language, . . 174
Ross (Captain James), his voj'ages in
Antarctic Ocean, . . 1018
(Captain Sir John), his voyages
in the Arctic Regions, . 23, 24
Rotten boroughs of England and Wales, 258
Rotimi, Hellenes or Greeks, . 600, 617
Round towers of Ireland, . . 310
Rubruquis, or Ruysbroeck (William),
travels into Tartary, . . 8
Russians, . . . 511
Russniaks, .... 447
Sabeism,
118
Salt mines of England, .
187
France,
320
Hallein, .
439
Bochnia, and Wielicska,
444
Hungary,
454
Russia, . . 509
522
528
Spain, .
536
Cardona,
548
Arabia,
660
India,
686
733
Abyssinia,
835
United States of America, .
918
Samanism, or Shamayiism, .
125
Samaritans,
118
Samoderjetz, chief title of the Russian
Czar, ....
520
Samoeides, .
636, 793
INDEX OF NAMES OF NATIONS, &c.
1065
Samiel, a hot wind of Syria, p. 75, 658, 817
San Carlo Borromeo, his monument, 574
Santons, Moslem saints, . .123
Samido's charts, . . 11
tSatellites of the planets, table of their
astronomical elements, . . 55
Satellites of Jupiter, their use in geo-
graphy, . . . • ^9
Sarmatians, . . . 173
Savoyards, . . . . bio
Saxons, . . . . 399
Saxon, royal and ducal families, . 413
Sayanians, . . . 792
Scandinavian nations, . .173
Sch'ddberger, his travels in Asia, 1 1
Schouten, his voyage round the world, 16
Scirocco or Sirocco, wind, . 75, 662
Sclavonians, . 173, 174, 400, 423, 442
447,511, 513, 600
Sclavonic languages, . . 117
Sclavonic words, pronunciation of, 444, 512
Scott (Sir Walter), his burial-place, 284
Scottish names, pronunciation of, . 263
Scythians, who they wei'e, . 512
Sea, its colour and saltness, . 63, 64
chronological table of its aggres-
sions on the land, . 70
Seas, bays, gulfs, ^c. general account of, 66
iiieasons, cause and nature of the, . 36
changes of the, . . 77
Sebastos Kaisar, Greek synomyme of
Augustus Coisar, . 649, 654
Seelongs, . . . .750
Seikks, ... 697
Semitic family of nations and lan-
guages, . . 1, 116, 635,
Serbians or Servians, . .447, 600
Sexes, proportion of the two, in
mankind, . 115,193,327,516
Shamanism, . . , 125,792
Shangallas, . • .835
iShatis, .... 749
Sheahs, or Shiahs, . .123
Shekhatcutties, . . . 697
Shellukhs .... 833
Sheygya, . . . ih.
Shiahs, or Sheahs . . .124
i^hortland (Lieutenant), his voyages, 19
t-inposh Kaffirs, . . . 775
Siamese, . . . 747
Sidereal year, . . .37
Sikhs, Sickhs Seikhs, . . 126,697
Simoom, hot wind of the desert, 75, 658, 817
Singalese, . . . .737
Singphos, . . . 749
Sinto religion, , . .126
Sioux Indians, . . . 898
Skipitars, or Al^'unians, . . 600
Slavery in Russia, . . 517
in India, . , . 693
in lJarl)ary, . . 843
■ ill United St^itcs of America, 919
tniith (Dr. And™.), Iiis travels in Africa, 27
(Captain William) discovers New
South Shetian.l, . 22
■Show and hail, general theory of, 79
.Soru/y, general principles of, ll'l, 128, 129
Society (Pe-lien-Kiao), in Giina, page 763
Socinians, . . . 120
Solar System, its principal elements, S3
Solis (Juande) explores South America, 13
Solomon, king of Israel, sends ships to
Tarshish, ... 1
Solstices defined and described, 35
Somauli, .... 859
Soonees,or Suni, orthodox Mahometans, 1 23
Soongarians, . . .771
Soofies, or Suf, Persian philoso-
phers, . . . 123, 668
Spaniards, . . .537
Spa7iish names, pronunciation of, 531
Sphere, projection of the, . . 49
Spirits, worship of, . . 126
Ssariagah, . . . .848
Stars, their uses in geography, . 34
Stereographic projection of the sphere, 49
Straho, his geographical system, . 5
Suddcr-deicanny-adawlut, . 706
Surville, his discoveries in Australasia, 19
Svedenborgians, . . 122
Siredes, . . . .491
Stciss, or Switzers, . . 365
Synods of Scotland, . . 270
Syrian Christians, . . 119,703
Tajiks, or Taujiks (Tawjeek),
Taj-mahal, at Agra,
Talains, ....
Tao-sse, or doctoi's of reason, in China,
Tarshish and Ophir,
Tartar travelling in Turkey,
Tartars of Siberia, .
Tasman, his voyages in Australasia, 1 7, 1
Tatars, ov Tartars, . .173,
Taujiks, ....
Tea, cultivation and production
of, . . . 633,715,
Temperature, general theory of, . 80
of the ocean.
Terms in the year,
Teptiares,
Teutonic people and languages,
Thibetans, or Tibetans, .
Thugs, or Ph-ansygars,
Thuli, northern extremity of ancient
navigation,
Tibboos, ....
Tides, account of the.
Time, equation of,
Timekeejiers, — see Chromometcrf,
Ton gooses, ....
Towpiinesc,
Torguths, ....
Torres, a Spanish navigator in the .South
Seas, ....
Transubstantiation,
Trarilling in Turkey,
in India, .
in tlie Afri<'an .Sahara, . 803,
Trinitarian Christians,
Trinity House, at D('i)tford,
Trongsus, ....
Trofiieal '/'•'(/•,
Tropin oi Cani'cr ami Ciii'iiconi, .
666
719
744
126
1
607
792
007
635
666
756
, 82
65
54
512
173
772
698
4
849
67
38
4 0
7 '■1-2
711!
1
1 1
16
11 !l
607
710
818
120
2;i.'»
7.V1
:f7
1066
INDEX OF NAMES OF NATIONS, &c.
Tschoiides, or Finns,, . page \7 4, 5'i2
2'sckuktshi, . . . .794
Tuaricks, ... 849
Tuckey explores the river Zaire, 26
Tudas, . . . .697
Turcolaunees, , , . 675
Turcomans, . 173, 645, 780
Turks, . . .173, 600, 644
Turkish words explained, . . 613
Tycho Brake, his system of astronomy, 34
Ulema, ' the learned' of Turkey, 123, 601
Umbria, as described by Hesiod, . 3
Unitarian Christians, • . 120
United brethern, or Unitas fratrum, 122
United Greeks, . . . 119
Usbecks, or Usbegs, . . 777
Vancouver's voyages and discoveries, 21
Vedas, sacred books of the Hindoos, 702
Veddas, or Beddas of Ceylon, . 737
Vegetables, geographical distribution of, 88
classification of, . . 91
fossil, . . . 100
Vegetation and Vegetable Productions of
Europe,
England and Wales,
Scotland,
Ireland,
France,
Switzerland,
Belgium, . .
Holland,
Germany,
Austria,
Bohemia, .
Hungary,
Prussian States,
Denmark,
Sweden and Norway,
Russia-in-Europe,
Spanish peninsula,
Italy and Sicily,
European Turkey,
Hellas, or Greece,
Asia,
Turkey-in-Asia,
Arabia,
Persia,
Affghanistan,
India,
170
• 186
268
. 298
322
. 362
376
. 385
397
429,435
441
. 446
463
. 477
489
. 510
536
563, 569, 570,
571, 575, 589
598
616, 622
633
637-639
660
. 666
675
,713,715,716,717,718,
721, 724, 729, 731, 734, 735
Ceylon, . . . 737
Birmah, . . 744,750
Siam, . . . 747
An-nam, . . .748
Country of the Laos, . 749
Malayan peninsula, . .751
China, . . . 756
Chinese Empire, 770,771,772,773
Ladakh, . . . 773
Turkestan, . . .777
Caucasian provinces of Ruseia, 781-7
Siberia, . . . 790
Kamtschalka, . . 797
Japan, .... 798
Vegetation and Vegetable Productions of
Africa, . . . page 804
Egypt, . . . .817
Barbary, . . . 839
Guinea and Senegambia, . 853
Congo, Angola, Benguela, 858
South Africa, or Cape Colony, 862
African islands, . . 869
America, . . . 889
United States, . . 91 7
Malaysian islands, . 968, 979
Australia, . . . 982, 989
Van Dieman's Land, . . 1000
New Zealand, . • 1005
Polynesia, . . .1112
Veguls, . . . 512
Vents dominans, . . .78
Vine, production and cultivation of the, 633
Virgil's tomb, . • . 587
Visigoths, . . . 172
Viscayno explores north-west coast of
America, . . . 14
Volcanoes, general character and ac-
count of them, . . .60
of Europe, 166, 482, 556, 559, 563, 589
629, 798
551, 556, 869, 870
874, 952
630, 975, 976, 977
1003, 1004, 1011, 1017
1018
, 512
Asia,
Africa,
America,
Malaysia,
Oceanica,
Antarctic regions,
Votiuks,
Wagheas,
Wahabees, ....
Wallachians, . . 173, 458,
Wallis (Captain) sails round the world,
Walloons, ....
Waralis,
Water, phenomena of,
its action on the land,
fresh, salt, and mineral,
motions of.
Waterfalls, remarkable —
Clyde, Scotland,
Greymare's tail, ib.
Rlieinfall, Switzerland,
Staubach, ib.
Reiclienbach, ib.
Pissevache, ib.
Saut de Doubs,
Falls of the Danube, .
Rivers of Norway,
Falls of Trollhatta,
Falls of the Dnieper, .
Cascade at Tivoli, .
Falls of the Kizilozen,
Cauvery,
Carawotty,
Cataracts of the Nile,
King George IV.'s cataract, .
Falls of St. Anthony,
the Missouri,
the Potomack,
Niagara,
Weddell 'a voyage in Antarctic Ocean, 1
Weights and Measures, .
485,
684-
698
124
600
18
377
698
63
69
64
67
264
ib.
364
370
ib.
ib.
375
393
503
499
507
584
673
684
723
810
866
877
ib.
880
883
018
INDEX OF THE NAMES OF NATIONS, &c.
1067
Wenden, or Wends, . page 403
WiUoughby (Sir Hugh), his voyage to
Lapland, . . .15
Winds, their nature, causes, and effects, 74
sea and land, . . 75
r€nts dominans, . . 78
Bise in south of France, . 75, 321
Harmattan, or Harmanta, in
Guinea, . . • 75, 852
Khamseen, in Egypt, . . 817
— — ■ Pampero, in South America, 956
Samiel, or Simoom, . G58, 817
Sirocco, . . . 75, 562
Woguls, . . . -793
Yakuts, . . . .793
Yankees, . . . 941
Years, solar and sidereal, . . 37
Fears of the Mahometan era, . 123
Yezidees, . . . page
124, 645
Yezirs, or Infidels,
600, 609
Yogies, Indian fanatics.
. 705
Yorukhs,
645
Z, in Scottish names, pronunciation of, 263
Zemindars, in India,
707
Zend language, . 116,
126, 696
Zendaresta, . . t6.
ib. ib.
Zeni, their voyages in North Sea,
11
Zenith defined.
32
Zodiac, signs of the.
35
Zodiacal light, .
86
Zones of the earth.
36
Zoolahs, or Zulas,
865
Zoroaster, religion of, . 126,
667, 696
Zowarah, or Zuares,
842
Zyrainet,
. 612
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