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BOARD  OF  EDUCATION. 


SPECIAL  REPORTS 

ON 

EDUCATIONAL  SUBJECTS. 

VOLUME  15. 


SCHOOL  TRAINING  FOR  THE  HOME  DUTIES  OF  WOMEN. 

PART  I. 

THE  TEACHING  OF  "DOMESTIC  SCIENCE"  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

OF  ami:rica. 

IPrescntet)  to  botb  Ibouscs  of  pavUanient     Command  of  "^ns  /iftajests. 


LONDON: 

PRINTED  FOR  HIS  MAJESTY'S  STATIONERY  OFFICE, 
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OLIVER  AND  ROYD,  Edinrurciii  :  or 
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1905. 


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I 


BOARD  OF  EDUCATION. 


SPECIAL  REPORTS 


ON 


EDUCATIONAL  SUBJECTS. 


VOLUME  15. 


SCHOOL  TRAINING  FOE  THE  HOME  DUTIES  OF  WOMEN. 


PART  I. 

THE  TEACHING  OF  ''DOMESTIC  SCIENCE"  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

OF  AMERICA. 


IPresenteD  to  botb  Ibouses  of  iparliament      ConimanD  of  1bl6  /Iftajc6tg. 


J  >  J  J ,  , 


LONDON:    ^  • 
PRINTED  FOR  HIS  MAJESTY'S  STATIONERY  OFFICE, 
BY  WYMAN  &  SONS,  LIMITED,  FETTER  LANE,  E.C. 


And  to  be  purchased,  either  directly  or  through  any  Bookseller,  from  r  i 
WYMAN  AND  SONS,  Ltd.,  Fetter  Lane,  E.C.  ;  and 

32,  Abingdon  Street,  Westminster,  S.W.  ;  or            ^  \  \ 

OLIVER  AND  BOYD,  Edinburgh  :  or                     \  ^  ^  , 

E.  PONSONBY,  116,  Grafton  Street,  Dublin.               ^  /  ut 

1905. 


[Cd.  2498.]       Price  Is.  9d 


Ill 


Prefatory  Note  to  Volume  15 

OF 

Special  Reports  on  Educational  Subjects. 


The  following  Report  was  prepared  by  Miss  Ravenhill  as  the 
result  of  an  investigation  made  by  her  at  the  joint  request  of  the 
Board  of  Education,  the  West  Riding  County  Council  and  the 
Royal  Sanitary  Institute.    Reports  upon  certain  aspects  of  her 
inquiries  have  already  been  presented  to  the  West  Riding  County 
Council  and  the  Royal  Sanitary  Institute,  whilst  the  present 
volume  contains  the  Report  prepared  by  her  for  the  Board  of 
Education.    Miss  Ravenhill's  paper  was,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Index,  to  all  intents  and  purposes  ready  for  publication  in 
June,  1903,  but  in  the  autumn  of  that  year,  when  the  plans  for 
the  issue  of  a  series  of  papers  dealing  with  School  Training  for 
the  Home  Duties  of  Women,  Avhich  had  been  laid  by  Mr.  Sadler, 
came  to  be  considered  in  detail,  it  was  found  necessary  for 
various  reasons  to  delay  the  preparation  and  publication  of  reports 
dealing  with  the  work  being  done  in  this  country.    The  results  of 
investigation    showed  that,  until  the  new   Local  Education 
Authorities  had   found   more   opportunity   to   organise  this 
part  of  their  work  by  the  introduction  of  more  systematised 
methods  than  have  hitherto  been  possible,  it  would  be  wise 
to  postpone  any  review  in  published  form.     On  the  other 
hand  the  absence  of  any  material  relating  to  certain  European 
countries   which   devote   special   attention    to    the  teaching 
of  Domestic  Economy  rendered  delay  in  the  publication  of  a 
volume  dealing  with  foreign  countries  inevitable.    The  inten- 
tion was,  therefore,  to  await  the  completion  of  reports  from 
these  countries  before  issuing  any  of  the  material  which  had 
been  collected,  but  the  increasing  attention  drawn  to  all  matters 
affecting  the  health  and  Avell- being  of  the  individual  and  the 
family,  which  has  resulted  from  the  Report  of  the  Inter- depart- 
mental Committee  on  Physical  Deterioration  and  the  action  of 
influential  organisations  which  represented  educational  opinion 
of  various  kinds,  have  made  it  seem  desirable  to  publish  as 
much  of  the  information  as  possible  immediately,    The  lines  of 
development  in  the  United  States  of  America  have  been  national 
and  little  affected  by  the  continental  conditions  of  the  Old 

6490.    3000-Wt.  1654.    4/05.    Wy.  &  S.    642/-.  a 


iv 

World,  so  that  there  was  less  reason  here  for  grouping  Miss 
Ravenhill's  Report  with  the  other  foreign  material.  Hence  its 
issue  as  Part  I.  of  the  Series. 

It  must  be  understood  that,  as  in  the  case  of  previous  Special 
Reports  issued  by  the  Board  of  Education,  the  Board  do  not 
make  themselves  responsible  for  the  terms  employed  nor  for  the 
opinions  expressed  in  the  Report — such  responsibility  resting 
entirely  with  the  Author. 

The  Board  desire  to  take  this  opportunity  of  expressing  their 
thanks  to  the  many  officials  and  teachers  who,  by  their  willing- 
courtesy,  aided  Miss  Ravenhill  in  collecting  the  materials  for 
this  Report ;  they  also  wish  to  place  on  re(3ord  their  indebtedness 
for  the  loan  of  the  blocks  from  which  the  various  plans  inserted 
in  this  volume  have  been  printed. 

Otlice  of  Special  Inquiries  and  Reports. 
May,  1905. 


THE  TEACHING  OF  "  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 

IN  THE 

UNITED   STATES   OF  AMEEICA. 


TABLE    OF  CONTENTS. 

Inteoduction. 

Page 


A.  — Scheme  OF  Public  Education  -  1 

B.  — History  and  Development  of  Domestic  Science  Teaching.  -  8 

Part  I. — State  Institutions. 

A.  — Grade  (Primary  and  Grammar)  Schools   23 

1.  — Cookery   23 

Length  of  Cours3  and  Methods  of  Teaching  ;  Equipment ;  etc.  24 
Typical  Courses  :—{a)  New  York  City  ;  (h)  Toledo  ;  (c)  Phila- 
delphia ;  (d)  Washington,  D.C.  '   31 

Cost  of  Classes   42 

2.  — Needlework   43 

Methods  of  Teaching  and  Length  of  Course  -  ...  44 
Specimen  Courses  :  —  (a)  Brookline,  Mass.  ;  (h)  Boston  ;  (r) 

Cleveland,  Ohio  ;  (d)  Philadelphia  ;  (e)  Washington       -  46 

3.  — Housewifery  -  -       -  50 

Method  of  Teaching  Housewifery  in  Cookery  Lessons    -       -  50 

4.  — Hygiene  52 

An  obligatory  Subject ;  Attitude  of  Teachers  ;  Methods  of 

Teaching   52 

Typical  Courses: — (a)  Hyannis,  Mass.;  (6)  Cleveland,  Ohio; 
(c)  Lynn,  Mass.  ;    (d)  Massachusetts  ;    (e)  Washington, 

D.C.  ;  (/)  Philadelphia   5G 

The  Care  of  Young  Children         -       -       -       -       -  -71 

B.  — High  Schools   72 

Scopeand  Value  of  Domestic  Sfciv^ncc  Courses        -       -       -  73 
Typical  Domestic  Science  Courses  : — (a)  Brookline,  Mass.;  (/;) 
Providence,  R.L  ;  (c)  Hackley ;  {d)  Toledo ;  (e)  Ann 

Arbor   75 

Physiology  and  Hygiene  Courses  : — (a)  Detroit ;  (6)  New 

YorkOity  ,        .        .  94 


vi 


Page 

C.  — Colleges   100 

History  and  Dovclopment   100 

Province  and  History  of  Courses  in  Household  Science  -       -  105 
Typical  Courses  in  Household  Science  : — (a)  State  University 
of  Illinois  ;  (&)  Ohio  State  University  ;  (c)  Michigan  State 

Agricultural  College   107 

Courses  in  Hygiene  : — {a)  Michigan  State  University ;  (h)  State 

University  of  Indiana   121 

D.  — Normal  Schools  125 

Framingham  State  Normal  School  Course  in  Household  Arts  -  125 

Sewing  and  Cooking  Courses   134 

Physiology  and  Hygiene  Courses    -  {^^)  Salem,  Mass.  ;  (6) 

'  Hyannis,  Mass.     -       -    135 

Part  II. — Private  Institutions. 

A.  — Kindergartens,  Primary  and  Grammar  Schools    -       -       -  142 

Domestic  Science  and  Arts  at  the  University  of  Chicago  Ex- 
perimental Schools : — (a)  Elementary  School ;  (h)  School 
of  Education  143 

B.  - -High  Schools     -      -      -      -  153 

Typical  Domestic  Science  Courses : — (a)  Pratt  Institute, 
Brooklyn,  N.Y.  ;  (6)  Indianapolis ;  (c)  Detroit ;  {d) 
Boston         -       -       -       -  •  153 

Hygiene  and  Physiology  Courses  : —  Horace  Mann  School, 

N.Y.C.  164 

C.  — Institutions  for  Training  Teachers  in  Domestic  Science      -  166 

Training  of  Teachers  in  Household  Science  and  Art : — (a)  The 
Oread  Institute  ;  (&)  Boston  Cooking  School ;  (c)  Lake 
Erie  College  for  Women  166 

Training  of  Teachers  in  Physical  Culture  and  Hygiene :  — 
Boston  Normal  School  of  Gymnastics     -       -       -       -  175 

D.  — Technical  Institutes  180 

Typical  Courses  in  Domestic  Science  and  Hygiene  : — (a)  Brad- 
ley Institute  Peoria,  111.  ;  (&)  Eastman  Mechanics' 
Institute,  Rochester,  N.Y.;  (c)  Lewis  Institute,  Chicago  ; 
{d)  Institute  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  Brooklyn,  N.Y.  ;  (e) 
Massachus3tts  Institute  of  Technology,  Boston      -       -  180 

Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  N.Y.  : — (a)  Domestic  Art  Courses  ; 

(6)  Domestic  Science  Courses  189 

Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia :  —  (a)  Domestic  Science 
Courses  ;  (b)  Domestic  Art  Courses  ;  (c)  Junior  Course  in 
Domestic  Science  and  Art  207 

E.  — Women's  Colleges  216 

Courses  in  Hygiene  and  Household  Economics  : — (a)  Vassar 
College ;  (6)  Wellesley  College ;  (c)  Simmons  Female 
College,  Boston  216 

The  School  of  Housekeeping,  Boston  220 

F.  — Universities     -      -      -       -  221 

University  of  Chicago  : — Courses  in  Household  Teohnology,eto.  221 
Teachers  College,   Columbia   University,  New  York  : — (a) 

Course  in  Domestic  Art ;  (/>)  Course  in  Domestic  Science-  225 


vii 


Part  III. — Social  Agencies  for  the  Promotion  of 
Domestic  Science  Teaching. 

Pa^e 

A.  — Women's  Clubs  230 

Specimen  organisations  for  promoting  Domestic  Science 
Teaching  : — (a)  Illinois  Association  of  Domestic  Science  ; 
(&)  Sanitary  Science  Club  of  the  Association  of  College 
Alumnae  ;  (c)  National  Household  Economic  Association  ; 
(d)  The  Women's  Institute,  Yonkers,  N.  Y.  ;  (e)  The  Civic 
League ;  {/)  Women's  Educational  and  Industrial 
Union  237 

B.  — Philanthropic  Agencies  241 

Examples  of  Household  and  Sanitary  Science  Courses  : — (a) 
Indianapolis  Kindergarten  and  Domestic  Training 
Schools;  (&)  Y.W.C.A.  School  of  Domestic  Science, 
Boston  ;  (c'  The  Louisa  M.  Alcott  Club,  Boston  ;  (d)  Free 
Lectures  :  (e)  People's  University  Extension  Society, 
N.Y.C. ;  (/)  University  Settlements  ;  (g)  Vacation  Schools  241 

C— Summer  Schools  247 

Typical  Domestic  Science  Courses  : — (a)  Chautauqua  School 
of  Dome«itic  Science  ;  (6)  Chicago  University  ;  (c)  Chicago 
University  School  of  Education     ....       -  247 

D.  — University  Extension  249 

Illustrations  of  System  of  Instruction  in  Domestic  Science 
Subjects  : — (a)  New  York  State  Travelling  Library  ;  (b) 
Cornell  University  Reading  Courses      ...       -  249 

E.  — The  Domestic  Service  Problem  250 

Summary  of  Enquiry. 

Scope  of  Enquiry  ;  Extent  of  Domestic  Science  and  Hygiene 
Teaching  ;  Methods  ;  Trainuig  of  Teachers  in  Domestic 
Science;  etc.,  etc.  262 

Appendices. 

A.  — Equipment  for  Grade  School  Cookery  Courses     ...       -  286 

B.  — State  Manual  Training  High  School,  Providence,  R.I.,  Domestic 

Science  Course  289 

C.  — Equipment  for  High  School  Course  in  Dressmaking  and  Laundry 

Work  '-293 

D.  — Household  Science  Courses  in  Boston  High  Schools      -       -       -  296 

E.  — Course  in  Home  Dressmaking,  Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  N.Y.     •  298 

F.  — Courses  of  Domestic  Science  and  Art  at  Drext'l  Institute       -       -  299 

G.  — School  of  Housekeeping  Boston.    Synopsis  of  Course  -       -       -  314 

H.  — Teachers  College  Columbia  University.  Courses  in  Household  Art 

and  Chemistry  317 

J. — Chautauqua  School  of  Domestic  Science  319 

K. — Cornell  University  College  of  Agriculture.  Farmers'  Wives'  Read- 
ing Club      -       -  321 

L. — University  of  the  State  of  New  York,  Albany,  Home  Education 

Department.    Home  Economics  Syllabus  *    -       -       -       -  322 


Index 


337 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Page 

I.  Hor.seslloe  and  Group  arrangement  of  Cooking  Tables    -       -  27 
II.  Plan  of  Continuous  Cooking  Table  28 

III.  Detail  of  Continuous  Cooking  Table  28 

IV.  Plan  of  Model  School  Kitchen        ...      -      To  face  28 

V.  Cake  Diagram  -       -       -       -  158 

VI.  Eastman's  Buildings.    Mechanics'  Institute,  Rochester,  New 

York  -       To  face  182 

VIL  Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  New  York,  Plan  of  Domestic 

Science  Department      -----  -      -  199 

VIII.  Working  Drawing  of  Cooking  Table,  Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn, 

New  York     -       .       -       _  271 


THE  TEACHING  OF  "DOMESTIC  SCIENCE"  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA. 


Introduction. 

A, — Scheme  of  Public  Education. 

One  essential  to  the  acquirement  of  a  i  intelligent  knowledge 
of  the  scope,  methods  and  ultimate  value  of  any  special  course 
of  study  carried  on  in  the  schools  of  a  country  is  a  clear  compre- 
hension of  its  educational  system.  In  the  case  of  the  United 
States  this  process  is  considerably  facilitated  by  the  general 
adoption  of  one  broad,  basic  principle,  viz.,  the  provision  through- 
out the  country,  from  public  funds,  of  a  system  of  free  education 
in  all  grades,  from  Kindergarten  to  University;  merely  nominal 
fees  being  exacted  for  text-books  and  laboratory  equipment. 
President  Draper,  of  the  State  University  of  Illinois,  refers  in 
one  of  his  luminous  and  suggestive  addresses  to  the  public 
school  system  of  the  United  States  as  the  one  institution  more 
completely  representative  of  the  American  plan,  spirit  and 
purpose  than  any  other  in  existence."  Limits  of  space  permit 
only  of  a  very  brief  resume  of  this  comprehensive  system,  but 
some  of  its  most  salient  features  have  been  selected  for  presenta- 
tion.   The  whole  may  be  grouped  under  six  divisions  : — 

1.  Kindergartens,  open  to  children  from  8  to  7  years  of  age, 
where  attendance  is  voluntary. 

2.  and  3.  Primary  and  Grammar  Schools,  the  curricula  of 
which  cover  the  ages  of  compulsory  school  attendance  (variable 
in  the  different  States),  usually  from  7  or  8  to  12  or  14  years  of 

4.  High,  or  Secondary,  Schools,  offering  a  four-years'  course, 
for  pupils  from  14  to  18.  (Provision  for  evening  classes  is 
usually  made  in  all  city  Grammar  and  High  Schools.) 

5.  Colleges  (State,  Agricultural,  Normal,  etc.),  attended  by 
students  from  18  to  22. 

6.  Universities,  for  post  graduate  courses. 

That  part  of  the  system  usually  described  as  Public  consists  Grade 
of  three  or  four  grades  of  schools,  known  as  Primary,  Grammar  Schools, 
and  High,  or  as  Primary,  Intermediate,  Grammar  and  High. 
These  grades  of  schools  are  distinguished  from  one  another  by 
the  topics  and  methods  introduced  into  their  courses  of  study, 
and  by  the  kind  of  mental  activity  required  in  pursuing  them. 
In  Primary,  Intermediate,  and  Grammar  Schools  (which  are 
very  generally  grouped  under  the  denomination  "  Grade  Schools  "), 
the  curriculum  usually  includes  reading,  writing,  arithmetic, 
o-eography,  history,  physiology  and  hygiene,  drawing,  nature 
study  and  physical  culture.    In  the  more  advanced  educational  ][igii 
institutions  the  "  elective"  system  in  force  permits  selection  from  Scliools. 
a  wider  range  of  subjects,  while  actually  reducing  the  number 
included  in  the  particular  course  selected  by  the  individual 
student.    The  majority  of  High  Schools  provide  six  or  seven 
alternative  courses ;  these  include  a  good  "  all  round  "  general 
0490.  A 


2 


U.S.A. — Scheme  of  Public  Education. 


course,  a  classical,  a  scientific,  a  commercial  course,  and  so 
forth.  High  Schools  especially  for  "  manual  training "  (me- 
chanics, engineering,  the  domestic  sciences,  etc.)  are  provided 
in  most  cities,  and  take  equal  rank  with  those  whose  special  aim 
is  the  preparation  of  pupils  for  college.  The  manual  training 
courses  include  modern  languages,  literature,  history  and  geo- 
graphy, in  addition  to  the  study  of  chemistry,  physics,  drawing, 
etc.,  with  the  direct  object  of  developing  breadth  of  view  and 
well-balanced  minds  in  their  students.  The  High  School  move- 
ment is  growing  with  enormous  rapidity  at  the  present  time. 
Private  In  addition  to  this  general  provision  for  the  education  of  the 

Schools.  people,  in  which  the  nation  believes  enthusiastically,  a  certain 
number  of  private  schools  (kindergarten,  grammar,  high,  com- 
mercial, art,  industrial,  professional,  denominational)  are  to  be 
found  in  large  cities,  such  as  INewYork,  Boston,  Chicago  and 
Detroit.  In  these  the  courses  are  practically  identical  with 
those  in  the  public  schools,  but  the  demands  of  social  caste  are 
considered  and  secured  by  the  exaction  of  fees. 
State  State  Agricultural  Colleges  are  the  outcome  of  a  general 

Agnciiltural  intellectual  and  industrial  advance  which  widely  affected  public 
«ses.  sentiment  in  the  United  States  about  half  a  century  ago,  from 
which  arose  a  demand  for  a  new  class  of  institution  to  be 
entirely  devoted  to  scientific  and  technical  education.  Some 
efforts  were  made  to  supply  this  demand  by  private  enterprise, 
but  the  people  soon  grasped  the  advantage  which  would  result 
from  the  organisation  and  maintenance  of  these  new  institu- 
tions under  State  or  national  patronage ;  consequently  the  Bill, 
introduced  into  the  House  of  Representatives  in*^  1857  by 
Mr.  Morrill,  for  the  purpose  of  donating  public  lands  to  the 
several  states  and  territories,  received  sufficient  support  to  be 
passed  in  1862.  This  Act  secured  "the  endowment,  support, 
and  maintenance  of  at  least  one  college  in  each  State,  where 
the  leading  objects  shall  be,  without  including  other  scientific 
and  classical  studies,  to  teach  such  branches  of  learning  as  are 
related  to  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts,  in  such  manner 
as  the  legislature  ot  the  States  may  respectively  prescribe,  in 
order  to  promote  the  liberal  and  practical  education  of  the 
industrial  classes  in  the  several  pursuits  and  professions  in 
life."  This  great  work  has  given  free  tuition  to  thousands 
of  students,  who  have  by  this  means  been  enabled  to  bring 
trained  minds  to  the  development  of  industries,  and  to  utilise 
scientific  facts  and  principles  for  their  advancement.  Under 
the  provisions^  of  the  Morrill  Acts,  64  State  Colleges  are  now 
in  operation  in  the  several  states  and  territories.  They  may- 
be divided  into  three  classes: — Colleges  which  have  courses, 
in  agriculture  only ;  Colleges  which  have  courses  in  agriculture> 
together  with  others  in  a  variety  of  subjects,  including  specially, 
mechanic  arts;  and,  thirdly.  Colleges,  or  Schools,  or  Depart- 
ments of  Agriculture  which  form  a  part  of  universities.  Their 
organisations  are  so  wisely  varied  to  meet  the  needs  of  local 
environment,  that  no  one  institution  will  serve  as  a  type  for 
all,  but  a  representative  university  of  this  kind  briefly  describes 


Classification  of  Educational  Institutions. 


3 


itself  in  its  publications  as  "simply  the  13th,  14th,  15th,  and 
16th  Grades  of  the  State  System  of  Public  Free  Education"; 
it  considers  itself  to  be  related  to  the  High  schools  just  as 
they,  in  turn,  are  related  to  the  Grades,  and  sets  forth  that 
it  should  be  as  natural  for  a  pupil  to  look  forward  from  the 
High  school  to  the  University  as  from  the  8th  Grade  to  the 
High  school.  The  prevalent  aim  in  these  colleges  is  to  give 
to  the  young  people  of  both  sexes  the  largest  possible  oppor- 
tunity for  both  general  and  special  training  to  prepare  them 
for  life;  and  to  touch,  in  a  practical  and  helpful  way,  every 
interest  in  the  State.  Admission  to  them  has  been  hitherto 
on  very  easy  terras;  candidates  are  required  to  be  16  years 
of  age,  and  can  frequently  matriculate  on  the  strength  of  a 
High  school  certilicate;  but  the  whole  standard  of  entrance 
requirements  is  likely  to  be  considerably  influenced  in  future, 
and  undoubtedly  will  be  raised,  by  the  action  of  the  recently 
formed  College  Entrance  Examination  Board. 

The  first  Kormal  schools  in  the  United  States  were  founded  Xornxal 
in  1839.  They,  too,  were  an  outgrowth  of  the  national  interest  Schools, 
in  popular  education,  particularly  after  German  influence  began 
to  be  felt;  at  first  they  were  the  joint  product  of  private 
and  public  liberalit}^ ;  very  soon,  however,  a  considerable  number 
became  incorporated  into  the  State  system  of  public  instruction. 
State  or  Municipal  Governments  now  support  upwards  of  160, 
but  this  by  no  means  represents  the  sources  of  supply  for 
teachers  in  the  States,  as  there  are  in  addition,  at  least  178 
rivate  Normal  schools  ;  only  about  one-fourth  as  many  students, 
owever,  graduate  annually  from  these  as  from  the  institutions 
supported  by  public  funds. 

The  generosity  of  wealthy  citizens  is  the  source  from  which  Technical 
have  sprung  the  magnificent,  richly-endowed,  Technical  Insti-  Instituta^. 
tutes,  which  exert  a  perceptible  influence  to-day  upon  the 
social  and  industrial  life  of  the  United  States.  The  Pratt 
Institute  at  Brooklyn,  N.Y.,  the  Drexel  Institute  at  Phila- 
delphia, the  Eastman  Institute  at  Rochester,  the  Lewis  and 
Armour  Institutes  at  Chicago,  and  many  more,  are  afllbrding 
opportunities  to  the  ambitiouS;  stinuilating  the  laggard,  and 
raising  the  tone  and  standard  of  student  and  professor  through- 
out the  country.  The  activity  of  these  great  independent 
educational  centres  "sets  the  pace"  for  institutions  subject  to 
state  and  municipal  control ;  mdeed,  each  derives  benefit  from 
the  somewhat  diverse  methods  adopted  by  its  compeers  to 
-attain  a  common  end. 

To  private  munificence  also  is  due,  wholly  or  in  part,  the  Universities, 
existence  and  endowment  of  some  of  the  leading  Universities, 
such  as  Columbia  University,  New  York  City,  the  University 
of  Chicago,  the  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University,  California, 
and  others.  It  is,  perhaps,  superfluous  to  draw  attention  to  the 
adaptation  to  national  needs  of  these  as  of  all  other  parts 
of  the  educational  system ;  but  it  is  allowable  to  recall  what 
Dr.  W.  T.  Harris  brings  out  in  his  monograph  on  "  Elementary 
Education,"  prepared  fm-  the  United  States  Educational  Kxhibit 

«U9(».  A  'J 


4 


U.S.A. — Scheme  of  Public  Education. 


('o-educa- 
tion. 


Sources  of 

Financial 

Support. 


National 
Bureau  of 
Education . 


Compulsory 
Attendance. 


at  the  Paris  Exhibition,  1900,  that  "American  universities  ex- 
hibit only  a  portion  of  what,  in  Europe,  is  thought  necessary  to 
the  constitution  of  a  complete  university,  viz.,  the  traditional 
four  Eaculties  of  Theology,  Law,  Medicine,  and  Philosophy," 
because,  "  although  all  four  may  be  in  existence,  they  are 
not  all  organised  and  demonstrated  on  the  same  plane :  but, 
(m  the  other  hand,  they  include  elements  which,  m  Europe, 
are  strongly  marked  off  from  universities,  viz.,  technical  schools 
and  undergraduate  schools."  On  this  account  the  formation 
of  new  colleges  and  departments  is  effected  with  facility,  and 
their  curriculum  is  extended  to  include  subjects  unrecognised 
in  such  connections  in  Europe. 

Co-education  is  the  general  practice  throughout  the  whole 
educational  system,  though  a  few  cities  report  separation  of  the 
sexes  in  High  schools ;  and  a  very  small  minority  report  separate 
classes  for  boys  and  girls  in  some  Grade  schools.  From  the 
statistics  published  in  1900-1  by  the  National  Commissioner 
of  Education,  it  would  appear  that  in  about  two-thirds  of  the 
total  number  of  private  schools  reporting  to  the  National 
Bureau  at  Washington,  and  in  65  per  cent,  of  the  colleges  and 
universities,  co-education  is  the  policy ;  the  advantages  of  the 
method  preponderate  so  conclusively  that  reference  to  occasion- 
ally recorded  disadvantages  is  rarely  made. 

The  national  school  system  is  supported  wholly  by  taxation, 
imposed  by  each  State  or  city,  an  appropriation  for  purposes  of 
education  being  made  from  the  genera  1  fund.  The  Federal 
Government  has  never  exercised  any  official  control  over  the 
public  educational  work  of  the  country,  but  it  has  always  shown 
its  intimate  interest  by  generous  gifts  to  education  in  the  form 
of  land  rights  from  the  public  domain  :  and  its  moral  influence 
is  wide  reaching  through  the  Bureau  of  Education  at  Washing- 
ton. This  Government  Department  was  organised  for  the 
purpose  of  gathering  the  fullest  information  from  the  whole 
educational  world,  at  home  and  abroad,  and  for  its  gratuitous 
dissemination  to  all  interested  therein  ;  when  the  Bureau  is 
under  the  direction  of  such  a  master  mind  as  that  of  the  present 
National  Commissioner  of  Education,  Dr.  W.  T.  Harris,  the 
extent  of  this  influence  for  good  is  well  nigh  incalculable. 

Attendance  is  compulsory,  either  at  a  public  or  approved 
private  school,  in  thirty  States,  one  Territory,  and  the  District  of 
Columbia;  the  most  general  obligatory  period  is  from  8  to 
14  years  of  age.  Though  the  length  of  the  nominal  school 
year  is  about  200  days,  statistics  show  that  the  average  is  con- 
siderably lower,  amounting  to  not  much  more  than  140.  This 
is  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that,  in  rural  districts,  in  order  to 
facilitate  agricultural  operations,  it  is  still  a  common  practice 
to  open  the  schools  during  the  winter  only,  when,  owing  to 
difficulties  of  transit  and  bad  weather,  the  regular  attendance 
is  much  interfered  with;  thus  the  '^average"  length  of  the 
school  year  for  the  whole  school  population  is  very  materially 
diminished.    Laws  whieh  absolutely  prohibit  the  employment 


Notes  on  Organisation. 


of  children  under  a  specified  limit  of  age,  in  mercantile  or  manu- 
facturing establishments,  are  in  force  and  enforced  in  several 
States. 

The  Local  Boards  which  have  the  management  of  the  schools  Boards  of 
are  generally  termed  "  Boards  of  Education,"  and  form  depart-  Education, 
mejits  of  the  State  or  city  government.  (In  townships  and 
districts  the  desio^nations  most  generally  used  are  School 
Directors  or  School  Trustees.  A  township  usually  signifies  six 
square  miles  of  land,  quite  irrespective  of  the  population,  which 
may  be  numerous  or  nil ;  so  many  townships  constitute  a  county, 
so  many  counties  form  a  State.)  These  Boards  are  corporate 
bodies,  and  are  empowered  to  make  contracts ;  to  acquire,  hold, 
and  dispose  of  property;  to  employ  teachers  and  fix  their 
salaries ;  to  make  the  rules  and  reguJations  for  schools,  and  to 
fix  the  course  of  study  and  the  list  of  text-books  to  be  used. 

The  following  notes  on  the  typical  organisation  of  a  city  Oruani 
school  system  will  serve  to  explain  allusions  in  the  text  of  this  ^ition  ()t 
Report.    Each  Board  of  Education,  created  by  law,  is,  in  the 
majority  of  instances,  elected  by  the  people,  though  some  im-'  ''' 
portant  cities  constitute  exceptions  to  this  rule  of  popular 
control ;  in  these  cases  the  members  of  the  Board  are  nominated 
by  the  Mayor,  or  by  the  City  Council,  or  even  by  the  city  judges, 
as  at  Philadelphia.    The  members  serve  gratuitously,  and  have 
full   powers   to  establish,  maintain,  and   control  free  public 
schools  for  all  children  of  school  age  within  the  limits  of  the 
city,  township,  county,  or  State.    In  most  cities  the  teachers  are 
appointed  by  a  committee  of  the  Board  ;   to  an  increasing 
extent  they  are  required  to  be  graduates  of  the  city  or  county 
Normal  School,  or  of  an  institution  of  equal  or  higher  grade, 
i.e.,  they  nuTst  have  received  definite  training  in  the  art  of  teach- 
ing.   Annual  estimates  of  the  disbursements  anticipated  during 
the  coming  year  must  be  made  and  submitted  to  the  City 
Council.    That  body  appropriates  such  varying  sums  of  money 
for  the  purposes  named  in  the  estimates  as  they  think  proper, 
in  view  of  all  the  other  claims  on  the  city's  funds.  Once 
appropriated,  all  such  money  is  controlled  by  the  Board  of 
Education.    Each  Board  has  two  principal  executive  officers, 
a  secretary  and  a  superintendent.    The  latter  is  expected  to  be 
an  experienced  educator,  well  versed  in  school  management  and 
a  student  of  pedagogy  on  its  philosophical  side,  he  should  ako 
possess  good  administrative  ability  ;  the  course  of  study  adopted 
IS,  to  a  great  extent,  framed  by  the  suporiiitendent,  and  usually 
embodies  his  ideas.    There  are  county  superintendents  of  rural 
or  township  schools  in  about  thirty-five  States.     In  thirteen  of 
these  they  are  elected  by  the  people,  in  the  remainder  they  are 
appointed!  by  certain  state  or  county  officers,  or  are  chosen  by 
the  combined  vote  of  the  School  Board.   In  addition,  each  State 
has  a  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction ;  he  is  variously 
described  as  Superintendent  of  Common  Schools,  of  Public 
Schools,  of  Education,  or  as  Commissioner  of  Public  Schools.  Functions 

It  must  be  always  borne  in  mind  that  the  central  Government  <,f  (Central 
of  the  United  States  exercises  remote  authority  over  the  public  ( Joveniment, 


6 


U.S.A. — Scheme  of  Public  Education. 


Develop- 
ment of 
Grade 
School 
Curricuhim 
in  Massa- 
chusetts. 


Education 
as  a  Social 
Institution. 


schools,  and  has  never  attempted  any  control  over  education  in 
the  several  States,  though  it  has  aided  them  by  donations  of 
land,  and,  in  some  cases,  of  money. 

A  sketch  of  the  progressive  development  of  the  Grade  school 
programme  in  one  State  will  best  indicate  the  gradual  expansion 
of  the  nation's  educational  ideals,  and  the  influence  exerted  on 
})ablic  bodies  by  private  initiative,  when  based  on  sound 
^jL-inciples.  The  statutes  of  the  State  of  Massachusetts  require 
that  in  all  the  "common"  schools,  instruction  be  given  in 
orthography,  reading,  writing,  English  language  and  grammar, 
geography,  arithmetic,  drawing,  history  of  the  United  States, 
physiology  and  hygiene,  and  manual  training.  In  cities  and 
towns  which  have  a  population  of  more  than  20,000,  the  same 
statutes  authorise  instruction,  at  the  discretion  of  the  school 
committees,  in  the  following  additional  subjects  :  book-keeping, 
algebra,  geometry,  one  or  more  of  the  foreign  languages,  the 
elements  of  natural  science,  kindergarten  training,  agriculture, 
sewing,  cooking,  vocal  music,  physical  training,  civil  government 
and  ethics.  Thus  to  the  reading  and  writing  of  the  original 
colonial  schools  of  Massachusetts  have  been  added,  in  the 
following  order :  English  grammar,  spelling  and  arithmetic,  in 
1789;  geography  in  1826;  history  of  the  United  States  in  1857; 
music  (optional)  in  1860;  drawing  in  1870;  sewing  (optional) 
in  1876 ;  physiology  and  hygiene  in  1885 ;  manual  training  in 
1898.  Several  of  these  subjects  were  at  Hvst  allowed  and  later 
required.  Physiology,  for  instance,  was  allotvedm  1S50,  required. 
in  1885  ;  drawing  was  allowed  in  1860,  required  in  1870  ;  manual 
training  was  allowed  in  1884,  required  in  1898.  The  causes 
and  the  forces  behind  all  this  enlargement  have  been  largely 
sociological,  to  a  much  less  degree  pedagogical.  It  is  most 
significant  that  the  original  petition  to  the  legislature  in  1869 
for  compulsory  instruction  m  industrial  drawing  was  signed 
exclusively  by  business  men,  leaders  in  the  great  industries  of 
the  Commonwealth.  They  declared  that  for  the  United  States 
to  maintain  its  standard  as  a  manufacturing  nation  drawing  was 
an  "  essential "  in  elementary  education.  For  similar  utilitarian 
reasons  manual  training  was  introduced.  Of  the  authorised 
subjects,  several  have  been  forced  into  the  front  rank  of 
"  essentials  "  by  modern  social  conditions  ;  this  is  specially  true 
of  sewing,  cooking,  physical  training  and  elementary  science  ; 
the  last  under  the  modern  title  "  Nature  Study "  has  very 
strong  claims,  and  is  now  often  utilised  as  an  introduction  to  the 
science  of  home  life  as  well  as  to  physiology. 

This  outline,  necessarily  incomplete,  endorses  the  assertion 
that  "  the  present  elementary  school  course  in  the  United  States 
is  not  a  miscellaneous  collection  of  subjects  brought  together  by 
the  chance  efforts  of  enthusiasts,  but  a  conscious  and  intelligent 
effort  of  the  people  to  frame  a  scheme  of  elementary  instruction 
and  training  adapted  to  the  changing  conditions  of  social  life. 
It  is  wisely  recognised  that  when  the  Legislature  decrees  a 
certain  subject  shall  be  taught  in  all  the  schools,  it  does  not  by 
that  Act  say  that  it  shall  be  taught  to  each  pupil ;  the  principle 


Educational  Influences  at  Work. 


1 


of  universal  opportunity  is  the  educational  watchword."  Dr. 
Murray  Butler  recently  expressed  this  spirit  in  terms  so  suitable 
and  explicit  that  their  quotation  from  the  "  Educational  Review  " 
for  May  1900  will  best  enforce  the  point.  "  Education,  conceived 
as  a  social  institution,  is  now  being  studied  in  the  United  States 
more  widely  and  more  energetically  than  ever  before.  The 
Chairs  of  education  in  the  great  universities  are  the  natural 
leaders  in  this  movement.  It  is  carried  on  also  in  normal 
schools,  in  teachers'  training  classes,  and  in  countless  voluntary 
associations  and  clubs  in  every  part  of  the  country.  Problems 
of  organisation  and  administration,  of  educational  theory,  of 
practical  procedure  in  teaching,  of  child  nature,  of  hygiene  and 
sanitation,  are  engaging  attention  everywhere.  Herein  lies  the 
promise  of  great  advances  in  the  future.  Enthusiasm,  earnest- 
ness, and  scientific  method  are  all  applied  to  the  study  of 
education  in  a  way  which  makes  it  certain  that  the  results  will 
be  fruitful.  The  future  of  democracy  is  bound  up  with  the 
future  of  education." 

Of  the  moulding  influences  at  work  on  the  great  State  system  Influence  of 
none  is  more  powerful  for  good  than  the  National  Educational  National 
Association,  which  numbers  its  members  by  thousands,  and  is  ^fj^^^ktion^ 
guided  by  some  of  the  most  gifted  as  well  as  most  experienced 
educational  leaders  in  the  States.    The  bulky  records  of  its 
annual  meetings  contain  a  mass  of  experience  and  suggestion 
combined  with  full  recognition  of  the  dignity  and  responsibility 
of  teachers,  and  constitute  a  useful  record  of  the  worth  of 
teaching  ideals  and  of  improved  practice.    Of  the  numerous 
organisations  employed  in  the  education  of  public  opinion  few 
can  compete  with  this  potent,  wisely  regulated  force ;  though  to 
University  Extension  lectures,  Summer  Schools  and  other  culture 
agencies  may  be  attributed  a  part  of  the  prevalent  public 
sympathy  with,  and  respect  for,  the  profession  of  teaching  which 
prevails  over  a  large  part  of  the  United  States. 

Under  such  circumstances  it  is  conceivable  that  rational  and 
universal  education  is  looked  upon  by  the  American  people  as 
an  element  of  national  as  well  as  of  social  strength ;  and  that 
the  public  mind  is  set  upon  utilising  a  well-balanced  school 
curriculum  as  a  factor  in  the  attainment  of  that  high  standard 
of  prosperous  life  to  which  the  nation  aspires. 

In  the  United  States,  as  in  Great  Britain,  detailed  conceptions  The  School 
of  the  best  methods  to  follow  in  the  scheming  of  a  school  and  the 
programme  are  almost  as  numerous  as  the  individuals  who  Home, 
concern  themselves  with  the  question  in  any  of  its  aspects ;  but, 
emerging  from   this  sea  of  opinions,  are  a  few  prominent 
personalities,  whose  freedom  from  prejudices  or  party  spirit, 
scientific  bases  for  their  convictions,  and  courageous  perseverance 
in  fac3  of  obstacles  and  apparent  failure,  secure  a  fair  trial  for 
their  systems,  and  influence  gradually  the  educational  spirit  and 
practice  of  their  country.    Of  these  one  of  the  most  notable  is 
Dr.  John  Dewey  of  Chicago  University,  who  has  drawn  public 
attention  to  two  "  tragic  "  weaknesses  in  the  old  school  system 
where,  in  his  opinion,  social  spirit  was  wanting,  being  replaced 


8        U.S.A. — iJevelopnient  of  Domestic  Science  Teaching. 


Edacatioiial 

versus 

utilitarian 

value  ol" 

J3omestic 

Science 

Teaching. 


by  "  that  mediseval  misconception  which  limited  learning  to 
books."  By  precept  and  undaunted  practice,  Dr.  Dewey 
impresses  on  those  who  have  ears  to  hear  and  eyes  to  see  that 
"  the  ideal  school  should  reproduce  systematically,  and  in  a  large, 
intelligent,  and  competent  way,  what  in  most  households  is  done 
only  in  a  comparatively  meagre  and  haphazard  manner;"  while 
he  maintains  that  "  the  root  question  of  education  is  that  of 
taking  hold  of  a  child's  activities,  of  giving  them  direction,  and 
of  so  training  them  as  to  produce  valuable  results." 

B. — History  and  Development  of  Domestic  Science 
Teaching. 

It  seemed  to  me  that  these  two  broad  generalisations  constitute 
to-day  the  chief  motive  forces  at  work  in  the  organisation  of  the 
best  Domestic  Science  teaching  in  the  United  States.  The 
original  purely  utilitarian  spirit  which  led  to  its  introduction  is 
now  somewhat  adversely  criticised  and  often  strongly  resisted ; 
while  the  undoubted  pedagogical  and  sociological  value  of  the 
subject  is  emphasised  and  evidenced  under  the  auspices  of  its 
ablest  expouents.  But  though  the  end  is  not  yet  (for  the 
finest  courses  are  admittedly  tentative,  and  those  responsible  for 
them  are  only  "  feeling  their  way,"  and  buying  their  experience 
often  at  a  high  price)  encouragement  is  not  absent ;  men  and 
women  of  many  interests  and  of  diverse  callings  are  giving  in  their 
adherence  to  the  belief  that  on  pedagogical  and  sociological  as 
well  as  on  utilitarian  and  economical  grounds,  Domestic  Science, 
under  one  or  other  of  its  designations,  deserves,  and  nuist 
eventually  find,  a  place  in  the  well-balanced  curriculum  of  all 
grades  of  educational  institutions.  For  a  small  proportion  of  the 
population,  or  even  of  its  responsible  directing  units,  ro  reach 
this  conclusion  has  demanded  time,  as  is  demonstrated  by  the 
following  brief  sketch  of  the  growth  of  the  movement. 

On  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic  the  term  Domestic  Science  is 
still  limited  by  a  surprisuig  number  of  people  to  the  two 
subjects  of  cooking  and  sewing.  The  scope  is  nevertheless  usually 
extended  sufficiently  to  include  an  introduction  to  the  elements 
of  personal  hygiene  and  house  sanitation;  and,  in  England, 
laundry  work  frequently  comes  under  the  same  head.  In  the 
greater  number  of  the  States,  this  latter  subject  is  very  rarely 
included  in  any  elementary  school  Domestic  Economy  curriculum, 
though  it  is  being  gradually  introduced  into  Household  Science 
courses  in  the  High  schools  and  colleges.  In  the  first  instance, 
the  utilitarian  aspect  of  Domestic  Science  alone  was  that  con- 
sidered in  America ;  those  who  pressed  its  introduction  into  the 
schools  were  stimulated  by  a  realisation  of  the  deficiencies  ap- 
parent in  home  management  and  experienced  a  sense  of  dismay  at 
the  evils  to  the  community  which  result  from  this  ignorance. 
A  quarter  of  a  century  ago  education  was  still  defined  as 
"  the  preparation  for  life,"  instead  of  being  recognised,  as 
it  is  now,  as  co-extensive  with  life ;  so,  as  this  period  of 
preparation  was  limited  for  a  large  proportion'of  the  population, 
the  desirability  of  including  a  practical  knowledge    the  Domestic 


Introduction  of  Domestic  Science  Teaching. 


Arts  in  the  Grade  school  programme  seemed  urgent,  and 
led  to  the  persevering  efforts  of  private  individuals  which 
culminated  in  the  adoption  of  cooking  and  sewing  in  the 
grammar  schools  of  a  few  cities. 

Almost  without  exception  the  existing  recognition  of  the  value  Intro- 
of  Domestic  Science  as  a  school  subject,  utilitarian  or  educational,  duction  of 
is  owing,  in  the  first  instance,  to  private  enterprise,  but  before  J^omestic 
educational  authorities  would  permit  the  introduction  of  the  'p^^j^^hino- 
subject  into  schools,  cookery  lessons  were  given  to  public  school  (i^g  to 
children,  from  1876  onwards,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Young  l^rivate 
Women's  Christian  Association,  and  other  philanthropic  bodies.  Knteiin  ise. 
The  children  of  the  poorest  classes  were  those  gathered  in  by 
these  benevolent  individuals ;  they  were  first  instructed  in  the 
elements  of  needlework  ;  simple  training  in  housewifery  under 
the  name  of  "  kitchen  gardening"*  followed,  succeeded  later  on 
by  lessons  in  plain  cooking. 

Sewing  was  adopted  tirst  in  the  public  schools  of  Boston,  which  Intro- 
led  the  way  in  this  matter,  about  1840,  though  little  was  done  duction  iuid 
until  1865,  when  a  lady  furnished  the  materials  for  the  children's  development 
work  and  defrayed  the  expenses  of  a  seamstress  and  of  a  dress-  Jp^.^chino- 
maker,  each  of  whom  was  engaged  to  teach  an  advanced  class  of :—  ^ 
for  half  a  day  a  week  in  the  (lifferent  schools.    Eight  years  later  (a)  Sewing, 
a  teacher  was  appointed  to  give  her  whole  time  to  this  work,  and 
received  an  equal  compensation  with  the  regular  teachers ;  in 
1875   the  iruportant   step  was  taken  of  appointing  a  special 
committee  to  supervise  sewing  in  the  schools  throughout  the 
whole   city.     At  this  promising  moment  the  hopes  of  those 
interested  were  apparently  doomed  to  disappointment,  for  the 
solicitor  of  the  City  Board  of  Education  reported  that  it  was 
illegal  to  spend  public  money  for  this  purpose.     Again  private 
enterprise  came  to  the  rescue,  and  for  the  next  twelve  months  the 
work  was  carried  on  entirely  by  private  funds,  until  the  legisla- 
ture had  passed  a  law  authorising  instruction  in  sewing  in  the 
public  schools.    To  the  present  day,  however,  sewing  is  far  from 
universally  taught  in  the  grade  schools  of  the  United  States  : 
and  in  quite  a  number  of  those  where  it  is  now  found,  it  has 
been  regularly  introduced  only  within  the  last  four  or  five  years. 

The  germ  from  which  the  New  York  Cooking  School  has 
since  developed  came  into  being  30  years  ago,  when  Miss  J uliet  {h)  Cooking. 
Corson  organised  cooking  classes  for  women  of  all  social  grades  ; 
public  and  private  lessons  being  offered.  The  first  public  lesson 
to  working  women  resulted  in  the  formation  of  mission  classes 
in  cooking  for  children,  and,  about  the  same  date,  the  Principal 
of  Lassell's  Seminary  (Auburndale,  Mass.)  had  sufficient  enterprise 

*In  the  United  States  the  term  "  kitchen  gardening"  signifies  the  training 
of  children  in  domestic  work  under  th(i  guise  of  play.  The  utensils  provided 
are  in  the  form  of  toys,  and  each  household  operation  is  conducted  on  a 
scale  proportioned  to  the  size  of  the  utensil.  Small  children  from  five  years 
old  and  upward  ai)i)ear  extremely  interested  and  ha])py  wjien  thus  engagetl, 
but  I  think  this  method  of  teaching  Household  Science,  has,  in  all  cases, 
l)ei?n  confined  to  private  organisations  ;  it  has  never  been  considered 
sufficiently  educational  for  adoption  even  in  the  kindergartens  of  the 
public  schools. 


10      U.S.A. — Development  of  Domestic  Science  Teaching. 


to  invite  Miss  Maria  Parloa  to  give  a  course  of  lessons  to  its 
students.  In  1879,  this  lady  pioneered  the  first  training  course 
in  cooking  to  teachers  at  Chautauqua  Summer  Schools,  but  the 
subject  was  not  introduced  into  the  public  schools  even  of  Boston 
(which  has  been  the  most  progressive  city  in  this  respect)  until 
1885.  Philadelphia,  Providence  and  Washington,  rapidly 
followed  Boston's  example,  and  to-day  cooking  courses  in  grade 
schools  are  found  in  over  fifty  cities  in  the  States,  while  each 
year  sees  an  increase  in  this  number.  The  introduction  ot 
sewing  thus  apparently  preceded  cooking,  but  its  development 
has  followed  very  similar  lines,  and  in  numerous  cities  both 
subjects  are  included  in  the  curriculum.  Meanwhile  Domestic 
Science,  on  a  far  broader  and  more  thorough  basis,  has  been 
gradually  receiving  recognition  at  the  hands  of  High  school  and 
college  authorities,  with  excellent  results.  These  indicate  the 
altered  conception  of  the  educational  value  of  the  subject  since 
the  first  awakening  of  interest  in  Domestic  Economy  some 
thirty-five  years  ago.  It  was  somewhat  after  this  date  that  the 
advocates  for  early  introduction  to,  and  training  in,  the  domestic 
arts  pressed  their  point  by  calling  attention  to  the  advantages 
these  offer  for  the  exercise  of  manual  dexterity  by  girls.  Un- 
wittingly they  made  themselves  responsible  for  the  plausible 
and  still  current  belief,  that  to  deal  with  plastic  materials  under 
conditions  where  the  attainment  of  the  desired  end  (culti- 
vation of  strict  accuracy  and  manual  dexterity)  by  occasional 
failure  and  repeated  practice  cannot  be  permitted  on  account  of 
cost  or  want  of  time,  is  of  equal  educational  worth  with  the 
manipulation  of  wood  and  iron  carried  on  simultaneously  by  the 
boys.  This  misunderstanding,  in  conjunction  with  the  still 
evident  existence  of  the  purely  utilitarian  spirit,  has  hampered 
true  progress  in  the  treatment  of  Domestic  Science  throughout 
a  large  proportion  of  the  United  States.  Fortunately  a  power- 
ful note  of  progress  has  been  sounded  during  the  last  decade, 
which  has  gained  greatly  in  voliune  since  the  concentration  of 
effort  resulting  from  the  initiation,  in  1899,  of  the  Lake  Placid 
Conference  of  Teachers  of  Home  Economics.  The  directly 
educational  value  of  the  subject  in  schools,  its  great  scope,  its 
intimate  bearing  on  every  phase  of  life,  is  now  steadily  gaining 
recognition,  while  the  field  it  offers  for  the  application  of 
scientific  principles,  rather  than  for  the  mere  acquirement  of 
manual  dexterity,  is  forcibly  emphasised  by  sound  authorities. 

Three  or  four  years  ago.  Prof.  W.  0.  Atwater  (United  States 
Dept.  of  Agriculture)  made  the  observation  that  "  the  Science  of 
Household  Economics  is  now  in  what  the  chemists  call  the  state 
of  supersaturated  solution  which  needs  to  crystallise  out.  Some- 
times the  point  of  a  needle  will  start  such  crystallisation."  This 
needle  point  would  seem  to  have  been  introduced  by  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Lake  Placid  Conference  when  they  held  their  first 
meeting  in  September,  1899.  The  initiators  believed  that  the 
time  was  ripe  for  some  united  action  on  the  part  of  those  most 
interested  in  Home  Science  (or  Household  Economics);  (1)  be- 
cause of  the  benefit  derived  from  wise  organisation  and 


Lake  Placid  Conference  on  Household  Economics.  11 


co-operation ;  (2)  because  of  the  growing  popular  feeling  that  the 
study  of  Home  Science  was  one  of  the  most  important  questions 
before  the  nation ;  (3)  because  the  real  worth  but  often  mistaken 
treatment  of  the  subject  demanded  the  direction  and  initiative 
of  trained,  enthusiastic  experts.  Invitations  were,  therefore, 
issued  for  a  conference  on  this  important  sociological  problem  ; 
and  the  generous  hospitality  of  the  Lake  Placid  Club  (in  the 
Adirondack  Mountains,  New  York  State),  was  offered  to,  and 
accepted  by,  twenty  or  twenty-five  ladies  and  gentlemen,  earnest 
students  of  the  subject,  to  whom  it  has  been  extended  for  the 
same  purpose  each  successive  year.  The  cordial  recognition  of 
the  great  services  rendered  to  Household  Science  by  Mrs.  Ellen 
H.  Richards.  Professor  of  Sanitary  Chemistry  in  the  Massachu- 
sett's  Institute  of  Technology,  led  to  her  unanimous  election  as 
chairman  of  the  conference,  a  tribute  to  the  unremitting  and 
tactful  efforts,  which,  backed  by  her  profound  scientific  know- 
ledge, are  responsible  for  a  high  proportion  of  the  recent  develop- 
ments in  this  subject,  whether  in  the  social  or  educational  world. 

The  conference  devoted  its  first  meeting  to  the  selection  of  a  suitable 
designation  for  its  subject,  such  as  should  be  simple  and  yet  compre- 
hensive enough  to  cover  sanitation,  cookery,  and  kindred  household 
sciences  and  arts,  whether  the  instruction  concerning  them  were  given  in 
kindergarten  or  college.  After  full  discussion,  the  name  "  Home  Economics  " 
was  agreed  upon  as  the  best  title  for  the  whole  general  subject.  When  thus 
classified  as  a  distinct  section  of  Economics,  it  can  take  its  place 
logically  in  the  college  or  university  course  to  which  its  dignity,  scope  and 
sociological  value  entitle  it ;  restricted  to  the  narrower  conception  implied  by 
the  title  of  Household  Arts,  the  conference  was  of  opinion  that  it  could 
not  be  suitably  recognised  as  a  part  of  a  university  curriculum.  Though 
Home  Economics  was  selected  as  the  general  descriptive  term,  it  was  agreed 
that  other  phrases  might  be  a'dvisedly  used  for  subdivisions  of  the  subject. 
Domestic  Economy,  for  instance,  might  be  appropriately  reserved  for 
lessons  adapted  to  young  pupils  in  kindergartens  and  grammar  schools ; 
Domestic  Science  might  be  applied  to  it  in  high  schools,  where  food  and 
house  sanitation  should  be  studied  by  scientific  methods,  while  Household 
or  Home  Economics  appeared  the  title  best  suited  for  college  courses.  It 
was  also  at  once  emphasised  that  the  teacher  of  Domestic  Science  and 
Household  Arts  should  be  an  "  all  round  "  woman  ;  she  should  be  qualified 
to  bring  a  knowledge  of  many  sciences  and  arts  to  bear  on  her  work,  and  to 
this  end  a  thorough  practical  training  in  each  of  these  would  be  essential. 
The  general  opinion  was  in  favour  of  intimate  co-operation  between  special 
teachers  of  this  subject  with  the  other  members  of  a  school  or  college  staff, 
and  the  desirability  was  pointed  out  of  drawing  the  attention  of  educational 
authorities  to  the  value  of  including  some  branches  at  least  of  Home 
Economics  in  school  and  college  curricula,  if  only  to  combat  the  prevalent 
tendency  to  dissociate  home  life  and  interests  from  education,  and  thus, 
incidentally,  to  depreciate  its  dignity  and  influence. 

At  the  second  annual  conference,  held  in  July,  1900,  a  large  propoj-tion  n\  Second 
of  the  sessions  was  devoted  to  debates  on  coui'ses  of  study  ^  {ct)  for  public  (Conference 
schools  ;  {h)  for  training  teachers  ;  (c)  for  colleges  and  universities  •  {d)  for 
vacation  and  evening  schools  ;  (e)  for  university  and  extension  teaching,  as 
well  as  for  other  agencies  devoted  to  the  scientific  and  sociological  study  of 
the  home.  In  the  course  of  her  introduction  to  the  special  subject  for  one 
meeting,  namely,  "Courses  of  study  for  the  Grade  schools,"  Mrs.  Ellen  H. 
Richards  referred  to  the  need  of  fundamental  work  that  \nll  touch  tiie  lives 
of  all  the  people,  and  showed  that,  under  existing  conditions,  the  only  place 
where  this  can  be  done  is  in  the  Grade  Schools,  where  she  said  the  aims  of 
the  whole  course  should  be  to  develop  power  in  children  and  to  guide  them 
in  the  use  of  this  power  over  their  own  environment,  food,  clothing  and 
shelter.    The  (potation  of  recent  statistics  showed  that  at  least  40  per  cent. 


12     U.S.A. — Devdopment  of  Domestic  Science  Teachinf/. 

of  the  pupils  first  enrolled  drop  out  of  school  before  the  fifth  grade  ;  and, 
though  the  National  Commissioner  of  Education  reports  that  "the  increase 
in  the  number  of  high  schools  and  in  the  number  of  students  enrolled  in 
them  is  something  phenomenal,"  and  highly  satisfactory  figures  can  also  be 
quoted  as  to  the  growth  in  numbers  of  college  students,  it  is  but  relatively 
few  who  as  yet  follow  more  advanced  courses  of  study  ;  while,  of  these,  the 
percentage  who  elect  to  devote  definite  attention  dating  a  part  of  these 
precious  years  to  any  aspect  of  sanitation,  though  on  the  increase,  is  still 
modest.  This  opinion  was  not  merely  endorsed  by  this  conference,  but  is 
shared  by  those  responsible  for  the  grade  school  course*  in  several  important 
cities. 

With  a  view  to  discover  to  what  extent  such  teaching  is  given  in  the 
elementary  and  secondary  schools  of  the  country,  an  inquiry  was  addressed 
during  the  following  year  to  the  Boards  of  Education  of  a  number  of  cities 
by  a  specially  appointed  sub-committee.  This  question luiire  included  the 
following  points  :  (1)  topics  included  ;  (2)  syllabus  of  courses  ;  (3)  grades  in 
which  taught  ;  (4)  time  per  hour,  per  week,  per  lesson  ;  (5)  size  of  classes  ; 
(6)  cost  of  equipment  and  material ;  (1)  the  value  attached  to  the  subject  • 
(8)  the  methods  used  to  develop  its  value,  either  as  manual  training,  applied 
science,  or  economics  *  and  (9)  the  methods  used  to  correlate  the  subject  to 
others.  Unfortunately  only  25  replies  were  received,  and  these,  in  several 
instances,  Avere  not  complete.  All  but  one  course  included  cooking,  how- 
ever, in  some  form  ;  13  included  sanitation  in  part  (as  the  care  of  plumbing 
and  personal  hygiene) ;  9  included  sewing  ;  10  included  economics,  but 
confined  the  subject  chiefly  to  the  economics  of  food  supply  ;  few  in- 
dicated appreciation  of  the  value  of  time  or  of  energy  ;  money  value  alone 
being  taken  into  account.  Even  these  imi)erfect  returns  seemed  to  indicate 
that  the  workers  placed  the  educational  value  first,  one  alone  cmi)hasised 
the  utilitarian  phase,  though  great  diversity  of  opinion  was  reported  as  to 
the  methods  used  to  develop  the  value  of  the  subject.  In  their  discussion 
of  an  analysis  of  these  returns,  the  conference  concluded  that  to  take 
its  i)roper  place  in  educational  work,  the  subject  of  Home  Economics  or 
Domestic  Economy  must  be  both  narrowed  and  broadened  ;  narrowed  till  it 
shut  out  much  that,  though  useful,  is  not  of  great  educational  value,  in  that 
it  has  not  been  correlated  with  other  branches  of  study  ;  made  broader,  in 
that  the  subject  of  the  hygiene  of  the  home,  including  foods  and  sanitation, 
should  be  so  woven  into  the  sciences  and  economics  that  it  will  be  the 
foundation  for  a  liberal  culture. 

Another  sub-committee  of  the  same  conference  presented  through  its 
representative.  Dean  Marion  Talbot,  Professor  of  Sanitary  Science  in  the 
University  of  Chicago,  a  report  upon  the  existing  courses  of  study  related 
to  Home  Economics  in  colleges  and  universities  ;  the  work  of  inquiry  had 
been  carried  out  by  Mrs.  Mary  Robert  Smith  of  Leland  Stanford  University. 

I  Circular  letters  were  sent  to  89  different  institutions,  asking  what  they 

offered  in  courses  on  domestic  science  or  household  economics,  personal 
hygiene,  sanitation,  nursing,  bacteriology,  domestic  architecture,  etc. 
Out  of  the  89,  58  reported  work  in  one  or  other  lines  ;  13  had  nothing,  and 

I  18  did  not  reply. 

One  of  the  concluding  resolutions  at  this  second  conference  has  already 
borne  fruit.  It  was  resolved  that  "  the  time  has  come  when  public  interest 
demands  the  recognition  of  Home  Economics  as  a  training  of  the  child  for 
efficient  citizenship  ;  that  the  National  Education  Association  be  asked  to 
consider  and  create  a  Department  of  Home  Economics."  This  resolution 
was  passed  in  July,  1900.  In  July,  1901,  the  Council  of  the  National 
Educational  Association  included  a  "  Round  Table "  of  Domestic  Science 
for  the  first  time  in  the  programme  of  its  annual  meeting. 

{(•)  Third  It  was  my  pleasant  privilege  to  attend  the  third  annual  meeting  of  the 

Conference.  Lake  Placid  Conference,  where  the  30  invited  members  included  teachers 
or  professors  in  every  grade  of  educational  institution,  inspectors,  and  the 
presidents  of  the  most  prominent  social  organisations  for  the  advancement 
of  Hygiene  and  Domestic  Science.  The  representative  character  of  the 
conference  is  apparent  from  the  fact  that  its  members  were  at  wojk 
in  at  least  15  States,  and  held  degrees  from  15  different  colleges. 


Lake  Placid  Confer enca  on  Household  Economics. 


13 


The  attention  of  the  conference  was  concentrated  chiefly  on  the  con-  Resume 
sideration  of  a  Report,  prepared  by  a  small  committee  and  presented  by  of  Report  on 
the  Sman    Miss  Helen  Kinn^,  Professor  of   Domestic   Science  at  Teaching  of 
TeachS   M^^^^  University.    This  report  had  occupied  3  years  Household 

in  its  Dreimratio^        its  suggestive,  aseful  character  may  be  best  gauged  Economics, 
by  :  ^i^e  u":^^^^^^  the  following  extracts        While  there  is  - J^^^^  (Third 
anpreciation  of  such  work  {i.e.,  the  teaching  of  Household  Economics)  Conference) 
in^The    c^^^^^^    as  evidenced  by  .its  introduction  in  nmny  new  pk^^^ 
there  is  also  a  sceptical  attitude  in  the  mmds  ot  many  as  to  its  value,  a 
Sency  to  class  it  among  fads,  to  regard  it  as  one  more  ot  the  new 
su^^ct^'that  are  over-crowding  the  curriculum    Even  a^.ong  su^^ 
tendents,  general  teachers,  and  parents  who  are  f /j^^tv  to  thmw 
lack  of  formulated  opinion  as  to  its  value,  and  a  tendency  to  ti  row 
responsibili  the  special  teacher,  and  consequently  there  is  lack  ot 

'  ital  connS  other  school  work.    There  is  also,  no  common  under- 

tandiTamon^^  teachers  of  the  subject,  and  little  intel  igent  and  inter- 

ested d^fcussioS  in  general  educational  conferences.    Yet  statistics  ^liow  tha 
so-calSomestic8cience, 

more  han  fifty  cities  in  the  United  States,  m  high  schools  and  manual  train- 
ng  schools  supported  by  public  funds,  and  that  it  \^  ^^.^j^blished 
in?reasin- number  of  State  agricultural  colleges  and  universities,  iheieare 

huTdSof  teachers  at  work  at  good  -l-i-^-^^^tf  wt^" The 
technical  schools  are  sending  out  more  workers  each  year.    Hence  tne 
Solman  who  takes  time  to  consider  the  situation  fin/i^^^^i-se^^^^^^^^ 
by  an  extraordinary  economic  incongruity  the  expenditure  by  School  B^^^^^^ 
of  public  funds  for  maintaining  a  subject  about  ^^^^^^^^^^^^  ^^^^^^^^^  ^ 
nothino-    The  purpose  of  the  report  is  to  present  the  whole  matter  to 
prSals  and  general  teachers  for  discussion,  by  defining  the  su^]ect 
f^mXting  a  statement  of  its  educative  value,  and  Proposing  definite 
courses  ot  study.    It,  therefore,  propounds  the  problem  '  What  is  Domestic 
Science  and  Art,  or  Home  Economics  % '    Here  are  various  household  arts, 
^iXas  preparation  of  food,  making  of. garments  and  housf 
and  keeping  of  things  clean.    In  carrying  on  certain  of  these  Processes, 
Da^ticularlv  cooking  and  cleaning,  we  are  working  with  forces  outside  our- 
LlvrandwC      ask  what  these  forces  are,  and  how  they  behave,  we 
diVcover  that  here  in  these  matters  of  daily  life  we  are  applying  the 
priSes  of  chemistry,  physics  and  biology.    In  other  processes  such  as 
sewTng  weaving,  and  bksketry,  we  are  dealing  with  form  and  colour,  and 
so  are^ipplying^the  fine  arts  in  the  home.    Per  se,  then,  broadly  speaking, 
our  subject  is  one  form  of  apphed  science  and  art.  ... 

"  But  home  economics  is  more  than  the  application  of  science  and  fine  arts 
merely  to  the  end  that  certain  results  may  be  correctly  reached  or  certa  n 
articles  artistically  made,  for  we  must  consider  the  place  of  these  arts  in 
?re  lciaT"^^^^  ns  immediately  to  the  thought  of  the  home 

amHts  conduct  ;  th,  home,  as  the  place  where  the  mchmdual  u  given  such 
X^Jand  ethical  .urroundings,  that  he  is  made  an  etfect^ve  human  hei^^^^^^^^ 
tJie  conduct  of  the  home,  on  the  material  side,  as  the  seeking  to  produce  the 
^Zu^  udth  the  least  expenditure  of  ene^-gy,  material,  t^^^^  f!^^^-^^^' 
Here  we  have  reached  the  study  of  economics  ;  the  economics  of  liome  con- 
sumption. To  sum  up  the  whole  matter,  then,  our  subject  consists  of 
cSn  household  arts  and  activities,  based  on  a  number  of  sciences,  and 
leadnig  to  the  study  of  economics." 

The  Report  next  discusses  the  value  of  the  subject  which  it  Presents 
from  threJ  points  of  view  ;  that  of  society  of  the  individual,  and  o  the 
school  in  its  attempt  to  train  the  individual  tor  himself  and  for  society. 

Does  society  as  a  whole  show  any  needs  that  such  a  study  would 
meet  and  answer  ^  Surely  the  most  casual  student  of  present  social  con- 
TtLi^  must  see  that  a  large  proportion  of  our  population,  both  rich  and 
Door  hTn  a  poor  physical  condition,  and  that  there  is  m  consequence  great 
economic  waste  ;  for  lack  of  vigour  means  lack  of  effective  accomplishment 

and  also  makes  necessary  large  expenditure  for  ^7^«d^^^Vr>;!.^u^?clotIHn 
better  shelter,  food,  water,  ventilation,  rational  cleanliness  and  pi  operc^^^^^^^^^ 

a  check  would  be  placefl  on  this  enormous  waste,  more  real  work  would  be 


14      U.S.A. —Development  of  Domestic  Science  Teaching. 

(d.)  Resume  ^^one,  and  there  would  be  fewer  patent  foods,  medicines,  and  hospitals  An- 
of  Report  on  other  common  waste  is  through  poor  buying  and  extravagant  use  ot  materials  " 
reaching  of  continues,  "are  these  things  due?    Doubtless  to  many 

Household  ^'.^f  ^^f^e^' b^^t  potent  among^thein  are  two  :  (1)  Ignorance  of  women  on  these 
Economics.  Pomts  m  the  management  of  the  household  ;  and,  (2)  Ignorance  of  men  and 
(  rhird  woinen  together  m  the  management  of  that  larger  Lusehold  the  citV 

Conference)  ^"f '^tic  ^''f  economic  conditions  have  greatly  changed  during  the  last 

—continued.  ^^^Y  century,  and  while  men  have  met  such  changes  in  their  business  lives 
wilt  themselves  to  them,  women  go  on  in  many  respects  in  the  ways 

^Ullch  Avere  ade.piate  m  the  days  of  their  grandmothers,  1,ut  which  are  far 

nZ^^I^'T'   r^^'"^"'        '^-^l'^^'^'  family  of  sniall  means 

n   wo  1  .    1       her  place  as  a  breadwinner  outside  the  home,  and  the  child 
AC  -to-do  parsnts  is  absorbed  in  her  school  life.    }]oth,  e<iua]ly.  enter 
Wr  b  hte  with  htt  e  or  no  k.iowledge  of  the  business  ot'house- 

keepmo  before  them  (2;  If  all  our  citizens,  both  men  and  women,  were 
aiive  to  tlie  physical  and  economic  evils  consequent  on  bad  buildinc^  im- 
?hW.  .on  7  «^\PPl^^'\^l^tftive  di^sposal  of  waste,  and  dirty  streets,'t'hese 
3  •  1       political  organisation  could  hoodwink  such 

intelligence  into  surrender  of  the  right  to  sanitary  surroundings.  The 
teaching  of  Home  Economics  should  go  far  to  correct  these  errors,  for  it 
emphasises  health  as  a  normal  condition,  and  gives  knowledge  of  the 
phj^sical  conditions  that  will  maintain  this;  emphasises  the  home  as  the 
unit  of  society,  and  the  management  of  the  home  as  a  business  needing 
bram  and  special  training;  shows  how,  on  the  economic  side  of  marriage 
the  wite  IS  the  business  partner,  that  her  part  as  spender  and  manager  is 

f  J?p'f 'T^'?'^''"^         the  husband's  as  earner,  and  that  he  cannot  succeed 
It  she  tails  to  meet  her  obligations.'* 

The  Report  next  dwells  upon  the  educational  advantages  to  the  individual 
consequent  upon  a  right  introduction  of  the  subject  into  the  school  time- 
table.     Experience  otters  evidence  that  children  gain  increased  power  of 
muscular  control  and  e^^ression  through  the  hand  work:  they  become 
selt-rehant  and  useful  to  others  by  the  capacity  thus  evolved,  while  the 
variety  of  occupation  is  not  only  agreeable  at  the  time,  but  conduces  to 
their  social  value.    The  subject  also  affords  excellent  opportunities  for  the 
development  of  the  relating  j.ower,  that  is,  for  tracing  cause  and  effect,  and 
tor  the  realisation  that  successful  practice  depends  upon  a  firm  grasp  of 
underlying  principles.    Luck  becomes  a  myth ;  judgment  as  to  time  is 
developed,  and  good  taste  is  formed  in  regard  to  colour  and  form,  in 
turnishmgs  and  clothing    It  becomes  apparent  to  the  most  self-willed 
child,  that  in  dealing  with  materials  and  forces  it  is  not  as  we  please  but 
as  natm-e  pleases,  and  to  control  her  we  must  obey  her.    While,  at  first 
sig-ht,  it  may  seem  a  small  matter  for  pupils  to  make  a  loaf  of  good  bread 
yet  see  what  it  involves.    They  are  free  individuals  and  may  do  as  they 
please.    I  hey  may  release  to  pour  boiling  water  on  the  yeast,  forget  the 
salt,  refuse  to  make  their  muscles  work  effectively,  let  the  dough  stand  a 
length  of  time  convenient  to  themselves,  and  fail  to  manage  the  oven 
dampers  ;  Mdiat  then  ?    Nature  has  gone  quietly  on  her  way  and  returns  to 
them  their  just  due  ;  their  own  careless,  irresponsible  selves  expressed  in 
a  soggy  dark,  sour,  ill-shaped  loaf  of  bread.    We  have  here  in  concrete 
terms  the  whole  matter  of  the  limitation  of  the  individual  by  his  environ- 
nient     t  hrough  a  series  of  such  experiences  there  comes  an  understanding 
ot  what  law  means,  and  self-control,  obedience,  and  freedom.  .  .  .  TakmS 
the  thought  and  hand  work  together,  the  subject  gives  the  school  a  field 
where  the  knowledge  and  powers  gained  in  other  subjects  may  be  applied 
to  practical  ends  ;  and  conversely,  it  stimulates  an  interest  in  other  subiects. 
Ihis  idea  ot  application  is  an  essential  part  of  the  plan  that  aims  to  make 
a  close  connection  between  school  and  home  life." 

^  The  -Report  proceeds  to  consider  the  general  order  of  the  subiects 
included  in  Household  Arts,  and  Economics,  beginning  with  the  lower 
elementary  grades  and  running  throudi  the  high  school.  Remembering 
the  definition  of  the  subject  as  a  whole,  as  consisting  of  household  arts 
based  on  several  sciences  and  leading  to  the  study  of  economics,  the  com- 
mittee recommend  that  as,  in  the  lower  grades,  the  child  is  interested  in 
the  mere  doing  (the  j)lay  element  should  enter  largely  into  his  activities) 


Lake  Placid  Conference  on  Household  Economics,  15 


the  art  side  alone  should  be  given  ;  such  processes  as  sewing,  weaving,  (d)  Resume 
basketry  and  cooking  may  be  used  as  "  forms  of  expression,"  with  an  of  Eieport  on 
occasional  short  series  of  cooking  lessons.    "  In  the  Upper  Elementary,  the  Teaching  of 
scientific  aspect  can  be  introduced  ;  sewing,  cooking,  cleaning,  can  be  given  Household 
in  continuous  courses  ;  the  reasons  why  can  be  developed  and  principles  Economics 
established.    The  economic  aspect  also  arises  in  the  necessary  decisions  (Third 
upon  the  best  way  to  carry  on  a  process  in  order  to  save  time  or  strength.  Conference) 
all  other  things  being  equal,  or  the  best  material  to  select  for  a  given  — continued. 
purpose.    The  health  aspect  finds  its  place  by  a  study  of  cleanliness,  not 
merely  as  the  cleaning  of  things  soiled  by  use,  but,  as  the  provision  of 
clean  air,  clean  water,  clean  food,  and  good  drainage.    In  the  high  school, 
the  activities  must  continue,  but  are  less  prominent,  therefore  the  scientific 
a-])ect  should  be  further  emphasised,  and  the  economic  somewhat  fully 
developed.    The  definite  subjects  of  study  are  food,  in  its  relation  to 
nutrition  ;  clothing  in  its  relation  to  health,  and  as  embodying  the  beauti- 
ful ;  the  house  with  its  artistic  and  hygienic  furnishing,  its  sanitation 
and  practical  management ;  the  health  of  the  household,  as  dependent 
on  personal  hygiene — this  should  comprehend  the  care  of  little  children, 
as  well  as  of  those  who  are  ill  and  injured.    Thus,  looked  at  as  a 
whole,  from  the  Primary  Grades  through  the  High  School,  the  subject 
is  seen  to  develop  from  the  concrete  doing  through  the  scientific  to  the 
economic,  but  with  no  sharp  dividing  lines.    This  is  not  only  the 
natural  unfolding  of  the  subject  in   itself,  but  it  meets  the  natural 
interest  of  the  pupil  at  each  stage  of  his  growth.    First,  we  like  to  do,  just 
for  the  pleasure  of  doing ;  then  w^e  ask  why  ;  and  not  until  the  mind  is 
maturing  do  we  care  to  balance  values,  and  judge  of  the  worth  of  things  in 
relation  to  each  other  ;  and  here  are  the  three  phases  of  our  subject,  the 
art,  the  science,  and  the  economic." 

The  Committee's  next  consideration  was  the  arrangement  of  definite 
courses,  where  "  it  is  necessary  to  have  in  mind  some  of  the  practical 
difficulties  which  arise  in  the  arrangement  of  an  ideal  course ;  and  v\  here 
the  differences  of  opinion  which  exist  among  thoughtful  special  leachers 
must  be  clearly  understood  and  be  given  due  weight."  These  include  the 
problems  of  the  school  itself.  "  Our  nrst  stumbling  block  is  the  fact  that 
if  we  are  to  help  the  mass  of  our  people  by  means  of  this  subject,  we  must 
do  it  in  the  elementary  school ;  and  if  the  work  is  to  have  real  social  value, 
we  must  enforce  there  those  economic  aspects  that  in  an  ideal  scheme  develop 
in  perfection  in  the  high  school.  The  problem  is  to  do  this  without  over- 
crowdii)g  the  school  course,  to  make  the  work  natural  and  interesting,  and 
to  avoid  dogmatising.  Our  second  difficulty  meets  us  in  the  high  school. 
In  spite  of  the  numbers  o^'  manual  training  high  schools,  and  high  schools 
giving  so  called  English,  scientific,  or  general  courses,  large  numbers  of  our 
high  school  pupils  are  in  college  preparatory  schools.  The  main  pur- 
pose of  the  college  preparatory  is  to  put  the  pupil  into  college,  and  '  time 
is  worth  £1,000  a  minute.'  Of  course,  the  manual  training  school  gives  an 
adequate  amount  of  time  to  the  home  subjects  ;  the  '  general'  course  may 
do  so,  and  becomes  a  better  course  in  consequence  ;  but  the  '  college 
preparatory,' — how  can  it  ?  What  it  can  or  can  not  do  depends  on  the 
dictum  of  the  colleges.  While  it  is  encouraging  to  note  the  broadening  of 
entrance  requirements,  in  general,  there  is  nothing  as  yet  that  really  touches 
this  subject.  And  is  it  not  to  these  very  girls,  who  are  to  spend  four  5^ears 
as  college  students,  removed  from  responsibility  as  to  home  life,  that  we 
need  to  give  a  bent  toward  the  thought  of  home  as  a  field  for  the  use  of 
their  best  powers  ? " 

The  opinions  of  special  teachers  are  next  taken  into  account.  "  While 
thoughtful  teachers  are  agreed  as  to  the  })urpose  of  this  work,  and  have 
the  same  ends  in  view,  it  is  but  natural  that  they  should  differ  as  to  the 
form  of  the  work.  The  main  points  at  issue  occur  in  the  lower  element- 
ary and  in  the  high  school.  There  are  some  teachers  who  advocate,  even  in 
the  first,  second,  p-nd  third  years  in  school,  continuous  courses  in  cooking, 
and  would,  indeed,  have  it  run  through  every  year  of  the  elementary. 
Others  advocate  an  occasional  short  series  of  cooking  lessons  as  expression 
work,  specially  in  connection  with  a  study  of  i>rimitive  life,  equally  witli 
other  hand  work.    It  may  be  said  for  the  foi'nier  that  they  certainly  touch 


16      U.S.A. — Developmeiit  of  Domestic  Science  Teachmg. 


(d)  R'is^ume  a  large  mass  of  children  on  the  practical  side,  for  the  dropjuiig  out  from 
of  lvei>ort  on  school  soon  l)egins.  Against  this  plan  and  in  favour  of  the  second,  it  may 
Teaching  of  be  said  that  this  form  of  hand  work  is  in  itself  more  diihcalt  and  better 
Household  suited  to  the  older  pupils,  and  that  the  youngest  pupils  are  not  ready  to 
Economics,  grasj)  the  principles  that  need  to  be  developed.  Again,  economy  of  time 
(Third  must  be  considered  ;  a  subject  may  be  good,  but  others,  too,  are  good,  and 

Conference)  each  subject  should  claim  only  that  amount  of  time  that  makes  it  effective 
— continued,  in  connection  with  others  for  the  child's  development,  rather  than  for  its 
(jwn  complete  unfolding.  It  would  seem  that  cooking  and  cleaning  need 
not  require  so  much  time  as  this  first  plan  involves,  when  proi)erly  com- 
bined with  other  household  arts  and  with  all  other  kinds  of  hand  work. 
It  must  be  added  that  such  work  in  the  lov/er  elementary  is  new,  and  is 
carried  on  in  few  schools.  It  is  fortunate,  however,  that  both  of  these 
schemes  are  in  actual  practice  and  that  experience  will  argue  for  or  against. 
The  difference  in  opinion  as  to  the  high  school  courses  is  in  regard  to  the 
amount  of  practical  work  and  its  relation  to  the  other  work  of  the  high 
school.  One  attitude  is  this  :  that  the  hand  work  belongs  strictly  in  the 
eleinentary  school,  because  that  is  the  time  to  develop  self-activity  and 
right  habits  of  doing  ;  that  if  the  household  arts  belong  in  the  high  scliool 
at  all,  they  should  be  at  the  minimum  and  in  connection  with  some  other 
subject,  not  in  consecutive  courses  ;  as,  for  instance,  in  studying  acids  and 
bases  in  chemistry,  baking  powder  could  be  made,  and  even  baking  powder 
biscuit ;  or  in  physics,  in  studying  siphonage,  trails  could  be  examined  and 
cleaned.  Tne  main  thought  is  to  emphasise  the  scientific  and  economic 
aspect,  by  reducing  the  actual  practice  of  the  arts  themselves,  and  by  giving 
those  arts  directly  in  connection  with  the  scientific  courses.  Another  plan 
while  emphasising  and  developing  the  scientific  and  economic  aspects,  would 
retain  the  practice  of  the  arts  in  continuous  courses,  running  parallel 
with  the  science  and  fine  arts  work,  and  closely  connected  with 
them.  The  advocates  of  this  arrangement  feel  that  in  this 
way  the  girl's  nature  and  likings  are  taken  into  account  as  they  are  not  in 
the  other.  The  first  plan  seems  to  assume  a  sudden  change  in  the  girl  in 
passing  from  the  elementary  to  the  high  school  that  really  does  not  occur. 
Indeed,  the  first  year  high  school  girl  is  apt  to  be  in  a  state  of  disorganisa- 
tion, and  is  in  the  high  school  rather  than  of  it,  so  far  as  serious  and 
thou  'htf  ul  work  is  concerned.  She  cares  little  for  science  j>er  .se,  and 
nothing  for  economics,  but  is  delighted  still  to  plan,  prepare,  and  serve  a 
meal  or  trim  a  hat.  Shall  we  not  take  her  as  she  is,  give  her  what  she  likes 
to  do,  and  lead  her  through  that  doing  to  see  what  lies  below  it,  and  so 
develop  her  interest  in  science  and  in  greater  things  ?  While  the  former 
plan  may  b(5  the  ideal  one,  the  real  girl  seems  to  demand  its  modi- 
fication. ..." 

To  facilitate  the  criticisms  and  suggestions  which  it  was  the  object  of  this 
Report  to  i:)rovoke,  several  tabulated  schemes  are  included,  illustrative  of 
these  various  stages  and  methods  of  treating  the  subject.  Its  comprehen- 
sive character  is  further  emphasised  by  the  following  extracts  :  "  Certain 
practical  considerations  will  suggest  themselves  as  to  the  teaching  staff", 
e(]uipment,  and  cost  of  materials.  First,  as  to  the  teacher.  It  is  being 
demonstrated  in  a  few  schools  that  in  the  lowest  grades  the  general 
teacher  can  carry  on  the  various  kinds  of  hand  work  without  difficulty  or 
overcrowding.  In  the  7th  and  8th  Grades  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  special 
teacher  for  household  arts,  but  teachers  can  be  found  who  are  able  to 
combine  the  various  kinds  of  work.  In  the  high  school,  if  the  course  is 
well  developed,  running  through  two  or  three  years,  and  with  large  numbers 
of  pupils,  more  than  one  special  teacher  is  proved  to  be  necessary  ;  and,  so 
far,  there  seems  to  have  arisen  a  natural  division  between  the  household 
arts  that  lean  towards  the  sciences  and  those  that  lean  towards  the  fine 
arts. 

"  Next,  equipment  and  material.  Up  to  the  7th  grade  most  of  the  work, 
such  as  weaving,  basketry,  and  sewing,  can  be  carried  on  in  the  ordinary 
schoolroom.  If  cooking  and  cleaning  are  introduced  below  the  7th  grade, 
some  small  amount  of  equipment  is  necessary.  This,  however,  can  be  pro- 
vided at  a  cost  of  from  $30  to  f  100  (£6  to  £20)  for  fifteen  to  twenty 
children,  and  may  consist  of  two  or  three  work  tables,  a  few  gas  stoves,  and 


Lake  Placid  ConfeTencp  on  Hoitseliold  Eaonovi'tcH,  17 


utensils,  and  a  cupboard  for  utensils  and  necessary  food  materials.  Below 
the  7th  grade  the  cost  of  all  kinds  of  materials  per  child  is  from  two  to 
three  cents  (Id.  or  l^d.)  per  lesson.  For  the  work  in  the  7th  and  8th 
grades,  where  cooking,  housekeeping,  and  cleaning  are  taught,  an  extra  room 
and  special  equipment,  costing  from  $500  to  $1,000  (£lOO  to  £200), 
are  necessary.  In  these  grades  cost  of  jnaterial  for  cooking  and  cleaning  is 
four  to  five  cents  per  child  per  lesson.  In  the  high  school  cost  of  equip- 
ment will  depend  on  the  natui  e  of  the  work,  as  indicated  above.  Equipments, 
ranging  from  $1,000  to  $1,500  (£200  to  £.300),  and  even  more,  are 
put  into  our  manual  training  schools,  but  effective  work  can  be  done  with 
an  equipment  at  $1,000  or  less.  But  when  the  amount  of  money  ex- 
pended is  too  small,  results  must  be  unsatisfactory.  The  conditions  are 
so  variable  that  no  fixed  standard  in  eiiuipment  is  ])0ssible.  Apparatus 
should  be  good  in  quality  but  not  excessive  in  amount.  If  too  meagre, 
the  work  is  restricted,  and  pupils  do  not  learn  the  principles  or  value 
of  good  tools.  If  too  elaborate,  ingenuity  is  not  developed,  and  ex- 
travagant standards  are  established.  Cost  of  materials,  too,  is  variable. 
Salaries  of  special  teachers  in  elementary  grades  are  $600  to  $1,000 
(£120  to  £200)  a  year ;  in  high  schools,  $800  to  $1,800  (£160  to 
£360) ;  this  will  vary  in  different  localities,  depending  on  cost  of  living 
governed  by  local  conditions." 

In  conclusion,  this  suggestive  and  well-considered  Report  declares  that 
"  Good  teaching  of  this  subject  is  based  upon  the  same  principles  as  good 
teaching  of  other  subjects,  and  the  work  should  be  in  the  hands  of  trained 
teachers,  not  of  those  who  are  familiar  with  the  practical  side  of  the 
subject  only  while,  with  compulsory  briefness,  it  touches  on  the  question 
as  to  the  desirability  of  giving  Home  Economics  to  boys.  "  So  far,  boys  and 
girls  have  shared  in  such  work  in  the  lower  elementary  grades,  and  in  one 
school  in  the  upper  elementary  also.  Usually  in  the  upper  elementary 
the  boys  carry  on  heavier  work  in  place  of  the  domestic  arts,  and  follow 
this  by  metal  work  in  the  high  school.  It  seems  necessary  that  boys  as  well 
as  girls  should  understand  hygiene  and  food  values  and  their  practical 
applications.  If  they  do  not  share  the  household  economic  work  with  the 
girls,  provision  should  certainly  be  made  for  this  in  their  study  of  science, 
bearing  in  mind  the  responsibilities  they  assume  later  on  as  fathers, 
householders,  or  members  of  civic  councils." 

The   consideration   as   to   how  far  boys'  education  should  Influence 
include  some  introduction  to  the  subject  of  Home  Economics ;  of  Lake 
and,  in  the  event  of  its  educational  and  sociological  values  Placid  Con- 
being  recognised,  to  what  extent  and  in  what  form  it  should  l^^^Q^QQ^n 
be    presented,   has    assumed   some    prominence    in    certain  jncr  the^^^^'^ 
minds,  whose   opinion   is   respected   in    the   United   States,  importance 
Whether  it  be  the  immediate  result  of  the  co-educational  of  home 
teaching  of  the  elements  of  Physiology  and  Hygiene  during  the  economics 
first  7  or  8  years  of  school  life,  or  whether  the  prevalent 
determination  to  attain  the  premier  position  among  nations  be 
the  incentive,  a  realisation  is  evident  on  the  part  of  both  sexes 
that  each  is  intimately  connected  with  and  responsible  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  conditions  essential  to  a  healthy  life.  Some 
credit  for  this  evident  impulse  to  improve  the  conditions  of 
home  life  is  probably  due  to  the  State  Board  of  Agriculture  at 
Washington,   which   has   carried   on,  for  many  years,  true 
missionary  work  along  lines  at  once  simple  and  scientific,  by  the 
gratuitous  diffusion  of  sound  knowledge  on  the  subject  of  food 
and  diet  in  relation  to  the  health  of  human  beings.'    Then  the 
desire  to  purify  numicipal  politics,  and  to  secure  to  each  citizen 
in  fact  that  which  the  (ionstitutiou  accords  to  him  in  theory, may 
0491 ».  li 


18      U.S.A. — Development  of  Domestic  Science  Teacfdng. 


also  account  for  the  growing  appreciation  that  mere  election  by 
popular  vote  to  a  position  of  authority  does  not  carry  with  it 
innate  qualifications  for  the  responsibilities  assumed,  but  that 
previous  preparation  is  demanded  by  honesty,  if  by  no  other 
motive.^"  Municipal  Housekeeping,"  in  which  men  play  by  far 
the  more  prominent  part,  is  a  common  topic  just  now  in  many 
parts  of  the  United  States.  As  a  consequence,  opportunities 
nave  already  been  provided  for  students  of  both  sexes  in  Colleges 
and  Universities  to  follow  courses  in  sanitation,  chiefly  in 
connection  with  the  study  of  Sociology,  Bacteriology,  Household 
Science  and  Architecture.  These  assume  that  both  have  already 
received  a  slight,  though  practical,  foundation  in  the  elements 
of  Hygiene  in  the  Grade  and  High  schools,  where,  obviously,  such 
preliminary  instruction  is  of  great  moment.  As  a  matter  of  fact 
well-nigh  every  child  does  receive  some  teaching  in  the  subject, 
but  the  time  available  is  often  limited,  and  the  lessons  may  be 
not  alone  purely  theoretical  but  confined  to  a  very  narrow 
presentation,  so  that  at  most,  but  a  slight  conception  of  its 
myriad  ramifications  through  the  whole  structure  of  life  is 
formed.  It  is  against  such  unsatisfactory,  contracted,  lopsided 
teaching,  that  the  Lake  Placid  Conference  enters  a  protest.  Two 
points  hitherto  often  overlooked  in  the  framing  of  school  courses 
have  been,  the  desirability  of  linking  school  and  home  life  Avith 
ties  of  mutual  interest,  and  the  imrecognised  importance 
attached  by  children  to  subjects  included  in  their  school 
programme.  If  home  and  the  conduct  of  daily  life  be  ignored 
by  the  teaching  staff  and  find  no  place  in  the  Aveekly  studies,  the 
scholars  are  apt  tacitly  to  assume  that  they  are  of  no  account, 
that  training  in  right  methods  is  requisite  only  in  school  subjects, 
and  that  household  duties  do  not  demand,  or  are  not  worth,  the 
exercise  of  qualities  studiously  cultivated  in  school  practice  for 
use  in  other  phases  of  future  life.^  Possibly  these  thoughts,  too, 
as  well  as  the  point  of  early  leakage  from  school,  were  in  the 
minds  of  those  responsible  for  the  Report  from  which  I  have 
quoted  at  such  length. 

As  has  been  pointed  out,  the  Lake  Placid  Conference  conceives 
of  Home  Economics  as  a  subject  well-nigh  as  all-eiribracing  as  that 
comprehensive  term.  Hygiene.  That  this  influence  and  these  con- 
ceptions carry  social  weight  is  apparent  from  their  echoes  in  the 
following  quotation  from  a  pamphlet  on  "  Domestic  Economy," 
widely  circulated  among,  and  approved  l)y,  the  Ohio  Federation 
of  Women's  Clubs,  which  numbers  many  thousand  members. 

"  The  question  is  frequently  asked — '  What  is  meant  by  Domestic 
Economy?'  and  the  answer  is  confidently  given— ' Cooking  and  Sewing.' 
Such  a  conception  is  pitifully  narroM'.  If  domestic  economy  spans  no 
broader  horizon  than  this,  there  is  just  reason  why  educators  should  stop 
and  count  the  cost,  but  cooking  and  sewing  are  only  small  parts  of  the 
subject,  as  are  carbon  and  hydrogen  small  parts  in  the  science  of  chemistry. 
To  those  of  us  who  have  most  studied  the  subject,  it  is  as  broad  as  the 
world  and  as  vital  as  life.  .  .  .  By  political  economy  or  national  economy  is 
meant  all  that  bears  most  intimately  upon  state  and  nation  :  domestic 
economy  then  should  Include  all  that  l)oars  upon  home  life  and  human 
development,  and  if  this  is  true  it  is  the  nucleus  of  every  other  ec(3neiiiy  in 


Growth  of  IntereM  in  Domestic  Science. 


19 


the  world.  No  ology  or  ism  but  touches  it.  History,  science,  literature, 
language  and  economics  are  part  and  parcel  with  it,  and  link  us  to  the 
past.  Art  is  the  stimulus  to  greater  beauty  and  truer  ideals  for  to-day, 
and  sociology  and  religion  are  the  beacon  lights  for  the  future.  .  .  .  Dewey 
says,  'After  all,  life  is  the  great  thing,  the  life  of  the  child,  not  more  than 
the  life  of  the  man,'  and  domestic  economy  means  the  conception  and 
maintenance  of  life  at  its  best.  Its  whole  aim  should  be  to  create  the  best 
children,  to  place  them  in  the  safest  environment,  and  to  so  train  them  that 
they  shall  develop  into  the  most  perfect  type  of  men  or  women,  physically, 
mentally,  and  morally.  ...  To  accomplish  the  desired  result  help  must 
come  from  all  sides,  the  ward  school  has  its  particular  field,  the  high  school 
may  advance  the  work,  the  college  and  university  must  train  the  leaders, 
but  back  of  all  must  stand  the  home  and  the  men  and  women  who  are 
bearing  the  burdens  of  life  to-day.  When  the  parents  of  our  country  are 
convinced  that  a  training  for  the  most  practical  and  sacred  duties  of  life  is 
needful  for  the  truest  development  of  their  children,  then  from  educators 
and  statesmen  will  come  a  response  to  their  call.  .  .  .  An  improved  home 
life  is  perhaps  not  all  that  is  necessary  to  humanity,  but  if  mothers  and 
teachers  were  better  informed  concerning  the  actual  needs  of  the  human 
being,  the  result  would  be  a  superior  race  of  men.  From  no  source  but 
from  the  homes  can  a  nation  recruit  her  citizens,  and  upon  the  training  of 
her  girls  depend  these  homes.  .  .  .  We  are  yet  to  learn  that  there  is 
power  in  correct  living,  and  that  nothing  which  pertains  to  life  is  trivial 
or  unimportant." 

The  gradual  formation  of  an  intelligent  public  opinion  on  this 
subject,  the  promising  growth  of  popular  support  in  favour  of 
its  educational  developments,  are  assisted  by  the  action  of  this 
and  other  State  Federations  of  Women's  Clubs,  and  also  by  the 
influence  of  the  National  Household  Economic  Association,  the 
Women's  Educational  and  Industrial  Union,  the  Association  of 
College  Alumnie,  and  similar  bodies.*  These  social  organisations 
have  done  good  service,  not  alone  in  the  direction  of  securing  a 
recognition  of  the  school  value  of  Domestic  Science,  but  by  the 
fact  that  the  grounds  upon  which  their  advocacy  is  based  is  a 
realisation,  by  their  members,  of  their  own  defective  knowledge 
in  this  respect  and  of  the  price  paid  by  those  dependent  upon 
them  for  their  needless  and  costly  ignorance. 

Allusion  has  already  been  made  to  the  three  classes  of  opinion  Three 
held  and  supported  in  the  States  as  to  the  character,  position,  ^^^^^^^ 
and  methods  to  be  employed  in  the  teaching  of  Domestic  Science  ^  Dmuesti^ 
or  Household  Economics,  each  of  which  linds  representation  in  Science 
ditierent  cities  and  in  schools  of  various  types  and  grades  : —  Teaching. 

1.  The  utilitarian  party,  who  desire  to  secure  instruction  for 
girls  in  cooking,  sewing,  cleaning  and  the  elements  of  house 
sanitation,  with  the  sole  view  of  preparing  the  home  makers  of 
the  future  for  the  duties  which  will  devolve  upon  them ;  and 
by  this  means  to  raise  the  standard  of  health  and  happiness 
among  the  people.  The  supporters  of  this  opinion  ask,  therefore, 
that  practical  work  in  domestic  subjects  shall  be  included  at  an 
age  which  shall  secure  its  advantages  for  all  girls  before  "  leak- 
age "  sets  in,  and  that  the  courses  shall  bear  as  directly  as  may 
be  upon  the  innnediate  economic  necessities  of  the  pupils; 
facility  of  accomplishment  being  more  emphasised  than  reasons 
for  results  gained. 

*  See  Part  III.  of  Report. 
6490  B  2 


20     U.S.A. — Devdopraenf  of  Domestic  Science  Tcachrag. 


2.  The  iiuiiiual  training  advoeales,  who  hopefully  anticipate 
the  attainment  of  two,  or  even  three,  ends ;  viz.,  the  acquirement 
of  such  desirable  faculties  as  quick  observation,  rapid  correlation 
between  hand  and  eye,  careful  precision  and  skilled  fingers,  by 
means  of  and  coupled  with  increased  command  of  the  household 
arts.  In  addition  they  hope  that  a  realisation  of  the  dexterity 
and  thought  demanded  by  right  manipulation  will  lend  new 
dignity  to  the  materials  employed  and  to  the  home  in  which 
they  find  their  natural  place. 

3.  Those  who  have  recognised  the  real  educational  import- 
ance of  the  subject  in  all  its  fulness  and  scope,  when  judi- 
ciously mtroduced  into  schools,  quite  apart  from  immediate 
utility  or  from  the  possible  acquirement  of  manual  dexterit}'. 
The  sup])orters  of  this  view  consider  tlie  former  conceptions 
incomplete,  possibly  mistaken,  estimates  of  its  real  worth.  To 
them  its  value  lies  in  the  field  it  offers  for  the  application  of 
scientific  knowledge  and  for  the  exercise  of  the  arts;  in  the 

^  strong  social  links  it  forges  between  school  and  home  life  at  an 
early  period :  in  the  dignity  it  attaches  to  domestic  matters  at  a 
later  stage;  and  in  the  introduction  which  it  involves  to 
economic  and  sociological  problems,  when  studied  in  its  entirety 
"by  more  advanced  students. 

Diversity  of  It  will  be  well  at  this  point  to  draw  attention  to,  and  to  lay 
Educational  emphatic  stress  upon,  the  fact  that  no  generalisation  can  be 
P^-actice       ^^^^^Y  made  upon  educational  methods  in  the  United  States. 

The  elasticity  permitted  and  independence  possessed  lead,  as 
one  result,  to  a  diversity  of  detail  in  each  city,  often  in  each  school 
of  a  city.  This,  while  beneficial  to  those  immediately  concerned, 
is  bewildering  and  discouraging  to  a  "  foreigner,"  who  desires  to 
form  and  to  record  an  accurate  conception  of  which  method, 
among  many,  yields  the  most  satismctory  results.  It  is 
possible  to  broadly  classify  the  objects  in  view  as  utilitarian, 
manual  training,  or  educational;  but,  in  practice,  the  line  of 
division  is  rarely  defined  with  absolute  clearness,  and  exceptions 
AvoiUd  almost  equal  the  number  which  conform  even  to  a  very 
broad  rule. 

Under  one  or  other  title,  and  to  a  greater  or  less  extent, 
Domestic  Science  finds  a  place  in  every  type  of  educational 
institution.  These  may  be  classified  under  the  main  divisions 
of  I.  State  Institutions,  supported  by  taxation  and  controlled  by 
the  people,  at  Avhich  attendance  is  gratuitous ;  and  II.  Private 
Institutions,  endowed  by  individual  munificence,  independent  of 
popular  control,  at  which  the  payment  of  fees  is  required. 

The  accompanying  table  will  serve  to  convey  some  idea  of  the 
diversity  of  practice  which  obtains  in  Grade  and  High  Schools 
with  respect  to  the  teaching  of  even  two  branches  of  Domestic 
Science.  The  particulars  are  adapted  by  kind  permission  from 
"  Teachers  College  Record,"  for  November,  1901,  which  contains  a 
mass  of  interesting  details  upon  the  subjects  therein  grouped  as 
Manual  Training. 


Methods  of  Domestic  Science  Teaching. 


21 


Lewistoii,  Me.  -  - 
I  roakliue,  Mass.  - 
I  oston,  Mass.  -  - 
Concord,  Mass.  -  - 
Dedham,  Mass. 
Fall  River,  Mass.  - 
Kitchburg.  Mass.  • 
Medford,  Mass. 
Natick,  Mass.  -  - 
N.  Easton,  >[ass.  - 
Walthani,  Mass.  - 
Hartford,  Ct  -  - 
New  Haven,  Ct.  - 
Bingham  i)t<jn,  N.  Y. 
Brooklyn,    X.  Y., 

M.T.H.S. 
Brooklyn,  Pf.Y  ,  Pratt 

Institute. 

Ithaca,  N.Y.  -   -    -  - 

Jamestown,  N.Y.  -  - 

New  York,  N.  Y.    -  - 

Newbiirgh,  N.Y.   -  - 

Syracuse,  N.Y.  -   -  - 

Utica,  N.Y.  -    -   -  . 

Yonkers,  N.Y.  -    -  - 

Asbury  Park,  N.Y.  - 

Atlantic  City,  N.Y.  - 

Camden  N.Y.    -   -  - 

Cape  May,  N.Y.    -  - 

Carlstadt,  N.Y.  -   -  - 

Garfield,  N.\^  -    -  - 

Hackensack,  N.Y.-  - 

Hoboken,  N.Y.  -   -  - 

Montclair  N.Y.    -  - 

Newark,  N.Y.  -  -  - 
Fast  Orange,  N.  Y. 

Orange,  N.  Y.    -   -  - 

South  Orange,  N.Y.  - 

Passaic,  N.Y.    -   -  - 

Summit,  N.Y.   -    -  - 

Wilmington,  Del.  •  - 

Columbus,  Ga.  -   -  • 

Cleveland,  O.    -   -  - 

Toledo,  O.,  Uk  T.S.  - 

Champaign,  111.     -  - 

Chicago,  111.  -  -  -  - 
Chicago,  Farra  School 
Chicago,  Jewish  Fr. 

School. 

Minneapolis,  Minn.  - 

Kansas  City,  Mo  -  - 

Menominee,  Wis.  •  • 

Oshkosk,  Wis.  -   -  - 

Carthage,  Mo.  -   -  • 

Moberly,  Mo.  -  -  - 
Denver,  Cal,  M.T.H.S. 

San  Francisco,  Cal.  - 
San  Francisco,  School 

of  Mech.  Arts. 


G/ade  Schools. 


I.   II.  III.  IV 


VI.     VII.   VIIT.  IX.  I 


•\  Ck. 


s. 
s. 
s. 
s. 

S.  Ck 


s. 


S.  Ck. 

s. 

Ck. 

s. 
s. 
s. 
s. 
s. 
s. 
s. 
s. 
s. 

s. 
s. 
s. 


s. 

S.  Ck, 
Ck. 

s. 
s. 
s. 
s. 
s. 
s. 
s. 
s. 


s. 

Ck. 
Ck. 

s. 


s. 
s. 
s. 

S.  Ck 
S. 


Ck.    S.  Ck 


S. 

s. 

S.  Ck, 


S.  Ck, 
Ck. 


s 

S.  Ck. 


Ck. 
Ck. 
S. 

S.  Ck. 


S.  Ck, 
Ck. 


S. 
Ck. 


Ck. 
Ck. 
Ck. 

s. 
s. 

S.  Ck, 


Ck. 
Ck. 
s. 

S.  Ck, 
». 


Ck. 


High  Schools. 


Ck, 


Ck. 


Ck. 


S.  Ck 
Ck. 


Ck. 
S.  Ck, 


S. 

Ck. 
S.  Ck. 
S. 


Ck. 
S. 


s. 
s. 

S.  Ck. 


Ill 


Ck. 
S.'ck 


S. 

S.  Ck, 


Ck. 


Ck. 
Ck. 
5.  Ck. 


I^ote. — The  above  particulars  are  derived  from  "The  Economics  of 
Handwork  in  Elementary  and  Secondary  Schools "  by  Louis  Rouillioif  , 
Table  A.  "Manual  training  subjects  given  in  the  various  school  years  in  the 
schools  enumerated."  Teachers  (Jolhije  Record.,  vol.  2,  No.  5,  November, 
1901. 

S. — Sewing.    Ck. — Cooking. 

If,  for  convenience  sake,  the  broadest  English  definition  of  Use  of  th 
Domestic  Science  be  employed  throughout  this  Report  to  cover  ^^^"^ 
the  topics  which  that  subject  comprises  in  this  country,  it  will  g^^^c^e^^ 
be  found  to  include  the  greater  part  of  the  ground  occupied  by 
the  different  designations  of  which  use  is  made  for  describing 
the  same  subjects  in  the  United  Slates,    f  shall  therefore  com- 


22 


U.S.A. — State  Grade  Schools. 


rehend  the  following  subjects  under  this  generic  term  when 
iscussing  their  treatment  and  position  in  all  grades  of  educa- 
tional institutions,  where  they  appear  variously  grouped  under 
the  heads  of  Manual  Training,  Domestic  Sciences,  Domestic  Arts, 
Household  Economics,  Physiology  and  Hygiene,  and  Sanitary 
Science : — 

(i.)  Cookery, 
(ii.)  Needlework, 
(iii.)  Dressmaking, 
(iv.)  MiUinery. 
(v.)  Laundry  work. 

(vi.)  Housewifery  (which  includes  purchase  v:)f  conuuodities). 
(vii.)  Elements  of  Domestic  and  Personal  Hygiene  (including 

house  sanitation), 
(viii.)  Care  of  young  children. 

Scheme  of  A  number  of  specimen  schemes  and  syllabuses,  typical  of 
the  present  Domestic  Science  and  Hygiene  courses  and  methods  in  each 
repoi  .        grade  of  institution  are  included  in  the  text  and  in  the  Appendix. 

In  the  course  of  my  comments  upon  these,  I  shall  endeavoiu* 
to  give  a  just  vicAv  of  the  present  position  and  treatment  of 
the  subject,  though  time  and  space  forbid  the  inclusion  of  imich 
suggestive  material. 

In  conclusion,  concise  allusion  is  also  made  to  the  problems  of 
domestic  service ;  for  these,  it  is  anticipated  that  at  least  partial 
solution  may  result  from  the  educational  efforts  recor  ded  in 
the  following  pages. 

The  Report  is  sub-divided  as  follows  : — 

Part  I. — State  Institutions. 

A.  — Primary  and  Grammar,  or  Grade  Schools. 

B.  — High  Schools. 

C.  — Colleges. 

D.  — Normal  Colleges. 

Part  II. — Private  Institutiovs. 

A.  — Kindergartens,  Primary  and  Grammar  Schools. 

B.  — High  Schools. 

C.  — Technical  Institutes. 

D.  — Women's  Colleges. 

E.  — Universities. 

Part  III. — Social  Agencies  for  the  Promotion  of  Domestic. 
Science  Teaching. 

A.  — Women's  Clubs. 

B.  — Philanthropic  Agencies. 

C.  — Summer  Schools. 

D.  — University  Extension. 

E.  — The  Domestic  Service  Problem. 


23 


PAKT  1. 
kState  Institutions. 
A. — Grade  (Primary  and  Grammar)  Schools. 

As  the  Report  is  primarily  concerned  with  State  educational  Domestic 
methods,  this  class  of  institution  will  be  that  first  treated.  Hcience 

Domestic  Science  is  frequently  limited  in  the  Grade  Schools  taught  In 
to  the  subject  of  cookery,  and  its  accompaniment  of  the  elements  Grade 
of  cleaning.  Needlework  is  more  often  included  under  Manual  Schools. 
Training  than  under  Domestic  Science,  and,  in  some  cities,  e.g. 
Cleveland  (Ohio\  Detroit  (Mich.),  and  Toledo,  both  subjects  are 
classified  under  the  former  head.  Laundry  work  has  not  yet 
found  a  place  in  elementary  schools;  a  great  prejudice  exists 
against  its  introduction,  in  spite  of  home  washing  being  the  rule 
in  most  families,  especially  in  cities  where  the  industry  has  not 
been  absorbed  by  the  Chinese.  Housewifery,  apart  from  that 
incidental  to  a  cookery  course,  is  rarely  taught,  but  the  inclusion 
is  contemplated  of  definite  teaching  on  simple  house  sanitation ; 
probably  this  is  now  a  fact  in  Philadelphia.  Considerable  time 
and  attention  are  devoted  to  the  outlines  of  domestic  and 
personal  hygiene,  but  as  subjects  apart  from  Domestic  Science ; 
they  constitute  the  obligatory  elements  in  the  curriculum  of 
practically  all  State  elementary  schools.  •  Dressmaking  and 
uiillinery  are  obviously  too  advanced  for  children  in  the  grade 
schools,  though  the  cutting  and  making  of  a  simple  blouse  lends 
great  attraction  under  some  Boards  of  Education  to  the  last  year 
of  the  needlework  course.  The  Care  of  Young  Children  is  not 
usually  dealt  with  at  this  period  of  school  life.  New  York  City 
is  a  direct  exception  to  this  rule,  though  incidentally  scholars  of 
both  sexes  get  some  insight  into  the  subject,  or,  more  precisely, 
gain  some  conception  of  the  care  necessary  to  ensure  health,  by 
means  of  repeatedly  impressed  lessons  in  the  elements  of  hygiene. 

1. — Cookery, 

Cookery  is  not  yet  an  obligatory  subject  under  every  Board 
of  Education,  though  it  is  becoming  so  in  the  majority  of  cities, 
as  the  result  largely  of  the  gradual  removal  of  the  difficulties 
which  previously  existed.    These  included  parental  objections, 
Avant  of  necessary  accommodation,  or  of  appropriations  for  the 
purpose,  and  considerations  as  to  suitable  employment  for  the  ^^.^^^gg  -^^ 
boys  while  their  girl  companions  were  thus  occupied.    The  vvhich^ 
subject  usually  finds  a  place  in  the  time-tables  of  the  6th  or  7th  generally 
and  8th  grades  of  the  grammar  schools,  more  generally  in  the  taught, 
last  two.    As  the  age  lor  compidsory  school  attendance  is  5 
years,  the  average  age  when  these  grades  are  reached  is  12  or 
13.    Weekly  lessons  are  everywhere  the  rule  during  one,  or 
more  generally  two,  school  years  of  8  or  9  months  each.  At 
Brooklinc  ( MassY  where  manual  t  rnininu'  and  the  domestic  aits 


24 


U.S.A. — State  Grade  Schools. 


were  developed  and  made  increasingly  educational  during  the 
last  10  years,  of  Professor-  Button's  valuable  service  as  Superin- 
tendent of  schools,  cooking  is  practised  by  the  girls  for  2  hours 
a  week  for  three  years  m  the  6th,  7th  and  8th  grades,  and  a 
Length  of     three  years  course  is  available  also  at  Menominee  for  girls  who 
Course  and  pass  on  to  the  high  school.    Here  the  last,  or  8th  grade, 
Methods  of  year  in  the  elementary  schools  is  devoted  to  the  introductory 
'J  caching.     stages  of  cookery,  serving,  housekeeping,  and  house  sanitation  ; 

the  course  being  continued  during  the  first  two  high  school 
years.  At  Boston,  Washington,  Philadelphia,  Toledo,  and 
Chicago,  the  cookery  course  lasts  two  years,  while  in  New 
York  City  it  is  confined  to  a  year  and  a  half,  and  at  Cleve- 
land (0.),  and  St.  Louis  (Mi.)  to  one  school  year.  In  these 
cities,  however,  the  lessons  are  longer,  2|  hours  being  the  rule,  as 
against  the  1|-  hours  at  Toledo,  Washington,  and  Chicago. 
Boston  stands  well  with  its  2  years'  course  of  2  hours  lessons, 
but  for  the  weekly  loss  of  this  half-hour  at  Washington  some 
compensation  exists  in  the  small  number  (12)  to  which  each 
class  is  limited,  which  favours  careful  individual  guidance  and 
supervision. 

The  number  of  scholars  in  a  class  is  as  variable  as  the  length 
of  the  lessons.  It  is  influenced  by  several  factors.  One  of  these 
is  the  almost  impossible  task,  in  some  places,  of  keeping  pace 
with  the  growth  of  the  school  population.  In  New  York  City, 
e.g.  (a  recognised  proportion  of  whose  children  consists  of  very 
poor  and  ignorant  emigrants),  the  Domestic  Science  Organiser 
(Mrs.  Mary  E.  Williams),  advises  and  sanctions  classes  of  40  or 
even  50  girls,  in  order  to  secure  the  advantage  of  some  training 
for  the  largest  possible  number.  The  same  cause  and  feeling  are 
partially  responsible  for  very  similar  conditions  at  Boston, 
though  where  possible  the  classes  there  are  limited  to  25, 
and  an  assistant  is  provided  where  this  is  not  the  case. 
Another  factor  appears  in  the  relative  proportion  of  boys  to  girls 
in  any  particular  locality  of  a  country  where  co-education  is  the 
iiccepted  custom  ;  it  is,  for  instance,  responsible  at  the  present 
time  for  the  organisation  of  small  classes  at  Washington, 
though  their  small  size  is  in  part  due  to  the  fact  that  this  city  is 
characterised  by  its  large  number  of  relatively  small  schools,  less 
crowded  classes  being  the  result.  At  Chicago,  where  the 
influx  of  emigrants  is  large,  the  size  of  the  Domestic 
Science  classes  varies  from  18  to  32.  The  average 
number  in  most  cities  is  20,  and  the  general  rule  is  indivi- 
dual work  on  the  part  of  each  child.  Group  work — two  or  more 
— is  only  introduced  when  the  article  does  not  lend  itself  to 
much  subdivision,  or  Avhen  the  principle  cannot  be  illustrated 
without  sufficient  bulk.  To  this  rule  New  York  City,  Washing- 
ton, and  Cleveland  are  the  three  prominent  exceptions.  In 
these  cities  one-third  only  of  the  girls  do  practical  work,  the 
remainder  make  observations  and  take  notes.  Such  large  and 
numerous  classes  entail  very  heavy  work  on  the  teachers, 
especially  where  the  work  is  individual,  as  at  Chicago ;  here 
nearly  600  girls  pass  through   the   hands   of  each  teacher. 


Cookery. 


25 


weekly,  allowing  for  four  1|  hour  classes  per  day  of  30 
girls  each ;  the  additional  strain  of  securing  a  tnorough  "  clean 
up"  by  each  class  during  the  already  brief  lesson  involves 
much  nerve  tension  and  physical  fatigue.  The  2  or  2^- 
hour  lessons  at  Philadelphia,  although  they  permit  of  the  attend- 
dance  of  but  a  quota  of  girls  from  each  school,  reduces  the 
number  of  weekly  classes  per  teacher  to  10,  and  the  number  of 
children  to  be  individually  known  by  each  teacher  to  about 
200.  ^ 

It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  in  Philadelphia,  cookery  classes 
were  first  organised  15  years  ago,  in  the  Girls'  High  School ; 
the  experiment  proved  so  successful  thnt  in  two  years  a  place 
was  found  for  the  subject  in  the  grade  school  programmes ; 
even  now,  it  is  only  an  "  optional,"  or  "  elective,"  but,  neverthe- 
less, very  popular  subject. 

The  system  of  "  centres  "  seems  general.  These  are  attached  .« Qe^tre  " 
in  most  instances  to  new  schools,  though  the  adaptation  of  System, 
basement  rooms  for  this  purpose  is  very  common,  in  which  case 
the  light  and  ventilation  are  apt  to  be  defective;  still,  great 
credit  is  due  to  organisers  and  teac^hers  for  the  skilful  care, 
thought,  and  personal  trouble  they  spend  to  make  the  best  of 
the  second  best  premises.  The  Supervisor  of  Manual  Training  at 
Cleveland,  Ohio  (Mr.  W.  E.  Roberts),  has  introduced  a  manual 
training  centre  method  which  presents  various  advantages,  and 
has  the  merit  of  not  being  extravagant.  A  kitchen  for  girls  and 
a  carpenter's  shop  for  boys  are  provided  as  an  annex  to  the  selected 
school  buildings ;  the  cost  of  building  and  equipment  sufficient 
for  classes  of  20,  respectively,  averages  £1,000  ;  cloakrooms  and 
sanitary  conveniences  are  attached.  Light,  airy,  suitably 
arranged  apartments  are  provided,  infinitely  preferable  to  the 
more  pretentious  basement  rooms  frequently  allotted  to  these 
purposes.  This  plan  obviates  the  necessity  for  outside  classes  to 
enter  the  school  building,  and  the  proximity  of  the  kitchen  and 
workshop  promotes  mutual  interest  in  each  other's  work  among 
pupils  who  pursue  all  other  studies  together.* 

The  number  of  centres  provided  in  each  city  depends  upon 
the  time  Domestic  Science  has  been  adopted  as  a  school  subject; 
whether  it  is  required  of  all  girls  in  the  selected  grades ;  upon 
the  size  of  the  classes ;  and  last,  but  not  least,  upon  the  funds 
available  for  building  and  equipment.  At  Boston,  where  the 
subject  has  been  taught  many  years,  22  centres  exist,  each 
attended  by  girls  from  5  to  7  grammar  schools;  these  centres 

*  Significant  of  the  strong  development  and  recognition  of  the  social 
spirit  in  the  United  States,  is  a  pleasant  little  custom  which  prevails  in 
the  city  of  Cleveland  for  maintaining  sympathy  between  boy  and  girl 
classmates.  Permission  is  given  at  suitable  intervals  for  the  interchange 
of  visits  at  these  manual  training  centres.  Simple  hospitality  is  dispensed 
in  their  kitchen  by  the  girls,  as  on  the  occasion  of  my  visit  to  the  Wade 
Park  School,  where  preparations  v;ere  in  force  to  entertain  the  boys  with 
cocoa  and  cake,  prepared  by  ihe  young  cooks.  Later  on  the  courtesy 
would  be  returned,  by  an  invitation  from  the  boys  to  inspect  their  work- 
shop, when  each  would  present  a  small  specimen  of  his  skill  to  one  of  the 
girl  visitors. 


26 


U.S.A.—Sfate  Grade  Schools. 


"  Centre  J^re  convenient  in  situation,  but  niam^  of  them  are  only  adapted 
►System" —  rooms,  basement  or  otherwise,  though  improvements  now  in 
continued,    progress  will  gradually  replace  :hese  with  modern  apartments. 

At  Chicago,  where  the  subject  was  introduced  in  1898,  1  found 
11  centres;  the  same  stage  of  adaptation  is  being  gone  through  as  at 
Boston,  with  a  like  promise  of  better  things,  already  fulfilled  in 
the  newest  schools.  The  acconmiodation,  even  with  large  classes, 
sufficed  for  less  than  one-half  of  those  eligible  to  receive  the 
instruction.    At  this  date  it  is  probably  considerably  increased. 

Comparison  with  developments  in  New  York  City  will 
exemplify  the  rapidity  with  which  these  take  place.  In  1898  only 
^4  cookery  teachers  were  employed  l)y  the  Board  of  Education  of 
that  city,  though  the  subject  had  been  tentatively  introduced 
into  the  schools  some  years  before.  In  May,  1901,  the  supervisor 
had  29  teachers  under  her  charge,  employed  at  40  centres. 
There  the  basement  plan  does  not  obtain,  but  the  kitchens  are 
located  on  the  top  floor  of  the  4  and  5  storied  buildings.  This 
plan  involves  nuich  stair  climbing  on  all  concerned,  and  on  that 
account  should  be  discountenanced  unless  lifts  are  provided,  as 
is  customary  in  High  Schools  when  carried  up  to  this  height ; 
in  respect  of  light  and  ventilation  such  a  position  is  admirable. 
Five  centres  suffice  for  the  needs  of  a  less  populous  city,  such 
;is  Toledo,  in  spite  of  cookery  being  obligator}'  on  all  girls  in  the 
7tli  and  8th  grades  since  iS99  ;  previous  to  that  date  it  was 
"  elective."  Spacious  cooking  "  laboratories  "  are  attached  to  the 
new^est  schools  at  Washington ;  hitherto,  owing  to  want  of  space 
and  the  number  of  centres  necessitated  by  the  small  classes 
and  numerous  schools,  private  houses  have,  in  some  instances, 
been  employed  for  the  purpose,  and  are  still  in  use ;  these  are  un- 
objectional  under  the  exceptionable  conditions  which  obtain  there. 
Equipment.  The  small  details  of  equipment  are  as  variable  as  those  of 
all  the  other  particulars  recorded,  but  the  broad  general  plan 
is  the  same  m  all  the  cities  I  visited,  or  of  whose  courses 
L  obtained  reliable  information.  Even  this,  however,  is  subject 
to  modification  according  to  the  method  emploved,  either  of 
individual  work  or  of  practice  limited  to  a,  smalt  grou]>,  or  by 
the  funds  at  the  disposal  of  the  organisers.  Illustrations  convey 
the  best  idea  of  the  prominent  feature  which  most  (ionspicuously 
distinguishes  an  American  schoolkitchen,  or  "cooking  laboratory  " 
from  the  appearance  familiar  in  England.  It  consists  of  a  table 
of  varying  length  and  form ;  three  sides  of  a  square  to  acconunodate 
20  students,  as  at  the  Pratt  Institute  and  some  of  the  Boston 
school  centres ;  or  a  short  oblong,  just  sufficient  for  two,  or  at 
most  four,  workers,  as  at  the  Ohio  State  University,  the  Toledo 
Manual  Training  School  or  the  Bradley  Institute,  Peoria,  111. 
Whatever  the  length,  the  table  is  usually  of  hard  wood,  from 
80  inches  to  83  i  inches  in  height,  about  25  inches  wide,  and 
calculated  to  allow  from  25  inches  to  33  inches  per  pupil 
according  to  size.  [  saw  several  instances  where  the  front 
portion  was  wood,  either  plain,  polished,  covered  with  metal, 
slate  or  white  glazed  tiles,  or  coated  with  some  vitreous 
])roparation  rescnri)ling  glass.    Mr    Louis  Roubillion  (Teachers 


Cookery. 


27 


College,  Columbia  University)  considers  "  that  unglazed,  vitrified,  Equipment 

white  tile  laid  over  asphalted  paper,  bound  at  the  table  edge  by  —continued. 

a  metal  strip  is  perhaps  the  best,  although  somewhat  expensive." 

At  one  high  school  each  pupil  is  supplied  with  white  American 

cloth  to  protect  the  polished  wood,  and  an  asbestos  mat  upon 

which  to  place  her  hot  pans.    The  back  half  of  the  table  may, 

or  may  not,  be  covered  with  sheet  zinc ;  above  this  portion 

runs  an  iron  grid  raised  about  6  or  8  inches ;  this  may  be 

continuous  the  whole  length  of  a  long  table  or  be  fitted  in 

sections  of  12  to  18  inches.     It  serves  the  dual  purpose  of  a 

range  which  permits  of  individual  cooking,  and  of  a  stand  for  hot 

pans ;  bunsen  gas  burners,  or  gas  rings,  are  fitted  underneath 

the  grid,  one  for  each  pupil,  and  a  considerable  amount  of  the 

cooking  processes  are  conducted  by  these  means.    When  gas  is 

not  available,  single  burner  oil  stoves  are  substituted — one  for 

each  pupil.     Each  pupil's  place,  about  two  square  feet  at  the 

table,  IS  fitted  as  follows :  slid  immediately  under  the  top  are 

two  boards,  one  for  bread  or  pastry,  one  for  meat,  etc.,  below  are 

two  draAvers,  the  deeper  one  usually  provided  with  one  or  two 

sliding  trays.    In  this  drawer  is  kept  the  small  ware  in  constant 


Plan  Showing  Horseshoe  and  Group  Arrangement  of 
Cooking  Tables. 

Figs.  1,  2,  3  are  reproduced  hy  kind  permission  from  "  Tlie  Economics  of 
Manual  Training,"  Teachers  College  Kecord.    Vol.  II.,  No.  5,  Nov.  1901. 


FIG,  IV. 


6490.  To  face  page  S8. 


Cookery. 


29 


use,  generally  two  knives  and  forks,  two  tea-spoons,  two  dessert  Equipment 
spoons,  two  table-spoons,  two  wooden  spoons,  two  plates,  salt  and  —continued. 
pepper  boxes,  glass  or  metal  measuring  cup,*  a  small  strainer, 
pattypans,  and  a  box  of  matches.  (Inexpensive  appliances 
conducing  to  economic  methods  are  freely  provided,  e.g.,  "  soap 
shakers,"  costing  5  cents;  these  consist  of  a  small  wire  soap  box 
at  the  end  of  a  long  wire  handle,  they  are  used  for  the  ra]3id 
production  of  lather ;  the  smallest  fragments  can  be  utilised  for 
the  purpose  without  wetting  the  hands,  while  the  handles 
projecting  from  the  pans  serve,  upon  occasion,  to  remind 
the  careless  that  soap  is  going  to  waste.)  The  equipment  in 
hardware,  always  simple,  is  usually  sufficient  for  20-25  individuals. 
I  saw  instances  of  admirable  ingenuity  exercised  by  teachers 
to  improvise  a  supply  for  the  needs  of  individual  work  under  the 
stress  of  the  large  classes  in  some  cities ;  but  a  crowded  class- 
room is  not  the  right  opportunity  to  make  such  additional 
demands  on  an  already  hard-worked  teacher,  and  the  principle 
of  demanding  resourcefulness  under  such  conditions  cannot  be 
commended.  In  the  second  and  shallower  table-drawer,  note- 
books, recipes,  and  so  forth,  are  kept.  Below  the  drawers  is  a 
metal  bin,  used  for  either  flour  or  potatoes,  and  a  cupboard 
which  usually  contains  a  granite  ware  and  a  tin  saucepan,  a 
baking-dish,  one  or  two  china  bowls  of  different  sizes,  and  so 
forth.  Between  one  drawer  and  the  bin  or  cupboard  is  a  sliding 
seat,  of  which  prompt  use  is  made,  if  a  pause  in  active  work 
occurs  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  directions  from,  or  watching 
demonstrations  by,  the  teacher.  The  dish-cloths,  towels,  etc., 
hang  at  one  end  of  each  table,  while  large  utensils,  such  as  a 
washing-up  pan,  hang  generally  at  the  other. 

*The  glass  or  metal  cup  measure  is  too  prominent  in  all  cookery  teaching 
and  recipes  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  not  to  demandfuller  description. 
It  offers  the  unquestionable  advantages  of  economical  simplicity,  cleanli- 
nes  i  and  uniformity  in  practice,  and  when  of  glass  leaves  little  to  be  desired. 
Its  usual  shape  is  slightly  facetted  ;  there  are  4  broad  and  8  narrow  facets, 
and  each  of  the  4  V>road  facets  bears  a  scale  on  a  different  scheme  of 
measurement,  as  follows  : — 

FACETS. 


I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

h  pint  eren  full. 

Coffee  f^up  or 

Table 

spo( 

)nful. 

Sugar. 

2  Ten-  cups. 

6  OA. 

Sugar. 

Licjuid. 

5  oz. 

IgiU 

4  oz. 

even  full 

4 

8 

4  oz. 

1  Tea  cup. 

3  oz. 

Wine  glass. 

3 

0 

3  oz. 

2  oz. 

2 

4 

2  oz. 

I  oz. 

1 

2 

I  oz. 

The  one  measure  can  thus  be  employed  for  fluids  and  solids,  is  uniform 
throughout  the  rountry,  and  is  the  accepted  standard  upon  wliich  i-ecipes 
are  compounded. 


U.S.A.—S^tate  Grade  SchooU. 


Equipment  In  some  recently  fitted  school-kitchens  a  small  glazed  earthen- 
— continued,  ware  sink  finds  a  place  in  each  cooking  table,  either  at  one  end, 
or  dividing  the  table  into  two  halves.  More  generally  the  sink 
accommodation  is  provided  against  an  outside  wall,  and,  in  either 
case,  there  is  a  good  supply  of  hot  and  cold  water  available.  In 
other  respects  the  fittings  closely  conform  to  those  customary  in 
this  country,  though  occasionally  a  six-foot  marble  table  is  pro- 
vided for  the  making  of  pastry  or  of  very  refined  dishes.  The 
universal  custom  is  to  expose  all  pipes,  whether  for  the  supply 
of  water  or  of  gas,  or  for  the  removal  of  waste.  The  plumbing- 
appears  excellent,  and,  indeed,  needs  to  be,  in  a  country  where 
the  climate  necessitates  the  protection  of  soil-pipes  within  the 
dwellings,  and  where  sanitary  fittings  are  furnished  with  far 
greater  liberahty  of  supply  and  consideration  for  comfort  than  is 
at  present  our  habit.  Pipes  are  usually  painted  white,  in  a  few 
instances  they  are  of  polished  metal;  without  exception  they 
are  well  managed,  so  that,  far  from  being  an  offence,  they  are 
pleasing  to  the  eye,  and  contribute  to  cleanliness  and  convenience 
of  access.  A  coal  range  and  a  gas  range  with  ovens  are  found  in 
most  schools  ;  in  Technical  Institutes  conveniences  for  cooking 
by  electricity  are  occasionally  provided  in  addition.  An  Aladdin 
oven  is  a  frequent  feature,  and  is  found  very  useful  for 
soup-making,  or  for  processes  requiring  slow,  steady  and  pro- 
longed heat.  An  ice-box  of  more  or  less  pretension  is  considered 
almost  as  great,  if  not  a  greater,  necessity  than  a  coal  range. 
Large  cupboards  are  usually  fixed  against  the  walls ;  these  are 
usually  glazed.  The  "  supply  "  cupboard  contains  the  groceri es,  etc. , 
in  constant  requisition,  and  specimens  of  preserves,  canned  fruit, 
etc.,  often  the  handiwork  of  former  pupils ;  the  china  cupboard 
frequently  displays  a  tasteful  dinner  and  tea-service  in  addition 
to  bare  necessaries ;  these  are  used  in  the  "  serving  lessons,"  to 
which  marked  attention  is  paid  in  all  grades  of  cookery  courses. 
In  closed  cupboards,  or  on  open  shelves  below  the  china,  are 
found  the  larger  utensils  in  general  use,  and  others  more  rarely 
required — stew-pans,  double  boilers,  moulds,  cake -pans,  and 
cutters,  ice-cream  freezers,  mincing-machines,  coffee-mills,  etc. 
A  third  cupboard  is  often  subdivided  into  lockers  or  small  com- 
partments; each  member  of  each  class  has  one  assigned  and 
numbered,  wherein  to  keep  the  cap  and  apron  invariably  re- 
quired to  be  worn  during  class-work.  The  making  of  these 
articles  constitutes,  I  was  often  told,  a  foretaste  of  good  things 
to  come  for  small  needlewomen,  who  thus  anticipate  during  the 
quiet  hours  of  stitching  the  future  active  pleasures  to  be  enjoyed 
when  young  cooks.  Charts  and  drawings  find  a  place  on  the 
walls,  and  show  the  various  cuts  of  meat,  the  proportion  of 
nutrient  properties  contained  in  different  foods,'  and  the  amount 
of  certain  nutriments  which  can  be  bought  for  a  given  price  in 
different  foods. 

A  nice  dining  table,  often  with  chairs  e7i  suite,  is  the  rule,  as 
an  essential  equipment  of  the  table-serving  lessons.  Good 
napery  is  provided  in  addition  to  the  special  china  mentioned 
above.    In  many  cases  a  recess,  or  a  small  separate  rooni  is 


TypicAtl  Cooking  iJouTf^e^. 


attached  and  utihsed  as  a  dining  room,  a  great  feature  heing  Equipment 
made  of  tasteful  and  suitable  surroundings.  The  part  of  the  --continued 
room  in  which  the  table  and  china  are  placed  is  always  notice- 
able for  some  appearance  distinguishing  it  from  the  "  kitchen  " 
air  of  the  rest  of  the  apartment.  I  do  not  know  how  widely  the 
opinion  of  the  very  successful  Supervisor  of  cooking  in  one  large 
city  is  held,  but  it  may  be  partially  responsible  for  the  homelike 
atmosphere  observable  in  many  of  these  school  kitchens.  She 
considers  that  the  cookery  room  should  be  the  "  cosy  corner " 
of  a  school,  the  place  for  pleasant  surprises  and  little 
treats,  to  which  a  tired  teacher  or  child  can  sometimes  resort 
for  a  cup  of  tea  or  other  light  refreshment.  No  doubt  the 
elasticity  permitted  to  the  schools  under  some  superintendents, 
and  the  invariable  custom  for  all  food  cooked  to  be- consumed  on 
the  premises,  usually  on  the  spot,  by  the  student  responsible  for 
the  dish,  are  also  factors  of  some  account  in  this  characteristic. 

In  quite  general  use,  too,  are  the'  sets  of  admirable  wood 
blocks,  first  designed  and  made  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute 
of  Technology,  Boston,  and  now  supplied  by  the  Pratt 
Institute,  Brooklyn.  Of  these  there  are  three  sets  in  all ;  the 
largest  represents,  in  blocks  of  various  colours,  red,  blue,  white, 
and  yellow,  and  of  various  sizes,  the  proportions  of  water  (blue), 
proteid  (red),  fat  (yellow),  carbo  hydrate  (white),  salts  (grey),  in 
the  bones,  muscle,  blood,  etc.,  of  a  full-grown  man.  These  can 
be  arranged  in  many  useful  ways ;  to  illustrate,  for  instance,  the 
whole  amount  of  each  constituent  in  the  body,  or  the  'pi-opovtion 
of  each  in  blood,  bone,  or  muscle  ;  their  superficial  area  is  8  inches 
X  8,  and  the  total  height  5|  feet.  The  other  two  sets  of  blocks 
are  much  smaller — superficial  area,3f  inches  x  3|,  total  height  17 
inches ;  but  made  to  the  same  scale  of  proportion  they  illustrate, 
respectively,  the  daily  income  and  outgo  of  a  healthy  body  the 
colours  being  similarly  employed  to  those  in  the  large  body  blocks, 
though  others  have  to  find  a  place — indigo  blue  for  the  daily  in- 
take of  oxygen,  brown  for  the  daily  outgo  of  urea,  and  so  forth.* 

Among  the  specimen  Grade  School  Cookery  Courses  which  I  Typical 
have  selected  to  include  in  this  Report  are  those  in  use  in  New  Courses. 
York  City,  Toledo,  and  Washington.  They  show  the  scope  and 
extent  of  ground  covered  where  the  amount  of  time  expended,  the 
number  of  scholars  in  a  class  and  the  methods  of  practice  are 
somewhat  diverse;  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  all  are  subject 
to  frequent  revision. 

In  New   York   City   the   course    at    present   consists   of  {a)  New 
weekly  lessons  for  1 years  ;  the  number  of  children  legally  York  City, 
allowed  is  40,  though,  owing  to  the  rapid  increase  of  popula-  Table  I. 
tion,  45  and  even  50  names  appear  on  some  rolls.    It  is  open 
to  girls  in  the  6th  and  7th  grades.    In  girls'  schools,  where 
the  whole .  class  follows  the  course,  two-hour  lessons  are  usual, 
but  in  mixed  schools  (by  far  the  more  general),  the  neces- 
sarily smaller  class  is  nominally  limited  to  1^  hours  weekly, 
though,  in  practice,  the  principal  usually  succeeds  in  allowing  ^ 
hours  for  this  popular  lesson. 

■*^For  details  and  cost  of  a  Model  Kitchen  iH]ui]mie,nt,  Sec  Appendix  A. 


U.S.A. — State  Grade  Schools. 


(d.)  New  To  secure  a  measure  of  uniformity  among  the  teachers  in 
York  City  presenting  both  the  scieniific  and  practical  sides  of  their 
—continued,  subjects,  Mrs.  M.  E.  WilHams,  Supervisor  of  Cookery,  has  prepared 
a  comprehensive  outUne  for  their  guidance,  though  great 
elasticity  is  allowed  in  the  details  and  actual  ground  covered. 
She  advocates  the  method  of  prefacing  each  new  department  of 
practice  with  one  theoretical  lesson,  to  embrace  experiments 
wdiich  bear  directly  on  the  principle  of  cookery  involved. 

This  outline  opens  the  course  with  instruction  on  air,  fire,  and  water,  the 
three  essentials  to  life.  Very  simple  experiments  and  demonstrations  with 
air  are  carried  out,  e.g.,  testing  it  for  carbon  dioxide  with  lime  water,  suh- 
se(iuently  comparing  results  with  expired  air  and  with  that  in  which  com- 
bustion has  taken  place.  A  short  study  of  combustion  follows  ;  the  series 
of  demonstrations  being  conducted  with  the  aid  of  a  candle  and  lamp 
chimney,  wood  blocks,  cards,  and  lime  water,  and  so  forth.  This  introduces 
an  examination  of  the  structure  and  management  of  kitchen  ranges  for  coal 
and  gas,  time  being  devoted  to  the  study  of  fuels,  hard  and  soft  coal,  gas, 
kerosene,  etc.  Water  and  its  most  salient  properties  are  then  studied  ex- 
perimentally, subsequently  to  which  cleanliness  and  cleaning  introduce  the 
girls  to  their  first  elementary  lessons  on  moulds,  yeasts  and  bacteria. 
Natural  and  artificial  aids  to  cleanliness  are  illustrated  by  careful  practice  ; 
the  reason  for  each  process  and  its  constituent  ])arts  being  carefully  followed 
out.  By  this  time  it  is  anticipated  that  an  intelligent,  though,  perforce, 
elementary  insight  will  have  been  gained  into  matter,  its  nature,  and 
changes  ;  the  importance  of  care  and  ac(;uracy  in  details  will  have  been 
impressed,  while  practical  ac(piaintance  will  have  been  made  with  ordinary 
utensils  and  their  uses,  the  principal  methods  of  cooking  and  the  accepted 
table  of  measures.  A  short  time  is  then  devoted  to  a  consideration  of  the 
elements  composing  the  human  body,  and  of  the  part  played  by  food  in  its 
growth  and  repair ;  the  subject  of  food  principles  being  thus  introduced. 
These  are  classified  as  water,  protein,  fats,  carbo-hydrates,  and  mineral 
matter.  Simple  starch  foods  are  first  cooked,  the  })otato,  cereals,  wheat ; 
then  tissue  building  foods,  as  eggs  and  milk.  Bread  and  bread  stuffs  follow, 
succeeded  by  meat  and  fish.  The  practice  of  frying  and  sauteing  leads  to  a 
study  of  fats  as  valuable  fuel  foods,  while  the  preparation  of  vegetables  and 
fruits  turns  attention  to  the  acid  and  salt  supplying  foods.  Throughout, 
the  experimental  treatment  and  explanation  of  underlying  scientific 
principles  is  consistently  followed.  For  instance,  at  an  early  stage  of  the 
course,  a  potato  is  subjected  to  very  careful  examination,  and  a  rough 
analysis  is  carried  out  to  find  "  what  it  contains,"  the  iodine  test  for  starch 
is  taught,  and  the  results  compared  with  those  obtained  with  solutions  of 
sugar,  cornflower,  laundry  starch  and  salt ;  the  effects  of  heat  on  albumen 
are  closely  observed,  and  their  applications  are  demanded  ;  milk  and  flour 
are  subjected  in  turn  to  simple  analysis,  and  the  rasults  discussed  from  the 
points  of  view  of  cooking,  nutriment,  and  so  forth.  Bread  making  serves 
to  introduce  the  action  of  acids  on  alkalies,  and,  more  immediately,  of  an 
acid  on  baking  soda ;  indeed  the  study  of  baking  powders  is  entered  into 
at  some  length  for  the  sake  of  its  many  lessons.  What  yeast  is,  its  growth, 
requirements,  products,  are  all  included  under  this  study  of  iDread.  The 
principles  of  broiling,  roasting,  stewing,  braising,  frying,  baking,  soup 
making,  are,  of  course,  explained  and  illustrated  in  due  order,  and  "  made 
over"  dishes,  such  as  hashes,  croquettes  and  mince,  find  a  place.  The 
practice  of  "  canning "  and  preserving  is  made  use  of  to  present  the  germ 
theory  and  the  eflects  of  moulds  on  food  stuffs. 

Near  the  end  of  the  se3ond  year  the  question  is  raised  as  to  what  consti- 
tutes a  suitable  diet,  and  experiments  on  cooked  food  with  saliva,  pepsin 
and  pancreatic  juice  are  carried  out  to  demonstrate  the  processes  of  digestion. 
A  short  study  of  infant  feeding  and  invalid  cooking  follows  this  physio- 
logical teaching.  The  course  concludes  with  the  cooking  and  serving  of  a 
simple,  nutritious  and  economical  dinner.  The  syllabus  seems  to  me  com- 
prehensive, wcll-})lanned,  useful,  and  educational  ;  infinite  care  is  taken  to 
secure  "  intelligent  doing,"  not  mere  mechanical  ])ractice. 


Typical  Cooking  Courses. 


38 


TABLE  I. 
Grammar  school  cooking  course, 


NEW  YORK  CITY,  1902. 


Length  of 
Cotirse. 


Scope  of  Course. 


First  Year. 
Air.— Why  important  to  life  ;  relation 
to  combustion. 

Fire.— Combustion ;  uses;  fuels, varie- 
ties of,  etc. 

Water.— Sources :  characters;  impuri- 
ties, etc. 

Chemistry  of  Cleaning.— Personal 
cleanliness  ;  houseuold  cleanliness  ; 
aids  to  ventilation,  sunlight,  disin- 
fectants :  care  of  beds  and  bedding, 
floors,  walls,  ceilings,  closets,  traps, 
pantries,  ice  boxes,  dish  towels,  etc. 

The  Human  Body.— Elements  compos- 
ing it,  and  where  obtained. 

Food.  —  Its  function  ;    food  prin- 
ciples. 

Potatoes  (specimen  of  treatment)—. 

Theory.— History  ;  botany,  note  dif- 
ference between  sweet  and  white 
potatoes  ;  composition ;  experiment 
thowing  water,btarch  test,cellulose, 
use  of  microscope  ;  drawing— plant, 
tuber,  starcli  grains  ;  digestion  of 
starch  ;  salivary  glands  ;  action  of 
saliva  on  glands ;  test  saliva  witli 
litmus  ;  pancreatic  juice  ;  food 
value  of  starch. 

Practice.— 
Boiled  ^ 
Baked 
Mashed  C 
Ci-eam  J 
Compare  nutritive  value  of  same. 


White,  sweet. 


Cereals.— Theory  and  practice. 

iiREADS.— Theory  and  practice. 

Yeast.  —  Botanical  classification  ; 
manner  of  grovvth,  with  experiments  ; 
use  of  microscope ;  drawings  ;  fer- 
mentation—lactic, acetic. 


Flour. —  Other  wheat  preparations; 
theory  and  practice. 

Protein. — Theory  ;  digestion  of  ;  under 
what  cjnditions  mos„  easily  digested  ; 
mastication ;  gastric  and  intestinal 
digestion  ;  experiments. 

Eggs.  -  Theory  and  practice. 

Tea,  Coffee,  Cocoa.  —  Theory  and 
pi-actice. 


Milk. — Theory;  nutritive  value;  care 
of  ;  pasteurisation,  sterilisation, 
cleanliness  of  utensils. 


Butter.  —Theory  and  practice;. 
Cheese  —Theory  and  practice. 
Vegetable  ClaS8Ific.\tion. 
Vk<;etaulr  Protein. 


Second  Year. 
Animal  Protein.— Tlieory  and  prac- 
tice. 


Boiling  and  Parboiling.— Practice. 
Roasting. -Theory  and  practice. 

Simmering ;  theory  and 


Broiling, 
practice 


Stewing.— Theory  and  practice. 

Braising.— Theory  and  practice. 

Fricasseeing.— Theory  and  practice. 

Frying.— Theory  and  practice. 

Made-over  Dishes.— Theory  and  prac- 
tice. 

Sauteing.— Theory  and  practice. 

Fish.— Theory  and  practice. 

Soups  with   Stock.  —  Theory  and 
practice. 


-  Theory 


Beef-Tra,  Juice  Extract. 
and  practice. 


Vegetables.— Tlieory  and  practice, 

Sal.vds.— Theory  and  practice. 

Dressings.— Theory  and  practice. 

Desserts  (sweets).— Theory  and  prac- 
tice ;  method  of  treatment  ;  their 
relation  to  food  and  diet ;  use  ami 
abuse  ;  use  of  fruits  alone,  and  in 
combination  with  other  materials  : 
reason  for  the  indigestibility  of  pastry ; 
use,  cjmposition,  and  adulteration 
of  tiavom'ings  for  desserts. 

Custards. — Practice. 

Souffles. — Practice. 

Gelatine  Jellies.— Practice. 

Batter  Puddings.— Practice. 

Cakes.— Practice. 

Sauces.— Practice. 

Canning  and  Preserving.— Method 
of  treatment. 

Germ  Theory.  —  Foreign  matter  in 
the  air  ;  dust,  and  what  it  contains  ; 
moulds,  yeasts,  and  bacteria ;  show 
moulds  on  bread,  lemon,  clieese, 
jellies,  etc.;  fermented  canned  fruits  ; 
souring  of  milk,  soups,  uncooked  and 
cooked  food,  etc.  ;  use  of  microscope  ; 
food  value  of  canned  fruits  compared 
vvitli  other  foods  ;  {)ractrce  ;  canning 
of  fruits  in  season  ;  jellies. 

Freezing.— Tlieory  and  practice. 

Physiology.— Alimentary  canal;  draw- 
ing sliowing  salivary  glands  of  canal ; 
saliva,  gastric  juice,  pancreatic  juice  ; 
experiments  witli  saliva,  pepsin,  and 
pancreatic  juice. 

Invalid  Cooking. 

Infant  Feedinc;. 

ConKiN(;  AND  Serving  of  a  Simple 
DiNNER.-Table-sotting,  decoration, 
S'.Tving. 


6490. 


C 


84 


U.S.A. — State  Grade  ScIlooIs. 


(a)  New  Details   are    larg'ely  left  to   the   discretion  of  individual 

York  City  teachers :  e.(/.,  in  a  Jewish  quarter,  special  care  is  given  to  showing 
--continued.  i^qUqj.  methods  of  cooking  the  fish  and  coarser  kinds  of  poultry 
which  form  the  staple  diet  of  "  Hebrews,"  as  Avell  as  the  right 
methods  of  keeping  .and  preserving  fruit  and  vegetables,  which 
they  consume  in  large  quantities  ;  or,  in  an  Italian  quarter,  where 
home  made  wine  is  the  rule,  the  process,  conducted  imder 
conditions  of  scrupulous  cleanliness,  is  introduced  into  the  school 
kitchen.  Habitually  the  girls  "can  '  and  preserve  fruit  and 
vegetables  for  use  throughout  the  winter  months. 

The  regrettable  and  very  weak  point  in  this  course  is  that  so 
few  pupils  share  in  the  actual  practice  work  of  each  lesson.  The 
group  method  on  a  large  scale  is  compulsorily  adopted  in  all 
schools,  about  one-third  of  the  girls  doing  practical  work,  while 
the  remainder  make  notes  and  observations.  The  one-third  who 
are  selected  for  the  practice  are  subdivided  into  cooks,  house- 
keepers, and  scullery-maids,  thus  the  actual  number  Avhich 
liandles  the  food  is  very  small,  and  no  one  child  carries  through 
a  dish  from  first  to  last.  This  incidentally  prevents  also  the 
formation  of  a  true  estimate  of  the  time  necessary  for  a  single 
individual  to  prepare  either  a  dish  or  a  meal,  as  the  "  house- 
keepers "  are  expected  to  put  ready  to  the  hands  of  the  "  cooks  " 
all  the  material  and  utensils  they  need  at  the  very  moment  they 
are  required,  while  the  "  scullery-maids"  remove  and  Avash  each 
article  inunediately  after  use,  by  which  means  the  final  clearing 
up  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  The  coincident  demand  upon  the 
attention  of  the  observers  is  rather  severe  ;  they  are  expected  to 
concentrate  their  minds  for  over  an  hour  upon  processes  in  Avhich 
they  take  no  active  share.  Excellent  and  most  comfortable 
"  tablet "  armchairs  Avere  provided  in  the  kitchens  of  the  New 
York  Cit}^  schools  I  visited,  but  many  children  stood  throughout 
the  time  in  order  to  see,  as  the  large  room  had  no  raised  gallery 
to  fiicilitate  observation.  The  supervisor  is  Avell  aAvare  of  the 
disadvantage  of  the  present  system,  but  until  far  larger  "  appro- 
priations "  are  made  by  the  Board  of  Education  neither  stalf  nor 
equipment  can  be  supplied  on  the  scale  essential  Avhere  individual 
Avork  at  each  lesson  is  the  rule;  meauAvhile  Mrs.  Williams 
belicA^es  that  she  does  the  greatest  good  to  the  greatest  numl)er 
by  pursuing  the  present  policy.  The  interest  aroused  among 
parents,  the  cordial  support  they  accord  to  the  subject,  and  the 
facilities  afforded  to  the  girls  for  home  practice,  are  all  factors  in 
the  formation  of  a  public  opinion  Avhich  will  presentlj^nsist  upon 
the  provision  of  further  opportunities  for  each  girl  in  every 
school.  The  system  of  alternate  demonstration  and  practice 
lessons,  such  as  is  the  rule  in  England,  is  quite  the  exception  in 
the  United  States,  even  if  it  be  anyAvhere  found.  In  Ncav  Y'^ork 
City  it  is  the  custom  to  demonstrate  part  of  the  time  more  or 
less  early  in  the  course,  but  only  to  do  so  just  enough  to  secure 
right  manipulation  at  each  step  by  beginners.  In  the  "  bread  " 
lesson,  for  example,  the  teacher  Avould  begin  the  kneading;  if 
"  omelettes"  be  the  subject  she  Avould  make  one  first;  but  if  the 
process  be  simple,  the  girls  Avould  carry  out  the  Avhole  under  her 


Typical  Cookivg  Coiirses. 


35 


direction,  and  this  is  the  ordinary  plan  witli  lessons  on  the  (a)  New 
cooking  of  vegetables,  or  the  broiling  and  roasting  of  incat,  etc.  ^oik  City 
Marks  are  given  for  conduct  ;  no  examination  is  held,  knowledge  ~coyi^</i«e 
being  tested  by  the  prevalent  cnstoni  of  revision.    It  is  usual  to 
inquire  and  to  record  which  girls  have  practised  at  home  what 
has  been  learnt  at  previous  lessons,  and  samples  of  home  Avork, 
to  which  special  encouragement  is  given,  are  brought  habitually 
for  criticism  or  approval.    Experience  shows  that  home  applica- 
tions are  general,  even  in  Avell-to-do  homes  where  competent 
servants  are  kept. 

High  qualifications  are  demanded  of  the  special  teachers,  and 
it  is  proposed  to  insist  in  future  upon  a  college  degree,  plus  a 
special  course  in  cookery  of  at  least  one  year.  Teachers  nuist 
be  licensed  under  the  New  York  State  Examination  Board,  after 
passing  a  successful  qualifying  examination,  of  which  the  follow- 
ing is  a  specimen  paper  : — 


EXAMINATFON  FOR  LICENCE  TO  TEACH  COOKING. 
New  York  Board  of  Examiners. 
19th  October,  1899. 

Time,  three  Jiour^^. 

1.  (a)  Describe  the  structure  of  a  coal  range,  stating  the  use  of  each  part. 
{h)  Describe  the  operating  of  such  a  range. 

(c)  Describe  your  method  of  teaching  the  structure  of  a  coal-range  and 
the  use  of  its  i)arts. 

2.  Which  is  more  easily  digestible,  a  crust  of  bread  well  browned  or  a 
boiled  ])otato  ?  Give  reasons  in  full,  indicating  the  chief  i)hysical,  chemical, 
and  physiological  processes  involvecl. 

3.  Describe  j^our  method  of  giving  a  lesson  on  meat  soup  as  regards  {a) 
instruction,  (/>)  laboratoiy  management.    Give  reasons. 

4.  {a)  Classify  the  food  principles. 

(/>)  State  the  nutritive  function  of  each  food  principle. 

(r-)  State  with  roiisons  the  a])proximate  proportion  of  each  food 
principh;  in  the  a^'erage  daily  ration. 

5.  Discuss  impurities  in  drinking  water  and  in  ice,  treating  {a)  their 
kinds,  (/>)  their  source,  (r)  their  etiects,  {<l)  household  i)recautions  or  counter- 
agents,  with  reasons. 

G.  {(i)  Show  how  in  the  matter  of  language  instruction,  the  cooking 
teacher  may  co-operate  with  the  regular  teacher. 

{h)  Suggest  specimen  themes  for  compositions  drawn  from  your 
subject. 

(r)  How  would  you  correct  su('h  comjKjsitions  ? 

(J)  What  directions  would  you  give  r(\garding  note  taking  and  the 
keei»ing  of  note-books  in  your  class 

(t)  Frame  two  arithmetical  ])rol)lems  such  as  you  would  give  pupils 
in  connection  with  their  cooking  lesson  :  in  measure  aiul  proportion, 
and  in  cost  of  food. 

7.  (a)  Classify  the  cooking  processes  with  relerciicr  to  the  fnode  of 
applying  heat. 

{b)  State  the  appn)ximate  ten)peraturc  of  the  sevtTal  proi-esses. 
6490.  c  2 


U.S.A. — State  Grade  Schools. 


(c)  State  in  degree;-;  Fahrenheit  the  proper  temperature  for  baking  a 

loaf  of  bread  ;  muffins  ;  meat.    Give  reasouKS. 

(d)  Give  two  w^ays  in  which  the  temperature  of  the  oven  may  be 
approximately  determined  without- the  use  of  a  thermometer. 

The  salaries  for  teachers  of  cooking  and  sewing  are  as  follows : 
First  year,  $900  (about  £180),  with  a  rise  of  $100  (£20)  a  year  for 
the  succeeding  three  years,  making  a  maximum  of  $1,200  (about 
£240).  Supervisors  of  these  subjects  receive  $1,500  (£300)  the  first 
year,  and  progress  by  annual  increase  of  $100  to  the  maximum  of 
$2,000  (about  £400).  The  Supervisor  in  New  York  City  gives 
personal  instruction  at  the  Teachers'  Conferences  on  the  division 
of  the  work  in  the  different  grades,  and  teachers  are  required  to 
give,  in  turn,  a  lecture  from  some  subject  chosen  from  the 
excellent  little  manual  in  use,  "  The  Elements  of  the  Theory  and 
Practice  of  Cooking."  Free  use  of  the  blackboard  during  each 
lesson  is  advocated,  also  composition  and  dictation  lessons  on  the 
class  subjects.  In  addition  to  the  use  by  teachers  of  the  State 
Board  of  Agriculture's  Food  Bulletins,  Professor.  Atwater's  "  Prin- 
ciples of  Food  and  Diet  "  is  employed  as  a  reading  book  in  each 
class ;  Mrs.  Williams  also  desires  and  ensures  that  pupils  should  be 
familiarised  with  quotations  on  cooking,  cleaning,  and  housekeep- 
ing from  the  best  authors,  to  emphasise  the  dignity  of  the 
subject,  and  to  illustrate  the  high  estimate  attached  to  home 
life  by  the  most  eminent  writers.  Valuable  books  of  reference, 
both  for  teachers  and  pupils,  are  provided  in  the  school  libraries, 
and  care  is  taken  to  keep  these  abreast  of  the  progress  made  by 
investigation  and  research  in  this  line  of  work.  To  afford  useful 
stimulus  and  assistance  to  her  staff  the  Supervisor  periodically 
conducts  parties  of  these  special  teachers  to  visit  manufactories 
of  food  products,  such  as  flour  mills,  cream  of  tartar  works, 
canning  and  baking  establishments,  or  tea  and  spice  importing 
works. 

(h)  Toledo.  Toledo,  cooking  is  an  obligatory  subject  for  girls  of  the 

Table  II.  7th  and  8th  grades  of  the  grammar  schools.  The  average  age 
is  IfS,  and  the  average  number  80  in  a  class  ;  the  otherwise 
excellent  work  being  done  has  its  practical  value  seriously 
neutralised  by  the  limited  time  allotted  for  the  lessons.  One 
and  a  quarter  hours  per  week  is  the  period  assigned  to  all 
classes  of  manual  training,  and  though  this  may  suffice  for 
deriving  some  of  the  advantages  oftcred  by  sewing,  chip-carving 
and  carpentry,  it  is  quite  inadequate  for  cooking  classes,  where 
girls  first  receive  a  small  amount  of  theoretical  instruction, 
then  prepare  and  cook  a  dish,  and  subsequently  clear  up  the 
utensils  employed  in  the  lesson.  A  one-year  course  of  2^ 
hours  weekly  lessons,  such  as  is  provided  in  Philadelphia,  is  on 
many  accounts  preferable  to  half  the  lesson  period  for  two  years, 
as  is  the  case  at  Toledo.  The  syllabus  finds  a  place  in  this 
Report  for  two  reasons — (1)  Because  the  City  Superintendent 
of  Instruction  states  that,  in  spite  of  its  shortcomings,  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Domestic  Economy  course  in  the  public  schools 
is  distinctly  apparent  in  the  homes  of  the  people,  a  statement 
amply  confirmed  by  several  teachers;  the  Superintendent  is 


Typical  CooHvg  Coiivf^e!^. 


37 


satisfied  that  not  only  are  families  served  with  better  food,  but 
houses  are  cleansed  and  their  inmates  refined  because  of  this 
training.  In  four  years  it  covers  the  field  of  the  selection,  mak- 
ing and  care  of  the  wearing  apparel  of  a  family ;  instructs  girls  in 
the  art  and  economy  of  the  purchase,  preparation  and  serving  of 
meals,  and  demonstrates  some  of  the  elementary  jninciples  of 
those  sciences  and  arts  which  underlie  housekeeping  fmd  the 
beautifying  of  homes.  (2)  Because,  though  the  syllabus 
drawn  up  by  Miss  Matilda  Campbell  of  the  Manual  Training 
High  School  has  naturally  much  the  same  scope  as  that  gener- 
ally found,  it  approaches  the  subject  in  an  educational  as  well  as 
a  utilitarian  spirit,  and  deals  more  directly  than  is  usual  with 
the  municipal  protection  of  food  and  water  by  means  of  the 
Public  Health  enactments.  The  experimental  demonstrations 
are  on  lines  similar  to  those  in  the  New  York  City  Course,  but, 
apparently,  rather  more  detailed  attention  is  given  to  the  various 
methods  employed  for  the  preservation  of  food ;  the  useful 
question  of  adulterations  and  sophistications  is  raised  on  several 
occasions,  while  some  possible  causes  of  water  pollution  are  not 
only  discussed,  but  pupils  are  incited  to  make  their  own  outside 
observations  and  to  brmg  reports  for  discussion.  The  chemistry 
of  cleaning  is  introduced  towards  the  completion  of  the  course, 
rather  than  at  its  commencement,  which,  conceivably,  might 
lead  to  more  intelligent  appreciation  of  its  principles.  An  ex- 
perienced eye,  however,  quickly  detects  the  compulsory  limitation 
of  choice  to  rapidly-cooked  dishes,  and  trained  teachers  Avill  per- 
ceive that  time  does  not  permit  the  whole  preparation  of  even 
these  to  be  carried  through  in  class,  though  here,  as  in  NeAV 
York  City,  general,  well-justified  reliance  seemed  to  me  to  be 
placed  on  home  practice.  The  girls  work  in  groups  of  two  and 
the  equipment  is  good,  but  materials  are  cut  down  to  an  unwise 
limit.  Each  teacher  is  responsible  for  20  classes  a  week,  and 
receives  poor  remuneration,  $360  per  annum  (about  £75).  No 
normal  training  in  addition  to  their  special  subject  is  required 
at  present  of  teachers,  indeed,  it  could  not  be  at  the  existing 
salary. 

With  the  exception  of  the  syllabus,  which  is  framed  on  some-  (c)  Phila- 
what  old-fashioned  conventional  lines,  Philadelphia  offers  a  clelphia. 
favourable  contrast  to  the  conditions  obtaining  in  respect  of  the 
cooking  classes  at  Toledo.  The  first  permanent  cooking  centre 
for  grammar  schools  was  established  in  1889.  In  1901,  13 
school  kitchens  were  in  operation,  and  provided  instruction  for 
about  two-thirds  of  the  whole  number  of  girls  eligible  to  attend. 
The  course  extends  through  the  nine  months  of  one  school 
year;  each  weekly  lesson  averages  21  hours,  and  is  open  to 
'Cth  grade  scholars.  The  S3^stem  gives  each  teacher  of  cooking 
10  classes  a  week,  and  about  250  girls  attend  each  centre ;  the 
actual  number  in  a  class  is  variable — the  inevitable  result  of  (co- 
education in  the  schools.  There  is  keen  competition  to  bo 
among  the  selected  quota  from  each  school ;  indeed,  the  children 
coming  from  the  best  houses  arc  often  among  the  most  eager 
applicants. 


38 


U.S.A. — State  Grade  ScJwols. 


TABLE  11 


TOLEDO   GRAMMAR   GRADE  SCHOOLS. 
Schedule  of  Course  in  Cooking. 


1st  Year. 

'ind  Year. — Cont. 

Lenp;tli  of 

Course, 
Two  Years. 

INTKODUOTION,  Ilistory  and  import- 
ance of  cooking. 

Table  ok  Weights  and  Measures 
(illustrated). 

Boiling  or  Water,  Temperature, 
etc. 

Combustion,  different  fuels  used, 
making  and  care  of  a  tire. 

Effect  of  cold  and  boiling  water  on 
food  principles  in  starch  and 
aU)umen. 

Cereals. 

V  KG  KT  a  l:  LE  C  L  ASS  I FIC  AT  I  ON . 
Seeds        Shoots  Flowers 
Roots        Stalks  Fruits 
Tubers       Jjcaves  Fungi 
Composition  and  food  value. 
Fruits. 

Composition  and  food  value. 
Recitation  and  Review  (typical 
treatment). 
Milk,  its  composition  and  food 
value. 

Analysis  :  Fat  shown  by  making 
a  small  amount  of  butter. 

(!asein,  by  action  of  rennet  .and 
acids. 

jVlilk  sugar  with  alcohol  test. 
Danger  of  disease  from  milk. 
Introduce  opituon    of  Health 
Officer  as  to  sonic  sources  of 
contamination. 
Sterilization  and  its  object. 

Soui'S,  ec(jnomy  of  as  food. 

Composition  and  food  value  of  Tea, 
(JoKFKE  and  Cocoa. 

Le.ssons  on  the  Cuts  or  Meat. 

Stewing.    Economy  of  thus  using 
cheap  cuts  of  meat. 

Pi'eservation  of  meat  by  different 
methods.      Smoking,  salting, 
freezing,  cold  storage,  etc. 

Broiling.     Direct  application  of 
intense  heat  to  cut  surface  of 
tihrin  of  meat.    How  to  retain 
the  juices  of  meat.     Evils  of 
fryitig  meat. 

Composition     fcod  value  of  iveats. 

Baking   Rowdier.  Composition. 
Chemical    union   of  .acid  and 
alkali,  liberating  C  0„  :  adulter- 
ation with  ahun  anil  starch. 
rrox>oitions  of  acids  and  alkali. 

Breads. 

Invalid  Cooking. 

Neatness  and  daintiness  of  ser- 
vice. 

Thorough   cooking  of  starchy 
foods. 

Low  temperature   cooking  of 

albuminous  foods. 
Practice 

Cheesi;.  Manufacture,  composition 

and  food  value. 
Table  setting  and  serving. 

Cooking  and  serving  of  a  simple 

dinner  by  each  class. 
Freezing. 

Eggs. 

Composition  and  food  value. 

Effect  of  heat  upon  albumen. 

Test  for  fresh  eggs  -preserva- 
tion of. 

Soft  and  hard  cooked. 
Soui'.— Made  from  meat. 

Amount  of  meat :  slow  cooking. 

Stock. 
Meat. 

Review  cuts  of  meat. 
Chickens. 

How  to  buy. 

How  to  prepare  for  cooking. 
Fish. 

How  to  tell  fiesh  tish. 
Com))osition  and  food  value. 
Practice. 

RliVlEVV  JSIaKING  15READ. 

Digestion  of  Food. 

ExpHrimcnts    with  artificial 
digestion. 
F'rying. 
Pastry. 

Wati:r  (typical  treatment). 
Surface  wells. 
Deep  wells. 

j  Rivers  ami  brook 
Its  .source  4  Springs. 

[  Rain  wa'^er. 
Test  of  hard  and  soft  water. 

(  For  cooking 
f     1    •!•      j  iturposes. 
lvea.sons  for  boihng  -j  rpj  destroy 

I    germ  life. 
r>anger  of  surface  wells. 
I*u|)iis  investigate  wells  in  their 

neighbourhood  and  report. 
Possible  sources  of  contamination. 
Salads. 

I)essI':rts.   Use  and  abuse.    U.se  of 
fruits  alone  and  in  composition. 
Adulteration  of  flavouring  ex- 
tracts. 

Chemistry  of  Cleaning. 

f  Soap. 

Al-iicri-ils  J  Washing 
Mattnals  ^  T'owder 

l^Ammou'a  Sapolio 

Dirt  [ 

&a 
f                1  Fresh  air. 
Natural     ]  Sunlight. 
I  Heat 

Disin-   !  /Carbolic 
fectanis)  acid. 

!  Sulphur 
V                I  fumes. 
Flour.— Manufactured  flour. 

Spring  wheat. 
Winter  wheat. 
Analysis  of.    Separating  starch 

and  gluten. 
Burn  flour  to  show  presmce  of 

water  aiul  mineral  matter. 
Yeast.— Where  found. 

Methoil  of  Growth. 
Chemical  caused  by  its 
growth. 
/Lactic. 

Fermentation    Alcoholic    ( llus- 
VAcetic  traied.) 
Table  Setting  and  Serving. 

Daintiness,   cleanliness,  quiet- 
UPSR.  c '  >efu'Me«s. 

Average  age, 
13. 

No.  in  class, 
») 

Grades 
VII  &  VIII. 

Lessons, 
l^y  hours 
"weekly. 

2nd  Year. 

»-;iiAysiKioATiON  OF  Food. 
UsiiJS  of  food  in  the  body. 
'liiE  Human  Body. 

Elt-i  lents  and  compounds  com- 
posing it. 

Growth. 

Food,  its   function,  waste  and 

repair  :  heat  and  energy. 
Typical     foods     of  different 

Typical  Cooking  Courses. 


39 


The  course  comprises  instruction  in  the  usual  processes, 
economy,  cleanUness,  method,  promptness,  and  the  development 
of  executive  ability  being  the  primary  objects  ;  the  high  standard 
demanded  of  the  special  teachers  obviates  any  risk  of  disparage- 
ment, of  the  importance  of  the  intellectual  value  of  Domestic 
Science.  A  manual  is  provided  for  the  use  of  the  pupils,  which 
contains  a  very  extensive  variety  of  dishes,  including  delicate 
invalid  cookery,  the  selection  from  which  is  left  to  the  judgment 
of  the  teacher.    The  recipes  arc  generally  distributed,  legibly 

Erinted  on  cards,  for  use  during  the  lessons,  which  minimises  the 
u'ge  amount  of  time  otherwise  absorbed  by  note  making,  which 
is  then  limited  to  a  record  of  methods  or  other  observations. 
The  girls  work  cither  individually  or  in  groups,  according  to  the 
particular  recipe  to  be  carried  out.  Both  oral  teaching  and 
practical  demonstrations  are  given  by  the  teachers ;  the  propor- 
tion of  time  devoted  to  the  two  depends  upon  the  subject  under 
consideration,  and  a  little  upon  the  individuality  of  the  teacher ; 
the  whole  period  is  never  devoted  to  teaching  or  demonstration 
except  at  the  introductory  lesson  The  teacher  actively  directs 
the  pupils'  work,  and  where  group  work  is  fur  some  good  reason 
inevitable,  she  divides  it  so  far  as  may  be  anjong  the  members 
of  the  group  in  such  a  way  that  each  member  may  take  part  in 
each  step  of  the  process.  Periodical  "  quizzes  "  are  conducted 
by  the  teachers,  and  examinations  form  part  ot  the  ciu-riculum  ; 
table  setting,  and  the  cleaning  of  room,  sink  and  utensils  con- 
stitute a  part  of  such  tests.  The  equipment,  with  the  exception 
of  the  necessary  plumbing,  is  left  entirely  to  the  discretion  of 
the  Supervisor,  Miss  Wright ;  while  very  simple  it  seems  com- 
plete. All  cooking  teachers  are  required  to  be  graduates  of  the 
Drexel  Institute,  and  their  sound  scientific  training  must 
gradually  influence  school  methods  ;  the  Supervisor  is  also  hope- 
ful of  securing  by  degrees  more  connection  with  physiology  and 
other  suitable  subjects  now  included  in  the  regular  school 
course.  Numerous  instances  of  home  applications  were  ad- 
vanced, and  each  child  is  systematically  called  upon  to  say  what 
she  has  done  at  home  each  week  during  the  interval  between  the 
classes. 

At  Washington,  cooking  is  an  obligatory  subject  for  girls  (ri)  \Yasliing- 
in  the  7th  and  8th  grades,  the  total  number  of  lessons  ii^?,?^\^;9j 
the  two  years' course  is  72,  of  1\  hours' duration.    The  classes  J^'Ji^^^J^- 
are  held  at  centres,  each  of  which  swerves  a  weekly  average  of 
200  pupils.    As  has  been  said,  the  mmd)er  in  each  class  rarely 
exceeds  12 — an  arrangement  supported  by  the  Supervisor,  Miss 
Emma  Jacobs,  for  various  reasons,  to  which  I  have  referred 
below.     In   the   new  schools  large  cjooking  laboratories  are 
provided ;  well  fitted,  spacious,  with  an  air  of  great  comfort. 
The    arrangement   of   lessons  varies   somewhat    each  year, 
though  in  substance  the  syllabus  is  the  same;  that  employed 
the  tirst  year  is  repeated  in  a  more  extended  form  during  the 
second.    All  recipes  are  written  from  memor}^  after  the  article 
has  been  made,  except  in  such  cases  as  soup  stock  and  bread, 
when  it  is  impossible  to  complete  the  entire  process  in  the 


40 


U.S.A.-^State  Grade  Schools. 


(d)  Washing  lesson  period ;  these  recipes  are,  therefore,  dictated.  The  oiit- 
linued^^^'     ^^^^^  sheep,  calf  and  lamb  are  supplied  to  each  girl 


pq 


S  4^. 

o 


^  SCI? 


5  O 


;>     o  X  a 


I  s 


a;  «-  i-  a 

a>  01  o  ci; 


^  " 
I  =  'A  . 

XI  V 


.  p 


.S    O    S   ^  * 


'i^  o  §  ° 

%  P  m  <X, 
C  O  «  ,^  tC 


ce  3j  g 


O  O  S 


5  >. 


is  2  o 

cn  3J  X 


1-^ 


Coo 


a 


^0)--     5  «^     g  ^  2 


2*  ^ 

^  O  3 

.2 


HO 


01 

'is 


Typical  Cooking  Courses. 


41 


attending  the  classes  :  these  she  fills  in  and  numbers  as  the  joints  (c?)  Wasliino-- 
so  defined  are  cooked  or  described.  The  market  price  is  recorded  ton—cmi- 
of  each  article  used,  and  the  variation  in  price  of  certain  articles  tinued. 
is  also  shown,  as  the  date  of  each  statement  is  recorded  for  sub- 
sequent comparison ;  pupils  are  called  upon  at  intervals  to 
compute  the  cost  of  meals  from  data  so  collected  ;  the  recipes 
provided  give  quantities  sufficient  for  six  persons.  Knowledge 
IS  tested  by  revision  lessons,  Avhich  are  very  liberally  introduced ; 
specimens  of  home  efforts  are  also  invited  and  constantly  brought 
for  criticism,  while  the  practical  value  and  influence  of  the 
work  are  evidenced  by  the  frequent  letters  of  approval  received 
from  mothers,  grateful  for  the  assistance  gained  in  home  life 
from  school  tuition.  The  lessons  seemed  spirited  and  most 
practical,  and  were  evidently  enjoyed  by  those  who  took  part  in 
them.  There  arc  no  demonstrations  in  the  English  sense  of  the 
term.  Miss  Jacobs  believes  that  better  results  attend  work 
performed  by  the  pupils  under  careful  supervision ;  she  there- 
fore allows  only  one-third  of  the  twelve  girls  to  w^ork  at  the  same 
time,  two  as  cooks,  two  as  housekeepers,  while  the  remaining 
eight  watch,  criticise  and  make  notes.  Those  who  are  selected 
to  work,  do  so,  following  the  explicit  verbal  directions  of  the 
teacher,  who  can  at  once  see  and  correct  an  aw^kward  or  imper- 
fect movement.  If  a  pupil  fails  to  secure  correct  manipulation 
the  teacher  will  guide  the  child's  hand,  and  show  how  the 
muscles  must  be  controlled,  for  instance,  in  the  kneadmg  of 
bread.  If  the  children  are  likely  to  have  acquired  a  poor  method 
of  holding  an  implement  or  using  the  muscles  in  some  familiar 
home  process,  the  teacher  would  show  the  correct  and  better 
way  of  doing  the  work  before  giving  her  directions,  as  wdien 
beating  white  of  eggs  to  a  stift*  paste.  The  fact  that  no  teacher 
can  watch  at  once  the  work  of  20  children  and  be  sure  that 
each  is  doing  the  work  with  accurate  facility  is  one  of  Miss 
Jacob's  strongest  arguments  in  favour  of  the  Washington  system. 
"  Our  children,"  she  writes,  "  are  able  to  work  from  dictation, 
because  from  the  first  day  they  enter  school  they  are  trained  to 
obey  directions  which  call  into  play  the  muscles  of  the  hands 
and  other  parts  of  the  body  in  the  execution  of  orders.  Manual 
training  begins  for  them  in  the  Kindergarten,  and  the  work  for 
each  grade  calls  into  play  more  groups  of  muscles  and  other 
powers.  I  do  not  mean  to  say  that  the  manipulation  in  the 
cooking  classes  is  all  that  could  be  desired,  but  with  only  two 
girls  at  work  the  teacher  secures  better  results ;  thus  something 
more  perfect  is  presented  to  the  class  without  having  to  use 
every  alternate  lesson  for  demonstration  on  her  part." 

High  qualifications  are  demanded  of  the  teachers ;  graduates 
of  the  Pratt  or  Drexel  Institutes,  or  of  some  Hrst-class  training 
school  are  preferred.  Details  of  the  lessons  and  personal  obser- 
vation show  th(^  attention  d(n  ot(Ml  to  learning  the  "  reason  why," 
to  basing  practice  on  intelligent  knowledge,  and  the  importance 
attached  to  thoroughness.  Frequent  revision,  even  at  the 
expense   of  fewer   recipes,   is   preferred  to  mere  mechanical 


42 


U.S.A. — State  Grade  Schools. 


compliance  with  a  stipulated  programme.  The  intelligent  efforts 
to  connect  the  Domestic  Science  work  with  the  language, 
literature  and  plan  work  (geography)  throughout  the  grades 
are  largely  due  to  Miss  Jacob's  intiuence;  e.g.  in  the  Nature 
work,  under  animals,  the  bee,  hen,  duck  and  rabbit  (creatures 
of  food  value  to  mankind)  are  discussed  and  studied  ;  under 
plants,  the  development,  growth  and  fruition  of  the  bean  and 
pea  and  their  uses  in  the  daily  diet,  are  observed  and  noted  ; 
under  institutional  life,  ice,  ice  wagons,  ice  houses,  markets, 
their  produce,  how  and  why  sold,  find  a  place.  In  number 
work,  simple  exercises  in  the  application  of  the  number  of  pecks 
in  a  bushel,  quarts  in  a  gallon  and  so  on,  are  based  on  articles 
in  common  family  use.  Jn  language  work,  work  done  in  and 
around  a  home  is  often  the  selected  sid)ject,  with  the  direct 
object  of  arousing-  interest  in  the  right  fulfilment  of  home  duties. 
The  formation  of  good  habits  in  the  protection  and  right  care  of 
food  is  fortunately  promoted  by  the  stringent  milk  regulations 
in  force  in  Washington.* 
Coat  of  sunmiarise  accurately  the  expenditure  involved  by  Grade 

Classes.  School  Cooking  Courses  is  impossible;  the  cost  of  ecpiipment  is 
much  affected  by  the  prices  which  rule  in  a  particular  city  or 
State— labour  is  nuicli  dearer  in  the  east  than  in  the  west,  to 
the  extent  of  almost  doubling  ttie  cost  of  some  articles,  such  as 
tables — metal  work  is  subject  to  almost  equal  variations,  and  the 
"appropriations"  granted  bring  in  another  element  of  un- 
certainty. In  Chicago,  given  a  suitable  room,  $150  (£80)  sulHces 
to  equip  a  class  of  24  well ;  but,  were  other  figures  quoted,  they 
Avould  admit  of  no  really  accurate  comparison.  In  more  than 
one  city  the  cooking  tables  were  made  by  the  boys  as  part  of 
their  manual  training  course.  The  cost  per  head  per  lesson  is 
much  more  generally  the  same,  one  cent  represents  a  fair  average. 
At  New  York  City  the  cost  varies  from  |  cent  to  1 J  cents  ;  at 
Boston  it  must  not  exceed  |  cent ;  at  Chicago  1^  cent  is  the  rule; 
at  Detroit,  Ih  cent  is  allowed.  This  means  that  the  quantities 
for  individual  work  are  very  small,  though,  as  a  whole,  food 
stuffs,  and  especially  vegetables  and  fruit,  are  cheaper  than  in 
]l]ngland.  Each  class  eats  on  the  spot  the  food  it  has  prepared, 
miless  request  be  made  to  take  specimens  away  from  the  centre 
for  display  to  the  Principal  or  teacher  at  the  school  attended. 
This  custom  is  prevalent  throughout  every  grade  of  institution. 
I  still  reineml)er  the  novel  impression  it  conveyed  to  me,  as  a 
complete  stranger,  on  the  occasion  of  my  visit  to  the  Pratt 
Institute  shortly  after  my  arrival  in  the  United  States.  I  had 
watched  the  class  of  normal  students  engaged  in  the  prepji ration 
of  a  suitable  meal  for  a  child  of  IS  months;  immediately  the 
processes  were  complete  and  had  been  criticised  by  the  teacher, 
e.ich  drew  out  her  sliding  seat,  sat  down  and,  with  the  most 
businesslike   air,   disposed   of  her   handiwork.    The  English 

■^^  No  person  or  company  is  permitted  to  send  milk  into  the  city  who 
does  not  conform  to  the  requirements  as  to  air  space,  cleanliness,  ])rotection 
of  the  milk,  etc.,  in  the  cow  byres  and  dairies  from  which  the  milk  is 
des])atched.    The  rules  are  stated  to  be  rigidly  enforced. 


Needlework. 


43 


method  of  selhng  the  food  cooked  excited  very  severe  comments : 
the  general  opinion  was  that  only  by  eating  her  production  could 
a  student  of  any  age  test  its  quality  and  really  gauge  its  short- 
comings or  good  points.  To  require  children  to  handle,  smell, 
see,  savoury  or  sweet  dishes,  and  then  to  turn  their  backs  upon 
them  was  considered  a  relic  indeed  of  Puritan  days.  As  each 
Grade  School  Course  includes  the  making  of  cake  and  ice  cream 
(the  latter  really  almost  a  national  dish),  on  some  occasions  a 
truly  festive  spirit  pervades  the  kitchens.  The  usual  plan  is  to 
conclude  the  whole  course  with  the  cooking  and  serving  of  a 
sinq)le  three-course  dinner,  to  which  are  invited  some  members 
of  the  Board  of  Echication,  or  the  Principal  and  a  few  of  the 
staff;  the  young  cooks  are  responsible  for  the  provision,  for  a 
given  sum,  of  a  suitable  aiid  seasonable  meal,  in  siilliciL'nt 
nutritive  proportions.  The  dainty  ways  and  quick  ])cr('ej)lions 
observable  in  American  girls  make  them  deft  at  the  table  servi(;e 
upon  which  such  stress  is  laid  during  the  cooking  courses,  and 
table  manners  "  are  by  no  means  neglected.  I  was  glad  to  hear 
emphasis  laid  upon  daily  care  and  method  i-ather  than  upon  the 
occasional  display  for  which  this  concluding  dinner  might  other- 
Avise  set  a  precedent. 

Salaries  are  a  variable  quantity,  thougii  Toledo  is  fortunately  Teachers, 
conspicuous  in  its  very  low  scale  of  reimmeration.  Those  in 
force  at  Chicago  seem  to  me  a  fairly  usual  average :  i.e.  $500 
(£100)  the  lirst  year,  rising  by  annual  increase  of  $50  or  $100 
to  $900  (about  £180).  The  tendency  is  for  the  salaries  of  special 
teachers  to  rise.  As  each  year  the  standard  of  training  is  some- 
what raised,  the  Normal  and  Technical  Institute  classes  are 
followed  by  a  higher  class  of  women;  superintendents  also 
realise  the  valu'3  to  the  work  of  "  all  round "  as  well  as  ot 
"  special "  knowledge,  and  demand  evidence  of  a  good  general 
education  as  well  as  expert  knowledge.  The  grade  school 
teacher  of  cookery  is  not  one  apart,  she  is  as  highly  trained  and 
qualified  as  any  one  of  her  colleagues,  and  shares  their  lives  nnd 
interests.  I  have  reason  to  believe  that  the  tea(?hers  at  the 
Hyde  School,  Boston,  are  not  unique  in  their  frecjuently  volun- 
tary meetings  to  discuss  the  inter-rela,tions  between  the  various 
subjects  for  which  they  are  severally  responsible,  so  that  in- 
telligent interest  may  be  stimulated  by  co-ordination  of  subjects 
in  all  the  various  classes,  cookery  taking  its  place  on  equal  terms 
with  history,  literature,  or  languages. 

2. — Needleworl', 

Needlework  is  not  an   accepted  "  constant  quantity  "  in  a  Of  recent 
United  States   public   school  programme  as  it  is  in  Great  ^^"^^  ^i?''^"^^ 
Britain.    It  is  not  imusual  to  learn  that  the  introduction  of  the  adoption, 
subject,  for  so  limited  a  p(^riod  as  even  one  or  two  years  out  of 
the  eight  which  constitute  the  full  curriculum,  coincides  only 
with  the  comparatively  recent  adoption  of  manual  training  into 
the  schools  of  such  cities  as  Detroit  or  Cleveland,  and  it  would 
be  possible  to  name  inq:)ortant  towns  where  no  instruction  at  / 
all  in  sewing  is  included  in  (^lemontary  school  work.  / 


44 


U.S.A.—State  Grade  Schools, 


Various  causes  are  assigned  for  this  fact:   (1)  There  are 
those  who  attribute  it  to  the  very  rapid  development  of  the 
country,  with  which  its  system  of  education,  in  spite  of  its  great 
elasticity,  finds  it  no  easy  task  to  keep  pace ;  but  a  few  years 
since,  in  many  districts  the  distance  to  bo  accomplished  to  reach 
a  school  made  the  attendance  so  limited  in  time  that  only 
subjects  which  could  not  be  acquired  at  home  found  a  place  in 
the  time  table.    (2)   The  sudden  advancement  of  industrial 
fortunes  coincident  with  the  country's  grov/tli  threw  the  mental 
perspective  of  the  masses  awry,  so  that  parental  and  public 
misconceptions  of  the  value  and  dignity  of  manual  occupations 
bulk  yet  as  large  obstacles  to  the  universal  introduction  of 
needlework  into  the  Grade  schools.    (8)  The  world-wide,  slow- 
dying  delusion  that  book-learning  is  the  only  agent  of  culture, 
and  that  attention  should  be  concentrated  upon  the  printed  page 
during  school  hours,  is  still  responsible  for  the  continued  exist- 
ence of  a  monotony  of  method  under  some  Boards  of  Education 
by  whom  the  intellectual  stimulus  derived  from  variety  of  occu- 
pation is  as  yet  imperfectly  recognised. 
Methods  of      Outside  New  England  the  present  rapid  adoption  of  needle- 
Teaching     work  as  a  school  subject  seems  to  me  the  direct  outcome  of  an 
and  Length  evident  reaction  in  favour  of  almost  any  form  of  manual  occupa- 
Course.     iIqyi.    The  shortcomings  for  purposes  of  absolute  exactness  in 
manipulation   inherent  in   the  employment  of  finely-woven, 
pliable  materials,  which  also  make  considerable  demands  on  eye- 
sight, and  favour  "  coaxings  "  to  conceal  slight  inaccuracies,  are 
overlooked  or  condoned,  in  view  of  the  other  facilities  offered. 
One  of  the  most  attractive  of  these  is  the  small  expense  incurred 
by  the  employment  of  needlework  as  a  branch  of  manual  train- 
ing for  girls,  where  boys  enjoy  the  superior  advantages,  for  the 
special  educational  object  in  view,  of  wood  and  metal  work. 
To  maintain,  so  far  as  possible,  the  parallelism  of  the  two  em- 
ployments, several  directors  of  the  subject  in  different  cities 
have  adopted  the  method  of  dealing  with  the  various  stitches  as 
so  many  "  exercises,"  to  be  carried  out  on  pieces  of  unbleached 
calico  from  4^1  x  4^  inches  square  to  9  x  5  inches  in  size. 
These  are  then  fastened  into  a  book,  to  be  retained  by  the  pupil ; 
usually  written  descriptions,  and  very  frequently  excellent  pencil 
sketches,  are  appended  of  the  position  of  the  hand  in  sewing, 
for  instance,  or  the  fixing  of  the  material  for  a  bias  seam.  Un- 
less the  acquirement  of  the  usual  stitches  be  followed  by  their 
sufficient  application  to  a  suitable  garment,  these  "exercises"  are 
decidedly  unsatisfactory.     All  difficulties  of  manipulation  are 
emphasised  by  the  use  of  such  small  pieces  of  material,  in- 
sufficient in  themselves  to  provide  space  for  real  practice  or  to 
reproduce  ordinary  conditions  of  employment;  and  the  learneronly 
experiences  the  discouragement  attendant  on  most  first  attempts, 
unmitigated  by  the  subsequent  realisation  of  the  power  gained 
througii  repetition  and  constant  application.     This  from  the 
utilitarian  point  of  view.    From  that  of  manual  training,  does 
not  the  real  worth  of  any  "  exercise  "  adopted  for  this  purpose 
depend  upon  sufficient  time  alloAvance  to  favour,  if  possible,  to 


Needlewoi'k. 


ensure,  the  individual  development  of  accuracy,  facility  and  Methods  of 
skill ;  does  it  not  almost  presuppose  sufncient  opportunity  for  '^j^j^L^'^f.i.] 
repetition,  so  that  success  be  gained  by  sturdy  strides  of  indepen-  of  Course  ^ 
dence,  though  these  involve  a  few  bad  falls,  rather  than  by  care-  —continued. 
fully  guided,  faltering,  unstable  steps,  as  of  an  infant,  whose  leading 
strings  have  spared  it  any  hard  tumble,  but  have  robbed  it  at  the 
same  time  of  the  healthful  spirit  of  active  self-reliance  ?    I  am 
by  no  means  alone  in  the  opinion  that  these  "  sample  "  books,  if 
desired,  should  form  the  apex,  not  the  base,  of  such  a  course, 
when  their  contents  would  serve  to  demonstrate  the  skill  gained 
by  long  practice  on  actual  garments,  rather  than  the  painfully 
executed  handiwork  of  untrained  lingers. 

This,  at  best  unsatisfactory,  method  seemed  to  me  to  be 
carried  to  an  extreme  at  Toledo,  in  spite  of  the  undoubtedly 
good  intention  of  the  organiser ;  all  the  5th  and  6th  grade  pupils 
receive  75  minutes  manual  training  instruction  per  week.  The 
special  teachers  visit  each  school  in  pairs,  a  teacher  of  wood- 
work and  a  teacher  of  sewino;  too^ether.  The  mixed  classes  are 
divided,  and  the  boys  do  chip- work  on  one  side  of  their  ordinary 
class-rooms,  while  the  girls  learn  to  sew  upon  the  other  side. 
The  course  for  each  term  contains  a  certain  number  of  problems 
and  pieces,  with  the  object  of  allowing  a  pupil  to  progress  slowly 
or  rapidly  according  to  ability,  and  to  secure  for  each  child  a 
fair  share  of  individual  attention.  Thirty  pieces  of  needlework 
must  be  completed  during  the  two  j^ears ;  as  a  consequence,  very 
small  samples  of  each  stitch  or  its  application  are  possible,  and 
the  results,  as  observed,  did  not  appear  very  satisfactory.  The 
boys  were  interested,  eager,  and  happy;  the  girls  uninterested, 
bored,  and  rather  careless.  This  introduction  to  "  Manual  Train- 
ing "  is  succeeded  in  grades  7  and  8  by  cooking  for  the  girls 
and  by  carpentry  for  the  boys ;  the  change  of  attitude  among 
the  girls  was  significant  and  striking. 

The  length  of  these  sewing  courses  as  well  as  the  methods 
adopted  are  variable ;  that  advocated  in  "  Scientific  Sewing  and 
Garment  Cutting,"  by  Antoinette  Wakeman  and  Louise  M. 
Heller,  illustrates  one  in  common  use  (this  seemed  a  favourite 
book  wich  teachers).  The  latter  lady  is  the  originator  of  a 
system  of  cutting  out  generally  adopted,  which  is  guided  by 
simple,  easily-comprehended,  mathematical  principles. 

This  manual  provides  for  sewing  practice  throughout  the  eight 
public  school  grades  ;  an  exceptional  arrangement  at  present, 
for  there  are  still  cities  where  girls  get  no  training  in  needlework 
under  high  school  age.  The  usual  length  of  grade  school  course 
is  two  years,  though  Philadelphia  and  Brooklyn  cover  approxi- 
mately the  ground  dealt  with  in  Miss  Heller's  book,  during  the 
five  years  needlework  is  taught  in  their  schools. 

The  custom  seems  general  of  employing  coarse  canvas  for 
beginners,  and  at  no  period  of  the  grade  school  course  is  the  use 
of  fine  material  approved  ;  coloured  thread  on  a  cream-toned 
material  is  generally  employed  during  the  first  stages.  The 
methods  of  instruction  and  usual  scope  of  practice  closely  re- 
semble those  usual  in  this  country,  but  1  think  greater  emphasis 


46 


U.S.A. — State  Grade  Schools. 


is  laid  on  the  artistic  side ;  grace  of  form,  taste  in  colour,  selec- 
tion and  (combination  are  dealt  with  at  every  stage.  Large 
frames  with  coarse  canvas  are  supplied  for  tlie  teachers'  demon- 
strations, and  a  very  liberal  use  is  made  of  the  blackboard  for 
illustrative  purposes.     Satisfactory  importance  is  attached  to 
cleanliness  and  care  in  keeping  of  mat  erials.* 
Specimen         i  include  a  few  notes  on  the  courses  and  methods  I  observed 
Coursey.      in  different  cities,  but,  as  I  have  already  said,  there  is  too  wide  a 
diversity  of  detail  in  practice  to  permit  of  generalisations,  while 
the  tenor  of  the  whole  is  closely  allied  to  what  has  been  long- 
established  in  England. 
(a.)  Brof  k-  Brookline  (Mass.)  needlework  is  continued  throughout  the 

line,  Mas^:.    grades  in  a  few  schools  where  French  and  Latin  are  not  taught. 

in  the  other  schools  an  hour  a  week  is  devoted  to  it  from  Grades 
in.  to  VL  inclusive.  The  co-educational  system  is  here  consis- 
tently enforced :  boys  share  these  classes  with  the  girls  and 
prove  themselves  very  adept  in  the  use  of  the  needle.  An  excellent 
example  of  home  work  recurs  to  my  memory  in  the  form  of  a 
neatly  patched  knee  in  a  cloth  knickerbocker,  executed  by  the 
small  boy  wearer.  At  this  particular  school  one  room  was  set 
apart  for  sewing.  The  actual  method  of  instruction  by  the 
motherly  teacher  might  be  described  as  "  old  fashioned,"  but  the 
results  secured  and  the  interest  aroused  spoke  volumes  for  its 
merits,  plus,  of  course,  the  personality  of  the  instructress.  She 
mentioned  Avith  gratification  the  increased  neatness  and  atten- 
tion to  personal  appearance  apparent  after  a  few  weeks'  attendance 
in  her  classes,  and  referred  also  to  the  influence  on  posture  and 
carriage  which  follows  the  making  and  fitting  of  simple  blouses 
by  the  girls  in  the  upper  grades.  Additional  and  useful  interest 
is  lent  to  these  sewing  lessons  by  the  use  of  a  well-proportioned 
doll,  equal  in  size  to  a  child  of  three  or  four  years  of  age,  upon 
Avhich  garments  of  every  description  are  fitted  b}^  their  makei-s, 
who  are  thus  stimulated  to  accuracy  in  measurement,  care  in 
cutting  out.,  skill  in  fitting,  and  to  a  generally  business-like 
attitude  in  their  manipulaticm  of  materials. 

*Mi.ss  fleller  describes  an  inexpensive  case  in  which  work  and  materials 
can  be  kept  •  which,  with  modifications  for  convenience,  was  to  be  nc^ticed 
in  several  schools. 

It  consists  of  a  series  of  nine  wooden  shelves  arranged  between  two 
standards,  4^x1  ft.,  i)laccd  against  a  wall.  Arranged  in  tiers  of  seven 
on  each  shell'  are  strong  pasteboard  boxes,  furnished  with  small  brass 
rings,  so  that  they  can  be  tlrawn  out  with  ease.  Each  box  is  12 
ins.  long  by  8  wide  by  5  deep.  On  the  front  part,  beneath  the  ring,  is 
l)asted  a  slip  of  paper  bearing  the  name  of  the  pu})il  whose  work  is  placed 
in  the  box.  The  innate  mechanical  ability  of  the  Americans  shows  itself  in 
many  little  neat,  simple  devices  of  tliis  kind,  which  economise  troubh',  and 
promote  order  and  cleanliness.  At  ]>uflalo,  the  boys  make  w(n'k-calnnets 
for  the  girls'  use  as  part  of  their  manual  training.  In  some  Philadelphian 
.  ,  . .  schools  a  simple  labour  saving  appliance  is  in  use,  devised  and  made  by 

one  of  the  staff  (Miss  Trumble).  A  ])iece  of  stiff  card  is  fitted  about  Ih 
ins.  below  the  surface  of  a  wooden  (cigar)  box,  the  card  being  perforated 
with  rows  of  oblong  holes.  At  the  conclusion  of  each  sewing  class  the  box 
is  carried  round  by  one  of  the  pupils ;  each  of  her  companions  drops  her 
]iair  of  scissors  into  one  of  the  slits,  the  number  of  which  corresponds  with 
the  number  of  scissors  in  use.  The  whole  number  are  thus  rapidly  collecteel 
and  ready  for  the  next  occasion,  the  absence  of  a  pair  is  immediately 
detected,  while  the  scissor  blades  are  protected  from  damage  and  dust. 


SjMchnen  Needlework  Courses. 


47 


To  arouse  a  similar  active  spirit  of  self-help  in  their  sewing  (h.)  Boston, 
classes  seems  the  object  of  many  Boston  teachers.  At  an  exliibit 
of  the  year's  needlework  in  one  school  I  saw  not  only  creditable 
sewing,  especially  in  the  execution  of  buttonholes,  but  undergar- 
ments and  blouses  cut  out  and  made  at  home  almost  without  any 
assistance  or  supervision  ;  these  gave  evidence  of  personal  selection 
on  the  part  of  the  maker,  combined  with  efforts  to  produce  what 
would  beof  service  at  home  and  satisfactory  to  the  teacher  at  school. 

In  the  schools  of  Cleveland,  Ohio,  manual  training  includes  (c.)  Cleve- 
sewing,  and  the  whole  is  under  the  charge  of  a  male  supervisor,  land,  Ohio, 
a  not  infrequent  occurrence;  the  work  is  considered  to  be 
developing  satisfactorily.  In  the  earlier  grades  simple  cla}^ 
modellmg,  cutting  and  pasting  of  paper  into  cubes,  prisms,  etc.,  is 
the  rule  for  both  sexes.  Subsequently  boys  have  drawing,  knife 
and  woodwork,  while  girls  have  sewing  in  grades  V.  VI.  and  VII., 
and  cooking  in  Grade  VIII.  The  sewing  course  covers  running, 
basting,  overcasting,  hemming  and  stitching.  These  are  applied 
in  grade  V.  to  small  model  aprons,  pillow-slips  and  laundry  bags.  ]  n 
grade  VI.,  in  addition  to  "  review  lessons  "  of  stitches  previously 
learned,  corners  are  "mitred,"  patches  prepared  and  henuned, 
bands  cut  and  stitched,  ruffles  gathered  and  sewn.  In  grade  VII. 
buttonholes  are  made,  garments  brought  from  home  are  darned 
and  patched,  and  simple  garments  are  cut  out  in  calico  and  print. 

In  Philadelphia,  40  instructors  in  sewing  work  are  under  the 
direction  of  a  most  able  woman  supervisor.  Miss  Kirby.  Each  of  ^  phiia- 
her  staff  has  an  assigned  district  comprising  adjacent  schools ;  deipliia. 
about  60,000  girls  are  eligible  for,  and  receive  these  lessons :  Table  IV. 
boys  share  the  instruction  in  some  schools  and  are  among  the 
brightest  pupils.  The  course  covers  six  grades  (III.  to  VJIL). 
The  City  allows  G  cents  per  annum  for  each  child  engaged  in 
sewing.  There  are  two  lessons  a  week  of  35  or  40  minutes  each. 
Every  pupil  is  provided  with  needles,  pins,  thimble,  scissors, 
buttonhole  scissors,  cotton,  dressmakers'  scales,  emery  bags, 
drafting  paper  and  calico.  Very  free  use  is  made  of  the  black- 
board by  teachers,  who  endeavour,  by  question  and  answer,  to 
enable  each  pupil  to  grasp  the  underlying  principles  of  their 
work.  The  genuine  enthusiasm  aroused  speaks  volumes  for  the 
excellence  of  the  teaching ;  great  pleasure  and  pride,  of  a  purely 
disinterested  character,  are  taken  by  ilie  children  in  this  subject, 
for  neither  marks  nor  j^romotion  depend  upon  the  ])roficiency 
displayed.  The  reward  for  progress  takes  the  form  of  permission 
to  make  some  dainty  and  atti-active  article,  su(;h  as  an 
embroidered  petticoat,  a  smocked  frock,  a  Liberty  hat  for  a 
younger  member  of  the  family,  or  some  special  garment  whi(?h 
appeals  to  the  fancy  of  the  young  seamstress.  In  each  grade  I 
saw  specimens  of  really  ex([uisite  needlework,  Avhich  seemed  the 
rule  rather  than  the  exception.  Instruction  in  how  to  draft  and 
cut  paper  patterns  is  given  systematically  throughout  the  course; 
the  elder  girls  manifestly  enjoy  the  cutting  and  fitting  of  a 
simple  dress  and  blouse,  Av  hich  form  the  sidjjectof  their  last  year  s 
needlework.  All  the  course  is  carried  through  in  tlie  ordinary 
class-rooms;  table  acconunodation  is  provided  for  the  cutting  out. 


48 


U.S.A. — State  Grade  Sclwots. 


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Needletuork  Courses. 


49 


In  Washington,  sewing  is  taken  for  Ih  hours  a  week  during  (e)  Washing- 
4  years  of  the  school  hfe.  The  number  in  each  class  averages 
25  for  plam  sewing,  18  for  the  cutting  and  fitting  of  plain 
dresses  ;  special  rooms  are  provided  for  these  latter  classes  at 
convenient  centres,  and  excellent  practical  training  in  more  than 
mere  dressmaking  is  the  result  of  the  method  adopted.  Mathe- 
matical precision  is  required  in  the  patterns  designed  and 
drafted,  "  while  attention  is  directed  also  to  the  development  of 
the  activities  and  creative  faculties  "  through  drawing  and  colour 
design.  The  teacher  gives  frequent  "  talks"  on  the  processes  of 
manufacture,  illustrated  with  samples  of  the  various  processes 
to  which  each  material  is  subjected,  and  the  girls  gain  a  working 
knowledge  of  how  to  distinguish  good  from  bad  materials.  As  a 
rule,  pupils  bring  a  sufficient  number  of  home  articles  in  need  of 
careful  darning  for  ample  practice  when  that  stage  is  reached  in 
the  course,  and  the  girls  are  quite  commonly  enthusiastic  enough 
to  cut  out  and  make  blouses  for  themselves  at  home,  which  they 
subsequently  wear  at  school  for  the  approval  of  the  teacher  and 
the  admiration  of  their  friends. 

The  salaries  of  sewing  teachers  are,  as  a  rule,  similar  to  Teachers, 
those  earned  by  teachers  of  cooking.  A  t  Boston,  for  instance,  the 
maximum  for  both  is  identical,  $936  (£187) ;  but,  whereas,  the 
minimum  salary  for  a  teacher  of  cooking  is  $532  (£106),  subject 
to  an  annual  increase  of  $48  (about  £10)  that  of  the  sewing 
teacher  depends  on  the  number  of  "  divisions  "  for  which  she  is 
responsible ;  thus,  in  the  Annual  Report  by  the  Boston  Board  of 
Education,  it  is  stated  in  School  Document  No.  2,  1900,  that  the 
salary  for  a  teacher  of  sewing  in  one  division  is  $144  (£28),  in  two 
divisions,  $240  (£48),  three  divisions,  $336  (£67),  and  so  up  to 
eleven  divisions  $880  (£176)  the  maximum  is  $936  (£187)  for 
teachers  of  over  eleven  divisions. 

The  custom  of  employing  specially  trained  women  seems  in- 
variable ;  frequently  they  are  required  to  be  graduates  of  the 
Pratt  or  Drexel  Institutes,  or  of  some  other  institution  of  re- 
cognised standing.  The  special  training  is  as  a  rule  supple- 
mentary to  the  general  preparation  demanded  of  all  teachers ; 
it  includes  a  knowledge  of  common  textiles  and  their  manufac- 
ture, ability  to  design,  draw  and  draft  patterns,  practical 
acquaintance  with  sewing  machines  (hand  and  foot,  of  various 
makes),  the  details  of  needlework,  and  a  certified  familiarity  with 
educational  principles  as  applied  in  the  teaching  of  sewing. 

Although  it  is  a  general  and  advantageous  custom  to  include  Dress- 
the  cutting  and  making  of  a  simple  blouse  in  the  majority  of  Making, 
grade  school  sewing  courses  (while  in  one  or  two  cities  the  Millinery, 
cutting  and  making  of  a  "  housemaid  "  skirt  is  utilised  to  intro-  ^^jljf  J^^^. 
duce  elder  girls  to  the  use  of  the  sewing  machine),  the  instruc-  taught  in 
tion   so    given   could    not    be    described    as    dressmaking.  Grade 
Neither   that  subject,  nor  millinery,  nor  laundry  work,  have  Schools, 
yet  found  a  place  in  the  United  States  elementary  schools. 
Dressmaking  or  millinery  would  be  out  of  place  where  compul- 
sory school  life  ends  at  13  or  14 ;  of  the  time  devoted  to  needle- 
work the  whole  nuist  be  expended  on  the  acquisition  of  its 

6490  D 


50 


U.S.A. — State  Grade  Sc  J  tools. 


elements.  Considerable  diversity  of  opinion  prevails  as  to  the 
desirability  of  introducing  laundrywork  into  the  grade  schools. 
Parental  opposition  appears  to  be  pronounced,  and  those  who 
advocate  its  inclusion  are  forced  to  recognise  that  the  time  is 
not  yet  ripe.  This  is  the  more  strange  in  that  most  women  of 
all  classes  take  a  more  active  share  in  housework  than  is  usual 
in  this  country,  and  the  washing  of  ordinary  articles  is  generally 
done  at  home ;  the  charges  at  a  public  laundry  are  very  high, 
double  or  even  treble  those  general  in  this  country;  but  it  must 
be  confessed  that  the  results  seem  to  compensate  for  the  cost : 
professional  laundry  work  is  more  of  a  fine  art,  more  akin  to 
the  best  French  clear  starching  than  it  is  in  England. 

3 . — Housew  i fery. 

Method  of  Housewifery,  as  a  separate  subject,  does  not  appear  in 
teaching  Grade  school  courses.  Great  attention  is  given  in  the  cooking 
Housewifery  courses  to  the  cleaning  of  kitchen  fittings  and  utensils,  and  to 
in  Cookery  ^j^^  cleaning  of  floor  and  furniture.  A  usual  method  employed 
essons.  .^^^  towards  the  conclusion  of  each  lesson,  to  divide  the  girls  into 
groups  of  two  or  three ;  of  these  one  group  will  wash  utensils, 
another  rinse,  a  third  will  dry,  a  fourth  will  clean  the  stove  or 
sink ;  another  group  will  put  each  article  in  its  place,  while  one 
group  is  told  oft*  to  superintend  and  inspect  the  work  of  the  rest 
of  the  class.  As  an  instance  of  what  care  will  do,  apart  from  the 
incidental  training  in  good  methods,  I  saw  saucepans  in  ex- 
cellent order  in  one  Boston  school  which  had  been  used  for  9 
years  by  13  classes  weekly  with  30  girls  in  each.  The  causes 
and  sources  of  household  dirt,  and  the  reasons  why  the  diflerent 
cleansing  agents  attain  their  object  are  usually  treated  in  detail ; 
experiments  are  made  with  the  cleaning  of  metals  with  different 
materials,  and  their  effectiveness  is  compared ;  e.g.,  tarnished  brass 
articles  are  rubbed  respectively  Avith  rottenstone,  with  rotten- 
stone  and  water,  with  rottenstone  and  oil,  with  vinegar  or  with 
lemon  juice  ;  the  results  are  turned  to  account  for  the  inculca- 
tion of  underlying  scientific  principles,  which  are  thus  thoroughly 
brought  home  to  the  children,  who  seem  to  gain  an  intelligent 
comprehension  of  some  of  the  physical  and  chemical  changes  of 
matter,  to  be  able  to  differentiate  elements  from  compounds, 
and  to  understand  practically  some  of  the  relations  and  pro- 
perties of  acids,  bases  and  salts.  The  staining  of  steel,  the 
corrosion  of  tin  and  other  metal  ware  by  potatoes  or  fruit ;  the 
action  of  the  acids  in  meat  or  fruit  upon  the  tins  in  which  they 
are  preserved  when  these  are  opened  to  the  air ;  the  unwholesome 
products  liable  to  be  so  formed ;  all  afford  endless  opportunities 
for  the  application  of  these  principles,  once  their  existence  is 
realised,  and  should  foster  "  systematic  knowledge  of  things  per- 
taining to  the  home."  The  subject  of  "Living  and  Dead  Dust" 
treated  on  similar  experimental  lines,  introduces  girls  to  an 
elementary  conception  of  the  causes  which  favour  the  develop- 
ment of  moulds,  yeasts,  and  bacteria;  e.g.,  a  piece  of  bread, 
cheese,  or  some  cooked  fruit,  is  exposed  to  the  air  for  a  few  days, 


Hou^eivifery. 


51 


covered  sufficiently  to  be  kept  moist,  and  the  resultant  growth  Method  of 
is  examined  with  hand  lens  and  microscope,  comparisons  being  taaching 
instituted  with  specimens  kept  entirely  protected  from  the  air,  Housewifery 
or  allowed  to  dry.  ^  _  ^  Wns"'^ 

Methods  of  household  cleanliness  outside  the  kitchen  are  —continued. 
included  in  some  cookery  courses:  at  Brookline  (Mass.),  for 
instance,  a  bed  and  simply  furnished  room  are  provided  in 
one  school  cooking  centre,  where  the  airing  and  making  of  a 
bed,  with  the  daily  care  of  a  bedroom,  are  taught  by  demonstra- 
tion and  practice.  This  is,  however,  exceptional ;  such  instruc- 
tion when  given,  is  most  usually  theoretical,  and  is  ordinarily 
deferred  to  the  more  advanced  High  school  course. 

Great  stress  is  laid  in  all  cooking  courses  upon  the  cost  of  food 
materials,  and  the  relative  nutrient  properties  of  food  stuffs  of  differ- 
ent qualities  and  of  various  prices,  specially  in  connection  with  the 
different  cuts  of  meat.  Thanks  to  the  work  of  Professor  Atwater 
and  his  assistants  and  to  the  liberality  of  the  State  Department 
of  Agriculture,  a  vast  amount  of  more  reliable  information  upon 
diet  and  food-stuffs  is  gratuitously  available  in  the  United  States 
than  in  Great  Britain,  and  this  is  turned  to  excellent  practical 
account  by  good  teachers  in  the  schools.  It  is  not  the  custom 
to  entrust  the  outside  purchase  of  commodities  to  the  children 
composing  a  class ;  to  send  untrained  girls  to  select  articles,  a 
judgment  of  whose  qualities  they  are  not  competent  to  form,  is 
regarded  as  unprofitable.  The  teacher,  without  exception, 
discusses  the  price  of  her  own  purchases,  her  reason  for  selection, 
and  the  signs  by  which  she  has  been  guided;  she  will  also 
occasionally  take  her  class  to  the  market  and  draw  their  attention 
to  the  choice  available  and  to  the  features  which  should 
influence  a  wise  choice.  Towards  the  end  of  their  course  the 
girls  are  called  upon  to  practise  the  drawing  up  of  a  plan  of  a 
day's  or  a  week's  meals,  which  must  contain  a  definite  amount 
of  nutriment  for  a  given  sum ;  from  a  series  of  these  exercises 
one  menu  will  be  selected  for  preparation,  which  is  then  probably 
served  to  school  managers  or  parents  as  the  finale  of  the  school 
year.  Reference  has  been  already  made  to  these  little  functions, 
which  consist  usually  of  a  three-course  breakfast  or  dinner. 

Table  service  and  "  table  manners  "  are  dealt  with  very  practi- 
cally and  with  repeated  emphasis.  The  girls  waiting  on  the 
several  occasions  when  refreshment  was  served  to  me  during 
visits  to  schools,  gave  evidence  that  their  dexterity  was  the 
outcome  of  studied  and  intelligent  practice:  the  natural 
deftness  of  the  American  girl  makes  her  an  apt  pupil  where 
taste  and  neatness  are  demanded.  The  higher  standard  of 
living  which  prevails  generally  in  the  United  States  may 
account  for  a  rather  different  attitude  towards  this  part  of 
the  training  from  that  usual  in  this  country,  where,  so  far, 
such  teaching  is  confined  to  our  primary  schools;  neverthe- 
less, in  cities  like  New  York,  Boston  or  Chicago,  where  some 
quarters  are  given  up  to  the  poorest  and  most  recently  arrived 
emigrants,  1  found  dainty  methods  and  refined  "  table  manners  " 
inculcated  and  exercised  with  reiterated  carc,and  not  by  any  means 


6490. 


52 


U.S.A. — State  Grade  Schools. 


An  Obliga- 
tory Subject. 


Attitude  of 
Teachers  ; 
Methods  of 
Teaching. 


in  the  cooking  classes  only— the  "  Good  Habits  Talks  "  deal  con- 
stantly with  the  subject. 

4. — Hygiene. 

The  obligatory  inclusion  of  the  elements  of  Hygiene  and 
Physiology  in  the  time-table  of  all  primary  and  grammar  schools 
in  almost  every  State  of  the  Union  is  the  direct  result  of  the 
persistent  and  successful  efforts  made  to  obtain  legislation  on 
the  subject  by  the  Women's  Christian  Temperance  Union,  which 
advocates  this  method  of  arming  the  rising  generation  against 
subsequent  temptations  to  excess  in  the  consumption  of  either 
stimulants  or  narcotics.  The  extent  of  this  vast  influence,  which 
has  imposed  uniformity  in  even  one  particular  upon  a  national 
system  priding  itself  upon  its  elastic  independence,  is  not  easily 
appreciated  in  a  country  such  as  ours,  where  centralisation  is  the 
rule,  as  far,  at  least,  as  elementary  education  is  concerned ; 
and  though  there  are  some  wise  and  thoughtful  minds  who 
question  the  realisation  of  the  ideal  by  this  means,  there 
certainly  appeared  to  me  to  be  a  promise  of  good  fruit,  not  so 
much  directly  from  the  occasionally  crude  inculcation  of  so-called 
"  temperance "  doctrines,  as,  indirectly,  from  the  coincident 
lessons  on  good  habits,  and  the  simple,  reiterated  instruction  on 
the  beauty  and  complexity  of  the  human  body  and  its  functions. 
To  these  lessons  so  many  hours  must  be  devoted  for  so  many 
weeks  each  year  for  the  seven  or  eight  years  of  elementary  edu- 
cation ;  the  very  text  books  employed  must,  in  most  States,  be 
submitted  to  the  Council  of  the  Temperance  Organisation, 
before  circulation  in  the  schools.  Both  requirements  are  really 
working  for  good,  though  at  a  regrettable  expenditure  of" 
friction  and  irritation  on  the  part  of  those  who  disapprove  of  the 
compulsory  introduction  of  highly  debateable  topics. 
The  "  Good  Habits  Talks "  in  the  lower  grades  are  not 
only  very  popular  with  the  little  ones,  for  they  deal 
chiefly  with  familiar  surroundings,  and  with  that  centre  of 
deepest  interest  to  the  young  child — his  own  self — but  they  are 
found  to  offer  a  broad  field  for  the  cultivation  of  other  subjects. 
As  these  simple  lessons  gradually  develop  in  the  higher  grades 
into  more  specific  treatment  of  hygiene  and  physiology,  direct 
stress  is  laid  on  the  dignity  of  the  body,  and  its  dependence 
upon  environment  for  the  attainment  of  perfection,  emphasis 
being  meanwhile  given  to  the  claims  of  home  life  in  all  its  rela- 
tions. Such  teaching  demands  previous  acquaintance  with  the 
subject  by  the  teachers,  especially  as  the  tendency  is  to  encourage 
practical  illustrations;  consequently  more  care  is  now  devoted 
to  the  study  of  hygiene  and  physiology  in  the  Normal  schools 
and  State  colleges,  with  undeniable  advantages  to  the  students 
and  their  prospective  pupils. 

The  irritation  and  soreness  which  followed  the  adoption  of 
these  coercive  measures  are,  though  visibly  existent,  gradually 
giving  place  among  some  of  the  more  thoughtful  and  intelligent 
to  a  recognition  of  the  undoubted  value  of  the  subject,  when 
shorn  of  the  questionably  desirable  obligation  to  include  specific 


Obligatory  Teaching  of  Hygiene.  53 


instruction  upon  the  effects  of  alcohol  and  narcotics  upon  the  Attitude  of 

human  body.    Its  educational  possibilities  show  themselves  to  Teachers  ; 

be  ample.    It  excites  interest,  exercises  observation  and  reason,  Methods  of 

links  school  lessons  with  daily  life,  promotes  reverence  for  the  ^^^^^y}^ 
ij  i-  r  1^  111^1  — continued 

body,  suggests  reasons  tor  everyday  customs,  and  lends  them  a 

new  dignity,  fosters  good  habits,  and  affords  a  convenient 
gathering  ground  for  the  clans  of  nature  work,  geography, 
history,  science  (elementary  or  advanced),  art  and  physical 
exercise.  Manual  work  and  field  trips,  both  desirable  in  a 
well-planned  curriculum,  are  almost  essential  elements  in  its 
study,  while  in  the  upper  grades,  in  skilled  hands,  the  first 
principles  of  economics  and  sociology  open  young  eyes  to  a  wider 
social  world  than  has  been  hitherto  conceived.  Already  a 
respectable  proportion  of  superintendents,  inspectors  and 
teachers  are  agreed  as  to  the  undoubted  claims  of  hygiene  to 
recognition  on  other  than  reforming  grounds;  while  none  but 
affirmative  answers  were  offered  to  m}^  persistent  inquiries  as  to 
its  attraction  for  and  influence  over  the  children.  The  some- 
what hot  partisan  spirit  apparent  in  a  number  of  the  recognised 
text-books,  to  which  exception  is  taken  by  principals  and 
teachers  alike,  results  also  m  the  more  general  employment  of 
that  preferable  method,  which  discards  implicit  reliance  on  the 
printed  page  in  favour  of  more  apparently  spontaneous  instruc- 
tion by  the  teacher.  In  some  cases  the  modified  laboratory 
method  adopted  enables  pupils  to  gain  their  information  at  first 
hand,  chiefly  by  direct  observation  of  the  concrete  object,  though 
this  plan  is  yet  in  its  infancy.  The  details  of  these  State  laws 
vary  slightly  as  to  numbers  of  hours  and  weeks  per  year  that 
the  instruction  must  find  a  place  in  the  time-table :  the 
minimum  period  appears  to  be  10  weeks,  the  maxiiiuun  6 
months  annually,  with  five,  four,  three  or  two  weekly  periods  of 
instruction,  given  to  both  sexes,  of  each  grade,  in  every  public 
school. 

A  fair  presentation  of  the  whole  movement  and  a  well- 
balanced  revicAV  of  the  questions  involved  may  be  found  in  the 
"  Educational  Review"  for  March  and  J une,  1902.  Superintendent 
W.  B.  Ferguson  (Middletown,  Conn.)  takes  for  his  text  the  recent 
modification  of  the  State  law  which  was  carried  a  few  months 
ago,  and  his  remarks  embody  my  own  impressions  of  the  best 
educational  thought  on  the  subject  as  I  heard  it  expressed 
during  my  recent  visit. 

In  the  course  of  this  article  Superintendent  Ferpjuson  traces  the  history  of 
what  he  describes  as  "one  of  the  most  remarkal)]c  movements  in  modern 
times.  The  Connecticut  statute  of  1893  resembled  in  its  general  features 
the  statutes  of  several  other  States  :  it  was  less  stringent  than  the  law 
of  New  York,  Ilhnois,  or  New  Jersey,  but  more  exact  than  that  of 
Massachussetts  or  Pennsylvania."  The  statute  has  been  in  force  eight  years. 
"  The  hope  entertained  by  the  Women's  Christian  Temperance  Union  of 
effecting  a  thorough  temperance  reform  in  society  by  teaching  the  chihlreii 
the  effects  of  alcohol  on  the  liuman  body  rests  upon  the  old  Socratic 
philosophy  that  knowledge  of  evil  ensures  the  avoidance  of  evil,  that 
people  do  wrong  from  ignorance  only."  .  .  .  This  instruction  was  to  be 
given  in  c()nnecti{»n  with  Physiology  and  Hygiene,  but  "  temi)erance  was 
to  be  made  the  chief  object."    The  writer  ])oints  out  that  the  first  greaf 


'54 


U.S.A. — State  Grade  Schools. 


Attitude  of  i»istake  made  by  the  temperance  leaders  was  to  compel  publishers  to  revise 
Teachers  •  their  text  books  on  "  Physiology  "  and  to  incorporate  in  them  chapters  on 
Methods  of  narcotics.  "These  books,  therefore,  instead  of  being  scientifically  accurate, 
Teaching  contained  statements  that  contradict  both  science  and  the  everyday 
—continued,  observations  of  men." 

Superintendent  Ferguson  deals  admirably  with  one  reason  for  the  general 
disapproval  of  these  "endorsed"  Physiologies  by  intelligent  teachers, 
namely  "the  emphasis  placed  upon  facts— or  assumed  facts — that  appeal  to 
fear,  and  to  negative  teaching  chiefly,  to  the  disregard  of  facts  that 
appeal  to  manliness  and  the  moral  nature,  and  to  the  omission  of  much  that 
should  be  given  to  emphasise  the  beauty,  nobility,  and  strength  of  a 
temperate  life.  The  poverty,  crime  and  misery  of  the  drunkard  are 
hysterically  held  up  to  the  gaze  of  the  children,  but  the  steady  hand,  the 
distinct  speech,  the  quick  senses,  the  healthy  body,  the  clear  brain,  the 
success  and  happiness  of  the  temperate  man  are  scarcely  mentioned.  Says 
Professor  S.  T.  Button  of  Columbia  University  :  "We  do  not  teach  hygiene 
by  the  study  of  disease,  cleanliness  by  the  observation  of  filth,  nor  purity 
by  the  contemplation  of  vice.  .  .  .  We  teach  truth,  kindness, 
generosity  by  pointing  to  men  and  women  who  exemplify  those  virtues." 
Froebel's  injunction  was  so  "to  fill  the  mind  with  the  beautiful  that  there  will 
be  no  room  for  the  ugly."  .  .  .  We  do  not  contend  that  the  evil  effects  of 
alcohol  and  tobacco  should  never  be  pointed  out  to  children.  They  should 
be,  but  chiefly  in  order  that  by  contrast  the  nobility,  strength  and  success 
of  the  temperate  life  may  be  made  more  impressive.  .  .  .  This  temperance 
education  law  had  been  tried  in  Connecticut  eight  years  with  results  that 
were  unsatisfactory  to  both  teachers  and  temperance  leaders,  when,  suddenly, 
the  widespread  opposition  to  the  law  that  had  been  gathering  force  among 
the  educators  became  manifest  and  made  itself  felt  in  favour  of  radical 
modifications.  .  .  .  It  was  suggested  that  a  committee  of  school  teachers 
be  ai»pointed  to  confer  with  the  officers  of  the  temi)erance  organisation  of 
the  State,  with  eminently  satisfactory  results.  .  .  .  Oreat  honour  is  due  to 
the  temperance  i)eople  of  Connecticut,  especially  the  W.C/.T.II.,  for  mani- 
festing a  broad-mindedness  and  a  spirit  of  conciliation  which  made  agree- 
ment with  the  teachers  possible.  They  placed  duty  before  policy,  good 
teaching  before  any  desire  for  a  "perfect"  law,  and  the  interests  of  the 
children  before  the  fear  or  pleasure  of  anybody.  The  future  will  show,  we 
believe,  that  in  winning  the  respect  and  confidence  of  the  teachers  by 
uniting  with  them  in  support  of  a  more  reasonable  temperance  education 
law  they  "  builded  better  than  they  knew."  ...  If  this  statute  be  compared 
with  that  of  1893,  the  following  chief  difference  will  appear,  the  present 
law  does  not  re(iuire  tempemnce  insti-uction  below  the  fourth  grade,  nor  in 
the  high  school  ;  it  does  not  require  the  use  of  text  books  below  the  sixth 
grade,  nor  the  use  in  any  grade  of  books  that  devote  any  definite  ])ortion  of 
space  to  narcotics.  Neither  does  it  require  the  use  of  text-books  by  the 
pupils.  All  these  requirements  were  definitely  specified  in  the  statute  of 
1893." 

It  seems  probable  that  similar  action  will  be  graduall}-  taken 
in  other  States,  for  Avhicli  reason  I  include  a  reference^  to  the 
preliminary  report  of  the  Committee  of  the  New  York  State 
Science  Teachers'  Association,  which  is  distinguished  by  its 
temperate  tone,  and  by  its  recognition  of  the  unquestionable 
advantages  to  be  gained  if  the  desired  instruction  be  wisely  and 
scientifically  imparted. 

The  opinions  and  recommendations  submitted  in  their 
preliminary  Report  on  "School  Instruction  in  the  Effects  of 
Stimulants  and  Narcotics"  by  this  Committee  deals  with  (1)  the 
discrepancies  which  exist  on  this  subject  between  the  scientific 
text  books  used  in  Universities  and  Medical  Schools  and  the 
"  endorsed  "  text  books  employed  in  the  public  schools ;  (2)  the 
extrenie  complexity  of  the  problem  involved;  (3)  a  resume  of 
the  opinions  of  upwards  of  200  teachers  regarding  the  present 


Obligatory  Teaching  of  Hygiene. 


55 


required  methods  of  teaching  physiology ;  (4)  the  Committee's  Attitude  of 
conclusions  from  their  investigations,  and  (5)  their  reconimenda-  Teachers ; 
tions.    No  doubt  is  raised  as  to  the  great  importance  of  the  Methods  of 
proper  study  of  physiolosry  in  both  sfrade  and  hi^h  schools  ^^^^'^]^^ 
"  because  of  the  practical  teachings  of  hygiene  that  may  be  thus 
widely  diffused,"  but  it  is  pointed  out  that  so  far  there  is  no 
evidence  "  of  a  marked  change  of  sentiment  in  the  young  either 
for  or  against  the  use  of "  stimulants  and  narcotics,  while  "  by 
the  unpedagogic  methods  employed  (frequent  and  unnecessary 
repetition,  the  exhibition  of  charts  showing  morbid  physiological 
conditions,  etc.)  it  succeeds  only  in  cultivating  in  children  an 
abhorrence  of  the  beautiful  and  useful  science  of  physiology ; " 
therefore  the  recommendations  urge  modification  of  the  existing 
arbitrary  laws; — freedom  for  teachers   to  decide  as   to  the 
character  and  content  of  their  instruction  in  physiology  and 
hygiene;  broad  truthful  teaching  on  the  subject  of  alcohol  and 
narcotics  until  this  modification  has  been  effected,  time  being 
devoted  to  a  treatment  of  the  subject  from  the  moral  and 
economic  rather  than  the  physiological  standpoint.     I  have 
dwelt  thus  in  detail  with  the  present  attitude  of  the  teaching 
world  towards  this  question,  because  of  its  importance  to  us  in 
Great  Britain.    Daily  evidence  of  the  want  of  self-control  in  the 
use  of  stimulants  confronts  even  the  least  observant  among  us ; 
the  necessity  for  checking  the  continuance  of  a  menace  to  the 
nation's  health  and  prosperity  is  generally  recognised ;  the  most 
effectual  methods  of  inculcating  self-control,  and  removing 
causes  contributory  to  its  destruction  or  inhibition  are  yet  to 
seek.    I  believe  that  our  great  neighbours  across  the  sea  are  on 
the  right  road  when  they  include  in  their  school  curriculum 
lessons    in  self-respecting   patriotism  and   such   a  practical 
acquaintance  with  the  body  and  its  working  as  to  stimulate 
the  acquirement  of  hygienic  habits.   It  will  be  readily  recognised 
that  meanwhile,  and   in   spite   of  its   limitations,  this  legal 
obligation  to  include  the  elements  of  physiology  and  of  personal 
and  domestic  hygiene  in  the  curriculum  of  all  Primary  and 
Grammar  Schools  thro^ighout  at  least  seven  -  eighths  of  the 
United  States  results  in  the  devotion  of  much  more  attention 
to  these  subjects  than  would  otherwise  be  the  case.    As  the 
primary  object  has  hitherto  been  to  secure  to  each  boy  and  girl 
simple  teaching,  impressed  by  constant  repetition,  on  the  pernicious 
effects  of  alcohol  and  narcotics  on  the  human  body,  the  laws 
usually  demand  that  one  third  of  the  specified  time  be  set 
apart  for  this  immediate  purpose.     Originally  the  coincident 
lessons  on  the  structure,  functions,  needs  and  possibilities  of  the 
body  were  included  to  supply  reasons  upon  which  to  base  the 
special  instruction.     My  observations  gave  me  the  conviction 
that  in  the  hands  of  the  greater  number  of  superintendents, 
principals  and  teachers,  the  first  has  become  last ;  every  allow- 
able minute,  and  possibly  a  good  many  more,  is  devoted  to 
instilling    the    general    principles    of    healthy    living,  the 
temperance "  teaching  is  reduced  to  a  minimum  and  often 
given  under  protest — wisely  so,  in  the  opinion  of  some  whn  are 


56 


U.S.A.-State  Grade  Schools. 


qualified  to  be  the  best  judges.  To  give  lessons  of  apparent  and 
desirable  simplicity  on  a  highly  complex  subject  to  immature 
minds  is  an  achievement  possible  only  to  the  few,  as,  for  instance, 
to  such  rare  brains  as  those  of  Professors  Huxley  and  Tyndall. 
The  average  well-intentioned,  but  often  indifferently  qualified, 
hard-worked  teacher  is  liable  to  be  led  into  one  of  two  dangers^ 
rash,  exaggerated  dogmatism,  or  commonplace,  unimpressive, 
even  ridiculous  platitudes,  neither  of  which  methods  attains  the 
really  good  object. 

The  subject  of  Personal  and  Domestic  Hygiene  usually, 
therefore,  takes  its  place  not  as  a  branch  of  domestic  economy, 
but  as  one  among  others,  in  the  general  school  programme ;  this 
is  the  case  at  Cleveland  (Ohio),  Buffalo,  Washington  (D.C.),  or 
Lynn,  (Mass.) ;  but  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  it  first  brought 
before  children  in  their  language  or  object  lessons,  or  in  the 
nature  study  course,  which  last  would  seem,  for  good  reasons, 
the  most  suitable  position.  These  latter  methods  have  been 
adopted  in  Philadelphia  and  Boston  among  other  large  cities. 
Occasionally  this  teaching  on  the  physical  structure  and 
development  of  the  body  is  connected  with  the  course  on 
"  Conduct  and  Government,"  or  with  that  on  "  Manners  and 
Morals,"  which  find  a  place  in  the  time-tables  of  some  Boards  of 
Education.  The  most  evident  advantage  which  arises  from  the 
obligatory  prominence  assigned  to  physiology  and  hygiene  is  that 
boys  and  girls  alike  share  the  instruction,  whereas  if  the  subjects 
appear  only  as  incidental  to  Domestic  Economy,  as  in  England, 
girls  alone  devote  time  or  attention  to  their  study,  and  that  to  a 
scant  degree.  As  a  rule,  all  the  children  appear  to  enjoy  these 
lessons,  if  at  all  suitably  given,  but  if  there  be  a  preponderance 
of  interest  it  is  on  the  side  of  the  boys  ;  this  is  not  the  observa- 
tion of  a  prejudiced  witness,  it  is  the  confirmed  opinion  of 
experienced  school  authorities. 

Typical  '^^^^  course  at  Cleveland.  Ohio,  has  been  selected  for  presenta- 

Courses.  tion,  because  it  offers  a  good  illustration  of  an  intelligent 
method  of  treatment  when  physiology  forms  the  backbone  of  the 
course  and  hygierie  appears  chiefly  in  the  form  of  applications. 
The  course  of  study  in  the  Public  School  of  Lynn,  Mass.,  is  given 
as  an  example  of  a  scheme  which  starts  with  the  habits  familiar 
to  the  Httle  ones  in  home  life,  supplies  reasons  for  their  adoption, 

(fO  Hyannis  and  leads  up  to  the  structure  of  the  body  only  in  the  later  years. 

iable  VI.     q^l^Q  selected    course  (Hyannis   Normal   School)  also 

approaches  the  subject  from  the  familiar  side  of  home  habits 
and  is  of  interest  on  two  accounts  (1)  as  an  illustration  of  the 
quick  observation  which  enables  educators  in  the  United  States  to 
remark,  appropriate  and  adapt  to  their  school  use,  material  put 
into  shape  in  other  countries;  (2)  the  fact  that  this  scheme 
embodies  very  closely  my  own  views  of  what  should  be  taught 
to  every  child  in  every  school.  The  original  was  drawn  \ip 
four  years  ago  by  request  of  the  Council  of  The  Sanitary 
Institute,  with  the  hope  that  it  might  find  a  place  in  the  Board 
of  Education's  Day  School  Code,  a  hope  not  destined  to  be 
realised.     It  was  therefore  the  more   satisfactory  to    find  it 


Typical  Hygiene  Courses. 


51 


had  been  meanwhile  successfully  adopted  in  some  Massachusetts 
schools,  where  it  has  answered  its  desired  ends  to  a  degree  which 
warrants  its  employment  as  a  model  for  students  in  the  Practice 
school  of  one  of  the  best  Normal  colleges. 

The  children  in  Grade  I.  at  Cleveland  make  acquaintance  with  the  (^)  Cleve 
human  body  by  first  having  their  attention  turned  to  the  appearance,  j^nd  Ohi( 
position,  number,  form,  use  and  beauty  of  its  external  parts  :  this  suggests  Tables  V. 
the  idea  of  care  being  desirable,  and  emphasises  one  form  of  that  care,  ^nd  Vli.* 
viz.,  cleanliness.  Upon  this  a  talk  on  the  skin  and  its  uses  follows 
naturally,  and  the  proper  care  of  hair  and  nails  is  a  practical  point 
emphasised.  The  use  of  the  different  senses  is  then  taught  objectively, 
and  is  incidentally  useful  as  a  language  lesson  also  :  the  children  must  not 
only  touch  objects,  and  name  the  sensation,  for  instance,  but  must  mention 
other  substances  and  the  "feeling"  they  induce;  so  with  the  parallel 
exercises  on  sight,  smell,  taste,  sound.  The  first  year's  teaching  concludes 
with  very  simple  lessons  on  why  and  what  and  where  and  when  we  should 
eat  and  drink.  In  order  to  comply  with  the  legal  requirements,  it  is 
suggested  to  teachers  that  "they  should  make  a  simple  statement  that 
people  should  not  use  very  strong  drink  if  they  wish  to  have  good  health." 
Grade  II.  revises  the  previous  instruction,  with  considerable  amplification, 
e.g.,  attention  is  called  to  the  relations  of  the  parts  of  the  body  to  each 
other,  and  to  the  purpose  of  life  ;  "  the  neck  turns  the  head,  the  arms  help 
the  hands  to  reach,  to  carry,"  etc.  Prominent  bones  are  identified  and 
named  (skull,  spine,  ribs,  hip  bones)  ;  the  relations  of  bones  and  muscles 
to  bodily  posture  serve  to  throw  light  on  motion,  and  to  bring  in  the 
application  of  the  need  for  exercise,  rest  and  sleep.  The  direct  purpose  of 
the  lessons  on  the  special  sense  organs  in  this  Grade  is  to  train  the 
children  to  greater  acuteness  in  distinctions  between  sounds,  colours, 
forms,  distances,  flavours  and  muscular  efforts.  The  idea  of  growth  and 
nutrition  is  next  connected  with  food,  also  the  advantages  of  cooking 
food  are  discussed.  Table  manners  as  well  as  table  setting  are  practised 
as  well  as  preached ;  talks  on  the  lungs  and  on  air,  with  rudimentary 
ideas  on  ventilation,  introduce  another  useful  topic. 

In  Grade  III.  the  same  points  constitute  the  basis  of  instruction.  The 
children  find,  name,  and  suggest  the  uses  of  many  more  bones.  The 
connection  between  food,  posture,  and  good  physical  development  is 
carried  further.  The  special  sense  organs  are  subjected  to  simple  tests, 
and  the  pleasure  derived  by  their  means  is  emphasised.  Various  forms  of 
food,  right  and  wrong  methods  of  preparation  and  consumption,  some  idea 
of  the  process  of  digestion  and  the  reasons  for  habitual  care  of  the  teeth 
again  culminate  in  a  talk  on  table  manners  and  arrangements.  The 
mechanical  aspect  of  breathing  is  discussed,  and  the  good  or  ill  efi'ects  of 
impure  air  and  out  of  door  exercise,  together  with  suitable  means  of 
domestic  ventilation,  find  a  place.  In  Grade  IV.  the  instruction  substanti- 
ally follows  similar  lines,  but  assumes  a  less  colloquial  form,  though  the 
importance  of  simple  treatment  is  emphasised  ;  thus,  in  treating  of  the 
heart  and  circulation,  teachers  are  advised  not  to  touch  on  the  subject  of 
cavities  or  valves  at  this  stage,  but  practical  applications  to  assist  the 
formation  of  good  habits  are  to  be  invariably  included.  The  outline  of 
work  in  Grade  V.  is  preceded  by  the  following  "  General  Suggestions  "  for 
the  course  of  study  in  the  remaining  grades  : — 

"  Never  lose  sight  of  the  practical  side  of  the  subject ;  it  will  profit  a 
child  but  little  to  know  about  bones,  for  exani])le,  if  after  all  he  lets  his 
shoulders  droop  and  his  spine  become  unnaturally  curved.  Pupils  should 
study  their  own  bodies  as  much  as  possible.  They  should  find  out  by 
actual  examination  how  many  bones  they  have  in  the  arm,  hand  (not 
wrist),  leg,  foot  (not  ankle),  ribs,  etc.  They  should  study  heart  beats, 
pulse  in  wrist,  neck  and  temi)le,  weight  and  height;  chest  measure  and 
expansion  in  inches  ;  motion  of  the  different  joints  ;  the  wonderful  motion 
of  the  hand  and  arm  ;  of  the  head  upon  the  backbone  ;  of  the  whole  trunk 
upon  the  hip  joints.  The  sight  and  hearing  of  pupils  may  be  tested  rouglily, 
also  sense  of  touch.  The  microscoin' and  apparatus  in  the  8th  (irado  are 
free  to  the  teachers  of  the  oth." 


58 


U.S.A. — State  Grade  Schools 


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Typical  Hygiene  Courses. 


59 


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60 


U.S.A. — State  Grade  Schools, 


(i)C)eveland  Interest  in  the  study  of  the  organs  of  motion  is  stimulated  by  com- 
Qhio—  parisons  between  the  motions  of  dilferent  animals,  as  horse,  fish,  worm, 
continued.  nian,  bird  ;  the  activity  of  muscles  with  observations  on  the  results  of  use 
upon  known  substances,  leads  naturally  to  the  topic  of  the  organs  of 
repair  and  the  material  furnished  in  the  form  of  food,  drink,  or  air. 
After  a  review  of  the  processes  of  digestion,  the  fact  that  the  digested 
matter  must  enter  a  "  common  carrier  "  which  has  "  the  right  of  way  "  over 
the  entire  body,  introduces  the  subject  of  the  blood,  and  to  some  teaching 
on  absorption  by  the  lactea.ls  and  lymphatics.  This  and  the  remaining 
subjects  for  this  Grade  (the  lungs,  skin  and  organs  of  perception)  are 
but  lightly  treated,  as  they  are  repeated  in  far  more  detail  in  Grade  VI. 
Here  digestion  is  reviewed,  and  absorption  is  taught  more  fully.  The 
structure  and  functions  of  the  heart  and  the  circulation  of  the  blood  occupy 
a  great  portion  of  the  allotted  time,  but  the  concluding  lessons  are  devoted 
to  a  preliminary  study  of  the  brain,  spinal  cord,  and  great  sympathetic 
nervous  system,  especially  to  their  great  importance  as  instruments  of 
mind  and  centres  of  nervous  force.  Prior  to  this  period  most  illustrative 
material  is  found  in  observations  made  by  the  children,  but  at  this  stage 
teachers  are  urged  to  employ  simple  experimental  illustrations,  especially 
"  during  the  winter  months,  when  there  is  less  to  observe  out  of  doors." 
(A  few  specimens  of  such  illustrations  may  prove  suggestive.) 

"  To  illustrate  why  bones  are  hollow  :  Take  a  sheet  of  foolscap  paper  and 
roll  it  into  a  cylinder  about  an  inch  in  diameter,  holding  in  shape  by  means 
of  strings  or  rubber  bands  ;  support  this  cylinder  in  a  horizontal  pf)sition 
by  placing  a  support  under  each  end.  Now  place  weights  upon  the  middle, 
noting  how  much  it  sustains  before  breaking.  Next,  take  the  same  kind 
of  sheet  of  paper  and  fold  or  roll  it  into  a  solid  bar  :  support  and  load  as 
before.    Notice  the  result. 

"  To  show  the  animal  part  of  bone  :  Soak  a  clean  bone,  as  a  rib,  in  strong 
vinegar  or  dilute  muriatic  acid  until  it  becomes  flexible.  Mineral  matter 
has  disappeared. 

"  To  show  what  part  of  a  bone  is  mineral :  Weigh  a  small  bone  accurately, 
then  roast  it  for  about  three  hours  on  a  hot  bed  of  coals.  Remove  carefully 
and  weigh  again.  Animal  matter  has  disappeared.  Notice  what  propor- 
tion. 

"  Saw  a  bone  through  lengthwise.  Notice  the  structure  of  ends,  middle, 
and  outside  part. 

"  To  show  the  structure  of  muscles  :  Take  a  piece  of  lean  meat  that  has 
been  boiled  ;  pick  it  to  pieces  with  needles,  showing  connective  tissue  and 
the  larger  and  smaller  mu--cular  fibres.  Place  one  of  the  smallest  fibres 
under  a  microscope  and  notice  the  markings. 

"  To  show  the  action  of  the  flexor  and  extensor  muscles :  _  Procure  the 
front  leg  of  a  sheep.  Remove  the  connective  tissues  which  surround 
the  entire  leg,  and  carefully  separate  the  muscles  from  each  other,  loosening 
up  the  tendons  to  where  they  are  attached  to  the  bones.  By  pulling  the 
different  muscles,  their  function  in  life  can  be  nicely  shown.  It  will  be 
seen  that  many  muscles  act  together  to  cause  the  same  movements  :  that 
other  muscles  are  antagonistic. 

"Have  children  notice  the  swelling  of  muscles  when  in  action  on  their 
own  bodies.  Let  them  find  the  muscle,  or  set  of  muscles,  which  makes 
certain  movements  :  as,  extending  the  arm,  bending  the  arm,  extending  or 
bending  the  index  finger,  turning  the  head  to  left  or  right,  chewing,  etc. 
Show  the  muscles  as  the  power  acting  upon  the  bones  as  levers  of  different 
classes." 

Further  suggestions  include  how  to  make  models  to  show  the  principle 
upon  which  the  diaphragm  acts  in  respiration,  or  to  illustrate  the  action  of 
the  intercostal  muscles.  Most  teachers  find  no  difficulty  in  improvising  or 
adapting  many  more  of  the  same  kind  to  meet  the  need  for  concrete 
demonstrations. 


Typical  Hygiene  Co'urse&. 


61 


The  method  adopted  in  the  remaining  two  Grades  brings  out  well  a  (/>)CIeveland 
point  yet  dimly  perceived  in  this  country,  which  is,  nevertheless,  susceptible  Oiiio — 
of  far  fuller  development  than  is  accorded  to  it  even  in  this  instance  at  continued. 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  viz.,  the  valuable  field  afforded  by  hygiene  and  physiology, 
not  alone  for  the  acquirement  of  the  theories  of  physics  and  chemistry,  but 
for  their  application  under  most  favourable  and  attractive  circumstances. 
The  syllabus  opens  as  follows — 

"  We  do  not  know  what  life  is,  but  the  mechanism  which  life  has  woven 
and  built  around  itself  conforms  to  the  same  laws  and  principles  which 
hold  in  the  physical  world,  and  cannot  be  well  understood  without  some 
reference  to  physical  laws.  The  following  outline  is  an  attempt  to  suggest 
lessons  which  will  be  a  blending  of  the  two  great  departments  of  science, 
physiology  and  physics,  life  and  matter — and  the  two  thus  brought  together 
become  one,  viz.,  physiology,  since  all  matter  and  its  laws  are  but  subser- 
vient to  the  one  great  thing — Life. 

"  As  a  preliminary  to  these  lessons  the  teacher  should  place  the  minds  of 
the  children  in  the  right  attitude  towards  the  work.  They  should  know 
that  it  is  the  hunmn  body  that  forms  the  central  figure  in  all  these  lessons, 
and  their  thoughts  should  be  continually  brought  back  to  that  fact." 

The  foUowmg  is  the  outline: — "All  the  manifestations  of  life,  whether 
individual  or  national,  can  be  reduced  ultimately  to  certain  changes.  All 
changes  are  of  one  of  two  kinds  :  either  changes  of  place  or  of  composition  : 
the  former  are  known  as  physical,  the  latter  as  chemical.  The  teacher  will 
illustrate  physical  changes  and  chemical  changes.  Let  the  children  classify 
the  following  changes :  water  evaporates ;  dew  forms ;  coal  is  mined, 
transported,  thrown  upon  the  fire,  burned  ;  unsupported  bodies  fall  to  the 
ground,  trees  grow,  sugar  dissolves  in  water,  a  match  ignites  by  friction, 
gunpowder  explodes,  water  boil^  iron  melts,  iron  rusts,  grape  juice 
ferments,  apples  decay,  cherries  ripen,  blood  circulates,  food  digests ; 
animals  inhale  air,  a  certain  part  unites  with  the  blood,  the  blood  repairs 
worn-out  tissues ;  animals  feel,  children  think,  sudden  news  quickens  the 
pulse,  etc.  Physical  force.  Muscles  exert  force.  What  force  is.  Other 
kinds  of  force  than  muscular  force,  as  cohesion,  adhesion,  gravitation, 
magnetism,  electricity,  etc.  How  force  is  measured  ;  units  of  force ;  as, 
pounds,  ounces,  etc.  Weigh  many  things  on  spring  scales  or  other  kind. 
Educate  the  muscular  sense  by  having  pupils  estimate  the  weight  of  many 
things  after  lifting  them. 

"  By  exerting  force,  muscles  produce  motion.    Some  kinds  of  motion,  as 
uniform,  accelerated,  retarded,  pendulum  movements,  etc. 

"  The  circulation  and  the  laws  of  liquids. 

"  The  heart  fully  explained  as  to  its  shape,  size,  walls,  cavities,  valves, 
interior,  by  means  of  dissections  of  heart  of  ox  or  sheep.  The  circulation 
carefully  and  minutely  traced  through  both  the  ])ulmonary  and  systemic 
circuits. 

"  The  circulatory  system  compared  with  the  distribution  of  water  in  a 
city ;  the  heart,  arteries  and  capillaries  and  veins  having  their  analogies 
more  or  less  perfectly  in  any  city  supplied  by  a  pumping  station. 

"  Study,  in  connection  with  the  circulation,  the  effect  upon  liquids  when 
subjected  to  pressure  ;  also  capillary  attraction. 

"  Respiration  and  atmospheric  pressure.  Why  we  breathe  ;  the  relation 
of  air  to  the  blood.  Show  nature  of  oxygen  and  carbon  dioxide.  Experi- 
ment with  lime  water  to  show  that  breathing  and  burning  give  rise  to 
same  products,  llelation  of  plants  and  animals  as  regards  the  air.  Show 
simple  experiments  in  atmospheric  pressure.  Connect  the  facts  ot  the 
physical  properties  of  air  with  the  organs  of  bi-eathing,  showing  that  it  is  a 
purely  physical  process.  Teach  the  mechanism  of  breathing ;  ribs,  inter- 
costal muscles,  abdominal  muscles,  diaphragm,  trachea,  bronchial  tubes, 
air  cells,  and  how  all  operate  together,  thus  forming  the  respiratory 
apparatus. 

"  Dissect  lung  of  sheep,  showing  lung  tissue  and  air  tubes. 


62 


U.S.A.— State  Grade  Sehools. 


(b.)  Cleve-  "Perform,  if  possible,  the  experiment  with  mercury  and  barometer  tube 
land,  Ohio    to  show  the  principle  of  the  barometer. 

continued.     "  Ventilation.    Why  necessary  :  how  performed. 

"  Digestion  and  absorption.    Relation  of  these  processes  to  the  blood. 

"  Digestion  is  performed  by  a  combination  of  physical  and  chemical  pro- 
cesses, while  absorption  is  identical  with  the  taking  up  of  moisture  by  the 
roots  of  plants.  The  effect  of  alcohol  upon  the  body  in  general  and  in 
particular  should  receive  a  large  measure  of  attention." 

THE  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  GRADE  VIII.  ARE  GIVEN  IN  FULL. 

The  Ear  and  Sound. 

"  Teach  as  much  of  the  anatomy  of  the  ear  as  is  found  in  any  elementary 
physiology. 

"  The  ear  constructed  with  reference  to  sound. 

"  Sound.  What  it  is.  Wave  motion  shown  by  rope.  How  sound  is 
produced.  Show  by  using  tuning  fork,  small  bell  or  large  glass  dish,  that 
a  sounding  body  is  vibrating.  Show  how  sound  travels  through  the  air  : 
string  telephone  :  experiment  to  prove  that  sound  will  not  pass  through  a 
vacuum.  Velocity  of  sound  in  air :  echoes.  Musical  sounds :  pitch, 
loudness. 

"Having  studied  the  ear  and  sound  to  some  little  extent  show  how  the 
former  is  adapted  to  receive  the  latter  :  trace  a  sound  wave  from  a  dis- 
tant bell  through  the  air,  into  the  ear,  through  its  different  parts  until  the 
ends  of  the  auditory  nerve  are  excited. 

"  Test  the  hearing  of  pupils. 

"  What  knowledge  is  brought  to  us  by  the  sense  of  hearing. 

The  Eife  and  Light. 

"  The  anatomy  of  the  eye.  The  eye-ball  and  its  surroundings.  Muscles 
to  move.  Why  located  where  it  is.  The  cornea,  sclerotic  coat,  choroid, 
iris,  lens,  retina,  aipieous  and  vitreous  humour.  Drawings  of  eye  made. 
Light  and  what  it  is.  Travels  in  straight  lines  (nearly)  through  the  air. 
Velocity  :  how  found.  Reflection. 

General  Sensibility  and  Heat. 

"  Why  our  sense  of  heat  should  be  distributed  over  the  entire  body. 
What  heat  is?  Various  ways  of  producing  by  mechanical  action,  by 
combustion. 

The  Nervous  System  and  Electricity. 

"  The  anatomy  of  brain,  spinal  cord,  nerves,  sympathetic  system,  taught 
by  use  of  chart.  Do  not  go  too  deeply  into  structure  of  brain,  a  very 
general  notion  only.  Show  that  the  nerves  bring  all  parts  of  the  body  into 
a  sympathetic  relation.  A  nervous  impulse  is  a  discharge^or  liberation  of 
energy  analogous  to  the  electric  discharges :  not  identical  but  having  an 
analogy  so  near  as  to  make  the  study  of  electricity  in  place  in  this  con- 
nection :  occupies  time.  Experiment. 

"Teach  paralysing  influences  of  alcohol  and  narcotics  upon  nervous 
tissues,  and  especially  upon  the  brain.  Discuss  other  physiological 
reasons  why  stimulants  and  narcotics  should  not  be  used  :  also  moral 
aspects  of  drinking  alcoholic  stimulants." 

Througliout  the  whole  eight  years  teachers  are  incited  to 
maintain  a  close  connection  between  nature  study  and 
human  physiology ;  applications  are  also  required  and  intro- 
duced in  his  classes  by  the  Physical  Culture  Instructor.  At 


TypicaX  Hygiene  Courses.  G3 

the  teachers'  quarterly  meeting  when  this  among  other 
subjects  is  discussed  between  the  supervisors  and  their  staff, 
unremitting  efforts  are  made  by  the  former  to  present  suitable 
suggestions  of  how  associations  may  be  created  betAveen  these 
subjects  and  daily  life,  either  by  judicious  co-relation  with 
other  subjects,  or  by  the  constant  diffusion  of  a  general 
atmosphere  of  healthful  habits  around  and  among  the  children. 
Teachers  are  also  furnished  with  a  list  of  suitable  books  of 
reference :  "  Physiology  for  Little  Folks,"  "  The  House  I  live  in," 
and  Blaisdell's  "  Our  Bodies "  for  the  earlier  grades :  Huxley 
and  Youman's  "  Physiology,"  and  Shaw's  and  Gifford's  and 
Avery's  "Physics"  for  the  later. 

The  complete  curriculum  at  present  in  force  in  the  Grade  schools 
of  Cleveland,  Ohio,  is  detailed,  as  it  appears  to  be  a  good  specimen 
of  such  time-tables,  and  brings  out  clearly  the  propoitioa  (f 
hours  devoted  each  week,  throughout  the  compulsory  school 
life,  to  the  various  studies,  mental,  moral,  physical,  manual, 
and  so  forth,  upon  which  the  attention  of  the  children  is 
concentrated.  Hitherto  sparse  attention  has  been  given  to 
physiology  in  the  Cleveland  Normal  School,  a  defect  to  repair 
which  no  pains  is  spared  by  the  Superintendent  of  the  City 
Schools.  Admirable  and  exhaustive  courses  of  lectures  to  the 
teachers  are  given  by  the  Medical  Officer  of  Schools,  Dr.  R.  Leigh 
Baker,  or  by  other  authorities,  and  the  sincere  interest  exhibited 
in  the  lessons  by  their  supervisors  must  prove  a  useful  impetus 
to  good  work. 

The  school  course  at  Lynn  (Mass.)  also  shows  the  posi-  (c.)  Lynn, 
tion  assigned  in  the  time-table  to  civics,  elementary  Mass. 
science,  and  morals  and  manners,  as  well  as  to  hygiene.  This  Jnd  I X 
last  subject  is  divided  into  two  parts :  the  first  treats  of  good 
habits,  of  what  the  children  do  daily;  the  second  takes  up 
the  study  of  physiology.  Teachers  are  advised  to  begin  by 
brief  and  simple  conversations,  to  direct  children  to  their  own 
experiences  and  observations  at  home,  at  school  and  elsewhere, 
and  to  bring  out  the  elements  of  healthy  living :  eating,  drink- 
ing, working,  resting,  sleeping,  playing,  cleanliness.  It  is 
intended  that  children  should  then  be  led  to  see  what  parts 
of  the  body  are  brought  into  use  through  the  actions  noticed ; 
t3  see  why  these  parts  are  useful,  how  they  should  be  cared 
for,  and  why  exercise,  rest,  and  pure  air  are  necessary.  Among 
the  many  suggestive  "  Notes  to  Teachers  "  the  folloAving  is  one 
of  the  most  valuable : — "  In  order  to  impress  upon  the  children 
the  importance  of  correct  living,  the  teacher  nuist  practise  in 
school  what  she  teaches.  She  should  see  that  the  schoolroom 
is  kept  clean,  that  the  heat  is  properly  regulated,  that  the  air 
is  kept  pure  by  proper  ventilation,  that  the  children  are  not 
subjected  to  dangerous  draughts,  that  the  light  is  suitable, 
that  the  physical  exercises,  songs,  and  other  diversions  are 
used  at  the  right  time,  so  far  as  these  things  are  under  her 
control  or  influence.  She  should  sec  that  the  children  observe 
the  hints  on  cleanliness  of  person  or  clothing,  that  they  take 
proper  care  of  themselves  ana  their  garments,  etc." 


64 


U.S.A.— State  Grade  Schooh. 


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Typical  Hygiene  Courses.  67 

The  lessons  are  illustrated  at  first  by  using  the  pupils  (c)  Lynn, 
themselves,  the  school  buildings,  or  common  objects  easily  ^^^s— 
obtainable.  Charts  and  experiments  are  employed  in  the  ^^^^  * 
higher  grades,  but  ii:  is  not  usual  to  make  use  of  fresh  animal 
tissues  or  organs,  as  it  is  at  Cleveland.  Advantage  is  taken 
of  opportunities  offered  for  correlation  with  the  "  Observational 
Lessons "  on  natural  and  physical  phenomena,  and  on  people 
and  occupations,  as  well  as  with  the  Nature  Work  and 
Elementary  Science  later  on.  This  inter-relating  method  is 
turned  to  account  also  in  connection  with  the  history,  geography 
and  civics  taken  in  the  upper  grades.  The  details  of  all  courses 
are  left  to  the  discretion  of  his  staff,  by  Mr.  0.  Bruce,  the 
Superintendent  of  the  Lynn  Schools,  so  that  the  personal 
equation  of  the  teacher  may  find  expression,  and  the  special 
needs  or  interests  of  the  class  be  consulted.  Two  demands  he 
makes,  and  expects  to  have  met ;  the  one,  that  each  lesson 
be  well  prepared  and  presented,  in  order  to  arouse,  direct  and 
maintain  a  wholesome  interest  among  the  children — the  other, 
that  his  staff  and  their  school  houses  shall  be  living  object 
lessons  of  hygienic  practice  to  the  town. 

Similar  good  methods  and  terms  of  advice  to  teachers  are  (<^)  Massa- 
found  under  other  Boards  and  Superintendents.    The  Massachu-  chusetts. 
setts  Board  of  Education,  e.g.,  in  its  published  "Course  of 
Studies  for  Elementary  Schools"  suggests  the  following  as 
a  method  of  teaching  physiology   and  hygiene  to  children 
which  has  been  tested  and  proved  successful  by  experience : — 


Section  1.    The  Whole  Body. 

Position.  Teach  the  pupils  to  observe  their  own  and  others'  positions 
while  sitting,  standing  and  walking.  Teach  them  to  desire  and  to  strive  to 
be  erect.  The  lessons  on  height  and  weight  should  be  to  this  end.  Height. 
Each  pupil  should  know  his  height.  Mark  the  height  of  a  pupil  on  an 
unused  blackboard  or  door  jamb  :  record  the  date,  the  height,  and  weight, 
beside  the  mark.  Do  the  same  for  three  or  four  pupils.  Repeat  the 
measurement  at  regular  intervals.  Encourage  other  children  to  have  the 
same  done  at  home"  by  their  parents  or  by  older  children.  Have  children 
compare  their  growth  during  different  intervals.  All  the  lessons  should 
tend  to  producing  and  retaining  correct  posture  and  carriage.  Weight. 
Do  the  same  as  for  height.  The  practice  of  measuring  height  and  weight 
.should  be  continued  through  the  period  of  growth. 

The  External  Parts  of  the  Body. 

Pupils  should  touch  and  name  the  parts  in  regular  and  irregular  order. 
Care  of  parts.  Each  child  should  be  taught  to  take  proper  care  of  his  hair, 
eyes,  nose,  mouth,  teeth,  hands,  feet  and  nails.  Cleanliness  of  the  body, 
and  the  clothing  should  be  insisted  upon  daily  before  the  school  exercises 
are  begun. 

The  Senses. 

Teach  by  simple  experiments  what  each  sense  is,  the  parts  that  are 
prominent  in  structure  and  delicate  in  sensibility,  the  uses  of  the  important 
parts,  the  knowledge  gained  by  each  alone,  and  the  care  of  each  sense. 
Avoid  in  experiments  all  sources  of  error,  such  as  learning  through  touch 
what  ought  to  be  known  by  hearing. 


6490. 


G8 


U.S.A. — State  Grade  SGhools. 


In  Section  II.  which  comprises  the  next  three  classes,  attention  is  directed 
to  the  limbs  and  structure  of  the  body,  the  following  extract  indicating  the 
method  advised  : — 

Section  II.    The  Limbs  and  Walls. 

Skin,  muscle,  tendon,  blood,  blood  vessels,  nerves,  fat,  bones,  joints, 
ligaments,  cartilage. 

Sources  of  knowledge.  The  body.  At  home — fur,  raw  and  cooked  beef, 
leg  of  a  fowl,  veal,  lamb.  At  the  market — sides  and  cuts  of  beef,  mutton 
and  pork,  l)ones.  At  school — shank  of  beef,  bones,  pictures,  diagrams, 
books. 

What  to  teach.  The  organ  :  its  chief  characteristics  and  its  name  ;  its 
position  and  uses ;  how  it  should  be  cared  for ;  the  effects  upon  it  of 
alcohol  and  narcotics. 

Method.  1.  Find  what  is  known.  2.  Teach  pupils  to  observe  the  organ  ; 
to  observe  its  uses  ;  to  learn  its  care  from  experience,  home  training,  from 
knowledge  of  use,  from  reading.  3.  Contribution  of  facts.  Selection  and 
arrangement  of  facts  by  pupils.  4.  Oral  and  written  descriptions,  drawings 
with  and  without  objects,  according  to  outline.  5.  Reading  of  selected 
articles.  Suggestions.  Observations  of  corresponding  parts  in  other 
animals.  (Teach  to  put  a  piece  of  sticking  plaster  on  a  wound  ;  to  cleanse 
and  bandage  a  cut ;  to  assist  one  who  is  weak.) 

The  remainder  of  the  course  is  devoted  to  the  consideration  of  food,  air, 
clothing,  removal  of  waste,  exercise  and  rest,  the  necessary  illustrations 
being  gathered  by  the  pupils  and  added  to  by  the  teacher  ;  the  nutritive, 
digestive,  circulatory,  respiratory,  motory  and  nervous  systems  being 
considered  and  studied  in  Section  III.  by  the  higher  grades.  Teachers  are 
exhorted  to  avoid  technicalities  as  far  as  possible  with  the  younger  pupils, 
to  make  use  of  numerous  simple  experiments,  and  to  let  rules  for  the 
proper  care  and  use  of  the  different  organs,  systems  or  functions  of  the 
body  be  repeated  and  re-enforced.  Special  attention  to  the  interdependence 
of  vital  processes  is  advocated,  and  the  ideal  of  a  strong,  wholesome 
and  unabused  body  as  best  fitted  for  successful  and  happy  living  is  kept 
constantly  and  conspicuously  in  the  foreground.  In  consequence  of  the 
law  which  requires  special  instruction  in  schools  as  to  the  efiect  of  alcoholic 
drinks,  stimulants  and  narcotics  on  the  human  system,  these  subjects 
appear  in  each  section  of  the  course,  but  the  teachers  are  cautioned  to 
deal  only  with  the  more  serious  consequences,  just  enough  to  attain  the 
purpose  of  mentioning  them  at  all,  to  refrain  from  assertions  of  what  is 
uncertain  or  sincerely  doubted  by  high  authority,  or  likely  to  be  repudiated 
by  the  pupil  when  he  is  mature  enough  to  judge  for  himself.  If  the 
children  thoughtlessly  incline  to  make  merry  over  the  weakness,  or  folly, 
or  misfortune  of  persons  visibly  under  the  influence  of  alcohol,  their  teachers 
are  advised  to  lead  them  to  a  truer  and  more  serious  attitude  towards 
such  thin,<;s,  dwelling  on  the  pei'soiial  effort  and  capacity  necessary  to  form 
good  habits  and  to  avoid  bad  ones,  and  showing  by  illustration,  that  the 
man  needs  a  strong  and  beautiful  body  if  it  is  to  be  sound  and  well 
balanced.  S]iecial  delicacy  of  treatment  is  ])ointed  out  as  necessary  in 
those  unfortunate  cases  where  children  find  themselves  between  the  safe 
teaching  of  the  school  and  the  counter  ])ractices  and  influences  of  home. 

{e)  Washing-  Good  methods  and  wise  counsels  to  teachers  find  admirable 
ton,  1).C'.  illustration  at  Washington,  where  the  enthusiasm,  on  occasion 
limited  elsewhere  to  supervisors,  extends  to  most  members  of 
the  staff.  This  is  largely  due  to  Mrs.  I.  G.  Myers,  who  has  been 
responsible  for  many  years  for  the  Normal  School  curriculum 
and  has  also  had  an  intimate  connection  with  the  schools  thera- 
selves. 


Typical  Hygier}e  Courses. 


69 


The  following  extract  from  the  "Outline  of  Work  for  1901  " 
speaks  for  itself  as  to  the  personal  practice  which  it  is  assumed 
should  accompany  the  teachers'  precepts : — 

"  To  the  teacher— 

"Study  the  ventilation  of  your  own  building  and  schoolroom.  Know 
how  to  secure  the  best  possible  fresh  air  conditions  for  the  children  and 
for  yourself.  Test  this  frequently  by  going  from  the  room  for  a  minute, 
returning  sensitive  to  vitiated  air.  Keep  a  fraction  of  the  mind  on  tem- 
perature, to  see  that  it  is  the  proper  one.  Have  a  watchful  care  to  the 
adjustment  of  shades,  for  the  best  distribution  of  light.  Be  mindful  of  the 
seating  of  pupils  having  defective  sight,  so  that  their  defects  may  lessen  by 
fostering  care.  The  direct  aim  of  the  early  study  of  physiology  is  the 
intelligent  care  of  the  body.  The  formation  of  healthful  and  refined  habits 
is  the  end  to  be  secured." 

In  Grades  IV.,  V.,  VI.,  VII.,  and  VIII.  advantageous  place  is  found  for 
the  elements  of  sanitation.  The  skin,  nails,  hair,  and  teeth  are  first 
studied  in  Grade  V.,  then  appears  the  following  note  :  "  Study  the  con- 
ditions of  a  healthful  schoolroom  :  sunlight,  its  effect ;  dust,  its  dangers  ; 
fresh  air,  its  value  ;  temperature,  what  it  should  be.  Let  the  responsibility 
for  this  care  gradually  pass  from  the  teacher  to  the  pupils,  by  whom  in 
turn,  it  should  be  sustained,  with  intelligence  and  conscience."  In  Grade 
VI.  sanitation  comprehends  "  The  care  of  the  sleeping  room ;  a  kitchen 
sink,  use,  construction,  care,  risks  from  want  of  care,  etc."  In  Grade  VII. 
air  and  ventilation  are  required  to  be  treated  experimentally  and  "  practi- 
cally ; "  and  sewer  gas,  its  nature,  effects,  and  dangers,  is  considered  in 
connection  with  the  city  regulations  for  plumbing.  The  physiology  in 
Grade  VIII.  is  confined  to  a  simple  general  study  of  the  nervous  system  : 
the  sanitation  concerns  itself  with  the  sources  of  diseases,  germs  and  their 
conditions  of  development,  a  study  of  simple  disinfectants  (sunlight,  soap, 
and  water,  par  excellence),  and  concludes  with  an  introduction  to  municipal 
sanitation  (sanitary  dwellings,  street  cleaning,  sewerage,  garbage,  con- 
tagious diseases,  etc.).  Appended  is  this  suggestion  :  "  Combine  this  unit 
with  the  study  of  city  government;"  the  force  and  worth  of  which 
note  is  appreciated  when  the  fact  is  recalled  that  boys  of  13  or  14 
constitute  half  the  pupils  who  come  under  this  instruction.  No  text-books 
are  suggested  for  use  until  Grade  IV.,  then  "The  Child's  Health  Primer" 
and  Stowell's  "  Essentials  of  Health  "  are  named  as  suitable  ;  but  long  and 
valuable  lists  of  reference  books  are  appended  for  the  teachers'  use  through- 
out the  course,  all  of  which  are  available  at  the  teachers'  library.  Among 
books  on  general  physiology,  Foster's,  Colton's,  Tracey's,  and  Bertha  Browii's 
find  a  place,  with  Ball's  "  Care  of  the  Teeth,"  Mercier's  "  Nervous  System 
and  the  Mind,"  Rosenthal's  "  Muscles  and  Nerves,"  and  Lagrange's  "  Physical 
Exercise ; "  Billing's  and  Morrison's  excellent  books  on  Ventilation  and 
Heating,  and  Prudden's  "Dust  and  its  Dangers"  and  "Story  of  the 
Bacteria"  are  also  included,  besides  the  Annual  Pieports  of  the  Health 
Department  and  references  to  articles  in  current  literature. 

Practical  methods  and  field  trips  are  advocated,  and  unusual 
trouble  is  taken  to  inter-connect  this  with  other  school  studies. 
The  much  talked-of  principle  of  correlation  is  practised  witli 
most  encouraging  results  in  the  Washington  schools,  though  all 
concerned  are  aware  that  but  the  first  steps  along  this  right 
road  have  yet  been  taken. 

At  Philadelphia  the  Good  Habits  Talks  find  a  place  among  (/)  Phila- 
object  lessons  in  the  four  primary  grades.  delphia. 

In  view  of  the  well-recognised  fact  that  eating  and  drinking  bulk  largely 
in  a  small  child's  mind,  the  conversational  lessons  open  on  articles  of  food 
and  drink  (bread,  beef,  mutton,  coffee,  tea,  butter,  cheese,  rice,  fruits),  and 
from  what  natural  objects  these  are  obtained,  followed  by  a  similar  treat- 
ment of  common  articles  of  clothing.    In  Grade  III.  the  care  of  the  human 


70 


U.S.A. — State  Grade  Schools. 


( f)  Phila-      body,  by  means  of  cleanliness,  clothing  and  breathing  fresh  air,  gives  occa- 

(ielphia          ^^^^      much  useful  talk,  so  that  by  the  time  Grade  IV.  is  reached  (the 

continued.  children  being  from  9  to  10  years  old),  curiosity  is  aroused  as  to  the  general 
structure  of  the  body  and  the  means  by  which  it  receives  sensations.  Dur- 
ing the  remaining  four  years  the  physiological  and  hygienic  aspects  of  the 
study  are  well  balanced  in  treatment,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  written  notes 
of  the  more  advanced  grades.  P>y  the  courtesy  of  Miss  Wright,  one  of  the 
l^oard  of  Education  Supervisors,  I  have  been  furnished  with  a  large  num- 
ber of  notes  made  by  x)upils  in  Grade  VII L,  executed  without  previous 
notice  in  the  ordinary  course  of  work,  and  handed  to  me  without  revision 
as  they  left  the  writers'  hands.  Of  these,  forty  papers  are  on  the  nervous 
system  ;  they  are  clear,  well  expressed,  and,  as  a  whole,  satisfactorily 
accurate  ;  the  plentiful  introduction  of  pen  and  ink  drawings  ilhistrate  the 
facility  attained  in  this  mode  of  expression  by  an  American  child.  Each 
paper  contains  a  verbal  sketch,  illustrated,  of  the  cerebro-spinal  and 
sympathetic  nervous  systems,  and  highly  creditable  drawings  of  the  under 
surface  of  the  brain,  showing  the  cerebrum,  cerebellum  and  medulla 
oblongata ;  each  paper  concludes  with  the  hygienic  applications  to  be 
made  of  the  knowledge  gained,  couched  in  evidently  original  language  : — 
It  is  the  worry  in  many  cases  that  causes  nervous  sickness."  "  To  keep 
our  body  in  health  also  tends  to  keep  the  nervous  system  in  health,  as  the 
blood  which  nourishes  the  nervous  system  must  be  pure  and  good.  .  .  .  The 
nervous  system  can  be  easily  abused,  sitting  up  late  at  night,  over  tiring  the 
body,  reading  cheap  novels  and  going  to  the  theatre  too  much  all  tire  the 
brain."  The  following  extract  from  one  of  the  best  papers  illustrates  the 
danger,  to  which  reference  has  been  made  as  so  liable  to  arise  from  well 
meant  efforts  to  simplify  a  complex,  and,  as  yet,  incompletely  understood 
subject ;  though  the  general  tenour  is  excellent  some  of  the  daring  asser- 
tions on  the  part  of  the  pupil  are  inaccurate  and  misleading.  "  The  use  of 
narcotics,  strong  drink  and  opium  all  tend  to  weaken  the  nervous  system. 
The  alcohol  gets  into  the  blood,  takes  away  all  the  healthful  parts  of  the 
blood  and  it  gets  into  the  nerve  tissue  which  is  very  watery,  and  the 
alcohol  dries  up  the  water  and  takes  its  place,  and  when  the  alcohol  is  once 
in  the  nerve  tissue  it  is  very  hard  to  get  out,  so  for  this  and  other  reasons, 
alcohol  should  be  avoided  by  every  sensible  person.  Opium  and  all  other 
drugs  should  be  equally  avoided,  the  craving  is  very  hard  to  get  rid  of  and 
will  often  be  inherited  by  the  victim's  innocent  children.  The  opium  has 
a  deadening  effect  that  is  very  dangerous,  often  resulting  in  death  ;  all  the 
patent  medicines  and  cough  cures  often  have  a  form  of  opium  in  them,  and 
they  should  be  avoided  as  a  household  remedy,  as  the  effect  on  children 
especially  is  very  dangerous." 

Even  more  striking  is  another  set  of  papers  from  the 
same  school  for  the  variety  in  verbal  expression  of  identical 
facts  and  the  really  beautiful  pen  and  nik  drawings  of  the 
structure  of  the  ear,  including  separate  illustrations  of  its  parts. 
The  evident  grasp  of  the  theory  of  sound,  in  addition  to  the  fitness 
of  the  human  ear  for  the  transmission  of  sound  waves,  is  most 
apparent,  and  the  remarks  on  the  care  of  the  ear  are  simple, 
rational,  common  sense.  A  third  set  of  papers  deals  with  the  eye 
and  also  merits  high  praise.  Sketches  enter  even  more  fully 
into  these  notes,  and  are  used  with  great  effect  to  illustrate  and 
assist  to  shorten  written  descriptions.  It  is  evident  that  the 
hygienic  applications  have  been  well  impressed,  though  a  number 
of  the  writers  wisely  omit  any  notes  on  the  effects  of  alcohol  and 
tobacco  on  the  eye,  which  are  reported  by  others  in  words 
similar  in  substance  to  the  following  extract  from  one  paper : — 

"  Effect  of  Alcohol  on  the  Eye.— It  in  a  general  way  dulls  or  weakens 
the  nerve.  Alcohol  is  known  to  produce  congestion  of  eyes.  It  irritates 
the  delicate  linings  of  the  eyelids  and  lessens  the  acuteness  of  vision. 


Hygiene  Courses. 


11 


*'  Effect  of  Tobacco  on  the  Eye.-  Tobacco  smoke  irritates  the  eyes.  It 
causes  sharp  pain  of  the  eyeball.  Smokers  often  have  confused  and  feeble 
vision  due  to  partial  paralysis  of  the  optic  nerve." 

These  papers  are  home-work  on  an  assigned  subject  which 
had  been  previously  studied  in  class,  and  rank  as  "  Composi- 
tions ; "  the  sketches  are  allowed  to  be  copied  from  diagrams  or 
objects.  The  execution  of  these  careful  drawings  has  various 
values,  in  addition  to  the  inevitable  mental  impression  received 
of  relation  of  parts,  of  form  and  of  structure  ;  accurate  observa- 
tion, neatness,  precision,  manual  dexterity,  reliance  upon  means 
other  than  verbal  for  expression,  the  employment  of  facility 
gained  in  another  branch  of  study,  are  all  called  into  play.  The 
method  appears  in  general  use.  I  have  specimens  of  similar, 
though  less  advanced,  notes  collected  in  the  course  of  a  visit  to 
some  schools  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  where  pencil  illustra- 
tion rather  than  verbal  description  is  relied  upon.  Bone 
structure,  the  mechanism  of  a  joint,  the  shape  and  arrangement 
of  the  teeth,  the  position  of  the  organs  in  the  thorax  and 
abdomen  are  drawn ;  and  usually  six  or  seven  written  lines  are 
considered  to  supply  the  necessary  letterpress. 

Good  papier-mache  models  and  anatom^ical  charts  are  provided  IlliLstrative 
under  some  Boards  of  Education,  but  a  majority  of  those  teachers  Methods, 
whose  previous  training  or  post-graduate  courses  enable  them  to 
approach  the  whole  topic  from  its  practical  side,  confirmed  my 
own  opinion  that  one  illustration  from  life  or  a  familiar  object, 
one  demonstration  on  animal  tissues,  such  as  the  leg  of  a  rabbit 
or  the  eye  of  an  ox,  is  worth  more  as  a  means  to  convey  a  true 
conception,  to  arouse  active  interest,  or  to  stimulate  subsequent 
observation  than  the  free  use  of  costly  models.  The  extent  to 
which  this  "  better  "  way  is  followed  depends  upon  the  attitude 
of  the  Supervisors  or  school  principal,  and  the  capacity  and  en- 
thusiasm of  the  teacher.  The  same  spirit  which  has  prompted 
the  rapid  introduction  of  the  "  laboratory  method"  into  high 
schools  and  colleges  is  permeating  the  whole  world  of  education, 
with  a  promise  of  good  things  to  come  for  this  as  for  other  suit- 
able subjects. 

Special  lessons  upon  the  care  of  young  children  are  not  The  Care  of 
usual  in  the  public  schools,  though  exceptions  to  the  rule  exist  Young 
in  New  York  City,  Washington,  and  very  probably  elsewhere.  Children. 
In  respect  of  sensible  clothing,  England  can  learn  with  advan- 
tage from  the  United  States  where  babies,  from  birth,  have 
necks,  arms,  and  legs  completely  and  continuously  protected. 
The  artificial  feeding  of  infants  is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of 
physicians,  who  write  individual  prescriptions  to  be  "  made  up  " 
at  milk  laboratories  instead  of  at  chemists'  shops ;  and  this  cus- 
tom was,  in  my  experience,  a  reason  frequently  advanced  for  not 
giving  instruction  on  the  subject  of  "  bottle  fed "  babies  in 
schools.  At  Buffalo  the  use  of  tube  bottles  is  forbidden  by 
law.  I  do  not  know  whether  such  enactments  have  been  made 
elsewhere,  but  in  this  city  the  residt  within  a  comparatively 
short  time  was  to  reduce  the  rate  of  infantile  mortality  by  one- 
half    At  the  New  York  cookery  centres  the  girls  Iciirn  how  to 


72 


U.S. A. —State  High  Schools. 


sterilise  and  pasteurise  milk  ;  how  to  modify  cow's  milk  to  meet 
the  needs  of  infants  at  different  age  periods  ;  how  much  food  to 
give  and  how  often  to  feed;  what  are  and  what  are  not  the 
right  shapes  for  feeding  bottles.  They  also  learn  how  to  make- 
barley  water  and  foods  suitable  when  the  child  begins  to  require 
other  than  milk  diet.  "  What  Baby  must  not  have,''  needs  to 
be  well  impressed  in  the  poorest  quarters  of  that  city  as  well  as 
in  our  own  towns.  Regular  instruction  is  not  given  at  Washing- 
ton, but  Mrs.  1.  G.  Myers  occasionally  takes  the  elder  girls  alone, 
at  one  or  other  school,  for  personal  instruction  in  nursery 
hygiene  as  well  as  in  the  wise  care  of  their  own  health. 

B. — High  Schools. 
To  confine  the  following  remarks  to  the  teaching  of  the 
Domestic  Sciences  and  Arts,  and  Hygiene  in  the  public  high 
schools  is  to  omit,  for  the  present,  reference  to  some  excellent 
examples  of  secondary  school  courses  supported  by  private  en- 
dowment, e.g. — those  at  the  Pratt  and  Lewis  Institutes,  which 
will  be  treated  in  Part  II.  Nevertheless,  adherence  to  the 
division  of  educational  institutions  into  the  two  groups  oi* 
those  maintained  by  State  funds  or  from  private  resources  will, 
it  is  hoped,  enable  those  unfamiliar  with  the  intricacies  conse- 
quent upon  this  parallel  dual  system  to  assign  to  each  its  just 
relative  proportion  to  the  mass  of  good  work  accomplished 
by  both. 

Curricula.  Domestic  Science  is  classified,  almost  without  exception,  as 
Manual  Training  under  all  Boards  of  Education  into  whose 
high  schools  it  has  been  introduced.  The  reason  for  this  is 
found  substantially  in  the  system  of  co-education.  If  the  girls 
of  a  division  devote  so  much  time  per  week  to  a  subject  from 
which  boys  are  excluded,  their  occupation  during  these  "  periods  " 
must  be  of  a  character  inapplicable  to  girls.  Manual  training  is 
widely  recognised  as  desirable  for  both  sexes  and  is  therefore 
conveniently,  if  not  quite  accurately,  extended  to  cover  cooking, 
sewing,  laundry  and  table  service,  as  well  as  its  more  legitimate 
subjects,  work  with  clay,  card,  wood,  or  metal.  It  must  always  be 
borne  in  mind  that  a  proportion  of  authorities  maintain  the 
"  training  "  value  of  all  these  occupations  to  be  equal.  In  large 
cities  which  support  several  high  schools,  one  of  these  is  usually 
set  apart  for  the  express  purpose  of  offering  special  facilities  in 
manual  training  to  both  sexes,  and  is  so  denominated ;  not  that 
all  Manual  Training  High  Schools  necessarily  include  domestic 
subjects  in  their  curricula,  but  they  do  so  in  many  cities,  and,  I 
believe,  to  an  annually  increasing  extent.  At  Providence  (Rhode 
Island),  at  Ann  Arbor  (Mich.),  and  in  the  early  days  at 
Philadelphia,  cookery  and  even  sewing,  appeared  in  the  tim  .) 
tables  of  high  schools  before  adoption  into  the  grammar  schools  : 
but  Brookline,  (Mass.),  offers  an  illustration  of  the  more 
general  tendency,  viz.,  to  include  an  introductory  course  in  both 
subjects  in  the  elementary  schools,  and  to  encourage  further 
study  and  practice  in  the  high  schools. 

As  a  rule,  high  schools  provide  a  choice  of  courses  for  their 
students,   usually   from    five  to  eight    in    number;  these 


Scope  and  Value  of  Domestic  Science  Courses. 

are  described  as  General,  Classical,  Scientific,  Latin-German, 
English  preparatory.  Commercial,  Manual,  etc.  The  base  of 
most  of  them  is  very  similar  during  the  first  two  out  of  the  four 
years  of  high  school  life,  by  which  means  differentiation  or 
specialisation  is  postponed  until  about  16,  and  premature 
specialisation  avoided  at  14  years  of  age.  Domestic  Science 
may  constitute  a  required  subject  in  the  General,  Technical, 
or  Manual  Training  courses,  as  it  does,  e.g.,  at  Brookline 
(Mass.),  or  it  may  be  an  "  elective,"  open  to  all  girl  students, 
as  at  Ann  Arbor  and  Muskegon.  When  house  sanitation  plays  a 
prominent  part  this  section  of  the  course  is  occasionally  thrown 
open  to  boys,  as  is  the  case  at  the  Toledo  Polytechnic  School. 

The  scope  of  the  whole  course  is  often  very  comprehensive,  as  Scopo  and 
the  arts  are  included  to  an  extent  not  usual  in  this  country  Value  ot 
(considerable  time  being  devoted  to  the  practice  of  design,  clay  g^JJ^^^^^^^ 
modelling,  drawing,  and  to  some  study  of^  colour),  while  it  would  Courses, 
be  hard  to  find  one  scheme  which  does  not  require,  or  include 
in  itself,  a  study  of  general  chemistry,  elementary  physics,  and 
an  introduction  to  the  first  principles  of  bacteriology;  some 
suggestions  on  economic  and  sociological  problems  are  also 
brought  forward,  with  a  view  to  widen  the  girls'  horizons  and  to 
prepare  them  for  their  future  positions  and  obligations.  It  is 
evident,  therefore,  that  valuable  opportunities  await  those  who 
approach  such  courses  in  the  attitude  of  mind  anticipated  by 
the  experts  responsible  for  their  formulation.  During  her  four 
years'  study  an  intelligent  girl  devotes  time  to  theoretical  and 
experimental  work  in  chemistry,  physics  and  biology,  usually 
with  special  reference  to  their  practical  household  applications, 
which  she  at  once  proceeds  to  test  in  her  cookery,  lavmdry  and 
cleaning  practice.  Her  hands  and  eyes  are  trained  in  the  studio, 
so  that  she  may  bring  skilful  manipulation,  habitual  accuracy, 
and  an  eye  for  form  and  colour  to  her  classes  in  sewing,  dress- 
making and  millinery.  She  is  called  upon  to  make  personal 
observations  on  sanitary  house  construction,  and  then  to  repro- 
duce, or  to  originate,  the  plans  for  a  healthy  dwelling  ;  here  she 
is  required  to  have  good  reasons  for  all  her  details  and  to  be  as 
practical  in  her  knowledge  of  plumbing  possibilities  and  risks  as 
she  is  in  her  scheme  of  colour  decoration  for  the  rooms.  Cal- 
culation of  cost  must  be  carried  out  with  care  and  the  economics 
of  family  life  studied.  She  is  trained  to  realise  that  mere 
provision  of  food  and  clothing  does  not  fulfil  the  housewife's 
duty ;  meals  at  reasonable  cost  must  furnish  requisite  nutriment 
in  Avholesome,  varied  forms,  with  the  details  of  which  she  should 
be  familiar  ;  clothing  must  fulfil  many  more  requirements  than 
mere  surface  show — how  to  ensure  these  constitutes  a  part  of 
her  study.  She  perceives  how  responsible  is  the  woman  for  the 
expenditure  of  a  household,  and  gets  her  first  glimpse  by  this 
means  into  the  sociological  problems  of  to-day.  Time  has  to  be 
found  for  gaining  an  insight  into  the  special  care  essential  for 
infants  and  invalids  ;  while,  most  wisely,  the  study  of  literature, 
and,  if  possible,  of  one  or  two  modern  languages,  maintains, 
throughout,  the  neccssaiy  connection  with  the  wide  world  of 


74 


U.S.A. — State  High  Schools. 


experience,  thought  and  culture,  of  which  each  home  reflects  a 
part. 

Needless  to  say,  the  realisation  by  the  pupils  of  all  these  ideals 
is  not  as  yet  contemplated  in  every  high  school ;  but,  where  the 
effort  is  made,  there  is  already  warranty  of  eventual  attainment. 
At  this  age  period,  more  than  at  that  of  any  other,  the  mental 
attitude  of  teachers  is  quickly  observed  by  scholars,  who  are 
impressionable  in  a  high  degree  to  standards  of  thought  set  up 
by  those  under  whose  influence  they  spend  a  third  of  their  time. 
The  fact  that  highly  qualified  professors  of  both  sexes  manifest 
an  unfeigned  interest  in  the  right  conduct  of  homes  and  give 
cordial  attention  to  studies  which  bear  on  the  scientific  and 
artistic  regulation  of  domestic  life  carries  great  weight  with 
boys  as  well  as  girls  in  the  high  schools  where  these  courses 
have  reached  their  best  development.  It  is  believed  that  this 
fact  impresses  a  wider  circle  than  the  students  alone,  and  will 
bear  good  fruit  among  parents  by  its  contribution  to  the  dignity 
of  home  life ;  in  any  case  its  influence  is  active  at  the  moment, 
when  the  unrest  of  adolescence  is  prone  to  manifest  itself  in  a 
contempt  for  familiar  surroundings  and  in  impatience  with  the 
claims  of  the  family  circle.  Further,  such  a  course  serves  the 
useful  purpose  of  revealing  their  vocations  to  girls  who  are  dis- 
couraged by  their  distaste  or  want  of  capacity  for  literary, 
artistic,  or  purely  scientific  studies,  in  which  their  companion^ 
already  display  a  promise  of  future  proficiency,  or  from  their 
inability  to  reach  an  accepted  standard  in  other  lines  of  school 
work.  The  combination  of  scientific  theory  with  its  prompt 
application  to  familiar  processes  ;  the  union  of  mental  with 
manual  activity ;  the  school  links  constantly  forged  with  home 
interests ;  the  sense  of  power  acquired  in  the  performance  of 
daily  duties,  hitherto  complicated  by  the  rule  of  thumb  system, 
accompanied  by  its  irritatmg  and  uncertain  element  of  chance ; 
all  appeal  with  an  often  unsuspected  force  to  the  undeveloped 
Marthas  of  the  school  world,  who  find  here  an  outlet  for  their 
latent  capacities,  and  whose  jDcrpetuation — no  longer  "  careful 
and  troubled  about  many  things  " — through  knowledge  thus 
attained,  will  be  of  unmixed  benefit  to  the  human  race. 

In  contrast  to  such  comprehensive  courses  (details  of  three  Ox 
which  are  included),  it  is  quite  possible  to  find  high  schools 
where  the  term  Domestic  Science  is  confined  to  practice  classes 
in  cooking  or  sewing,  and  where  no  direct  inter-relation  between 
scientific  principles  and  domestic  methods  is  worked  out.  Of 
these,  that  at  Ann  Arbor  (Mich.),  is  an  average  specimen.  Or 
there  may  be  a  sort  of  compromise  between  the  educational  and 
the  utilitarian  methods,  of  which  the  courses  at  some  of  the 
private  high  schools  afford  illustrations.  Significant  of  the 
awakening  appreciation  of  the  possibilities  and  claims  of  the 
subject  is  the  following  extract  from  the  21st  Annual  Report  of 
the  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools  of  the  City  of  Boston, 
dated  March,  1901 ;  its  tenour  has  aroused  considerable  hope 
among  those  in  the  city  who  have  desired  for  some  years  past  to 
see  a  course  established  in  Household  Economics,  and  who  regret 


Typical  Domestic  Science  Courses. 


75 


that  the  3,000  girls  in  attendance  at  the  half  dozen  high  schools 
have  hitherto  had  no  officially  recognised  opportunity  for  in- 
struction under  this  head,  at  an  age  when  they  are  able  to  bring- 
to  it  an  interest  and  intelligence  more  developed  than  that 
possessed  by  pupils  in  the  grammar  grades :  "  The  next  piece  of 
legislation  relative  to  high  school  studies  that  may  suggest  itself 
is  the  establishment  of  courses  in  Household  and  Industrial 
Science  and  Arts  for  girls.  Whether  such  courses  would  better 
be  provided  for  in  a  separate  high  school  or  in  connection  with 
existing  high  schools  is  a  debatable  question,  but  either  method 
would  be  feasible.  In  former  reports  1  have  advocated  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  separate  high  school,  which  should  be  for  girls 
what  the  Mechanic  Arts  High  School  is  for  boys.  At  the  same 
time  I  am  persuaded  that,  if  good  courses  in  Household  and 
Industrial  Science  and  Arts  were  offered  as  '  electives '  in  the 
existing  high  schools,  the  same  practical  results  could  be  secured. 
The  addition  of  such  '  electives  '  would  be  an  easy  matter  if  the 
general  system  of  elective  studies  which  I  now  advocate  should 
be  adopted."  It  is  possible  that  the  activity  of  private  enterprise 
in  this  direction  in  Boston  may  in  part  account  for  the  delay  in 
providing  courses  similar  to  those  so  well  supported  in  other 
cities.  Further  on  in  the  same  interesting  document  Superintend- 
ent Seaver  points  out  that  the  choice  of  studies  under  the  elective 
system  can  be  scarcely  too  wide,  as  chemistry,  physics,  drawing 
etc.,  "  do  not  always  furnish  the  best  training  for  all  minds ; 
there  are  always  excellent  pupils  who  would  do  better  to  omit  one 
or  other  of  these  subjects  and  give  the  time  to  studies  better  suited 
to  their  capacities,  thus  leaving  school  with  some  real  scholarship." 

As  in  the  grammar  grades.  Personal  and  Domestic  Hygiene 
are  most  usually,  if  not  invariably,  treated  as  a  definite  school  study 
under  the  title  of  Physiology,  in  which  both  sexes  share.  The 
subject  is  obligatory  in  only  a  minority  of  the  States,  but  often 
finds  a  place  in  high  schools  where  much  attention  is  given  to  biol- 
ogy, of  which  it  forms  an  appropriate  and  valuable  development. 

The  course  of  Domestic  Science  study  at  the  Brookline  (Mass.)  Typical 
High  School  is  detailed  in  this  Report  for  two  reasons :  first,.  Domestic 
because  the  whole  school  system  in  that  city  has  attained  so  ^cience 
high  a  level  of  excellence  (largely  due  to  its  late  superintendent,  {J)^Brooic^ 
Professor  Samuel  Dutton,  now  Superintendent  of  the  Horace  line,  Mass. 
Mann  School,  Teachers  College,  New  York  City),  that  if  a  subject  Tables  X 
appears  in  its  school  programmes,  the  educational  value  and 
practical  possibilities  of  that  study  are,  virtually,  guaranteed.  In 
the    next    place,   its    schedule  demonstrates    the  feasibility 
of  finding   an   honourable   place   in   an   undeniably  liberal 
scheme   of  secondary  education  for  subjects  whose  absence 
from  the  time  tables  of  corresponding  schools  in  this  countrj^  is 
excused  or  condoned  on  the  plea  of  want  of  time,  want  of  educa- 
tional value,  or  want  of  attraction  to  parents  and  pupils. 

The  educational  history  of  the  town  of  Brookline  has  been  a 
source  of  satisfaction  to  its  inhabitants  for  the  past  ten  years  : 
School  Committee,  Superintendent,  and  teachers  have  worked 
freely,  and  few  restraints  have  been  placed  on  a  reasonable  display 


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U.S.A. — State  High  Schools. 


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Typical  Domestic  Science  Courses. 


77 


of  individuality  and  inventiveness.  Nature  study  has  been  in-  (a)  Brook- 
troduced,  manual  training  and  the  domestic  arts  have  been  line,  Mass 
developed  and  made  more  educational;  new  school  buildings 
have  been  erected  with  modern  appliances  for  comfort  and 
sanitation,  and  the  old  ones  have  been  enlarged  and  improved. 
Free  kindergartens,  increased  provision  for  public  health  and 
hygiene,  improved  teaement  houses,  the  exclusion  of  children 
from  work  in  mills  and  shops,  with  additional  public  support  of 
such  "  culture  forces  "  as  libraries,  museums,  music,  lectures,  etc., 
these,  and  other  social  developments,  have  all  supplemented  and 
supported  school  influences.  The  High  school  is  a  source  of  special 
pride  to  the  community,  and  it  is  earnestly  desired  that  its 
curriculum  should  be  a  good  example  of  the  avowed  aim  of  tho5?e 
responsible  for  its  initiation,  viz.,  not  so  much  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge  as  the  development  of  power  and  the  building  of 
character.  "While  knowledge  is  not  the  end  it  is  still  recog- 
nised as  a  powerful  means,  and  if  only  partial  success  has  been 
attained  it  is  rather  because  of  the  incompleteness  of  its  adoption 
and  appHcation  than  of  any  fault  in  the  aim." 

The  curriculum  of  this  school  is  broad  and  flexible ;  certain 
subjects  are  required,  others  are  elective ;  there  are  four  courses 
of  study  in  all.  The  "  constants  "  occurring  in  each,  although 
in  varying  proportions,  are  English,  history,  mathematics,  the 
natural  sciences,  art,  and  physical  training.  Three  courses,  the 
clctssical,  sub-classical,  and  technical,  furnish  a  good  preparation 
for  all  who  wish  to  enter  college,  scientific  or  technical  schools,  and 
candidates  select  these  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  institu- 
tion which  they  expect  to  enter ;  the  general  course,  in  which  there 
is  a  greater  range  of  "  electives,"  provides  for  those  who  complete 
their  education  in  the  high  school.  Manual  training  and 
domestic  science  and  art,  for  boys  and  girls  respectively,  appear 
in  each  year  of  the  technical  and  general  courses ;  they  are  obliga- 
tory in  the  technical,  and  elective  in  the  general  course  ;  zoology, 
physics,  chemistry  and  physiology  are  also  "elective"  subjects. 

The  work  in  Domestic  Science  is  largely  an  application  of 
other  sciences  to  daily  life;  the  ultimate  object  of  its  pro- 
moters is,  while  training  the  pupil  in  scientific  method  and  in 
;ui  appreciation  of  economic  values,  to  give  the  home  its  legiti- 
mate position  among  our  social  institutions,  to  arouse  interest  in 
the  familiar  processes  and  environment  of  home  life,  and  to  show 
that  home  making  is  a  worthy  occupation  for  the  most  gifted. 

The  food  problem,  as  approached  by  the  cook  and  as  exempli- 
fied in  the  kitchen,  is  selected  for  the  first  year's  work,  because 
experience  shows  the  average  girl  of  14  or  15  to  be  more  interested 
in  this  department  of  the  subject  than  in  any  other ;  but,  as  a 
knowledge  of  general  chemistry  is  essential  to  an  even  superficinl 
understanding  of  every-day  processes,  the  second  year  is  devoted 
to  this  subject  and  its  applications.  The  third  year  is  concerned 
chiefly  with  a  study  of  the  house  itself,  its  construction,  its 
sanitary  arrangements  and  their  care,  its  furnishing  and 
decoration.  An  excellent  opportunity  is  given,  and  improved, 
for  correLiting  the  work  ot  this  year  with  that  of  the  Art 


78  U.S.A.— State  High  Schools. 


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Typical  Domestic  Science  Courses. 


79 


department.    Other  of  tlie  topics,  such  as  ventilation  and  Brook- 
heating,  involve  principles  of  physics,  and  here  also  the  effort  is  line,  Mass 
made  to  apply  work  already  done  in  that  department,  and  to  —continued. 
bring  to  students  without  that  training  the  knowledge  of  some 
of  its  elementary  principles.    The  fourth  year  is  largely  given  to 
the  applications  of  biology  to  every-day  life.    As  this  compre- 
hends an  elementary  study  of  bacteriology,  the  theory  of  disease 
causation  is  naturally  introduced,  and  the  practice  includes  some 
simple  home  nursing  and  emergency  work.    A  short  subsequent 
course  in  invalid  cookery  gives  opportunity  for  a  review  of  the 
principles  learned  in  the  first  year.    The  latter  part  of  this,  the 
last  year,  is  spent  in  the  discussion  of  problems  of  home  making 
rather  than  of  housekeeping,  many  of  which  are  looked  at  from 
the  economic  and  social  as  well  as  from  the  domestic  standpoint. 
For  example,  the  following  selected  topics  belong  both  to  Political 
Economy  and  to  Domestic  Science — the  consumption  of  wealth  ; 
food,  in  its  relation  to  labour  power ;  the  housing  of  the  poor 
and  its  relation  to  good  citizenship ;  municipal  sanitary  regula- 
tions ;  expenditure  versus  saving ;  domestic  service  (as  a  part  of 
the  general  labour  problem)  ;  the  work  of  superintending  a  home 
compared  with  other  economic  occupations;  child  labour,  etc. 
Evidence  of  the  thoughtful  inter-relation  of  studies,  for  which 
this  school  is  notable,  is  also  apparent  in  the  following  selection 
from  some  of  the  topics  suggested  for  theme  work  in  the  English 
department — the  life  and  work  of  Count  Rumford ;  the  influence 
of  Pasteur  on  modern  science ;  yeast  fermentation  in  its  relation 
to  bread-making ;  the  manufacture  of  flour ;  experiments  with 
albumen,  dust,  bacteria  and  butter-making ;  the  Brookline  water 
supply ;  the  system  of  ventilation  in  the  Brookline  High  School ; 
an  ideal  room.    This  method  serves  at  least  three  ends  ;  facility 
of  verbal  expression  is  acquired  in  respect  of  subjects  studied 
chiefly  in  the  laboratory  or  by  observation ;  girls  are  stimulated 
to  study  the  history  and  development  of  existing  domestic 
customs ;  and  intelligent  application  of  principles  acquired  in 
one  department  is  demanded  in  another.    Physiology,  chemistry, 
physics  and  economics  are  also  closely  affiliated  by  cross-work 
reference  throughout  the  course.    Miss  Smith,  who  is  in  charge 
of  the  present  promising  class,  spares  no  pains  to  secure  the  co- 
operation of  her  colleagues  in  order  to  maintain  continuity  in 
theory  and  practice,  and  finds  an  ample  reward  for  her  efforts  in 
the  increasing  interests  and  greater  womanliness  of  those  who 
include  Domestic  Science  in  their  studies.    Throughout  the 
course  visits  to  well-planned  houses,  steam  laundries,  chocolate 
works  and  other  factories  connected  with  food  and  clothing 
processes,  are  made  whenever  practicable  or  desirable ,  in  order 
to  broaden  the  outlook  of  the  students  and  to  impress  on  their 
minds  the  points  under  discussion. 

I  subjoin  a  concise  synopsis  of  the  ground  covered  and  a  few  suggestions 
of  the  methods  adopted  in  the  courses  in  chemistry,  physics,  geology  and 
art;  the  course  in  general  household  cookery  is  a  somewhat  extended 
treatment  of  the  grade  school  syllabus. 


80 


U.S.A. — State  High  ScJtools. 


(a)Brookline,  The  General  Gheniistiy  includes  :  A  study  of  tlie  air  and  its  gases. 
jViass —  Chemistry  of  respiration.  Water :  its  composition,  distillation,  sol- 
continued.     vent  power.    Hard  and  soft  water.     Hydrogen.     Acids,  bases,  salts. 

The  halogens  and  their  compounds.  Sulphur  and  phosphorus.  Carbon 
and  the  chemistry  of  combustion.  Fuels  and  illuminants.  Dyeing  of 
cloth.  Starch,  sugar,  albumen,  fats.  Chemistry  of  fermentation  and  of 
digestion.  Study  of  the  metals.  Action  of  acids  and  alkalies  upon  the 
common  metals  and  their  compounds.  Simple  qualitative  analysis. 
To  this  succeeds  the  "  Household  Applicatioiis  "  previously  mentioned. 
"The  General  Physics  Course  is  governed  by  three  permanent  aims:  — 
(1)  that  which  it  has  in  common  with  the  general  chemistry,  viz.,  to 
develop  in  the  pupils  steady,  persistent,  logical  thinking ;  (2)  to  make 
them  fairly  intelligent  in  reference  to  their  own  scientific  environment  ; 
(3)  to  teach  them  to  apply  the  elements  of  algebra  and  geometry  to  the 
problems  of  daily  life.  Incidentally  it  is  anticipated  that  the  sense  of 
appreciation  will  be  aroused  for  all  that  modern  science  has  done  and  is 
doing  for  the  comfort  and  convenience  of  the  race."  As  the  average 
manual  offers  few  opportunities  for  any  original  independent  thinking,  and 
contains  so  little  of  anything  like  a  practical  application  of  physics  to  the 
phenomena  of  daily  life,  the  head  of  the  department  substitutes  s])ecial 
notes  of  his  own — still  in  manuscript  form — in  which  students  are  told  as 
little  as  possible  directly,  but  are  given,  practically,  a  series  of  original 
exercises  in  mechanics,  optics  and  electricity,  to  work  out  by  the  aid  of  a 
set  of  simple  apparatus,  their  mathematical  instincts  and  their  own  brains  ; 
the  intention  is  that  these  shall  then  be  applied  to  the  affairs  of  daily  life  in 
continuous  sequence,  suggested  by  questions,  problems  and  references. 
This  thoroughly  practical  aim  takes  the  form,  for  instance,  in  hydraulics,  of 
directing  attention  to  the  water-meter,  the  simple  motor,  and  the  turbine, 
rather  than  to  the  lifting  pump,  the  ram  and  the  breast  wheel,  as  the 
average  man  is  more  likely  to  see  and  use  the  former  than  the  latier 
series.  In  optics  again,  the  camera,  the  opera-glass,  and  the  spy-glass  are 
dealt  with  more  fully  than  the  telescope  and  the  compound  ndcroscope,  for 
the  same  reason.  Throughout,  continual  reference  is  made  to  the  current 
literature  of  the  day  and  to  the  features  of  Boston  and  its  vicinity.  The 
work  in  ])hysics  is  distributed  somewhat  as  follows  : — September,  ()ctober, 
November — mechanics,  including  hydrostatics  and  pneumatics.  December, 
January,  February  —  optics.  March,  April,  May  —electricity.  June  — 
review.  Towards  the  close  of  the  school  year  special  topics  are  suggested 
for  more  exhaustive  treatment  than  is  jjossible  in  the  regular  classroom 
work.  Each  pupil  is  expected  to  choose  one  or  more  of  such  topics  and  to 
present  an  illustrated  paper  upon  the  subject  selected,  at  the  end  of  the 
year.  Among  the  topics  recently  suggested  may  be  mentioned  the 
following  :— mechanics  of  the  clock ;  the  bicycle  ;  the  sewing-machine. 
Consumption  of  gas,  water  and  electricity  in  the  household.  Testing  a 
water-meter.  The  fire-alarm  system  of  Brookline.  School -room  ventila- 
tion. The  long-distance  telephone.  The  gas-engine.  The  horse-power  of 
an  electric  motor. 

These  courses,  each  of  which  extends  over  an  entire  year,  are  required  of 
the  Sub-classical,  the  Scientific  and  the  Manual  training  pupils.  The  time 
is  equally  divided  between  laboratory  and  lecture-room  work,  to  both  of 
which  two  periods  per  week  must  be  devoted  beside  the  usual  preparation. 
Complete  notes  are  kept  by  the  pupils  of  the  laboratory  and  lecture  work, 
which  are  inspected  from  time  to  time  by  the  instructor. 

The  course  in  Zoology  is  planned  on  lines  of  equal  practical  value. 
Observation  of  living  animals  and  a  study  of  their  external  anatomy, 
expressed  by  drawings  and  oral  or  written  descriptions ;  constant  use  of 
the  simple  microscope  and  occasional  use  of  the  compound  ;  field  trips, 
study  of  text  and  reference  books,  investigation  of  special  topics,  the 
making  of  collections,  represent  the  method  of  study.  x\ll  the  work  is 
carried  on  in  well-lit,  airy  rooms ;  the  physics  laboratory,  40  feet  by  2.3, 
deserves  special  mention  for  its  well  thought  out  arrangements  and 
equipment. 

The  same  spirit  can  be  traced  throughout  the  Art  work,  under  the 
direction  of  Miss  Irene  W eir,  who  bases  her  method  upon  the  facts  that 


Typical  Domestic  Science  Courses. 


81 


the  principles  of  art  form  the  basis  of  good  taste,  and  good  taste  concerns 
itself  with  every  act  and  duty  of  daily  life.  In  a  recent  paper  on  this 
subject  she  expressed  her  view  as  follows  : — "  From  the  economic  stand- 
point alone  the  most  important  object  which  any  course  of  art  training  can 
attain  is  to  establish  in  the  mind  of  the  child  principles  of  good  taste  ;  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  child's  own  well-being,  the  power  to  do  a  thing  well, 
which  is  art,  requires  the  full  and  complete  training  of  hand  and  eye  and  a 
concentration  of  brain  energy  scarcely  excelled  by  any  other  mental  j)ro- 
cess.  The  average  child  is  not  going  to  become  either  painter  or  architect, 
but  will  work  in  some  sort  of  industrial  occupation,  or  help  in  the  produc- 
tion of  marketable  goods,  or  dress  in  good  or  bad  taste,  and  make  and  have 
a  home  where  order  and  beauty  prevail,  or  where  disorder  and  inartistic 
confusion  reign.  These  things,  therefore,  are  of  jirimary  value  which  tend 
to  the  improvement  of  the  home,  the  comfort,  well-being  and  harmony  of 
the  family,  the  order,  security  and  beauty  of  the  city,  and  finally,  the  best 
and  happiest  life  of  the  individual ;  and  in  good  taste  is  found  the  broad 
foundation  stone  upon  which  these  things  rest."  So  her  students  are  first 
trained  to  comprehend,  and  then  required  to  apply,  the  principles  of  art 
in  form,  colour,  design  and  composition  to  "  homely  "  objects  and  ends,  in 
the  highest  significance  of  the  word. 

The  part  of  the  Domestic  Science  Course  at  present  least 
developed  as  regards  practical  work,  is  that  concerned  with 
House  Sanitation,  though  time  is  freely  spent  on  field  trips." 
After  all,  this  method  offers  by  far  the  best  practice,  especially 
as  a  course  of  phj^sics  is  obligatory  the  previous  year ;  pupils  are 
thus  prepared  to  make  their  observations  on  building  construc- 
tion, pipes,  water  supply,  and  sanitary  fittings,  with  an  intelli- 
gence based  on  a  practical,  though  elementary,  knowledge  of 
the  subject.  Their  art  training  should  have  already  developed 
some  ideas  as  to  house  plans  and  room  decoration.  About 
one-fourth  of  the  whole  time  is  devoted  directly  to  the 
study  of  Domestic  Science  during  the  four  years'  course ;  zoology 
or  physiology,  physics,  chemistry,  and  art  absorb  a  full  third  ;  the 
remaining  hours  are  devoted  to  English  literature  and  composi- 
tion, history,  mathematics,  and  one  modern  language,  though, 
in  the  general  course,  book-keeping  is  also  an  elective  subject. 

The  four  years'  course  of  study  in  Domestic  Science  is  confined  {0)  Provi- 
to  one  of  the  three  High  schools  in  Providence  (Rhode  Island),  yft*'^* 
viz.,  that  devoted  to  manual  training,  where  it  is  carried  on  ^^^^^ 
under  the  direction  of  Miss  Abby  L.  Marlatt.  At  present  this 
training  is  available  only  for  25  girls  a  year,  at  an  average 
age  of  15  years.  Here,  again,  marked  attention  is  given  to  the 
correlation  of  subjects;  e.(j.  in  the  Household  Arts  Course, 
suitable  and  original  designs  must  be  prepared  for  the  dress  and 
hat,  the  making  of  which  forms  part  of  the  sewing  practice;  in 
the  study  of  house  construction,  the  plan  and  elevation  of  a 
simple  dwelling  are  demanded  of  the  student,  subsequent 
schemes  in  colour  for  its  internal  decoration  being  duly  carried 
out.  In  mathematics,  problems  are  given  for  the  calculation  of  the 
cubic  capacity  of  various  shaped  rooms,  of  the  velocity  of  enter- 
ing and  out-going  air  in  difterent  systems  of  ventilation,  and 
of  the  amount  of  air  provided  per  hour  per  person  under 
different  conditions  of  atmosphere  and  propulsion. 


0490, 


82  U.S.A. — State  High  Schools. 


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Typical  Domestic  Science  Courses, 


83 


A  free  hand  is  given  to  the  singularly  capable  instructor,  who  (^>)  Provi- 
has  deservedly  gained  the  confidence  of  the  principal,  and  who  clence 
is  responsible  for  the  four  years'  course  of  study  in  Domestic  ^oliJiv^ec^ 
Science  detailed  in  Appendix  B,  which  is  noteworthy  on  several  ^ 
accounts.    In  the  first  place  actual  manual  work  is  practised  in 
three  out  of  the  four  years ;  elementary  and  advanced  carpentry  in 
the  first  and  last  years ;  basket-weaving,  modelling  in  clay  and 
wood,  and  wood-carving  in  the  first,  second,  and  fourth.  Book- 
keeping,  elementary  rhetoric,  trigonometry,  the  elements  of 
psychology,  and  the  science  of  photograj)hy  appear  as  academic 
subjects  in  conjunction  with  mathematics,  geometry,  physical 
geography,  and  German.    General   chemistry,  physics,  botany 
(which  includes  elementary  bacteriology),  and  civil  government, 
are  carried  on  in  direct  relation  with  the  Domestic  Science  work, 
and  the  Art  course  is  well  graduated  to  the  same  end.   That  the 
elements  of  psychology  should  be  included  in  a  course  for  girls  of 
this  age    (15    to   19)    is  justified    by    Professor  Huxley's 
strongly  expressed  conviction  that  by  this  means  only  can  a 
properly  proportioned  introduction  be  given  to  a  study  of  the 
laws  of  Nature  which  underlie  all  the  processes  of  life.* 

It  is  found  that  the  introduction  of  some  practical  Emergency 
and  First-aid  work  appeals  strongly  to  girls  on  coming  to  the 
High  school,  so  this  is  introduced  in  their  first  year ;  but  the 
more  responsible  study  of  home  nursing  and  the  use  of  domestic 
disinfectants  is  delayed  till  the  conclusion  of  the  course  (the 
fourth  year),  when  it  is  illustrated  practically  by  demonstrations 
at  the  Rhode  Island  Hospital,  to  which  Miss  Marlatt  conducts 
her  class.  Reference  to  the  schedule  of  the  course  will  show  that 
the  year's  work  in  physics  precedes,  while  that  in  general 
practical  chemistry  runs  parallel  with,  the  practical  cookery 
course.  In  any  case  it  is  believed  that  this  arrangement  is  the 
best,  but  here  it  is  of  special  service  as  Miss  Marlatt  is  also 
Professor  of  Chemistry.  Hitherto,  the  girls  have  come  with  no 
previous  preparation  in  practice,  as  cooking  is  only  to  be  intro- 
duced into  the  grade  schools  of  Providence  this  autunni  (1902). 
The  cooking  laboratory  is  furnished  with  single  tables  for  each 
student,  which  are  provided  with  Bunsen  burners  and  stands, 

*  Readers  will  be  familiar  with  the  plan  of  his  "  Introductory  "  Science 
Primer,  wherein  he  pointed  out  that  "a  definite  order  obtains  among 
mental  i^henomena  just  as  among  material  phenomena.  .  .  .  Moreover 
there  is  a  connection  of  cause  and  effect  between  certain  material 
phenomena  and  certain  mental  phenomena.  .  .  .  All  the  phenomena  of 
nature  are  either  material  or  immaterial,  physical  or  mental ;  and  there  is 
no  science  except  such  as  consists  in  the  knov/ledge  of  one  or  other  of 
these  groups  of  natural  objects  and  of  the  relations  which  obtain  between 
them."  (Introductory  Science  Primer,  pp.  93,  94.  Macmillan.  1880.)  So 
in  his  own  masterly  way,  even  in  this  elementary  outline  of  the  vast  field 
of  science,  he  leads  his  young  readers  from  an  observation  of  material 
objects  (mineral  bodies  and  living  bodies)  to  the  conception  of  inmiaterial 
objects  as  perceptible  in  mental  phenomena  ;  and,  though  his  great  gift  for 
expressing  the  complexities  of  scientific  principles  in  most  simple  words  is 
given  to  but  few,  this  should  not  condone  the  omission  of  an  integral  part 
from  a  great  whole,  or  discourage  those  who  desire  to  present  it  in  suitable 
form  to  intelligent  students. 


(3490. 


84 


U.S.A. — State  High  Schools, 


(h)  Provi-  drawers  to  contain  the  necessary  utensils,  a  sliding  seat>  and 
dence  hooks  at  the  side  upon  which  the  pans  are  hung ;  coal  and  gas 

contiTmed  r^^nges  as  well  as  Aladdin  ovens  are  provided,  and  glazed  cup- 
boards contain  the  china  and  glass.  A  bench  fitted  with  the 
conveniences  for  chemical  work  runs  the  whole  length  of  one 
side  of  the  room  (this  enables  problems  to  be  dealt  with  on  the 
spot  as  they  arise  in  cooking  practice);  the  drawers  beneath 
provide  accommodation  for  necessary  apparatus.  A  small  museum 
contains  specimens  of  food  stuffs  in  the  various  phases  of  manu- 
facture and  other  objects  of  practical  interest,  which  include  a 
complete  set  of  very  beautifully  mounted  common  household 
pests,  such  as  the  red  ant,  cockroach,  clothes  moth,  bug,  etc.  A 
good  reference  library  for  the  use  of  the  girls  also  finds  a  place. 

In  the  third  year  the  study  of  food  analysis  and  digestion  is 
dealt  with  at  length,  and  creates  a  demand  for  the  fourth  year 
course  in  analytical  chemistry  and  bacteriology.  In  this  senior 
year  the  course  also  deals  with  the  hygienic  and  sanitary  pro- 
blems illustrated  in  home  and  public  life  ;  the  sanitation  of  soils, 
the  study  of  house  plans,  of  plumbing,  of  heat  and  ventilation  ; 
with  considerations  of  a  sanitary  food  supply,  and  of  the  risks 
from  food  adulteration,  or  from  insects  injurious  to  food  ;  a  study 
of  moulds  and  bacteria  then  leads  on  to  the  causes  of  disease 
and  rules  for  hygienic  care  of  the  sick  as  well  as  of  the  sound. 
This  work,  though  in  part  experimental,  is  largely  done  by  means 
of  home  study  of  assigned  topics ;  the  details  of  her  "  topic  "  are 
worked  out  by  each  pupil  from  observation,  experiments  or 
reference  books.  Miss  Marlatt  thus  aims  to  foster  habits  ot 
independent  study  and  independent  thought. 

Miss  Bowen,  a  graduate  of  Pratt  Institute,  who  is  responsible 
for  the  sewing,  has  her  difficulties  increased  by  the  fact  that  the 
girls  come  to  her  with  little  or  no  knowledge  of  needlework. 
Time,  therefore,  only  permits,  as  a  rule,  of  the  practice  of  each 
stitch  on  small  samples  of  material  in  the  first  year ;  application, 
in  the  form  of  a  completed  article,  is  compulsorily  limited  to  the 
making  of  one  blouse,  for  which  the  pupils  are  allowed  to  use  a 
simple  pattern  of  Butterick's ;  and  of  a  "  raffia  "  hat,  braided,  sewn, 
shaped  and  trimmed  by  themselves.  It  will  be  observed  that  for 
three  out  of  the  four  years  as  much  time  is  given  to  modelling 
in  clay  or  wood,  or  to  carpentry,  as  to  the  use  of  the  needle.  In 
the  second  year  a  simple  cotton  dress  is  made.  All  the  avail- 
able time  in  the  third  year  is  devoted  to  dressmaking,  but 
"advanced"  wood-carving  and  carpentry  absorb  two- thirds  of 
the  whole  period  in  the  fourth  year,  leaving  but  one- third  for 
advanced  *'  dressmaking.  I  account  for  this  under  two  heads  ; 
(1)  the  conviction  that  variety  in  manual  occupations  is  of  much 
value  in  its  development  of  dexterity  and  consequent  reduction 
of  merely  mechanical  repetition  ;  (2)  the,  to  me,  apparent  fact  t  hat 
young  people  in  the  United  States  are  quicker  in  perception  and 
performance  than  their  contenq)oraries  in  England,  and  are  more 
usually  disposed  to  "  give  their  minds  "  to  what  they  are  called 
upon  to  do.  Much  care  is  given  to  a  clear  comprehension 
throughout  of  the  "  reason  why,"  and  attention  is  called  to  the 


Tyjyical  Domestic  Science  Courses. 


85 


keeping  of  accurate  notes,  which  are  illustrated  with  usually 
excellent  drawings.  The  needlework  classes  are  carried  on  in  a 
spacious,  well-lighted  room,  which  measures  28  by  32  by  14  feet, 
and  accommodates  45  pupils.  The  furniture  is  easily  adjustable. 
10  hand-sewing  machines  are  provided,  5  of  which  are  single 
thread  Singer's.  Each  girl  has  a  large  and  a  small  box  stored  in 
a  numbered  locker  in  which  to  keep  her  work  materials  and  any 
article  in  the  process  of  completion,  as,  for  instance,  hats  in  the 
millinery  course.  Large  hanging  cupboards  are  provided  for 
skirts.  There  is  no  better  evidence  of  the  genuine  interest 
aroused  by  the  course  than  the  emulation  which  exists  among 
the  students  to  complete  not  only  a  simple  dress  during  the 
fourth  year,  but  a  more  elaborate  muslin  gown  in  which  to 
attend  the  graduating  ceremony — a  function  of  great  importance 
in  the  life  of  an  American  student  of  either  sex.  The  custom  of 
making  her  own  dress  for  this  great  occasion  is  habitual  in  High 
Schools  and  Technical  Institutes  among  girls  who  attend  sewing 
courses;  and  even  in  the  grade  schools  of  cities  where  the  subject  is 
taught  through  several  years  I  found  a  similar  ambition  present 
among  the  little  "  graduates,"  though,  as  yet,  rarely  realised. 

The  daily  school  session  is  from  9  a.m  to  3  p.m.  with  a  half-hour 
recess  for  lunch,  which  is  served  in  the  building.  These  hours 
are  divided  into  "  periods  "  of  45  minutes ;  all "  periods  "  in  manual 
work  are  double  that  length.  No  Domestic  Science,  as  such,  is 
taken  the  first  year,  but  1 J  hours  is  devoted  to  Manual  Training 
or  Household  Art  on  alternate  days  in  this,  as  in  each  year  of  the 
course.  Domestic  Science  claims  Ih  hours  on  alternate  days 
throughout  the  remaining  3  years,  and  to  art  work  45  minutes 
is  assigned  daily  for  the  whole  period.  Thus  a  liberal  half  ot 
the  school  life  is  left  free  for  academic  studies. 

Miss  Marlatt  subjects  the  schedule  of  this  course  to  constant 
revision  in  the  light  of  her  growing  experience ;  meanwhile  it 
embodies  some  of  the  best,  if  not  the  best.  High  school  work 
accomplished  on  these  lines  in  the  United  States. 

It  is  the  intention  of  those  who  have  the  interest  of  the  school  Hackley 
most  deeply  at  heart,  to  frame  all  the  work  of  the  Hackley  Table  Xllf. 
Manual  Training  School  on  a  similar  educational  basis — to  present 
all  the  studies  in  the  way  Avhich  shall  best  mould  and  shape 
character  and  so  further  the  all-round  development  of  the 
pupils,  while  the  ideal  of  good  health  is  kept  prominently  in 
view.  When  domestic  subjects  were  introduced  into  the  High 
school  five  years  ago,  parents  as  well  as  children  were  unfamiliar 
with  any  branches  of  manual  training.  It  was  felt  that  to  make 
the  desired  favourable  impression,  sufficient  time  must  be  devoted 
to  them,  not  merely  to  ensure  their  presentation  on  the  above 
mentioned  educational  basis  (which  the  initiators  considered  the 
only  right  way),  but  to  be  assured  of  enough  practical  results  to 
interest  and  please  the  public  generally.  It  is  a  still  popular 
idea  to  regard  this  work  largely  from  the  standpoint  of  utility, 
and  ignorantly  to  taboo  educational  value  of  work  which  does 
not  make  some  practical  showing.  The  growing  interest  of  the 
public  at  Muskegon  is  evinced  by  the  increased  attendance  on 


86 


U.S.A.— State  High  Schooh 


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Typical  Domestic  Science  Courses. 


87 


visiting  and  exhibition  days,  and  by  hearty  parental  expressions  (c)  Hackley 
of  appreciation.  The  figures  showing  the  increase  in  the  numbers  —continued. 
of  those  who  elect  the  long  course  in  Manual  Training,  which  are 
quoted  later,  are  sufficient  evidence  that  so  for  the  experiment 
has  met  with  success.  A  general  system  of  "  electives "  has 
lately  been  arranged,  which  enables  any  pupil  following  a  General 
Language,  or  other  course,  to  substitute  manual  training  subjects 
for  certain  literary  studies  in  the  third  and  fourth  high  school 
years ;  two  hours  of  manual  training  work  then  count  as  equiva- 
lent to  one  hour  of  academic  training.  In  such  instances  the 
pupils  are  allowed  to  select  the  branches  of  manual  training  they 
prefer;  hitherto  emergencies,  home  sanitation,  home  nursing, 
table  service  and  laundry  in  Domestic  Science,  and  elementary 
and  advanced  dressmaking  in  Domestic  Art  have  been  the  popular 
subjects.  Sometimes  the  girls  choose  light  bench  work  and 
wood  carving  in  the  boys'  department,  and,  occasionally,  turning. 

The  Domestic  Science  work  has  been  divided  into  two  courses, 
termed  the  Long  Course  and  the  Short  Course.  The  length  of 
each  lesson  in  cookery,  sewing,  or  laundry,  is  two  high  school 
"  periods "  of  45  minutes  each ;  for  lessons  in  home  sanita- 
tion, emergencies  and  nursing,  and  drawing  and  gymnastics, 
one  such  period.  The  Short  Course  consists  of  two  lessons  per 
week  for  an  entire  year.  One  half  year  is  devoted  to  cookery 
and  the  other  half  to  sewing ;  this  division  is  not  based  entirely 
upon  psychological  reasons,  but  is  to  a  certain  extent  necessary  * 
in  a  school  of  this  size.  Theoretically  it  may  seem  better  to 
give  an  entire  year  to  each  subject,  but  practically  it  is  found 
to  be  impossible  with  the  average  teachers  and  average 
equipment.  The  experiment  has  been  tried  of  giving  one  lesson 
per  week  in  each  subject  during  the  entire  year,  or  two  per  week 
on  each  subject  for  half  a  year,  and  the  latter  is  found  to  be  far 
better.  The  Short  Course  also  includes  two  lessons  per  week  in 
draAving  and  two  lessons  per  week  in  gymnastics.  Two  years  of 
the  Short  Course  manual  training  is  always  required  for  a  pupil  to 
be  entitled  to  a  High  School  Diploma,  and,  in  almost  all  courses, 
three  years  is  required  for  graduation. 

The  Long  Course  is  four  double  periods  per  week,  for  the  first 
three  years  at  least;  two  in  Domestic  Science,  two  in  Domestic 
Art,  three  single  periods  in  drawing  and  two  single  periods  in 
gymnastics.  This  course  is  designed  for  those  who  have  a  special 
liking  and  aptitude  for  manual  training  branches,  and  endeavours 
to  cover  the  ground  thoroughly.  The  pupil  who  completes  this 
course  receives,upon  graduation,notonly  the  High  School  Diploma, 
but  a  Manual  Training  School  Diploma  as  well.  The  work  was  laid 
out  when  the  High  School  course  covered  four  years;  last  year 
this  was   extended   to  five ;    probably  the  same  amount  of 


88 


U.S.A—^tate  Hicjii  SckooU. 


(c)  Hackley  o^^'       ^'^5        'J^^ty'  1901,  only  the  natural  "  shrmkage"  was 
-^continued,  reported,  a  strong  testimony  to  the  growth  of  interest  in  the 
subject. 

Reference  to  the  schedule  will  show  the  efforts  made  to 
hring  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  the  Special  Sciences  to 
bear  upon  the  subjects  which  involve  practical  application  of 
these  principles.  Miss  Thomas  hopes  that  jnuch  closer  correlation 
will  gradually  be  effected  ;  meantime,  the  training  as  detailed  in 
the  following  outlines  should  have  a  strong  influence  towards 
the  elevation  to  a  new  dignity  of  those  branches  of  manual 
labour  with  which  the  woman  in  the  home  comes  most  directly 
in  contact. 

Cookery.— First  year  :  short  course.  First  half  year  :  long  course  ;  two 
lessons  per  week  for  one  half  year.  This  comprises  a  course  in  elementary 
cooking  of  a  strictly  economical  character  along  lines  slightly  in  advance  of 
those  followed  in  grade  schools.  It  opens  with  a  brief  study  of  the  chemical 
elements  of  combustion  illustrated  by  experiments  ;  the  kinds  of  fuel  and 
their  comparative  costs,  based  upon  the  locality,  etc.  The  foods  cooked  are 
taken  up  with  regard  to  the  food  principle  which  they  represent ;  and  their 
comparative  food  and  market  value  considered  ;  the  effect  of  heat  and  the 
chemical  and  physical  changes  which  occur  are  carefully  noted  ;  the  use  of 
each  in  the  body,  their  digestion  and  assimilation.  In  this  manner  the 
foods  are  classified.  The  value  of  combining  different  foods  to  make  a 
complete  one  is  also  studied.  These  food  i)rinciples,  taken  in  their  natural 
sequence,  are  illustrated  by  the  cookery  of  vegetables  and  cereals  ;  eggs  in 
various  ways  ;  soups  ;  stewed,  broiled,  and  roasted  meats  ;  fish,  both  fresh 
and  dry  ;  the  use  of  "  left-overs,"  the  connnercial  and  food  value  of  legumes, 
•  and  their  importance  as  substitutes  for  meats.    The  utility  of  economy  of 

food  material,  of  time,  of  labour,  and  of  fuel  in  its  preparation,  is  brought 
before  the  pupil,  as  is  accuracy  of  measurement,  careful  manipulation, 
neatness,  method  and  system  in  execution. 

Cookery.— Second  year  :  short  course.  First  year,  second  half  :  long 
course  ;  two  lessons  per  week  for  one  half  year. 

The  preparation  oT  batters  and  doughs  ;  the  different  methods  of  making 
them  light,  and  the  comparative  value  of  each,  illustrate  the  uses  of  soda 
and  sour  milk,  soda  and  cream  of  tartar,  and  various  kinds  of  baking- 
powders  ;  next  in  order  comes  the  study  of  the  yeast  plant,  its  growth  and 
requirements  ;  experiments  with  yeast,  with  tests  of  the  different  tempera- 
tures to  which  it  can  be  submitted,  and  the  conditions  most  suitable  to  its 
growth.  This  is  followed  by  lessons  in  practical  bread  making  from  the 
different  varieties  of  flour,  and  discussions  on  the  nutritive  value  and 
digestibility  of  the  different  breads.  The  preparation  of  a  few  inexpensive 
cakes  and  sweet  dishes  concludes  these  lessons. 

Cookery. — Second  year,  first  quarter :  long  course  ;  two  lessons  per 
week. 

This  course  is  pursued  by  juipils  who  wish  to  acipire  a  more  technical 
knowledge  of  cookery,  and  consists  in  lessons  in  jelly  making,  canning, 
pickling,  and  preserving ;  the  preparation  of  salads  and  desserts  (sweets), 
and  other  made  dishes. 

Laundry. — Third  year  :  long  or  short  course ;  two  lessons  per  week 
for  one  quarter. 

This  course  is  planned  to  give  the  student  an  intelligent 
understanding  of  the  general  principles  on  which  cleaning  processes  are 
based.  In  addition  to  the  practical  laundering  of  cottons,  linens,  woollens, 
coloured  materials,  stiff  starched  and  fine  articles  of  clothing,  attention  is 
paid  to  the  care  of  plumbing  and  the  ventilation  in  a  room  used  for 
laundry  purposes,  and  to  the  value  of  all  materials  used  with  a  view  to  the 
best  varieties  and  their  most  economical  use.  The  removal  of  stains  by 
neutralisation  and  natural  bleaching  processes  ;  the  advantages  of  the  use 
of  soft  water  ;  the  composition  of  soap,  the  harm  which  results  from  the 
use  of  a  strongly  alkaline  quality,  or  of  a  too  large  (luantity  ;  and  the  risks 


Tyi)lcal  Boniestic  Science  Courses. 


89 


wliich  accompany  the  application  of  inferior  blueings,  are  each  shown  by  Hackley 
experiment.    The  setting  and  restoring  of  colours  in  the  laundry,  and  the  —continued. 
cleaning  of  embroideries  and  fine  laces  are  also  discussed ;  and,  in  all 
practical  Avork,  the  time  element  as  well  as  the  quality  of  results  obtained 
is  considered. 

Table  hlEiiviCE.— Third  year  :  short  course  :  fourteen  lessons,  balance 
of  quarter  employed  in  canning  and  pickling.  Long  course  ;  one  quarter  of 
two  lessons  per  week. 

The  clajises  who  pursue  this  work  take  up  :  (1)  The  consideration  of 
various  menus,  the  food  value  of  the  dishes,  and  the  comparative  cost  and 
nutrition  of  each  ;  the  combination  of  various  dishes  to  form  a  meal,  which 
shall  be  a  well  balanced  one,  of  both  material  and  labour  at  the  smallest 
expense  ;  the  importance  in  the  variety  of  meals,  and  the  avoidance  of  a 
daily  routine  ;  (2)  the  equipment  and  care  of  the  dining-room,  china  closet 
and  pantry  ;  (3)  the  care  of  silver,  glass,  china  and  steel  ware  ;  (4)  the 
arrangement  of  a  table  at  different  meals  and  the  duties  of  a  waitress  at 
each.  Correlated  with  the  above  mentioned  work  is  the  practical  work  of 
cooking  and  serving  meals  ;  pupils  take  the  places  in  turn  of  cook,  waitress, 
hostess  and  guest  ;  (5)  the  arrangement  and  packing  of  simple  and 
nutritious  lunches  for  school  children,  which  are  now  thought  worth  very 
careful  consideration  as  a  factor  in  growth  and  well-being. 

EmerCxENCIES. — Fourth  year  :  short  course.    Third  year  :  long  course  ;  ^ 
four  single  periods  per  week  for  one  quarter. 

This  syllabus  includes  lectures,  recitation  and  practice  work,  review  of 
physiology  (especially  circulation  and  the  structure  of  the  blood  vessels) ; 
the  treatment  of  wounds  of  varied  severity  ;  improvised  bandages,  com- 
presses and  tourniquets  ;  the  treatment  of  burns  and  scalds  ;  the  temporary 
treatment  of  sprains,  dislocations  and  fractures ;  and  the  methods  of 
utilising  material  at  hand  for  improvised  splints,  bandages,  slings,  pads  and 
stretchers  ;  the  treatment  of  unconscious  conditions  ;  practice  in  the  various 
methods  of  using  bandages,  both  emergency  and  roller. 

Home  Nuksing. — Third  year  :  long  course ;  four  lessons  per  week  for 
one  quarter. 

This  embraces  the  usual  topics  :  talks  on  the  best  methods  of  caring  for 
patients  in  their  own  home ;  ventilation  of  rooms  ;  precautions  against 
draughts  ;  the  necessary  care  and  precautions  regarding  nursing  contagious 
disease,  and  disinfection  of  clothing  and  room  ;  bed  making  ;  the  arrange- 
ment of  draw-sheets  ;  moving  of  helpless  patients  ;  prevention  of  bed  sores  ; 
preparation  of  fomentations  and  poultices  ;  baths  of  various  kinds. 

Invalid  Cookery. — Third  year  :  long  course  ;  two  lessons  per  week  for 
one  quarter. 

The  various  kinds  of  liquid  diets  are  here  discussed,  and  their  uses  in 
different  diseases ;  koumiss  and  peptonised  milk  are  prepared,  also  broths 
and  teas ;  nutritious,  cooling,  and  stimulating  drinks ;  convalescent  diet ; 
simple  and  dainty  "  desserts  "  suitable  for  an  invalid  ;  the  equipment,  arrange- 
ment, and  preparation  of  an  invalid's  tray  are  also  considered. 

Home  Sanitation. — Fourth  year  :  long  course;  four  single  periods  per 
week  for  one  quarter. 

Under  this  subject  is  considered  the  location  of  the  house  ;  the  condition 
and  quality  of  the  soil  and  its  drainage ;  the  construction  of  the  cellar, 
and  the  importance  of  sanitary  conditions  in  cellars ;  the  evil  effects  of 
impure  air  in  cellars  ;  the  disposal  of  house  refuse  in  country,  village,  and 
city ;  house  drainage ;  the  modern  system  of  plumbing ;  the  defects  in 
many  systems ;  the  bad  effects  of  sewer  Jiir,  and  precautions  against  its 
getting  into  a  house  ;  the  water  supply,  sources  of  contamination,  sugges- 
tions for  improvement.  In  like  manner  is  discussed  the  heating,  lighting, 
ventilation,  and  general  care  of  a  house  from  a  sanitary  standpoint ;  also 
the  sanitary  care  of  food. 

Dietaries.— This  work  is  planned  for  the  fourth  year.  The  values  of 
foods  are  studied  more  in  detail  than  in  the  other  courses,  and  the  food 
values  of  rations  at  a  limited  cost  are  estimated  to  meet  the  needs  of 
persons  of  different  ages  and  occupations. 


90 


U.S.A.— State  High  Schooh. 


Domestic  Art. — At  present  the  Needlework  course  takes  up  the  hand- 
sewing  at  the  point  where  the  pupil  left  it  in  the  grade  schools. 

Hand-Sewing. — First  year  :  short  course  ;  first  half  year  :  long  course  ; 
two  lessons  per  week. 

The  sewing  lessons  are  supplemented  by  talks  on  the  position  of  the 
body  while  sewing,  and  the  evil  results  of  incorrect  positions  ;  the  manner 
of  holding  work,  and  the  direction  from  which  light  should  fall.  Special 
attention  is  paid  to  practical  repairing  and  mending,  to  darning  of  stockings 
and  fiannels,  patching  and  piecing,  together  with  the  sewing  on  of  buttons 
and  the  making  of  button-holes.  Correlated  with  this  work  are  short 
lessons  on  weaving  and  the  manufacture  of  the  different  materials  used,  as 
thread,  thimbles,  needles,  shears,  cotton,  silk,  and  wool.  These  are 
illustrated  by  cases  of  materials  which  show  the  different  steps  in  the 
process. 

Machine-Sewing. — Second  year  :  short  course.  First  year,  second  half : 
long  course,  two  lessons  per  week  for  one  half  year. 

Here  the  practical  application  is  required  of  what  has  been  learned  in 
the  previous  sewing  course.  The  use  and  care  of  machines  is  taught, 
and  models,  illustrative  of  all  kinds  of  machine  work,  such  as  tucking, 
placing  ruffles,  embroidery,  and  lace  insertions,  are  made.  In  this,  as  in 
all  other  branches  of  this  work,  the  time  element  is  considered,  and  the 
question  of  saving  labour,  when  not  necessarily  required,  is  dwelt  upon  ; 
thus,  a  pupil  is  discouraged  from  putting  several  ruffles  where  one  will 
answer,  or  from  making  tucks  in  ruffles,  which  will  be  difficult  to  iron  and 
cause  unnecessary  labour.  After  this  preliminary  work,  drafting  is  taught 
by  a  system  of  simple  measurements,  and  a  white  petticoat  is  drafted  and 
made,  during  the  making  of  which  the  various  uses  of  the,  machine,  taught 
in  the  previous  lessons,  are  put  into  practice. 

Machine  Sewing. — Third  year  :  short  course.  Second  year,  first  half  : 
long  course  ;  two  lessons  per  week  for  a  half  year. 

The  practice  of  drafting  by  a  system  of  measurement  is  continued.  The 
uses  of  XJatterns  are  taught,  and  the  changes  and  variations  required  by 
the  average  patterns  on  the  market,;  the  shrinking  and  preparation  of 
cloth  for  making  is  practised  ;  and  a  blouse  is  cut,  fitted  and  made. 

Elementary  Dressmaking. — Fourth  year  :  short  course.  Second  year, 
second  half  :  long  course  ;  two  lessons  per  week  for  a  half  year. 

In  this  course  simple  drafting  is  continued,  and  an  unlined  muslin  dress 
is  made,  previously  designed  by  the  pupil. 

Dressmaking. — Third  year  :  long  course ;  two  lessons  per  week  for 
one  year. 

A  system  of  dressmaking  by  a  chart  is  now  introduced,  and  pui)ils 
practise  how  to  measure,  draft,  cut  and  fit  linings  for  and  to  each  other  ; 
after  which,  a  lined,  boned  and  trimmed  dress  is  made.  A  study  of  textiles 
and  the  material  suitable  for  diff"erent  occasions  is  continued  throughout 
the  course,  and  designs  arc  made  for  all  the  garments. 

Millinery.— This  is  designed  to  occupy  part  of  the  foui  tli  year  in  the 
long  course,  but  as  yet  (1901)  no  teacher  has  been  employed  for  the  pur- 
pose. 

Drawing. —  Two  single  periods  pei'  week.  First  year  :  freehand, 
nature  work,  and  still  life,  composition  book  covers,  composition  book 
illustrations.  Second  year :  freehand  composition,  charcoal  and  water 
colour  studies.  Third  year  :  charcoal  work,  historic  and  antique  ornament, 
pen  and  ink  sketches.  Fourth  year  :  clay  modelling,  water  colour,  advanced 
composition.  Throughout  all  the  different  lines  of  work  special  attention  is 
jmid  to  note-taking.  This  gives  the  pupil  practice  in  expressing  facts 
briefly,  and  in  logical  order,  and  provides  useful  material  for  future  reference. 

(d)  Toledo.  The  Toledo  Manual  Training  School  was  opened  in  the 
autumn  of  1884  in  rooms  set  apart  for  the  purpose  m  the  Central 
High  School  of  the  city ;  it  is  now  installed  in  its  own  imposing, 
finely-situated  building.  The  initial  instruction  was  limited  to 
classes   in   woodw^ork  and   drawing  for  boys.     In  1887  the 


Typical  Domestic  Science  Courses. 


91 


directors  realised  the  necessity  of  providing  a  practical  course  of  ^^^^  Toledo 
instruction  for  girls  also,  and  the  Sewing  and  Cooking  depart-  co7itinued. 
ments  were  established.  Four  courses  of  manual  training 
instruction  are  planned  for  students  of  high  school  grade,  which 
include  Domestic  Science  and  Art  for  young  women ;  either  of 
these  courses  may  be  taken  in  connection  with  any  regular  high 
school  academic  course  of  study,  in  order  to  train  head  and 
hands  to  work  together,  and  thus  contribute  to  the  ideal  that 
the  academic  education  secured  by  students  in  the  purely 
literary  school  may  be  put  to  practical  use.  Though 
the  directress  is  thoroughly  imbued  with  the  desire  that 
the  training  shall  be  educational,  not  merely  technical,  she 
has  not  yet  achieved  the  introduction  of  such  thoroughly 
scientific  methods  as  those  which  distinguish  Miss  Marlatt's 
High  School  course  at  Providence.  The  Domestic  Science  and 
the  Art  courses  are  similar  in  the  first  two  years ;  no  fees  are 
enforced,  except  a  small  sum  for  laboratory  requirements.  One 
and  a  half  hours  a  day  are  devoted  to  manual  training  throughout 
the  four  years'  course  and  are  variously  apportioned  according  to 
the  demands  of  the  subjects  entering  into  the  particular  year's 
curriculum.  Classes  are  limited  to  20  in  number,  but,  and  this 
deserves  special  note,  boys  have  the  opportunity  of  optional 
attendance  at  the  10  lectures  on  House-planning  and  Sanitation, 
of  which  some  are  glad  to  avail  themselves.  The  result  of  this 
attendance  was  shown  me  in  a  simple  house  plan  prepared  at 
these  lectures,  which  was  being  executed  by  the  boys  in  the 
Woodwork  Department  on  a  scale  of  \  inch  to  1  foot ;  the 
plumbing  was  to  be  carried  out  by  the  same  young  artisans  in  their 
metal  work  course,  and  the  model  will  then  be  available  for 
demonstration  on  house  sanitation,  being  planned  to  permit  of 
convenient  division  for  this  purpose.  In  spite  of  the  large  size 
of  the  building,  the  class-roonis  and  studios  now  suffer  from 
overcrowding,  and  extensive  additions  were  to  be  made  during 
the  summer  vacation  (1901). 

It  appeared  to  me  that  the  "  art "  side  of  the  domestic  training 
is  especially  Avell  thought  out  in  this  course,  for  which  reason 
the  following  details  are  introduced :  freehand  drawing,  clay 
modelling,  and  sewing,  constitute  the  work  in  the  first  year ; 
the  freehand  drawing,  with  the  pencil  as  a  medium,  takes  up 
the  subjects  of  light  and  shade  from  still-life  groups;  clay 
modelling  covers  work  in  simple  ornament  and  plaster  of  paris 
casting.  The  work  in  sewing  consists  in  the  drafting,  fitting, 
and  making  of  linen  undergarments,  the  making  of  blouses, 
dressing  jackets,  or  plain  gowns.  In  the  second  year,  freehand 
drawing  is  continued,  with  charcoal  as  a  medium,  working  from 
still-life  groups,  the  ornament,  and  the  mask.  Considerable  time 
is  devoted  to  the  study  of  design. 

In  the  third  year  the  student  is  given  the  choice  between  a 
Domestic  Science  or  a  Domestic  Art  course.  In  the  Domestic 
Science  work,  the  freehand  drawing  is  continued  with  the  aim 
of  developing  the  student's  idea  of  taste  for  the  beautiful  in  the 
home.    The  clay  modelling  is  omitted,  and  the  subjects  of 


92 


U.S. A. —State  High  Schools. 


(d)  Toledo—  dressmaking  and  fitting  of  garments  comprise  the  year's  work. 

continued.  If  \^\^q  course  be  elected,  freehand  drawing  is  continued, 
and  the  subjects  of  millinery  and  art  needlework  receive  very 
practical  attention.  The  autumn  and  spring  terms  are  usually 
devoted  to  millinery  work,  while  the  winter  term  is  occupied  in 
the  study  of  decorative  art  needlework,  which  consists  of  work 
in  drawn  linen  and  silk  embroidery.  The  fourth  year  of  the  Art 
course  is  devoted  to  the  study  of  freehand  drawing,  and  water- 
colour  from  still  life  and  nature  ;  clay  modelling  is  continued  by 
study  from  life,  and  the  making  of  glue  and  wax  moulds  for 
plaster  casting  is  included. 

The  needlework  room  is  well  proportioned  and  abundantly 
supplied  with  presses,  sewing  machines,  dress  stands,  and  other 
conveniences.  The  teacher  works  in  close  collaboration  with 
the  director  of  the  art  classes,  so  that  as  students  are  led  on  to 
the  use  of  colour  and  the  selection  and  graduation  of  shades, 
application  of  this  knowledge  is  required  in  the  production  of 
simple  designs  for  patterns  of  materials,  hats  and  dresses,  on 
a  good  bold  scale.  In  the  dressmaking  course  individual 
attention  is  freely  given,  and  pupils  are  not  required  to  keep 
abreast  of  each  other.  They  usually  make  three  dresses  of 
different  materials  and  styles  in  the  year ;  Storey's  system  of 
dress-cutting  being  employed.  In  the  session  devoted  to  plain 
needlework,  a  corset  cover,  petticoat  of  more  or  less  elaboration, 
full  drawers,  dressing  jacket,  and  dainty  nightdress  apparently 
represent  the  work  accomplished. 

(The  equipment  for  a  typical  High  School  Course  in  Dress- 
making will  be  found  in  Appendix  C.) 

The  practice  is  individual  throughout  the  Domestic  Science 
work.  Knowledge  is  tested  by  revisions,  periodical  demonstra- 
tions by  two  students  to  the  rest  of  the  class,  and  occasional 
written  "quizzes"  by  the  teacher.  The  study  of  household 
economics,  the  chemistry  of  cooking,  and  the  care  of  the  home 
form  a  very  important  branch  of  the  work  in  this  second  year 
of  the  course,  and  are  based  upon  a  study  of  elementary  biology  ; 
it  is  hoped  that  physiology  will  be  introduced  very  shortly. 
The  cooking  laboratory  is  a  spacious  room  on  the  fourth  floor 
of  the  building,  in  all  ways  satisfactory  except  as  regards  light, 
for  the  windows  are  very  low.  The  cooking  tables  accommodate 
groups  of  four ;  they  are  of  the  prevalent  type,  provided  with 
drawers,  the  basins  and  pans  in  most  frequent  use  finding  places 
upon  the  shelves  beneath.  The  sink  accommodation  is  ample, 
and  a  large  coal  range  is  provided  in  addition  to  the  gas  rings 
fitted  at  each  end  of  the  tables.  It  still  happens  that  some  girls 
first  enter  the  course  quite  disposed  to  despise  it  and  to 
resent  the  time  expended  upon  it,  but  subsequent  genuine 
interest  is  almost  invariably  developed,  and  the  voluntary 
opinion  is  often  expressed  that  this  class  has  proved  the  most 
attractive  in  the  year's  work.  The  keen  and  growing  apprecia- 
tion by  the  boys  of  the  crumbs  of  sanitation  they  are  allowed 
to  gather  from  the  full  meal  supplied  for  the  girls,  promises  two 


Typical  Domestic  Science  Courses. 


93 


results  ;  first,  that  a  more  complete  training  in  the  subject  will, 
if  possible,  be  organised  for  those  who  desire  it ;  second,  that  the 
girls  become  at  once  more  alive  to  the  advantages  of  the  course. 

In  illustration  of  a  method  but  little  followed,  brief  reference  {e)  Ann 
is  made  to  the  Ann  Arbor  High  School,  where  Domestic  Science  Arbor, 
is  practically  confined  to  the  narrow  limits  assigned  to  it  in 
many  Grade  schools.  At  Ann  Arbor,  sewing  is  taken  in  the 
fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  grammar  grades,  and  cooking  in  the 
seventh  and  eighth,  where  both  subjects  are  classed  as  "  manual 
work,"  which  is  meantime  actually  carried  on  by  the  boys  during 
the  parallel  five  years  in  the  form  of  card,  knife,  and  subsequently 
bench  work.  A  short  time  ago  voluntary  classes  were  formed 
in  the  High  School,  in  bench  work  for  boys  and  in  cooking  for 
girls  ;  these  are  planned  to  build  on  the  foundation  that  has  thus 
been  laid,  and  to  continue  the  work  so  far  as  the  facilities  of  the 
school  and  the  needs  of  the  pupils  may  indicate  to  be  wise.  The 
work  is  "  elective,"  but,  once  entered  upon,  must  be  continued 
through  the  term,  unless  a  re-classification  is  granted.  The 
cooking  equipment  is  sufficient  for  a  class  of  24,  but  the  accom- 
modation provided  in  a  cramped,  dark,  questionably  ventilated 
basement  room  does  not  offer  attractions  to  young  girls  of  16  or 
17,  especially  as  the  adjacent  manual  training  room  for  boys  is 
in  every  way  superior.  Opportunity  is  given  in  the  third  year 
of  each  of  the  six  alternative  courses  of  study  to  lay  a  scientific 
foundation  in  Household  Economics  by  the  inclusion  of  biology, 
physics  and  chemistry  in  each  curriculum,  but  there  were  no 
evident  indications  that  the  indispensable  correlation  is  demon- 
strated. A  conveniently-arranged  and  Avell-lighted  biological 
laboratory  is  provided  for  individual  work ;  its  equipment  in- 
cludes compound  and  dissecting  microscopes,  paraffin  heater, 
tank  for  aquatic  plants,  air-tight  chests  for  preserving  specimens, 
and  a  good  provision  of  glass  ware,  chemical  reagents,  etc.  The 
physical  and  chemical  laboratories  are  in  every  respect  up-to-date, 
and  secure  to  each  pupil  the  advantages  of  actual  experimenta- 
tion, so  that  the  "  willing  mind  "  alone  is  required  to  organise  a 
satisfactory  course  in  Domestic  Science  here  as  elsewhere. 

The  detailed  accounts  of  these  selected  High  school  courses  Summary, 
will  have  indicated  their  usual  scope :  plain  household  cooking, 
housewifery  (which  includes  the  chemistry  of  cleaning,  the  pui-- 
chase  of  household  commodities,  the  intelligent  calculation  of 
nutritive  food  values,  the  arnmgement  of  family  meals,  the 
plan,  structure,  and  sanitation  of  a  dAvelliiig-house),  needlework, 
dressmaking,  millinery,  a  short  course  in  laundry  work,  some 
knowledge  of  home  nursing,  the  preparation  of  invalid  food,  and 
last,  but  by  no  means  least,  an  introduction  to  the  science  of 
economics,  in  order  that,  as  Avomen,  these  girls  may  be  fit  for  the 
responsibility  of  intelligent,  just  expenditure  of  the  faniilv  in- 
come. Housewifery  may  be,  and  is  often,  subdivided,  so  that 
sanitation  assumes  its  rightful  position  of  a  distinct  and  impor- 
tant subject ;  but,  as  in  the  granmiar  grades,  personal  hygiene 
(the  structure  and  care  of  the  body)  does  not  enter  mU)  these 
Household  or  Domestip  Science  or  Art  courses.  Tt  must  be  sought 


94 


U.S.A. — State  High  Schools. 


under  the  shelter  of  biology  or  physiology,  where,  as  in  the  more 
elementary  schools,  it  is  studied  together  by  the  mixed  classes 
and  well  nigh  without  exception,  by  the  laboratory  method. 
Physiology       Physiology  and  hygiene  are  obligatory  in  the  High  schools  of 
and  Hygiene  very  few  States ;  it  is  their  value,  as  lit  developments  of,  and 
ourbes.       conclusions  to,  a  course  in  biology  which  usually  accounts  for 
their  presence;  the  opportunities  aftbrded,  by  hygiene  especi- 
ally, as  a  field  for  the  application  of  observations  in  economics 
and  civics,  as  well  as  for  the  theories  and  principles  acquired  in 
the  study  of  chemistry  and  physics,  also  gives  them  a  position  in 
some  of  the  leading  High  schools,  which  is  of  good  omen  for  their 
more  general  adoption  eventually.     It   suffices   to  mention 
New  York  City,  Cleveland  (Ohio),  and  Detroit,  (Mich.),  to  support 
the  statement  that  an  honourable  place  is  found  by  the  highest 
educational  authorities  for  these  studies  in  their  High  schools. 
They  may  appear  as  "  elective  "  in  the  second  year  of  two  out  of 
the  six  courses  (modern  languages  and  English)  as  at  the  Detroit 
Central  High  School;  or  in  the  last  year  of  four  out  of  the  six  courses 
(Business,  Scientific  (three  in  number),  Latin-English,  German,) 
as  at  Cleveland,  or  they  may  be  obligatory  for  all  first  year  students 
as  in  the  Peter  Cooper  High  School,  New  York  City.    The  time 
allotted  to  their  study,  and  their  position  with  respect  to  the  other 
sciences  is  also  variable.    The  time  may  be  daily  periods  for  five 
months  or  bi-weekly  periods  for  one  year  (nine  months).  At 
the  Cleveland  High  schools  physics  must,  and  biology  may,  be 
taken  the  previous  year ;  civics  and  chemistry  run  concurrently 
with  physiology  when  "  elected ; "  the  preceding  course  in  biology 
is  of  special  excellence  and  completeness.    At  Detroit,  botany, 
and  usually  zoology,  precede  physiology,  to  which  chemistry, 
physics,  and  economics  succeed.     In  New  York  City  three 
periods  of  50  minutes  a  week  are  assigned  to   botany  and 
zoology  during  the  year  and  two  such  weekly  periods  are 
allotted  to  physiology.    Here  physics  and  chemistry  again  suc- 
ceed the  biological  course.    Without  exception,  individual  labo- 
ratory work  plays  a  prominent  part  in  the  method  pursued.  In 
consequence  of  my  visit  to  the  United  States  taking  place  in  the 
late  spring  and  early  summer,  most  laboratory  work  in  physiology 
was  concluded  for  the  year,  but  I  was  fortunate  in  finding  some 
(a)  Detroit,  still  in  progress  at  the  Central  High  School,  Detroit.    Here  a 
Table  XIV.  student  of  physiology  gives  one  or  two  hours  respectively  on 
alternate  days   to   botany  and  physiology.     Latin,  rhetoric, 
algebra,  and  history  constitute  the  companion  studies  which 
may  complete  a  typical  weekly  programme,  though  this  depends 
on  the   special   course  elected.    Professor  Louis  Murbach  is 
responsible  for  the  biology  at  this  school,  and  has  the  advantage 
of  a  spacious,  well-lit,  well-equipped  laboratory  for  his  classes  in 
botany,  zoology,  and  physiology.    Here  he  is  able  to  demonstrate 
his  conviction  (well  expressed  in  an  article  on  "  Physiology  in 
the  High  School,"  published  in  The  Physician  and  the  Surgeon, 
December,  1900),  "  that  schools  should  institute  exact  mental 
discipline,  therefore,  when  instruction  is  given  in  physiology,  it 
should  not,  and  need  not,  be  mere  teaching  to  avoid  bad  habits, 


Physiology/  and  Hygiene  Courses. 


95 


to  shun  disease,  or  to  acquire  a  (dangerous)  smattering  of  medical  ((t)Detroit- 
knowledge,  it  should  take  its  place  as  a  part  of  natural  science ;  continued. 
for,  if  properly  taught,  it  inculcates  scientific  methods  of  investi- 
gation, and  is  of  real  value  in  mental  development."  Professor 
Murbach  illustrates  in  his  class-room  "  what  is  generally  known 
as  the  strength  of  the  laboratory  method,  which  lies  in  the 
student's  contact  with  the  material  studied,  and  his  independence, 
forced,  if  necessary,  in  getting  his  knowledge  from  the  material, 
in  its  classification,  and  in  building  up  principles  therefrom." 
Questions  are  set  which  the  pupil  must  answer  from  experiment 
or  specimen ;  "  all  text  books  whose  head-lines  embody  the 
conclusions  of  their  experiments  are  strictly  banished,  otherwise 
the  chief  aim  of  biological  studies  and  their  value  in  science 
training  is  defeated."  Necessary  information  is  gained  through 
discussion  of  experimental  and  observational  work,  and  consulta- 
tion of  indicated  authorities  in  the  excellent  library.  A  strong 
point  of  this  practical  course  lies  in  the  inexpensive  equipment 
with  Avhich  the  excellent  results  are  accomplished.  "  When  the 
course  was  initiated,"  writes  Professor  Murbach  "  one  alcohol  lamp, 
six  test  tubes,  a  microscope,  a  skeleton,  and  some  reagents  con- 
stituted the  stock  in  trade  ;  at  its  existing  state  of  evolution  the 
following  is  found  sufficient :  a  compound  microscope,  dissecting 
lenses,  one  for  each  student,  a  skeleton,  a  thermometer,  a  lacto- 
meter, retort  stands,  forceps,  needles,  Bunsen  burners  or  alcohol 
lamps,  test'tubes,  porcelain  crucible,  evaporating  dishes,  glass  and 
rubber  tubing,  glass  and  porcelain  dishes,  models  of  eye,  ear,  and 
heart,  gelatine  for  culture,  and  reagents  such  as  nitric  acid,  am- 
monia, caustic  potash,  copper  sulphate,  formaline,  pepsin,  pan- 
creatin,  rennin,  peptone,  and  beef  extract."  With  his  other 
attainments  Professor  Murbach  combines  an  exceptional 
facility  for  the  devising  of  simple  apparatus  and  the  ingenious 
employment  of  "  makeshifts,"  which  he  places  at  the  disposal 
of  science  teachers  less  fortunately  equipped  than  himself ; 
of  even  greater  value  is  the  resourceful  atmosphere  he  developes 
in  his  laboratory  and  the  spirit  of  self-help  he  arouses  in  his 
students.  I  wish  that  space  permitted  me  to  give  more  than 
the  following  brief  synopsis  of  this  course,  for  though  its  scope 
can  be  indicated,  it  is  in  the  method  that  the  training  lies, 
with  its  subsequent  influence  on  action  in  the  form  of  good 
habits,  for  continued  emphasis  is  laid  upon  hygienic  applica- 
tion along  the  wholesome  lines  of  sound  common  sense. 

"The  organs  of  the  body  actually  studied  in  the  laboratory 
are  the  following :  the  kinds  of  bones  in  the  body — long,  short, 
flat,  correlated  with  their  functions,  kinds  of  joints,  places  ot 
attachment  of  muscles ;  the  lever  functions  of  long  bones, 
with  some  simple  problems  of  lifting  weights,  support  of  the 
body's  weight  in  walking;  the  heart,  from  models  and  specimens  ; 
the  circulation  as  seen  in  a  frog's  foot  or  mesentery;  finally, 
the  general  appearance  and  position  of  the  internal  organs  in 
a  freshly  killed  frog  or  guinea  pig.  The  latter  may  be  in 
form  of  demonstration  to  groups  of  pupils.  The  car,  from 
model  and  discussion ;  the  eye  from  models ;  specimens  also 


96  U.S.A.— State  High  Schools. 


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Physiology  and  Hygiene  Courses. 


97 


are  brought  into  the  laboratory  work  if  time  permits ;  this  study 
is  either  followed  or  preceded  by  a  few  experiments  on  skin 
sensation.  Besides  these  laboratory  exercises,  the  following 
subjects  are  included :  respiration  (with  some  experiments), 
circulation,  excretion,  bacterial  origin  of  diseases,  immunisation, 
isolation,  disinfection,  antiseptics,  hygiene,  emergencies,  and 
what  may  be  done  before  the  physician  arrives." 

To  those  already  familiar  with  Professor  J.  E.  Peabody's  {b.)  New 
suggestive  "  Laboratory  Manual  for  Practical  Physiology  York  City. 
Classes "  it  will  appear  self  evident  that  the  course  for  which  Table  XV. 
he  is  responsible  at  the  Peter  Cooper  High  School,  New  York 
City,  should  be  a  model  of  its  kind.  The  following  remarks 
will  be  couched  chiefly  in  his  OAvn  w^ords  (recorded  in  an 
article  contributed  to  the  "Journal  of  Applied  Microscopy," 
III.,  No.  7),  as,  in  consequence  of  the  short  time  at  my 
disposal,  I  was  unable  to  visit  the  school,  though  I  received 
much  reliable  testimony  as  to  the  high  character  and  utility 
of  the  work  carried  out  under  Professor  Peabody's  supervision ; 
and  have  had  the  advantage  of  subsequent  correspondence  with, 
and  much  kind  assistance  from  him.  The  principal  aims  of 
this  course  are  these:  (1)  to  give  to  each  pupil  some  knowledge 
of  the  normal  functions  of  the  organs  in  his  own  body;  (2), 
to  make  him  so  familiar  with  the  structure  of  his  organs  and 
tissues  that  he  will  get  this  understanding  of  their  function 
(anatomy  is  therefore  subordinated  to  physiology);  (3)  to 
acquaint  the  pupil,  so  for  as  time  allows,  with  the  general 
biological  principles  involved  in  nutrition,  growth,  relations 
of  animals  and  plants,  and  evolution.  .  .  . 

The  number  of  boys  and  girls  in  each  division  is  usually 
about  35.     The  physiological  laboratory  is  situated   in  the 
north-east  corner  of  the  school  building.    Its  dimensions  are 
21  by  27  feet,  and  it  is  lighted  on  two  sides  by  large  windows. 
The  greater  part  of  the  floor  room  is  required  for  the  ten 
laboratory  tables,  each  designed  for  the  use  of  four  pupils. 
The  tables  are  made  of  white  wood,  the  lower  portion  being 
finished  with  shellac.     The  top  is   soaked  successively  in 
solutions  of  logwood  and  of  iron,  and  melted  paraffin  is  tlieii 
rubbed  into  the  wood  with  a  hot  iron.    This  treatment  gives 
a  dull  black  finish  that  is  not  affected  by  acids,  alcohol  or 
stains.    Unlike  varnished  desk-tops,  these  do  not  reflect  light 
into  the  eyes  of  the  pupils.    The  desks  are  arranged  in  the 
room  so  that  the  pupil  faces  the  north  windows  Avhen  doing 
laboratory  work.    He  therefore  has  the  best  possible  light  for 
the  microscope  and  for  the  object  he  is  studying.  Revolving 
chairs  are  used,  which  can  be  easily  raised  or  lowered  according 
to  the  needs  of  each  pupil.    When  recitations  are  held  or  class 
demonstrations  given,  the  boys  and  girls  turn  their  chairs  to 
face  the  instructor,  and  since  the  desks  in  this  position  are 
on  the  right  side  of  the  pupil,  notes  can  be  taken  easily.  By 
this  arrangement  it  is  possible  to  convert  the  laboratory  into 
a  recitation  room  Avithoiit  any  loss  of  time.    Half  of  a  fifty 
minute  recitation  period  may  be  devoted  to  microscopic  w^ork, 

0490.  (j 


98 


U.S.A. — State  High  Schools. 


\^  \^r-       ^^^^^         specimens  may  be  pushed  aside  and  the  attention 
^L^^^^^I..7       the  class  directed  to  recitation.     The  seven  teachers  of 

C0ni/t7lU€U/.  1  •    t  •  .1  .  1  I'll' 

biology  use,  m  coimnon,  the  apparatus  and  supplies  belonging 
to  the  Department,  a  partial  list  of  which  follows :  thirty-six 
compound  microscopes,  each  provided  with  rack  and  pinion, 
fine  adjustment,  double  nose-piece,  iris  diaphragm,  two  eye- 
pieces, and  a  two-thirds  inch  and  a  one-sixth  inch  objectives; 
magnifiers  and  dissecting  microscopes;  steam  sterilizer,  hot 
air  sterilizer,  and  Petri  dishes  for  bacteriological  work ;  fourteen 
specially  prepared  wall  charts,  twenty-five  prints  of  photo- 
micrographs from  each  of  forty-five  negatives,  skeletons  and 
dissected  preparations,  glass  ware,  chemicals,  reference  books. 

The  pupil  begins  the  study  of  each  topic  with  laboratory 
work,  considering  Avhen  possible  the  organs  and  tissues  of 
his  own  body.  In  studying  the  mouth  cavity,  for  example, 
he  writes  in  his  note  book  the  answers  to  questions  found  in  the 
Laboratory  Manual  used  by  the  classes.  Some  of  the  laboratory 
work  is  done  at  home,  the  written  reports  being  discussed  at 
the  following  recitation.  Text-book  lessons  in  Martin's  "  Human 
Body  "  supplement  the  facts  gained  by  laboratory  work.  In  the 
study  of  the  different  organs,  continual  reference  is  made  to 
the  structure  and  functions  of  other  animals ;  for  example, 
after  the  consideration  of  the  bones  and  teeth  of  man  and  of 
the  animals  in  the  school  museum,  the  classes  are  taken  to  the 
American  Museum  of  Natural  History  to  study  other  mammalian 
skeletons.  Groups  of  eight  to  ten  pupils  gather  round  the 
different  specimens,  each  pupil  answering  in  his  note  book 
the  questions,  of  which  a  specimen  is  given  below.  The  facts 
gained  from  this  observation  are  discussed  at  the  museum, 
and  the  boys  and  girls  hand  in  at  the  next  recitation  a 
written  account  of  some  of  the  animals  studied. 

Comparative  study  of  the  Mammalian  Skeleton. 
A. — Spinal  cord. 

1.  How  many  vertebra3  are  found  in  the  neck  (cervical)  region  ? 

2.  How  many  vertebrae  bear  ribs  (dorsal  vertebraj)  1 

3.  How  many  vertebrte  in  the  lumbar  regions  ? 

4.  Can  you  determine  how  many  vertebra3  have  united  to  form  the 
sacrum  ? 

5.  How  many  vertebrae  in  the  tail  (caudal  vertebrae)  ? 

6.  In  what  region  of  the  spinal  column  are  curves  noticeable  ?  How  do 
they  differ  from  the  curves  in  the  human  skeleton  1 

7.  Are  spinous  processes  specially  developed  in  any  region  1  Can  you 
suggest  any  reason  for  this  ? 

"Repeated  demonstrations  from  the  wall  charts  by  the  pupils 
help  to  fix  in  their  minds  the  relative  position  in  the  human 
body  of  the  various  organs  of  digestion,  circidation  and  excretion 
which  they  are  studying.  Considerable  microscopic  work  is 
done  during  the  laboratory  periods.  Some  of  the  photomicro- 
graphs are  then  distributed  and  the  discussion  of  the  pictured 
serves  to  make  clearer  to  the  students  the  structures  they  have 
been  examining." 

The  outline  of  the  course  opens  with  some  introductory 
lessons  on  the  chemistry  of  air,  of  the  human  body,  an'd  a  study 


Physiology  and  Hygiene  Courses.  99 

of  acid  and  alkaline  reactions;  the  study  of  livinfif  substances  W  New 
(protoplasm)  folio ws-then  that  of  foods  and  of  digestion.  To 
this  succeeds  lessons  on  the  blood,  skeleton,  muscles,  heart  and  ^'^^^ 
circulation,  respiration,  excretion  and  the  nervous  system  (from 
which  the  special  senses  are  omitted),  while  a  few  concluding 
hours  are  giv^en  to  a  study  of  yeasts  and  bacteria. 

A  general  idea  of  the  method  of  study  may  be  gained  from 
the  following  specimen  extract  from  the  syllabus  : — • 
"  Study  of  respiration. 

(1)  Laboratory  w(»rk. 

{(t)  Drawing  of  lungs,  wind-pipe,  and  larynx  of  calf 
(h  )  Demonstration  of  action  of  lungs  from  model. 

(2)  Text-book. 

(a)  Structure  and  function  of  {a)  lungs,  (b)  diaphragm, 
(c)  larynx. 

(3)  Applications. 

{a)  Principles  underlying  ventilation. 
{h)  Relation  of  clothing  to  respiration, 
(c)  Hygienic  habits  of  breathing." 

Laboratory  work  first;  the  consultation  of  text-books  next; 
hygienic  applications  to  daily  habits  and  the  details  of  community 
life  in  conclusion  :  these  are  the  main  lines  for  work  and  guidance, 
and  this  is  the  method  of  which  the  sound  value  is  testified  to 
equally  in  Detroit  as  in  this  New  York  City  High  School  by  the 
visible  interest  of  the  girls  and  lads,  the  results  on  conduct,  the 
evidence  afforded  of  mental  discipline,  and  by  the  manual 
dexterity  acquired. 

Among  the  most  practical  parts  of  the  whole  course  are  the 
eight  lessons  devoted  to  the  study  of  bacteria. 

Culture  dishes  of  nutrient  gelatine  are  exposed  to  the  air,  others  are 
exposed  to  the  city  water,  while  a  certain  number  of  the  dishes  are  kept 
closed.  After  several  days  the  dishes  are  distributed  among  the  pupils, 
and  the  colonies  of  mould  and  bacteria  are  studied  and  figures  made. 
Home  work  on  the  growth  of  bacteria  in  milk  is  one  of  the  applications 
of  the  subject  to  everyday  life.  After  experiments  in  methods  of  steriliza- 
tion, the  hoys  and  girls  are  asked  such  questions  as  the  follow^ing  : — 

1.  From  all  your  experiments,  state  (a)  what  conditions  seem  to  favour 
the  growth  of  bacteria  ;  {!>)  what  conditions  seem  to  hinder  the  growth  of 
bacteria  ? 

2.  Why  should  fruits  be  cooked  before  canning  ? 

3.  Why  are  foods  kei)t  iu  the  refrigerator  iu  suuuner  time  ?      — -  ...... 

4.  Why  should  the  prohibition  against  spitting  in  public  places  be  rigidly 
enforced '{ 

5.  Why  should  sweeping  be  done  as  far  as  possible  without  raising  a  dust  ? 

6.  Why  should  the  teeth  be  brushed  often  ? 

7.  Why  should  the  refuse  be  removed  from  the  streets  every  morning 
early,  especially  in  summer  time  ■? 

8.  Why  should  wounds  be  carefully  cleansed  and  dressed  at  once?  '  ' 

9.  In  what  ways  do  bacteria  prove  to  be  of  benefit  to  man  ?     "  ' 
10..  In  what  ways  do  bacteria  prove  to  be  "  man's  invisible  foe  V 

6490.  g2  * 


100 


U.S.A.—State  Colleges. 


A  course  in  general  biology  is  to  be  put  into  operation  next  year,  which 
will  combine  much  of  the  work  now  done  in  the  separate  courses  in  botany, 
zoology,  and  physiology. 

Five  periods  a  week  are  to  be  devoted  to  this  subject,  the  main  outlines 
of  which  are  planned  as  follows  :  "  Introductory  experiments  in  chemistry 
and  physics  will  give  the  pupils  some  first  hand  knowledge  of  chemical 
elements  and  compounds,  the  process  of  oxidation,  and  the  principles  of 
capillary  attraction  and  evaporation.  The  remainder  of  the  first  half  year 
will  be  devoted  to  the  study  of  botany,  emphasis  being  laid  on  the  physio- 
logical functions  carried  on  in  seeds,  seedlings,  roots,  stems,  leaves,  flowers 
and  fruits.  In  the  second  half  year  the  basis  of  the  work  is  to  be  the 
physiology  of  the  human  body.  Each  function  will,  however,  be  con- 
sidered from  the  comparative  standpoint.  For  example,  in  studying  the 
subject  of  respiration  the  following  topics  will  be  considered  in  addition  to 
those  now  included  : — 

"  1.  Study  of  (a)  skin  of  earthworm  ;  (b)  gills  of  fishes ;  (c)  lungs  of  frogs, 
reptiles,  birds  and  mammals. 

"  2.  Comparison  of  respiration  in  animals  living  (a)  in  water,  (b)  in  moist 
places  ;  (c)  in  the  air." 

This  proposal  meets  with  my  entire  approval,  for  it  is  by  thus 
placing  man  in  his  relation  to  less  highly  developed  forms  of  life 
that  a  most  desirable  admiration  for  the  marvellous  beauty  of 
the  human  body  is  aroused,  and  the  equally  essential  senses  of 
self-respect  and  personal  dignity  are  developed.  The  value  of 
such  High  school  courses  as  these  at  Detroit  and  New  York, 
followed  by  lads  and  girls  of  15  to  17  years  of  age,  appears 
to  me  to  be  incalculable  in  its  future  influence  for  good 
on  the  homes  of  a  great  city  and  a  great  nation,  and  no  visitor 
to  the  class-rooms  could  fail  to  be  impressed  Avith  the  unaffected 
and  practical  interest  of  the  young  people.  Placed,  as  the 
subject  is,  in  its  natural  setting  as  a  part  of  the  great  study  of 
life  in  its  many  manifestations,  and  turned  to  account  as  it  also 
is  as  a  field  for  the  application  of  the  laws  of  natural  and  moral 
science  (physics  chemistry,  psychology,  economics,  civics),  no 
opening  is  afforded  for  morbid  introspective  employment  of  the 
physiological  facts  acquired  in  the  laboratory.  A  thoroughly 
wholesome  tone  pervades  the  class-rooms,  and  the  most  notice- 
able influence  on  the  personality  of  the  students  is  stated  to  be  a 
more  intelligent  recognition  of  the  needs  of  the  body,  and  a 
greater  disposition  to  give  the  necessary  attention  to  its  right 
performance  of  vital  functions. 

How  "  time "  can  be  legitimately  found  for  this  invaluable 
study  by  both  sexes,  during  high  school  life  is  apparent  from 
the  particulars  of  the  five  alternative  courses  at  the  Peter  Cooper 
High  School.* 

C— Colleges. 

Before  entering  upon  a  review  of  the  College  Courses  in 
Household  Science  and  Hygiene,  it  seems  advisable  to  refer 
somewhat  fully  to  the  history  and  aims  of  these  institutions. 
History  and     In  his  exhaustive  paper  on  the  "American  College"  (No.  5 
Develop-      Monographs  on  Education  in  the  United  States,  edited  by 
men  .  Murray  Butler),  Professor  Andrew  Fleming  West  opens 

his  subject  by  telling  his  readers  that  the  American  College  has 
150  exact  counterpart  in  the  educational  system  of  any  other 


See  Table  XV. 


History  and  Development. 


101 


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102 


U.S.A.— Shite  Colle(/(^. 


History  and  country.  "  The  elements  which  compose  it  are  derived,  it  is  true, 
Develop-  from  European  systems,  and  in  particular  from  Great  Britain ; 
^--^ntinued '  ^^^^  ^^^^  form  under  which  these  elements  have  been  finally 
compounded  is  a  form  suggested,  and  almost  compelled,  by  the 
needs  of  our  national  life  .  .  .  notably  different  from  the  old  world 
schools."  He  then  traces  the  history  and  progress  of  this 
important  factor  in  the  national  system  of  free  education, 
concluding  this  portion  of  his  paper  as  follows  :  "  Still,  in  order 
to  understand  the  precise  nature  and  unique  influence  of  the 
college  in  American  education,  it  is  not  necessary  here  to  trace 
step  by  stop  the  story  of  its  development,  for  in  its  various  forms 
of  present  organisation  it  reveals  not  only  the  normal  type  which 
has  been  evolved,  but  also  survivals  of  past  stages  of  development, 
instances  of  variation  and  even  of  degeneration  from  the  type,  and 
interesting  present  experiments,  which  may  to  some  extent 
foreshadow  the  future.'" 

On  a  later  page  Professor  West  draws  attention  to  the  fact  thn  t 
"  the  American  College,  as  contrasted  with  European  schools,  is 
a  composite  thing — partly  secondary  and  partly  higher  in  its 
organisation.  It  consists  regularly  of  a  four-year  course  of  study 
leading  to  the  Bachelor's  degree.  Up  to  the  close  of  the  Civil 
War  (1861-1865),  it  was  mainly  an  institution  of  secondary 
education,  with  some  anticipations  of  university  studies  toward 
the  end  of  the  coiu'se.  But  even  these  embryonic  university 
studies  were  usually  taught  as  rounding  out  the  course  of 
disciplinary  education,  rather  than  as  subjects  of  free  investiga- 
tion. Boys  entered  college  when  they  were  15  or  16  years  of  age. 
The  average  age  of  graduation  did  not  exceed  20  years  .  .  .  With 
but  few  and  unimportant  exceptions,  the  four-year  course 
consisted  of  prescribed  studies.  They  were  English  literature 
and  rhetoric,  Latin,  Greek,  mathematics,  natural  philosophy,  and 
political  economy,  and  often  a  little  psychology  and  metaphysics. 
Perhaps  some  ancient  or  general  history  was  added.  French  and 
German  were  sometimes  taught,  but  not  to  an  important  degree. 
At  graduation  the  student  received  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of 
Arts,  and  then  entered  on  the  study  of  law,  medicine,  or  theology 
at  some  professional  school,  or  went  into  business  or  into  teaching 
in  the  primary  or  secondary  schools.  Such  was,  in  barest  outline, 
the  scheme  of  college  education  a  generation  ago.  At  the  present 
time  things  are  very  different.  With  the  vast  growth  of  the 
country  in  wealth  and  population  since  the  Civil  War  there  has 
come  a  manifold  development.  The  old  four-year  course, 
consisting  entirely  of  a  single  set  of  prescribed  studies  leading  to 
the  one  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts,  has  grown  and  branched  in 
many  ways.  It  has  been  modified  from  below,  from  above  and 
from  within.  The  better  preparation  now  given  in  thousands  of 
schools  has  enabled  colleges  to  ask  for  somewhat  higher  entrance 
requirements,  and,  what  is  more  important,  to  exact  them  with 
greater  firmness.  The  age  of  entrance  has  increased,  until  at  the 
older  and  stronger  colleges  the  average  is  now  about  18i 
years.  A  four-year  course  leading  to  a  Bachelor's  degree 
remains,  although  in  some  quarters  the  increasing  age  of  the 


History  (tnd  Development. 


108 


students  is  creating  a  tendency  to  shorten  the  course  to  three 
years,  in  order  that  young  men  may  not  be  kept  back  too  long 
trom  entering  upon  their  professional  studies  .  .  The  four-year 
course,  however,  no  longer  leads  solely  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor 
of  Arts,  nor  has  this  old  degree  itself  remained  unmodified." 

"  With  the  foundation  of  schools  of  science  which  aimed  to  give 
a  modern  form  of  liberal  education  based  mainly  on  the  physical 
and  natural  sciences,  and  yet  only  too  often  gave,  under  this 
name,  a  technological  course,  or  a  somewhat  incongruous  mixture 
of  technical  and  liberal  studies,  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science 
came  into  use  as  a  college  degree.  .  .  .  Still  other  degrees  of  lesser 
importance  also  came  into  vogue  and  obtained  a  footing  here 
and  there  to  mark  the  completion  of  a  four  years'  college  course. 
.  .  .  The  organisation  of  such  courses  was  naturally  embarrassed 
by  grave  difficulties  which  are  as  yet  only  partially  overcome.  .  .  , 
The  present  drift,  however,  of  opinion  and  action  in  colleges 
which  offer  more  than  one  Bachelor's  degree  is  more  reassuring 
than  it  was  some  twenty  years  ago.    There  is  a  noticeable 
tendency,  growing  stronger  each  year,  to  draw  a  sharp  line 
between  liberal  and  technical  education,  and  to  retain  under- 
graduate college  education  in  liberal  studies  as  the  best  founda- 
tion for  technical  studies,  thus  elevating  the  latter  to  a  profes- 
sional dignity  comparable  with  law,  medicine,  and  divinity  .  .  . 
and  if  this  happy  result  can  be  considered  assured,  then  the 
undergraduate  college  course,  the  sole  guarantee  of  American 
liberal  culture,  will  have  a  good  chance  to  organise  itself  in 
accordance  with  its  own  high  ideals,  however  imperfectly  it  may 
have  realised  these  ideals  in  the  past.    Another  hopeful  tendency 
which  is  gradually  gathering  strength  is  to  give  the  various 
Bachelor's  degrees  more  definite  significance  by  making  them 
stand  for  distinct  types  of  liberal  or  semi-liberal  education.  .  .  . 
Three  such  types  are  now  slowly  evolving  out  of  the  mass  of 
studies  with  increasing  logical  consistency.  .  .  .  First  comes  the 
historical  academic  course,  attempting  to  realise  the  idea  of  a 
general  liberal  education,  and  consisting  of  the  classical  and 
modern  literatures,  mathematics  and  science,  with  historical, 
political  and  philosophical  studies  added,  and  leading  to  the 
Bachelor  of  Arts  degree.    The  second  is  the  course  which  aims  to 
represent  a  strictly  modern  culture,  predominantly  scientific 
in  character,  and  culminating  in  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science. 
As  this  course  originated  in  the  demand  for  knowledge  of  the 
applied  sciences  in  the  arts  and  industries  of  modern  life,  the 
ideal  of  a  purely  modern  liberal  culture,  predominantly  scientific 
was  not  easy  to  maintain.  .  .  .  Conscious  of  this  difficulty,  many 
schools  of  science  have  been  giving  larger  place  in  the  curri- 
culum to  some  of  the  more  available  humanistic  studies.  Fuller 
courses  in  French  and  German  have  been  provided  for,  and  the 
study  of  English  has  been  insisted  upon  with  sharper  emphasis 
Economics,  modern  history,  and  even  the  elements  of  philosophy, 
have  found  a  place.  .  .  .  The  college  of  to-day  provides  a  four 
years'  course,  consisting  generally  of  a  mixture  of  prescribed  and 
elective  studies  in  widely  varying  proportions  .  .  .  and,  at  the 


104 


U.S.A.— State  Colleger 


;Methods  of  end  of  the  course,  there  is  a  multiform  instead  of  a  uniform 
Instruction.  Bachelor's  degree,  or,  in  some  instances,  a  "  simple  Bachelor's 
degree  of  multiform  meaning,"  while  the  average  age  of  the 
students  has  increased  at  least  two  years." 

In  Section  VII.,  which  deals  with  Modes  ot  Instruction, 
Professor  Fleming  West  records  that  "  Instruction  is  still  mainly 
conducted  by  recitation  and  lecture,  the  recitation  finding  its 
chief  place  in  the  earlier,  and  the  lecture  in  the  later,  part  of  the 
course."  But  other  forms  of  instruction  are  included".  .  .  "  In  all 
except  the  elementary  courses  in  science,  the  laboratory  plays  a 
most  important  part,  and  even  in  the  lectures  in  the  introductory 
courses  in  physics,  chemistry  or  biology,  full  experimental  illus- 
tration is  the  rule.  Then,  too,  the  library  serves  as  a  sort  of 
laboratory  for  the  humanistic  studies.  Students  are  encouraged 
to  learn  the  use  of  the  college  library  as  auxiliary  to  the  regular 
exercises  of  the  curriculum.  Certain  books  are  appointed  as 
collateral  reading,  and  the  written  examination  at  the  end  of  the 
term  often  takes  account  of  this  outside  reading."  The  combina- 
tion of  these  three  methods  seems  to  exercise  a  stimulating  effect 
on  the  eager  students,  and  acts,  I  was  told,  as  a  spur  to  the 
indolent ;  it  also  offers  just  what  is  desirable  in  the  treatment  of 
Household  Science  with  advanced  students. 
Form  of  "  The  form  of  government  is  simple.    A  college  corporation, 

Govern-  l^ally  considered,  consists  of  a  body  of  men  who  have  o])tained 
ment.  charter  and  who  hold  and  administer  the  property.  Where 

a  particular  State  has  established  a  college  or  even  a  university, 
which  regularly  includes  a  college,  the  members  of  the  corpora- 
tion are  commonly  styled  regents,  and  are  appointed  by  the 
State  to  hold  office  for  a  limited  term  of  years.  But  most  colleges 
have  been  established  as  private  corporations.  In  this  case  the 
title  is  vested  in  a  board  of  trustees,  sometimes  composed  of 
members  who  hold  office  for  life,  or  else  composed  of  these  as- 
sociated with  others  who  are  elected  for  a  term  of  years.  .  .  . 
The  president  and  professors  usually  hold  office  for  life.  In  some 
places  provision  is  beginning  to  be  made  for  the  retirement  of 
professors  on  pensions  as  they  grow  old.  Instructors  and  some- 
times assistant  professors  are  appointed  for  a  limited  time,  such 
appointments  being  subject  to  renewal  or  promotion.  In  the 
larger  colleges  the  president  is  assisted  in  his  administrative 
work  by  one  or  more  deans.  By  immemorial  tradition  the  presi- 
dent and  faculty  are  charged  with  the  conduct  of  the  entire 
instruction  and  discipline.  They  have  the  power  to  admit  and 
dismiss  students.  The  conferring  of  degrees  belongs  to  the 
corporation,  but  this  power  is  almost  invariably  exercised  in 
Sources  of  accordance  with  recommendations  made  by  the  faculty.  ...  In 
Income.  State  colleges  the  income  is  derived  from  taxation,  in  others 
from  endowments,  often  supplemented  by  annual  subscriptions 
for  special  purposes.  .  .  .  State  colleges  receive  few  private  gifts. 
But  the  private  colleges  are  cut  off  from  dependence  on  the 
State,  and  have  to  rely  on  these  (private  gifts).  This  stream  of 
Students'  private  liberality  flows  almost  unceasingly.  .  .  .  The  expenses  of 
Expenses,    individual  students  vary  greatly.    In  some  places  there  is  no 


Province  of  Household  Science. 


105 


charge  for  tuition;  in  others  they  must  pay  as  much  as  $100  or 
$150.  In  httle  country  colleges  the  total  cost  for  a  year  often 
falls  Avithin  $300;  in  the  larger  old  eastern  colleges,  drawing 
patronage  from  all  parts  of  the  land,  the  student  who  must  pay 
all  his  bills,  and  receives  no  aid  in  the  form  of  a  scholarship,  can 
hardly  get  along  with  less  than  $600  or  $700,  exclusive  of 
his  expenses  in  the  summer  vacation.  .  .  .  Moreover,  many 
colleges  possess  scholarships  which  are  open  to  able  students  who 
need  temporary  pecuniary  help.  The  young  American  of  narrow 
means,  if  he  be  of  fair  ability  and  industry,  can  almost  always 
manage  to  find  his  way  through  college." 

iVccording  to  the  last  available  Report  of  the  United  States  Commis- 
sioner of  Education  (1890-1900),  there  are  now  480  Universities  and 
Colleges  (excluding  those  for  women  only)  ;  though  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  a  considerable  number  of  these  are  independent  of  State  endow- 
ment or  control.  About  72"5  per  cent,  of  the  total  number  are  co-educa- 
tional ;  in  fourteen  over  1,000  students  are  enrolled. 

Of  the  State  imiversities,  or  colleges,  as  they  are  variously  Province 
described,  about  thirty  have  already  initiated  courses  in  House-  and^  History 
hold  Science,  the  subject  being  based  upon  a  course  of  study  9^  ^^^^^^ 
which  qualifies  for  a  Bachelor  of  Science  degree ;  and  as  many  more  jj^j^ 
have  introduced  some  more  or  less  organised  form  of  this  work  into  Science, 
their  curricula.  The  Household  Science  department  is  usually 
housed  in  the  college  of  agricultiu*e,  but  its  students  follow  general 
courses  in  science,  art,  literature,  languages,  and  so  forth,  with 
the  students  in  the  other  colleges.  The  idea  that  domestic 
subjects  have  any  claims  to  associate  on  terms  of  equality  with 
the  studies  carried  on  by  college  undergraduates  savours  of  sus- 
picious novelty  and  questionable  stability  to  English  minds,  so 
that  the  statement  that  their  claims  to  post-graduate  study  have 
sufficed  to  gain  them  honourable  recognition  in  universities  of 
such  standing  as  Columbia  and  Chicago  will  be  suggestive  of  a 
degree  of  unconventionality,  possible  only  in  a  new  world  un- 
trammelled by  age-long  traditions.  That  the  movement  is  not 
merely  an  evanescent  outcome  of  a  passing  fad,  or  the  product 
of  inexperienced  or  unbalanced  womanhood  is  indicated  by  the 
fact  that,  without  exception,  it  has  received  the  cordial,  active 
support  of  the  other  faculties  in  colleges  where  it  has  been  in- 
augurated. Professors  of  chemistry,  biology,  geology,  art, 
architecture,  psychology,  economics  and  sociology,  voluntarily 
devote  time,  ability,  and  influence  to  further  the  initiation  and 
success  of  these  courses,  not  in  one,  but  in  all  the  imiversities 
where  the  subject  has  been  introduced. 

Its  claims  for  consideration  and  for  organisation  as  a  college  study  have 
been  briefly  recorded  by  Miss  Isabel  J3evier,  Professor  of  Household  Science 
at  the  Illinois  State  University,  in  an  address  given  a  few  months  ago  ;  and 
no  woman  is  better  qualitied  to  "  state  a  case,"  for,  under  her  highly  qualified 
organisation,  what  promises  to  be  a  model  university  course  is  being 
gradually  evolved.  J>efore  transcribing  her  remarks  I  would  remind  my 
readers  of  Professor  Fleming  West's  opinion  (pioted  above,  that  a  sharper 
line  is  being  drawn  annually  in  college  science  courses  between  liberal  and 
technical  education,  and  that  liberal  studies  are  emphasised  in  under- 
graduate college  education  as  the  best  fodndation  for  technical  studies,  in 


106 


U.S.A.  — State  Colleges . 


Province  order  to  eievace  tne  latter  to  a  high  standard  of  professional  dignity, 
and  History  Bearing  this  in  mind  it  becomes  conceivable,  and  to  some  thinkers  apparent, 
of  Courses  ^^at  to  institute  a  university  course  in  Household  Science  does  not  threaten 
in  House-  lower  the  college  in  which  it  is  pursued  to  the  humbler  footing  of  a 
hold  Science  cooking  school ;  on  the  contrary,  it  raises  the  whole  complex  question  of 
—  continued.  right  nutrition  of  the  human  race  to  its  legitimate  status  in  the  king- 
dom of  science.  Miss  Bevier  was  invited  to  answer  the  inquiry,  "  What  do 
you  mean  by  Household  Science,  and  what  is  its  province  in  a  State 
University  ? "  The  following  extracts  embody  the  gist  of  her  reply  :  .  .  . 
"  It  has  been  said  that  Household  Science  includes  the  study  of  the  agents, 
the  materials,  and  the  phenomena  of  the  household.  One  needs  to  pause 
a  moment  and  repeat  the  words  toappreciate  the  largeness  of  the  subject— the 
agents,  heat,  light,  sound,  electricity,  colour ;  the  materials,  the  air  we  breathe, 
the  food  we  eat,  the  water  we  drink,  the  houses  we  live  in — who  will  com- 
plete the  list  ?  It  is  well  to  remember  that  principles  are  universal,  while 
their  applications  are  special  and  peculiar.  The  general  laws  of  heat  are  as 
true  for  the  modern  range  as  for  the  steam  engine.  The  painter,  the  decorator 
and  the  dyer  have  each  a  technical  interest  in  colour,  but  the  woman  who 
would  give  beauty  and  personality  to  her  home  by  a  harmonious  blending  of 
colour  cannot  disregard  these  same  principles.  By  Household  Science  we  mean 
very  largely  api^lied  science.  Justat  this  point  it  seems  to  me  is  the  weak  spot, 
])erhaps  it  were  better  to  say  the  uncultivated  field',  in  the  education  of 
woman.  Our  colleges  for  men  long  since  recognised  the  value  of  science 
and  its  application.  This  fact  is  illustrated  by  the  increase  of  our 
technical  schools  until  they  number  over  sixty,  and  the  students  in 
technical  courses  of  college  grade  number  over  20,000  young  men.  Women 
have  been  rather  slow  to  recognise  the  close  relation  science  sustains  to 
the  affairs  of  the  home,  and  by  some  strange  oversight  provision  has  not 
been  made  for  them  to  apply  their  science  in  a  kingdom  peculiarly  their 
own.  Is  there  any  good  reason  why  the  girl  should  not  apply  her  know- 
ledge of  chemistry  to  bread,  and  of  bacteriology  to  the  processes  of  fer- 
mentation ?  I  am  co-educational  enough  to  believe,  generally  speaking, 
that  the  system  which  proves  most  successful  in  the  training  of  boys  will 
have  a  similar  result  with  their  sisters.  I  believe  it  is  our  privilege  to 
profit  by  their  experiments.  They  have  tested  successively  the  classical 
school,  the  manual  training  school,  the  technical  school  ;  and  our 
universities  stand  to-day  because  men  have  felt  that  the  highest  develop- 
ment, the  truest  unfolding  of  the  human  spirit,  was  to  be  accomplished  not 
by  any  one  kind  of  school,  but  by  the  correlation  of  the  best  elements  of 
each.  This  brings  us  directly  to  our  topic — the  province  of  Household 
Science  in  a  State  University.  I  answer : — to  provide  a  place  and  an 
opportunity  for  the  correlation  and  application  of  the  arts  and  sciences  to 
the  home.  I  know  of  no  one  place  which  afi'ords  so  many  opportunities  for 
'  the  application  of  science.  Neither  do  I  know  of  a  place  more  fateful  for  good 

or  evil  in  the  life  of  the  individual  or  the  nation,  than  the  home.  As  the 
equipment  and  advantages  of  the  university  greatly  exceed  those  of  a  single 
college,  so  are  the  opportunities  of  the  Household  Science  department 
greatly  multiplied.  In  no  other  institution  to  my  knowledge  can  the  de- 
partment have  the  inspiration  and  help  of  expert  workers  in  so  many 
different  lines,  as  well  as  the  advantage  of  illustrative  material  of  so  many 
different  kinds.  The  college  of  science  can  reveal  to  the  students  some  of 
the  mysteries  of  the  laws  of  life.  The  college  of  liberal  arts  can  give  them 
a  truer  conception  of  their  own  place  and  work  in  the  world  by  a  study  of 
the  history  and  literature  of  other  peoples  and  tongues.  The  eye  can  be 
trained  to  recognise  beauty  of  colour  and  outline  and  the  hand  to  express 
it,  by  the  work  of  art  and  design.  The  architect  and  decorator  can  show 
how  to  construct  and  adorn  '  the  house  beautiful.'  A  wise  selection  and 
correlation  of  work  in  these  various  lines,  with  the  special  work  of  the 
Household  Science  department,  affords  an  unusual  opportunity  for  that 
symmetrical  development  so  greatly  to  be  desired  in  educational  training." 

The  fact  that  an  annual  increase  takes  place  in  the  number  of 
girls  willing  to  devote  four  years  to  these  courses  speaks  for  the 
growing  recognition  of  their  educational  equally  with  their  social 


Typical  Courses  in  HouseJioId  Science. 


107 


value ;  for  the  American  girl  of  18  is  eager  to  learn,  she  desires 
"  culture,"  and  would  not  forego  its  anticipated  attainment  for 
the  most  "  useful "  course  in  the  world.  Show  her  the  possibilities 
and  advantages  of  a  combination  of  the  two,  and  the  practical  side  of 
her  character  welcomes  the  opportunity  to  increase  her  command 
of  the  tools  she  is  called  upon  to  wield  throughout  her  daily  life, 
and  to  thereby  lighten  and  brighten  her  tale  of  work ;  her  social 
instincts  are  stimulated  by  the  increased  worth  and  happiness 
she  can  add  to  human  existence,  and  her  intellectual  abilities 
find  satisfaction  in  the  scope  afforded  for  their  profitable  exercise. 
The  innate  mechanical  instincts  characteristic  of  the  American 
of  to-day  furnish  an  "  energy "  for  application  far  more  con- 
spicuous than  is  the  case  with  the  descendants  of  older 
civilisations. 

The  first  college  course  in  the  subject  was  organised  in  1875 
by  Miss  Lou.  C.  Allen,  in  what  was  then  described  as  the 
"  Industrial "  University  at  Champaign  (111.),  now  the  Univer- 
sity of  Illinois.  Her  object  was  to  place  instruction  in  household 
arts  for  young  women  upon  a  level  with  instruction  in  agricul- 
ture, horticulture,  and  the  mechanic  arts  for  young  men.  Miss 
Allen  was  made  Professor  of  Household  Science,  constituted  a 
member  of  the  Faculty,  and  carried  on  the  classes  for  several 
years.  The  department  was  only  abandoned  after  this  period 
of  good  work,  because,  on  Miss  Allen's  marriage,  no  suitable 
person  could  be  found  to  take  her  place.  Some  work  in 
Domestic  Science  was  started  in  the  Kansas  State  Agricultural 
College  the  same  year  (1875) ;  at  first  in  the  form  of  lectures  only, 
but,  later,  practical  work  was  introduced,  and  in  1878,  Mrs.  May 
B.  Welch,  the  wife  of  the  President  of  the  Agricultural  College, 
induced  the  trustees  to  open  a  definite  Household  Arts  Depart- 
ment, which  for  some  years  she  herself  conducted.  The  con- 
tinuity of  this  course  has  been  uninterrupted :  at  the  present  time 
one  year's  study  of  the  subject  is  obligatory  on  all  female 
students,  while  a  complete  four-years  course  is  open  to  those  who 
desire  to  avail  themselves  of  such  opportunities.  Thus,  tenta- 
tively, the  movement  began ;  and  its  present  phase  of  hopeful 
development  is  the  outcome  of  quiet  perseverance,  strenuous 
eftbrt,  and  assured  conviction  on  the  part  of  the  college  women 
who  have  pioneered  its  passage  into  the  universities.  To  them 
is  now  accorded  the  well-earned  encouragement  of  increasing 
support  from  the  public,  from  the  press,  and  from  their  male 
colleagues.  This  is  accorded  on  the  grounds  of  the  value  of  a  com- 
prehensive, practical  knowledge  of  household  economics  as  a  factor 
in  the  promotion  of  national  efficiency,  of  the  home  happiness  and 
stability  which  must  underlie  such  efficiency,  and  for  its  recently 
recognised  worth  as  a  focus  for  the  application  of  the  sciences  and 
arts. 

Three  specimen  college  courses  have  been  selected  for  reference  Typical 
in  this  Report  as  typical  of  the  leading  features  which  distinguish  Courses  in 
those  at  present  organised.    That  at  the  State  University  of  Household 
Illinois  is  framed  to  prove  that,  as  to  laboratory  work  and  methods 
generally,  the  subject  is  of  an  equal  educational  value  with  other 


108 


U.S.A.— State  Colleges. 


branches  of  science  and  art,  capable  of  holding  its  own  with  any 
course  of  advanced  study.  The  second,  at  the  Ohio  State  Uni- 
versity, is  an  illustration  of  the  methods  followed  when  the 
course  approximates  more  closely  to  that  of  a  high  class 
Technical  institute :  and  the  third,  at  the  Michigan  State  Agri- 
cultural College,  is  frankly  technical  in  character.  Did  space 
permit,  much  suggestive  material  could  be  gathered  from  a  close 
study  of  other  excellent  courses,  those,  for  mstance,  at  the  State 
Agricultural  Colleges  of  Colorado  and  Kansas,  or  at  the  State 
Universities  of  Minnesota  and  Missouri,  all  of  which  are  con- 
ducted by  women  of  ability  and  good  qualifications,  with  the 
assistance  of  the  leading  professors  of  their  respective  colleges 
and  universities. 

The  broad  features  have  a  certain  similarity  in  all  those  of 
which  I  have  secured  particulars.  The  full  course  occupies  four 
years:  the  scope  of  subjects  is  wide,  made  purposely  compre- 
hensive to  introduce  general  culture  studies :  the  aim  is  to  show 
the  foundations  of  science  and  art  upon  which  domestic  economy 
is  well  and  truly  laid :  the  method  is  that  known  as  the  "  labora- 
tory," which  constitutes  a  valuable  mental  training  in  addition 
to  its  scientific  value.  The  anticipated  results  are  the  elevation 
to  its  true  dignity  of  home  life  and  its  constituent  parts ;  a 
gradual  repression  of  the  sins  against  sanitation  which  are 
mimical  to  the  perfect  development  of  the  individual  and  an 
economic  tax  on  the  community;  a  substantial  gain  to  the 
nation  at  large  in  the  increased  efficiency,  physical,  mental,  and 
moral,  of  its  units. 

The  variety  in  detail  is  wide  ;  a  two  or  one  year's  course  may 
be  obligatory,  and  is  almost  invariabl}^  optional,  for  young  women 
whose  tastes  or  time  do  not  allow  the  full  four  years'  course  to 
be  undertaken  ;  or  short  winter  courses  are  available  which  aim 
to  impart  a  certain  amount  of  definite  information  in  the  limited 
time  at  the  students'  disposal.  In  these,  scientific  must  give  place 
to  more  utilitarian  methods,  but  the  worker  learns  better  ways 
of  doing,  and  forms  a  centre  for  the  subsequent  formation  of  a 
more  enlightened  "  public  opinion." 

The  scope  of  the  full  courses  is  usually  on  the  following  lines : — 

Sciences. — Obligatory :  chemistry,  physics,  biology,  physiology, 
sanitation ;  with  geology,  meteorology,  bacteriology  and  psycho- 
logy as  "  electives." 

Arts. — Obligatory:  drawing,  design,  architecture,  cooking, 
sewing,  dress  cutting  and  fitting ;  with  music,  painting,  millinery, 
etc.,  as  "  electives." 

General  Culture  Studies. — Obligatory :  English  literature, 
history,  modern  languages,  botany  and  physical  culture ;  of  which 
one  modern  language  and  botany  would  be  "  electives." 

The  laboratory  method  is  invariably  emphasised,  but  the 
actual  manipulation  of  foods  or  of  materials  is,  by  some  authori- 
ties reduced  to  a  minimum,  because  of  the  belief  that,  with  brain 
trained  to  habitual  observation,  accuracy  and  reflection,  with 
hand  skilled  through  brush,  pencil  and  laboratory  work  to  give 


Typical  Courses  in  Household  Science. 


109 


quick  and  reliable  response  to  mental  suggestion,  with  muscles 
strengthened  and  co-ordinated  by  intelligent  physical  culture 
under  careful  supervision,  principles  acquired  and  based  upon 
sound  reasoning  can  be  applied  with  a  precision  and  certainty 
which  should  ensure  rapid  success.  The  home  life  of  the  student 
should  afltbrd  abundant  opportunity  for  repeated  practice, 
when  circumstances  have  probably  removed  her  from  the 
chances  of  other  scientific  or  artistic  training  for  which  she  has 
peculiar  facilities  in  her  college  days. 

In  respect  ot  these  courses,  the  Western  colleges  preceded 
those  in  the  Eastern  States,  where  the  State  authorities  for 
higher  education  seem,  as  yet,  hardly  awake  to  the  importance 
or  possibilities  of  the  subject.  I  am  partly  inclined  to  attribute 
this  apparent  inattention  to  its  claims  for  recognition  in  State 
colleges,  at  least  in  New  York  State,  Pennsylvania  and  Massa- 
chusetts, to  the  excellent  courses  available  at  the  Pratt  and 
Drexel  Technical  Institutes,  and  to  other  similar  outside  oppor- 
tunities for  advanced  study,  such  as  that  offered  at  the  Simmons 
Technical  College  for  Women  at  Boston  (Mass.),  which  meet  the 
existing  demand. 

The  University  of  Illinois  is  situated  in  the  eastern  central  part  of  the  {a)  State 
State  between  the  cities  of  Champaign  and  Urbana,  128  miles  south  of  University 
Chicago ;  the  country  round  is  a  rich  and  prosperous  agricultural  region,  of  Illinois, 
while  the  combined  population  of  the  cities  is  about  15,000.  The  Uni-  Table  XVI. 
versity  was  opened  March  2,  1868,  with  some  50  students.  During  the 
first  term  the  number  increased  to  77,  all  young  men,  but,  in  March, 
1870,  the  trustees  admitted  women  as  students,  and  during  the  year 
1870-71,  24  availed  themselves  of  the  privilege.  Since  that  time  they 
have  constituted  from  one-sixth  to  one-fifth  of  the  total  number.  Ap- 
plicants for  admission  to  the  freshman  class  must  be  at  least  16  years 
of  age.  Entrance  may  be  made  at  any  time,  provided  the  candidate  is 
competent  to  take  up  the  work  of  the  classes  then  in  progress,  but  all 
are  advised  to  enter  in  September.  Admission  to  the  freshman  class  of 
the  University  may  be  obtained  in  one  of  three  ways  :  {a)  by  certificate 
from  a  fully  accredited  high  school ;  (/>)  by  examination  ;  (c)  by  transfer  of 
credits  from  some  other  college  or  university.  Persons  over  21  years 
of  age,  not  candidates  for  a  degree,  may  be  admitted  to  classes,  after 
satisfying  the  president  and  the  professor  in  charge  of  the  department  in 
which  such  classes  are  taught,  that  they  possess  the  requisite  information 
and  ability  to  pursue  profitably,  as  special  students,  the  chosen  subjects. 
Such  students  are  not  matriculated  ;  they  pay  the  tuition  fee  of  ^7*50 
a  term,  in  addition  to  the  regular  incidental  fee  of  $12. 

The  government  of  the  University  is  vested  by  the  trustees  primarily  in 
the  President  of  the  University,  in  the  Faculty,  in  the  Council  of  Administra- 
tion and  in  the  Deans.  The  President  is  the  executive  head  of  the  Uni 
versity.  The  University  is  divided  into  11  interdependent  colleges  and 
schools.  For  some  years  past  one  scholarship  from  each  county  has  been 
awarded  annually,  upon  competitive  examination,  to  males  throughout  the 
State,  and  considerable  satisfaction  was  experienced  in  the  spring  of  1901 
when  the  Board  of  Tiustees  granted  to  the  daughters  of  farmers  a 
privilege  similar  to  that  previously  enjoyed  only  by  their  sons.  The  fees 
for  matriculation,  laboratory  work,  etc.,  are  very  small,  and  a  tuition  fee  of 
$7"o0  only,  a  term,  is  demanded.  The  University  does  not  furnish  board, 
but  there  is  a  dining  hall  in  the  basement  of  the  University  Hall,  under 
university  supervision,  where  good  meals  may  be  obtained  at  reasonable 
rates.  The  immediate  control  of  this  dining  hall  is  entrusted  to  the  skilled 
management  of  a  graduate  of  the  Boston  Sehool  of  Housekeeping  (now  in- 
corporated in  the  Simmons  Technical  College),  who  ensures  that  the  food  is 
not  only  varied,  but  nutritious,  wholesome,  and  proportioned  to  the  require- 


110 


U.S.A.— State  Colleges. 


(a)  State       ments  of  normal  diets ;  indeed,  the  food  provided  must  meet  with  the 
University    approval  of  the  Professor  of  Household  Science,  Miss  Isabel  Bevier,  whose 
of  Illinois     dietary  studies  in  connection  with  Professor  Atwater's  work  have  been 
—  continued,  published  among  the  United  States  Food  Bulletins.     The  charge  for 
table  board  in  this  dining  hall  is  fixed  at  f3"50  (about  14s.)  a  week,  for  which 
three  full  meals  daily,  including  Sunday,  are  supplied.    "Fraternity"  or 
"Sorority"  houses  are  a  popular  form  of  lodging  among  students;  in 
the  case  of  girls,  9  to  14  often  select  a  chaperon  and  equip  one  house 
between  them ;  they  almost  invariably  perform  personally  all  domestic 
duties,  which,  however,  owing  to  the  arrangement  just  described,  do  not 
include  cooking. 

All  the  courses  are  open  to  all  the  students,  though  it  is  necessary  that 
the  professor  in  charge  be  satisfied  concerning  the  fitness  of  the  applicant 
to  profit  by  his  selection.  A  full  course  equals  5  "  credits,"  each  of  which 
is  the  equivalent  of  one  hour's  recitation  and  two  hours'  preparation  (this 
may  be  laboratory  work),  for  5  days  in  the  week  ;  this  works  out  at  about 
15  to  19  hours  a  week.  All  physical  training  is  extra,  though  it  is  accepted 
for  "credit"  by  some  of  the  professors.  Students  graduate  ^vith  the  degree 
of  Bachelor  of  Arts,  Science,  Literature,  ifec,  according  to  the  line  of  study 
they  elect  to  follow. 

The  course  in  Household  Science*  is  followed  in  the  College  of 
Agriculture,  a  large,  well-planned  building,  opened  in  May  1901. 
The  department  occupies  the  entire  second  floor  of  the  north 
wing,  and  is  well  supplied  with  laboratories,  apparatus,  and  a 
mass  of  illustrative  material,  such  as  charts,  specimens  of  various 
kinds  of  building  material,  and  exhibits  illustrating  the  chemical 
composition  and  products  obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  certain 
foods.  The  students  have  access  also  to  the  museum  of  the 
Architectural  department,  as  well  as  the  benefit  of  close  associa- 
tion with  the  Art  department.  A  chemical  laboratory  is  attached 
to  the  kitchen  for  the  immediate  application  of  science  to  home 
problems  in  chemistry  or  bacteriology.  Adjoining  this  is  a  room 
which  will  gradually  acquire  the  appearance  of  a  museum,  con- 
sequent upon  the  accumulation  of  a  large  collection  of  specimen 
foods,  utensils,  apparatus,  etc.,  connected  with  the  course.  One 
room  is  devoted  to  the  study  of  Household  Art :  here  are  found 
full-sized  illustrations  of  window  decoration,  of  wall-papers, 
parqueterie  flooring,  etc.,  which  atitbrd  materials  for  colour  study 
in  drapery  and  room  decoration,  and  for  the  cultivation  of  a 
taste  too  often  conspicuous  by  its  absence  among  a  large  section 
of  the  community.  A  small  collection  of  artistic  tiles  and 
sample  vases,  selected  for  grace  of  form  as  w^ell  as  for  beauty  of 
workmanship,  is  also  being  made,  with  a  view  to  training  the 
mind  and  eyes  of  students  who  bring  only  the  crudest  ideas  of 
art  from  their  remote  rural  homes.  No  limit  is  set  to  reasonable 
and  Avise  expenditure  in  the  equipment  of  this  or  other  minor 
departments  essential  to  the  completeness  of  the  whole  scheme. 

The  studies  peculiar  to  the  Household  Science  course  can  be 
taken  in  two  years,  given  adequate  previous  preparation,  but  a  full 
four  years  is  requisite  to  gain  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science. 
Forty  female  students  entered  the  Household  Science  department  on 
its  initiation  in  September,  1900,  one  male  student  also  followed  it 
throughout,  while  others  of  his  sex  were  so  much  interested  that 
there  is  a  prospective  demand  for  a  course  in  Sanitation  planned  to 

~      r~     '  ^         *'^See  Table  XVI. 


Typical  Courses  in  Household  Science. 


Ill 


meet  masculine  needs.  Meanwhile,  Miss  Bevier  has  worked  to  meet  (a)  State 
the  needs  of  two  classes  of  students;  (a)  those  who  specialise  in  University 
other  lines  of  work,  but  who  desire  a  knowledge  of  the  general  ^  Illinois 
principles  and  facts  of  household  science;  (6)  those  who  wish  to  make 
a  speciality  of  household  science  by  a  comprehensive  study  of  the 
affairs  of  the  home,  together  with  the  arts  and  sciences  whose  appli- 
cations are  directly  connectedwith  its  management  and  care. 

Though  still  in  its  infancy,  this  course  promises  to  be  of  great  value  in 
the  opportunity  it  offers  for  combining  a  liberal  education  with  a  basis  of 
pure  and  applied  science.  By  the  judicious  correlation  of  the  distinctive 
household  science  subjects  with  some  of  the  regular  courses  given  in  other 
colleges  of  the  University,  excellent  facilities  are  provided  for  a  study  of 
their  applications  to  the  affairs  of  the  household,  while  the  oneness  and 
interdependence  of  all  knowledge  is  accentuated.  "Woman's  education 
here  seems  to  me  to  have  swung  to  one  extreme  and  to  be  now  coming 
back  to  a  more  normal  and  sensible  ideal,"  writes  Miss  Bevier,  in  a  reply  to 
a  request  on  my  part  for  further  particulars  of  her  guiding  principles  when 
she  framed  this  course  ;  "in  my  own  college  days  we  were  just  feeling  that 
the  one  thing  to  do  was  to  share  the  privileges  enjoyed  by  the  men  :  to 
study  and  do  everything  they  did.  So,  in  the  course  in  trigonometry,  as 
the  men  had  surveying,  we  girls  diligently  walked  along  too,  sighted, 
measured — the  boys  being  gallant  enough  to  carry  the  chain  and  various 
other  impedimenta.  I  think  we  might  have  gone  to  the  studio  with  much 
greater  advantage  and  learned  something  about  form  and  colour  in  those 
hours.  If  Harvard  can  devise  a  scheme,  as  it  has  done,  by  which  their  men 
who  wish  to  enter  a  professional  course  after  their  college  course,  can  finish 
the  studies  of  the  college  course  in  three  years,  I  believe  it  is  entirely 
possible  to  give  to  girls  in  two  years  the  sciences  that  must  form  the  basis 
of  any  intelligent  study  of  the  home  problems,  together  with  a  little  appli- 
cation in  those  first  years  and  a  great  deal  of  application  in  the  third  year. 
A  fourth  year  student  should  then  be  ready  and  competent  to  do  some 
investigation  worthy  of  the  name,  while  she  is  also  at  liberty  to  enlarge  her 
horizon  by  a  study  of  economics,  education  or  psychology." 

The  required  studies  are  household  science,  botany,  bacterio- 
logy, zoology,  physiology,  chemistry,  physics,  mathematics,  art 
and  design,  domestic  architecture,  elementary  decoration,  Ger- 
man and  physical  training ;  the  "  electives  "  are  English,  French, 
economics,  history,  psychology  and  education.  No  laundry 
work  is  included,  no  practice  work  in  housewifery,  no  needle- 
work or  dress  cutting,  as  it  is  Miss  Bevier's  creed  that  it  is  a 
study  of  the  principles  of  these  home  industries,  rather  than 
their  technical  application,  which  belong  to  a  university  course. 
In  botany,  zoology,  and  physics,  the  general  regular  courses  for 
all  students  are  folio  wed.  In  chemistry,  after  the  first  elementary 
and  experimental  course,  qualitative  and  quantitative  analysis 
is  taken  up,  with  the  elements  of  organic  chemistry,  to  which  a 
course  on  household  chemistry  forms  the  conclusion.  In  this, 
analyses,  planned  on  special  lines  for  these  students,  of  baking 
powders,  vinegars,  syrups,  sugars,  soaps,  Avall-papers,  etc.,  are 
carried  out ;  an  examination  is  also  made  of  materials  used  in 
the  household  ;  individual  work  is  demanded  throughout. 
In  bacteriology,  the  general  introductory  course  is  followed, 


112 


U.S.A.— State  Colleges. 


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Typical  Courses  in  Household  Science. 


113 


mount  and  investigate  them  microscopically.  Dean  Ricker,  of 
the  Department  of  Architecture,  has  taken  much  interest  in  the 
preparation  of  a  special  and  suitable  course  in  house  planning, 
sanitary  construction,  and  history  of  architecture,  which  is  use- 
fully supplemented  by  his  unusual  collection  of  illustrative 
lantern  slides  and  by  the  number  of  models  and  specimens  of 
stones,  bricks,  fixtures  and  fittings,  arranged  in  the  architectural 
museum.  Professor  Frank  Frederick,  who  is  responsible  for  the 
art  course,  requires  his  students  to  devote  their  first  term  to  the 
acquirement  of  facility  in  accurate  drawing,  freehand,  perspective, 
cast  outlines,  etc.  Lectures  on  colour  and  design,  with  accom- 
panying exercises,  form  a  portion  of  the  course,  while  shading, 
wash  and  charcoal  sketches  and  rapid  drawing  from  life,  con- 
stitute the  second  part  of  the  art  studies.  Students  are  advised 
throughout  to  consult  books  of  reference  rather  than  to  confine 
their  reading  to  any  single  text-book  ;  bibliographies  bearing  on 
the  work  of  a  given  term,  month,  or  week,  are  prepared  by  Miss 
Bevier  for  their  use,  in  which  references  to  articles  in  current 
journals  and  reviews  find  a  place  among  those  to  standard 
authorities.  Every  facility  for  the  necessary  reading  is  provided 
in  the  Library,  which  is  quite  the  most  imposing  building  in  its 
architectural  featiu-es  among  the  group  on  the  extensive  campus  ; 
within  also  it  is  interesting  on  account  of  its  fine  proportions 
and  the  beauty  of  its  colour  scheme  and  fresco  decorations. 

The  class  of  women  from  which  this  Household  Science 
Department  draws  its  students  is  largely  agricultural;  the 
daughters  of  Illinois  farmers  constitute  the  greater  proportion 
of  those  who  come  under  Miss  Bevier's  influence  and  super- 
vision; so  far  she  finds  that,  though  her  demands  necessitate 
very  hard  work  on  the  part  of  her  students,  it  is  not  over 
severe  or  impossible  of  accomplishment.  The  year  which  has 
elapsed  since  my  visit  has  given  promise  of  increased  vitality, 
and  the  cordial  co-operation  of  the  other  professors  concerned 
has  been  not  only  sustained  but  strengthened. 

The  Ohio  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  was  established  l)y  law  in  {b.)  Ohio 
1870,  but  was  not  opened  until  1873  for  the  reception  of  students.  Five  State  Uni- 
years  later  the  Legislature  passed  an  Act  which,  amongst  other  changes,  versity. 
provided  that  the  institution  should  be  subsequently  designated  as  "  The  Table  XVll. 
Ohio  State  University."  Up  to  this  time  but  one  ajjpropriation  had  been 
made  by  the  State  for  its  support ;  with  the  reorganisation  came  a  larger 
and  broader  view  of  the  State's  relation  to  public  education,  and  since  that 
time  the  Ohio  State  University  has  shared  with  other  public  educational 
institutions  a  more  generous  support  by  the  State.  The  governing  body 
of  the  Institution  is  a  Board  of  Trustees,  appointed  by  the  Governor  of  the 
State  and  confirmed  by  the  Senate,  for  terms  of  seven  years,  as  provided 
in  the  law  organising  the  University.  The  original  endowment  has  been 
supplemented,  and  the  objects  of  the  University  promoted,  by  a  permanent 
annual  grant  from  the  United  States,  under  an  Act  of  1890 ;  by  special 
appropriations  of  the  General  Assembly ;  and,  in  1891,  by  a  permanent 
annual  grant  from  the  State,  which  grant  was  doubled  by  the  legislature 
of  1896.  In  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  the  law  under  which  it  was 
organised,  the  University  aims  to  furnish  ample  facilities  for  education  in 
the  liberal  and  industrial  arts,  sciences  and  languages,  and  for  the 
thorough  technical  and  professional  study  of  agriculture,  engineering  in  its 
various  departments,  veterinary  medicine,  pharmacy  and  law.  Through 


H 


114 


U.S. A. —State  Colleges. 


(h)  Ohio  the  aid  which  has  been  received  from  the  United  States  and  from  the 
State  State,  it  is  enabled  to  offer  its  opportunities  with  a  sHght  charge  for 

University    incidental  expenses,  to  all  persons  of  either  sex  who  are  qualified  for 

 continued,  admission.    The  University  has  now  over  one  hundred  instructors,  and 

38  departments  of  study.  Six  of  its  30  courses  are  offered  by  the 
College  of  Agriculture  and  Domestic  Science  and  lead  to  the  degrees 
of  Bachelor  of  Science  in  Agriculture,  Bachelor  of  Science  in  Horticulture 
and  Forestry,  and  Bachelor  of  Science  in  Domestic  Science.  There  are 
two  free  scholarships  from  each  of  the  88  counties  of  the  State,  in 
Agriculture,  Domestic  Science,  and  Veterinary  Science. 

The  former  President  of  the  University,  Dr.  James  Canfield, 
now  librarian  of  the  Columbia  University,  New  York  City,  did 
excellent  pioneer  work  in  his  ardent  advocacy  of  the  necessity 
for  a  general  teaching  of  hygiene  and  household  economics ; 
it  was  to  him  that  this  course  owed  its  initiation  in  1896,  and 
through  him  that  Miss  Perla  Bowman  (now  Mrs.  W.  Gibb)  was 
selected  to  organise  it.  The  results  justified  his  choice;  Miss 
Bowman  worked  unremittingly  to  frame  suchacoiu'sc  of  study  as 
should  exemplify  the  connection  of  history,  science  and  art  with 
home  life  ;  her  object  was  the  production  of  Y>^ell  balanced,  cultured 
women,  endowed  with  the  power  of  facing  and  solving  home 
life  problems.  Experience  showed  her  that  at  first  girls  must  be 
taught  to  appreciate  the  value  of  life,  and  then  only  can  they  bo 
stimulated  to  acquire  the  knowledge  how  to  maintain  life  at 
its  best.  In  accordance  with  her  advice  two  courses  are  offered 
in  Domestic  Science  ;  the  shorter  (two  years)  is  planned  for  those 
who  can  give  but  a  limited  time  to  university  training,  and  the 
longer  (four  years)  is  of  a  more  exhaustive  character ;  it 
requires  a  more  advanced  standing  for  entrance,  and  leads  to 
the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science  in  Domestic  Science.  A 
certificate  of  attendance  is  given  for  the  two  years'  course,  which 
includes  the  same  practical  work  as  does  the  four  years',  but 
demands  fewer  allied  subjects  and  less  general  culture.  Experience 
shows  that  this  short  course  appeals  especially  to  country  girls 
who  have  had  the  equivalent  ot  two  years'  high  school  work. 
The  minimum  time  spent  in  class-room  work  is  15  hours  a 
week ;  this  represents  at  least  30  hours'  work,  exclusive  of  4 
hours  a  week  physical  training  during  the  whole  two  years,  for 
each  "  credit "  hour  presupposes  2  hours  actual  work.  From  50 
to  60  students  have  completed  this  course,  their  ages  varying 
from  18  to  21  years.  The  com.plete  four  years'  Domestic  Science 
curriculum  includes  domestic  art,  botany,  zoology,  chemistry, 
physiology,  bacteriology,  drawing  (freehand,  architectural,  and 
plan  drawing),  horticulture,  psyclaology,  economics,  physical 
culture,  history,  and  English  literature  ;  French  and  German  are 
optional.  The  actual  work  in  Domestic  Economy  absorbs  a 
little  less  than  one-third  of  a  student's  time.  It  consists  of 
sound  and  advanced  training  in  cookery,  under  first-class 
instructors,  with  great  stress  laid  upon  the  comparative  nutri- 
tive value  of  foods,  the  effect  of  cooking  upon  their  digestibility, 
and  the  construction  of  economical,  nutritious  and  varied  diets. 
The  accompanying  study  of  household  economics  comprises 
laundry  work  in  addition  to  the  study  of  much  that  pertains  to 


Typical  Courses  in  Household  Science. 


115 


the  planning  and  sanitary  care  of  a  house ;  disinfection,  home  (h)  Ohio 
nursing,  and  emergency  work  are  also  included,  as  well  as  a  State  ^ 
practical  knowledge  of  domestic  accounts.     The  scheme  _^^J^i{^^c[ 
Domestic  Art  embraces  studies  and  practice  in  colour  schemes 
and  all  forms  of  household  decoration  ;  there  is  constant  prac- 
tice, under  competent  instruction,  of  plain  sewing,  dressmaking 
and  millinery,  with  much  drafting  and  cutting  of  patterns ; 
while  attention  is  consistently  directed  to  the  production  and 
manufacture  of  materials,  equally  with  their  choice  and  treat- 
ment ;  the  study  of  line,  form,  colour  and  texture  runs  parallel 
with  the  whole  practical  course.    The  schedule  (Table  XVII.) 
shows  the  scope,  plan  and  aim  of  the  whole  scheme. 

The  subject  of  bacteriology  is  first  taken  up  generally,  in  its  relation  to 
man  and  his  immediate  surroundings,  students  are  taught  to  make  nutrient 
media,  and  to  work  reliably  with  the  microscope  :  in  the  laboratory  they 
learn  the  isolation  of  pure  cultures,  h(3w  to  distinguish  the  various  bacteria 
met  with  in  food  and  water,  and  the  mechanical  examination  of  water, 
milk  and  air.  Food  adulteration  is  somewhat  fully  treated  by  Professor 
Weber,  who  gained  his  experience  as  State  Inspector  and  Food  Analyst, 
and  who  has  an  extensive  and  most  interesting  collection  of  specimens  of 
artificial  and  adulterated  foods.  Professor  Kellermann  endeavours  through 
the  method  he  pursues  in  his  course  on  botany  to  train  students  to  exercise 
their  refiective  powers,  and  to  employ  individual  efibrt,  rather  than  to  rely 
on  their  teacher  or  text  book  ;  he  seems  to  possess  the  gift  of  stimulating 
them  to  work  out  their  own  applications,  economic  and  artistic,  and  spoke 
to  me  of  good  thesis  work  done  by  his  Domestic  Science  students,  especially 
in  connection  with  fungi  and  moulds  ;  in  fact  he  had  selected  the  writer  of 
one  of  these  to  act  as  his  assistant  for  the  year.  Professor  Gordy,  then  in 
charge  of  the  departm.ent  of  Psychology  and  Pedagogy,  took  special  interest 
in  his  share  in  tne  promotion  of  the  course,  from  his  firm  conviction  of  the 
paramount  infiuence  of  the  home  upon  national  life  and  character  ;  and  I 
learnt  from  him  Avith  interest  that  their  introduction  to  these  subjects 
seems  to  open  up  a  new  world  to  many  of  the  students. 

The  marriage  of  Miss  Bowman  at  the  completion  of  the  first  four  years 
of  the  course,  which  necessitated  the  election  of  a  successor,  may  probably 
somewhat  infiuence  the  methods  ;  but  the  foundation  for  future  develop- 
ment seemed  firmly  laid.  The  majority  of  students  who  have  hitherto 
entered  this  department  come  from  quite  rural  districts ;  they  are  often 
ignorant  of  conventions  too  common  for  their  existence  to  be  recognised 
among  a  town  population,  though  quickly  attracting  attention  if  omitted 
from  the  conduct  of  daily  life,  so  the  course  had  to  be  planned  to  develop 
social  refinements  and  amenities,  as  well  as  to  impart  a  knowledge  of 
scientific  and  artistic  principles,  and  to  aff"ord  opportunity  for  the  acquire- 
ment of  manual  dexterity.  I  was  furnished  with  many  instances  of  the 
good  work  already  accomplished  ;  that  increased  contentment  with  home 
life  which  apparently  accompanies  ability  to  modify  its  conditions,  and  the 
development  of  a  new  spirit  in  the  pursuit  of  philanthropic  ends,  were  two 
forms  reported  to  be  especially  evident.  At  the  date  of  my  visit  (June, 
1901),  all  the  Domestic  Science  graduates  had  either  married  or  returned  to 
home  life,  with  the  exception  of  one  who  had  gained  a  Fellowship  in  botany 
in  the  university  over  the  heads  of  several  candidates  from  the  College  of 
Science. 

The  character  of  the  work  done,  and  the  progress  made,  have  been 
tested  up  to  the  present  by  the  professor  in  charge  of  each  depart- 
ment, at  intervals  left  to  his  discretion,  but  the  graduation  thesis  of 
each  student  must  be  accepted  by  the  general  Faculty,  and  the 
time  for  the  final  examination  is  fixed  by  the  executive  clerk, 
usually  at  the  end  of  the  term.    Miss  Bowman  employed  the 

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116 


U.S.A. — State  Colleges. 


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Typical  Courses  in  Household  Science.  117 

usual  method  of  giving  oral  or  written  "  quizzes  "  to  her  students  {b)  Ohio 

at  varying^  intervals.  State 

^  University 

The  following  "quiz"  in  bacteriology  was  furnished  me  as  a  typical — continued. 
example,  and  serves  to  indicate  the  lines  followed  : — 

1.  What  can  you  say  of  the  importance  of  food  preservation  1 

2.  Why  in  the  study  of  food  preservation  should  we  consider  bacteria  ? 
Will  any  other  agent  cause  food  to  spoil  1 

3.  Classify  bacteria  as  regards  appearance.    How  do  micro-organisms 
reproduce  % 

4.  Give  a  definition  for  yeast ;  for  a  ferment ;  for  a  mould.    What  are 
the  fungi  ? 

5.  Are  fermentation  and  putrefaction  synonymous  terms  1   Are  bacteria 
animals  or  plants  %    Support  your  statement. 

6.  Give  the  six  divisions  of  bacteria,  as  distinguished  by  their  varying 
properties. 

7.  What  do  you  understand  by  anaerobic  and  aerobic  bacteria "?  What 
kinds  of  substances  would  furnish  the  best  food  for  each  class  1 

8.  What  elements  are  needed  by  bacteria  ?   What  conditions  particularly 
affect  germ  life  1 

9.  What  are  spores  1    How  do  they  develop  ?   What  may  be  said  con- 
cerning the  rapidity  of  germ  multiplication  1 

10.  How  may  fermentation  be  checked 

11.  How  is  this  principle  of  excess  of  bacterial  produce  being  harmful  to 
the  germ  applied  in  inoculation  1 

12.  Name  the  principal  organised  and  unorganised  ferments. 

13.  In  what  class  of  substances  may  yeast  fermentation  take  place  1 

14.  Give  the  names  of  the  active  agents,  and  the  successive  steps  in  the 
reduction  of  cellulose  to  cane  sugar  in  a  plant.  . 

15.  Do  the  same,  giving  reactions,  in  reduction  of  starch  to  grape  sugar 
in  the  body. 

16.  Give  the  reaction  when  sugar  is  fermented  by  yeast ;  lactic  acid  is 
changed  to  butyric  acid  ;  when  stearine  is  acted  upon  by  steapsiii  and 
changed  to  glycerine  and  stearic  acid.  Give  reaction  when  lactose  is 
attacked  by  lactic  acid  ferment. 

17.  On  what  mediums  are  ferments  most  active  ?    How  does  this  answer 
affect  the  keeping  properties  of  sour  fruits  ? 

18.  What  is  meant  by  amylolytic  ferment  ?  What  is  meant  by  proteolytic 
ferment  1    Name  the  principal  ones  of  each  class. 

19.  Suppose  that  a  green  pear  hangs  on  a  tree ;  trace  the  chemical 
changes  which  would  occur  during  its  ripening  and  decay,  if  it  were  un- 
molested. 

20.  Name  the  different  methods  by  which  foods  have  been  preserved. 

21.  To  what  man  are  we  particularly  indebted  for  our  knowledge  of 
food  preservation?  What  is  the  difference  between  pasteurisation  and 
sterilisation  ? 

22.  What  is  the  action  of  a  rich  syrup  in  preserving  food  ? 

23.  What  is  the  active  principle  in  jelly  making  1    Why  do  not  over  ripe 
or  over  cooked  fruits  make  good  jelly? 

24.  How  do  you  explain  the  preservatives  of  vinegar,  salt,  bright  hot 
sun,  smoke,  cold,  heat,  antiseptic  substances  ? 

25.  What  are  the  most  common  preservatives  used  ? 

26.  Do  you  recommend  their  use  1    If  not,  why  ? 

27.  What  can  you  say  of  the  relative  food  and  money  values  of  canned 
and  fresh  foods  1 

28.  What  are  the  arguments  in  favour  of  home  canning  and  preserving  ? 

29.  What  do  you  know  of  the  food  laws  with  regard  to  canned  or  pre- 
served fruits  ? 

An  evidence  of  the  interest  excited  among  the  students  by  this  study  is? 
found  in  the  fact  that,  among  the  subjects  selected  for  their  graduation 
theses  last  year  were  : — The  Edible  Fungi  of  Ohio,  the  Study  of  .Mould  in 
Preserving,  and  the  Baoteriological  Exau\i nation  of  Water. 


118 


U.S.A.— State  Colleges. 


The  department  is  situated  in  Hayes  Hall  where  there  is  a 
spacious  cooking  laboratory  with  a  dining-room  adjoining,  each 
fitted  with  good  appliances,  $1,000  having  been  recently  ex- 
pended to  make  the  department  thoroughly  efficient.  The  aim 
of  the  equipment  is  to  duplicate  home  conditions,  while,  at  the 
same  time,  suggesting  better  arrangements.  To  this  end  great 
care  and  attention  has  been  expended  on  the  dining-room,  its 
furnishing,  use,  maintenance,  and  so  forth.  The  science  laboratory 
accommodation  has  been  latterly  somewhat  cramped,  owing  to  the 
rapid  increase  of  numbers,  which  has  resulted  in  overcrowded 
classes,  but  the  erection  of  two  new  buildings.  Physics  and  Law, 
will  shortly  relieve  this  congestion.  Individual  practice  work  is 
the  rule  throughout  the  course,  except  that  the  dissections  in 
the  general  physiology  course  are  carried  out  by  the  professors. 
This  is  in  part  due  to  the  specially  crowded  conditions  of  these 
classes.  Physiology  is  required  in  all  the  agricultural,  veterinary, 
horticultural,  and  domestic  economy  courses ;  it  is  elective  in  all 
arts  and  science  courses. 

Dr.  Thompson,  who  succeeded  Dr.  Canfield  as  President  of  the 
University,  anticipates  still  further  developments  in  the  near 
future.  It  was  proposed  some  months  ago,  and  the  resolution 
was  at  once  adopted  by  three  out  of  the  six  Faculties,  that  a 
course  in  public  sanitation  be  organised,  open  to  students  of 
both  sexes,  to  meet  a  growing  demand  for  opportunities  of  study 
on  the  part  of  general  students  who  desire  to  secure  a  sounder 
acquaintance  with  the  questions  of  sanitary  reform,  and  to  equip 
themselves  to  play  a  more  intelligent  part  in  philanthropic 
undertakings.  President  Thompson  is  in  full  sympathy  with 
the  proposal,  and  expressed  the  hope  that  this  year  may  see  the 
resolution  adopted  by  the  remaining  Faculties, 
(c)  Michigan  The  courses  in  Domestic  Science  and  the  Domestic  Arts  at 
State  ^YiQ  Michigan  Agricultural  College  may  be  taken  as  typical  of  the 

Coffege  ^^^^  otfered  in  a  high  grade  Technical  college.  A  broad,  general 
education  in  English,  mathematics  and  science  is  provided  for  its 
students,  in  addition  to  which,  it  gives  a  thorough  technical 
training  in  agriculture  and  related  sciences  to  students  in  the 
agricultural  course ;  in  shop  work  and  mechanical  engineering  to 
students  in  the  mechanical  courses ;  and  in  cookery  and  domestic 
economy  to  students  in  the  women's  course.  Wherever  possible 
the  laboratory  method  is  followed. 

There  are  four  full  courses.  Three  of  these — the  agricultural 
course  and  the  four  years'  mechanical  course  for  men  and  the 
domestic  economy  course  for  women — require  four  years  for 
graduation ;  and  one — the  mechanical  course  for  men  not 
qualified  to  pass  the  examinations  for  entrance  to  the  four  years' 
mechanical  course — requires  five  years.  Each  full  course  leads 
to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science.  Besides  these  the  college 
offers  seven  special  short  courses  of  from  four  to  eight  weeks,  in 
dairy  husbandry,  creamery,  cheese  making,  live  stock  husbandry, 
fruit  culture,  floriculture  and  winter  vegetable  gardening,  and 
sugar  production. 


Typical  Courses  in  Household  Science. 


119 


The  aim  in  the  long  courses  is  to  take  the  student  from  the  (c)  Michigan 
high  school,  or  from  the  end  of  the  8th  grade  school  year,  and 
to  carry  him  or  her  through  four  years  of  general  and  technical  College— 
training,  making  science  the  main  feature  of  the  college  work,  continued. 
and  applying  it  to  practical  use  at  the  earliest  possible  moment 
along  the  lines  of  technical  training  essential  to  each  course. 
General  culture  studies  are  introduced  to  develop  "  poise,"  self 
control  and  patriotism,  and  to  enlarge  and  dignify  life  in  all  its 
aspects.    In  the  special  winter  courses  the  object  is  to  impart 
in  the  shortest  possible  time  a  certain  amount  of  definite  informa- 
tion ;  they  are  designed  chiefly  for  adults.  General  culture  is  not 
attempted,  but  efforts  are  concentrated  on  the   teaching  of 
methods  of  procedure  which  can  be  applied  at  once  to  bread- 
winning.    The  women's  course  is  designed  to  give  a  thorough 
practical  education  with  special  reference  to  home-making. 

Its  duration  is  four  years,  and  it  embraces  the  following  subjects : 
English,  mathematics,  literature,  history,  modern  languages,  botany, 
chemistry,  physics,  physiology,  entomology,  drawing,  graphic  art,  history 
of  art,  cooking,  domestic  science,  sewing,  cutting  and  fitting,  laundry, 
physical  culture,  music,  painting,  millinery,  floriculture,  fruit  culture, 
bacteriology ;  zoology,  history,  economics  and  political  science,  geology, 
meteorology,physics,  and  psychology  are  "electives."  The  course  is  considered 
suitable  also  for  young  women  who  desire  to  prepare  for  teaching 
technical  or  advanced  courses  in  high  and  other  schools.  Candidates  for 
admission  must  not  be  less  than  15  years  of  age,  and  entrance  examina- 
tions in  elementary  subjects  are  required.  Candidates  over  18  years  of 
age  may  be  admitted  without  examination,  provided  that  they  make 
arrangements  to  pass  the  entrance  examination  within  one  year.  The 
average  expenses  per  annum  are  $136.  The  college  owns  four  hand- 
some dormitories,  one  for  women  and  three  for  men ;  lodging  can  also  be 
had  in  the  neighbouring  town  of  Lansing.  Board  at  the  college  is  in  the 
hands  of  the  Students'  Club  Boarding  Association,  and  is  managed  by  the 
students.  There  are  six  clubs,  and  each  club  fixes  its  own  rate  of  living. 
The  cost  varies  from  $2  to  $2.60  per  week  for  young  men,  and  from 
$1*60  to  $210  per  week  for  young  women.  An  independent  boarding 
club  is  run  for  young  men  at  an  expense  of  about  $1'50  per  week. 

In  the  Domestic  Science  course  the  common  facts  are  correlated 
in  their  bearing  on  household  matters ;  the  various  occupations 
and  methods  necessary  to  conduct  the  home  in  comfort  and 
health  are  discussed,  and  stress  is  laid  on  practical  demonstration. 
Considerable  time  is  devoted  to  laboratory  work  in  general, 
advanced  and  invalid  cookery ;  a  waitress's  course,  and  lectures 
on  household  economy  are  included.  The  opportunities  for 
practice  work  are  unusually  extensive.  Students  are  encouraged 
to  act  as  waitresses  in  the  large  dining-room  of  the  women's  build- 
ing until  they  acquire  the  necessary  proficiency  to  direct  the  serving 
of  dinners  of  several  courses,  while  those  specially  interested  in 
catering  for  large  numbers  of  persons  are  permitted  to  make  use 
of  the  facilities  provided  by  the  kitchen  attached  to  the  women's 
dormitory.  The  kitchen  laboratory  provides  accommodation  for 
the  work  of  20  students  at  one  time;  four  tables  are  sub- 
divided into  five  compartments,  each  of  which  is  provided  with 
the  usual  fittings :  conveniences  for  cooking  by  electricity,  as 
well  as  by  other  mediums,  are  installed;  a  private  dining- 
room  and  the  necessary  offices  are  attached.    The  large  laundiy 


120 


U.S.A. — State  Colleges. 


(c)  Michigan  is  furnished  with  a  dryer,  wringer,  ironing  tables,  and  18 
State  porcelain-lined  stationary  tubs,  each  of  which  has  hot  and  cold 

Colle  e— water  laid  on.  The  equipment  bears  evidence  throughout  of 
continued,    the  study  of  a  wise  economy  in  strength  and  time. 

•  The  Domestic  Science  students  have  also  two  courses  in 

household  bacteriology :  the  object  of  the  first  is  to  open  various 
subjects  to  an  examination  which  should  yield  a  better  under- 
standing of  the  questions  involved.  The  function  of  yeast  in 
bread  making,  a  careful  survey  of  milk  and  its  products  with  a 
view  to  a  com;prehensive  knowledge  of  their  bacteriological  and 
hygienic  signihcance,  the  fermentations  which  occur  in  vinegar 
and  canned  foods,  are  leading  features  of  the  course.  Food  pre- 
servation in  its  various  forms  is  also  studied  from  the  bacterio- 
logical side.  A  second  course  is  planned  to  permit  of  a  more 
detailed  and  careful  study  of  the  various  features  of  hygienic 
work:  it  includes  a  study  of  the  causal  agents  of  the  more 
common  infectious  diseases,  as  well  as  of  the  action  and  mode  of 
application  of  antiseptics ;  while  further  consideration  is 
devoted  to  the  hygiene  of  water,  milk,  and  soil,  and  some 
practical  aspects  of  sewerage  and  drainage,  light  and  ventilation 
are  dwelt  upon  and  studied.  Three  hours  a  week  are  devoted 
to  human  physiology  and  anatomy  by  the  agricultural  and 
women  students  during  two  terms  :  part  of  this  time  is  spent  in 
actual  dissection  and  in  the  study  of  the  histology  of  the 
tissues ;  these  lessons  are  supplemented  by  lectures  covering  the 
principles  of  hygiene  and  sanitary  science,  and  of  the  restriction 
and  prevention  of  disease  :  the  department  is  well  equipped  with 
microscopes  and  dissecting  apparatus.  The  course  in  Domestic 
Art  is  carried  on  in  a  specially  fitted,  well  equipped  and  well  lit 
apartment :  it  includes  sewing  in  all  its  branches,  dressmaking, 
art  needlework,  and  millinery ;  courses  in  modelling  and  manual 
training  in  woodwork  also  find  a  place.  Drawing  is  introduced 
at  an  early  stage,  as  it  has  proved  to  be  a  most  excellent  means 
of  developing  and  sharpening  the  faculty  of  observation,  especi- 
ally where  this  has  been  previously  neglected.  Some  of  the 
numerous  mediums  employed  in  graphic  arts  are  next  studied, 
such  as  charcoal  drawing,  black  and  white  work,  pen  and  ink 
work,  oil  and  Avater  colour.  A  series  of  lectures  on  the  history  of 
art,  (considered  under  the  three  heads  of  architecture,  sculpture, 
and  painting),  conclude  the  year's  work.  The  study  of  economics 
and  political  science  is  elective ;  in  this  course,  the  training  of 
citizens,  industrial  reforms,  and  problems  of  population,  receive 
careful  examination,  and  are  correlated  with  the  study  ol  hygiene. 

The  short  Household  Economic  course,  which  is  confined  to  one  year, 
comprises  sanitary  science,  emergencies  and  home-nursing,  household 
accounts,  and  the  principles  of  everyday  art  applied  to  the  furnishings  of 
a  house  and  the  treatment  of  floors,  walls  and  ceilings.  A  special  course 
of  laboratory  exercises  and  lectures  in  domestic  physics  is  provided  for  all 
women  students  in  their  second  year  ;  it  includes  determinations  as  to  the 
specific  heat  of  various  substances,  the  heat  of  vaporisation  and  liquefac- 
tion, tests  of  various  forms  of  thermometers,  and  a  series  of  comparative 
tests  as  to  the  efficiency  and  economy  of  gasoline,  kerosene,  alcohol,  and 
electric  heaters,^  for  household  use  ;  a  previous  study  of  elementary  ancj 
general  physics  is  imperative. 


Courses  in  Hygiene. 


121 


The  Household  Science  courses  in  the  State  universities  of  Reference 
Colorado,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Minnesota,  Missouri,  Nebraska,  Utah,  and  to  Courses 
twelve  or  fourteen  similar  institutions  in  other  States  exemplify  jj^j^  g^^-^" 
variations  of  the  three  above  detailed.  In  each  case  the  health  inysLrvms^^ 
and  well-being  of  the  nation  appears  to  have  been  the  root  cause  State 
for  the  initiation  of  the  course.  The  proper  care  of  humanity  Universities, 
is  recognised  as  a  study  possessing  dignity  and  worth,  and 
though  the  interdependence  of  mind  and  soul  upon  physical 
conditions  is  appreciated  by  but  a  minority  of  either  the 
students  or  the  public  from  which  they  are  drawn,  yet  the 
leaven  is  at  work  which  assigns  a  high  place  among  the  sciences  of 
the  day  to  Household  Economics,  and  which  also  recognises  that, 
by  means  of  this  instruction  young  women  are  trained  to  be  more 
healthful,  more  economic,  broader  and  more  appreciative  home 
makers.  Influenced  as  are  the  details  in  each  college  course  by 
the  mental  attitude  of  the  organiser,  by  the  needs  of  the  students, 
the  sources  from  which  they  are  drawn,  and  by  the  special 
characteristics  of  the  college  (that  is  to  say  whether  university, 
technical  or  utilitarian  methods  be  pursued),  there  is  one  broad 
guiding  principle  to  be  traced  throughout,  viz.,  that  institutions 
for  the  higher  education  of  women  must  offer  training  adequate 
for  the  responsibilities  of  life,  as  most  women  ought  to  meet 
them,  and  sooner  or  later  must  meet  them ;  a  training  which 
shall  be  broad,  which  shall  supplement  established  prmciples, 
which  shall  send  women  to  their  work  cultivated  in  the  fullest 
significance  of  the  term,  and  prepared  to  make  life  fuller, 
brighter  and  better  for  all  with  whom  they  come  in  contact. 
For  which  reasons  the  very  variety  presented  is,  in  my  opinion, 
advantageous ;  the  scientific  course  offered  at  the  University  of 
Illinois,  the  more  utilitarian  methods  pursued  at  the  University 
of  Ohio,  the  purely  technical  training  at  the  Michigan  Agricul- 
tural College,  are  each  creating,  or  responding  to,  the  demands 
of  different  sections  of  the  community.  The  last  course,  which 
was  first  established,  met  and  meets  the  needs  of  its  clientele ; 
the  desire  to  co-ordinate  the  science  and  art  of  home  making 
with  other  work  of  a  university  grade  is  realised  with  some 
completeness  in  the  newly  organised  course  at  Urbana ;  the 
cruder  conditions  of  public  opinion  did  not  permit  of  this  when 
the  sister  course  at  Columbus  was  inaugurated  but  four  years 
previously.  It  is  the  opinion  of  the  best  informed  that  it  is  the 
highest  type  which  will  prevail  and  gradually  draw  the  others  up 
to  its  level ;  if  this  be  the  case  it  will  be  largely  due  to  the  un- 
remitting efforts  and  example  of  certain  members  of  the 
Association  of  College  Alumna?,  to  whom  great  credit  is  due. 

In  college  life,  as  during  the  period  of  elementary  education.  Courses  in 
the  advantages  of  a  study  of  personal  hygiene,  and  to  a  certain  ^y^*®"®- 
extent  also  of  domestic  sanitation,  are  shared  by  the  two  sexes  ; 
though,  in  this  case,  the  motive  is  other  than  that  of  a  desire  to 
promote  a  distaste  for  the  use  of  stimulants  and  narcotics. 
Emphasis  is  laid  in  most,  if  not  in  all,  college  courses,  upon  the 
absolute  necessity  of  maintaining  (or,  if  necessary,  of  developing) 
sound  health,  by  moaris  of  a  judicious  regulation  of  the  hours 


122 


U.S.A.— State  Colleges. 


Courses  in  devoted  to  study,  recreation,  exercise  and  rest.  The  great 
Hygiene  educational  advantages  to  be  derived  from  a  good  physical 
—continued,  development  and  a  highly  trained  muscular  system  are  presented 
to  each  year's  freshmen ;  and  the  custom  of  requiring  a  definite 
amount  of  physical  culture  from  all  students,  preceded  by  a 
carefully  conducted  physical  examination,  seems  quite  the 
general  college  rule.  This  examination  is  repeated  annually  and 
the  results  recorded  ;  the  measurements  are  outlined  on  specially 
prepared  charts,  and  are  accompanied  by  other  desirable  data 
bearing  upon  family  and  personal  history,  habits  (such  as 
condition  of  the  digestive  organs,  hours  of  sleep,  etc.),  the 
standard  of  the  sense  organs  as  to  sight,  hearing,  and  so  forth ; 
naturally  these  charts  are  accessible  only  to  the  professor  in 
charge  of  the  gymnasium,  and  to  the  individual  whom  they 
concern.  The  examination  and  records  are  framed,  in  part,  to 
arouse  an  intelligent  interest  among  the  students  in  the  improve- 
ment of  their  own  physique  and  to  stimulate  them  to  a  careful 
performance  of  any  remedial  exercises  recommended ;  in  part  to 
facilitate  the  accumulation  of  reliable  statistical  material,  upon 
which,  in  due  time,  necessary  reforms  can  be  based.  It  is  realised, 
however,  that  an  intelligent  being  should  be  possessed  of  good 
"  reasons  for  the  faith  that  is  in  him,"  and  for  the  practice  which 
should  spring  from  that  faith ;  consequently  lectures  on  personal 
hygiene,  given  by  the  professor  of  physical  culture,  constitute  an 
integral  part  of  these  gymnastic  courses  (to  which  more  detailed 
reference  is  made  in  my  Report  to  the  Council  of  The  Sanitary 
Institute  on  the  "  Teaching  of  Hygiene  in  the  schools  and  colleges 
of  the  United  States  of  America  ").  By  both  these  means,  theory, 
as  given  by  lectures,  and  practice,  as  carried  out  in  the  gymnasium, 
the  attention  of  the  greater  part  of  the  college  population  is 
directed  to  the  right  care  and  development  of  the  body,  to  its 
dependence  on  good  habits  and  environment  for  the  fulfilment  of 
its  functions,  and  to  the  duty  laid  upon  each  to  cultivate 
symmetry,  mental  and  physical,  for  personal  advancement  and 
for  the  welfare  of  the  community.  If  safeguarded  by  discretion 
and  pursued  with  perseverance  and  accuracy  the  results  should 
be  far  reaching,  for  this  method  of  introducing  the  subject 
extends  to  every  student  on  the  register,  not  merely  to  those 
following  this  or  that  course.  It  is  true,  the  instruction  on 
personal  hygiene  is  theoretical,  in  the  sense  that  it  is  given  in  pure 
lecture  form ;  but  the  young  people  are  called  upon  to  make 
their  own  observations  and  applications,  not  in  the  more  or  less 
artificial  atmosphere  of  the  gymnasium,  but  in  the  conduct  of 
their  daily  life,  which,  in  the  case  of  some  colleges,  is  subjected  to 
advisory  suggestion  on  the  part  of  their  instructor.  This  may  be  the 
survival  of  the  "  strong  paternal  anxiety  and  oversight "  exercised 
formerly  over  students  by  college  Faculties,  to  which  Professor 
Fleming  West  refers  in  his  previously  quoted  monograph. 

At  present,  a  more  definite  course  in  general  hygiene  is  not 
usually  available  for  college  students,  though  signs  oi  a  growing 
demand  are  perceptible.  This  made  itself  felt  six  years  since  at 
Michigan  State  University,  at  Chicago  University,  and  in  one  or 


Courses  in  Hygiene. 


123 


two  other  instances.  To  the  general  course  in  Sanitary  Science 
at  Chicago  University  reference  will  be  made  in  Part  II.  of  the 
Keport ;  particulars  of  that  at  the  Michigan  State  University  are 
here  detailed. 

The  University  is  a  part  of  the  public  educational  system,  (a)  Michi- 
governed  by  a  Board  of  Regents,  who  are  popularly  elected  for  gan  State 
terms  of  eight  years'  service.  There  are  seven  departments,  each  ^^^f^f ^^^^^* 
with  its  own  special  Faculty.  The  only  fees  are  for  matricula-  xvill. 
tion,  incidental  expenses,  and  diplomas.  Courses  on  hygiene, 
physiological  chemistry  and  bacteriology  are  provided  for 
medical  students,  but  until  the  course  on  Hygiene  and  Household 
Economics  was  initiated  by  Dr.  Eliza  Mosher  (Dean  of  Women)  in 
the  Department  of  Literature,  Science,  and  the  Arts,  only  these 
specialised  and  extensive  courses  were  offered.  This  general 
course  receives  a  satisfactory  amount  of  support  from  the 
students,  about  one-third  of  the  attendance  consisting  of  young 
men ;  the  total  number  is  considerably  influenced  by  the  hour 
appointed  for  the  lectures,  as  the  subject  is  "  elective  "  and  must 
give  way  in  the  time  schedule  to  those  which  are  obligatory 
or  imperative.  Up  till  last  year  the  lectures  were  illustrated 
only  by  demonstration,  but  Dr.  Eliza  Mosher  anticipated  the 
early  appointment  of  an  assistant  professor,  who  would  conduct 
and  superintend  individual  practical  work  in  a  suitably  equipped 
laboratory.  The  first  term  is  devoted  to  a  study  of  (a)  Personal 
Hygiene;  this  includes  the  structure  of  the  body;  the 
phenomena  of  nutrition  ;  the  influences  which  favour  or  retard 
body  metabolism;  foods  and  their  adulteration;  and  to  (b) 
Household  Economics,  into  which  enter  house  construction, 
furnishing,  decoration  and  cleansing.  The  second  half  of  the 
course  deals  with  (c)  Domestic,  and  (d)  Municipal  hygiene.  Under 
(c)  a  study  is  made  of  the  chemical  constituents,  nutritive  values 
and  comparative  costs  of  foods,  together  with  practice  in  the 
consideration  of  dietaries  for  the  sick,  as  well  as  for  the  sound ; 
in  (c^)  school  sanitation  finds  a  place.  Personal  observation 
showed  the  unquestionable  interest  aroused  by  this  course, 
carried  on,  as  it  is,  by  a  woman  of  strong  personality  and  wide 
experience ;  one,  too,  who  is  able  to  completely  dissociate  her  sub- 
ject from  its  pathological  aspect,  and  to  present  it  from  the  stand- 
point of  perfect,  not  defective,  physical  development.  A  perceptible 
effect  on  the  opinions  and  habits  of  the  young  people  is  reported  as 
the  course  continues  to  exercise  its  good  influence.  At  the  con- 
clusion of  each  year  Dr.  Mosher  conducts  an  examination  of  her 
students  by  means  of  written  papers  and  viva  voce  "  quizzes." 

I  was  unfortunately  unable  to  visit  the  State  University  of state 
Indiana,  at  Bloomington,  where  a  valuable  and  suggestive  short  University- 
pioneer  course  in  hygiene  is  given  to  women,  each  spring,  by  Dr.  of  Indiana. 
Rebecca  Rogers  George ;  the  keynote  of  the  whole  is  stated  to 
be  the  elevation  of  home  life,  and  of  all  its  contributing  factors,  to 
a  more  scientific  and  higher   moral  basis.    The  ten  lectures 
concern  themselves  with  the  following  topics  : — 

(a)  The  chemistry  of  food  stuff's,  their  proper  proportions 
and  combinations. 


124 


U.S.A. — State  Normal  Schools, 


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(b)  The  physiology  of  digestion. 

(c)  The  channels  and  means  for  promoting  elimination  from 

the  body. 

(d)  Eespiration  and  ventilation. 

(e)  The  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  reproductive  organs 

and  their  purpose  in  the  scheme  of  creation. 
(/)  The  pathology  of  the  female  reproductive  organs,  with 
such  means  of  relief  as  lie  within  the  reach  of  all. 

(g)  The  social  relation  of  the  sexes. 

(h)  The  profession  of  motherhood. 

This  course  is  "  elective,"  but  each  girl  who  takes  it  and  passes  a 
successful  examination  is  given  a  "  credit,"  as  for  any  other  course. 

Dr.  Rebecca  George  writes,  that  "  believing  the  present  system  of  educa- 
tion tends  towards  the  production  of  teachers  rather  than  of  home-makers, 
these  lectures  have  been  given  for  the  past  four  years  to  offset,  in  a  way, 
present  educational  tendencies,  and  to  impress  upon  girls  the  dignity  of 
household  science  and  the  sacredness  of  wifehood  and  motherhood."  The 
results  thus  far  have  been  most  gratifying  ;  "  eager  interest  without  a  sign 
of  vulgar  curiosity  has  been  the  rule  during  each  of  the  four  years'  work, 
and  not  a  few  have  testified  to  the  value  of  the  knowledge  so  obtained  two 
and  three  years  after  their  student  life  has  closed."  Few  can  dispute  that, 
through  the  judicious  introduction  by  skilled  hands  of  such  suitable  pre- 
paration for  the  highest  duties  to  which  girls  are  called  lies  the  right  road 
of  escape  from  much  needless,  costly  suffering  among  women,  much  ignorant 
maiming  of  child  life,  many  saddened  homes,  much  social  evil.  The  trans- 
mission of  the  highest  manifestation  of  life,  in  so  perfect  a  form  as  may  be, 
lies  at  the  root  of  all  hygiene  ;  and  at  the  right  time,  in  the  right  way, 
it  should  surely  be  assigned  a  dignified  and  carefully  safe-guarded  position 
in  the  study  of  the  right  conduct  of  life.  (See  "Training  of  the  Young  in 
Laws  of  Sex,"  Hon.  and  Rev.  Canon  Lyttelton  ;  Longman,  Green  &  Co.) 


D. — Normal  Schools. 

Normal  courses  of  training  in  domestic  subjects  are  almost 
invariably  post-graduate ;  they  are  followed,  to  a  great  extent,  in  ^g^j^  State 
private  Technical  Institutes,  to  a  small  degree  in  those  State  Normal 
Universities  in  which  Household  Economics  have  been  adopted  School 
on  educational  lines ;   in  the  future  it  is  probable  that  the  Course  in 
proportion  of  students  in  each  class  of  institution  will  be  fairly  ^^^g^^ 
balanced,  since  the  college  courses  are  now  making  rapid  growth  Xabl'e  XTX. 
in  quality  and  quantity. 

The  excellent  two  years'  course  at  the  State  Normal  School  at 
Framingham  (Mass.),  holds  an  almost  unique  position, 
and  the  history  of  its  development  is  not  without  interest.  It 
originated  in  the  establishment  in  Boston  of  a  department  for 
the  study  of  household  arts,  under  the  name  of  Boston  Normal 
School  of  Cookery,  by  the  late  Mrs.  Mary  Hemenway,  in  1887. 
Its  graduates  so  easily  found  positions  as  teachers  in  public  and 
private  schools,  as  well  as  in  public  and  philanthropic  institu- 
tions, that  its  usefulness  was  rapidly  proved.  In  June,  1898, 
the  trustees  of  the  Mary  Hemenway  estate  offered  the  school  to 
the  State  Board  of  Education,  with  the  very  generous  proposal 
that,  if  the  offer  were  accepted,  Mr.  Augustus  Hemenw\ay,  her 
son,  would  thoroughly  furnish  and  equip  such  a  department,  as 
a  memorial  of  his  mother,  in  which  project  he  was  joined  by  his 


126 


U.S.A. — State  Normal  Schools. 


Framing- 
ham  State 
Normal 
School 
Course  in 
Household 
Arts— 
continued. 


sisters,  Mrs.  Louis  Cabot  and  Mrs.  Wm.  E.  C.  Eustis.  The  Board 
was  quick  to  appreciate  the  worth  of  such  a  gift,  together  with 
its  far-reaching  beneficence.  The  Normal  School  at  Framingham 
was  selected  as  that  best  fitted  to  receive  it,  on  account  of  its 
proximity  to  Boston,  its  two  boarding  halls,  which  attract 
students  from  a  distance,  and  the  many  grammar  schools  in  the 
town,  from  which  pupils  could  be  drawn  for  its  practice  school ; 
for  the  object  always  in  view  has  been  to  provide  for  the 
adequate  training  of  teachers  of  the  various  household  arts, 
especially  of  cookery  in  its  different  forms.  Existing  arrange- 
ments enable  any  pupil  who  graduates  from  the  regular  Normal 
course  to  take  the  course  in  Household  Arts  in  one  year ;  or 
any  graduate  of  the  two  years  course  in  Household  Arts  can  take 
the  Normal  course  in  one  year ;  thus  the  usual  term  of  training 
is,  in  either  case,  lengthened  by  one  year ;  those  students  who 
qualify  in  Household  Arts  only  complete  the  course  in  two  years. 

The  wise  aim  of  the  instruction  in  all  branches  is  to  teach  the 
students  intelligent,  thoughtful  self-reliance;  for,  to  those  re- 
sponsible for  the  instruction  given,  it  appears  obvious  that  the 
equipment  of  actual  knowledge  which  a  student  takes  with  her 
from  any  school  such  as  this  can  be  but  limited  ;  therefore,  they 
feel  that  judicious  training  in  accurate  thinking  and  working 
must  be  the  main  object  of  the  teacher,  if  the  student  is  to  reap 
the  highest  benefit  from  her  stay  in  the  school.  The  courses  in 
chemistry  are  particularly  well  adapted  to  give  this  training, 
since  a  large  part  of  the  two  years  of  study  is  spent  in  actual 
work  in  laboratories,  where  the  student  discovers  for  herself  the 
absolute  dependence  of  results  on  the  character  of  her  work  and 
on  the  methods  she  has  employed ;  as  disciplinary  work  alone 
the  value  of  such  study  cannot  be  overrated,  but  it  also  has  a 
direct  and  permanent  practical  value  in  the  Household  Arts. 
These  courses  form  a  progressive  series,  and  are  intended  to 
prepare  the  students  in  a  systematic  way  for  an  intelligent  com- 
prehension of  the  underlying  principles  of  cookery,  of  laundry 
work,  of  dyeing,  of  cleaning,  etc.,  as  well  as  of  those  involved  in 
the  management  of  foods,  fires,  fuels,  illuminants,  ventilation, 
and  the  like. 

Considerable  time  during  the  first  year  is  devoted  to  the  study  of 
general  chemistry,  in  which  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  science  are 
taught  by  means  of  experimental  lectures,  60  in  number,  and  by  class- 
room recitations.  In  connection  with  this  course,  the  student  has  120 
hours  of  practical  work  in  the  laboratory.  Systematic  and  extended 
instruction  in  qualitative  analysis  is  given  in  the  second  half  of 
the  first  year,  so  that  by  the  end  of  this  year  students  are  prepared  to  begin 
the  more  exact  discipline  of  quantitative  work.  The  Avork  in  quantitative 
analysis  consists  of  a  brief  course  in  volumetric  analysis  and  in  gravimetric  . 
analysis ;  both  of  these  courses  include  class-room  as  well  as  laboratory 
work.  An  elementary  course  is  given,  in  conclusion,  in  organic  chemistry  ; 
this  deals  with  the  structure  of  carbon  compounds,  and  with  the  interactions 
between  the  diflferent  classes  of  those  compounds  which  are  most  frequently 
used.  Not  so  much  time  is  given  to  physics  as  to  some  other  studies,  yet 
it  has  a  definite  place  in  the  curriculum. 

The  instruction  consists  of  lectures,  recitations,  and  demonstra- 
tidns  upon  the  fundamental  principles  of  matter  and  energy, 


Framingham  Normal  School  Course  in  Household  Arts.  127 
mechanics,  hydraulics,  and  the  elementary  forces — heat,  light,  and 


allotted  as  is  believed  to  be  absolutely  required  to  furnish  a 
sound  basis  for  physiology,  hygiene,  and  bacteriology ;  the  course 
consists  of  lectures,  recitations,  and  laboratory  work. 

The  beginner  is  introduced  to  the  use  of  the  microscope,  and  learns  to 
examine  plant  and  animal  bodies,  and  to  resolve  them  into  elementary 
organs,  tissues,  and  cells.  Constant  practice  in  drawing  is  required,  and 
such  subjects  are  dealt  with  as  the  structure  of  living  things  ;  the  elementary 
living  stuff  (cytoplasm) ;  first  principles  of  nutrition,  digestion,  foods,  and 
feeding  ;  the  sources  of  starch,  sugar,  etc  ;  and  the  interdependence  and 
interrelation  of  the  organic  and  inorganic  world. 

The  chief  interest  of  the  class  in  the  study  of  physiology 
centres  naturally  in  nutrition  and  related  subjects.  Somewhat 
more  than  half  the  time  is  therefore  devoted  to  such  questions, 
while  the  remaining  heads  are  treated  in  less  detail. 

Some  time  is  given  to  the  quantitative  side  of  metabolism.  This  becomes 
a  very  practical  matter,  as  it  throws  light  upon  the  value  of  the  different 
food  stuffs,  the  extent  to  which  one  may  replace  another,  and  the  relation 
of  the  diet  to  tissue  building,  muscular  work  and  heat  production  ;  finally, 
the  usefulness  of  the  condiments,  stimulants  and  mineral  matter  in  the 
food  is  discussed.  The  concluding  lectures  deal  with  the  central  nervous 
system,  the  sense  organs  and  the  principles  of  personal  hygiene.  Miss 
Clark,  who  is  responsible  for  this  course,  emphasises  throughout  the 
hygienic  aspect  of  physiology  ;  she  attaches  comparatively  little  value  to 
the  use  of  models  or  diagrams,  but  prefers  to  rely  on  fresh  specimens  ;  the 
use  of  the  microscope  also  is  required  to  a  moderate  degree  only,  in  order 
to  stimulate  careful  observation  of  natural  objects  with  the  naked  eye, 
and  to  prepare  students  for  good  work  in  schools  where  equipment  is  per- 
haps compulsorily  limited  ;  the  cultivation  of  great  facility  with  black- 
board illustration  is  very  carefully  encouraged.  The  text  books  in  use 
are  "  Physiology  for  High  Schools,"  by  Macy  Norris,  Blaisdell's  Series  of 
Physiology  Manuals,  and  Thornston's  "  Human  Physiology."  The  ordinary 
Normal  student  receives  three  lessons  a  week  for  twelve  weeks,  the 
Domestic  Art  student  has  the  advantage  of  two  weekly  lessons  for  one 
year. 

Bacteriology  and  the  study  of  micro-organisms,and  of  fermenta- 
tion, especially  of  yeasts,  constitute  a  prominent  feature  in  the 
final  year.  The  students  learn  how  to  make  their  own  culture 
media,  how  to  examine  milk,  water,  air,  ice,  dust,  etc.,  and  how 
to  test  the  efificiency  of  filters,  sterilizers,  and  germicides. 

The  Course  is  arranged  as  follows  :—  - 

Bacteriology  and  micro-organisms  of  fermentation. 

Classification  of  micro-organisms. 

General  biology  of  bacteria. 

General  physiology  of  bacteria. 

Bacteriology  of  water  and  ice. 

Bacteriology  of  air. 

Bacteriology  of  earth  and  dust. 

Bacteriology  of  drainage. 

Bacteriology  of  milk. 

Bacteria  concerned  in  vinegar  making. 

Bacteria  concerned  in  lactic  acid  production 

Bacteria  concerned  in  dairying. 

Bacteria  concerned  in  nitrification. 

Testing  of  domestic  filters. 

Testing  of  disinfectants  for  household  use. 

Bacteriology  of  food  preservation. 


only  so  much  time  is 


128 


U.S.A. — State  Normal  Schools, 


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Framingham  Normal  School  Course  in  Household  Arts. 


129 


Bacteriology  of  Pasteurising. 

Bacteriology  of  canning. 

Bacteriology  of  pickling,  etc. 

Yeast,  general  biology  and  physiology. 

Yeast,  cause  of  fermentation  of  bread  and  drinks. 

Yeast,  compressed. 

Yeast,  wild. 

Yeast,  fungi  related  to. 

Moulds,  general  biology. 

Moulds,  structure  and  physiology. 

Moulds,  fermentations  caused  by. 

Moulds  in  relation  to  food  substances. 

General  phenomena  of  putrefaction  and  decay. 

Relation  of  bacteria  to  infectious  disease. 

Epidemics,  etc. 

The  subjects  which  have  thus  far  been  described  have  had  to 
deal  with  the  scientific  side  of  the  subject;  their  practical 
application  finds  a  place  pre-eminently  in  the  Household  Arts 
laboratory.  The  work  is  arranged  to  be  educational  as  well  as 
technical,  and  therefore  includes  both  the  theoretical  and 
practical  aspects  of  the  subjects. 

To  illustrate  the  character  of  this  instruction,  the  following 
outline  of  courses  in  the  Principles  and  Practice  of  Cookery  and 
Laundry  work  is  given : 

The  practical  work  of  cookery  is  presented  in  four  courses  on  the  following 
lines  : — 

(1)  .    Household  or  plain  cookery. 

(2)  .  Advanced  cookery,  including  preserving,  canning,  and  the  making  of 
jellies,  jams,  and  marmalades. 

(3)  .    High-class  cookery. 

(4)  .  Special  cookery  for  those  very  ill  (therapeutic  cookery),  and  its  applica- 
tion for  hospital  nurses  in  training  schools. 

In  the  first  course  the  five  "food  principles"  or  "nutrients"  are 
carefully  considered,  viz.,  water,  mineral  matter,  carbohydrates,  proteids  or 
albuminous  fluids,  and  fats.  The  principles  of  the  science  and  art  of 
cookery  are  developed  by  general  rules  and  formulae,  so  far  as  practicable, 
and  special  attention  is  given  to  their  application  by  individual  practice. 
The  subjects  of  the  course  are  developed  as  follows  : — 

Fuels. — Principles  of  combustion,  conditions  for  sustaining ;  use  and 
costs  of  the  ordinary  fuels. 

Construction  of  both  gas  and  coal  ranges,  with  practice  in  the  use  of 
such  apparatus,  and  in  the  building,  regulation,  and  care  of  coal  fires. 
Principles  and  experimental  work  relating  to  the  Aladdin  oven.  The  chafing 
dish. 

Food-Stuffs. — Introductory.  General  composition  of  the  human  body. 
Classification  of  nutrients  needed,  and  a  study  of  the  different  food-stutfs 
as  the  source  of  supply. 

Milk  as  a  Type.— Experiments  to  illustrate  its  constituents  and 
properties. 

Watek. — Considered  as  a  cooking  medium,  with  experiments.  Ther- 
mometers are  standardized,  and  used  in  the  boiling  of  water  and  the 
cookery  of  starch,  sugar,  albumen  and  fats. 

Mineral  Matter.— The  various  salts  of  food  materials. 

Carbohydrates.— Sources  :  {a)  Starch— composition  ;  experiments  ; 
cooking  temperature.  Practical  application  to  cookery  of  starchy  food-stuffs, 
as  corn,  fiour,  rice,  tapioca,  sago,  macaroni,  etc. ;  the  cooking  of  such 
starchy  foods  as  grains,  vegetables ;  the  use  of  cornflour  and  flour  in  the 


6490. 


I 


130 


U.S.A. — State  Normal  Schools. 


making  of  sauces  and  thickening  of  soups,  (b)  Sugars — compositions 
the  cooking  of  cane  sugar ;  the  use  of  thermometer ;  the  degrees  of  heat 
required  for  different  results,  as  in  soft  and  hard  caramel  (for  colouring 
soups  and  sauces) ;  also  for  soft  and  hard  sweets,  as  in  French  cream  candies 
or  fondant  and  glace  fruits.  Practical  tests  for  the  same.  Practical  appli- 
cations, including  the  preparation  of  dishes  containing  starch,  sugar  and 
fruits  in  various  combinations,  are  then  made. 

Proteids  or  albuminous  foods.  Albumen— sources  ;  type,  white  of  egg. 
This  subject  is  studied  and  experimentally  developed  by  the  same  general 
methods  as  the  cookery  of  starch,  and  the  principles  of  its  cookery  are 
applied  to  the  making  of  various  dishes,  as  soft  and  hard  cooked  eggs ; 
poached  and  baked  ;  combined  with  milk  in  other  forms,  as  in  creamy  eggs, 
and  soft  and  baked  custards  of  different  kinds  ;  the  combination  of  milk, 
starchy  and  albuminous  food  materials  in  dishes  for  breakfast,  luncheon  or 
dessert ;  the  cookery  of  albumen,  as  applied  to  the  cooking  of  fish,  poultry 
and  meat ;  methods  of  their  cookery  ;  objective  fjoints  ;  heat  transferred. 
In  connection  with  meat  cookery,  the  albuminoids  are  considered. 

Albuminoids. — Sources  ;  gelatine,  prepared  in  the  form  of  food  stocks, 
brown  and  white. 

Principles  and  Kules  for  Clearing  STocK—Soups  :  stock  and  veget- 
able ;  milk  and  cream.  Gelatine  dishes  :  commercial  gelatine,  kinds,  costs  and 
uses  ;  plain  jellies  ;  jellies  with  egg  or  egg  and  cream  in  different  combina- 
tions, as  used  in  the  making  of  wholesome  puddings. 

Fats.— Sources  ;  constitution  ;  effects  of  heat ;  use  and  importance  of 
the  dietary. 

Batter  and  Dough  Mixtures. — (1)  Expansion  by  air  and  moisture; 
as  effected  by  heat,  to  make  porous.  (2)  The  application  of  these  prin- 
ciples to  the  preparation  of  popovers  and  Yorkshire  pudding,  wheat  and 
gluten  wafers,  cream  and  sponge  cake.  (3)  Expansion  of  batters  and 
doughs  by  use  of  chemicals,  as  cream  of  tartar  and  soda,  or  other  acids,  or 
acid  salts  with  the  alkaline  salt,  soda,  in  combination.  Objective  points: 
principles  and  properties ;  experiments  ;  application  to  the  preparation  of 
breakfast  bread-stuffs,  gingerbread  desserts  and  cake.  (4)  Baking  powders  : 
general  composition  of  standard  powders  ;  chemical  reactions  and  products, 
with  applied  principles  of  chemistry  ;  formula?,  with  practical  applications 
to  the  preparation  of  bread-stuffs,  cakes  and  sweets. 

Fermentation. — Fermentation  by  yeast,  and  its  application  to  the 
preparation  of  bread,  rolls,  and  biscuit,  also  for  breakfast  muffins  and 
gems.    Experimental  work  with  flour  of  different  kinds. 

Frozen  Dishes.— Principles  ;  general  rules;  sherbets;  ice-creams  (1) 
plain  ;  (2)  fancy,  with  simple  and  richer  combinations. 

Practical  Laundry  Work.— The  course  consists  in  the  examination  of 
fabrics,  as  cotton,  linen,  woollen,  and  silk  ;  effect  of  hot  and  cold  water. 

The  Use  of  Chemicals  as  cleansing  agents  ;  namely — soaps,  washing- 
powders,  soda,  ammonia,  and  borax. 

Removal  of  Stains,  as  fruit,  tea  and  coffee,  iron-rust,  etc. 

Household  Linen.— Preparation  for  the  kundry ;  cleansing,  drying, 
and  starching,  hot  and  cold  processes  ;  folding,  ironing  ;  special :  em- 
broideries and  laces  ;  blueings  :  kinds,  composition  (tests  with  experiments), 
and  use. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing  outline  of  instruction,  the  pupils 
are  trained  in  the  preparation  of  dietaries  at  given  prices  for 
varying  numbers  of  persons,  how  to  judge  of  meats  and  how  to 
buy  them,  by  visits  to  meat  shops,  where  the  butcher  cuts  up 
the  meat  before  the  class,  at  the  same  time  giving  practical 
instruction.  Students  are  also  required  to  visit  grocery 
establishments  and  meat  markets,  and  to  make  themselves 


Framiwjham  Normal  School  Course  in  Household  Arts.  131 

familiar  with  the  supply  and  demand  of  staples  and  their  prices. 
Each  pupil,  by  conference  with  the  superintendent  of  the 
boarding  halls,  learns  how  to  prepare  the  menu  for  a  large 
family,  according  to  market  supplies  and  prices.  She  is  also 
expected  to  take  her  turn  in  presiding  at  the  dinner  table  in 
one  or  other  of  the  boarding  halls,  and  to  carve  the  joints.  As 
the  boarding  halls  offer  ample  facilities  for  demonstration  of 
the  science  of  Household  Arts  in  daily  living,  the  pupils,  though 
not  required  to  do  household  work  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the 
term,  are  expected  to  qualify  themselves  as  future  teachers  of 
Household  Arts  or  as  superintendents  in  institutions  by  availing 
themselves  of  all  such  opportunities  for  practical  work  as  the 
Principal  can  from  time  to  time  provide  for  them. 

Sanitary  science,  including  home  sanitation,  is  carefully 
studied  during  the  second  year,  during  which  a  course  in  the  study 
of  psychology,  conducted  by  the  Principal,  Mr.  H.  Whittemore, 
is  included  m  the  curriculum.  A  course  of  practical  instruction 
is  also  given  in  home  and  school  emergencies,  and  in  the 
detection  and  recognition  of  common  school  diseases,  especially 
those  which  are  considered  contagious.  The  practice  classes 
consist  of  girls  in  the  eighth  and  ninth  grades  of  the 
Framingham  schools,  who  come  for  weekly  lessons  to  the 
Normal  school.  These  pupils  are  divided  into  a  number 
of  classes,  under  the  care  of,  and  taught  by,  the  Household  Arts 
department  students.  Each  senior  has  charge  of  one  class 
during  a  whole  year,  and  has  thus  ample  opportunity  to  make 
a  practical  application  of  her  own  acquirements  and  to  learn 
how  to  instruct  others.  The  junior  students  are  required  to  act 
as  assistants  to  the  seniors  when  they  are  teaching ;  and  to  aid 
in  the  instruction  and  general  management ;  in  this  way  they 
have  a  year's  observation  to  prepare  them  for  the  more  responsible 
work  of  teaching  in  the  senior  year. 

That  the  intention  of  the  course  to  excite  thought  and  to 
demand  the  exercise  of  individual  mental  powers  is  fulfilled  is 
quite  evident  to  the  observer ;  and  it  is  easily  credible  that 
considerable  development  of  character  follows  upon  such  train- 
ing ;  special  stress  was  laid,  in  the  course  of  conversation,  upon 
the  noticeably  broadening  influence  it  exercises  on  the  tempera- 
ment of  the  majority  of  the  students.  No  doubt  this  is  partly  due 
to  the  excellent  aims  and  good  influence  of  Mr.  Whittemore,  a 
liberal-minded  and  experienced  man,  who  has  held  the  position 
of  Principal  of  the  Normal  School  since  the  department  of 
Household  Arts  was  taken  over  by  the  State  in  1898.  A  pleasantly 
refined  and  cultivated  home  atmosphere  is  perceptible  in  his  own 
house,  where  students  eagerly  avail  themselves  of  boarding  vacancies. 

All  the  rooms,  residential  and  scholastic,  are  light  and  large, 
except  the  laundry,  which,  on  the  occasion  of  my  visit,  was  im- 
provised in  the  basement  of  the  Principal's  house ;  thanks  to  the 
mgenuity  exercised,  the  work  was  adequately  carried  on;  but,  by 
now  it  has  doubtless  been  transferred  to  suitable  quarters. 
The  Hemenway  Memorial  kitchen  is  planned  on  a  princely 
scale,  replete  with  unusual  conveniences,  and  actually  adorned 


12 


132 


U.S.A. — State  Normal  Schools. 


by  the  tine  specimens  of  plumber's  work  which  enter  into  the 
equipment.  The  pipes  for  hot  and  cold  water  for  heating 
purposes  and  for  gas  are  all  in  bright  metal,  in  every  case 
"  exposed  " ;  fortunately,  in  the  dry,  clear  air  of  New  England, 
they  need  polishing  but  twice  a  year,  and  are  rapidly  dusted  at 
daily  intervals.  Each  cooking  table  is  fitted  for  eight  students, 
but  in  actual  practice  four  is  the  usual  number  by  whom  they 
are  used.  Drawers  contain  the  usual  fittings,  including,  in  this 
instance,  a  spatula  and  rubber  moulds  for  candies ;  the  pans  are 
chiefly  steel  agate  ware ;  there  are  the  usual  shelves  with  knead- 
ing and  pastry  boards,  and,  of  course,  sliding  seats.  Four  stoves 
are  fitted  for  coal,  wood,  gas  and  gasoline  respectively.  The 
glazed  earthenware  sinks  have  hinged  drainers  which  can  be 
closed,  flush  with  the  wall,  when  not  in  use.  Two  Aladdin 
ovens  are  employed  in  the  baking  of  bread  and  cakes  or  in  the 
preparation  of  soups.  There  is  a  large  Pasteuriser  for  milk  and 
an  incubator  for  bacteriological  tests,  an  "  Eddy "  ice  box,  a 
Chamberlen  steam  cooker,  and  an  ample  provision  of  glazed 
cupboards  and  drawers,  all  in  perfect  order.  The  very  spacious 
room  has  one  end  fitted  for  the  children's  practice  lessons,  the 
other  is  set  apart  for  the  use  of  the  normal  students :  there  is 
also  abundant  spac^e  for  a  dining  table  and  lecturer's  desk.  No 
expense  was  spared  in  any  particular  in  the  ecjuipment  of  this 
memorial  kitchen,  and  the  workmanship  is  so  good  that,  at  the 
time  of  my  visit,  not  a  cent  had  l)een  spent  on  repairs  of  any 
kind  during  the  three  and  a  half  years  the  kitchen  had  been  in 
use.  The  necessity  for  equipping  a  kitchen  on  simpler  lines,  as 
a  useful  adjunct  to  a  complete  training,  will  be  realised  by 
practical  teachers,  and  I  believe  this  has  now  been  provided. 

The  students  are  requiied  to  dress  in  white  for  kitchen  work, 
large  blue  overalls  being  worn  in  the  laundry.  The  personal 
equation  of  each  student  is  closely  studied  throughout  the 
course,  and  although  the  staff*  usually  arrange  monthly  tests  of 
various  kinds  to  ascertain  progress,  actually  more  importance  is 
attached  to  daily  observation  of  conduct.  An  instance  of  this  was 
given  to  me  by  Miss  Nicholas,  directress  of  the  course,  where 
failure  to  graduate  was  due,  not  to  technical  shortcomings,  but  to 
faults  of  disposition,  which,  in  the  opinion  of  the  professors, 
rendered  this  student  unfit  for  the  teaching  profession.  Her 
attention  had  been  privately,  tactfully,  and  repeatedly  drawn  to 
certain  shortcomings,  but  as  either  the  will  or  the  power  to 
amend  or  control  were  absent,  the  sense  of  responsibility  towards 
her  future  pupils  left  no  alternative  to  those  who  were  entrusted 
with  the  issue  of  the  desired  certificate  but  to  refuse  to  confer  it. 

Thirty-two  normal  students  were  taking  this  course  in  1901, 
twenty-two  of  whom  were  entered  in  1900  ;  a  smaller 
number  is  considered  preferable  in  order  that  careful  individual 
attention  may  be  bestowed  and  the  thoughtful  observation  of 
character  be  carried  on,  to  which  reference  has  just  been  made. 
Twelve  is  considered  a  satisfactory  number  for  each  year's  enter- 
ing class,  but  the  excellence  of  the  course  brings  its  own  penalty 
in  the  eager  demand  for  admission. 


Framingham  Normal  School  Course  in  Household  Arts.  133 

The  following  paragraph  from  the  "School  Circular  and  Report"  seems  to 
me  a  fair  statement  of  the  value  and  of  the  high  estimate  formed  of  its 
graduates,  whose  services  are  in  immediate  request. 

"  Many  of  the  alumnae  of  the  school  are  employed  in  the  Boston  public 
schools,  others  are  instructors  in  Normal  and  High  schools,  at  the  Armour 
and  Drexel  Institutes,  superintendents  at  the  Johns  Hopkins  and  other 
hospitals  and  asylums,  or  else  in  training  schools  from  Boston  to  Kansas, 
Denver  and  California.  All  over  the  country  they  are  scattered,  wherever 
education  has  sufficiently  advanced  to  recognise  that  Household  Arts  is 
scientific.  Such  women  have  graduated  from  something  more  than  cooking 
classes,  or  from  schools  in  Domestic  Science.  They  have  won  diplomas  from 
the  point  of  view  of  education,  rather  than  from  that  of  self-support.  They 
have  taken  the  word  arts  as  the  resultant  term  in  the  application  of  science 
to  industry.  They  have  gone  forth  to  teach  and  direct,  until  in  time  it  will 
be  realised  that  proficiency  in  Household  Arts  is  to  be  examined,  rated,  and 
certificated  as  is  now  literature,  and  mathematics." 

As  I  have  said,  four  courses  are  open  to  candidates  for  admis- 
sion to  this  Normal  school :  a  general  two  years'  course;  a  three 
years'  course  for  those  who  wish  to  broaden  the  work  offered 
in  the  regular  course ;  a  special  course  in  one  year  for  experienced 
teachers  and  college  graduates ;  and  this  two  years'  course  in 
Household  Arts.  All  the  requirements  for  admission  to  the 
Normal  school  in  regard  to  examinations,  written  and  oral, 
tuition,  testimonials,  and  other  regulations  are  enforced  equally 
in  this  department  (Household  Arts) ;  the  written  examination 
consists  of  papers  upon  certain  groups  of  study. 

The  science  group  includes  and  requires  an  elementary  knowledge  (1)  of 
physical  geography,  i.e.,  the  mastery  of  the  elements  of  this  subject  as  pre- 
sented in  the  study  of  geography  in  a  good  Grammar  school,  (2)  physiology 
and  hygiene,  the  chief  elementary  facts  of  anatomy,  the  general 
functions  of  the  various  organs,  the  more  obvious  rules  of  health,  and  the 
more  striking  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks,  narcotics  and  stimulants  upon  those 
addicted  to  their  use,  (3)  physics,  chemistry  and  botany,  the  elementary 
principles  of  these  subjects  so  far  as  they  may  be  presented  in  the  courses 
usually  devoted  to  them  in  High  schools. 

Candidates  for  admission  must  be  16  years  of  age,  and  must 
present  certificates  of  good  moral  character  and  of  the 
equivalent  of  a  good  High  school  education.  To  persons  who 
live  in  Massachusetts  tuition  is  free,  but  to  those  from  other 
States  an  annual  charge  of  $50  is  made.  Text-books  and 
reference  books  are  furnished  free;  the  only  expense  is  for 
stationery  and  such  books  as  drawing  books,  that  are  destroyed 
in  use.  From  time  to  time  pupils  are  advised  to  buy  some  book 
which  is  thought  by  the  teacher  to  be  indispensable  as  a  part  of 
their  outfit  for  the  work  in  the  schoolroom,  upon  which  they  are 
soon  to  enter ;  all  such  books  are  furnished  at  cost  price. 

The  Normal  school,  with  its  surrounding  residences  for 
students,  is  beautifully  situated  on  a  wooded  hillside,  surrounded 
by  a  considerable  amount  of  land  used  for  various  forms  of 
recreation  and  commanding  a  view  over  rolling  wood-clad  hills, 
broken  by  the  vast  reservoir  from  which  the  Boston  water 
supply  is  drawn.  The  copses  round  provide  materials  for  nature 
study  under  most  favourable  conditions,  while  golf,  tennis  and 
basket  ball  arc  enjoyed  in  the  ample  grounds.    There  are  two 


134 


U.S.A. — State  Normal  Schools. 


boarding  halls,  Crocker  Hall  and  Normal  Hall,  which  are  made 
as  homelike  as  possible.  They  are  thoroughly  warmed  by 
hot  water,  lighted  by  electricity,  and  furnished  with  the  best 
sanitary  and  lavatory  arrangements  of  hot  and  cold  water.  Each 
hall  has  two  rooms  set  apart  for  the  use  of  the  students,  one  as  a 
reception  room  for  friends  who  call,  the  other  for  their  sole 
use.  The  students'  rooms  have  each  a  piano;  and  there 
is  also  a  small  library.  The  cost  of  board  is  $80  (,£16)  per 
term,  $160  (£32)  a  year;  this  is  inclusive.  Incases  of  illness 
or  other  unavoidable  absence,  the  expense  of  board  is  shared 
between  the  State  and  the  boarder.  These  rates  are  made  on 
the  basis  that  two  students  occupy  one  room ;  an  extra  charge 
is  made  when  a  student  has  a  room  to  herself. 

Provision  is  made  for  a  physical  examination  of  all  candidates 
for  admission  to  Normal  schools  in  the  State  of  Massachusetts, 
and  a  student  may  be  subjected  to  a  re-examination  at  any  time 
during  the  course  should  his  or  her  physical  condition  suggest 
the  need ;  the  same  precaution  in  the  interests  of  all  con- 
cerned is  to  be  found  to  an  increasing  extent  elsewhere,  though  the 
praiseworthy  custom  is  not  yet  generally  adopted.  All  students, 
unless  specially  excused,  are  required  to  devote  a  specified  period 
to  exercise  in  the  gymnasium  throughout  the  entire  course,  for 
which  purpose  a  suitable  costume  must  be  worn;  attention  is 
also  paid  to  the  out-door  life  of  the  students,  each  of  whom  is 
expected  to  take  a  certain  amount  of  out-door  exercise  daily. 
Special  arrangements  are  made  for  the  lunches  of  day  students ; 
hot  soup,  cocoa,  rolls  and  fruit  are  supplied  at  cost  price  in  a 
pleasantly  fitted  room.  very  where  there  is  evidence  that 
honest  efforts  are  made  to  give  the  most  favourable  conditions, 
opportunities  and  assistance  to  students  who  desire  to  equip 
themselves  to  become  teachers  ;  the  rest  may  be  truthfully  said  in 
the  words  of  the  school  catalogue,  "to  rest  with  the  student  herself." 
Sewing  and  Occasionally  courses  in  sewing  and  cooking  form  a  part  of  the 
Cooking  manual  traininjj  courses  which  enter  into  the  curriculum  of,  I 
Courses.  believe,  the  majority  of  State  Normal  schools ;  of  these  I  may 
cite  that  at  Worcester  (Mass.),  as  an  example;  the  results  are 
stated  to  have  been  satisfactory,  although  but  one  lesson  a  week 
is  given  in  each  subject.  Foi*  this  two  reasons  are  advanced : 
(1)  that  the  nature  of  the  work  admits  of  home  practice,  which 
is  consistently  encouraged,  so  that  the  actual  time  of  study  is 
much  extended  :  (2)  that  as  these  household  arts  are  studied  in  the 
senior  year  the  maturity  of  the  pupils  is  a  probable  factor  in 
their  interest  and  progress,  in  spite  of  the  limited  mmiber  of 
lessons.  Whether,  with  the  more  general  introduction  of 
needlework  into  the  Grade  schools,  instruction  in  methods  of 
teaching  sewing  will  enter  into  the  training  of  all  women 
teachers,  or  whether  the  subject  will  continue  to  be  assigned 
to  specialists,  does  not  yet  appear.  I  incline  to  the  latter 
opinion,  because  needlework  is  more  generally  classed  as 
manual  training  than  as  an  ordinary  school  subject.  With 
the  exception  <jf  physiology,  hygiene  and  some  emergency 
work,  therefore,  the  Normal  student  in  the  United  States  must 


Sewing  d-  CooJcing  Courses  ;  Physiology  &  Hygiene  Courses.  135 

seek  her  domestic  science  training  (outside  New  England)  at  a 
State  University  (where  even  a  four  years'  college  course  will 
scarcely  give  time  to  combine  it  with  other  studies  if  general 
teaching  be  her  ambition),  or  in  the  form  of  a  post-graduate 
course,  either  at  one  of  these  colleges  or  at  a  Technical  Institute 
of  high  standing. 

The  emphasis  laid  of  recent  years  upon  the  study  of  psychology  Physiology 
by  Normal  students,  Avith  special  reference  to  child  lite,  together  and  Hygiene 
with  the  obligatory  requirements  as  to  the  teaching  of  physiolog}^  Courses, 
in  grade  schools  to  which  detailed  reference  has  been  made,  have 
indirectly  acted  as  a  stimulus  to  the  study  of  hygiene — the 
sciences  depending  one  upon  the  other  for  application  and  prac- 
tice. Consequently,  in  those  States  to  which  my  observations 
were  confined,  I  gathered  the  impression  that  this  important 
subject  is  likely,  by  degrees,  to  assume  its  rightful  position  in 
the  equipment  of  teachers.  The  attention  devoted  to  biology  and 
physical  culture  is  contributing  to  the  same  end,  whether  Normal 
students  resort  to  State  Universities  or  to  their  special  schools  for 
the  necessary  training.  A  marked  feature  in  the  ten  State 
Normal  schools  in  Massachusetts  is  the  care  centred,  not  only  on 
the  physical  well-being  of  the  pupils,  but  on  the  instruction  by 
which  they  will  be  enabled  to  deal  practically  with  questions  of 
hygiene,  as  they  present  themselves  in  daily  life.  For  instance, 
in  addition  to  the  entrance  requirement  which  demands  a 
medical  certificate  of  good  health,  no  pupil  is  allowed  to  remain 
whose  physical  condition  is  considered  unequal  to  the  exactions 
of  the  work.  Efforts  are  made  to  counteract  any  tendency  to 
ovei'Avork,  over-excitement  or  hurry  ;  careful  oversight  is 
exercised,  and  in  numerous  cases  individual  advice  is  given. 
Thus  in  addition  to  the  theoretical  instruction  in  the  conditions 
essential  to  a  healthful  life,  students  are  trained  and  assisted  to 
realise  these  by  personal  practice. 

The  position,  construction,  lighting,  heating,  ventilation  and  i^-)  Salem, 
equipment  of  many  Normal  schools  can  be  described  only  by  one  •^^^fg  xX 
word — magnificent.  That  at  Salem,  for  example,  stands  in  a 
splendid  position  on  an  open,  elevated  spot,  from  which  its 
numerous  lofty  windows  command  views  over  a  wide  expanse  of 
country  and  an  arm  of  the  Massachusetts  Bay.  This  new  build- 
ing was  completed  in  1896  ;  it  has  three  stories  and  a  basement ; 
its  frontage  of  ](S0  feet  is  balanced  by  two  wings,  each  140 
feet,  running  from  north  to  south.  The  interior  finish  through- 
out is  of  oak,  and  the  wide,  handsome  corridors  are  adorned  by 
many  good  pictures  and  other  artistic  decorations  provided  by 
the  State,  by  past  and  present  students  and  teachers,  or  by  the 
generosity  of  private  individuals.  Model  schools  (for  300  child- 
ren), gymnasium,  lunch  and  dressing-rooms,  library,  class,  and 
assembly-rooms,  offices  and  laboratories,  all  gave  me  an  invigor- 
ating sensation  of  light,  air,  space  and  fitness.  Two  years  spent  in 
such  environment  must  exercise  beneficial  effects  on  the  225 
students  and,  thanks  to  the  influence  of  the  staff,  these  should 
"  action"  in  good  linbits. 


136 


U.S.A. — State  Normal  Schools, 


(a)  Salem,  The  third  floor  is  devoted  chiefly  to  the  various  depart - 
Mass.—  ments  of  science  —  physics,  chemistry  (elementary  and  acl- 
contmued.  yanced),  botany,  geography,  mineralogy,  zoology,  etc.  All 
students  must  devote  three  40-minute  periods  a  week  to 
zoology  and  physiology  in  their  second  year ;  to  botany  two 
w^eekly  periods  are  assigned  during  the  first  year.  Here,  as 
elsewhere,  it  is  found  of  great  advantage  to  lay  this  preliminary 
foundation  in  practical  biology ;  the  dissection  and  comparison 
of  the  various  forms  of  animal  life  contribute  to  a  so  much  better 
understanding  of  human  physiology.  Fifteen  students  carry 
on  individual  laboratory  work  at  the  same  time.  Each  has 
separate  equipment,  Avhich  includes  both  compound  and  dissect- 
ing microscopes.  Specimens  of  the  lower  orders  of  life,  such  as 
hydras,  star-fish,  clams,  fish-frogs,  etc.,  are  furnished  to  each 
student,  and  at  the  close  of  the  20  weeks'  work  in  zoology,  which 
is  the  threshold  of  the  course  in  human  physiology,  a  dissection 
of  a  cat  is  made  for  each  section  (i.e.  15  students)  of  the  class. 
There  is  a  liberal  supply  of  Auzeau  models,  and  the  Auzeau  life- 
sized  mannikin  is  taken  repeatedly  to  pieces  for  demonstration 
purposes  throughout  the  physiology  course.  The  "  recitation " 
method  is  largely  employed  for  the  theoretical  work :  topics  for 
study  are  allotted  to  groups  of  students,  and  then  discussed. 
Miss  Alice  Warren,  Professor  of  Biology  and  Physiology,  is  un- 
questionably successful  in  her  power  of  eliciting  individual 
opinions,  impressions  and  proposed  applications;  "to  help 
practice "  is  a  prominent  object  in  her  theoretical  instruction. 
Martin's  "  Human  Body  "(advanced  edition)  and  Colton's  "Experi- 
mental Physiology"  are  recommended  text-books  ;  but  the  free 
consultation  of  authorities,  to  be  found  in  the  excellent  library, 
is  encouraged  here  as  in  most  other  institutions  for  higher 
education.  The  students  have  access  also  to  the  Peabody 
Academy  of  Science,  one  of  the  finest  collections  of  its  kind  in 
the  country. 

As  many  living  forms  as  possible  are  kept  in  the  class-room. 
By  this  means,  those  Avho  are  to  become  teachers  are  instructed 
as  to  what  creatures  may  be  provided,  and  how  they  should  be 
cared  for.  In  the  spring,  opportunities  are  given  for  the  pupils 
to  become  familiar  with  the  common  birds  and  their  songs,  as 
one  aim  of  the  course  is  to  prepare  the  students  so  to  instruct 
children,  as  to  foster  in  them  a  greater  love  and  sympathy  for 
animals,  a  consciousness  of  what  we  owe  to  them,  and  an  in- 
creasing interest  in  observing  their  habits,  their  uses  and  their 
intelligence ;  in  no  better  way  can  they  be  brought  into  a  close 
relation  with  out-door  life.  The  course  in  physiology  is  con- 
ducted throughout  as  a  continuation  of  the  previous  biological 
work. 

The  course  is  intended  to  fit  teachers  to  secure  and  preserve 
a  sound  body  for  themselves,  through  an  intelligent  appreciation 
of  the  structure,  arrangement  and  function  of  the  different 
systems  and  organs,  and  to  enable  them  to  train  children  under 
their  care  to  form  habits  which  will  conduce  to  a  healthy,  free 
action  of  their  own  bodies.    For  this  purpose  special  stress  is 


Physiology  and  Hygiene  Courses. 

I 


137 


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138 


U.S.A. — State  Normal  Schools. 


laid  on  hygiene.  The  subjects  of  food,  clothing,  bathing  and 
]*est  are  considered,  as  well  as  the  effect  of  muscular  action  upon 
the  organism  as  a,  whole  and  upon  the  special  organs.  At 
intervals  the  pupils  prepare  lessons  suitable  for  the  grammar 
and  primary  grades,  and  conduct  them  in  class.  Miss  Warren 
requires  constant  examples  of  application  to  the  needs  of 
children  and  to  the  formation  of  good  habits ;  and  she  told  me 
she  is  already,  after  five  or  six  years,  able  to  perceive  results  which 
prove  that  her  efforts  are  productive  of  good.  Graduates  from 
her  classes,  now  employed  in  primary  or  granunar  schools,  are 
noticeable  for  the  hygienic  influence  and  practice  they  have 
brought  with  them  to  their  work.  In  conjunction  with  other 
members  of  the  staff,  Miss  Warren  exerts  herself  to  secure, 
so  far  as  possible,  correlation  between  the  various  branches 
of  study,  and  to  adhere  throughout  to  true  pedagogical  lines. 
At  Salem,  as  at  Framingham,  I  Avas  impressed  with  the  pains 
taken  to  form  a  just  estimate  of  the  personal  fitness  of  each 
student  for  the  selected  vocation  ;  in  both  colleges,  a  similar 
sentiment  obtains,  viz.,  that  intellectual  acquirements  constitute 
but  a  part  of  the  capacity  to  act  as  a  teachei',  for  which  each 
certificate  granted  a(;ts  as  a  guarantee. 
(b)  Hyannis,  Very  similar  methods  for  the  study  of  physiology  and  hygiene 
Mass.  are  employed  at  the  State  Normal  School  at  Hyannis,  (Mass.), 

where  these  subjects  are  included  in  the  science  group  both  of 
the  two  and  the  four  years'  course ;  the  good  provision  of  biological, 
])hysical,  and  chemical  laboratories  permits  of  eminently  satis- 
factory work.  The  natural  science  course  includes  geology  and 
geography  in  addition  to  chemistry,  physics,  biology,  and  hygiene, 
and  is  siippleiuented  by  a  study  of  psychology,  pedagogy,  school 
organisation,  and  methods  of  tejiching  English,  mathematics, 
drawing,  and  vocal  music. 

Six  months  in  tJie  first  year  are  devoted  to  elienjistrv  and  ]>hysk's 
i  esi)ectively  ;  zoology  precedes  ])liysioIogy  in  a  similar  way  in  the  second 
year  ;  four  hours  a  week,  of  which  two  houi's  are  laboratory  work,  are 
devoted  in  turn  to  each  of  these  subjects.  The  laboratory  equipment 
includes  a  drawer  with  instruments  for  each  student,  also  a  glazed  stone- 
ware sink  and  a  bunsen  and  batswing  gas  burner  ;  eight  or  nine  compound 
microscopes  are  provided.  Each  student  makes  any  models  he  desires  to 
employ  in  practical  woi-k  for  himself  as  part  of  the  manual  training. 
Nearly  all  si>ecimens  are  worked  at  individually.  The  Professor  of 
iiiology  ajid  Mathematics,  Miss  j^ertha  M.  Brown,  a  graduate  of  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  is  unusually  interested  in  the 
hygienic  treatment  of  ]>hysiology  in  schools  of  all  grades,  and  encourages 
a  very  free  introduction  of  experimental  and  ]>ractical  illustrations  by  her 
students  jn  the  PJementary  Hygiene  whi(;h  they  teach  in  the  Practice 
School.'  The  outline  of  each  lesson  is  submitted  to  her  before  it  is  given, 
and  the  proposed  method  of  handling  the  topic  is  discussed.  Six  weeks' 
observation  work,  and  fifteen  weeks  of  teaching  are  required  of  each 
student  in  the  regular  two-year  course.  She  told  me  that  most  gratifying 
results  follow  the  methods  she  has  adopted  with  her  students  as  regards 
influence  on  the  character  of  the  young  people,  the  ])erception  by  them 
of  personal  possibilities  and  responsibilities  in  respect  of  health  i)roniotion, 
and  the  awakening  of  a  desire  on  their  part  to  imi»art  such  hygienic 
information  to  their  own  little  pupils,  as  shall  in  turn  arouse  the  children's 
interest,  and  stimulate  them  to  right  action. 


See  Table  VL,  p.  51)  above. 


Physiolocjy  and  Hygiene. 


139 


I  was  informed  on  reliable  authority  that  the  Boards  of  Attitude  of 
Education  in  some  of  the  most  prominent  cities  are  no  Boards  of 
longer  satisfied  with  proofs  of  a  theoretical  acquaintance 
with  hygiene  from  the  members  of  their  teaching  staff,  but  hold  Training  of 
them  severally  responsible  for  the  maintenance  of  wholesome  Teachers  in 
conditions  in  their  class-rooms,  require  of  them  intelligent  co-  Hygiene, 
operation  with  the  medical  inspectors  in  safeguarding  the  health 
of  the  children,  and  call  upon  them  to  inculcate  good  habits  in 
those  committed  to  their  daily  charge ;  when  with  these  duties 
is  combined  that  of  the  definite  instruction  of  their  pupils  in 
hygiene  and  physiolog}^  it  is  readily  conceivable  that  facilities 
must  be  afforded  to  Normal  students  for  a  thorough  practical 
grounding  in  these  subjects.  Hence  the  few  theoretical  lectures 
on  School  Hygiene  hitherto  provided  in  most  Normal  schools  no 
longer  suffice  to  meet  the  demands  on  teachers  which  arise  from 
this  broader  conception  of  the  significance  of  that  hard  worked, 
much-misunderstood  word  Education.  I  received  repeated 
assurances  that  the  admirable  courses  and  methods  for  training- 
teachers  in  hygiene  and  physiology  which  I  visited  and  observed 
in  different  centres  in  Massachusetts  and  Ohio,  were  not  confined 
to  certain  favoured  cities,  but  may  be  truthfully  considered 
typical  of  a  perceptible  movement  towards  the  general  introduc- 
tion of  similar  practical  teaching  into  all  Normal  colleges.  For 
this  indication  of  progress  various  reasons  are  advanced ;  perhaps 
the  two  of  most  weight  are :  (1)  that  the  training  is  rendered 
compulsory  by  that  wider  view  of  the  scope  of  school  education 
to  which  I  have  just  referred ;  and  (2)  a  keener  realisation  of  the 
fact  that  the  State  owes  it  to  her  children  that  they  shall  grow 
uj)  to  maturity  sound  and  well  developed  in  body  as  well  as  in 
mind.  Besides  these  I  may  also  mention  the  gradual  develop- 
ment of  a  more  intimate  popular  interest  in  school  conditions, 
evidenced  by  the  attractive  and  valuable  co-operation  which 
exists  in  some  cities  between  parents  and  teachers ;  the  percep- 
tion by  authorities  that  precious  time  and  money  are  lost  when, 
owing  to  the  teacher  being  ignorant  or  hampered  in  the  exercise 
of  his  discretion,  children  carry  on  their  studies  under  insanitary 
conditions  ;  and  a  growing  appreciation  of  the  educational  ad- 
vantages offered  to  pupils  of  all  ages  by  the  study  of  practical 
hygiene  which  constitute  it  one  of  the  most,  if  not  the  most, 
generally  valuable  subject  in  the  time-table. 

The  ])rofound  belief  in  education  which  permeates  the  great  Conclusion 
American  people  must  be  witnessed  to  be  realised.  1 1  is  to  *^  P'^^t  I. 
education  that  they  look  to  weld  their  man\  millions  into  one 
coherent  whole,  of  which  the  units  shall  be  sturdy,  resourceful, 
well-balanced  citizens,  to  whose  hands  the  honour  and  prestige 
of  a  great  nation  can  be  safely  confided.  In  this  ambition  to  be 
in  the  forefront  of  the  world's  nations  may  be  found,  in  my 
opinion,  one  powerful  motive  for  the  initiation  of  the  whole  move- 
ment recorded  in  these  pages.  The  well-being  of  a  nation  hinges 
on  the  physical,  mental,  and  moral  status  of  its  people ;  while  to 
each  state  and  city  is  entrusted  the  responsibility  of  protecting 
its  inhabitants  from  moral  or  physical  ills,  and  of  developing 


140 


U.S.A. — Conclusion  to  Part  I. 


their  mental  powers.  It  is  a  commonplace  to  add  that,  unless 
State  efforts  be  aided  and  supplemented  by  individual  support, 
they  are  futile.  Authorities  recognise,  therefore,  that  in 
educational  institutions  for  all  ages,  provision  must  be  made 
to  train  children  in  an  intelligent  and  practical  knowledge  of 
health  rules,  to  be  applied  in  private  and  in  public  duties,  i.e.,  in 
every  relation  of  life.  It  will  have  been  noted  that  the  obligation 
to  acquire  an  elementary  knowledge  of  personal  and  public 
hygiene  is  at  present  laid  upon  both  sexes  in  all  State  schools 
and  in  most  State  colleges,  while  for  girls  the  opportunities  of 
gaining  a  useful  working  knowledge  of  domestic  science  promise 
to  become  abundant.  But  what  seem  to  me  of  equal,  if  not 
of  greater,  promise  in  this  connection,  are  the  ediicationally 
organised  courses  in  the  public  High  schools  and  the  recogni- 
tion of  the  social  and  national  importance  of  Household 
Economics  by  its  installation  among  other  subjects  of  uni- 
versity rank  in  State  universities.  By  the  High  school  courses 
the  young  people  are  imbued  at  a  most  impressionable  age  with 
a  conception,  hitherto  often  absent,  of  the  dignity  and  worth  of 
Home,  and  will,  it  is  believed  learn  to  appreciate  its  claims ;  they 
are  intelligently  familiarised  with  the  world  in  which  they  must 
shortly  play  a  part  of  greater  or  less  influence,  and  their  scien- 
tific, artistic,  literary  and  manual  training  studies  are  usefully 
and  attractively  associated  with  daily  duties  and  social  interests. 
By  means  of  the  college  courses  it  is  anticipated  that,  in  addition  to 
the  general  advantages  just  enumerated,  the  resources  of  modern 
science  and  art  will  in  future  be  more  utilised  for  the  improve- 
ment of  home  life  ;  trained  intelligences  will  be  brought  to  bear 
upon  vexed  domestic  problems,  upon  diet,  expenditure,  and 
service,  so  that  in  years  to  come  a  complete  and  harmonious 
system  will  be  evolved  from  the  present  faulty  and  discordant 
methods.  It  has  been  well  said  by  Dr.  Mary  E.  Green,  late 
President  of  the  National  Household  Economic  Association,  that 
"  Household  Economics  once  properly  understood  by  the  women 
of  the  country  will  make  possible  to  each  individual  the  health, 
happiness  and  development  which  are  his  due."  The  United 
States  now  offers  to  its  women  of  all  ages,  free  of  charge,  the 
opportunities  essential  to  the  gaining  of  this  understanding. 


141 


PART  11. 
Private  Institutions. 

Side  by  side  with  the  State  system  of  education  in  the  United  Introductory. 
States  there  exists  a  parallel  system  of  schools  and  of  institutions 
for  higher  education;  these  are  supported  entirely  from  pri- 
vate sources  (fees  and  endowments),  unrestricted  l)y  State 
legal  regulations.  The  governors  or  directors  of  these  private 
institutions  are  thus  independent  of  any  popular  or  outside 
control ;  free  to  initiate  new  departures  and  at  liberty  to 
test  original  theories  by  practical  experiment.  As  a  rule,  this 
power  and  independence  are  not  abused  ;  the  standard  of  instruc- 
tion is  such  that  graduates  from  private  High  Schools  or  Colleges 
take  equal  rank  with  those  under  State  control ;  while  it  suffices 
to  mention  the  names  of  Columbia  University  or  of  some  of  the 
best-known  Technical  Schools,  such  as  Pratt,  Drexel,  Armour  or 
Lewis,  to  indicate  the  leading  position  occupied  by  institutions 
which  owe  their  existence  to  the  lavish  generosity  of  individuals. 
The  vast  sums  with  which  many  of  these  private  schools  and 
colleges  are  endowed  enable  them,  indeed,  to  set  a  desirable  standard 
in  respect  of  buildings,  equipment,  and  staff ;  the  freedom  to 
express  many  new  ideas  in  practice  serves  as  an  outlet  for  the  rapid 
flow  of  original  conceptions  characteristic  of  the  present  stage  of 
national  development ;  and,  though  it  may  be  permitted  to  ques- 
tion the  immediate  result  to  the  juvenile  subjects  of  some  few 
scholastic  experiments,  the  cause  of  education  will  probaljly  derive 
eventual  benefit  from  efforts  which  are  invariably  well  intentioned, 
though  occasionally  eccentric  in  expression.  This  is  not  the  place 
in  which  to  attempt  to  detail  the  causes  which  have  led  to  the 
gradual  growth  of  this  dual  system  of  schools  in  the  United  States, 
it  must  suffice  to  say  that  both  are  complete  throughout,  from 
Kindergarten,  Primary  and  Grammar  Grades  to  High  School, 
Technical  Institute,  College  and  University.  In  a  large  number  of 
instances,  the  curriculum  of  the  private  Grade  and  High  schools 
is  identical  with  that  sanctioned  by  the  official  Boards  of  Educa- 
tion in  the  various  States  and  cities  ;  but,  as  has  been  stated, 
certain  others  are  prominent  in  the  public  eye  on  account  of  the 
originality  of  their  practice  and  the  suggestiveness  or  efficiency  of 
their  methods.  Deviations  from  accepted  canons  are  less  obvious  in 
private  Colleges  ;  on  the  contrary,  these  and  the  great  Technical 
Schools  often  set  the  pace  "  for  State-aided  institutions  by  the 
high  standard  they  attain  in  systems  tested  by  experience. 

The  several  grades  of  these  private  institutions  and  their  recog- 
nition and  treatment  of  the  various  subjects  upon  whicii  I  was 
commissioned  to  inquire  will  now  be  dealt  with  in  practically  the 


142  U.S.A. — Private  Kindergarten,  Primary  and  Grammar  Schools. 


same  order  as  in  Part  I.,  with  a  view  to  facilitate  reference  and  to 
preserve  similarity  of  arrangement : — 

(A.)  Kindergartens,  Primary,  and  Grammar  Schools. 

(B.)  High  Schools. 

(C.)  Technical  Institutes. 

(D.)  Women's  Colleges. 

(E.)  Universities. 


Growth  of 
Kinder- 
garten 
Movement. 


Connection 
of  Domestic 
Science 
with  Home 
and  Social 
Interests. 


A. — Kindergartens,  Primary,  and  Grammar  Schools. 

No  allusion  was  made  to  Kindergartens  in  Part  I.  of  this 
Report  because,  so  far  as  I  could  learn,  the  methods  of  teach- 
ing Domestic  Science  subjects  which  obtain  in  certain  experi- 
mental school  kindergartens,  with  the  primary  object  of 
strengthening  home  affections  while  training  social  instincts, 
have  not  yet  been  introduced  into  those  under  State  Boards  of 
Education  ;  it  is  to  the  former  I  now  ])ropose  to  refer.  The 
Monograph  on  Kindergarten  Education,"  by  Miss  Susan  E. 
Blow*  records  the  growth  of  the  movement  in  favour  of  their 
establishment,  with  all  it  owes  to  Dr.  W.  T.  Harris,  National 
Commissioner  of  Education  ;  and  reveals  the  existence  of  fully- 
developed  systems  of  public  kindergartens  in  189  prominent  cities 
and  15  States.  "  The  liistory  of  the  Kindergarten  in  America," 
writes  Miss  Blow,  "  is  the  record  of  four  sharply-defined  movements ; 
the  pioneer  movement  whose  point  of  dejmrture  was  the  city  of 
Boston  ;  the  philanthropic  movement,  whose  initial  effort  was  made 
in  the  village  of  Florence,  Massachusetts  ;  the  national  movement 
which  emanated  fi-om  St.  Louis  ;  and  the  great  maternal  movement 
which,  radiating  from  Chicago,  is  now  spreadkjg  throughout  the 
United  States,  evolving  a  more  enlightened  and  consecrated  mother- 
hood, and  thereby  strengthening  the  foundations  and  elevating 
the  ideals  of  American  family  life."  In  these  concluding  words 
are  found  the  key-notes  with  which  those  in  charge  of  the  Kinder- 
garten and  Primary  classes  at  the  two  experimental  schools 
attached  to  Chicago  University  endeavour  to  harmonise  the  methods 
they  advocate.  They  believe  that  by  taking  advantage  of  a  little 
child's  strong  affections  and  instinctively  pei'sonal  standpoint  he 
may,  through  his  social  interests,  be  made  intelhgently  acquainted 
with  the  world  in  which  he  lives  ;  family  ties  may  be  strengthened 
in  the  process,  and  home  life  dignified  :  while  such  a  desire  to 
know  the  "  reason  why  "  for  daily  facts  is  awakened,  that,  in  its 
gratification,  real  scientific  habits  of  mind  are  acquired. 

Thirty  years  ago  Dr.  W.  T.  Harris  drew  attention  to  the  fact 
that  "  at  the  age  of  three  years  the  child  begins  to  emerge  from 
the  circumscribed  life  of  the  family  and  to  acquire  an  interest 
in  the  life  of  society  and  a  proclivity  to  form  relationship  with  it. 
This,  increases  until  the  school  Hfe  period  begins  at  his  seventh 

*  No.  2,  "  Monographs  on  Education  in  the  United  States,"  edited  by 
Professor  N.  Mnrray  Butler. 


Domestic  Science  at  the  University  of  Chicago  Experimerital  Schools. 14:'d 


year.    The  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  years  of  transition  are  not  well 
provided  for  either  by  family  or  by  social  life  in  the  United  States/' 
It  is  upon  the  training  and  development  of  this  social  instinct  in 
childhood,  upon  the  provision  of  suitable  educational  opportunities 
during  this  transition  period,  that  great  stress  has  been  laid  through- 
out their  school  programmes  by  two  of  the  leading  educationalists  of 
recent  years.    By  written  and  spoken  word,  Dr.  John  J3ewey  and 
the  late  Colonel  Francis  W.  Parker  have  asserted  their  con\'ietion 
that  all  school  work  should  connect  on  the  social  side  with  the 
life  without ;  and  that  this  connection  can  be  fitly  and  profitably 
made  by  means  of  suitable  occupations  carried  on  throughout  the 
period  of  school  life.    "  By  occupation,"  writes  Dr.  Dewey,  is 
not  meant  any  kind  of  '  busy  work  '  or  exercises  that,  may  be 
given  to  a  child  to  keep  him  out  of  mischief  or  idleness  when  seated 
at  his  desk.    By  occupation  I  mean  a  mode  of  activit}^  on  the  part 
of  the  child  ^\'hich  reproduces  or  runs  pai'allel  to  some  form  of 
work  carried  on  in   social   life."*    In  the  Chicago  University  Domestic 
Elementary  School  these  occupations  are  represented  by  the  Science  and 
workshop  with  wood  and  tools,  by  cooking  and  sewing  and  by  ^J^?  t'J^® 
textile  work.    To  those  to  whom  this  conception  is  unfamiliar,  a  of  Chicago 
careful  perusal  of  Dr.  Dewey's  book     The  School  and  Society,"  Exfjeri- 
and  of  his  article  on  the  "  Psychology  of  Occupation  "  in  the  g^^^^^j^. 
Elementary  School  Record  "  will  result  in  a  better  comprehension    ^  ^* 
of  his  thesis.    The  limits  of  space  forbid  more  than  the  most  concise 
references  to  Dr.  Dewey's  writings,  or  to  Colonel  Parker's  ideals 
and  methods.    Careful  aljstracts  of  a  year's  work  in  the  schools 
where  the  views  and  methods  of  these  leaders  of  educational 
thought  are  subjected  to  the  test  of  practice,  are  furnished  in 
Tables  XXI.  and  XXII.     They  are  included  in  this  portion  of 
my  Report  as  aft'ording  the  best  illustrations  I  can  offer  of  the 
means  by  which  the  domestic,  equally  with  other  sciences  and 
arts,  may  be  educationally  employed  to  make  schools  for  our 
children  of  all  ages  a  "  genuine  form  of  active  community  life, 
instead  of  places  set  apart  to  learn  lessons." 

Dr.  Dewey's  opinion,  shared,  I  believe,  by  the  late  Cok)nel 
Parker,  must  be  lx)rne  in  mind  while  studying  these  school 
programmes,  viz.,  that  "those  subjects  and  that  material  develoj) 
the  young  intelligence  of  the  child  which  (1)  forge  social  links 
between  school  and  home  ;  (2)  can  be  acquired  largely  in  the 
first  instance  through  the  exercise  of  the  bodily  activities  ;  (3) 
are  so  interwoven  with  family  life  as  to  apj^eal  to  the  limited, 
familiar  experience  of  a  young  child ;  and  (4)  demand  thought, 
yet  by  their  simplicity  permit  that  thought  to  function  in  actions, 
habitual  or  suitably  acquired  at  the  special  period  of  life  at 
which  the  lesson  requires  them."  Dr.  Dewey  also  maintains  that 
the  educational  material  should  stimulate   efforts  directed  to 

*  "  Psychology  of  Occupations."  The  Elementary  School  Record.  A 
series  of  nine  Monographs,  })ul)lished  by  tlie  University  of  Cliicago  Press. 
'  The  School  and  Society,"  John  Dewey,  University  of  Chicago  Press. 


144  U.S.A. — Private  Kindergarten,  Primary  and  Grammar  Schools. 


the  acquirement  of  technique,  even  though  at  considerable 
personal  cost,  and  that  each  subject  must  possess  inherent  con- 
tinuity in  itself,  adapting  it  for  progressive  development, 
consistent  with  the  several  periods  of  child  growth.  Further,  both 
authorities  agree  that  veritable  correlation  of  each  subject  with 
the  whole  school  i)rogramme  is  an  essential  qualification,  not 
"  through  devices  of  instruction  which  the  teacher  employs  in 
tying  together  things  in  themselves  disconnected,"  but  through 
wise  selection,  ]3y  which  real,  organic  continuity  of  subject  matter 
is  ensured. 

(a)  Elemen-      In  the  University  Elementary  School  at  Chicago,  therefore,  the 
T^^Ki  ^YYT^    Domestic  Sciences  and  Arts  a]:>pear  throughout  among  the  Occu- 
lable  XXi.    potions  for  all  groups  included  in  the  Time-Table,  from  which 
it  is  Dr.  Dewey's  oljject  to  secure  the  absence  of  mere  mechanical 
routine  repetition,  and  to  ensure  the  presence  of  conscious,  in- 
telligent action  and  habits  of  reflection. 

*  "  Occupations,  so  considered,"  he  writes,  *'  furnish  the  ideal 
occasions  for  both  sense-training  and  discipline  in  thought.  The 
weakness  of  ordinary  lessons  in  observation,  calculated  to  train 
the  senses,  is  that  they  have  no  outlet  beyond  themselves,  and 
hence  no  necessary  motive.  Now,  in  the  natural  life  of  the  in- 
dividual and  the  race  there  is  always  a  reason  for  sense-observa- 
tion. There  Is  always  some  need,  coming  from  an  end  to  be 
reached,  that  makes  one  look  about  to  discover  and  dLscriminate 

whatever  will    assist  it  The  same  principle  applies  in 

normal  thinking.  It  also  does  not  occur  for  its  own  sake,  nor 
?A\d  in  itself.  It  arises  from  the  need  of  meeting  some  difficulty  ; 
in  reflecting  upon  the  best  way  of  overcoming  it  ;  and  thus  leads  to 
planning,  to  projecting  mentally,  the  result  to  be  reached,  and  de- 
ciding upon  the  steps  necessary  and  their  serial  order.  This  concrete 
logic  of  action  long  precedes  the  logic  of  pure  speculation  or  abstract 
investigation,  and  through  the  mental  habits  that  it  forms  is  the  best 
of  preparations  for  the  latter.  .  .  .  Now,  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  occupation  work  possesses  a  strong  interest  for  the  child.  A 
glance  at  any  school  where  such  work  is  carried  on  will  give  sufficient 
evidence  of  this  fact.  Outside  of  the  school,  a  large  portion  of  the 
children's  plays  are  simply  more  or  less  miniature  and  haphazard 
attempts  at  reproducing  social  occupations.  There  are  certain  reasons 
for  believing  that  the  type  of  interest  which  springs  up  along  with 
these  occupations  is  of  a  thoroughly  healthy,  permanent,  and  really 
educative  sort  ;  and  that  by  giving  a  larger  place  to  occupations  we 
should  secure  an  excellent,  perhaps  the  very  best,  way  of  making  an 
appeal  to  the  child's  spontaneous  interest,  and  yet  ha^e,  at  the  same 
time,  some  guarantee  that  we  are  not  dealing  with  what  is  merely 
pleasure-giving,  exciting,  or  transient.  In  the  first  place  every  interest 
grows  out  of  some  instinct  or  some  habit  that  in  turn  is  finally  based 
upon  an  original  instinct.  It  does  not  follow  that  all  instincts  are  of 
equal  value,  or  that  we  do  not  inherit  many  instincts  which  need 
transformation,  rather  than  satisfaction,  in  order  to  be  useful  in  life. 
But  the  instincts  which  find  their  conscious  outlet  and  expression  in 
occupation  are  hound  to  l)e  of  an  exceedingly  fundamental  and  per- 
manent type.  The  activities  of  life  are  of  necessity  directed  to  bringing 
the  materials  and  forces  of  nature  under  the  control  of  our  purposes  ; 


*  "  The  I'svcholo^'y  of  Occupations,"  Elementary  School  Record, 
Dm  "Tsi  V  '  I  Chicat^o  1'  > 


Domestic  Scimce  cU  the  Vniversity  of  Chicago  Exferimental  Schools. 146 

of  making  them  tributary  to  ends  of  life.  Men  have  had  to  work  in  (a)  Elemen- 
order  to  Hve.  In  and  through  their  work  they  have  mastered  nature,  tary  School 
they  have  protected  and  enriched  the  conditions  of  their  own  hfe,  —continued. 
they  have  been  awakened  to  the  sense  of  theh  own  powers,  have  been 
led  to  invent,  to  plan  and  to  rejoice  in  the  acquisition  of  skilh  In  a 
rough  v/ay,  all  occupations  may  be  classified  as  gathering  about  man's 
fundamental  relation  to  the  world  in  which  he  lives  ;  through  getting 
food  to  maintain  hfe  ;  securing  clothing  and  shelter  to  protect  and 
ornament  it  ;  and  thus,  finally,  to  provide  a  permanent  home  in  which 
all  the  higher  and  more  spiritual  interests  may  centre.  It  is  hardly 
unreasonable  to  suppose  that  interests  which  have  such  a  history  behind 
them  must  be  of  the  worthy  sort.  However,  these  interests  as  they 
develop  in  the  child  not  only  recapitulate  past  important  activities  of 
the  race,  but  reproduce  those  of  the  child's  present  environment. 
He  continually  sees  his  elders  engaged  in  such  pursuits.  He  daily 
hcis  to  do  with  things  which  are  the  results  of  just  such  occupations. 
He  comes  in  contact  with  facts  that  have  no  meaning  except  in  refer- 
ence to  them.  Take  these  things  out  of  the  present  social  life  and  see 
how  little  would  remain — and  this  not  only  on  the  material  side,  but 
as  regards  intellectual,  aesthetic  and  moral  activities,  for  these  are 
largely  and  necessarily  bound  up  with  occupations.  The  child's 
instinctive  interests  in  this  direction  are,  therefore,  constantly  rein- 
forced by  what  he  sees,  feels  and  hears  going  on  around  him.  Sugges- 
tions along  this  line  are  continually  coming  to  him  ;  motives  are 
awakened  ;  his  energies  are  stirred  to  action  ;  it  is  not  unreasonable 
to  suppose  that  interests  which  are  touched  so  constantly,  and  on  so 
many  sides,  belong  to  the  worthy  and  enduring  type." 

In  other  passages  of  his  writings  Dr.  Dewey  advances  further 
arguments  in  support  of  these  methods  and  subjects  pursued 
in  his  school,  and  throws  more  light  upon  the  educational  value 
of  the  Domestic  Arts  for  young  children.  He  points  out  that 
it  is  natural  to  young  children  to  begin  with  the  home  and 
occupations  of  the  home,  to  proceed  next  to  the  study  of  occu- 
pations outside  the  home,  that  is,  to  the  larger  social  industries, 
after  which  they  are  prejmred  to  study  the  historic  develop- 
ment of  industry  and  invention,  so  learning  the  ste})S  of 
progress  and  development.*  "  There  are,"  he  writes,  "  distinct 
phases  of  child  growth  to  which  the  periods  of  organised  school 
work  should  correspond."  The  first,  from  four  to  eight  years 
of  age,  is  characterised  by  that  directness  of  social  and  personal 
interest  (upon  which,  as  has  been  stated,  Dr.  W.  T.  Harris  lays 
much  stress)  as  well  as  hy  directness  and  promptness  of  relation- 
ship Ijetween  impressions,  ideas  and  actions.  The  demand  for 
a  motor  outlet  for  expression  is  urgent  and  immediate.  During 
this  period  the  constructive  work  should  therefore  combine  activi- 
ties which  include  an  immediate  appeal  to  the  child  as  an  outlet  for 
his  energy,  while  leading  up  in  an  orderly  way  to  a  result  ahead ; 
habits  of  working  for  ends  may  thus  be  formed,  while  present 
occupations  are  gradually  recognised  to  be  a  sequence  of  steps, 
which  permit  the  accomplishment  of  something  beyond.  In  ih(^ 
second  period,  which  extends  from  eight  or  nine  years  old  to  eleven 

*  "  General  Introduction  to  Groups  V.  and  VI."     The  Klemeiitary 
School  Record,  p. 49  . 


6490. 


K 


]4G  U.S.A  . — Private  Kindergarten,  Primary  and  Grammar  Schools. 


(a)  Elemen-  or  twelve,  the  aim  should  be  to  recognise  and  respond  to  the  change 
tary  School  which  comes  over  the  child  from  his  growing  sense  of  the  possibility 
—con  mue        more  permanent  and  objective  results  and  of  the  necessity  for 
^  the  control  of  agencies  for  the  skill  necessary  to  reach  such  results. 

The  mere  play  of  activity  no  longer  satisfies.  Hence  the  recogni- 
tion of  rules  of  action  ....  and  of  the  value  of  mastering 
S])ecial  processes  so  as  to  give  skill  in  tlieir  use.  .  .  .  There  is 
a  conscious  demand  in  the  tenth  year  for  '  something  hard  '  to  do, 
sometliing  which  Avill  test  and  call  out  power,  efficienc}-.  The 
third  period  comes  when  tlie  child  has  a  sufhcient  acquaintance 
of  a  fairly  direct  sort  with,  various  forms  of  reality  and  modes  of 
activity  ;  when  he  has  sufficiently  mastered  the  methods,  the  tools 
of  thought,  inquiry  and  activity  appropriate  to  various  phases  of 
experience,  to  be  able  profitably  to  specialise  upon  distinct  studies 
and  arts  for  technical  and  intellectual  aims.  This  interest  in 
technique,  in  acquiring  skill,  demands  a  sufficient  background  of 
a(5tual  experience  ;  the  introduction  of  technique  must  come  in 
connection  with  ends  that  arise  within  the  child's  own  experience, 
that  are  present  to  him  as  desired  ends,  and  hence  as  motives  to 

effort."  *    Hitherto  the  school  has  been  so 

set  apart,  so  isolated  from  the  ordinary  conditions  and  motives 
(»f  life,  that  the  place  where  children  are  sent  for  discipline 
is  the  one  place  where  it  is  most  difficult  to  get  exj^erience — 
'  the  mother  of  all  discipline  worth  the  name.''  The  world 
in  which  most  of  us  live  is  a  world  in  which  everyone  has  a 
calling  and  occupation,  something  to  do.  Some  are  managei-s, 
some  subordinates.  But  the  great  thing  for  one  as  for  the  other 
is  that  each  shall  have  had  the  education  which  enables  him  to  see 
within  his  daily  work  all  there  is  in  it  of  large  and  human  signifi- 
cance. ...  All  the  juedia  necessary  to  furnish  the  growth  of 
the  child  should  centre  in  the  school.  Learning  certainly,  but 
living  ]3rimarily,  and  learning  through  and  in  relation  to  this  living. 
AVhen  we  take  the  life  of  the  child  centred  and  organised  in  this  way 
we  do  not  find  that  he  is  firet  of  all  a  listening  behig  ;  quite  the 
contrary.  Still,  in  the  ordinary  schoolroom  all  is  made  for  listening. 
The  attitude  of  listening  means,  comparatively  speaking,  passivit}-, 
absorption  ;  there  are  certain  ready-made  materials  of  which  the 
child  is  to  take  in  as  much  as  possible  in  the  least  possil3le  time. 
There  is  ver}^  little  place  in  the  traditional  schoolroom  for  the  child 
to  work.  .  .  .  The  difference  that  appears  when  occupations 
are  made  the  articulating  centres  of  school  life  is  not  easy  to  de- 
scribe in  words  ;  it  is  a  difference  in  motive,  of  spirit  and  atmo- 
sphere. As  one  enters  a  busy  kitchen  in  which  a  group  of  children 
are  actively  engaged  in  the  preparation  of  food,  the  psychological 
difference,  the  change  from  more  or  less  passi\'e  and  inert  recipienc}^ 
and  restraint  to  one  of  buoyant  and  outgoing  energy  is  so  obvicms 
as  fairly  to  strike  one  in  the  face.  Within  this  organisation  is 
f^und  the  principle  of  school  discipline  and  order.    .    .    .  The 

*  "The  SHiool  and  Societj»."   Lecture  I. 


Domestic  Science  at  the  University  of  Chicago  Experimental  Schools M7 

moment  children  act  they  individuahse  themselves  ;  they  cease  (a)  Elemen- 
to  be  a  mass,  and  become  the  intensely  distinctive  beings  that  we  ^^^y  ^^^^"^l 
are  acquainted  with  out  of  school.    This  is  the  change  which  is  ""^'^'^^'^^'^ 
gradually  coming  into  our  educational  systems,  and  is  shifting  the 
centre  of  gravity.    Now  the  child  is  more  and  more  becoming  the 
sun  about  which  the  appliances  of  education  revolve  :  the  centre 
about  which  they  are  organised.    .    .    .    The  child  is  already 
intensely  active,  and  the  question  of  education  is  the  question  of 
taking  hold  of  his  activities,  of  giving  them  direction." 

Dr.  Dewey  considers  that  the  active  impulses  availalile  in  the 
school  may  be  roughly  classified  under  four  heads  :  (1)  The  social 
instinct,  shown  in  conversation ;  (2)  the  constructive  impulse, 
shown  by  the  child's  impulse  fii'st,  to  "  make  believe/'  afterwards 
to  constmct  objects  ;  (3)  the  instinct  of  investigation,  which  seems 
to  grow  out  of  both  the  former,  and  leads  to  the  enquiry  as  to  the 
"  why  "  of  things  ;  (4)  the  expressive  impulse,  which  is  the  com- 
bined outcome  of  the  communicative  and  constructive  instincts. 
That  home  interests  and  domestic  occupations  afford  exercises  for 
the  expression  and  satisfaction  of  each  of  these  is  evident  to 
careful  students  of  Table  XXI. 

Of  the  educational  worth  of  these  instincts  Dr.  Dewey  writes 
as  follows t  : — "A  question  often  asked  is:  if  you  begin 
with  the  child's  ideas,  impulses  and  interests,  all  so  crude, 
30  random  and  scattering,  so  little  refined  or  spiritualised, 
how  is  he  going  to  get  the  necessary  culture  and  information  1 
If  there  were  no  way  open  to  us  except  to  excite  and  indulge  these 
impulses  of  the  child,  the  question  might  well  be  asked.  We  should 
either  have  to  ignore  and  repress  the  activities,  or  else  to  humour 
them.  But  if  we  have  organisation  of  equipment  and  of  materials, 
there  is  another  path  open  to  us.  We  can  direct  the  child's  activities, 
giving  them  exercise  along  certain  lines,  and  can  tluis  lead  up  to  the 
goal  which  logically  stands  at  the  end  of  the  paths  followed.  '  If 
Welshes  were  horses,  beggars  wwld  ride.'  Since  they  are  not,  since 
really  to  satisfy  an  impulse  or  interest  means  to  work  it  out,  and  work- 
ing it  out  involves  running  up  against  obstacles,  becoming  acquainted 
with  materials,  exercising  ingenuity,  patience,  persistence,  alertness, 
it  of  necessity  involves  discipline — ordering  of  power — and  supplies 
knowledge.  Take  the  example  of  the  little  child  who  wants  to  make 
a  box.  If  he  stops  short  with  the  imagination  or  wish,  he  certainly 
will  not  get  discipline.  But  Avhen  he  attempts  to  realise  his  impulse, 
it  is  a  question  of  making  his  idea  definite,  making  it  into  a  plan,  of 
taking  the  right  kind  of  wood,  measuring  the  parts  needed,  giving 
them  the  necessary  proportions,  etc.  There  is  involved  the  prepara- 
tion of  materials,  the  sawing,  planing,  the  sand  papering,  making  all 
the  edges  and  corners  fit.  Knowledge  of  tools  and  processes  is  inevit- 
able. If  the  child  realizes  his  instinct  and  makes  the  box,  there  is 
plenty  of  opportunity  to  gain  discipline  and  perseverance,  to  exercise 
effort  in  overcoming  obstacles,  and  to  attain  as  well  a  great  deal  of 
information. 

"So  undoubtedly  the  little  child  who  thinks  he  would  likf^  to  cook 
lias  little  idea  of  what  it  means  or  costs,  or  what  it  requires.  It  is  simply 
a  desire  to  '  mess  around,'  perhaps  to  imitate  the  activities  of  older 

*  "  The  School  and  Society."    Lectiu'c  III. 
t  "  The  School  and  Society."  Lecture  TI. 


6490 


K2 


lis  U.S.A. — Private  Kindergarten,  Primary  and  Grammer  Schools. 


{a)  Elemen-         people.    And  it  is  doubtless  possible  to  let  ourselves  down  to  that  level 
tary  School         and  simply  humour  that  interest.    But  here,  too,  if  the  impulse  is 
—continued.        exercised,  utilised,  it  runs  up  against  the  actual  world  of  hard  conditions, 
to  which  it  must  accommodate  itself  ;  and  there  again  come  m  the  factors 
of  discipline  and  knowledge.    One  of  the  children  became  impatient 
recently  at  having  to  work  things  out  by  a  long  method  of  experimenta- 
tion, and  said  :  '  Why  do  we  bother  with  this  1    Let's  follow  a  recipe  in  a 
cook-book.'    The  teacher  asked  the  children  where  the  recipe  came 
from,  and  the  conversation  showed  that  if  they  simply  followed  this 
they  would  not  miderstand  the  reasons  for  what  they  were  doing.  They 
were  then  quite  willing  to  go  on  with  the  experimental  work.    To  follow 
that  work  will,  indeed,  give  an  illustration  of  just  the  point  in  question. 
Their  occupation  that  day  happened  to  be  the  cooking  of  eggs,  as  making 
a  transition  from  the  cooking  of  vegetables  to  that  of  meats.    In  order 
to  get  a  basis  of  comparison,  they  first  summarised  the  constituent  food 
elements  in  the  vegetables,  and  made  a  preliminary  comparison  with 
those  found  in  meat.    Thus  they  foimd  that  the  woody  fibre  or  cellulose 
in  vegetables  corresponded  to  the  connective  tissue  in  meat,  giving  the 
element  of  form  and  structure.    They  found  that  starch  and  starchy 
products  M  ere  characteristic  of  the  vegetables,  that  mineral  salts  were 
found  in  both  alike,  and  that  there  was  fat  in  both— a  small  quantity 
in  vegetable  food  and  a  large  amount  in  animal.    They  were  prepared 
then  to  take  up  the  study  of  albimien  as  the  characteristic  feature  of 
animal  food,  corresponding  to  starch  in  the  vegetables,  and  were  ready 
to  consider  the  conditions  requisite  for  the  proper  treatment  of  albumen, 
the  eggs  serving  as  the  material  of  experiment.    They  experimented 
first  by  taking  water  at  various  temperatures,  finding  out  when  it  was 
scalding,  simmering,  and  boiling  hot,  and  ascertained  the  effect  of  the 
various  degrees  of  temperature  on  the  white  of  the  egg.    That  worked 
out,  they  were  prepared  not  simply  to  cook  eggs,  but  to  understand 
the  principle  involved  in  the  cooking  of  eggs.    I  do  not  wish  to  lose 
sight  of  the  imiversal  in  the  particular  incident.    For  the  child  to  desire 
to  cook  an  egg,  and  accordingly  to  drop  it  in  water  for  three  mmutes, 
and  take  it  out  when  he  is  told,  is  not  educative.    But  for  the  child  to 
realize  his  own  impulse  by  recognising  the  facts,  materials,  and  conditions 
involved,  and  then  to  regulate  his  impulse  through  that  i-ecognition,  is 
educative.    This  is  the  difference  upon  which  I  wish  to  insist  between  ex- 
citing or  indulging  an  interest  and  realizing  it  through  its  direction." 

A  suggestive  and,  to  my  mind,  extremely  interesting  state- 
ment was  made  to  me  when  visiting  Chicago,  viz.,  that,  in  practice, 
the  work  in  Domestic  Science,  as  carried  on  in  the  University 
Elementary  School,  has  been  found  to  be  one  of  the  many 
valuable  means  employed  for  bringing  the  home  and  school  life  of 
the  child  into  closer  relationship.  Cooking,  sewing,  and  the  study 
of  textiles  are  included  under  this  head,  special  attention  being 
given  to  correlating  these  with  as  many  other  lines  of  work  in 
the  school  as  possible.  Science,  history  and  art,  for  instance, 
are  studied,  not  as  isolated  subjects,  but  as  the  natural  outgrowth 
of  dealing  with  e very-day  materials  and  processes,  such  as 
those  with  which  a  child  is  famihar  in  home  life.  In  cooking,  e.g., 
connection  is  made  with  botany  through  the  plants  from  which 
food  materials  are  obtained ;  with  chemistry  and  physics,  through 
the  analytical  woi'k  done  with  foods  and  through  the  innumerable 
phenomena  which  continually  present  themselves  in  the  study  of 
nature ;  with  physiology,  by  the  action  of  food  in  the  body 
and  by  practical  work  in  the  preparation  of  meat,  througli 


Domestic  Science  at  the  University  of  Chicago  Experimental  Schools. 14^ 


which  some  knowledge  is  gained  of  muscle  form  and  bone  (a)  Elemen- 
stnicture ;  with  history,  in  the  development  from  primitive  *^^y  School 
to  modern  methods  of  obtaming  and  preparing  food ;  with  shop-  —^^^^^^^^^^ 
work,  in  the  demand  for  various  articles  made  in  the  shop  and  used 
in  the  kitchen,  such  as  towel-racks,  rolling-pins,  wooden  spoons, 
etc. ;  while  number  work  plays  an  important  part  in  the  weights 
and  measures  used.  Sewing  is  connected  with  the  Fine  Arts  in  the 
drawing  and  colouring  of  designs  and  in  all  colour  combinations ; 
with  history,  in  the  making  of  clothing  and  other  articles  typical 
of  the  various  periods ;  with  shopwork,  in  the  making  of  shop 
aprons  in  the  sewing-room  and  of  spool-racks  and  yai-n-winders 
in  the  shop ;  with  cooking,  in  the  making  of  api'ons  and  holdei-s, 
the  hemming  of  towels  and  other  household  articles ;  and  with 
number  work,  through  the  continual  use  of  rulei-  and  tape  measure, 
in  calculating  the  amount  and  cost  of  materials  Jieeded,  measuring, 
and  verifying  bills  of  goods  purchased.  The  textile  work  connects 
with  botany  in  the  study  of  the  producing  plants ;  Avith  geology, 
in  the  study  of  soils  with  I'eference  to  the  various  productions ; 
with  geography,  in  the  locating  of  the  plant  and  animal-raising 
districts  and  the  factories  and  mills ;  with  history,  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  textile  industry  and  its  influence  on  the  people  ;  with 
])hysics,  in  the  various  properties  of  the  different  materials  and  in 
the  implements  and  machines  used  in  their  production ;  with 
chemistry,  in  the  preparatioii  and  dyeing  of  the  textiles ;  Avith 
shopwork,  in  the  construction  of  distaff,  spindles,  and  looms ;  and 
with  sewing,  in  the  work  with  the  finished  products. 

The  preparation  of  the  class  lunch  at  this  school,  whether  by 
children  in  the  Kindergarten  or  in  older  "  Groups,"  affords 
practical  illustration  of  the  possibility  of  realising  many  of 
Dr.  Dewey's  views  without  departing  from  methods  accepted  by 
convention,  yet  lending  to  them  an  educational  value  and  a  vivid 
interest  too  often  absent  from  such  homely  items  in  the  routine  of 
daily  life.  These  simple  luncheons  are  served  each  morning. 
Each  class  takes  it  in  turn  to  render  this  social  sei'vice,  the  various 
members  })re]3aring  the  food,  settmg  the  table,  and  then  A\  aitingon 
their  companions  during  the  meal.  Social  links  are  b}^  this  means 
forged  ])etween  school  and  home  interests  ;  the  bodily  activities  are 
exercised.  The  work  appeals  to  the  limited  and  familiar  ex])eri- 
€nce  of  the  young  cooks  and  servers,  and,  while  demanding  thought, 
is  yet  of  sufficient  simplicity  to  function  in  habitual  or  suitably 
acquired  actions.  Efforts  to  acquire  technique  are  stimulated  by 
the  interest  aroused ;  the  suitable  correlation  with  other  school 
work  links  life  with  learning,  and  gives  dignity  to  manual  exercise* 
As  the  lunch  frequently  consists  of  some  form  of  cereal  served 
with  cream  or  fruit  the  children  are  interested  in  finding  out  as 
much  as  possible  about  each  kind  of  grain  used.  They  plant  seeds 
and  observe  their  mode  of  growth  and  develojjment ;  they  talk 
about  the  hai-vc^sting  of  the  ripe  grain  (specimens  of  which  are 
shown)  and  the  (bnclopnient  of  tluM-nrions  inothods  from  primitive 


150  U.S.A. — Private  Kindergarten,  Primary  and  Grammar  Schools. 


(a)  Elemen-  to  modern  ways,  considerable  attention  being  given  to  pictures  and 
tary  School  other  representations  of  methods,  implements,  and  machines 
continued,  employed.  The  uses  of  the  various  parts  of  the  plants  are  then 
discussed,  with  the  necessary  processes  through  which  they  must 
pass  iDefore  they  are  ready  for  market ;  as  the  cleaning  and  rolling, 
cracking  or  grinding  of  wheat,  which  are  usually  learned  by  a 
visit  to  the  mills.  Then  there  is  an  examination  of  each  kind 
of  grain  by  means  of  the  microscoi)e,  which  shows  its  parts. 
To  discover  the  nature  of  these  parts  and  the  effect  on  them 
of  water,  heat,  etc.,  some  simple  experiments  are  used.  For 
example,  in  wheat,  the  grain  is  crushed  in  a  mortar  and  sifted 
through  cheese-cloth,  thus  separating  the  coarse  outer  covering  ; 
this  is  then  examined,  treated  with  cold  water  and  with  hot,  and 
boiled,  the  effect  being  carefully  noted  in  each  case.  The  fin«> 
part  of  the  grain,  which  passed  through  the  sieve,  is  tested  in  the 
same  way,  and  its  action  compared  with  that  of  starch  similarly 
treated,  from  which  the  inference  is  drawn  that  starch  is  present 
in  the  grain.  The  work  with  this  fine  part  of  the  grain  shows 
the  presence  of  a  sticky,  glue-like  substance,  which  stretches  and 
catches  the  air  when  in  a  moist  state.  The  names  bran,  starchy 
and  gluten  are  given  to  these  parts ;  pictures  of  the  grain  are  drawn 
repi-esenting  them  ;  and  sentences  are  written  which  tell  what 
has  been  found  out  with  regard  to  them.  The  amount  of  water 
necessary  in  cooking  one  cereal  is  used  as  a  standard ;  and  the 
amount  required  for  the  others  is  found  by  balancing  them  with 
this  standard  and  using  a  proportionate  amount  of  water.  Thus, 
the  children  find  out  that  in  cooking  flaked  corn  it  is  necessary 
to  use  equal  amounts  of  cereal  and  water,  while  corn-meal  is  five 
times  as  heavy,  and,  therefore,  requires  five  times  as  much 
ater.  In  making  out  a  table,  as  the  children  do,  for  use  in 
the  cooking  of  all  cereals,  the  necessity  arises  for  the  continual  use 
of  tlie  balance  and  weights,  and  of  the  measuring  cup  (divided 
into  quarters  and  thirds),  all  of  which  give  familiarity  with  weights 
and  measures,  and  with  fractional  parts  in  their  various  combina- 
tions. In  the  simple  cooking  of  cereals  the  children  also  learn  the 
properties  of  water,  its  simmering  and  boiling  points,  the 
meaning  and  use  of  steam  and  of  dry  heat,  with  their  varying 
applications  to  suit  different  materials  and  conditions,  Familiarity 
with  certain  materials  and  conditions  are  thus  acquired,  the 
natural  impulse  of  the  child  is  exercised  and  utilised,  while 
both  knoAvledge  and  discipline  result.  Throughout  the  whole 
course  the  same  general  plan  is  followed ;  the  children  find 
out  by  experiment  the  nature  and  composition  of  the  materials 
used  and  the  treatment  to  which  they  must  be  subjected 
to  render  them  most  nutritious  and  palatable.  The  work  in 
the  kitchen,  being  correlated  with  that  of  the  otlier  departments 
of  the  school,  is  supplemented  and  emj^hasized  by  directing  the 
attention  along  the  same  lines  in  these  departments.  It  is  hoped 
in  time  to  make  a  greater  number  of  connections,  and  to  improve 


TABLE  XXIl. 

OUTLINE  OF  A  YEAR'S  WORK.-UNIVERSITY  OP  CHICAGO  SCHOOL  OF  EDUCATION,  FORMERLY  THE  CHICAGO  INSTITUTE.     (CO-EDUCATIONAL  THROUGHOUT). 


HIGH  SCHOOL. 


NATURE  STUDY. 

""orJiimry  diilclrcM'.?  (jai 
Ithvtliin  gnmes(wil.h  h 
Stories. 
Songs. 

Clay  Modelling. 

Drawing. 

Paper  Catting. 

Vaiutlng. 

large  Blocks  (l)uilding). 
Sand  Work  (plans  of  giii 


.Making 


objects   and  clay 


ctinBo 


i  IndlE 


Memorising  of  poems. 
JIusio.— 
Songs. 

Simple  work  on  oi 
musical  e.\pres8ion. 

IHoor  for  playlio\iso. 


nnecled  with  chilli' 


Pottery ;  woodwork. 


DHAMATIC  AUT— 
Unginal  plays  for  the  pupii 

Ditimatisation  of  stories. 


I'lIV— 

uses,  drainage,  watoi 
iy,  lighting ;  construct 


lines  as  In  I.  and  11. 
th  expeiimcnts  on 


iih  other  wor 

I'ELLmu  — 


tiooking ;  Sewing. 


DiiAMATic  Art— 
Dramatic  presentation 
stories  of  Siege  of  Troy. 


.'orrelated  with  Sewing  ant 
Geography,  purchase  o 
fruits  and  vegetables. 


Field  trips. 

Observations  of  weather. 
Observations  of  special  area: 


Loss_  by  evaporation 
Percentage, 


king(one  lunch  a  week 
ing    (aprons  designed 


Drawing  (plana  and  pictures.) 
Pahiting. 

An  entertainment  for  the 
whole  school  to  be  planned 
and  carried  out  each  month. 


[NDUSTniALART/ 
TUAININO— 

Dy'Sng,'*'' 


(incUuIed  in  Industrial  j 


Uome  and  family  llife 

colonists. 
Detailed  History  of  vari( 


:iEOGRAPHY— 
about  Chicago, 


Natuek  Study— 
Use  of  thermometer, 

gauge,  Bkiameter. 
Daily  weather  record. 


Number  Work- 


llistorical    and  imaginary 

scenes  represented. 
School  Economics— 
Cooking  ;  fruit  and  a  luuch. 


Art— 
Drawing. 
Painting. 

Arts  and  Crai-ts— 
ModelUng ;  experiinc 
pottery. 

Thxtile  Art— 
Making  Puritan  costui 
Spinning  wool. 

MUSIC-^      ^  ^ 

Manual  Training- 
iMal^ing  of  woollen 


As  in  Gratl 
LANGUAGES 
French— 


ated  with  study 
ng  of  the  ear. 


numbers,  time,  the  sea; 
Grammar, 
(owe  recitation  daily). 


NAT) 


UDV- 


Plant  1 
Food.' 

AnrniJiETio  and 
In  COTrelationwitho 


iwing.chalk  modelling  and 
astel  modelling  of  maps. 
nting.landscape.caleniUirs, 


ra  AND -MANUAL 

1  experiments. 


Physical  Tkainino— 


Vrithmetic  and  Mathematii: 
Calculations  in  connection 
with  other  subjects.  Ale 


School  Economics- 
Oooking. 


Painting  aud  modelling 
connection  with  Natn 
Study,  History  and  Ge 
graphy. 


LANGUAflES— 

f''rench  —  correlated  wltli 
Nature  Study  and  Geogra 


Latin  —  study  of  Roman 
history  and  character, 
Reading  at  sight  from  easy 


Eighth  Grade. 


sent  aud  Past  Chica 


Art  is  exercised  by  the  repre- 
sentation and  dramatisation  of 
the  svibject  matter  of  other 


The  order  of  subjects 
-  itself  from  the  near  ( 

of  the  geography  observed  details  to 
irld  through  rivers,  laws. 


1  and  climatic  condi- 


ETIC  AND  MAXHE- 
ntagc,  ratio  and  ol 


Urawatic  Keadikb- 
shakespere. 


nds^apes,  illustr; 
ireign  life  (pictui 


Songs  (partly  by  rote,  artly 
by  sight  reading). 


JUAUES— 
raphy. 


with  Geo- 
coraposi- 


04au.       10 /accpayc  lol. 


Ninth  Grade. 


Including  special  work  m 
Geometry  in  connection 
with  Grecian , 


PHYSIOLOGY  01-  NUTKITII 


LAKOnAGES— 

J'reneh. 
Written  acc 

Selected  readings. 
Kecitation. 
German — 

(Correlated  with  Mathematit 

Latin." 
In  connection  with  the  lift 


Bel. 


of  Nature  Study. 


^'asVuI-^:. 
DrainatisatiouB. 


Greek. 

Connected  with^  the  ^stud. 


TWELFTH  Grade. 


l''rom  Homeric  Age  to  tlu 
Persian  Wara. 

-Modern  History,  more  full.v. 


In  connection  with  Histoiy. 


naudc ;  structural. 


L,VNGUAGES— 

As  in' Grade  X. 


As  in  Grades  IX.  and  X. 
Greek. 
-Vs  in  Grades  IX.  and  X. 


uthropogeugrapliy. 


Study  of  I'liysiographir: 
Historical  Geology. 
ConLineMtal  Evolution. 


As  in  Grade  XI. 


Languages— 

As  in'Grades  X.  and  XI. 


Literatm-e. 
Latin. 
As  in  Grades  IX.-XI. 


n  Grades  I.V.-.Kl 


Domestic  Science  at  the  University  of  Chicago  Experimental  Schools.XbX 


the  work,  which  was  still  in  the  experimental  stage  at  the  time 
of  my  visit  (May,  1901),  in  many  details. 

The  second  experimental  school  I  visited  where  Domestic  Science  (^)  School 
is  linked  with  home  and  social  interests  is  now  known  as  the  [^/^j^^^^^^l, 
Univeraity  of  Chicago  School  of  Education,  at  that  time  under  the  XXJI. 
directorship  of  the  late  Colonel  F.  W.  Parker.  While  Dr.  John 
Dewey  approaches  'this  question  of  the  right  education  of  the 
young  in  the  spirit  of  a  philosopher,  the  late  Colonel  Parker 
arrived  at  his  conclusions  animated  rather  by  the  inspiration  of  a 
prophet.  His  whole  nature  was  imbued  to  an  unusual  degree  with 
so  intense  a  love  for  and  sympathy  ^\'ith  child  natui-e  that,  in  the 
opinion  of  some  careful  and  skilled  observers,  there  existed  a  risk 
lest  sentiment  should  be  allowed  to  obscure  or  to  replace  reason  in 
the  translation  of  his  theories  into  practice.  His  school  programme 
was  the  tentative  outcome  of  years  of  enthusiastic  earnestness  de- 
voted to  its  evolution,  in  which  he  received  the  cordial  co-operation  of 
his  ^'  Faculty."  Weekly  meetings  were  the  rule  (lasting  from  two  to 
three  hours),  in  which  some  contiibution  was  expected  or  permitted 
from  each  member  of  the  staff  towards  the  solution  of  problems 
forced  upon  their  notice  by  their  daily  work  in  teaching  and 
training.  Character  building  (or  citizenship)  was  to  Colonel  Parker 
the  end  and  aim  of  education  ;  to  gain  this  everything  must 
])e  brought  in  (to  the  curriculum)  which  will  concentrate  and 
expand  ideas  and  develop  right  habits."  Education  he  believed 
to  be  "  the  all-sided  growth  of  the  individual,  physical,  mental,  and 
moral.  Community  hfe  is  the  ideal  of  education,  because  it  is  the 
only  ideal  great  enough  to  provide  for  this  all-sided  development  of 
the  individual."  The  ideal  school  is  the  ideal  community.  .  .  . 
it  is  the  education  of  complete  living."  Community  life  is  that 
state  of  society  in  which  ever}^  individual  member  orders  his  ccmduct 
with  reference  to  the  good  of  the  whole  ;  the  whole  being  so  con- 
stituted as  to  necessitate  the  highest  development  of  its  members." 
Consequently  the  citizen  must  know  something  of  the  w^orld  in 
which  he  lives,  and  this  knowledge  comes  best  from  actual  contact." 
This  being  his  creed,  Colonel  Parker  framed  his  school  programme 
with  the  view  of  giving  actual  personal  experience  to  each  child  of 
what  has  contributed  to  the  existing  phase  of  civilisation.  This 
conception  of  the  scope  of  school  education  really  involves  a  never- 
ending  correlated  study  of  man,  his  environment,  and  his  works. 
In  practice  Colonel  Parker  attached  much  impoi-tance  to  the  obser- 
vation of  a  selected  subject  in  its  entire  environment,  and  took 
great  exception  to  conventional  isolation  and  classification.  His 
whole  scheme  was  further  planned  in  deference  to  the  requirements 
of  body  and  brain  at  the  various  periods  of  growth,  so  far  as  at 
present  known.  To  find  and  arrange  subject  matter  for  the  mental 
nutrition  of  each  pupil,  and  for  all  grades  of  pupils,  was  a  problem 
still  imperfectly  solved  at  the  time  of  his  death,  but  good  ground 
had  been  broken.  Life  in  his  school  was  organised  on  a  basis  of 
(i)  work,  doing  things  for  which  the  pupils  felt  a  social  need ;  e.ij.. 


152 


U.S.A. — Private  High  Schooh 


Possible 
application 
of  foregoing 
iiietliodn  ill 
England. 


gardening,  cooking,  working  in  wood  or  metal,  clay  modelling, 
sewing,  weaving,  printing,  etc.  ;  (2)  a  study  of  human  acti\'ities 
in  the  outside  world,  to  help  the  children  to  interpret  their  own 
experiences  ;  (3)  the  study  of  Nature.  The  domestic  sciences  and 
arts  found  a  place  in  the  Kindergarten  course  hecause  home  acti- 
vities, the  common  life  of  the  children,  furnish  opportunities  for 
work  and  service  suited  to  their  years,  and  constitute  a  desii'able 
addition  to  pla}^  and  games.  These  subjects  appeared  in  the  Primary 
grades  Ijecause  Colonel  Parker  believed  (a)  in  the  value  of  the  primi- 
tive  industi'ies  and  arts  in  the  early  education  of  children  ;  and  (5) 
in  the  importance  of  simple  Avork  in  school  economics,  sanitation 
and  hygiene  for  the  establishment  of  an  ideal  of  the  conditions 
essential  to  good  health  in  a  connnunity.  Home  economics  took  its 
place  in  the  Grammar  grades  as  an  integral  part  of  the  study  of 
Nature,  and  of  Man  as  its  highest  manifestation.  In  each  case  the 
subjects  were  found  to  lend  themselves  as  a  means  for  the  employ- 
ment of  thought  and  i-eason,  for  the  application  of  scientific  prin- 
ciples, and  for  the  culture  of  the  social  instincts.  This  method  of 
introducing  the  study  of  economics  deserves  consideration, 
associating,  as  it  does,  the  conception  of  the  value  of  health  and 
time,  as  well  as  of  monev,  with  the  facts  and  duties  of  daily 
life. 

It  would  be  unjust  to  convey  the  impression  that  either  of  these 
(Klucationahsts  believe  themselves  to  have  realised  their  ideal  in 
])ractice  ;  itw^ould  be  equally  inaccurate  to  give  the  im])ression  that 
1  advocate  the  wholesale  adoption  of  principles  and  methods  so 
admittedly  tentative  and  experimental  as  those  just  referred  to ; 
but  I  am  of  opinion  that  these  conceptions,  wisely  modified, 
could  be  introduced  into  the  kindergarten  and  primary  classes 
of  many  English  schools.  The  educational  attractions  and 
advantages  attached  to  the  employment,  as  part  of  school 
work,  of  famihar,  homely  occupations  for  quite  young  children 
has  been  hitherto  very  generally  overlooked ;  their  ethical, 
sociological  and  economic  values  for  seniors  when  progressively 
developed  is  certainly  not  yet  recognised.  A  careful  study  of  these 
School  Programmes  will  reveal  that  their  contents  are  selected, 
handled,  and  developed  so  as  to  forge  social  links  between  school 
and  home,  while  experience  proves  that  they  foster  an  intelligent 
participation  in  connnunal  life ;  two  points  where,  admittedly, 
our  educational  methods  have  hitherto  proved  unsuccessful. 
Acquaintance  with  subjects  bearing  on  domestic  life  is  largely 
acquired  through  the  exercise  of  the  bodily  activities ;  these  sub- 
jects appeal  to  the  child's  limited  experience  ;  they  demand  thought 
and  permit  its  expression  in  action  ;  it  is  also  believed  that  they 
arouse  an  interest  so  strong  that  it  will  cheerfully  overcome  obstacles 
and  perseveringly  face  drudgery  and  difficulties  to  achieve  realisa- 
tion ;  wherein  lies  their  strong  claim  as  formers  of  character  and 
factoi's  in  the  growth  of  a  true  communal  spirit.  Essential  to  their 
profitable  introduction  are  (1)  space,  as  individual  pai'ticipation 


Typical  Domestic  Science  Courses. 


153 


in  each  occupation  is  essential,  for  Avhicli  l  ejison  classes  must  be 
siiiall ;  (2)  time,  otlierwise  informing  by  the  teacher  has  to  replace 
thought  and  reflection  by  the  child  ;  (3)  elasticity  of  syllabus  and 
confidence  in  the  teaclier  by  those  in  authority,  to  permit  of 
thoroughly  intelligent  ''doing."  In  the  future,  when  these 
advantages  are  secured  in  our  schools,  teachers  can  profitably 
devote  some  attention  to  these  methods  of  ])roviding  for  children 
Avhat  Eroebel  called  "  the  education  of  complete  living." 

There  are,  relatively,  few  private  Primary  and  Grammar  Schools,  Few  Private 
though  they  are  found  in  large  cities,  such  as  New  York  or  Detroit,  Qj.^^^^ 
but  I  had  no  op])ortunit3^  of  studying  their  attitude  towards  the  Schools, 
teaching  of  Domestic  Science.    Piivate  educational  enterpiise  or 
endowment  more  usually  finds  its  outlet  in  the  provision  of 
institutions  for  higher  education  from  the  High  School  upwards. 

B. — High  Schools. 

Private  High  Schools  exist  mainly  in  wealthy  localities,  for 
considerable  capital  and  a  large  clientele  are  necessary  to  compete 
in  equipment  and  efficiency  of  staff  with  those  State-aided  by 
Boards  of  Education.  The  growing  prejudice  in  favour  of  class 
distinction  is  frequently  compelled  to  give  place  to  the  superior 
advantages  offered  by  the  j)ublic  High  School  or  to  the 
obstacle  of  a  high  scale  of  fees.  It  is  of  special  interest  to  note  the  ^^JJ^ggJ-^ 
belief  in  Hygiene  and  Home  Science  as  suitable  studies  in  these  Science 
private  High  Schools,  where  the  curriculum  is  independent  oi  all  out-  Courses 
side  control,  except  that  exercised  by  college  entrance  requirements 
or  the  whims  of  parents.  This  belief  promotes  the  formation  of  an 
intelligent  public  opinion  among  the  more  wealthy  members  of 
the  community ;  for,  although  the  first  introduction  of  these  sub- 
jects is  stated  to  be  often  unpalatable  to  the  parents,  the  result 
to  their  children  is  so  speedily  apparent  as  to  invariably  overcome 
previous  objections. 

Notable  among  the  High  Schools  supported  by  endowment  and  (^')  Pr^itt 
fees  is  that  attached  to  the  Pratt  Institute,  Brooldyn,  of  which  the  jj'f.^i'^^^^^® 
superintendence  is  entrusted  to  ]3r.  Luther  Giilick,  whose  views  School, 
on  education  repay  careful  study,  and  so  far  stand  Avell  the  t(*sts  Brooklyn, 
of  ])i-actice  to  which  th(iy  are  subjected  by  their  author.    Exprc^ssed  r^^^j'^ 
in  the  briefest  terms,  Dr.  C^uhck  considers  that  two  of  the  funda-  \xill 
mental  conditions  to  be  met  by  a  secondary  school  are  (1)  the  needs 
of  the  individual  for  the  development  of  a  fairly  rounded  character 
and  personality  ;  (2)  the  demands  of  society  upon  the  individual. 
"  The  individual  must  be  developed  as  an  individual  with  reference 
to  his  personality.    He  must  also  be  so  trained  as  to  fit  into  the 
existing  world,  to  take  his  place  in  the  present  social  regime    .    .  . 
Health,  character,  a  strong,  constructive,  sympathetic  view  of 
life,  and  the  ability  to  do  something  that  the  world  wants  done, 
these  deserve  prominence  as  objects  in  school  life."    These  vi(nvs 
and  the  methods  by  which  they  seek  to  find  expression  harmonise 
with  the  idea  of  the  founder  of  the  Institute,  viz.,  that  boys  and  girls 


154 


U.&.A. — Private  High  Schools. 


(a)  Pratt  should  be  placed  under  conditions  wliich  favour  all-round  develop- 
in^t^tute  uiQnt^  and  that  school  education  should  consist  in  the  patient, 
School—  systematic,  and  constant  training  of  body  and  mind.  To  this  end 
continued.  manual  and  physical  training,  art  training  and  laboratory  work 
are  given  equal  rank  and  standing  with  the  academic  studies  ; 
health,  jxjwer,  and  a  wholesome,  earnest  attitude  towards  work 
being  essential  to  the  realisation  of  the  ideas  of  both  founder  and 
director.  A  second  aim  is  to  help  each  pupil  to  discover  his  gifts 
and  to  start  him  in  their  eflt'ective  development ;  while,  with  the 
object  of  encouraging  all  Avho  can  to  continue  their  work  at  college, 
it  is  endeavoured  to  frame  a  scheme  such  as  shall  enable  those  who 
desire  to  do  so  to  meet  college  entrance  requirements.  The  accom- 
panying diagrammatic  illustration  of  the  studies  and  occupations 
pursued  during  this  four  years  High  School  course  shows  how  these 
rec[uirements  are  met ;  though  naturally  it  is  impossible  to  indicate 
by  means  of  any  figure  the  atmosphere  of  social  claims  and  interests 
which  surrounds  the  young  people,  or  the  methods  employed  to 
temper,  while  seeking  to  develop,  the  individuality  of  each  boy  and 
girl.  The  school  is  open  to  all  children  of  fourteen,  who,  in  Dr. 
Gtilick's  judgment,  are  ready,  physically,  mentally,  and  morally, 
to  profit  by  the  work,  without  interfering  with  the  progress  of 
others.  The  greatest  sympathy  is  felt  for  those  in  feeble  health, 
but  the  amount  of  woi'k,  both  physical  and  mental,  is  planned  for 
the  best  development  of  the  normal  child,  and  ^^'Ould  be  excessive 
for  the  delicate.  A  standard  of  normal  height,  weight,  and  health 
must  be  therefore  conformed  to. 

The  school  day  is  divided  into  six  periods  of  fifty  minutes  each  ; 
one-half  of  the  time  is  given  to  academic  work  in  languages  and 
the  humanities,  in  mathematics,  and  in  science ;  the  other  half 
is  devoted  to  music,  art,  and  manual  training,  laboratory  practice 
and  gymnastics.  The  n:ianual  training,  to  which  six  periods  a  week 
are  devoted  throughout  the  curriculum,  comprises,  in  the  first  year, 
bench-work  in  w^ood  and  wood-carving  for  boys  and  girls  alike  ; 
in  the  second  year  it  consists,  for  boys,  of  wood-turning,  pattern 
making  and  moulding,  ;  for  girls,  of  sewing,  drafting,  cutting  and 
making  garments,  some  study  of  materials  being  also  included. 
In  the  third  year,  boys  take  forging  and  the  elements  of  decorative 
iron-work  ;  while  the  girls  study  form,  line,  colour,  and  texture, 
and  the  outline  and  proportions  of  the  human  figure.  They  also 
practice  costume  designing  (sketching  hats,  draperies,  and  gowns, 
half  life  size),  and  devote  some  time  to  millinery.  In  the  fourth 
year  the  boys  attend  the  machine  shop,  learning  bench-w^ork  and  the 
use  of  machine  tools  ;  and  the  girls  are  instructed  in  domestic  science, 
wliich  comprises  cookery,  emei'gencies  and  home  nursing.  No 
pains  are  spared  to  teach  accuracy,  economy,  patience,  judgment, 
and  perseverance  throughout  the  whole  course.  It  is  maintained 
by  Pratt  Institute  teachers  that  after  a  year's  "  drill  "  in  wood-work, 
needlework  may  be  so  taught  as  to  veritably  merit  the  designation 
of  manual  training.    Their  system  of  instruction  is  framed  to 


Typical  Domestic  Science  Courses.  155 


TABLE  XXIII. 
PRATT  INSTITUTE  HIGH  SCHOOL 
Four  years'  course  showing  proportion  of  total  course  given  to  each  subject. 


U.S.A. — Private  High  Schools. 


(a.)  Pratt  train  the  eye  to  recognise,  the  liand  to  produce,  correct  lines  and 
^strtute  angles,  as  in  niatchijig  stripes,  turning  hems,  sewing  seams,  slanting 
School  —  stitches,  cutting  gores  from  an  ol^lojig,  drafting  and  machine 
continued.  sewing.  In  dressmaking  comes  the  additional  study  of  beautiful 
foim,  colour,  and  texture  in  relation  to  clothing  of  tlie  body  and 
some  knowledge  of  the  intimate  connection  between  the  laws  of 
beauty  and  the  laws  of  health.  Millinery  methods  are  considered  to 
develop  lightness  of  touch  and  skilful  handling  of  materials,  and  may 
be  employed  in  training  the  imagination  to  picture  the  desired 
result."  So  far  as  my  observations  extended,  these  aims  are  kept 
very  steadily  in  view  during  the  two  years  occupied  ^vith.  the  study 
of  plain  needlework,  dressmaking,  and  millinery ;  indeed,  the 
primarily  educational  purpose  of  the  manual  and  art  training  in  this 
High  School  is  very  evident  throughout.  Dr.  Gtilick  believes  that 
there  should  be  no  division  between  the  A\  ork  of  the  artist  and  that 
of  the  artisan,  therefore  a  close  connection  is  maintained  bet^^'een 
the  studio,  the  "  shop,"  and  the  sewing-room.  The  girls  especially 
are  unquestionably  much  interested  by  this  development  of  the 
educative  and  culture  side  of  a  pursuit,  often  treated  with  contempt 
at  their  age  on  account  of  its  utilitarian  aspect  being  over  emphasised. 

I  was  fortunate  in  securing  very  full  particulars  concerning  tlie 
year's  training  in  Domestic  Science  ;  and  the  following  details  are 
couched  chiefly  in  the  words  of  Mrs.  Chambers,  who  was  the  director 
of  all  the  cooking  classes  and  courses  given  in  the  Pratt  Institute 
at  the  time  of  my  visit.  An  earnest  student  of  the  best  educational 
methods,  she  agrees  with  many  other  teachers  in  their  belief  that 
the  educational  value  of  cooking  as  a  school  subject  lies  as  much  in 
its  mind  as  in  its  manual  training  properties.  "  In  Pratt  Institute 
an  attempt  is  made  to  teach  cookery  scientifically,  the  main  object 
of  the  course  is  the  development  of  the  student  through  the  subject 
taught.  While  constantly  stimulated  to  aj^ply  her  knowledge  of 
chemistry,  ph3^sics  and  biology,  the  lesson  is  so  planned  that  these 
applications  are  suggested  l)y  the  work,  not  by  the  instructor.  For 
instance,  at  the  beginning  of  a  lesson  the  student  may  perform 
under  dire(;tion  certain  simple  experiments  to  illustrate  the  effect 
of  the  addition  of  salt  or  of  soda  on  the  solvent  ])roperties  of  water, 
or  of  an  acid  on  cellulose,  etc.  She  may  then  be  asked  to  cook 
various  classes  of  A  Cgetables,  sweet  juiced,  strong  jui(;etl,  etc.,  or  the 
problem  of  cooking  a  cabbage  may  be  given,  a  vegetable  with  both 
strong  juices  and  tough  cellulose,  entire  freedom  in  treatment 
of  the  water  being  allowed ;  but  each  student  must  subsequently 
support  the  method  she  has  pursued  by  sound  reasons,  Avhile  results 
are  compared  and  conclusions  deduced  hy  the  whole  class."  In  the 
course  of  an  interesting  article  on  her  methods  in  the  Pi-att  Institute 
Monthly  for  March,  1900,  Mrs.  Chambers  threw  hght  on  how  she 
stimulated  her  students'  powers  of  reflection  and  association  : — 

They  are  encouraged,  for  instance,  "  to  trace  the  probable  history 
of  cooking,  from  broiling  directly  over  the  coals  to  the  skilful  applica- 
tion of  heat  in  oven  or  braising  pan  ;  from  the  crude  combination 
of  meal  and  wetting  of  water  and  milk,  as  in  '  johnny-cake,'  to  the 


Typical  Domestic  Science  Courses. 


157 


beating  in  of  air,  as  in  '  gems,'  or  the  addition  of  egg,  as  in  '  pop-over.'  (a)  Pratt 
They  are  led  on  to  observe  the  advantages  which  follow  the  substitu-  Institute 
tion  of  some  leavennig  agent  for  the  prolonged  labour  of  beating,  as  High  School 
in  griddle-cake  or  crumpet  ;  or  the  variety  gairied  by  the  addition  of  — continued. 
a  little  shortening,  and  the  use  of  a  utensil  calculated  to  give  a  large 
extent  of  crisp  surface,  as  in  '  waffles.'    They  are  called  upon  to  note 
the  well-defined  relation  which  is  traceable  in  all  the  various  flour 
mixtures,  and  are  made  observant  of  the  dependence  for  successful 
results  upon  the  use  of  a  definite  proportion  of  wetting,  dry  material 
and  leaven.    A  student  who  has  found  the  key  to  this  can  form  her 
own  combhiations  by  the  exercise  of  thought,  independently  of  the 
cookery-book,  confident  that  by  uniting  materials  in  right  proportions, 
and  by  exposing  them  for  the  right  time  to  the  right  temperature, 
something  good  and  wholesome  will  result.    Has  too  much  flour  been 
added  to  the  gem-batter  1    Well,  change  it  to  waffles,  to  biscuit,  to 
raised  muffins.    When  the  subject  is  taught  on  this  basis  the  student 
is  given  the  recipes  for  various  batters  and  doughs,  but  not  in  order, 
for  she  is  to  assort  and  classify  them,  and  to  discover  the  relation. 
Then  let  her  take  the  cookery-book  and  study  some  other  branch,  such 
as  soups,  or  sauces,  or  puddings,  and  trace  the  connection,  the  evolution 
for  herself.    A  white  sauce,  made  of  milk,  thickened  with  flour  and 
enriched  by  butter,  may  be  developed  into  a  souffle,  which  also  is  made 
of  milk,  thickened  with  flour  and  enriched  by  batter,  but  is  further 
enriched  by  the  yolks  of  eggs,  and  is  flavoured  and  baked.  White 
sauce  may,  by  other  additions  which  are  governed  in  character  by  the 
result  desired,  lead  to  American  ice-cream,  thence  to  pistachio  bisque, 
or  to  a  frozen  plum-pudding.    Each  one  is  free  to  trace  his  own  com- 
binations, and  each  has  the  joy  of  the  investigator,  the  discoverer,  the 
creator  of  order  out  of  disorder."    Mrs.  Chambers  encourages  the 
making  of  graphic  representations  to  illustrate  these  relations  and 
proportions,  a  method  found  very  stimulating  to  children.    For  in- 
stance, in  the  Cake  lesson,  in  which  the  cup-cake  can  be  used  as  a 
suitable  foundation,  the  several  varieties  made  by  subtraction,  addition, 
or  substitution  can  be  illustrated  by  a  simple  diagram.    The  accom- 
panying illustration"^  is  here  reproduced  by  kind  permission  of  Mrs, 
Chambers.    No.  1  represents  the  cup-cake,  with  the  varieties  made 
by  subtraction,  resulting  in  plainer  cakes  of  the  same  type  ;  No.  2 
(raisin,  currant,  fig,  date,  citron,  nut,  chocolate,  and  spice  cakes),  the 
varieties  made  by  addition,  resulting  in  richer  cakes,  more  or  less 
divergent  from  the  type  ;  and  No.  3  (gold,  silver,  and  coffee  cake), 
those  made  by  s\ibstitution,  Avhich  gives  apparently  totally  different 
types  of  cake,  resembling  neither  one  another  nor  the  original  batter, 
yet  possessing  an  easily  traced  relationship.    The  plan  once  mastered, 
the  children  are  called  upon,  as  a  "  time  exercise,"  to  write  out  in 
detail  the  ingredients  needed  for  a  nut-cake,  or  any  other  variety, 
using  for  a  l^asis  a  fraction,  as  three-eighths,  of  a  cup  of  flour.  If 
correct  they  are  allowed  to  make  a  small  specimen.    ..."  Out 
of  more  than  thirty  children  in  the  last  Saturday  (mixed)  morning 
class  only  two  or  three  failed  in  the  first  attempt,  and  none  in  the 
second.    They  may  then  be  given  a  number  of  simple  recipes,  and 
asked  to  make  a  graphic  representation  for  themselves.  Much 
originality  and  ingenuity  have  been  shown  in  this  work." 

In  conjunction  with  this  pupils  are  encouraged  to  note,  from  the 
beghming,  the  properties  of  the  various  materials  used  ;  whether 
soluble  or  insoluble,  how  affected  by  heat,  how  by  acids,  etc.  This 
leads  to  a  classification  of  foods,  and  eventually  into  the  separation 
of  the  five-food  principles — protein,  fat,  carbo-hydrates,  water  and  salt. 
Instruction  is  given  in  the  right  propoi  tion  of  nutrients  to  meet 
the  needs  of  the  body,  simple  dietetic  rules  are  formulated,  and  students 

*  See  Fig.  V. 


158 


U.S.A. — Private  High  Schools. 


FIG.  V. 

"CAKE"  DIAGRAM. 

Ke])roduced  by  kind  permisyion  from  "  The  Pratt  Institute  Mon 
Marcli  1900. 

A/0.  I. 


fOR2TSR 
OR  OTHER 


VANILLA 
EXTRACT. 


BUTTER 
aiBSP-/  CUP 


SUGAR 

1-2  CUPS 


BAKINQ 
5-6 


POWDER 
TSP.  - 


MILK 
'/2~l  CUP 


BUTTER 
f/s-fCUP. 


SUGAR 
2  CUPS 


No.  2. 


RA/S/NS 
CITRON 
NUTS 
CHOCOLATE 
SPICES 


1-2  CUPS, 
i/z-l  CUPS 
1-2  CUPS. 
'/z-l/zCUPS 
/-J  TBSPS 


BAKINQ 
S-6 


POWDER 
TSP. 


MILK 

OR  MOLASSES 

'/2  CUP. 


4  EGGS 


No.  5. 


BUTTER 
I  CUP. 


SUGAR 
2  CUPS 


BAKING  POWDER 
S'  6  TSP. 


MILK  OR 
COFFEE . 


I  WHOLE  EGG 
AND  7  YOLKS, 
OR  8  WHITES. 


Typical  Domestic  Science  Courses. 


150 


are  enabled  to  estimate  correctly  which  food  principle  is  in  excess,  (a)  Pratt 
which  is  lacking,  in  each  new  recipe,  and  what  other  dishes  should  Institute 
be  used  with  it  in  order  to  complete  a  well-balanced  meal."  High  School 

The  High  School  girls  have  the  advantage  over  the  Saturday  class,  —c^^^^^^^^^- 
to  which  the  last  joart  of  the  above  extract  refers,  in  that  the  cookery 
they  practise  is  based  upon  the  knowledge  the}'  ha^'S  previously 
gained  in  elementary  ])iol()gy,  j)liysiology,  physics  and  chemistry. 
Miss  Edith  Greer,  Directress  of  the  Domestic  Science  Department, 
and  Mrs.  (Chambers  told  jne  that  the  girls  are  delighted  with  the 
opportunities  offered  for  the  api)lication  of  their  other  studies.  The 
scientific  method  of  treatment  first  arouses  "  sheer  amazement by 
the  field  of  interest  it  opens  up  ;  and  this  feeling  is  i-apidh'  succeeded 
by  a  satisfactory  enthusiasm.  "  The  High  School  girl  finds  a  new 
interest  in  both  kitchen  and  laboi-atory  when  she  applies  her  know- 
ledge of  the  expansion  of  gases  to  the  rising  or  falling  of  her  cup-cake, 
and  when  she  is  led  to  reason  out  the  best  way  of  cookhig  vegetables 
from  her  knowledge  of  the  degree  of  solubility  of  mineral  salts." 
The  High  School  cooking  classes  consist  of  from  twenty  to  tbii'ty 
*  girls  ;  last  year  (1901)  they  were  conducted  by  Mrs.  Chambers  her- 
self, without  assistance  ;  she  confessed  that  to  superintend  the 
practical  work  of  so  large  a  class,  which  came  to  her  without  previous 
training,  taxed  all  her  capacity  No  outside  work  was  exj^ected  or 
required  of  the  pupils,  lout  well  kept,  systematic  note-books  were 
insisted  u])on,  to  assist  in  the  development  of  methodical,  scientific 
habits.  The  arrangement  of  this  High  School  course  differs  in  some 
respects  from  that  in  general  use  ;  but  the  Directress  was  true  to 
her  conviction  that  the  allowance  of  time  for  somewdiat  experimental 
work  by  the  pupil,  demanding  observation  and  concentration  of 
attention,  is  more  profitable  than  the  rapid  and  correct  execution 
of  a  given  number  of  dishes,  so  carefully  superintended  that 
failure,  with  all  the  valuable  lessons  it  covers,  is  im])0ssible. 

The  course  opened  with  the  cooking  of  eggs  in  various 
ways,  so  that  the  pupil  might  gain,  through  her  own  experience, 
information  as  to  the  behaviour  of  albumen  under  a  variety 
of  conditions,  of  which  the  hnal  application  was  carried  on, 
without  the  teacher's  assistance,  in  the  manufacture  of  different 
dishes.  Yov  example,  a  recipe  was  given  for  "  water  custard  "  ; 
oljservation  showed  that  the  egg  and  water  must  be  combined 
in  a  definite  i)roportion  to  ensure  right  consistency  ;  that 
the  use  of  sugar  as  a  condiment  to  suit  individual  tastes  must 
be  regulated  with  judgment ;  that  without  care  in  the  application 
of  heat  at  a  certain  temperature,  failure  was  inevitable.  The 
next  lesson,  which  included  the  making  of  egg  lemonade,  drew 
attention  to  another  characteristic  of  albumen,  that  it  is 
coagulated  by  acid  as  Avell  as  by  heat.  Subsequent  lessons  continued 
the  study  somewhat  as  follows  :  No.  3,  stuffed  egg,  seasoiKMl  and 
])Ounded;  i)ractical  point,  albumen  is  toughened  by  high  temjiera- 
tures  ;  No.  4,  eggs  cooked  by  jooming  boiling  water  u])on  them  and 
allowing  them  to  stand  (a)  8  minutes,  (/;)  20  minutes.  Examina- 


C.S.A. — Private  Hl(jk  Schools. 


tion  showed  that  the  yolk  coagulated  at  a  lower  temperature  than 
the  white.  No.  5,  the  making  of  meringue ;  observation  demon- 
strated that  the  white  of  egg  will  hold  air  when  beaten,  whereas  the 
yolk  will  not  become  tenacious  by  this  means.  A  series  of  experi- 
ments was  subsequently  introduced  to  ascertain  more  exactly  the 
solubility  of  albumen  and  the  exact  temperature  at  which  the 
various  changes  occur  in  the  yolk  and  white  ;  after  which  the  girls 
were  given  some  attractive  recipes  with  eggs  to  carry  out  by  them- 
selves, which  demanded  intelligent  application  of  the  principles 
just  learned.  Gelatine  was  next  taken,  studied  by  similar  methods, 
and  the  results  compared  with  the  knowledge  of  albumen  gained 
in  previous  lessons  ;  the  double  application  derived  from  intimate 
acquaintance  with  the  properties  of  both  substances  was  then 
demanded,  for  example,  in  the  cooking  of  fish.  The  girls  would  be 
asked  to  solve  the  problem  of  boiling  this  successfnlly,  knowing  that 
the  albumen  is  soluble  in  cold  water,  the  gelatinous  fibres  in  hot. 
Later  on  in  the  course  they  would  be  asked  what  substances  are 
needed  to  supply  the  nutrients  lacking  in  fish,  and  required  to 
combine  these  substances  in  a  soup,  a  sauce,  or  a  pudding,  to  accom- 
pany the  fish,  adding  condiments  to  enhance  or  to  supplement 
flavour.  Thus  as  the  work  advanced  the  knowledge  gained  w^ould  be 
constantly  used  for  the  purpose  of  acquii-ing  further  information, 
always  to  be  tested  by  practice,  the  pupils  being  encouraged  to  discuss 
and  to  try  various  methods  of  procedure,  after  preliminary  observa- 
tions and  experiments ;  these  being  made  in  test  tubes  with  very 
small  quantities  of  material.  Space  does  not  permit  me  to  indicate  in 
detail  the  interesting  and  thorough  manner  in  which  the  structure 
and  properties  of  meat  were  similarly  studied.  Carbohydrates  were 
subjected  to  the  same  method  of  observation,  while  in  the  case  of 
sugar  the  attention  directed  to  how  far  cooking  changes  might  be 
carried,  introduced  the  causes  and  control  of  fermentation.  Lessons 
on  fats  followed  ;  illustrations  of  the  power  of  combination,  emulsi- 
fication,  decomposition,  under  certain  conditions,  etc.,  being  found 
in  dishes,  such  as  velvet  cream,  clotted  cream,  toasted  bacon,  etc. 
Water  and  its  quah ties  were  considered  before  vegetables  and  their 
cooking,  in  order  that  advantage  might  be  taken  of  the  opportimities 
offered  in  the  cooking  of  vegetables  to  apply  the  lessons  learned 
as  to  the  effect  of  the  use  of  hard  or  soft  water  in  kitchen  pro- 
cesses. Salts  were  left  for  the  latter  part  of  the  course,  because  it 
was  considered  that  their  intelligent  study  demanded  some  acquaint- 
ance with  chemistry,  and  the  girls,  who  had  meanwhile  been 
continuing  their  general  biology  and  chemistry  courses,  should 
have  become  competent  at  this  stage  to  detect  the  presence  of 
phosphates  in  wheat,  potash  in  potatoes,  etc.,  and  were  expected  to 
be  intelligently  interested  in  their  preservation  in  the  chief  salt- 
containing  foods.  A  study  of  the  general  nutrition  of  the  body 
and  its  metabolism,  and  of  well-balanced  diets,  was  carried  on 
concurrently,  so  that  the  end  of  the  year's  work  found  these  girls 
of  seventeen  and  eighteen  intelligently  trained  and  genuinely 


Tyficd  Domestic  Science  Courses. 


101 


interested  in  the  fodd  question,  upon  which  the  well-being  of 
famihes  so  largely  depends.  Keports  from  mothers  "  are  constantly 
received  "  expressing  their  surprise  at  the  appetite  created  for 
practical  work  at  home  by  this  course  in  the  High  School.  There 
seems  to  be  a  steadily  increasing  recognition  on  the  part  of  the 
parents  that  the  school  can  fitly  provide  a  part  of  that  education 
which  used  to  be  more  generally  furnished  by  home  life  ;  and  they 
readily  admit  that  a  decided  impulse  towards  a  higher  estimate 
of  household  skill  is  given  indirectly  by  their  own  increasing  reali- 
sation of  the  value  of  these  subjects  as  a  profession,  when  properly 
studied.  A  wise  emphasis  is  laid  in  this  particular  course  upon 
nursery  hygiene.  The  question  of  accommodation  and  equip- 
ment for  this  work  presents  no  difficulties  in  this  case,  for  though 
the  High  School  is  in  a  separate  building  from  the  Institute,  the 
laboratories  and  workshops  of  the  Technical  Department,  are  open 
to,  and  used  by,  the  High  School  students. 

An  interesting  departure  was  that  initiated,  some  three  years  {h)  Girl^' 
ago,  in  t»he  Girls'  Classical  School  at  Indianapolis,  of  which  the  prin-  Classical 
cipal  is  Mrs.  May  Wright  Sewall,  president  of  the  International  jj^^-^^/^'. 
Council  of  Women.  In  some  respects  this  school  is  unique  ;  the  apolis. 
courses  of  study  are  planned  on  somewhat  broader  and  even  more 
flexible  lines  than  are  usual  in  High  Schools  ;  among  the  advan- 
tages are  to  be  included  opportunities  for  individual  instruction 
consequent  upon  small  classes,  the  intimate  acquaintance  formed 
by  the  principal  with  all  her  pupils,  and  the  facilities  offered  to 
weak  and  backward  students.  Careful  supervision  and  direction 
extends  even  to  the  uniform  dress  worn  by  the  girls,  which  is 
suitably  simple  and  thoroughly  healthful.  A  commodious  two- 
storey  addition  has  been  made  to  the  building  for  the  special  accom- 
modation of  the  Household  Science  Department,  the  organisation 
of  which  was  entrusted  to  a  graduate  of  the  Drexel  Institute, 
Philadelphia.  Its  establishment  was  entirely  the  result  of  Mrs.  M. 
Wright  Sewall's  own  initiative  ;  not  at  all  in  response  to,  indeed 
rather  contrary  to,  existing  public  opinion.  Her  object  in  taking 
the  step  Avas  to  give  to  well-born  and  Avell-bred  girls,  whose  cir- 
cumstances in  life  relieve  them  from  the  necessities  of  household 
work,  a  respect  for  labour,  a  comprehension  of  the  skilled  Avork 
demanded  by  domestic  duties  and  an  insight  into  the  degree  to 
AA^hich  applied  science  may  lighten  daily  household  claims,  turning 
drudgery  into  delight."  Evidently  the  danger  of  a  contempt 
arising  on  the  part  of  the  well-to-do  for  hand  labour  is 
not  confined  to  one  nation  or  to  one  hemisphere;  so,  as  her  OAvn 
pupils  are  drawn  chiefly  from  Avealthy  homes,  Mrs.  Sewall  Avisely 
set  herself  to  direct  their  attention  to  the  hygienic,  economic  and 
aesthetic  claims  and  possibilities  of  household  science,  in  order 
effectually  to  counteract  this  regrettable  tendency.  Practice 
classes  in  cooking,  one  hour  per  Aveek,  are  open  to  all  school  pupils, 
but  the  full  course  of  study  covers  two  years,  and,  in  common  Avith 
many  other  subjects,  is    electiA^e."    This  complete  two-year  course 

6490.  L 


162 


U.S.A. — Private  High  Schools. 


(b)  Girls'  of  study  inchides  two  lessons  a  week  of  one  hour  each,  one  of  which 
Classical  fg  devoted  to  theory  and  one  to  practice.  During  the  first  two 
indiaii  years  of  its  existence  about  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  those  eligible  to 
apolis  elect  the  subject  took  the  work  ;  these  pupils  showed  much  en- 

—continneJ.  thusiasm  and  apparently  real  pleasure  and  profit  were  derived  from 
the  course.  The  work  of  the  department  is  carried  on  in  the  new, 
admirably  equipped  kitchen  and  workrooms ;  it  is  related,  so  far  as 
is  possible,  with  that  of  the  other  departments  in  the  school,  par- 
ticularly with  that  carried  on  in  physical  culture,  drawing  and 
natural  science  ;  the  educational  and  disciplinary  values  are  specially 
emphasised.  During  the  first  year  the  work  was  limited  to  that  of 
the  kitchen  and  dining  room  ;  the  instruction  covered  the  subjects 
of  foods,  marketing,  cooking,  the  cleansing  and  care  of  utensils, 
and  the  serving  of  meals.  Subsequently  systematic  instruction 
was  introduced  in  laundry  work  ;  in  the  care  of  bedrooms  ;  in 
house  ventilation,  heating  and  general  sanitation ;  in  the  simple 
principles  of  nursing  ;  in  the  care  of  the  sick  and  emergencies ; 
in  plain  sewing,  dressmaking  and  millinery.  Pupils  are 
required  to  carry  out  practically  only  that  for  which  they  have 
already  learnt  good  reason  exists ;  and,  under  their  teacher's 
guidance,  they  endeavour  to  demonstrate  the  utility  of  the  facts 
and  laws  previously  presented  in  theory.  As  has  been  stated,  the 
course  is  elective,  but  permission  to  elect  it  is  regarded  as  a  recog- 
nition of  good  standing  in  other  classes  and  is  esteemed  a  privi- 
lege. The  charges  to  pupils  in  regular  attendance  are  reduced 
to  the  lowest  amount  that  will  cover  the  cost  of  the  materials  used 
and  of  the  expensive  equipment  provided  for  conducting  the  work, 
viz.,  $10  (£2)  per  year. 

An  "  applied  science "  course  for  students  of  Household 
Economics  is  still  in  its  infancy,  but  is  reported  to  promise 
well  for  the  future.  It  covers  two  years ;  during  the  first 
of  these  there  is  one  three-hour  lesson  per  week  in  cookery, 
one  hour's  theoretical  lecture,  and  three  periods  of  laboratory 
work  in  chemistry,  physics,  and  physiology ;  in  the  second  year 
there  are  two  lessons  in  theory  and  only  two  periods  of  laboratory 
work  in  chemistry  and  physiology  ;  this  course  entails  really  hard 
work  on  its  students.  Mrs.  Sewall  tells  me  that,  by  its  means, 
she  hopes  to  impress  on  her  girls  that  "  skill  is  important,  but  of 
even  more  importance  to  them  than  skill,  is  a  consciousness  of  the 
fact  that  the  principles  inculcated  in  this  work  are  fundamental ; 
and  that  their  right  comprehension  materially  affects  the  attitude 
of  the  mind  towards  the  work  of  women,  and  particularly  towards 
domestic  interests." 

.To  that  proportion  of  the  general  public  who  may  be  interested 
in  household  science,  opportunity  is  also  given  to  increase  their 
scientific  knowledge  of  home  subjects  and  their  skill  in  house- 
keeping and  home-making  by  means  of  adult  classes.  For  these, 
courses  of  lectures  on  physiology,  hygiene,  house  sanitation,  nursing, 
emergencies,  marketing,  food  values,  table  servic^e,  etc.,  are  pro- 


Typical  Domestic  Science  Courses. 


163 


vided.  Classes  are  organised,  limited  to  ten  students,  for  those 
who  wish  to  supplement  the  theory  thus  obtained  by  practice 
in  cooking ;  those  who  desire  laboratory  instruction  may  join 
the  school  classes  in  applied  science.  In  general  outline  the 
subject  matter  presented  to  the  regular  school  classes  and  to  these 
classes  of  adults  is  identical,  but  the  treatment  is  modified  in  detail, 
condensed  or  expanded,  to  suit  the  age,  understanding,  and  present 
attainments  of  those  in  attendance. 

In  order  to  emphasise  the  evident  tendency  to  direct  the  atten-  (c)  Home 
tion  of  all  social  grades  to  this  important  subject  of  Household  g^^^^f  ^ 
Science,  I  propose  to  refer,  very  briefly,  to  another  excellent  Detroit, 
illustration  of  the  success  which  attends  the  introduction  of 
the  subject  into  schools  where  extra  expense  accompanies  its  pur 
suit.  The  Home  and  Day  School  at  Detroit  was  opened  in  1876  by 
the  Rev.  James  D.  Liggett  and  his  daughters  ;  it  is  now  installed  in 
an  ijnposing  building  situated  in  the  pleasantest  part  of  the  city, 
and  is  attended  by  upwards  of  three  hundred  boys  and  girls  of 
varying  ages.  The  school  comprises  four  departments,  Kinder- 
garten, Primary,  Intermediate,  and  Academic  or  High ;  the  first 
three  are  co-educational  ;  about  thirty  girls  find  accommodation 
as  boarders.  The  new  department  of  Domestic  Science  was  opened 
in  September,  1900,  when  classes  were  organised  in  sewing  and 
cooking.  Sewuig  is  taught  in  four  grades,  which  include  the  three 
years  in  the  Intermediate  department  and  the  first  year  in  the 
Academic.  Two  periods  a  week  are  given  to  the  work,  of  which 
the  aim  is  to  give  manual  training,  and  to  set  high  standards  for 
fine  work.  The  course  in  the  first  year  covers  simple  stitches 
carried  out  by  hand ;  from  these  the  girls  pass  on  to  machine  work 
and  make  underwear  and  blouses,  for  which  they  take  their  own 
measurements  and  draft  their  own  patterns.  The  objects  of  the 
work  done  in  the  Domestic  Science  kitchen  are  threefold : — (1) 
to  acquire  skill  in  preparation  of  foods  ;  (2'l  to  study  the  nutritive 
value  of  food  ;  (3)  to  study  the  chemical  composition  of  foods.  The 
kitchen  is  a  large,  bright  room,  with  complete  equipment  for  sixteen 
individual  workers.  The  tables  provide  a  drawer  for  each  student, 
containing  all  necessary  utensils,  and  a  gas-burner,  over  which 
most  of  the  cooking  is  done  ;  a  sink  with  hot  and  cold  water  is 
fitted  to  each  table  ;  a  coal  range  contains  the  oven  which  is  used 
in  common  by  all ;  while  a  full  dining-room  equipment  gives 
opportunity  for  serving  a  dinner  or  luncheon  at  the  end  of  each 
term,  to  demonstrate  the  knowledge  and  skill  acquired  during 
that  imw.  The  cour'se  is  to  extend  through  four  year's  in  tlie 
Academic  department,  and  is  planned  along  good  lines.  Simple 
cooking  in  the  first  year  leads  to  .  food  analysis,  and  later  on  to 
chemical  and  bacteriological  examination  of  foods.  Students 
throughout  give  two  periods  a  week  to  the  work,  which  is  optional  ; 
at  the  time  of  my  visit  it  had  been  elected  by  one-third  of  the 
girls,  A  very  promising  foundation  for  this  course  is  laid  by 
previous  studies  ;  elementary  science  (chemistry,  physics,  geology, 

6490.  L  2 


164 


U.S.A. — Private  High  Schools. 


meteorology,  &c.)  is  introduced  in  connection  with  nature  study 
(which  enters  largely  into  the  time-table  of  the  lower  grades), 
and  is  subsequently  differentiated  into  distinct  subjects ;  all 
the  studies  included  in  the  curriculum  are  entrusted  to  really 
competent  teachers.  I  must  not  omit  mention  of  a  practice 
which  also  undoubtedly  contributes  to  the  efficiency  of  the 
teaching  carried  on  in  this  school,  namely,  the  frequent  meetings 
held  by  the  large  staff  of  teachers,  with  the  express  object  of 
maintaining  an  intelligent  correlation  between  the  subject  or 
subjects  for  which  each  is  responsible  with  other  studies  con- 
ducted by  his  or  her  colleagues. 
(d)  Boston  1  was  interested  to  learn  that  useful  work  in  the  form  of 
?^^)endix*D  ^^^^^'^^^  lessons  in  Household  Science  is  done  in  Boston 
.  ppen  IX  •  jjjg]^  Schools  by  Miss  S.  Maria  Elliott.  These,  though  chiefly 
theoretical  in  character,  in  consequence  of  the  conditions  under 
which  they  are  admitted  to  a  place  in  the  school  programmes, 
have  served  a  very  good  purpose  ;  they  have  aroused  interest 
among  the  pu])ils  and  their  parents,  they  have  attracted  the 
attention  of  the  authoi'ities  to  a  satisfactory  extent,  and  ha\e 
awakened  a  desire  for  more  j^ractical  knowledge  among  the 
pupils.  Miss  Maria  Elliott  is  herself  well  vei*sed  in  both  the 
theory  and  practice  of  her  subject,  and  is  further  skilled  in  its 
]H-esentation  from  the  standjioint  of  experience.  The  syllabus  of 
three  of  her  courses  is  included  to  illustrate  the  sco})e  and  selection 
of  subjects  which  her  experience  has  shown  her  to  be  both  service- 
able and  attracti\'e,  where  but  a  limited  time  is  allowed  for  such 
studies  and  where  attendance  is  ojDtional.  Miss  Elliott's  pioneer 
efforts  in  this  direction  have  throughout  received  substantial 
support  from  the  Association  of  College  Alumnue,  to  whose  initia- 
tive Boston  owes  so  much  of  its  educational  and  sanitary  reform 
and  ])rogress  ;  while  they  have  so  far  assisted  to  form  public  opinion 
that  the  City  Board  of  Education  had  under  contemplation,  at  the 
time  of  my  visit,  the  provision  of  a  practical  High  School  couree  in 
the  subject  of  Household  Economics.  In  this  may  be  found  a 
further  example  of  the  fact  to  which  reference  was  made  in  the 
early  pages  of  this  Ee])ort,  that  private  enterprise  has  almost 
invaria])ly  paved  the  way  for  the  adoption  of  every  branch  of 
Domestic  Science  into  the  curriculum  of  State-aided  schools. 
I^ygien^eand  With  reference  to  the  teaching  of  hygiene  and  physiology  in 
Courses^^^  ]^rivate  schools,  space  will  permit  me  to  refer  only  to  the  excellent 
Horace  methods  employed  in  the  Horace  Mann  School.  This  can  be  done 
Mann  in  part  by  extracts  from  the     Teachers  College  Record  "  for 

'^^^^^^^'^J^.^^'^' March,  1900,  and  January,  1901.  This  school  is  attached  to 
^  ^*  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  N.Y.,  f^r  the  purposes  of 
practice  and  observation.  It  comprises  three  departments,  a  kin- 
dergarten, an  elementary  and  a  secondary  school,  and  is  now 
housed  in  magnificent  new  buildings  designed  to  be  in  all  respects 
models  of  their  kind.  Hygiene  and  physiology  are  associated  with 
nature  study  in  tlie  two  lower  departments  and  with  biology 


Hygiene  and  Physiology  CouTsets. 


165 


in  the  High  school.   In  describing  the  course  in  nature  study,  Horace 
Professor  Francis  E.   Lloyd  writes   as  follows ;    "In  general,  Mann 
we  conclude,  that  the  aim  of  nature  study  is  to  prepare  the  |p  y^q' 
individual  for  life  by  training  his  mental  power  of  observation  ^-continued. 
and  of  generalisation,  by  deepening  and  rationalising  his  emotional 

life,  and  by  increasing  his  social  worth."  Nature 

study  at  first  must  find  its  material  in  the  immediate  environ- 
ment of  the  child,  and  as  the  mental  grasp  strengthens  and 
the  mental  horizon  broadens,  new  sources  are  made  available. 
We  believe  that  this  is  an  important  principle,  for  in  this  way  the 
home  and  the  school  life  can  be  woven  together  in  the  life  of  the 

child."  After  draAving  attention  to  the  special 

correlation  with  other  studies  emphasised  in  each  grade,  Prof. 
Lloyd  concludes  :  In  the  eighth  grade  a  serious  attempt  has 
been  made  to  introduce  a  course  embod3ang  the  essentials 
of  physiology,  meaiung  thereby  not  merely  the  study  of  the 
human  body,  but  strictly  the  essentials  of  both  animal  and 
plant  physiology.  This  is  done  because  we  believe  that  such  a 
course  is  of  much  more  value  educationally,  bringing  out,  as 
it  should  do,  the  essential  unity  of  animal  and  plant  physiology 
than  the  usual  course  in  physiology  and  hygiene.  That  idea  of 
physiology  which  makes  it  for  the  most  part  the  study  of  the 
two  hundred  odd  bones  in  the  human  frame,  leads  us  to  believe 
that  it  is  time  to  begin  on  a  new  tack.  It  must  not  be  thought, 
however,  that  the  course  is  not  aiming  at  the  human  aspect  of 
the  study,  for  it  is  of  profound  importance  that  students  should 
have  accurate  information  concerning  the  workings  of  their  own 
bodies.  Furthermore,  there  could  hardly  be  a  better  preparation 
for  the  work  in  biology,  soon  to  follow  in  the  High  School,  than 
the  training  given  in  such  a  course."    .    .  . 

I  learnt  on  enquiry  that  the  simplest  principles  of  hygiene  are 
introduced  throughout  the  grades,  not  alone  in  connection  with 
the  study  of  animal  and  plant  life,  but  successfully  also  in 
connection  with  elementary  science ;  for  the  elder  children  the 
principles  of  diffusion,  solution  and  chemical  change  are  directly 
applied  in  human  physiology. 

The  "Teachers  College  Record"  for  January,  1901,  discusses 
in  detail  the  High  School  Course  in  Biology,  which  is  made  the 
medium  for  a  more  advanced  study  of  physiology  and  hygiene. 
Again,  a  few  extracts  will  best  serve  to  indicate  the  general 
lines  by  which  ])upils  are  led  on  from  the  physiology  of  the  lower 
to  that  of  the  higher  forms  of  life.  The  importance  of 
interpreting  the  activities  of  the  human  body  from  the  com- 
parative standjioint  seems  sufficient  reason  for  advocating 
the  consideration  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  physio- 
logical action  in  connection  with  the  study  of  elementary 
zoology.  Experience  has  convinced  the  writers  that  there  is 
no  more  profitable  study  for  secondary  pupils  than  the  physio- 
logical side  of  animals.    No  other  phase  of  zoological  study 


166      U.S.A. — Private  Institutions  for  Training  Teachers. 


arouses  a  deeper  interest  and  appreciation  or  is  more  spontaneously 
applied  by  them  in  connection  with  their  own  life  activities.  It  is 
scarcely  necessary  to  offer  a  stronger  reason  for  including  such 
study  in  an  elementary  course."  ..."  The  principles  of 
physiology  should  be  introduced  with  the  first  animal  which  is 
studied  morphologically,  and  each  principle  as  introduced  should 
receive  concrete  application.  The  study  can  easily  and  quickly  be 
made  comparative,  as  successive  types  of  animals  are  taken  up  ; 
and,  finally,  such  specific  and  comparative  studies  may  be  made  tc 
lead  to  a  direct  application  of  the  principles  of  comparative  physio- 
logy to  the  activities  of  the  human  body."    .    .  . 

Four  periods  a  week,  of  forty-five  minutes  each,  are  given  to 
this  subject.  The  first  half  of  the  year  is  devoted  to  the  zoo- 
logical part  of  the  course,  followed  by  botany  in  the  second  half. 
It  was  desired  to  extend  this  time,  and  to  do  so  would  add 
materially  to  the  value  of  the  whole  course.  This  interconnection 
of  hygiene  with  nature  study,  chemistry,  physics,  and  biology 
seems  to  me  essentially  the  right  method;  the  influence  of 
heredity,  environment  and  nutrition  upon  the  highest  as  well  as 
upon  lower  forms  of  life  is  emphasised ;  human  physiology  is 
robbed  of  any  subjective  aspect;  concrete  applications  for  the 
theories  of  science  and  art  suggest  themselves  naturally;  and 
while  the  time-table  is  impregnated  with  an  atmosphere  of  hygiene 
it  is  not  burdened  with  an  additional,  isolated  subject.  To  those 
who  are  in  agreement  with  me  I  strongly  i-ecommend  a  careful 
study  of  the  two  publications  from  which  the  above  extracts  are 
made,  and  from  which  I  offer  one  more  quotation  before  quitting  the 
subject.  Professor  Lloyd  has  been  detailing  and  supporting  his 
outline  scheme  in  botany  ;  he  concludes  his  arguments  as  follows — 
"  There  is  a  further  point  of  importance  in  that  the  very  natural 
and  essential  facts  about  the  subject  of  sexual  reproduction  may 
be  made  a  part  of  the  knowledge  of  young  students.  Such 
knowledge,  it  is  believed,  helps  to  Hft  them  to  a  normal  conception 
of  a  question  which  is  in  the  young  mind  very  frequently  befogged 
and  distorted  to  the  pronounced  detriment  of  the  moral  nature." 

The  above  selection  of  examples  of  the  adoption  of  Domestic 
Science  and  Hygiene  as  an  integral  part  of  their  programme  by 
private  schools  of  high  standing  could  be  much  increased  ;  but  it 
will,  I  hope,  suffice  to  show  the  strong  conviction  of  the  importance 
of  the  subject  held  by  independent  persons,  and  the  possibility  of 
finding  time  for  the  study  where  there  is  first  "  a  wiUing  mind." 

C. — Institutions  for  Training  Teachers  in  Domestic  Science. 
Teachers  in  Teachers  of  Household  Science  obtain  their  training  chiefly  at 
Household  Technical  Institutes,  which  usually  comprise  many  other  depart- 
Science  and  ments,  though  at  least  one  Normal  course  is  offered  at  an  institute 
(a^TheOr  ^^^'^^^•^  entirely  to  this  subject.  Considerable  attention  has  been 
Institute^^^  attracted  to  the  Oread  Institute,  by  its  publications  as  well  as  by  the 
Table  XXIV.  generosity  of  its  present  owner.    It  was  originally  founded  and  built 


Training  of  Teachers  in  Household  Science  and  Art.  167 


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108      U.S.A. — Private  Imtkations  for  Trammg  Teaclicns. 


iit  Worcester  by  Hon.  Eli  Thayer,  a  graduate  of  Brown  Univei-sity, 
and  was  opened  by  him  in  1848  as  the  first  institution  of  higher 
education  for  women  in  Massachusetts  ;  it  was  continued  as  a 
school  until  the  early  eighties.  The  property  was  subsequently 
bought  by  Mr.  Henry  D.  Perky,  the  philanthropic  manufacturer 
of  the  Shredded  Wheat "  preparations,  who  converted  it  into 
the  existing  Oread  Institute  of  Domestic  Science.  Of  the  forty 
students  who  took  the  course  during  the  past  year  twenty-nine 
had  the  advantage  of  free  scholarships  ;  the  fee  to  those  who  pay 
for  their  training  is  S200  (£40) ;  the  number  of  applicants  for 
the  course  was  stated  to  be  600.  The  building  has  been  thoroughly 
remodelled,  and  is  now  supplied  with  the  latest  systems  of  drainage 
and  water  supply.  It  is  heated  by  steam,  lit  by  electricity,  and  is 
furnished  with  all  modern  apparatus  for  gymnastic,  laboratory, 
and  experimental  work,  as  well  as  for  general  instruction  in  all 
branches  of  household  economy.  No  expense  has  been  spared  in 
the  provision  of  equipment ;  the  great  kitchen  laboratory,  science 
laboratory,  and  gymnasium  are  situated  above  each  other  on  the 
three  floors  of  one  of  the  two  circular  towers,  40  feet  in  diameter, 
which  form  a  distinctive  feature  of  the  building.  The  kitchen  is 
open  to  \'isitors,  a  special  gallery  being  provided  for  their  acconnno- 
dation,  in  order  that  the  students  may  not  be  conscious  of  interrup- 
tion. As  the  attem])t  is  made  to  cover  in  one  year  the  course  of 
study  usually  spread  over  at  least  two,  more  generally  thi'ee,  it  is 
essential  tha  t  the  students  be  in  a  condition  to  acquire  a  considerable 
body  of  knowledge  under  j^ressure.  In  view  of  this  necessity,  the 
requirements  for  admission  to  the  school  lay  stress  on — (1)  good 
health,  to  enable  the  student  to  stand  a  regime  of  industrious 
application  and  very  hard  work  ;  (2)  maturity,  which  is  so  largely 
an  individual  matter  that  a  minimum  age  limit  is  not  rigidly  fixed, 
but  in  general  candidates  between  twenty-two  and  thirty-five 
years  of  age  are  preferred  ;  (3)  academic  training.  The  full  course 
in  a  High  School,  or  its  equivalent,  is  deemed  an  adequate  academic 
j)reparation  ;  the  faculty,  however,  judge  each  application  on  its 
merits,  not  according  to  an  arbitrary  standard.  Some  acquaintance 
with  the  following  subjects  is  held  desirable  :  elementary  physics, 
chemistry  and  physiology  ;  mathematics,  including  arithmetic, 
geometry,  and  algebra ;  English  and  American  history.  The 
regular  school  year  consists  of  two  terms  of  twenty  weeks  each. 
Two  training  courses  are  offered — the  Domestic  Course  and  the 
Normal  Course — each  extending  over  a  similar  period  of  time.  The 
first  includes  general  care  of  the  house,  general  cooking,  laundry 
work,  a  short  course  on  marketing  and  lectures  on  the  history  and 
chemistry  of  foods,  infants'  and  invalid  cookery  and  emergency 
work,  but  omits  the  science  and  special  lecture  work  included  in 
the  second. 

The  Normal  students  are  at  work  from  8.30  a.m.  to  5.45  p.m., 
and  are  further  required  to  devote  five  evenings  a  week  to  study — 
from  7.30  to  9  p.m.    In  addition  to  this,  each  girl  is  responsible 


Trainmg  oj  Teachers  in  Household  Science  and  Art.  169 


for  the  arrangement  of  her  own  bedroom,  and  groups  of  girls  are 
appointed  to  attend  to  the  service  of  meals.  Only  three-quarters  of 
an  hour  are  allotted  to  air  and  exercise,  though  each  student  must, 
in  addition,  spend  a  quarter  of  an  hour  in  the  open  air  before  going 
to  bed.  It  is  reported  that  the  practical  house-work,  as  well  as 
that  in  the  kitchen  and  laundry,  are  better  carried  out  than  the 
laboratory  practice,  though  this  is  much  appreciated.  Much  stress 
is  laid  on  individual  work  in  all  studies.  Practice  work  in 
teaching  is  obtained  by  means  of  the  special  classes  offered  to 
adults  and  children,  as  well  as  by  those  given  in  the  schools  of 
Worcester.  Each  student  has  also  to  give  a  specimen  lecture 
and  a  practical  lesson  in  each  science  before  her  companions,  her 
subject  being  assigned  to  her. 

The  comprehensive  syllabus  shows  a  just  appreciation  of  the 
scope  of  training  desirable;  but,  in  s])ite  of  the  long  hours  devoted 
by  the  students  to  their  studies,  the  crowded  curriculum  must 
nullify  its  own  object,  too  much  being  demanded  in  the  limited 
time.  The  Principal  is  so  much  interested  in  the  organisation  of 
this  work,  of  which  she  desires  to  promote  the  practical  utility,  that 
it  is  to  be  hoped  the  period  of  Normal  training,  at  least,  will  shortly 
be  doubled  in  length.  The  physical  and  mental  strain  to  which  the 
young  women  are  subjected,  and  to  which  their  appearance,  to  my 
eyes,  bore  witness,  is  not  the  only  matter  for  regret.  To  lower  the 
prestige  of  a  subject  by  entrusting  it  to  insufficiently-equipped 
teachers  is  a  matter  of  real  moment  where  public  opinion  is  still  in 
process  of  formation.  It  is  in  this  connection  that  I  foresee  that 
the  desirable  time  extension  will  be  made,  for  the  exceedingly 
high  standard  attained  by  the  graduates  in  Household  Science  at 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  or  at  the  Pratt  and  Drexel 
Institutes,  necessitates  that  other  Normal  courses,  in  the  interests 
of  their  future  diplomees,  must  follow  in  the  steps  of  those  at 
these  prominent  institutions. 

Tlie  work  of  the  Oread  Institute  is  not  confined  to  its  two  groups 
of  resident  students  ;  special  classes  for  clubs,  teachers,  house- 
keepers, domestics  and  cooks,  are  offered  in  afternoons  or  evenings 
as  most  convenient ;  twelve  weekly  lessons  in  classes  of  fifteen  each 
being  given  for  fees  of  $5  (£1)  and  $3  (12s.  6d.)  respectively.  A 
kindergarten  department  has  also  been  formed  in  connection 
with  the  Institute,  where  mothers  may  send  their  children  from 
four  years  of  age  ''to  be  instructed  in  the  A  B  C  of  proper  food 
w  hile  they  are  also  learning  the  A  B  C  of  language."  The  children 
are  taught,  through  games,  to  set  and  clear  a  table,  wash  dishes, 
sweep  a  room,  make  a  bed,  &c.  ;  a  weekly  fee  of  75  cents  (about 
3s.)  is  charged.  A  class  for  older  children,  from  10  to  12,  is  given 
on  Saturdays,  at  a  fee  of  25  cents  (about  Is.)  per  lesson.  Course 
for  private  individuals  are  also  offered  in  sewing  and  home 
dressmaking. 

The  Normal  course  at  the  Boston  Cooking  School,  which  extends  Boston 
from  the  first  Monday  in  January  to  the  last  Friday  in  June  (a  Cooking 
Bix  months'  course  of  two  sessions  daily,  even  Saturday  afternoon  School. 


1  70    U.S.A. — Private  Instihdiovs  for  Training  Teachers. 


(b)  Boston  being  occasionally  claimed)  is  another  illustration  of  a  short 
Schoof^^  training,  though  it  is  by  no  means  so  ambitious  as  that  just 
continued  described  at  the  Oread  Institute,  practice  being  confined  to  the 
kitchen  and  laundry.  The  course  includes  instruction  in  all 
branches  of  cookery  and  laundry  work,  with  lectures  and  examina- 
tions in  marketing,  the  physiology  of  digestion,  hygiene,  chemistry, 
bacteriology,  psychology,  and  pedagogy.  Special  attention  is 
given  to  the  arrangement  of  lessons  in  cookery  adapted  to  public 
school  and  hospital  work,  which  include  plans  for  kitchen  equip- 
ment and  the  purchase  of  utensils  and  supplies.  The  Normal 
students  are  admitted  to  all  demonstrations,  and  lectures  given 
at  the  School,  and  when  sufficiently  advanced  are  required  to 
give  demonstrations  before  their  companions,  who  subsequently  test 
and  criticise  the  dishes.  Diplomas  are  awarded  to  those  who  pass 
the  required  examinations  and  satisfactorily  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  course.  A  High  school  education  is  the  essential 
qualification  for  admission,  though  more  advanced  studies  are 
advantageous,  especially  previous  attendance  at  a  Normal  School. 
I  was  told  that  several  college  graduates  were  taking  the  course 
in  1901.  There  is  a  steadily  increasing  demand,  at  good  salaries, 
for  qualified  women,  and  graduates  are  helped  to  secure  })Ositions 
at  hospitals  and  institutions,  either  for  teaching  or  for  supervision, 
in  Grade  schools  and  elsewhere.  Grade  school  teachers  follow  this 
course  occasionally  to  take  a  diploma  in  cooking.  The  Principal 
also  told  me  that,  owing  to  the  number  of  good  openings  offered, 
several  women  previously  engaged  in  office  work  have  saved 
enough  money  to  support  themselves  while  they  took  the  coui-se, 
w^ith  subsequent  satisfactory  pecuniary  results.  The  tuition  fees 
are  $125  (about  £26),  payable  one  half  in  advance,  the  balance 
at  the  middle  of  the  term.  Board  and  lodging  may  be  obtained 
near  the  school  at  the  Y.W.C.A.,  the  boarding-house  for  students, 
or  in  private  families,  at  rates  varying  from  S5  (£1)  to  $9 
(£1  15s.)  per  week,  according  to  accommodation.  Each  pupil  must 
be  provided  with  light  w^ashing  dresses,  full-belted  white  aprons, 
sleeves  and  caps  to  be  w^orn  at  the  school.  The  number  in  the 
class  is  limited,  and  averages  thirty,  sub-divided  into  three  divisions, 
each  under  a  teacher ;  the  students  are  drawn  from  all  parts  of 
the  States  and  Canada.  There  is  no  laboratory  for  chemistry  or 
bacteriology ;  the  demonstrator  in  cooking  brings  her  own  micro 
scope  when  required  for  the  study  of  food  stufls.  Each  student 
has  twenty  practice  lessons  in  Public  School  work,  and  the  examina- 
tions are  conducted  by  outside  examiners.  The  premises  are  large 
and  airy,  three  kitchens  being  provided  for  the  accommodation  of 
the  normal  students  and  of  the  ladies  who  attend  private  classes. 
The  whole  organisation  is  the  outgrowth  of  Miss  Maria  Parloa's 
energy  and  enterprise ;  but  its  well-wishers  now  desire  to  see  the 
course  extended  and  the  accommodation  amplified  to  meet  the 
modern  requirements  in  this  class  of  training. 


4 


Training  of  Teachers  in  Household  Science  and  Art.  171 

An  interesting  four  years'  normal  course  in  Household  Economics  (c)  Lake  Erie 
is  that  provided  at  the  Lake  Erie  College  for  Women,  which  is 
situated  at  Painesville,  thirty  miles  east  of  Cleveland  and  three  rj^^^j^ -j^'^y 
miles  south  of  Lake  Erie.  Founded  some  forty  years  ago  by  private 
enterprise,  most  of  the  contributions  to  its  funds  have  come  from 
citizens  of  Painesville  and  Northern  Ohio  ;  the  College  buildings 
are  beautifully  situated  in  well-wooded  grounds  of  over  twenty 
acres.  Frequent  additions  to  the  original  accommodation  have 
proved  necessary,  and  Science  Hall,  in  which  are  located  the  lecture 
rooms  and  laboratories  for  physics,  chemistry,  l)iology,  botany, 
and  physiology,  dates  only  from  1897.  The  College  offers  three 
parallel  courses  which  lead  to  the  degrees  of  Bachelor  of  Arts, 
Bachelor  of  Science,  and  Bachelor  of  Literature.  Each  of  these 
extends  through  four  college  years  of  thirty-five  weeks  each,  and 
consists  of  specified  studies  for  the  first  two  years,  with  certain 
required  studies  and  a  definite  amount  of  elective  work  in  the  last 
two.  Entering  students  may  present,  in  place  of  examinations, 
certificates  from  accredited  schools,  with  the  understanding  that 
scholarship  after  entrance  must  be  satisfactory  ;  to  this  end  the 
work  of  the  first  term  is  probationary.  The  charge  for  board, 
room,  and  tuition  for  the  College  year  is  $250  (about  £50), 
The  tuition  fee  of  $75  (£15)  must  always  be  paid  in  advance, 
and  is  not  subject  to  return  or  deduction  ;  no  deduction  is  made 
for  board  either,  except  in  case  of  serious  illness  or  other  necessity  ; 
there  are  small  extra  charges  made  for  use  of  laboratories,  coaching, 
laundry  work,  and  extra  cleaning  of  students'  rooms.  The  fact 
that  the  College  is  worked  on  what  is  known  as  the  Mount  Holyoke* 
plan  is  probably  answerable  in  part  for  the  moderate  fees,  as  the 
institution  is  by  no  means  wealthy. 

The  original  idea  has  been  considerably  modified  at  Mount 
Holyoke,  but  Lake  Erie  College  holds  true  to  its  standard.  All 
students  are  required  to  do  a  certain  amount  of  daily  domestic  work, 
for,  with  the  exception  of  certain  rough  kitchen  processes,  no  service 
is  provided.  Each  girl  must  attend  to  her  own  bedroom,  and 
the  other  household  duties  are  shared,  each  student  taking  thirty- 
five  minutes  daily  for  twelve  weeks  at  a  time.  The  service  of  the 
three  daily  meals  devolves  upon  the  girls ;  breakfast  is  at  6.45, 
lunch  at  11.30,  and  dinner  at  5.30.  (I  confess  the  question  pre- 
sented itself  to  my  mind  whether  hygienic  requirements  were  being 

*The  Mount  Holyoke  plan,  referred  to  above,  recognises  the  cultural  as 
well  as  the  economical  value  of  housework,  and  is  so  designated  because  the 
Women's  College  at  Mount  Holyoke  was  founded  with  the  object  of  its 
illustration.  The  students  were  called  upon  to  participate  in  the  daily 
domestic  work,  except  cooking  and  scrubbing,  in  order  that,  while 
deriving  the  intellectual  stimulus,  and  the  broad  scholarship,  which 
tradition  associates  with  men's  collegiate  studies,  a  high  ideal  of  home 
life  should  be  developed  and  maintained  with  its  mutual  helpfulness 
and  its  self  restraint.  The  conception  attempted  to  combine  in  practice 
the  home  ideal  of  dignified  and  systematic  household  service  with  the  life 
of  a  scholar. 


U.S.A. — Private  Institutions  for  Training  Teachers. 


Training  of  Teachers  in  Household  Science. 


173 


considered  when  I  learned  that  no  refreshment  of  any  description  (c)  Lake  Erie 
was  provided  for  these  young  people  between  this  early  evening  ^^^J^^^^^ 
meal  and  the  next  morning's  breakfast,  although  study  for  two  or  ^^^^ 
three  hours  was  carried  on  before  retiring  to  bed.)  The  setting 
of  the  tables  and  washing  up  of  all  utensils  used  for  130  people  at 
each  meal  entails  no  small  labour,  but  is  carried  on  in  most  syste- 
matic fashion.  Ten  girls  are  appointed  weekly  to  lay  the  tables 
for  meals  and  to  serve  the  food,  which  is  l)rought  to  the  dining 
hall  hy  lifts.  Another  ten  wash  up,  working  in  pairs  ;  the  silver, 
glass,  and  small  china  are  collected  on  each  tabla,  then  little  wagons, 
mounted  on  wheels,  are  run  from  one  to  another,  carrying  howls 
of  soapy  water,  cloths,  etc.,  and  the  washing  up  is  done  on  the 
spot.  The  residue  of  bread  and  butter,  broken  meat,  etc.,  is  also 
collected  on  to  wheeled  wagons  and  sorted  ;  those  portions  suitable 
for  subsequent  use  being  set  aside  in  a  convenient  pantry.  Batches 
of  students  are  told  off  in  regular  order  to  attend  to  the  sitting 
rooms,  corridors,  and  staircases,  which  are  very  extensive.  The 
Principal,  Miss  Evans,  considers  that  the  active  interest  main- 
tained in  these  daily  life  processes  conduces  to  the  development  of 
the  social  spirit,  and  prevents  the  girls  acquiring  a  contempt  for 
household  duties,  while  it  affords  excellent  training  in  methodical 
habits  and  in  ready  adaptability  to  circumstances.  A  strong 
religious  atmosphere  pervades  the  college.  The  average  number 
of  students  is  somewhat  over  a  hundred,  who,  with  their  twenty- 
three  professors,  are  all  resident.  Systematic  work  in  })hysical 
training  is  carried  on  under  a  specially  trained  teacher  (unless 
students  are  excused  upon  examination),  who  most  wisely  includes 
base-ball,  basket  ball,  and  tennis  under  this  designation  ;  and  con- 
ducts all  her  classes  in  the  open  air  whenever  the  weather  permits. 

In  the  four  3^ears  Normal  course  in  Home  Economics*,  students 
entered  for  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science  take  prescribed  courses 
as  ''electives"  in  this  and  related  subjects,  and  receive  at 
their  graduation,  in  addition  to  their  degree,  a  Teacher's  Dijjloma 
in  Home  Economics ;  thus  they  combine  the  liheral  training 
of  a  college  course  with  special  training  along  one  line.  Their  first 
year's  chemistry  deals  with  non-metals,  and  includes  a  certain 
amount  of  qualitative  analysis,  to  which  three  laboratory  periods 
of  two  hours  each  and  one  lecture  period  weekly  are  devoted. 
An  introduction  to  organic  chemistry  follows  in  the  first  quarter  of 
the  second  year  ;  the  remaining  twenty-four  weeks  are  devoted  to 
s|:ecialw()rk,  of  which  the  distinguishing  feature  is  applications  to 
food  and  i^Viysiology  ;  this  course  also  includps  a  study  of  air,  water 
and  food  principles  from  the  standpoint  of  sanitary  and  physiological 
chemistry.  A  course  in  general  bacteriology,  in  which  cell  structure 
is  carefully  studied,  forms  an  introduction  to  botany,  which  in  this 
instance  consists  of  a  laboratory  study  of  ty]^ical  forms,  beginning 
with  rusts,  moulds  and  mosses,  leading  on  to  flowering  plants.  The 
laboratories  in  the  new  Science  building  give  every  opportunity  for 


*  See  Table  XXV. 


174    U.S.A. — Private  Institutions  for  Training  Teachers. 


(c)  Lake  Erie  the  pursuit  of  both  these  studies  ;  further  assistance  being  afforded 
^onUrmed  excellent  departmental  reference  library,  the  large  collection 

of  slides  for  microscope  and  lantern,  the  herbarium,  rich  in  local 
species,  and  the  fresh  material  for  study  easily  available  in  adjacent 
woods.  General  biology  and  a  short  course  on  anthropology  are 
also  open  to  seniors. 

The  immediate  study  of  Home  Economics  comprises  the  following 

courses  : — 

(1)  Household  Sanitation. —{The  house,  its  location,  construction 
and  care  ;  to  be  preceded  or  accompanied  by  courses  in  physics,  chemis- 
try, bacteriology  and  art.)  Time  required,  four  hours  a  week  for 
twelve  weeks. 

(2)  Chemistry  of  Foods  and  Cooking. — (Qualitative  and  quantita- 
tive analysis  of  foods  ;  detection  of  food  adulterations,  principles  of 
cooking  illustrated  by  laboratory  work.  To  be  preceded  by  general 
chemistry  and  physiology.)  Time  required,  six  hours  a  week  for 
twenty-four  weeks. 

(3)  Dietaries^  Theoretical  and  Practical. — (Planning  of  meals  for 
the  college  family  with  careful  estimate  of  cost.) 

(4)  Supervision  of  Domestic  Work. 

(5)  Home  Economics.~{A  review  and  unifying  of  all  previous  work 
relating  to  the  home,  expenditure,  values,  the  relation  of  the  home 
to  society.)   To  be  preceded  by  a  course  in  Economics. 

(6)  Methods  of  Teaching  Home  Economics. — To  be  preceded  by  a 
course  of  Pedagogy. 

The  equipment  for  the  practice  of  cookery  was  somewhat  limited 
at  the  time  of  my  visit,  though  the  kitchen  had  been  well  fitted  up 
and  supplied  with  sets  of  the  Pratt  Institute  Food  Analyses,  charts, 
and  sets  of  block  models.  Erom  the  first  a  certain  number  of 
students  had  shown  great  interest  in  this  course,  and  it  was  antici- 
pated that  considerable  impetus  would  be  given  to  the  practical  work 
in  this  department  by  the  new  teacher  of  cooking,  to  whose  charge 
it  was  to  be  entrusted  that  autumn. 

A  short  course  in  Elementary  Home  Economics  is  arranged  for 
general  students.  This  is  confined  to  an  introduction  to  the  study  of 
sanitation,  food,  principles  of  cooking,  and  dietaries ;  no  preparation 
in  the  sciences  is  required,  and  only  so  much  of  the  scientific  basis 
is  given  as  is  necessary  for  the  understanding  of  practical  methods. 
The  course  is  not  included  in  college  work,  but  is  sufficiently  in 
request  to  show  that,  to  an  increasing  degree,  educated  women 
desire  to  gain  an  insight  into  the  subjects  upon  which  the  right 
ordering  of  daily  life  is  based. 

All  students  must  attend  the  lectures  upon  hygiene  and  the 
classes  in  voice  culture.  The  science  work  required  of  all  also  in- 
cludes physiology  and  one  year's  work  in  physics  or  chemistry 
for  the  classical  and  scientific  courses  ;  physiology  and  six  months' 
work  in  physics  or  chemistry  for  the  literary  course.  The  obli- 
gatory courses  in  hygiene  and  physiology  are  conducted  by  Miss 
Luetta  Bentley,  who  is  profoundly  and  unusually  interested  in 
her  sdbjects.   The  elementary  courses  deal  with  the  principal 


Training  of  Teachers  in  Physical  Culture  and  Hygiene.  175 


bodily  functions  and  care  of  the  health  ;  they  are  illustrated  by 
dissections  of  an  Auzoux  dissectible  mannikin,  and  by  models  of  the 
eye,  ear,  heart,  larynx  and  head  ;  four  hours  a  week  for  twelve  weeks 
are  required  in  each  year ;  no  practical  work  is  carried  out  by 
the  students.  The  course  in  advanced  physiology  is  elective  ; 
it  is  devoted  to  a  microscopic  study  of  the  tissues  and  to  detailed 
study  of  the  special  functions  in  relation  to  health  and  disease ; 
it  covers  the  same  length  of  time  as  the  elementary.  The  fourth 
year  course  in  hygiene  and  physiology  is  again  obligatory  on  all 
graduating  students  ;  this  is  concerned  with  embryology,  the  sub- 
ject being  gradually  developed  from  plants,  through  fishes,  birds, 
and  mammals  to  human  beings.  With  the  assistance  of  a  collection 
of  special  models  and  specimens,  prepared  and  voluntarily  con- 
tributed by  leading  medical  men  in  Cleveland,  Miss  Bentley  is 
enabled  to  introduce  the  young  women  in  her  class  to  a  right  under- 
standing of  the  responsibihties  of  motherhood  and  the  wise  care  of 
infant  life.  The  results  of  her  tactful,  discreet,  and  sound  methods 
of  handling  this  subject  during  the  past  few  years  are  stated  to 
be  already  perceptible  beyond  the  college  walls ;  meanwhile 
she  is  the  recipient  of  many  grateful  letters  from  graduates 
who  have  subsequently  married  and  who  realise  their 
deep  obligations  to  her  teaching.  It  is  largely  owing  to 
Miss  Bentley's  enthusiasm  and  energy  that  the  general  equip- 
ment of  this  department  has  reached  its  present  complete  con- 
dition ;  valuable  charts  and  engravings,  skeletons  and  anatomical 
preparations  and  histological  specimens  constitute  a  small  museum. 
The  wide-reaching  influences  for  good  of  such  a  course,  conducted 
on  such  a  method,  are  incalculable,  though,  worthy  as  it  is  of 
imitation,  one  is  compelled  to  recognise  that  few  individuals 
combine  the  technical  knowledge,  enthusiasm,  discretion  and  skill 
which  distinguish  Miss  Bentley,  and  contribute  to  her  admirable 
success.  It  is  her  ideal  that  all  the  science  work  carried  on  in  the 
college  shall  be  brought  to  bear  in  its  application  on  the  study  of 
hygiene ;  and  she  is  fortunate  in  having  as  a  colleague  Miss  Edna 
Day  (a  graduate  of  Michigan  University,  the  recently  appointed 
professor  of  chemistry,  biology,  and  home  economics  in  Lake  Erie 
College),  whose  interest  and  training  well  qualify  her  to  further 
develop  the  Normal  Household  Science  course. 

When  writing  in  Part  I.  of  the  hygiene  and  physical  culture  Training  of 
courses  obligatory  in  most  colleges,  no  reference  was  made  to  the  Teachers  in 
sources  from  which  the  professors  of  these  subjects  are  drawn.  This 
Report  would  be  incomplete  were  no  allusion  made  to  one  of  the  Hyoiene.'— 
most  prominent  of  these — the  Boston  Normal  School  of  Gymnastics  Boston 
Mrs.  Hemenway,  in  addition  to  her  pioneer  work  in  the  establish-  Normal 
mont  of  the.  first  public  school  kitchen  in  tlie  United  States  and  the  School  of 
inauguration  of  the  first  Normal  school  for  teachers  of  Household  TabYe^XXVI 
Arts,  also,  in  1889,  founded  the  Boston  Normal  School  of  Gym- 
nastics.   Tlie  promotion  of  true  womanliness  was  her  life-long 
object,  and  she  looked  for  its  attainment  by  two  means — i.e.,  by  the 


176    U.S.A. — Private  Institutions  for  Training  Teachers. 


Boston  intelligent  study  of  the  household  arts,  and  the  perfect  develop- 
Normal  ment  of  physique  by  a  well-planned  course  in  physical  training, 
G^^nastics  ^^^^^  upon  the  knowledge  and  practice  of  hygiene.  Mi's.  Hemenway 
—continued.  ^"^^  aided  in  her  work  by  Miss  Homans,  at  present  Principal  of 
this  Normal  School  of  Physical  Training,  who  has  Ijeen  its  prime 
organiser  for  a  quarter  of  a  century.  Opportunities  are  here 
offered  to  men  and  women  to  prepare  themselves  to  conduct 
gymnasia  or  to  direct  physical  training  according  to  sound  methods. 
To  this  end  thorough  instruction  is  provided,  not  only  in  gym- 
nastics, games  and  dancing,  but  also  in  those  principles  of  physi- 
ology, i)sychology,  and  the  hygiene  of  the  hmnan  body,  upon 
which  physical  training  must  always  depend.  A  High  School 
certificate  or  its  equivalent  is  required  of  entering  students,  as 
well  as  proof  of  a  sound  elementary  acquaintance  with  physics  and 
chemistry.  The  courses  of  instruction  include  a  pursuance  of 
both  these  subjects,  in  addition  to  practical  physiology  and 
histology  ;  the  theory  of  gymnastics ;  corrective  gymnastics  and 
massage  ;  gymnastic  games  ;  dancing,  swimming,  emergency  work  ; 
psychology,  educational  theory,  and  practice  lessons  with  Grammar 
School  and  High  School  children,  as  well  as  with  private  classes  and 
instruction  to  shop  women  in  the  evening.  The  names  of  the 
instructors  answer  for  the  admirable  character  of  the  training ; 
they  are  drawn  chiefly  from  the  professoi-s  at  Harvard  Univei'sity 
and  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology.  The  courses  in 
physics  and  chemistry  are  given  in  the  ample  laboratories  of  the 
latter  building  ;  the  work  in  both  branches  of  study  has  special 
reference  to  preparation  for  the  study  of  physiology  and  gym- 
nastics. Instruction  in  histology  and  physiology  is  given  by 
means  of  lectures,  recitations,  demonstrations,  and,  in  histology, 
by  laboratory  work  on  the  part  of  the  student.  The  course  is 
planned  so  as  to  give  a  clear  conception  of  the  methods  and  results 
of  physiological  investigation,  and  is  made  to  bear  directly  upon 
the  subject  of  personal  hygiene  in  its  widest  sense.  To  this  end, 
thirt}^  hours  are  devoted  to  conferences,  in  which  there  is  the 
fullest  possible  discussion,  on  the  part  of  students  and  instructor, 
of  the  conditions  of  healthy  life.  Among  the  topics  considered 
in  this  part  of  the  work  are  the  relations  of  heredity  and  environ- 
ment to  health  ;  the  effects  of  use  and  disuse  of  organs  ;  the  physio- 
logical effects  of  muscular  exercises ;  clothing,  bathing,  and  the 
prevention  of  colds  and  other  inflammatory  processes ;  feeding, 
fatigue,  rest,  and  sleep.  During  the  entire  period  the  amount 
of  didactic  teaching  is  reduced  to  the  minimum  ;  and  the  students 
are,  above  all,  encouraged  to  work  out  for  themselves  the  appli- 
cations of  physiology  to  the  healthy  life  of  the  organism. 

Much  thought  has  been  devoted  by  Dr.  Theodore  Hough  (Massa- 
chusetts Institute  of  Technology)  to  this  eminently  practical  course 
in  physiology  and  hygiene;  he  considers  it  advisable  to  include  a  httle 
elementary  bacteriology ;  to  this  only  from  fifteen  to  twenty  hours 
can  be  given,  but  it  is  very  carefully  done,  great  pains  being  taken 
with  the  drawings  and  microscopic  work ;  by  this  means  the  cellula^ 


Training  of  Teachers  in  Physical  Culture  and  Hygiene.  17? 


TABLE  XXVI. 
BOSTON  NORMAL  SCHOOL  OF  GYMNASTICS. 


Two  Years'  Course  of  Instruction  for  Normal  Students. 


Physics  with  demonstrations   30  hours 

Chemistry  with  laboratory  work   45  hours 

Histology  and  Physiology  and  Hygiene  with  laVjoratory  work  195  hours 

Kinesiology  and  Theory  of  Gymnastics       -      -             -  100  hours 

Descriptive  and  topographical  Anatomy      -      -      -      -  86  hours 

Symptomatology  ---------  25  hours  ; 

Theory  of  Gymnastics  and  Art  of  Teaching         -             -  70  hours 

Psychology  and  Pedagogy   40  hours 

Pedagogy  and  Art  of  Education   30  hours 

Lectures  on  spinal  curvature   12  hours 

Lectures  and  practical  exercises  in  Applied  Anthropometry 

(in  sections) 

Corrective  gymnastics  and  massage   95  hours 

Instruction  in  gymnastic  games    -       -       -                    -  30  hours 

Instruction  in  dancing  -       -    30  hours 

^Esthetic  dancing        .      -      -      -             ...  30  hours 

Swimming  (in  sections)  -       -       -       -       -       -       -       -  12  hours 

Athletics  (lectures  and  illustrations)   10  hours 

Instruction  in  fencing  (elective)  

Emergencies,  with  practical  instruction  in  bandaging  -       -  15  hours 

Daily  instruction  in  gymnastics  

Daily  review  in  gymnastics  and  instruction  in  teaching 

Teaching  classes  of  children   85  hours 


C490.  M 


178        U.S.A.— Private  Institutions  for  Training  Teachers. 


Boston  structure  of  the  simple  tissues  of  the  body  can  be  more  intelligently 

Normal  studied  (epithelium,  connective  tissue,  muscle  and   nerve  cells) ; 

School  of  embryology  he  approaches  from  the  general  philosophical  stand- 

Gymnastics  point,  which  he  believes  to  have  real  pedagogical  value.  In  his 
—continued.  opinion  not  less  than  five  hours  a  week  for  a  year  must  be  devoted 
to  the  study  of  anatomy,  physiology  and  hygiene,  practical  and  theo- 
retical, if  the  student  is  to  teach  the  subject  subsequently  in  Grammar 
and  High  Schools.  Like  many  other  scientific  men,  he  deplores  the 
limitations  hitherto  imposed  by  the  state  legislation  as  to  the  teaching 
of  these  subjects,  one  regrettable  result  of  which  has  been  the  un- 
willingness of  experts  to  write  text  books,  which  the  law  requires  to 
be  submitted  to  a  lay  committee  prior  to  acceptance  ;  but  his  con- 
sciousness of  the  loss  to  the  rising  generation  which  results  from  this 
attitude  has  prompted  him  and  his  colleague,  Professor  Sedgwick,  to 
consider  the  preparation  of  a  manual,  which  should  be  at  once  reliable 
and  acceptable  ;  there  is  evidence  also  of  a  movement  to  secure  desir- 
able modification  of  existing  legislation  on  the  teaching  of  hygiene 
and  physiology. 

Much  attention  is  directed  in  this  course  to  the  science  of  move- 
ments and  to  corrective  gymnastics,  the  object  of  which  is  to 
impress  the  avoidance  of  harmful  exercises  and  the  use  of  pre- 
ventive measures.  The  etiology,  development,  and  pathology  of 
lateral  curvature  of  the  spine  are  dealt  with  so  far  as  is  necessary  to  a 
practical  understanding  of  the  subject ;  special  stress  is  laid  upon  the 
examination  and  detection  of  this  condition  as  found  in  children 
of  school  age,  with  illustrations  of  the  practical  methods  of  recording 
such  changes.  The  question  of  treatment  is  taken  u])  through  a 
consideration  of  the  principles  underl3ang  the  conditions  which 
demand  attention  and  of  the  range  of  application  of  the  different 
means  which  may  be  employed.  In  the  clinics  of  the  Children's 
Hos])ital,  and  in  the  school  itself,  the  students  acquire 
considerable  experience  in  the  gymnastic  treatment  of  various 
deformities,  as  well  as  in  the  practical  apj)lication  of  massage. 
The  brief  course  in  Symptomatology  is  intended  to  convey  to  the 
minds  of  the  students  an  estimate  of  the  general  appearance  of 
the  more  common  diseases.  Two  reasons  are  advanced  in  support 
of  such  instruction,  first,  that  it  enables  the  students  in  their 
future  work  as  teachers  to  detect  conditions  of  doubtful  health 
in  applicants  for  gymnastic  training,  and  to  warn  them  to  consult 
a  physician  before  undertaking  the  work  :  second,  that  it  fits  them 
to  comprehend  more  intelligently  the  information  given  by  phy- 
sicians regarding  patients  whom  they  may  advise  to  take  gymnastic 
training. 

A  most  careful  physical  examination  is  always  made  previous  to 
the  admission  of  candidates ;  expert  advice  is  at  once  taken  on  any 
doubtful  point,  free  of  expense  to  the  would-be  student.  The 
physical  training  is  undoubtedly  severe,  but  great  consideration 
is  shown,  while  students  are  expected  to  co-operate  with  their 
instructors  by  the  exercise  of  discretion  and  by  the  conduct  of  their 
daily  life  along  healthy  lines.  The  aesthetic  dancing  which  enters 
into  the  curricuhmi  of  the  second  year  is  a  form  of  applied  gym- 
nastics, in  which  the  power  of  co-ordination  and  the  sense  of  rhythm 


Training  of  Teachers  in  Physical  Culture  and  Hygiene.  179 


are  especially  trained.  The  movements  are  more  complicated,  less  Boston 
localised,  less  sharply  defined  than  are  formal  gymnastics  ;   they  g^.j^^j'^^f 
are  continuous,   rhythmical,   of  constantly  varying  character,  Grymnastics 
and  involve  blended  but  partial  action  of  a  great  number  of  joints  —co7itinued. 
and  muscles,  rather  than  powerful,  complete  action  of  a  few.  The 
practical  results  obtained  are  grace  and  ease  of  movement  and  bear- 
ing, together  with  a  considerable  amount  of  endurance.  It  seemed 
to  me  that  they  constitute  a  valuable  addition  to  the  more  ordinary 
course  of  training,  for  they  develop  a  graceful  control  of  muscular 
power,  charming  to  the  beholder  and  refining  to  the  possessor. 

The  school  itself  contains  rooms  of  unusual  proportions.  In 
addition  to  the  gymnasium  proper,  which  has  an  area  of  4,000 
square  feet,  there  are  lecture-rooms,  an  anthropometric-room,  a 
library,  a  gymnasium  for  corrective  work,  etc.  Shower  baths  and 
ample  dressing-room  accommodation  are  provided,  while,  thanks 
to  the  well-selected  aspect,  all  the  rooms  are  well  lighted  and 
flooded  with  sunshine.  The  equipmeiit  of  the  school  includes 
forty  microscopes,  mounted  and  disarticulated  skeletons,  prepa- 
rations of  joints,  a  life-size  Auzoux  model  of  the  human  body, 
and  a  large  number  of  anatomical  charts,  etc.,  besides  a  complete 
set  of  anthropometric  instruments.  The  library  contains  alwut 
1,000  volumes,  brought  chiefly  from  Europe  ;  these  are  largely 
professional  in  character  and  include,  in  addition  to  the  purely 
technical  matter,  standard  works  on  psychology,  metaphysics, 
sociology,  natural  science,  and  education. 

The  personal  interest  taken  by  the  staff  in  their  work  for  this 
school  impressed  me  to  a  marked  degree  ;  no  pains  seemed  spared  to 
adequately  prepare  the  students  for  their  Avork,  and  the  thorough- 
ness of  the  training  struck  me  forcibly.  Miss  Homans  does  not 
consider  the  experimental  stage  of  the  training  to  be  yet  passed  ; 
she  would  like  the  two  years  to  become  a  four  years'  course,  though 
compelled  to  await  the  realisation  of  her  amljitious  ideal  until  subse- 
quent remuneration  is  calculated  upon  a  scale  which  would  comj^en- 
sate  for  the  investment  this  prolongation  would  involve.  She  quotes 
insufficient  opportunity  for  practice  in  teaching  and  the  difficulty 
of  raising  the  standard  of  admission,  as  the  existing  prominent 
defects,  together  with  the  pressure  of  study  which  necessitates  a 
great  deal  of  hdjiie  work.  The  individual  development  and  mental 
growth  of  each' student 'is  carefully  studied;  Miss  Homans  deals 
personally  in  a  private  interview  with  any  pupil  with  whom  she,  or 
any  member  of  the  staff,  has  cause  to  be  dissatisfied.  Students  are 
fequired  to  be  careful  of  their  personal  appearance,  and  at  all  times 
to  be  neat  in  their  dress,  in  the  belief  that  professionals  cannot  be 
too  careful  on  these  points.  Black  serge  is  used  for  the  gymnastic 
costume,  a  red  tie  distinguishes  the  junior  class,  while  the  senioi^ 
wear  orange.  One  hundred  graduates  are  now  earning  from 
S800  (about  £1G0)  to  S2,000  (about  £400)  a  year,  and  only 
those  who  for  family  reasons,  such  as  marriage,  do  not  desire  to 
make  use  of  their  certificate  remain  unemployed.    All  applications 

6490.  M  2 


180 


U.S.A. — Private  Technical  Instituted. 


pass  through  Miss  Honians'  hands,  and  she  has  devised  a  system 
of  promotion,  which  gives  advancement  to  experience,  backed  by 
sound  knowledge.  All  graduates  can,  indeed  are  advised  to,  return 
periodically  for  further  exercise  and  study — and  they  avail  them- 
selves fully  of  the  privilege  ;  they  are  in  such  demand,  that  unusual 
advantages  are  in  most  cases  afforded  them  to  visit  Boston  for 
this  purpose.  The  male  students  are  generally  members  of  the 
medical  profession,  who  have  made  a  speciaHty  of  bodily  deformity. 
The  cost  of  training  is  about  £170,  inclusive  of  board  and  lodging. 
The  tuition  fees  and  incidentals  average  £18  to  £20  a  year. 

D. — Technical  Institutes. 

There  is  no  more  striking  illustration  of  the  growing  national 
faith  in  the  importance  of  affording  to  young  people  adequate 
opportunities  for  industrial  as  well  as  for  purely  intellectual  train- 
ing than  is  found  in  the  Technical  Institutes  of  the  United  States. 
This  faith  is  certainly  know  n  by  its  works :  from  east  to  west, 
from  north  to  south,  it  has  found  expression  in  the  erection 
and  endowment  of  numberless  such  schools.    Of  these,  the  inten- 
tion is  invariably  excellent ;  and  of  the  greater  number  it  may 
be  also  truthfully  said  that  they  are  handsome  specimens  of 
architecture,  usually  the  pride  of  the  city  to  which  they  belong. 
Their  spacious  lecture  halls  and  laboratories  are  equipped  with 
the  latest  and  best  appliances  ;  the  staff  of  professoi^s  is  selected 
from  the  most  highly  qualified  and  experienced  teachers  available 
for  the  funds  at  the  disposal  of  the  Committee  ;  and  their  students 
are  imbued  with  an  esprit  de  corps  which  at  the  same  time 
stimulates  study  by  the  desire  it  fostei-s  to  maintain  the  prestige 
of  the  institute,  and  develops  a  healthy  spirit  of  corporate  life. 
Typical       It  is   hard   to  resist   the  temptation  to  enlarge  upon  the  good 
Courses  in    work    carried    on   in    the    teaching    of    Household  Science 
icience^^      (General  and  Normal   courses)  and  Hygiene  in  a  considerable 
(General  and  number   of    these    Institutes.     The  increased  attention  which 
Normal       hygiene  claims  is  clearly  observable  in  the  emphasis  laid  on 
andirT^^      a  study  of  the  sanitary  aspects  and  applications  of  such  subjects 
Hygiene.  architecture,  engineering,  bacteriology,  and  physiology — the 

last  two  are  frequently  obligatory — upon  all  science  students  ;  and 
I  was  surprised  to  find  courses  on  sanitation  and  personal  hygiene 
required  even  of  those  who  had  selected  classical  or  literary  studies. 
(a)  Bradley  For  instance,  at  the  well-known  Bradley  Institute  at  Peoria,  Illinois, 
Institute,     courses  in  physiology,  bacteriology,  and  hygiene,  based  upon 
l^eoria.        biology,  chemistry,  or  physics,  are  taken  by  the  science  group  in 
its  fifth  year ;  while  sanitation,  food  work,  or  dietary  studies, 
based  upon  the  same  fundamental  sciences,  are  required  of  the 
classics,  literature,  and  general  groups  in  their  sixth  year. 

It  appears  to  be  quite  usual  to  arrange  courses  of  study  in  these 
Institutes  so  that  a  student  may  enter  at  the  end  of  a  Grade  School 
course  and  continue  in  attendance  for  six  years.  This  ensures 
time  for  the  acquirement,  first,  of  a  broad  and  practical  general 


Typical  Courses  in  Domestic  Science  and  Hygiene. 


181 


education,  corresponding  to  a  general  High  School  course  ;  and 
subsequently  of  the  special  preparation  essential  to  the  selected 
trade  or  profession.  A  limited  amount  of  specialisation  is  allowed 
in  the  third  and  fourth  year,  but  it  is  in  the  last  two  that  the 
special  work  is  carried  forward  with  energy,  usually  with  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  freedom.  Thus  it  comes  about  that  the 
students'  courses  in  the  subjects  of  this  Report  become  annually 
more  prolonged  and  thorough.  A  further  illustration  in  this 
connection  may  be  drawn  from  the  Bradley  Institute.  The  required 
study  of  physiology  comprehends  not  only  the  structure  and 
functions  of  the  body,  but  time  is  afforded  for  a  careful  microscopic 
study  of  the  tissues,  as  well  as  for  carrying  out  some  of  the  more 
simple  physiological  experiments.  The  course  in  bacteriology  and 
hygiene  is  sufficiently  prolonged  to  carr}^  the  student  on  from  a 
general  introduction  to  these  subjects,  through  the  cultivation 
and  systematic  study  of  the  common  non-pathogenic  organisms 
and  their  effects,  to  the  more  distinctively  hygienic  aspects  of 
bacteriology,  such  as  the  examination  of  water,  air,  soil,  milk  ;  in 
conclusion,  some  problems  of  public  health  are  discussed.  Again, 
the  sanitary  science  course  includes,  besides  personal  and  general 
domestic  hygiene,  a  study  of  the  details  of  sanitary  house  con- 
struction, of  building  materials  and  of  house  decoration  ;  practical 
treatment  is  pursued  in  this  course  as  far  as  possible,  extending 
even  to  visits  to  furniture  stores,  and  to  the  selection  of  suitable 
articles. 

Typical  examples  of  Technical  Institutes  which  offer  General  and 
Normal  courses  in  Domestic  Science  may  be  found  in  the  Pratt 
Institute,  Brooklyn,  N.Y. ;  the  Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia ; 
and  the  Mechanics'  Institute,  Rochester.  Perhaps  in  respect  of 
equipment,  the  Eastman  building,  at  the  latter  school,  riiight  take 
first  place,  though  its  Normal  courses  have  not  been  conducted  for 
a  sufficient  time,  or  under  such  conditions,  as  to  place  its  graduates 
as  yet  in  the  front  rank  attained  so  justly  by  those  of  Pratt  and 
Drexel. 

The    handsome    technological    school    opened    in    1900,    at  {b)  Eastman 
Rochester,  New  York,  is  the  outcome  of  the  munificence  of  Mechanics' 
Mr.     George     Eastman,     who     gave     $200,000     for     the  {"J^^j^^J^^^^^^^ 
purpose,    supplemented    by    princely    donations    from    Mrs.  N.Y. 
Henry  Bevier   and   others.     The  Institute  previously  carried 
on  its  educational  work  in  detached  buildings,  poorly  adapted  for 
the  purpose.    Space,  light,  ventilation,  and  heat  have  now  beeii 
provided  without  stint ;  the  large  rooms,  wide  halls,  and  abundant 
provision  of  apartments  for  officers,  teachers,  and  caretakers, 
(covering  a  large  area.    As  far  as  practicable,  the  building  has  been 
divided  between  industrial  and  fine  arts  and  domestic  science,  the 
latter  department  having  been  established  in  the  south  end.  On 
the  first  floor,  for  the  Department  of  Domestic  Science,  is  found  a 
large  demonstration  room  used  for  lectures  and  instruction  to  large 
audiences.    Close  to  this  demonstration  room  is  the  first  group 


182 


U.S.A. — Private  Technical  Institutes. 


Mechanics 
Institute, 
Rochester 
N.Y.- 

continued. 


(b)  Eastman  of  Domestic  Science  rooms,  tliose  devoted  to  cookery ;  a  small 
dmiiig-room  and  butler's  pantry  which  belong  to  this  suite  are  used 
by  Normal  students  for  planning  and  serving  the  luncheons  and 
diimers  required  as  part  of  their  training.  Beyond  the  group  of 
Normal  class-rooms  are  three  large  kitchens,  each  with  pantry 
and  other  adjuncts,  used  for  day  and  evening  classes.  These  con- 
stitute one  of  the  most  interesting  series  of  rooms  to  be  found  in  the 
building.  The  second  floor  is  arranged  on  a  similar  plan.  On  the 
south  side  is  a  series  of  six  large  rooms  used  l^y  the  Department  of 
Dressmaking ;  they  are  exceptionally  well  arranged,  and  have 
abundance  of  light  both  from  the  side  and  from  skylights  in  the 
roof.  A  very  attractive  room  is  devoted  to  the  study  of  art  history  ; 
a]id  an  ofhce  for  the  head  of  the  Department  completes  the  suite. 
Close  at  hand  are  the  millinery  class-room  and  teachers'  room,  while 
continuing  around  to  the  rear  are  the  first,  second,  and  third  grade 
sewing  rooms  in  the  order  named.  The  laundry  is  placed  in  the 
basement ;  the  equipment  includes  nine  porcelain  tubs,  an  immense 
boiler,  a  dryer,  and  other  essentials.* 

The  branches  of  study  offered  in  these  departments  of  Domestic 
Science  and  Art  are  cookery,  home  science,  laundry  work,  a  house- 
keeper's course,  a  course  in  general  and  household  chemistr3% 
drawing,  sewing,  dressmaking,  millinery,  and  physical  culture. 
These  are  arranged  to  meet  the  requirements  of  several  classes  of 
pupils. 

(1)  General  Courses,  which  afford  practical  instruction  in  all 
the  subjects  that  })ertain  to  the  daily  routine  of  home  work.  A 
pupil  ma\  enter  for  a  single  term  or  for  a  year,  taking  up  for  special 
study  one  or  more  subjects  in  which  she  is  particularly  interested. 
There  are  three  terms  of  three  months  each  in  day  and  evening 
classes.  The  firet,  second,  or  third  grade  Avork  in  any  subject  may 
be  taken  up  at  the  beginning  of  either  autumn,  winter,  or  spring 
term. 

(2)  Certificate  Courses,  i.e.,  separate  courses  in  cookery,  home 
science,  laundry  work,  needlework  or  dressmaking,  so  carefully 
systematised  and  graded  that  a  student  may  specialise  in  a  particular 
branch  and  become  fitted  to  take  it  up  as  a  means  of  livelihood. 
Courses  of  twelve  lessons  each  in  advanced,  invalid  and  fancy 
cooking  are  also  offered  to  meet  the  needs  of  ]:)rofessional  students, 
■  uch  as  physicians  and  nurses,  or  confectioners,  respectively.  Cer- 
tificates are  granted  to  those  who  complete  any  of  these  courses 
satisfactorily  and  pass  the  required  examinations. 

(3)  Normal  Courses,  which  give  such  special  training  as  shall 
fit  young  women  to  become  teachers  of  the  various  branches  in- 
cluded in  the  domestic  arts  and  sciences.  For  admission,  at  least 
a  High  School  education  or  its  equivalent  is  required.  The  course 
may  be  completed  in  two  years  of  five  days  a  week.  To  those  who 
Batisfactorily  complete  the  full  Normal  course  of  two  years  the 
diploma  of  the  Institute  is  awarded.    The  Board  of  Education  is 


*  See  Fig.  VL 


Eastman's  Buildings.    Mechanics'  Institute,  Rochester,  New  York. 
6490.    lo  face  page  182. 


Typical  Courses  in  Domestic  Science  and  Hygiene.  183 


authorised  to  employ  graduates  of  this  Normal  course  to  teach 
domestic  science  and  art  in  the  city  schools ;  for  which  reason  it 
is  satisfactory  to  add  that  it  includes  an  excellent  course  in  public 
hygiene.  Tliis  deals  with  contagious  diseases,  disinfection,  food 
inspection  and  protection,  and  last,  but  by  no  means  least,  school 
hygiene.  In  the  Normal  training  in  Domestic  Art  special  atten- 
tion is  given  to  the  theory  of  colour,  colour  combinations,  and  a 
study  of  colour  schemes  from  textiles  and  natural  objects  ;  study  of 
light  and  shade  from  drapery  ;  and  of  line  and  pose  from  the 
works  of  great  masters.  House  furnishing  and  house  sanitation 
are  included  in  this  course,  while  physiology,  hygiene,  and  physical 
culture  must  be  studied  by  students  of  either  group  of  Domestic 
subjects. 

The  tuition  fees  vary  from  $3  to  $27  per  term,  according  to  the 
course  ;  in  all  cases  they  are  reduced  for  evening  classes. 

I  have  selected  as  a  detailed  example  of  a  six  years'  Technical  (c)  Lewis 
Institute  course  in  Domestic  Economy  for  general  students  that  Qjj^j^d^^Q^' 
carried  on  under  Miss  L.  C.  Hunt  at  the  Lewis  Institute,  Chicago.  Table^^* 
The  Institute  owes  its  existence  to  the  late  Allen  C.  Lewis,  ^^  ho  XXVII. 
left   a   large  part  of  his   estate  ($550,000)    for   its  support 
and  provided  for  its  organisation.    The  estate  was  so  efficiently 
managed,  that  when  handed  over  to  trustees  in  1895,  eighteen  years 
after  Mr.  Lewis's  death,  it  amounted  to  $1,000,000  (£200,000). 

The  work  of  the  Department  of  Science  and  Literature  is  arranged 
in  three  divisions  : — (1)  Preparatory;  covering  what  is  usually  done  in 
die  first  two  years  in  a  High  School.  (2)  Academic  ;  covering  the  work 
of  the  last  two  High  School  years.  (3)  Collegiate ;  corresponding 
to  the  first  two  years  of  a  college  course.  Each  candidate  for  admission 
is  required  to  furnish  a  testimonial  of  honourable  dismissal  from  the 
school  last  attended  ;  he  must  also  refer  to  two  persons,  preferably 
his  teachers  or  employers,  from  whom  information  about  him  may  be 
obtained.  Candidates  from  Chicago  Grammar  Schools  and  other 
schools  of  equal  rank,  who  ha\e  completed  satisfactorily  the  work  of 
the  eighth  grade,  may  be  admitted  without  examination,  upon  recom- 
mendation of  the  principal  of  the  school  from  which  they  come.  The 
uniform  cost  of  instruction  for  full  regular  work  is  20  (£4)  a 
quarter  of  twelve  weeks  ;  a  reduction  is  made  for  a  single  coiu-se  of 
instruction  and  for  evening  classes.  1\\  the  Preparatory  division 
most  of  the  lessons  are  prepared  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher 
for  whom  the  work  is  being  done,  for  which  purpose  the 
students  meet  their  teacher  in  his  class  room,  library,  laboratory, 
or  workshop ;  these  are  equipped  with  such  appliances,  in 
the  way  of  books,  apparatus,  or  tools,  as  will  enable  him 
to  make  his  teaching  most  effective,  and  to  furnish  his  students 
with  whatever  they  need  for  the  successful  preparation  of  their 
lessons.  In  all  divisions  classes  are  limited  in  number  to  twenty- 
five,  so  that  each  student  may  receive  such  individual  instruction 
as  he  needs,  and  be  tested  each  day  as  to  the  conscientiousness  wdth 
which  he  has  prepared  the  work  assigned.  In  the  Preparatory  Division; 
a  "  credit  "  signifies  the^  successful  completion  of  a  twelve  weeks' 
course  of  instruction,  requiring  from  ten  to  twelve  hours  a  week, 
counting  time  of  preparation  and  recitation.  To  obtain  the  Prepara- 
tory certificate  the  student  must  secure  twenty-one  credits,  of  which 
sixteen  are  prescribed  as  follows  : — English,  three  credits  ;  Algebra 


181 


U.S.A. — Private  Technical  Institutes. 


(c)  Lewis  and  Geometry,  four  ;  Latin,  four  ;  Science,  two  ;  Drawing,  Shop- 

Institute,  work  or  Domestic  Economy,  three.    To  follow  four  of  the  essential 

Chicago —  courses  at  a  time  means  nine  to  twelve  hours'  work  a  day.  More 

continued.  advanced  students  are  trained  in  methods  of  greater  self-dependence, 

though,  thanks  to  the  large  and  efficient  staff  secured  by  means  of 
Mr.  Lewis'  liberal  endowment,  all  studies  are  conducted  under  desirable 
supervision.  Examinations  are  conducted  by  the  staff,  except  in  the 
case  of  students  who  are  subsequently  appointed  under  the  Chicago 
Board  of  Education,  when  they  are  subjected  to  a  further  examination 
by  that  body. 

The  course  in  Domestic  Economy  carried  on  under  Miss  L.  C. 
Hunt  at  the  Lewis  Institute,  Chicago,  covers  six  yeare.    It  includes 
the  chemistry  of  daity  life,  cooking,  sewing,  home  sanitation  (this  at 
present  taught  largely  theoretically),  and  physiology.  Biolog3% 
chemistry,  and  physics  are  still  "  elective  "  subjects  ;  for  the  Normal 
couree,  to  be  shortly  initiated,  they  will  be  pre-requisites  ;  but  even 
now  they  are  frequently  elected,  as,  by  pursuing  them,  in  addition 
to  other  coui-ses  in  this  department,  a  student  can  qualify  for  the 
B.Sc.  degree,  while  she  also  prepares  herself  to  teach  domestic 
economy,  or  lays  the  foundation  for  the  future  professional  study 
of  medicine  or  nursing.    The  average  age  of  the  students  is  seven- 
teen ;  about  100  were  following  the  course  at  the  time  of  my  visit. 
In  general  terms,  it  may  be  stated  that  ten  hours  a  week  are  given 
for  one  year  respectively  to  cooking,  sewing,  housekeeping,  and 
domestic  economy  (which  includes  house  sanitation,  and  is  incul- 
cated to  a  large  extent  by     field  w^ork        A  year's  work  in 
])hysics  and  three  or  four  years'  work  in  chemistry  are  required 
of  those  who  elect  these  subjects  ;   the  latter  embraces  general 
chemistry,    qualitative    and   quantitative   analysis    and  some 
organic     chemistry ;      general     biology     absorbs     a  year, 
to  which  the  courses  in  animal  physiology  and  hygiene  form  a  con- 
tinuation; these,  again,  cover  three  terms  of  ten  hours'  work  a  week. 
In  general  biology  each  student  studies  the  gross  and  microscojuc 
anatomy  of  at  least  one  representative  of  each  of  the  chief  grou])s 
into  which  plants  and  animals  are  divided,   and  assists  in  the 
preparation  of  material  for  microscopic  study.    In  hj'giene  atten- 
tion is  concentrated  on  a  study  of  those  factors  in  man's  structural 
environment  which  chiefly  affect  his  physical  well-being,  such  as 
disease  germs,  household  and  public  sanitation,  exercise,  clothing, 
etc.    Practical  histology  enters  into  the  physiology  course  ;  no 
text-book  is  employed,  but  many  reference  l30oks  are  at  the  disposal 
of  the  students,  e.g.,  Schaffer's  "  Histology,"  and  Howell's  "  Dis- 
section of  the  Dog,"  which  is  followed  in  the  dissection  of  rabbits. 
The  results  from  the  study  of  biology  and  physiology  are  con- 
sidered most  successful ;  students  never  before  interested  become 
almost  invariably  genuinely  absorbed  in  these  subjects,  the  scope  of 
which  promotes,  in  addition,  genera]   culture.    Sixteen  is  the 
average  number  in  the  housekeepers'  or  cooking  course.  Judging 
by  the  lessons  I  was  able  to  attend,  the  students  are  called  upon 
to  do  their  own  thinking,  and  it  did  not  surprise  me  that  they 
should  be  recorded  as  developing  intelligence  under  the  process. 


Typical  Courses  in  Domestic  Science  and  Hygiene. 


185 


In  addition  to  school  practice,  they  are  required  to  carry  out  at  home 
processes  learnt  by  demonstration  in  cookery,  these  demon- 
strations being  given  by  Miss  Hunt,  or  her  assistant,  once  or  twice 
daily.  The  practical  work  is  chiefly  individual,  though,  in  the  case 
of  a  searching  lesson  on  the  testing  of  milk  for  colouring  matters 
and  preservatives,  for  the  specific  gravity  of  whey,  etc.,  the  students 
w^ere  divided  into  groups  of  two. 

Two  hours  a  day  for  three  quarters,  each  consisting  of  twelve 
weeks,  is  devoted  to  needlework  under  Miss  Watson,  who  is  a 
good  example  of  the  ti'ansfusion  of  perseverance  and  enthusiasm 
from  teacher  to  taught.  Her  scheme  of  work  emphasises  colour 
matching,  beauty  of  form  and  line,  grace  and  fitness  and  the 
evolution  of  textile  fabrics  in  addition  to  mere  stitchery  in  which, 
however,  her  students  attain  to  a  high  degree  of  proficiency.  It 
seemed  almost  incredible  that  the  excellent  needlework  displayed 
upon  specimen  knickerbockers,  aprons,  night-dresses,  corset  covers 
and  petticoats,  each  crisp,  dainty  and  elaborate,  could  be  the 
unaided  performance  of  pupils,  who,  a  year  before,  did  not  know 
how  to  thread  a  needle.  Their  introduction  to  the  art  began  with 
the  usual  technical  series  of  specimen  stitch  samplers  which  ai-e 
preserved  in  books,  with  written  descriptions  appended.  Among 
the  "  fine  art "  points  which  specially  attracted  my  attention 
in  the  work  of  Miss  Watson's  students  were  the  j^erfection  of 
the  button  holes  and  gussets,  and  the  joining  of  lace  or  eml)roi- 
deries  so  accurately  that  detection  was  literally  impossible.  The 
happy  energy  of  the  students  and  the  artistic  arrangement  of  the 
room  left  a  vivid  and  pleasant  impression. 

The  whole  building  is  light,  airy,  and  admirably  planned  for  its 
purposes,  though  the  Domestic  Economy  department  needs  enlarge- 
ment ;  under  its  able  principal.  Dr.  George  Carman,  there  is  every 
prospect  of  increasing  utility  arising  from  its  further  development. 
Meanwhile,  it  is  doing  excellent  w^ork  by  evening  classes  for  the 
general  public,  as  well  as  by  the  more  complete  course  alcove  detailed; 
the  former  are  confined  chiefly  to  cooking  and  dressmaking  and 
are  well  attended  by  working  girls  and  women. 

An  active  interest  in  Domestic  Science  and  Hygiene  has  been  [d)  Institute 
aroused  and  maintained  in  Brooklyn  among  adults  by  means  of  of  Arts  and 
courses  at  the  Institute  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  which  for  many  years 
has  been  an  important  factor  in  the  social,  literary,  scientific,  and    y .  '  ' 
educational  life  of  the  city.  A  new  era  in  its  history  was  inaugurated 
in  1887,  when  it  was  decided  to  make  its  work  broader  and  more 
comprehensive  by  providing  for  its  sub-division  into  departments 
representing  various  branches  of  science  and  art.    The  member- 
ship increased  in  proportion  to  the  new  departments  formed, 
reaching  upwards  of  6,000  in  1900,  when  the  departments  num- 
bered  twenty-eight ;  of  these  Domestic  Science  formed  one.  The 
presidents  of  each  department  form  a  Council,  and  meet  monthly. 
Asifciate   mem])ers   pay  S5   a    year;    each  ticket  admits  one 
person  to  a  day  and  two  to  an  evening  lecture.    The  Domestic 


186 


U.S.A. — Private  Technical  Institutes. 


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Typical  Courses  in  Domestic  Science  and  Hygiene.  187 


Science  Department  was  organised  in  1893  with  fortv-t^Vo  memljei*s,  " 
who  inc'reased  in  seven  years  to  170.  Mrs.  John  Dunn  has  been 
president  of  the  department  since  its  formation,  and  is  the  only 
woman  holding  such  a  position  in  the  Institute.  Much  attention 
is  given  to  the  study  of  practical  problems  in  domestic  science, 
and  standing  Committees  have  been  appointed  on  the  following 
subjects  : — The  sanitary  and  economic  construction  of  dwellings  ; 
the  general  principles  of  house  furnishing  ;  the  composition  and 
value  of  foods  ;  labour-saving  methods  and  utensils  ;  and  sanitation 
and  economy  in  clothing  and  domestic  service.  At  present, 
the  results  to  be  oljserved  among  the  members  are  improved 
common-sense  and  a  feeling  of  responsibility  for  family  welfare*. 
By  request  of  the  Child  Study  department  a  special  course  on  thfe 
feeding  of  children  Avas  organised  in  the  Domestic  Science 
Department  last  winter, — the  first  recognition  by  members  of 
these  two  departments  of  the  mutual  assistance  each  can  render 
the  other  by  experience  gained  through  their  respective  studies 
and  enquiries.  Such  oljservational  enquiries  are  of  undoubted 
value,  though,  from  the  circumstances  of  the  case,  they  are 
conducted  along  less  fundamental  lines  than  can  be  defined  for 
more  youthful  students  still  engaged  in  preparation  for  their 
future  callings. 

The  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  at  Boston,  affords  a  (e)  .Mi.s.sa- 
lii'st-rate  example  of  the  favourable  opportunities  now  offered  £'^^^^-^^^^. 
to  students  of  l^oth  sexes  in  the  United  States  for  studying  Teclinolo<>^' 
the  sanitary  aspects  of  various  professions.  Facilities  of  Boston, 
an  unusual  character  are  here  aft'orded  for  advanced  or  special 
work  in  hygiene  or  sanitary  science.  The  departments  which  give 
the  principal  instruction  in  these  subjects  are  the  biological, 
chemical,  physical,  architectural,  and  that  of  sanitary  engineering. 
In  the  department  of  biology  the  whole  system  of  laboratories  is 
well  organised  for  work  directed  chiefly  towards  the  hygienic  and 
industrial  sides  of  the  sul)ject.  These  laboratories  are  frequented 
Ijy  those  who  desire  to  fit  themselves  for  teaching  or  for  medical 
study,  as  well  as  by  those  whose  future  ])rofessions  demand  that 
their  training  should  comprise  some  practical  work  in  the 
])iological  sciences,  including  comparative  physiology,  zoology,  bacte- 
riology, and  industrial  and  sanitary  biology.  Science  teachers  in 
secondary  schools  or  Normal  Colleges  derive  great  assistance  from 
the  extensive  course  of  laboratory  woi-k  cariied  on  in  connection 
with  the  courses  in  comparative  anatomy  and  embryolog}', 
as  well  as  in  comparative  physiology  ;  while  among  those  engaged 
in  some  branches  of  sanitary  engineering  or  in  food-jDre- 
aerving  industries,  the  course  in  sanitary  bacteriology  and 
fermentation  is  in  request,  owing  to  the  facility  acquired  in  the 
examination  of  air,  ice,  and  water,  or  to  the  insight  gained  into 
industrial  a})plications.  Graduates  or  special  students,  e.g.,  physi- 
cians, ijispectors  under  Boards  of  Health,  or  superintendents  of 
water  oi*  sewage  works,  are,  if  qualified  to  pursue  such  work  with 


188 


U.S.A. — Private  Technical  Institutes. 


(e)Massa-  advantage,  also  admitted  to  such  subjects  as  they  select  in  this 
Institute  of  ^^P^'^*"^^^^'  every  opportunity  being  afforded  them  to  equip 
Technology,  themselves  for  their  professional  callings.  The  instruction  in 
Boston—  water,  air,  and  food  analysis  in  the  chemical  department  consists 
continued,    raainly  of  laboratory  work,  supplemented  by  occasional  lectures  ; 

special  laboratories  have  been  assigned  to  these  courses.  The 
usual  scheme  of  work  includes  practice  in  the  methods  commonly 
employed  in  the  chemical  examination  of  air  and  water,  of  milk, 
and  of  butter.  For  those  who  wish  to  take  a  more  extended  course, 
opportunity  is  provided  for  the  critical  study  of  methods  of  analysis 
and  for  the  investigation  of  a  variety  of  sanitary  problems  in  which 
chemical  questions  are  involved.  The  hygienic  aspects  of  heating 
and  ventilation  are  thoroughly  handled  by  Professor  Wood- 
bridge  in  the  department  of  physics,  while  the  architectural  coui*se 
includes  a  technical  study  of  the  same  subjects  in  its  third  year, 
illustrated  by  the  study  of  important  public  buildings  in  the  city. 
Enumerated  among  the  studies  required  of  students  in  the  sanitary 
engineering  course  are,  in  addition  to  the  general,  special,  and 
sanitary  biology  courses  referred  to  above,  those  in  the  principles 
of  jDubUc  health,  municipal  sanitation,  and  on  air  analysis.  The 
s])ecified  object  is  to  qualify  engineei-s  to  deal  intelligently  with 
questions  relating  to  the  health  of  individuals  and  communities, 
and  to  plan  intelligently  works  of  sewerage  and  drainage.  Frequent 
opportunities  are  given  for  the  inspection  of  actual  examples  of 
sanitary  engineering;  the  work  in  the  class-room  is  also  supple- 
mented by  exercises  in  designing,  and  the  students  attend  lectures 
and  demonstrations  in  sanitary  science. 

It  will  be  observed  that  in  all  departments  the  method  i)ui'sued 
is  to  supplement  lectures  and  recitations  by  practical  work  in  the 
field,  the  laboratories,  and  the*,  drawing  rooms  ;  indeed,  high  value 
is  set  upon  the  educational  effect  of  this  practical  work,  which 
intentionally  forms  the  foundation  of  each  of  the  thirteen  courses. 
Text-books  are  used  in  some  subjects,  but  not  in  all.  In  many 
branches  the  instruction  given  varies  considerably  in  available 
text-books  ;  in  such  cases  notes  on  the  lectures  and  laboratory 
work  have  been  printed,  either  privately  or  by  the  Institute, 
and  are  furnished  to  the  students  at  cost  price.  Both  oral 
and  written  examinations  take  place  from  time  to  time.  The 
general  examinations  are  held  near  the  close  of  the  months 
of  January  and  May  ;  after  these  the  standing  of  the  student 
in  each  distinct  subject  is  reported  to  his  parent  or  guardian, 
though  these  reports  are  based  to  a  very  large  extent  upon  the 
quality  of  daily  class  work  ;  they  constitute  also  the  grounds  for 
admonition  or  advice  from  the  Faculty  in  the  case  of  the  students 
who  are  not  profiting  sufficiently  by  their  connection  with  the 
Institute.  The  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science  in  the  coui-se  pui-sued  is 
given  for  the  satisfactory  completion  of  any  of  the  regular  courses 
of  study.  To  be  entitled  to  a  degree  the  student  must  have 
attended  the  Institute  for  not  less  than  one  year  next  preceding 


Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  N'.  Y. 


181) 


the  taking  of  a  degree,  must  have  completed  the  prescribed  studies 
and  practical  work  of  the  four  years,  and  must,  in  addition,  pass 
final  examinations,  if  required,  on  subjects  relating  particularly 
to  his  course.  He  must,  moreover,  prepare  a  dissertation  on 
some  subject  included  in  his  course  of  study,  or  give  an  account 
of  some  i'esearch  made  by  himself,  or  present  either  an  original 
report  upon  some  machine,  work  of  engineering,  industrial  works, 
mine  or  mineral  survey,  or  an  original  design  accompanied  by 
an  explanatory  memoir ;  either  thesis  or  design  must  be  apj)roved 
by  the  Faculty. 

So  nimierous  and  comprehensive  are  the  courses  in  Domestic  Pratt 
Science  and  Domestic  Art  carried  on  in  the  departments  for  these  Institute, 
subjects  attached  to  the  great  Technical  Institutes  at  Brooklyn, 
New  York,  and  at  Philadelphia,  that  an  effort  to  detail  them 
accurately  could  scarcely  be  rewarded  with  success,  and  would 
probably  prove  wearisome  to  the  reader.  The  allusions  through- 
out this  Eeport,  however,  to  the  prestige  which  attaches  to  the 
graduates  from  the  Normal  courses  at  these  two  Institutes  demand 
that  the  grounds  should  be  stated  upon  which  they  are  based. 
This  I  will  endeavour  to  do  ;  though,  in  justice  to  those  who  are 
responsible  for  the  gradual  evolution  of  these  courses,  it  must  be 
clearly  understood  that  they  recognise  no  finality  in  the  existing 
phases  of  development.  The  curriculum  of  each  is  in  a  transitional, 
tentative  stage,  to  be  studied  as  offering  valuable  suggestion  based 
upon  experience,  not  criticised  as  a  model  held  up  as  typical  of 
perfection  by  its  formulators.  Some  introductory  words  as  to  the 
origin  and  purpose  of  these  two  prominent  institutes  will  prove  of 
interest,  and  wnll  serve  as  a  useful  explanation  of  their  independent 
position  in  the  educational  world. 

Pratt  Institute  was  established  in  1887,  after  many  years  of 
educational  investigation  on  the  part  of  its  founder,  Mr.  Charles 
Pratt,  of  Brooklyn.  Its  objects  are  to  promote  manual  and 
industrial  education,  to  promote  cultivation  in  literature,  science, 
and  art,  and  to  foster  all  that  makes  for  right  living  and  good 
citizenship.  Facilities  are  provided  by  which  persons  who  wish  to 
engage  in  educational,  artistic,  scientific,  domestic,  commercial, 
mechanical,  or  aUied  employments  may  lay  the  foundation  of  a 
thorough  knowledge,  theoretical  and  practical,  or  may  perfect 
themselves  in  those  occupations  in  which  they  are  already  engaged. 
Instruction  is  based  upon  an  appreciation  of  the  dignity  as  well  as 
the  value  of  intelligent  handicraft  and  skilled  manual  labour ; 
efforts  are  made  to  establish  a  system  of  instruction  whereby 
habits  of  thrift  may  be  inculcated,  to  develop  those  qualities 
which  produce  a  spirit  of  self-reliance,  and  to  teach  that  personal 
character  is  of  greater  consequence  than  material  productions. 
While  fees  are  required,  there  is  an  endeavour  to  make  possible, 
by  some  means  consistent  with  self-helpfulness  and  self-respect, 
the  admission  of  every  worthy  applicant. 


190 


U.S.A. — Private  Technical  Institutes, 


Pratt  ■  The  courses  have  four  distinct  aims  in  view  : — (1)  Educational, 

Institute,  ip\xrG  and  simple,  as  in  the  work  of  the  High  school ;  (2)  Normal, 
^roo  yn,  g^^.]^  training  being  given  in  four  departments,  those  of  fine  arts, 
—continued,  domestic  art,  domestic  science,  and  kindergarten  ;  (3)  Technical, 
i.e.,  special  training  to  secure  practical  skill  in  the  arts,  handicrafts, 
applied  sciences,  and  mechanical  trades  ;  (4)  Su}:)plementary  and 
Special,  intended  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  wish  to  add  to  school 
or  college  training  special  subjects  conducing  to  the  more  intelligent 
development  of  domestic,  social,  or  other  interests.  The  endowment 
is  so  liberal  that  not  only  can  the  best  talent  and  facilities  for  the 
accomplishment  of  its  aims  be  secured,  but  the  charges  for  tuition 
can  be  and  are  most  moderate.  The  ljuildings  are  six  in  nmuber ; 
the  departments  of  Domestic  Art  and  Science  are  situated  in  the 
main  building.  The  rooms  are  old-fashioned  and  not  always  con- 
venient, the  cause  being  an  outcome  of  American  caution.  Mr. 
Pratt  was  somewhat  uncertain  as  to  the  success  of  his  oi'iginal 
venture  ;  he  therefore  had  the  building  designed  to  play  the 
double  part  of  technical  institute  or  of  textile  factory,  so  that, 
were  the  first  a  failure,  the  second  could  redeem  the  disaster. 
Fortunately,  his  fears  were  not  realised  ;  but,  unfortunately,  the 
light,  air,  and  space  so  desirable  for  his  students  have  been  cur- 
tailed. Some  consideraljle  rebuilding  is  contemplated  in  the  near 
future.  The  Institute  is  under  the  control  of  a  Board  of  Trustees, 
with  a  secretary  as  executive  officer ;  the  heads  of  each  de])art- 
ment  constitute  the  faculty  ;  both  sexes  are  admitted  on  equal 
footing  to  all  classes. 

The  requirements  for  admission  differ  in  the  several  depart- 
ments ;  those  for  applicants  to  the  Normal  course  may  best  he 
quoted  from  the  handljook.  "  All  applicants  for  normal  coui^es 
for  the  training  of  teachers  should  be  at  least  eighteen  yeai-s  of  age, 
and  should  have  good  health,  a  good  voice,  a  mature  and  thoughtful 
mind,  a  love  for  teaching  as  a  profession,  and  a  good  general 
education  equivalent  to  a  four-year  course  in  a  high  school  of  good 
standing."  Diplomas  and  certificates  are  granted  for  the  quality 
qf  the  work  done,  and  not  for  the  number  of  years  spent  in  study. 
That  progress  in  all  courses  depends  upon  individual  ability 
and  application  was  again  and  again  impressed  upon  me.  The 
Diploma  of  the  Institute  is  giveti  to  . those  students  who  successfully 
complete  one  of  the  following  courses  of  study  : — High  School 
course,  Normal  Art  course,  Normal  Domestic  Science  course, 
Normal  Domestic  kvt  course.  Normal  Kindergarten  course.  The 
Certificate  attests  the  successful  completion  of  any  one  of  the 
following  Day  courses,  which  represent  from  one  to  four  years' 
w^ork  : — 

Fiae  Arts. — Regular  art  course,  architecture,  design,  model- 
ling, wood-carving,  art  metal. 

Domestic  Art. — Sewing,  full-time  course  ;  dress-making,  full- 
time  course  ;  millinery,  full-time  course  ;  art  needlework, 
basketry  and  weaving. 


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191 


Science  and  Technology. — Steam  and  machkie  desigij,  applied 

electricity. 
Kindergarten. — Mothers'  course. 
General  course  in  Domestic  Science 
Food  Economics, 
Library  Science. 

The  Department  of  Domestic  Art  is  under  the  direction  ot  Miss  («)  Domestic 

Harriet  S.  Sackett ;  it  offers  a  larffe  choice  of  General  and  Technical  Courses 

•  .  .  ((Jener{il 

courses  in  sewing,  dress-making,  and  millinery,  as  well  as  the  formal  ' 

Normal  course.  Less  familiar  to  English  minds  is  the  inclusion  also  Technical), 
of  a  course  in  Costume  Design  (which  embraces  an  art  course  of  '^^ble 
two  years,  a  study  of  the  outlines  and  proportion  of  the  human  ^  ^ 
form,  and  of  historic  costume ;  the  sketching  of  dresses  and  hats 
in  water  colour,  etc.).  There  are  also  courses  in  art  needlework 
(freehand  drawing,  design,  colour,  artistic  needlework) ;  in 
basketry  and  weaving ;  in  physical  training,  which  comprises 
Swedish  educational  gymnastics,  carefully  graded  exercises 
with  stationary  and  hand  apparatus,  and  games.  Lideed,  this 
department  includes  comprehensive  courses  of  study  in  those 
branches  of  the  various  arts  which  are  related  to  healthful 
development  and  to  household  decoration,  as  well  as  to  appropriate 
clothing  of  the  body.  All  these  courses  are  developed  progres- 
sively, and  are  arranged  to  give  either  professional  training,  or 
to  prepare  teachers,  or  for  use  in  the  home.  They  vary  in 
length  from  one  term  of  plain  sewing  to  two  years  in  dress- 
making, or  to  three  years  in  costume  design,  etc.  The  number  of 
pupils  in  each  class  is  limited,  so  that  all  may  have  opportunity 
for  practical  work  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher,  in  addition 
to  the  instruction  given  by  means  of  lectures  and  recitations. 

The  rooms  of  this  department  occupy  the  third  floor  of  the 
main  building,  and  are  fully  equipped  Avith  essential  apparatus. 
Casts  of  the  best  examples  of  sculpture,  photographs,  coloured 
plates  of  costume,  and  many  specimens  of  textile  fabrics,  both 
ancient  and  modern,  afford  excellent  material  for  study.  The 
Library  is  also  an  important  factor  in  Miss  Sackett 's  schemes  of 
training.  Books  treating  of  domestic  art  and  science  are  con- 
stantly added ;  material  on  class  topics  is  secured  for  the  pupils' 
use,  and  an  almost  unique  collection  of  plates  illustrating  the 
historical  development  of  costume  has  been  made.  The  methods 
of  instruction  aim  to  instil  the  artistic  and  scientific  principles 
imderlying  all  good  work,  and  to  impress  upon  the  students  the 
value  of  economy,  order,  and  accuracy.  Listruction  in  freehand 
drawing,  water-colour,  and  elementary  design  forms  a  part  of  all 
dressmaking  and  millinery  courses,  with  a  view  to  cultivate  taste 
in  dress,  to  impart  skill  in  the  harmonious  combination  of  coloui-s 
and  textiles,  and  to  foster  selection  of  costvunes  in  keeping  with 
the  individuality  of  the  wearer.  Eyes  and  hands  are  thus  trained 
to  see  objects  in  their  true  proportions,  and  to  sketch  them  in  line 


192 


U.S.A. — Private  Technical  Institutes. 


(d)  Domestic  simple  light  and  shade  and  water-colour.  It  will  be  easily  realisable 
Art  Oours^  tJi^t  a  considerable  amount  of  home  practice  is  necessarily  required. 
—  con  mue  .  ^j^^  technical  dress-making  course  lectures  upon  hygienic, 

artistic,  and  historic  dress  are  given,  pupils  being  expected  to 
further  inform  themselves  upon  these  subjects  by  the  use  of  the 
library.  Those  who  wish  to  become  practical  dressmakei*s  have 
an  opportunity  in  this  class  to  make  dresses  for  others  in  order  to 
gain  experience,  and,  if  necessar}^  to  defray  a  part  of  their  expenses. 

In  the  costume  design  course  students  are  trained  to  become 
illustrators  or  designers  of  costume,  and  I  learned  that  the  fashion 
plates  in  one  of  the  most  popular  women's  journals  have  really 
been  influenced  for  good  through  a  graduate  from  this  coui"se 
having  l3ecome  a  memljer  of  the  stafi".  The  first  year  is  spent 
entirely  in  the  Department  of  Fine  Arts;  the  second  and  third  year 
are  divided  between  this  and  the  Department  of  Domestic  Art.  The 
instruction  embraces  cast  drawing  from  ornament  and  the  antique, 
freehand,  perspective,  colour,  life  and  portrait  drawing,  sketching 
from  the  figure,  composition,  design,  and  the  history  of  art. 
Normal  students  are  required  to  devote  a  part  of  their  second  year, 
and  the  whole  of  the  third  year  of  their  training  to  special  study 
of  costume  design.  The  system  of  art  training  employed  is 
derived  from  the  French,  and  the  designs  and  drapery  studies  are 
alike  beautiful  in  colour  and  graceful  in  form.  Textures  and 
patterns  of  various  materials  are  copied  in  water-colour,  while 
advanced  students  are  required  to  design  and  carry  out  dresses 
which  exemplify  the  tints,  position,  and  relative  j)roportion  of 
colours  found  in  a  selected  flower,  moth,  or  butterfly.  The 
result  seemed  to  me  to  embody  the  quotation  appearing  on  the 
walls,  "  Grace  of  form  and  beauty  of  vesture."  Careful  studies 
in  crayon  and  water-colour  of  hats  (full  size)  are  insisted  upon 
before  execution  in  the  millinery  coui*se,  and  appear  in  considerable 
numbers  on  blackboards  or  easels.  The  fact  that  so  many  of  the 
graduates  enter  into  trade  and  professional  life  has  led  to  the  gradual 
evolution  of  this  exhaustive  method  of  training.  Eight  hundred 
students  passed  through  the  Domestic  Art  Department  in  1900. 

The  following  synopsis  of  some  of  the  courses  affords  material  for 
comparison  with  those  pursued  in  the  Technical  classes  in  this 
country : 

I.  The  Full  Day  One-year  Course  in  Sewing  is  organised  in 
September  only.  It  is  arranged  for  those  who  can  devote  their  whole 
time  to  the  work.  The  first  half  of  the  year  is  devoted  to  practice  in 
the  various  kinds  of  hand  and  machine  sewing  ;  to  learning  the  prin- 
ciples of  draughting,  cutting,  and  fitting  undergarments  ;  and  to 
children's  dress.  When  a  student  can  make  this  range  of  garments 
satisfactorily  she  may  take  orders  for  work,  and  thus  put  into  practice 
the  principles  already  learned.  By  this  means  an  increased  amount 
of  accuracy,  judgment  and  self-reliance  is  gained  ;  so  that  at  the  end 
of  the  year  competent  pupils  may  become  seamstresses,  work  in  shops, 
or  find  themselves  fitted  to  be  more  useful  in  the  home.  This  course 
is  considered  necessary  as  a  preparation  for  the  training  in  dress- 
making by  those  who  have  had  but  little  experience  in  hand  sewing 
or  the  making  of  simple  garments. 


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193 


Course  of  Study. — Models  in  housework  afterward  applied  on  bed  (a)  Domestic 
linen  and  table  linen,  aprons,  patching  and  mending  and  simple  Art  Courses 
repairing,  draughting  and  making  drawers,  under-bodices,  skirts  —continued. 
blouses  and  nightdresses,  children's  dresses,  undergarments  and  baby 
clothes. 

Work  in  the  gymnasium  is  required  in  connection  with  this  course  ; 
and  a  course  in  drawing  runs  concurrently,  which  assists  the  student 
to  develop  her  own  ideas  in  design  and  colour.  A  certificate  is  granted 
for  the  satisfactory  completion  of  the  whole.  Applicants  must  be 
over  fifteen  years  of  age,  and  are  required  to  present  for  entrance 
examination  some  article  showing  their  hand-sewing.  The  fees  are 
$15  per  term  (about  £3  3s.). 

II.  The  Special  Couese  for  Home  Use  which  Meets  Twice  a  Week 
FOR  One  Year. — This  course  is  arranged  to  meet  the  needs  of  those  who 
wish  to  learn  hand  and  machine  sewing  and  the  various  kinds  of 
mending  merely  for  home  use.  In  learning  to  make  garments  the 
pupils  measure  and  fit  each  other.  They  furnish  their  own  materials. 
The  course  of  study  is  as  follows  : — 

First  grade. — Exercises  in  basting,  stitching,  overcasting,  hemming, 
gathering,  and  buttonholing ;  draughting  drawers ;  exercises  in 
machine  sewing,  cutting,  and  making  drawers. 

Second  grade. — Exercises  in  darning  on  stockingette  and  cashmere ; 
patching  ;  draughting ;  cutting  and  making  white  petticoat ;  exer- 
cises in  feather  stitching,  and  making  underbodice  from  pattern. 

Third  grade. — The  making  of  dainty  lingerie,  includin;;  fancy  muslin 
and  flannel  petticoats,  bodices,  nightdresses  and  dressing  jackets. 

For  mothers  who  desire  to  make  their  children's  clothes,  or  seam- 
stresses who  wish  to  become  more  proficient,  a  course  is  offered  in 
the  making  of  infants'  clothes,  including  knitting  and  crocheting, 
children's  underclothes,  guimpes,  and  dresses.  The  fee  is  $5  a 
term  (about  £l.). 

Children's  classes  meet  from  nine  to  eleven  o'clock  on  Saturday 
mornings,  and  are  open  to  children  between  the  ages  of  six'and  fifteen 
years.  They  cover  a  period  of  several  school  years,  and  include  simple 
work  with  cord  and  raffia,  weaving,  hand-sewing,  making  of  doll's 
garments,  and  elementary  machine  sewing.  Such  training,  satis- 
factorily completed,  prepares  the  student  to  enter  the  classes  meeting 
twice  a  week.   Tuition  fees  $2  per  term  (about  8s.). 

III.  The  Full-Day  Course  of  Two  Years  in  Dressmaking*  is 
arranged  to  give  a  thorough  training  in  the  principles  of  dressmaking, 
with  as  much  practice  in  their  application  as  the  time  will  allow.  It 
meets  daily,  except  Saturdays,  from  9  to  4.30  o'clock.  This  class  is 
organised  in  September  only,  and  continues  through  two  school  years. 
The  mornings  are  given  entirely  to  dressmaking  ;  three  afternoons 
a  week  are  devoted  to  costume  design,  methods  of  keeping  accounts, 
and  physical  training.  Students  also  attend  lectures  upon  the  history 
of  costume,  and  a  further  course  of  lectures  on  the  history  of  art, 
by  the  Director  of  the  Department  of  Fine  Arts,  is  open  to  them. 
Tlie  literature  of  hygienic  and  artistic  costume  is  brought  to  their 
notice  ;  and  they  are  expected  to  inform  themselves  upon  these  sub- 
jects, using  the  library  of  the  Institute,  The  first  year  is  devoted  to 
plain  dressmaking  ;  orders  may  be  taken  after  each  student  has  made 
a  dress  for  herself ;  in  this  way  the  students  are  able  to  defray  part  of 
their  expenses. 

Course  of  Study.—First  Tear.— Draughting,  cutting,  fitting  and 
making  unlined  blouses  and  skirts  ;  draughting  blouses  with  chart ; 
exercises  with  practice  materials  in   cutting,  fitting,  and  designing 


*  For  Course  in  Home  Dressmaking,  see  Appendix  E. 
6490.  N 


194 


U.S.A. — Private  Technical  Institutes. 


(a)  Domestic  skirts  and  lined  bodices  ;  and  in  making  dress  trimmings  and  finish- 
Art  Courses  ings  ;  bow  making  ;  study  of  colour,  form,  line  and  texture ;  house 
— continued,        and  street  dresses  not  too  elaborate  in  style. 

Drawing,  water-colour,  elementary  design  :  Practice  in  the  use  of 
the  pencil  and  of  water-colour.  Appearance  of  objects,  bows,  gowns 
and  drapery.  Outline  and  proportion  of  the  human  form.  Study 
of  gowns  becoming  to  different  types  of  figure,  and  also  of  historic 
costume.  Practice  in  designing  gowns  for  street,  home  and  evening 
wear. 

Second  Year. — Draughting  and  making  princesse  gowns  and  negli- 
gees ;  study  of  contour  and  poise  of  the  body  ;  making  evening  gowns  ; 
study  of  woollen  textiles  ;  draughting,  cutting  and  making  tailor- 
made  jackets  and  skirts. 

Applicants  must  be  over  seventeen  years  of  age,  and  bring  for  exami- 
nation a  dress  made  by  themselves  from  a  pattern  ;  they  must  also 
prove  their  ability  to  do  good  hand  and  machine  sewing.  A  written 
examination  is  given  upon  the  method  of  making  a  simple  dress. 

Women  who  have  had  previous  experience  in  dressmaking  may  be 
admitted  to  advanced  work  upon  passing  an  examination  which  Avill 
prove  their  fitness  to  enter  the  second  year  class.  Orders  received  in 
this  class  furnish  the  materials  to  carry  out  the  schedule  of  work. 
A  certificate  is  granted  for  the  satisfactory  completion  of  this  course. 
Tuition  fees,  $25  per  term  (about  £5). 

IV.  The  Full-Day  Course  in  Millinery — two  terms  of  two  months 
each.  The  first  part  of  the  course  is  planned  to  develop  lightness  of 
touch  in  the  making  of  bows,  trimmings,  and  facings,  and  leads  up 
gradually  to  the  later  work  of  designing  and  making  an  entire  hat. 
The  student  provides  her  own  materials,  and  is  at  liberty  to  bring 
from  home  any  materials  which  can  be  utilised.  This  class,  com- 
pletes the  full  course  in  foin-  months ;  it  is  organised  in  September  and 
February,  and  has  been  arranged  for  those  who  wish  to  prepare  to 
become  milliners.  It  meets  daily,  except  on  Saturday,  from  9  to 
12.30  and  from  1.30  to  4  o'clock.  Two  afternoons  a  week  are  devoted 
to  the  course  in  design.  There  are  also  lectures  upon  hygienic,  artistic, 
and  historic  dress,  and  instruction  is  given  in  methods  of  keeping 
accounts. 

Course  of  Study. — Facing  and  finishing  hat-brims,  making  bows, 
trimming  hats,  study  of  form,  line,  colour  and  textiles  ;  designing, 
draughting,  and  making  frames  ;  making  and  trimming  covered 
hats  and  bonnets  ;  making  velvet  hats  and  bonnets  ;  toques  and  even- 
ing bonnets  ;  making  wire  frames  and  straw  hats  ;  lace  and  shirred 
hats  and  bonnets  ;  children's  hats. 

Drawing,  water-colour,  elementary  design  ;  practice  in  the  use  of 
the  pencil  and  of  water-colour ;  appearance  of  objects,  drapery, 
bows,  hats ;  outline  and  proportion  of  the  head ;  study  of  historic 
costume  ;  designing  of  hats  becoming  to  different  types  of  face. 

Applicants  must  bring  for  inspection  a  hat  showing  some  skill  in 
the  trimming  and  making  ;  and  they  must  be  able  to  work  rapidly, 
since  the  time  devoted  to  the  training  Is  short.  The  class  organised  in 
September  prepares  students  to  take  positions  at  the  opening  of  the 
spring  season,  while  the  class  which  begins  in  February  fits  them  for 
the  autumn  season.  They  must  be  over  sixteen  years  of  age  and  able 
to  do  good  hand-sewing.  Familiarity  with  the  use  of  the  tape  measure 
and  ability  to  cut  accurately  are  re(iuisites.  Only  students  who  prove 
themselves  satisfactory  workers  are  recommended  to  positions  in 
work-rooms.  A  certificate  is  granted  for  the  satisfactory  completion 
of  this  course.    Fees,  $25  per  term  of  two  months  (about  £5). 

Thei'e  is  also  a  special  course  in  millinery  for  home  use,  which 
extends  over  four  terms  of  three  months  each.    While  not  all  the 


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195 


details  of  the  mechanical  side  of  milhiiery  are  taken  up  in  this  and  (a)  Domestic 
other  abridged  classes,  those  points  are  selected  whicli  will  be  tlie  Art  Course;^ 
most  helpful  in  the  liome.    In  order  to  awaken  an  appreciation     -  continued, 
good  form  and  colour  as  related  to  dress,  instruction  in  freehand 
drawing,  w^ater-colour,  and  design  as  related  to  millinery  Is  given 
as  outlined  above.    There  are  also  classes  without  drawing  for  those 
who  are  unable  to  devote  so  much  time  to  the  course. 

Course  of  Study. — First  grade :  practice  in  foundation  work  ; 
making  bows  ;  making  and  trimming  hats  adapted  to  styles  in  vogue. 

Second  grade  :  designing,  draughting  and  making  frames  ;  making 
and  trimming  covered  hats. 

Third  and  fourth  grades,  winter  season  :  making  draped  toque, 
evening  hat,  street  bonnet  and  velvet  hat.  Spring  season,  making 
hat  and  toque  of  fancy  straw  braid  over  frame,  also  lace  and  chiffon 
hats.  Children's  hats  may  be  made  in  any  grade.  Fees^  $iO  per 
term  (£2). 

V.  Basketry. — This  course  consists  of  one  lesson  a  week  for  three 
months  and  teaches  the  methods  of  making  baskets  of  various  weaves 
and  shapes  in  rafiia,  splint,  reed,  grasses,  and  other  materials.  Tlie 
weaving  and  shaping  are  done  by  the  eye  ;  which  is  considered  to 
give  an  opportunity  for  expression  to  the  worker's  feeling  for  form 
and  design.  Originality  in  design  on  the  part  of  the  student  is  thus 
encouraged,  a  slight  difference  in  manipulation  producing  a  variety 
in  form  and  pattern,  this  lends  especial  charm  and  interest  to  the 
work  and  at  the  same  time  stimulates  appreciation  of  good  form. 
The  art  is  practised  for  its  value  as  manual  training,  as  well  as  for 
the  pleasure  derived  from  the  useful  and  decorative  results.  The  fees 
are  $5  per  term  (£l).  There  is  also  a  series  of  children's  classes 
in  simple  basketry  in  rafha  and  reed  ;  experience  shows  that  these 
materials  are  well  adapted  to  interest  children,  while  they  teach  firm- 
ness of  touch  and  dexterity  in  handling.  These  classes  consist  of 
children  from  nine  to  fifteen  years  of  age,  and  meet  on  Saturday 
mornings  from  nine  to  eleven  o'clock.    Fees,  $2  per  term  (about  Ss.)- 

Considerable  rearrangement  of  the  Normal  Courses  has  taken 
place  at  the  Pratt  Institute  since  my  visit  in  April,  1901.  Expe- 
rience has  shown  tliat  the  present  i)rofessional  opportunities  open 
to  women  of  special  training  usually  require  of  them  a  command  of 
more  than  one  subject  when  they  first  undertake  professional  work. 
For  instance,  out  of  ninety-nine  positions  filled  to-day.  by  women 
who  chose  Domestic  Science  as  a  major  subject  and  Domestic  xArt  as 
a  minor  in  their  training,  in  seventy  they  are  required  to  teach  both 
cookery  and  sewing,  in  twenty-five  cookery  only,  and  in  four  sewing. 
It  is  therefore  considered  advisable  that  the  Normal  coui-se  in 
Domestic  Art* should  consistently  include  work  in  Domestic  Science, 
so  that  graduates  may  be  efficiently  prepared  to  teach  elementary 
Domestic  Science,  in  addition  to  being  experts  in  Domestic  Art.  Con- 
sequently from  the  autumn  of  1901  the  work  of  the  first  year  for 
Normal  students  in  both  subjects  became  identical,  and  is  carried 
on  entirely  in  the  Domestic  Science  Department.  At  the  end  of  this 
time,  students  are  given  an  opjjortunity,  if  their  work  has  been 
satisfactory,  to  choose  whether  they  will  devote  their  time  in  the 
second  year  to  advanced  woi*k  in  Domestic  Art  or  in  Domestic 
Science.  Those  who  desire  and  can  give  evidence  of  the  necessary 
qualifications  are  then  admitted  to  the  Normal  Domestic  Art 

~~  See  Table  XXVITl. 


>  -2 


196 


U,S. A. —Private  Technical  Institutes, 


course.  This  includes  normal  methods,  practice  teaching,  phy- 
sical training,  advanced  sewing,  basketry  and  weaving,  dress- 
making, millinery,  art  needlework,  and  costume  design.  Students 
are  also  required  to  write  a  thesis  upon  a  subject  relating  to 
domestic  art,  showing  a  clear  and  thoughtful  consideration  of  the 
selected  subject. 

(h)  Domestic  In  the  Department  of  Domestic  Science  the  courses  of  study  for 
adults  are  also  Normal,  Technical,  and  General,  while  others  are 
provided  for  children  of  various  ages. 

The  following  are  the  outlines  for  the  General  and  Special  courses, 
the  latter  being  planned  for  women  who  can  devote  but  a  few  hours 
a  week  to  such  work  ;  to  further  meet  their  convenience  they  are 
subdivided  upon  entering  into  three  groups,  (a)  those  who  can  give 
six  hours,  (6)  four  hours,  or  (c)  only  one  hour  a  week,  for  one  year. 

General  Course  (five  days  a  week  for  one  year). — Chemistry, 
bacteriology,  physiology  and  hygiene,  sanitation,  household  economics  ; 
cookery,  dietetics,  marketing  and  accounts ;  serving,  sewing,  laundry 
work,  house  construction.    Fee,  £6  a  term. 

Special  Courses.— (1)  Cookery  and  dietetics;  (2)  bacteriology, 
hygiene,  marketing  and  accounts  ;  (3)  serving,  laundry  work,  household 
economics,  sanitation  and  construction.    Fees,  £2  to  £3  a  term. 

There  are  also  day  and  evening  courses  designed  for  mothers  or  for 
women  engaged  in  domestic  service,  which  deal  with  the  preparation, 
composition  and  purchase  of  foods  ;  these  consist  of  two  classes  a 
week  for  two  terms  of  three  months.  Cooks'  courses  ;  Sick  Nursing 
courses  ;  Saturday  morning  school  girls'  classes  ;  lectures  on  market- 
ing, and  private  lessons  are  also  given  as  desired.  A  course  for  wait- 
resses and  one  in  laundry  work  are  provided,  and  a  special  one-year 
course  is  given  in  Food  Economics,  intended  for  women  already  qualified 
for  responsible  positions  by  character  and  practical  experience.  It  is 
the  result  of  a  demand  for  trained  persons  as  managers  or  house- 
keepers for  public  institutions,  hospitals  and  schools,  etc.,  and  embraces 
the  following  topics  :  the  selection  of  food  material  with  regard  to 
quality  and  cost  and  the  principles  of  cookery.  Methods  of  prepara- 
tion in  large  quantities.  Physiology,  hygiene,  sanitation.  Chemistry, 
bacteriology.  Dietetics,  household  economics,  accounts.  Marketing 
and  serving,  including  general  dining-room  economy. 

This  course  affords  training  along  all  the  fundamental  lines  of 
practical  housework  ;  and,  so  far  as  the  time  will  permit,  in  the  under- 
lying natural  sciences  ;  only  mature  women  of  fair  general  training 
with  executive  ability,  experience  in  life,  skill  in  practical  house-work 
and  possessed  of  physical  strength  and  endurance  are  advised  to  take 
it.    Six  months  are  devoted  to  student  work  in  the  department  and 
three  to  probationary  professional  service.    The  Institute  kitchen 
and  lunch  room,  serving  daily  between  two  and  three  hundred  guests, 
provide  necessary  facilities.    Dinners  and  luncheons  are  planned, 
prepared  and  served  by  students  ;  hospitals,  orphanages,  day  nurseries 
and  school  lunch-rooms  are  visited  ;  and  expeditions  are  made  to  public 
kitcliens  and  to  manufactories  of  kitchen  and  hotel  furnishings. 
Miss  Edith  Greer  is  director  of  this  whole  Department ;  and 
brings  a  trained  intelligence  and  much  enthusiasm  to  bear  upon  her 
responsible  duties.    The  Department  itself  occupies  the  sixth  floor 
of  the  Institute ;  it  has  large  recently-remodelled  and  well-equipped 
chemical,  physiological,  and  bacteriological  laboratories  and  school 
kitchens  planned  for  individual  work  ;  rooms  thoroughly  equipped 
for  handwork  and  sewing: ;  a  collection  of  food  products  and  a 
departmental  library  (Fig.  VII.), 


Pratt  Institute,  BrooUyn,  N.Y, 


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198 


U.S.A. — Private  Technical  Institutes. 


(b)  Domestic  The  Normal  students  in  Domestic  Science*  are  prepared  primarily 
Science  to  teacli  the  group  of  subjects  included  under  this  title  ;  and 
^continued  secondarily  to  teach  elementary  sewing  and  handwork.  They 
must  be  at  least  eighteen  years  of  age,  and  must  have  satisfactorily 
completed  a  High  School  course  of  four  years  or  its  equivalent. 
Applicants  must  pass  the  general  Institute  examinations,  and 
must  also  give  evidence  of  having  formed  good  mental  habits,  and 
of  being  able  to  use  with  facility  their  knowledge  of  arithmetic 
(especially  percentage  and  the  metric  system),  algebra,  plane 
geometry,  elementary  physiology,  physics,  and  English.  Some 
knowledge  of  sewing  and  cooking  is  expected.  They  are  accepted 
only  on  probation,  which  continues  until  they  have  shown  the 
ability  and  the  desire  to  develop  into  cultured  women  of  character. 

The  following  extracts  from  "  The  Pratt  Institute  Monthly"  for 
March,  1902,  give  in  the  words  of  its  organiser  a  brief  resume  of 
the  objects  and  methods  of  the  course  :  *'  The  lines  of  work  now  em- 
bodied in  the  normal  course  are  :  Education  for  the  training  of  the 
professional  teacher  ;  Science,  with  the  natural  sciences  as  basal  to  a 
true  conception  of  their  application  in  such  practical  work  as  cookery, 
for  the  training  of  the  special  teacher  of  domestic  science  ;  Art, 
including  its  expression  in  handwork,  such  as  sewing  and  basketry, 
for  the  training  of  the  special  teacher  of  domestic  art ;  Physical 
training  for  the  physical  well-being  of  the  teacher  that  is  to  be  ;  and 
for  conscious  development  of  interaction  between  her  mind  and  the 

medium  for  expression,  her  body  - 

The  course  requires  two  years  for  its  completion.  The  student- 
work  consists  of  an  average  of  twenty-five  fifty-minute  periods  of 
class  work  for  five  days  a  week,  sixteen  hours  of  preparation,  and 
two  hours  of  physical  training  throughout  the  course.  Thus  the 
student  spends  seven  and  a  half  hours  a  day  for  five  days  a  week, 
and  one  and  a  half  hours  on  Saturday,  in  class  work  and  preparation 
for  the  same.  The  proportional  distribution  of  the  time  is  as 
follows  : — For  all  Normal  students  approximately  seven  hours  a 
week  for  two  years  to  education  (psychology,  normal  methods, 
practice  teaching,  etc.),  and  two  hours  to  physical  training ;  for 
Domestic  Science  students,  twenty  hours  to  science  and  ten  to  hand 
work  ;  for  Domestic  A  rt  students,  twenty  hours  to  domestic  art  and 
ten  to  domestic  science.  Until  the  second  year  there  is  neither 
evening  nor  Saturday  class  work.  The  schedule  is  so  arranged 
that  approximately  three  subjects  are  assigned  for  each  day.  The 
sequence  maintained  in  the  daily  work  is  recitation,  laboratory  or 
practical  work,  and  field  work  alternating  with  physical  training. 
The  character  of  the  demand  made  upon  the  student  by  the  type 
of  work  determines  the  time  of  day  and  the  order  of  rotation  for 
each  subject  or  phase  of  a  subject.  In  the  first  year  the  educational 
aspect  of  the  work  is  emphasised ;  in  the  second,  the  professional . 
The  curriculum  is  strictly  confined  to  the  subjects  essential 
for  an  intelligent  understanding  and  free  expression  of  the 
subjects  to  be  used  professionally  by  the  graduates.  Though  the 
students  are  not  introduced  to  many  branches  of  knowledge  with 


*  See  Table  XXIX. 


Pratt  Inditute,  Brooklyn,  N.Y. 


FIG.  VII. 


PLAN  OF  THE  SIXTH  FLOOR  OF  PRATT  INSTITUTE 
T"hr  oftiio   *nd  the  Sewing,  Hand-work    and  Lecture  rooms  of  the  Department  are  located  on  the 
first  rtoor  of  the  Marn  Baildmn 


Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  N.Y.,  Plan  of  Domestic  Science  Department. 


200 


U.S. A Private  Technical  Institutes. 


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Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  N.Y. 


201 


which  they  are  entirely  unfamiliar,  a  new  point  of  view  and  more  (6)  Domestic 
intelligent  and  personal  responsibility  for  the  quality  of  the  work  Qq^^J?,!^^^ 
are  exacted  by  the  nature  of  the  normal  training."  Students  find  continued. 
a  third  year  of  work  frequently  advisable  to  gain  the  diploma. 
The  lines  of  elective  work  suggested  for  them  during  this  period 
are  as  follows  : — "  The  continuation  of  any  subject  pursued  in  the 
earlier  part  of  the  course  ;  manual  training  if  not  already  taken  ; 
the  evening  class  for  nurses  and  teachers  in  kindergarten 
methods  and  the  use  of  kindergarten  materials,  the  '  Education 
of  Man '  ;  drawing,  composition,  and  design ;  sewing,  dress- 
making, and  millinery ;  or  Latin,  French,  and  German  in  the 
High  School  classes.  The  special  subjects  specified  are  given 
under  the  auspices  of  the  departments  in  the  Institute  which  deal 
with  them  primarily.  In  being  thus  given,  apart  from  allied  sub- 
jects, they  afford  general  and  not  normal  training,  and  are  to  be 
taken  for  their  value  to  the  individual  and  not  to  be  used  pro- 
fessionally." 

The  general  chemistry  in  the  Normal  course  includes  (a)  quali- 
tative analysis,  (b)  quantitative  analysis  (three  experiments  being 
performed,  one  of  which  is  gravimetric  and  one  volumetric), 
(c)  organic  chemistry.  In  physiology,  one  hour's  lecture  with 
demonstrations  is  given  by  a  physician  once  a  week  in  the  first 
year ;  in  the  second  year  the  lecture  is  followed  by  two  hours'  labo- 
ratory work.  This  is  ideally  good,  but  I  learned  that  its  success 
depends  wholly  on  the  personality  of  the  professor.  The  only 
branch  of  physics  dealt  with  directly  in  the  course  is  Heat. 
The  bacteriology  comprises  a  study  of  lower  forms  of  life  and 
their  influence ;  the  changes  in  which  they  are  agents  ;  and  the 
conditions  necessary  to  their  development.  Four  hours  a  week 
for  four  months  is  devoted  to  its  study,  mostly  under  direct 
supervision,  though  students  do  some  outside  work.  The  course 
is  essentially  non-pathogenic,  modelled  on  that  for  general 
students  at  the  University  of  Chicago  ;  it  has  been  given  along 
the  same  lines  for  three  years,  and  is  considered  fairly  satisfactory ; 
the  class  is  usually  limited  to  six  or  eight.  Leitz's  microscopes 
with  objectives  3  and  7  are  those  used  ;  and  the  equipment  both 
individual  and  general  is  essentially  moderate,  though  sufficient. 
The  nature  study  course  consists  at  first  largely  of  field  lessons  ; 
subsequently  timbers  are  studied,  and  students  are  called  upon 
to  apply  their  knowledge  to  furniture  and  house- fittings  ;  so 
far  their  powers  of  observation  are  reported  to  be  defective  and 
to  demand  much  training.  The  course  in  psychology  includes  an 
introduction  to  logic ;  the  professor  in  charge  is  well  fitted  for 
this  work,  and  has  great  sympathy  with  his  students. 

The  History  of  Education  and  Educational  Methods  appears 
in  the  syllabus  ;  but  a  weak  point  recorded  in  its  present  treat- 
ment is  absence  of  sufficiently  close  study  of  child  nature  and  the 
child  mind. 

Household  economics  are  studied  under  three  heads  :— (1.)  house 
construction,  the  instructors  being  an  architect  and  an  artist ; 


202 


U.S.A. — Private  Technical  Institutes. 


(^)  Domestic  (2.)  house  plumbing,  taught  by  a  master  plumber;  (3.)  house 
Courses  furnishing ;  which  includes  care  of  furniture ;  methods  of  house 
—continued,  ventilation,  etc.,  etc.;  disposal  of  garbage  and  waste;  purchase  of 

supplies,  coal,  wood,  outside  food  stuffs,  etc. 
The  laundry  work  is  planned  to  demand  a  knowledge  of  applied 

chemistry  and  applied  bacteriology. 

It  is  customary  to  require  each  normal  student  to  prepare  a  set  of 
bottles  illustrating  the  percentage  composition  of  twelve  typical  foods. 
These  graphically  represent  the  food  principles  present  in  some  of  the 
commonest  articles  of  daily  diet — meat,  eggs,  milk,  butter,  wheat, 
rice,  apples,  potatoes,  etc.  ;  the  analyses  are  carried  out  with  scientific 
accuracy,  and  are  in  request  by  schools  and  colleges  where  Domestic 
Science  is  taught.  Their  sale  is  a  source  of  small  profit  to  the  Institute  ; 
but,  though  such  work  has  its  value,  it  is  objected  that  the  amount 
of  time  demanded  by  the  preparation  of  twelve  such  analyses  is  a  heavy 
tax  on  the  time  of  the  students. 

The  number  in  the  Normal  classes  for  cooking  has  varied  from 
thirty-four  to  twenty  ;  though  it  is  considered  that  twenty  should 
be  the  limit.  At  the  time  of  my  visit  the  kitchen  was  low  and  not 
very  light,  but  thoroughly  well  equipped ;  it  has  since  been  re- 
modelled. The  cooking  table  forms  three  sides  of  a  square ; 
although  this  form  in  some  ways  minimises  the  steps  of  the  teacher, 
it  is  not  entirely  approved.  Each  student  has  her  own  equipment 
in  a  numbered  drawer,  and  all  the  work  is  individual.  As 
has  been  already  described,  the  director  of  these  courses 
has  thought  out  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  art  of 
cooking,  and  has  a  great  idea  of  stimulating  thought 
and  application  by  presenting  problems  which  demand  the 
illustration  of  the  underlying  principles  by  her  students.  She 
is  eminently  mindful  of  the  possibilities  of  cookery  as  a  point  of 
correlation  with  chemistry,  physics,  botany,  physiology  and  hygiene. 
Knowledge  acquired  is,  as  usual  in  the  United  States,  tested  by 
members  of  the  staff.  For  instance,  in  the  cooking  course,  eacli 
student  periodically  draws  a  slip  from  a  packet  containing  the 
names  of  different  dishes  ;  then  cooks  that  which  she  draws  and 
submits  it  to  criticism.  Again,  each  senior  student  is  required  to 
supply  three  questions  weekly ;  and  it  has  been  Mi-s.  Chambers' 
habit  to  select  three  of  these  groups  from  the  whole  number  sub- 
mitted ;  each  student  must  then  choose  one  group  to  answer  and 
work  out  during  the  following  week ;  this  plan  is  found  to  con- 
stitute a  most  satisfactory  method  of  testing  and  promoting  pro- 
gress. The  Normal  students  get  into  touch  with  social  problems 
through  their  practice  teaching  in  settlements,  or  in  mission-halls 
connected  with  religious  and  philanthropic  organisations,  which 
increasingly  demand  such  assistance.  Here  they  have  to  face 
very  practical  difficulties  in  their  environment,  and  gain  useful 
experience  along  many  lines.  Students  are  not  accepted  for  a 
shorter  period  than  two  years,  unless  so  exceptionally  well  pre- 
pared for  the  work  that  they  can  satisfy  very  stringent  conditions, 
which  include  the  passing  of  both  theoretical  and  practical  examina- 


Fratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  N.Y. 


203 


tions  and  the  presentation  of  note  books  recording  the  mental  (6)  Domestic 
work  which  accompanied  the  past  practice.    Such  students  are  ^cienc.e 
not  expected  to  use  professionally  the  knowledge  they  acquire  ^.^r^^Hnved, 
unless  they  remain  to  complete  the  Normal  course ;  the  opinion 
being  wisely  and  strongly  held  that  a  partial  course  cannot  prepare 
for  inteUigent  and  effective  work. 

The  following  analysis  of  the  subjects  of  this  Normal  course  (Pratt 
Institute  Monthly,  March,  1902),  is  added  in  order  to  furnish  as 
accurate  and  comprehensive  a  view  as  possible  of  its  details. 

Education  : — 

Psychology :  its  principles  and  their  application  to  education. 

Principles  of  education,  the  laws  underlying  development 
and  their  expression  in  educational  practice. 

History  of  education,  its  relation  to  history  as  an  expression 
of  the  social  life  and  development  of  the  race. 

Normal  methods,  the  principles  obtaining  in  the  school-room 
whereby  a  wholesome  atmosphere,  self-activity  of  the 
pupil,  and  greatest  efficiency  in  the  special  work  are  attained. 

Kindergarten  methods  and  use  of  materials ;  comprehen- 
sive survey  of  different  phases  of  kindergarten  work  (the 
"Mother  play,"  stories,  occupations,  and  games),  ta  give 
insight  into  the  life  of  the  child. 

Practice-teaching  (under  supervision)  in  Domestic  Science  and 
Art. 

Science  (Natural)  :— 

General  chemistry,  qualitative  and  quantitative  analysis, 
organic  and  physiological  chemistry,  and  chemistry  of  foods. 

Physiology,  function  and  structure  of  the  body  under  normal 
conditions  of  life,  with  special  emphasis  upon  digestion 
and  the  organs  of  the  special  senses  ;  hygiene  (personal  and 
public) ;  emergencies  and  home  nursing. 

Bacteriology  :  its  principles,  their  significance  and  their  appli- 
cation to  life. 

Heat :  its  principles,  and  their  significance  and  use  in  Domestic 
Science. 

Nature  study  :  its  principles  and  the  methods  of  study  involved 
as  basal  to  correct  scientific  observation  and  inference. 
Science  (Applied) : — 

.  Cookery  :  its  general  principles  in  practice,  their  modification 
in  the  preparation  of  food  for  infants,  invalids,  and  adults 
living  under  widely  varying  conditions. 

Dietetics  :  composition  of  the  body,  its  waste  and  repair  ; 
•  need  of  food  ;  kinds  and  proportions  required  ;  composition 
of  various  food  materials  ;  use  of  each  in  the  body  ;  digesti- 
bility of  each  ;  desirable  combinations  ;  best  methods  of 
cooking  in  order  to  secure  greatest  nutritive  value  at  least 
cost ;  modes  of  meeting  the  needs  of  the  individual ;  calcu- 
lation of  dietaries  ;  comparison  of  the  dietaries  for  persons 
of  different  ages  and  engaged  in  different  occupations, 
and  of  those  for  different  races  ;  and,  so  far  as  the  present 
state  of  science  will  permit,  the  solution  of  special  dietetic 
problems  arising  in  the  home. 

Serving :  the  principles  and  practices  underlying  wholesome- 
ness  and  attractiveness. 

Marketing  :  economical  purchase  and  preservation  of  food. 

Household  economics  :  care  of  the  house  and  its  furnishings  ; 
plumbing ;  scientific  principles  involved  and  practices  con- 
ducive to  the  maintenance  of  healthful  conditions. 


2m  U.S.A. — Private  Technical  Institutes, 

(h)  Domestic  Construction :  the  sanitary  and  artistic  expression  of  the 

Science  principles  embodied. 
Courses Art  ; — 

inued.  Drawing :  a  comprehensive  study  of  lino,  light  and  shade  ; 


colour  ;  nature  study ;  hand-work  and  sewing  affording 
material  for  design  and  blackboard  illustration ;  draughting 
in  connection  with  sewing  and  construction  for  mechanical 
drawing. 
Art  (Applied) :  - 

Hand-work  ;  braiding,  knotting,  netting,  knitting,  weaving, 
and  basketry  embodying  the  artistic  and  mechanical 
principles  of  good  manual  work. 
Sewing  :  hand  sewing,  draughting,  and  machine  sewing,  in- 
cluding undergarments  and  an  unlined  dress  ;  principles 
of  construction  and  execution  and  their  appropriate 
expression. 

A  student  is  expected  to  recognise  her  knowledge  as  the  fund 
upon  which  she  is  to  draw  for  subject  matter  in  her  professional 
work,  but  she  must  acquire  skill  in  its  adaptation  (in  accordance 
with  the  principles  instilled  by  her  normal  work,  normal  methods 
and  practice  teaching)  to  the  subjects  and  conditions  under 
which  she  finds  herself  at  work.  Evidence  of  power  to  do  this, 
as  well  as  to  work  skilfully,  economically,  and  harmoniously 
under  any  conditions  which  may  exist  of  necessity,  is  held  to 
be  an  essential  qualification  for  the  satisfactory  completion  of  this 
Normal  course.  In  addition  a  thesis  on  a  subject  relating  to 
Domestic  Science,  showing  research  and  original  work,  is  required 
of  all  Normal  students  before  the  diploma  is  awarded.  Never- 
theless, though  the  course  is  planned  to  develop  the  Normal 
student,  and  to  train  her  along  special  lines  of  domestic  science 
and  art  through  wise  stimulation  and  development,  it  also 
embodies  all  the  principles  and  most  of  the  specific  exercises  in 
general  form  which  are  adapted  to  other  classes  of  students. 

After  the  training  has  been  completed  satisfactorily,  the  Depart- 
ment interests  itself  in  the  future  of  those  whom  it  has  trained, 
but  naturally  it  does  not  assume  the  responsibility  of  undertaking 
to  procure  positions  for  such  as  desire  to  enter  professional  life. 
However,  since  applications  are  constantly  received  for  candidates 
qualified  to  render  good  service  along  the  various  lines  of  domestic 
science  and  art,  there  is  usually  no  difficulty  in  placing  graduates. 
The  demand  from  manual  training  and  private  schools,  from 
agricultural  colleges,  hospitals,  institutions,  and  univ^sity  settle- 
ments is  an  ever  increasing  one. 

Six  instructors  are  in  charge  of  this  department,  and  give  con- 
centrated attention  to  their  work  and  its  problems.  Upon  them, 
together  with  the  director,  devolve  the  general  guidance  and 
thought  for  the  well-being  of  the  students,  and  from  them,  in  the 
main,  emanate  the  good  influences  which  mould  their  personalities. 
They  publicly  make  known  their  desire  to  permeate  the  lives 
of  their  students  with  consciousness  of  the  fact  that  a  choice  is 
the  expression  of  a  "  moral  motive "  ;  that  action  is  impelled 
by  thought  and  is  a  test  of  it,  and  that  it  is  in  action  that 


Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 


205 


possibilities  are  discovered  and  realised.    Thus  all  encouragement  Domestic 
is  given   to  direction  from  within,  and  as  far  as  possible  sug-  Science 
gestion  is  substituted  for  that  from  without.     It  is  gratifying  ^^J^-^^^^^ 
to  learn  how  soon  students  begin  to  appreciate  that  they  are, 
in  the  main,  capable  of  being  what  they  choose  to  be ;  that  they 
gain  power  to  see  their  work  in  the  light  of  what  it  might  be  ;  for 
it  is  thus  that  they  are  led  to  realise  more  fully  their  potentialities, 
and  to  grow  in  power,  in  freedom,  and  in  helpfulness."  Each 
student  comes  in  contact  with  these  six  instructors  within  the  de- 
partment, with  at  least  six  Institute  instructors  in  other  de 
partments,  and  with  one  or  two  lecturers  from  other  institutions 
or  engaged  in  other  walks  in  life.    It  is  believed  that  in  this  way 
the  best  intellectual,  personal  and  technical  results  are  attained. 

The  only  significant  change  in  the  faculty  of  the  department 
during  the  past  year,  i.e.,  the  appointment  of  a  supervisor  of  prac- 
tice-teaching, has  proved  even  more  beneficial  than  was  antici- 
pated. The  wide  experience  of  this  lady  brings  in  an  invaluable 
element  to  the  young  teacher,  confronted  by  many  unexpected 
conditions  in  the  public  schools  of  the  large  cities  and  rural  districts 
where  she  will  work.  Miss  Snow  was  for  eleven  years  superinten- 
dent of  schools  and  director  of  the  City  Training  School  for  Teachers, 
of  Bangor,  Maine,  where  her  work  attracted  the  attention  of 
the  educational  institutions  and  associations  of  New  England  ; 
indeed  the  University  of  Maine,  in  recognition  of  her  service  to  the 
State,  conferred  upon  her  the  degree  of  Master  of  Philosophy.  The 
Association  of  Superintendents  of  New  England  elected  her  to  its 
presidency  in  1899,  as  did  also  the  Pedagogical  Society  of  Maine  ;  the 
appointment  in  each  instance  being  the  first  tribute  of  the  kind 
shown  to  the  work  of  a  woman  by  either  Association.  Miss  Snow 
teaches  not  only  normal  methods,  but  some  physiology  as  well, 
in  order  that  she  may  come  in  touch  Avith  the  students  in  a  study 
which  is  vitally  connected  with  their  future  professional  work. 
Since  the  missions  in  which  they  practice  are  widely  scattered, 
and  the  work  is  in  progress  at  all  hours,  on  all  days,  among 
all  kinds  of  people,  and  under  extremely  varying  types  of 
management,  only  a  woman  of  exceptional  abilities,  experience, 
and  broad  sympathies  could  superintend  it  successfully.  In  the 
practice-classes  the  conditions  are  in  many  respects  unfavourable ; 
they  are  irregular  and  ungraded.  As  a  j^hase  of  Domestic  Science 
work  they  possess  a  certain  value,  but  in  time  it  is  hojied  that 
this  type  of  work  may  be  supplemented  by  experience  more  nearly 
akin  to  that  which  the  student  will  meet  in  professional  life.  The 
practice-classes  in  sewing  greatly  outnumber  those  in  cookery  ;  it 
seems  that  some  mothers  find  it  troublesome  to  have  a  child  cook  - 
ing  at  home,  while  sewing  can  l^e  turned  to  good  account  without 
serious  inconvenience.  Possibly  the  thought  that  sewing,  as  such, 
leads  to  a  more  acceptable  professional  career  than  cookery  may  not 
be  without  its  influence.  About  400  women  and  children  are  being 
instructed  in  these  mission  classes,  nearly  double  the  number  taught 
by  the  Department  during  the  previous  year,  a^  the  size  of  the  second 


206 


U.S.A. — Private  Technical  InstitMtes. 


(h)  Domestic  year  Normal  class  made  it  possible  to  undertake  more  work  of  this 
C^u"^^  kind.  That  there  should  now  be  a  long  waiting  list  for  teachers 
-^^ontinued  ^^'^'^"^  marvellous  to  those  who  remember  with  w.Uat  difficulty 
such  Avork  was  secured  a  few  years  since  for  even  a  small  number 
of  Normal  students.  In  this  practice  work,  "  the  student  is  ex- 
pected to  study  the  class  and  its  environment,  and  to  aim  to  meet 
the  students  where  they  are  ;  to  direct  and  to  stimulate  them 
to  desire  and  strive  for  what  will  nourish  best  both  body  and  mind. 
This  requires  the  exercise  of  insight,  discrimination,  mental  flexi- 
bility, and  a  genuine  desire  to  help  where  help  is  needed." 

Health  and  personality  are  considered  such  influential  factors 
in  the  life  and  success  of  a  teacher,  that  much  stress  is  laid  upon 
them  in  the  selection  of  Normal  students.  Otherwise  inadequately 
prepared  candidates,  if  promising  in  the  above  respects,  are 
encouraged  to  complete  the  necessary  preliminary  training ; 
general  direction  of  such  student  work  is  always  offered,  invariably 
welcomed,  and  usually  followed ;  as  a  result  from  eight  to  twelve 
students  are  each  year  conscientiously  preparing  themselves  elsewhere 
for  the  Normal  course  offered  in  this  Department.  Meanwhile, 
no  effort  is  spared  to  discourage  girls  from  specialising  in  science 
and  handwork  in  the  High  School,  with  the  intention  of  sub- 
sequently offering  such  work  as  the  equivalent  of  that  of  a  similar 
nature  in  the  Normal  course.  The  feeling  is  strong  that,  though 
early  manual  training  and  an  elementaiy  knowledge  of  science 
are  excellent  and  useful,  they  do  not  afford  adequate  professional 
preparation  for  teachers  of  Domestic  Science ;  and  when  over 
emphasised  prematurely,  at  the  expense  of  a  firm  foundation  in 
general  knowledge  and  breadth  of  culture,  a  real  loss  results 
instead  of  the  anticipated  gain. 

Each  year  the  Department  prepares  what  are  called  "  food 
museums,"  for  schools,  consisting  of  blocks  representing  the  com- 
position of  the  body,  and  of  others  shewing  the  daily  outgoing  and 
income,  hi  addition  to  the  set  of  bottles,  before  described,  which  illus- 
trate the  percentage  composition  of  twelve  typical  foods.  This  year 
the  demand  for  the  "museum"  has  been  such,  that  orders 
could  only  be  taken  on  the  condition  that  delivery  could 
be  delayed  from  one  to  two  months.  This  is  interpreted  to 
mean  that  Domestic  Science  is  more  widely  taught,  and  that  its 
place  is  becoming  so  assured  that  expensive  equipment  is 
obtained  for  it.  To  many  schools  the  Department  has  sent,  by 
I'equest,  suggestions  relative  to  equipment  and  the  subject  matter 
to  be  taught  in  Domestic  Science  and  Art  courses.  It  cordially 
receives  visitors  who  are  interested  in  these  subjects ;  and  turns  such 
visits  to  useful  account  by  deriving  from  these  sources  fuller 
information  as  to  the  needs  which  Domestic  Science  workers  may 
assist  to  meet.  During  the  p^ast  ten  yeai'S  tlie  cui-riculum  for  the 
Normal  students  of  Domestic  Science  has  been  materially  modified. 
Though  some  subjects  have  appeared  in  the  course  only  to  be 
crowded  out  by  others  with  still  more  urgent  claims  for  recognition, 
the  efifoi't  of  late  years  has  been  one  of  "  simplification,  not  through 


Drexel  Institute,  PhiladdpJiia. 


207 


rejection,  but  through  harmony."  "  It  is  not  the  intention  to 
ivniain  satisfied  with  the  progress  ah-eady  made  ;  therefore,  tliere 
wiU  be  changes,  but  with  continuity  of  hfe  and  unity  in  purpose 
underlying  them."  In  these  conchiding  words  are  to  be  found 
evidence  of  that  spirit  of  earnest  self-criticism,  and  broad-minded 
opemiess  to  suggestion,  which  appeared  to  me  to  characterise  the 
leaders  of  thought  and  practice  in  Household  Economics  in  the 
United  States. 

A  quotation  from  a  letter  recently  received  from  the  Director  of 
the  Pratt  Institute  Course  throws  light  upon  past  results  and  indicates 
probable  modifications  in  the  near  future  : — "  For  several  years,"  she 
writes,  "  some  of  our  plans  have  been  yery  tentative,  because  of  the 
transition  state  of  education  in  general  ;  but  now  that  it  is  evident 
tliat  such  work  as  we  are  doing  has  entered  the  school  system  as  an 
integral  part,  we  feel  that  we  should  expand  our  work  somewhat,  as 
we  propose  doing  next  year.  We  are  trying  a  new  presentation  of 
cookery  with  a  group  of  ten  normal  students,  which  bids  fair  to  be 
more  effective  in  the  training  of  teachers  than  any  method  which 
we  have  used  in  the  past.  It  has  always  been  discouragingly  difficult 
to  train  a  woman  scientifically,  and  at  the  same  time  imbue  her  with 
a  spirit  which  would  make  her  desirous  to  teach  cookery  in  conformity 
with  science,  instead  of  simply  science  through  cookery.  ...  It  is 
with  difficulty  and  through  strenuous  effort  that  we  make  teaching  a 
child  through  the  concrete  interesting  to  the  normal  student."  It 
may  be  anticipated,  therefore,  that  actual  cooking  practice  will  now 
receive  a  larger  measure  of  attention  than  hitherto  in  the  Pratt  Insti- 
tute Normal  course.  The  following  extract  from  Miss  Edith  Greer's 
account  of  the  Normal  course  in  Domestic  Science  from  the  "  Pratt 
Institute  Monthly"  for  March,  1901,  explains  her  reasons  for  the 
relatively  limited  time  devoted  up  till  now  to  this  branch  of  Domestic 
Science.  "  Before  speaking  of  cookery,  its  place  and  ])resentation  in 
a  normal  conrse  in  Domestic  Science,  perchance  it  may  preclude  mis- 
understanding if  the  ever  present  question,  '  Are  the  normal  students 
taught  to  be  skilful  cooks  ?  '  be  answered  tentatively.  It  is  the  duty 
of  the  school,  if  it  fulfil  its  mission,  to  train  '  intelligent  not  skilful 
workers.'  Skill,  in  mechanical  manipulation  especially,  can  come 
through  repetition  only  and  repetition  does  not  to  any  great  extent 
enforce  conscious  mental  activity.  When  the  hand  has  carried  out 
the  mandate  of  the  head  and  thereby  strengthened  the  mental  impres- 
sion, the  act  may  be  repeated  almost  automatically  until  muscnlar 
co-ordination  becoming  perfected  results  in  skill.  But  inasmuch  as 
'  he  who  is  never  given  anything  more  to  do  than  he  can  do,  will  never 
learn  to  do  what  he  can,'  so  the  mind  when  it  has  nothing  further  to 
learn  from  a  special  act,  and  thus  is  freed  and  strengthened  for  some- 
thing new  and  more  difficult,  i^  defrauded  and  for  ever  impoverished 
if  it  be  not  taxed  anew.  Cookery,  therofore,  in  the  Normal  course 
is,  as  will  be  surmised,  considered  primarily  from  the  scientific  point  of 
view  ;  not  theoretically,  however,  for  practical  work  in  the  school 
kitchen  for  four  hours  each  week  for  two  years  exacts  of  the  student 
material  expression  of  the  training  obtained.  Familiarity  with  pro- 
cesses and  sufficient  skill  therein  to  ensure  with  experience  excellent 
results  as  to  the  quality  and  fia\  our  of  cooked  food,  are  requisites  of 
acceptable  work." 

Another  example  of  courses  in  the  same  subjects,  organised  under  Drexel  Insti- 
directors  as  zeak)us  as  Miss  Greer  and  Miss  Saokett,  are  those  cari-ied  tute,  I'hila- 
onatthe  Drexel  Institute,  Philadelpbia,  founded  by  Anthony  J.  ^^^Iphia. 
Drexel  in  1891,  for  the  promotion  of  education  in  art,  science, 


* 


208  U.S.A. — Private  Technical  Institutes. 

Drexel  Insti- and  industry.  The  chief  object  of  the  Institute  is  the  extension 
tute,  Phila-  and  improvement  of  industrial  education  as  a  means  of  opening 
—continued  ^^^^^       better  avenues  of  employment  to  young  men  and  women. 

In  accordance  with  the  founder's  desire,  however,  the  plan  of  organi- 
sation has  been  made  comprehensive ;  liberal  means  of  culture 
for  the  public  are  also  ])rovided  by  means  of  evening  classes,  free 
lectures  and  concerts,  the  library  and  the  museum.  Mr.  Drexel's 
gifts  to  the  Institution  amount  in  all  to  three  million  dollars. 
There  are  eighteen  departments  in  Art,  Science,  Commerce,  and 
Domestic  Subjects,  both  Normal  and  Technical  courses  being 
available  in  most  subjects.  The  exterior  and  much  of  the 
interior  of  the  building  are  handsome  and  impressive  ;  but  the 
general  plan  is  inconvenient,  so  that  considerable  sums  of  money 
are  now  compulsorily  expended  on  re-arrangements  and  additions. 
The  main  entrance  hall  is  of  magnificent  proportions,  and  sump- 
tuous in  its  lavish  decoration  of  fine  marble  staircases,  pillars,  and 
galleries.  It  is  pleasant  to  note,  on  the  authority  of  the  President 
of  the  Institute,  that  in  spite  of  the  daily  use  of  this  handsome  hall 
by  thousands  of  students,  no  single  instance  has  occurred  of  damage 
to  its  beauty.  The  control  of  the  Institute  is  entrusted  to  a  Board 
of  Trustees,  assisted  l)y  an  Advisory  Board  of  women,  whose  numbers 
are  well  represented  on  the  various  committees.  The  general 
courses  are  open  to  both  sexes,  on  equal  terms  and  conditions. 

Mr.  Drexel  handed  over  the  organisation  of  his  great  scheme  at 
an  early  stage  to  Dr.  MacAlister,  the  present  President  of  the 
Institute,  to  whom  much  credit  is  due  for  the  speedy  introductioji 
of  a  successful  Domestic  Science  course.  From  the  first,  the 
diplomees  secured  excellent  positions  as  teachers,  managers  of 
large  institutions  and  so  forth,  the  demand  continuing  to 
exceed  the  supply.  This  Department  ^\^as  soon  reinforced  by 
one  in  Domestic  Art,  which  is  admirably  equipped,  and  is 
situated  in  spacious,  air}^  and  well-lit  rooms,  artistic  in  their 
decoration,  and  well  suited  to  their  purpose.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  the  Department  of  Domestic  Science ;  kitchens,  laundry, 
laboratories,  dining-room,  class-rooms,  all  give  the  impression  of 
convenience  and  space.  Under  Miss  Caroline  Hall  and  Miss  Burgess 
in  the  one,  and  under  the  directorship  of  Miss  Helen  Spring  in  the 
other,  skilled  organisation  fosters  the  growth  of  sound  work  among 
the  students.  The  Institute  Library  contains  a  large  section 
devoted  to  Art  subjects,  and  includes  a  collection  of  books  on 
costume,  ancient,  mediseval,  oriental,  i)rofessional  and  hygienic  ; 
also  a  wide  range  of  costly  pul^lications  dealing  with  art  needlework, 
tapestry,  colour,  textiles,  dyeing  and  weaving.  Students  can  secure 
a  printed  reference  list  containing  the  bibliography  of  these  subjects 
admirably  classified,  which  also  offers  suggestions  to  those 
anxious  to  follow  a  systematic  course  of  reading  in  the  various 
branches  (e.g.,  references  are  furnished  to  certain  books  of  travel 
which  contain  good,  brief  descriptions  and  illustrations  of  the  dress 
of  different  nations) 


Drexd  Institute,  Philadelphia, 


209 


A  study  of  the  schedules  of  the  Normal  courses  in  the  Domestic 
Arts  and  Sciences  at  both  the  Pratt  and  Drexel  Institutes  reveals 
a  general  similarity,  flavoured  with  the  diversity  to  be  anticipated 
where  each  is  free  to  plan  and  practice  as  seems  best  in  the  light 
of  experience  and  the  needs  of  the  community  it  serves.  The  scope  of 
all  the  courses  is  wide  ;  for  the  reason  that  those  responsible  for  them 
share  the  prevalent  conviction  that  technical  work  of  the  highest, 
most  intelligent  order  is  impossible  unless  founded  upon  a  firm 
basis  of  theoretical  principles  ;  therefore,  they  maintain,  the  funda- 
mental sciences  and  arts  must  find  a  place.  Manual  and  physical 
training,  in  addition  to  the  scientific  methods  and  skilled  manipu- 
lation gained  in  the  chemical  and  biological  laboratories,  are  in- 
cluded from  the  belief  that  the  necessary  co-ordination  of  hand, 
eye  and  brain  can  be  more  profitably  acquired  through  suited 
variety  of  exercise  than  by  the  constant  repetition  of  one  class  of 
operation.  Obligatory  attention  to  literature  is  required  in  order 
to  develop  a  quick  sympathy  with  varied  temperaments,  and  a 
mind,  not  alone  well  balanced,  because  exercised  in  many  directions, 
but  broadened  also  by  contact  with  the  wise  sayings  of  great  philo- 
sophers and  poets  ;  in  addition,  the  necessary  command  of  a  good 
vocabulary  is  another  result  anticipated  from  wide  reading  of 
classics  in  several  languages.  As  such  culture  studies  are  too  often 
overlooked  in  the  press  of  daily  work,especially  when  this  is  of  an 
essentially  practical  nature,  English  Hterature,  composition  and 
elementary  psychology  are  compulsory,  not  "elective"  subjects. 
Experience  has  shown  that  the  same  need  for  obligation  exists  in 
the  case  of  physical  training,  which  is,  therefore,  required  of  all  stu- 
dents throughout  their  courses  ;  young  and  eager  girls  are  prone  to 
forget  that  a  healthy  body  and  a  good  carriage  are  indispensable 
to  satisfactory  study  as  well  as  to  success  as  a  teacher.  The  care 
for  physical  needs  is  further  evidenced  in  the  daily  provision  at 
these  Institutes  of  inexpensive,  nutritious  and  appetising  lunches 
for  students. 

A  comparison  in  detail  of  the  Normal  courses  in  Domestic  Art* 
affords  further  illustration  of  this  general  similarity,  though  some- 
what more  prominence  is  given  to  artistic  training  at  the  Pratt 
Institute,  while  a  recognition  of  the  assistance  to  be  derived  from 
acquaintance  with  business  methods  and  the  keeping  of  accurate 
accounts  is  evident  in  the  Drexel  scheme.  It  also  appeared  to  me 
that  a  more]  practical  knowledge  of  the  chemistry  of  dyeing  and 
cleaning  enters  into  the  latter  course,  in  which  the  study  of 
human  physiology  is  rather  more  prolonged  ;  in  other  respects 
the  resemblance  in  scope,  methods,  and  time  periods  allotted  is 
such  that  I  do  not  propose  to  detail  the  Normal  course  in  Domestic 
Art  at  the  Drexel  Institute,  though  further  particulars  are  sup- 
plied in  Appendix  F.f    (See  also  Table  XXX.). 

*  See  Tables  XXVIII.  and  XXX. 

t  Further  referei^ce  to  the  work  of  the  Domestic  Art  Department  is 
made  on  p.  215. 


G490. 


O 


210 


U.S.A. — Private  Technical  Institutes, 


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-Brexel  Institute,  PMladdpMa. 


211 


Turning  to  the  Domestic  Science  course,  it  will  be  seen  that  at  (a)  Domestic 
the  Drexel  Institute  human  physiology  is  supplemented  by  a  Science 
short  course  in  biology  and   bacteriology,  whereas  at  the  Pratt  ^^^^^^j 
Institute  students  of  both  Domestic  Science  and  Art  gain  thisxormal,' 
desirable  introduction  to  physiology  through  their  preceding  nature  Technical), 
study  •  they  have  the  advantage  also  of  a  short  study  of  that  Table  XXXI 
branch  of  physics  which  is  concerned  with  heat ;  dexterity  with 
their  hands  is  developed  by  a  definite  course  in  manual  training, 
while  sewing  also  finds  a  place,  in  order,  as  has  been  said,  that 
graduates  may  be  competent  to  conduct  an  elementary  course  in  a 
grade  school  should  it  be  desired.    Speaking  broadly,  I  gained  the 
impression  that,  while  substantially  the  same  in  conception  and 
scope,  manual  training  is  somewhat  more  emphasised  at  the  Pratt 
and  chemical  practice  at  the  Drexel  Institute.     A  comparison 
can  be  also  instituted  as  to  the  number  of  hours  spent  on  the  diffe- 
rent subjects  by  the  students  following  the  respecuves  courses 
at  the  two  Institutes  ;  for  instance,  at  Pratt  330  hours  are  devoted 
to  nature  study,  bacteriology  and  physiology,  and  470  to  physics 
(heat)  and  chemistry,  while  at  Drexel  200  hours  are  given  to 
biology,  bacteriology,  and  physiology,  and  500  to  chemistry.  The 
Pratt  course  gives  280  hours  to  actual  cooking  practice — little 
more  than  half  the  time  expended  on  it  at  Drexel — in  most  other 
subjects  the  courses  are  of  almost  equal  length. 

Thanks  to  the  ready  courtesy  of  the  Directors  of  these  important 
Departments  in  both  Institutes,  many  details  have  been  furnished 
to  me  with  which  my  too  short  visits  prevented  me  from  acquainting 
myself  personally.  Among  these  must  be  specially  mentioned  the 
series  of  syllabuses  from  the  Drexel  Institute  included  in  the 
Appendix  F.,  which  cannot  fail  to  interest  those  responsible  for 
similar  courses  in  Great  Britain.  In  the  Domestic  Science  Normal 
course*  at  the  Drexel  Institute  the  general  chemistry  extends 
through  one  year ;  and  is  followed  by  the  practice  of  qualitative 
and  quantitative  analysis,  with  two  lectures  and  two  laboratory 
periods  a  week.  The  course  in  quantitative  analysis  is  devoted  to 
food  analysis  ;  the  laboratory  work  is  of  such  a  character  as  to 
furnish  data  for  the  calculation  of  food  values  as  well  as  to  detect 
adulterations.  I  learned  that  the  following  indicates  the  general 
scope  of  this  quantitative  work,  to  which  one  year  is  devoted  : — 
analysis  of  chemically  pure  soils,  of  potable  water,  of  milk,  of  butter, 
of  cereals,  of  tea  and  bakin^j  powder.  Some  study  of  organic 
chemistry  follows,  the  method  employed  in  both  courses  being 
(a)  a  lecture  covering  the  ground  of  the  week's  work  ;  (6)  imme- 
diate practice,  carried  on  under  supervision  where  necessary.  It  is 
evident  that  Miss  Spring  and  Professor  Henwood  attach  very 
considerable  importance  to  the  chemistry  of  foods  and  to  dietary 
studies  ;  lectures  on  these  subjects  form  a  coui^e  in  the  last  term ; 
and  problems,  theoretical  and  practical,  are  furnished  for  solution 
to  the  students.    Professor  Henwood  has  worked  out  and  carried 

^  See  T^ble  XXXI. 
6490.  O  2 


212 


U.S.A. — Private  Technical  Institutes. 


(a)  Domestic  on  a  scheme  in  this  subject  for  six  years,  three  of  which  have  now 
Science  been  on  the  Hnes  he  finds  to  result  in  the  accompHshment  of  good 
(  ourses.--  ^Qj.]^  .  orraduates  attend  these  classes  as  well  as  the  Normal  st\idents. 
conttnuea.     mi      ,        ^  •  n    •  t-  ^  L^ 

The  class  of  sixteen  works  m  groups  of  twos  and  threes. 

During  the  junior  year  the  course  in  anatomy  and  physiology 
cavers  a  general  study  of  the  body  and  its  various  systems  ;  the 
laboratory  demonstrations  have  reference  to  the  lecture  topics, 
Avhich  embrace  the  subjects  of  physical  development,  physical 
training,  personal  and  domestic  hygiene. 

Each  Normal  student  goes  through  practically  eight  courses  in 
cookery.  Of  these,  however,  three  consist  in  repetitions  of  the 
first  three  in  general  cookery,  to  ensure  a  thorough  grasp  of 
principles  and  facility  in  practice.  The  course  in  advanced  cookery 
is  then  taken,  as  well  as  that  in  invalid  cookery,  followed  by  a 
"  lunch  room  "  course,  through  which  experience  is  gained  in 
providing  for  large  numbers.  Individual  work  with  small  quan- 
tities is  usually  followed  by  group  work  in  which  food  is  prepared 
in  sufficient  amounts  for  a  family  of  six  or  eight  persons.  The 

lunch  room  "  is  open  for  the  use  of  all  students  who  attend  the 
Institute.  A  handsomely  decorated  hall,  resembling  a  high-class 
restaurant,  was  approaching  completion,  at  the  time  of  my  visit, 
to  replace  the  hitherto  ci-amped  and  unsatisfactory  quarters. 
Each  portion  of  food  must  represent  a  certain  nutritive  value,  and 
is  sold  at  remarkably  low  prices  ;  it  appears  to  be  appetising  and 
varied.  No  special  study  is  made  of  infant  feeding  in  this  course, 
in  consequence  of  the  wide  divergence  of  opinion  and  practice 
which  prevails,  as  w^ell  as  of  the  increasing  custom  among  physicians 
to  waite  prescriptions  for  individual  cases.  Students  are  throughout 
referred  to  an  excellent  library  of  books  of  reference  containing 
not  only  the  standard  works,  but  all  the  new^est  and  best  as  they 
appear ;  the  invaluable  Food  Bulletins  of  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  being  also  available  for  their  use. 

The  Laundry  course  comprises  only  twelve  lessons  ;  it  appears, 
so  far  as  it  goes,  practical,  and  based  on  scientific  principles  ;  as  a 
subject  it  does  not  as  yet  rank  high  in  the  curriculum  of  sucli 
training  courses,  though  here,  as  at  the  Pratt  Institute  and 
Teachers  College,  great  stress  is  laid  upon  its  importance  in  house- 
hold training.  The  plan  and  building  of  a  house  is  at  present 
treated  only  theoretically  ;  this  course  of  lectures  is  open  to  students 
in  several  other  departments  besides  those  in  the  Normal  and 
Housekeepers'  courses ;  the  synopsis  of  lectures  appears  well  planned, 
and  the  appended  bibliography,  which  includes  books  on  house 
sanitation  and  hygiene,  sites  and  environment,  and  the  historical 
development  of  the  dwelling,  is  very  complete  and  suggestive. 
The  course  is  given  by  Professor  Prescott  Hopkins  of  the  Architec- 
tural Department  of  the  Institute.  Home  nursing  is  practised 
in  a  well-fui-nished  bedroom,  but,  unfortunately,  is  not  taught  by 
a  trained  nurse.  The  fees  fc>r  the  Normal  courses  ai-e  $40 
(about  £8)  per  term  ;   text  books  and  stationery  average  $1(> 


Drexel  tnutitibte. 


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214  V.S.A, — Private  Technical  Institutes. 


(a)  Domestic  (about  £2  2s.) ;  board  may  be  had  near  the  Institute  at  prices 
Science  ranging  from  $5  to  $8  (about  £1  to  £1  12s.  6d.)  a  week.  A 
Courses.  students'  boarding-house  has  been  organised  in  connection  with 
the  department,  the  inclusive  terms  being  $5  (£1)  a  week,  board 
only  $3.50  (14s.) ;  tjie  accommodation,  however,  is  limited,  and 
the  long  waiting  list  shows  how  inadequate  it  is  to  the  demand. 
In  the  kitchen  washing-dresses  are  not  required,  white  blouses 
and  black  skirts  with  the  usual  apron,  sleeves,  and  cap  being  the 
selected  costume.  The  demand  for  the  normal  students  on 
graduation  is  at  present  larger  than  can  be  met;  the  training 
i-eceived  having  a  very  high  character  throughout  the  United 
States.  The  normal  practice  work  is  obtained  by  means  of  classes 
for  guilds,  church  schools,  children's  Saturday  classes,  etc.,  held 
in  various  quarters  of  the  city. 

In  addition  to  the  Normal  courses  in  cookery,  ten  alternative 
courses  are  offered  in  this  and  other  subjects  connected  with  the 
household  ;  each  course  occupies  one  term  and  is  complete  in  itself. 
Of  these,  three  are  confined  to  general  cookery  ;  they  are  consecu- 
tive and  must  be  taken  up  in  regular  oi'der. 

The  First  Course  consists  of  instruction  in  the  composition  and 
dietetic  value  of  food  materials.  The  lessons  are  arranged  in  logical 
order,  and  each  principle  is  illustrated  by  the  preparation  of  simple 
dishes.  The  teaching  is  largely  individual,  each  student  preparing 
an  entire  dish  ;  the  object  of  the  course  is  the  preparation  of  food  in 
the  most  digestible  and  appetising  forms. 

In  the  Second  Course  instruction  and  practice  are  given  in  the  pre- 
paration of  more  complicated  dishes  and  menus  than  are  included  in 
the  first  course. 

The  Third  Course  includes  the  preparation  of  still  more  elaborate 
and  expensive  dishes  ;  lessons  in  marketing  and  carving  ;  and  practical 
demonstration  in  the  cutting  of  meat.    In  each  course  one  lesson  of 
three  hours  is  given  weekly. 
The  course  in  Invahd  Cookery  is  intended  for  professional  nurses 
and  other  peraons  desirous  of  acquiring  a  practical  knowledge 
of  cookery  suitable  for  the  sick  room.   It  extends  throughout 
one  term,  with  one  lesson  of  two  and  a-half  hours  each  week. 
Similar  classes  are  arranged  for  medical  students  either  in  the 
afternoon  or  evening  to  suit  their  convenience.    The  Housekeepers' 
course  is  offered  in  the  belief  that  greater  skill  and  intelligence 
are  needed  in  the  management  of  the  home,  and  for  the  purpose 
of  providing  thorough  training  for  women  who  possess  the  re- 
quisite qualifications  to  fit  themselves  for  positions  as  housekeepers 
or  as  matrons  of  public  institutions.    It  is  analogous  to  that  on 
Food  Economics  at  the  Pratt  Institute,  and  occupies  a  year. 

It  includes  the  general  courses  in  cookery,  courses  in  invalid  and 
lunch-room  cookery ;  a  course  for  waitresses ;  laundry  work ; 
marketing ;  lectures  on  physiology  and  hygiene ;  home  nursing  ; 
familiar  talks  on  food  materials  and  other  matters  relating  to  the 
household  together  with  a  study  of  business  forms  and  accounts. 
At  present  the  number  who  attend  it  is  very  limited  ;  applicants  must 
be  twenty-five  years  of  age  and  must  give  evidence  of  a  good  education. 
Courses  are  also  organised  in  Home  Nursing,  Laundry  work  and 
ior  Waitresses  (six  lessons  of  two  hours  each) ;  there  is  a  good 


tJrcdccl  Institute^  PMladd^jhia. 


215 


fecture  course  on  Home  Construction,  as  well  as  children's  Satur- 
day classes  and  evening  classes  in  General  Cookery ;  there  is  also 
a  "  Chafing-dish  ' '  course  for  men  ;  all  are  open  to  the  public  ; 
occasionally  boys  are  included  among  the  Waitress  course  students. 

The  syllabus  of  the  first  course  in  the  Evening  Cooking  Classes 
is  included  in  Appendix  B  (p.  312),  also  one  in  Household  Science  ; 
they  will  be  seen  closely  to  resemble  those  employed  for  correspond- 
ing classes  in  this  country.  One  lesson  a  week  is  usual  in  the  above 
courses  for  one  or  two  sessions ;  the  fees  charged  vary  from 
twelve  shillings  to  £1.  5s.  All  materials  in  the  cookery  classes 
are  provided  by  the  Institute.  Good  reports  are  given  of  the 
attendance  at  the  greater  number  of  these  numerous  classes. 

The  General  Course  of  Instruction  in  Dressmaking  consists  of  (^)  Domestic 
four  grades,  each  occupying  one  term  or  half  the  academic  year ;  (Qg^^af ^^^* 
two  lessons  of  two  hours  each  being  given  weekly.    All  materials  Normal,* 
must  be  furnished  by  the  students,  except  those  supplied  in  the  Technical), 
third  and  fourth  grades  for  order  work,  when,  for  further  practice, 
students  are  allowed  to  receive  and  execute  orders.    All  work  cut 
and  planned  in  the  class  room  must  be  finished  at  home.  Instruc- 
tion is  also  provided  in  accounts,  business  forms,  and  correspondence, 
two  lessons  of  one  hour  each  being  given  weekly  during  the  second 
term.    A  course  of  lectures  in  the  Chemistry  of  textiles,  dyeing, 
and  cleansing  is  given  during  the  second  term  of  each  year. 
Throughout  the  Domestic  Art  Department,  similar  stress  is  laid 
upon  the  study  of  line,  form,  the  proportions  of  the  human  figure, 
etc.,  as  in  the  Pratt  Institute ;  one  and  a-half  hours  a  week  must 
be  devoted  to  such  instruction  and  practice  in  the  General,  as  well 
as  the  Technical  and  Normal  dressmaking  and  millinery  classes. 
The  two  terms  begin  in  September  and  February  respectively ; 
students  enter  for  one  term  at  a  time.   The  fees  are  £3  for  the 
first  grade,  and  £4  for  each  of  the  more  advanced. 

The  Technical  courses  in  Sewing,  Dressmaking,  and  Millinery 
are  arranged  to  meet  the  need  of  those  who  desire  to  train  as  pro- 
fessionals. The  dressmaking  students  are  expected  to  attend 
lectures  in  physiology  and  in  hygiene  with  reference  to  dress,  in  addi- 
tion to  those  in  the  chemistry  of  textiles,  dyeing  and  cleansing,  no 
additional  fee  being  required;  they  also  have  the  privilege  of  physical 
training  in  the  gymnasium  without  extra  payment.  They  must 
be  at  least  eighteen  years  of  age  on  admission,  have  a  good  know- 
ledge of  hand  and  machine  sewing,  and  must  present  for  inspection 
a  dress  made  personally  from  patterns.  Applicants  are  admitted 
only  in  September  in  each  year ;  cei'tificates  are  granted  to  satis- 
factory students  who  have  followed  the  entire  course.  The  fees 
are  $30  (£6)  per  term.  In  the  evening  classes  instruction  is 
given  in  hand  and  machine  sewing,  in  the  first,  second,  and  third 
grades  of  the  general  course  in  dressmaking,  and  in  millinery. 
The  session  extends  through  six  months,  from  the  beginning  of 

*  With  reference  to  the  Normal  Course  in  Domestic  Art,  see  above' 
page  209. 


V.S.A. — Private  Wofneris  CoUeyes. 


October  to  tlie  end  of  March  ;  in  each  grade  two  lessons  of  tw(3 
hours  each  are  given  weekly ;  the  fees  are  12s.  6d.  for  the  first 
covirse,  and  from  £1  to  £1.  12s.  6d.  for  the  more  advanced, 
(c)  Juriioi'  Brief  mention  must  be  made  of  the  junior  coiiree  in  Domestic 
Coarse  in  Science  and  Art  which  is  a  non-professional  course  of  prescribed 
Sd^icVand  ^^^^ies  for  girls  ;  it  covers  two  years,  and  is  designed  to  supply  that 
Art.  training  for  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  home  life  wdiich  the 

ordinary  academic  education  fails  to  give,  and  also  to  lay  a  broad  and 
solid  foundation  for  the  technical  work  involved  in  direct  prepara 
tion  for  a  profession  or  a  skilled  occupation.  The  course  is  based 
upon  the  recognition  of  the  fact  that  training  for  the  practical 
business  of  life  should  have  its  due  ]jlace  in  the  education  of  the 
individual  during  the  plastic  period  of  life,  and  experience  is  con- 
stantly showing  the  soundness  of  this  position.  Of  the  pupils  who 
have  thus  far  graduated,  more  than  three-fourths  have  developed 
aptitudes  for  some  domestic  art  or  science  ;  these  have  subsequently 
taken  advanced  courses  in  chemistry,  physiology  and  hygiene, 
domestic  science,  millinery,  or  dressmaking,  with  a  view  in  each 
case  to  following  the  pursuit  as  a  profession.  As  a  result  of 
this  preparatory  training  in  a  well-arranged  and  soundly-correlated 
course  of  study,  these  pupils  have  the  advantage  of  entering 
upon  the  pursuit  of  their  technical  coui-ses  with  good  haljits  of 
thought  and  study,  and  with  the  ability  to  feel  an  intelligent 
delight  in  their  work."  The  course  is  divided  broadly  into  scien- 
tific work,  academic  work,  and  technical  work — about  one-third 
of  the  time  being  given  to  each  of  these  l^ranches. 

The  complete  list  of  studies  is  as  follows : — language  and 
literature,  general  history,  civics,  current  events,  mathematics, 
elementary  chemistry,  physiology  and  hygiene,  domestic  science 
and  arts  (including  household  economics),  cookery  (practical  in- 
struction in  the  school  kitchen,  talks  on  foods),  sewing,  millinery ; 
the  planning,  decoration,  and  furnishing  of  a  house;  business 
customs  and  accounts ;  drawing  and  physical  training. 

E. — Women's  Colleges. 

Courses  in       A'course  in  physiology  and  hygiene  is  given  at  Vassar  College 
Hygiene  and  fQj.  Women  by  Professor  Thalberg,  which  is   obligatory  for  all 
Econoniics    freshmen  during  their  first  term.    It  comprises  lectures,  recita- 
(a)  Vassar    tions,  and  practical  investigation  of  the   principles   of  house 
College.       sanitation  ;  drawings  and  models  are  provided  for  this  study.  An 
elective  course  is  also  offered  in  advanced  hygiene,  which  is  open 
to  juniors  and  seniors  ;   this  comprises,  in  addition  to  text-book 
work,  the  microscopic  study  of  tissues,  experiments  in  physiological 
chemistry  and   frequent  dissections.    Certain  courses  in  biology 
are  recommended  as  a  good  introduction   to   these  advanced 
courses.    In  chemistry,  the  analysis  of  food  is  open  to  those  who 
have  studied  quantitative  analysis  and  organic  chemistry ;  while 
in  the  department  of  economics  and  sociology  Professor  Mills,  in  his 
course  on  Charities  and  Corrections,  treats  of  the  physical  and 
physiological,  as  well  as  of  otiier  causes  of  abnormality. 


Coilfses  in  Hyfjiene  and  tiousehold  Economics. 


A  course  in  the  Elements  of  Hygiene,  conducted  by  Miss  E.  B.  (^>)  Wellesley 
Sherrard,  resident  health  officer,  is  also  required  of  all  freshmen  (^'ollege. 
at  Wellesley  College  for  Women,  and  coimts  towards  the  degree  of 
B.A.  Miss  Hazard,  the  President,  believes  that  this  course  pro- 
vides for  health  in  the  present  and  in  the  future  by  awakening 
and  helping  to  educate  a  "  physical  conscience."  The  part  of  the 
subject  presented  is  concerned  chiefly  with  the  proper  care  of  the 
Iwdy.  The  course  is  designed  to  give  a  practical  knowledge  of  its 
structure  and  an  understanding  of  some  of  the  chief  causes  which 
lead  to  deterioration  of  health  and  to  needless  loss  of  life.  A  useful 
outline  is  also  given  of  the  general  principles  of  public  hygiene. 
The  courses  in  zoology  and  animal  physiology  afford  opportunity 
for  further  study  to  any  specially  interested  student.  Instruction 
in  domestic  science,  including  the  theory  of  diet  and  cookery,  was 
given  for  some  time  ;  the  resignation  of  the  instructor,  on  her 
appointment  to  work  in  another  college,  brought  this  to  a  close. 
Since  then  occasional  lectures  on  this  subject  have  been  given,  and 
have  invariably  been  received  with  much  interest,  but  no  regular 
course  has  been  organised. 

In  the  other  colleges  for  women — Bryn  Mawr  and  Smith,  for 
instance — attention  is  devoted  to  physical  culture,  and  a  general 
supervision  is  exercised  over  the  health  of  the  girls ;  though 
Wellesley  College  is  still  the  exception  in  the  excellent  work 
carried  on  by  its  resident  health  officers.  These  medical  women 
endeavour  perseveringly  to  train  students  to  judicious  care  of 
themselves,  chiefly  by  the  adoption  of  a  set  of  commonsense 
rules  for  healthful  living.  The  results  to  their  well-being,  physical 
and  mental,  are  first-rate. 

Considerable  interest  has  been  aroused  at  Boston,  and  indeed  (c)  Simmons 
over  a  much  wider  area,  by  the  founding  and  endowment  of  the  Female 
Simmons  Female  College,  several  million  dollars  having  been  g^g^^^' 
bequeathed  for  the  purpose  by  the  late  John  Simmons.  The 
college  is  established  as  an  institution  in  which  the  instruction 
given  is  such  as  will  best  enable  women  to  earn  an  independent 
livelihood.  The  trustees  believe  that  the  purpose  and  plan  will 
interest  and  attract  students  who  desire  to  fi-t  themselves  to  become 
superintendents  or  matrons  of  institutions,  heads  of  college  houses, 
or  of  social  settlements,  private  secretaries,  librarians,  and 
teachers  of  household  arts  and  sciences.  Provision  will  be  made 
for  those  who  desire  to  prepare  themselves  for  the  study  of  medicine 
and  nursing,  and  for  others  who  wish  to  become  more  proficient 
in  a  calling  already  adopted,  or  who  need  to  add  general  training 
to  practical  skill.  Thus,  college  graduates  who  wish  to  secure 
technical  or  professional  training  will  have  special  opportunities  for 
doing  so,  while  encouragement  will  be  given  to  that  large  class 
of  women  interested  in  educational  problems,  who  feel  not  only 
that  constructive  work  should  accompany  academic  studies,  but 
that  no  woman  is  well  educated  until  she  is  thoroughly  i)repared 
to  obtain  an  independent  livelihood,  whether  choice  or  necessity 
may  demand  such  self-maintenance.    The  plan  of  instruction 


218  U.S. A. —Private  Women^s  Colleges, 


(v)  Simmons  provides  for  three  classes  of  students.  It  offers  a  complete  course 
UoUe  ^^'^^  years  for  such  students  as  are  able  to  give  the  requisite  time 

BostcHi.'—  college  training,  while  shorter  technical  courses  are  to  be 

continued,  provided  for  those  who  have  had  adequate  preliminary  prepara- 
tion elsewhere,  whether  in  college,  or  normal  school,  or  in  practical 
life.  Properly  qualified  students  will  also  be  received  for  a  partial 
course.  There  are  to  be  Saturday  and  evening  classes  for  students 
unable  to  attend  the  regular  classes,  with  regard  to  which  detailed 
announcements  are  not  yet  published. 

The  following  courses  in  the  departments  of  Household 
Economics,  Secretarial  work,  Library  training,  and  Science  will  be 
begun  in  the  year  1902-3.  The  Corporation  expects  to  open  the 
department  of  Applied  Art  in  the  year  1903-4,  and  other  depart- 
ments in  subsequent  years. 

A.  Household  Economics. 

1.  Regular  course  of  four  years  in  preparation  for  professional 

housekeeping  and  for  teaching. 

2.  Advanced  course  of  one  or  more  years  for  college  graduates 

and  others  of  sufficient  training. 

3.  Elementary  course  of  one  year. 

4.  Special  or  partial  courses. 

B.  Secretarial  Courses. 

1.  Regular  course  of  four  years  preparing  for  professional 

positions  and  for  teaching. 

2.  Advanced  course  of  one  or  more  years  for  college  graduates. 

3.  Special  or  partial  courses. 

C.  Library  Courses. 

1.  Regular  course  of  four  years. 

2.  Special  or  partial  courses. 

D.  Scientific  Courses. 

1.  Collegiate  course  of  four  years  in  preparation  for  science 
^  teaching. 

2.  Advanced  course  of  one  or  more  years  for  students  with 

previous  college  or  normal  school  training. 

3.  Course  of  four  years  in  preparation  for  the  study  of  medicine. 

4.  Courses  of  one,  two,  or  three  years  in  preparation  for  admis- 

sion to  training  schools  for  nurses. 

5.  Special  or  partial  courses. 

The  regular  course  in  Household  Economics  is  designed  for 
women  who  wish  to  prepare  themselves  for  taking  charge  of  insti- 
tutions or  social  settlements,  or  for  teaching  the  subjects  of  house- 
hold arts  and  sciences.  Students  preparing  to  teach  will  be  expected 
to  take  the  theory  and  practice  of  teaching  in  their  last  year. 
Four  years  will  be  required  for  the  course,  unless  students  have 
had  a  satisfactory  preparation  subsequent  to  their  High  school 
training,  such  as  two  years  in  college  study,  a  course  in  a  Normal 
school,  or  sufficient  experience  in  teaching,  in  which  cases  they 
may  be  admitted  directly  to  the  advanced  course.  The  Elementary 
course  is  offered  for  those  who  desire  to  understand  the  principles 
underlying  elementary  Household  Economics  or  to  become  pro- 
ficient in  the  management  of  the  home. 

The  following  tentative  programme  indicates  the  number  of  periods 
a  week  allotted  to  each  subject  in  this  elementary  course  ;  the  labo- 


Courses  in  Hygiene  and  Household  Economics. 


ratory  and  practice  periods  will  occupy  two  or  three  hours  each  (c)  Simmons 
lectures  and  recitations  one  hour  each.    Unless  otherwise  specified'  Female 
electives  may  be  chosen  from  all  the  subjects  taught  in  the  college,  College, 
which  are  not  included  in  the  prescribed  portion  of  the  programme.  Boston.— 

Periods  per  week-  continued. 

Cookery      -      -      -      -      _      -      ,      -      -  4 

Marketing  and  accounts     -      -      n»        '    -      -  2 

Physiology  and  hygiene     -      -      -      -      -  -1 

House  construction,  decoration  and  equipment  -      -  ii 

Household  administration  and  sanitation   -      -      -  il 

Conferences  -      -      -  J 

Sewing  and  materials  or  elective  subjects  -  -  -  3 
Special  and  partial  courses  may  consist  of  a  portion  of  the  regular 
course  combined  with  any  other  studies  offered  by  the  college. 
In  the  Science  Department  are  found  courses  preparatory  to 
the  study  of  medicine  or  of  nursing;  it  is  interesting  to  note 
that  mathematics,  physics,  chemistry,  biology  and  physiology, 
bacteriology,  sanitation  and  cooking  find  a  place  in  each  of 
these.  In  fact,  a  series  of  lessons  in  cookery,  laundry  work, 
and  household  accounts  will  be  provided  for  all  students  in  this 
Department.  Arrangements  have  been  made  with  the  Boston 
Normal  School  of  Gymnastics  whereby  competent  instruction 
in  gymnastics  will  be  given  to  the  college  students  in  the  gym- 
nasium of  that  school.  Two  periods  of  physical  culture  will 
be  expected  of  all  students  each  week  unless  excused  for  satis- 
factory reasons  ;  in  October  and  May  outdoor  exercises  at  the 
niverside  Recreation  Grounds,  Newton,  may  be  substituted  for  the 
gymnasium  practice ;  each  student  will  be  advised  with  regard  to 
her  physical  welfare  by  an  experienced  physician,  and  the  gymnastic 
training  will  be  adapted  to  her  needs. 

The  college  year  will  be  divided  into  two  terms — October  to 
February,  February  to  June — each  term  will  close  with  exami- 
nations in  all  departments.  The  general  admission  requirements 
are  such  as  may  be  secured  by  a  four  years'  course  in  a  good  High 
School,  but  the  advanced  work  in  Household  Economics  is  open  to 
college  graduates  without  examination,  and  to  others  who  show 
that  they  have  had  the  requisite  training.  A  limited  number  of 
scholarships  have  been  established  by  the  trustees,  who  have 
also  provided  other  means  of  affording  pecuniary  assistance  to 
those  who  are  unable  to  meet  the  college  charges.  The  fee  for  all 
regular  courses  is  $100  (£20)  a  year,  payable  in  two  instalments. 
For  special  students  and  for  evening  and  Saturday  courses  special 
and  reduced  charges  are  made.  The  diploma  of  the  college  will  be 
granted  only  to  those  students  who  have  completed  the  full  require- 
ments of  one  of  the  regular  courses.  Certificates  may  be  issued  to 
other  students,  showing  the  list  of  studies  successfully  completed 
and  the  grades  attained  in  each.  Suitable  boarding  accom- 
modation can  be  secured  for  about  $7  (£1  10s.)  a  week ;  a 
college  dormitory  "  is  also  provided  for  sixty-six  students.  The 
rooms  are  arranged  in  separate  suites,  each  suite  is  intended  for 
two  students,  and  consists  of  a  study,  a  bedroom,  and  a  bath-room. 


V.S.A  .—Private  Universities, 


The  School 
of  House- 
keeping, 
Boston. 


Under  certain  conditions  one  student  will  be  allowed  to  occupy  a 
suite  ;  there  are  also  a  few  single  rooms.  Ample  and  convenient 
dining-  rooms  are  included  in  the  "  dormitory,"  so  that  students  not 
in  residence  may  secure  table  board.  The  cost  of  residence,  in- 
cluding board,  is  from  $275  (£55)  to  $300  (£60)  per  year,  accord- 
ing to  the  position  of  the  suite ;  this  must  be  paid  in  advance, 
one-half  at  the  beginning  of  each  term.  The  suites  are  lighted  with 
both  gas  and  electricity,  which  are  furnished  at  the  expense  of  the 
student ;  service  is  not  included.  The  "  dormitory  "  is  under  the 
supervision  of  the  Dean  ;  and  one  or  more  members  of  the  Faculty 
will  reside  in  the  building.  At  the  present  time  a  part  of  the 
instruction  is  given  in  the  buildings  hitherto  occupied  by  the 
School  of  Housekeeping  ;  while  the  remainder,  including  the  larger 
])art  of  the  classes  in  the  sciences  and  languages,  is  given  hy 
special  arrangement  in  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 

This  School  of  Housekeeping  was  founded  a  few  years  since  by 
the  Women's  Educational  and  Industrial  Union  of  Boston.  Its 
aim,  of  which  there  has  been  good  promise  of  reahsation,  is  a 
scientific  study  of  home  life,  the  object  being  "  to  save  what  is  of 
permanent  good,  to  discard  what  is  useless,  and  to  bring  the  whole 
into  line  with  present  industrial  tendencies  and  scientific  facts — 
social  and  physical.  This  study  is  not  to  the  end  that  the  homes 
of  any  one  class  may  be  bettered,  but  that  the  standard  of  living  and 
life  may  be  raised  in  all  homes,  in  the  belief  that  this  would  make  for 
l)etter  citizenship,  for  a  greater  country,  and  for  a  healthier  race." 
The  course  was  first  offered  as  one  step  in  the  re-organisation  of 
the  home  on  this  broader  social  and  scientific  basis,  and  as  a  tangible 
recognition  of  the  fact  that  housekeeping  is  a  profession  which 
demands  scientific  training.  It  was  designed  to  meet  the  needs 
of  young  college  women  and  others  who  Avished  to  fit  themselves 
to  manage  a  household  on  the  best  economic  and  hygienic  bases. 
The  course  consisted  at  first  in  the  application  of  known  principles 
and  facts,  scientihc  and  economic,  to  the  maintenance  of  a  healthful 
well-ordered  home ;  besides  which  it  included  a  study  of  the 
management  of  the  liousehold  and  expenditure  of  the  income 
according  to  business  methods.  The  movement  received  the  cordial 
support  of  the  professors  of  Harvard  University  and  the  Massa- 
chusetts Institute  of  Technology  ;  on  its  teaching  staff  Avere  found 
the  professors  of  sociology  and  physiology  at  Harvard  (Dr.  Ed.. 
Cummin gs  and  Dr.  Geo.  W.  Eitz)  and  the  professors  of  biology  and 
sanitary  chemistry  at  the  Institute  (Dr.  Wm.  T.  Sedg\v^ick  and 
Mrs.  Ellen  H.  Richards).  It  is  anticipated  that  yet  great(;r  success 
will  attend  the  incorporation  of  the  course  as  a  department  of  the 
Simmons  College.  Hitherto  it  has  covered  the  following  general 
topics  :  (1)  The  home  in  relation  to  society  ;  the  home  in  relation 
to  public  health  ;  the  house — its  construction,  furnishing,  manage- 
ment, and  care.  (2)  The  health  of  the  individual  (which  embraced 
an  exhaustive  study  of  foods  and  dietaries,  the  hygiene  of  childhood 
and  home  nursing).*    Original  investigation  was  also  undertaken 

*  See  Appendix  G. 


University  of  Chicago, 


25l 


to  increase  the  body  of  exact  information  on  household  subjects,  and 
to  stimulate  the  thought  and  interest  of  the  housekeeper. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  practical  methods,  based  upon  scientific 
principles,  adopted  at  this  school,  I  may  mention  that,  at  the  date  of  my 
visit,  each  member  of  a  class  of  eight  or  ten  had  been  called  upon  to  plan  a 
dietary  for  one  week,  suitable  for  the  students  in  residence.  This,  while 
required  to  be  seasonable,  varied  and  appetising,  must  not  exceed  in 
cost  a  certain  sum  per  head,  and  must  contain  the  nutrient  principles 
in  their  right  proportions  to  meet  the  body's  needs.  A  selection  was 
made  from  those  submitted,  and  each  compiler,  in  turn,  was  called 
upon  to  superintend  the  employment  of  her  dietary  for  one  week,  in  the 
residence  attached  to  the  school;  she  became  at  once  responsible  for  the 
purchase,  cooking,  service,  etc.,  of  all  the  articles  which  entered  into  her 
menu.  The  students  meanwhile  freely  criticised  these  experimental 
dietaries,  expressing  their  views  as  to  the  extent  to  which  the  various 
meals,  etc.,  fulfilled  the  requirements;  the  questions  raised  were  discussed 
with  the  professor  in  class  ;  and  each  purveyor  was  expected  to  offer 
sound  reasons  for  the  faith  which  was  in  her  and  which  had  found 
expression  in  the  planning  of  food  for  her  companions. 

F. — ^Univeksities. 

The  belief  that  all  livuig  should  be  governed  by  hygienic,  ethical,  University 
and  economic  principles,  which  is  the  root  idea  in  the  Simmons  Q^^^gggf^^' 
College  Household  Economic  course,  is  evidently  founded  on  a  Household 
sociological  basis.   This  belief  has  also  constituted  the  standpoint  Technology 
of  those  responsible  for  the  courses  in  Household  Technology  and  and  related 
related  subjects  at  the  Chicago  University,  for  which  a  place  is  ^^J^^q  ^' 
found  in  the  Department  of  Sociology  and  Anthropology.   It  will  be  xXXlf. 
remembered  that  the  University  of  Chicago  owes  its  existence 
chiefly  to  Mr.  John  D.  Rockefeller,  whose  generous  gifts  for  its 
endowment  date  from  1888,  and  amount  to  several  million  dollars. 
The  new  University  opened  its  doors  to  students  in  October,  1892, 
few  of  its  many  handsome  buildings  being  then  ready  for  use. 
It  includes  five  divisions— the  Schools,  College  and  Academies ; 
the  University  Extension  ;  the  University  lilDraries,  laboratories, 
and  museums;  the  University  Press;  the  University  affiliations. 
Provision  is  made  for  the  admission  of  students  at  the  beginning  cf 
a  junior  college  course,  or  at  any  further  stage  of  advancement.  In 
addition  to  students  in  regular  standing,  provision  is  made  for  the 
admission  of  certain  classes  of  undergraduate  students  not  seeking 
degrees — such  are  known  as  "unclassified."    Those  who  have  com- 
pleted at  least  one  year's  work  in  a  college  or  university  of  high 
rank  may  also  be  admitted  to  the  College  of  the  University  under 
certain  definite  conditions.    Students  are  admitted  to  a  Senior  College 
either  after  receiving  the  Junior  College  certificate  from  the  University, 
or  upon  the  completion  of  a  corresponding  amount  of  work  in  another 
institution.    A  Bachelor's  degree  is  granted  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
required  amount  of  Junior  College  work. 
The  ordinary  tuition  fee  is  $40  (£8)  a  quarter,  though  it  if* 
somewhat  influenced  by  the  subject  selected ;  incidental  expenses 
also  vary  from  the  same  cause.   Eight    dormitories  "  have  been 
thus  far  erected  in  the  quadrangle,  and  it  is  calculated  that  $300 
(£60)  might,  by  the  exercise  of  great  care,  cover  board  and  tuition, 
with  all  sundries,  for  thirty-six  weeks  of  annual  residence  ;  though 
S400  (£R0)  is  nearer  tb(>  ovf'^'Hge. 


222 


U.S.A. — Private  Universities. 


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University  of  Chicago, 


223 


The  special  courses  described  as  "  Household  Technology  are  Courses  in 
offered  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  day  and  the  demands  of  the  Household 
students  for  some  training  in  sanitary  science.  The  instruction  ^nd  related 
is  intended  to  give  men  and  women  a  general  view  of  the  place  of  subjects— 
the  household  in  society,  to  train  both  sexes  for  the  rational  and  continued. 
scientific  administration  of  the  home  as  a  social  unit,  and  to  prepare 
teachers  in  the  subject.  Supplementary  courses  in  physics, 
chemistry,  physiology,  bacteriology,  political  economy,  and  the 
Study  of  Society  are  provided  and  required.  Of  course,  these 
subjects  are  all  elective,  but  they  are  attended  by  a  fair  and  in- 
creasing number  of  students  of  both  sexes.  Three  months  is 
usually  devoted  to  each  sub-division,  four,  or  perhaps  five,  classes 
a  week  being  held.  The  tabulated  particulars  supply  certain  details, 
bat  a  concise  resume  of  the  topics  included  is  desirable  to  indicate 
the  scope  assigned  to  the  subject.  Courses  on  Home  Sanitation, 
Food  Supplies  and  Dietaries,  the  Economy  of  living,  and  a  "seminar" 
in  Sanitary  Science  (designed  for  students  capable  of  carrying  on 
independent  investigation)  are  conducted  by  Professor  Marion 
Talbot,  Dean  of  Women,  at  the  University.  The  subject  of  Food, 
a  practical  course  in  the  principles  of  Cookery,  laboratory  courses 
in  the  Chemistry  of  Foods  and  Household  Bacteriology,  and  a 
theoretical  course  on  the  evolution  of  the  house  are  entrusted  to 
Professor  Alice  P.  Norton.  Professor  Edwin  0.  Jordan  under- 
takes courses  in  General  Bacteriology  and  in  Public  Hygiene,  studied 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  bacteriologist ;  Physical  Chemistry  is 
under  the  charge  of  Professor  A.  P.  Matthews.  The  sociological 
aspect  of  the  subject  is  strongly  emphasised  throughout.  Professor 
Charles  E.  Henderson  himself  takes  charge  of  the  courses  on  "  The 
Family,"  the  "  Group  of  Industrials,"  and  "  Eural  and  Urban 
Communities  "  ;  while  those  on  "  Contemporary  Society  in  the 
United  States "  and  on  "  American  Cities "  are  conducted  by 
Professor  Geo.  E.  Vincent.  In  the  opinion  of  Professor  Hender- 
son, a  knowledge  of  health  principles  is  essential  for  everyone,  and 
is  required  by  him  from  all  his  students,  many  of  whom  are  engaged 
in  post-graduate  work.  The  attention  of  these  mature  students 
is  directed  to  the  special  study  of  such  questions  as  the  influence 
upon  health  of  home  and  school,  and  kindred  topics.  In  the 
seminar  in  Sanitary  Science,  for  instance,  each  student  is  re- 
quired to  carry  on  some  selected  investigation,  and  to  report  upon 
their  work.  Such  subjects  as  the  use  of  food  preservatives,  the 
division  of  income  in  household  expenses,  or  the  comparative 
])lumbing  regulations  in  New  York  or  Chicago  are  undertaken. 
The  problem  of  domestic  service  is  entered  into  fully  in  the 

Economy  of  Living."  The  admirable  conditions  planned  for 
the  staff  of  servants  in  the  Women's  Hall  of  the  University  by 
Mrs.  Ellen  H.  Richards  of  Boston,  and  Miss  Sarah  Wentworth,  so 
long  ago  as  1893,  offer  an  object  lesson  in  the  possibility  of  an 
eight  hours'  day  for  servants,  at  least  in  institutional  life. 

Professor  Jordan's  course  in  Public  Hygiene  proves  both  attractive 
and  \  alual3le.    It  deals  with  the  application  of  bacteriology  to  the 


224 


U.S.A. — Private  Universities. 


University  v/ater  supply,  food  supply,  and  sewage  disposal  of  a  city.  The 

of  Chicago,  treatment  has  hitherto  been  by  lecture  and  demonstration  ;  but 

Hoa^^^lio/d  ^^^^  autumn  he  proposed  to  include  practical  work,  bacteriological, 

Technology  chemical,  and  microscopic,  for  his  students.    In  their  company  he 

and  related  visits  model  farms  and  dairies,  reservoirs,  sewage  works,  and  so 

HUDjects—  forth.    These  expeditions  arouse  verv  marked  interest  among  his 

co>Uuiu^.d.  students  of  both  sexes. 

Some  prominence  is  assigned  to  hygiene  in  the  Department  of 
Pedagogy  at  this  University,  where  the  attention  of  students  is 
consistently  directed  to  related  courses  in  biology,  physiology, 
neurology,  and  social  science.    Dr.  Dewey's  lectures    on  the 

General  principles  of  elementary  education,"  and  Miss  Camp's 
on  the  "  Science  of  elementary  education,"  require  a  previous 
elementary  knowledge  of  general  biology,  physics,  and  chemistry. 
Miss  Harmer,  Director  of  Domestic  Arts  in  the  University 
Elementary  School,  gives  two  courses  on  the  Educational  value 
and  uses  of  the  Domestic  Arts,"  in  which  she  indicates  the  claims 
and  place  of  such  work  in  education  and  their  hygienic  influence 
in  the  home  ;  while  Professor  Locke  deals  with  "  School  hygiene, 
sanitation,  and  construction."  His  students  are  referred  to 
schools  in  Chicago  and  elsewhere  for  the  practical  solution  of  certain 
problems  in  heating,  ventilation,  and  lighting;  economic  problems 
of  fatigue,  school  diseases,  faults  of  posture,  etc.,  also  receive 
practical  as  well  as  theoretical  attention. 

In  the  Department  of  Pohtical  Economy,  Dr.  Hatfield's  course  on 
Social  Economics  is  also  useful  in  the  emphasis  it  lays  upon  the 
results  of  hygienic  ignorance  on  the  economic  conditions  of  working 
men.  Chicago  and  its  vicinity  afford  abundant  materials  for  the 
practical  observation  demanded  of  his  students.  This  recognition 
of  the  almost  imperative  necsssity  for  scientific  training  on  the 
])art  of  those  who  assume  responsible  positions,  Avhetlier  such 
positions  be  held  as  employers,  paid  ofhcials,  or  as  jjhilanthrojjic  and 
lionorary  workers,  has  been  instrumental  in  the  introduction  of 
other  classes  in  sociology  by  Professors  Henderson  and  Vincent. 
In  each  of  these  the  fundamental  principles  of  hygiene  are  bi'ought 
forward  and  their  iin})ortance  is  afhrmed. 

I  cannot  resist  mentioning  in  this  connection  the  valuable  Outline 
of  Studies  for  Officers  of  Correctional  Institutions  drawn  up  by  Professor 
Henderson,  in  fulfilment  of  a  promise  made  at  the  National  Prison 
Association  meeting  at  Cleveland  in  1900.  The  suggested  course 
includes  the  elements  of  physiology  and  sanitation  ;  a  study  of  hygienic 
foods  and  clothing  and  a  suitable  introduction  to  sociology,  psycho- 
logy and  pedagogy.  It  is  proposed  that  such  a  curriculum  should 
constitute  a  part  of  the  training  of  all  officials  employed  as  prison 
warders,  superintendents,  assistants,  and  school  teachers  in  reforma- 
tories and  industrial  schools.  The  outline  Ct)ntains  an  excellent  biblio- 
graphy arranged  for  each  of  the  subjects  suggested,  all  of  which  have 
not  been  enumerated  above,  but  all  of  which  would  contribute  toward, 
approaching  the  inmates  of  such  institutions  in  a  spirit  of  true  philan- 
thropy, based  upon  a  study  of  the  human  mind  and  body,  as  influenced 
by  heredity,  environni?n*,  md  temperament. 


Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York. 


225 


In  the  Correspondence  Study  Department  of  the  University 
Extension  division,  sanitary  science  also  finds  a  place.  Courses  in 
Foods  and  in  House  Sanitation  are  conducted  by  Miss  Talbot  and 
Mrs.  Raycroft,  which  have  been  turned  to  account  by  students 
scattered  throughout  the  States.  These  are  elementary  in 
character,  but  they  serve  to  assist  members  of  Women's  Clubs  and 
others  who  have  no  opportunity,  or  who  cannot  devote  time,  to 
attend  a  definite  college  course. 

The  last  courses  of  study  with  which  I  propose  to  deal  possess  Teachers 
an  unusual  interest,  for  they  find  an  honoured  place  at  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University,  an  institution  of  so  unique  a  character  (jniversity, 
that  its  history  and  aims  must  be  briefly  recorded  before  I  pass  New 
on  to  my  more  immediate  subject.  Teachers  College  is  the  pro- York, 
fessional  school  of  Columbia  University  for  the  study  of  education 
and  the  training  of  teachers.  It  is  neither  a  Normal  school  nor  a 
University  Department  of  Pedagogy,  but  ranks  as  a  professional 
school  for  teachers.  It  maintains  University  standards,  aiming  at 
the  development  of  the  four  qualities  held  by  its  Dean  to  be  pre- 
eminently desirable  in  a  teacher;  i.e.,  general  culture, professional 
knowledge,  special  knowledge  and  skill  in  teaching.  Students  may 
be  of  either  sex,  and  may  be  engaged  in,  or  preparing  for,  work  in 
elementary,  secondary,  and  normal  schools.  Opportunities  for 
advanced  study  are  available  for  specialists  in  various  branches  of 
school  work,  as  well  as  for  principals,  supervisors,  and  superin- 
tendents of  schools.  The  college  was  founded  in  1888,  and  was 
the  practical  outcome  of  a  noticeable  discussion  on  Education 
as  a  subject  of  University  study,"  contained  in  President  Barnard's 
reports  ;  but  it  only  became  part  of  the  educational  system  of 
Columbia  University  in  1898,  when  it  was  transferred  to  its  present 
locality.  It  now  takes  academic  rank  with  the  Schools  of  Law, 
Medicine,  and  Applied  Science.  The  donations  tow^ards  its  develop- 
ment have  been  most  generous,  amounting  to  at  least  $1,250,000. 
In  the  early  days  of  the  college  there  was  only  one  course, 
followed  by  every  regular  student ;  but  the  work  offered  in  the 
several  departments  soon  increased  beyond  the  capacity  of  one 
individual,  and  sub-divisions  became  necessary.  No  department, 
however,  undertakes  work  that  is  done  adequately  in  othei* 
faculties  of  the  University.  This  original  course  of  study  occupied 
two  years  ;  and  from  the  outset  a  school  of  observation  and  practice 
w^as  an  integral  part  of  the  plan.  Teachers  College  now  offers 
forty-six  courses  in  Education,  among  which  may  be  mentioned 
those  on  the  history  and  principles  of  education,  educational 
administration,  genetic  psychology  and  child  study,  and  others  on 
the  theory  and  practice  of  teaching  biology,  domestic  art,  domestic 
science,  Enghsh,  fine  arts,  languages,  manual  training,  and  physical 
training.  Qualified  students  of  Teachers  College  are  allow^ed  to 
pursue  University  courses  in  history,  language  and  literature, 
natural  science,  mathematics,  philosophy,  psychology,  ethics, 
anthropology,  music,  economics,  and  social  science.  Two  Schools 
of  Observation  and  Practice  are  maintained,  one  the  Horace  Mann 


(5400. 


P 


226 


U.S.A. — Private  Universities. 


School,  the  other  l)ut  just  inaugurated,  known  as  the  Experimental 
School.  The  Horace  Mann  School,  with  its  three  departments, 
has  been  already  mentioned.  The  Experimental  School  consists  of  a 
kindergarten  and  elementary  school,  also  of  special  classes  in 
sewing,  cooking,  and  manual  training. 

The  requirements  for  admission  to  Teachers  College  are  as  follows  : 
to  the  two  years'  collegiate  course — compk'tion  of  a  High  scliool 
course  ;  if  this  be  followed  by  a  two  years'  professional  course  it 
leads  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science.  To  the  two  yeai-s' 
courses  wliich  lead  to  diplomas  in  elementary  and  kindergarten 
teaching,  domestic  art  and  domestic  science,  the  fine  arts,  manual 
training,  i^c,  completion  of  the  colI(»giate  course  is  the  quali- 
ilcation  for  admission,  or  its  equivalent  in  an  approved  college,  or 
graduation  from  an  approved  normal  school,  or  two  years  of  tech- 
nical training,  or  experience  in  teaching.  To  the  graduate  courses, 
college  graduation,  or  its  equivalent,  qualifies  for  entrance.  The 
foes  for  the  graduate  courses  average  $150  (£30) ;  in  other 
courses  $100  (£20).  The  Faculty  annually  awards  five  fellowships 
of  $050  each,  and  seventeen  scholarships  of  varying  amounts. 

The  Dean  of  Teachers  College  fully  maintains  the  convictions  of 
its  founders  in  his  statement  that  a  university  "  is  true  to  itself  uhen 
it  undertakes  the  professional  training  of  teachers  ;  for  the  interests 
of  public  education  are  as  urgent  and  important  as  the  interests  of 
law,  medicine  or  engineering."  Dean  Eussell  has  also  drawn  desirable 
attention  to  the  relation  of  other  university  studies  to  education. 
First,  those  "  which  contribute  directly  to  the  science  of  education, 
sucli  as  biology,  which  Is  concerned  with  vital  processes  ;  psychology, 
which  discloses  the  nature  of  the  mind  ;  sociology,  which  deals  with, 
the  inter-relations  of  individuals  in  society  ;  and  ethics,  which  seeks 
to  establish  the  principles  of  right  action.  Second,  all  studies,  regard- 
less of  tlieir  innnediate  bearing  on  tlie  science  of  education,  may  be 
considered  as  a  Jiieans  to  inform  and  to  develop  the  minds  of  the  young," 

It  is  the  ])olicy  of  Teachers  College  to  afl'ord  every  opportiuiity  for 
specialisation  :  but  the  faculty  insists  that  the  true  basis  of  speciaHsa- 
tiou  in  education  lies  in  liheral  culture,  accurate  scholarship,  and  that 
professional  knowledge  which  characteiises  tlie  intelligent  teacher. 
The  chief  prohlem  in  the  educational  administration  of  Teachers 
College,  since  it  became  a  part  of  the  l^niversity  system,  has  been  to 
devise  and  conduct  courses  of  study  suited  to  the  needs  of  advanced 
students.  The  first  step  was  to  provide  graduate  courses  for  students 
who  were  capable  of  undertaking  research  and  investigation  in  one 
special  field  ;  to  this  end  the  course  leading  to  the  higher  diploma 
was  planned  for  graduate  students  whose  interests  were  chiefly  pro- 
fessional. It  is  intended  to  fit  teachers  of  superior  ability  and  of  special 
academic  attainments  for  the  work  of  training  teachers  in  colleges  and 
normal  schools,  and  for  positions  in  the  public  school  service  requiring 
a  high  degree  of  professional  insight  and  technical  skill.  Candidates 
for  the  higher  diploma  must  be  graduates  of  an  approved  institution 
of  learning — a  college,  engineering  school,  a  normal  school,  or  the 
equivalent  of  one  of  these — and  must  present  satisfactory  evidence  of 
a  high  degree  of  professional  ability  as  a  result  of  the  study  of  educa- 
tion or  experience  in  teaching.  The  real  test  of  fitness,  however,  is 
the  ability  of  the  candidate  to  undertake  research  and  investigation 
in  one  major  and  two  minor  subjects.  The  minimum  period  of  resi- 
dence is  fixed  at  one  year,  but  the  necessity  for  completing  some  special 
ta?k  in  line  with  the  major  subject,  and  of  putting  the  results  in  form 


Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York.  227 


for  publication  make  it  difficult  for  the  average  student  to  secure  the 
diploma  in  the  minimum  time. 

The  Faculty  is  constantly  engaged  in  the  modification  of  courses, 
the  raising  of  standards  and  the  revision  of  curricula.  Each  year 
increases  the  confidence  that  progress  is  being  made  in  the  right 
direction,  though  it  is  realised  with  equal  force  that  the  end  is  not 
yet  in  sight ;  a  sentiment  keenly  experienced  by  Mrs.  Woolman 
and  Miss  Kinne,  who  are  respectively  in  charge  of  the  Departments 
of  Domestic  Art  and  Domestic  Science. 

The  courses  of  study  pursued  in  these  departments  present  many 
points  of  interest ;  year  by  year  they  are  developed  and  modified 
in  the  light  of  experience  gained.  Probably  considerable  changes 
in  detail  have  taken  place  since  my  visit ;  but  the  broad  lines  are 
the  same,  and  I  venture  to  hope  that  the  necessarily  imperfect 
notes  I  present  in  these  pages  may  nevertheless  serve  to  stimulate 
my  readers  to  secure  from  headquarters  fuller  and  further  infor- 
mation on  courses  of  such  value  and  importance.  The  wide  scope 
and  sociological  import  of  the  groups  of  subjects  described  as 
Domestic  Art  or  Domestic  Science  is  evidently  realised  by  those 
responsible  for  their  selection  and  treatment.  That  this  point  of 
view  receives  the  full  support  of  the  entire  staff  is  again  evident 
from  the  fact  that  students  in  Domestic  Art  are  required  to  cor- 
relate their  studies  either  with  Domestic  Science,  with  Fine  Arts, 
or  with  Manual  Training,  while  students  in  Domestic  Science  are 
advised  to  correlate  their  studies  with  Domestic  Art  or  with 
Manual  Training.  The  details  I  furnish  differ  apparently  but  little 
from  those  already  supplied  in  regard  to  Technical  School  or  certain 
College  Courses,  but  in  the  spirit  and  methods  is  recognisable  the 
end  in  view ;  not  the  development  of  manual  facility  or  even  of 
hygienic  habits,  but  "  the  meaning  of  the  j^hysical,  social,  moral, 
aesthetic  and  spiritual  conditions  of  the  home  to  the  individual, 
and  to  society  at  large.  The  courees  may  be  descril>ed  as  applied 
science  and  art,  they  do  not  offer  technical  training,  It  is  felt 
that  in  a  University  these  applied  courses  must  have  the  same 
standing  as  pure  science,  and  on  these  lines  they  are  formulated, 
and  from  this  point  of  view  the  Schedule  of  the  two  courses 
should  be  studied.  For  instance,  the  students  of  Domestic  (a)  Course  in 
Art  are  required  to  practise,  early  in  their  training,  advanced  Domeatic 
basketry  and  raffia  work,  as  well  as  to  construct  a  systematic  ^.^f^^g 
series  of  models  to  cover  the  ground  of  plain  needlework,  not  so  XXXIII. 
much  with  the  view  of  acquiring  manual  dexterity,  as  Avith  the 
aim  of  thoroughly  comprehending  how,  by  such  means,  to  draw 
out  and  build  up  a  child's  ideas  ;  how  to  substitute  broad,  free 
movements  in  place  of  fine  ptitching  for  young  pupils,  how  to 
convert  the  subject  into  a  general  means  of  self-expression  for  all. 
Students  are  trained  to  observe  and  consider  the  interests,  capa- 
cities and  instincts  of  the  child,  and  to  adapt  their  instruction  to 
these  at  various  ages.  In  support  of  her  methods,  Mrs.  Woolman 
points  out  that  "  early  nations  used  the  needle  in  many 
ways  adapted  to  the  use  of  children,  in  coarse  weaving,  in 


0400. 


228 


U.S.A. — Private  Universities. 


)  Course  basketry,  in  which  rigid  material  was  sewed  together 
Domestic  with  softer  fibres,  such  as  wool  and  twisted  Imrk  ;  in  mats, 
^'lueT''^  hats  and  baskets  of  the  raffia  }3ahxi  fibre,  in  braiding,  knotting, 
twining,  netting,  etc.  All  of  these  early  steps  in  domestic  art 
make  an  excellent  foundation  for  sewing,  and  may  be  used  to  great 
advantage  in  the  primary  grades,  where  the  awakening  power  of 
the  child  demands  work  in  rapid  construction  and  large  adjust- 
ments. The  articles  should  be  simple  in  construction— of  a  charac- 
ter to  appeal  to  the  child's  interests — and  worth  doing."  Their 
practice  work  in  the  Horace  Mann  School  affords  the  necessary 
opportunity  to  the  students  for  testing  their  own  command  of  this 
method,  and  for  observing  its  influence  on  children.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  practical  work  in  the  Domestic  Art  Course  follows 
accepted  lines  in  the  teaching  of  drafting  and  cutting  of  materials, 
dressmaking — elementary  and  advanced  (the  Vienna  dressmaking 
system  is  that  adoj^ted),  and  millinery.  At  Teachers  College,  as  in 
the  Technical  Institute  courses,  infinite  pains  are  expended  in  the 
effort  to  cultivate  a  sense  of  what  is  appropriate  and  Ix^autiful  in 
design  and  colour  and  in  developing  the  power  to  express  this  in 
execution.  Certain  Art  courses  are  obligatory,  while  the  Depart- 
ment itself  provides  one  in  Household  Art  and  Design.*  Of  this  the 
aim  is  to  apply  general  rules  of  art  to  the  home,  in  order  to  foster 
good  taste  and  aj^preciation  of  beauty  in  every-day  life.  It  includes 
some  consideration  of  healthful  living  and  dressing  ;  the  colour 
effects  and  uses  of  textiles  ;  and  the  ])iinciples  of  home  decoi-ation  ; 
training  in  facility  to  sketch  and  design  with  accuracy  and  rapidity  ; 
and  the  use  of  the  needle  in  apj)lying  these  princij)les  to  articles  of 
home  and  ceremonial  use.  To  fuither  strengthen  students  in 
what  seems  to  be  fundamental  to  their  speciality,-  they  are  advised 
to  continue  their  studies  along  lines  calculated  to  aid  in  under- 
standing the  scope  and  meaning  of  art ;  the  result  is  evident  in  the 
bold  and  frequently  artistic  sketches  made  when  they  are  engaged  in 
the  final  stages  of  dressmaking  and  millinery.  Domestic  science  is 
not  ignored  in  this  Domestic  Art  course  ;  the  study  of  foods  and  the 
processes  of  their  production,  manufacture,  and  cooking  are  obli- 
gatory subjects,  while  students  are  strongly  advised  to  follow 
the  course  in  Household  Chemistry  under  Dr.  Vulte.  Practice 
lessons  in  sewing  are  given  under  supervision  in  the  Experimental 
School.  Here,  from  the  first  grade  upwards,  children  are  guided 
progressively  from  the  practice  of  primitive  methods  of  weaving 
and  basketry,  through  varied  phases  of  hand  and  needlework, 
until  this  evolutionary  method  brings  them,  in  the  High  school, 
to  a  study  of  the  existing  manufacturing  system  and  its 
social  influences.  Mrs.Woolman's  interest  in  these  sociological  and 
industrial  aspects  of  her  subject  becomes  very  appn,rent  in 
her  lectures  on  Textiles.  This  course  covers  a  study  of  fabrics ; 
the  processes  of  their  manufacture ;  the  development  of  these 
processes,  and  their  effect  on  social  conditions,  with  theol^ject  of 
giving  students  not  merely  a  knowledge  of  textiles,  but  of  affording 


See  Appendix  H, 


Teachers  College,  Columbia  VnwcrsUy,  New  Yorh.  229 


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U.S.A. — Private  Universities. 


them  suggestions  for  methods  of  presentation  in  connection  with 
their  lessons  in  sewing.  "  The  way  things  are  made  is  of  intense 
interest  to  children,"  writes  Mrs.  Woolman,  and  the  skilled  teacher 
can  easily  make  their  history  and  manufacture  a  part  of  geography, 
school  lessons  in  history,  mathematics,  etc."  Through  the  right 
presentation  of  the  whole  subject,  she  anticipates  also  a  revival  of 
.sympathy  with  and  respect  for  manual  labour. 

In  connection  with  this  course  on  Textiles  and  that  on  Household 
Art,  visits  are  paid  to  the  mills,  furniture  stores,  and  museums. 
T^ectures  on  the  educational  asj)ects  of  Domestic  Art  are  preceded  by 
a  course  in  elementary  psychology,  given  by  Professor  Thorndike, 
wliich  includes  the  elements  of  the  science,  as  well  as  the  general 
principles  which  control  successful  teaching,  so  far  as  these  can  be 
derived  from  psychological  laws,  or  from  the  study  of  school  })rac- 
tice.  Its  aim  is  to  prepare  students  for  subsequent  courees  in 
the  mtithods  of  teaching  separate  suljjects.  Professor  Monroe 
takes  the  history  of  education,  which  is  supplemented  by  Professor 
Woolman's  course  on  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Domestic 
Art.  Here  the  relationship  of  l)omesticArt  is  considered  (1)  to  the 
aims  and  means  of  education  ;  (2)  to  the  best  methods  of  teaching  it 
in  public  and  other  schools  ;  and  (3)  to  its  correlation  with  other 
grade  work.  The  planning  and  cost  of  courses  of  instruction  are 
also  considered.  Students  are  constantly  reminded  that  the  per- 
sonality of  a  teacher  is  one  of  the  most  important  factora  in  her 
work  ;  "  her  physical,  mental,  and  moral  influence  is  ever  moulding 
her  pupils,  even  without  her  efi'ort ;  her  teaching  must,  therefore, 
be  grounded  on  culture  ;  she  should  thoroughly  undei-stand  the 
problems  of  modern  education.  .  .  .  she  should  be  inspired  by 
a  high  ethical  aim  ...  to  make  the  children  efficient  for  good 
in  the  world,  she  must  study  their  characteristics  and  interests  ; 
she  must  see,  too,  that  the  child's  own  will  power  is  at  work,  and 
that  he  thinks  out  for  himself  every  step  in  connection  with  the 
article  in  hand."  Bearing  this  ideal  in  mind,  a  study  of  even  the 
condensed  outline  of  the  coui-se  (Table  XXXIII.)  will  have  its  own 
interest  in  showing  by  what  means  its  realisation  is  attemjjted. 

Miss  Helen  Kin ne,  the  professor  of  Domestic  Science,  is  imbued 
with  the  same  true  educational  spirit  as  Mrs.  Woolman,  and 
(/>)  Course  ill  ^^^^^^  ladies  receive  an  increasing  amount  of  encouraging  co- 
Science,       operation  from  other  members  of  the  faculty.    The  coui-se  in 
Table  Domestic  Science,  as  defined  in  the  college  "Announcement," 

"VVXIV  .....  . 

"  is  even  more  comprehensive  in  its  allied  studies  than  that  in 

Domestic  Art.  The  introductory  courses  in  psychology  and  edu- 
cation are  similar  to  those  in  the  Domestic  Art  course,  as  is  also 
the  "  recommended  "  course  in  the  Economic  and  Social  History  of 
the  United  States.  This  last  deals  with  those  special  topics  and 
phases  of  economic  and  social  history  which  have  direct  and  prac- 
tical bearing  upon  the  work  of  students  in  the  departments  of 
Manual  Training,  Domestic  Science,  and  Domestic  Art.  It  gives  an 
idea  of  the  nature  and  purpose  of  industrial  growth  ;  considei-s  in 
detail  the  various  economic  and  industrial  conditions  and  problems 


Teachers  College,  Columbia  University y  New  York.  231 


of  the  various  sections  of  the  United  States  at  the  present  time  ;  (/>)  Course 
and  the  relation  of  economic  and  industrial  forces  to  contem-  g^-^^^^!^^^^ 
porary  social  conditions.     A  partial  study  is  made  of  the  continued. 
nomic  and  industrial  condition  of  Eiu'ope  in  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries,  as  Imsed  upon  the  mercantile  system.  The 
outcome  of  these  conditions  is  traced  in  exploration  and  colonisation, 
and  in  the  p^rowth  of  economic  industry  in  the  American  colonies, 
which  culminated  in  the  American  Revolution.    Attention  is  also 
directed  to  the  industrial  problems  of  the  nation  ;  and  the  con- 
temporary social  condition  and  problems  are  noted  as  outgrowths 
of  economic  development. 

Another  course  common  to  students  of  either  Domestic  Art  or 
Domestic  Science  is  that  given  by  Dr.  Vulte  in  Household 
Chemistry.  To  this  he  has  given  much  thought,  and  through  his 
courtesy  I  am  enabled  to  include  its  synopsis.*  It  is  designed  to 
include  the  study  of  the  principal  food  products,  such  as  sugars, 
starches,  proteids,  animal  and  vegetable  fats,  water  and  mineral 
salts.  Special  attention  is  given  to  the  changes  which  take  place 
during  the  operation  of  cooking,  to  the  analytical  tests  applied  to 
them,  as  well  as  to  the  chemical  aspects  of  fermentation  and 
])utre faction,  and  their  prevention  by  chemical  means,  and  steri- 
lisation. The  corrosive  action  of  food  constituents,  acids,  &c.,  on 
utensils  is  dealt  with,  as  well  as  saponification,  the  action  of 
detergents,  hard  and  soft  water,  testing  of  milk,  butter,  cheese, 
water,  &c. ;  the  chemistry  of  fuels  and  of  illuminants  is  also 
studied.  Dr.  Vulte  does  not  lay  stress  upon  expression  of 
results  in  chemical  equations,  l)ut  aims  rather  that  the  sub- 
ject should  be  approached  and  dealt  with  from  the  point  of 
view  of  daily  life  requirements.  He  gives  the  theory  in  his  lec- 
tures, and  leaves  the  carrying  out  of  experiments,  in  the  form 
of  problems,  to  his  students,  who  work  under  his  personal  super- 
vision. He  also  conducts  an  advanced  course  in  the  same  subject ; 
here  original  research  is  undertaken  in  the  workin<j  out  of  pro- 
blems which  arise  in  the  preparation  of  food,  the  use  of  fuels  and 
cooking  ai)])aratus,  and  in  laundering  and  other  cleansing  processes. 
It  is  intended  only  for  advanced  students  who  have  a  sound 
knowledge  of  elementary  and  organic  chemistry.  - 

The  subject  of  Foods  is  taken  up  exhaustivel}'  in  the  Doniestic 
Science  course,  and  is  studied  in  three  courses.  The  first  is  de- 
signed to  give  a  thorough  knowledge  of  theory  and  practice  in 
cooking,  and  to  aid  the  student  in  arranging  matter  for  teach- 
ing ;  it  deals  with  the  composition  and  nutritive  value  of  foods, 
the  fundamental  principles  and  processes  of  cookery,  and  a  com- 
parative study  of  fuels  and  of  cooking  apparatus.  Special  attention 
is  given  to  scientific  methods  in  kitchen  laboratory  work,  and 
to  the  adaptation  of  such  methods  to  schools.  The  second 
is  concerned  with  the  production  of  food  materials,  such 
as  dairy  products,  manufacture  of  flours,  cereals,  spices,  &c., 


*  See  Appendix  H. 


232 


U.S.A. — Private  Universiti^$. 


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Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York.  233 


as  well  as  with  food  adulterations  and  other  processes   in  the     Course  in 
preparatioii  of  food  materials.    The  third  takes  up  advanced  J'^^!-^^^^'^^!^ 
cookery,  the  preservation  of  food,    cookery   for   invalids   and  continued. 
children,  food  values  and  dietaries,  the  planning,  cooking,  and 
serving  of  meals,  a  waitresses'  course,  and    marketing.  The 
cookery  practice  is  made  as  experimental  as  it  can  be,  in  order  to 
enforce  and  to  illustrate  fundamental  principles.    Students  are  set 
problems  from  which  to  gain  their  ow^n  experience,  and  are  trained 
not  to  rely  on  that  of  others  as  recorded  in  cookery  books.  No 
stereotyped   set   of   recipes   is    worked   through ;  laboratory 
rather  than  ordinary  kitchen  methods  are  enforced,  and  such 
variety  of  problems  presented  as  to  demand  practical  individual 
solution  from  each  member  of  the  class.   A  tabulated  method  of 
record  is  usually  employed,  by  which  the  effects  of  heat,  of  varying 
proportions  of  materials,  &;c.,  are  set  out  graphically. 

Botany  and  zoology,  under  Professors  Lloyd  and  Bigelow,  are 
studied  in  the  form  of  lectures,  laboratory  work,  recitations, 
excursions  for  field  work,  and  collateral  reading.  These  courses 
are  obligatory  on  Domestic  Science  students,  and  must  be  taken 
before  the  course  in  physiology  and  hygiene,  in  which  the  same 
professors  adopt  similar  methods.  This  latter  course  covers  a 
laboratory  study  of  the  structure  of  cells,  tissues,  and  organs  in 
various  organisms,  both  plant  and  animal,  including  man,  and  of 
the  fundamental  principles  of  hygiene,  personal  and  domestic. 
Individual  hygiene  is  also  studied  from  the  standpoint  of  occupa- 
tion and  recreation,  the  claims  of  physical  culture  receiving  atten- 
tion. Home  sanitation  and  economics  find  a  place  in  the  second 
year  of  study.  The  course  embraces  the  following  subjects : 
situation  and  structure  of  the  house,  water  supply,  disposal  of 
waste,  heating  and  ventilation,  Hghtiiig,  healthful  furnishing, 
cleansing  of  the  house,  development  and  organisation  of  the  home 
and  its  adaptation  to  modern  conditions,  systematic  methods  of 
housekeeping,  the  cost  of  living  and  household  accounts,  domestic 
service.  The  lectures  on  bacteriology  are  optional  ;  they  are 
associated  with  practical  laboratory  work,  in  illustration  of  the 
theoretical  teaching  which  deals  with  the  nature  of  bacteria,  witli 
methods  of  isolation  and  recognition  of  species,  the  part  which 
bacteria  play  in  nature,  the  industrial  uses  to  which  they  are  put ; 
the  bacteria  of  air,  water,  ice,  milk,  and  foods  generally ;  the 
methods  of  sterilisation  and  disinfection  ;  the  relation  of  bacteria  to 
disease,  and,  in  connection  with  this,  certain  phases  of  hygiene  and 
household  sanitation,  extending  to  the  care  of  the  sick.  This  and 
the  courses  in  Home  Nursing  and  Emergencies  are  so  usually  elected 
that  they  enter  into  the  training  of  the  majorit}'  of  students.  These 
last-mentioned  subjects  consist  of  lectures,  with  practical  illustrations 
and  experiments  on  the  part  of  the  students,  and  are  considered  to 
afford  sufficient  training  to  enable  teachers  to  present  the  subjects 
in  the  schools.  Both  are  conducted  by  a  trained  nurse.  The 
course  in  Laundry-work  includes  both  theory  and  practice.  No 


234 


U.S. A . — Priva  te  Universities. 


(b)  Course  in  laundry  is  provided,  but  the  practical  work  is  carried  out  in  the 
ici^ce—  large  kitchen  laboratory  by  means  of  porta))le  equipment,  upon 
continued,  ^^'hich  much  thought  has  been  expended.  That  this  has  been  to 
g(X»d  effect  is  shown  by  the  success  which  has  attended  its  employ- 
ment not  only  for  the  college  students,  but  for  public  school  work 
in  poor  districts  where  no  "  centres  '*  are  yet  organised.  This 
subject  is  of  recent  introduction,  and  has  by  no  means  reached  its 
final  development. 

Another  course  descri])ed  as  "  Supervision  and  Critic  Teaching 
in  Domestic  Science  "  consists  of  conference's  and  practicjd  work 
under  Professor  Kinne.  Itati'ords  opportunity  for  practical  investi- 
gations of  conditions  and  ])roblems  in  Domestic  Science  teaching  in 
schools,  colleges,  universities,  clubs,  and  social  settlements  ;  it  also 
includes  a  study  of  the  development  and  present  status  of  domestic 
science  at  home  and  abroad  ;  the  organisation  and  management 
of  departments  ;  supervision  in  city  schools ;  and  critic  teaching 
in  normal  schools. 

The  enrolment  in  both  departments  is  progressing  steadily  in 
number.  During  last  year  114  students,  all  women,  were 
under  instruction  in  the  department  of  Domestic  Science,  while 
sixty-six,  of  whom  four  were  men,  were  found  in  that  of  Domestic 
Art.  Miss  Kinne  and  her  colleague,  Mrs.  Woolman,  have  in  view 
a  scheme  to  combine  the  two-years  courses  in  each  of  these  two 
subjects  into  one  three-yeai's  course,  especially  for  the  training 
of  inspectors ;  but,  among  other  dilliculties,  they  are  confronted 
with  the  fact  that  the  students  who  select  the  one  or  the  other  of 
these  courses  of  study  are  usually  of  temperaments  and  types  of 
mind  so  diii'erent  that  for  one  individual  to  gain  intelligent  com- 
mand of  all  that  would  be  hivolved  in  such  a  combined  course 
would  be  a  relatively  rare  attainment. 

A  perusal  of  the  preceding  pages  cannot  fail  to  have  impressed 
on  the  mind  of  the  reader  the  valua])le  impetus  given  to 
educational  progress  by  the  work  cari-ied  on  in  the  indepen- 
dent institutions  of  all  grades  to  which  this  part  of  the  Rej)ort 
refers.  It  is  evident  that  official  coercion  is  not  needed  to  stimulate 
the  zeal  which  finds  an  honourable  outlet  in  thus  promoting 
studies  framed  to  advance  the  efiiciency  of  the  nation.  It  is  true 
that  much  still  remains  to  be  done  in  the  develo])ment,  multi- 
plication and  organisation  of  these  coui-ses,  nevertheless,  each 
year's  work  is  more  full  of  promise  for  the  future,  while  at  least 
a  decade  must  elapfje  before  its  fruition  can  reasonably  be 
anticipated. 


PART  III. 

Social  Agencies  for  the  Promotion  of  Domestic  Science 

Teaching. 

That  the  educational  institutions  of  a  country  reflect  the  pubHc  Intioduc- 
opinion  of  its  people  is  an  assured,  though  relatively  somewhat  tory. 
recently  recognised  fact.  Its  acceptance  will  direct  the  attention  of 
thoughtfulohservers  toastudy  of  the  forces  active  in  the  formation 
of  current  national  Ijeliefs.  Of  these,  there  are  two  distinct  classes  : 
the  one,  by  its  progressive  spirit,  moulding  the  conception  of  the 
few  wise  or  far-sighted  into  the  ideals  of  the  many;  the  other 
retarding  advisable  developments,  because  the  issues  at  stake  are 
allowed  to  be  obscured  by  the  prejudices  it  fosters.  These  dual 
factors  are  constantly  at  work,  and  always  important,  whether 
in  the  sphere  of  sociology  and  philanthropy,  or  in  the  scholastic, 
conunercial  and  professional  worlds  ;  most  particularly  so  when 
the  subject  presented  to  the  pu])lic  for  consideration  is  closely 
linked  with  daily  life.  Therefore,  this  Report  on  "  The  Teaching  of 
Hygiene  and  Household  Science  in  the  United  States  of  America  " 
would  be  incomplete  without  a  reference,  however  brief,  to  the 
social,  as  well  as  to  the  educational,  agencies  which  are  responsible, 
to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  for  the  promising  activity  of  interest 
in  these  subjects  observable  in  the  schools  and  colleges  of  the  coimtry . 
The  provision  of  a  more  healthy,  happy,  intelligent,  and  economical 
home  life  is  rightly  considered  to  be  a  national  problem  ;  its  solution 
is  not  relegated  to  one  profession,  or  confined  to  one  state ;  the 
movement  in  favour  of  sanitary  reform  is  increasingly  general,  and 
I  could  not  fail  to  be  impressed  with  the  unfeigned  interest  expressed 
in  it  by  both  sexes  in  many  different  centres.  In  the  case  of  men,  this 
seemed  stimulated  chiefly  by  their  desire  for  national  supremacy  ; 
in  the  case  of  women,  it  was  more  often  the  domestic  side  which 
appealed  to  their  symj)athies.  It  also  appeared  to  me  that  there  exists 
a  small  percentage  of  j)rofessional  and  commercial  men,  who  sin- 
cerely deplore  the  melancholy  corruption  which  is  so  serious  a 
blight  on  the  country's  municipal  life.  Their  hopes  for  sweeping 
and  inunediate  reform  are  not  great ;  but  they  look  for  a  gradual 
transnmtation  of  the  base  ore  of  self-seeking  into  the  refined  metal 
of  zeal  for  social  progress  by  a  succeeding  generation,  which 
shall  l^e  trained  in  the  best  traditions  of  citizenship  during 
early  and  impressionable  years.    Professor  Adams  has  said  that 

the  requisite  of  a  citizen  is  that  he  should  be  able  to  appreciate 
and  feel  and  imderstand  those  forces  that  touch  his  life  "  ;  he  nuist 
l)e  able  to  grasp  something  of  the  import  of  heredity,  and  of  the 
powerful  influences  of  environment.  Apart  from  sanitary 
science  based  upon  biology,  how  is  this  appreciation  or 
undei-standing  to  be  fully  gained  ?  Testimony  that  a  study  of 
hygiene  furnishes  one  necessary  foundation  to  good  citizenship 


V.S.A.—Womeii's  Clubs, 


i.s  afforded  by  the  fact  that  in  Chicago  University,  the  State 
University  of  Michigan,  and  elsewhere,  the  courses  offered  are 
the  direct  outcome  of  the  male  students'  sense  of  need  ;  a  sensation 
of  sufficient  strength  to  embolden  men  in  some  other  universities  to 
follow  Household  Science  Courses,  hitherto  confined  to  female 
students,  until  provision  ia  made  for  courses  better  suited  to 
masculine  requirements. 

Sociology  and  Economics  are  subjects  much  discussed  just  now 
in  the  States ;  increasing  attention,  for  example,  is  devoted  to  their 
study  in  High  Schools  ;  and  it  would  seem  to  good  purpose,  if  a 
more  general  demand  for  and  interest  in  the  study  of  public  health 
be  the  enduring  fruit.  The  mere  making  of  man  into  a  better 
animal  is  the  argument  which  it  must  be  admitted  carries  weight 
with  the  majority  in  the  business  world.  That  Boston  merchant 
is  by  no  means  unique,  who  supported  the  introduction  of  Physical 
(vulture  (to  include  a  knowledge  of  Hygiene)  into  the  curriculum 
of  both  boys  and  girls  in  the  High  School  of  Brookline,  on  the 
grounds  that  the  clerk  w  ho  knows  how  to  keep  himself  mentally 
and  physically  at  high-water  mark  has  his  financial  w^orth  to  his 
em])loyer  materially  increased.  Thus,  though  the  motives,  when 
analysed,  may  be  very  mixed,  and  not  always  of  a  high  ethical 
standard,  their  outcome  bodes  well  for  the  efficiency  of  the 
nation. 

A. — Women's  Clubs. 

Tlielr  This  awakening  to  the  importance  of  intelligent  civic  admhiis- 

ur^jiuisation  tration  is,  however,  not  confined  to  men.  The  records  of  many 
methods  cities  testify  to  the  vivid  interest  taken  in  "  municipal  house- 
keeping by  women,  and  to  their  achievements  in  that  sphere. 
The  influence  they  exercise  upon  public  life  in  the  United  States 
is  due,  among  other  causes,  to  the  strength  derived  from  co-0])era- 
tion.  The  social  life  of  the  nation  is  woven  into  one  great  web 
by  a  network  of  women's  clubs.  These  are  federated  into  large 
organizations,  which  knit  together  those  units  separated  by  appar- 
ent distance,  and  facilitate  the  concentration  of  an  almost  irresis- 
tible force  upon  any  selected  subject.  The  significance  of  the  term 
club  "  differs  from  that  attached  to  it  in  this  country  ;  any 
community  of  interest  which  links  a  few  women  together  for  some 
common  object — for  example,  the  study  of  art,  or  of  history,  or  a 
foreign  language,  or  some  measure  of  social  reform,  o.*  some  political 
alarm,  results  in  the  formation  of  a  "  club,"  or  perhaps  of  a  special 
Ijrancli  of  one  already  in  existence.  The  clubs  of  a  district,  town, 
or  city  are  usually  federated  under  a  President,  who,  while  supreme 
in  her  district,  is  subservient  to  the  County  or  State  President ; 
the  whole  organisation  finds  its  focus  in  the  National  President, 
elected  at  definite  intervals  from  among  the  State  Presidents. 
Great  independence  is  characteristic  of  these  clubs  ;  there  may  be 
activity  or  indolence,  concentration  of  interest  or  diffusion  of  energy, 
ideals  confined  to  vague  theories,  or  demanding  instant  realisation 
in  practice  ;  but  there  is  one  fact  assured,  and  that  is  that  women 
have  it  in  their  power,  by  this  means,  to  mould  public  opinion  to 


S'pecimen  Organisations  for  Promoting  Domestic  Science  Teaching.  237 


an  extent  inconceivable  in  Great  Britain.  Signs  are  not  wantin$j 
of  the  realisation  that  the  responsibility  thus  involved  must  be 
lived  up  to  and  prepared  for;  among  these  may  be  mentioned 
the  growing  demand  for  assistance  from  University  Extension 
lectures,  and  increased  attendance  at  the  Summer  Schools. 

In  addition  to  periodical  congresses,  at  which  the  attendance  of 
experts  gives  worth  and  vitality  to  the  proceedings,  it  is  the  custom 
among  these  women's  clubs  to  meet  at  frequent  intervals,  to  pursue 
the  study  of  some  selected  subject.  A  yearly  programme  is  drawn 
up ;  for  instance,  in  the  Domestic  Science  Club,  the  topics  chosen 
range  over  the  whole  wide  field  of  personal,  domestic,  educational 
and  municipal  hygiene  : — House  Construction  ;  Plumbing  ;  Ice 
Supply ;  the  Problem  of  Domestic  Service  ;  what  constitutes  a  good 
Menu ;  Household  Accounts  ;  Art  in  the  Household  ;  Eecreations ; 
School  Sanitation  ;  these  are  a  few  culled  at  random  from  a  last 
year's  list.  A  subject  is  assigned  to  each  member,  who  is  required 
to  study  and  present  a  paper  upon  it  at  a  given  date  ;  free  dis- 
cussion follows  the  reading  of  this  essay.  I  heard  repeatedly  of  the 
beneficial  results  which  follow  this  amateur  work  ;  not  the  least 
of  which  is  the  growing  interest  among  mothers  as  to  the  teaching 
of  Domestic  Science  in  High  and  Grammar  schools.  Material  assist- 
ance in  home  and  club  study  is  afforded  by  the  system  of  Travelling 
Libraries,  loaned,  for  six  months  or  longer,  to  any  registered  club 
by  the  Public  Library  Division  of  several  State  Libraries. 

In  illustration  of  the  good  missionary  work  possible  of  perform-  Specimen 
ance  by  a  local  branch  of  one  Women's  Club,  I  may  mention  the  orjianisa- 
Illinois  Association  of  Domestic  Science,  though  examples  could  ^^^^^^^^^o- 
be  easily  multiplied.    The  ol)jects  of  this  Association  are  "  to  Domestic" 
stimulate  interest  in  all  that  pertains  to  home-making  ;  to  instigate  Science 
the  organisation  of  domestic  science  associations  in  order  to  co-  I<?aching. 
ordinate  the  work  ;  and  to  secure  the  introduction  of  the  study  (a)  Illinois 
of  domestic  science  into  the  educational  system."    The  President  Association 
and  her  Committee  were  animated  in  the  first  instance  by  a  desire  g^iencT^^^^^ 
to  introduce  l^etter  methods,  based  upon  sound  reasons,  into 
the  conduct  of  their  own  home  life ;  then  they  desired  to  interest 
those  whose  existence  is  usually  hampered  by  unintelHgent  rule 
of  thumb  "  habits,  and  who  are  hard  to  reach  in  consequence  of 
their  often  isolated  dwellings.    Stinudated  by  enthusiasm,  these 
women  took  advantage  of  the  presence  of  a  large  number  of  club 
members  on  the  occasion  of  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Illinois 
Farmers'  Institute,  held  at  Champaign  in  February,  1898 ;  they 
called  a  meeting,  at  which  attention  was  directed  to  the  advantage 
of  organising  a  State  Domestic  Science  Association.   In  this 
instance,  the  intention  was  more  particularly  to  reach  the  farmers' 
wives  ;  that  is  to  say,  to  initiate  a  movement  which  should  provide 
for  them  what  these  Institutes  do  for  the  farmers,  i.e.,  a  recurring 
opportunity  for  the  discussion  of  professional  questions,  and  for 
the  securing  of  new  hght  or  reliable  information  upon  doubtful 
points.    The  support  afforded  by  tlie  men  was  so  cordial  that, 
from  tiie  start,  the  Association  ^ams  looked  upon  as  a  legitimate 


238 


U.S.A.-Womcn's  Cluhs. 


{/))  Sanitary 


part  of  the  Farmers'  Institute's  work  ;  and,  soon  after  the  first 
annual  meeting,  the  Institution  Board  passed  a  formal  resolution 
by  which  the  Illinois  Association  of  Domestic  Science  was  recog- 
nised as  an  organisation  affiliated  to  the  Illinois  Farmers'  Institute, 
while  a  committee  of  the  directors  was  appointed  to  look  after  its 
interests.  That  the  women  worked  to  some  jnirpose  is  evident 
from  the  endowment  three  years  later  of  scholarships  for  girls  in 
Household  Economics,  tenable  at  the  Illinois  State  University,  of 
the  same  numljer  (two  to  each  county  of  the  State)  and  on  the 
same  terms  as  those  in  Agriculture,  appropriated  some  yeai'S 
previously  to  young  men. 

Foremost  in  the  earnest,  intelligent,  public  service  rendered  by 
ScVm-e  ^  ''^  women  has  been  the  Sanitary  Science  Club  of  the  Association  of 
Club  of  the  (/ollege  AlinnncP,  which  is  itself  composed  of  graduates  from 
Asso.'iation  certain  selected  women's  colleges  of  high  standing  This  depart- 
of  Collej:e  jj-j^j^^  of  w^^^^  Association  was  orf^anised  in  lioston  twenty  years 
Alumnae.  i  c         n  •  i 

ago,  when  there  were  as  yet  tew  college  graduates  m  the  country, 

and  fewer  still  at  the  head  of  homes  of  their  own.  Its  object 
was  the  ))romotion  of  home  sanitation,  and  for  the  first  two  years 
of  the  Club's  existence,  its  members  devoted  their  time  to  general 
study  of  the  subject  and  to  research  into  methods,  either  in  the 
homes  of  the  club  members,  or  in  those  opened  for  this  purpose 
by  friends.  Such  positive  help  and  satisfactory  material  resulted 
from  this  work  that  two  of  the  members  were  appointed  to  edit 
the  notes  made.  The  resulting  publication,  issued  in  1887  and 
])rought  up  to  date  by  subsequent  new  editions,  retains  its  position 
as  an  acknowledged  text-book,  and  has  influenced  large  numlx^ra 
for  good.  With  the  advantage  of  that  increased  knowledge,  which 
residts  from  accumidated  and  sifted  experience,  this  Sanitary  Science 
Club  has  directed  its  attention  to  the  betterment  of  homes  of  all 
classes  ;  to  the  securing  of  necessary  reforms  in  school  and  muni- 
cipal sanitation  ;  and  to  the  introduction  of  suitable  oj^portunities 
for  a  study  of  the  subject  of  Home  Economics  into  High  Schools 
and  Colleges.  For  some  years  several  of  the  most  prominent 
Club  members  have  been  engaged  in  teaching  Sanitary  Science 
at  the  University  of  Chicago,  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology, and  other  important  educational  centres.  It  is  regrettable 
t  hat  the  interestmg  exhibit  of  The  AYork  of  College  Women  for 
the  Home  "  was  not  more  generally  observed  at  the  Paris  Exhi- 
bition of  1900,  for  it  constituted  an  instructive  record  of  good  work 
done.  Plans  and  descriptions  of  houses  were  included,  as  well  as 
specimen  details  of  administrative  work  carried  on  by  these  women, 
and  a  bibliography  of  their  published  writings.  A  recent  exhibit 
in  the  cause  of  Home  Economics  at  Boston  illustrated  in  seven 
sections  their  practical  services  to  the  community ;  these  con- 
sisted of :  (i.)  Bibliography ;  (ii.)  Home  Economics  applied  to 
children  :  (iii.)  appHed  to  Shelter  and  Furnishings  ;  (iv.)  apj)lied 
to  Food;  (v.)  applied  to  Clothing;  (vi.)  applied  to  Household 
Management;  (vii.)  suggested  applications  of  the  subj(!Cts  to 
Public  School  instruction.    The  exhibits  included  useful  models, 


Specimen  Organisations  for  Promoting  Domestic  Science  Teaching.  239 


notaljly  one  of  the  New  England  Kitchen  at  Boston  ;  a  clever 
portable  device  for  the  division  of  an  ordinary  schoolroom  into 
four  rooms  for  housewifery  lessons  ;  examples  of  hygienic  clothing 
for  children ;  laundry  and  food  exhibits ;  dietaries  calculated 
at  various  figures,  and  some  of  Mrs.  Ellen  H.  Ricljards'  useful 
aids  to  intelligent  and  wholesome  housekeeping.  Indeed,  it  may 
be  justly  said,  to  their  honour,  that  the  college  women  of  the 
United  States  were  among  the  first  to  see  the  importance  to  the 
home  of  healthful  management  and  environment,  and  to  take 
practical  means  to  secure  such  conditions.  To  them  is  due  the 
credit  for  directing  attention  also  to  the  true  significance  of  Domestic 
Economy,  viz.,  that  it  embraces  economy  of  time,  of  method,  and 
of  strength,  as  well  as  of  pounds,  shillings,  and  pence. 

The  work  and  publications  of  the  Sanitary  Scienc<^  Club  of  the  {c)  The 
College  AlumnfjB  are  undoubtedly  largely  responsible  for  the  S^*^^']*^, , 
inception  of  another  social  organisation,  the  National  Household 
Economic  Association.  This  was  actually  formed  as  the  direct  Association, 
result  of  a  congress  held  at  the  Chicago  Exhibition,  1893  ;  it  now 
embraces  a  large  membership  in  thirty  of  the  States  and  in  Canada. 
Its  work  lies  chiefly  among  the  well-to-do  classes,  though  its 
members  assist  in  the  training  of  women  in  very  poor  districts. 
Both  sexes  are  eligible  for  membership.  The  Annual  Congress, 
held  for  three  or  four  days  in  some  important  centre,  serves  tc 
stimulate  its  own  supporters,  while  it  arouses  interest  among 
those  previously  indifferent  to  its  objects.  To  awaken  the  middle 
class  to  a  sense  of  the  dignity,  interest,  and  importance  of  House- 
hold Economics  has  been  very  uphill  work.  But  the  President 
can  now  report  hopeful  signs  of  ground  securely  gained  among  a 
class  often  difficult  to  influence,  hedged  in  as  it  is  by  social  con- 
vention and  the  possession  of  homes,  which,  because  they  bear  the 
hall-marks  of  comfort  or  wealth,  are  presupposed  to  possess  the  sign 
manual  of  health.  However,  the  Committee  are  S])urred  on  to 
persevering  efforts  by  the  conviction  that  the  formation  of  an 
intelligent  public  opinion  on  the  right  conduct  of  home  life  among 
these  educated  members  of  the  community  is  an  indispensable 
factor  in  its  general  study  ;  while,  incidental h%  they  anticipate 
that  one  outcome  may  be  some  promising  solution  of  that  most 
vexed  problem,  the  future  of  domestic  service.  The  Association 
endeavours  to  work  through  existing  organisations  ;  consequently, 
it  puts  itself  in  touch  with  the  Women's  Clubs  throughout  the 
country,  and  has  successfully  secur-^-d  the  inauguration  of  many 
a  department  in  this  subject,  as  w^ll  a3  organising  local  com- 
mittees for  the  conduct  of  specific  lines  of  study.  These  local 
committees  are  urged,  in  their  turn,  to  influence  the  Farmers' 
Institutes,  School  Managers,  Factory  Girls'  Clubs,  indeed  all 
industrial,  sociological  and  educational  organisations  ;  as  a  result, 
more  attention  is  given  annually  to  the  essentials  of  successful 
housekeeping,  to  the  right  care  of  children,  and  to  the  making 
of  attractive  and  healthy  homes. 


240 


U.S.A. — Philanthropic  Agencies. 


(d)  The  The  Women's  Institute,  Yonkers,  New  York,  offers  an  excellent 
Women's  example  of  somewhat  similar  work,  carried  on  among  another  section 
Yonkei?'  society,  in  which  also  the  Young  Women's  Christian  Association 
X  Y.     '      is  satisfactorily  active.    This  Institute  was  founded  in  1880,  and 

owes  its  existence  to  Miss  Mary  Marshall  Butler ;  its  membershi}) 
is  largely  composed  of  those  employed  in  the  factories  and  mills 
in  the  neighbourhood.  Club  membership  entitles  to  the  use  of  a 
lunch-room,  where  excellent  hot  food,  tea,  coffee,  and  fruit  are 
served  daily  to  upwards  of  eighty  or  a  hundred  of  these  factory 
workers.  Evening  classes  in  cooking,  sewing,  miUinery,  and 
dressmaking,  etc.,  are  provided  at  very  low  fees,  usually  two 
shillings  for  ten  lessons.  Special  classes  for  married  women  are 
provided  in  the  same  subjects ;  also  courses  in  invalid  cooking  for 
nurses  from  the  local  hospital,  and  Saturday  classes  for  school 
children. 

(e)  The  Civic  departure  to  which  I  now  desire  to  draw  attention 
League.       was  the  foundation,  in  1895,  of  the  Civic  League,  which  can 

already  show  a  good  record  of  practical  results,  attained  through 
the  active  co-operation  existing  between  the  membei'S  and  the 
public  authorities.  Lectures  have  been  given  on  The  Hygienic 
Care  of  Milk,"  Improved  Housing,"  "  The  Consumers'  League," 
"Our  Public  Schools,"  "Children's  Playgrounds,"  and  other 
kindred  topics,  which  have  not  only  stimulated  interest  but  borne 
fruit.  The  appointment  of  a  woman  Sanitary  Inspector  in  1900 
is  the  direct  outcome  of  tactful  action  taken  by  this  League.  The 
approval  by  the  Board  of  Education  of  the  appointment  of  a  School 
Visiting  Committee  is  another  tangible  result  of  its  work.  This 
committee  visits  the  schools  regularly,  confers  with  the  teachers, 
and  reports  concerning  hygienic  and  sanitary  matters.  Not  only 
do  problems  of  ventilation  and  cleanliness  receive  their  attention, 
but  care  is  given  to  the  physical  condition  of  children  in  need  of 
fresh  air,  of  improved  food,  or  of  warm  clothing.  The  teachers 
eminently  appreciate  the  interest  displayed  by  this  committee  in 
the  teaching  of  civics,  of  nature  work,  and  of  physiology,  as  well 
as  in  the  suitable  decoration  of  schoolrooms  and  in  the  organisation 
of  boys'  and  girls'  clubs.  Among  other  hygienic  achievements  may 
be  enumerated  the  introduction  of  Cooking  into  the  Evening 
Schools,  and  the  initiation  of  Kindergartens  during  the  three 
months'  summer  vacations. 
ifdiiSionar  '^'^^^  ^^^^  these  numerous  social,  as  distinguished  from  philan- 
and  Indus-  ^hropic,  organisations  which  I  will  mention  is  the  Women's  Edu- 
trial  Union,  cational  and  Industrial  Union.  This  Union  has  branches  in 
numerous  cities,  with  committees  on  Domestic  Science,  Hygiene, 
Physical  Culture,  and  "  Kitchen  Garci en"  work  for  children,  as  well 
as  on  its  other  numerous  interests.  The  activity  of  these  branches 
is  probably  a  variable  quantity  ;  but  annual  reports  testify  to  new 
ground  broken  and  fresh  seed  sown.  Reference  has  already  been 
made  in  Part  II,  to  the  special  outgrowth  of  this  Union,  the 
School  of  Housekeeping,  now  a  department  of  the  Simmons 
College  for  Women  at  Boston. 


Examples  of  Household  and  Sanitary  Science  Courses.  241 


B. — Philanthropic  Agencies. 

Before  I  touch  upon  the  numerous  philanthropic  agencies  whicli 
play  a  valuable  part  in  the  formation  of  an  intelligent  public 
opinion  upon  Household  and  Sanitary  Science,  it  may  be  well 
to  remind  my  readers  of  the  influence  exercised  on  the  pul)lic 
school  curriculum  by  private  individuals  and  by  voluntary 
organisations.*  These  agencies,  when  convinced  of  the  social 
advantage  to  be  derived  from  certain  subjects,  initiate  them  at 
first  on  a  modest  scale,  in  the  form  of  free  Saturday,  evening,  or 
vacation  classes  ;  when  satisfied  that  the  instruction  meets  a  distinct 
want  and  is  worthy  of  public  recognition,  they  exert  all  their 
influence  to  secure  its  adoption  by  the  official  school  authorities. 
Instances  are  not  far  to  seek  of  this  zeal  attaining  such  proportions 
that  private  individuals  even  undertake  to  defray  all  expenses  for  a 
time  after  the  subject  has  been  introduced  into  the  public  schools. 

Such  pioneer  work,  along  man}^  lines,  has  been  carried  on  with  Exaiiii)les  of 
success  in  Indianapolis  for  some  years  past ;  indeed,  the  free  Kinder-  Household 
garten  movement  in  that  city  dates  back  to  1875,  and  its  super- 
intendent  reports  continuous  and  encouraging  developments.  Science 
It  would  seem  that  honest  efforts  are  made,  even  at  the  early  age  Couis-s. 
of  Kindergarten  children,  to  judiciously  prepare  the  little  ones  for  («)  India- 
home  and  school  life  and  for  future  citizenship,  as  well  as  to  provide  j^lnder- 
for  them  conditions  of  wholesome  growth.    And  so  it  comes  about  garten  and 
that  five  and  six-year-old  children  are  admitted  to  what  is  described  Domestic 
as  the  "  Kitchen  Garden,"  or  the  "  Little  Housekeepers'  School,"  g^^^J^jf/ 
where  the  miniature  furniture,  dishes,  brooms,  and  buckets  are 
arranged  with  special  consideration  for  their  capacity  and  strength. 
Every  phase  of  home  work,  except  cooking  and  laundrying,  is 
taught  in  these  classes.   That  pleasure  and  profit  is  derived  from 
this  weekly  instruction  is  apparent  from  the  demand  for  pro- 
motion to  the  regular  Domestic  Training  School  as  soon  as  the  age 
limit  is  attained.   This  is  from  eight  to  seventeen  years,  although 
coloured  students  up  to  tw^enty  have  gladly  availed  themselves 
of  the  opportunity  for  securing  the  training  in  Domestic  Science 
afforded  by  this  means.  The  children  of  all  ages  attend  at  the  various 
centres  each  Saturday  at  9.30  a.m. ;  that  particular  hour  is  fixed 
to  give  both  boys  and  girls  time  to  assist  previously  in  regular  home 
duties,  and  thus  to  impress  upon  them  the  priority  of  home  claims. 
The  training  is  thoroughly  practical  in  all  lines  of  domestic  work  ; 
the  children  are  asked  to  practise  these  weekly  lessons  at  home, 
and  the  mothers  can  themselves  have  the  methods  taught  to  their 
children  explained  in  special  classes  should  they  so  desire.  The 
Domestic  Science  Course  is  arranged  as  follows  : — Cooking,  seven 
lessons  ;  practical  dining-room  and  table-setting  classes,  six  lessons  ; 
hall  and  stair-cleaning  classes,  four  lessons  ;  parlour  classes,  three 
lessons ;  bedroom  classes,  four  lessons ;  sewing  classes,  twelve 
lessons  ;  laundr5%  three  lessons ;  cellar,  three  lessons ;  elementary 
Sloyd  and  woodwork,  nine  lessons ;  whitewashing,  one  lesson. 

*  See  Introduction  to  Report. 
(i4t)0.  U 


242 


U.S.A. — Philanthropic  A gencies . 


(a)  India- 
napolis 
Kinder- 
garten and 
Domestic 
Training 
Schools — 
centinued. 


The  food  cooked  so  far  as  possible,  that  which  the  children  could 
afford  to  have  at  home ;  they  are  taught  how  to  choose  and  use  it 
economically  and  to  prepare  it  wholesomely.  They  keep  their 
own  recipe-books,  but  are  required  to  know  their  contents  suffi- 
ciently well  to  cook  from  memory  ;  incidentally  they  learn  the  care 
of  the  kitchen,  pantry,  and  closets.  Right  methods  of  daily, 
weekly,  and  yearly  cleaning  arc  slowly  and  carefully  inculcated, 
by  theory  and  \\\  practice  ;  while  the  practical  dining-room  work 
includes,  besides  table-setting  and  serving,  the  proprieties  of  per- 
sonal behaviour  and  the  care  at  table  of  a  baby  or  of  little  children, 
The  sewing  course  has  six  divisions  ;  in  the  first  the  different  stitches 
are  learnt,  to  i^e  applied  in  the  doll-dressing  department ;  there 
is  a  crochet  class  (for  which  the  mothers  asked)  and  another  for 
tlie  mending  of  garments  and  the  darning  of  stockings  ;  the  fifth 
is  ambitiously  described  as  the  Dressmaking  School,  in  which  the 
use  of  the  sewing  machine  is  acquired  ;  and,  finally,  satisfactory 
results  are  quoted  from  the  hat  and  bonnet  trimming  class,  which 
forms  the  sixth  department.  The  superintendent,  Mrs.  Eliza  A. 
Blaker,  reported  to  me  that  the  result  of  this  training  is  readily 
apparent  in  many  homes  of  the  districts  from  which  the  children 
attend ;  and  from  other  sources  I  learnt  what  excellent  residts 
follow  the  instruction.  It  seems  as  if  the  aims  held  in  view  were 
actually  attained.  Mrs.  Blaker  states  her  objects  to  be  the 
l)rightening  of  the  homes  of  to-day  ;  the  removal  of  drudgery  from 
home  work  ;  the  formation  of  industrious  habits  ;  the  inculcation 
of  the  great  value  of  personal  cleanliness,  courtesy,  neatness, 
method,  clean  houses,  and  well  cooked  food  to  others  besides  the 
individual  learner.  Attendance  is  purely  voluntary  ;  it  amounts 
to  2,000  annually ;  the  young  pupils  flock  to  the  classes  because 
they  really  enjoy  the  work.  The  first  of  these  Indianapolis 
Domestic  Training  Schools  was  established  in  1888,  and  the  number 
of  centres  has  apparently  increased  at  the  rate  of  one  a  year.  The 
students  at  the  Normal  School  at  once  volunteered  their  services 
as  helpers,  whereupon  an  unforeseen  result  followed.  In  1894 
practical  work  in  Domestic  Training  became  the  regular  exercise 
on  Friday  afternoon  in  the  Normal  School,  where  hitherto  the 
students  had  gained  their  infoi-mation  by  theory  only.  Each 
pupil  has,  since  that  date,  rehearsed  in  practice  the  work  she  will 
teach  to,  and  require  of,  the  children  the  following  morning. 
No  materials  were  purchased  with  which  to  begin  the  teaching — 
"  Had  we  not  rooms  to  sweep,  chairs  to  be  dusted,  floors  to  be 
scrubbed,  woodwork  to  be  cleansed  ?  "  Sewing,  cooking,  table- 
setting,  were  introduced  as  occasion  offered,  and  the  majority  of 
necessary  and  desirable  articles  have  been  given  by  degrees. 

The  organisation  of  this  Indianapolis  Society  is  far-reaching, 
for  in  this  Domestic  Science  Department  alone,  in  addition  to  the 
work  being  carried  on  for  children,  fourteen  Mothers'  Classes  on 
Cooking  and  on  the  Training  of  Children  are  conducted  in  different 
sections  of  the  city,  and  the  same  nubjects  are  d^alt  with  in  the 
Young  Women's  Evening  Clubs. 


Examples  of  Household  and  Sanitary  Science  Courses.  243 


The  School  of  Domestic  Science  attached  to  the  Boston  Branch  (6)  Y. W.C. A. 
of  the  Young  Women's  Christian  Association  provides  a  series  of  School  of 
lessons  in  Domestic  Science  for  primary  school  children,  described  ^Ji^^ce^^ 
as  the  "  Kitchen  Garden/^   Here  again  the  course  of  ten  hours'  Boston.' 
is  devoted  to  lessons  in  cooking  and  to  the  practice  of  household 
occupations,  by  the  use  of  toys  and  by  means  of  songs  and  games. 

Another  most  interesting  pioneer  course  exists  at  the  Louisa  (c)  The 
M.  Alcott  Club,  started  in  one  of  the  poorest  neighbourhoods  Loui.sa 
of  Boston  by  Miss  Isabel  F.  Hyams,  as  a  result  of  observing  on  q^^^^^^^ 
all  sides  the  ignorance  of  how  to  manage  a  home.  She  felt  that  iJoston. 
to  enter  each  house  with  a  view  to  training  its  inmates  would 
be,  if  not  impossible,  yet  a  great  waste  of  power,  and  concluded 
that  the  young  citizen  should  rather  be  trained  in  the  principles  of 
home-making  through  a  system  of  "  play  in  earnest,"  continued 
through  several  years  of  life,  until  the  methods  learnt  would  have 
became  habitual.  She  therefore  took  a  house  in  one  of  the  most 
ivnpromising  streets,  furnished  it  brightly  yet  simply,  and 
opened  its  doors  to  the  children  of  the  neighbourhood.  The 
upper  rooms  are  devoted  to  Kindergarten ;  the  well-lit  basement 
is  reserved  for  these  domestic  classes.  The  utensils  provided 
jare  of  such  a  size  and  so  arranged  in  the  cupboards  that  they  are 
within  the  reach  of  the  smallest  child,  and  each  is  entirely 
iresponsible  for  her  own.  They  are  taught  to  wash  the  dishes,  set 
the  table,  sweep  and  dust ;  small  brooms,  dustpans,  etc.,  being 
provided.  As  the  lessons  usually  succeed  the  ordinary  school  day, 
they  are  rightly  limited  to  one  hour  in  length.  This  frequently 
necessitates  previous  preparation  of  some  part  of  the  work,  as  all 
the  processes  cannot  be  carried  through  in  so  short  a  time.  For 
instance,  if  the  lesson  be  on  the  service  and  clearing  up  of  a  meal, 
the  food  required  must  be  prepared  before  the  class  assembles. 
The  first  year's  experiment  was  but  a  qualified  success  ;  too  much 
was  attempted,  and  the  character  of  the  work  proved  unsatis- 
factory. The  second  year's  experience  was  much  more  encouraging ; 
provision  was  made  for  individual,  not  group,  work,  evidently 
indispensable  to  obtain  the  desired  results.  The  average  age  of 
the  youngest  class  is  eight  yeai-s.  The  kitchen  is  kept  as  near  the 
home  ideal  as  possible.  Miss  Hyams  hopes  eventually  to  furnish 
a  living-room  and  bedroom  in  the  same  way.  It  must  be  remem- 
Ibered  that  the  work  is  carried  on  in  what  we  should  describe  as  a 
islum  district,  where  ignorance  and  often  poverty  prevail.  No  one 
jin  the  neighbourhood  occupies  a  whole  house ;  many  families  live 
I  in  dark  rooms,  with  air-shafts  only  to  ventilate  the  inside  bed- 
rooms ;  and  the  children  are  entirely  unconscious  of  any  other 
j  possible  conditions  ;  so  the  first  lessons  are  given  to  thoughts  about 
what  constitutes  a  home.  The  rooms  of  a  house  are  talked  about 
in  turn  and  their  uses  considered  ;  then  the  children  think  out  and 
decide  the  names  and  uses  of  the  simple  kitchen  utensils  provided. 
Next,  they  fill  their  own  linen  chest,  a  famous  incentive  to  conquer 
tlie  use  of  the  needle.  A  start  is  made  with  cheese-cloth  dusters, 
.after  which  towels,  napkins,  and  table-clotbs  are  hemmed,  e;ich 

6490. 


244 


U.S.A.  — Philanthropic  Agencies . 


article  being  on  a  scale  proportioned  to  its  maker.  This  introduces 
the  need  for  lanndry  work,  to  which  the  children  take  very  kindly. 
The  subject  of  cooking  is  approached  through  the  consideration  of 
some  seasonable,  familiar,  and  simple  food,  e.g.,  the  potato  ;  few 
of  the  children  can  at  first  trace  its  origin  further  back  than  the 
shop ;  so  a  sprouting  potato  is  examined,  compared  with  other 
])lants,  and  planted,  to  be  finally  compared  with  a  picture.  By 
this  and  other  means  their  eyes  are  gradually  opened  to  the  realisa- 
tion of  the  many  agencies  needed  to  provide  the  boiled  potato 
which  forms  so  common  an  article  of  daily  diet.  All  the  lessons 
and  their  subjects  are  taken  up  in  this  way ;  a  method  w^hich 
Miss  Hyams  feels  to  be  best  in  this  instance,  as  it  widens  the 
children's  horizons  and  exercises  their  imagination  and  observation, 
while  it  guides  them  into  more  wholesome  and  intelligent  habits 
The  whole  object  of  this  particular  club  is  to  better  the  home 
conditions  of  a  very  poor  neighbourhood,  to  further  w^hich  a  class 
for  elder  girls  in  cooking  is  also  carried  on.  At  first  the  preparation 
of  a  whole  meal  was  tried  with  them,  but  time  limits  obliged  this 
to  be  too  hurried ;  so  at  last  the  existing  plan  was  devised.  The 
lady  in  charge  supervises  the  preparation  of  and  gives  the  recipe 
for  the  dish  selected  at  one  lesson,  while  on  the  next  occasion  the 
girls  are  required  to  come  in,  set  about  and  carry  on  the  entire 
j^rocess  alone,  though  their  instructor  remains  in  the  room  and 
assists  where  help  proves  necessary.  This  method,  while  making 
no  serious  demand  on  the  children,  leads  to  the  exercise  of  attention, 
forethought,  and  good  method. 

Much  care  and  ingenuity  have  been  devoted  to  the  equipment 
of  this  children's  kitchen,  which  impressed  me  particularly  by  its 
practical  completeness,  compact  arrangement,  and  the  advantages 
it  offers  for  the  acquirement  of  orderly  habits  and  a  desirable  sense 
of  personal  ownership.  Three  wooden  shelves  are  fixed  below  the 
windows,  right  across  one  end  of  the  room.  These  are  sub-divided 
by  partitions  into  ten  cupboards,  each  two  feet  high  by  one  foot 
wide ;  in  these  are  kept,  respectively,  a  half-pint  saucepan,  bowl, 
baking-dish,  tin  plate,  vegetable  knife,  fork,  spoon,  and  other 
small  ware.  On  the  long  shelf  which  forms  the  top  of  the  series 
of  cupboards,  and  on  the  wall  above,  are  placed  the  articles  less 
frequently  used,  such  as  scales,  spice  boxes,  meat  cho])per,  etc. 
The  children  have  also  an  extension  table  for  cooking  and  little 
chairs  of  the  right  height  for  meals,  a  refrigerator,  a  chest  of 
drawers  to  hold  table  and  kitchen  linen,  a  china  closet  and  gas 
range,  etc.,  all  small,  but  perfect  in  detail.  The  means  for  washing 
and  ironing  have  also  been  provided ;  tubs,  trestle  tables,  irons, 
ironing  boards,  and  so  forth ;  bare  necessaries,  no  luxuries,  but 
everything  bears  the  impress  of  being  used  and  kept  decently  and 
in  order, 

id)  Free  The  educational  value  of  all  this  private  enterprise  in  good  habit 
Lectures.      training,  with  its  eventual  influence  on  public  health,  is  not  lost 

upon  the  Boards  of  Education  in  the  cities  where  it  is  at  work  ; 

while  its  social  worth  is  recognised,  though  as  yet  vaguely,  by 


Examples  of  Household  and  Sanitary  Science  Coiirses. 


245 


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246 


U.S.A. — Summer  Schools. 


(e)  People's 
University 
Extension 
Society, 
N.Y.C. 
(/)  Univer- 
sity Settle- 
ments. 


(g)  Vacation 
Schools. 


many  of  the  community  at  large.  Some  city  Boards  of  Education 
have  Saturday  Morning  Classes  in  Cooking  and  Sewing  for  girls, 
while  these  and  Evening  Classes  for  girls  and  adults  are  offered 
by  practically  all  the  Technical  Institutes  and  in  some  Manual 
Training  High  Schools.  The  subjects  of  Physiology  and  Hygiene 
being  obligatory  in  schools  do  not  depend  for  their  introduction 
upon  outside  agencies,  but  that  an  interest  in  them  is  manifesting 
itself  among  adults  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  courses  of  instruc- 
tion in  them  are  becoming  more  general  in  the  published  schedules 
of  Eree  Lectures  ;  especially  has  this  been  the  case  in  the  boroughs 
of  Manhattan  and  the  Bronx,  New  York  City.  The  Superin- 
tendent of  the  "  Eree  Lectures  to  the  People,"  Dr.  H.  M.  Leipzinger, 
brought  forward  some  interesting  facts  in  this  connection  in  his 
last  Eeport.  After  drawing  attention  to  the  large  and  steady 
attendance  at  most  of  the  centres,  and  to  the  discomfort  frequently 
but  cheerfully  suffered  by  the  crowded  audiences  (old  men  and 
women,  after  climbing  sixty-five  steps,  obliged  to  sit  on  benches 
meant  for  children,  etc.),  he  enumerates  in  order  the  subjects 
which  excite  this  thirst  to  learn,  and  which,  in  one  season,  held 
the  attention  and  awakened  permanent  interest  among  more 
than  half  a  million  middle-aged  people.  Physiology  and  Hygiene 
head  the  list ;  Civics  appear  in  company  with  History  and  Geo- 
graphy, while  Sociology  closes  the  roll  of  first  favourites,  follorring 
after  Music  and  Art.  By  means  of  illustrations,  where  possible 
by  experiments  and  lantern  views,  the  eye,  ear  and  brain  are 
stimulated  and  trained  ;  so  that  he  feels  it  to  be  now  justifiable  to 
plan  a  four-years'  course  in  several  lines  of  study,  of  which  Hygiene 
is  to  be  one.  Those  who  wish  to  pursue  a  definite  course  will  thus 
be  enabled  to  get  a  general  and  well-defined  outlme  of  their  subject ; 
at  the  conclusion  of  the  period  they  will  be  entitled  to  receive  a 
certificate,  which  shall  possess  a  genuine  value. 

Hygiene  teaching  on  simple  lines  is  undertaken  by  the  People's 
University  Extension  Society  of  New  York  ;  while  similar  educa- 
tional lectures  are  given  by  competent  teachers  at  many  University 
Settlements,  among  which  special  mention  should  be  made  of 
those  at  Hull  House,  Chicago.  I  must  not  omit  to  mention  that 
domestic  subjects  are  also  included  in  the  classes  offered  to  l)oys 
and  girls  in  most  of  the  social  settlements  in  New  York  City, 
Chicago,  Cleveland,  0.,  Columbus,  0.,  and  elsewhere.  These, 
with  many  other  branches  of  manual  work,  prove,  exclusive  of 
the  excursions,  the  most  popular  features  at  the  various  schools 
carried  on  by  voluntary  agencies,  in  an  increasing  number  of 
cities,  during  a  part  of  the  three  months*  sununer  vacation.  It 
would  be  beside  the  mark  to  dwell  at  length  upon  these  Vacation 
Schools,  with  their  ideas,  methods  and  influences ;  though  it  has 
quite  recently  been  proved  in  London,  that  the  short  holidays 
usual  in  England  among  the  class  of  children  they  are  designed 
to  benefit,  does  not  prevent  the  possibility  of  tlieir  successful 
introduction  into  this  country. 


Typical  Domestic  Science  Courses. 


247 


C. — Summer  Schools. 

The  case  of  Summer  Schools  for  adults  is  somewhat  different.  Typical 
These  are  also  held  during  the  long  cessation  of  school  work,  rendered  Domestic 
desirable  by  the  intense  heat  of  a  climate  very  diverse  from  the  Q^^^^^g 
English.   They  are  attended  by  a  great  number  of  teachers  of  all 
subjects,  so  that  the  scholastic  element  is  well  represented  ;  but  a 
large  body  of  their  students  is  furnished  by  members  of  other 
professions  and  by  the  leisured  classes.    Mothers  of  families  will 
speak  in  a  matter-of-fact  way  of  the  number  of  consecutive  summers 
which  have  found  them  at  one  or  other  such  school,  in  pursuit 
of  knowledge  either  to  equip  themselves  better  for  their  household 
duties,  for  their  social  position,  or  to  make  them  more  intelligent^ 
companionable  to  their  sons  and   daughters.    These  Summer 
Schools  correspond  somewhat  to  the  University  Extension  Meetings 
held  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  but  are  on  a  much  larger  scale  ; 
their  programmes  oft'er  a  considerable  range  of  practical  courses 
in  the  arts  and  sciences  ;  while  a  feature  is  made  of  opportuni- 
ties for  consecutive  study.    These  schools  are  attached  to  the 
greater  number  of  Universities  and  Colleges,  as  well  as  occupying  an 
independent  position,  as,  for  instance,  the  world-renowned  Chau-  («)  Chaut- 
tauqua.    Professor  Herbert  B.   Adams  has  given  a  vivid  and  g^^ool  of 
exhaustive  exposition  of  the  popular  enthusiasm  for  this  class  of  Domestic 
education  in  his  monograph  for  the  Department  of  Education  at  the  Science. 
Paris  Exhibition.   (Monographs  on  Education  in  the  United  States,  ^^]^y 
No.  16,     Summer  Schools  and  University  Extension".)  The 
courses  average  six  weeks  in  length,  and,  by  judicious  arrange- 
ment and  selection,  very  real  work  can  be  accomplished.  This 
possibility  is  illustrated  by  the  comprehensive  practical  course  in 
Household  Sci^^nce  at  Chautauqua.* 

To  illustrate  that  the  civic  side  also  is  kept  in  view  in  these  courses,  (b)  Chicago 
I  may  mention  those  available  for  summer  students  at  Chicago  University. 
University.  The  Department  of  Sociolog}^  heads  its  list  of  Summer 
School  lectures  with  the  "  Citizen  as  Householder  "  (the  house 
as  a  factor  in  public  health,  the  control  of  the  householder  by  the 
State,  his  duties  in  relation  to  sanitation  and  food  supplies) ;  while 
the  second  course  is  on  "  Food  Supplies  and  Dietaries  "  under  the 
same  professor,  Dean  Marion  Talbot.  Eight  alternate  courees 
are  detailed,  of  which  four  are  largely  concerned  with  sanitary 
science,  viz..  the  two  just  enumerated  and  two  more,  of  which  the 
titles  are  **  The  Elements  and  Structure  of  Society  "  (a  study  of 
the  economic,  physiological,  social,  aesthetic,  intellectual  and  moral 
elements  in  American  Society),  and  "  Municipal  Sociology.'* 

The  School  of  Education  attached  to  the  University  also  has  (c)  Chicago 
classes  in    Home  Economics  and  Art,  and  in  Applied  Art  in  its  University 
Summer  School.    These  are,  however,  practically  Normal,  not  ^^^^^^^.-^^j^ 
general  classes.    Their  end  is  the  illustration  of  educational  prin-  Table 
ciples  in  connection  with  the  subjects  selected  for  study,  with  XXX  VI. 
special  reference  to  the  needs  of  those  who  are  already  engaged 
in  teaching ;   the  subject  matter  of  the  classes  falls,  therefore, 

*  See  Ai)i)endix  .J. 


U.S.  A . — -University  Extension, 


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Open    to  all, 
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of  the  School 
of  Education. 

President : — 

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Harper, 
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LL.D. 

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System  of  Instruction  in  Domestic  Science  Subjects  249 


within  the  fields  of  elementary  and  secondary  education,  treated 
from  the  point  of  view  of  philosophy  and  pedagogy.  The  course 
in  Home  Economics  consists  of  lectures  and  laboratory  work  in 
Applied  Chemistry,  the  Study  of  Food  Principles,  the  Chemistry  of 
Food  Fermentation,  Detection  of  Food  Adulterants  and  Preserva- 
tives, etc.  Cooking  and  Sewing,  as  introduced  into  the  primary 
grades,  are  discussed  also  in  another  course  on  Applied  Pedagogy. 

So  widespread  is  this  system  of  Summer  Schools  that  it  is  quite 
impossible  to  do  more  than  thus  concisely  indicate  the  attention 
their  organisers  devote  to  the  study  of  Domestic  Science  and 
Art,  an  attention  rendered  necessary  by  the  demand,  not  among 
members  of  the  teaching  profession  only,  but  among  the  public 
in  general,  who  find  in  them  a  useful  and  feasible  means  of  ac- 
quiring information  and  practical  experience.  The  fees,  natur- 
ally somewhat  variable  in  amount,  are  distinctly  reasonable ; 
the  teaching  staff  is,  as  a  rule,  chosen  with  care,  and  of  a  high 
quality. 

D. — University  Extension. 

The  University  Extension  system  of  instruction  in  these  subjects  illustration., 
is  also  successful,  and  has  developments  of  detail  in  the  several  of  System 
States  to  meet  local  and  particular  needs.   It  acts  in  more  ways  Instruc- 
than  one  as  a  support  and  a  stimulus  to  the  Women's  Clubs,  the  J^o^^^^^ic 
Farmei-s'  Institutes,  and  to  similar  organisations  for  self  and  com-  Science 
munal  improvement.    When  employed,  as  is  habitual  in  this  Subjects, 
country,  its  lectures  furnish  the  expert's  standpoint,  desiral)le 
in  the  study  of  any  subject,  but  especially  so  where  the  students 
are  drawn  from  those  whose  sphere  and  experience  are  some- 
what limited  and  along  similar  lines.  When  active  chiefly  by  means 
of  its  Travelling  Libraries  it  brings  the  written  views  of  leading 
authorities  into  the  homes  of  those  who,  owing  to  narrow  means 
or  to  home  claims,  are  imable  otherwise  to  come  in  touch 
with  this  suggestive  material.   If  this  agency  for  education  be 
"  extended  "  into  a  reading  course,  controlled  by  some  depart- 
ment of  the  University  with  which  it  is  connected,  correspondents 
are  guided  in  their  studies,  encouraged  to  submit  practical  problems 
to  their  directors,  and  to  persevere  in  one  line  of  work  until  a  degree 
of  thoroughness  has  been  attained.   The  Travelling  Library  method 
is  specially  well  organised  in  New  York  State,  under  the  leader-  York  State 
ship  of  Mr.  Melvil  Dewey,  State  Librarian  of  the  New  York  Travelling 
Library  at  Albany.    Compliance  with  the  rules  he  has  framed  library, 
requires,  for  instance,  that  one  subject  must  be  studied  for  at 
least  ten  weeks ;  continuity  to  this  extent  is  insisted  upon.  Ex- 
cellent printed  outlines  of  the  topics  included  in  the  selected  sub- 
jects are  prepared  by  experts,  and  are  supplied  at  nominal  fees. 
Members  are  expected  to  submit  occasional  written  exercises  for 
criticism,  and  occasional  conferences  with  qualified  lecturers  are 
advised.   The  admirable  syllabus  on  "  Home  Economics  is 
reproduced  by  kind  permission  in  Appendix  L.,  and  gives  an 
insight  into  the  care  and  skill  lavished  upon  these  publications. 


250 


U.S.A. — Domestic  Service  Problem. 


(b)  Cornell  Cornell  University  has  also  organised  Heading  Courses,  in  which 
University  it  is  customaiy  to  send  short  especially  prepared  lessons  to  the 
Coursef  for  ^^^dents,  followed  after  a  biief  interval  by  a  paper  of  questions.  Each 
Farmers'  subject  is  under  the  charge  of  a  professor  of  wide  practical  experience. 
Wives.  Eor  example,  the  general  supervision  of  reading  courses  for  farmers' 
A\  ives  is  entrusted  to  Miss  Martha  Van  Kensselaer,  who,  as  a  result 
of  her  sympathetic  work,  has  a  large  and  constant  correspondence 
among  her  flock  ;  this  enables  her  to  give  individual  advice  on 
questions  which  arise  out  of  their  perusal  of  the  "Reading  Lessons," 
and  opens  her  mind  to  the  needs,  aspirations,  and  limitations  of 
her  correspondents,  a  souice  of  valuable  guidance  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  her  quarterly  "  Bulletin."  Each  quarter  also  sees  a  useful 
Supplement,  issued  gratuitously  to  the  6,000  members,  on  some 
home  question,  sanitary,  economic,  etc.,  freely  illustrated,  abso- 
lutely practical,  eminently  suggestive.  That  for  January,  1900, 
was  entitled,  "  Saving  Steps."  It  is  so  full  of  useful  hints  that  it 
is  hard  to  resist  the  temptation  to  reproduce  it  in  its  entirety. 
The  text  taken  is,  "  All  household  improvements  which  can  be 
provided  to  conserve  a  woman's  strength  will  add  to  her  power 
and  efficiency."  The  exposition  suggests  a  hundred  feasible 
ways  for  the  attainment  of  this  end,  while  the  illustrations  graphi- 
cally depict  their  practical  application  in  kitchen  and  parlour. 
Similar  in  tone  and  value  is  "  Home  Sanitation,"  issued  in  April, 
1901 ;  not  the  least  interesting  part  of  which  is,  "  What  our  corres- 
pondents say  " — an  appendix  consisting  of  the  comments,  suggestions 
and  criticisms  elicited  by  the  previous  number.  It  would  be  tedious 
to  enumerate  further  the  subjects  and  methods  of  treatment  in 
these  Bulletins;  that  they  meet  a  need  is  evident,  that  they  are 
doing  valuable  work  in  the  formation  of  an  intelligent  public 
opinion  is  unquestionable.  They  awaken  the  minds  of  farmers 
and  their  wives  to  the  usually  unrecognised  fact  that  housekeeping 
is  a  fine  art,  and  that  women  possess  the  ability  to  change  much 
that  is  passively  permitted  to  prejudice  the  health  and  happiness 
of  a  family.  They  direct  thought  and  attention  to  modes  of 
healthful  living,  and  teach  that  to  minister  to  the  bodily,  intellectual, 
and  spiritual  needs  of  humanity  is  the  highest  type  of  world's 
work.  They  show  that  to  accomplish  this  it  is  unnecessary  to 
sacrifice  either  woman's  health  or  comfort ;  for  by  intelligent 
thought  and  skilled  practice  mountains  of  tacitly  existing  diffi- 
culties and  prejudices  may  be  surmounted  or  removed.  The 
circular  of  suggestions  for  initiating  such  Reading  Courses  in  new 
districts  is  worthy  of  attention  from  those  who  recognise  the  opening 
which  exists  for  similar  work  in  this  country.* 

E. — The  Domestic  Service  Problem. 
With  the  energy  characteristic  of  their  nation,  the  women  of 
the  Eastern  States  have  set  themselves  seriously  to  study  that 
acute  problem,  the  Domestic  Service  question;  fortunately  for  the 
cause  in  which  they  are  interested  they  are  animated  by  a  spirit  of 
dogged  determination  which  remains  undaunted  by  the  discourage- 


*  iSee  Appendix  K. 


Existing  Conditions, 


251 


ments  which  attend  their  investigations.  That  the  complexities 
which  are  encountered  should  be  intricate  and  well-nigh  innu- 
merable appears  inevitable  in  the  conduct  of  an  inquiry  where 
social,  economic,  professional,  and  domestic  interests  are  all  con- 
cerned ;  that  the  difficulties  are  very  real  is  recognisable,  when  the 
conditions  incidental  to  the  collection  of  accurate  information  on 
so  delicate  a  subject  are  taken  into  account.  To  grumble  and 
remain  quiescent  is  an  old-world  monopoly  ;  to  grimible  and  find 
therein  a  spur  to  action  of  some  sort  appears  to  be  instinctive 
among  the  members  of  a  younger  race.  As  the  activity,  in  this 
instance,  first  arose  amongst  the  most  highly  educated  women 
it  assumed  a  sound  form.  Careful  observations  of  existing  con- 
ditions, under  which  domestic  service  becomes  increasingly 
unpopular,  were  succeeded  by  a  series  of  carefully-conducted 
investigations,  upon  which  reliable  statistics  might  be  based,  and 
certain  assertions  and  conclusions  tested.  The  Massachusetts  Mas.sachu- 
Labour  Bureau  has  prepared  and  published  three  studies  of  g^^^jj^f'^^'^^^ 
considerable  interest  upon  this  subject,  consisting  of  information  Bulletins 
collected  by  the  Women's  Educational  and  Industrial  Union  of  showing 
Boston  and  the  School  of  Housekeeping.  Of  these  the  first  was  existing 
issued  in  1898,  entitled,  ''The  Hours  of  Labour  in  Domestic 
Service  "  ;  the  second  appeared  in  1900,  under  the  title  of  '*  Social 
Conditions  of  Domestic  Service ;  "  the  third  was  made  public  in 
1901,  and  deals  with  some  "  Social  Statistics  of  Working  Women." 
The  inquiries  were  in  each  case  hampered  by  the  very  pei-sonal 
relations  of  mistress  to  maid,  which  lead  the  former  usually  to 
resent  requests  for  explicit  information  ;  the  result  of  this  attitude 
is  that  deductions  have  to  be  made  from  relatively  small  numbers. 
The  first  bulletin,  for  instance,  embodies  the  analysis  of  returns 
from  184  different  famihes  in  which  289  persons  were  employed ; 
though  few  in  number,  these  were  found  to  be  decidedly  repre- 
sentative of  the  general  conditions  obtaining  in  Boston.  It 
appears  that  the  average  length  of  a  day's  Avork  for  all  branches  of 
domestic  service  somewhat  exceeded  twelve  hours  ;  that,  although 
the  employees  nominally  had  a  ''day  out,"  the  full  amount  of  business 
time  on  that  day  amounted  to  but  three  hours  less  than  the  daily 
average  for  the  entire  week ;  and  on  Saturdays  about  four  hours  less ; 
and  that  restrictions  existed  as  to  the  employment  of  "  free  time  " 
(reception  of  visitors ;  meals  not  to  be  served  to  friends  ;  stated 
hour  of  return  usually  10  p.m.).  All  these  facts  su])stantiate 
some  of  the  invariable  objections  raised  to  this  occupation,  viz., 
the  difference  between  the  number  of  houi*s  required  in  domestic 
service  and  the  amount  and  character  of  free  time  afforded,  as 
compared  with  conditions  which  obtain  in  factories  and  some  kinds 
of  mercantile  employment,  plus  the  indefiniteness  of  the  hours, 
which  many  consider  to  be  an  insuperable  drawback.  In  the 
1900  bulletin,  attention  is  directed  to  the  unfortunate  "social 
stigma "  which  attaches  to  domestic  servants. 

"  No  criticism  is  intended,  either  direct  or  implied,  of  either  mistress  or 
servant.    The  fragmentary  character  of  the  data,  and  the  comparatively 


252 


U.S.A. — Domestic  Service  Problem. 


Ej^isting  limited  field  covered  by  the  inquiries  may  be  at  once  admitted.  It  is, 
Conditions,  however,  beyond  question  that  while  certain  social  opportunities  are  enjoyed 
— continued,  by  those  who  are  employed  in  the  factory  or  the  shop,  due,  in  a  measure, 
to  unity  of  action  on  the  part  of  the  workers,  and  to  generally  accepted 
customs  growing  out  of  the  employment,  in  domestic  service  there  is 
neither  uniformity  of  privilege  nor  recognised  social  status.  There  is 
neither  clear  recognition  of  mutual  responsibility  and  reciprocal  rights 
and  duties  which  marked  the  old  relation  of  mistress  and  servant,  nor 
the  equally  well  defined  relations  which  in  industrial  or  mercantile  employ- 
ment exist  between  employer  and  employee.  The  domestic  has  ceased 
to  be  a  servant  as  that  term  was  formerly  used  ;  she  has  not  yet  become 
an  employee  as  that  term  is  now  used  in  industrial  occupations." 

Inquiries  addressed  to  181  families  included  the  following 
topics  : — What  church  is  attended,  and  to  what  extent  does  it 
play  a  part  in  the  social  life  of  your  servants  ?  What  opportunities 
do  you  offer  for  intellectual  improvement  ?  What  is  the  character 
of  the  reading  they  affect — is  the  servant  allowed  access  to  the 
library,  or  given  newspapers  ?  When  not  on  duty,  what  oppor- 
tunities for  enjoyment  are  open  to  her  (playing  on  a  musical  instru- 
ment, attendance  at  a  choral  class,  etc.),  is  she  permitted  to  enter- 
tain visitors  ?  Is  she  afforded  opportunity  to  do  her  personal 
sewing  ?  Is  she  given  facilities  to  attend  lectures,  entertain- 
ments, or  classes  for  self-improvement  ? "  The  data  collected 
exemplified  every  possible  variety  of  treatment  of,  and  interest  in, 
the  welfare  of  the  servant  concerned ;  to  tabulate  or  work  out 
percentages  is  impossible,  but  it  would  seem  that  the  words  used  by 
Professor  Mary  Roberts  Smith  in  a  recent  number  of  the  "  Forum  " 
might  be  considered  to  their  advantage  by  many  employers. 
"  Whatever  is  done  for  manners  or  morals  must  be  done,  as  for 
other  working  girls,  by  establishing  friendly  relations  with  them, 
and  by  winning  them  to  more  refined  conceptions  of  life.  The 
want  of  rational  social  pleasures  and  of  opportunities  for  self- 
education  is  the  result  of  all  the  conditions  just  discussed,  to 
which  must  be  added  the  one  most  fatal  of  all,  namely,  the  want 
of  aspiration.  With  the  improvement  of  other  conditions,  this  will 
remedy  itself.  But  the  desii-e  for  some  social  and  intellectual  recrea- 
tion may  be  stimulated  through  clubs,  books,  and  amusements. 
To  all  these  the  mistress  can  at  least  contribute  the  stimulus  of  her 
own  culture  and  friendly  interest." 

The  following  conclusion,  quoted  from  the  last  published  investi- 
gation, suggests  that  in  some  respects  at  least,  the  conditions  of 
domestic  service  in  England  and  the  United  States  have  a  good 
deal  in  common :  "  The  social  and  economic  conditions  prevailing 
in  domestic  service  place  it  quite  apart  from  other  groups.  It 
appears  that  houseworkers  have  less  free  time  and  fewer  vacation 
privileges  than  the  women  in  other  groups ;  that  these  employees 
are  generally  foreign  bom ;  and  that  they  have  had  fewer  edu- 
cational opportunities  than  the  others.  The  conditions  of  their 
employment,  especially  when  but  one  employee  is  engaged  in  a 
family,  often  isolate  them  from  other  workers  and  tend  to  a 
narrower  point  of  view.  Their  home  surroundings,  and,  to  a 
large  extent,  their  social  environment,  must  vary  greatly,  sinci; 


Proposed  Remedies. 


253 


these  are  dependent  on  the  conditions  prevailing  in  the  families 
in  which  they  are  employed  and  are  largely  governed  by  the  will 
of  the  employer,  and  their  content  of  life  mnst  be  correspondingly 
affected.  On  the  other  hand,  housework  has  a  decided  advantage 
from  the  standpoint  of  healthfulness  ;  and  the  food  and  general 
surroundings  of  the  employees  in  housework  are  frequently  some- 
^^hat  better  than  in  other  employments.  Makmg  due  allowance 
for  board  and  lodging,  the  wages  of  the  houseworkers  appear  to 
Ije  better  also  ;  at  any  rate,  they  seem  to  have  a  larger  surplus. 
A  fairly  skilled  houseworker  is  in  little  danger  of  being  out  of 
employment  for  any  length  of  time.  The  consideration  which 
more  than  anything  else  leads  women  to  prefer  factory,  shop,  or 
restaurant  work  to  housework,  appears  to  be  the  greater  inde- 
pendence enjoyed  in  these  employments." 

The  next  point  considered  has  been  the  possible  sources  of  relief  Proposed 
for  the  tension  which  now  exists.    What  are  the  remedies  proposed  Remedie  . 
]jy  our  neighbours  ?   It  seemed  to  me  they  are  broadly  divisible 
into  three  gi'oups  : — • 

I.  Those  which  are  directed  to  the  organisation  of  domestic 
service  as  a  profession  or  skilled  trade. 

II.  Those  which  would  dignify  domestic  service,  as  a  necessity 
coincident  with  the  growing  desire  to  elevate  home  life  in  all  depart- 
ments. The  supporters  of  this  view  would  not  confine  training 
in  household  occupations  to  one  section  of  its  members ;  their 
scheme  requires  the  intelligent  co-operation  of  all. 

III.  Those  which,  seeing  in  the  discontent  of  the  servant  class 
a  part  of  the  evolutionary  process  going  on  throughout  the  ^^'orld, 
and  viewing  it  as  a  process  of  preparation  for  new  developments 
(incidentally  disagreeable,  because  society  is  not  yet  wholly  rip(; 
for  the  change),  recommend  intelligent  adjustment  to  new 
conditions. 

The  supporters  of  the  first  opinion  point  out  that  the  old  rela-  («)  House- 
tion  of  master  and  servant  has  passed  away,  and  that  of  employei^s  ^^^^  Pro^^^  ^ 
and  employee  must  be  established.  fession. 

Miss  Haggenbotham  has  usefully  summarised  what  this  involves  in 
a  paper  she  read  at  the  semi-annual  meeting  of  the  Housekeeper's  Alliance 
at  Philadelphia,  May  30th,  1900.  She  said  : — "  Women  must  frankly 
accept  this  situation  and  strive  to  understand  what  mutual  obligations 
this  relation  (of  employer  and  employee)  imposes  ;  and  what  changes  must 
be  made  to  meet  the  new  conditions.  The  new  relation  cannot  be  at  once 
established — it  must  be  a  growth — an  evolution  from  present  conditions — 
not  a  revolution.  No  movement  can  be  made  to-day  that  will  to-morrow 
lift  household  service  at  a  bound  to  the  plane  of  other  forms  of  labour. 
Much  progress  may  be  made,  however,  if  women,  everyAvhere  united 
into  some  such  association  as  the  Housekeepers'  Alliance,  will  agree  upon 
certain  principles  and  certain  general  measures  in  the  conduct  of  the  house- 
hold, which  may  be  advocated  as  advantageous  to  the  relations  between 
the  housekeeper  and  her  domestic  labourers.  A  few  suggestions  are 
offered  in  the  hope  that  they  may  provoke  discussion  and  form  the  basis 
of  a  movement  towards  establishing  household  service  on  business  prir  ciples 
so  far  as  is  consistent  with  the  very  large  personal  element  that  enters 
inio  it. 


254 


U.S.A. — Domestic  Service  Problem. 


-continued. 


(a)  House-  1.  We  claim  that  the  employer  should  offer  fair  conditions  for  efficient 

liold  Service  and  faithful  service  ;  and  that  the  employee  on  his  or  her  part 

as  a  should  recognise  that  efficient  and  faithful  service  should  be 

Profession  ^  rendered  for  fair  wages  and  just  conditions. 

Some  standard  should  be  fixed.  It  rests  with  the  employer,  being 
presumably  the  better  educated  and  equipped  of  the  two,  to  prove  that 
the  interests  of  employer  and  employee  are  the  same,  and  to  lead  the  way 
in  reasonable,  business-like  action.  Let  the  employers  consider  what  may 
be  regarded  as  '  fair  conditions,'  and  frankly  state  them  and  agree  to 
hold  to  them  even  at  the  cost  of  some  personal  inconvenience.  Let  them 
then  invite  the  consideration  of  these  conditions  by  the  employees,  and 
also  in  return  let  them  consider  what  rights  and  privileges  they  (the  em- 
ployees) have  to  ask  for  themselves.  Everywhere,  except  in  the  household, 
mutual  interests  are  drawing  together  '  for  consultation,  for  economy 
of  forces  and  resources,  those  engaged  in  the  same  activities.' 

"  2.  ^  standa  rd  of  worJc  and  wages  should  be  established. 

"  Here  again  the  employer  must  lead  and  stand  firm.  So  long  as  the 
unskilled  worker  can  command  as  much  as  the  skilled  worker,  so  long 
will  employees  be  indifferent  to  the  advantages  for  improvement  offered 
by  the  Schools  of  Housekeeping.  There  should  be  a  discrimination  in 
Avages  paid,  according  to  the  length  of  time  for  which  the  employee  is  to 
serve.  Much  unreason  exists  on  the  part  of  both  employer  and  employee 
on  this  point.  A  domestic  whose  work  is  worth  say  $3.50  per  week, 
may,  through  the  desperation  of  some  employer,  obtain  a  place  at  ^5. 
Of  course  she  loses  the  place  as  soon  as  a  more  competent  person  can  be 
found  to  replace  her.  But  for  ever  after  the  $3.50  person  will  contend 
fr>r  $5 — declaring  '  that  is  what  I  have  had  ' — and  for  days  and  weeks 
she  will  lose  all  wages  until  she  has  consumed  many  times  the  difference 
between  her  real  value  and  the  fictitious  one.  Employers,  on  the  other 
hand,  will  frequently  refuse  to  pay  for  those  whom  they  know  they  shall 
need  for  only  eight  or  ten  months  in  the  year,  more  than  others  are  paid 
who  have  employment  all  the  year  round.  This  is  not  paralleled  by  the 
custom  in  any  other  field  of  labour.  The  man  who  has  permanent  work 
of  any  kind  does  not  expect  to  receive  the  same  pay  as  one  who  is  employed 
only  temporarily,  or  for  a  fraction  of  a  year. 

"3  A  fair  amount  of  time  should  be  allowed  for  rest  and  recreation. 
Stated  times  of  absolute  freedom  should  be  agreed  upon  and  the 
privilege  should  be  accorded,  within  due  limits,  of  receiving 
and  entertaining  friends. 

*'  There  are  still  many  '  mistresses  '  who  object  to  the  '  afternoon  out  * 
and  to  the  visitor,  forgetting  that  change  and  recreation  are  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  the  preservation  of  normal  conditions  in  the  human  being  ;  and 
forgetting  that  servants  are  mentally  and  socially  constituted  very  much  as 
their  masters  and  mistresses  are.  The  best  domestic  economy  in  the  world 
would  dictate  the  wisdom  of  ample  provisions  for  change  and  recreation. 
It  is  unfortunate  that  most  houses  are  so  constructed  that  there  is  no  con- 
venient place  for  the  servant  to  receive  her  friends  outside  of  the  kitchen. 
If,  however,  public  sentiment  recognises  the  need  of  such  provision,  future 
architectural  schemes  will  take  it  into  account. 

"  4.  Everything  reasonable  should  be  done  to  lessen  the  '  drudgery  ' 
in  housework. 

*'  In  proportion  as  intelligence  and  skill  are  ofi'ered  on  the  part  of  the 
employee,  employers  should  provide  labour  saving  machines  and  all  appur- 
tenances that  will  lessen  the  irritation  and  nervous  strain  of  striving  to 
make  bricks  without  straw — in  other  words,  of  striving  to  perform  the 
work  of  the  household  without  the  proper  equipment.- 


Proposed  Remedies. 


255 


'*5.  As  steps  towards  lessening  the  disadvantages  of  household  services^ 
employers  should  give  their  attention  to  the  subject  f  bakeries 
and  laundries. 

"It  is  an  enormous  waste  of  strength  and  of  money  to  carry  on  a  hundred  , 
family  washes  with  a  hundred  separate  fires,  yet  the  lawlessness  of  laundries  ' . 

is  a  serious  menace  to  health  ;  and  the  conscientious  housewife  rightly 
hesitates  about  patronising  them.  The  same  may  be  said  of  bakeries 
in  general.  These  institutions  should  be  established  under  sanitary  regu- 
lations, and  placed  with  dairies  and  food  supply  institutions  under  restriction 
of  the  law.    Household  employers  should  see  that  these  things  are  done. 

"  6.  As  a  further  aid  in  raising  the  standard  of  household  service  and 
making  it  a  business,  it  is  suggested — 
"  To  abolish  private  employment  agencies  and  intelligence  offices, 
and  substitute  either  Government  employment  bureaus  or  reputable 
business  institutions,  like  the  employment  bureau  of  the  Housekeepers^ 
Alliance,  which  shall  be  conducted  with  intelligent  regard  for  the 
office  they  assume  to  fill. 

"  The  ordinary  intelligence  office  is  responsible  for  a  large  part  of  th?. 
degradation  of  household  service." 

These  ideas  underlie  the  experiments  being  now,  I  beheve, 
made  at  Chicago  and  Boston  ;  they  consist  in  an  undertaking 
to  supply  servants  from  a  central  bureau  for  days  of  eight  hours, 
the  bureau  holding  itself  responsible  for  the  uninterrupted  service 
of  its  clients  on  strictly  business  lines.  At  present  English  home 
life  could  not  easily  adapt  itself  to  such  a  method  of  service  ;  the 
more  active  part  taken  by  the  mistress  and  family  in  the  domestic 
duties  of  the  average  American  household  rendei-s  possible,  if 
not  desirable,  what  would  be  at  present  impossible  here.  Never- 
theless, the  conception  of  domestic  service  as  a  profession,  and  the 
reasonable  proposals  of  Miss  Haggenbotham  merit  full  consideration. 

With  reference  to  the  second  point  of  view  I  enumerated  (the  restoration  (/^)  Restora- 
of  dignity  to  domestic  work),  the  writer  just  quoted  comments  upon  "  the  tion  of 
aversion  to  household  labour,  both  inside  and  outside  of  the  home,  as  a  J)ignity  to 
marked  characteristic  of  the  present  generation.  Children  are  reared  to  Domestic 
despise  the  arts  of  the  household,  and  to  treat  with  scant  respect  those  Work, 
who  practise  them.  Wage  earners  who  can  find  any  other  avenue  of 
employment  shun  that  of  household  service,  though  it  offers  moral  and 
material  advantages  that  belong  to  no  other  employment.  Young  people 
enter  upon  married  life  not  only  ignorant  of  the  necessary  work  of  the 
household,  but  without  any  clear  conception  of  the  ethical  relations  involved 
in  the  family  community,  and  without  the  faintest  idea  as  to  how  the  family 
income  ought  to  be  spent — what  percentage  may  be  paid  for  rent,  food, 
clothing,  etc.  The  man  does  not  manage  his  business  that  way,  but  it 
never  seems  to  occur  to  him  that  his  housekeeping  is  a  business  ;  or,  if  it 
does,  he  concludes  that  it  is  his  wife's  special  domain  ;  and  his  only  duty 
is  to  look  with  indulgent  eye  upon  her  ignorance  and  failures  .... 
It  has  been  justly  said  that  'a  very  large  part  of  the  wealth  produced 
in  the  world  is  consumed  in  the  household,  yet  neither  those  who 
produce  nor  those  who  consume  know  on  what  principle  it  is  done.'  .  .  .  . 
"  Public  sentiment  does  not  yet  demand  the  preparation  of  the  M  oman 
for  what  is  commonly  claimed  to  be  her  '  heaven-appointed  '  mission — the 
wife  and  the  homemaker.  It  is  vaguely  believed  that  when  the  necessity- 
arises,  some  domestic  instinct  will  quicken  in  her,  and  enable  her  to  ad- 
minister the  duties  of  her  office  without  previous  thought  or  training. 
This  is  an  anomaly  that  exists  in  no  other  walk  in  life.  But  a  household 
cannot  be  run  (Su  the  inspiration  plan  any  more  than  can  a  factory,  h 


256 


U.S.A. — Domestic  Service  Problem. 


(b)  Restora-  steel  plant,  or  a  department  store.    Household  service  can  never  become 
tion  of         a  business  (or  trade)  and  command  the  same  respect  as  other  forms  of 
Dignity  to    labour,  until  there  is  a  better  general  conception  of  household  affairs  from 
Domestic      an  ethical,  sociological  and  economic  standpoint.    With  tliis  conception 
Work  —       will  come  a  greater  respect  for  the  household  and  those  who  work  in  it ; 
continued.     and  then  will  come  also  a  demand  for  the  better  equipment  of  the  employer 
and  the  employee,  aiiid  for  the  application  of  the  scientific  and  business  prin- 
ciples needful  for  the  organisation  of  the  modern  household."    .    .    .  . 
*'  This  conception  can  be  attained  only  by  the  greater  prevalence  of  educa- 
tion in  the  true  sense  of  the  word.    In  addition  to  the  mental  training 
which  the  so-called  '  higher  '  education  is  striving  to  give,  there  must 
be,  for  all  classes,  from  the   lowest   to  the  highest,  for   the  poor 
equally  with  the  rich,  an  education  in  the  true  standards  of  living,  in 
what  constitutes  better  homes,  more  comfortable  conditions  ;  and  in  a 
clearer  perception  of  those  tendencies  towards  mere  imitation  and  luxury 
which  lead  to  the  degeneration  of  mind  and  body."    .    .    .    .    "  Social 
training  in  ethical  ideals,  and  the  inculcation  of  the  belief  that  home- 
making  must  be  the  woman's  profession,  for  which  she  requires  a  power- 
giving  knowledge,  must  become  accepted  factors  in  the  education  of  every 
woman,  rich  or  poor."    .    .    .    .    "  Women  are  especially  responsible 
for  the  promotion  of  this  better  education  through  which  alone  can  ha 
accomplished  a  readjustment  in  household  organisation  in  accordance 
with  modern  conditions." 

I  quote  Miss  Haggenbotham's  words  because  the  patience  of  my 
readers  must  have  been  taxed  by  the  frequent  presentation  of  the 
same  idea,  in  my  own  language,  throughout  this  Report.   Let  the 
thought  but  once  permeate  the  people  that  all  which  conduces  to 
the  fullest  development  of  the  human  being  is  honourable  in  the 
highest  degree ;  that  the  knowledge  necessary  to  this  right  care 
demands  the  exercise  of  the  best  intellectual  faculties  and  is  no  mere 
illiterate  "  rule  of  thumb  "  drudgery  ;  and  a  different  complexion  is 
placed  upon  domestic  service.    But  with  its  removal  from^  the 
ranks  of  unskilled  labour  comes  the  question  of  pay.    Will  those 
who  desire  assistance  pay  for  skilled  woi-k  ?    W^ill  they  combine  to 
demand  it,  and  be  courageous  in  the  endurance  of  inevitable 
difficulties  during  the  period  that  this  changed  attitude  on  their 
part  is  being  realised  by  a  class,  whose  capacity  for  duties  assumed 
has  not  been  hitherto  tested  by  any  defined  standard ;  whose 
members,  indeed,  from  the  pressing  need  of  employers  have  in 
most  cases  been  accepted  at  their  own  valuation  ?   Miss  Haggen- 
botham  refers  to  the  "  ethical,  sociological,  and  economic  "  aspects 
of  household  service  as  being  yet  but  imperfectly  apprehended  by 
either  employers  or  employees  ;  and  I  think  with  justice.  Con- 
sidered from  tlie  ethical  standpoint,  the  mistress  owes  a  duty  to  her 
maid,  the  maid  to  her  mistress ;  in  thousands  of  instances  this  is 
fulfilled  in  a  measure  ;  in  thousands  it  is  ignored.    Suitable  and 
wholesome  conditions  and  opportunities  for  self -improvement  are 
the  due  of  each  member  of  a  household.    Conscientious  per- 
formance of  duties  undertaken  is  the  return  rightly  demanded  for 
wages  paid ;  damage  to  food  or  furniture  resulting  from  ignorant 
assumption  of  positions  for  which  no  qualifications  have  been 
acquired,  slovenly  evasions  of  routine  work  agreed  to  at  the  time 
of  engagement,  are  acts  of  dishonesty  ;  they  constitute  a  breach  of 


Proposed  Remedies, 


257 


ethical  duty.    The  sociological  standpoint  I  shall  refer  to  mider 
the  opinion  of  Group  III.    The  economic  standpoint  is  as  yet 
dimly  grasped  by  either  party  concerned  in  a  calling  which  has  not 
progressed  in  company  with  almost  all  other  means  of  Hvelihood 
in  the  industrial  and  commercial  worlds.   There  are  members  of 
the  directing  classes  who  refuse  to  recognise  that  a  trained  worker 
must  be  worth  more  than  an  untrained  ;  who  deplore  "  education  " 
as  the  undoing  of  domestic  service  ;  who  do  not  anticipate  the  day 
with  any  satisfaction  when  training  will  be  insisted  upon,  and  rate 
of  pay  regulated  by  other  rules  than  the  needs  of  a  large  family  or 
the  pressing  inconveniences  which  often  lead  to  the  overpayment 
of  the  undeserving.   To  develop  a  comprehension  of  the  economic 
point  of  view  employers  should  have  a  more  than  theoretical  acquain- 
tance with  the  work  in  question  ;  they  should  know  the  time  neces- 
sarily absorbed  in  some  processes ;  the  immense  saving  of  time  to 
be  effected  in  others  through  skill,  or  the  use  of  labour-saving 
appliances,  or  the  thoughtful   rearrangement  of  kitchen  and 
pantry.   They  must  be  trained  to  appreciate  the  better  class  of 
work  which  coincides  with  judicious  recreation  and  suited  diversity 
of  interest ;  and  they  should  study  the  history  of  combination  and 
the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  co-operation,  if  employees  are  to 
be  guided  into  the  right  conception  of  their  relation  to  employers. 
The  simpler  social  life  in  the  United  States  undoubtedly  facilitates 
this  self-discipline  of  housekeepers,  while  the  larger  proportion  of 
highly  educated  women  has  already  led  to  a  modicum  of  recognition 
of  the  imperative  claims  of  these  ethical  and  economic  considerations. 
Not  that  the  period  of  discomfort  incidental  to  a  stage  of  transition 
is  passed ;  the  present  pangs  are  sharper  than  with  us,  but  a  few 
tentative  efforts  are  being  made  to  gain  relief,  based  on  scientific 
o])servation  of  the  past  and  intelligent  adaptation  of  the  knowledge 
so  acquired  to  the  needs  of  to-day.   A  few  mistresses  are  submitting 
themselves  to  courses  of  training ;  unremitting  efforts  are  being 
made  by  a  small  number  of  thoughtful  women  to  induce  girls  to 
train  and  employers  to  make  it  worth  their  while  to  do  so.   In  an 
annually  increasing  number  of  schools,  colleges  and  institutes,  the 
dignity  of  ministering  with  intelligence  to  the  needs  of  the  body  is 
impressed  upon  the  young  people.   Nevertheless,  some  years  must 
necessarily  elapse  even  in  that  country  of  mercurial  activity  before 
it  will  be  possible  to  gauge  results  of  these  tentative  reforms  with 
any  degree  of  accuracy. 

My  report  of  the  opinions  held  by  Group  III.  must  be  very  con-  (c)  Recon- 
cise  ;  the  grounds  upon  which  they  are  based  are  detailed  with  j^J^^^g^'J-^. 
some  elaboration  in  an  article  by  Miss  A.  S.  Vrooman  on  the  "  Ser-  Lif|!^^'^ 
vant  Question,"  pubhshed  in  the  "Arena"   for  June,  1901.- 
This  lady  points  out  that  the  acute  stage  of  her  subject,  from  wliich 
society  is  suffering,  is  in  reality  the  effect  of  a  great  force,  actively 
contributing  towards  the  preparation  of  humanity  for  a  full  co- 
oijerative  life.   The  process  she  admits  is  far  from  agreeable.  Those 
who  share  her  views  maintain  that  the  home  of  to-day  presents  in 

6490.  R 


258 


U.S. A, — Domestic  Service  Problem. 


miniature  a  picture  of  "  society  in  its  strife,  its  unequal  division  of 
labour  and  enjoyments,  its  suppression  of  some  for  the  luxurious 
self-indulgence  of  others."  The  process  of  home  destruction  evident 
to  some  eyes  in  the  rapid  growth  (in  New  York  City  and  elsewhere) 
of  the  "  apartment  house  "  is  antecedent  in  her  opinion  only  to 
construction  on  sounder  lines.  The  apartment  house  "  in  its 
present  form  is  but  a  milestone  on  the  road  of  domestic  evolution  ; 
in  its  methods  may  be  seen  the  crude  beginnings  of  a  new  system, 
that  of  co-operative  housekeeping. 

Miss  Vrooman  writes  very  helpfully  upon  one  point,  namely,  the  some- 
what unwise  use  made  of  their  liberty  by  domestic  servants  when  all  re- 
strictions are  removed  from  the  employment  of  their  leisure  hours. 
The  latitude  they  permit  themselves  is  a  favourite  argument  with  employers 
against  the  granting  of  periods  of  recreation.    "  First  effects  of  emanci- 
pation usually  appear  as  an  argument  against  it  ;  a  fact  familiar  to  the 
student  of  sociology  ;  therefore  patient  forbearance  needs  to  be  exercised 
with  the  servant  class  ;  only  after  long  emancipation  from  restraint  is  the 
sense  of  personal  responsibility  and  self-control  developed  ;  yet  both  a  sense 
of  responsibility  and  the  power  of  self-control  are  essential  qualities  to 
honest  intelligent  service." 
Miss  Salmon     *Miss  Salmon  has  rendered  a  real  service  to  the  cause  of 
on  Domestic  Domestic  Service  by  the  scholarly  methods  in  which  she  presents 
Service.       j^-^    j^^  ^^iQ  first  instance  she  draws  attention  to  the  omission  of 
domestic   service   from    previous    theoretical,     statistical  and 
historical  discussions  of  economic  problems,  for  which  she  accounts 
mainly  because  (1)  the  occupation  does  not  involve  the  invest- 
ment of  a  large  amount  of  capital  on  the  part  of  the  individual 
employer  or  emplo^^ee  ;  (2)  no  combinations  have  yet  been  found 
among  employers  or  employees  ;  (3)  the  products  of  domestic  service 
are  more  transient  than  are  the  results  of  other  forms  of  labour. 
After  an  interesting  enumeration  of  various  subsidiary  explanations 
of  the  failure  to  consider  domestic  service  in  connection  with  these 
other  forms  of  labour,  Miss  Salmon  concludes  that  these  are  all  in 
reality  but  different  phases  of    one  fundamental   reason — the 
isolation  that  has  always  attended  household  service  and  household 
employments.    Though  the  facts  revealed  in  her  historical  sketch 
of  Domestic  Emjjloyments  in  the  United  States  are  not  identical 
with  those  which  a  similar  study  would  bring  to  light  in  this  country, 
the}^  deserve  our  attention  and  point  to  conclusions  to  which 
analogous  inquiries  in  Great  Britain  would  probably  lead,  viz.,  that 
the  question  is  one  of  preparing  for  the  next  step  in  the  process  of 
evolution,  not  of  retrograding  towards  a  condition  imj)ossible 
to  restore.    Domestic  service  is  not  only  amenable  to  some  of  the 
general  economic  laws  and  conditions  Avhich  affect  other  occupations, 

*A  most  valuable  epitome  of  her  scientific  and  thorough  study  of  this 
servant  question  is  found  in  her  book  on  "Domestic  Service,"  by  Miss 
Lucy  M.  Salmon,  Professor  of  History  at  Vassar  College.  In  this  volume 
she  approaches  her  subject  as  part  of  the  general  labour  problem  ;  the 
first  real  attempt  to  treat  it  from  the  historical  and  economic,  rather  than 
from  the  personal  standpoint.  Her  comments  suggest  that  in  the  rccog' 
nition  of  the  professional  aspect  of  the  problem  lies  its  solution. 

The  book  is  publi^;hed  by  Macmillan  &  Co. 


Miss  Salmon  on  Domestic  Service. 


259 


but  is  also  governed  by  economic  laws  developed  within  itself. 

The  difficulties  that  meet  the  employer  of  domestic  labour  both  in 
America  and  Europe  are  the  difficulties  that  arise  from  the  attempt 
to  harmonise  an  ancient,  patriarchal  industrial  system  with  the 
conditions  of  modern  life.  Everywhere  the  employer  closes  his 
eyes  to  the  incongruities  of  the  attempt  and  lays  the  blame  of 
failure,  not  to  a  defective  system,  but  to  the  natural  weaknesses  in 
the  character  of  the  unfortunate  pei*sons  obliged  to  carry  it  out. 
The  difficulties  in  the  path  of  both  employer  and  employee  will  not 
only  never  be  removed  but  will  increase  until  the  subject  of  domestic 
service  is  regarded  as  a  part  of  the  great  labour  question  of  the  day 
and  given  the  same  serious  consideration.'*  (Chapter  VI.)  Miss 
Salmon  devotes  some  space  to  the  consideration  of  the  advantages 
of  domestic  service,  which,  though  patent,  are  unequal  to  counter- 
balancing the  industrial  and  social  disadvantages  which  she  dis- 
cusses. More  to  my  immediate  purpose  is  her  enumeration  of  the 
popularly  prescribed  remedial  measures  which  she  truthfully  des- 
cribes as  "  doubtful,"  and  of  which  she  disposes  one  by  one,  for 
the  good  reasons  that  they  do  not  touch  the  economic,  educational, 
and  industrial  difficulties,  or  that  they  run  at  right  angles  to  general 
economic,  educational  and  industrial  progress. 

They  include  the  application  of  intelligence  by  the  employer  ;  the  recep- 
tion of  the  employee  into  the  family  of  the  employer  ;  increased  employ- 
ment of  negro  or  Chinese  labour  ;  the  licensing  of  domestic  employees  by 
municipal  corporations  ;  the  system  of  German  service  books  ;  the  abolition 
of  public  schools  above  the  primary  grade,  on  the  ground  that  girls  are  edu- 
cated above  their  station  ;  the  introduction  of  housework  into  all  public 
schools,  a  proposition  which  ignores  the  fact  that  it  is  the  function  of  the 
public  school  to  educate,  not  to  supply  information  on  technical  subjects  ; 
and  the  establishment  of  training  schools  for  servants,  a  plan  which  Miss 
Salmon  considers  in  opposition  to  present  political  and  social  tendencies  ; 
lastly,  co-operative  housekeeping. 

She  points  out  that  relief  from  present  difficulties  must  be  sought 
in  accordance  with  certain  social  and  economic  tendencies  ;  among 
which  she  mentions  the  concentration  of  capital  and  labour  in 
large  industrial  enterprises  ;  specialisation  in  eveiy  department  of 
labour,  and  the  training  this  necessitates  ;  the  association  for 
mutual  benefit  of  persons  interested  in  special  lines  of  work  ;  the 
growth  of  productive  and  distributive  co-operation ;  greater 
industrial  independence  on  the  part  of  women  ;  finally,  that 
result  of  the  systematic  study  of  social  conditions  which  aims  at 
the  amelioration  of  seme  of  the  conditions  under  which  woi-k  is 
l)erformed,  not  at  the  cessation  of  the  work  itself.  The  ai)plication 
of  these  pi-inciples  has  led  to  wiser  charities,  to  the  Chautauqua 
movement,  to  University  Extension,  to  working  girls'  clubs,  to 
enlarged  opportunities  everywhere  for  every  class,  ..."  they 
mean  that  ultimately  the  position  in  society  of  every  person  is  to 
depend  not  on  his  occupation,  but  on  the  use  he  has  made  of  these 
increasing  opportunities  for  self  help  and  self  improvement ;  they 
mean  that  in  time  all  social  stigma  will  be  removed  from  eveiy 
occupation,  and  woi'k  will  bo  judged  by  its  quality  rather  tban  its 


6490. 


260 


U.S.A.— Domestic  Service  Problem. 


nature ;  that  in  time,  for  example,  a  first-class  cook  will  receive 
more  honour  than  a  second-class  china  decorator  or  a  third-class 
teacher." 

Miss  Salmon  concludes  this  portion  of  her  book  as  follows  : — 
The  general  remedies  nmst  include  a  wider  prevalence  of  educa- 
tion in  the  true  sense  of  the  word,  not  its  counterfeit,  information  ; 
til  at  mental  education  which  results  in  habits  of  accuracy,  pre- 
cision and  observation,  in  the  exercise  of  reason,  judgment  and 
self-control ;  and  that  education  of  character  which  results  in  the 
ability  constantly  to  put  one's  self  in  the  place  of  another.  There 
nmst  be  scientific  training  and  investigation  in  economic  theory, 
history,  and  statistics,  especially  in  their  application  to  the  house- 
hold, and  a  a  increased  popular  knowledge  of  all  scientific  subjectb 
concerning  the  home.  .  .  .  The  educational  forces  must  '  pull 
fi-om  the  top  '  and  draw  domestic  service  into  the  general  current 
of  industrial  development."  (Chap.  XI.)  Miss  Salmon  looks  with 
hopeful  anticipation  for  the  future  to  improvement  in  the  social 
condition  of  employees ;  to  specialisation  of  household  employ- 
ments so  far  as  possible  ;  and  to  education  in  household  affairs,  i.e., 
the  careful,  systematic  education  of  housekeepers,  through  the 
study  of  art,  chemistry,  economics,  physiology,  psychology,  and 
history.  "  Housekeeping  must  advance,"  she  maintains,  and  must 
become  "  on  its  own  part  an  active  creative  force."  She  also  traces 
the  prevalent  inactivity  in  all  household  affairs  to  three  causes, 

(1)  the  belief  that  a  knowledge  of  all  things  pertaining  to  the  house, 
homo,  and  family,  "  unlike  anything  else,  comes  ])y  instinct "  ; 

(2)  the  assumption  that  household  affairs  concern  women  only, 
whereas,  "  when  the  fact  is  everywhere  recognised  that  both  men 
and  women  have  a  vital  concern  in  the  affairs  of  the  house,  the 
relation  between  the  different  parts  of  the  household  will  become  an 
organic  one,  and  its  highest  development  reached  ";  (3)  the  erroneous 
conviction  that  all  women  have  a  natural  taste  for  household  affaii-s, 
which  without  cultivation  grows  into  positi\'e  genius  for  carrying 
them  on."  Systematic  and  scientific  training  in,  and  professional 
investigation  of,  all  matters  appertaining  to  the  household,  this  is  a 
concise  summary  of  Miss  Salmon's  Recommendations,  each  of  which 
she  considers  to  be  essential  to  lift  the  subject  "  out  of  the  domam 
of  sentiment  and  to  transfer  it  to  a  realm  where  reason  and  judg- 
ment have  control."  The  chapter  entitled  "  Conclusion  "  is  too 
condensed  to  be  further  summarised  ;  in  the  space  of  ten  pages  the 
])roblem  and  its  solution  are  compi-essed  into  the  proverbial  nutshell. 
Space  is  also  found  to  touch  upon  several  complications  which 
tibtain  in  this  country  as  in  hers  ;  for  instance,  the  growing  wealth 
(tf  the  nation  and  increased  luxury  in  hving ;  the  natural  con- 
sei-\'atism  of  many  women ;  the  desire  of  both  employers  and 
employees  to  get  ever}^thing  for  nothing — the  largest  expenditure 
of  woman  for  the  smallest  expenditure  of  money  "  ;  the  many 
elements  of  uncertainty  which  enter  into  a  woman's  life.  Miss 
Salmon  claims  no  novelty  or  originality  for  her  riemedial  proposals, 


Miss  Salmon  on  Domestic  Service, 


261 


l)ut  we  are  indebted  to  her  for  a  clear  statement  of  a  complicated 
case,  wherein  lies  my  excuse  for  detailing  somewhat  in  extenso  views, 
which,  after  all,  can  only  be  adequately  digested  by  their  study  in 
her  own  pages.  One  strong  conviction,  which  she  reiterates,  has 
so  close  a  connection  with  the  subject  of  this  Keport  that  its 
proper  introduction  would  alone  justify  this  lengthy  presentation 
of  her  views  : — One  thing,  and  only  one  thing,  will  turn  the  house- 
hold into  the  channel  where  every  other  occupation  has  made 
advancement.  This  is  the  establishment  of  a  great  professional 
school,  amply  equipped  for  the  investigation  of  all  matters  pertaining 
to  the  household,  and  open  only  to  graduates  of  the  leading  colleges 
and  universities  of  the  country.  .  .  .  Professional  training  and 
investigation  must  supplement  home  and  collegiate  instruction  in 
the  case  of  the  housekeeper,  as  the  professional  school  supplements 
private  and  collegiate  instruction  for  the  physician,  the  lawyer  and 
the  clergyman."  Indications  are  not  wanting  that  this  desired 
opportunity  will  be  presently  afforded  in  the  United  States  ;  times 
in  England  are  not  perhaps  yet  lipe  for  such  a  movement,  even 
were  funds  and  other  essentials  available  for  the  purpose  :  but, 
meanwhile,  we  can  profit  by  the  inquiries,  experiences  and  inves- 
tigations of  a  less  conservative  people.  At  least  we  can  begin  to 
set  our  own  ideas  in  order,  and  endeavour  by  judicious  method^, 
at  school,  at  technical  institute,  and  at  college,  to  open  the  minds 
of  all  classes  to  the  economic,  social,  hygienic,  and  industrial  prin- 
ciples, upon  a  due  recognition  of  which  depends  any  feasible 
solution  of  the  domestic  service  problem. 

While  fully  alive  to  the  fact  that  the  diver-se  sociological  con  ■  pl^'^^^^^ij^^'j^^i 
ditions  which  exist  in  the  two  countries  demand  diverse  treatment  England, 
of  a  difhculty  which  confronts  both,  I  still  believe  that  a  thoughtful 
study  of  the  writings  of  our  American  sisters  upon  the  subject  will 
prove  instructive  and  suggestive  to  those  called  upon  to  grapple 
with  its  comi)lexities  ;  and  I  confidently  look  to  a  measure  of 
success  being  attained  here  as  there  by  the  same  means;  viz, 
the  suitable  training  in  their  duties  of  both  parties  to  these  engage- 
ments ;  a  more  extended  and  intelligent  study  of  the  economic 
side  of  housekeeping  (economy  of  time,  labour,  strength,  and 
money) ;  and  a  consistent  and  sustained  national  effort  to  dignify 
home  life  and  all  the  term  comprehends.  The  college  women  of 
the  States  are  foremost  in  this  movement  of  reform.  They  pride 
themselves  upon  their  skill  in  the  performance  of  daily  domestic 
duties  equally  with  their  achievements  in  literature  and  history, 
or  in  their  selected  branches  of  science.  It  behoves  the  "  educated  " 
women  of  England  to  bring  their  skilled  minds  and  trained  bodies 
also  to  the  aid  of  their  less  intelligent  or  capable  sisters,  in  ordei- 
that  the  period  of  unrest  and  waste  of  energy  may  be  shortened 
and  the  necessary  adjustment  made  to  the  changes  consequent  upon 
social  evolution.  To  attempt  to  remedy  the  increasing  troubles, 
the  whole  situation  must  be  studied  from  the  Ijottom  ;  the  same 
patient  and  scientific  method  must  be  used  as  in  the  interpretation 


2G2 


V.  S.  A. — Summary  of  Enquiry. 


of  an  obscure  fjict  in  luitural  history,  or  in  tlie  decision  upon  a 
vexed  question  in  the  history  of  nations.  Trained  minds  must  be 
brought  to  bear  on  the  subject,  inteUigent  heads  and  wiUing  hands 
must  all  work  together.  The  responsibilities  of  all  concerned 
must  be  recognised  ;  rank  does  not  release  from  obhgation,  neither 
does  the  possession  of  exceptional  mental  ability  or  of  abundant 
means  reheve  from  liability.  Were  the  efforts  to  solve  the 
domestic  service  problem  now  being  made  in  England  accorded 
the  intelligent  and  active  su})port  furnished  to  similar  movements 
in  the  United  States,  the  outlook  would  assume  a  brighter  aspect 
than  is  at  present  apparent  to  an  interested  observer. 

Summary  of  Enquiry. 

Prior  to  my  visit  to  the  United  States,  in  1901, 1  was  provided  for 
my  guidance  with  certain  Suggested  Heads  of  Enquiiy,"  in- 
tended to  cover,  more  or  less,  the  scope  of  my  commission.  A  brief 
resume  of  the  resultant  Ileport,  reproduced  in  the  order  of  these 
instructions,  suggests  itself  as  a  suitable  form  of  conclusion  ;  for 
while  it  should  serve  to  gauge  the  thoroughness  with  ^^'hich  I 
executed  the  commission  entrusted  to  me,  it  will,  at  the  same  time, 
focus  tlie  main  points  to  which  reference  has  ]3een  made  in  the 
pr  eceding  pages. 

SV'ope  of  The  first  of  these  Suggestions  "  detailed  the  subjects  into  the 
J^.nquiry.  position  and  teaching  of  which  I  was  to  enquire,  all  of  these  ])eing 
included  in  this  coimtry  under  the  title  of  Domestic  Science,  viz  : — 
Cookery,  Laundry  Work,  Housewifery,  hicluding  learning  to  pur- 
chase commodities,  the  Elements  of  Domestic  and  Personal  Hygiene, 
Needlework,  Dressmaking,  Millinery,  Care  of  the  Nureery,  andof 
Children.  The  general  practice  in  che  United  States  is  to  divide 
the  above  subjects  into  three  groups  : — (1)  Cookery  (which  always 
includes  some  practical  Housewifery),  Laundry-work,  and  the  Care 
of  Children,  which  are  all  comprehended  under  Domestic,  or  Home, 
or  Household  Science,  as  it  is  variously  described ;  (2)  Needlework, 
Dressmaking  and  Millinery,  which  are  classified  as  Domestic  Arts  ; 
(3)  Personal  and  Domestic  Hygiene,  which  is  invariably  based  upon 
I^hysiology,  and  forms  a  part  of  the  ordinary  State  school  curri- 
culum ;  as  such  being  studied  co-educationally  by  all  children,  boys 
and  girls  alike.  In  many  Elementary  Schools,  and  in  some  Secon- 
dary, cookery  and  needlework  apj)ear  under  the  designation  of 
Manual  Training,  being  used  with  that  intention  for  girls,  Vvhile 
Ijoys  are  engaged  in  wood  or  iron  work.  "  Household  Economics  " 
is  a  term  much  favoured  when  the  broadest  aspect  of  the  whole 
subject  is  intended  ;  that  is  to  say,  when  technical  skill  in  the 
domestic  applications  is  based  upon  a  sound  knowledge  of  the 
fur.damental  sciences  and  arts,  supplemented  by  a  comprehension 
of  the  ethical  and  economic  principles  involved  in  their  intelligent 
employment. 

Th(i  second  "  Suggestion  "  dealt  with  the  classification  of  the  differ- 


Extent  of  Domestic  Science  Teaching. 


eiit  g;rades  and  types  of  institution  in  which  these  subjects,  under  Classifi 
whatever  designation,  are  taught,  e.g.,  Primary  Day  Schools,  ^^^^^  ^'^d 
E\  ening  Continuation  Schools  for  pupils  from  thirteen  to  sixteen  Educational 
3^ears  of  age  or  older,  Secondary  Day  Schools,  Technical  Institutes,  Institutions. 
Ti-aining  Colleges  for  Teachers  in  the  above  various  types  of  schools 
and  Universities. 

The  fact  is  familiar  that  English  methods  of  school  nomenclature 
vary  from  those  adopted  in  the  States ;  Elementary  Day  Schools 
are  there  habitually  described  as  Grade  Schools  (Grades  I.  to  VITI. 
or  IX.) ;  and  this  term  I  have  usually  employed.  It  includes 
certain  sub-divisions — as  a  rule,  but  two — Primary  and  Grammar  ; 
but  occasionally  there  are  three  departments — Primary,  Inter- 
mediate, and  Grammar.  The  expression  "  Evening  Continuation 
School  "  is  not  in  use,  but  Evening  Schools  are  connected  with 
Grade  and  High  Schools  in  most,  if  not  in  all,  cities.  No  restrictions, 
so  far  as  I  could  learn,  are  placed,  upon  the  age  of  pupils.  High 
Schools  of  various  types  and  for  both  sexes  do  not  exactly  correspond 
with  our  "  Secondary"  Schools;  they  are  a  sequence  to  the  Grade 
Schools,  the  entering  age  is  fourteen,  and  no  fees  exist.  Certain 
departments  of  State  Agricultural  Colleges,  and  of  the  great  Tech- 
nical Institutes  endowed  by  private  citizens,  permit  of  classification 
under  the  one  head  of  Technical  Schools ;  in  these  teachers  of 
Domestic  Science  and  Art  most  usually  receive  their  training, 
though  half  of  the  State  Universities  and  one  or  two  Normal  Colleges 
also  ofier  Household  Science  courses.  Columbia,  Chicago,  Leland 
Stanford,  Michigan,  and  one  or  two  more  Universities  of  the  first 
rank  have  initiated  courses  in  Sanitary  or  Household  Science  ;  some 
of  a  special  character,  as  at  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University, 
but  more  usually  open  to  all  students. 

Cooking  and  Sewing  may  be  described  as  now  generally  taught  in  Extent  of 
Grade  Schools  ;  these  subjects  have  been  introduced  in  a  still  limited  yc^eJfce^^.J,i(i 
but  steadily  increasing,  amount  in  High  Schools ;  they  are  studied  Hygiene 
to  a  very  consideral)le  extent,  on  exhaustive  and  elaborate  lines,  in  Teacbiiig. 
Technical  Institutes  as  Avell  as  more  simply  in  Evening  and  Saturday 
classes.    This  latter  type  of  instruction  is  also  prov  ided  Ijy  such 
agencies  as  the  Young  Women's  Christian  Association  and  Girls' 
Clubs.    Laundry-work  is  almost  unknown  as  a  sulDject  in  Grade 
Schools,  but  is  usually  included  in  Domestic  Science  as  taught  in 
High  Schools,  while  it  finds  a  place  in  the  courses  at  Technical  Insti- 
tutes  and   Normal   Colleges.    Dressmaking   and  Millinery  are 
popular  subjects  in  Manual  Training  High  Schools,  Technical 
Institutes  and  in  Evening  Classes.    With  few  exce})tions,  definite 
artistic  training  in  design,  form,  colour  and  the  use  of  brush  and 
pencil  constitute  an  im]jort ant  feature  in  these  latter  courses.  I*er- 
sonal,  Domestic,  and  Civic  Hj  gienc^  appears,  though  to  a  variable 
extent,  in  the  programmes  of  all  schools,  colleges  and  Technical  Insti- 
tutes,   [t  is  at  ])resent,  in  conjunction  with  physiology,  an  obligatory 
subject  in  the  Grade  Schools  of  nearly  all  the  States  ;  in  the  High 
Schools  it  is  usually  oj)tional ;  but  it  is  again  practically  obligatory 


264 


U.S.A. — Summary  of  Etiquiry. 


ill  the  majority  of  colleges,  for  it  constitutes  the  theoretical  study- 
required  to  accompany,  and  to  give  intelligent  impetus  to,  the 
Physical  Culture  Courses  required  of  all  students.  The  jjeculiar 
educational  advantages  it  offers,  especially  as  the  outcome  of  Nature 
Study  and  Biology,  to  which  much  attention  is  now  paid,  leads  to 
its  voluntary  inclusion  in  the  curricula  of  both  High  Schools  and 
Colleges.  The  Care  of  Children  is  specifically  taught  in  relatively 
few  schools,  but  incidentally  the  subject  receives  attention  in.  the 
study  of  hygiene.  The  case  is  different  in  institutions  for  higher 
education  ;  in  these  Child  Study,  Psychology,  Ethics  and  Sociology 
all  serve  to  bring  the  question  of  child  hygiene  before  students. 

The  "  commenchig  age  "  in  Grade  Schools  for  instruction  in  any 
of  these  subjects,  except  Hygiene,  varies  from  ten  to  thirteen  years  ; 
twelve  may  be  taken  as  the  average  age  for  Cooking  classes ;  nine  or 
ten  for  Sewing.  I  think  the  age  selected  for  the  cooking  classes  is 
especially  influenced  by  the  consideration  that  increased  physical 
capacity  (i.e.,  muscular  strength  and  height)  and  intelligence  (i.e., 
the  power  to  use  the  reasoning  faculty)  are  secured  by  placing  it  as 
late  as  possible  in  the  curriculum.  Where,  as  is  now  very  often  the 
case,  girls  receive  equally  with  boys  actual  manual  training  in  wood 
or  chip  carving  and  in  clay  modelling,  dexterity  of  manipidatioji  is 
acquii-ed  previously ;  this  is  found  materially  to  influence  the 
amount  of  good  gained  during  the  subsequent  coui-se  in  cooking  ; 
observation,  accuracy  in  detail,  and  so  forth,  having  become  to  a 
greater  or  less  degree  habitual.  The  average  age  for  city  children 
to  leave  school  is  certainly  later  than  in  England  ;  most  gir-ls  remain 
until  fully  thirteen ;  a  growing  number  stay  till  they  are  fourteen, 
and  then  pass  on  to  the  High  School  for  at  least  two  years  more  ; 
so  that  a  large  proportion  receive  the  benefit  of  this  instruction, 
even  where  thirteen  is  the  commencing  age.  These  facts  are  taken 
into  account  in  planning  most  Domestic  Science  Courses.  In  cities 
where  industrial  conditions  and  economic  considerations  shorten 
school  life,  I  found  that  the  age  for  attendance  at  cooking  classes 
was  earlier— eleven  years,  or  even  ten,  being  fixed  in  some  instances. 
Domestic  Science  is  not  taught  in  rural  schools  ;  these  serve,  as  a 
rule,  very  scattered  districts,  and  are  usually  somewhat  under- 
staffed ;  consequently,  much  division  into  separate  classes  is  not 
possible,  especially  as  the  co-educational  system  requires,  under 
such  circumstances,  that  the  instruction  shall  be  adapted  throughout 
for  mixed  classes. 

Sewing, w^h ere  taught,  almost  without  exception  precedes  Cooking. 
There  is  a  marked  divergence  from  English  methods  in  this  connec- 
tion ;  one  or  two  years  is  the  usual  length  of  time  apportioned  to 
weekly  or  bi-w^eekly  lessons  in  needlework,  either  in  Grade  or  High 
Schools — a  great  contrast  to  the  five  or  six  years  devoted  to  its 
practice  in  our  elementary  schools.  This  may  be  attributed  to  several 
causes  ;  for  instance,  it  has  proved  difficult  to  break  down  public 
prejudice  against  devoting  precious  school  hours  to  so  "  homely 
a  subject ;  consequently,  short  courses  could  only  be  introduced 


Extent  of  Domestic  Science  Teaching. 


205 


tentatively,  almost  apologetically,  though  this  is  a  fast-vanishing 
stage.  There  is  also  a  strong  and  prevalent  objection  to  wearying 
children  with  the  constant  and  often  monotonous  repetition  of  very 
similar  processes,  or  to  requiring  fine  muscular  movements  and 
concentration  of  sight  upon  near  objects  for  too  long  a  period.  I 
was  frequently  assured,  and  I  confess  my  eyes  substantiated  the 
assertion,  that  if  this  subject  be  but  presented  at  the  right  time  in  a 
child's  development,  it  will  be  rapidly  and  more  satisfactorily 
acquired  than  when  attempted  prematurely.  Tn  children  whose 
eyes  and  hands  have  been  systematically  trained  from  Kindej-garten 
upwards,  two  years  of  needlework  practice  produces  ven^  promising 
results.  As  a  whole,  I  considered  these  to  hold  their  own  w^ith  those 
attained  by  the  longer  practice  common  in  England  ;  but  accurate 
comparisons  are  almost  impossible,  because  the  United  States  Grade 
Schools  are  frequented  by  children  of  all  social  grades,  so  that  the 
general  standards  of  inteUigence,  nutrition  and  energy  should  be, 
and  are,  higher  than  in  our  English  Elementary  Schools.  It  would; 
however,  be  intei'esting  to  test  by  experinient  here  a  method  wfiich 
seems  well  worthy  of  consideration  and  fair  trial  from  the  results 
gained  in  that  country  ;  among  other  advantages  claimed  are  the 
wider  variety  of  interest  and  occupation  afforded  to  the  children,  and 
the  development  of  alarger  number  of  muscles  in  the  practice  of  the 
diverse  manual  exercises  for  which  time  thus  beoomes  available. 
Sewing,  too,  is  so  commonly  classed  as  Manual  Training  that  it 
readily  falls  into  rank  with  the  other  exercises  included  imder  that 
title.  The  great  interest  in  and  rapid  progress  made  by  High  School 
girls  in  needlework,  both  elementary  and  advanced,  bodes  well  for 
the  future  housewifely  of  the  country.  The  subject  is  held  in 
special  esteem  educationally  at  the  High  School  age,  on  account  of 
the  valuable  training  it  affords  in  method,  neatness,  cleanliness, 
discretion,  good  taste,  and  economy ;  while  it  lends  itself  admirably 
to  home  application. 

Domestic  Science  subjects  are  taught  to  deaf  and  blind  children 
of  both  sexes  at  New  York,  Boston,  Providence,  and  elsewhere, 
with  i-eported  excellent  results.  The  one  school  I  was  able  to  visit 
(Horace  Mann  School,  Boston)  amply  confirmed  the  testimony  I 
received ;  deaf  lads,  of  fifteen  and  upwards,  as  well  as  girls,  become 
in  some  cases  so  thoroughly  proficient  with  their  needles  and  such 
really  good  cooks  that  they  are  fit  for  w^age-earning  situations. 
The  nimiber  of  feeble-minded  children  is  very  small  ;  special  pro- 
vision is  made  for  their  training  in  most  States,  but  time  did  not 
permit  me  to  secure  information  from  personal  observation. 

The  High  School  courses  in  Household  Science  and  Art  have 
only  this  in  common,  that  they  are  all  conducted  along  very  jn-ac- 
tical  lines  ;  they  vary  in  length  from  ten  months  to  four  years  ;• 
they  may  be  correlated  with  work  in  the  laboratory  or  studio,  or 
may  be  complete  in  themselves.  With  rare  exceptions,  no  branch 
of  Domestic  Science  is  taught  to  boys  in  Grade  Schools,  but  attend- 
ance at  courses  on  House  Sanitation  is  occasionally  optional  in 


266 


U.S.A. — Summary  of  Enquiry. 


Position  of 
Domestic 
Science  in 
8cliool  and 
College 
Curricula. 


liigb  Schools.  Physiology  and  Hygiene  are  studied  co-echica- 
tionally  througliout  school  and  college  life.  A  marked  interest  in 
these  sul^jects  is  evinced  by  school  boys  ;  Avhile  the  demand  for 
a  knowledge  of  Sanitary  Science  on  the  part  of  a  small  proportion 
of  male  students  at  some  colleges  and  universities  has  warranted 
the  hitroduction  of  courses  to  meet  it. 

The  "  General  Courses "  in  Household  Economics  at  High 
Schools,  Technical  Institutes  and  at  half  the  total  number  of  State 
Universities  serve  as  admirable  schools  for  training  young  women 
as  home-makers  ;  a  very  considerable  number  make  use  of  these 
ojjportunities  before  marriage.  The  Sunmier  School  and  Technical 
Institute  courses  serve  a  similar  pur'])Ose  for  those  who  do  not 
realise  till  after  marriage  the  need  of  such  preparation  for,  or 
assistance  in,  their  domestic  duties.  It  is  also  now  the  object  of 
University  Extension  organisers  and  of  Women's  Clubs  to  secure 
suitable  instruction,  though  necessarily  of  a  more  limited  character, 
for  farmers'  wives  and  others  whose  place  of  residence  or  home- 
claims  prevent  their  attendance  at  a  prolonged  course  of  study. 

I  was  further  desired  to  give  sj^ecial  attention  as  to  the  present 
])osition  of  Domestic  Science  teaching  in  school  and  college  curri- 
cula ;  and  was  also  invited  to  make  observations  as  to  the  methods 
em])loyed,  the  equipment  provided,  and  other  essential  details. 
This  Suggestion  "  necessarily  implied  a  study  of  other  important 
points,  viz.,  to  what  extent  are  teachers  allowed  a  free  hand  in 
shaping  the  courses  of  instruction  ;  must  syllabuses  be  rigidly  fol- 
lowed, and  how  far  is  Domestic  Science  correlated  with  othei*  sub- 
jects in  the  time-table,  e.g.,^  '\t\\  Natural  Science,Arithmetic,  Reading 
and  Drawing.  The  authorities  I  consulted  were  practically  unani- 
mous in  their  opinion  that  Domestic  Science  is  now  spontaneously 
assigned  a  much  more  important  and  honourable  place  in  school  and 
college  curricula  than  was  the  case  until  quite  recent  years.  Its 
claims  to  recognition  on  the  grounds  of  its  high  educational,  ethical, 
and  sociological  value  are  proved  true,  and  each  session  sees  its  more 
general  introduction,  under  one  or  other  of  its  many  titles,  into 
(xrade  and  High  Schools,  as  wtII  as  into  College  cour-ses.  This 
Report  contains  a  large  number  of  specimen  Tables,  which  illustrate 
how  the  necessary  time  is  found  for  the  various  subjects  ;  and  I 
again  desire  emphatically  to  draw  attention  to  the  invaluable  oppor- 
tunities thus  afforded  for  linking  learning  with  life.  That  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University,  includes  both  Domestic  Science  and 
Domestic  Art  in  the  post-graduate  courses  l^eara  high  testimony  to 
the  estimation  in  which  these  subjects  are  held  ;  the  fact  that  the 
degree  of  B.Sc.  is  offered  in  Universities  of  good  and  recognised 
standing  to  graduates  in  Household  Economics,  equally  with  other 
sciences,  is  a  valuable  proof  of  the  support  accorded  to  its  introduc- 
tion by  the  resi)ective  faculties.  The  presence  of  highly-educated 
college  women  as  students  in  these  courses  at  the  leading  Technical 
Institutes  attests  to  the  intellectual  as  well  as  to  the  utilitarian 
attractions  of  Household  Economics  when  efficiently  organised.  The 


Methods  of  Teachitty  bomedw  Science  and  llijgiene  in  Grade  Schools.  267 


growing  demand  for  instniction  in  Sanitary  Science  among  male' 
students  testifies  both  to  the  interest  aroused  by  the  elementary 
teaching  in  Physiology  and  Hygiene  obligatory  in  Grade  Schools, 
and  to  their  own  practical  realisation  that  the  possession  of  still  more 
advanced  information  is  an  essential  equipment  for  the  student  of 
economics,  for  the  inteUigent  citizen  or  for  the  social  reformer. 
The  principals  of  sevei-al  widely -separated  High  Schools  told  me  that, 
from  the  purely  educational  standpoint,  Physiology  and  Hygiene 
for  both  sexes,  and  Domestic  Science  and  Art  for  girls,  prove  of  high 
value — ethically,  sociologically,  scientitically,  and  as  manual  exer- 
cises ;  and  on  these  grounds  an  honourable  place  is  assigned  to  them 
in  their  school  programmes.  Not  that  this  opinion  is  as  yet  univer- 
sal ;  in  some  cities  these  subjects  still  receive  scant  and  contemp- 
tuous consideration ;  but  those  chiefly  responsible  for  what  has  beeji 
accomplished  are  full  of  hope  for  the  future,  and  are  content  \\  itb. 
even  prefer,  slow  progress,  if  it  be  but  sure  and  steady. 

Many  details  of  methods  of  teaching  have  been  given  in  Parts  1.  Methods 
and  11.  of  this  Report,  so  that  I  now  merely  propose  to  emphasise  jj^^^^^^^^^j"^ 
certain  points  which  might  be  overlooked  in  the  previous  pages,  gfjigj^^e  and 
The  following  remarks  bear  upon  the  teaching  of  Domestic  Science  Hygiene  in 
and  Hygiene  in  the  Grade  Schools.    It  will  have  been  observed  that  Grade 
instruction  in  these  subjects  is  common  to  the  children  of  all  classes  Schools, 
of  society.    It  may  still  be  said  that  there  are  no  social  distinctions 
in  the  national  system  of  education.    The  children  of  the  profes- 
sional man,  merchant,  clerk,  artisan  and  mill-hand  sit  side  by  side 
at  the  school  desk,  and  no  distinction  is  made  in  the  curricidum 
they  pursue.    I  was  told  the  interest  aroused  in  and  desire  to 
apply  the   knowledge  gained   in  these  studies  were  mutually 
strong ;  while  "  good  breeding  "  w^ill  often  show   itself  in  the 
voluntary  assumption  of  the  less  pleasing  duties  in  connection, 
for  instance,  with  the  cleansing  of  cooking  utensils  by  the  moi-e 
delicately-nurtured  child.    It  is  hoped  that  this  mutual  training 
in  home  duties  may  eventually  assist  in  the  solution  of  the  existing 
difficulties  wdiich  have  to  be  faced  in  domestic  service  and  other 
industrial  problems. 

A  study  of  these  Grade  School  Household  Science  courses  shows 
the  sustained  efforts  to  teach  underlying  principles  for  w^hat  is  done  ; 
this  is  as  apparent  in  the  Sewing  as  in  the  Cooking  classes.  Two 
characteristics  of  the  American  child,  as  I  obsei-ved  him,  are  an 
insatialjle  thirst  to  know  the  "  reason  Avhy  "  for  all  he  does,  and  an 
admirable  (though  not  invarialjly  an  apropos)  energy  in  the  applica- 
tion of  new  knowledge.  These  characteristics  facilitate  the  teacher's 
work  to  a  great  degree,  but  they  also  necessitate  broad-minded, 
well-cultured  instructors,  to  whom  sufficient  scope  nmst  l^e  given 
for  the  legitimate  satisfaction  and  direction  of  these  qualities.  Much 
confidence  is  usually  reposed  in  his  staff  by  a  principal.  It  is  rare 
to  require  the  accomplishment  of  a  definite  anioimt  of  instruction 
in  each  lesson  ;  elasticity  of  method,  if  it  promote  the  children's 
good,  is  freely  permitted,  and  time  for  revision  is  accorded,  even  at 


268 


U.S.A. — Summary  of  Enquiry, 


Methods  of 
Teaching 
Domestic 
Science  and 
Hygiene  in 
Gi-ade 
Schools — 
continued. 


the  sacritice  of  a  part  of  the  syllabus,  if  considered  necessary.  It 
must  not  be  assumed  that  irregularity  and  incompleteness  rule  in 
these  schools.  I  saw  no  such  tendency ;  but  I  did  notice  much 
intelligence  among  pupils,  a  good  comprehension  of  the  *'  reason 
why,"  and  tangible  examples  of  the  results  of  the  active  interest 
aroused  in  the  shape  of  excellent  specimens  of  home  practice. 

In  the  teaching  of  cooking,  our  English  system  of  alternate 
demonstration  and  practice  is  entirely  disapproved,  as  i«  also  owr 
custom  of  defraying  a  part  of  the  cost  by  the  sale  of  the  food  prepared 
by  a  class.   Against  the  first  method  it  is  argued  that  few  girls  of 
eleven  or  twelve  are  intellectually  capable  of  profiting  by  j)rolonge(i 
obsei'vation  unrelieved  by  active  participation  in  the  processes  under 
demonstration.   They  may  be  interested,  but  to  what  extent  are 
they  informed  ?    Constant  practice  under  supervision,  immediately 
subsequent  to,  or,  if  necessary,  interrupted  by,  a  short  demonstra- 
tion, is  the  generally  approved  plan.    With  regard  to  the  sale  of  the 
food  cooked,  rather  than  its  consumption  by  those  who  had  prepared 
it,  the  feeling  was  unanimously  adverse ;  without  exception,  all 
authorities  on  the  sul)ject  maintained  that  the  cause  of  failures,  as  in 
deficient  beating  of  a  cake,  or  the  fact  of  possible  improvement — as 
in  the  seasoning  of  a  dish,  for  instance — cannot  be  realised  ])y  the 
inexperienced  cook  unless  results  be  tasted  when  the  whole  ])rocess 
is  complete.    It  is  also  held  that  the  strength  of  interest  can  be 
hardly  equal  in  the  two  cases ;  the  desire  to  improve  is  but  poorly 
stimulated,  and  a  practical  difficulty  will  thrust  itself  into  promi- 
nence, viz.,  that  the  tastes  of  possible  purchasers  may  be  occasionally 
consulted,  rather  than  making  the  rigorous  inculcation  of  principles 
b}^  practice  the  first  consideration.    The  use  of  printed  reci})es  is 
advocated,  on  the  plea  of  the  valuable  time  thus  saved  ;  these  are 
preserved  in  books  specially  provided,  which  contain,  in  addition, 
directions,  &c.,  dictated  by  the  teacher  when  necessary,  or  made  by 
the  child  herself.    As  a  whole,  these  special  teachers  are  well  trained 
and  of  a  high  stamp  ;  most  usually  I  found  them  to  be  interested  in 
the  correlation  of  both  cooking  and  needlewoi'k  with  other  school 
work.    One  of  their  chief  difficulties  in  this  respect  is  met  with  in 
the  common  custom  of  "  centres,"  by  which  children  are  taught 
these  sn})jects  by  teachers  not  in  touch  with  theii-  ordinary  work. 
In  the  case  of  one  school  used  as  a  "  centre,"  I  found  the  special 
teacher  overcame  this  difficulty  by  conferences  with  her  fellows  : 
but  this  could  not  be  managed  for  the  majority  of  her  pupils 
when  these  numbered  several  hundred  and  were  drawn  from  per- 
haps nine  separate  schools. 

In  respect  of  sewing  I  would  like  to  remind  my  readers  of  the 
good  results  which  have  followed,  in  a  few  cities,  this  teaching  to  boys, 
as  well  as  to  girls,  from  the  age  of  nine  to  ten  or  eleven  years.  In 
addition  to  its  practical  and  educational  values  it  is  said  to  promote 
community  of  interest,  wliile  small  boys  take  to  it  most  kindly  and 
apply  it  readily.  Great  diversity  of  opinion  prevails  as  to  the  use 
of  the     specimen"  system  of  teaching  needlework;  I  should  say 


Methods  of  Teaching  Domestic  Science  and  Hygiene  in  Grade  Schools.  269 

unhesitatingly  that  the  best  results  I  observed  were  attained  where 
it  was  not  in  force,  or  only  to  a  modified  degree  ;  for  instance,  where 
the  specimens  of  stitches  for  preservation  formed  the  conclusion  of 
the  whole  course.  The  interest  of  the  children  is  markedly  greater 
where  they  learn  to  sew  on  some  article  for  which  they  see  an 
immediate  purpose  ;  but  in  all  my  comments,  it  is  necessary  to  bear 
in  mind  that  my  personal  observations  were  necessarily  limited. 

In  the  Grade  School  teaching  of  Personal  and  Domestic  Hygiene 
(Physiology  and  Hygiene,  as  it  is  invariably  described)  the  best 
teachers  lose  no  opportunity  to  inculcate  ideas  of  duty  to  one's  self, 
duty  to  one's  neighbour,  duty  to  one's  country.  They  impress 
that  the  body  is  worthy  of,  and  well  repays,  intelligent  care  ;  that 
without  this  good  work  cannot  be  accomplished.  Children  are  led 
to  see  that  no  one  has  a  right  to  injure  his  neighbour  by  his  slovenly, 
ignorant,  or  filthy  habits  ;  and  that  the  State  demands  that  her 
children  shall  maintain  her  prestige  by  their  efficiency  and  good 
health.  Such  practical  physical  morality  comes  within  the  daily 
observation  of  children ;  it  throws  a  new  light  on  the  daily  bath, 
the  orderly  back  yard,  the  decent  habits  ;  it  sets  before  them  as  an 
ideal  the  conduct  of  a  self-respecting,  self-controlled  citizen. 

The  evidences  of  home  application  of  Cookery,  Housewifery, 
Sewing,  and,  last  but  not  least,  the  practice  of  good  habits  are  quite 
evident.  Great  stress  is  laid  upon  the  encouragement  of  such 
applications,  though  it  is  reported  to  be  usually  spontaneous  ; 
indeed,  it  appears  to  have  been  the  means  of  breaking  down  much 
parental  opposition  to  Domestic  Science  teaching,  and  has  served, 
in  some  cases,  to  form  the  first  connecting  link  between  home  and 
school  fife.  What  impressed  me  even  more  than  the  specimens  of 
home  productions  brought  for  inspection  at  the  cookery  classes, 
were  the  corresponding  examples  of  home  needlework,  especially 
where  the  making  of  a  simple  blouse  and  skirt  forms  part  of  the 
course.  These  spoke  of  sustained  perseverance  and  of  practical 
ability,  as  well  as  of  lively  interest.  It  would  be  wearisome  to 
c)uote  instances  of  the  influence  exercised  on  personal  habits  and 
family  life  by  the  instruction  in  Physiology  and  Hygiene ;  but  I 
must  mention  that  this  seemed  to  be  very  noticeable  among  boys, 
in  whom,  also,  I  was  told,  this  teaching,  when  well  conducted, 
serves  the  useful  purpose  of  developing  the  latent  sense  of  civic 
responsibility. 

So  far  Domestic  Science  has  had  a  somewhat  difficult  position 
to  face  in  some  cities.  These  difficulties  are,  however,  described 
as  diminishing,  and  are  usually  short-lived .  It  is  habitual  to  entrust 
the  organisation  of  manual  training  in  city  schools  to  an  expert, 
and  though  this  expert  is  not  necessarily  a  woman,  the  interests 
of  girls  are  not  as  a  rule  overlooked,  the  funds  at  a  Superintendeiit's 
disposal  for  purposes  of  manual  work  (under  which  Co<:)kery  and 
Needlework  are  grouped)  being  equally  distributed.  In  High 
Schools,  so  far  as  my  observations  extended,  no  financial  probletns 
have  presented  themselves.    With  regard  to  equipment,  I  have 


270 


U.S.A. — Summary  of  Enquiry. 


already  said  that  the  "  centre  "  system  is  usual  in  the  case  of  Grado 
Schools  ;  but  institutions  for  higher  education  have  each  their  own 
kitchen  laboratories  and  work-rooms.  The  equipment,  in  respect 
to  the  provision  of  specially  planned  and  fitted  tables,"*^  has  been  most 
carefully  thought  out,  and  presents  certain  definite  advantages  ; 
some  of  these  have  been  dealt  with  in  Part  I.  of  this  Report. 
Teachers  are  trained  to  be  very  resourceful  in  the  matter  of  appa- 
ratus, though  the  cost  of  equipment  does  not  usually  present  in- 
surmountable obstacles,  there  is  too  much  a})preeiation  of  the  neces- 
sity to  provide  all  that  contributes  to  the  efficiency  of  the  schools. 
To  trammel  work,  for  want  of  financial  support,  in  which  the 
]^iiblic  has  faith,  is  contrary  to  general  American  practice.  Those 
responsible  for  the  organisation  of  education  continue  their  repre- 
sentations until  private  or  public  funds  are  found  for  the  desired 
purpose.  Nevertheless  my  informants  emphasised  the  encourage- 
ment given  to  judicious  simplicity  and  to  the  employment  of  home 
made  "  apparatus.  The  use  of  text  books  is  unusual  in  any  course, 
in  any  grade  of  institution  ;  training  in  the  right  use  of  books  of 
reference  is  the  prevalent  method  ;  and  the  teacher  causes  careful 
notes  to  be  kept  of  the  theory  she  supplies,  which  usually  precedes 
practice.  Only  very  rarely  is  adherence  to  an  entire  syllabus 
rigidly  required,  it  is  usual  to  repose  confidence  in  the  teacher's 
judgment,  and  no  cases  of  abuse  were  reported.  The  teachers 
habitually  consult  upon  this  point  with  their  principals  or  inspec- 
tors, and  the  plan  is  found  to  w^ork  well  for  all  concerned.  Much 
time  and  thought  is  evidently  expended  upon  wuse  correlation  of 
Domestic  Science  with  other  school  subjects.  The  presentation  of 
all  knowledge  in  a  form  to  permit  of  its  speedy  application  is  very 
present  just  now  in  the  minds  of  school  authorities,  and  the  children 
seem  so  genoi-ally  anxious  to  turn  what  they  study  to  some  im- 
mediate use,  that  their  enthusiasm  acts  as  a  spur  to  the  teacher, 
and  introduces  a  very  pleasant  atmosphere  into  the  schools. 
Household  In  High  Schools  all  courses  in  these  subjects  are  of  a  more  com- 
Science  and  prehensive  and  scientific  character  than  those  in  the  lower  grades, 
iri  Hi"h  They  usually  include  a  fairly  thorough  treatment  of  cooking, 
Schools.  housewifery,  needlework,  dressmaking  and  millinery ;  laundry 
work  also  almost  invariably  finds  a  place.  Where  Household 
Science  is  taught,  house  sanitation  is  generally  introduced,  but 
hygiene  in  its  personal  aspects  is  reserved  for  the  courses  in  I^hysi- 
ology.  It  is  usual  to  accompany  this  training  by  a  study  of  fund{> 
mental  principles  in  laboratory  and  studio.  There  appear  to  be 
two  weighty  arguments  m  favour  of  adopting  Household  Science 
and  Art  into  the  curriculum,  which  counterbalance  all  the  objec- 
tions ;  the  one,  that  these  subjects  afford  an  unrivalled  field  for  co- 
relation  with  and  application  of  other  studies,  literary,  artistic,  and 
scientific ;  the  other,  that  much  advantage  is  gained  from  the  variety 
of  occupation  incidental  to  the  active  practical  work  they  necessitate , 
that  better  results  aresecured  in  these  other  studies,  even  though  they 

\See  Fig.  VIII.  — — 


Household  Science  and  Hygiene  in  High  Schools, 


271 


l  ig.  viir. 


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WORKING    DRAWING   OF    COOKING  TABLE, 
School  Kitchen,  Pratt  Institute,   Brooklyn,    New  York. 


272 


U.S.A. — Summary  of  Enquiry. 


Household  are  pursued  for  shorter  periods  than  are  assumed  to  be  desirable  where 
and  iene  ^^^^^^^^^^^^  Science  is  not  in  favour.  In  his  article  on  High  Schools 
in  High  "  Pratt  Institute  Monthly  "  for  April,  1901,  Dr.  Luther  Gulick 

Schools.       emphasises  yet  another  argument  in  its  favour,  viz.,  that  "  in  the 
—continued,  teens  there  is  a  great  accession  to  the  capacity  for,  and  dehght  in, 
reason.    This  fact  is  so  generally  recognised  that  it  needs  no  par- 
ticular discussion.    The  High  School  programme  should  be  defi- 
nitely related  to  the  increasing  capacity  to  reason.    Facts  should  be 
continually  put  into  relation  with  one  another.    This  is  the  time 
for  the  laboratory  method,  which  is  well  worked  out  in  physics, 
chemistry,  physiography,  and  in  certain  respects  in  biology.  It 
needs  to  be,  and  can  be  worked  out  in  history,  mathematics  and 
art."    Under  his  interested  supervision  the  girls'  High  School 
course  in  Household  Science,  pursued  on  lines  consonant  with 
these  developing  faculties,  has  well  justified  its  existence  at  the 
Pratt  Institute.    To  Dr.  GtiHck  this  term,  "  laboratory  method," 
means  that  process  by  which  "  the  pupil  discovers  his  own  facts  ; 
comes  to  his  own  conclusions  in  regard  to  them,  and  formulates 
for  himself  the  laws  that  grow  out  of  these  facts  "—a  different 
form  of  procedure  from  that  which  often  goes  under  this  designation. 
Nevertheless,  Professor  Francis  E.  Lloyd,  of  Teachers  College. 
Columbia  University,  recognises  the  danger  which  accompanies 
careless  use  of  this  laboratory  method,  and  sounds  a  note  of  timely 
warning  when  he  points  out  that  it  is  valuable,  "  just  in  proportion 
as  it  trains  in  careful  methods  of  observation,  and  cultivates  a 
scientific  habit  of  mind.    It  succeeds  when  it  trains  a  pupil  in 
inductive  reasoning  ;  it  fails,  at  least  in  school  Hfe,  when  it  becomes 
an  end  in  itself."    To  guard  against  this  perversion  of  its  worth, 
and  to  stimulate  the  development  of  the  reasoning  faculties  by  its 
judicious  introduction,  seemed  to  me  the  guiding  principles  of  those 
in  charge  of  the  best  High  School  courses  I  observed  in  Household 
Science.    Thus  on  educational  grounds  alone  the  subject  justifies 
its  introduction  into  the  curriculum  of  Secondary  Schools ;  but 
there  are  other  foi'cible  arguments  which  appeal  to  those  not 
immediately  concerned  with  the  training  of  young  people.  There 
are  few  who  have  not  noted  that  it  is  at  the  High  School  age  es- 
pecially that  girls'  ideas  of  life  are  apt  to  be  falsified  ;  they  become 
discontented  with  their  environment,  and  often  .ashamed  of  family 
claims  or  relationships.    Observation  shows  that  a  rational  study 
of  Household  Science  helps  to  bind  the  girl  to  her  home,  to  centre 
her  interest  there,  and  to  show  her  the  worth  and  beauty  of  family 
life.     It  has  been  well  said  that  this  subject,  above  all  others, 
forges  the  facts  of  science  and  art  into  practical  tools,  by  whose 
aid  the  home's  efficiency  in  the  production  of  health  and  character 
is  materially  increased.    It  would  seem,  at  least  over  a  certain 
area  in  the  United  States,  as  if  this  conception  of  domestic  dignity 
has  a  fascination  for  the  growing  girl,  who  appears  to  he  also  un- 
expectedly alive  to  the  communal  and  economic  aspects  of  the 
subject.   Her  mind  receives  ideas  readily  concerning  the  duty 
of  right  hving,  and  its  eiiect  upon  the  community.   She  is  easily 


Household  Economics  and  Hygiene  in  Colleges. 


273 


aroused  to  realise  the  responsibilities  of  each  individual  home  as  a 
social  unit,  whose  character  inevitably  assists  to  determine  the 
composition  of  the  whole  mass.  She  is  impressed  by  the  thought 
that  home  and  school  together  form  the  social  workshop,  in  which 
are  moulded  the  citizens  of  the  future.  The  economics  of  con- 
sumption also  exercise  an  attraction  which  was  not  anticipated. 
When  the  topic  is  judiciously  introduced,  girls  exhibit  eagerness 
and  perseverance  in  learning  the  right  use  of  energy,  health,  time, 
and  money.  Speaking  generally,  it  seemed  to  me  that  the  aspects 
of  Household  Science  and  Art  most  emphasised  in  High  School 
courses  are  the  sound  theoretical  and  scientific  bases  which  under- 
lie household  duties  ;  the  opportunities  for  immediate  application 
afforded  in  home  life  for  artistic  training ;  the  increased  mental  and 
physical  efficiency  which  follows  upon  a  wise  economy  of  time  and 
an  intelligent  expenditure  of  money  ;  and  the  claims  of  civics  and 
patriotism  upon  those  responsible  for  the  rearing  of  the  race.  In 
Physiology  and  Hygiene,  where  the  boys  and  girls  work  together, 
continued  stress  is  laid  upon  the  close  relationship  of  living  con- 
ditions to  health  and  working  power.  Here,  as  in  Domestic 
Science,  the  method  employed  is  almost  exclusively  that  of  lectures, 
followed  by  periods  of  laboratory  w^ork.  My  observations,  and  the 
information  I  gained,  convinced  me  that,  under  the  best  professors, 
the  teaching  is  based  upon  the  fines  defined  by  Dr.  W.  Townsend 
Porter,  of  the  Harvard  Medical  School,  in  an  article  entitled,  "  The 
Teaching  of  Physiology,"  pubfished  in  the  Philadelphia  "  Medical 
Journal,"  September  1st,  1900 : — ''  Deal  as  far  as  possible  with  the 
phenomena  themselves,  and  not  with  the  descriptions  of  them. 
Where  the  fundamental  experiments  cannot  all  be  performed,  fill 
the  gap  with  the  orginal  protocols  from  the  classical  sources. 
Associate  facts  which  the  student  can  observe  for  himself  with 
those  which  he  cannot  observe.  Use  as  the  basis  of  instruction, 
where  practicable,  the  facts  and  methods  to  be  used  by  the  student 
in  earning  his  living.  Teach  the  elements  by  practical  work. 
Let  the  student  state  his  observations  and  results  in  a  laboratory 
note-book.  Control  his  progress,  and  remove  his  difficulties,  by  a 
daily  written  examination  and  a  daily  conference,  in  which  the 
instructor  shall  discuss  the  observations  made  by  the  student,  and 
supplement  them  from  his  own  reading.  Stimulate  the  student 
by  personal  intercourse  in  the  laboratory,  by  glimpses  of  the  re- 
searches in  progress,  and  by  constant  reference  to  the  original 
sources.  From  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  instruction  hold 
fast  to  concentration,  sequence,  and  election." 

Of  an  interest  equal  to  these  Higli  School  courses  are  those  Household 
in  the  State  Agricultural  Colleges ;  not  alone  those  concerned  fj^^^fj^^^-^^g 
with  Household  Economics,  but  the  lectures  on  Hygiene  associated  \^  Colf^es.^ 
with  active  physical  culture,  which  enters  compulsorily  into  the 
curriculum  of  students  of  both  sexes.   Mrs.  Ellen  H.  Richards, 
of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  has  pointed  cut 
on  more  than  one  occasion  that  Household  Economics  rest  on  two 

6490.  S 


274 


U.S.A. — Summary  of  Enquiry. 


chief  corner  stones — economy  of  health  and  economy  of  wealth. 
Economy  of  wealth  appeals  with  force,  and  receives  implicit,  if 
not  explicit,  attention  from  students  engaged  in  equipping  them- 
selves for  their  future  calUngs  in  life.  That  their  attention  should 
be  directed  with  equal  emphasis  to  the  study  of  the  economy  of 
health,  in  a  coi^ntry  where  the  pursuit  of  money  is  considered 
a  national  characteristic,  augurs   well  for  the  race ;  it  speaks 
volumes  also  for  the  common  sense  attitude  of  a  people  Avhose  point 
of  view  is  occasionally  obstructed  by  the  excitement  and  effervescence 
incidental  to  the  rapid  progress  of  a  new  country.    The  claim 
that  these  subjects  have  for  a  recognition  from  college  authorities 
is  again  based  upon  their  comprehensive  and  educational  character. 
Household  Economics  and  Hygiene  are  neither  the  one  nor  the  other 
separate  sciences  or  arts  to  be  taught  by  one  person  with  a  specialist 
training  ;  all  departments  of  a  University  can  and  should  contri- 
bute to  their  right  presentation.   Where  the  experiment  has  been 
tried  the  results  are  most  emphatically  favourable.   It  is  also 
stated  that  in  no  other  instances  have  such  valuable  and  successful 
efforts  at  co-operation  been  established  between  faculties.  The 
leaven  is  manifestly  at  work  for  the  spread  of  this  movement 
in  colleges.    Some  college  presidents  are  standing  with  open  minds, 
waiting  for  a  longer  observation  of  existing  courses  before  formu- 
lating a  definite  opinion  ;  but  all  are  apparently  inquiring  as  to  the 
attitude  of  their  confreres.    Many  professors  show  a  disposition 
to  accept  the  subject  under  the  plea  that  college  teaching  of  Eco- 
nomics, Sociology,  Pedagogy,  History  or  Sanitary  Science,  must 
include  the  relation  of  the  family  and  the  household  to  society ; 
and  that  distinct  advantages  accompany  practical  demonstration 
of  this  truth  by  the  work  carried  on  in  a  department  set  apart 
for  the  purpose.    It  is  true  that  the  accomplishments  of  women 
in  Chemistry,  Physics,  or  Biology,  have  not  yet  inspired  men  with 
full  confidence  in  their  power  to  successfully  attack  a  new  problem 
in  a  consistently  scientific  spirit ;    but,  though  somewhat  less 
unanimous  upon  the  definite  adoption  of  Household  Economics 
as  a  distinct  college  subject,  than  upon  its  inclusion  under  some 
branch  of  Sociology,  college  professors  are  as  a  whole  favourable  to 
some  place  being  assigned  to  it  on  the  grounds  of  its  great  import- 
ance :  so  far  women  have  justified  any  confidence  reposed  in  them 
in  respect  of  the  organisation  of  such  advanced  courses. 
Domestic        A  further  point  to  which  I  was  directed  to  give  special  attention 
Science  as    was  the  extent  to  which  Domestic  Science  is  regarded  as  an  early 
s'^b^^t^^^^'  instalment  of  technical  education,  inserted  in  the  Primary  or 
*^         *       Secondary  School  curriculmn.    "  How  far  is  an  attempt  made 
(and,  if  made,  how  far  is  it  successful)  to  deal  with  the  subject  as 
part  of  a  liberal  education — i.e.  for  its  value  as  an  educational 
discipline  as  distinct  from  its  practical  utility  ?    In  practice,  does 
the  aim  in  view  affect  the  course  of  instruction,  and  has  it  been 
found  possible  to  combine  the  benefits  of  disciplining  the  intelligence 
and  the  reasoning  power  with  those  of  increased  manual  and  prac- 


Domestic  Science  as  a  Technical  Subjects 


275 


tical  skill  ?  "  Such  were  mv  instructions.  There  seemed  to  me 
no  tendency  to  introduce  the  subject  into  elementary  schools 
as  a  preliminary  stage  in  technical  education.  To  fit  their  charges 
for  life,  not  for  one  means  of  earning  a  livelihood,  is  the  aim  of 
all  the  best  superintendents  and  teachers  at  the  present  day.  The 
leading  idea,  much  emphasised  by  educationalists,  is  that  the  early 
periods  of  education  should  be  essentially  devoted  to  general  culture 
and  not  to  premature  specialisation.  The  poise  "  or  well-balanced 
characters  which  it  is  desired  to  form  by  school  education,  can 
only  be  developed  by  an  all-round  training  of  the  mind  and  body, 
and  not  by  early  concentration  upon  any  one  branch  of  study  to 
the  exclusion  of  others.  I  learnt  that  the  early  efiforts  made  to 
introduce  Domestic  Science  into  schools  were,  more  or  less,  leavened 
with  the  trade  school  idea,  but  the  later  realisation  of  the  true  scope 
of  education  and  more  enlightened  methods  of  instruction  have  led 
to  the  virtual  extinction  of  this  misapprehension.  It  is  true  that 
inculcation  of  the  principles,  that  is  of  the  fundamental  laws  of 
matter  and  form,  with  enough  practice  to  illustrate  them,  play 
an  important  part  in  the  High  School  courses  ;  but  there  is  no 
ulterior  object  of  training  children  technically  for  domestic  service 
or  as  juvenile  dressmakers ;  the  idea  is  to  bring  the  teaching  of 
Domestic  Science  into  harmony  with  the  broad,  scientific,  and 
educational  theories  characteristic  of  the  time. 

In  Manual  Training  High  Schools,  the  technical,  as  distinct 
from  the  educational  study  of  Household  Science,  is  naturally 
brought  into  more  prominence  than  in  others.  During  the  last 
two  of  a  four  year  course,  girls  of  sixteen  have  attained  an  age 
when  specialisation  is  admissible ;  and  the  fact  that  they  have 
sought  their  education  in  a  Manual  Training  rather  than  in  an 
ordinary  High  School  indicates  that  their  intention  is  to  select  some 
form  of  occupation  in  the  future  in  which  the  hands  are  to  be  as 
active  as  the  head.  But  a  study  of  the  time-tables  will  make  clear 
that  the  first  two  years  of  these  courses  are  emphatically  "  general  " 
in  method ;  indeed  the  necessity  of  supporting  a  special  subject 
by  means  of  coincident,  systematic  study  of  other  branches  of 
knowledge  is  clearly  realised  by  those  responsible  for  the  schemes 
of  technical  training  in  Household  Science  and  Art  at  all  the  Insti- 
tutes and  Colleges,  as  well  as  in  Manual  Training  High  Schools. 

It  would  be  superfluous  for  me  to  reiterate  the  success  which  has 
attended  efforts  to  deal  with  these  subjects  as  part  of  a  liberal 
education.  Indeed,  it  is  on  account  of  their  peculiar  value  in  this 
connection  that  they  find  favour  in  the  eyes  of  some  who  other- 
wise would  not  countenance  them  as  either  school  or  college  subjects. 
Their  sociological,  ethical,  and  economic  as  well  as  their  industrial 
values  are  of  quite  recent  appreciation  ;  but,  as  I  have  pointed  out, 
now  that  students  of  these  sciences  clearly  see  the  intimate  relation 
of  family  life  to  the  whole  social  and  industrial  order,  they  deem  it 
right,  not  only  to  devote  some  of  their  precious  hours  to  a  study 
absolutely  essential  for  intelligent  life  under  twentieth-century 


6490. 


S2 


276 


U.S.A. — Summary  of  Enquiry. 


Training  of 

Teachers  in 

Domestic 

Science. 

'l^lble 

XXXVTT. 


conditions,  but  desire  that  an  early  interest  shall  be  awakened 
in  those  who  may  be  unable  to  pursue  the  subject  at  a  later  period 
in  their  lives. 

A  further  request  was  made  that  I  should  give  careful  observation 
to  the  methods  of  training  and  quahfications  of  teachers  of  Domestic 
Science.  Readers  of  this  Report  will  have  observed  what  stress 
is  laid  upon  the  preparation  of  well-equipped  teachers  for  this 
su Inject,  and  what  liberal  opportunities  are  offered  for  their  train- 
ing. Dehnito  qualifications  are  required  of  all  teachers  of  Domestic 
Science,  and  each  year  the  standard  of  tliese  is  raised.  The  accom- 
panying comparative  Table  sets  forth  in  detail  the  subjects  included 
in  what  are  recognised  as  among  the  best  tniining  (jourst^s  now  avail- 
nhlc  in  the  United  Slates,  and  the.  length  of  time  (lexoted  i-especl  ively 
to  tlie  xarions  studies.  A\'hal,  howexer,  iiu  I;!l)ula1ed  statenienl 
can  show  is  the  method  upon  which  successful  results  depend. 
However,  it  will  be  noted  that  the  general  scope  of  the  courses  is 
somewhat  broader  in  the  United  States  than  in  this  country ; 
that  considerable  time  is  devoted  to  the  careful  study  of  the 
theory  which  underlies  all  practice ;  and  that  importance  is  attached 
to  a  practical  study  of  the  scientific  and  artistic  principles  basal 
to  that  technical  skill,  to  the  attainment  of  which  the  training  is 
directed.  For  these  reasons  the  Domestic  Sciences  and  Arts  are 
almost  always  studied  in  two  distinct  courses  ;  time  does  not 
permit  of  a  command  of  both  being  acquired  by  the  same  student 
in  the  three  years  she  can  invest  in  the  special  preparation  for  her 
profession.  There  is  a  feeling,  at  least  in  one  Institute,  that  the 
scientific  side  of  Household  Science  has  been  slightly  over  empha- 
sised. Probably  the  fact  that  this  is  recognised  and  that  already 
definite  efforts  are  being  made  for  the  more  accurate  adjustment 
of  values,  indicates  that  if  the  danger  exist  it  Avill  soon  be  averted. 
The  weak  points  which  would  probably  immediately  present 
themselves  to  an  experienced  eye,  will  be  want  of  teaching  practice 
in  some  of  the  American  Normal  Courses,  and  the  very  short 
time  devoted  to  laundry  training.  It  must,  however,  be  borne 
in  mind  that  each  year  sees  modifications  of  these  courses,  as 
experience  sliows  their  strength  or  weakness.  The  ideal  set  forth 
is  very  high.  The  directress  of  one  of  these  departments  said  to 
me  that  it  is  set  so  high  they  sometimes  feel  disheartened — it  seems 
beyond  human  attainment ;  yet,  each  year,  the  Lake  Placid  Con- 
ference of  experts,  men  and  women,  spurs  them  on  to  renewed 
exertions  by  reiterating  from  some  new  standpoint  the  enormous 
importance  to  the  individual  and  to  the  nation  of  this  work  of 
home-making.  Evidence  of  good  preliminary  preparation  in 
elementary  science  or  art,  in  addition  to  a  sound  general  education, 
is  demanded  of  all  students.  As  a  fact,  college  women  are  preferred 
to  those  who  have  had  only  the  advantage  of  a  high  school  educa- 
tion, on  account  of  the  greater  breadth  of  culture  they  will  bring 
to  their  class  work.  In  all  cases,  general  information  and  physical 
well-being  are  not  allowed  to  suffer  during  the  special  training. 


Training  of  Teachers  in  Domestic  Science.  'Ill 


The  type  of  woinaii  attracted  to  the  Normal  Courses  is  distinctly 
{^ood,  and  when  ijuahfied  she  takes  rank  with  teachers  or  professors 
of  any  other  subjects  taught  at  school  or  college.  The  dignity 
which  attaches  to  the  teaching  profession  in  the  Onited  States 
is  also  conducive  to  a  selection  of  these  subjects  by  independent 
and  well-bred  women,  who  do  not  thereby  feel  that  they  in  any 
way  diminish  their  social  status.  I  found  them  resourceful, 
interested,  and  possessed  usually  of  considerable  enterprise  and 
independence  of  thought.  Many  have  had  considerable  diffi- 
culties to  encounter  in  their  work,  as  the  prejudices  of  parents, 
and  even  of  members  of  Boards  of  Education,  have  died  hard ; 
but  enthusiasm  is  i-arely  lacking,  and  the  excellent  results  observed 
from  their  exertions  in  each  grade  of  educational  institution  serve 
apparently  as  a  sufficient  stimulus  to  continued  efforts. 

Very  great  account  is  taken  of  personal  equation  in  all  Normal 
students,  and  greater  stress  is  laid  upon  the  estimate  formed  of 
their  daily  work  than  upon  the  results  of  a  final  examination. 
The  teaching  staff'  meet  periodically  to  discuss  and  to  compare 
notes  as  to  the  students'  dispositions,  progress,  and  conduct  in 
their  various  classes ;  this  study  of  individual  character  is  taken 
into  careful  account  by  the  examiners.  The  fact  that  applications 
for  training  so  far  exceed  available  vacancies  permits  a  careful 
sifting  in  the  first  instance.  At  present  about  a  fifth  or  sixth 
only  of  those  who  seek  training  in  the  best  Normal  Courses  can  be 
admitted. 

Diplomas  are  usually,  if  not  invariably,  given  upon  the  successful 
completion  of  a  whole  course  of  training ;  they  are  not  dependent 
upon  the  results  of  a  final  examination.   As  has  been  stated  above, 
estimates  of  efficiency  are  based  upon  the  general  character  and 
work ;   small  importance  is  attached  to  a  single  examination, 
howe\er  practical,  which  demands  chiefly  presence  of  mind,  a 
good  memory,  and  manual  dexterity.   It  is  quite  unusual  for 
an  outside  examiner  to  conduct  any  tests.    Periodical  examinations 
ai'e  made  at  intervals  by  members  of  the  staff,  as,  for  instance, 
at  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  where  each  professor 
examines  his  or  her  own  students  in  theory  and  practice  at  various 
periods  in  the  course,  and  considers  the  results  in  consultation 
with  his  colleagues.    In  some  States  there  is  a  Central  Examining 
Board,  which  conducts  entrance  examinations  for  teachers  before 
admittance  to  its  schools  :  this  is  the  case  in  New  York  State,  but 
the  custom  is  not  general.    It  will  be  thus  realised  that  diplomas 
have  different  values.    The  ])restige  of  a  school  or  college  is  main- 
tained by  the  work  of  its  graduates  ;  and  it  is  considered  that  in 
this  lies  the  guarantee  for  the  maintenance  of  a  high  standard 
in    its    teaching.      Were   the    students    insufficiently  trained 
or  graduated  unfairly  their  work  would  rapidly  reveal  the  fact, 
and  the  whole  institution  would  suffer.    Probably  it  is  the  diffi- 
culty of  attaining  or  maintaining  the  required  standard  which 
accounts  for  the  gi-adual  dying  out  of  the  short,  pioneer,  priv:ite 


278 


U.S.A. — Summary  of  Enquiry, 


Training  of  Normal  Courses  in  1  Jomestic  Science,  now  being  superseded  as 
Teachers  in  unsatisfactory.     Normal  diplomas  are  not  granted  for  separate 
Science  —    subjects,  but  only  for  specified  groups,  under  the  comprehensive 
continued,    title  of  Domestic  Science  or  of  Domestic  Art ;  the  studies  are  carried 
on  concurrently,  and  proficiency  in  the  whole  scheme  is  demanded. 
This  is  one  of  the  broad  distinctions  in  the  United  States  between 
Normal  and  Technical  courses  ;  in  Technical  courses  certificates  are 
granted  separately  for  each  subject,  a  group  of  which  constitute 
the  complete  Normal  course.    There  is  very  Httle  inspection  of 
normal  courses  by  outside  experts ;  those  conducted  in  primary 
or  secondary  schools  are  under  the  supervision  of  city  or  state 
inspectors ;  the  general  courses  in  Technical  schools  are  practically 
independent  of  inspection,  as  these  institutions  are  chiefly  under  the 
control  of  private  bodies. 

It  has  been  found  difiicult,  in  some  cases,  to  prevent  teachers 
of  the  hiunanities,  whose  tastes  are  purely  artistic  and  literary, 
from  disparaging  the  important  and  intellectual  attractions  of 
Household  Science  ;  and,  as  I  have  mentioned,  there  is  also  a  danger 
of  speciaHst  teachers  treating  it  in  so  complex  a  manner  as  to 
dissociate  it  from  daily  life.  Efforts  to  meet  both  tendencies 
are  constantly  at  work  ;  and  I  learned  that  the  introduction 
of  a  Household  Arts  Department  into  institutions  attended  by 
teachers  going  through  a  hterary  or  general  course  of  study  has 
had  the  result  of  converting  those  who  previously  depreciated 
Household  Science  into  its  interested  supporters.  Information  to  the 
same  effect  was  furnished  me  by  professors  under  more  than 
one  important  Board  of  Education  ;  general  teachers  disposed  to 
look  upon  the  study  and  practice  of  cooking  and  sewing  unfavour- 
ably, because  of  the  time  so  taken  away  from  other  studies,  have 
become  advocates  of  such  work  when  pains  have  been  taken  to 
investigate  its  claims.  The  principal  of  one  State  College  mentioned 
to  me  particularly  that  the  male  professors  had  become  the 
warmest  supporters  of  the  Household  Economic  course. 

There  is  a  strong  feeling  among  some  superintendents  in  favour 
of  removing  these  subjects  from  the  hands  of  special  teachers  in 
Grade  schools,  owing  to  a  tendency  to  lose  the  right  sense  of  pro- 
portion in  the  lessons.  They  argue  that  a  young  specialist  teacher 
has  too  narrow  an  experience  of  life  to  enable  her  to  interpret 
her  special  knowledge  in  the  light  of  common  things,  whereas 
it  is  most  essential  that  it  should  be  so  presented  to  the  children. 
This  is  used  as  a  strong  point  by  those  who  advocate  the  pursuit 
of  all  special  training,  normal  or  otherwise,  in  general  colleges, 
where  work  is  not  confined  to  one  special  line  and  much  assist- 
ance is  available  in  attaining  and  maintaining  a  broad  and  open 
outlook.  It  seemed  to  me  that  the  constant  interchange  of  opinion 
and  experience  common  in  the  school  world  of  the  United  States 
is  in  any  case  favourable  to  the  breaking  down  of  prejudices  and 
contributes  to  the  maintenance  of  that  sense  of  proportion  hard 
to  attain  when  working  in  an  isolated  position.    Two  good  features 


Influence  of  Domestic  Science  on  Social  Conditions, 


279 


in  all  its  educational  work,  which  balance  some  of  the  exaggera- 
tions to  which  the  enthusiasms  of  the  people  are  inclined  to  lead,  are 
the  ready  recognition  of  mistakes  made  and  an  open  mind  towards 
suggested  reforms.  In  these  qualities  hes  the  promise  of  strength, 
which  bids  fair  to  develop  eventually  the  necessary  sense  of  pro- 
portion and  right  values. 

State  or  Municipal  Boards  of  Education  encourage  Domestic  Financial 
Science  by  allotting  to  it  a  suitable  proportion  of  the  money  voted  Support 
for  educational  purposes  in  their  respective  districts.   The  same  i)Q^egtic*^ 
system  supports  the  work  in  State  Agricultural  Colleges.    The  Science, 
appropriation,  granted  by  the  State,  is  subdivided  according  to  the 
needs  of  the  different  departments. 

In  conclusion  it  was  suggested  to  me  to  collect  information  Influence  of 
under  the  following  heads  : — "  Is  it  felt  to  be  necessary  for  schools  Domestic 
to  provide  an  increasing  part  of  that  education  which  used  to 
be  more  generally  furnished  by  home  life  ?   Is  there  a  feeling  Conditions, 
that  there  is  a  danger  of  an  actual  decline  in  household  skill  owing 
to  the  conditions  of  modern  city  life,  or  to  the  increasing  employ- 
ment of  women  in  houses  of -business?   Is  it  felt  that  the  school 
should  attempt  to  arrest  this  decline  ?   Are  people  at  all  concerned 
by  any  observed  or  suspected  tendency  in  primary  education, 
as  now  organised,  to  make  girls  wish  to  be  typewriters,  clerks, 
shop  assistants,  etc.,  rather  than  housekeepers  or  domestic  ser- 
vants ?  " 

The  following  remarks  embody  the  result  of  the  extended 
inquiries  I  made  in  fulfilment  of  this  part  of  my  commission : — 
(The  changing  social  conditions  which  demand  rearrangement  of 
former  expenditure  of  time  and  energy  are  recognised  as  a  factor 
in  the  evident  need  to  secure  for  young  people  in  school  that  which 
a  previous  state  of  society  permitted  to  be  gained  in  the  home. 
That  the  integrity  and  dignity  of  home  life  must  be  maintained 
as  a  coefficient  of  national  prosperity  is  widely  accepted ;  that  the 
power  and  interest  necessary  for  the  realisation  of  this  ideal  have 
been  weakened  has  been  slowly  dawning  upon  the  few  for  more 
than  a  quarter  of  a  century.  That  this  conception  is  now  reaching 
the  many  seems  evident  from  the  great  increase  of  attention  devoted 
to  the  whole  question  during  the  last  five  or  even  ten  years,  credit 
for  which  is  largely  due  to  the  Association  of  College  Alumnae 
and  the  Women's  Clubs.  I  should  place  as  the  most  powerful 
motive,  held  perhaps  unconsciously  but  nevertheless  tenaciously, 
by  the  majority  of  the  population,  the  determination  that  the 
United  States  shall  be  foremost  among  the  nations.  This  deter- 
mination leads  a  people,  instinctively  interested  in  the  study  of 
cause  and  effect,  to  observe  wherein  lies  their  weakness  and  in 
what  direction  may  be  found  their  strength.  The  stress  and 
strain  of  professional  and  commercial  life  soon  test  the  vigour  of  the 
physical  as  well  as  of  the  mental  constitution  of  those  subjected 
to  it,  and  thus  turn  the  thoughts  to  the  essentials  of  physical 
well-being.    The  constant  inroads  of  immigrants,  whose  habits 


280 


tl.S. A. Summary  of  Enquiry ^ 


Influence  and  staTulard  of  existence  are  a  menace  to  their  neighbout^,  have 
s!neni™^on^  also  stimulated  many  minds  to  a  study  of  Sociology  and  Economies, 
Social  condi-  neither  of  which  can  nmch  progress  be  made  without  some 
knowledge  of  Sanitary  Science.  The  trahied  intelligence  of  college 
women  has  also  been  dii-ected  by  circumstances  too  numerous  to 
detail  to  the  economic  effects  of  ignorance,  carelessness,  or  indif- 
ference in  the  conduct  of  homes  or  of  cities.  Among  their  sisters 
whose  minds  are  more  immediately  centred  upon  daily  domestic 
difficulties,  interest  in  the  subject  is  arising  fi'om.  the  desire  to  do 
something  to  make  housekeeping  easier ;  their  efforts  being  fii*st 
inspired  by  probably  no  higher  motive  than  to  secure  alleviation 
from  the  troubles  Avhich  spring  out  of  the  present  chaotic  state  of 
domestic  service.  The  expression  given  to  their  views  by  repre- 
sentatives amongst  these  different  classes  has  exerted  an  influence 
upon  public  opinion,  which  causes  it  now  to  demand  that  schools 
shall  provide  for  children  such  training  in  citizenship  and  home 
making  as  shall  i*aise  up  a  strong  race  of  Avell-nurtured  people, 
skilled  not  alone  in  the  right  conduct  of  their  own  lives,  but  impa- 
tient of  the  existence  of  any  conditions  unfavourable  to  the  health 
of  the  community.  Among  these  conditions  would  rank  decline 
in  household  skill  and  a  weakening  of  the  maternal  instincts, 
both,  Avhen  apparent,  being  traceable  results  of  the  increasing 
employment  of  women  outside  their  homes.  The  false  sense  of 
shame  associated  with  domestic  service,  impatience  of  the  so-called, 
uneventful  life  of  the  young  mother  engaged  in  household  or 
family  cares,  are  prevalent  on  both  sides  of  the  ocean ;  but  I  am 
able  to  report  that  in  the  United  States  determined  effoi-ts  are 
now  being  made  to  combat  these  erroneous  sentiments.  In  many 
directions,  in  the  east  and  west,  systematic  efforts  are  evidently 
and  spontaneously  active,  directed  to  enhance  the  dignity  of  house- 
hold service,  to  point  out  the  beauty  and  intense  responsibility  of 
motherhood,  and  to  encourage  all  women  to  consider  that  their 
education  is  incomplete  unless  they  are  practically  acquainted 
with  household  management,  which  must  necessarily  include 
knowledge  of  child  hygiene. 

The  reader  of  Part  III.  of  this  Report  cannot  fail  to  realise  the 
admirable  spirit  animating  some  among  the  leisured  Avomen  of 
the  community  to  set  personal  example  of  the  strength  of  their 
convictions  in  respect  of  home  dignity  and  worth.  Direct  acquaint- 
ance with,  and  practice  of,  domestic  duties  stinmlates  their  minds 
to  consider  and  to  introduce  improved  methods  and  labour-saving 
apphances.  Their  sympathy  with  the  difficulties  dej)endent  upon 
dirt,  inconvenient  dwellings,  and  futile  expenditure  of  time  and 
strength  experienced  by  the  less  well-to-do,  ceases  to  exist  as 
sentiment,  but  finds  expression  in  urging  on  responsible  autho- 
rities the  absolute  importance  of  housing  and  similar  reforms. 
Their  perception  of  the  bearing  upon  domestic  processes  and 
national  health  of  municipal  regulations  concerned  with  cleanli- 
ness of  streets  and  markets,  adulteration  of  food,  provision  of 


Influence  of  Domestic  Science  on  Social  Conditions.  281 

safe  supplies  of  water  and  of  means  for  i-efuse  disposal,  has 
resulted  in  raising  the  level  of  public  admin isli-alion,  as  \'isitoi'S  to 
certain  cities  rapidly  recognise. 

Professor  James  L.  Hughes,  Superintendent  of  the  Public 
Schools  at  Toronto,  has  well  expressed  the  sentiment,  now  hapj)ily 
common  to  a  considerable  section  of  society,  that  the  Home  is  the 
most  comprehensive  influence  in  deciding  a  child's  qualification 
for  sustained  and  effective  work  in  adult  life.  The  child's  whole 
life  power,  in  its  essential  elements  of  physical,  intellectual,  and 
spiritual  vitality,  is  influenced  directly  and  indirectly  in  the  home. 
If  the  best  conditions  of  physical  power,  and  the  apperceptive 
centres  of  true  and  rich  intellectual  and  spiritual  development  are 
not  established  in  the  home,  no  other  agencies  can  raise  the  child 
to  the  richest  and  truest  manhood  or  womanhood.  A  dwarfed 
or  undeveloped  childhood  necessarily  results  in  impaired  power 
and  defective  life.  Every  child  has  a  right  to  the  best  conditions 
known  for  childhood  by  the  highest  civilisation.  Full  growth, 
]>hysically,  intellectually  and  spiritually,  is  possible  only  in  the  best 
conditions.  The  '  lost  waif  '  will  never  cease  to  disgrace  civilisation 
so  long  as  homes  are  less  efficient  than  they  should  be.  The  im- 
provement of  homes  does  not  demand  greater  expense  so  much 
as  better  training  and  more  practical  common  sense.  The  aims 
of  progressive  workers  in  securing  improved  home  conditions  are, 
not  to  spend  more  money,  but  to  get  greater  returns  for  the  money 
spent;  not  to  increase  labour,  but  to  make  labour  more  effective 
in  promoting  health,  comfort,  and  happiness.  The  true  home 
maker  considers  every  element  that  influences  the  life  of  the  family 
physically,  intellectually,  and  spiritually.  The  physical  conditions 
especially  require  careful  attention  from  the  most  advanced  scien- 
tific minds.  The  schools  and  some  of  the  churches  have  recog- 
nised the  fundamental  fact  that  physical  culture  is  a  ver}^  im- 
portant element  in  the  development  of  human  character.  The 
quality  of  intellectual  and  spiritual  power,  and  the  capacity  for 
sustained  intellectual  and  spiritual  eftort  depends  to  a  large  extent 
on  the  perfect  growth  of  the  body.  The  higher  the  character  of 
the  physical  life  the  more  completely  it  aids  in  the  development 
and  the  expression  of  intellectual  and  spiritual  energy.  Rousseau 
taught  the  great  truth  that  the  more  perfect  the  body  the  more 
readily  it  obeys  the  intellect  and  will ;  but  the  perfect  body  does 
more  than  respond  to  the  mind  and  spirit ;  it  contributes  to  their 
power  and  fuller  growth.  It  is,  thei-efore,  of  vital  importance  to 
consider  all  subjects  related  to  the  proper  construction  and  sani- 
tation of  the  home,  and  the  whole  range  of  domestic  science, 
including  the  correct  choice  and  proper  preparation  of  foods. 
Pure  air,  proper  lighting,  and  sanitary  cleanliness  in  the  home 
are  essential  elements  in  promoting  health,  comfort,  and  happiness, 
and  these  are  the  conditions  in  which  man's  best  nature  develops 
most  rapidly,  most  naturally,  and  most  harmoniously.  The 
highest  success  demands  harmonious  development.    Bat  even 


282 


U.S.A. — Summary  of  Enquiry. 


Influence  with  these  conditions  in  a  high  degree  of  efficiency  we  require  the 
Scien^oV^  most  perfect  possible  nutrition  in  order  that  each  individual  may 
Social  be  raised  to,  and  sustained  in,  the  best  condition  physically,  intel- 
Conditions  lectually,  and  spiritually  for  effective  work  without  unnatural 
—continued.  ^-^^  therefore  destructive  over-fatigue.  The  '  wear  and  tear '  o{ 
life  results  not  from  overwork,  as  is  generally  believed,  but  from 
work  under  improper  conditions.  Most  men  and  women  work 
at  a  rate  under  their  capacity  rather  than  over  it.  Men  wear  out 
quickly  because  they  are  not  properly  nourished.  They  wear 
out  most  quickly  when  they  take  unnatural  stimulants  to  over- 
come the  lack  of  energy  resulting  from  imperfect  nutrition,  and 
thus  force  their  enfeebled  bodies  to  do  work  under  pressure  beyond 
the  natural  fatigue  point.  Under  these  conditions  the  '  wear 
and  tear '  is  mevitable,  because  work  then  is  an  unnatural  strain 
on  the  physical  and  intellectual  power,  and  because  work 
done  beyond  the  fatigue  point  destroys  the  reactive 
tendency  to  rest  that  results  from  fatigue  under  normal  con- 
ditions. The  basis  of  intemperance  is  largely  physical.  The 
nervous  systems  that  are  not  kept  in  comfortable  working 
order  crave  something  that  for  a  time  will  bring  exhilaration. 
Unnatural  exhilaration  is  always  debilitating.  Natural  ex- 
hilaration, resulting  in  appropriate  and  well-cooked  food 
eaten  in  proper  quantities  and  at  proper  times,  is  always 
productive  of  greater  power  along  life's  broadest  and  highest 
hues  of  effort.  When  school  children  become  nervous  and  irritable, 
and  feeble,  the  schools  are  continually  blamed  for  these  evil  con- 
ditions. Sometimes  the  schools  have  shared  in  the  causes  that  lead 
to  such  undesirable  results  by  long  hours  and  inadequate  ventila- 
tion, by  the  substitution  of  pressure  for  natural  interest,  by  con- 
tinuous sitting,  and  by  lack  of  play  ;  but  the  homes  have  done  the 
greater  part  of  the  wrong  to  childhood  by  failing  to  send  children 
to  school  in  a  proper  condition  for  work.  The  true  remedies  for  a 
weak,  nervous  system  are  food  suitable  for  nerve  and  brain  building, 
and  physical  exercise,  especially  free  play.  One  of  the  fundamental 
thoughts  in  Domestic  Science  is  a  new  and  higher  ideal  of  the 
higher  meaning  of  digestion.  Digestion  should  be  regarded  as 
the  transmutation  of  material  things  into  physical,  intellectual, 
and  spiritual  energy.  This  function  of  elevating  food  into  the 
highest  forms  of  human  power  is  the  true  work  of  digestion,  but 
it  has  been  almost  universally  degraded.  The  selection  and  prepara- 
tion of  foods  has  loeen  regarded  as  one  of  the  baser  departments 
of  household  economics.  The  systematic  study  of  foods  and  their 
scientific  preparation  for  the  table  have  been  carefully  conducted, 
chiefly  to  provide  gratification  for  unnatural  appetite.  The  true 
study  of  foods  and  their  scientific  preparation  should  be  conducted 
in  order  to  find  what  foods  are  best  for  all  conditions  and  ages  of 
humanity — for  sickness  and  health,  for  infancy,  childhood,  vigorous 
adult  and  declining  age  ;  for  brain  building,  nerve  strengthening, 
muscle  development,  and  bone  growth  ;  for  promoting- or  retarding 


Co-Oferation  of  the  Sexes  Essential  to  National  Well-being.  283 


the  storing  of  fat,  and  for  aiding  the  functional  work  of  all  the 
vital  organs,  and  preserving  the  harmonious  balance  of  man's 
powers.  This  study  is  now  recognised  as  a  most  important  depart- 
ment of  the  science  of  human  evolution.  Domestic  art  is  a  necessary 
part  of  the  study  of  scientific  home-making.  Our  mental  and  spiri- 
tual conditions,  and  therefore  our  physical  life,  are  directly 
influenced  by  the  nature  of  our  environment.  Calmness  or  irri- 
tation, hopefulness  or  despondency,  joyousness  or  moroseness, 
definiteness  or  carelessness,  prospering  ambition  or  lack  of  vital 
interest,  may  depend  to  a  greater  extent  than  is  generally  realised 
on  the  colour  of  the  walls,  the  ceilings,  and  the  carpets  in  our  homes. 
The  study  of  pictures  and  furniture,  and  furnishings,  and  gardens, 
and  the  beautifying  of  front  yards,  and  especially  of  back  yards, 
will  lead  to  a  true  aesthetic  culture,  and  promote  the  happiness 
and  the  broader  and  higher  development  of  the  race.  The  new 
century  will  elevate  the  character  of  household  work,  cleaning, 
cooking,  and  all  departments  of  service,  by  making  them  more 
scientific  and  more  systematic  ;  and  with  this  elevation  of  the  service 
will  come  a  corresponding  elevation  in  the  qualification  of  servants, 
and  in  the  greater  recognition  of  their  rights." 

I  employ  this  lengthy  quotation  as  my  conclusion,  because  it  Oo-operation 
is  the  accurate  embodiment  by  a  British  subject  of  the  sentiments  the  sexes 
his  prolonged  personal  acquaintance  with  the  educational  world  of  national 
the  United  States  has  led  him  to  recognise  as  inspiring  its  leaders,  well-being. 
I  have  also  selected  it  because  it  is  the  expressed  opinion  of  a  member 
of  that  sex,  which,  in  England,  is  disposed  to  release  itself  from 
any  direct  responsibility  in  the  promotion  of  a  higher  level  in 
home  comfort  and  family  life.  Only  by  co-operation  of  the  sexes 
can  the  ideal  standard  be  attained.  It  has  been  well  said  that 
co-operation  for  a  common  aim  creates  a  spirit  of  mutual  helpfulness. 
The  common  aim  of  all  who  are  concerned  with  the  affairs  of  men, 
personal,  domestic,  communal,  or  national,  is  the  physical,  moral, 
and  intellectual  development  of  each  child  born  into  the  w^orld. 
Upon  women,  properly  and  naturally,  devolve  the  care  of  the  young 
and  the  right  conduct  of  the  home  for  all  whom  it  shelters.  Upon 
men,  as  naturally,  devolve  the  provision  and  maintenance  of  such 
conditions  in  connection  with,  though  outside,  the  home  as  shall 
secure  the  means  without  which  women's  special  duties  are  seriously 
hampered  or  even  rendered  impossible  of  fulfilment.  To  this  end 
boys  and  girls  should  learn  together  as  they  do  in  the  United  States 
the  essentials  to  a  healthy  existence,  and  be  familiarised  Avith 
the  broad,  general  principles  upon  which  life  and  its  functions 
depend  for  their  continuance.  In  subsequent  years,  oi'  even 
concurrently,  girls  are  introduced  to  the  processes  of  home 
making,  which  are  indispensable  to  domestic  well-being  and 
happiness ;  while  boys  are  encouraged  to  a  study  of  the  duties 
of  citizenship,  with  all  these  mean  to  the  welfare  of  the 
community.  At  college,  as  at  school,  opportunities  for  this  wise 
preparation  for  their  future  lives  are  offered  to  the  young  men 


284 


U.S.A. — Summary  of  Friquiry, 


and  women  ;  it  speaks  well  for  the  influence  of  the  teaching  pro- 
fession that  tlie  numbers  of  those  glad  to  seize  these  opportuniti<^s 
show  annual  increase.  Public  (and  parental)  opinion  is  gradually 
giving  intelHgent  heed  to  the  growth  of  a  movement  which  promises, 
if  wisely  controlled  and  intelligently  fostered,  to  yield  a  harvest  of 
rich  national  results ;  for,  to  quote  Mrs.  Browning's  words  — 
the  "  multitude  of  leaves  "  will  hold — 

"  Loves  fihal,  loves  fraternal,  neighbour-loves 
And  civic — all  fair  petals,  all  good  scents. 
All  reddened,  sweetened  from  one  central  Heart,"* 

inspired  with  the  belief  that  "  man  is  made  in  God's  image,"  aiul 
as  such  must  be  freed  from  all  conditions  which  hinder  the 
expression  of  his  inherent  powers. 

It  now  remains  for  me  to  express,  though  most  inadequately, 
my  deep  sense  of  gratitude  to  those  whose  generous  response  to 
inquiries,  ready  sacrifice  of  valuable  time  for  the  promotion  of  my 
object,  and  sympathetic  interest  in  my  commission  are  mainly 
responsible  for  its  execution.  Their  number  is  so  large,  the 
evidences  of  their  cordial  co-operation  so  numerous,  that  individual 
acknowledgment  becomes  impossible.  The  debt  of  gratitude  which 
stands  in  my  name  would  be  overwhelming  in  its  extent  were  it 
not  rather  a  national  than  an  individual  liability.  Not  to  the 
Commissioner  of  small  account,  but  to  the  old  Mother  Country, 
was  the  gift  of  experience,  experiment,  theory  and  practice  so 
freely  tendered.  Though  social  and  other  diverse  conditions 
necessarily  militate  against  any  proposal  to  adopt  or  to  imitate  in  this 
country  methods  of  proved  worth  in  the  United  States,  it  is  never- 
theless of  immense  advantage  to  all  concerned  with  the  public 
health  and  prosperity  of  Great  Britain  to  become  acquainted  with 
the  measures  designed  to  promote  these  objects  in  other  thriving 
communities.  That  this  necessarily  imperfect  Report  of  the 
educational  means  devoted  to  these  ends  in  the  United  States 
should  achieve  even  a  partial  degree  of  success  or  of  completeness, 
is  entirely  the  outcome  of  the  stimulus  and  assistance  received 
from  my  generous  friends  in  that  country. 

I  have  spared  no  pains  in  the  effort  to  be  impartial,  accurate, 
and  consistent  in  the  sifting  and  employment  of  the  mass  of  material 
I  collected  ;  if,  therefore,  there  be  misrepresentation,  exaggera- 
tion or  culpable  omission  in  the  preceding  pages  I  would  offer  my 
sincere  apology  to  those  whose  cause  1  may  thus  most  uninten- 
tionally wrong.  That  some  errors  of  observation  and  of  com- 
prehension should  have  occurred  in  the  course  of  my  eompulsorily 
short  visits  to  a  large  number  of  centres  in  the  Eastern  and 
Middle  West  States  appears  to  me  to  be  inevitable.  In  spite  of 
much  concentrated  effort  on  my  part  and  of  most  valuable 
assistance  rendered  me  in  the  form  of  ]:)ersonal  and  written 
explanations  and  of  jDrinted  matter,  it  would  be  presumptuous 


*  "  Aurora  Leigh,"  IX.,  884.   E.  B.  B. 


Co-operation  of  the  Sexes  Essential  to  National  Well-heing.  285 

to  imagine  I  could  grasp  in  a  few  hours  all  the  points  in 
courses  of  study,  the  evolutions  which  have  constantly  cost 
years  of  thought  and  experimental  practice,  and  which  are  also 
adapted  to  social  conditions  diverse  from  our  own.  'For  all  these 
reasons  I  have  abstained  from  critical  analysis,  preferring  to 
present  my  Report  in  a  descriptive  form,  in  which  I  hope  it  may, 
in  spite  of  its  many  shortcomings,  prove  stimulating  and  sug- 
gestive. 

Of  all  my  readers  I  will  ask  for  kindly  forbearance  and  for 
lenient  judgment  on  a  work  which  has  been  fraught  for  me 
Mirougliout  with  a  lively  sense  of  responsibility,  not  alon« 
towards  those  by  wliom  the  commission  was  entrusted  to  me,  but 
towjirds  thosi;  whose  aspirations  and  attauuneiits  were  gi\cii  into 
my  hands  to  present,  as  well  as  to  my  fellow  teachers  whose 
methods  in  practice  or  whose  estimate  of  another  nation's 
educational  standards  may  be  influenced  by  the  perusal  of  the 
preceding  pages. 

Alice  Ravenhill. 

May,  1903, 


286 


U.S.A. — Appendix  A. 


APPENDIX  A. 

EQUIPMENT  FOR  GRADE  SCHOOL  COOKERY  COURSES. 

The  following  exhaustive  list  of  the  equipment  recommended  for  use  in 
Cookery  Courses  is  reproduced  by  kind  permission  from  "  The 
Economics  of  Manual  Training"  Teachers'  College  Record.  Vol.  IL,  No. 
5.  November,  1901.  It  is  presented  as  a  model ;  considerable  modifica- 
tions are  compatible  with  efficiency,  and  discretion  would  dictate  suitable 
selection  according  to  the  class  and  grade  of  school  for  which  equipment 
is  to  be  provided.  The  United  States  of  iVmerica  Coinage  has  been  con- 
verted for  convenience  into  English  money. 

Cooking. 
Kitchen  Equipment. 

£  s.  d. 

Table  for  15  pupils,  with  drawers  for  provisions  and 
materials  :  cupboard,  closed  with  roll-front,  sliding 
board,  and  tiled  top  made  of  quartered  oak,  about    100   0  0 

Table  for  15  pupils,  with  one  drawer  for  each  pupil, 
made  of  Georgia  pine,  white  pine  or  stained  white- 


wood,  from  £31  5s.  Od.  to  52  1  8 
Kitchen  tables  may  be  used  where  funds  are  extremely 

limited,  but  are  not  advisable,  about       -       -  6    0  0 

Individual  stove  equipment  for  tables              £6  to  15  12  6 

Coal  or  Gas  ranges                                        £3  to  6  13  4 

Utensils. 

(Two  for  each  pupil.) 

£  s.  d. 

Bowl,  1  pint,  earthen  or  granite  -       -       -       -       -  0    0  3 

Tea-spoon,  nickel  or  aluminium  -       -       -       -       -  0   0  5^ 

Towel,  1  yard  long,  crash     -       -       -      -       -       -  0    0  8"' 


£0  1  4^ 

(One  for  each  pupil.) 

Baking  dish,  1  c^uart,  earthen  or  granite     -  -  -  0  0  4 

Bowl,  4  quarts,  earthen  or  granite       -       -  -  -  0  0  10 

Bread  board,  small  wood     -       -       -       -  -  -  0  0  10 

Dish  cloth  or  mop       -       -       -       -       -  -  -  0  0  5 

Egg  beater,  medium,  wire  or  iron       -     '  -  -  "  -  0  0  5 

Frying  pan,  small,  iron       -       -       -       -  -  -  0  0  7| 

Kitchen  fork,  steel,  wood  handle   0  0  2* 

Kitchen  knife,  steel,  wood  handle      -      -  -  -  0  0  2| 

Mat,  8  inches  square,  linoleum    -       -       -  -  -  0  0  2^ 

Pepper  shaker,  glass   0  0  5" 

Plate,  granite  or  tin     -      -       -      -       -  -  -  0  0  7^ 

Salt  shaker,  glass        -       -      -       _       .  -  0  0  5 

Salt-spoon,  bone  -       -       -       -       -       -  -  -  0  0  2^ 

Saucepan,  with  cover,  granite      -       -       -  -  -  0  0  9 

Table-spoon,  nickle  or  aluminium       -       -  -  -  0  0  7^ 

Vegetable  brush,  small,  wood  back     -       -  -  -  0  0  2| 

Vegetable  knife,  steel,  wood  handle     -       -  -  -  0  0  5 

Measuring  cup,  ^  pint,  block  tin  -       -       -  -  -  0  0  5 


£0  8  2 

(One  for  each  two  pupils.) 

Biscuit  cutter,  block  tin      -       -  -       -       -      0  0  3 

Bread  pan,  medium,  block  tin     -       -       -       -       -      0  0  8| 

Colander,  medium,  block  tin       -----       0  1  4 

Double  boiler,  1  or  ^  pint,  block  tin  or  granite    -       -      0  2  1 


Eqtdj)ment  for  Grade  School  Cookery  Courses.  287 


(One  for  each  two  pupils) — continued. 

Flour  dredger,  block  tin      -       -       -       -  - 
Floar  sifter  (revolving  handle)  block  tin 
Grater,  medium,  block  tin  -  _       .  _ 

Nutmeg  grater,  block  tin     -       -       -       -  - 
Potato-masher,  wire,  wood  handle 
Rolling-pin,  wood- 

Scrubbing  brush,  large  wood       .       -       -  _ 

Skimmer,  small,  block  tin  - 

Strainer,  medium,  block  tin        _       _       _  . 

Teapot,  1  pint  earthen  (Japanese) 

Thermometer  ------- 


(Three  or  four  for  class  of  twelve.) 

Apple-corer,  block  tin  

Chopping  knife,  steel  ------ 

Chopping  tray,  wood  

Coffee  pot,  1  quart,  granite  or  tin 

Japanned  tray,  medium  ----- 

Mixing  spoon,  large,  wood  -  - 

Muffin  pan,  12  in  a  pan,  block  tin       -       -  - 

Pitcher,  1,  2  and  3  quarts,  earthen 


(Two  for  a  class  of  twelve.) 

Cake  pan,  medium,  block  tin  -  -  - 

Double  boiler,  3  pints,  granite  -  -  - 

Griddle,  medium,  soapstone  _  -  - 

Griddle  cake  turner,  iron     -  -  -  - 

Kettle,  6  quarts,  granite      -  -  -  - 

Lemon  squeezer,  glass  -  .  - 

Saucepan,  2  quarts,  granite  -  -  -  - 
Strainer,  3  pints,  block  tin  - 
Toaster,  wire  ------ 


(One  for  a  class  of  twelve.) 
Bread  knife  -------- 

Can-opener  -- 

Coffee-mill  -       -      -      -  - 

Corkscrew  -------- 

Egg  beater  (Dover),  large,  iron    -       -       -  - 

Fruit  jai  s,  1  doz.,  1  quart,  glass  -       -       -  - 

Fruit  jars,  1  doz.,  1  pint,  glass     -       -       -  - 

Frying  kettle,  large,  iron  

Funnel,  medium,  block  tin  - 

Ice  cream  freezer  (Packer's  standard),  3  quarts  - 

Jelly  glasses,  1  doz.  ------ 

Knife  sharpener  -  

Larding  needle  -  -  - 
Measure,  1  quart,  block  tin  - 

Measure,  1  pint,  block  tin  

Meat  broiler,  medium,  iron  

Meat  knife  -      -  -  

Pot  chain  -------- 

Pudding  mould,  3  pints,  block  tin       -       -  - 
Scales,  to  10  pounds  ------ 

Skimmer,  large,  tin     -  - 

Steamer,  medium,  block  tin       .       -       .  - 

Tea-kettle,  large,  iron,  granite  or  aluminium 


£ 

s. 

d. 

0 

0 

5 

0 

0 

11 

0 

0 

5 

0 

0 

4 

r\ 
U 

u 

A  1 

0 

0 

3 

0 

0 

0 

0 

4 

0 

0 

6 

0 

1 

Oi 

0 

3 

14 

£0  12 

6 

0 

0 

2i 

0 

2 

0 

1 

8 

0 

1 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

6 

£0 

9 

8 

0 

1 

Oi 

0 

4 

9 

0 

4 

8 

0 

0 

5 

0 

7 

Q 

0 

0 

H 

0 

2 

0 

1 

o| 

0 

0 

5 

£1 

3 

4 

0 

2 

1 

0 

0 

5 

Q 

4 

8 

0 

0 

5 

0 

0 

5 

0 

4 

8 

0 

3 

1* 

0 

7 

7^ 

0 

0 

7i 

0 

9 

4| 

0 

2 

1 

0 

2 

3J 

0 

0 

10^ 

0 

0 

10 

0 

0 

2* 

0 

2 

1 

0 

0 

10 

0 

0 

3^ 

0 

1 

3 

0 

9 

4 

0 

0 

5 

0 

2 

3i 

0 

2 

u 

£2 

18 

3 

288  U.S.A.— -Appendix  A. 

Utensils  for  Housework. 

£  s.  d. 

Blacking  brush    -       -       -       -       -       -       _       .  0  0  2^ 

Broom  -       -       -       -  -  0  1 

Clieese-cloth  duster     -       -       -       -       -       -       .  0  0  5" 

Dust  brush  ---------005 

Dust  pan  0  0  7^ 

Floor  brush  ---------  o  3  H 

Lamp  cloths        -       -       -       -       -       .       .       .  o  0  5^ 

Mop    ----------  0  1  01 

Pail,  indurated  fibre    -       -       -       -       -       -       .  0  1  li 

)Scrubbiug  brush  -       -       -       -       -       -       .       .  0  1  o" 

Whisk  broom      -       -       -       -       -       -       .       .  0  0  5 

Window  cloths  etc.      -       -   0  0  5 

£0  10  3 

Store-room  Equipment. 

Bread  cloths  o  q  5 

6  crocks,  large,  earthen       -   0  10  5 

6  crocks,  medium        -       -       -       -       -       -       -  o  8  4 

4  flour  pails,  wooden    -       -       -       -       -       -       -  o  8  4 

Ice  bag,  1  yard,  duck  -       -       -       -       -       -       -  0  0  3^ 

1  dozen  jelly  glasses,  with  covers        -       -       -       -  0  13 

6  2-quart  Mason  jar^--,  for  coffee,  glass  -       -       -       -  0  5  0 

Strainers,  5  yards,  cheese-cloth  -       -       -       -       -  0  1  O5 

Strainers,  1  yard,  flannel     -       -       -       -       -       -  0  0  10^ 

Cupboards  for  provisions,  utensils  and 

dishes  £4    3    4  to  10  8  4 

Refrigerator,  medium  size   -      -      -       £3    2    6  to  4  3  6 


£9  1    9  to  £16  7  9 

DiNiNG-BooM  Equipment. 

Canton  flannel  cloth  £  5.  d. 

1  dining  table  and  6  chairs  -       -       -        £4  3    6  to    6  13  4 

2  table  cloths  and  napkins  -       -       -       -  -       -       2  18 

Enough  dishes  for  setting  table  and 

serving  a  simple  meal      -       -       -       -  -       -      2  18 

Knives,  forks,  sj)oons,  glasses,  etc.       -       -  -       -       4  3  4 


£12  10    2  to  £15    0  0 
(If  a  sideboard  is  added,  the  cost  would  be  about  £5  16s.  8cZ.  additional.) 

Summary  of  cost  of  equipment  to  accommodate  twelve  pupils  at 

A  TIME. 

Kitchen  Equipment. 

£  s.  d. 

Table  with  cupboards,  etc.,  stools,  stove, 

range  and  sink        _       .      -       .    £113  15    0  to  135  8  4 

Utensils,  as  per  detailed  statement     -      -      -      -     17  17  9^ 
Store-room  equipment  -       -       -       -  £9l9tol679 

Dining-room  equipment      -       -       -     £12  10   2  to   15  0  0 


£153    4    8i  to  £184  13  lOi 


U.S.A.— Ap]X'nd{::  T. 


289 


APPENDIX  11 

STATE  MANUAL  TRAINING  HIGH  SCHOOL, 
PROVIDENCE,  RHODE  ISLAND. 

Tlic  Year  is  nominally  40  Weeks,  excluding-  Vacations  38  Weeks. 


DOMESTLC  SCIENCE  COURSE. 
First  Year. 


'Academic. 


Elementary  rhetoric. 
English  composi- 
tion. American 
antliors  by  Bran- 
der  Mathews. 

38  weeks. 


Alf^ebra 
ratics. 


to  quad- 
38  week.^. 


Vhysical  {geography, 
Laboratory  work 
in  physical  charac- 
ter of  minerals. 

19  weeks. 


Book  -  keeping.  \ 
Sadler's  sys- 
tem. 

'    Physics.  Dy- 
n  a  m  i  c  s     of  ) 
liquids.  Dy- 
namics of 
gases.  Sound, 

19  weekt 


'Lessons  are  in  45 
minute  periods 
daily,  unless  other- 
wise indicated  by 
a  numeral  to  show 
number  of  days 
])er  week. 


Domestic 
Science. 


fHousehold  Art 
and  Manual 
Trainins. 


Carpentry  :  —  GO 
hours.  Elemen- 
tary carpentry 
and  joinery. 
Making  of  use- 
ful articles  :— 
Model  of  hand 
loom. 

Basketry  :— 60 
hours.  Woven 
bfi..<k'-.ts  of  rat- 
tan, fc'ewed  bas- 
kets of  raffia, 

(a)  Plain. 

{b)  Coloured. 

Sewing  :  —  112i 
hours.  Hand- 
machine  work, 
undergarments, 
cooking  apron 
and  cap,  hy- 
gienic clothing, 
economics  o  f 
buying,  study  of 
textiles,  includ- 
ing study  of 
h  b  r  e  s  and 
methods  of  man- 
ufacture. 
Simple  weaving 
on  model  loom, 
made  in  car- 
pentry. 

N  ote  book  work 
supplements 
the  English 
work. 


Millinery 


i2A 

hours.  Bows, 
rosettes,  facin;.'s, 
shirred  linings. 
Braid,  sew  and 
trim  rallia  hat 
after  indiv  idual 
design, 
|-Manual  and  house 
hold  art  classes 
are  l.Jj  hour 
periods  on  alter- 
nate days. 


tArt, 


Lettering,  Geo- 
metrical figures, 
woiking  draw- 
ings used  in 
carpentry. 


Drawing  from 
models,  U  i  s- 
toric  ornaments, 
elementary  de- 


Application 
basketry. 


t  Art  work  is  in  43 
niinute  j)erio(i3 
daily  during  the 
four  years. 


290 


U.S.A.— -Appendix  B. 
APPENDIX  ^.—continued. 


DOMESTIC  SCIENCE  COURSE. 


Second  Year. 


Academic 


Domestic 
Science. 


^Household  Art 
and  Manual 
Training. 


Alt. 


English  composition, 
alternating  Avitli 
Englisii  history 
with  especial  refer- 
ence to  American 
institutions. 

19  weeks. 


Ancient  and  Mediae- 
val History  alter- 
nating witli  Ger- 
man. 

19  weeks. 


Geometry,  plane. 

38  week^ 


Civil  Government 
alternating  with 
pliysics,  dynamics 
of  solids,  work- 
energy,  magnetism, 
19  weeks. 

General  chemistry 
alternating  with 
science  of  cooking. 

38  weeks. 


Science  of  cooking. 
Application  of 
laws  of  heat : 
Avater,fire.  Ap- 
l^lication  o  f 
chemistry  to 
cookery  of  pro- 
teids,  albumin- 
oids, starches, 
sugars,  fats. 

38  weeks. 


Yeast  and  l:)aking 
powder  used  in 
flour  mixtures. 
Dietary  stan- 
dards, calculat- 
ing daily  dietary 
for  a  family  of 
six.  Cooking 
and  serving  of 
breakfast,  lun- 
cheon, dinner, 
thus  planned. 


V  isit  to  the  public 
market  to  see 
meats  cut,  and 
inspect  vege- 
tables. 


Note  books  in 
students'  lan- 
guage and 
essays  aid  in 
English  com- 
position work. 


Teriods  are  H 
hours  alternate 
days  for  38 
weeks. 


Millinery  (winter 
hats).  Alter- 
nating with 
sewing :  —  Cot- 
ton dress  or 
blouse,  and  un- 
lined  skirt. 

45  hours. 


Modelling  in  clay 
and  wood  from 
nature  ;  casts 
and  designs. 


Brief  study  of  the 
ornament  of 
local  buildings. 


Historic  orna- 
ment used  iu 
wood  carving 
designs. 


Values  in  light 
and  shade.  — 
Still  life. 


Charcoal  from 
casts. 


Pen  and  ink. 


ITime  given  per 
day  the  same  as 
in  first  year. 


State  Manual  Training  High  School,  Providence,  RJ. 
APPENDIX  V^.-^-^continued. 


291 


DOMESTIC  SCIENCE  COURSE. 


Third  Year, 


Academic. 


English  literature 
(as  required  for  ad- 
mission to  Ameri- 
can colleges.  1 

(2)  38  weeks. 

German — 

(3)  38  weeks. 
Algebra — com  pleted . 

19  weeks. 

Geometry  —  solid, 

19  weeks. 

Physics,  light,  elec- 
tricity. 

19  weeks. 


Botany  —  structural 
preparation  of  bac- 
teriology :  cultures 
from  air,  water, 
milk,  clothing, 
hands. 


Domestic 
Science. 


Chemistry  of  foods 
and  physiology 
of  digestion. 

19  weeks. 

Food  for  the 
sick. 

I.  Water  analysis. 

II.  Proteid  analy- 
sis. 

III.  Albuminoid 
aral}  sis. 

IV.  Sugar  analy- 
s  s. 

V.  Starch  analy- 
!-is. 

VI.  Fat  analysis. 

Analysis  of  milk, 
meat,  some  baby 
food 

VII.  Digestion  ex- 
periment. 

VIII.  Practice  in 
cookery  for  the 
sick . 

IX.  Diet  in  special 
diseases. 


Household  Art 
and  Manual 
Training. 


Dressmaking. 

19  weeks. 

Drafting,  cutting, 
fitting,  making 
lined  bodice  and 
lined  skirt  the 
sketch  for  which 
has  been  made 
in  the  Art  de- 
partment. 


Art. 


Water  colour  : — 

I.  Still  life. 

II.  Design  in  wall 
paper,  rugs, 
hangings. 

III.  Sketching 
from  nature. 

IV.  Costume  de- 
sign. 

Design  in  em- 
broidery sten- 

Pyrography. 


6490. 


292 


APPENDIX  B.— continued. 


DOMESTIC  SCIENCE  COURSE. 


Fourth  1  car. 


Domestic 

Sim  on/>rk 


Household  Art 
and  Manual 


Art. 


Academic. 


English  literature 
"College  English." 

(2)  38  weeks. 

German, 

38  weeks. 
Trigononietry. 

(3)  19  weeks. 
Analytical  chem- 
istry, Study  of  five 
groups.  Analysis 
of  minerals  studied 
in  first  year.  An- 
alysis of  unknown. 

19  weeks. 

Psychology,  in  part 
experimental. 

19  weeks. 

Electivcs  for  those 
who  are  to  take 
the  teacher's  train- 
ing. 

19  weeks. 

Keview  arithmetic 
alternating  with 
review  English 
grammar  (Elective) 
19  weeks. 

Photographic  science. 


Sanitation. 

19  weeks. 

House  :  soil,  foun- 
dation, floor 
plans,  plumb- 
ing, finishings, 
heating  and 
ventilating  sys- 
tems. 

V^isits  to  house  in 
process  of  erec- 
tion to  study 
details. 

Plan  a  house. 

Food  supply  : — 
Purity  in  foods. 

[a)  Adultera- 
tions. 

[b)  Plant  life, 
bacteria, 
moulds. 

[c)  Insects. 

AirSuppl5\  Kate 
of  entrance  of 
fresh  air ;  bac- 
terial cultures 
of  air. 

^V^ater. 

Disinfection  (ex- 
peri  ni  e  n  t  on 
germ  life.) 

Theory  of  disease. 

II  o  m  c-nu  rsing 
(vit^it  to  hos- 
pital). 

Cost  of  living. 


Training. 


Electives. 

19  weeks. 

Advanced  dress- 
making. 

Wood  carving,  ap- 
plied historic 
ornament. 

Advanced  car- 
pei:try  —  design 
in  furniture. 


Charcoal  from 
the  antique. 

House  plans  :  — 
11  o  o  r  plans 
drawn  to  scale. 

Theory  of  colour. 

Household  deco- 
ration ;  colour 
sketches  of  in- 
terio!  s. 

Illustrations,  pen 
and  ink. 

liook  covers. 


U.S.A. — Appendix  C. 


293 


APPENDIX  C. 

COMPREHENSIVE  EQUIPMENT  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOL  COURSE 

IN  DRESSMAKING  AND  LAUNDRY  WORK. 

The  following  is  reproduced  by  kind  permission  from  "  Teachers  College 
Record."  Vol.  II.,  No.  5,  November,  1901.  "The  Economics  of  Manual 
Training."  (TheUnited  States  of  America  dollars  have  been  converted  for 
convenience  into  English  coinage.) 

(1.)— Dressmaking. 

Equipment  for  Class  of  Fifteen  Girls. 


(1)  Drafting  and  dressmaking  room. 


£. 

s. 

d. 

8  tables   

-  12 

10 

0 

Mirror  

£3.  2g.  Gd.  to  4 

3 

4 

Pedestal  

1 

7 

0 

Screen  ------- 

1 

13 

4 

1  gas  stove,  3  burners  -      -      -  - 

1 

0 

10 

n 

o 
o 

ft 

8  irons,  4  heavy,  and  4  long  narrov^^ 

0 

8 

4 

£5.  4s.  2d.  to  8 

G 

8 

15  chairs  ------ 

6 

5 

0 

15  high  stools  ----- 

1 

11 

3 

Clothes  tree  

0 

14 

7 

5  sewing  machines      -      -      -  - 

£31.  5s.  Od.  to  57 

5 

10 

4  ironing  boards  ----- 

0 

16 

8 

Board  for  curved  seams 

0 

3 

9 

15  boxes  for  materials  -      -      -  - 

0 

4 

4 

Paper  roll  holder  ----- 

1 

0 

10 

18  yard  sticks 

0 

17 

10 

18  tape  measures  ----- 

0 

3 

5 

1 

1 

10 

0 

6 

3 

2  skirt  forms      .       -      .      -  - 

1 

5 

0 

£71. 

10s.  3d.  to  £101 

14 

5 

(2)  Sewing  room,  to  accommodate  thirty  pupils. 

.d 

£. 

s 

Roll  front  case  for  materials  for  90  pupils 

-  10 

8 

4 

Tables  to  accommodate  30  pupils 

£6.  5s.  Od.  to  IG  13 

0 

10 

0 

30  footstools        -      -      -      -  - 

-  12 

10 

0 

36  boxes  (6  large  and  30  small)  - 

0 

17 

6 

0 

8 

4 

£42.  19s.  2d.  to  £53    7  8 
Total  cost  of  equipment       -      -       £114.  9s.  5d.  to  £155    2  1 


294 


U.S.A. — Appendix  C. 


Cheaper  Equipments  for  Fifteen  in  Dressmaking  and  Thirty  in 

Sewing. 

Dressmaking  and  Sewing  Room  combined. 

£.    s.  d. 

8  tables,  5  foot  kitchen  4  14  0 

(An  even  less  expensive  table  arrangement  may  be 
obtained  of  boards  supported  on  saw-horses,  when  the 
two  kinds  of  work  are  practised  in  the  same  room.  A 
convenient  plan  for  the  dressmaking  tables  is  to  have 
these  hinged  to  the  wall,  so  as  to  drop  down  when  not 


in  use.) 

30  chairs  at  £1  lis.  3d.  per  doz.  -       -       -       -       -       3  18  1 

1  stove  (3  burners)  and  tubing  0  15  7 

6  irons  ...-.----063 

4  ironing  boards  -       -       -       -       -       -       -       -      0  15  0 

Wardrobe    -  £'1  Os.  lOd.  to  4    3  4 

4  sewing  machines       -       .       -       -      £25  Os.  Od.  to  45  16  8 

Screen  -  -      -      -      -      0  12  6 

18  yard  sticks     -       -      -  0174 

33  scissors  C3  of  them  buttonhole)       -       -       -       -       1  19  2 

6  large  boxes  at  Is.  5|d.      -      -       -      -       -       -      0    8  9 

30  small  boxes  at  Shd.  -------       0    8  9 

Total  cost        -       -       -       -        £40  iGs.  3d.  to  £64  15  5 


Average  cost  of  maintenance  for  the  work  in  the  High  school,  if  the 
pupils  furnish  their  own  garment  materials,  is  about  6d.  per  pupil. 

(2.)~Laundry  Equipment. 
E(iuipment  for  class  of  eight  pupils. 


£.  s.  d. 

Large  fibre  tub    -   0    3  5| 

Double  boiler  for  starch      -      -      -       •      -       -  0   4  3^ 

Tea-kettle   040^ 

12  small  fibre  tubs   1  10  0 

Small  fibre  pail   0   0  10 

Granite  soap  cooker   0   2  8^ 

Yellow  earthen  bowl,  1  quart   0    0  6 

Yellow  earthen  bowl,  2  quarts   0    0  8 

Yellow  earthen  bowl,  4  quarts     -      -      -      -      -  0  18;^ 

8  yellow  earthenware  bowls,  1  quart   -       -       -      -  0  18 

2  tin  measuring  cups   0    0  10 

G  table-spoons   0    2  0 

6  tea-spoons   013 

Knife   005 

Wooden  spoon     --------  0   0  2i 


Carried  forward  -       -  £2  14  7 


Equipment  for  High  School  Course  in  Dressmaking. 


295 


£   s.  d. 

Brought  forward   2  14  7 

100  feet  of  clothes  line  -------039 

Clothes  pins  o    0  5 

Towel  roller        -      -      -      -      -      -      -      -  0   0  5 

Skirt  board  covers  : 

10  yards  unbleached  cotton  cloth     -      -      -      -  0   3  4 

4  yards  cotton  felting,  54  inches      -       -       -       -  0    8  4 

1  yard  white  flannel   0  18 

Safety  pins  ---------  0    1  0^ 

3  roller  towels  (7^  in.,  linen-towelling)        -       -       -  0    3  8 

Dish  pan,  14  quarts     -       -       -       -       -       -       -  0    2  7i 

Universal  wringer,  large      -      -      -      -      -      -  0  17  8^ 

2  universal  wringers,  small   1    0  10 

Tin  dipper   ---------  0    0  10 

Oval  clothes  basket   0    5  2^ 

Oval  boiler  ---------  0    5  2^ 

6  4-foot  benches  --------  1    2  G 

8  4i-foot  skirt  boards,  with  adjustable  supports  -       -  2  10  0 

8  small  wash  boards,  two-thirds  usual  size  -      -      -  0  12  6 

2  clothes  horses  (4  feet  high,  4  folds)  -  -  -  -  0  7  4 
Fringe  brush       --------  0    2  7j 

3  soft  brushes      --------  0    4  9 

3  whisk  brooms,  for  sprinkling    -       -       -       -       -  0    2  3 

4  flat  irons,  7  pounds  -       -       -       -       -       -       -  0    9  2 

8  flat  irons,  5  pounds  -       -       -       -       -       -       -  0108 

8  flat  irons,  4  pounds  -       -       -       -       -       -       -  0  13  4 

4  flat  irons,  3  pounds  -       -       -       -       -       -       -  0    5  10 

(Cheaper  irons  may  be  had  at  twopence  per  pound.) 

8  Troy  polishers  -       -       -       -       -       -       -       -  0  15  0 

8  iron  stands       --------  0    1  8 

8  iron  holders  (asbestos)      -       -       -       -       ••       -  0  14 


£14    8  7 


Maintenance. 

£.  s.  d. 

3  dozen  ivory  soap   0   G  3 

Starch   0  13 

Blueing       -       -   0  10^ 

Beeswax   018 

Borax  -       -       -   0   0  10 

Ammonia    -   0010 

White  wine  vinegar     -------  0   0  5 

Salt     -  -       -  0   0  2i 


Cost  per  pupil  Is.  G^d.  -  -     £0  12  G 


21)6 


U.S.A. — Appendix  LK 


APPENDIX  D. 

HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE  COURSES  IX  BOSTON  HIGH 

SCHOOLS. 

A  Course  of  Twenty  Lectures  for  High  School  Students 


Miss  S.  Maria  Elliott,  Boston,  Mass. 


L  Choice  of  a  Home. 


1.  Requisites  and  conditions — air,  light,  situation,  soil,  etc. 

2.  Heating,  ventilation,  lighting — health,  comfort,  etc. 

3.  Drainage— purpose,  dangers,  etc. 

4.  House  inspection — health,  convenience,  economy  of  energy. 


11.  Furnishing  the  House. 

5.  Dust,  a  study  of —the  foundation  for. 
G.  The  Science  of  Cleanliness. 

7.  House  furnishings  -sanitary,  artistic,  economical. 


III.  Care  of  the  House. 

8.  Removal  of  dust — sweeping,  dusting. 

9.  Care  of  woodwork— cleanliness  and  preservation 

10.  Care  of  metallic,  mineral  surfaces  and  fabrics. 

11.  Special  sanitation  and  disinfection. 


IV.  Food. 

1 2.  The  five  Food  Principles. 

13.  Food  materials. 

14.  Food  combinations. 

15.  (Diet  and  dietaries 

1 6.  \  applied  to  different  ages  and  conditions. 


V.  Health  and  Hygiene. 

17.  Emergencies. 

18.  What  to  do  for  the  invalid  and  sick. 

19.  School  and  public  hy/^ienc. 

20.  Disposal  of  refuse. 


Household  Science  Courses  in  Boston  High  Schools. 


297 


A  Course  of  Twenty  Lessons  for  High  School  Students. 

1.  Necer,sities  of  a  house — location,  soil,  etc. 

2.  Building  materials  and  general  healthful  construction. 

3.  Elements  in  house-building — arrangement,  size,  mechanics,  etc. 

4.  Heating  and  ventilation. 

5.  Drainage  systems.    Water  supply. 

6.  House  inspection. 

7.  House  furnishings — principles  of  sanitary,  artistic,  economical  fur- 

nishings. 

8.  Study  of  dust  and  its  dangers. 

9.  Construction  and  form  applied  to  furnishings. 

10.  Colour. 

11.  liemoval  of  dust. 

1  -2.  Study  of  woodwork. 

13.  Care  of  woodwork. 

14.  Study  of  metals  and  mineral  surfaces. 

15.  Ca;e  of  metals  and  mineral  surfaces 

16.  Study  of  fabrics. 

17.  Care  of  fabrics. 

18.  Principles  of  laundry-work. 

19.  Houseliold  insects. 

20.  Care  of  plumbing.    Disposal  of  refuse. 


The  Evolution  of  the  House. 


A  Course  of  Lessons  for  High  School  Sti^dent 


Miss  Maria  Elliott,  Boston,  Mass. 

Shelter— protection  from  animals  and  elements. 

I^rivacy — safety  of  person  and  possessions. 

Necessities  of  a  house. 

Luxuries  of  a  house. 

Care  of  necessities. 

Care  of  luxuries. 

Personal  hygiene. 

School  hygiene. 

Public  hygiene. 

Duty  to  self. 

Duty  to  friends. 

Duty  to  public  at  large. 

Bacteriology. 

Chemistry  applied  to  food  principles. 


298 


U.S.A. — Appendix  E. 


APPENDIX  E. 

COURSE  IN  HOME  DRESSMAKING,  PRATT  INSTITUTE, 

BROOKLYN,  NEW  YORK. 

Two  lessons  a  week  ;  five  terms  of  three  months  each. 

Entrance  Requirements. — Students  are  required  to  be  over 
sixteen  years  of  age,  to  have  a  knowledge  of  hand  and  machine 
sewing,  to  be  able  to  use  the  tape  measure,  and  to  make  simple 
garments  and  cambric  dresses  as  taught  in  the  sewing  classes. 

CounsE  OF  Study. 

First  Grade. — Draughting  skirts  and  bodices.  Exercise  with 
practice  material  in  fitting  and  designing  and  in  making  dress 
trimmings  and  finishings.    Study  of  colour,  form,  line  and  texture. 

Second  Grade. — Draughting  and  making  walking  skirt.  Cutting 
fitting  and  making  lined  bodice.  Study  of  the  contour  and  poise 
of  the  body. 

Third  Grade. — Matching  stripes  and  plaids.  Draughting  and 
making  princess  gown.  Practice  in  designing  :  study  of  artistic 
principles. 

Fourth  Grade. — Draughting,  cutting,  and  making  jacket. 
Draughting  child's  dress  and  coat.    Study  of  woollen  textiles. 

Fifth  Grade. — Draughting  and  making  evening  gown.  Practice 
in  designing  gowns  for  home  and  evenmg  wear. 

Drawing,  Water-colour  and  Elementary  Design — Practice  in  the 
use  of  the  pencil  and  of  water-colour.  Appearance  of  objects, 
bows,  gowns  and  drapery.  Outline  and  proportion  of  the  human 
form.    Study  of  historic  costumes  :  designing:  of  gowns. 


U.S.A. — Appe^ndix  F. — /. 


299 


APPENDIX 

COURSES  OF  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE  AND  ART  AT  DREXEL 

INSTITUTE. 

{Drexel  Institute  of  Art,  Science,  and  Industry,  Philadelj^hici.) 
I.— NORMAL  COURSE  OF  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE. 

Applicants  to  enter  the  Normal  Course  in  Domestic  Science  are  requested 
to  give  the  following  information  : — 

Name  (in  full)  ■.  

Address  ,  

Date  of  birth  

What  is  your  general  health  1  ,  

Have  you  any  noticeable  defect  of  any  kind  as  in  sight,  hearing,  or  any 
other  defect  ?  

From  what  school,  or  college,  or  courses  of  study  have  you  been 
graduated  ?  

Year  of  graduation  ?  ,  

Have  you  taught  ?  

In  what  grades  1  

Where  ?  

How  long  ?  

What  year  or  years  ?  

Have  you  any  knowledge  of  cookery  1  

Do  you  intend  taking  this  course  to  fit  yourself  as  a  director  or  instructor 
of  Domestic  Science  ?..,  

Remarks  

Applicants  to  enter  the  Housekeepers'  Course  are  requested  to  give  the 
following  information : — 

Name  (in  full)  

Philadelphia  address  

If  not  a  resident  of  Philadelphia,  also  give  home  address  

Age  

From  what  school,  or  courses  of  study  have  you  been  graduated  ?  

What  has  been  your  occupation  ?  

Have  you  any  knowledge  of  cookery  ?   ., 

Do  you  intend  taking  this  course  to  fit  yourself  to  take  a  position  as 
housekeeper  or  matron  ?  

DEPARTMENT  OF  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE. 
Normal  Course. 

The  following  additional  information  concerning  the  Normal  Course  in 
Domestic  Science  will  answer  a  large  number  of  the  questions  made  by 
inquirers  : — 

Examinations.— entrance  examination  is  required.  For  admission 
at  least  a  high-school  education  or  its  equivalent  is  necessary.  Age, 
education,  previous  experience,  personal  fitness,  etc.,  are  considered  in  the 
selection  of  applicants. 

Expenses. — There  arc  no  free  scholarships.  Tuition  fee  .^80  (£16)  per 
year,  text-books  and  stationery,  $10  (£2).  Board  may  be  had  near  the 
Institute  at  prices  ranging  from  five  to  eight  dollars  ])er  week. 


303  U.S.A.-  -Appendix  F.-  -[. 

The  following  articles  are  required  for  work — 

For  Kitchen  Laboratory. 

Black  woollen  skirt. 

Four  plain  white  blouses.  Not  a  thin  material  and  without  tucks  or 
insertion. 

One  dozen  white  linen  collars. 
Narrow  tie  of  any  colour. 
Black  belt. 

8ix  aprons: — White  cambric,  36  in.  wide  ;  use  one  and  a  half  widths, 
finish  with  a  five-inch  hem  ;  length  three  inches  from  the  bottom  of  skirt. 
Band,  one  and  a  half  inches,  finished.  Bib,  eight  inches  by  nine,  finished, 
with  a  hem  of  half  an  inch.  Straps,  one  and  a  quarter  inches  wide, 
finished  ;  fasten  to  upper  corners  of  the  bib,  pass  over  shoulders,  and 
button  on  waist  button.    May  be  bought  at  the  Institute. 

Six  pairs  of  sleeves  ;  seven  inches  deep,  finished  ;  one  inch  hem  top  and 
bottom.    May  be  purchased  at  the  Institute  for  ten  cents  a  pair. 

Caps  :  Must  be  purchased  at  the  Institute  as  needed,  15  cents  each. 

Holders  :  Four  thin  holders  with  tape  27  inches  long,  with  a  loop  to  pu  t 
on  apron  band. 

Towels  :  Five  towels  made  of  glass  towelling,  18  inches  long,  with  a  tape 
loop  to  put  on  apron  band. 

Gymnasium  Suits. — Black  serge,  made  into  a  simple  bloase  with  a 
rolling  collar  and  a  divided  skirt. 

Length  of  skirt,  from  waist  to  ankle.  Divided  two  inches  above  the  knee 
and  an  eight-inch  gusset  inserted.  It  requires  four  widths  of  42-incli 
material,  two  widths  in  each  leg  ;  or  three  widths  of  56-inch  goods,  with  one 
and  a  half  widths  in  each  leg.  Put  elastic  at  the  bottom  of  each  leg.  Skirt 
opens  in  front. 

Blouse  and  skirt  must  be  buttoned  together  by  no  less  than  six  buttons. 
Black  tie. 

Black  stockings.  Black  rubber-soled  shoes,  bought  at  25  North  13th 
Street,  Philadelphia. 

Positions. — The  school  docs  not  guarantee  positions  to  graduates,  but 
assists  them  when  it  can.  Salaries  depend  upon  the  kind  of  work  done, 
the  responsibility  involved,  the  capabilities  of  the  applicant,  etc. 

Outside  TForZ:.— Students  have  no  time  to  engage  in  outside  work,  and 
cannot,  therefore,  earn  any  money  while  taking  the  course. 

There  are  no  summer,  evening,  or  correspondence  courses  for  Normal 
Students. 

students'  house. 

A  Students  House  has  been  organized  in  connection  with  the  work  of  the 
Department  of  Domestic  Science.  Board  and  room  may  be  obtained  at  %.b 
per  week.    Board  alone  $3.50  per  week. 

Applicants  wishing  to  have  a  place  in  the  house  should  send  in  their 
names  and  they  will  be  put  on  the  waiting  list. 

The  three  following  Courses  are  taken  by  Normal  students,  House- 
keepers, and  General  Students. 

The  First  Course  is  given  by  Normal  students  as  Practice  Classes  to 
children. 

First  Course  in  Cookery. 

1.  Combustion,  building  fire,  scalloped  oysters. 

2.  Food  principles,  water,  tea  coffee,  chocolate. 

3.  Starch,  white  sauce,  milk  toast. 

4.  Vegetables  in  white  sauce,  celery,  cabbage,  carrots,  stulFed  potatoes. 

5.  Soups  without  meats,  cream  of  potato,  potato,  croutons,  crisp  crackers 

6.  Cereals,  sugar,  steamed  apples,  apple  sauce,  avena,  steamed  and  boiled 
rice,  wheatena. 


Nonnal  Course  of  Doyncstic  Science,  Drexel  Institute.  301 


T.  Fats  and  oils,  caramel,  beef  drippings,  fried  oysters,  cranberry  jelly. 

8.  Fish  balls,  baked  apples. 

9.  Proteids,  eggs  cooked  in  water,  plain  omelet,  flour  omelet,  poached 
egg,  soft  cooked  egg. 

10.  Milk,  cup  custard,  floating  island,  pasteurized  milk,  rennet. 

11.  Cheese,  souffle,  welsh  rarebit,  cheese  straws. 

12.  Meats,  cuts  for  broiling  and  roasting,  roast,  broiled  chops,  lemon 
jelly,  Hamburg  steaks. 

13.  Meats,  cuts  for  soups  and  stews,  soup  stock,  scalloped  mutton,  baking 
powder  biscuits. 

14.  Corn  beef  hash,  corn  muffins. 

15.  Bread,  large  quantity. 

16.  Small  loaves  of  bread,  hash  with  gravy. 

Second  Gouese  in  Cookery. 

1.  Parker  house  rolls,  bread  sticks,  buns,  cinnamon  buns. 

2.  Brown  bread,  fruit  pudding,  hard  and  lemon  sauces,  butter  balls. 

3.  Plain  griddle  cakes,  waffles,  fricassees,  oysters. 

4.  Fish,  baked  fish  with  stuffing,  tomato  sauce,  Hollandaise  sauce,  steamed 
fish. 

5.  Poultry,  draw  a  fowl,  truss  for  roasting,  cut  for  fricassee. 

6.  Cooking  in  deep  fat,  alternate  rice  and  chicken  croquettes,  crumpets. 

7.  Soup  lesson  with  white  stock,  cream  and  potato,  clam  puree,  soup 
sticks,  noodles. 

8.  Review  meat,  veal  cutlets,  noodles  with  cheese. 

9.  Pastry,  apple  and  lemon  pie. 

10.  Desserts,  snow  pudding,  soft  custard,  coffee  cream,  sponge  cake. 

11.  Cake,  plain,  cream  almond  frosting, 

12.  Cookies,  strawberry  shortcake. 

13.  Salads,  potato,  French  dressing,  cole  slaw,  boiled  dressing,  stuffed 
eggs. 

14.  Opening  a  lobster.  Mayonnaise  dressing. 

15.  Luncheon,  served  on  desks. 

16.  Ice  cream,  chocolate  cakes. 

Thied  Couese  in  Cookeey. 

1  Preserving,  general  rules,  canned  peaches,  crab  apple  jelly,  spiced 
pears. 

2.  Preserving  continued,  ketchup,  quince  preserve,  grape  juice,  grape 
jam. 

3.  Heed  birds.  Bavarian  cream,  stuffed  peppers,  black  bean  soup. 

4.  Devilled  crabs,  chocolate  cake,  boiled  frosting,  chocolate  filling. 

5.  Sweetbread  patties,  Swedish  timbales,  breaded  mutton  cutlets,  Cul»an 
sauce,  potatoes  for  garnishing. 

6.  Caramel  Charlotte,  Charlotte  Ptusse,  bombe  glace,  jumbles,  macaroons. 

7.  Fillet  of  beef,  mushroom  sauce,  mock  turtle  soup. 

8.  Lobster  cutlets,  sauce  tcu'tare,  rolled  wafers. 

9.  Candy,  candied  orange  peel,  peppermints,  glace,  salted  almonds,  mint 
leaves. 


302 


U.S.A. — Appendix  F.—I. 


10.  Roast  duck,  potato  stuffing,  gravy,  plum  pudding. 

11.  Boned  chicken,  tomato  salad,  brandy  sauce. 

12.  Puff  paste,  cream  horns,  condes,  patties,  tarts. 

13.  Terrapin,  cream  puffs. 

14.  Ginger  ice  cream,  white  sponge  cake,  meringues,  grape  frappe'. 

15.  Nesselrode  pudding,  plain  cake,  ornamental  frosting,  sjwnge  fingers. 

16.  Marketing. 

NoEMAL  Domestic  Science.— Work  in  Senior  Year. 
Advanced  Cookery. 


Veal  croquettes. 
Creole  soup. 
Buns. 

Molasses  cookies. 
White  corn  cake. 


Clam  chowder 
Smelts. 


Jelly  roll. 
Chicken  cutlets. 
Macaroni  croquettes. 

Banbury  tarts. 
Puff  paste. 
Can  n  el  on  of  beef. 
Yorkshire  pudding. 
Queen  fritters. 

Roast  turkey. 

Cost  $1.25. 
Oranges. 

Germea.  Sugar,  cream. 

Halibut.  Potato  balls. 

Waffles  with  syrup. 
Butter  balls.  Bread. 
Coffee. 

Prepared  by  four  members  of  the  class  and  served  to  eight  members  of  the 
class. 


2.  Calf's  foot  jelly. 
Duchess  soup. 
Ox  tail  soup. 
Consomme. 
Boiled  fish. 

3.  Breakfast. 


4. 


Oyster  croquettes. 
Fish  chowder. 
Guinea  fowl. 
Veal  loaf. 
Jumbles. 
Rabbit. 


Capon. 
Orange  puffs. 
Chocolate  Charlotte. 
Orange  sauce. 
White  mountain  cake. 
Fig  filling. 


6. 


Braised  tongue. 
Roast  pork. 
Boiled  leg  of  mutton 
Caper  sauce. 
Cream  puffs. 

Luncheon. 


7. 


Ginger  pudding. 
Molasses  drop  cake. 
Custard  souffle. 
Cranberry  pudding. 
Sterling  sauce. 

Cost  $  1.50  (about  6s.). 
Cream  of  tomato  soup. 
Soup  sticks. 
Salmon  cutlets. 
Potato  soufHe.  Corn  pudding. 

Lettuce. 

Crackers.  Cheese. 

Grape  frappe. 
Cake.  Coffee. 
Olives. 

Sally  Lunn.  Bavarian  cream.  ^ 

Chicken  pie.  White  sponge  cake. 

Lemon  pie.  Cream  puffs. 

Mock  terrapin.  Salmon  croquettes. 

French  rusks.  Peptonized  beef  broth. 

Brown  bread.  Squab  in  paper. 

Tomato  jelly. 


Normal  Course  of  Domestic  Science,  Drexel  Institute.  303 


Aladdin  cooker  used  for  following  dishes  : — 

Stewed  chicken.  Baked  potatoes. 

Stewed  tomatoes.  Chocolate  bread  pudding. 

Rolled  almond  wafers.  Devilled  scallops. 

Chocolate  wafers.  Meat  cakes. 

Coffee  mousse.  Chestnut  puree. 

Loin  of  veal  with  vegetables. 


9.  Luncheon. 
Cranberry  pie. 
Coffee  cake. 
Planked  shad. 
Spring  lamb. 
White  corn  cake 

10.  Dinner. 


Cost  $  2.00. 
Peach  short  cake. 
Coffee  mousse. 
Spring  chicken. 
Lemon  pie. 
Ice  rice  pudding. 

Rice  cream. 

Cost  $  2.50. 
Mock  turtle  soup. 
Bread  sticks.  Radishes. 
Boiled  trout. 
Potato  roses. 
Baked  chicken. 
Brown  gravy.  Asparagus. 
Brain  patties. 
Lettuce  salad. 
French  dressing.  Cheese. 
Crackers. 

Wafers.      Frozen  strawberries.  Coffee. 


CouESE  OF  Demonstrations. — One  Term. 
Senior  Class. 

Subjects.  Demonstrations. 
L        --------      Instructor  in  Cookery 


4.  Eggs       ---------  Student. 

5.  Milk  --------- 

6.  Invalid  Cookery  ------- 

7.  Use  of  Chafing  Dish  ------ 

8.  Milk 

9.  Meat  --------- 

10.  Bread  --------- 

11.  Invalid  Cookery 

12.  Soups 

13.  Use  of  Chafing  Dish  ------ 

14.  Meat  --------- 

15.  Baking  --------- 

16.  Desserts  --------- 


Normal  Domestic  Science. 
Short  Course  in  Home  Nursing. 

(Additional  lectures  given  in  the  course  in  Physiology.) 

Spring  term.  Senior  year. 

1.  Sick  room. 

2.  Sick  bed,  changing  bed  and  body  clothing. 

3.  Baths,  for  cleanliness. 

4.  Baths,  hot  water,  hot  air,  vapour. 

5.  Baths,  cold  ;  poultices,  fomentation. 

().  Sleej).  Method  of  inducincj  it,  administration  of  mediciDc,  feeding  a 
patient. 


304  U.S. A. -Appendix  F.—l . 

Normal  and  Technical  Classes. 
Laundry  Course. 

1.  General  notes.    Removal  of  stains. 

2.  Wash  :  table  linen,  tablecloths,  napkins,  doylies., 

3.  AV ash  :  bed  linen,  sheets,  pillow  cases.    Iron  :  Table  linen. 

4.  Wash  :  body  linen,  night  dress,  drawers.    Iron  :  Bed  linen. 

5.  Wash  :  body  linen,  white  skirt,  corset  cover.    Iron  :^  Body  linen. 

6.  Wash  :  shirt-waist ;  collars.    Iron  :  corset  cover,  skirts. 

7.  Wash  :  stockings.    Starch  :  blouse,  collars. 

8.  Iron  :  blouse,  collars. 

9.  Wash  :  flannels  and  coloured  clothes. 

10.  Iron  :  flannels  and  coloured  clothes. 

11.  Wash:  handkerchiefs,  embroideries.  Iron:  embroideries,  handker- 
chiefs. 

12.  Clean  and  wash  black  and  coloured  woollen  goods.  Wash,  clear  starch, 
and  iron  sash  curtains. 

Theoretical  instruction  of  the  scientific  principles  involved  in  the  various 
processes  is  followed  by  i)ractice. 

Soaps,  washing  fluids,  bleaching  powders,  blueings,  and  starch,  are 
discussed  in  their  scientific  and  practical  relations  to  laundry  work. 

Normal  and  Technical  Domestic  Science  Courses. 
Waitresses'  Course. 

1.  Appearance  and  dress  of  waitresses. 

2.  Washing  dishes, 

3.  Care  of  pantry. 

4.  Care  of  dining-roouL 

5.  Kules  for  serving. 

6.  Rules  for  making  and  serving  chocolate,  tea,  black  coffee,  bread,  butter 
balls,  sandwiches,  salads,  French  dressing,  mayonnaise  dressing,  potato 
salad,  soft  cooked  egg. 

7.  The  keeping  of  table  linen. 

8.  Karly  morning  Avork  in  bedroom. 

9.  Later  morning  work  in  bedroom. 

10.  Evening  work  in  bedroom. 

11.  General  directions  for  bedroom. 

Domestic  Science  Course  for  Normal  and  other  Students. 
Synopsis  of  Lectures  on  Planning  and  Building  of  a  House. 

First  Lecture.— The  location  and  surroundings  of  the  house,  the  plac- 
ing of  the  house,  topography,  drawings  of  site,  opportunities  of  situation 
cost  of  houses  and  general  method  of  figuring  them. 

Second  Lecture.— The  house  in  detail,  the  rooms  and  their  position  in 
the  house,  the  basement,  first^  floor,  second  floor,  attic.  The  materials  used 
in  their  construction  as  they  interest  the  housekeeper. 

Third  Lecture.— The  planning  of  suburban  houses  ;  when  a  wooden 
house  is  preferable,  when  a  masonry  house,  stone  or  brick,  style  of  archi- 
tecture. 

Fourth  Lecture.— The  simple  city  house,  fire  limits,  planning  of  the 
city  house  as  to  economy  of  space  and  conveniences,  the  architectural 
character  of  the  front,  architectural  details  of  the  interior. 

Fifth  Lecture.— Sanitation  of  the  house,  heating  and  ventilation, 
water  supply  and  drainage,  plumbing,  lighting,  the  kitchen,  importance  of 
sanitary  arrangements  of  the  house. 

This  is  succeeded  by  a  course  in  House  Decoration  and  Furnishing, 
illustrated  by  visits  of  observation  to  houses,  shops,  factories,  etc, 


Normal  Course  of  Domestic  Science,  Drexel  Institute.  305 


Household  Science  and  Economics. 

Classification  of  Food  Principles. 

Food  adjuncts. 

Fermentation. 

Preservation  of  food  materials. 

National  and  State  laws  regarding  food  adulteration  and  inspection. 

Manufactured  food  materials. 

Scientific  kitchens  (public,  school,  home). 

Care  of  the  house  according  to  liygienic  laws. 

Water  supply— filtration  of  water. 

Heating  and  lighting.    Care  of  lamps. 

Care  of  rooms — dining-room,  bath-room,  bed-room. 

The  kitchen. 

Disposal  of  waste. 

Chemicals  for  household  use.    Care  and  cleaning  of  silver,  nickel,  iron, 

paints,  copper,  tin,  marble,  woodwork,  brass,  zinc,  porcelain,  glass. 
Laundry  of  table  linen,  removal  of  stains. 
Laundry  of  lace. 

Lectures  to  Domestic  Science  and  Domestic  Art  Students. 
By  President  Mac  Alister. 
History  ()F  Education. 

1.  Education  in  ancient  times. 

2.  Education  in  the  Middle  iVges,  with  special  reference  to  monastic 

institutions. 

3.  The  great  reformers  of  education  in  modern  times. 

4.  The  beginnings  of  scientific,  technical,  and  industrial  education. 

5.  The  fundamental  principles  of  method  in  education.    (2  lectures.) 

6.  Domestic  Science  Training  in  schools. 

7.  Domestic  Arts  Training  in  schools. 

8.  Domestic  Science  and  Arts  in  their  relations  to  some  social  problems. 

9.  The  duties  and  responsibilities  of  the  teacher. 

Chemistry. 
Junior  Year. 

I — General  Chemistry  — 

Lectures  illustrated  by  experiments,  diagrams,  specimens,  etc. 
Laboratory  work. 
The  student  is  trained — 

(a)  to  deduce  the  more  important  facts  of  the  science  ; 

(b)  to  study  comparative  properties  of  substances  ; 

(c)  to  acquire  a  scientific  habit  of  thought 

IL  Qualitative  Analysis — ■ 

Common  metals  and  their  reactions. 
Analysis  of  solutions  containing  those  metals. 
Acids  and  their  reactions. 

Analysis  of  solutions  containing  bases  and  acids  studied. 
General  miscellaneous  qualitative  work,  examination  of  powders, 
alloys,  insoluble  substances,  as  time  permits. 

Senior  Year. 

I — Organic  Chemistry — 

Hydrocarbons  and  their  derivatives. 
The  students  prepare  and  study  a  tyi)ical  compound  of  each 
class. 

6490.  U 


306  U.S.A.— Affendix  F.—L 

II — Quantitative  A  dialysis — 

Analysis  of  food  materials. 

The  following  list  indicates  the  general  scope  of  the  quantitative 
work. 

Chemically  pure  salts,  potable  water,  common  salt,  bi-carbonate 
of  sodium.  Hour  or  bread,  baking  powders,  sugar  or  syrups, 
milk,  butter,  lard,  cheese,  tea,  coffee,  chocolate. 

During  the  senior  year,  second  term,  a  course  of  lectures  in  the  Chemistry 
of  Food  and  Dietetics  is  given,  the  lectures  being  supplemented  by  laboratory 
work. 

Outline  of  Lecture  Course  on  Food  and  Dietetics,  1901. 

By  Ernest  A.  Congdon,  Professor  of  Chemistry. 

I.  — Introductory.    Historical.    Relation  of  chemistry  to  food  and  diet. 

II.  — Definition  of  a  food.  Uses  of  food  in  the  human  economy  (repair 
tissues  ;  produce  heat ;  produce  force). 

III.  — Chemical  composition  of  the  human  body.  (Elements  present. 
Compounds  present.) 

IV.  — Chemical  composition  of  food  materials.  Proximate  food  prin- 
ciples :  Proteids,  fats,  carbohydrates,  water,  mineral  matter. 

V.  — Chemical  analysis  of  food  materials.  (Analyses  of  American  food 
materials — Atwater.) 

VI.  — Value  of  foods.  Use  of  the  "  Calorie  "  (heat  unit).  Value  of  the 
nutrients  (proteids,  fats,  carbohydrates)  expressed  in  calories.  The  nutrient 
ratio,  the  ratio  expressed  in  calories,  between  the  nitrogenous  and  non- 
nitrogenous  nutrients. 

VII.  — Metabolism,  or  the  exchange  of  food  materials  in  the  animal 
economy.  (Anabolism  and  Katabolism.)  Metabolism  divided  into — 
introduction,  digestion,  absorption,  and  assimilation  of  food. 

VIII.  — Study  of  diet.  Standard  for  dietaries.  Foreign  and  American. 
(Work  of  Voit,  Atwater  and  others.) 

IX.  — Computation  of  amounts  of  foods  necessary  to  conform  to  standard 
dietaries.  Calculation  of  the  value  of  various  diets  and  of  prepared 
foods. 

X.  — Chemical  study  of  materials  used  as  foods.  Water  (potable  and 
mineral),  common  salt,  starch  foods,  sugars,  fats,  oils,  cereals ;  dairy 
products — milk,  butter,  cheese,  etc.,  eggs  •  Hesh  foods — meat,  fish,  etc. ; 
fruits,  vegetables,  salads,  beverages,  food  adjuncts. 

XL — Study  of  fermentation.  Organized  and  unorganized  ferments. 
Fermentative  and  putrefactive  changes.    Yeast.    Work  of  Bacteria. 

XII. — Preparation  of  food  materials  for  consumption.  Chemical  study 
of  changes  that  foods  undergo  in  cooking  processes.  Food  adulterations 
and  their  detection.    Bibliography.    Literature  on  foods  and  dietetics. 

Outline  of  Course  on  Food  Analysis,  1901. 
(Laboratory  Work  and  Recitations.) 

By  A.  Hon  wood.  Instructor  in  Chemistry. 

I.  Analysis  of  crystallized  barium  chloride. — 
(a)  Determination  of  barium. 
(/>)  „  chloride, 

(c)  „  water. 

II.  Analysis  of  potable  water  :— 
(a)  Total  solids. 
(l>)  Chlorine, 
(c)  Free  ammonia. 
{d)  Albuminoid  ammonia 


Normal  Course  of  Domestic  Science,  Drexel  Institute.  307 


III.  Analysis  of  milk. — 

{a)  Specific  gravity. 

{b)  Water  or  total  solids. 

(c)  Fat  (Feser  lactoscope,   lacto-butyrometer   and  Adam's 
method). 

(d)  Casein  (Kjeldahl  method). 
\e)  Ash. 

(f)  Milk  sugar  (Soxhlet,  gravimetric). 

IV.  Analysis  of  butter.- 
(a)  Water. 
{h)  Fat. 
(c)  Curd 
{(1)  Salt. 
{e)  Ash. 

(/)  Volatile  acids  (distinction  from  oleomargarine.) 

V.  Analysis  of  cereal  foods,  bread,  flour. — 
{a)  Water. 
(/>)  l\at. 
((•)  Proteid. 

{d)  Carbohydrate  (starch,  sugar) 

{e)  Fibre. 
(/)  Ash. 
VI.  Analysis  of  tea. — 

{(i)  Moisture. 
{(>)  Tannin. 

{(•)  Extract. 
{d)  Cattein 

{e)  Ash. 

VII.  Analysis  of  baking  powders. — 

{a)  Determination  of  class  (phosphate,  alum,  etc.). 

{!))  Total  carbon  dioxide. 

(c;  Available  carbon  dioxide. 

References. 

IT.  S.  Government  Bulletin,  No.  4G.  Leffman  and  Beam,  Water  Analysis. 
Wanklyn,  Water  Analysis.  Leffman  and  Beam,  Milk  and  Butter.  Gerber, 
Analysis  of  Milk. 


Normal  Domestic  Science  and  Domestic  Art  Students. 
Physiology  Course. 

Junior  Year. 

1.  — Introduction.  Definitions.  Plan  of  organization  of  the  animal  body. 
Geneial  dissection  of  an  anin)al. 

2.  —  Cheniic  composition  of  tlie  human  body.  The  carbo-hydrates  and 
fats. 

3.  — Chemic  coniposition  of  the  human  body.  Tlie  proteids  and  inorganic 
compounds. 

4.  — The  piiysiology  of  the  cell.  Its  growth,  movements,  reproduction  and 
general  nutrition. 

f). —Histology  and  ])liysiol()gy  of  the  e])ithelial  and  connective  tissues. 
G.— Mechanism  of  the  skeleton.    Structure  and  function  of  the  joints. 
The  animal  body  as  a  machine  for  doing  work. 

7.  — The  geneial  physiology  of  muscle  tisHue.  The  structure  and  clu'ini*; 
composition  of  muscle. 

8.  -The  muscle  contraction.  Tlie  conditions  inlluencing-  the  contraction. 
The  production  of  heat.  The  relation  of  food  to  heat  :vnd  work.  'J'he 
special  physiology  of  muscles 

0490,  u  2 


308 


V.S. A.— Appendix  F.—l. 


9.  — The  general  physiology  of  nerve  tissue.  The  general  arrangement  ot 
the  nervous  system.    The  structure  and  function  of  the  nerves. 

10.  — Keflex  and  voluntary  actions. 

11.  — Foods.  Dietetics.  The  necessity  for  foods.  Phenomena  of  starva- 
tion. Classification  of  alimentary  principles.  The  uses  of  foods  in  the 
body. 

12.  — The  heat  values  of  foods.  The  chemic  composition  of  the  animal. 
The  vegetable  and  cereal  foods. 

13.  — Digestion.    The  structure  of  the  alimentary  canal.  Mastication. 

14.  — Insalivation.  The  physical  and  chemic  action  of  saliva  on  the  food 
and  starch. 

15.  — Gastric  digestion.  The  composition  of  gastric  juice  and  its  chemic 
action  on  the  proteids.    Iniluences  affecting  digestion. 

16.  — Intestinal  digestion.  The  physiologic  action  of  the  pancreatic  juice. 
The  bile  and  intestinal  juice.    Their  actions  on  foods. 

17.  — Absorption.  The  mechanism  by  which  the  digested  products  enter 
the  blood. 

18.  — The  blood.    Its  physical  properties.    Its  chemic  composition. 

19.  — The  blood  corpuscles,  red  and  white.  The  relation  of  the  blood  to 
the  tissues. 

20.  — The  circulation  of  the  blood.  The  general  anatomy  of  the  circulating 
apparatus.    The  structure  and  functions  of  the  heart. 

21.  — The  structure  and  functions  of  the  arteries. 

22.  — The  capillaries  and  veins. 

23.  — Respiration — the  object  of.  The  general  structure  of  the  respi- 
ratory apparatus.  The  movements  of  respiration.  The  amount  of  air 
breathed  under  different  conditions.    The  composition  of  the  air. 

24.  — The  changes  it  undergoes  at  the  time  of  breathing.  The  amount  of 
oxygen  absorbed  and  the  amount  of  CO2  discharged. 

25.  — Ventilation. 

26.  — Animal  heat.  Source  and  causes  of  heat  production.  The  disposi- 
tion of  heat  in  the  body.  The  manner  in  which  the  normal  temperature  is 
regulated. 

27.  — The  skin.    Its  structure  and  functions. 

28.  —The  kidneys.  Their  structure  and  functions.  The  urine  and  its 
chemical  composition. 


} 


Senior  Ye 
The  Physiological  Chemistry  of — 
Starches  and  sugars 
Fats 
Proteids 

The  Physiological  Chemistry  of  Digestion- 
Salivary  digestion 
Gastric  digestion 
Intestinal  digestion 

Absorption  of  Foods — 
Demonstration. 

The  Fermentation  of  Foods — 

Causes  and  conditions  determining  it. 

The  Putrefactive  Changes  in  Foods — 

The  causes  and  the  conditions  determining 
it  and  the  products 

BACTERIOLC)GY- 

Bactei  ia.  Their  nature,  structure  | 
Mode  of  activity  and  classification  / 

The  Parasites  of  Animal  Foods. 
The  Bacterial  Infection  of  Foods. 
Ptomaines.    Leucomaines — 

Their  influence  in  the  production  of  disease. 
The  Thymus  and  Thyroid  Glands. 


Three  lectures. 

Three  lectures. 

One  lecture. 
One  lecture 

I   One  lecture. 

One  lecture. 

One  lecture. 
One  lecture. 

One  lecture. 


Normal  Course  of  Domestic  SoienGe,  Drexd  Institute.  309 

Biology—  / 

General  dissection  of  animal  forms. 

The  structure  of  the  fish,  turtle,  frog,  chicken,  rabbit,  lobster, 

oyster  and  clam. 
Reproduction  Three  lectures. 

The  Diseases  connected  with  Disordklied  Nuteition— 
Gout.    Diabetes.    Rickets.    Rheumatism.  Scurvy, 

Hygiene. 

Physical  development  (details  of). 

Physical  training  (supplemented  by  practice). 

Effects  of  diet. 

Care  of  the  skin. 

Clothing  suited  for  various  ages. 

Ventilation — Natural  and  Artificial. 

Household  sanitation. 

Emergencies — First  aid  and  accidents,  etc.,  etc. 

Lectures  on  Bacteriology. 

1.  — Place  in  Nature. 

2.  — Presence. 

3.  — Morphology. 

(a)  Bacillus — grouping. 

(b)  Micrococcus — grouping. 

(c)  Spirillum. 

4.  — Size  and  numbers. 

5.  — Motility. 

6.  — Nutrition. 

7.  — Relation  to  air. 

8.  — Relation  to  temperature. 

9.  — Reproduction. 

10.  — Helpful  and  harmful. 

(a)  Saprophytes. 

(b)  Parasites. 

11.  — Relation  to  water  supply. 

12.  — Relation  to  milk  supply. 

13.  — Relation  to  butter  and  cheese  making. 

14.  — Products  of  activity. 

15.  — Sterilization.    Antiseptics.  Disinfectants. 

16.  — Yeasts  and  Moulds.. 

17.  — History. 

Laboratory  Work  in  Bacteriology. 

1.  — Use  of  microscope. — Cover  class  preparations. 

2.  — Unicellular  organisms. — Bacteria,  infusoria,  yeast. 

3.  — Washing,  plugging,  and  sterilizing  glassware. 

4.  — Preparation  of  media  for  pure  cultures.— Bouillon,  gelatin,  agar-agar, 

potatoes,  milk. 

5.  — Sterilizing  media. 

6.  — Making  air  plate. 

7.  — Staining  bacteria. 

8.  — Effect  of  light  on  bacteria. 

9.  — Quantitative  analysis  of — Tap  water,  Pasteur  filtered  water,  ice. 

10.  — Testing  Pasteur  filter. 

11.  — Quantitative  analysis  of  : — Walker-Gordon  milk,  lunch  room  milk. 

12.  — Examination  and  identification  of  bacteria. 

13.  — M.  butyri  aromafaciens. 

14.  — Tests  of  disinfectants  and  antiseptics. — Milk  of  lime,  carbolic  acid, 

boiling  water,  listerine. 


310. 


U.S.A. — Appendix  F. — 7/. 


Business  Customs  and  Accounts. 

Lectures  on — 

Money  and  its  circulation. 
Banks  and  banking  methods. 
Trust  companies. 

Women  as  stockholders  and  bondholders. 
Capital  and  credit,  failures,  assignments,  etc. 
Legal  status  of  women. 

Business  i)apers,  cliecjues,  promissory  notes,  etc. 

Practical  work  in  drawing  cheques,  writing  business  letters. 

Book-keeping  by  double  entry  (cash  book,  day  book,  ledger). 


II.-NORMAL  COUESE  OF  DOMESTIC  ART. 
Hand  and  Machine  Sewing. 
Junior  Year. 

First  Grade. — History  of  implements  used  in  hand  sewing  ;  kinds  and 
qualities  of  materials  for  undergarments  ;  ])roper  position  of  the  body  in 
sewing  ;  methods  of  using  thread  and  needles,  thimble  and  tape-measure  ; 
woven  textiles ;  different  kinds  of  stitches  ;  combination  of  stitches  ; 
seams,  hems,  tucks,  button-holes  ;  making  simple  garments. 

Second  Grade. — Sewing  machines ;  measurements  ;  drafting  drawers, 
underskirts  and  nightgowns ;  making  of  garments ;  cutting  and  making 
corset-covers  from  patterns  ;  cutting  and  making  blouses. 

Third  (VVafie.— Drafting,  cutting,  making  blouses,  cotton  dresses,  and 
garments  for  infants. 

DllESSMAKING. 

First  Grade. 

I.  — Implements  and  appliances  used  in  dressmaking. 

II.  — Cotton  staple,  its  various  uses ;  choice  of  materials  ;  textiles  as  to 
colour  and  application  to  dress. 

III.  — Taking  measurements ;  drafting  foundation  skirt  ;  drafting 
draperies  and  i)rinciples  of  same  ;  finishing  skirt  for  trimming  or  drajung  ; 
making  lined  skirt. 

IV.  — Form,  proportion  and  line  relating  to  ornament  in  dress. 

V.  — Plans  for  completing  skirts  ;  cutting  blouses  with  seams  from  patterns 
drafted  by  students  of  the  advanced  grades,  from  measurements  taken 
from  difi'erent  meml)ers  of  the  class  ;  basting,  fitting  i»lanning  trimming  ; 
general  finish. 

Senior  Year. 
Second  Grade. 

L— Colour  and  textiles  ;  their  various  uses  and  relations  to  personal 
adornment ;  growth  of  wool  and  silk  ;  manufacture  of  fabrics. 

II.  — Takinii'  measurements;  drafting  plain  bodice  from  different 
measurements  ;  drafting  bodice  with  extra  seams  for  large  figure  ;  cutting 
and  matching  striped,  plaid,  or  figured  material  for  bodice-making  and 
trinmiing  the  same  ;  drafting  and  making  dresses  on  the  gown-form. 

III.  — Artistic  dress  in  its  relation  to  the  body  ;  design  in  drapery. 
J  V. — Making  dress  on  gown-form  from  the  students'  own  designs, 


Normal  Course  of  Domestic  Art,  Drexel  Institute.  311 
Third  Grade. 

I.  — Advanced  drafting.  Choice  of  materials  for  gowns  of  special 
character. 

II.  — Making  dinner  dress,  evening  dress  ;  choice  of  materials  for  same. 
Handling  of  velvet. 

III.  — Making  models  of  inexpensive  materials  to  test  the  design. 

IV.  — The  form  and  poise  of  the  body  in  their  relation  to  dress. 

V.  — Child's  dress-materials,  drafting,  cutting  and  making  the  same. 

Fourth  Grade. 

I.  — Materials  used  in  making  coats,  as  staple  and  manufactured. 

II.  — Drafting  jackets  and  coats  of  various  styles  ;  cutting,  basting,  fitting, 
pressing  •  practice  in  making  pockets,  applying  same  to  garments  ;  making 
button  holes,  sewing  on  buttons ;  lining  and  finish  of  coat ;  making 
collars. 

III.  — Principles  applied  to  tailor-made  dresses. 


Millinery. 
Junior  Year. 
First  Grade. 

I. — Colour  and  materials  as  related  to  the  head  dress. 
II. — Wiring  ;  folds  ;  fitted  facing  ;  shirred  facing  ;  pulfed  edge. 

III.  — Bows  and  rosettes. 

IV.  — Study  of  line  and  form  as  applied  to  frame-making  ;  buckram  hat 
frames. 

V. — Fitted  hat  made,  lined  and  trimmed. 
VI. — Manufactures  of  straw  and  felt  hats,  velvet,  and  ribbon  explained. 

Second  Grade. 

I.— Bonnet,  with  plain  crown  and  with  puffing,  made,  lined,  and 
trimmed. 

II. — Bonnet  of  more  complex  design. 

III.  — Toque  made,  lined,  and  trimmed. 

IV.  — Practical  work,  regulated  by  the  season  in  which  the  grade  is 
studied,  and  leading  to  a  knowledge  of  the  designing  of  bonnets  and  hats. 
At  least  four  pieces  of  millinery  must  be  made  by  each  student. 

Senior  Year. 
Third  Grade. 

I. — Crepe  bonnet. 
II.— Silk  bonnet  or  hat. 
Ill  —Growth  and  manufacture  of  silk  explained. 
IV. — Wire  frame-making. 
V. — Large  velvet  hat. 
VI. — Evening  bonnet  from  student's  own  design 
VII.— Shirred  hat. 
Designing  of  head-dresses. 

Drawing. 

Junior  Year. 

Outline  and  light  and  shade  drawing. 
(;)olour  studies. 

Proportions  of  the  human  figure. 

Draperies,  bows,  feathers  and  hat  trimmings  in  black  and  white  and  in 
colour. 

Colour  values. 


312 


U.S.A. — Appendix  F. — 11.  and  III. 


Senior  Year. 

Rendering  of  dresses  and  gowns  in  black  and  white  and  colour. 
Designing  of  hats,  bonnets  and  toques,  in  black  and  white  and  in  colour. 
Designing  of  costumes  and  head-dresses  in  colour. 


Lectures  on  the  Chemistry  of  Textiles— Dyeing  and  Cleansing. 

Historical  sketch  {Yrt^f  dyeing'' 
/^Cotton. 
Flax. 

Study  of  textiles.  Ramie. 

Wool. 
ISilk. 

Microscopic  and  chemical  methods  of  ascertaining  organic  structure. 
Materials  used  in  dyeing. 
Operations  ])reliminary  to  ijrocess. 
Chemistry  of  — 

Washing, 

Cleansing. 

])leaching. 

Dyeing. 

Colouring  matters  {^^.'j'^^tl. 
Chemistry  of  coal-tar  colours 


III.-EVENING  CLASSES  IN  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

First  Course  in  Cookery. 

Lesson   I  Introductory  talk  and  measurements. 
II.  Build  fire  ;  scalloped  oysters. 

III.  Food  Principles  ;  Chocolate  and  whipped  cream. 

IV.  Water  ;  Boiled  and  filtered  cotfee.  Tea. 

V.  Starch  ;  Baked  potatoes,  cornstarch  pudding. 
VL  Starch  ;  Toast  with  white  sauce. 
VII.  Vegetables  ;    Vegetables  with  white  sauce. 
VIII.  Soups  ;  Cream  of  tomato,  potato    soup,   croutons  and 
crisped  crackers. 
IX.  Cereals,  avena,  wheatena  ;   boiled  rice,  steamed  apples, 

steamed  rice,  stewed  apples. 
X.  Sugar  ;  Peanut  candy,  fish  balls. 
XI.  Fats  ;  Fried  oysters,  cranberry  jelly. 
XII.  Eggs  ;  Dropped  eggs,  omelet,  eggs  cooked  in  water. 

XIII.  Milk  ;  Cup  custard,  rennet,  floating  ishxnd. 

XIV.  Cheese  ;  Welsh  rarebit,  cheese  souffle.  Pasteurized  milk. 
XV.  Meat ;  broiled  chops,  Hamburg  steaks,  lemon  jelly. 

XVI.  Meat  ;  scalloped  mutton,  corn  muffins. 
XVII.  Meat ;  casserole  of   rice,  tomato  sauce,  baking  powder 
biscuits. 

XVIII.  Meat ;  Browned  hash,  whole  wheat  muffins. 
XIX.  Cake  ;  Gingerbread,  lemon  sauce. 

XX.  Cake. 
XXL  Bread. 

XXII.  Invalid  Cookery  ;  Beef  broth,  beef  juice,  milk  porridge, 
flour  gruel. 
XXIIL  Practical  examination. 
XXIV.  Apple  snowballs  ;  lemon  sauco. 


Junior  Course  in  Domestic  Science^  Brtxel  Institute, 

IV. -JUNIOR  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE  COURSE. 

Specimen  Household  Science  Course. 
Senior  Year. 

1.  Cellar  :  Plan  and  care. 

2.  Kitchen  :  Range,  etc. 

3.  Care  of  pantry. 

4.  Clean  dining-room. 

?>.  Review  and  have  a  talk  on  serving  meals. 

6.  Serving  breakfast. 

7.  Serving  luncheon. 

8.  Serving  dinner. 

9.  Lighting  and  heating  :  Care  of  lamps. 

10.  Washing  table  linen. 

11.  Ironing  table  linen. 

12.  Washing  and  ironing  embroideries. 

13.  Care  of  bedroom. 

14.  Spring  cleaning  :  Daily  care  of  a  home. 


314 


U.S.A. — Appendix  G. 


APPENDIX  G. 

SCHOOL  OF  HOUSEKEEPING,  BOSTON. 
SYNOPSIS  OF  COURSE. 

Term  I. 

1.— Home  Sociology. 

A  study  of  the  home  in  its  sociological  aspects.  Evolution  of  the  family, 
Its  forms  and  functions.  Tlie  standard  of  living  among  different  races. 
Industrial  changes  in  their  reaction  on  the  home.  Tendencies  of  j^resent 
industrial  forces,  and  of  city  life.  Economics  of  production  in  relation  to 
the  family.  The  home  as  the  unit  of  consumption.  Ethical  relation  of  the 
home  to  society  ;  responsibility  of  the  home  as  a  factor  in  public  health  and 
education.    (Eight  lectures.) 

2. — Bacteriology  in  Relation  to  Daily  Living. 

Bacteria,  their  nature  and  life-history.  Conditions  affecting  growth. 
Helpful  bacteria,  with  special  emphasis  on  bacteria  which  are  of  use  to  the 
liousekeeper.  Bacteria  harmful  in  household  processes.  Disease  germs, 
with  a  l)rief  discussion  of  the  most  common  contagious  diseases,  and  the 
means  by  which  the  intelligent  housekeeper  can  prevent  their  spread. 
(Lectures,  laboratory  work  and  recitations.) 

3.— House  Sanitation. 

Location  of  house,  with  discussion  of  soil  and  drainage  of  land.  Build- 
ing materials.  Construction  of  cellar.  Plumbing.  Water  supply.  Heat- 
ing, lighting,  ventilation,  furnishing,  cleaning  and  disinfection.  (Lectures, 
laboratory  work  and  recitations.) 

4.— Chemistry  of  Food-Stuffs. 

Relation  of  food  to  health.  Classes  of  food-stuffs  ;  definition,  description, 
physical  and  chemical  properties,  decomposition  products,  occurrence  in 
natural  food  materials.  Effects  on  food-stuffs  of  heat,  of  acids,  of  alkalies. 
Typical  foods.  Composition,  food  value,  money  value,  and  principles  of 
cooking  of  : — milk  and  milk  products,  eggs  and  meat,  fish,  cereals,  breads, 
legumes,  roots  and  tubers,  fresh  vegetables  and  fruits.  (Lectures,  laboratoiy 
work  and  recitations.) 

5.— Dietaries. 

Aim — to  find  that  combination  of  food-stuffs  which  will  produce  the  most 
efficient  individual,  and  to  indicate  how  this  may  be  done  with  the  least 
expenditure  of  money.  In  i)lanning  a  dietary  there  are  to  be  considered: 
nutritive  value,  digestibility,  palatability,  complementary  qualities  and  cost. 
The  common  foods  are  studied  in  various  combinations  as  suited  for 
children  up  to  the  age  of  fifteen.    (Lectures  and  recitations.) 

6.— Hygiene  of  Childhood. 

These  exercises  will  include -lectures,  readiiig  and  reports  upon  the 
development  of  the  normal  child.  Special  attention  will  be  given  to  sleej). 
diet,  clothing,  exercise,  and  play.  The  course  will  be  illustrated  by  diagrams, 
photographs  and  demonstrations  of  normal  and  abnormal  conditions.  (Six 
lectures.) 

7.— Home  Nursing. 

Bed-making  for  bed  patients.  Change  of  sheet  and  night  dress.  Lifting 
and  moving  helpless  patients  Bandaging.  Baths.  (Five  lectures,  with 
demonstrations.) 


School  of  Housekeeping,  Boston.    Synopsis  of  Course.  315 


8.— Emergencies. 

Anatomy.  Cause,  symptoms  and  first  treatment  of  hoemorrhagcs,  burns 
and  scalds,  of  sprains,  dislocations  and  fractures,  of  unconscious  conditions. 
(Five  lectures,  with  demonstrations.) 

9.— Journal  Club. 

A  resume  of  the  most  recent  publications  in  current  literature  relating  to 
the  Household. 

10.  — Elementary  Chemistry 

Chemical  and  physical  change.  Constitution  of  matter.  Valence.  Laws  of 
chemical  actions.  Acids,  bases  and  salts.  Writing  of  reactions.  Chemistry  of 
combustion,  of  water,  of  the  atmos]ihere.  ]\Iethods  of  preparation  and  uses 
of  the  more  common  acids,  bases  and  salts.  Chemistry  of  the  common 
elements  and  their  compounds.    (Sixteen  lectures  and  recitations.) 

11.  — Principles  of  Cooking. 

Practical  individual  work,  including  both  large  and  small  quantities  of 
material.  Food  value,  cost,  preparation  and  cooking  of  souj),  meats,  eggs, 
fish,  poultry,  cereals,  vegetables,  batters  and  douglis,  including  breads,  sauces, 
salad  dressings,  jellies,  frozen  mixtures,  pastry,  puddings,  and  beverages. 

12.— Practice  Work  in  Cooking. 

Resident  pupils  will  be  required  to  do  practice  work  in  cooking  and 
serving  on  Wednesday  afternoons. 

Term  II. 
1.— Home  Economics. 

Purpose  of  the  home.  Its  significance  as  a  civilizing  force.  Its  danger 
to-day.  Ideals  of  living  in  relation  to  the  home.  Economics  of  living,  of 
the  house,  of  furniture  and  decoration,  of  purchase  and  of  food,  as  con- 
trolled by  standards  of  life.  Women's  res]>onsibility  for  these  standards. 
The  home  mother.    The  house  worker.  (Lectures  and  recitations.) 

2.— Public  Hygiene  in  Relation  to  the  Housekeeper. 

Points  of  contact  between  the  housekeeper  and  the  public  in  sanitary 
matters.  Responsibility  of  the  housekeeper.  Water  supply,  ice  sujiply, 
milk  supply.  Gas  and  electricity.  House  drainage.  The  disposal  of 
sewage  in  city  and  country.  LaM^s  regulating  the  ins})ection  of  meat,  milk, 
other  foods  and  drugs.  Pavements,  street  cleaning  and  disposal  of  garbage. 
The  relation  of  the  housekeeper  to  public  health  in  quarantine,  isolation 
notification  and  disinfection.  School  hygiene.  The  sanitation  of  bake- 
shops.  The  abatement  of  noises  and  of  smoke.  Public  playgrounds,  baths, 
gymnasia,  open  spaces.  The  disposal  of  arbage,  ashes  and  combustible 
waste.    (Lectures  and  recitations.) 

3.— House  Architecture. 

Designed  to  supplement  a  woman's  practical  knowledge  of  the  ncedn  of 
the  housekeeper,  with  a  few  of  the  fundamental  i)rinciples  of  domestic 
architecture,  in  order  to  secure  more  intelligent  co-oi)eration  between  her- 
self and  the  architect.  1  reparation  of  site.  Construction  of  foundation, 
cellar,  walls,  fioors,  ceilings,  roofs.  House  plans,  with  a  discussion  of  what 
can  he  done  for  varying  sums  of  money.  Relation  of  plan  to  ideals  of 
iiome  life,  and  to  work  to  be  done  in  the  house.  (Eight  lessons.  Lectures, 
recitations,  and  field  lessons.)  ' 


310  U.S.A.—Appendii!  G. 

4. — Art  in  the  Home. 

Fundamental  rules  of  Art.  General  principles  of  proportion,  colour  an 
construction.  Treatment  of  walls,  floors,  ceiling.  Selection  and  cost  of 
furniture,  floor  coverings,  hangings,  pictures,  chandeliers,  lamps,  and  bric- 
a-brac.  Present  shop-standards  ;  house  buyer's  responsiljility  for  these 
standards.  Artistic  clothing.  (Eight  lessons.  Lectures,  recitations,  and 
field  lessons.) 

5.— (Jhemisty  of  Food  Htuffs. 

Energy  giving  power  of  foods.  Bodily  energy.  Methods  of  food 
analysis.  Study  of  food  values.  Effect  of  storage,  of  drying,  of  preser- 
vatives. Results  of  wrong  combinations.  The  science  of  nutrition. 
(Lectures  and  recitations.) 

G.— Dietaries. 

Review  of  principles  governing  dietary  standards.  The  balanced  ration. 
Combinations  of  food  suited  for  workers,  for  old  persons,  for  invalids. 
Economic  dietaries.  Practice  in  providing  acceptable  food  for  from  fifteen 
to  sixty  cents  per  person  per  day.  (Lectures,  recitations,  and  practical 
•work.) 

v.— Estimates  of  Household  Expenditure. 

To  proportion  incomes  wisely;  the  real  expense  in  heating,  lighting, 
cleaning,  laundry  work;  serving  and  preparing  food,  by  various  processes 
and  with  different  materials  must  be  known.  No  body  of  exact  informa- 
tion on  these  lines  exists.  The  aim  of  this  course  is  to  obtain  such 
information  and  to  give  practice  in  the  actual  management  of  a  family 
income  and  in  the  keeping  of  household  accounts.  (Recitations  and 
practical  work.) 

8.— Household  Buying. 

Equi})ment  required  for  a  house.  Qualities  to  be  secured  in  buying 
equipment.  Quality  and  money  value  of  different  grades  in  the  market, 
with  reference  to  the  furnishing  of  —kitchen,  laundry,  dining-room,  bed- 
room. Quality  and  cost  of  —cleaning  sujqilies,  furniture,  carpets,  rugs, 
curtains,  etc.    (Lectures,  recitations,  field  and  practice  lessons.) 

9. — Marketing. 

Beef,  anatomy  and  cuts,  illustrated  by  charts  and  cutting  up  of  fore  and 
hind  quarters  of  beef.  IMutton,  veal,  pork,  fish,  poultry,  game.  Vegetables 
and  their  season.  Buying  of  groceries,  quantity  and  quality.  Simple 
methods  of  detecting  adulterations  in  foods.  Canned  goods.  Practice  in 
marketing  and  in  cooking  and  comparing  different  cuts  of  meat,  different 
grades  of  canned  goods,  etc.  (Lectures,  recitations,  field  and  practice 
lessons.) 

10. — Journal  Club. 
A  continuation  of  course  9,  first  term. 

11.— Principles  of  Housework. 

Care  of  cellar,  including  vegetable  cellar  and  storage  room.  Kitchen, 
involving  care  of  refrigerator,  pantries,  sinks,  and  disposal  of  garbage. 
.Cleaning  and  care  of  china,  glass,  silver  and  brasses.  Laundry  work. 
Care  of  bedroom,  j)lumbing,  floors,  etc.    (Practice  lessons.) 

12. — Principles  of  Cooking. 

Preparation  of  breakfasts,  luncheons,  dinners.  Salads  and  sandwiches 
Chafing-dish  recipes.    (Practice  lessons.) 

13. — Practice  Work  in  Cooking. 

Resident  pupils  will  be  required  to  do  practice  work  in  cooking  and 
servmg  on  Thursday  afternoons. 


vs.  A. —Appendix  11 

APPENDIX  H. 

TEACHERS'  COLLEGE,  COLUiVrBTA  UNIVERSITY,  NEW  YORK. 
I.-OUTLINE  OF  COURSE  IN  HOUSEHOLD  ART. 

Professor  Woolman,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York 

Domestic  Art  Department. 

I.  Art  in  General. 
(L)  Place  in  civilization— 

1.  Definition. 

2.  As  related  to  characteristics  of  a  people. 

3.  Value. 

Culture. 

Industry  and  economics. 
(EI.)  Distinction  between  decorative  art  and  pictorial  art,  (Suggested 
thoughts ,  purpose,  relation  of  colour,  material,  etc.) 
(III.)  Leading  Principles. 

1.  Fine  Arts  (painting,  music,  poetry,  architecture,  sculpture). 

2.  Decorative  Arts. 

3.  Art  in  everyday  relations. 

-   (1)  Gaining  good  taste  and  applying  it 
(2)  How^  to  present  the  subject  in  schools. 
(TV.)  Historic  Ornament. 

1.  Important  national    variations    and    their  distinctive 
features. 

(U  Egyptian,  Grecian,  Roman,  Byzantine,  Romanesque, 
Gothic,  Renaissance  and  Modern,  with  comparative 
study  of  the  architecture,  ornament,  dress,  and  furniture 
of  each  era. 

II.  Woman's  Influence. 

(I.)  Health. 

1.  Mental  and  physical. 

2.  Keeping  in  health— Exercise,  food,  baths,  disposition,  fresh 

air,  care  of  person,  complexion,  hair,  etc.,  posture,  standing, 
w^alking,  sitting. 

3.  Injurious  habits. 

4.  Effect  on  classes. 
(I  r.)  Voice  and  manner. 

(III.)  Study  of  children. 

1.  General  condition,  health,  eyes,  fatigue,  posture,  etc., 

2.  Diseases,  understanding  indications,  care  needed  after  dis- 
ease. 

(IV.)  Dress. 

1.  Purpose. 

2.  Hygienic. 

(1)  Warmth — Next  body,  in  doors,  out  of  doors,  evening 
different  seasons. 

(2)  Weight. 

(3)  Pressure. 
3  Artistic. 

(1)  Applying  laws  of  art  to  dress— use,  simplicity,  truth 
individuality,  harmony,  relation  of  colour,  etc. 
4.  Cost  and  purchase. 

(1)  Choice  of  materials — Manufacture,  properties  of  people 
value  and  durability.  Ethics  of  shopping,  economic 
standpoint,  relation  of  consumer  to  manufacturer,  etc. 

(2)  Dress  for  varied  purposes. 

(3)  Care. 

(V.)  Home. 

1.  Laws  of  art  applied  to  architecture,  furnishing  and  decora- 
tion ;  economics  ;  ethics  ;  individuality,  health,  etc. 
YI.)  Business  Life. 


318 


U.S.A. — Appendix 


III.  Colour. 

(I.)  Physics,  physiology,  psychology. 
(II.)  Terms  in  use. 

(III.)  Investigation  of  colour— Coloured  paper  and  materials,  standards, 
seconchxry,  broken,  scales,  etc.,  contrast  of  colour,  harmony  of 
colour. 

(IV.)  Api)lication  to  decoration,  furnishing  and  dress. 


II.-OUTLINE  OF  COUUSE  IN  HOUSEHOLD  CHEMISTRY. 
Domestic  Scienck  Department. 
(To  be  i)roceded  by  a  year's  work  in  General  Chemistry.) 
Pjiofessou  Vulte. 

Carbon  and  Combustion. 

Water. — Physical  properties  of. 
Distillation  of. 
Qualitative  examination  of. 
Tests  for  Ammonia  in. 
Tests  for  Nitrites. 
Tests  for  Chlorine. 

Estimation  of  hardness  (Temporary). 

(Permanent). 
The  Atmosphere.— Presence  of  CO2  and  H2S. 

Moisture. 

Dust  and  solid  matter. 
Ferments. 

Starch  and  sugar.    Examination  of  Dextrine. 

Glucose. 

Fehling's  Solution  Test. 
Action  of  Unorganised  Ferments. 
Polariscope  or  Saccharimeter  Test. 
Cellulose.    Examination  of  various  forms. 
Fats.  l^utler  ] 

Olive  or  cotton  seed  oil   [Si)ecific  Tests. 
Tallow  J 
Proteids.     Egg  Albumen,  examination  of — 

Millon's  Test. 
Precipitation  Test. 
Heller's  Test. 
Biuret  Test. 

Meta  phosphoric  Acid  Test,  etc. 
Globulins,  Nucleo  Albumens.     Alkali  and  acid  albuminates. 

Tests  for  Albumose  and  Peptone. 
Gelatine.    Examination  of — 
Tests  on  milk. 

Bread  and  Hour,  examination  of 

Meat  (nuiscle)  examination  of 

Glycogen,  examination  of 
Review  work  on  the  proteids. 
Digestive  fluids  and  their  action  (in  detail). 
Action  of  ferments  and  their  prevention  (in  detail). 
Antiseptics  (in  detail). 

Action  of  alkalis  and  vegetable  acids  on  metals  or  their  oxides. 
Baking  powders.    Three  general  types. 
Tests  on  bread,  tea,  cotlee,  etc. 


U.S.A. — Appendix  J. 


319 


APrENDTX  J. 
CHAUTAUQUA  SCHOOL  OF  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE. 

General  Purpose. 

Tlie  School  of  Domestic  Science  is  designed  primarily  for  teachers  who 
wish  to  compare  their  own  methods  with  those  of  others,  or  who  desire 
to  supplement  their  training  in  this  department ;  but  the  work  will  also 
be  of  especial  value  to  housekeepers,  whetlier  engaged  in  the  administration 
of  large  institutions  or  in  the  direction  of  their  own  homes. 

The  Department  op  Cookery. — This  department  offers  the  following 
lines  of  work  :  (a)  Courses  for  teachers  of  Domestic  Science  ;  (b)  a  series 
of  thirty  demonstration  lectures  on  practical  subjects,  extending  through 
six  weeks  ;  (c)  practice  classes  for  young  housekeepers  ;  {d)  such  i)ri\ate 
lessons  as  may  be  desired.  The  economic  selection  of  materials,  the  wise 
choice  of  implements  for  each  process,  and  the  application  of  the  right 
temperature  to  secure  the  best  results,  are  points  which  receive  careful 
attention  in  both  lectures  and  practice  lessons. 

Normal  Course  in  Domestic  Science. — This  embraces  two  years  of 
work,  and  a  certificate  is  given  to  those  satisfactorily  completing  it.  Young 
women  without  experience  as  teachers  must  present,  for  admission  to 
this  course,  the  equivalent  of  a  High  School  diploma.  The  curriculum 
is  as  follows  : — 

First  Year. 

1.  General  Chemistry  (Five  hours  a  week).— Lectures  and  laboratory. 
The  course  will  include  a  study  of  air,  water,  and  their  constituents,  of 
acids,  bases  and  salts,  and  of  the  various  groups  or  elements  with  their 
more  important  compounds. 

2.  Physics  (Five  hours  a  week). — The  subjects  discussed  will  be  energy 
in  all  its  forms,  the  air,  physical  properties  of  water,  wells,  springs,  foun- 
tains, etc.,  with  a  full  explanation  of  the  instruments  used  in  in\estigating 
problems  in  these  subjects.  Heat  will  be  thoroughly  discussed,  since  it 
occupies  so  important  a  place  in  these  sciences,  and  the  ai)i)lication  of 
electricity  in  the  arts  will  be  fully  explained  and  illustrated.  Syllabus 
text  (Gage's  recommended). 

3.  Physiology  (Three  hours  a  week). — Chemical  elements  of  human 
body.  Cell  life,  ilhistrated  by  ama^ba},  etc.  Study  of  tissues.  The 
anatomy,  physiology  and  hygiene  of  the  internal  organs.  Circulation 
of  the  blood,  respiration,  animal  heat,  general  study  of  digestion. 

4.  Botany  of  Food  Plants  (Five  hours  a  week). — Lectures  and  labor- 
atory work  with  the  compound  microscope  ;  the  illustrati\e  material, 
food  ])lants  ;  as  lettuce  for  leaves,  potatoes  for  store  rooms,  and  w  heat 
for  seeds.  Emphasis  will  also  be  put  on  starch  and  vegetable  i)r(»teids 
yeasts  and  moulds. 

5.  Sanitation  (Five  hours  a  week).— Principles  of  sanitation  applied 
to  the  house — location,  surroundings,  plan,  construction,  furnishing,  and 
care.  Application  of  chemistry,  physics,  physiology,  bacteriology,  and 
kindred  sciences,  to  water  supply,  drainage,  and  plumbing,  disposal  of  wastes; 
lighting,  heating,  and  ventilation.  Care  of  woodwork,  metallic  and  mineral 
surfaces  and  coloured  fabrics.  Laundry  i)rocesses.  Household  i)ests. 
Problems  of  public  hygiene  discussed  in  relation  to  house  sanitation. 

6.  Cookery  (Five  hours  a  week). — Practice  work.  Food  princi])les 
and  the  fundamental  laws  of  cookery.  Animal  foods,  vegetables,  cereals, 
methods  of  making  doughs  light,  menus  for  daily  meals,  and  cooking 
for  invalids  will  be  discussed. 


320 


U.S.A. — Appendix  J. 


Second  Year. 

7.  ArPLTED  CuEMiSTRY  (Fivc  hours  a  week).— Laboratory  work  and 
lectures.  Qualitative  tests  of  food  materials.  Study  of  proteids,  carbohy- 
drates, fats,  etc.  Experiments  with  soda  and  baking  powder.  Detection 
of  food  adulterants  and  preservatives.  Testing  of  various  household 
supplies. 

S.  Experimental  Cookery  (Five  hours  a  week). — Existing  methodj 
of  preparing  food  judged  by  scientific  standards.  Arrangement  of  lessons, 
the  details  of  recipes  and  the  order  of  work  are  planned  in  a  way  to  help 
teachers. 

9.  Physiology  (Two  hours  a  week). — Animal  functions,  muscular 
physiology,  digestion,  with  the  study  of  the  body  fluids,  and  the  nervous 
system.  During  the  two  years'  course  demonstrations  with  manikins 
and  fresh  specimens  will  be  furnished.  The  course  also  deals  especially 
and  most  practically  with  the  digestion  and  nutritive  value  of  food  stuff's. 

10.  Bacteriology  (Five  hours  a  week). — Lectures  and  laboratory 
work.  Description  and  life  history  of  bacteria  and  other  micro-organisms. 
Methods  of  culture.    Bacteria  in  dust,  water,  milk,  etc. 

11.  Pedagogy  (Five  hours  a  week). — Principles  of  pedagogy  as  applied 
to  the  teaching  of  Domestic  Science.  Schools  of  Cookery  and  Domestic 
Economy.    Planning  of  courses. 

12.  Administration  of  Households,  Small  and  Large  (Five  hours 
a  week).— Household  expenditure.  Food  as  an  economic  factor.  Diet 
and  dietaries.  Especially  planned  for  matrons  of  schools  and  public  insti- 
tutions. Methods  of  keeping  accounts.  The  Ixist  implements  for  house- 
keeping and  the  general  equipment.  The  Iielpers,  their  training  and 
advancement  and  the  adjustment  of  duties,  hours  and  wages.  Economic 
buying  and  storing  of  food.  The  planning  of  menus,  with  due  regard 
to  a  balanced  ration  ;  and  the  simplest  way  of  serving  meals. 

13.  * —Classes  in  sewing  will  be  organized  during  the  second  term. 

Fees. 

£   s.  d. 

Full  normal  course  (first  year)     .      -      -      -  40.00  about  8    0  0 

Full  normal  course  (second  year)   -      -      -      -  45.00     „     9    0  0 

Cookery  (six  weeks)      -      -      -      -      -      -  3  5.00     ,,3    0  0 

Cookery  (three  weeks)   9.00     „     1  15  0 

Single  courses  (six  weeks)   12.00     „     2  10  0 

Half  courses  (three  weeks)          -      _      -      -  7.00     „     1  10  0 

Cookery  (Demonstration  only) : — 

Six  weeks  5.00  ,,100 

Per  week  1.00     „         4  0 

Single  lectures  35     „  10 


*  Special  fees  will  he  charged  for  the  classes  in  se'vhig. 


Appendix  K. 


321 


APPENDIX  K.. 

CORNELL  UNIVERSITY,  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE. 
Bureau  of  Nature-Study  and  Farmers'  Reading-Course. 

'         How  to  Organize  a  Farmers'  Wives'  Reading-Club. 

At  the  present  time  there  are  three  Correspondence  courses 
conducted  by  the  Farmers^  Reading-course  and  Nature-study 
Bureau.  These  are  (a)  the  Farmers'  Reading-course,  (6)  the 
Farmers'  Wives'  Reading-course,  and  (c)  the  Home  Nature-study 
course.  These  are  especially  adapted  for  study  in  clubs,  a  ad  this 
circular  suggests  how  women's  clubs  may  be  organized  and  con- 
ducted. 

A  club  may  consist  of  five  or  more  members.  An  ideal  number 
is  twelve.  Anyone  interested  in  home  work,  directly  or  indirectly, 
is  eligible  to  membership. 

How  to  organize : — Some  one  must  take  the  lead.  Let  this 
person  (you)  write  us  for  information  regarding  the  Reading- 
courses,  distribute  the  circulars,  and  talk  it  over  personally  with 
as  many  women  as  possible.  When  interest  has  ripened,  call  a 
meeting  at  your  own  home,  or  some  other  convenient  place,  to 
consider  organization.  Then  select  a  president  and  a  secretary. 
She  may  be  asked  by  the  club  to  forward  the  answered  quizzes  in 
one  consignment  to  this  office.  She  should  supply  this  office 
promptly  with  a  list  of  the  members  and  their  addresses. 

Select  a  suitable  night  for  meeting.  Each  lesson  will  furnish 
subject  matter  for  two  meetings.  One  lesson  is  furnished  each 
month,  so  that  meetings  may  be  held  fortnightly.  An  excellent 
way  is  to  meet  at  the  house  of  the  members  of  the  club.  Early  in 
the  season  arrange  a  schedule  giving  places  of  meeting  for  some 
time  ahead.  Of  course  if  a  room  in  the  grange,  town  hall,  or  school 
liouse  is  available  and  convenient,  this  may  prove  to  be  the  most 
desirable  arrangement.  The  club  may  apply  for  a  charter  from 
this  Bureau,  by  adopting  a  name  and  reporting  it  to  us  with  the 
first  consignment  of  answered  quizzes. 

The  sessions  should  not  last  over  an  hour  and  a  half ;  the  dis- 
cussion should  be  brisk,  and  it  is  better  to  adjourn  early  when 
interest  is  warm,  than  to  wait  till  it  cools  and  discussion  lags.  The 
meeting  should  begin  promptly  at  8  p.m.,  better  still  at  7.30. 

When  the  meaning  is  not  clear,  or  when  new  ideas  occur  to  you, 
write  us  by  all  means.  Let  us  lalx)ur  together  for  the  success  of 
your  club. 

6490.  X 


322 


U.S.A. — Appendix  L. 


APPENDIX  L. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  THE  STATE  OF  NEW  YORK,  ALBANY,  N.Y. 

HOME  EDUCATION  DEPARTMENT. 

HOME  ECONOMICS  SYLLABUS. 

Syllabus  prepared  by  the  Lake  Placid  Conference  Committee  on  Home 

Economics. 

This  syllabus,  giving  a  suggestive  outline  of  the  present  state  of  the  subject  ^ 
is  expanded  from  a  course  given  in  1900  by  Mrs.  Ellen  H.  Richards,  B.S., 
M.A.,  Instructor  in  Sanitary  Chemistry,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology, and  Mrs.  Alice  Pcloubet  Norton,  M.A.,  Home  Economics  Depart- 
ment, Chicago  Institute.  Only  a  few  of  the  best  books  are  referred  to,  and 
enough  topics  for  papers  given  to  provide  for  local  conditions  and  needs. 

Lecture  1. 

Home  and  Family  Life  :  Ideals  and  Standards. 

To  keep  the  home  a  centre  of  moral  and  intellectual  progress  in  the  face 
of  the  economic  tendencies  encroaching  on  its  position  the  problem  of  the 
clay. 

Family  life  is  unselfish  devotion  inspired  by  self-sacrificing  love.  Co- 
operation for  a  common  aim  creates  a  spirit  of  n  "tual  helpfulness. 

The  significance  of  the  family  to  the  indiviJaals  composing  it  and  to 
the  nation.  The  pliysical,  moral,  and  intellectual  de^■elopment  of  its 
members. 

Its  historical  development :  growth  from  reproductive  and  social  in- 
stitution in  which  Avife  and  child  were  alike  valued  for  their  powers  of 
production,  to  a  spiritual  relationship  in  which  each  gives  according  to 
his  power  and  receives  according  to  his  need.  Basis  of  choice  in  primitive 
marriage,  economic  utility  and  physiological  attraction  ;  modern  basis, 
personal  relationship. 

The  growing  individualism  of  all  the  members  of  the  family  ;  the  union 
of  all  in  the  service  of  each. 

Woman's  past  progress  conditioned  on  the  overcoming  of  men's  passions 
and  her  education  ;  her  future  progress  dependent  on  the  growth  of  her 
self-respect  and  her  work  ;  the  result  of  knowledge. 

Farther  progress  conditioned  on  evolution,  not  revolution  ;  the  family 
life,  the  development  of  ages,  is  to  be  spiritualised,  not  materialised. 

The  significance  of  a  higher  or  more  complicated  adaptation  is  not  re- 
duced to  the  level  of  a  lower  or  simpler  one  by  showing  that  it  has  been 
evolved  from  the  latter. — Griggs. 

The  future  of  the  race  is  bound  up  in  the  development  of  home  ideals. 
Standards  of  life  come  before  standards  of  living,  "  There  is  little  moral 
consequence  in  the  association  of  parents  and  children  unless  there  are 
ideas  to  communicate." — Boss,  Journal  of  Sociology,  Vol.  5,  No.  5,  1900. 

Home  life  distinguished  from  commimity  life  ;  the  home  educational 
rather  than  economic.    Character  building  above  price. 

References. 
American  Journal  of  Sociology,  v.  1-6. 
Bosanquet. — Standard  of  Life. 
Demolins. — Anglo-Saxon  Superiority. 
Dewey. — School  and  Society. 
Earle. — Home  Life  in  Colonial  Days. 
Griggs. — The  New  Humanism. 
Patten. — The  Development  of  English  Thought," 
Richards. — Cost  of  Living,  ch.  1-2. 


University  of  the  State  of  New  Yorh,    Home  Economics  Sytlahus.  323 


Salmon. — Domestic  Service. 

Small  and  Vincent. — Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Society. 

Stetson. — Women  and  Economics. 

Wright. — Industrial  Evolution  of  the  United  States. 

^  Topics  for  Papers. 

1.  How  can  the  ideals  of  family  life  be  maintained  under  present  economic 

and  social  conditions? 

2.  Is  it  necessary  to  prepare  and  eat  food  and  to  make  and  launder  clothing 

in  the  house  in  order  to  retain  the  essentials  of  the  home  ? 

3.  The  family  as  a  unit  of  society. 

4.  The  "living"  wage;  definition;  rises  according  to  standards  of  living. 

Show  that  comforts  increase  and  luxuries  decrease  efficiency. 

5.  The  woman  in  bondage  to  her  neighbour's  opinion  ;  how  may  she  be 

set  free  1 

6.  The  inveterate  shopper  ;  how  can  her  ideals  be  elevated  ? 

Lecture  2. 

The  House  Beautiful  :  Situation  and  Architecture. 

Shelter  the  protection  of  home  life.  Maintains  unity  and  privacy  with 
sense  of  ownership. 

The  house  beautiful :  Location,  plan,  grounds.  Soil  must  be  clean, 
dry,  porous.  Influence  of  ground  water  and  ground  air.  Sunshine  and 
pure  air  essential ;  scientific  reasons  for  need  of  sunlight. 

Plan  of  house  according  to  needs  of  family  ;  both  privacy  and  community 
of  interests  to  be  provided  for ;  individual  rights  respected.  Labour 
saving  in  stairs,  in  proximity  of  certain  rooms  ;  care  in  placing  doors  and 
windows  for  various  reasons.  Sun  plan  the  most  important  requisite.- 
"  Sweetness  and  light '-  interpreted  by  the  sanitarian  means  sunshine 
and  pure  air. 

The  detached  house  needs  its  setting  of  grass  or  shrubs,  or  both,  and 
flowers,  if  there  is  one  to  care  for  them  ;  sickly,  straggling  flower-beds  are 
as  distasteful  as  uncared-for  children.  Treatment  of  small  grounds  may 
relieve  ugly  architecture. 

References. 

Brown. — Healthy  Foundations  for  Houses. 
Clark. — Building  Superintendence. 

Gardner. — The  House  that  Jill  Built.  - 
Grimshaw. — Hints  on  House  Building. 
Osborne. — Notes  on  the  Art  of  House  Planning. 
Parsons. — How  to  Plan  the  Home  Grounds. 
Richards  and  Talbot. — Home  Sanitation.    Ch.  2. 

Topics  for  Papers. 

1.  House  architecture  ;  how  to  secure  beautiful,  comfortable  homes. 

2.  The  apartment  house  ;  its  advantages  and  disadvantages. 

3.  The  lawn  ;  its  treatment  and  care.  ' 

4.  How  to  improve  that  eyesore,  the  small  back  yard. 

Lecture  3. 

The  House  Beautiful  ;  Sanitation. 

iEsthetic  and  sanitary  requirements  not  opposed;  often  identical.  The 
poorly-built,  ill-equipped  house,  neither  healthful  nor  beautiful. 

Ventilation  and  heating  in  close  connection.  Pure  air  not  free  in  cold 
climates.    Importance  to  health  ;  methoda  of  providing  ;  tests. 

Plumbing  and  drainage  :  General  requirements  are  simplicity,  accessi- 
bility ventilation  of  system,  soundness  of  material,  tightness  of  joints, 
thorough  flushing. 


6490. 


324 


U.S.A. — Appendix  L. 


References. 

Barre. — La  Maison  Salubre. 

Billings. — Ventilation  and  Heating. 

Corjield. — Dwelling  Houses. 

Currier.— Outlines  of  Practical  Hygiene. 

Egbert. — Manual  of  Hygiene  and  Sanitation. 

Gerhard. — House  Drainage  and  Sanitary  Plumbing. 

Plunkett. — Womew,  Plumbers  and  Doctors. 

Putnam. — Lectures  on  Principles  of  House  Drainage. 

Richard  and  Talbot. — Home  Sanitation.    Ch.  3-6,  9. 

Tracy. — Handbook  of  Sanitary  Information. 

Waring. — How  to  Drain  a  House. 

 Principles  and  Practice  of  House  Drainage. 

 Sanitary  Condition  of  City  and  Country  Dwelling  Houses, 

 Sanitary  Drainage  of  Houses  and  Toivns. 

Topics  for  Papers. 

1.  The  hoiTse  plan  with  special  reference  to  sanitary  requirements. 

2.  An  ideal  system  of  ventilation  for  a  modern  house. 

3.  How  to  adapt  modern  principles  to  an  old  house. 

4.  Advantages  and  dangers  of  modern  plumbing. 

Lecture  4. 

The  House  Beautiful:  Furnishinq. 

Adaptation  to  purpose  and  environment.  Fitness  as  to  form,  colour, 
cleanliness,  and  durability.    Truth  a  fundamental  element  of  beauty. 

Simplicity  tends  towards  hcalthfulness  and  beauty.  Overcrowding 
spoils  effect  of  really  good  things.  Furnishings  should  minister  to  comfort 
or  pleasure  ;  should  not  make  a  slave  of  mistress  or  maid. 

Knowledge  of  true  values  necessary. 

References. 

Beauty  in  the  Home. — ^.Oth  Century  Club  Lea /lets. 
Church. — How  to  Furnish  a  Home. 
Cook. — The  House  Beautiful. 
Deiving. — Beauty  in  the  Household. 
Gardner. — Homes  and  All  About  Them. 
Garrett. — Suggestions  for  House  Decoration. 
Loftie. — A  Plea  for  Art  in  the  House. 
Lyon. — Colonial  Furniture  of  New  England. 
Ormsbee. — The  House  Comfortable. 
Salisbury.— Principles  of  Domestic  Taste.  \  ' 
Watson. — Art  of  tfie  House. 
Wharton  and  Codman. ^Decoration  of  Houses. 
Wheeler. — Household  Art. 

Topics  for  Papers. 

1.  Hall  and  reception  room  :  How  to  express  hospitality  without  sacri- 

ficing family  privacy  and  reserve. 

2.  The  living  room  :  Its  furniture,  decoration,  schemes  of  colour. 

3.  The  nursery  :  What  it  can  do  for  the  character  of  the  child. 

4.  The  dmmg  room  :  Influence  of  surroundings  on  digestion  ;  special 

reference  to  cleanliness. 

5.  The  sleeping  room  :  Not  a  sitting  room  ;  appropriate  furnishmg. 


University  of  the  State  of  New  York,    Home  Economics  Syllabus.  325 


Lecture  5. 

The  House  Beautiful  :  Cleanin<3  and  Cark. 

Cleanliness  is  next  to  godliness. 

Dust,  Indoors  and  Out  : 

Composed  of  inorganic  and  dead  matter,,  and  living  organisms  ;  danger 
chiefly  from  the  latter.  Of  these  "  dust  plants  '-  the  most  im- 
portant are  bacteria. 

Bacteria  : 

1.  Description  and  life  history  : 

Simple  one-celled  plants  ;  smallest  of  living  things  and  perhaps 
most  numerous.  Classified  according  to  shape  as  cocci, 
bacilli,  spirilla.    Reproduction  by  cell  division. 

2.  Methods  of  culture.    "  Dust  plant  --  gardens  : 

Bacteria  too  small  to  be  thoroughly  studied  even  under  the 
microscope  till  methods  of  cultivating  them  were  devised. 
Beef  tea,  specially  prepared  and  stiffened  with  gelatin  or 
agar-agar,  serves  as  food  and  also  as  a  prison.  Bacteria 
planted  in  this  grow  and  form  "  colonies  "  large  enough  to 
be  seen  and  studied.  A  small  particle  of  dust  introduced 
into  this  medium  may  produce  thousands  of  these  colonies. 

Dust  and  Disease  : 

1.  Disease  germs  : 

Most  bacteria  harmless  or  even  useful,  but  some  foes  to  human 
existence.  Some  of  these  disease  germs,  notably  those  of 
tuberculosis,  often  conveyed  in  dust. 

2.  Protection  of  body  against  disease  : 

Ciliated  cells  of  air  passages  ;  dust  filters  in  lungs  ;  phagocytes 
or  wandering  cells  of  body. 

Household  Applications  : 

1.  Cleanliness  of  food  : 

Milk  supply.    Fruit  and  candy  exposed  on  street  for  sale. 

2.  Care  of  house  : 

(a)  House  should  be  finished  and  furnished  so  as  to  provide 
as  few  dust  traps  as  possible.  Smooth  finish,  rounded 
corners,  simple  ornaments  desirable.    Carpets  v.  bare  floors. 

{b)  Removal  of  dust.  Sweeping  and  dusting  should  remove 
and  destroy  dust,  not  merely  stir  it  up.  Results  of  experi- 
ments with  different  methods. 

Municipal  Housekeeping  : 

Clean  streets  and  sidewalks  ;  proper  disposal  of  refuse  ;  influence  of 
clean  houses  and  schoolhouses  ;  moral  effect  of  good  housekeeping. 

References. 

Abbott. — Vrinci'ples  of  Bacteriology. 
Conn. — Story  of  Germ  Life. 
Frankland. — Our  Secret  Friends  and  Foes. 
Hiippe. — Principles  of  Bacteriology. 
Pnidden. — Dust  and  its  Dangers. 

 Story  of  the  Bacteria. 

Tyndall.— Essays  on  Floating  Matter  of  the  Air. 

^   Topics  for  Papers. 

1.  Dust  as  a  means  for  carrying  disease. 

2.  Plan  for  furnishing  a  house  with  special  reference  to  avoidance  of  dust. 

3.  Housekeeping  v.  home  making.    Is  the  care  necessary  for  exqifisite 

clean lines.-^  conducive  to  the  happiest  home  ? 

4.  Some  devices  in  house  building  which  would  simplify  housekeeping. 


326 


U.S.A. — Appendix  L. 


Lectuee  6. 

'      "  Clothing. 

Purposes  :  (1)  Protection  of  body  from  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  ; 
saving  of  food  by  preventing  loss  of  heat  essential  in  sedentary  pursuits 
where  digestion  fails  to  produce  sufficient  heat ;  more  clothing  less  food  ; 
(2)  adornment ;  (3)  satisfaction  of  modesty. 

Hygienic  clothing :  Even  layer  of  air  inclosed  ;  non-conductor  ;  per 
cent,  of  air  space  in  wool,  silk,  linen  ;  kind  of  weave  ;  per  cent,  of  moisture 
contained  by  each.  Looseness  of  clothing  permits  evaporation  and  better 
circulation. 

Style  of  dress  dependent  on  climate  and  occupation  ;  wide  sleeves  and 
loose  trousers  for  warm  countries,  close-fitting  for  cold.  Work  calls  for 
looser  dress  than  leisure  ;  ideal  housework  dress  for  women  ;  business 
dress. 

jEsthetic  qualities  ;  Becomingness  ;  artistic  outlines  ;  softening  of  crude 
forms  ;  toning  down  of  colour.  Fashion  cruel  to  all  but  a  certain  type. 
Dress  may  enhance  beauty  and  render  agreeable  otherwise  ugly  forms 
and  features. 

Nothing  more  individual  than  dress  ;  part  of  oneself ;  indicative  of 
character.    Historical  development ;  ideals  expressed  in  costume. 

Textiles  :  Study  of  as  to  fibre,  weaving,  colouring,  dyeing,  washing, 
cleansing,  durability. 

The  function  of  clothing  from  the  hygienic  standpoint  is  to  regulate 
heat.  In  its  lowest  terms  clothing  is  a  net  to  catch  air,  which  Is  the  best 
known  non-conductor  of  heat.  Even  in  a  temperature  greater  than  that 
of  the  body  the  air  space  prevents  the  penetration  of  heat.  Clothing 
should  be  loose  in  summer  and  close-fitting  in  winter.  The  skin  needs  to 
breathe,  as  it  were,  hence  air  and  moisture  should  have  free  but  slow  passage 
through  all  clothing.  The  products  of  excretion  should  not  be  retained. 
Rational  clothing  has  the  greatest  useful  effect  with  the  least  material ;  it 
does  not  interfere  with  free  movement  of  any  part,  acts  as  a  dietetic  measure, 
lessening  the  quantity  of  food  required  and  promoting  evaporation  from 
the  skin. 

Loosely  woven  wool  is  rich  in  air  (87  per  cent,  air,  13  per  cent,  solid 
substance),  is  elastic  and  soft,  has  little  contact  with  the  skin  so  that  in 
addition  to  the  contained  air  there  is  an  isolating  layer  between  the  garment 
and  the  skin.  It  is  also  characteristic  of  wool  not  to  be  wet  by  moisture 
but  to  allow  it  to  pass  through  and  evaporate.  Cotton  over  wool  becomes 
saturated,  and  soon  gives  the  odour  of  decay. 

Fine,  smooth  linen  is  dense,  poor  in  air  (42  per  cent,  air,  58  per  cent, 
solid  substance  ;  when  starclied,  no  air),  has  close  contact  with  the  skin 
and  so  feels  cooler,  conducts  heat  away  more  rapidly,  has  little  or  no  air 
between  it  and  the  skin,  becomes  saturated  with  moisture  and  causes  the 
concentration  of  the  skin  waste  in  the  smallest  space  near  the  skin.  It 
takes  thirty  times  as  long  for  a  given  quantity  of  air  to  pass  through  Unen 
as  through  wool  tricot,  hence  little  circulation.  That  cotton  and  linen 
bear  washing  by  unskilled  labour  is  the  greatest  argument  for  their  use. 
Some  modes  of  weaving  may  inclose  as  much  air  in  a  cotton  or  linen  mesh 
as  in  wool,  but  the  fibres  lack  elasticity,  and  tend  to  become  matted  and 
saturated  with  moisture.    Silk  lies  between  wool  and  linen. 

For  protection  in  different  temperatures  it  has  been  estimated  that : 
l"7mm.  suffices  for  liigh  summer  (if  of  loosely  woven  wool)  : 
3' 3mm.  for  ordinary  summer  weather  ; 
5"9mm.  for  spring  and  fall  ; 
12' 6mm.  for  winter  ; 
26mm.  for  very  cold  days. 

In  a  strong,  cold  wind  an  impervious  layer-like  skin  of  a  fur  garment 
prevents  too  rapid  change  of  air. 

To  foot  gear  the  same  principles  apply :  Skin  breathing  i3  very  impor-. 


University  of  the  State  of  New  YorJc.    Home  Economics  Syllabus.  327 


taut,  as  also  circulation  of  air,  free  evaporation,  and  protection  from  too 
rapid  loss  of  heat.  Air  from  next  the  skin  in  stocking  feet  gave  only  one 
tenth  the  amount  of  carbon-dioxid  found  when  a  narrow  close-fitting 
boot  was  worn.  Stockings  of  cotton  conduct  heat  one-third  faster  than 
those  of  wool,  the  thinner,  less  elastic  layer  preventing  circulation  of  air 
and  holding  moisture.  Leather,  if  loose  and  soft,  approaches  wool  in  the 
property  of  not  conducting  heat.  As  it  is  more  dense  and  "  filled  "  with 
water  or  enamel  it  becomes  like  linen,  a  good  conductor.  Loss  of  heat  by 
contact  with  cold  surface  depends  on  intimacy  and  area  of  contact. 

Habit  has  much  to  do  with  clothing  certain  portions  of  the  body,  head, 
hands,  etc.  The  skin  becomes  non-breathing  to  a  certain  extent,  but 
knees  and  wrists,  where  the  arteries  approach  the  surface,  should  be  pro- 
tected from  sudden  changes. 

Costume — outer  dress — may  be  quite  independent  of  clothing,  but  it 
should  not  interfere  by  tightness,  weight,  or  impervious  material  with 
the  true  office  of  clothing. 

Beauty  without  health  is  incomplete.  Health  can  never  be  perfect  for 
you  so  long  as  your  eye  is  troubled  with  ugliness.  .  .  To  dress  well  you 
must  possess  the  gift  of  colour  and  be  a  master  of  form.  But  this  is  not 
enough  ;  with  these  accomplishments  you  might  clothe  a  dunmiy  or  a 
corpse  satisfactorily,  but  not  a  living  human  being  ;  for  there  comes  into 
the  problem,  with  this  word  living,  the  element  of  motion.  I  do  not  mean 
the  mere  action  of  moving  the  limbs,  but  the  action  of  breathing,  of  growth 
and  of  decay,  and  it  is  here  that  the  laws  of  hygiene  must  be  faced.  We 
may  obey  them  or  disobey,  but  the  measure  of  our  obedience  or  disobedience 
will  be  the  measure  of  our  health  or  no  health. — Godwin. 

The  pursuit  of  things  fashionable,  for  the  sole  reason  that  they  are 
fashionable,  is,  I  think,  not  an  exalted  occupation,  and  is  indeed,  I  think, 
a  somewhat  sheep-like  attribute. — Treves. 

References. 

Archiv  f  iir  Hygiene. 

Ballin.— Science  of  Dress  in  Theory  and  Practice. 
Blanc. — Art  in  Ornament  and  Dress.  \ 
Bowman.— The  Structure  of  the  ^Yool  Fibre. 
Brooks.— Cotton. 

Ecob.—The  Well  Dressed  Woman. 

Godwin. — Dress  and  its  Relation  to  Health  and  Climate. 
Haiveis. — Art  of  Dress. 

Robida.—  '  Yester-year  "  .*  Ten  Centuries  of  Toilet. 

Steele  and  Adams.— Beauty  of  Form  and  Grace  of  Vestiirt. 

Treves.— The  Dress  of  the  Period  in  its  Relation  to  Health. 

Wilkinson.  — Story  of  the  Cotton^  Plant. 

Williams.— Philosophy  of  Clothing. 

Wykoff.—The  Silk  Goods  of  America. 

U.S.  Experiment  Stations.    Cotton  Plant  {Bulletin  33). 

f  Topics  for  Papers. 

1.  The  ideal  working  dress. 

2.  Street  costume. 

3.  Children's  clothing. 

4.  Summer  clothing. 

5.  Economic  clothing. 

6.  Economic  costume. 

7.  The  choice  of  ^brics. 

8.  A  study  of  textiles. 

9.  A  history  of  "  dress  goods.'' 
10.  The  development  of  costume. 


328 


U.S.A. — Appendix  L. 


Lecture  7. 

Food  in  Relation  to  Health. 

The  balanced  ration.  Object  of  the  farmer  to  secure  the  highest  effi- 
ciency of  muscle  or  product.  He  has  found  that  knowledge  of  the  principle 
of  feeding  pays  ;  that  while  his  animals  may  live  on  what  they  can  pick 
up  or  what  is  by  chance  given  them,  they  attain  their  best  development 
only  when  he  understands  and  supplies  their  needs. 

Balanced  ration  for  the  human  race.  In  man  there  is  not  only  the 
animal  or  muscular  efficiency  to  consider,  but  the  intellectual  output  and 
the  enjoyment  of  the  higher  nature  ;  hence  additional  need  of  knowledge 
and  care. 

Food  the  source  of  human  energy.  Metabolism  in  the  body.  Classes, 
costs,  quantities  ;  variation  for  different  ages,  seasons,  kinds  of  work. 

Food  material  often  spoiled  in  cooking.  Food  material  often  wasted  in 
the  body  as  well  as  in  the  kitchen. 

Food  a  source  of  pleasure,  but  this  Is  not  its  only  or  chief  use.  The  art 
of  cooking  the  right  combination  of  aesthetic  and  nutritive  qualities. 

References. 

Atwater.— Methods  and  Results  of  Investigations  on  the  Chemistry  and 
Econo7ny  of  Food. 

 a7id  Bryant. — Dietary  Studies  in  Chicago. 

 and    Woods. — Chemical    Composition  of  American  Food 

Materials 

Bevier. — Nutrition  Investigations  in  Pittsburg. 
Goss. — Nutrition  Investigations  in  New  Mexico, 
Hart. — Diet  in  Sickness  and  in  Health. 
Hogan. — How  to  feed  Children. 
Knight. — Food  and  its  Functions. 
Richards,  ed. — Rumford  Kitchen  Leaflets. 

 and  Woodman. — Air,  Water,  and  Food.    Ch.  P.  9. 

Thompson. — Food  and  Feeding. 

Townsend. — Relation  of  Foods  to  Health. 

Wait. — Nutrition  Investigations  at  University  of  Tennessee. 

Yeo. — Food  in  Health  and  Disease. 

Topics  pgr  Papers. 

1.  How  to  feed  the  baby. 

'2.  How  to  feed  the  school  girl. 

3.  How  to  feed  the  business  man. 

4.  How  to  feed  the  farmer. 

5.  How  to  feed  the  grandmother. 

6.  The  summer  dietary  ;  how  it  should  differ  from  that  of  winter. 

7.  Why  should  I  know  anything  about  food  ? 

8.  How  to  secure  good  food  habits  in  children. 

9.  How  to  preserve  the  right  attitude  of  mind  toward  food. 
10.  A  dietary  :  What  it  is  and  how  it  is  made. 

Lecture  8. 
Science  and  Art  of  Cookery. 

Introduction  : 

1.  Cooking  defined : 

Socrates 's   estimate    of   the   art.    Ruskin's  interpretation. 
Scientific  definition  :  Application  of  heat  to  food  materials, 

2.  Object  of  cooking  : 

To  make  food  safer,  more  digestible,  palatable.  The  last  for- 
merly most  important.  Modern  methods  emphasise  th^ 
first  two. 


University  of  the  State  of  New  York.    Home  Economics  Syllabus.  329 


Classification  of  Foods  : 
Goodfellow's  chart : 

(  1.  Nitrogenous, 
r    1.  Water.  (a)  Proteids. 

Inorganic  \  O  ^  '  i  Gelatinoids. 

I    2.  Salts.       ^rgamcl  2.  Non-nitrogenous. 

(a)  Fats  and  oils. 
{h)  Carbohydrates. 

Effect  of  Cooking  on  Different  Food  Principles  : 

1.  Water  :  Cooked  chiefly  as  a  medium  for  conveying  heat ;  some 

times  to  render  it  safe. 

2.  Salts  or  mineral  matter  :  Unchanged  by  heat,  but  may  be  dissolved 

out  of  food  by  water  and  lost.  Effect  of  hard  and  soft  water  on 
food. 

3.  Proteids  :  As  a  rule  changed  from  soluble  to  insoluble  and  less 

digestible  forms. 

4.  Fats  :  Decomposed  by  high  temperature  and  made  less  digestible. 

5.  Starch :  Digestibility  increased  by  cooking.    Changed  partially 

to  soluble  starch  and  often  to  dextrine  and  sugar. 

Two  Typical  Foods  : 

1.  Meat : 

Contains  albumen  and  allied  proteids,  extractives,  gelatin,  fat. 
Effect  of  different  degrees  of  heat  on  each  must  be  con- 
sidered to  find  right  cooking  temperature  for  the  whole. 
Different  methods  of  applying  heat :  Boiling,  baking, 
soup-making,  etc. 

2.  Bread  : 

Two  classes  of  changes  :  By  fermentation,  by  heat. 

^a)  Fermentation  :  Effect  of  yeast  on  gluten,  the  proteid  of 

flour,  not  well  understood.    Starch  changed  into  sugar  ; 

sugar  broken  up  into  alcohol  and  carbon  dioxide. 
[h)  Heat :  Gluten  changed  ;  part  of  the  starch  changed  into 

dextrine,  and  some  sugar  into  caramel ;  carbon  dioxide 

and  alcohol  driven  off  and  the  ferments  killed. 

Cooking  for  Safety  or  Preservation  of  Food  : 

Dangers  of  uncooked  food.    Principle  of  canning  and  presennng. 
High  temperature  or  long  continued  heat. 

References. 

Ahel. — Practical,  Sanitary,  and  Economic  Cooking. 
Child. — Delicate  Feasting. 

Corson. — Practical  American  Cookery  and  Household  Management, 

De  Sails. — Art  of  Cookery. 

Dodds. — Health  in  the  Household. 

Good  fellow. — Dietetic  Value  of  Bread. 

J  ago. — Textbook  of  the  Science  and  Art  of  Breadmaking. 

Richards  and  Elliott. — Chemistry  of  Cooking  and  Cleaning, 

Thudichum. — Spirit  of  Cookery. 

Williams. — Chemistry  of  Cooking. 

Topics  for  Papers.  ] 

1.  Yeast  fermentation  in  relation  to  breadmaking. 

2.  Effect  on  bread  of  different  manipulations  of  the  dough  ;  pulling, 

kneading,  beating,  etc. 

3.  Cookery  of  vegetables. 

4.  Canning  industry  and  its  methods. 

5.  Cost  of  cooking  :  Relative  economy  of  gas,  coal,  etc. 
-    6.  Cookery  of  milk  :  Pasteurisation  and  sterilisation. 


330 


U.S.A. — Appendix  L. 


Lectuee  9. 

Division  of  the  Annual  Income. 

Money  is  spent  for  existence,  comfort,  luxury,  philanthropy. 

Aim  should  be  that  degree  of  comfort  which  enhances  the  capacity  for 
work  and  enjoyment  without  weakening  moral  or  physical  characteristics. 

Present  restraint  for  purpose  of  attaining  a  future  good  an  attribute  of 
the  higher  nature  of  man. 

References. 

Bosanquet. — Standard  of  Life. 
Damon. — Wealth  of  Households. 
Dawson. — Wealth  of  Households. 
Devinc. — Economic  Function  of  Woman. 
Deivson. — The  '20th  Century  Expense  Book. 
Grant. — Art  of  Living. 

Herrick.—  Liberal  Living  upon  Narrow  Means. 
J\'itsch. — Ten  Dollars  Eiiough. 
liichards.—Cost  of  Living. 
Smart. — Distribution  of  the  Lncome. 

Stackjwle. — Handbook  of  LLousekeepirig  for  Small  Incomes. 

Topics  for  Papers. 

1.  What  sections  of  your  city  offer  houses  or  apartments  for  $25  a 

month  suitable  for  the  young  family  of  a  student  or  literary  or 
scientific  man  'I  What  improvements  in  housing  up  to  $50  a 
month  might  be  made  1 

2.  How  to  clothe  a  family  of  five  on  $300,  $400,  $500  a  year. 

3.  A  study  of  the  markets  of  your  city  ;  which  are  the  best  conducted  ? 

Does  it  pay  for  the  housewife  to  go  to  market  herself  ? 

4.  Household  accounts  :  How  to  make  them  interesting.    How  to  buy 

for  two. 

5.  Make  out  a  table  of  fruits,  vegetables,  and  fish  showing  the  season 

at  which  they  are  best  in  flavour  and  least  expensive.  Compare 
these  prices  with  those  that  are  highest. 

6.  How  may  running  expenses  be  regulated  ? 

7.  The  little  leaks  in  the  household  purse  :    How  to  stop  them. 

8.  What  relation  should  wages  bear  to  rent  1 

9.  Does  modern  philanthropy  take  the  place  of  the  tithe  for  the  church  ? 
10.  How  far  is  it  wise  to  sacrifice  present  comfort  for  the  possible  "  rainy 

day  "  ? 

Lecture  10. 
Municipal  Housekeeping. 

The  City  of  Hygiea  :  How  nearly  it  can  be  approached.  **  Apphcd 
hygiene  the  condition  sine  qua  non  of  the  farther  development  of  mankind." 

Clean  soil  :  Requires  removal,  not  burial,  of  all  refuse  ;  cleanly  collection 
and  effectual  disposal  of  garbage  and  street  sweepings  ;  efficient  subsoil 
drainage  ;  suitably  paved  streets,  dustless  and  impervious,  wide  for  circu- 
lation of  air  and  admission  of  sunlight ;  no  dirty  back  alleys. 

Pure  air  :  Depends  largely  on  clean  soil  ;  free  from  dust  and  noxious 
vapours  ;  parks  and  promenades  well  supplied  with  vegetation.  A  crowd 
in  an  enclosed  space,  palace  or  hovel,  defiles  the  air.  Churches,  schools, 
railroad  waiting  rooms,  lecture  halls,  parlours  used  for  social  functions, 
all  demand  special  attention. 

Safe  and  abundant  water  supply  :  Intelligent  use  of  appliances  ;  quick 
lemoval  of  used  water  ;  complete  sewerage  system  before  the  introduction 
of  public  supplies  ;  polluted  soil  means  unsafe  water. 

Safe  buildings  :  Construction,  plumbing,  air  space.  City  regulations  ; . 
are  they  enforced  1 

Urban  hygiene  :  Inspection  of  markets,  factories,  sweat  shops  ;  density 
of  population.    Before  all  other  social  reforms  stands  that  of  healthy  living, 


University  of  the  State  of  New  York.    Home  Ecoyiomics  Syllabus,  33 


Befekences. 

American  Public  Health  Association. — Annual  Reports. 
Barre. — La  Ville  Salubre.  i 
Burrage  and  Bailey. — School  Sanitation  and  Decoration. 
Engineering  Record  (files). 
Municipal  Affairs. — Vols.  1-3. 

Parkes. — Hygiene  and  Public  Health.  \ 
Poore. — Essays  on  Rural  Hygiene.  .  i 

Richardson. — The  City  of  Hygiea.  ^ 

 Health  of  Nations. 

Sykes. — Public  Health  Problems. 

Tracy. — Handbook  of  Sanitary  Information. 

Waring. — Report  07i  Final  Disposition  of  the  Wastes  of  Neiv  York,  180G. 
 ■  Street  Cleaning. 

Weber. — Groivth  of^  Cities.  Columbia  University  Studies  in  History, 
Economics,  and  Public  Law.    Vol.  11. 

Topics  for  Papers. 

1.  Water  supply  of  your  city  ;  source,  method  of  storage,  distribution 

material  of  pipes,  house  pipes,  certified  quality  of  water. 

2.  Sewerage  system  ;  how  far  extended  ;  disposal  of  sewage  ;  location  of 

cesspools  still  used. 

3.  Ventilation  of  schoolhouses,  churches,  and  public  halls. 

4.  Sanitary  condition  of  schoolhouses. 

5.  Afternoon  teas  and  evening  receptions  ;  how  to  make  them  endurable. 

6.  City  dust :  how  can  it  be  prevented  1 

7.  Cremation  the  sanitary  ideal. 


List  of  Authorities  Referred  to. 

Volume  and  page  numbers  are  separated  by  a  colon;  e.g.,  10:141  means 

Vol.  10,  p.  141. 

Abbott,  A.  C— Principles  of  Bacteriology.    Ed.  5.    590  p.  0.  Phil 
1899.    Lea,  $2.50.  ' 

Abel,  Mrs.  M.  H.— Practical,  Sanitary,  and  Economic  Cooking.  188  p. 
D.  llochester,  1890.  American  Public  Health  Association,  40 
cents. 

American  Journal  of  Sociology.— Vol.  1-date,  0.  Chic,  1894-date. 
American  Kitchen  Magazine.— Vol.  1-date.  il.  O.  Bost.,  1895-daie. 
American  Public  Health  Association.— Public  Health,   Reports  aiui 

Papers,  1873-date.    Vol.  1-date,  il.  O.    Concord,  1875-date.  $o. 

(Earlier  volumes  published  in  New  York  and  Boston.) 
Archiv  fur  Hygiene.— Vol.  1-date,  il.  O.    Miin.  187 1-date. 
Atkinson,  Edward —Science  of  Nutrition.    254  p.  sq.  O    Bost  1896 

Damrell,  1.25S. 

Atwater,  W.  O.— Foods  :  Nutritive  Value  aiia_Cost.  32  p.  O.  \Y;is}i., 
1894.  (U.S.— Agriculture,  Department  of.  Farmer's  Bulletin  ' 
No.  23.) 

 Methods    and    Results   of    Investigations    on  the  Chemistry 

and  Economy  of  Food.    222  p.  0.    Wash.,  1895.    (U.S.— Experinu  iit 

Stations,  Ofhce  of.    Bulletin.    No.  21.) 
 and  Benedict,  F.  G.    Report  of  Preliminary  Investigations  on  the 

Metabolism  of    Kitrogen  and  Carbon  in   the    Human  Organisn) 

645  p.    0.    Wash.,  1897.    (U.S.— Experiment  Stations,  Office  of 

Bulletin.    No.  44.) 
 AND  Bryant,  A.  P.— Dietary  Studies  in  Chicago.    76    p  O 

Wash.,    1898.    (U.S.— Experiment    Stations,    Office    of  Bulletin 

No.  55.) 

 AND  Woods,  C.  D.— Chemical  Composition  of  American  Food 

Material^.  45  p.  O.  Wash.,  1896.  (U.S.— Experiment  Stations 
Office  of  Bulletin.    No.  28.) 


332 


U.S.A. — Appendix  L. 


Ballin,  Mrs.  A.  S.— Science  of  Dress  in  Theory  and  Practice.    288  p., 

11.  0.    Lond.,  1886.    Low,  6s. 
Barre,  L.  a.  and  Paul. — Manuel  de  Genie  Sanitarie.    2  Vol.,  il.  D. 

Par.,  1897.    Bailliere,  4  fr.  each.    (Vol.  1.  La  Ville  Salubre.  Vol.2. 

La  Maiso'i  Salubre.) 
Beauty  in  the  Home.— Bost.,  1898.    (20th  Century  Club  leaflets.) 
Bevier,  Isabel. — Nutrition  Investigations  in  Pittsburg,  Pa.   48  p.  0. 

Wash.,    1898.    (U.S.— Experiment   Stations,    Office   of.  Bulletin. 

No.  52.) 

Billings,  J.  S. — Ventilation  and  Heating.    500  p.  0.    N.  Y.,  1893. 

Engineering  Record,  $6. 
Blanc,  Charles. — Art  in  Ornament  and  Dress.    267  p.  0.    Lond.,  1881. 

Warne. 

BosANQUET,  Mrs.  Bernard.— Standard  of  Life.  219  p.  D.  N.  Y.,  1898. 
Macmillan,  $1.50. 

Bowman,  F.  H.— The  Structure  of  the  Wool  Fibre.  366  p.,  il.  0.  Phil., 
1885.    Baird,  $5. 

Brooks,  C.  P.— Cotton.    362  p.,  il.  0.    N.  Y.,  1898.    Spon,  S3. 

Brown,  Glenn.— Healthy  Foundations  for  Houses.  P.  5-143,  il.  T. 
N.  Y.,  1885.  Van  Nostrand,  50  cents.  (Science  Series.  No.  80.) 
(Reprinted  from  the  Sanitary  Engineer.) 

BuRRAGE,  Severance  and  Bailey,  H.  T. — School  Sanitation  and  Decora- 
tion.   191  p.,  il.  D.    Bost.,  1900.    Heath,  $1.50. 

Campbell,  Mrs.  Helen  (Stuart). — Household  Economics.  286  p.  O. 
N.  Y.,  1897.    Putnam,  $1.50. 

Child,  Theodore.— Delicate  Feasting.  214  p.  D.  N.  Y.,  1890.  Harper, 
$1.25. 

Church,  Mrs.  E.  R.  (McIlvane).— How  to  Furnish  a  Home.    128  p. 

0.    N.  Y.,  1881.    Appleton,  60  cents.    (Appleton's  Home  Books.) 
Clark,  T.  M.— Building  Superintendence.    Ed.  14.    336  p.  0.    N.  Y., 

1896.    Macmillan,  $3. 
Conn,  H.  W.— Story  of  Germ  Life.    199  p.  S.    N.  Y.,  1897.  Appleton, 

40  cents.    (Library  of  Useful  Stories.) 
Cook,  C.  C— The  House  Beautiful.    New  cd.    336  p.,  il.  0.    N.  Y., 

1895.    Scribner,  $2.50.     (Originally  published  1878,  $7.50 ;  new 

ed.  1881,  $4  ;  new  cheaper  ed,  1895,  $2.50.) 
CoRFiELD,  W.  IL— Dwelling  Houses  :  Their  Sanitary  Construction  and 

Arrangements.    156  p.  S.    N.  Y.,  1880.    Van  Nostrand,  50  cents. 

(Science  Series.) 

Corson,  Juliet.— Practical  American  Cookery  and  Household  Manage- 
ment.   591  p.,  il.  D.    N.  Y.,  1887.    Dodd,  $1.50. 

Currier,  C.  G.— Outlines  of  Practical  Hygiene.  Ed.  3.  482  p.  O. 
N.  Y.,  1898.    Treat,  $2. 

Damon,  J.  T.— Wealth  of  Households.    N.  Y.,  1886.    Macmillan,  $1.25. 

Dawson,  J.  T. — Wealth  of  Households  :  Political  Economy  of  Daily 
Life.    366  p.  O.    Lond.,  1886.    Frowde,  5s. 

Demolins,  Edmund.— Anglo-Saxon  Superiority.  427  p.  0.  N.  Y.,  1896. 
Scribner,  $1. 

De  Salis,  Mrs.  H.  A. — Art  of  Cookery,  Past  and  Present ;  with  anec- 
dotes of  noted  cooks  and  gourmets.  198  p.  0.  Lond.,  1898.  Hutchin- 
son, 2s. 

Devine,  E.  T. — Economic  Function  of  Woman.    Ed.  2,  p.  45-60.  O. 

Phil.,  1894.    American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science, 

15  cents.    (Publications.    No.  133.) 
Dewing,  Mrs.  M.  R.  (Oakey).— Beauty   in   the   Household.    183  p., 

il.  S.    N.  Y.,  1882.    Harper,  $1. 
Dewson,  M.  p.— Twentieth    Century    Expense    Book.    Bost.,  1899. 

Women's  Educational  and  Industrial  Union. 
DoDDS,  S.  W. — Health  in  the  Household,  or  Hygienic  Cookery.    Ed.  2. 
608  p,  D.    N.  Y.,  1899.    Fowler,  $2.  ' 


University  of  the  State  of  New  York.    Home  Economics  Syllabus.  333 


Earle,  Mrs.  Alice  (Morse).— Customs  and  Fashions  in  old  New  England. 

387  p.  D.   N.  Y.,  1893.    Scribner,  $1.25. 
 Home  Life  in  Colonial  Days.   470  p.  D.    N.  Y.,  1899.  Mac- 

millan,  $2.50. 

EcOB,  Mrs.  Helen  (Gilbert).— The  Well  Dressed  Woman.  253  p.,  il. 
D.   N.  Y.,  1892.   Fowler,  $1.  ^ 

Egbert,  Seneca. — Manual  of  Hygiene  and  Sanitation.  368  p.,  il.  0. 
Phil.,  1899.    Lea,  $2.25. 

Engineering  Record,  Building  Record,  and  Sanitary  Engineer. — 
Vol.  16-date,  il.  F.  N.  Y.,  1887-date.  Being  Vol.  16-date  of  Sani- 
tary Engineer. 

Frankland,  p.  F.— Our  Secret  Friends  and  Foes.    Ed.  3.    238  p.  S. 

Lond.,  1897.   Young,  90  cents.    (Romance  of  Science  Series.) 
Gardner,  E.  C. — Homes  and  all  About  Them.    710  p.,  il,  D.  Bost., 

1885.    Osgood,  $2.50. 
 The  House  that  Jill  Built.    268  p.  D.    Springfield,  Mass.,  1896. 

Adams,  $1. 

Garrett,  Rhoda  and  Agnes. — Suggestions  for  House  Decoration,  in 
Painting,  Woodwork,  and  Furniture,  il.  D.  Phil,  1877.  Porter, 
$1. 

Gerhard,  W.  P. — House  Drainage  and  Sanitary  Plumbing.    Ed.  7. 

231  p.  S.    N.  Y.,  1898.    Van  Nostrand,  50  cents.    (Science  Series.) 
Godwin,  E.  W. — Dress,  and  its  Relation  to  Health  and  Climate.    80  p., 

il.   0.   Lond.,   1884.    Clowes.    (International  Health  Exhibition. 

Lond.,  1884.    Health  Exhibition  Literature.    1884.    Vol.  10.) 
Goodfellow,  John. — Dietetic  Value  of  Bread.    328  p.  D.    Lond.,  1892. 

Macmillan,  $1.50. 

Goss,  Arthur. — Nutrition  Investigations  in  New  Mexico.  20  p.  O. 
Wash.,  1898.  (U.S.— Experiment  Stations,  Office  of  Bulletin. 
No.  54.) 

Grant,  Robert.— Art  of  Living.  353  p.,  il.  D.  N.  Y.,  1895.  Scribner, 
$2.50. 

Griggs,  E.  H. — The  New  Humanism. 

Grimshaw,  Robert. — Hints  on  House  Building.   Ed.  2  enl.   77  p.  T. 

N.  Y.,  1889.    Practical  Publishing  Company,  50  cents. 
Hart,  Mrs.  A.  M.— Diet  in  Sickness  and  in  Health.   219  p.  0.  Phil, 

1897.    Putnam,  $1.50. 
Haweis,  Mrs.  M.  E.— Art  of  Dress.    II.  0.    Lond.,  1879.    Chatto,  6s. 
Herrick,  Mrs.  Christine  (Terhune),— Liberal   Living    upon  Narrow 

Means.    275  p.  D.    Bost.,  1890.    Houghton,  $1. 
HoGAN,  L.  E.— How  to  Feed  Children.    Ed.  2.    236  p.  D.    Phil.,  1898. 

Lippincott,  $1.    (Practical  Lessons  in  Nursing.) 
HiippE,  Ferdinand.— Principles  of  Bacteriology.    467  p.  D.    Chic,  Open 

Court  Publishing  Company. 
Jago,  William. — Textbook  of  the  Science  and  Art  of  Breadmaking.    648  p. 

O.    Lond.,  1895.    Simpkin,  15s. 
Knight,  James. — Food  and  its  Functions.    282  p.  D.    Lond.,  1895. 

Blackie,  2s.  6d. 

Lassar-Cohn.— Chemistry  in  Daily  Life.   Translated  by  M.  M.  P.  Muir. 

324  p.  D.    Phil.,  1898.    Lippincott,  $1.75. 
LoFTiE,  W.  J. — A  Plea  for  Art  in  the  House.  Phil,  JL876.    Coats,  $1 

(Art  at  Home  Series.) 
Lyon,  I.  W.— Colonial  Furniture  of  New  England  ;  A  Study  of  the 

Domestic  Furniture  in  use  in  the  17th  and  18th  Centuries.    Ed.  2. 

285  p.,  pi.  sq.  Q.    Bost.,  1892.    Houghton,  $10. 
Mason,  O.  T. — Woman's  Share  in  Primitive  Culture.    295  p.  D.    N.  Y.j 

1894.    Appleton,  $1.75.    (Anthropological  Series.) 
Mass.  Labour  Statistics,  Bureau  of.— Hours  of  Labour  in  Domestic 

Service.    Bost.,  1898.    Women's  Education  and  Industrial  Union. 
Municipal  Affairs.— Vol.  1-date,  0.   N.  Y.,  1897-date. 


334 


U.S.A. — Appendix  L. 


NiTSCH,  Mrs.  H.  A. — Ten  Dollars  En©ugh  ;  Keeping  House  well  on 
10  Dollars  a  Week,  by  C.  0.    Ed.  11.    279  p.  D.    Bost.,  1893. 
Houghton,  $1. 

Ormsbee,  Mrs.  Agnes  (Bailey).— The  House  Comfortable.    232  p.  S. 

N.  Y.,  1892.    Harper,  $1. 
Osborne,  C.  Francis.— Notes  on  the  Art  of  House  Planning.    N.  Y., 

1889.    Comstock,  5s. 
Parkes,  L.  C— Hygiene   and   Public   Health.    II.    0.    Lond.,  1889. 

Lewis,  9s. 

Parsons,  Samuel,  Jr.— How  to  Plan  the  Home  Grounds.  249  p.,  il.  D. 
N.  Y.,  1899.    Doubleday,  $1  net. 

Patten,  S.  N.— Development  of  English  Thought.  415  p.  0.  N.  Y., 
1899.    Macmillan,  $3. 

Plunkett,  Mrs.  H.  M.  (Hodge).— Women,  Plumbers  and  Doctors.  248 
p.  D.    N.  Y.,  1893.    Appleton,  Si. 25. 

PooRE,  G.  v.— Essays  on  Rural  Hygiene.  Ed.  2.  372  p.,  il.  D.  N.  Y., 
1894.    Longmans,  $2. 

Prudden,  T.  M.— Dust  and  its  Dangers.  Ill  p.  D.  N.  Y.,  1894.  Put- 
nam, 75  cents. 

 Story  of  the  Bacteria.    143  p.   D.  N.  Y.,  1889.  Putnam,  75 

cents. 

Putnam,  J.  P. — Lectures  on  the  Principles  of  House  Drainage. — 125  p. 

D.    Bost.,  1886.    Ticknor,  75  cents. 
Richards,  Mrs.  E.  H.  (Swallow).— Cost  of  Living.    Ed.  1.    121  p.  D 

N.  Y.,  1899.    Wiley,  $1. 
 ed.    Plain  Words  about  Food.    176  p.  D.    Bost.,  1899.  Home 

Science  Publishing  Company,  $1.    (Rumford  Kitchen  Leaflets.) 
 AND  Elliott,  L.  M. — Chemistry    of    Cooking    and  Cleaning. 

Ed.  2.,   158  p.  D.    Bost.,  1897.    Home  Science  Publishing  Company. 

50  cents. 

 AND  Talbot,  Marion. — Home  Sanitation.    85  p.   S.    Bost.,  1898. 

Home  Science  Publishing  Company  25  cents. 
 AND  Woodman,— x\ir,  Water,  and  Food.    225  p.    N.  Y.,  Wiley, 

.,$2. 

Richardson,  B.  W.— Hygiea,  a  City  of  Health.    47  p.  D.    Lond.,  1876. 

Macmillan,  paper,  25  cents. 
 The  Health  of  Nations.    Review  of  Works  of  Edwin  Chadwick. 

2  Vol.  O.    Lond.,  1887.    Longmans,  28s. 
Robida,  Albert. — "  Yester-year  "  :  Ten  Centuries  of  Toilet ;  from  the 

French  by  Mrs.  Cashel  Hoey.    264  p.,  il.  0.    N.  Y.,  1872.  Scribner, 

$2.50.    (Also  published  in  London.) 
Salisbury  . — Principles  of  Domestic  Taste. 

Salmon,  L.  M.— Domestic  Service.    307  p.  0.    N.  Y.,  1897.  Macmillan, 
$2. 

Small,  A.  B.  and  Vincent,  G.  E. — Litroduction  to  the  Study  of  Society. 

384  p.  D.    N.  Y.,  1894.    American  Book  Company,  $1.80. 
Smart,  William. — Distribution  of  Income.    341  p.  O.   N.  Y.,  1899. 

Macmillan,  $1.60  net. 
Snyder,  H.,  Frisby,  A.  J.  and  Bryant,   A.  P.    Losses  in  Boiling 

Vegetables  and  the  Composition  of  Potatoes  and  Eggs.    31  p.  O. 

Wash.,    1897.    (U.  S.— Experiment   Stations,    Office   of.  Bulletin. 

No.  43.) 

—  AND  Voorhees,  L.  a. — Studies  on  Bread  and  Bread-making. 

51  p.  0.    Wash.,  1899.    (U.  S.— Experiment  Stations,  Office  of. 
Bulletin.    No.  67.) 

Stackpole,  Florence. — Handbook  of  Housekeeping  for  Small  Incomes. 

439  p.  0.    Lond.,  1898.    W.  Scott,  2s.  6d. 
Steele,  F.  M.,  and  Adams,  Mrs.  E.  L.  (Steele).— Beauty  of  Form  and 

Grace  of  Vesture.    231  p.,  il.  D.    N.  Y.,  1894.    Dodd,  $1.75. 
Stetson,  C.  P.— Women   and   Economics.   340   p.   D.   Bost.,  1898. 

Small,  $1.50.  ■  ■ 


University  of  the  State  of  New  York.    Home  Economics  Syllabus.  335 

Sykes,  J.  F.— Public  Health  Problems.  370  p.,  il.,  maps,  D.  N.  Y., 
1892.    Scribner,  $1.25.    (Contemporary  Science  Series.) 

Thompson,  Sir  Henry.— Food  and  Feeding.  Ed.  10.  312  p.  D.  N.  Y., 
1899.    Warne,  $1.75. 

Thudichum,  J.  L.  W.— Spirit  of  Cookery.  701  p.  D.  Lond.,  1895. 
Warne,  $2.25. 

TowNSEND,  G.  H. — Relation  of  Foods  to  Health.    427  p.  D.    St.  Louis, 

1898.  Witt  Publishing  Company. 

Tracy,  R.  S. — Handbook  of  Sanitary  Information.    114  p.  S.    N.  Y., 

1895.    Appleton,  50  cents. 
Treves,  Frederick. — The  Dress  of  the  Period  in  its  Relation  to  Heilth. 

32  p.    Lond.    National  Health  Society. 
Tyndall,  John. — Essays  on  Floating  Matter  in  the  Air.    338  p.  D.  N  Y., 

1882.    Appleton,  $1.50. 
U.S. — Experiment  Stations,  Ozfice  op.— Cotton    Plant.   422    p.  O. 

Wash.,  1896.    (Bulletin.    No.  33.)   Supplemental  Bibliography  of 

Cotton,  p.  423-33. 
Voorhees,  E.  B. — Food  and  Nutrition  Livestigation  in  New  Jersey. 

40  p.  0.    Wash.,   1896.    (U.  S.— Experiment  Stations,  Office  of. 

Bulletin.    No.  35.) 
Wait,  C.  F. — Nutrition  Investigations  at  University  of  Tennessee.    46  p. 

O.    Wash.,  1898.    (U.  S.— Experiment  Stations,  Office  of.  Bulletin. 

No.  53.) 

Waring,  G.  E.— Report  on  the  Final  Disposition  of  the  Wastes  of  New 

York,  1896.    155  p.,  il.    N.  Y.  Brown. 
 How  to  Drain  a  House.    Ed.  2.    223  p.  S.    N.  Y.,  1895.  Va 

Nostrand,  $1.25. 

 Principles  and  Practice  of  House  Drainage.    1884.  Century 

Magazine,  7:45,  253. 
 Sanitary  Condition  of  City  and  Country  Dwelling  Houses.    Ed.  2. 

130  p.  S.    N.  Y.,  1898.    Van  Nostrand,  50  cents.    (Science  Series.) 
 Sanitary  Drainage  of  Houses  and  Towns.    Ed.  11.    366  p.  D. 

Bost.,  1876.    Houghton,  $2. 
 Street   Cleaning.    230   p.,    il.    D.    N.  Y.,    1898.  Doubleday, 

$1.25  net. 

Watson,  Mrs.  R.  M.— Art  of  the  House.  185  p.  il.  0.  N.  Y.,  1897. 

Macmillan,  $2  net. 
Weber,  A.  F.— Growth  of  Cities  in  the  19th  Century.    495  p.  0.    N.  Y., 

1899.  Macmillan,  $4.  (Columbia  University  Studies  in  History, 
Economics,  and  Public  Law.    Vol.  11.) 

Wharton,  Edith  and  Codman,  Ogden,  Jr. — Decoration  of  Houses.  240 

p.,  il.  0.    N.  Y.,  1897.    Scribner,  boards,  $4. 
Wheeler,  Mrs.  Candace. — Household   Art.    204   p.,   nar.   S.    N.  Y., 

1893.    Harper,  $1.    (Distaff  Series.) 
Wilkinson,  Frederick.— Story  of  the  Cotton  Plant.    191  p.,  il.  9.  N  Y., 

1899.    Appleton,  40  cents. 
Williams,  W.  M.— Chemistry  of  Cooking.    328  p.    0.    N.Y.,  1897. 

Appleton,  $1.50. 

Williams,  W.  M.— Philosophy  of  Clothing.— 0.    Lond.,  iS90.  Laurie, 
4s. 

Woods,  C.  D.—Mea  ts :  Composition  and  Cooking.    29  p.   O.  Wash. 
1896.    (U.  S.- Agriculture,  Department  of.    Farmer's  Bulletin.  No. 
34.) 

Weight,  C.  D.— Industrial  Evolution  of  the  United  States.     362  p.  D. 

Meadville,  Pa.,  1897.    Flood,  $1. 
Wykoff,  W.  C— Th-3  Silk  Goods  of  America.    Ed.  2.    158  p.  0     N.  Y., 

1880.    Van  Nostrand,  $1. 
Yeo.  I.  B.— Food  in  Health  and  Disease.    592  p.  D.    Phil.,  1896.  Lea. 

$2.50. 


INDEX. 


Admission  to  Colleges,  Schools,  and  Universities : 
See  under  respective  institutions. 

Ages  of  School  Children  : 

Attending  Cooking  Classes,  Toledo  Schools,  36, 
For  compulsory  attendance,  4-5,  23. 
In  Kindergartens,  1. 

In  Grade  Schools,  1,  264.  .; 
In  Secondary  (or  High)  Schools,  1. 

Pratt  Institute  High  School,  154. 

Providence  Manual  Training  High  School,  81,  82. 

Ages  of  Students  : 

In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 

Colleges,  State  Agricultural,  Normal,  etc.,  1,  3,  102,  114,  133. 
Lewis  Institute,  Chicago,  184. 

Agricultural  Colleges,  State  : 

see  Colleges,  State  Agricultural. 

Agricultural  Education : 
Legislation  affecting : 

Morrill  Acts  (1862),  The,  2. 

Albany,  N.Y. : 

University  of  the  State  of  New  York  at, 

see  New  York  State. 
Algebra,  Teaching  of : 

In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 

Brookline  High  School,  Mass.,  76. 

Detroit,  Michigan  Central  High  School,  94. 

Providence  Manual  Training  High  School,  App.  B.,  pp.  289,  291. 

Salem  State  Normal  School,  137. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  Table  XXII.,  facing  p.  161. 

Allen,  Miss  Lou.  C. : 

First  College  Course  in  Household  Science  Organised  by,  in  the  "  Indus- 
trial "  University  at  Champaign,  107. 

Anatomy,  Teaching  of : 

In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 

Michigan  State  Agricultural  College,  120. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Boston  Normal  School  of  Gymnastics,  177. 

Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  213  ;  number  of  hours  per  week 
devoted  to,  see  Table  XXXVII.,  facing  p.  277. 

Ann  Arbor  High  School  (State)  : 
Domestic  Science  Course  at,  93. 

Anthropology,  Teaching  of  : 

In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Lake  Erie  College  for  Women,  174.  / 
University  of  Chicago,  Department  of  Sociology  and  Anthropology 
of,  222,  223. 

Anthropometry,  Lectures  in  : 

At  Boston  Normal  School  of  Gymnastics,  177. 

6490.  Y 


Index. 


Architecture,  House,  Teaching  of : 

In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 
Brookline  High  School,  Mass.,  78. 
University  of  Illinois  State  Agricultural  College,  112. 
University  of  Ohio  College  of  Domestic  Science  and  Agriculture,  116. 
University  of  the  State  of  New  York,  Albany,  New  York,  App.  L., 
p.  323. 

In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  Number  of  hours  devoted  to.  Tables 

XXXI.  p.  213,  and  XXXVII.  facing  p.  277  ;  Synopsis  of  Course, 

App.  F.,  p.  304. 
Boston  Housekeeping  School,  App.  G.,  p.  315. 
Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  196,  200. 

Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  App.  H.,  p.  317. 

Architecture  (Sanitary  Aspect  of).  Teaching  of  : 
In  Technical  Institutes  under  Private  Control : 
Bradley  Institute,  Peoria,  Illinois,  180. 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  Boston,  187. 

Arithmetic,  Teaching  of  : 

In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 
Grade  Schools,  1,  6. 

Cleveland  Public  Grade  Schools,  64. 
Lynn  Grade  Schools,  65. 
Manhattan  and  the  Bronx  High  Schools,  New  York  City,  101. 
Providence  Manual  Training  High  School,  App.  B.,  p,  292. 
Salem  Normal  School,  1 37. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  Table  XXII.  facing  p.  151. 
In  Summer  Schools  : 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  248. 

Armour  Institute,  Chicago,  3. 

Art,  Instruction  in : 

Free  Lectures  in  Art,  246. 

In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 

Brookline  High  School,  Mass.,  76,  78. 

University  of  Illinois  State  Agricultural  College,  112. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Boston  Housekeeping  School,  App.  G.,  p.  316. 

Chicago  University  Elementary  School,  148. 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  Table  XXII.  facing  p.  151. 

Lake  Erie  College  for  Women,  172. 

Oread  Normal  Institute  of  Domestic  Science,  167. 

Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  204. 

Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  228,  229  ;  Out- 
line of  Course,  App.  H.,  p.  317. 
In  Summer  Schools  : 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  248. 

Association  of  CoUege  Alumnae,  19,  121. 
Sanitary  Science  Club  of,  238-39. 

Associations : 

Association  of  College  Alumnae,  238-39. 
Illinois  Association  of  Domestic  Science,  237-38. 
National  Educational  Association,  7. 

National  Household  Economic  Association.    See  National  Household 

Economic  Association. 
Ohio  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs,  18-19. 

Women's  Educational  and  Industrial  Union.    See  Women's  Educational 

and  Industrial  Union. 
Young  Women's  Christian  Association.    See  Young  Women's  Christian 

Association. 


Tndfx. 


Astronomy,  Teaching  of : 

At  Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  Table  XXII.,  facing  p.  151. 

In  Cleveland  Public  Grade  Schools,  64. 

In  Manhattan  and  the  Bronx  High  Schools,  101. 

Attendance,  Compulsory : 

Ages  of,  1,  4-5,  23. 

Aubumdale,  Mass. : 

Lassell's  Seminary,  9-10. 

Bachelor  of  Arts  Degree  :  See  Degrees. 

Bachelor  of  Science  Degree  :  See  Degrees. 

Bacteriology,  Teaching  of  :  ' 
In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 
Brookline,  Mass.,  High  School,  79. 
Detroit  Central  High  School,  96. 

Pramingham  State  Normal  School,  number  of  hours  per  week 

devoted  to,  127-28,  Table  XXXVII.  facing  p.  277. 
Hackley  Manual  High  School,  86. 
Providence  Manual  Training  High  School,  83. 
State  University  of  Michigan,  124. 
University  of  Illinois  State  Agricultural  College,  112. 
University  of  Ohio,  College  of  Domestic  Science  and  Agriculture,  116. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control  : 

Boston  Housekeeping  School,  App.  G.,  p.  314. 
Bradley  Institute,  Peoria,  Illinois,  180. 

Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  App.  F.,  pp.  308,  309 ;  number 
of  hours  per  week  devoted  to,  213  ;  Table  XXXVII. 

Lake  Erie  College  for  Women,  172. 

Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  Boston,  187. 
-  Oread  Normal  Institute  of  Domestic  Science,  number  of  hours 
per  week  devoted  to,  167. 

Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  196,  197,  200,  203;  number  of  hours 
per  week  devoted  to,  Table  XXXVII. 

Simmons  Female  College,  Boston,  219. 

Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  optional,  233. 
University  of  Chicago,  222,  223. 
In  Summer  Schools  : 

Chautauqua  Summer  School  of  Domestic  Science,  247,  App.  J., 
p.  320. 

See  also  Biology,  Teaching  of. 

Basketry,  Teaching  of: 

In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 

Providence  Manual  Training  High  School,  83,  App.  B.,  p.  289. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  191,  195,  197,  200,  204. 
Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  227-28. 
Report  of  Lake  Placid  Conference  of  Teachers  of  Household  Economics 
in  regard  to,  13,  16. 

Battersea  Polytechnic : 

Table  XXXVII.  shewing  number  of  hours  devoted  to  each  subject  in  the 
Normal  Training  Courses  of  the  Training  School  of  Domestic  Economy 
of  the,  facing  p.  277. 

Bentley,  Miss  Luetta : 

Courses  in  Hygiene  and  Physiology  given  by,  at  Lake  Erie  College  for 
Women,  174-75. 

Bevier,  Miss  Isabel : 

Professor  of  Household  Science,  Univei-sity  of  llhnois,  110,  111,  113. 


6490. 


840 


Index. 


Bible,  Study  of  : 

At  Lake  Erie  College  for  Women,  172. 

Bibliography  of  Domestic  Science : 
See  App.  L.,  pp.  331-35. 

Biology,  Teaching  of : 

In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 
Ann  Arbor  High  School,  93. 

Brookline  High  School,  Massachusetts,  76,  78,  79. 
Cleveland  (Ohio)  High  Schools,  94. 
Detroit  Central  High  School,  99. 

Framingham  State  Normal  School,  number  of  hours  per  week 

devoted  to  128,  Table  XXXVII.,  iacing  p.  277. 
Hackley  Manual  High  School,  86. 
Hyannis  State  Normal  School,  138. 

Manhattan  and  the  Bronx  High  Schools,  New  York  City,  101. 
Salem,  Mass.,  Normal  School,  136,  137. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  control : 

Bradley  Institute,  Peoria,  Illinois,  180. 

Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  213,  App.  F.,  p.  309  ;  number  of 
hours  per  week  devoted  to,  see  Table  XXXVIL 

Horace  Mann  School,  New  York  City,  166. 

Lake  Erie  College  for  Women,  172. 

Lewis  Institute,  Chicago,  184,  186. 

Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  Boston,  187. 

Pratt  Institute  High  School,  Brooklyn,  159. 

Simmons  Female  College,  Boston,  219. 

Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University,  232. 

Vassar  College,  216. 
In  Summer  Schools : 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  248. 
See  also  Bacteriology,  Teaching  of ;  Botany,  Teaching  of ;  Zoology, 
Teaching  of. 

Blackboard,  use  of : 

At  Cookery  and  Sewing  Classes,  36,  46. 

Blind  Children : 

Instruction  of,  in  Domestic  Science  Subjects,  265. 

Bloomington,  State  University  of  Indiana  at : 
Course  of  Hygiene  at,  123,  125. 

Boards  of  Education  : 

Election  Powers,  and  Duties  of,  5. 

Book-keeping,  Teaching  of  :  | 
In  Institutions  under  State  Control :  .. 
Brookline,  Mass.,  High  School,  76. 

Providence  Manual  Training  High  School,  83,  App.  B.,  p.  289. 

Boston  (Mass.) : 

Cooking  School : 

Admission  to,  requirements  for,  170. 

Fees  for  Courses  at,  170. 

Normal  Course  at,  scope  of,  169-70. 
Grade  Schools,  47-49  ;  Hygiene  Courses  in,  56. 
High  Schools : 

Household  Science  Courses  in,  164.,  App.  D. 
Home  Economics  Exhibition  at,  238-39. 
Louisa  M.  Alcott  Gub,  243. 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  : 

Course  a!,  187-88. 

Study  of  Sanitary  Aspects  of  various  Professions  in,  187. 


Index, 


341 


Boston  (Mass.) : — continued. 

Normal  School  of  Gymnastics : 
Aims  of,  176. 
Founded  1889,  175. 

Nature  and  Scope  of  Course  at,  17G,  178-79. 
Table  of  Course  at,  177. 
School  of  Housekeeping,  220-21  ;  Synopsis  of  Course  at,  App.  G.,  pp. 

314-16. 
Simmons  Female  College : 

Course  in  Household  Economics  at,  217-20. 
Young  Women's  Christian  Association : 

Lessons  on  the  "  Kitchen  Garden  "  for  Primary  School  Children 
given  by,  243. 

Botany,  Teaching  of : 

In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 

Cleveland  Public  Grade  Schools,  64. 
Detroit  Central  High  School,  96. 
Hackley  Manual  High  School,  86. 

Providence  Manual  Training  High  School,  82,  83,  App.  B.,  p.  291. 

Salem  State  Normal  School,  137. 

University  of  Illinois  State  Agricultural  College,  112. 

University  of  Ohio  College  of  Domestic  Science  and  Agriculture,  116. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Chicago  University  Elementary  School,  148. 

Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University,  233. 
In  Summer  Schools  : 

Chautauqua  School  of  Domestic  Science,  245,  App.  J.,  pp.  319-20. 
See  also  Biology. 

Bowman,  Miss  Perla : 

Organisation  of  Course  in  Hygiene  and  Household  Economics  at  the 
Ohio  State  University  by,  114. 

Bradley  Institute,  Peoria,  Illinois  : 

Sanitary  Science  Course  at,  180-81. 

Brookline  (Mass.) : 
High  School : 

General  Course  at,  76,  77. 

Domestic  Science  Course  at  77,  78,  79-81. 

Brooklyn,  N.Y.  : 

Institute  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  185,  186,  187. 
Pratt  Institute  (established  1887) : 

Admission  to,  requirements  for,  190,  197,  198,  200. 
Aims  of,  189-90. 

Diplomas  and  Certificates  granted  on  Courses  at,  190. 

Domestic  Science  Courses  (Normal  Technical,  and  General)  at, 

3,  109,  196-207. 
Dressmaking  Course  at,  193-94,  App.  E. 
Kindergarten  Course  of,  191. 

Number  of  hours  devoted  to  each  subject  of  Normal  Courses  in 

Domestic  Science  and  Art  at,  Table  XXXVII.,  facing  p.  277. 
Plan  of  Domestic  Science  Department  of,  199. 
Pratt  Institute  High  School  : 

Curriculum,  General,  of,  154-56. 
Domestic  Science  Course  at,  156-61. 

Bruce,  0.  : 

Superintendent  of  Lynn  Schools,  67. 

Bryn  Mawr  College  : 

Physical  Cnlt\irc  Teaching  at,  217. 


342 


Index. 


Buffalo : 

Grade  Schools : 

Domestic  Hygiene  Teaching  at,  56. 
Manual  Training  in,  46  (note). 
Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  4. 

Butler,  Dr.  Murray : 

His  views  on  Education  as  a  Social  Institution,  7. 
California : 

Leland  Stanford  Junior  University  3. 

Campbell,  Miss  Matilda; 

Syllabus  in  Cookery,  in  New  York  Classes,  drawn  up  by,  37 
Care  of  Infants,  Instruction  in  : 

In  Institutions  under  State  Control,  71-72. 

See  also  Infants,  Feeding  of. 
Carman,  Dr.  George. 

Principal  of  Lewis  Institute,  Chicago,  185. 
Carpentry,  Teaching  of : 

In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 

New  York  City  Schools,  number  of  hours  assigned  to,  36. 
Providence  Manual  Training  High  School,  82,  App.  B.,  p.  289. 

"  Centre  "  System  of  Cookery  Classes,  25-26. 

Certificates  : 

For  Teachers  of  Cooking  (New  York  City  State  Schools),  35-36. 
See  also  Diplomas. 
Chambers,  Mrs.  : 

Directress  of  Cookery  Classes,  Pratt  Institute  High  School,  Brooklyn, 
156-59. 

Chautauqua  (Summer)  School  of  Domestic  Science  : 

Cooking  Classes  given  by  Miss  Maria  Parloa  at,  10. 

Courses  at,  247  ;  Table  of  courses,  245  ;  Svnopsis  of  Courses,  App.  J., pp. 
319-20. 
Chemistry,  Teaching  of : 
In  English  Schools  : 

Table  XXXVII.  showing  number  of  hours  devoted  to  each  subject 
in  the  Normal  Training  Courses  at  Battersea  Polytechnic,  Glou- 
cestershire School  of  Domestic  Science,  and  Leeds  School  of 
Cookery,  facing  p.  277. 
In  U.S.A.  Institutions  under  State  Control : 
Ann  Arbor  High  School,  93. 
Brookline,  Mass.,  High  School,  78. 
Cleveland  (Ohio),  94. 
Detroit  Central  High  School,  96. 

Framingham  State  Normal  School,  number  of  hours  devoted  to,  128, 

Table  XXXVII. 
Hackley  Manual  High  School,  86. 
Hyannis  State  Normal  School,  138. 
Manhattan  and  the  Bronx  High  Schools,  101. 
Providence  Manual  Training  High  School,  82,  83,  App.  B.,  p.  290. 
Salem  Normal  School,  136  ;  length  of  course,  137. 
University  of  Illinois  State  Agricultural  College,  112. 
In  U.S.A.  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Boston  Housekeeping  School,  App.  G.,  p.  315. 
Boston  Normal  School  of  Gymnastics,  177. 
Bradley  Institute,  Peoria,Illinois,  180. 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  Table  XXII.,  facing  p.  151. 
Detroit  Home  and  Day  School,  163. 

Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  210,  213  ;  App.  F.,  pp.  305-306  ; 

number  of  hours  do  voted  to  subject.  Table  XXXVII. 


Index. 


343 


Chemistry,  Teaching  of  -.—continued. 

In  U.S.A.  Institutions  under  Private  Control : — continued, 
Indianapolis  Girls'  Classical  School,  162. 
Lake  Erie  College  for  Women,  172. 
Lewis  Institute,  Chicago,  184,  186. 
Massachusett's  Institute  of  Technology,  Boston,  187. 
Oread  Normal  Institute  of  Domestic  Science,  167. 
Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  196,  197,  200,  203 ;  number  of  hours 

devoted  to  subject,  Table  XXXVII. 
Pratt  Institute  High  School,  Brooklyn,  156. 
Simmons  Female  College,  Boston,  219. 

Teachers*  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  231,  App.  H., 
p.  318. 

University  of  Chicago,  222,  223. 
Vassar  College  216. 
In  U.S.A.  Summer  Schools  : 

Chautauqua  Summer  School  of  Domestic  Science,  245,  App.  J.,  pp. 
319-20. 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  248. 

Chicago  : 

Armour  Institute,  3. 
Lewis  Institute  : 

Endowment  of,  3,  183. 

Six  Years'  Course  in  Domestic  Economy  at,  183-85. 
Table  of  Course  in  Domestic  Science  and  Domestic  Art  at,  186. 
University  of,  3. 

Courses  in  Household  Teclmology  and  related  Subjects  at,  221,  223. 

Courses  in  Sanitary  Science  at.  Schedule  of,  222. 

Department  of  Pedagogy  at,  224. 

Department  of  Political  Economy  at,  224. 

Department  of  Sociology  and  Anthropology  at,  223. 

Elementary  School  of,  144-51  ;  Table  illustrating  the  Method  of 

Instruction  at,  facing  p.  148. 
School  of  Education  of  : 

Director  (Colonel  F.  W.  Parker)  of,  in  1901,  151. 

Kindergarten  Course  of,  151-52,  Table  XXII,  facing  p.  151. 

Summer  School  of,  247-49. 

Table  showing  a  Year's  Course  at,  facing  p.  151. 

Table  of  Summer  Course  at,  248. 
Summer  Schools  of,  247. 

University  Extension  Courses  in  Sanitary  Science  at,  225. 

Children,  Training  of : 

Dr.  John  Dewey's  views  upon,  143-47. 
See  also  Kindergartens. 

Child  Study  Department  of  the  Institute  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  Brooklyn,  187. 

City  School  Systems : 
Organisation  of,  5. 

Civic  League,  The,  240. 

Civics,  Teaching  of : 

In  Cleveland  Public  Grade  School,  64. 

In  Lynn  Grade  Schools,  65. 

In  Manhattan  and  the  Bronx  High  Schools,  101. 

Free  Lectures,  244,  246. 

.aeveland'(Ohio) : 
Grade  Schools  : 

Physiology  and  Hygiene  Course  of,  56,  57-64  ;  Table  of  course,  .W. 
Weekly  Time  Table  of,  64. 
High  Schools  : 

Hygiene  and  Physiology  Course  at,  94. 


344 


Index. 


Clubs; 

Louisa  M.  Alcott  Glub,  Boston,  Kindergarten  Course  in  Domestic  Science 
of,  243-44. 

Sanitary  Science  Glub  of  the  Association  of  Gollege  Alumnae,  238-39. 
Women's.    See  Women's  Clubs. 

Co-education : 

Essential  to  National  well-being,  283-84. 

In  Detroit  Home  and  Day  School  (Kindergarten,  Primary,  and  Inter- 
mediate Departments),  163. 
In  Hygiene  Teaching,  in  Schools  and  Colleges,  266. 
In  Needlework  Teaching  in  Brookline  Schools,  46. 
Policy  of.  Preponderance  of,  4. 

Colleges : 

Age  of  Students  Attending.    See  Ages  of  Students. 

Endowment  of,  104.    See  also  Fees  (for  Courses  and  Boarding  Expenses), 

Finance  and  Length  of  Courses. 
Government  of,  104. 
History  and  Development  of,  100-04. 
Methods  of  Instruction  in,  104. 
Normal  Colleges : 

First  Established  in  1839,  3. 

Institutions  under  State  Control : 

Admission  to.  Requirements  for,  133,  135. 

Length  of  Courses  of,  133.    See  also  Fees  (for  Courses,  and 
Boarding  Expenses),  Finance,  and  Length  of  Courses. 

Number  of,  3. 

For  Institutions  see  under  Teachers,  Training  of 
Institutions  under  Private  Control : 
Number  of,  3. 

For  Institutions,  see  under  Teachers,  Training  of 

Number  of,  105. 

Number  of  Students  attending.  Increase  in,  12. 
Position  of  Domestic  Science  in  Curricula  of,  266-67. 
State  Agricultural  Colleges : 

Admission  to.  Requirements  of,  3. 

Aims  of,  3. 

Curriculum  of.  Debates  of  Lake  Placid  Conference  of  Teachers 
of  Household  Economy  as  to,  11-12. 

Courses,  General  and  in  Household  Sciences,  at,  105-25. 

Courses  of  Household  Economics  and  Hygiene  at,  273-74. 

EstabUshment  of,  Morrill  Acts  of  1862  affecting,  2 

Fees  at,  104-5.  See  also  Fees  (for  Courses,  and  Boarding  Ex- 
penses), Finance,  and  Length  of  Courses. 

Government  of.  Form  of,  104. 

Income  of.  Sources  of,  104.  See  also  Fees  (for  Courses,  and  Board- 
ing Expenses),  Finance  and  Length  of  Courses. 

For  Institutions  see : 

Colorado,  University  of,  State  Agricultural  College  of. 
TlHnois,  State  University,  Agricultural  College  of. 
Kansas  State  University,  Agricultural  Gollege  of. 
Michigan  State  University,  Agricultural  Gollege  of. 
Ohio  Slate  University,  Gollege  of  Domestic  Science  and 
Agriculture  of. 

Women's  (Under  Private  Control)  : 
For  Institutions  see : 

Boston  School  of  Housekeeping. 

Bryn  Mawr  Gollege. 

Mount  Holyoke  Women's  Gollege. 


Index. 


345 


Colleges ; — continued. 

Women's  (Under  Private  Control) : — coMinued, 
For  Institutions  -.—  continued. 

Simmons  Female  College,  Boston. 

Smith  College. 

Vassar  College. 

Wellesley  College. 
See  also  under  respective  subjects. 

Colorado  : 

University  of,  State  Agricultural  College  of: 
Household  Science  Course  in,  108,  121. 
Columbia  University,  New  York,  3. 

Teachers'  College  of,  see  New  York  Citj'. 
Commercial  Schools,  2. 
Commissioner  of  Education,  National : 

See  Harris,  W.  T. 
Commissioners  of  PubUc  Schools,  5. 
Common  Schools,  Superintendents  of,  5. 
Compulsory  Attendance  : 

See  Attendance. 

Conference,  Lake  Placid,  of  Teachers  of  Household  Economics,  1899,  10-17. 
Cookery,  Teaching  of : 
In  English  Schools  : 

Table  XXXVII.  showing  number  of  hours  devoted  to  each  subject 
in  the  Normal  Training  Courses  in  Domestic  Science  at  Battersea 
Polytechnic,  Gloucestershire  School  of  Domestic  Science,  and 
Leeds  School  of  Cookery,  facing  p.  277. 
In  U.S.A.  : 

Introduction  of,  9-10. 

Glass  or  Metal  Cup  Measure  used  in,  29  {note). 
In  U.S.A.  Institutions  under  State  Control : 
Centre  System  of,  25-26. 

Fees  for  Classes,  in  Grade  Schools,  42.     See  also  Fees,  etc. 

Lessons  given  to  PubHc  School  Children  by  the  Young  Women's 

Christian  Association,  9. 
Number  of  hours  per  week  assigned  to  : 

Framingham  State  Normal  School,  Table  XXXVII. 

New  York  City  Schools,  31. 

Philadelphia  Schools,  36. 

Providence  Manual  Training  High  School,  82. 

Toledo  Schools,  36. 

Washington  Schools,  39. 
ObUgatory  Subject  for  Girls  in  Washington  Schools,  39. 
In  Grade  Schools,  6,  10,  23-26. 

Length  of  Course,  24.    See  also  Fees  (for  Courses,  and  Boarding 
Expenses),  Finance  and  Length  of  Courses. 

Number  of  Scholars  attending  Classes,  24,  31,  36,  37,  39. 

New  York  City  School,  31-36. 

New  York  Cooking  School,  9. 

Philadelphia  Schools,  37-39. 

Toledo  Schools,  36-37. 

Washington  Schools,  39-42. 
In  High  Schools  : 

Ann  Arbor  High  School,  93. 

Brookline  High  School,  Mass.,  78. 

Hackley  High  School,  86,  88 

Providence  Manual  Training  High  Schoo*.  82.  83-84,  App.  B, 
p.  290. 

Toledo  Manual  Training  School,  92. 


346 


Index. 


Cookery,  Teaching  of  :  — continued. 

In  U.S.A.  Institutions  under  State  Control : — continued. 
In  Universities  : 

University  of  the  State  of  New  York,  Albany,  N.Y.,  App.  L, 
pp.  328-2P. 
In  Normal  Colleges  : 

Framingham  State  Normal  School,  129-30  ;  Number  of  hours 
devoted  to,  see  Table  XXXVII. 
In  U.S.A.  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 
Boston  Cooking  School,  170. 

Boston  Housekeeping  School,  App.  G.,  pp.  315,  316. 
Chicago  University  Elementary  School,  148,  149,  150. 
Detroit  Home  and  Day  School,  163. 

Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  212,  213,  214,  215  ;    App.  F.,  pp. 

300-303,  313.    Number  of  hours  devoted  to,  see  Table  XXXVII. 
Eastman  Mechanics'  Institute,  Rochester,  182. 
Indianapolis  Girl's  Classical  School,  162. 
Lake  Erie  College  for  Women,  174. 
Lassell's  Seminary,  Auburndalc,  Mass.,  9-10. 
Lewis  Institute,  Chicago,  184,  185. 
Oread  Normal  Institute  of  Domestic  Science,  167,  168. 
Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  196,  197,  200,  202,  203  ;   Number  of 

hours  devoted  to,  see  Table  XXXVIL 
Pratt  Institute  High  School,  Brooklyn,  154,  156-61. 
Simmons  Female  College,  Boston,  219. 
University  of  Chicago,  222,  223. 
In  U.S.A.  Summer  Schools  : 

Chautauqua  Summer  School  of  Domestic  Science,  245,  App.  J., 

pp.  319-20. 

Materials  for  Cost  of.  Report  of  Lake  Placid  Conference  of  Teachers 

of  Household  Economics  in  regard  to,  13,  16. 
U.S.A.  Social  Agencies  providing  : 

Indianapolis  Kindergarten  and  Domestic  Training  Schools,  241. 

Louisa  M.  Alcott  Club,  Boston,  243. 

Women's  Institute,  Yonkers,  N.Y.,  240. 
Utensils  for,  List  of,  App.  A.,  p.  286. 

Cooking  Laboratories  : 

Attached  to  Schools  in  Washington,  26. 

Cooking  Tables  : 

Continuous,  Plan  of,  28. 

Horseshoe  and  Group  Arrangement  of,  27. 

In  State  Grade  Schools,  26-27. 

In  Toledo  Schools,  92. 

Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  271. 

Cord  Work,  Instruction  in  : 

Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  197,  200. 
Cornell  University  : 

Reading  Courses  for  Farmers'  Wives  at,  250,  App.  K.,  p.  321. 

Correlation  of  Studies  : 
In  Grade  Schools,  42. 
In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 

Hackley  High  School,  88. 

Washington  Schools,  69. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Chicago  University  Elementary  School,  149. 

High  schools,  270. 

Corson,  Juliet : 

Cooking  Classes  organised  by,  9. 


Indfx. 


847 


Courses  of  Study  : 

For  Free  Public  Schools,  fixed  by  Boards  of  Education,  .*». 
See  also  under  respective  subjects  and  institutions. 

Dancing,  Teaching  of : 

At  Boston  Normal  School  of  Gymnastics,  177. 

At  Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  Summer  School,  248. 
Day,  Miss  Edna : 

Professor  of  Chemistry  and  Biology  and  Home  Economics  at  Lake  Erie 
College  for  Women,  175. 

Deaf  Children  : 

Instruction  of,  in  Domestic  {Science,  265. 

Defective  Children  (Blind,  Deaf,  and  Feeble-minded)  : 
Instruction  of,  in  Domestic  Science,  265. 

Degrees  : 

Bachelor  of  Arts : 

Course  of  Study  in  Hygiene  for,  at  Wellesley  College,  217. 
Of  University  of  Chicago,  221. 
Bachelor  of  Science  : 

Course  of  Study  in  Household  Science  for,  105. 
Course  of  Study  for,  at  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technologv, 
Boston,  188. 

Course  of  Study  for,  at  Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University, 

New  York,  226. 
Course  of  Study  for,  at  Michigan  State  University,  118. 

Denominational  Schools ; 
Curriculum  of,  2. 

Detroit  (Michigan)  : 

Central  High  School : 

Courses  in  Hygiene  and  Physiology  at,  94-97. 
Table  of  Hygiene  and  Physiology  Course  at,  96. 
Home  and  Day  School  (Kindergarten,  Primary,  Intermediate,  and 
Academic  Departments),  163-64. 

Dewey,  Dr.  John : 

His  Views  on  Education,  7-8. 

His  Views  upon  the  Training  of  Children,  143-48. 

Diplomas : 

For  Courses  in  Domestic  Science  : 
At  Boston  Cooking  School,  170. 
At  Hackley  Manual  High  School,  86,  87. 
At  the  Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  190. 

At  the  Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  226. 
Teachers',  277-78. 
See  also  Certificates. 

Domestic  Science  : 

As  a  Technical  Subject,  281-83. 

Domestic  Science  Teaching : 

Diversity  of  Practice  respecting,  obtaining  in  Grade  and  High  Schools, 

Table  showing,  21. 
Educational  versus  Utilitarian  Value  of,  8. 
Growth  of,  8-9. 

History  and  development  of,  8. 
Introduction  of,  9. 
Organisation  of : 

Three  Schools  of  Thought  motive  in,  8,  19-20. 
Term  of  : 

Discussion  as  to  choice  of  suitable,  by  Lake  Placid  Conference  of 
Teachers  of  Household  Economics,  11. 


348 


Index. 


Domestic  Science  Teaching: — continued. 

Term  of  : — continued. 

Pamphlets  issued  by  Ohio  Federation  of  Women's  Olubs  in  regard 
to  meaning  of,  18-19. 

Subjects  included  under,  8,  21-22. 
See  also  under  respective  subjects. 

Domestic  Service  Problem  : 

Eight  Hours'  Day  for  Servants  in  Women's  Hall  of  Chicago  University 
223. 

In  England,  261-62. 

In  the  United  States,  250-61. 

Drawing,  Teaching  of : 
In  Grade  Schools,  1. 
In  Institutions  under  State  Gontrol : 

Cleveland  Public  Grade  Schools,  64. 

Hackley  Manual  High  School,  86-87,  90. 

Hyannis  State  Normal  School,  138. 

Massachusetts  Schools,  6. 

Providence  Manual  Training  High  School,  App.  B.,  p.  289  ;  number 

of  hours  devoted  to,  82. 
Salem  State  Normal  School,  137. 

University  of  Ohio  College  of  Domestic  Science  and  Agriculture,  116. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  Kindergarten  Depart- 
ment, Tahle  XXIL,  facing  p.  151. 
Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  number  of  hours  per  week  devoted 

to,  210,  Table  XXXVII.,  facing  p,  277. 
Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn.  191,  197,  200,  201,  204  ;  number  of  hours 
per  week  devoted  to,  see  Table  XXXVII. 
In  Summer  Schools  : 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  248. 

Dressmaking,  Teaching  of  : 

Equipment  for  High  School  Courses  of.  Tables  of,  App.  C,  p.  293. 
In  English  Institutions  : 

Table  XXXVII.,  showing  number  of  hours  devoted  to,  in  the  Normal 
Training  Courses  in  Domestic  Science  at  Battersea  Polytechnic, 
Gloucestershire  School  of  Domestic  Science  and  Leeds  School  of 
Cookery,  facing  p.  277. 
In  U.S.A.  Institutions  under  State  Control : 
Hackley  Hi^h  Schorl,  90. 

Providence  Manual  Training  High  School,  number  of  hours  devoted 
to,  82. 

Toledo  Manual  Training  School,  92. 
In  U.S.A.  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  General  and  Technical  Courses, 
215,  Table  of  Normal  Courses,  App,  F.,  p.  310-11  ;  number  of 
hours  per  week  devoted  to,  210,  Table  XXXVII. 

Eastman  Mechanics'  Institute,  Rochester,  182. 

Indianapolis  Girls'  Classical  School,  162. 

Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  191,  192-94,  197,  201,  App.  E.,  p.  298  ; 

number  of  hours  per  week  devoted  to,  see  Table  XXXVII. 
Pratt  Institute  High  School,  Brooklyn,  154,  156. 
Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  228 ;  length 
of  course,  229. 

Not  yet  included  in  Curriculum  of  Elementary  Schools,  49. 
U.  S.  A.  Social  Agencies  providing  : 

Women's  Institute,  Yonkere,  New  York,  Evening  Classes,  240 


Indea'. 


349 


Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia  :  ^ 
See  Philadelphia. 

Dyeing  and  Cleaning,  Instruction  in  : 
In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 

Framingham  State  Normal  School,  128. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control  : 

Chicago  University  Elementarj'^  School,  149. 

Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  App.  F.,  312 ;  number  of  hours 
devoted  to,  see  Table  XXXVII.,  facing  p.  277. 

Dynamics,  Teaching  of : 

Providence  Manual  Training  High  School,  App.  B.,  289,  290. 

Eastman  Mechanics'  Institute,  Rochester : 
See  Rochester. 

Economic?},  Home  : 

See  Home  Economics. 

Education,  History  of,  Teaching  of  : 

In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  App.  F.,  p.  305  ;  number  of  hours 

devoted  to,  213,  Table  XXXVI I.,  facing  p.  277. 
Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  197,  200.  203  ;  number  of  hours  devoted 

to,  see  Table  XXXVII. 
Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York.  229,  232. 
See  also  Pedagogy,  Teaching  of. 

Education,  Superintendents  of,  5. 

Elasticity  of  Educational  Methods  in  the  United  States,  7,  20. 
"  Elective  "  system  in  Force  in  High  Schools,  1. 

Elementary  Science  : 

See  Science  (Elementary). 

ElHotf,  Miss  S.  Maria  : 

Courses  in  Household  Science  in  Boston  High  Schools  given  by,  164. 

Elocution,  Teaching  of  : 

In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 

Manhattan  and  the  Bronx  High  Schools,  101. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

At  the  Oread  Normal  Institute  of  Domestic  Science,  167. 

Emergencies,  Lectures  on  ; 

In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 

Detroit  Central  High  School,  96. 

Hackley  Manual  High  School,  86. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control  : 

Boston  Housekeeping  School,  App.  G.,  p.  315. 

Boston  Normal  School  of  Gymnastics,  177. 

Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  number  of  hours  devoted  to,  213, 

Table  XXXVII. ,  facing  p.  277. 
Oread  Normal  Institute  of  Domestic  Science,  167,  168. 
Pratt  Institute  High  School,  154. 

Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  233. 

Endowment  of  Institutions  : 

See  Fees  (for  Courses,  and  Boarding  Expenses),  Finance,  and  Length  of 
Courses. 

Engineering  : 

High  Schools  for,  2. 

Sanitary  Aspect  of,  Teaching  of,  at  Bradley  Institute, Peoria,Illinois,  180. 


350 


Index. 


English,  Teaching  of : 

In  Institutions  under  State  Control  : 
Brookline  High  School,  Mass.,  76. 

Manhattan  and  the  Bronx  High  Schools,  New  York  City,  101. 
University  of  Illinois  State  Agricultural  College,  112. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  number  of  hours  devoted  to,  set 

Table  XXXVII.,  facing  p.  277. 
Lake  Erie  College  for  Women,  172. 

Pratt  Institute,  Brooklvn,  number  of  hours  devoted  to,  set  Table 
XXXVII. 

English  Composition,  Teaching  of  : 

In  Institutions  under  State  Control  : 
Brookline  High  School,  Mass.,  76. 
Cleveland  Public  Grade  Schools,  64. 

Providence  Manual  Training  High  School,  App.  B.,  pp.  289-90. 
University  of  Ohio  College  of  Domestic  Science  and  Agriculture,  116. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  Compulsory,  209. 
Oread  Normal  Institute  of  Domestic  Science,  167. 
English  Literature,  Teaching  of  : 
See  Literature. 

English  Normal  Training  Courses  in  Domestic  Science  : 
See  Battersea  Polytechnic, 

Gloucestershire  School  of  Domestic  Science. 
Leeds  School  of  Cookery. 

Equipment : 

Cooking  Tables,  see  Cooking  Tables. 

Of  Cookery  and  Manual  Training  Centres,  25,  26-31,  App.  A.,  p.  286. 

Of  Cookery  and  Needlework  Classes,  269-70  ;  at  Providence  Manual 

Training  High  School,  82. 
For  Dressmaking  and  Laundry  Work  courses  (High  Schools),  Table  of, 

App.  C,  p.  293. 

Ethics,  Teaching  of : 

At  Lake  Erie  College  for  Women,  172. 

Evans,  Miss : 

Principal  of  Lake  Erie  College  for  Women,  173. 

Evening  Classes  : 

Cookery,  at  Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  215,  App.  F.,  p.  312-13. 

Cookery  and  Sewing,  at  the  LcAvis  Institute,  Chicago,  185. 

Cookery,  Sewing,  MiUinery,  and  Dressmaking,  given  by  the  Women's 
Institute,  Yonkers,  New  York,  240. 

Given  by  Technical  Institutes  and  Manual  Training  High  Schools,  246. 
Examinations : 

For  Licence  to  Teach  Cooking  (New  York  Board  of  Examiners),  35-36. 
Exhibition  of  Home  Economics,  Boston,  Mass.,  238-39. 
Faculties  of  Universities,  4. 
Farmers'  Wives : 

Reading  Courses  for,  at  Cornell  University.    See  Cornell  University. 
Feeble-minded  Children  : 

Instruction  of,  in  Domestic  Science,  265. 
Fees  (for  Courses,  and  Boarding  Expenses),  Finance,  and  Length  of  Courses  : 
Cooking  Classes,  in  Grade  Schools,  42-43. 
Domestic  Science  Courses  : 

In  English  Institutions  (Battersea  Polytechnic,  Gloucestershire 
School  of  Domestic  Science,  and  Leeds  Cookery  School),  see  Table 
XXXVIT.,  facing  p.  277. 
,         Boston  Cooking  School,  170. 


Index, 


Pees   (for  Courses,  and    Boarding  Expenses),  Finance,  and   Length  of 
Courses  — continued. 
Domestic  Science  Courses  : — continued. 
Brookline  High  School,  Mass.,  78. 
Chicago  University,  221,  222. 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  Summer  School,  248. 
Detroit  Central  High  School,  96. 

Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  Table  XXXVII.,  App.  P.,  p.  299. 
Eastman  Mechanics'  Institute,  Rochester,  183. 

Framingham  State  Normal  School,  128,  133-34,  Table  XXXVII.. 

facing  p.  277. 
Hackley  Manual  High  School  86. 
Indianapolis  Girls'  Classical  School,  162 
Lake  Erie  College  for  Women,  172. 
Lewis  Institute,  Chicago,  186. 
Michigan  State  University,  124. 

Oread  Normal  Institute  of  Domestic  Science,  167,  168,  169. 
Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  189,  197,  200,  Table  XXXVII. 
Providence  Manual  Training  High  School,  82. 
Salem  State  Normal  School,  137. 

Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  226,  229,  232. 
University  of  Illinois  State  Agricultural  College,  112. 
University  of  Ohio  College  ot  Domestic  Science  and  Agriculture,  116, 
General  Courses  : 

Brookline  High  School,  Mass.,  76. 
Lake  Erie  College  for  Women,  171. 
Simmons  Female  College,  Boston,  219-20. 
State  University  of  Illinois,  109. 
Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University,  226. 
University  of  Chicago,  221. 
Fencing,  Teaching  of : 

At  Boston  Normal  School  of  Gymnastics  177. 
Ferguson,  W.  B.  : 

Article  by,  in  "  Educational  Review,"  in  regard  to  Statutes  of  1893  and 
1902  respecting  Temperance  Teaching,  53-54. 
Financial  support : 

Allotted  to  Domestic  Science  Teaching,  279. 
Sources  of,  4. 

See  also  Fees  (for  Courses  and  Board  Expenses),  Finance,  and  Length  of 
Courses. 
Food  Museums  : 

At  the  Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  206. 
Food  Stuffs  (Chemistry,  etc.,  of),  Study  of  : 
In  English  Institutions  : 

Table  XXXVII.   showing  number  of  hours  devoted  to,  in  the 
Normal  Training  Courses  at  Battersea  Polytechnic,  Gloucester- 
shire School  of  Domestic  Science,  and  Leeds   School  of 
Gookevyy  facing  p.  277. 
In  U.&>.A.  Institutions  under  State  Control : 
Brookline  High  School,  Mass.,  7b. 
Detroit  Central  High  School.  96. 
Framingham  State  Normal  School,  128. 
Michigan  State  University,  124. 

Providence  Manual  Training  High  School,  82,  App.  B.,  pp.  291, 
292. 

In  U.S.A.  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Boston  Housekeeping  School,  220,  App.  G.,  p.  316. 
Bradley  Institute,  Peoria,  Illinois,  180. 
Detroit  Home  and  Day  School,  163. 


352 


Index, 


Food  Stuffs  (Chemistry,  etc.,  of),  Study  of  : — continued. 

In  U.S.A.  Institutions  under  Private  Control  -.—continued. 

Drexel  Institute,  Pkilaxlelphia,  211,  213,  App.  F.,  p.  307  ;  number 

of  hours  devoted  to,  Table  XXXVII. 
Framingham  State  Normal  School,  126  ;  number  of  hours  devoted 

to,  see  Table  XXXVII. 
Lake  Erie  College  for  Women,  174. 

Oread  Normal  Institute   of  Domestic  Science,  168  :    number  of 

hours  devoted  to  167. 
Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  196,  203. 

Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  229,  231,  232. 
University  of  Chicago  222,  223. 
In  Summer  Schools  : 

Chautauqua  Summer  School  of  Domestic  Science,  2-45. 

Forging,  Instruction  in  : 

At  Pratt  Institute  High  School,  Brooklyn,  154. 

Framingham  State  Normal  School  : 

Course  in  Household  Arts  at,  125-34  ;  Schedule  of  Course,  128  ;  number 
of  hours  devoted  to  each  subject  of,  see  Table  XXXVII.,  facing  p.  277. 
Fees  and  Cost  of  Board  at,  see  Fees,  etc. 

Frederick,  Professor  Frank  : 

Conductor  of  Arts  Course  at  the  University  of  lUinois  State  Agricultural 
College,  113. 

French,  Teaching  of  : 

In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 
Brookline  High  School,  Mass.,  76, 

Framingham  State  Normal  School.  128  ;  number  of  hours  devoted  to, 
see  Table  XXXVII..  facing  p.  277. 

Manhattan  and  the  Bronx  High  Schools,  New  York  City,  101. 

University  of  Illinois  State  Agricultural  College,  112. 

University  of  Ohio  College  of  Domestic  Science  and  Agriculture,  116. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  Table  XXII.,  facing  p.  151. 

Lake  Erie  College  for  Women,  172. 

Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  201. 
In  Summer  Schools : 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  248. 

Geography,  Teaching  of  : 
Free  Lectures  in,  246. 
Ip  Grade  Schools,  1. 
In  High  Schools,  2. 
In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 

Cleveland  Public  Grade  Schools,  64. 

Hackley  High  School,  86. 

Lynn  Grade  Schools,  65. 

Massachusetts  Schools,  6. 

Providence  Manual  Training  High  School,  83, 

Salem  Normal  School,  137. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  Table  XXII.,  facing  p.  151, 
Summer  Schools : 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  248. 

Geography  (Physical),  Teaching  of  : 

At  Hackley  Manual  High  School,  86. 

At  Providence  Manual  Training  High  School,  83,  App.  B.,  p.  289. 

Geology,  Teaching  of. 

At  the  Detroit  Home  and  Day  School,  163. 


Index, 


353 


Geometry,  Teaching  of : 

In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 
Brookline  High  School,  Mass.,  76. 

Providence  Manual  Training  High  School,  83,  App.  B.,  pp.  290-91. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 
Oread  Normal  Institute,  168. 

George,  Dr.  Rebecca  Rogers  : 

Course  in  Hygiene  at  the  State  University  of  Indiana  given  by,  123. 

German,  Teaching  of : 

Ln  Institutions  under  State  Control : 
Brookline  High  School,  Mass.,  76. 
Cleveland  Public  Grade  Schools,  64. 

Manhattan  and  the  Bronx  High  Schools,  New  York  City,  101. 
Providence  Manual  Training  High  School,  App.  B.,  pp.  291-92. 
University  of  Illinois  State  Agricultural  College,  112. 
University  of  Ohio  College  of  Domestic  Science  and  Agriculture,  110. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  Table  XXII.,  facing -p.  151. 
Lake  Erie  College  for  Women,  172. 
Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  201. 

Glass  or  Metal  Cup  Measure,  used  in  teaching  cooking,  29  {note). 

Gloucestershire  School  of  Domestic  Science  : 

Table  XXXVII.  showing  number  of  hours  devoted  to  each  subject  in 
the  Normal  Training  Course  of  Domestic  Science  at,  facing  p.  277. 

Good  Habits  Talks : 

In  Grade  Schools,  52,  69. 
Grade  (Primary  and  Grammar)  Schools  : 

Average  age  of  children  attending,  1,  264. 
Curriculum,  general,  of,  1. 

Debates  of  Lake  Placid  Conference  of  Teachers  of  Household 

Economics  as  to,  11-12. 
Development  of,  in  Massachusetts,  6. 
Position  of  Domestic  Science  in,  266-67. 
See  also  under  respective  subjects. 
Domestic  Science  Courses  in  : 

Equipment  of,  and  numbers  attending  classes  of,  etc.,  23-31,  269-70. 
See  also  under  respective  subjects. 
Methods  employed  in  teaching  of  Domestic  Science  and  Hygiene  in,  267- 
69. 

Table  showing  Diversity  of  Practice  obtaining  in  teaching  of  Domestic 

Science  in,  and  in  High  Schools,  21. 
For  Inscitutions  under  State^Control,  see  : 
Boston  Grade  Schools. 

Buffalo  Grade  Schools.  ^ 

Cleveland  (Ohio)  Grade  Schools. 

Hyannis,  Mass.,  Grade  School 

Lynn,  Mass.,  Grade  Schools. 

Massachusetts,  Elementary  Schools  of. 

Toledo  Grammar  Grade  Schools. 

Washington  Grammar  Grade  Schools. 
For  Institutions  under  Private  Control,  see  : 

Chicago  University  Elementary  School. 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education. 
(See  also  under  respective  subjects  and  undei 

Intermediate  Schools. 

Grammar  Schools. 


6490. 


354 


Index 


Grammar,  Teaching  of  :  ..  , 

In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 
Grade  Schools,  6. 

Cleveland  Public  Grade  School,  64. 
Lynn  Grade  School,  65 
Providence  Manual  Training  High  School,  App.  B  ,  p 
Salem  State  Normal  School,  137. 
Grammar  Schools : 

Age  of  Children  attending,  1. 
Curriculum  of,  1,  2, 
For  Institutions  under  State  Control : 
See  : 

New  York  City  Grammar  Schools. 
Philadelphia  Grammar  Schools. 
Toledo  Grammar  Grade  Schools. 
Washington  Grammar  Grade  Schools. 
Greek,  Teaching  of ; 

At  Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  Table  XXII.  fac  ng  p.  i5I. 
At  Manhattan  and  the  Bronx  High  Schools,  New  York  City,  101. 
Greer,  Edith  : 

Director  of  Domestic  Science  Department,  Pratt  InstitutojBrooklj'n,  196. 
Giilick,  Dr.  Luther : 

Superintendent  of  Pratt  Institute  High  School,  Brooklyn,  15? 
Gymnastics,  Teaching  of : 

In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 

Hackley  Manual  High  School,  86-87. 
Framingham  State  Normal  School,  128. 
Salem  State  Normal  School,  137. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control  : 

Boston  Normal  School  of  Gymnastics,  175-80. 
Oread  Normal  Institute  of  Domestic  Science,  168. 
Pratt  Institute  High  School,  Brooklyn,  154, 191. 
Simmons  Female  College,  Boston,  219. 
riackley  Manual  High  School  : 

Domestic  Science  and  Art  Course  at,  85-90  ;  Schedule  of  Course,  S6. 
Haggenbotham,  Miss : 

Views  of,  on  Domestic  Service  Problem,  253-56. 
Harris,  Dr.  W.  T.  (National  Commissioner  of  Education),  4. 

His  views  on  the  Training  of  Children,  142. 
Hemenway,  Mrs.  : 

Boston  Normal  School  of  Cookery  founded  by,  125. 
Boston  Normal  School  of  Gymnastics  founded  by,  175. 
Henderson,  Professor  Charles  R. : 

Lectures  in  Sociology  given  by,  at  Chicago  University,  223,  224. 
High  Schools  : 

^ee  Secondary  (or  High)  Schools. 
Histology,  Teaching  of : 

At  Boston  Normal  School  of  Gymnastics,  177. 
History,  Teaching  of  : 

Free  Lectures  in  History,  246.  ', 
In  Grade  Schools,  1,  6. 
In  High  Schools,  2. 
In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 
Brookline,  High  Schools,  Mass.,  76. 
Cleveland  Public  Grade  Schools,  64. 
Detroit  (Michigan)  Central  High  School,  94. 
Lynn  Grade  Schools,  65,  67. 
^      Manhattan  and  the  Bronx  High  Schools,  New  York  City,  101. 
Providence  Mammal  Training  High  School,  App.  B.,  p.  290 
Univenity  of  lUinoiB  State  Agricultural  College,  112. 


Index. 


3i55 


Tn  InstitutioriR  under  Private  Controi : 

Chicago  University  Elementary  Sciiool,  148. 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  Table  XXII.  facing  p.  151. 
Lake  Erie  College  for  Women,  172. 

Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  232. 
Tn  Summer  Schools : 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  248. 

Homans,  Miss : 

Principal  of  Boston  Normal  School  of  Gymnastics,  176. 

Home  Economics : 

Exhibition  of,  at  Boston,  Mass.,  238-39. 

National  Household  Economic  Association,  19,  239. 

Teaching  of : 

In  Colleges,  Universities,  and  Schools  : 

Inquiry  of  Sub-committee  of  Lake  Placid  Conference  of  Tcaclters 
of  Household  Economics  in  regard  to,  12-17. 
In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 
State  University  of  Michigan,  124. 
University  of  Illinois  State  Agricultural  College,  112. 
University  of  Ohio  College  of  Domestic  Science  and  Agriculture, 
116. 

Universitv  of  the  State  of  New  York,  Albany,  N.Y.,  Syllabus 
of  Course  at,  249,  App.  L.,  pp.  322-35. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Boston  Housekeeping  School,  Apy.  G.,  p.  315. 
Chicago  University,  222. 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  248. 

Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  App.  F.,  p.  305  ;  number  of 

hours  devoted  to.  Table  XXXVII. /acmr/  p.  277. 
[ndianapolis  Girls'  Classical  School,  162. 
Lake  Erie  College  for  Women,  172,  174. 
Lewis  Institute,  Chicago,  184. 

Oread  Normal  Institute  of  Domestic  Science,  167. 
Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  196,  200,  203. 
Simmons  Female  College,  Boston,  217-20.  '~' 
n  Summer  Schools : 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  247,  248,  249. 
Home  Economics  Exhibition,  Boston,  Mass.,  238-39. 
Horace  Mann  School,  New  York  City  (Kindergarten,  Elementary  and 
Secondary  Departments) : 
Hygiene  and  Physiology  Courses  at,  164-66. 
Instruction  of  Defective  Children  at,  265. 
Horticulture,  Teaching  of  : 

At  the  University  of  Ohio  College  of  Domestic  Science  and  Agricul- 
ture, 116. 
Housekeeping,  School  of,  Boston: 

See  Boston. 
Housewifery,  Teaching  of: 
In  English  Schools : 

Table  XXXVII.  showing  number  of  hours  devoted  to,  in  the  Normal 
Training  Courses  of  the  Battersea  Polytechnic,  Gloucestershire 
School  of  Domestic  Science,  ^  and  Leeds  School  of  Cookery, 
facing  p.  277. 
In  U.S.A.  High  Schools,  93. 
In  U.S.A.  Grade  Schools,  23,  50-62. 
House  Work,  Practical,  Teaching  of : 

At  Oread  Normal  Institute  of  Domestic  Science,  167,  169. 
Hughes,  Professor  James  L.  (Superintendent  of  Public  Schools  of  Toronto) : 
His  views  on  the  Influence  of  Home  Lif-^-  upon  Children,  281. 
6490.  z 


356 


Index. 


Hyannis,  Mass.  : 
Grade  School : 

Physiology  and  Hygiene  Course  at,  56,  59, 
State  Normal  School  : 

Course  in  Physiology  and  Hygiene  at,  138. 
Hygiene,  Teaching  of : 

In  English  Institutions  : 

Table  XXXVII.  shewing  number  of  hours  devoted  to,  in  the  Normal 
Training  Courses  of  the  Battersea  Polytechnic,  Gloucestershire 
School  of  Domestic  Science,  and  Leeds  School  of  Cookery, 
facing  p.  277. 
In  U.S.A.  : 

Co-educational,  in  Schools  and  Colleges,  266  ;  obligatory  in  Primary 

and  Grammar  Schools,  52  ;  in  few  High  Schools,  75,  94. 
In  Grade  Schools  1,  6,  23,  52-56,  267-69. 
In  High  Schools,  94. 

In  Colleges  arid  Universities,  121-25,  273-74;  obligatory  in  most 
Colleges,  175- 

In  Normal  Schools,  135. 
In  U.S.A.  Institutions  under  State  Control  .* 

Cleveland  (Ohio)  High  Schools,  94. 

Detroit  (Michigan)  Central  High  School,  94-97. 

Hyannis  State  Normal  School,  138. 

Lynn  Grade  Schools,  65,  66. 

Michigan  State  University,  123,  124. 

New  York  City,  Peter  Cooper  High  School,  94,  97-100. 

Salem  Mass..  Normal  School,  136-38. 

State  University  of  Indiana,  Bloomington,  123,  125. 

University  of  Ohio  College  of  Domestic  Science  and  Agriculture,  1 IG. 
In  U.S.A.  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Boston  Housekeeping  School,  App.  G.,  pp.  314,  315. 

Boston  Normal  School  of  Gymnastics,  175-80. 

Bradley  Institute  Peoria,  Illinois,  180. 

Brooklyn  Institute  of  Ai-ts  and  Sciences,  185. 

Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  210,  App.  F.,  p.  309  ;  number  of 

hours  devoted  to  213,  Table  XXXVII,  facing  p.  277. 
Horace  Mann  School,  New  York  City,  164-66. 
Lake  Erie  College  for  Women ;  obligatory,  172,  174. 
Lewis  Institute,  Chicago,  184. 

Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  191,  196  ;   number  of  hours  devoted  to, 

see  Table  XXXVII. 
Simmons  Female  College,  Boston,  219. 
Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University,  23S. 
University  of  Chicago,  222,  223,  224. 
Vassar  College,  216. 
U.S.A.  Social  Agencies  providing : 

Women's  Educational  and  Industrial  Union,  240. 

Illinois : 

Association  of  Domestic  Science,  237-38. 
Bradley  Institute,  Peoria,  180-81. 
State  University : 

Admission  to,  Qualificatons  for.  109. 
Agricultural  College  of: 

Household  Science  Course  at,  110-13!;  Schedule  of,  112. 
Course  Household  Science  organised  by  Miss  Lou.  C.  Allen  at, 
107. 

Fees  for  Courses  at*  109. 
General  Course  at,  111-13. 
^  Govcrniy.ont  of,  109. 

Indiana  State  Univoraity  of,  Bloomingtoa  : 
Ste  Bloomington. 


Index. 


357 


Indianapolis : 

Girls*  Classical  School : 

Household  Science  Department  of,  161-63. 

Kindergarten  and  Domestic  Training  Schools : 
Household  Science  Courses  at,  241-42. 
Industrial  Schools : 

Curriculum  of,  2. 
Infants  (Feeding  of),  Instruction  in  : 

At  Brooklyn  Institute  of  Arts  ard  Sciences,  187. 

At  New  York  Cookery  Centres,  33,  71-72. 

At  Oread  Normal  Institute  of  Domestic  Science,  167. 
Intermediate  Schools : 

Curriculum  of,  1. 

Detroit  Home  and  Day  School  (Intermediate  Department),  163-64. 
Iowa  State  University : 

Household  Science  Course  at,  121. 
Iron-Work,  Teaching  of : 

At  the  Pratt  Institute  High  School,  Brooklyn,  154. 
Jacobs,  Miss  Emma ; 

Supervisor  of  Cookery  Classes  in  Washington,  39,  42. 
Jewish  Quarters  (New  York  City)  ^ 

Teaching  of  Cooking  in,  34. 
Jordan,  Professor  Edwin  O. : 

Courses  in  General  Bacteriology  and  in  Public  Hygiene  at  Chicago 
University,  conducted  by,  223. 
Kansas  State  University : 

Agricultural  College  of : 

Household  Science,  Courses  in,  108, 121.  i  'v 

Kindergartens : 

Age  of  Children  attending,  1. 

Classes  conducted  by  Louisa  M.  Alcott  Club,  Boston,  243. 
Growth  of  Kindergarten  movement,  142. 

Methods  of  Instruction  in,  possible  advantage  of  adoption  of,  in  England. 
152-53. 

Organisation  of,  by  the  Civic  League,  during  Summer  Vacations,  240. 
Private,  2. 

For  Institutions  see  : 

Brooklyn.     Pratt  Institute,  Klindergarten  Course  of. 
Chicago.     University  of.  Elementary  School  of. 
Chicago.    University  of,  School  of  Education  of.  Kindergarten 
Course  of. 

Detroit  Home  and  Day  School  (Kindergarten  department). 
Horace  Mann  School,  New  York  City  (Kindergarten  department). 
Indianapolis  Kindergarten  and  Domestic  Training  Schools, 
Worcester,  Mass.,  Oread  Normal  Institute  of  Domestic  Science,. 
Kindergarten  Course  at. 
Kindergarten  Teaching,  Study  of  : 

In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  248. 

Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  200,  203  ;  number  of  hours  devoted  to,. 
see  Table  XXXVII,  facing  p.  277. 
In  Summer  Schools  : 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  248. 
Kinesiology,  Teaching  of : 

In  Boston  Normal  School  of  Gymnastics,  177. 
Kinne,  Miss  Helen : 

Professor  of  Domestic  Science,  Teacher's  College,  Columbia  University,- 
227,  230-31. 
Kirby,  Miss : 

Supervisor  of  Sewing  Classes  in  Philadelphia,  47. 


858 


Index. 


' '  Kitchen  Gardens  "  : 

Term  explained,  9  [note). 

Women's  Educational  and  Industrial  Union,  240. 
Young  Women's  Christian  Association,  Boston  Branch,  243. 
Lake  Erie  College  for  Women,  Painesville,  Ohio  : 

Four  Years'  Normal  Course  in  Household  Economics  at,  171-75. 
T^ke  Placid  Conference  of  Teachers  of  Household  Economics,  1899  : 

Reports  of  Proceedings  of  first,  second,  and  third  Conferences  of,  10-18. 
Lassell's  Seminary,  Auburndale,  Mass.  : 

Cooking  Classes  at,  9-10. 
Latin,  Teaching  of : 

In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 
Brookline  High  School,  Mass.,  76. 
Detroit  (Michigan)  Central  High  School,  94. 
Manhattan  and  the  Bronx  High  Schools,  New  York  City,  101. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  Table  XXII  facing  p.  151 
Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  201. 
Laundry  Work,  Teaching  of  : 

Equipment  of  High  School  Classes,  App.  C,  p.  294-295. 
In  English  Schools : 

Table  XXXVIT.  showing  number  of  hours  devoted  to,  in  the  Normal 
Training  Courses  in  Domestic  Science  at  Battersea  Polytechnic, 
Gloucestershire  School  of  Domestic  Science,  and  Leeds  School  of 
Cookery,  facinq  p.  277. 
In  U.S.A.  : 

Not  yet  included  in  curriculum  of  Elementary  Schools,  23,  49-50. 
In  U.S.A.  Institutions  under  State  Control : 

Framingham  State  Normal  School,  128,  130 ;  number  of  hours 
devoted  to,  see  Table  XXXVII. 

Hackley  Manual  High  School,  86,  88-89. 
In  U.S.A.  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Boston  Cooking  School,,  170. 

Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  212,  213,  App.  F.,  p.  304  ;  number 

of  hours  devoted  to,  Table  XXXVII. 
Eastman  Mechanics'  Institute,  Rochester,  182. 
Indianapolis  Girls'  Classical  School,  162. 

Oread  Normal  Institute  of  Domestic  Science,  169  ;  number  of  hours 
devoted  to,  167. 

Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  200,  202 ;  number  of  hours  devoted  to, 

see  Table  XXXVII. 
Simmons  Female  College,  Boston,  219. 

Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  231,  232,  233,234. 
U.S. A  Social  Agencies  providing  : 

Indianapolis  Kindergarten  and  Domestic  1  raining  Schools,  241. 
Louisa  M.  Alcott  Club,  Boston,  243. 
Lectures,  Free,  on  Hygiene,  246. 
Leeds  School  of  Cookery  : 

Table  XXXVII.  showing  number  of  hours  devoted  to  each  subject  in 
the  Normal  Course  in  Domestic  Science  of,  facin<i  p.  277. 
Legislation  : 

Morrill  Acts  (1862),  The,  affecting  Agricultural  Education,  2. 

Statutes  of  1893  and  1902  affecting  Temperance  Teaching,  63-54. 
Leipzinger,  Dr.  H.  M.  : 

Superintendent  of  Free  Lectures  to  the  People,  246. 
Leland  Stanford  Junior  University,  California,  3. 
Lengthof  Courses  : 

See  Fees  (for  Courses  and  Boarding  Expenses)  Finance,  and  Length  of 
Courses. 
Lowis  Institute,  Chicago  : 

#S'ee  Chicago. 


Index. 


359 


Libraries : 

In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 

Framingham  State  Normal  School,  134. 

Providence  Manual  Training  High  School,  82. 

Salem  State  Normal  School,  135. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Boston  Normal  School  of  Gymnastics,  179. 

Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  208. 

Lake  Erie  College  for  Women,  172. 

Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  191,  197. 

Teachers*  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York  229. 
Travelling : 

University  Extension  System  of,  237,  249. 
Library  Economy,  Teaching  of : 
In  Summer  Schools : 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  248. 
Library  Science,  Teaching  of. 

At  the  Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  191 . 
Library  Training : 

Course  of,  at  Simmons  Female  College,  Boston,  218. 
Literature,  (English),  Teaching  of  : 
In  High  Schools,  2. 
In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 

Brookline  High  School,  Mass.,  76. 

Cleveland  Public  Grade  Schools,  64. 

Salem  State  Normal  School,  137. 

University  of  Ohio,  College  of  Domestic  Science  and  Agriculture,  116. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  Table  XXll.Jacing  p.  151. 
Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  obligatory,  209,  210;  number  of 

hours  per  week  devoted  to,  213,  Table  XXXVII.,  facing  p.  277. 
Lake  Erie  College  for  Women,  172. 
In  Summer  Schools  : 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  248. 
Logic,  Teaching  of : 

Lake  Erie  College  for  Women,  172. 
Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  201. 
Louisa  M.  Alcott  Club,  Boston,  243-44. 
Lynn,  Mass.,  Grade  School  r 

General  Course  at.  Table  of,  65. 
Physiology  and  Hygiene  Course  at  56,  63,  66-67. 
MacAlister,  Dr. : 

President  of  Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  208. 

Maintenance  of  Educational  Institutions  : 

Of  National  Schools,  by  States  or  Cities,  4. 

See  also  Fees  (for  Courses,  and  Boarding  Expenses)  Finance,  and  Length 
of  Courses. 
Manners  and  Morals,  Instruction  in  ; 

In  Cleveland  Public  Grade  Schools,  64. 
In  Lynn  Grade  Schools,  63,  65. 

Manual  Training,  Teaching  of  : 
In  Grade  Schools,  6. 
In  High  Schools,  2. 
In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 

Brookline  High  School,  Mass.,  76. 

Centre  system  of,  25-26. 

Cleveland  Public  Grade  Schools,  64. 

providence  Manual  Training  High  School^  83,  App.  B.,  p.  289 


360 


Index. 


Manual  Training,  Teaching  of  : — continued. 

In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Chicago^University  School  of  Education,  Table  XXII.,  facing  p.  151. 

Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  209. 

Oread  Normal  Institute  of  Domestic  Science,  167. 

Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  200. 

Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  229. 
In  Summer  Schools  : 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  248. 
See  also  under  respective  subjects. 
Marketing,  Instruction  in : 

In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 

Framingham  State  Normal  School,  number  of  hours  devoted  ^o, 
eee  Table  XXXVII.,  facing  p.  277. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Boston  Housekeeping  School,  App.  G.,  p.  316. 

Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  number  of  hours  devoted  to,  213, 

Table  XXXVII. 
Indianapolis  Girls'  Classical  School,  162. 

Oread  Normal  Institute  of  Domestic  Science,  168 ;  number  of  hours 
devoted  to,  167. 

Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  196,  203 ;  number  of  hours  devoted  to, 

200.  Table  XXXVII. 
Simmons  Female  College,  Boston,  219. 

Massachusetts : 

Elementary  Schools  of : 

Development  of,  6 

Hygiene  Course  of,  67-68. 
Labour  Bureau : 

Bulletins  issued  by,  with  regard  to  Domestic  Science  problem  in 
the  United  States,  251. 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  Boston,  187-89. 

Mathematics,  Teaching  of  : 

In  Institutions  under  State  Control  : 
Brookline  High  School,  Mass.,  76. 
Hyannis  State  Normal  School,  138. 

Manhattan  and  the  Bronx  High  Schools,  New  York  City,  101. 

Providence  Manual  Training  School,  83. 

University  of  Illinois  State  Agricultural  College,  112. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  Table  XXII.,  facing  p.  151. 

Lake  Erie  College  for  Women,  172. 

Simmons  Female  College,  Boston,  219. 
In  Summer  Schools : 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  248. 
See  also : 

Algebra,  Teaching  of. 

Arithmetic,  Teaching  of. 

Trigonometry,  Teaching  of. 

Matthews,  Professor  A.  P. : 

Course  in  Physical  Chemistry  at  Chicago  University,  conducted  by,  223. 
Meals,  Serving  of.  Practice  in  : 

In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Indianapolis  Girls'  Classical  School,  162. 

Lake  Erie  College  for  Women,  171,  173. 

Oread  Normal  Institute  of  Domestic  Science,  169. 

Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  New  York,  196,  200,  203. 

Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  233. 


Index. 


Mechanics  : 

High  Schools  for,  2. 
Meteorology,  Teaching  of : 

In  Detroit  Home  and  Day  School,  164. 
Michigan  : 

Ann  Arbor  High  School,  93.  1 
Detroit  Central  High  School.    See  Detroit  (Michigan). 
State  University : 

Agricultural  College  of : 

Courses  in  Domestic  Science  and  Domestic  Arts  at,  118-20. 
Hygiene  Course  at,  122,  123,  124. 
Millinery,  Teaching  of : 

In  English  Institutions  : 

Table  showing  number  of  hours  devoted  to,  in  the  Normal  Training 
Courses  in  Domestic  Science  of  the  Battersea  Polytechnic,  and 
Leeds  School  of  Cookery,  facing  p.  277. 
In  U.S.A. : 

Not  yet  included  in  curriculum  of  Elementary  Schools,  49. 
In  U.S.A.  Institutions  under  State  Control : 
Hackley  Manual  High  School,  90. 

Providence  Manual  Training  High  School,  App.  B.,  p.  289  ;  number 

of  hours  devoted  to,  82. 
Toledo  Manual  Training  School,  92. 
In  U.S.A.  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Drexel  Institute.  Philadelphia,  215,  App.  F.,  p.  311-12;  number 

of  hours  devoted  to,  210,  Table  XXXVII. 
Indianapolis  Girls'  Classical  School,  162. 

Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  191,  194-95,  197,  201  ;  number  of  hours 

devoted  to,  see  Table  XXXVII. 
Pratt  Institute  High  School,  Brooklyn,  154,  156. 
Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  229. 
U.S.A.  Social  Agencies  providing  : 

Women's  Institute,  Yonkers,  New  York,  240. 
Mineralogy,  Teaching  of  : 

At  Salem  State  Normal  School,  137. 
Minnesota  State  University : 

Household  Science  Courses  at,  108, 121. 
Missouri  State  University : 

Household  Science  Courses  at,  108,  121. 
Modelling,  Teaching  of : 

In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 

Providence  Manual  Training  School,  82,  83,  App.  B.,  p.  290. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  Kindergarten  Department, 

Table  XXII.,  facing  p.  151. 
Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  Summer  School,  248. 
Modem  Languages,  Teaching  of 
In  High  Schools,  2. 

See  also ;  ,  s 

French. 
German. 
Morrill  Acts  (1862),  The,  2. 
Mosher,  Dr.  EUza : 

Course  in  Hygiene  and  Household  Economics,  initiated  by,  at  Michigan 
State  University,  123. 
Mount  Holyoke  Women's  College  : 

Plan  of  Instruction  at,  171. 
Museums,  Arrangement  of,  Instruction  in  : 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  Summer  School,  248. 


862 


Index. 


Music,  Teaching  of  :  .  i 

Free  Lectures  on  Music,  246. 
i  ;    In  Grade  Schools,  6. 
,  '  Cleveland  Public  Grade  School,  64. 

In  Summer  Schools : 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  248, 

See  also  Singing. 

National  Commissioner  of  Education  : 
See  Harris,  W.  T. 

National  Educational  Association : 

Its  influence  on  the  State  system  of  Education,  7. 

National  Household  Economic  Association,  19,  239. 

Nature  Study,  Teaching  of  : 
In  Grade  Schools,  1,  6. 
In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 
Brookline  High  School,  77. 
Cleveland  Public  Grade  School,  64. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  Table  XXII.  facing  p.  151, 
152. 

Horace  Mann  School,  New  York,  165. 
Oread  Normal  Institute  of  Domestic  Science,  167. 
Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  197,  200,  203  ;  number  of  hours  devoted 
to.  see  Table  XXXVII.  Joeing  p.  277. 
In  Summer  Schools  : 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  248. 

Nebraska,  State  University  of :  ,  " 

Household  Science,  Courses  of,  121. 

Needlework,  Teaching  of  : 
In  English  Institutions  : 

Table  XXXVII.,  showing  number  of  hours  devoted  to,  in  the 
Normal  Training  Courses  of  Battersoa  Polytechnic,  Gloucestershire 
School  of  Domestic  Science,  and  Leeds  School  of  Cookery,  facing 
p.  277. 
In  U.S.A. : 

Co -educational  in  Brookline  (Mass.)  Schools,  46. 
In  Normal  Schools,  134. 
In  Grade  Schools,  6,  9,  23,  43-49. 
In  U.S.A.  Institutions  under  State  Control : 
Hackley  Manual  High  School,  86,  90. 
Philadelphia  Grammar  Schools,  48. 

Providence  Manual  Training  High  School,  82,  84-85,  App.  B.,  p.  289. 

Toledo  Manual  Training  School,  92. 
In  U.S.A.  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Chicago  University  Elementary  School,  148,  149. 

Detroit  (Michigan)  Home  and  Day  School,  163. 

Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  210,  215,  App.  F.,  p.  310.  ;  number 
of  hours  devoted  to,  see  Table  XXXVII.,  facing  p.  277. 

Eastman  Mechanics'  Institute,  Rochester,  182. 

Indianapolis  Girls'  Classical  School,  162. 

Lewis  Institute,  Chicago,  184. 

Oread  Normal  Institute  of  Domestic  Science,  167. 

Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  191,  192-93,  197,  198,  200,  201.  204  ; 
number  of  hours  devoted  to,  see  Table  XXXVII. 

Pratt  Institute  High  School,  Brooklyn,  154. 

Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  229,  232. 
In  U.S.A.  Summer  Schools  : 

Chautauqua  Summer  School  of  Domestic  Science,  245. 


Index 


363 


Needlework,  Teaching  of : — continued. 

Report  of  Lake  Placid  Conference  of  Teachers  of  Household  Economics 

ip  regard  to,  13,  16. 
U.S.A.  Social  Agencies  providing  : 

Indianapolis  Kindergarten  and  Domestic  Training  Schools,  241,  242. 
Women's  Institute,  Yonkers,  New  York,  240. 
New  York  City : 

Cookery  centres  of,number  of  Teachers  attached  to,  in  1898  and  1901,  26. 
Cookery  Courses  in  Schools  of,  31-36. 
Columbia  University,  3. 
Grammar  Schools : 

Cooking  Course  of,  33. 
Horace  Mann  School : 

Hygiene  and  Physiology  Course  at,  164-66. 
Manhattan  and  the  Bronx  High  Schools  :  I 
\;         General  Course  at,  101. 
New  York  Cooking  School,  9. 
People's  University  Extension  Society,  246. 
Y  Peter  Cooper  High  School : 

Hygiene  and  Physiology  Course  at,  94,  97-100. 
School  Libraries  of,  36. 
Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University : 

Admission  to.  Requirements  for,  226. 

Course  in  Household  Art  at,  OutUne  of,  App.  H.,  pp.  317-18. 
Course  in  Household  Chemistry  at.  Outline  of,  App.  H.,  p.  318. 
Courses  in  Domestic  Art  and  Domestic  Science  at,  225-34. 
Endowment  of,  225,  229,  232. 
Fees  for  Courses  at,  see  Fees. 
Status  of,  225. 
New  York  State : 

University  of,  Albany  : 

Syllabus  in  Home  Economics  of  the  Home  Education  Department 
of,  249,  App.  L.,  pp.  322-35. 
Normal  Schools : 

See  Colleges,  Normal. 
Norton,  Professor  Ahce  P. : 

Courses  in  Domestic  Science  at  Chicago  University,  conducted  by,  223. 
Number  of  Hours : 

Devoted  to  respective  subjects  : 

See  Fees  (for  Courses  and  Boarding  Expenses),  Finance,  and  Length 
of  Courses. 

See  also  under  respective  institutions  and  subjects. 
Number  of  Students : 

Attending  Colleges,  Increase  in,  12. 
Attending  Cooking  Classes  : 

Boston  Schools,  24. 

Lewis  Institute,  Chicago,  184. 

New  York  City  Elementary  Schools,  24,  31, 

Philadelphia  Schools,  37. 

Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  202. 

Toledo  Elementary  Schools,  36. 

Washington  Schools,  39. 
Attending  Domestic  Science  Courses  : 

Chicago  Schools,  24-25. 

Hackley  Manual  High  School,  87-88. 

Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  201. 

Providence  Manual  Training  High  School,  81, 

Toledo  Manual  Training  School,  91.  ' 
Attending  Physiology  and  Hygiene  Classes : 

Peter  Cooper  High  School,  New  York,  97. 


364 


Index. 


Nursing  (Home),'^Teaching  of : 
In  English  Institutions  : 

Table  XXXVII.  showing  number  of  hours  devoted  to,  in  the 
Normal  Courses  of  Battersea  Polytechnic,  Gloucestershire  School 
of  Domestic  Science,  and  Leeds  School  of  Cookery,  facing  p.  277. 
In  U.S.A.  Institutions  imder  State  Control : 
Brookline  High  School,  78,  79. 
Hackley  Manual  High  School,  86,  89. 

Providence  Manual  Training  High  School,  83,  App.  B.,  p.  292. 
In  U.S.A.  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Boston  Housekeeping  School,  App.  G.,  p.  314. 

Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  App.  F.,  p.  303 ;  number  of  hours 

devoted  to,  213,  Table  XXXVIL 
Indianapolis  Girls'  Classical  School,  162. 
Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  196. 
Pratt  Institute  High  School,  Brooklyn,  154,  161. 
Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  232,  233. 
ObUgatory  Subjects  in  State  Agricultural  Colleges,  108. 
Ohio  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs  : 

Pamphlet  on  *'  Domestic  Economy  "  issued  by.  Quotation  from,  18-19. 
Ohio  State  University : 

College  of  Domestic  Science  and  Agriculture  of : 
Domestic  Science  Course  at,  108,  113-18. 
Oread  Normal  Institute  of  Domestic  Science,  Worcester,  Mass.  : 

See  Worcester,  Mass. 
Parker,  Colonel  Francis  W.  : 

His  views  on  Training  of  Children,  143,  151-52. 
Parloa,  Maria: 

Course  of  Cooking  Lessons  given  by,  at  Lassell's  Seminary,  Auburndale, 
Mass.,  9-10. 

Organisation  by,  of  Course  at  Boston  Cooking  School,  170. 
Peabody  Academy  of  Science,  136. 
Pedagogical  Society  of  Maine,  205. 
Pedagogy,  Teaching  of : 

In  English  Institutions : 

Table  XXXVIL  showing  number  of  hours  devoted  to,  in  Normal 
Training  Courses  of  Battersea  Polytechnic,  Gloucestershire  School 
of  Domestic  Science,  and  Leeds  School  of  Cookery,  faciiuf  p.  277. 
In  U.S.A.  Institutions  under  State  Control : 

Framingham  State  Normal  School,  number  of  hours  devoted  to, 

see  Table  XXXVIL 
Hyannis  State  Normal  School,  138. 
Salem  State  Normal  School,  137. 

University  of  Illinois  State  Agricultural  College,  112. 
University  of  Ohio  College  of  Domestic  Science  and  Agriculture,  116. 
In  U.S.A.  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Boston  Normal  School  of  Gymnastics,  177. 

Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  number  of  hours  devoted  to,  see 

Table  XXXVIL 
Lake  Erie  College  for  Women,  172. 
Oread  Normal  Institute  of  Domestic  Science,  167. 
Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  number  of  hours  devoted  to,  see  Table 

XXXVIL 
University  of  Chicago,  224. 
In  Summer  Schools  : 

Chautauqua  Summer  School  of  Domestic  Science,  245,  App.  J.^ 

p.  320. 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  248. 

See  also  Education  (History  of).  Teaching  of.  _ 


Index. 


365 


People's  University  Extension  Society,  New  York  City  : 
Home  Science  Classes  of,  246. 

Peter  Cooper  High  School,  New  York  City  : 
See  New  York  City. 

Philadelphia : 

Drexel  Institute,  3,  109. 

Admission  to.  Requirements  for,  210,  213  ;   Form  of  Application 

for,  App.  F.,  p.  299. 
Aims  of,  207-08. 

Domestic  Arts  Course  at.  Table  of,  210. 

Domestic  Science  Course  at,  208,  211-15,  216,  App.  F.,  pp.  299-313; 
Number  of  hours  devoted  to,  213,  Table  XXXVII. 
Girls'  High  School : 

First  Organisation  of  Cookery  Classes  in,  25. 
Grammar  Schools : 

Needlework  Course  at.  Table  of,  48. 

Photography,  Teaching  of : 

Providence  Manual  Training  High  School,  83.  App.  B.,  p.  292. 

Ph;  iical  Training: 

In  Grade  Schools,  1,  6. 
In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 
Cleveland  Public  Grade  School,  64. 

Framingham  State  Normal  School,    number  of  hours  devoted  to, 

see  Table  XXXVII.,  facing  p.  277. 
Manhattan  and  the  Bronx  High  Schools,  101. 
University  of  Illinois  State  Agricultural  College,  112. 
University  of  Ohio  College  of  Domestic  Science  and  Agriculture,  1 16. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 
Bryn  Mawr  College,  217. 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  Table  XXII.,  facing  i\  151. 

Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  210,  213  ;  number  of  hours  devoted 
to,  see  Table  XXXVII. 

Lake  Erie  College  for  Women,  obligatory,  172. 

Oread  Normal  Institute  of  Domestic  Science,  167. 

Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  191,  197,  200  ;  number  of  hours  devoted 
to,  see  Table  XXXVII. 

Simmons  Female  College,  Boston,  219. 

Smith  College,  217. 

Wellesley  College,  217. 
In  Summer  Schools : 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  248. 
Obligatory  in  most  Colleges,  175. 
Social  Agencies  providing : 

Women's  Educational  and  Industrial  Union,  240, 
Physics,  Teaching  of : 

In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 

Ann  Arbor  High  School,  93. 

Brookline  High  School,  Mass.,  76,  78. 

Cleveland  Public  Grade  School,  64. 

Framingham  State  Normal  School,  127,  128 ;  number  of  hours 

devoted  to,  see  Table  XXXVII.,  facing  p.  277. 
Hackley  Manual  High  School,  86. 
Hyannis  State  Normal  School,  138. 

Manhattan  and  the  Bronx  High  Schools,  New  York  City,  lol. 
Providence  Manual  Training  High  School,  82,  83,  App.  B.,  pr  .  289, 
290,  29L 

University fofiflllinois  State  Agricultural' College,  112.  i 
in  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 
Bradley  Institute,  Peoria,  Illinois,  180, 


366 


Index. 


Physics,  Teaching  of : — continued.  -< 

In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : — continued. 

Detroit  Home  and  Day  School,  163. 

Indianapolis  Girls'  Classical  School,  162 

Lewis  Institute,  Chicago,  184,  186. 

Oread  Normal  Institute  of  Domestic  Science,  167. 

Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  201 ;  number  of  hours  devoted  to,  see 
Table  XXXVIL,  facing  p.  277. 

Pratt  Institute  High  School,  Brooklyn,  156. 

Simmons  Female  College,  Boston,  219. 

University  of  Chicago,  222,  223. 
In  Summer  Schools  : 

Chautauqua  Summer  School,  245,  App.  J.,  p.  319. 
Physiology,  Teaching  of : 

Free  lectures  on  Physiology,  246. 
In  English  Institutions : 

Table  XXXVII.  showing  number  of  hours  devoted  to,  in  the  Normal 
Training  Courses  of  Battersea  Polytechnic,  Gloucestershire  School 
of  Domestic  Science,  and  Leeds  School  of  Cookery,  faciiig  p.  277. 
In  U.S.A.  : 

In  Grade  Schools,  1,  6,  52-71. 

In  High  Schools,  obligatory  in  fcAv  cases,  94. 

In  Universities  and  Colleges,  111.  ^ 
En  U.S.A.  Institutions  under  State  Control : 

Brookline  Higli  School,  Mass.,  78.  ' 

Cleveland  Public  Grade  School,  64. 

Detroit  (Michigan)  High  School,  94-97. 

Framingliam  State  Normal  School,  number  of  hours  devoted  to 

see  Table  XXXVII. 
Hackley  Manual  High  School,  86. 
Hyannis  State  Normal  School,  138. 
Illinois  State  University,  112. 
Lynn  Grade  Schools,  65,  66. 

Manhattan  and  the  Bronx  High  Schools,  New  York  City,  101. 
Ohio  State  University,  114,  116. 

Peter  Cooper  High  School,  New  York  City,  94,  97-100 
Salem  State  Normal  School,  136-37. 
In  U.S.A.  Institutions  under  Private  Control  : 
Boston  Normal  School  of  Gymnastics,  177. 
Bradley  Institute,  Peoria,  Illinois,  180. 

Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  210;  App.  F.,  pp.  307-8  ;  number 

of  hours  devoted  to,  213,  Table  XXXVII. 
Horace  Mann  School,  New  York  City,  164-66. 
Indianapolis  Girls'  Classical  School,  162. 
Lake  Erie  College  for  Women,  172,  173,  174. 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  Boston.  187. 
Oread  Normal  Institute  of  Domestic  Science,  167. 
Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  196,  197,  200,  201,  203  ;  number  of 

hours  devoted  to,  see  Table  XXXVII. 
Pratt  Institute  High  School,  159. 
vSimmons  Female  College,  Boston,  219. 
Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University,  N.Y.C.,  232,  233. 
University  of  Chicago,  222,  223, 
Vassar  College,  216. 
In  U.S.A.  Summer  Schools  : 

Chautauqua  Summer  School  of  Domestic  Science,  245,  App.  J.,  pp. 
319-20. 
Playgrounds,  Children's  : 

Lectures  on,  given  by  the  Civic  League,  240. 


Index. 


367 


Plumbing,  Teaching  of : 

Chautauqua  (Summer)  School  of  Domestic  Science,  245. 
Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  200,  202,  203  ;  number  of  hours  devoted  to, 
«ec  Table,  XXXVII..  facing  p.  277. 

Political  Economy,  Teaching  of : 

In  Institutions  under  State  Control  ; 

University  of  Ohio  College  of  Domestic  Science  and  Agriculture,  1 16. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 
University  of  Chicago,  223,  224. 

Postgraduate  Teaching : 
See  Colleges,  Normal. 

Practical  Housework : 

See  Housework.  Practical. 

Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  New  York  : 
See  Brooklyn,  New  York. 

Primary  Schools  : 

See  Grade  (Primary  and  Grammar)  Scho^jls. 

Private  Institutions  : 
Curriculum  of,  2. 
Endowment  of,  141. 

Government  of,  141.  '  \ 

See  also  under  :  ^ 
Colleges. 

Grade  (Primary  and  Grammar)  Schools. 
Secondary  (or  High)  Schools. 
Kindergartens. 
Technical  Institutes. 
Universities. 
Professional  Schools : 
Curriculum  of,  2. 

Providence : 

Manual  Training  High  School : 

Course  of  Domestic  Science  at,  81-85  ;  Tables  of  Course,  82,  App.  B  , 
p.  289. 

Ps.ychology,  Teaching  of : 

In  Institutions  under  State  Control  : 

Framingham  State  Normal  School,  128  ;  number  of  hours  devoted  to, 

see  Table  XXXVII.,  [acing  p.  277. 
Hyannis  Normal  School,  138. 
[  Providence  Manual  Training  High  School,  82,  83,  App.  B.,  p.  292. 

I  Salem  State  Normal  School,  137. 

University  of  Illinois  State  Agricultural  College,  112. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 
Lake  Erie  College  for  Women,  172. 
Oread  Normal  Institute  of  Domestic  Science,  167. 
Pratt  Institute,  Brookl}^,  197,  200,  203  ;  number  of  hours  devoted 

to,  see  Table  XXXVII. 
Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  229. 
Public  Instruction,  Superintendents  of,  5. 
Public  Schools  : 

Commissioners  of,  5. 

Control  of,  by  Boards  of  Education,  5. 

Curriculum  of,  9;  Debates  of  Lake  Placid  Conference  of  Teachers  of 

Household  Economics  as  to,  11-12. 
Superintendents  of,  5. 
See  also  : 

Grade  (Primary  and  Grammar)  Schools. 


368 


Index. 


Reading  Courses : 

For  Farmers'  Wives,  organised  by  Oomell  Univeraity.    See  Cornell  Uni- 
versity. 

Reading,  Teaching  of : 
In  Grade  Schools,  1. 
In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 

Cleveland  Public  Grade  School,  64. 

Lynn  Grade  Schools,  65. 

Salem  State  Normal  School,  137. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  Table  XXll.,  facing  p.  151. 
In  Summer  Schools  : 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  248. 
Regulations  : 

For  Free  Public  Schools,  drawn  up  by  Boards  of  Educations,  5. 
Richards,  Mrs.  Ellen  H  : 

Chairman  of  the  Lake  Placid  Conference  of  Teachers  of  Household 

Economics,  1899,  11. 
Member  of  Teaching  Staff  of  Boston  School  of  Housekeeping,  220 ;  of 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  273. 
Ricker,  Dean  : 

Course  in  House  Planning,  Sanitary  Construction,  and  History  of  Archi- 
tecture prepared  by,  for  Illinois  State  Agricultural  College,  113. 
Roberts,  W.  E.  : 

Supervisor  of  Manual  Training  at  Cleveland,  Ohio,  25. 

Rochester : 

Eastman  Mechanics'    Institute,  3 ;    Domestic   Science   Courses  at, 
181-83  ;  plan  of  Institute,  facin<j  p.  182. 

Rural  Schools  : 

County  Superintendents  of,  5 
Sackett,  Harriet  S.  : 

Directress  of  Department  of  Domestic  Art  at  the   Pratt  Institute, 
Brooklyn,  191. 
Salaries : 

Of  Teachers.    See  Teachers. 
Salem  (Mass.)  State  Normal  School  : 

Physiology  and  Hygiene  Courses  at,  135-38.. 
Salmon,  Miss  : 

Views  of,  on  Domestic  Service  problem,  258-61. 
Sanitary  Science  Club  of  the  Association  of  College  Alumnas  238-39, 
Sanitation  (House),  Teaching  of  : 

Courses  in  Colleges,  18,  121-22. 

In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 
Brookline  High  School,  Mass.,  81. 
Hackley  Manual  High  School,  86,  89. 

Providence  Manual  Training  High  School,  82,  84,  App.  B.,  p.  292. 
Michigan  State  University,  123, 124. 

University  of  the  State  of  New  York,  Albanv,  N.  Y.,  App.  L.,  pp. 
323-24. 

In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Boston  Housekeeping  School,  App.  G.,  p.  314. 
Bradley  Institute,  Peoria,  Illinois,  180.^^ 
Lake  Erie  College  for  Women,  174. 
Lewis  Institute,  Chicago,  184 

Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  JbObiun,  187. 
Oread  Normal  Institute  of  Domestic  Science,  Mass.,  167. 
Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  196. 
Himmons  Female  College,  Boston,  219 
University  of  Chicago,  222,  223,  225, 


Index. 


369 


Sanitation  (House),  Teaching  of  : — continued, 
xn  Summer  Schools : 

Chautauqua  Summer  School  of  Domestic  Science,  245,  App.  J., 
pp.  319-20. 

School  Libraries : 
See  Libraries. 

Science,  Teaching  of : 

In  Institutions  under  Private  Control :  ^ 
Chicago  University  Elementary  School,  148,  149. 
Simmons  Female  College,  218. 
See  also  under  respective  subjects. 

Science  (Elementary),  Teaching  of : 
Cleveland  PubUo  Grade  School,  64. 
Lynn  Grade  School,  65. 
See  also  under  respective  subjects. 

Secondary  (or  High)  Schools : 

Age  of  Children  attending,  1. 

Courses  in  Household  Science  and  Art  in,  265-66,  270-73 
Curriculum,  general,  of,  1-2. 
"  Elective-  System  "  in  force  in,  1. 
Equipment  of  Classes  in,  App.  G. 
Household  Science  and  Hygiene  Courses  in,  270-73 
nstitutions  under  State  Control : 

Number  of  Students  attending,  Increase  in,  12. 

Scope  of  Domestic  Science  Courses  in,  73-75,  93-94. 

Table  showing  diversity  of  practice  obtaining,  in    teaching  of 

Domestic  Science  in,  and  in  Grade  Schools,  21. 
For  Institutions,  see : 

Ann  Arbor  High  School. 
Brookline,  Mass.,  High  School. 
Cleveland  (Ohio)  High  Schools. 
Detroit  (Michigan)  Central  High  School. 
Hackley  Manual  High  School. 

New  York  City.  Manhattan  and  the  Bronx  High  Schools. 

New  York  City,  Peter  Cooper  High  School. 

Providence  Manual  Training  High  School. 

Toledo  Manual  Training  School. 
Institutions  under  Private  Control : 
For  Institutions,  see  : 

Boston  High  Schools. 

Brooklyn.  Pratt  Institute  High  School. 

Detroit  Home  and  Day  School. 

Indianapolis  Girls'  Classical  School. 

New  York  City.  Horace  Mann  School. 
Position  of  Domestic  Science  in  Curricula  of,  266-67. 
Sec  also  under  respective  subjects. 

Secretarial  work.  Training  in  : 

At  Simmons  Female  College,  Boston,  217,  218. 

Sowall,  ]\Irs.  May  Wright : 

Principal  of  Girls'  Classical  School,  IndianapoUs,  161 

Sewing  : 

See  Needlework. 

Shorthand,  Teaching  of : 

At  Manhattan  and  the  Bronx  High  Schools,  New  York  City.  lOl. 

Simmons  Female  College,  Boston  : 

Course  in  Household  Economics  at,  217-20, 


6490. 


370 


Index. 


Singing,  Teaching  of : 

In  Institutions  unaer  State  Control : 

ramingham  State  Normal  School,  128  ;  number  of  hours  devoted 
to,  see  Table  XXXVll.^acmg  p.  277. 
Hyannis  State  Normal  School,  138. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Lake  Erie  College  for  Women,  obligatory,  172,  174. 

Smith  College : 

Physical  Culture  Teaching  at,  217. 
Snow,  Miss : 

Supervisor  of  Practice  Teaching,  Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  205. 

Social  Agencies  for  the  Promotion  of  Domestic  Science  Teaching  : 
Ilinois  Association  of  Domestic  Science,  237-38. 

ndianapolis  Kindergarten  and  Domestic  Science  Training  Schools, 
'  241-2. 

Louisa  M.  Alcott  Club,  Boston,  243-44. 

National  Household  Economic  Association,  19,  239. 

Sanitary  Science  Club  of  the  Association  of  College  Alumnae,  238-39. 

University  Extension  Society,  New  York  City,  246 

University  Settlements,  246. 

Women's  Educational  and  Industrial  Union,  19,  240. 
Women's  Institute,  Yonkers,  New  York,  240. 

Young  Women's  Christian  Association  School  of  Domestic  Science. 
See  Young  Women's  Christian  Association. 

Sociology,  Teaching  of : 
Free  Lectures  in,  246. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Boston  Housekeeping  School,  App.  G.,  p.  314. 

Chicago  University,  Table  XXXII.,  p.  222. 

Lake  Erie  College  for  Women,  172. 

University  of  Chicago,  222,  223 
In  Summer  Schools : 

Chicago  University,  247. 

Spanish,  Teaching  of : 

At  Manhattan  and  the  Bronx  High  Schools,  New  York  City,  101 

Specialisation^ 

In  High  Schools,  73 

Spelling,  Teaching  of : 
In  Grade  Schools,  6, 
In  Institutions  under  State  Control 

Lynn  Grade  Schools,  65. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Chicago  University,  School  of  Education  Table  XXII.,  fuciiuj  \k  151, 
State  Agricultural  Colleges: 
See  under  Colleges. 

Statutes  of  1893  and  1902,  affecting  Temperance  Teaching,  53-54. 
Summer  Schools : 
See: 

Chautauqua  (Summer)  School  of  Domestic  Science. 
Chicago  University,  Summer  Schools  of. 
Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  Summer  School  of. 
Superintendents,  County  : 

Of  Rural  and  Township  Schools,  Election  of,  5. 

Superintendents  of  Public  Instruction : 

.    Election  of,  5. 
Sw'mming,  Teaching  of  : 

Boston  Normal  School  of  Gymnastics,  177- 


Index. 


371 


Symptomatology,  Teaching  of : 

At  Boston  Normal  School  of  Gymnastics,  177.  ] 

Talbot,  Professor  Marion : 

Dean  of  Women,  Chicago  University,  223. 

Teachers : 

Appointment  of : 

In  free  Public  Schools,  made  by  Boards  of  Education,  5. 

Of  Cooking : 

Numbers  of,  in  New  York  City  State  Schools,  in  1898  and  1901,  26. 
Qualifications  of : 

Tn  New  York  City  Schools,  35. 

In  Washington  Primary  and  Grade_ Schools,  41-42. 
Salaries  of,  43  : 

New  York  aty  Schools,  36. 
Toledo  Schools,  37. 
Of  Needlework: 

Qualifications  of,  in  Grade  Schools,  49. 
Salaries  of,  36,  49. 
Qualifications  of : 

In  free  Public  Schools,  fixed  by  Boards  of[Education,  5^ 
See  also  under :  Of  Cooking  and  Of  Needlework  above. 
Salaries  of: 

In  free  Public  Schools,  5. 

See  also  under  :  Of  Cooking  and  Of  Needlework  ahove. 
Training  of : 

Attitude  of  Boards  of  Education  towards,  139. 

Debates  of  Lake  Placid  Conference  of  Teachers  of  Household 

Economics  as  to,  11-12. 
In  Domestic  Science,  276-79. 

Table  XXXVII.  showing  number  of  hours  devoted  to  each  subject  in 
the  Normal  Training  Courses  of  Battersea  Polytechnic ;  Gloucester- 
shire School  of  Domestic  Science  ;  Leeds  Cookery  School ;  Drexel 
Institute,  Philadelphia ;  Framingham  State  Normal  School ;  and 
Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  facing  p.  277* 
For  Institutions,  see : 

Boston  Cookery  School. 

Boston  Normal  School  of  Gynmastics, 

Brooklyn,  Pratt  Institute. 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  Summer  School  %i. 
Framingham  State  Normal  School. 
Hyannis  State  Normal  School. 
Lake  Erie  College  for  Women. 
Philadelphia.     Drexel  Institute. 

New  York  City.    Teachers*  College  Columbia  University. 
Salem;  Mass.;  State  Normal  School. 

Worcester,  Mass.  Oread  Normal  Institute  \oi  Domestic  Science 
and  State  Normal  Schools 

Technical  Institutes : 

Institutions  under  Private  Control 
See  I 

Boston.    Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 

Brooklyn,    Pratt  Institute. 

Chicago.    Armour  Institute. 

Chicago.    Lewis  Institute. 

Illinois.    Bradley  Institute,  x^eoria 

Philadelphia.    Drexel  Institute. 

Rochester.    Eastman  Mechanics'  Institute. 

Technology  (Household),  Teaching  of : 
At  Chicago  University,  221-24. 


6490. 


AA2 


372 


Index. 


Temperance  Teaching : 

In  Grade  Schools,  52-65. 

Statutes  of  1893  and  1902  affecting,  53^54. 

Text-Books : 

For  Free  Public  Schools,  Lists  of,  prepared  by  Boards  of  Education,  5. 

Thalberg,  Professor: 

Course  in  Physiology  and  Hygiene,  conducted  by,  at  Vassar  College,  216. 

Thompson,  Dr. : 

President  of  Ohio  State  University,  118. 

Toledo : 

Grammar  Grade  Schools : 

Cooking  Course  in,  36-37;  Schedule  of  Course,  38. 

Needlework  Course  in,  45. 
Manual  Training  School : 

Course  in  Domestic  Science  and  Art  at,  90-93. 

Township  Schools : 

County  Superintendents  of,  5. 
Training  of  Teachers : 

See  Teachers. 
Trigonometry,  Teaching  of : 

At  Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  Table  XXII.,  facing  p.  ]ol. 

At  Providence  Manual  Training  High  School,  83,  App.  B.,  p.  292. 
Typewriting,  Teaching  of : 

At  Manhattan  and  the  Bronx  High  Schools,  New  York  City,  101. 
Universities : 

Courses  in  Domestic  Science  in,  see  under  respective  Universities. 
Curriculum  of,  4. 

Debates  of  Lake  Placid  Conference  of  Teachers  of  Household 
Economics  as  to,  11-12. 
Faculties  of,  4. 

Institutions  under  State  Control,  see  : 

Bloomington,  State  University  of  Indiana  at. 

California.    Leland  Stanford  Junior  University. 

Colorado,  University  of 

Cornell  University. 

riliiiois  State  University. 

Iowa  State  University. 

Kansas  State  University. 

Michigan  State  University 

Minnesota  State  University. 

Missouri  State  University. 

Nebraska  State  University  of. 

New  York  State,  University  of,  Alban 

Ohio  State  University. 

Utah,  State  University  of. 
Institutions  under  Private  Control  : 

Chicago,  University  of. 

New  York  City,  Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University. 
Number  of,  105. 

State  Agricultural  Colleges  of,  fee  under  Colleges. 
University  Extension  Courses : 

In  Sanitary  Science,  at  Chicago  University,  225. 
University  Extension  Society,  People's,  New  York  City,  246. 
University  Extension  System  of  Travelling  Libraries,  237,  249. 
University  Settlements  : 

Home  Science  Classes  at,  246. 
Utah,  State  University  of : 
Housshold  Scionos,  C3urse3  a,ty  131. 


Index. 


373 


Utilitarian  Promoters  of  Domestic  Soienoe  Teaching,  8/19. 

Vacation  Schools : 
For  Children,  246. 
See  also  Summer  Schooio. 

Vassar  OoUege : 

Hygiene  and  Physiology  Courses  at  216-17. 

Ventilation,  Study  of : 

Brookline  High  School,  Mass.,  79. 

Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  Boston,  188. 

Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  202. 

Vincent,  Prof.  George  E. : 

Lectures  in  Sociology  given  by,  at  Chicago  University,  223, 

Vrooman,  Miss  A.  S. : 

Views  of,  on  Domestic  Service  Problem,  257-258. 

Waiting,  Practice  in : 

In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  213,  214,  App.  F.,  p.  304. 
Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  196,  203,  Number  of  Hours  devoted  to, 
Table  XXXVII.,  facing  p.  277. 

Warren,  Miss  Alice : 

Professor  of  Biology  and  Physiology  at  Salem  State  Norma]  School,  136. 

Washington : 

Bureau  of  Education,  4. 

Cooking  Laboratories  attached  to  newest  Schools  in,  26. 
Grammar  Grade  Schools : 

Cooking  Courses  in,  39,  41  ;  Table  of  Course,  40. 

Domestic  Hygiene  in,  Ooufse  of,  56. 

Needlework  Course  in,  49. 

Weaving,  Teaching  of. 

In  Institutions  under  Private  Contro  . 

Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  191,  197,  200,  204. 
Report  of  Lake  Placid  Conference  of  Teachers  of  Household  Economics 
in  regard  to,  13, 16. 

Welch,  Mrs.  May  B. : 

Household  Arts  Department  of   Kansas  State  Agricultural  College, 
conducted  by,  107. 

Wellesley  College : 

Physical  Culture  Teaching  at,  217. 

V/est,  Professor  Andrew  Fleming  : 
On  American  Colleges,  100-04. 

Whitewashing,  Lessons  in : 

Given  by  the  Indianapolis  Kindergarten  and  Domestic  Training  Schools, 
241. 

Whittemore,  H. : 

Principal  of  Framingham  State  Normal  School,  131. 

WilHams,  Mrs.  Mary  E. : 

Organiser  of  Cookery  Classes,  New  York  Gty,  24,  32. 

Women's  Clubs : 

Ohio  Federation  of.  Pamphlet  on  "  Domestic  Economy,"  issued  by, 

quotation  from,  18-19. 
Organisation  and  Methods  of,  236  -37. 

Women's  Colleges : 
See  Colleges. 

Women's  Educational  and  Industrial  Union,  19,  240 


374 


Index. 


Womem's  Institute,  Yonkers,  New  York, 

Evening  Classes  in  Cooking,  Sewing,  Millinery,  Dressmaking,  etc.,at,240. 

Wood-carving,  Teaching  of. 

In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 
Hackley  Manual  High  School,  86. 
Providence  Manual  Training  High  School,  83. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Pratt  Institute  High  School,  Brooklyn,  154. 

Woodwork  : 

Lessons  in,  given  by  the  Indianapolis  Kindergarten  and  Domestic 
Training  Schools,  241. 

Woolman,  Mrs. : 

Professor  of  Domestic  Arts,  Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University, 
227-30. 

Worcester  Mass.  t 

Oread  Normal  Institute  of  Domestic  Science  : 

Admission  to.  Requirements  of,  167. 

Household  Science  Course  at,  166-69. 

Kindergarten  Course  at,  169. 
State  Normal  School,  134. 

Wright,  Miss : 

Supervisor  of  Cookery  Classes  in  Philadelphia  Schools,  39. 

Writing,  Teaching  of : 
In  Grade  Schools,  1. 
In  Institutions  under  State  Control 

L3mn  Grade  Schools,  65. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Chicago  University  School  of  Education,  Table  XXII. 

Yonkers,  New  York ; 

Women's  Institute  at,  240. 

Young  Women's  Christian  Association  : 

Boston  Branch,  Lessons  in  Domestic  Science  for  Primary  School  Children 
given  by,  243. 

Cookery  lessons  given  by,  to  Public  School  Children, from  1876  on\varda,9. 

Zoology,  Teaching  of : 

In  Institutions  under  State  Control : 
Brook  ine  High  School,  Mass.,  78. 
Detroit  Central  High  School,  96. 
University  of  Illinois  State  Agricultural  College,  112. 
University  of  Ohio  College  of  Domestic  Science  and  Agriculture,  1 16. 
In  Institutions  under  Private  Control : 

Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University,  233. 
See  also  Biology. 


Volume  1  of  Special  Reports  (Education  in  England,  Wales, 
and  Ireland,  France,  Germany,  Denmark,  Belgium,  &c.) 
(1896-7)  contains  the  following  Papers:— 

1.  Public  Elementary  Education  in^England  and  Wales,  1870-1895. 

By  Messrs.  M.  E.  Sadler  and  J.  W.  Edwards. 

2.  English  Students  in  Foreign  Training  Colleges. 

By  ]\Iiss  L.  Manley,  Miss  Williams,  and  Mr.  H.  L.  Withers. 

3.  Brush  Work  in  an  Elementary  School  (with  illustrations). 

By  Mr.  Seth  Coward. 

4.  The  A  B  C  of  Drawing  :  An  Inquiry  into  the  Principles  underlying  Elementary 

Instruction  in  Drawing  (with  illustrations). 
By  Mr.  Ebenezer  Cooke. 

5.  Domestic  Economy  Teaching  in  England 

By  Mrs.  Pillow. 

6.  Technical  Education  for  Girls. 

By  Miss  A.  J.  Cooper. 

7.  The  Secondary  Day  School  attached  to  the  Battersea  (London)  Polytechnic  : 

An  Experiment  in  the  Co-education  of  Boys  and  Girls. 
By  Mr.  Sydney  H.  Wells. 

8.  The  History  of  the  Irish  System  of  Elementary  Education. 

By  Mr.  M.  E.  Sadler. 

9.  The  National  System  of  Education  in  Ireland. 

By  the  Right  Hon.  C.  T.  Redington,  D.L 

10.  Recent  Legislation  on  Elementary  Education  in  Belgium. 

By  Messrs.  M.  E.  Sadler  and  R.  L.  Morant. 

11.  The  Housewifery  Schools  and  Classes  of  Belgium. 

By  Miss  K.  S.  Block  and  Miss  L.  Brackenbury. 

12.  The  French  System  of  Higher  Primary  Schools. 

By  Mr.  R.  L.  Morant. 

13.  The  Realschulen  in  BerUn  and  their  bearing  on  Modern  Secondary  and 

Commercial  Education. 
By  Mr.  M.  E.  Sadler. 

14.  The  Ober-Realschulen  of  Prussia,  with  special  reference  to  the  Obor-Realscbule 

at  Charlottenburg. 
By  Mr.  M.  E.  Sadler. 

15.  The  Prussian  Elementary  School  Code. 

Translated  by  Mr.  A.  E.  Twentyman. 

16.  The  Continuation  Schools  in  Saxony. 

By  Mr.  F.  H.  Dale.  T: 

17.  The  School  Journey  in  Germany. 

By  Miss  C.  I.  Dodd. 

18.  The  Teachung  of  the  Mother-Tongue  in  Germany. 

By  Mr.  F.  H.  Dale. 

19.  Holiday  Courses  in  France  and  Germany  for  Instruction  in  Modern  Tian^uages. 

By  Messrs.  F.  S.  Marvin  and  R.  L.  Morant. 

20.  Recent  Educational  Progress  in  Denmark  (with  maps). 

By  Mr.  J.  S.  Thornton. 

21.  Education  in  Egypt. 

By  Mr.  P.  A.  Bamett. 

22.  The  Education  of  Girls  and  Women  in  Spain. 

By  Senor  Don  Fernando  de  Arteaga  y  Pereira.  ^ 

23.  The  National  Bureau  of  Education  in  the  United  States. 

By  Mr.  R.  L.  Morant. 
'^i.    The  History  of  the  Manitoba  School  System  and  the  Issues  of  the  Recent 
Controversy. 
By  Mr.  R.  L.  Morant. 

25.  Arrangements  for  the  admission  of  Women  to  the  Chief  Universities  in  the 

British  Empire  and  in  Foreign  Countries. 

By  Mr.  M.  E.  Sadler  with  the  help  of  Mr.  J.  W.  Longsdon. 

26.  Appendix  giving  a  list  of  the  chief  official  papers  bearing  on  Education  in 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

Prepared  by  Mr.  M.  E.  Sadler. 

This  volume  (Cd.  8447)  can  be  obtained,  either  directly  or  througn  any  Book- 
seller, from  Messrs.  WYMAN  and  SONS,  Ltd.,  Fetter  Lake,  E.G.,  and 
32,  Abingdon  Street,  Westminster,  S.W.  ;  or  OLIVER  and  BOYD, 
Edinburgh  ;  or  E.  PONSONBY,  116,  Grafton  Street,  Dublin. 

Price  da.  4i.  ;  post  free  3s.  lOd. 
[At  present  out  of  print.]  . 


(i) 


Volume  2  of  Special  Reports  (Education  in  England  and 
Wales,  Physical  Education,  the  Heuristic  Method  ot 
Teaching,  University  Education  in  France,  &c.)  (1898) 
contains  the  following  Papers  :— 

1.  The  Welsh  Intermediate  Education  Act,  1889    its  Origin  and  Working. 

Contributed  by  the  Charity  Commissioners  for  England  and  Wales. 

2.  The  London  Polytechnic  Institutes  (with  illustrations). 

By  Mr.  Sydney  Webb. 

3.  The  London  School  of  Economics  and  PoUtical  Science. 

By  Mr.  W.  A.  S.  Hewins. 

4.  The  Curriculum  of  a  Girls'  School 

By  Mrs.  Bryant,  IVIiss  Burstall,  and  Miss  Aitken. 

6.  Physical  Education  at  the  Sheffield  High  School  for  Girls. 

By  Mrs.  Woodhouse. 
G.    Games  and  Athletics  in  Secondary  Schools  for  Girls  (with  illustrations). 
By  Miss  P.  Lawrence. 

7.  The  Organisation  of  Games  out  of  School  for  the  Children  attending  Public 

Elementary  Schools. 

By  Mr.  George  Sharpies. 

8.  Physical  Education  under  the  School  Board  for  London  (with  illustrations). 

By  Mr.  Thomas  Chesterton. 

9.  Physical  Education  for  Girls  and  Infants  under  the  London  School  Board 

(with  illustrations). 

By  the  late  Mrs.  Ely  Dallas. 

10.  Physical  Training  in  Birmingham  Board  Schools  (with  illustrations). 

By  Mr.  Samuel  Bott. 

11.  Physical  Training  under  the  Leeds  School  Board. 

By  Mr.  R.  E.  Thomas. 

12.  The  School  Gardens  at  the  Boscombe  British  School  (with  illustrations). 

By  Mr.  T.  G.  Rooper. 

13.  The  Connection  between  the  Public  Library  and  the  Public  Elementary 

School. 

By  Mr.  John  J.  Ogle. 

14.  The  Educational  Museum  of  the  Teachers'  Guild. 

By  Mr.  John  L.  My  res. 

15.  The  Haslemere  Educational  Museum  (with  plans). 

By  Dr.  Jonathan  Hutchinson,  F.R.S. 

16.  School  Plays  in  Latin  and  Greek. 

By  Mr.  J.  flF.  Baker- Penoyre. 

17.  The  Study  of  Education. 

By  Mr.  J.  J.  Findlay. 

18.  The  Training  of  Secondary  Teachers  and  Educational  Ideals 

By  Mr.  F.  J.  R.  Hendy. 

19.  The  Heuristic  Method  of  Teaching. 

By  Dr.  Henry  Armstrong,  F.R.S. 

20.  Statistics,  &c.,  of  Elementary  Education  in  England  and  Wales,  1833-1870. 

By  Messrs.  M.  E.  Sadler  and  J.  W.  Edwards. 

21.  List  of  PubUcations  on  Educational  Subjects  issued  by  the  Chief  Local 

Educational  Authorities  in  England  and  Wales. 
Prepared  by  Miss  M.  S.  Beard. 

22.  Les  Universites  Fran9aises. 

By  Monsieur  Louis  Liard. 

23.  The  French  Universities.    (Translation  of  No.  22.) 

By  Mr.  J.  W.  Longsdon. 

24.  The  Position  of  Teachers  in  the  State  Secondary  Schools  for  Boys  in  France. 

By  Mr.  F.  B.  Kirkman. 

25.  The  French  Leaving  Certificate — Certificat  d' Etudes  Primaires. 

By  Sir  Joshua  G.  Fitch. 

26.  The  Teaching  of  Modern  Languages  in  Belgium  and  Holland. 

By  Bliss  J.  D.  Montgomery. 

27.  School  Hgyiene  in  Brussels. 

By  Miss  J.  D.  Montgomery. 

This  volume  (Cd.  8943)  can  be  obtained,  either  directly  or  through  any  Book- 
seller, from  Messrs.  WYMAN  and  Sons,  Ltd.,  Fetter  Lane,  E.G.  ;  and  32, 
Abingdon  Street,  AVestminster,  S.W.  ;  or  OLIVER  and  BOYD,  Edin- 
burgh ;  or  E.  PONSONBY,  116,  GRAFTON  STREET,  DUBLIN. 

Price  65.  2d.  ;  post  free  Qs.  Id. 


(ii) 


Volume  3  of  Special  Reports  (National  Organisation  of 
Education  in  Switzerland,  Secondary  Education  in 
Prussia,  Baden,  and  Sweden,  Teaching  of  Modern 
Languages,  Higher  Commercial  Education  in  France, 
Germany,  and  Belgium)  (1898)  contains  the  following 
Papers  :— 

1.  The  National  Organisation  of  Education  in  Switzerland. 

By  Mr.  R.  L.  Morant. 

2.  Problems  in  Prussian  Secondary  Education  for  Boys'  with  special  reference 

to  similar  questions  in  England. 
By  Mr.  M.  E.  Sadler. 

3.  "  The  Curricula  and  Programmes  of  Work  for  Higher  Schools  in  Prussia.'* 

Translated  by  Mr.  W.  G.  Lipscomb. 

4.  The  Higher  Schools  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden. 

By  Mr.  H.  E.  D.  Hammond. 

5.  Stromungen  auf  dem  Gebiet  des  Schul-und  Bildungswesens  in  Deutschland. 

Von  Professor  Dr.  W.  Rein  in  Jena. 

6.  Tendencies  in  the  Educational  Systems  of  Germany.    (Translation  of  No.  5.) 

By  Mr.  F.  H.  Dale. 

7.  The  Teaching  of  Modern  Languages  in  Frankfurt  a  M.  and  district. 

By  Mr.  Fabian  Ware. 

8.  The  Teaching  of  Modern  Languages  in  Germany. 

By  Miss  Mary  Brebner. 

9.  The  Teaching  of  Foreign  Languages. 

By  Professor  Dr.  Emil  Hausknecht. 

10.  The  Teacher  of  Modern  Languages  in  Prussian  Secondary  Schools  for  Boys. 

His  education  and  professional  training. 
By  Mr.  Fabian  Ware. 

11.  Higher  Commercial  Education  in  Antwerp,  Leipzig,  Paris  and  Havre. 

By  Mr.  M.  E.  Sadler. 

12.  The  Present  Position  of  Manual  Instruction  in  Germany. 

By  Dr.  Otto  W.  Beyer.    (Translated  by  Mr.  A.  E.  Twentyman.) 

13.  The  Secondary  Schools  in  Sweden. 

By  Dr.  Otto  Gallander. 

14.  Elementary  Education  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Finland, 

By  the  Baron  Dr.  Yrjo-Koskinen. 

This  volume  (Cd.  8988)  can  be  obtained,  either  directly  or  through  any  Book- 
seller, from  Messrs.  WYMAN  &  SONS,  Ltd.,  Fetter  Lane,  E.G.,  and  32, 
Abingdon  Street,  Westminster,  S. W.  ;  or  OLIVER  &  BOYD,  Edinburgh  : 
or  E.  PONSONBY,  116,  Grafton  Street,  Dublin. 

Price  ds.  3d.  ;  post  free  3s.  8c?. 


The  Board  of  Education  Issued  in  1900  :— 

Report  on  Technical  and  Commercial  Education  in  East  Prussia,  Poland, 
Galicia,  Silesia,  and  Bohemia. 
By  Mr.  James  Baker. 

This  volume  (Cd,  419)  can  be  obtained,  either  directly  or  through  any  Book- 
seller, from  Messrs.  WYMAJ^  and  SONS,  Ltd.,  Fetter  Lane,  E.G.,  and  32, 
Abingdon  Street,  Westminster,  S.W.  ;  or  OLIVER  and  BOYD, 
Edinburgh  ;  or  E.  PONSONBY,  116,  Grafton  Street,  Dublin. 

Price  Gd.  ;  post  jree  %d. 


iii) 


Volume  4  of  Special  Reports  (Educational  Systems  of  the 
Chief  Colonies  of  the  British  Empire— Dominion  of 
Canada,  Newfoundland,  West  Indies)  (1901)  contains  the 
following  Papers  :— 

A.  Dominion  of  Canada — 

1.  Ontario,  The  System  of  Education  in. 

Prepared  from  official  documents  supplied  by  the  Education  De- 
partment of  Ontario. 

2.  Quebec,  The  System  of  Education  in  the  Province  of. 

Prepared  from  official  documents  by  Mr.  R.  Balfour. 

3.  Nova  Scotia,  The  System  of  Education  in. 

By  Mr.  A.  H.  MacKay,  Superintendent  of  Education,  Nova  Scotia. 

4.  New  Brunswick,  The  System  of  Education  in. 

By  Professor  J.  Brittain,  Instructor  in  the  Provincial  Normal  School, 
Fredericton,  New  Brunswick. 

5.  Manitoba,  The  System  of  Education  in. 

Prepared  from  official  documents  by  Mr.  A.  E.  Twentyraan. 

6.  North- West  Territories,  The  System  of  Education  in  the. 

Prepared  from  official  documents  by  Mr.  R.  Balfour. 

7.  British  Columbia,  The  System  of  Education  in. 

Prepared  from  official  documents  by  Mr.  R.  Balfour. 

8.  Prince  Edward  Island,  The  System  of  Education  in. 

By  Mr.  D.  J.  MacLeod,  Chief  Superintendent*  of  Education,  Prince 
Edward  Island. 

9.  Memorandum  on  Agricultural  Education  in  Canada. 

By  Dr.  W.  Saunders,  Director  of  Dominion  Experimental  Farms. 

10.    Note  on  the  Macdonald  Manual  Training  Fund  for  the  development  of 
manual  and  practical  instruction  in  Primary  Schools  in  Canada. 
By  Mr.  M.  E.  Sadler. 

B.  Newfoundland — 

Newfoundland,  The  System  of  Education  in. 

I.  By  the  Rev.  Canon  W.  Pilot,  D.D..  D.C.L.,  Superintendent  of 
Church  of  England  Schools  in  Newfoundland. 

II.  By  the  Rev.  G.  S.  IVIilligan,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  Superintendent  of 
Methodist  Schools  in  Newfoundland. 

C.  West  Indies — 

1.  Jamaica,  The  System  of  Education  in. 

Part  I.  with  Appendices. 

By  the  Hon.  T.  Capper,  Superintending  Inspector  of  Schools, 
Jamaica. 
Part  II. 

Prepared  from  official  documents  by  Mr.  M.  E.  Sadler. 

2.  British  Guiana,  The  System  of  Education  in. 

By  Mr.  W.  Blair,  Chief  Inspector  of  Schools,  British  Guiana. 

3.  The  Teaching  of  Agriculture  in  Elementary  and  Higher  Schools  in  the 

West  Indies. 

Compiled  from  official  documents  by  Mr.  M.  E.  Sadler. 


This  volume  (Cd.  416)  can  be  obtained,  either  directly  or  through  any 
Bookseller,  from  Messrs.  WYMAN  and  SONS,  Ltd.,  Fetter  Lane,  E.C., 
ana  32,  ABINGDON  Street,  Westminster,  S.W.  ;  or  OLIVER  and  BOYD, 
Edinburgh  ;  or  E.  PONSONBY,  llfi.  Grafton  Street,  Dublin. 

Price  45.  8c?.  ;  post  free  5s.  2d. 


(iv) 


Volume  5  of  Special  Reports  (Educational  Systems  of  the 
Chief  Colonies  of  the  British  Empire— Cape  Colony, 
Natal,  Commonwealth  of  Australia,  New  Zealand, 
Ceylon,  Malta)  (1901)  contains  the  following  Papers  :— 

A.  Africa — 

1.  Cape  Colony,  The  History  and  Present  State  of  Education  in. 

Part  L,  Sections  1-74. 

By  Mr.  G.  B.  Muir,  B.A.,  of  the  Department  of  Public  Educa- 
tion, Cape  Town. 
Part  I.,  Sections  75  to  end.  Part  II.  and  Part  III. 

Prepared  from  official  documents  by  Mr.  M.  E.  Sadler. 

2.  Natal,  The  System  of  Education  in. 

By  Mr.  R.  Russell,  Superintendent  of  Education,  Natal. 


B.  Commonwealth  of  Australia — 

1 .  New  South  Wales,  The  System  of  Education  in. 

Prepared  from  official  documents  supplied  by  the  Department  of 
Public  Instruction  for  New  South  Wales. 

2.  Victoria,  The  System  of  Education  in. 

By  the  Hon.  A.  J.  Peacock,  late  Minister  of  Public  Instruction, 
Victoria. 

3.  Queensland,  The  System  of  Education  in. 

By  Mr.  J.  G.  Anderson,  Under  Secretary  for  Public  Instruction, 
Queensland. 

4.  Tasmania,  The  System  of  Education  in. 

Prepared  from  official  documents  by  Mr.  A.  E.  Twentyman. 

5.  South  Australia,  The  System  of  Education  in. 

By  Mr.  C.  L.Whitham,  Member  of  the  Board  of  Inspectors  of  Schools, 
South  AustraUa. 

6.  Western  AustraUa,  The  System  of  Education  in. 

By  Mr.  Cyril  Jackson,  Inspector-General  of  Schools,  Western 
Australia. 


C  New  Zealand — 

New  Zealand,  The  System  of  Education  in. 

Prepared  by  Mr.  M.  E.  Sadler,  from  official  documents  supplied  by 
the  Department  of  Education  for  New  Zealand. 

D.  Ceylon — 

Ceylon,  The  System  of  Education  in. 

By  Mr.  J.  B.  Cull,  late  Director  of  Public  Instruction,  and  Mr.  A.  Van 
Cuylenburg,  Inspector  of  Schools,  Ceylon,  y 

E.  Malta — 

Malta,  The  System  of  Education  in. 

By  Mr.  N.  Tagliaferro,  Director  of  Education,  Malta. 


This  volume  (Cd.  417)  can  be  obtained,  either  directly  or  through  any  Book- 
seller, from  Messrs.  WYMAN  and  SONS,  Ltd.,  Fetter  Lane,  E.G.,  and 
32,  Abingdon  Street,  Westminster,  S.W.  ;  or  OLIVER  and  BOYD, 
Edinburgh  ;  or  E.  PONSONBY,  116,  Grafton  Street,  Dublin. 

Price  45.  Od.  ;  post  free  4«.  6d. 


Volume  6  of  Special  Reports  (Preparatory  Schools  for  Boys. 
Their  place  in  English  Secondary  Education)  (1900) 
contains  the  following  Papers  :— 

1.  Introduction. 

By  Mr.  C.  C.  Cotterill. 

2.  The  Masters  of  a  Preparatory  School. 

By  Mr.  C.  C.  Cotterill. 

3.  Preparatory  School  Equipment. 

By  Mr.  Frank  Ritchie. 

4.  The  Time-table  of  Work  in  Preparatory  Schools.] 

By  Mr.  H.  Frampton  Stallard. 

5.  The  Preparatory  School  Curriculum. 

By  Mr.  G.  Gidley  Robinson. 

6.  The  Place  of  the  Preparatory  School  for  Boys  in  Secondary  Education  lo 

England. 
By  Mr.  M.  E.  Sadler. 

7.  Entrance  Scholarships  at  Public  Schools,  and  their  Influence  on  Preparatory 

Schools. 

By  the  Rev.  the  Honourable  Canon  E.  Lyttelton. 

8.  Examinations  for  Entrance  Scholarships  at  the  Public  Schools,  Their 

Character  and  Effect  on  the  Educational  Work  of  Preparatory  Schools. 
By  Mr.  C.  C.  Lynam. 

9.  The  Teaching  of  Latin  and  Greek  in  Preparatory  Schools. 

By  the  Rev.  C.  Eccles  Williams,  D.D. 

10.  The  Teaching  of  the  Mother-Tongue  in  Preparatory  Schools. 

By  Mr.  H.  C.  TiUard. 

11.  The  Teaching  of  History  in  Preparatory  Schoola. 

By  Mr.  A.  M.  Curteis. 

12.  The  Teaching  of  Geography  in  Preparatory  Schools. 

By  the  Rev.  F.  R.  Burrows. 

13.  The  Teaching  of  Modern  Languages  in  Preparatory  Schools. 

By  Messrs.  E.  P.  Arnold  and  Fabian  Ware. 

14.  The  Teaching  of  Mathematics  in  Preparatory  Schools. 

By  the  late  Mr.  C.  G.  AHum. 

15.  Natural  Science  in  Preparatory  Schools. 

By  Mr.  Archer  Vassall. 

IG.    The  Teaching  of  Drawing  in  Preparatory  Schools. 
By  Mr.  James  T.  Watts 

17.  Art  Teaching  in  Preparatory  Schools. 

By  Mr.  W.  Egerton  Hine. 

18.  The  School  Workshop. 

By  Mr.  E.  D.  Mansfield. 

19.  Music  in  Preparatory  Schools.  ' 

By  the  Rev.  W.  Earle,  with  an  Appendix  by  Mr.  W.  W.  Cheriton. 

20.  Singing  in  Preparatory  Schools. 

By  Mr.  Leonard  C,  Venables. 

21.  Gardening,  its  Role  in  Preparatory  School  Life. 

By  Mr.  A.  C.  Bartholomew. 

22.  Health  and  Physical  Training  in  Preparatory  Schools. 

By  the  Rev.  C.  T.  Wickham. 

(  vi  ) 


23.  Gaines  in  Preparatory  Schools. 

By  Mr.  A.  J.  C.  Dowding. 

24.  The  Employment  of  Leisure  Hours  in  Boys'  Boarding  Schools. 

By  Mr.  Arthur  Rowntree. 

25.  Preparatory  School  Libraries. 

By  Mr.  W.  Douglas. 

26.  A  Day  in  a  Boy's  Life  at  a  Preparatory  School. 

By  Mr.  P.  S.  Dealtry. 

27.  School  Management  in  Preparatory  Schools. 

By  the  Rev.  J.  H.  Wilkinson,  with  an  Appendix  by  Mr.  A.  J.  C. 
Dowding. 

28.  Economics  of  Preparatory  Schools 

By  the  Rev.  C.  Black. 

29.  Preparation  for  the  Preparatory  School. 

By  Mr.  E.  D.  Mansfield 

30.  Preparatory  Boys'  Schools  under  Lady  Principals. 

^y  Mr.  C.  D.  Olive. 

31.  The  Preparatory  Department  at  Public  Schools. 

By  Mr.  A.  T.  Martin. 

32.  The  Preparatory  Department  at  a  Public  School. 

By  Mr.  T.  H.  Mason. 

33.  The  Relations  between  Public  and  Preparatory  Schools. 

By  the  Rev.  Herbert  Bull. 

34.  The  Preparatory  School  Product. 

By  the  Rev.  H.  A.  James,  D.D 

35.  The  Preparatory  School  Product. 

By  the  Rev.  the  Honourable  Canon  E.  Lyttelton. 

36.  The  Preparatory  School  Product. 

By  Dr.  Hely  Hutchinson  Almond. 

37.  The  Preparatory  School  Product. 

By  Mr.  Arthur  C.  Bensou 

38.  The  Home  Training  of  Children. 

By  Mrs.  Franklin. 

39.  The  Possibility  of  Co-education  in  English  Preparatory  and  other  Secondary 

Schools.  ^ 
By  Mr.  J.  H.  Badley 

40.  Notes  on  a  Preparatory  School  for  Girls, 
4L  Appendix. 

This  volume  (Cd.  418  )  can  be  obtained,  e  ther  directly  or  throufyh  any 
Bookseller,  from  Messrs.  WYMAN  and  SONS,  Ltd.,  Fetter  Lane,  E  C 
AND  .S2,  Abingdon  Street,  Westminster,  S.W.  ;  or  OLIVER  and  BOYd' 
Edinburgh  ;  or  E.  PONSONBY,  116,  Grafton  Street,  Dublin.  ' 
Price  2s.  3^d.  ;  post  free  2s.  'J^d. 


Volume  7  of  Special  Reports  (Rural  Education  in  France) 
(1902)  contains  the  following  Papers  :— 

1.  The  Rural  Schools  of  North  West  France. 

By  Mr.  Cloudesley  Brereton. 

2.  Rural  Education  in  France. 

By  Mr.  John  C.  Medd. 

This  volume  (Cd.  834)  can  be  obtained,  either  directly  or  through  anv 
Bookseller,  from  Messrs.  WYMAN  and  SONS,  Ltd.,  Fetter  Lane  E  C 
and  32,  Abingdon  Street,  Westminster,  S.W.  ;  or  OLIVER  and  BOYd' 
Edinburgh  ;  or  E.  Ponsonby,  116,  Grafton  Street,  Dublin. 

Price  Is.  Ad. ;  pest  free  \s.  Sd. 


(vii) 


Volume  8  of  Special  Reports  (Education  in  Scandinavia, 
Switzerland,  Holland,  Hungary,  &c.)  (1902)  contains  the 
following  Papers 

I. 

1 .  The  New  Law  for  the  Secondary  Schools  in  Norway. 

By  Dr.  Kand.  Mag.  Otto  Anderssen. 

2.  Education  in  Norway  in  the  year  1900. 

A  short  summary  reprinted  from  "  Norway."  (Official  Publication 
for  the  Paris  Exhibition,  1900.) 

3.  Education  in  Sweden. 

Summarised  translation  of  "  Enseignement  et  Culture  Intcllectuelle 
en  Suede,"  issued  in  connection  with  the  Paris  Exhibition,  1900, 
by  the  Swedish  Government. 

4.  Note  on  Children's  Workshops  in  Sweden. 

By  Mr.  J.  G.  Legge  and  Mr.  M.  E.  Sadler. 
6.    The  Nobel  Foundation  and  the  Nobel  Prizes. 
By  Mr.  P.  J.  Hartog. 

6.  The  Training  and  Status  of  Primary  and  Secondary  Teachers  in  Switzerland. 

By  Dr.  Alexander  Morgan. 

7.  The  Main  Features  of  the  School  System  of  Zurich. 

By  Dr.  H.  J.  Spenser  and  Mr.  A.  J.  Pressland. 

8.  The  Ecoles  Maternelles  of  Paris. 

By  Miss  Mary  S.  Beard. 
0.    The  Simplification  of  French  Syntax.  Decreo  of  the  French  Mitiistor  for 
Public  Instruction,  February  26,  1901. 
Translation  prepared  by  Mr.  W.  G.  Lipscomb, 

10.  Primary  Education  in  the  Netherlands. 

By  Mr.  R.  Balfour. 

11.  Primary  and  Secondary  Instruction  in  Portugal. 

Translated  and  abridged  from  publications  issued  in  connection  with 
the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1900  by  the  Portuguese  Government. 

12.  Technical  Instruction  in  Portugal. 

Translated  and  abridged  from  publications  issued  in  connection  with 
the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1900  by  the  Portuguese  Government. 

13.  Hungarian  Education. 

By  Miss  C.  1.  Dodd. 

14.  Public  Instruction  in  Servia. 

Summarised  translation  of  "  Notice  sur  Tinstruction  publique  on 
Serbie,"  published  on  the  occasion  of  the  Paris  Exhibition,  1900, 
by  the  Ministry  of  Public  Instruction  in  tlie  Kingdom  of  Servia. 

15.  Commercial  Education  in  Japan. 

By  Mr.  Zensaku  Sano. 

IL 

1 0.    The  Study  of  Arithmetic  in  Elementary  Schools 
By  Mr.  A.  Sonnenschein. 

17.  A  suggestion  as  regards  Languages  in  Secondary  Day  Schools 

By  Mr.  S.  R.  Hart. 

18.  Newer  Methods  in  the  Teaching  of  Latin. 

By  Dr.  E.  A.  Sonnenschein. 

19.  Three  School  Journeys  in  Yorkshire. 

20.  The  School  Journey  (London  to  Caterhara,  etc.)  made  by  the  Students  at 

the  Westminster  Training  College,  1879-1900. 
By  Mr.  Joseph  M.  Cowham. 

21.  A  plea  for  a  great  Agricultural  School. 

By  Mr.  James  Mortimer. 

22.  The  Education,  Earnings  and  Social  Condition  of  Boys  engaged  in  Street- 

Trading  in  Manchester. 

By  Mr.  E.  T.  Campagnac  and  Mr.  C.  E.  B.  Russell. 
III. 

23.  Sketch  of  the  History  of  Educational  Work  in  the  late  South  African  Re- 

public. 

By  Mr.  John  Robinson. 

24.  The  Education  of  Asiatic 

By  Mr.  R.  J.  Wilkinson. 

This  volume  (Cd.  835)  can  be  obtained,  either  directly  or  through  any 
Bookseller,  from  Messrs.  WYMAN  and  SONS,  Ltd.,  Fkttkr  Lane,  E.C., 
and  .32,  ABINGDON  Street,  Westminster,  S.W.  ;  or  OLIVER  and  BOYU, 
Edinburgh  ;  or  E.  PONSONBY,  116,  Grafton  Street,  Dublin. 

Price  Zs.  2d.  ;  post  free  Zs.  Id. 


(  viii ) 


Supplements  to  Volume  8  of  Special  Reports  (1902  and 
1903)  contain  the  following  Papers 

A  short  account  of  Education  in  th©  Netherlands. 
By  Mr.  John  C.  Medd. 

Report  on  the  School  Training  and  Early  Employment  of  Lancashire  Children 
By  Mr.  E.  T.  Campagnac  and  Mr.  C.  E.  B.  Russell. 

These  Reports  (Cd.  1157  and  1867)  can  be  obtained  either  directly  o 
through  any  Bookseller,  from  Messrs.  WYMAN  and  SONS,  Ltd.,  Fetter 
Lank,  E.G.,  and  32,  ABINGDON  STREET,  WESTMINSTER,  S.W.  ;  or  OLIVER 
AND  BOYD,  Edinburgh  ;  or  E.  PONSONBY,  116,  Grafton  Street,  Dublin. 

Price  5d.  ;  post  free  Sd.    Price  3d.  ;  post  free  id. 


Volume  9  of  Special  Reports  (Education  in  Germany)  (1902) 
contains  the  following  Papers  :— 

1.  The  Unrest  in  Secondary  Education  in  Grermany  and  elsewhere. 

By  Mr.  M.  E.  Sadler. 

2.  Note  on  Revised  Curricula  and  Programmes  of  Work  for  Higher  Schools 

for  Boys  in  Prussia,  1901. 
By  Mr.  A.  E.  Twentyman. 

8.    Higher  Schools  for  Girls  in  Germany :  An  Introductory  Sketch. 
By  Miss  Mary  A.  Lyster. 

4.  The  Smaller  Public  Elementary  Schools  of  Prussia  and  Saxony,  with  Notes 

on  the  Training  and  Position  of  Teachers. 
By  Mr.  E.  M.  Field. 

5.  Note  on  impending  Changes  in  the  Professional  Training  of  Elementary 

School  Teachers  in  I^ssia. 
By  Mr.  A.  E.  Twentyman. 

6.  School  Gardens  in  Germany. 

By  Mr.  T.  G.  RoopOT. 

7.  Impressions  of  some  Aspects  of  tke  work  in  Primary  and  other  Schools  in 

Rhineland,  etc. 

By  Mr.  R.  E.  Hughes  and  Mr.  W.  A.  Beanland. 

8.  The  Continuation  Schools  in  Berlin. 

By  Geheimregierungsrat  Professor  Dr.  Bertram.    (Translated  by 
Mr.  A.  E.  Twentyman.) 

9.  Note  on  the  EarUer  History  of  the  Technical  High  Schools  in  Germany, 

By  Mr.  A.  E.  Twentyman. 

10.  Recent  Developments  in  Higher  Commercial  Education  in  Germany. 

By  Mr.  M.  E.  Sadler. 

11.  On  the  Measurement  of  Mental  Fatigue  in  Germany. 

By  Mr.  C.  C.  Th.  Parez. 

12.  Report  of  the  Congress  on  the  Education  of  Feeble-minded  Children,  hehl 

at  Augsburg,  April  10-12,  1901. 
By  Dr.  A.  Bichholz. 

13.  On  the  Education  of  Neglected  Children  in  Germany. 

By  Dr.  Fritz  Rathenau. 

This  volume  (Cd,  836)  can  be  obtained,  either  directly  or  through  any 
Bookseller,  from  Messrs.  WYMAN  AND  SONS,  Ltd.,  Fetter  Lane,  E.G., 
and  32,  Abingdon  Street,  Westminster,  S.W.  ;  or  OLIVEK  and  BOYD, 
Edinburgh  ;  or  E.  PONSONBY,  116,  Grafton  Street,  Dublin. 

Price  2s.  Id.  ;  post  free  3s.  Od. 


(ix) 


Volume  10  of  Special  Reports  (Education  in  the  United  States 
of  America,  Part  I.)  (1902)  contains  the  following 
Papers  :— 

1.  The  Study  of  American  Education :  Its  interest  and  importance  to  English 

Readers. 

By  Sir  Joshua  G.  Fitch. 

2.  Moral  Education  in  American  Schools.  With  special  reference  to  the  forma- 

tion of  Character  and  to  Instruction  in  the  Duties  of  Citizenship. 
By  Mr.  H.  Thiselton  Mark. 

3.  The  Constitution  of  the  City  School  Systems  of  the  United  States 

By  Mr.  A.  L.  Bowley. 

4.  Summary  Account  of  the  Report  of  the  Educational  Commission  of  the  City 

of  Chicago,  1898. 

By  Mr.  A.  L.  Bowley. 

5.  The  Public  School  System  of  Chicago. 

By  Dr.  E.  B.  Andrews,  revised  and  completed  by  Mr.  A.  L.  Bowley. 

G.    The  Public  School  System  of  the  City  of  New;,York. 
By  Mr.  A.  L.  Bowley. 

7.  The  Public  School  System  of  Boston. 

By  Mr.  A.  L.  Bowley. 

8.  The  Public  School  System  of  St.  Louis,  Missouri 

By  Mr.  A.  L.  Bowley 

9.  The  Pubhc  School  System  of  Philadelphia. 

By  Mr.  Edward  Brooks. 

10.  A  Sketch  of  the  Development  and  present  Condition  of  the  System  of 

Education  in  the  State  of  Minnesota,  with  an  Appendix  dealing  with 
Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul. 
By  Professor  D.  L.  Kiehle. 

11.  Note  on  School  Attendance  in  the  Public  Schools  of  the  United  States. 

By  Mr.  A.  E.  Twentyman. 

12.  Some  points  of  Educational  Interest  in  the  Schools  of  the  United  States 

By  Miss  Alice  Ravenhill.  ' 

13.  The  Training  of  Teachers  in  the  United  States  of  America. 

By  Miss  M.  E.  Findlay. 

14.  Teachers  College  of  Columbia  University  (New  York) 

By  Dr.  James  E.  Russell. 

15.  "  Nature  Study  "  in  the  United  States. 

By  Mr.  R.  Hedger  Wallace 


This  volume  (Cd.  837)  can  be  obtained,  either  directly  or  through  any  Book- 
seller, from  Messrs.  WYMAN  and  SONS,  Ltd.,  Fetter  Lane,  E.C.  :  and 
32,  Abingdon  Street,  Westminster,  S.W^  ;  or  OLIVER  and  BOYD, 
Edinburgh  ;  or  E.  PONSONBY,  116,  Grafton  Street,  Dublin. 


Price  2s.  3d.  ;  post  free  2s.  Sd. 


Volume  11  of  Special  Reports  (Education  in  the  United  States 
of  America,  Part  II.)  (1902)  contains  the  following 
Papers 

1.  The  Curriculum  of  the  American  Secondary  School  (High  School). 

By  Mr.  D.  S.  Sanford. 

2.  Secondary  Education  in  a  Democratic  Community. 

By  Professor  Paul  H.  Hanus. 

3.  A  Comparison  between  the  English  and  American  Secondary  Schools. 

By  Mr.  George  L.  Fox. 

4.  Can  American  Co-education  be  grafted  upon  the  English  Public  School 

System  ? 

By  the  Rev.  Cecil  Grant. 

5.  Education  and  Industry  in  the  United  States. 

By  Mr.  H.  Thiselton  Mark. 

6.  Commercial  Education  in  the  United  States. 

By  Mr.  P.  J.  Hartog. 

7.  Some  Notes  on  American  Universities. 

By  IMr.  Percy  Ashley. 

8.  Tables  Showing  the  Chief  Recent  Benefactions  to  Higher  Education  in  the 

United  States. 

9.  A  Contrast  between  German  and  American  Ideals  in  Education. 

By  Mr.  M.  E.  Sadler. 

10.  Education  in  the  American  Dependencies. 

By  Miss  M.  E.  Tanner. 

1 1.  The  Holiday  Course  for  Cuban  Teachers  at  Harvard. 

Prepared  by  Miss  M.  E.  Tanner  from  documents  supplied  by  the 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Education. 

12.  The  Education  of  the  Coloured  Race. 

By  Mr.  M.  E.  Sadler. 


Appendices : — 

A.  The  Function  of  Education  in  Democratic  Society  (reprinted  from  "  Educa- 

tional Reform,"  Essays  and  Addresses  by  Charles  William  Ehot, 
LL.D.,  President  of  Harvard  University). 

B.  Bible  Reading  in  the  Public  Schools  of  the  United  States. 

C.  Harvard  University.    Opportunities  provided  for  Religious  Worship, 

Instruction  and  Fellowship. 

D.  President  Nicholas  Murray  Butler  on  Religious  Instruction  and  its  Rela- 

tion to  Education. 


This  volume  (Cd.  1156)  can  be  obtained,  either  directly  or  through  any  Book- 
seller, from  Messrs.  VVYMAN  and  SONS,  Ltd.,  Fetter  Lane,  E.'C,  and 
32,  Abingdon  Street,  Westminster,  S.W.  ;  or  OLIVER  and  BOYD, 
Edinburgh;  or  E.  PONSONBY,  116,  Grafton  Street,  Dublin. 

Price  2s.  %d.  ;  post  free  2s.  \\d. 


(xi) 


Volume  12  of  Special  Reports  (Educational  Systems  of  the 
Chief  Crown  Colonies  and  Possessions  of  the  British 
Empire,  including  Reports  on  the  Training  of  Native 
Races :  Part  I.  —West  Indies  and  Central  America,  St. 
Helena,  Cyprus  and  Gibraltar)  (1905)  (published  simul- 
taneously with  Volumes  13  and  14)  contains  the  following 
Papers  :— 

A.  West  Indies  and  Central  America— 

1.  The  System  of  Education  in  the  Bahamas. 

By  Mr.  G.  Cole,  Inspector  and  General  Superintendent  of  Schools, 
Bahamas. 

2.  The  System  of  Education  in  Barbados. 

By  the  Rev.  J.  E.  Reece,  Inspector  of  Schools,  ^Ir.  J.  A.  Carrington, 
Assistant  Inspector  of  Schools,  and  the  Rev.  J.  R.  Nichols, 
Secretary  to  the  Education  Board,  Barbados. 

3.  The  System  of  Education  in  Bermuda. 

By  Mr.  George  Simpson,  Inspector  of  Schools,  Bermuda. 

4.  The  System  of  Education  in  British  Honduras. 

By  Mr.  A.  Barrow  Dillon,  Inspector  of  Schools,  British  Honduras. 

5.  The  System  of  Education  in  Trinidad  and  Tobago. 

By  Mr.  R.  Gervase  Buslie,  late  Inspector  of  Schools,  Trinidad  and 
Tobago. 

6.  The  System  of  Education  in  the  Windward  Islands. 

(«)  (Jrenada. 

By  Mr.  John  Harbin,  Inspector  of  Schools,  Grenada. 
(6)    St.  Lucia. 

By  Mr.  Fred.  E.  Bundy,  Inspector  of  Schools,  St.  Lucia, 
(c)    St.  Vincent. 

By  Mr.  Frank  W.  Griffith,  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Education, 
formerly  Inspector  of  Scliools,  St.  Vincent. 

B.  St.  Helena— 

The  System  of  Education  in  St.  Helena. 

By  the  Rev.  Canon  Alfred  Porter,  Inspector  of  Government  Schools, 
St.  Helena. 

C.  Europe— 

L    The  System  of  Education  in  Cyprus. 

By  the  Rev.  F.  D.  Newham,  Inspector  of  Schools,  Cyprus. 

2.    The  System  of  Education  in  Gibraltar. 

By  Mr.  G.  F.  Cornwall,  K.C.,  (Colonial  Inspector  of  Schools, 
Gibraltar. 

Appendix— 

A.    West  Indies  and  Central  America— 

Education  in  Jamaica  in  its  relation  to  Skilled  Handicraft  and  Agricul- 
tural Work. 

By  the  Most  Rev.  the  Archbishop  of  the  West  Indies. 

This  volume  (Cd.  2377)  can  be  obtained,  either  directly  or  through  any  Book- 
seller, from  Messrs.  WYMAN  and  SONS,  Ltd.,  Fetter  Lane,  E.C.,  and 
32,  Abingdon  Street,  Westminster,  S.W.  ;  or  OLIVER  and  BOYD, 
Edinburgh  ;  or  E.  PONSONBY,  116,  Grafton  Street,  Dublin. 

Price,  2s.  Od.  ;  post  free,  2s.  4</. 


(  xii  ) 


Volume  13  of  Special  Reports  (Educational  Systems  of  the 
Chief  Crown  Colonies  and  Possessions  of  the  British 
Empire,  including  Reports  on  the  Training  of  Native 
Races:  Part  II.— West  Africa,  Basutoland,  Southern 
Rhodesia,  East  Africa  Protectorate,  Uganda,  Mauritius, 
Seychelles)  (1905)  (published  simultaneously  with 
Volumes  12  and  14)  contains  the  following  Papers  :— 

A.  West  Africa — 

1.  The  System  of  Education  in  the  Gold  Coast  Colony. 

By  the  late  :Mr.  F.  Wright,  Inspector  of  Schools,  Gold  Coast  Colony. 

2.  The  System  of  Education  in  Lagos. 

By  Mr.  Henry  Carr,  late  Inspector  of  Schools,  Lagos. 

3.  The  System  of  Education  in  Sierra  Leone. 

By  Mr.  M.  J.  Marke,  Inspector  of  Schools,  Sierra  Leone. 

4.  The  System  of  Education  in  Southern  Nigeria. 

By  ]VIr.  C.  J.  M.  Gordon,  late  Inspector  of  Schools,  Southern  Nigeria. 

B.  South  and  Central  Africa — 

L    The  System  of  Education  in  Basutoland. 

Report  supplied  by  ]\Ir.  H.  C.  Sloley,  Resident  Commissioner, 
Basutoland. 

2.  The  System  of  Education  in  Southern  Rhodesia  (1890-1901).    Its  origin 

and  development. 

By  ]Mr.  H.  E.  D.  Hammond,  First  Inspector  of  Schools  for  Southern 
Rhodesia. 

3.  Note  on  Education  in  the  East  Africa  Protectorate. 

4.  Education  in  Uganda. 

(1)  Societe  des  Missionaires  d'Afrique— P^res  Blancs.  Vicariat 
Apostolique  du  Nyanza  Septentrional.  By  the  Right  Rev. 
the  Bishop  of  North  Victoria  Nyanza. 

(2)  The  Church  Missionary  Society.    By  Mi.  R.  H.  Walker. 

(3)  The  Nsambya  IMission.  Conducted  by  the  Mill  Hill  (London) 
Fathers.    By  the  Right  Rev.  the  Bishop  of  the  Upper  Nile. 

C.  Mauritius — 

The  System  of  Education  in  Mauritius. 

Prepared  from  materials  supplied  by  the  Department  of  Publio 
Instruction,  Mauritius. 

D.  Seychelles — 

The  System  of  Education  in  Seychelles. 

By  Mr.  L.  O.  Chitty,  late  Inspector  of  Schools,  Seychelles. 
Appendices — 

A.  West  Africa — 

1.  The  Educational  Work  of  the  Basel  Mission  on  the  Gold  Coast :  Its 
Method  in  combining  Industrial  and  Manual  Training  with  other  In- 
fluences indispensable  to  the  Formation  of  the  Character  of  the  Native 
Race. 

By  the  Rev.  W.  J.  Rottmann,  Principal  of  the  Basel  Mission  Train- 
ing School  for  Catechists  and  Teachers,  Akropong,  Gold  Coast. 

B.  South  and  Central  Africa — 

1.  Notes  on  Industrial  Training  for  Natives  on  the  Congo  (Baptist  Mission- 
ary Society). 

By  the  Rev.  George  Grenfell,  Baptist  Missionary  Society. 

2.  Educational  Work  in  Livingstonia,  with  special  Reference  to  the  effects 
of  Manual,  Industrial,  and  Agricultural  Instruction. 

By  the  Rev.  J.  Fairley  Daly,  B.D.,  Hon.  Secretary  of  the  Living- 
stonia Mission  (United  Free  Church  of  Scotland). 

3.  The  Educational  Work  of  the  Blantyre  Mission,  British  Central  Africa. 

Prepared  from  materials  supplied  by  the  Church  of  Scotland  Foreign 
Mission  Committee. 

4.  The  Education  of  Natives  in  South  Africa. 

By  Lieut. -Colonel  Sir  Marshal  J.  Clarke,  K.C.M.G.,  Imperial  Resi- 
dent Commissioner,  Southern  Rhodesia. 
6.    On  Native  Education — South  Africa. 

By  the  Rev.  James  Stewart,  M.D,  D.D.,  of  Lovedale  Mission, 
Cape  Colony  (United  Free  Church  of  Scotland). 
6.    The  Work  of  the  Moravian  Missionaries  in  South  Africa  and  North 
Queensland. 

By  the  Rev.  J.  M.  Wilson,  of  the  Moravian  Church. 

This  volume  (Cd.  2378)  can  be  obtained,  either  directly  or  through  any  Book- 
seller, from  Messrs  WYMAN  and  SONS,  Ltd.,  Fetter  Lane,  E.G.,  and 
.32,  Abingdon  Street,  Westminster,  S.W.  ;  or  OLIVER  and  BOYD,. 
Edinburgh  ;  or  E.  PONSONBY,  116,  Grafton  Street,  Dublin. 

Price  Is.  Sd.  ;  post  free  2s,  Od. 


Volume  14  of  Special  Reports  (Educational  Systems  of  the 
Chief  Crown  Colonies  and  Possessions  of  the  British 
Empire,  including  Reports  on  the  Training  of  Native 
Races:  Part  III.— Federated  Malay  States,  Hong  Kong, 
Straits  Settlements,  Fiji  and  Falkland  Islands)  (1905) 
(published  simultaneously  with  Volumes  12  and  13)  con- 
tains the  following  Papers  :— 

A.  Asia — 

1.  The  System  of  Education  in  the  Federated  Malay  States. 

Report  suppUed  by  the  Federal  Education  Office,  Federated  Malay^ 
States. 

2.  The  System  of  Education  in  Hong  Kong. 

By  Mr.  Edward  A.  Irving,  Inspector  of  Schools,  Hong  Kong. 

3.  The  System  of  Education  in  the  Straits  Settlements. 

By  Mr.  J.  B.  Elcum,  Director  of  Public  Instruction,  Straits  Settle- 
ments. 

B.  Fiji— 

The  System  of  Education  in  Fiji. 

By  the  Hon.  W.  L.  .Allardyce,  C.M.G.,  Colonial  Secretary  and  Re- 
ceiver General,  Fiji. 

C.  Falkland  Islands — 

The  System  of  Education  in  the  Falkland  Islands. 

By  the  Very  Rev.  Lowther  E.  Brandon,  Dean,  Colonial  Chaplain- 
and  Government  School  Inspector,  Falkland  Islands. 

Appendices — 

1.  Note  on  the  Work  of  the  Industrial  Missions  Aid  Society. 

Prepared  from  materials  supplied  by  the  Industrial  Missions  Aid 
Society. 

2.  On  the  Education  of  Native  Races  (C.M.S.). 

By  Mr.  R.  Machonachie. 

3.  Industrial  Education  in  Catholic  Missions. 

By  the  Right  Rev.  the  Bishop  of  Salford. 

4.  Education  in  British  New  Guinea. 

By  the  Right  Rev.  the  Bishop  of  New  Guinea. 

5.  Work  of  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions 

in  regard  to  Industrial  and  Agricultural  Education  in  India. 

Prepared  from  materials  supplied  by  the  American  Board  of  Com- 
missioners for  Foreign  Missions. 

6.  Memorandum  on  Technical  Education  in  Southern  India. 

By  the  Rev.  Canon  A.  Margoschis  (Fellow  of  Madras  University), 
Nazareth,  Southern  India. 

7.  Industrial  Schools  and  School  Gardens  in  Ceylon. 

By  Mr.  S.  M.  Burrows,  late  Director  of  Public  Instruction  in  Ceylon. 

8.  The  Education  of  the  Indians  of  Canada. 

By  Mr.  Harry  Moody,  of  the  Canadian  and   Pacific  Railway 
Company. 

This  volume  (Cd.  2879)  can  be  obtained,  either  directly  or  through  any 
Bookseller,  from  Messus.  WYMAN  and  SONS,  Ltd.,  Fetter  Lane,  E.G., 
AND  32,  Abingdon  Street,  Westminster,  S.W.  ;  or  OLIVER  and  BOYD,. 
Edinburgh;  or  E.  PONSONBY,  116,  Grafton  Street,  Dublin. 

Price  \8.  8(i.  ;    fost  free  2s.  Od. 


(  xiv  ) 


The  following  Reports  from  Volumes  2,  3,  4,  5,  and  9  of  Special 
Reports  on  Educational  Subjects  have  been  issued  as 
Reprints  :— 

special  Reports  on  Intermediate  Education  in  Wales  and  the  Organisation  of 
Education  in  Switzerland. 
(Nos.  1  in  Vols.  2  and  3  respectively.)    Price  Is.  Id.  ;  post  free  I5.  S^d. 

Special  Reports  on  Modern  Language  Teaching. 

(No.  26  in  Vol.  2  and  Nos.  7,  8,  9,  10  in  Vol.  3.)    Price  ^d.  ;  post  free  S^d, 

Special  Reports  on  Secondary  Education  in  Prussia. 

(Nos.  2  and  3  in  Vol.  3.)  Price  I5. ;  post  free  Is.  S^d. 

Special  Report  on  Secondary  Schools  in  Baden. 

(No.  4  in  Vol.  3.)  Price  5ld.  ;  post  free  Id. 

Special  Reports  on  Education  in  France. 

(Nos.  22,  23,  24,  25  in  Vol.  2.)  Price  M. ;  post  free  5Jd. 

Special  Report  on  the  Heuristic  Method  of  Teaching. 

(No.  19  in  Vol.  2.)  Price  3d. ;  post  free  4i. 

Special  Report  on  the  Connection  between  the  Public  Library  and  the  Public 
Elementary  School. 
(No.  13  in  Vol.  2.)  Price  2^^  ;  post  free  Z^d. 

Special  Report  on  the  System  of  Education  in  Ontario. 

(No.  A  1  in  Vol.  4.)  Price  8d.  ;  post  free  lO^d. 

Special  Report  on  the  System  of  Education  in  the  Province  of  Quebec. 

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Special  Reports  on  the  Systems  of  Education  in  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick, 
Prince  Edward  Island,  and  Newfoundland. 
(Nos.  A  3,  4,  8  and  No.  B  in  Vol.  4.)  Price  8d. ;  post  free  lO^d. 

Special  Reports  on  the  Systems  of  Education  in  Manitoba,  North- West  Terri- 
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Special  Reports  on  the  Systems  of  Education  in  the  West  Indies,  and  in  British 
Guiana. 

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Special  Reports  on  the  Systems  of  Education  in  Cape  Colony  and  Natal. 

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Special  Report  on  the  System  of  Education  in  New  South  Wales. 

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Special  Report  on  the  System  of  Education  in  Victoria. 

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Special  Report  on  the  System  of  Education  in  Queensland. 

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Special  Report  on  the  System  of  Education  in  Tasmania. 

(No.  B  4  in  Vol.  5.)  Price  8d. ;  post  free  9d. 

Special  Report  on  the  System  of  Education  in  South  Austraha. 

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Special  Report  on  the  System  of  Education  in  Western  Australia. 

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Special  Report  on  the  System  of  Education  in  New  Zealand. 

(No.  C  in  Vol.  5.)  Price  8d. ;  post  free  lO^d. 

Special  Report  on  the  System  of  Education  in  Ceylon. 

(No.  D  in  Vol.  5.)  Price  8d.  ;  post  free  9d, 

Special  Report  on  the  System  of  Education  in  Malta. 

(No.  E  in  Vol.  5.)  Price  8d. ;  post  free  9d. 

Special  Report  on  School  Gardens  in  Germany. 

(No.  6  in  Vol.  9.)  "  Price  3d.  ;  post  free  4d. 

These  can  be  obtained,  either  directly  or  through  any  Bookseller,  from 
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E.  PONSONBY,  116,  Grafton  Street,  Dublin. 


6490. 


(  XV  ) 


Trade  (Imports  and  Exports)  of  the  United  Kingdom  with  the  Colonies  and  Foreign 
Countries;  Kates  of  Wages  and  Hours  of  Labour  at  Home  and  Abroad;  Customs 
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[Cd.  2192.]    Statistical    Abstract    of    the    United    Kingdom.  1889-1903. 

Price  1«.  '3d, 

[Cd.  1912.]         Ditto  ditto  Colonies.    1889-1903.   Price  Is.  lOcl, 

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Price  Is.  6c?. 

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Price  1«.  2d, 

[Cd.  2043, 2081.]  TRADE  OF  THE  United  Kingdom,  1903.  Vols.  1.  and  II.  Price  12s.  id, 
[Cd.  2340.]  Foreign  Import  Duties,  1904.  Price  2s.  Od. 

[Cd.  2185.]  Colonial  Import  Duties,  1904.  Price  2«.  Irf. 

[Cd.  2199.]  Labour  Statistics— United  Kingdom.     Changes  of  Wages  and  Hours 
of  Labour.    1903.  Price  Id. 

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BOARD  OF  EDUCATION. 


SPECIAL  REPORTS 

ON 

EDUCATIONAL  SUBJECTS. 

VOLUME  15. 


SCHOOL  TRAINING  FOR  THE  HOME  DUTIES  OF  WOMEN. 

PART  L 

THE  TEACHING  OF  "DOxMESTIC  SCIENCE"  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

OF  AMERICA. 

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LONDON: 

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