The Teachings Of Maimonides

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OSMANIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARY
Call No. 'kcession No.
Author

Title

This book should be returned on or before the date
last marked below.

THE TEACHINGS
OF MAIMONIDES

THE TEACHINGS
OF MAIMONIDES

BY

THE REV. A. COHEN

M.A. (Cantal.), Ph.D. (Lund.)

LONDON

GEORGE ROUTLEDGE & SONS, LTD.

BROADWAY HOUSE: 68-74 CARTER LANE, B.C.

1927

PRINTtn IN GRFAT BRITAIN BY HEADLEY BROTHERS,
1 8, DEVONSHIRE STREET, E.G. 2 ; AND ASHFORD, KENT,

TO MY WIFE

PREFACE

THIS book is intended to serve a double purpose. It
firstly presents a summary of the teachings of
Maimonides on Philosophy, Psychology, Religion and
Ethics in a systematic classification. Although he
earned a great and enduring reputation for his
masterly systematisation of the mass of Rabbinic
law, he has nowhere left an orderly account of his
opinions. They have to be collected and pieced
together from the whole field of his compositions.
Secondly, the summary is given in the author's words
by quotations from his writings. The volume,
accordingly, takes the form of an anthologie raisonnce.

Despite the existence of English versions of the
Guide, the Eight Chapters and parts of the Yad, few
readers are likely to have the patience or inclination
to go through them from cover to cover. Especially
is this so with the first-mentioned work which is
acknowledged to be one of the outstanding philo-
sophical productions of the Middle Ages and exerted
a deep influence upon the thought of Jewish and
Christian theologians. Much in its pages would deter
the casual reader. The opening chapters in particular
would probably induce him to lay the book aside as
being without interest and value.

That is perhaps the reason why so little is known
of Maimonides, apart from his name. It is conse-
quently hoped that the present volume may be the
means of creating a fuller acquaintance with this
eminent Jewish thinker. Much of his teaching is, of

vii

PREFACE

course, out of date. There is no longer the necessity
to harmonise Revelation with Aristotelian philosophy,
which was the urgent theological problem in his day ;
but the spirit which animated his mind and pervades
his writings is as much needed now as ever before.
His philosophy may be antiquated, but his insistence
on the supremacy of reason and his emphasis on
knowledge as the essential preparation for religious
comprehension are of eternal value.

I wish to express my thanks to the Chief Rabbi
(Dr. J. H. Hertz) for his kindness in lending me his
copy of Lichtenberg's edition of the Responsa, to the
Librarian of Jews' College (Dr. H. Hirschfeld) for
sending me the numerous volumes I required in the
preparation of this book, and to the Rev. S. M.
Lehrman, B.A., of Manchester, who generously under-
took the task of correcting the proofs.

A.C.

Birmingham,

February, 1927.

Vlll

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

I THE ORIGINS OF A JEWISH PHILOSOPHY - i

II MAIMONIDES : His LIFE AND WORK - 7

III MAIMONIDES' SYSTEM OF THOUGHT - 18

IV THE INFLUENCE OF MAIMONIDES 27

THE TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

CHAPTER I : GOD THE CREATOR 31

i. The Existence of God 2. Proof of
God's Existence 3. God is the " cause "
of every event in the world 4. God is the
life of the Universe 5. Emanation from
God 6. God not responsible for evil in
the world 7. All that God made serves
a useful purpose 8. Is the Universe
eternal or created ? 9. Design in the
Universe 10. Purpose of God's Creation
11. Is the Universe permanent ? 12.
God's Name

CHAPTER II : CONSTITUTION OF THE UNIVERSE 65

i. Threefold Division 2. Intelligences or
Angels 3. The Spheres 4. The Sub-
lunary Sphere 5. The Universe a united
whole

ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER III : THE ATTRIBUTES OF GOD - 83

i. Why attributes are ascribed to God
2. There is no similarity between God's
attributes and man's 3. An attribute is
an accident : therefore God has no
attributes apart from His essence 4. God
only describable by negative attributes
5. The Unity of God 6. The Incor-
poreality of God 7. God is timeless and
spaceless 8. God and the impossible
9. God's knowledge

CHAPTER IV : THE WORSHIP OF GOD - - 107

i. God alone to be worshipped 2. Prayer
3. Love and fear of God 4. Different
degrees in worship of God 5. Judaism
and other religions 6. Idolatry 7.
Superstition a form of idolatry

CHAPTER V : PROPHECY - - - 129

i. Prophecy a natural gift 2. Three
views of Prophecy 3. The psychology of
Prophecy 4. Qualifications of a Prophet
5- Degrees of Prophecy 6. Test of a
true Prophet 7. Moses the greatest of
'the Prophets.

CHAPTER VI : THE TORAH - ... 152

i. Torah a Revelation from God 2. Aim
of the Torah 3. Permanence of the Torah
4. Study of the Torah 5. Interpreta-
tion of the Torah 6. Specimens of alle-
gorical interpretation 7. Commandments

TABLE OF CONTENTS

of the Torah 8. Reasons of the command-
ments 9. Sacrifices 10. Sabbath and
Festivals.

CHAPTER VII : DIVINE PROVIDENCE - - 189

i. God is cognisant of man 2. Problem
of Divine Providence 3. Five theories on
Providence 4. Maimonides' views

CHAPTER VIII : REWARD AND PUNISHMENT - 202

i. God's justice 2. Why rewards and
punishments are promised 3. The highest
form of reward and punishment 4.
Repentance 5. Free will 6. Prescience
and Determinism

CHAPTER IX : ESCHATOLOGY - 220

i. The coming of the Messiah 2. The
personality of the Messiah 3. The
Messianic Era 4. Calculating the time
of the advent 5. The World to Come
6. Who will have a share in the World to
Come 7. The immortal soul 8. Resur-
rection of the dead 9. Happiness in the
World to Come

CHAPTER X : PSYCHOLOGY - - - - 241

i. The soul and its faculties 2. The
human intellect 3. The functioning of
the intellect 4. Sources of true knowledge
5. Limits of the intellect
xi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER XI : ETHICS 258

i. Varying dispositions in man 2. Virtues
and vices 3. The Mean 4. Asceticism
5. Correct living (physical) 6. Correct
living (moral) 7. Social life 8. The
purpose of life 9. The ultimate goal of
life

CHAPTER XII : SOME OBITER DICTA - - 307
NOTES -------- 313

INDEX 337

Xll

MAIMONIDES' WORKS CITED

GuideGuide for the Perplexed. A complete transla-
tion was made into English by Dr M. Friedlander
(3 vols., 1881-85). A revised one-volume edition,
with the elimination of the notes, was published
in 1904 (Routledge). The passages quoted are
given in Friedlander 's translation.

C M .^Commentary on the Mishnah. Included in the
work are three essays : (i) Introduction ; (ii)
Introduction to Helek (i.e., Sanhedrin chap. X).
An English translation was published in the Jewish
Quarterly Review, XIX, pp. 28-58. My quotations
are from this version, by kind permission of the
Editor, Mr C. G. Montefiore ; (iii) Eight Chapters,
prefaced to the commentary on tractate Abot.
The Hebrew text, with an English rendering, was
published by Dr J. I. Gorfinkle in 1912. This
translation has been drawn upon by the courtesy
of Dr Gorfinkle and the Columbia University Press.

Yad^Yad ha-fyazakah or Mishneh Torah. The first
of the fourteen books was translated into English
by E. Soloweyczik (1863) and partly by H. Bernard
(1832). The section on Almsgiving was translated
by J. W. Peppercorne (1840). The citations in
this volume are newly translated.

Responsa=Kobets Teshubot ha-Rambam, ed. Lichten-
berg (1859). Besides his letters this collection
includes some of Maimonides' smaller works, such
xiii

MAIMONIDES' WORKS CITED

as Iggeret Teman, Ma'amar Kiddush ha-Shem,
Ma'amar Tehiyyat ha-Metim t his Ethical Will, etc.

Ma'amar ha-Yihudthe Hebrew translation of
Makalah fi 'l-Tauhid, ed. Steinschneider (1847).
Despite its title " Essay on the Unity ", it is not, as
the Jewish Encyclopedia (vol. IX, p. 81) describes,
" an essay on the unity of God ". It is a summary
of the contents of the first two sections of the Yad.

MitswotKitab al-Fara'id, in Hebrew Sefer ha-
Mitswot, " The Book of the Commandments ".
The passages cited have been translated from the
Arabic edition of M. Bloch (1888).

MillotMillot ha-Higgayon, " The Terminology of
Logic ".

xiv

INTRODUCTION
I : THE ORIGINS OF A JEWISH PHILOSOPHY

WHEN the antiquity of the Jewish people is taken
into account and the place it has occupied in the realm
of religious thought, it is a remarkable fact that an
interest in speculative philosophy scarcely manifests
itself before the tenth century of the present era.
When once that interest was aroused, it developed
apace and grew in intensity. The study of philosophy
was pursued with ardour and attracted many of the
acutest intellects in Jewry. If the story of the Jewish
metaphysicians begins late, when once it is commenced,
the four centuries that follow are made notable by the
names of eminent thinkers who boldly grappled with
the riddles of the Universe. They displayed a real
aptitude for speculative investigation.

What is the explanation that this aptitude remained
dormant so long and displayed itself just at the time
that it did ? Halter's theory 1 is that it was not until
then that the Jews came into contact with an alien
system of thought which conflicted with their own and
were compelled to offer a rational defence of their
creed or harmonise the two. The premisses from which
this conclusion is drawn are hardly correct. Jews
had come into close association with the Greeks and
Romans in the pre-Christian centuries. 1 Josephus
knew of Aristotle. 3 The Talmudic literature records
disputations between Rabbis and heathen philos-
ophers.* Another cause must be sought.

i

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

It has often been remarked that the Oriental mind
prefers the concrete to the abstract ; and if this were
so, it would be sufficient to account for the absence of
metaphysical speculation which is directed towards
the intangible. But a generalisation of this nature
is usually only a half-truth. It is doubtless correct
that the Oriental showed preference for the definite
as against the indefinite. The proverbs of Eastern
peoples supply ample evidence of this tendency. In
Rabbinic literature we find " forty " or " sixty "
where an undetermined number is intended.

That characteristic is not exclusively typical of
the Eastern mentality only, but is general and found
all over the world. It is the mark of the undeveloped
mind ; so that it is only in comparatively recent times,
with the growth of education, that the average person
proves capable of thinking in the abstract. We have
to search for still another reason to explain the
phenomenon that although the Jewish people produced
an ethical and spiritual literature, philosophy was an
alien importation and not indigenous.

According to primitive psychology, the seat of the
intellect was the heart. In the language of the Bible
a man thinks by " speaking in, or to, his heart ". If
he has to commit something to memory, he " lays it
upon his heart ". His ideas and plans originate there.
The clever man is " wise of heart ", the fool " lacking
of heart ". Nowhere in the Scriptures is the heart
of an animal mentioned except as a physical organ.

This attribution of intellect to the heart was not
peculiar to the Hebrews. In the view of the Indians,
the sun of knowledge rises in the ether of the heart.
The Persians regarded the heart as the soil from which
the thoughts grew in the same way that trees grow from
the ground. The idea is found likewise among the

2

INTRODUCTION

early Greeks. An ancient medical work located the
" intelligent soul " in the left ventricle of the heart.
Homer describes the inert corpse as a^pcos "without
heart ", in the sense of without consciousness. The
use of cor in Latin supports the same view. 5

What lies at the root of this psychological con-
ception is that thinking is grounded in, if not actually
identical with, feeling. What we think is what we
feel. Our beliefs are determined not by argument
and demonstration, but by our likes and dislikes.
Our conclusions are arrived at through intuition and
not through ratiocination. So long as such a
psychology persisted, philosophical research and
logical deduction remained an impossibility, or at
any rate, a rarity.

The first blow was dealt at this system by
Pythagoras (6th cent., B.C.E.) when he located the
vovs in the brain. As soon as it was believed that the
seat of the intellect was in the head and not in the
heart, the road was cleared for the momentous
discovery that the mind functioned independently of
the heart, and that reason was distinct from emotion
and truth was absolute. Hence it was that philosophy
originated with the Greeks. Aristotle invented the
syllogism which is the foundation of abstract
reasoning.

Under the influence of the Bible the Jews retained
the older psychology. But there were other forces
at work which induced them to keep to the concrete
rather than wander into the unchartered domain of
the abstract. The acute struggle for self-preservation
into which the Jewish people was plunged by the
crisis of the first century a crisis both national and
religious compelled the Rabbis to concentrate on the
practical and avoid the theoretical. " Not inquiry

3

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

but action is the chief thing " 6 became the guiding
principle. Greek philosophy had not been without
its devotees among the Jews. Especially in Egypt
it had found many followers, and the consequences
had been harmful to their Judaism. The Rabbis
consequently regarded it as a menace to the preserva-
tion of the Jewish faith.

There is a famous passage in the Talmud? which
relates : " Four men went up into Paradise, viz. Ben
Azzai, Ben Zoma, After 8 and Rabbi Akiba. . . .
Ben Azzai gazed and died ; Ben Zoma gazed and
became demented ; Aher cut the plants ; and Rabbi
Akiba departed in peace ". Whatever it was that
these men precisely aimed at, it is clear that they
embarked on some speculative search with disastrous
effects. Only one out of the four came through
unscathed ; and it is noteworthy that it was this
Rabbi Akiba who gave utterance to the aphorism :
" Everything is foreseen, yet freedom of choice is
given ; and the world is judged by grace, yet all is
according to the amount of the work ".9

This doctrine touches some of the deepest problems
in philosophy to which later Jewish thinkers devoted
considerable attention. How can free will be
reconciled with God's foreknowledge ? How can
God be good and just when the righteous experience
adversity and the wicked prosper ? And yet on such
perplexities as these, Akiba, perhaps the keenest
intellect among the Rabbis, has nothing more helpful
to say than that we are to accept conflicting dogmas
whether they can be harmonised or not ! His purpose,
however, is clear : as a practical rule of living we
must believe that the will is free, that God has
foreknowledge and that He governs the world wisely
and justly. It is this practical rule which is of

4

INTRODUCTION

primary importance ; the metaphysical problem is
only secondary.

This attitude towards transcendental problems is
typical of the Rabbis. It is essentially Hebraic.
They held that there was sufficient in the daily round
of life to absorb all man's thoughts and energies, and
no need to try and penetrate the veil which hides from
him the mysteries of the Universe. There was the
Biblical teaching : " The heavens are the heavens of
the Lord, but the earth hath He given to the children
of men " (Ps. cxv. 16), which was taken as signifying
that the world is man's sphere and he is incapable of
comprehending the realms above. 10 Hence his range
of inquiry is limited to ra <f>va-tKa " the physical " and
he is cut off from all knowledge of rot /xera TO, </>w**a
" the metaphysical " what lies beyond the physical.

It was impossible, however, for the Jews to isolate
themselves from the currents of thought which were
sweeping through the countries of their domicile.
The Aristotelian philosophy had reached the Arabs
and profoundly influenced their thinkers. The works
of the Greek master had been translated into Arabic
and were widely read and discussed. These books
passed into the hands of Jewish readers and arrested
their attention. The predilection of the Jews for
medicine was a contributory cause. They had
perforce to study the medical works of the Greek
physicians the standard text-books which were
available in Arabic translation. An acquaintance
with scientific method was the result and a desire to
delve more deeply into the writings of the Greeks.
A new field of scholarship was revealed to them. They
discovered a world of thought from which they had
been hitherto rigorously excluded. Their intellectual
acumen, so long restricted in its scope, had a

5

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

gargantuan meal upon which to feast. They ignored
the cautious advice of their predecessors. They ate
of the tree of knowledge and their eyes were opened.

The first contact with Greek thought must have
proved most disconcerting to them. The very
foundations of their faith seemed to be shaken. It
was all so different from what had been traditionally
handed down from their fathers. The effect might be
compared to the shock which the religious world
experienced in the middle of the last century when
Darwin propounded his theories. It raised similar
questions. Just as the perplexed religionist then
asked, How does this new teaching accord with the
first chapter of Genesis ? the medieval Jew asked,
How does this philosophy fit in with the Hebrew
Scriptures ?

The problem was somewhat simplified for the
latter because he never for a moment doubted the
truth of the Bible. The alternatives for him were
either philosophy was wrong or the Bible and philosophy
agreed. Of the famous Jewish thinkers only two
adopted the former alternative. Judah Halevi (born
1086) rejected the Aristotelian philosophy on intuitive
rather than rational grounds. It did not satisfy him
spiritually. To his ardent, poetical temperament the
cold reasoning of Aristotle proved distasteful. It
made no provision for the yearning of the human soul
for communion with God. On the other hand,
Hasdai Crescas (1340-1410) vehemently attacked
Aristotle on rational grounds. He analysed his
system of thought and declared it unsound.

The majority of Jewish philosophers were fervent
admirers of Aristotle. 11 They may have criticised his
teachings on points of detail, but they accepted his
system as a whole. Their problem, accordingly, was

6

INTRODUCTION

to reconcile his philosophy with the teachings of the
Bible. The outstanding personality in this School
of harmonisation was Moses, the son of Maimon,
better known as Moses Maimonides. IZ

II : MAIMONIDES : HIS LIFE AND WoRK J 3

The unique place which Maimonides held in the
Jewish world of his tftne is indicated by the fact that
the exact hour of his birth has been preserved. He
was born in Cordova at i p.m. on the eve of Passover,
4895, which corresponds to March 30, 1135. His
family was said to trace its descent through Judah
the Prince, the compiler of the Mishnah, to the House
of David. This genealogy may rest on nothing more
substantial than the unbounded hero-worship of his
admirers.

He was certainly a member of a scholarly family,
and at the conclusion of his Commentary on the
Mishnah he subscribes himself, " Moses, son of Maimon
the Dayyan, *4 son of Rabbi Joseph the Sage, son of
Isaac the Dayyan, son of Joseph the Dayyan, son of
Obadiah the Dayyan, son of Solomon, son of Obadiah
the Dayyan ". His father was a mathematician and
astronomer as well as an expert Talmudist, and from
him Moses received his instruction in Jewish lore.

In 1148 the town of Cordova fell into the hands of
the Almohades, a fanatical sect of Mohammedans, who
presented the Jewish and Christian inhabitants with
the alternative of apostacy or death. Maimon, to
escape forcible conversion or even a pretence of
accepting Mohammedanism, fled with his family and
for ten years wandered from town to town in Spain.
Eventually he decided to leave the country, sailed for
Morocco and settled in Fez in 1160.

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

Throughout this period of stress and wandering,
Moses pursued his studies and displayed such
conspicuous ability that the father and younger son,
David, engaged in commerce while he devoted himself
entirely to the accumulation of knowledge. He took
up the study of medicine as the ultimate means of
earning a livelihood, although his supreme passion
was for theology and philosophy. In Fez he made the
acquaintance of several Mohammedan scholars who
introduced him to Arabic translations of Aristotle and
other philosophical works, and aroused in him the
interest in metaphysics which influenced the rest of
his life.'S

Unhappily the religious persecution which had
made life bitter in Spain spread also to Northern
Africa, and under extreme pressure many Jews became
pseudo-Mohammedans. Some scholars have alleged
that Maimonides was temporarily in this class, but the
grounds on which they base their conclusion are far
from decisive. 16 When he escaped martyrdom only
through the intervention of a Moslem friend, he
resolved to continue his wanderings. On April 18,
1165, he with the other members of his family sailed
for Palestine, and on May 16 landed at Acco. The
Holy Land was at that time in Christian hands.

The Jewish savant, Ahad Ha'anVV has put forward
the theory that the suffering which Maimonides
experienced under Mohammedan fanaticism was the
influence which was the turning-point of his intellectual
life and made him the rationalist he became. The
case is put forcibly as follows : " He was surrounded
by lying and religious hypocrisy ; Judaism had to
hide from the light of day ; its adherents had to wear
a mask whenever they came out of their homes into
the open. And why ? Because Mohammed had

8

INTRODUCTION

called himself a prophet, had performed miracles,
according to his followers, to win their faith, and by
virtue of his prophetic power had promulgated a new
Law and revealed new truths, which all men were
bound to believe, although they were contrary to
reason. This state of things was bound to make a
profound impression on a young man like Maimonides,
with his fine nature and his devotion to truth. He
could not but feel every moment the tragedy of such
a life ; and therefore he could not but become
violently opposed to the source of religious fanaticism
to that blind faith in the truth of prophecy which
relies on supernatural ' evidence ', and despises the
evidence of reason. It was this blind faith that led
the Moslems to force the Jews into accepting the
teaching of the new prophet ; and it was this that
led many of these very Jews, after they had gradually
become accustomed to their new situation, to doubt of
their Judaism and ask themselves why they should not
be able to believe in Mohammed's prophecy, just as
they believed in that of Moses. If Moses had per-
formed miracles, then surely Mohammed might have
done the same ; and how could they decide between
the one teaching and the other with such certainty as
to pronounce one true and the other false ?

" These impressions, which were constantly
influencing Maimonides' development in his childhood
and youth, were bound to swing him violently over
to the other side, to the side of reason. Ultimately
he was led to subject man and God too, if we may
say so to that supreme ruler : because Judaism could
trust reason never to allow any new prophet with his
new teaching to work it harm. When once Judaism
had accepted the supremacy of reason and handed over
to reason the seal of truth, it would never again be

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

difficult to show by rational proof that the first divine
religion was also the only divine religion, never to be
displaced or altered till the end of time ; and then,
even if ten thousand prophets like Mohammed came
and performed miracles beyond telling, we should
never believe in their new teaching, because one proof
of reason is stronger than all the proofs of prophecy ".

Attractive though the argument be, there are two
facts which appear to militate against it. The first
is that Maimonides cannot be considered to have
condemned persecution as an altogether unjustifiable
procedure. He admits that it may be necessary in
certain circumstances to put a person to death for the
opinions he holds. 18 Tolerant though he undoubtedly
was to other religions, 1 ? he maintains that the welfare
of Society may compel the adoption of violent methods
for the suppression of erroneous beliefs. Was that
not a plea which the Mohammedan persecutors could
have urged, and probably did urge, in justification of
their campaign ?

The second point is that if the theory were correct,
Maimonides' logical mind would have forced him to
reject Revelation, with regard to which he had not
the slightest doubt. If he believed with a firm faith
that God had sent the Torah into the world through
the medium of Moses, he could not deny the a priori
possibility of a Revelation communicated through
Mohammed ! But Afrad Ha'am is certainly right
with respect to prophecy. The insistence that the
genuineness of a prophet must not be tested by the
criterion of miracles must be understood as directed
against the claims of Christianity and Mohammedanism.

To resume the story of Maimonides' career. His
stay in the Holy Land was of brief duration. The
Jewish population was small, barely numbering a

10

INTRODUCTION

thousand families, scattered throughout the country.
They were poor materially and intellectually, so that
the environment was uncongenial to him. He
therefore left for Egypt where there were large Jewish
communities. He first went to Alexandria, but finally
settled in Cairo and there spent the remainder of his
life. He practised as a physician and also lectured
on philosophical themes. His reputation as a medical
practitioner spread and he was appointed physician to
the Grand Vizier. It is stated that Richard I of
England offered him a similar position but Maimonides
declined it.

Besides his professional work there were many
self -assumed duties which kept him very fully occupied.
From his youth onwards he was engaged upon the
gigantic literary works which established his fame as
the greatest Jewish scholar of his time. He became
the recognised authority on Rabbinic law, and a
stream of correspondence flowed to him in which he
was asked for his opinion on disputed points of
religious dogma and practice. During the last twenty
years of his life he was the Nagid, the official head, of
the Cairo community, and by his broadmindedness
did much to narrow the breach between the orthodox
Jews and the Karaites who rejected the authority of
the Talmud.

His active and honourable career came to an end,
after some years of broken health, on December 13,
1204. His death was followed by an extraordinary
manifestation of grief in which Moslems as well as
Jews participated. His earthly remains were conveyed
to the Holy Land and buried in Tiberias, where his
tomb is still to be seen.

Maimonides' life is marked by an almost unceasing
literary activity. While still in his youth he

ii

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

contemplated a Commentary on the Mishnah, but it
was many years before that early ambition was
achieved. His first works were an essay on the Jewish
Calendar and a small volume on the terminology of
Logic, written before he was twenty-three. His
unrivalled reputation rests on his magnificent trilogy,
opera magna in every sense of the term.

The first is Kitab al-Siraj, " The Book of Light ",
a comprehensive Commentary on the Mishnah, written
in Arabic. This work, begun when the author was
only twenty-three and completed ten years later, in
1168, already displays the characteristics which
distinguish all his compositions. We find there a
wonderful mastery of a vast realm of knowledge,
critical insight, analytical power, independence of
judgment, clearness of exposition and a gift for
systematisation.

He regarded the Rabbis as the heirs of the Prophets,
and although he emphasised the point that not every
statement of every Sage was to be venerated as the
acme of wisdom, yet beneath the surface of their
teachings is to be discovered a deep well of truth.
He classified students of Rabbinic literature into three
groups : "The first class is, as far as I have seen, the
largest in point of their numbers and of the numbers
of their compositions ; and it is of them that I have
heard most. The members of this class adopt the
words of the Sages literally, and give no kind of
interpretation whatsoever. With them all impossi-
bilities are necessary occurrences. This is owing to
their being ignorant of science and far away from
knowledge. . . . They think that in all their
emphatic and precise remarks the Sages only wished
to convey the ideas which they themselves comprehend
and that they intended them to be taken in their

12

INTRODUCTION

literalness. And this, in spite of the fact that in their
literal significance some of the words of the Sages
would savour of absurdity. . . .

" The second class of reasoners is also numerous.
They see and hear the words of the Sages and accept
them in their literal significations, thinking that the
Sages meant nothing but what the literal interpreta-
tion indicates. They consequently apply themselves
to showing the weakness of the Rabbinical statements,
their objectionable character, and to calumniate that
which is free from reproach. They make sport of the
words of the Sages from time to time, and imagine
themselves more intellectually gifted and possessed
of more penetrating minds, whereas they (peace to
them !) are deceived, shortsighted, ignorant of all
existing things, and consequently unable to compre-
hend anything. . . , They are more stupid than
the first class, and more steeped in folly. . . .

" The third class of thinkers is (as God liveth I) so
very small in numbers that one would only call it a
class in the sense that the sun is termed a species
(although it is a single object). They are the men
who accept as established facts the greatness of the
Sages and the excellence of their thoughts, as found in
the generality of their remarks, where each word
points a very true theme. . . . They know that
they (peace to them !) would not talk absurdities to
one another. And they are convinced beyond doubt
that their words have both an outer and an inner
meaning, and that in all that they said of things
impossible their discourses were in the form of riddle
and parable " (C.M., Introd. to Helek).

This extract discloses his method of approach not
only to the literature of the Rabbis, but also to the
Bible. He contemplated writing a treatise on the

13

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

passages of the Talmud and Midrash which when read
superficially have little or no meaning, but on a correct
interpretation convey deep philosophical instruction.
This intention was not carried out.

A great deal of the contents of the Siraj is nothing
more than an exposition of Jewish law as codified in
the Mishnah and has no bearing on Maimonides'
system of thought. But he incorporated in it three
Introductions which are of first-rate importance for
this purpose. There is firstly the General Introduction
frequently but incorrectly described as " Intro-
duction to Zera'im ". zo It is in reality an introductory
essay on the transmission of the Oral Law from the
time of Moses down to the age of the Rabbis. In the
course of it he dwells at length on Prophecy and the
Prophets and expounds his thoughts on man's place
in the Universe. He prefaced his Commentary on the
tenth chapter of Sanhedrin, known as Helek, with an
essay on the principles of the Jewish Faith. And
before commenting on the ethical tractate Abot, he
added Eight Chapters in which he explained his views
on ethics. These Introductions are invaluable
sources from which to derive a knowledge of
Maimonides' teachings.

His second great work is the Mishneh Torah
" Deuteronomy ", or Yad ha-hazakah " The Strong
Hand ". 2I It occupied ten years in compiling and was
finished in 1180. It is a monumental digest of
Biblical and Rabbinic law composed in Hebrew. The
historian Graetz wrote of it : "It is impossible to give
the uninitiated an idea of this gigantic work, in which
he collected the most remote things from the vast
mine of the Talmud, extracting the fine metal from the
dross, classifying all details under their appropriate
heads, showing how the Talmud was based on the

14

INTRODUCTION

Bible, bringing its details under general rules, com-
bining apparently unconnected parts into one organised
whole, and cementing it into a work of art. . . .
The Talmud resembles a Daedalian maze, in which
one can scarcely find his way even with Ariadne's
thread, but Maimonides designed a well-contrived
ground-plan, with wings, halls, apartments, chambers,
and closets, through which a stranger might easily
pass without a guide, and thereby obtain a survey of
all that is contained in the Talmud. Only a mind
accustomed to think clearly and systematically,
and filled with the genius of order, could have
planned and built a structure like this ",* 2 In
the opening two sections he gives a resume in
popular style of his teaching on theology, cosmology
and ethics.

The third and most famous of all his works was
an Arabic treatise entitled Dalalat al-Ha'irin in
Hebrew Moreh Nebuchim, " Guide for the Perplexed ".
Through its translation into Latin, Maimonides' name
spread to the Christian world and his ideas influenced
the medieval theologians. It was written for, and
sent in parts to, his favourite pupil, Joseph ibn Aknin,
and was completed in 1190.

The purpose of the book is explained by Maimonides
in his Introduction : " The object of this treatise is
to enlighten a religious man who has been trained to
believe in the truth of our holy Torah, who conscien-
tiously fulfils his moral and religious duties, and at
the same time has been successful in his philosophical
studies. Human reason has attracted him to abide
within its sphere ; and he finds it difficult to accept
as correct the teaching based on the literal interpre-
tation of the Torah, and especially that which he
himself, or others derived from those homonymous, a 3

15

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

metaphorical, or hybrid expressions. Hence he is
lost in perplexity and anxiety. If he be guided solely
by reason, and renounce his previous views which are
based on those expressions, he would consider that he
had rejected the fundamental principles of the Torah ;
and even if he retains the opinions which were derived
from those expressions, and if, instead of following his
reason, he abandon its guidance altogether, it would
still appear that his religious convictions had suffered
loss and injury. For he would then be left with those
errors which give rise to fear and anxiety, constant
grief and great perplexity.

" This work has also a second object in view. It
seeks to explain certain obscure figures which occur
in the Prophets, and are not distinctly characterised
as being figures. Ignorant and superficial readers
take them in a literal, not in a figurative sense. Even
well informed persons are bewildered if they under-
stand these passages in their literal signification, but
they are entirely relieved of their perplexity when we
explain the figure, or merely suggest that the terms
are figurative. For this reason I have called this
Book Guide for the Perplexed ".

In this culminating work of his life Maimonides
carries out the main purpose of his career to
reconcile philosophy and religion as taught in the
Hebrew Scriptures. The latter was a Revelation from
God and must necessarily be true. The former, apart
from details, was proved by reason and must also be
true. Truth cannot contradict truth ; they must
agree. If therefore the words of Scripture conflict
with philosophy, there can be only one conclusion,
viz., they have been wrongly understood. Find the
correct interpretation and the contradiction must
disappear. The inevitable consequence of such a

16

INTRODUCTION

method was that the Bible was twisted and its meaning
distorted to make it fit into a system which was
utterly alien to it.

Every opinion, Maimonides insisted, had to be
checked by its correspondence with the truth as
revealed in the Scriptures. To illustrate his uncom-
promising attitude, the following may be taken as an
example : " Many declare that there was no actual
voice at the Revelation on Sinai, only the soul of Moses
our Teacher was possessed by the higher intellectual
ideas, and understood and listened by the way of true
reason, i.e., meditation of the Godly thoughts, in a
manner it is impossible to grasp. And if the Scriptures
had not repeatedly declared, ' he heard a voice speaking '
I would have accepted that theory " (Responsa II,
23d). Still more characteristic was the position he
took up on the question of the eternity of matter.
He strenuously opposed Aristotle on the point ; but
he confesses that had that theory been indisputably
proved he would have been able to harmonise it with
the Bible. Since it was an unproved and unprovable
proposition he declined to accept it, and rested content
with the plain Scriptural teaching that matter was
created. 2 *

The Guide is unquestionably Maimonides' master-
piece. " The spirit of the book is immortal, but much
of its actual content is obsolete " has been truly said
of it. It does not answer the perplexities of the
religious mind to-day. Nevertheless it is a noble plea
for the exercise of reason and the value of knowledge
in the realm of religion.

Apart from a number of treatises on medical and
allied subjects, he composed a work on the enumera-
tion of the Biblical commandments and several essays.
He also left an extensive correspondence on a variety

17

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

of topics which is a necessary source for the eluci-
dation of his opinions.

Maimonides was not a stylist.*5 He aims always
at clearness rather than elegance. He had no
appreciation of poetry and little sense of literary form.
He piles up synonyms unnecessarily, and repeats the
same words again and again, or presents the same
thought in different phrases. His sentences are often
long and involved because of the insertion of
parentheses to qualify a statement which appeared
to him too definite. But he achieves his purpose by
his meticulous care for clarity. Where he is difficult
to follow the cause is the abstruse nature of the theme
he treats. He takes the greatest pains to simplify
the subject by concrete examples and analogies. In
this respect he compares favourably with other Jewish
philosophers.

Ill : MAIMONIDES' SYSTEM OF THOUGHT
In the same way that a phrase is liable to mis-
interpretation when taken out of its context, so the
teachings of Maimonides are apt to be misunderstood
if removed from their place in his system. A modern
theologian, e.g., remarks that the " misconception of
the term ' knowledge of God ' as used in the Bible
led the leading medieval thinkers of Judaism,
especially the School of Maimonides, . . . into
the error of confusing religion and philosophy, as if
both resulted from pure reason. It is man's moral
nature rather than his intellectual capacity, that
leads him 'to know God and walk in His ways'". 26
Justification of this criticism could easily be found if
Maimonides' statements on the " knowledge of God "
are taken separately. He does lay the greatest
emphasis on intellectual perfection as a pre-requisite

18

INTRODUCTION

for " knowing God ". But in his system it is quite
evident that the knowledge of God is based on moral
perfection. The latter is the essential preparation for
the acquisition of the former, and it is going too far
to assert, as Kohler does, that the Biblical phrase
" knowledge of God " has no relationship to intellectual
capacity.

Also from the ethical side Maimonides has been
sharply criticised by a modern ethicist for having
adopted Aristotle's doctrine of the Mean. "It is
astonishing", writes this critic,*7 "that Maimonides
should have failed to note the infinite divergence
between the Aristotelian and the Jewish moral doctrine
so completely as to intermingle the two. Thus it
came about that he could speak of the Aristotelian
virtues of ' the Mean ' in the same breath, as it were,
with the divine pattern of true, real ethics, the inner
profound reason for ethical conduct ". Here, too, there
is justification for the stricture if Maimonides' treat-
ment of the virtues and vices according to the
criterion of the Mean is divorced from his system.
But when it is viewed from its place in the system, it
takes on another aspect and fits in perfectly without
doing violence to the Jewish ethical ideal.

It is essential, therefore, to keep constantly in
mind the fact that Maimonides constructed a complete
system of thought which embraces God and the
Universe in its entirety. To have accomplished this
is his supreme achievement. No Jewish philosopher
before or after him has commanded such a compre-
hensive field, although some of them may have dealt
more penetratingly with particular problems. Only
a master-mind could have carried out such a design,
and whether his conception of the Universe be correct
or not, whether his solution of metaphysical problems

19

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

be sound or fallacious, nothing can detract from the
greatness of the man's intellect.

One may fittingly apply to Maimonides what has
been said of the Greek thinkers : " The modern
physical philosopher is apt to dwell exclusively on the
absurdities of ancient ideas about science, on the
haphazard fancies and a priori assumptions of ancient
teachers, on their confusion of facts and ideas, on
their inconsistency and blindness to the most obvious
phenomena. He measures them not by what
preceded them, but by what has followed them. He
does not consider that ancient physical philosophy
was not a free enquiry, but a growth, in which the
mind was passive rather than active, and was incapable
of resisting the impressions which flowed in upon it.
He hardly allows to the notions of the ancients the
merit of being the stepping-stones by which he has
himself risen to a higher knowledge. He never
reflects, how great a thing it was to have formed a
conception, however imperfect, either of the human
frame as a whole, or of the world as a whole ". a8

In this sympathetic spirit let us view a brief
outline of Maimonides 1 conception of the Universe.
First and last it is bound up with the idea of God, the
Creator of all that exists, the First Cause, the Life of
the Universe in the sense that it is by His will that
the Universe continues in existence a God Who is a
Unity in the absolute signification of that term. He
is incorporeal and perfect in every respect ; His
qualities differ from those of man not merely in degree
but in kind. With the development of the intellect
this truth becomes more clearly recognised, and then
one hesitates to attribute positive qualities to God.
The higher the intellectual progress of man, the more
he says what God is not rather than what He is. God

20

INTRODUCTION

does not become, through this process of elimination,
nothing else than a mere negation. " That human
descriptions are inadequate to express the nature of
God does not mean that God has no nature. When
we deny that the human mind can know what God is,
we are re-asserting the fact that God is non-human ;
but each negation of inadequate conceptions of God's
being reaffirms the fact that He exists. Existence in
the case of God is not an accident ; it is identical with
His essence. The more we negate the attribute the
more we affirm the essence, and we are left finally
with the idea of God as absolute existence ". a 9

What purpose God had in creating the Universe
it is impossible to say. It was due to His will which
is incomprehensible to the finite mind. The Universe
is constituted, as Aristotle taught, of two elements
matter (15X77) an d f rm fcZSos). It is essential to
understand exactly what is to be understood by the
term "Form" because it plays an all-important part
in Maimonides' philosophy. An object consists of a
basic substance, but it is not this substance which in
itself makes the object what it is, because the object
may change although the matter remains the same.
For instance, a piece of copper is dug from the earth
and converted into an urn. It is afterwards melted
down and made into a statue. It is again melted
down and minted into coin. Throughout the series
of changes the same matter persists, but in each case
it is used for a different purpose, a different idea is
attached to it. The combination of matter and idea
brings the obj ect into being. The idea is not destroyed
in the process of change ; it is simply replaced by
another. The technical term for this idea is " form ".
It is the cause of the essential properties by which a
thing is what it is (rb rl %

21

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

According to this theory, " matter as such is an
unreal or merely potential factor, which becomes a
definite, concrete reality only through the idea or the
ideal purpose. The idea of the purpose is not in
itself real either ; it becomes so only when it is
realised in matter ".3 Maimonides mentions that
" Plato and his predecessors called substance the
female and form the male " (Guide, I, 17). He is
probably alluding to the passage in the Timaus where
Plato says, " We may liken the receiving principle to
a mother and the source or spring to a father ".3 1
Their union produces the object.

The Universe as created by God comprises three
strata. First there are the Intelligences or Angels
which consist of form without matter. They are the
medium through which God acts upon the world of
matter and gives it the form it needs. This corporeal
world must be thought of as a globe of solid formation,
containing nine Spheres one within the other. They
consist of matter and form which are fixed and not
liable to change. They might be subject to destruc-
tion, if God so will it, but they are unalterable in their
constitution. They each revolve in a direction and
at a speed determined by the Intelligences. The sun,
moon and stars are attached to these various Spheres.
Since they are transparent and colourless orbs, man is
able to view all the heavenly bodies from his place on
earth. The innermost Sphere holds the Moon. The
outermost Sphere is divided into twelve sections, and
from the figure reflected by the stars in each section,
it is given a distinctive name, e.g., Ram, Bull, etc.
These are known as the twelve signs of the Zodiac.

In the centre of the globe, fixed and immovable,
is the earth. Both the earth and all it contains are
constituted of form and matter ; unlike the Spheres,

22

INTRODUCTION

however, these are not constant but in a state of flux.
The forms are continually changing.

Matter is constructed of four elements fire, air,
water and earth. The four elements are present in all
matter but in different proportions, and upon the
proportion depends the nature of a piece of matter.
If the element of fire preponderates, as it does in
animate beings, the quality of warmth is conspicuous.
When the element of earth is greatest, the preponder-
ating characteristic is hardness and dryness, as in
stone. Destruction consists in the rearrangement of
the elements into different proportions, the elements
themselves being indestructible.

Though the Universe is thus divisible into strata
and capable of various subdivisions, it is " one
individual being ". Just as the human body is a
single entity, despite its numerous limbs and organs,
through the action of the heart, so the Universe with
all its distinct parts and elements is one harmonious
whole through a controlling force, viz., God.

It has already been pointed out that the will of
God determined that in the sublunary Sphere matter
and form shall not be constant. The consequence is
that although species do not disappear, the individual
members come and go. This is true of animate and
inanimate objects.

The human as well as the animal species come
under the law of matter and form. In both cases the
body is the matter and the soul is the form. The term
" soul " is here employed not in its religious conno-
tation, but in the sense of " the vitality which is
common to all living, sentient beings". When at
death the body is decomposed into its elements, the
soul likewise perishes because form cannot persist,
except generically, apart from matter constituted into

23

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

a body. Furthermore, the faculties of the soul are
alike in man and the animal, except that in each they
function in a distinctive manner.

Such a theory as this raises two vital questions,
and in the treatment of these two problems Maimonides
parts company with the Aristotelian School and
elaborates an idea borrowed from the Arab meta-
physicians. The two questions are : How does man
differ from the animal ? In what sense is man
immortal ? Maimonides 1 solution aims at answering
both questions at once.

One of the soul's faculties is the rational. Man and
the animal are endowed with it at birth, but only as a
potentiality. It is a tabula rasa which is capable of
use. If at death it remains in its original state, it
must perish together with the other faculties of the
soul. Should it, on the other hand, be changed from
potentiality to actuality, it passes into real existence
and thus becomes indestructible. We must see how
Maimonides arrives at such a momentous conclusion.

It will simplify matters if we apply to the intellect
the law of matter and form. Think of the intellect
at birth, which is only a potentiality, as matter which
is likewise only a potentiality until it is united to form.
When the intellect passes into action by acquiring true
ideas, it receives form and then becomes something
real instead of being a mere capacity. This form can
only be acquired by man, and in this respect he is
differentiated from the animal. In fact unless he
makes this acquisition, he is on the same level as the
beast. It also follows that this " acquired intellect "
is the true essence of the man, the quality which
distinguishes him from his fellows.

Not all knowledge has this power of transmutation.
Much of it only serves the purpose of training the

24

INTRODUCTION

intellect to function properly and comprehend true
ideas. E.g., the study of Logic and Mathematics is
not an end in itself ; it would not achieve the object
of giving the intellect real existence. Such study is
an essential prerequisite as an intellectual exercise for
the purpose of putting the faculty into perfect working
order.

In addition to this intellectual training another
perfection is required. Body and soul (using this
term in its psychological connotation) react one on
the other. There cannot be a perfect soul in an
imperfect body. Consequently there must be a strict
discipline which eliminates everything that is injurious
to the body and soul. As a practical guide to conduct,
with this end in view, Maimonides recommends
Aristotle's prescription of the Mean. Avoid all excess,
and you keep away from what is harmful. He insists
also on a strict dietetic regimen for the purpose of
keeping the limbs and organs of the body, which are
the instruments of the soul, in a healthy state.

True morality, in the fullest meaning of the word,
is the very foundation of the Maimonidean system.
If he is a rationalist in the supreme position he gives
to intellect, he is a moralist in the emphasis he lays on
physical and moral perfection, and, as we shall see,
he is a religionist in the goal to which he directs his
intellectualism.

Having prepared his intellect for its true function,
man is then able to impress his rational soul with the
" knowledge of God " to comprehend Him so far as
that is possible to the human being. Since in its
action the intellect becomes identified with the ideas
which are acquired, the rational faculty in its now real
existence has obtained a form which partakes of
the essence of God. That form is consequently

25

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

indestructible. It cannot perish with the body ; it
survives death.

To help and inspire man in his effort to reach this
goal, God revealed Himself in the Torah. This
Revelation has a twofold purpose : first, to impart
the knowledge of God and thus save man from
erroneous ideas which would lead him astray ; and
secondly, to perfect the social order as a means of
aiding him in the search for the true goal. This is a
point which Maimonides stresses. Man is a social
being, and it is only in the life of a Society that he can
hope to attain to a knowledge of God. Were he to
dwell in solitude, apart from his fellowmen, his whole
time and energy would be absorbed in keeping himself
in physical existence. He would have to construct
his house, provide material for his clothing, etc. What
time would be left under these conditions for fulfilling
the essential purpose of life ? Men must therefore
join forces, form themselves into communities, submit
to general laws which govern their corporate life,
promote justice and order, avoid violence and all other
disturbing factors. Residing in peace and security,
they will find the leisure and the inclination to devote
themselves to a moral and physical training, which
will help them to undergo the mental preparation that
leads to the supreme goal the knowledge of God.
In the acquisition of that knowledge, man has
accomplished his aim in life. He has justified the
endowment with which he had been equipped at birth,
and has secured immortality.

Such in outline is Maimonides' conception of man
and the Universe. That it will not stand the search-
light of modern scientific knowledge is obvious, but
also irrelevant. To perceive the grandeur of his
achievement, his system must be judged from his own

26

INTRODUCTION

age, not ours. Viewed in the correct perspective, his
teachings as a whole reveal a gigantic intellect and a
noble soul. It is unquestionably true that " with
Maimonides we reach the high water mark of medieval
Jewish philosophy ".3* Would much of the truth ot
this statement be lost if the qualifying adjective
" Jewish " were omitted ?

IV : THE INFLUENCE OF MAIMONIDES
The eminence of Maimonides does not rest upon
his originality. In fact, his was not an original mind.33
His gifts were rather in the direction of mastering
vast fields of knowledge from various sources and
reducing them to systematic order. Regarded purely
as a metaphysician he ranks lower than Abraham ibn
Daud from whom he largely borrowed when treating
philosophical problems. Some of his successors, as,
e.g., Levi ben Gerson and Hasdai Crescas, displayed
superior gifts for speculative research and independent
thought. What, then, gave him the unique position
he held ?

Jewish scholars are agreed on the answer.
Maimonides had established his reputation as a
master of Rabbinic law before he wrote his philo-
sophical treatise, the Guide. The appearance of this
work, as a natural consequence, created an unusual
stir. No scholar could afford to ignore it. There was
eager curiosity to read what the first savant in Jewry
had to say, even on the part of those who would
ordinarily have taken no interest in a philosophical
book.

It must also be remembered that Maimonides had
anticipated parts of his Guide in the introductory
sections of the Yad where he gave a popular outline of
the accepted teachings on physical science, psychology

27

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

and ethics, and had dealt with the last-named subject
in the course of his Commentary on the Mishnah.
He had thereby created an interest in philosophical
study among the students of Rabbinic literature who
might otherwise have held aloof from it. And as they
looked to him as their master and guide in the
intricacies of Jewish law, they naturally paid the
utmost respect to his opinions in other fields of
knowledge.

In that fact lay a danger which impressed some of
his contemporaries strongly. His books might prove
a guide to some perplexed minds ; but there was also
the possibility that they would create perplexities and
doubts in the minds of readers who previously had
none. Some of his teachings, e.g., on Prophecy and
Eschatology, might appear to him perfectly in accord
with orthodox Judaism, but to others they seemed
thoroughly heretical. The conservative mind which
looked askance at philosophy and science as injurious
to faith, grew alarmed at the new impetus that was
being given to such studies by the writings of
Maimonides.

During his lifetime his admirers were in the large
majority, and the voice of criticism was checked by
respect for the colossal knowledge and controversial
prowess of the famous Rabbi. After his death, the
storm burst with violence. Jewish scholars were riven
into two camps. One had to be either a Maimonist
or an anti-Maimonist ; but his supporters won in the
end.34 Maimonides' reputation survived the contest
and grew with succeeding generations. His summary
of the Principles of Judaism was given an honoured
place in the Prayer Book. 3 5 His Yad became an
indispensable compendium to every student of
Talmudic law and remains such to this day.

28

INTRODUCTION

As for the Guide it has had a profound influence
on many a Jewish thinker. Throughout the centuries
that followed its author's death, it was the classical
work on religious philosophy. What was thought of
Maimonides by his admirers may be judged by the
following extract from a medieval letter : " It is
certain that if Joshua the son of Nun arose to forbid
the Provenal Jews to study the works of Maimonides,
he would scarcely succeed. For they have the firm
intention to sacrifice their fortunes and even their
lives in defence of the philosophical works of
Maimonides ".3 6 The Guide has been a formative
influence in the intellectual life of many a Jewish
thinker. A recent monograph has demonstrated that
Spinoza owed much to this work.37 The forerunners of
Jewish emancipation, Solomon Maimon3 8 and Moses
Mendelssohn,39 received their stimulus for philosophical
study from it.

The impression it created was not even limited to
the Jewish community. In its Latin translation^ it
influenced Albertus Magnus. It has been said by a
competent authority, " Maimonides is the precursor
of Thomas Aquinas, and the Moreh Nebuchim heralded
and prepared the way for the Summa Theologica "4 1 ;
for when Aquinas undertook to harmonise Aristotelian
philosophy with the doctrines of the Church, he used
Maimonides as his guide and model. 4* Maimonides has
accordingly been a force in the moulding of religious
and philosophical thought not only among his own
people, but throughout the world of scholarship.

CHAPTER I
GOD THE CREATOR

*

i. The Existence of God. The first Principle of the
Jewish Faith is formulated by Maimonides in the
following terms :

" The existence of the Creator (praised be He),
i.e., that there is an existent Being invested with the
highest perfection of existence. He is the cause of the
existence of all existent things. In Him they exist
and from Him emanates 1 their continued existence.
If we could suppose the removal of His existence, then
the existence of all things would entirely cease and
there would not be left any independent existence
whatsoever. But if on the other hand we could
suppose the removal of all existent things but Him,
His existence (blessed be He) would not cease to be,
neither would it suffer any diminution. For He
(exalted be He) is self-sufficient, and His existence
needs the aid of no existence outside His. Whatsoever
is outside Him, the Intelligences (i.e. the Angels) and
the bodies of the Spheres,* and things below these, all
of them need Him for their existence. This is the
first cardinal doctrine of faith, which is indicated
by the commandment, ' I am the Lord thy God '
(Exod. xx. 2) " (C.M., Introd. to Helek).

With a similar declaration he opened his great
work, the Mishneh Torah :

" The foundation of foundations and the pillar of
the sciences is to know that there is a First Being and

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

that He caused the existence of all beings ; and all
things that exist from heaven and earth and inter-
vening space only exist from the reality of His
existence. If it could be supposed that He is non-
existent, nothing else could possibly exist ; yet, if it
could be supposed that all the things existing, except
Himself, did not exist, He alone would still exist and
would not cease because of their non-existence. For
all things existing are dependent upon Him, but He
(blessed be He) is not dependent upon them, not even
any one of them. Therefore His reality is not like
the reality of any one of them. That is the intention
of the Prophet when he says, ' But the Lord God is
the trues God ' (Jer. x. 10) He alone is reality and to
none other is there a reality like His. Similarly
declares the Torah,4 ' There is none else ' (Deut. iv. 30)
that is to say, there is no being, beside Himself,
comparable to Him in reality.

" This Being is the God of the world, Lord of the
whole earth. He controls the Universe with a power
to which there is neither end nor limit, with a power
unceasing ; for the Universe revolves continuously,
and it is impossible that it should revolve without one
to cause it to revolve. It is He (blessed be He) Who
is the cause of its revolution, without a hand and
without a body.

" The recognition of this fact is a positive com-
mandments ; as it is said, ' I am the Lord thy
God '. Whoever brings upon his mind that there is
another God besides Him transgresses a negative
commandment, viz. ' Thou shalt have no other
Gods before Me ' (Exod. xx. 3), and denies a cardinal
doctrine of faith. This is, indeed, the great cardinal
doctrine upon which all else depends " (Yad, Yesode
ha-Torah I, 1-6).

32

GOD THE CREATOR

2. Proof of God's Existence. That God exists is not
merely a dogma of faith. Maimonides held that it
was capable of rational demonstration. He bases a
long and intricate argument on twenty-six Propo-
sitions with which he prefaced Part II of the Guide.
These, " which are employed in the proof of the
existence of God, or in the arguments demonstrating
that God is neither corporeal nor a force connected
with a material being, or that He is One, have been
fully established and their correctness is beyond doubt.
Aristotle and the Peripatetics who followed him have
proved each of these Propositions ". Maimonides
accepted twenty-five of them, but to one he demurred,
" namely, the Proposition which affirms the Eternity
of the Universe ". 6

With the aid of these Propositions he establishes
at one and the same time the proof of God's existence,
unity and incorporeality, from the motion of the
Sphere of the Universe. 7 His conclusion is :

" It may thus be considered as proved that the
efficient cause of the motion of the Sphere, if that
motion be eternal, is neither itself corporeal nor does
it reside in a corporeal object ; it must move neither
of its own accord nor accidentally ; it must be
indivisible and unchangeable. 8 The Prime Motor of
the Sphere is God, praised be His name !

" The hypothesis that there exist two Gods is
inadmissible, because absolutely incorporeal beings
cannot be counted, except as cause and effect.9 The
relation of time is not applicable to God, because
motion cannot be predicated of Him. 10

" The result of the above argument is consequently
this : the Sphere cannot move ad infinitum of its own
accord ; the Prime Motor is not corporeal, nor a force
residing within a body ; it is One, unchangeable, and

33

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

in its existence independent of time. Three of our
postulates are thus proved by the principal philos-
ophers " (Guide II, i).

After detailing four proofs of God's Existence
based on the Propositions, Maimonides offers the
following argument as his own method of demonstra-
tion :

" The heavenly Spheres must either be transient,
and in this case motion would likewise be temporary,
or they must be eternal. If the Spheres are transient,
then God is their Creator ; for if anything comes into
existence after a period of non-existence, it is self-
evident that an agent exists which has effected this
result. It would be absurd to contend that the thing
itself effected it. If, on the other hand, the heavenly
Spheres be eternal, with a regular perpetual motion,
the cause of this perpetual motion, according to the
Propositions enumerated in the Introduction, 11 must
be something that is neither a body, nor a force residing
in a body, and that is God, praised be His name !
We have thus shown that whether we believe in the
creatio ex nihilo, or in the Eternity of the Universe,
we can prove by demonstrative arguments the
existence of God, i.e., an absolute Being," Whose
existence cannot be attributed to any cause, or admit
in itself any potentiality " (Guide II, 2).

3. God is the " cause " of every event in the world.
The Creator of the Universe is not only responsible
for its origin, but is ultimately the cause of everything
that exists and comes into being.

" It has been shown in the science of Physics that
everything, except the Primal Cause, owes its origin to
the following four causes : the substance, the form,
the agens*3 the final cause. These are sometimes

34

GOD THE CREATOR

direct, sometimes indirect causes ; but each by
itself is called a ' cause '. They (the philosophers)
also believe and I do not differ from their opinion
that God Himself is the agens, the formM and the end ;
therefore they call God ' the Cause ', in order to express
that He unites in Himself these three causes, viz., that
He is the agens, the form and the final cause of the
Universe. . . .

" Here I wish to show that God is the ' cause ' of
every event that takes place in the world, just as He
is the Creator 1 5 of the whole Universe as it now
exists. It has already been explained in the science
of Physics that a cause must again be sought for each
of the four divisions of causes. When we have found
for any existing thing those four causes which are in
immediate connexion with it, we find for these again
causes, and for these again other causes, and so on
until we arrive at the first causes. E.g., a certain
production has its agens, this agens again has its agens,
and so on and on until at last we arrive at a first agens ,
which is the true agens throughout all the intervening
links. If the letter a be moved by b, b by c, c by d t
and d by e and as the series does not extend to
infinity, let us stop at e there is no doubt that the
e moves the letters a, b, c and d, and we say correctly
that the a is moved by e. In that sense everything
occurring in the Universe, although directly produced
by certain nearer causes, is ascribed to the Creator.
He is the Agens, and He is therefore the ultimate
cause " (Guide I, 69).

4. God is the life of the Universe. In the same
Chapter of the Guide occurs this passage, amplifying
the statement in the first Principle of Faith that all
things exist in God :

35

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

" Every physical and transient form must be
preceded by another such form, by which the substance
has been fitted to receive the next form ; the previous
form again has been preceded by another, and we
arrive at length at that form which is necessary for
the existence of all intermediate forms, which are the
causes of the present form. That form to which the
forms of all existing things are traced is God. . . .

" When we call God the ultimate form of the
Universe, we do not use this term in the sense of form
connected with substance, viz., as the form of that
substance, as though God were the form of a material
being. It is not in this sense that we use it, but in the
following : Everything existing and endowed with a
form is whatever it is through its form, and when that
form is destroyed its whole existence terminates and
is obliterated. The same is the case as regards the
relation between God and all distant causes of existing
beings. It is through the existence of God that all
things exist, and it is He Who maintains their
existence by that process which is called ' emanation '. l6

" If God did not exist, suppose this were possible,
the Universe would not exist, and there would be an
end to the existence of the distant causes, the final
effects, and the intermediate causes. Consequently
God maintains the same relation to the world as the
form has to a thing endowed with a form ; through
the form it is what it is, and on it the reality and
essence of the thing depends. In this sense we may say
that God is the ultimate form, that He is the form of
all forms ; that is to say, the existence and con-
tinuance of all forms in the last instance depend on
Him, the forms are maintained by Him, in the same
way as all things endowed with forms retain their
existence through their forms. On that account

36

GOD THE CREATOR

God is called, in the sacred language, ' the life of the
Universe* 'V7

5. Emanation from God. In the last-quoted passage,
Maimonides refers to a " process which is called
' emanation ' ". It is an idea invented to explain
how God, Who is incorporeal, can produce His desired
effects in the Universe. The theory is thus explained :

" In Physics it has been shown that a body in
acting upon another body must either directly be in
contact with it, or indirectly through the medium of
other bodies. E.g., a body that has been heated has
been in contact with fire, or the air that surrounds
the body has been heated by the fire and has com-
municated the heat to the body ; the immediate cause
of the heat in this body is the corporeal substance of
the heated air. The magnet attracts iron from a
distance through a certain force communicated to the
air round the iron. The magnet does therefore not
act at all distances, just as fire does not act at every
distance, but only as long as the air between the fire
and the object is affected by the fire. When the air
is no longer affected by the fire which is under a piece
of wax, the latter does not melt. The same is the
case with magnetism. When an object that has
previously not been warm has now become warm, the
cause of its heat must now have been created ; either
some fire has been produced, or the distance of the
fire from the object has been changed, and the altered
relation between the fire and the object is the cause
now created.

" In a similar manner we find the causes of all
changes in the Universe to be changes in the combina-
tion of the elements that act upon each other when one
body approaches another or separates from it. Th6re

37

TEACHINGS OP MUVIMONIDES

are, however, changes which are not connected with
the combination of the elements, but concern only the
forms of the things. They require likewise an efficient
cause ; there must exist a force that produces the
various forms. This cause is incorporeal, for that
which produces form must itself be abstract form. . . .

"It is now clear that the action of bodies upon
each other, according to their forms, prepares the
substance for receiving the action of an incorporeal
being, or Form. The existence of actions of purely
incorporeal beings, in every case of change that does
not originate in the mere combination of elements,
is now firmly established. These actions do not
depend on impact, or on a certain distance. They are
termed ' influence ' (or ' emanation '), on account of
their similarity to a water-spring. 18 The latter sends
forth water in all directions, has no peculiar side for
receiving or spending its contents ; it springs forth
on all sides, and continually waters both neighbouring
and distant places. In a similar manner incorporeal
beings, in receiving power and imparting it to
others, are not limited to a particular side, distance
or time. They act continually ; and whenever
an object is sufficiently prepared, it receives the
effect of that continuous action, called ' influence '
(or ' emanation ').

" God being incorporeal, and everything being the
work of Him as the efficient cause, we say that the
Universe has been created by the Divine influence,
and that all changes in the Universe emanate from
Him. In the same sense we say that He caused
wisdom to emanate from Him and to come upon the
Prophets. X 9 In all such cases we merely wish to
express that an incorporeal Being, whose action we
call ' influence ', has produced a certain effect. The

38

GOD THE CREATOR

term 'influence* has been considered applicable to
the Creator on account of the similarity between His
actions and those of a spring. There is no better way
of describing the action of an incorporeal being than
by this analogy ; and no term can be found that would
accurately describe it. For it is as difficult to form
an idea of that action as to form an idea of the
incorporeal being itself. As we imagine only bodies
or forces residing in bodies, so we only imagine actions
possible when the agent is near, at a certain distance,
and on a particular side.

" There are therefore persons who, on learning
that God is incorporeal, or that He does not approach
the object of His action, believe that He gives
commands to Angels, and that the latter carry them
out by approach or direct contact, as is the case when
we produce something. These persons thus imagine
also the Angels as bodies. Some of them, further,
believe that God commands an action in words con-
sisting, like ours, of letters and sounds, and that
thereby, the action is done. All this is the work of the
imagination, which is, in fact, identical with ' evil
inclination ' " (Guide II, 12).

6. God not responsible for evil in the world. Since
Maimonides lays stress on God as the ultimate cause
of all that exists, he could not escape the problem
which is raised by the evil in the world. Is God in
any way responsible for this evil ? His answer is
clear and emphatic. Man is alone answerable for
whatever is bad. Incidentally he insists that the
good largely preponderates over the bad.

" Men frequently think that the evils in the world
are more numerous than the good things ; many
sayings and songs of the nations dwell on this idea.

39

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

They say that a good thing is found only exceptionally,
whilst evil things are numerous and lasting. Not
only common people make this mistake, but even
many who believe that they are wise. . . . The
origin of the error is to be found in the circumstance
that people judge the whole Universe by examining
one single person. For an ignorant man believes
that the whole Universe only exists for him ; as if
nothing else required any consideration. If, there-
fore, anything happens to him contrary to his
expectation, he at once concludes that the whole
Universe is evil. If, however, he would take into
consideration the whole Universe, form an idea of it,
and comprehend what a small portion he is of the
Universe, he will find the truth. . . .

" We hold that the Universe exists because the
Creator wills it so ; that mankind is low in rank as
compared with the uppermost portion of the Universe,
viz., with the Spheres and the stars ; but, as regards
the Angels, there cannot be any real comparison
between man and Angels, although man is the highest
of all beings on earth ; i.e., of all beings formed of the
four elements. 21 Man's existence is nevertheless a
great boon to him, and his distinction and perfection
is a divine gift. The numerous evils to which
individual persons are exposed are due to the defects
existing in the persons themselves. We complain
and seek relief from our own faults ; we suffer from
the evils which we, by our own free will, inflict on
ourselves and ascribe them to God, Who is far from
being connected with them ! . , .

" The evils that befall men are of three kinds :
(i) The first kind of evil is that which is caused to man
by the circumstance that he is subject to genesis
and destruction, or that he possesses a body. It is

40

GOD THE CREATOR

on account of the body that some persons happen to
have great deformities or paralysis of some of the
organs. This evil may be part of the natural constitu-
tion of these persons, or may have developed
subsequently in consequence of changes in the
elements, e.g., through bad air, or thunderstorms, or
landslips. We have already shown that, in accordance
with the divine wisdom, genesis can only take place
through destruction, and without the destruction of
the individual members of the species, the species
themselves would not exist permanently. Thus the
true kindness, and beneficence and goodness of God
is clear. He who thinks that he can have flesh and
bones without being subject to any external influence,
or any of the accidents of matter, unconsciously
wishes to reconcile two opposites, viz., to be at the
same time subject and not subject to change. If man
were never subject to change, there could be no
generation ; there would be one single being, but no
individuals forming a species. . . .

" (ii) The second class of evils comprises such evils
as people cause to each other, when, e.g., some of them
use their strength against others. These evils are
more numerous than those of the first kind ; their
causes are numerous and known ; they likewise
originate in ourselves, though the sufferer himself
cannot avert them. . . .

" (iii) The third class of evils comprises those
which every one causes to himself by his own action.
This is the largest class, and is far more numerous
than the second class. It is especially of these evils
that all men complain only few men are found that
do not sin against themselves by this kind of evil.
. . . This class of evil originates in man's vices,
such as excessive desire for eating, drinking and love ;

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

indulgence in these things in undue measure, or in
improper manner, or partaking of bad food. This
course brings diseases and afflictions upon the body
and soul alike. The sufferings of the body in conse-
quence of these evils are well known ; those of the
soul are twofold : First, such evils of the soul as are
the necessary consequence of changes in the body,
in so far as the soul is a force residing in the body ; it
has therefore been said that the properties of the
soul depend on the condition of the body.* 2 Secondly,
the soul, when accustomed to superfluous things,
acquires a strong habit of desiring things which are
neither necessary for the preservation of the individual
nor for that of the species. This desire is without a
limit, whilst things which are necessary are few in
number and restricted within certain limits ; but what
is superfluous is without end. E.g., you desire to have
your vessels of silver, but golden vessels are still better ;
others have even vessels of sapphire, or perhaps they
can be made of emerald or rubies, or any other
substance that could be suggested. Those who are
ignorant and perverse in their thought are constantly
in trouble and pain, because they cannot get as much of
superfluous things as a certain other person possesses.
They as a rule expose themselves to great dangers,
e.g., by sea- voyage, or service of kings, and all this
for the purpose of obtaining that which is superfluous
and not necessary. When they thus meet with the
consequences of the course which they adopt, they
complain of the decrees and judgments of God. . . .
The error of the ignorant goes so far as to say that
God's power is insufficient because He has given to
this Universe the properties which they imagine cause
these great evils, and which do not help all evil-
disposed persons to obtain the evil which they seek,

42

GOD THE CREATOR

and to bring their evil souls to the aim of their
desires. . . .

" All the difficulties and troubles we meet in this
respect are due to the desire for superfluous things ;
when we seek unnecessary things, we have difficulty
even in finding that which is indispensable. For
the more we desire to have that which is superfluous,
the more we meet with difficulties ; our strength
and possessions are spent in unnecessary things,
and are wanting when required for that which is
necessary.

" Observe how Nature proves the correctness of
this assertion. The more necessary a thing is for
living beings, the more easily it is found and the
cheaper it is ; the less necessary it is, the rarer and
dearer it is. E.g. , air, water and food are indispensable
to man : air is most necessary, for if man is without
air a short time he dies ; whilst he can be without
water a day or two. Air is also undoubtedly found
more easily and is cheaper than water. Water is
more necessary than food ; for some people can be
four or five days without food, provided they have
water ; water also exists in every country in larger
quantities than food and is also cheaper. The same
proportion can be noticed in the different kinds of
food ; that which is more necessary in a certain place
exists there in larger quantities and is cheaper than
that which is less necessary. No intelligent person,
I think, considers musk, amber, rubies and emerald as
very necessary for man except as medicines ; and they,
as well as other like substances, can be replaced for
this purpose by herbs and minerals. This shows the
kindness of God to His creatures, even to us weak
beings " (Guide III, 12).

Maimonides also attacks the problem from a

43

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

different point of view, by contending that evil is a
negative, not positive, thing.

" Evils are evils only in relation to a certain
thing,*3 and that which is evil in reference to a certain
existing thing either includes the non-existence of
that thing or the non-existence of some of its good
conditions. The proposition has therefore been laid
down in the most general terms, ' All evils are
negations '. Thus for man death is an evil ; death
is his non-existence. Illness, poverty and -ignorance
are evils for man ; all these are privations of properties.
If you examine all single cases to which this general
proposition applies, you will find that there is not one
case in which the proposition is wrong except in the
opinion of those who do not make any distinction
between negative and positive properties, or between
two opposites, or do not know the nature of things
who, e.g., do not know that health in general denotes
a certain equilibrium and is a relative term. The
absence of that relation is illness in general, and death
is the absence of life in the case of any animal. The
destruction of other things is likewise nothing but the
absence of their form.^4

After these propositions, it must be admitted as a
fact that it cannot be said of God that He directly
creates evil, or He has the direct intention to produce
evil ; this is impossible. His works are all perfectly
good. He only produces existence, and all existence
is good ; whilst evils are of a negative character and
cannot be acted upon. Evil can only be attributed
to Him in the way we have mentioned. He creates
evil only in so far as He produces the corporeal element
such as it actually is ; it is always connected with
negatives, and is on that account the source of all
destruction and all evil. Those beings that do not

44

GOD THE CREATOR

possess this corporeal element are not subject to
destruction or evil ; consequently the true work of
God is all good, since it is existence.

" The book which enlightened the darkness of the
world says therefore, ' And God saw everything that
He had made, and behold, it was very good ' (Gen. i.
31). Even the existence of this corporeal element,
low as it in reality is, because it is the source of death
and all evils, is likewise good for the permanence of
the Universe and the continuation of the order of
things, so that one thing departs and the other
succeeds " (Guide III, 10).

With regard to the " acts of God " which are a
cause of suffering to the human race, he writes :

" His actions towards mankind also include great
calamities, which overtake individuals and bring
death to them, or affect whole families and even entire
regions, spread death, destroy generation after genera-
tion, and spare nothing whatsoever. Hence there
occur inundations, earthquakes, destructive storms,
expeditions of one nation against the other for the
sake of destroying it with the sword and blotting out
its memory, and many other evils of the same kind.
Whenever such evils are caused by us to any person,
they originate in great anger, violent jealousy, or a
desire for revenge. God is therefore called, because
of these acts, ' jealous ', ' revengeful ', ' wrathful ' and
' keeping anger ' (Nahum i. 2) ; that is to say, He
performs acts similar to those which, when performed
by us, originate in certain psychical dispositions, in
jealousy, desire for retaliation, revenge or anger ;
they are in accordance with the guilt of those who are
to be punished, and not the result of any emotion, for
He is above all defect ! The same is the case with all
divine acts ; though resembling those acts which

45

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

emanate from our passions and psychical dispositions,
they are not due to anything superadded to His
essence " (Guide I, 54).

7. All that God made serves a useful purpose. Since
God is perfect, His work must be perfect and all that
He created must have its rightful place in His scheme
of the Universe. Two passages may be quoted in
which Maimonides gives expression to this view :

" I contend that no intelligent person can assume
that any of the actions of God can be in vain, purpose-
less or unimportant. According to our view and the
view of all that follow the Torah of Moses, all actions
of God are ' exceedingly good '. Thus Scripture says,
' And God saw everything that He had made, and
behold, it was very good ' (Gen. i. 31) . And that which
God made for a certain thing is necessary, or at least
very useful for the existence of that thing. Thus
food is necessary for the existence of living beings ;
the possession of eyes is very useful to man during
his life, although food only serves to sustain living
beings a certain time, and the senses are only intended
to procure to animals the advantages of sensation.
The philosophers likewise assume that in Nature there
is nothing in vain, so that everything that is not the
product of human industry serves a certain purpose,
which may be known or unknown to us. There are
thinkers who assume that God does not create one
thing for the sake of another, *5 that existing things are
not to each other in the relation of cause and effect ;
that they are all the direct result of the Will of God,
and do not serve any purpose. According to this
opinion we cannot ask why has He made this and not
that ; for He does what pleases Him, without following
a fixed system.

46

GOD THE CREATOR

" Those who defend this theory must consider the
actions of God as purposeless, and even as inferior to
purposeless actions ; for when we perform purposeless
actions, our attention is engaged by other things and
we do not know what we are doing ; but God, accord-
ing to these theorists, knows what He is doing, and
knowingly does it for no purpose or use whatever.
The absurdity of assuming that some of God's actions
are trivial is apparent even at first sight, and no
notice need be taken of the nonsensical idea that
monkeys were created for our pastime. Such opinions
originate only in man's ignorance of the nature of
transient beings, and in his overlooking the principle
that it was intended by the Creator to produce in its
present form everything whose existence is possible ;
a different form was not decreed by the divine wisdom,
and the existence of objects of a different form is
therefore impossible, because the existence of all
things depends on the decree of God's wisdom. . . .

" Whatever God desires to do is necessarily done ;
there is nothing that could prevent the realisation of
His will. The object of His will is only that which is
possible, and of the things possible only such as His
wisdom decrees upon. When God desires to produce
the best work, no obstacle or hindrance intervenes
between Him and that work. This is the opinion held
by all religious people and by the philosophers ; it is
also our opinion. For although we believe that God
created the Universe from nothing, most of our wise
and learned men believe that the Creation was not the
exclusive result of His will ; but His wisdom, which
we are unable to comprehend, made the actual
existence of the Universe necessary. The same
unchangeable wisdom found it as necessary that non-
existence should precede the existence of the Universe.

47

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

Our Sages frequently express this idea in the explana-
tion of the words, ' He hath made everything beautiful
in his time' (Eccles. iii. n) 26 , only in order to avoid
that which is objectionable, viz., the opinion that God
does things without any purpose whatever. . . .
There is no necessity to believe otherwise ; philosophic
speculation leads to the same result, viz., that in
the whole of Nature there is nothing purposeless,
trivial, or unnecessary, especially in the nature of
the Spheres, which are in the best condition and
order, in accordance with their superior substance "
(Guide III, 25).

Maimonides developed the same theme, with greater
detail, in another of his works :

" Know that the ancients carried out a thorough
investigation, by means of the wisdom and thinking
powers granted them, so that it was firmly established
with them that every existing thing must of necessity
have a purpose on account of which it exists, and
nothing that exists does so in vain. After this general
principle had been well founded by them, they began
to classify all existing things in order to ascertain the
purpose of each created species. With regard to
everything that is serviceable, i.e., which has been
made for a specific work, the purpose of its having been
made is evident and research is unnecessary in con-
nection therewith ; because a workman does not
start on a piece of work unless its purpose is previously
designed in his mind. E.g., a smith only makes a saw
after he thinks out how it is possible to sever the
wood-joints until the idea of a saw occurs to his mind ;
then he commences to make it as an instrument for
cutting wood. Hence we know that the design of the
saw is for cutting down trees, the design of the axe for
chopping wood, and the design of the needle for

GOD THE CREATOR

stitching garments together ; and so to all existing
things there is a serviceable purpose.

11 As for the things whose existence is due to God's
work and Nature's wisdom e.g., the various kinds
of trees and herbs, metals and stones, the beasts in
some instances the purpose of their existence is hidden
and nobody is cognisant of it unless it be ascertained
through Prophecy or the power of knowing the future.
It cannot, however, be ascertained through scientific
investigation, because it is beyond the power of man
to make such investigation until he understands and
knows why Nature produced some ants with wings and
others without wings, why it produced some worms
with numerous legs and others with few, and what is
the purpose of the worm and the ant. On the other
hand, in the case of things greater than these, whose
utility is more evident, men of wisdom discover the
benefit derivable from them ; and the wiser the man,
the greater his desire and the purer his motive to
learn, the more perfect grows his knowledge. . . .

" In general it is necessary to know that all things
in the sublunary world exist only for the sake of man ;
likewise all species of animals some of them for food,
like sheep, oxen, etc., others for a use other than food,
as the ass to bear what he is unable to carry in his
hand, horses to travel a long distance in a short space
of time. There are other species whose use we do not
know, although they have a utility for man which is
not understood. So also with trees and plants, some
are for food, others to cure him of illnesses ; and
similarly with herbs and other species. Wherever you
find animals or plants which are not suitable for food
and are useless according to your thinking, know that
this is due to the weakness of our intellect ; and it is
impossible for any herb or fruit or living creature,

49

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

from elephant to worms, to be void of all utility for
man. The proof of this is that in every generation
there are discovered by us important uses for herbs
and various kinds of fruits which were unknown to
our predecessors. It is not in the power of a man's
mind to comprehend the use of every plant of the
earth ; but through experimentation by successive
generations what is unknown becomes known.

" If, however, you were to ask, Why have deadly
poisons been created, like the herb called belladonna
or the blood-flower (hamanthus), which are fatal to
man and have no use, it is proper for you to know that
these do serve a useful purpose ; because though death
follows the eating of them, it does not when they are
plastered on the body. And when you understand
that a great benefit accrues to man through vipers and
snakes, how much more must this be so with things
which are less injurious than these ! " (C.M.,
Introduction).

8. 7s the Universe eternal or created ? This question
was a source of great trouble to Maimonides. The
purpose of his Guide was to harmonise the statements
of Scripture with Aristotelian philosophy. According
to the traditional interpretation, the Bible teaches
creation out of nothing, whereas Aristotle held that
the Universe was eternal and uncreated. Reconcilia-
tion of the two conflicting doctrines was impossible.
How, then, does Maimonides deal with the problem ?
He first of all maintains that, on rational grounds,
it cannot be solved definitely. " It is well-known to
all clear and correct thinkers who do not wish to
deceive themselves, that this question, viz., whether
the Universe has been created or is eternal, cannot be
answered with mathematical certainty ; here human

50

GOD THE CREATOR

intellect must pause. . . . The philosophers have
for the last three thousand years been continually
divided on that subject, as far as we can learn from
their works and the record of their opinions " (Guide
I, 71). Since reason cannot settle the question, there
is nothing else to do but rely upon the declaration of
Scripture.

He declares, however, " We do not reject the
Eternity of the Universe because certain passages in
Scripture confirm the Creation, for such passages are
not more numerous than those in which God is repre-
sented as a corporeal being; 2 ? nor is it impossible or
difficult to find for them a suitable interpretation "
(Guide II, 25). He even maintains that had he
accepted the Eternity of the Universe, " the Scriptural
text might have been explained accordingly, and many
expressions might have been found in the Bible and
in other writings that would confirm and support this
theory. But there is no necessity for this expedient,
so long as the theory has not been proved. As there
is no proof sufficient to convince us, this theory need
not be taken into consideration ; we take the text of
the Bible literally, and say that it teaches us a truth
which we cannot prove " (Ibid.).

Hence he teaches dogmatically :

" Those who follow the Torah of Moses our Teacher
hold that the whole Universe, i.e., everything except
God, has been brought by Him into existence out of
non-existence. In the beginning God alone existed
and nothing else ; neither Angels nor Spheres, nor the
things that are contained within the Spheres existed.
He then produced from nothing all existing things
such as they are, 28 by His will and desire. Even time
itself is among the things created*9 ; for time depends
on motion, i.e., on an accident 3 in things which move,

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

and the things upon whose motion time depends are
themselves created beings, which have passed from
non-existence into existence. We say that God
existed before the creation of the Universe, although
the verb existed appears to imply the notion of time ;
we also believe that He existed an infinite space of
time before the Universe was created ; but in these
cases we do not mean time in its true sense. We only
use the term to signify something analogous or similar
to time. For time is undoubtedly an accident, and,
according to our opinion, one of the created accidents,
like blackness and whiteness ; it is not a quality, but
an accident connected with motion. . . .

" We consider time a thing created ; it comes into
existence in the same manner as other accidents, and
the substances which form the substratum for the
accidents. For this reason, viz., because time belongs
to the things created, it cannot be said that God
produced the Universe in the beginning. Consider
this well ; for he who does not understand it is unable
to refute forcible objections raised against the theory
of Creatio ex nihilo. If you admit the existence of
time before the Creation, you will be compelled to accept
the theory of the Eternity of the Universe. For time
is an accident and requires a substratum.3 1 You will
therefore have to assume that something beside God
existed before this Universe was created, an assumption
which it is our duty to oppose.

" It is undoubtedly a fundamental principle of the
Torah of our teacher Moses ; it is next in importance
to the principle of God's Unity. Do not follow any
other theory. Abraham, our father, was the first
that taught it, after he had established it by philo-
sophical research. He proclaimed, therefore, ' the
name of the Lord the God of eternity '3* (Gen. xxi. 33) ;

52

GOD THE CREATOR

and he had previously expressed this theory in the
words, ' The Possessor of heaven and earth ' (ibid.
xiv. 22) " (Guide II, 13).

Since the statement " it cannot be said that God
produced the Universe in the beginning " apparently
contradicts the opening verse of the Bible, it is
necessary to understand in which sense Maimonides
uses this phrase. He explains it thus :

"There is a difference between first and beginning
(or principle). The latter exists in the thing of which
it is the beginning, or co-exists with it ; it need not
precede it. E.g., the heart is the beginning of the
living being ; the element is the beginning of that of
which it is the basis. The term ' first ' is likewise
applied to things of this kind, but is also employed in
cases where precedence in time alone is to be expressed,
and the thing which precedes is not the beginning (or
the cause) of the thing that follows. E.g., we say
A was the first inhabitant of this house, after him came
B ; this does not imply that A is the cause of B
inhabiting the house.

" In Hebrew, teliillah is used in the sense of ' first ' ;
e.g., ' when God first (tehillat) spake to Hosea (Hos. i.
i) '. The beginning is expressed by vishtt, derived
from rosh ' head ', the principal part of the living
being as regards position. The Universe has not
been created out of an element that preceded it in time,
since tirtie itself formed part of the Creation. For
this reason Scripture employs the term ' bereshit * (in
a principle,) in which the bet is a preposition denoting
' in '. The true explanation of the first verse of
Genesis is as follows : ' In creating a principless God
created the beings above and the things below ' "
(Guide II, 30).

Another reason which induced Maimonides to

53

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

accept the theory of Creation, as against Aristotle's
doctrine of the Eternity of the Universe, was its
pragmatic value, i.e., it provided a working hypothesis
for the solution of other problems. He shows that
clearly in the following passage :

" Accepting the Creation, we find that miracles are
possible, that Revelation is possible, and that every
difficulty in this question is removed. We might be
asked, Why has God inspired a certain person and not
another ? Why has He revealed the Torah to one
particular nation, and at one particular time ? Why
has He commanded this and forbidden that ? Why
has He shown through a Prophet certain particular
miracles ? What is the object of these laws ? And
why has He not made the commandments and the
prohibitions part of our nature, if it was His object
th,at we should live in accordance with them ?

" We answer to all these questions : He willed it
so ; or, His wisdom decided so. He created the
world according to His will, at a certain time, in a
certain form ; and as we do not understand why His
will or His wisdom decided upon that particular form
and upon that particular time, so we do not know
why His will or wisdom determined any of the things
mentioned in the preceding questions.

" But if we assume that the Universe has the
present form as the result of fixed laws, there is occasion
for the above questions ; and these could only be
answered in an objectionable way, implying denial
and rejection of the Biblical texts, the correctness of
which no intelligent person doubts " (Guide II, 25).

9. Design in the Universe. On the basis of the theory
of Creation Maimonides is likewise able to argue that
the Universe shows evidence of design. He declares

54

GOD THE CREATOR

that what Aristotle calls " laws of Nature " are in
reality the will of God.

" According to Aristotle, and according to all that
defend his theory, the Universe is inseparable from
God ; He is the cause and the Universe the effect ;
and this effect is a necessary one ; and as it cannot
be explained why or how God exists in this particular
manner, viz., being One and incorporeal, so it cannot
be asked concerning the whole Universe why or how
it exists in this particular way. For it is necessary
that the whole, the cause as well as the effect, exist
in this particular manner ; it is impossible for them
not to exist, or to be different from what they actually
are. This leads to the conclusion that the nature of
everything remains constant, that nothing changes its
nature in any way, and that such a change is impossible
in any existing thing. It would also follow that the
Universe is not the result of design, choice and desire ;
for if this were the case, they would have been non-
existing before the design had been conceived.

" We, however, hold that all things in the Universe
are the result of design, and not merely of necessity ;
He Who designed them may change them when He
changes His design. But not every design is subject
to change ; for there are things which are impossible,
and their nature cannot be altered. . . .

" Everything is, according to Aristotle, the result of
a law of Nature, and not the result of the design of a
being that designs as it likes, or the determination of a
being that determines as it pleases. He has not carried
out the idea consistently, and it will never be done.
He tries to find the cause why the Sphere moves from
east and not from west ;34 why some Spheres move
with greater velocity, others with less velocity, and he
finds the cause of these differences in their different

55

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

positions in reference to the uppermost Sphere. He
further attempts to show why there are several
Spheres for each of the seven planets, while there is
only one Sphere for the large number of fixed stars.
For all this he endeavours to state the reason, so as to
show that the whole order is the necessary result of the
laws of Nature.

" He has not attained his object. For as regards
the things in the sublunary world, his explanations are
in accordance with facts, and the relation between
cause and effect is clearly shown. It can therefore be
assumed that everything is the necessary result of the
motions and influences of the Spheres. But when he
treats of the properties of the Spheres, he does not
clearly show the causal relation, nor does he explain
the phenomena in that systematic way which the
hypothesis of natural laws would demand. For let
us consider the Spheres : in one case a Sphere with
greater velocity is above a Sphere with less velocity, 35
in another case we notice the reverse ; in a third case
there are two Spheres with equal velocities, one above
the other. 3 6 There are, besides, other phenomena
which speak strongly against the hypothesis that all
is regulated by the laws of Nature. . . .

" According to our theory of the Creation, all this
can easily be explained ; for we say that there is a
being that determines the direction and the velocity
of the motion of each Sphere ; but we do not know the
reason why the wisdom of that being gave to each
Sphere its peculiar property " (Guide II, 19).

10. Purpose of God's Creation. That the Creator
must have had a reason for calling the Universe into
existence is certain. What was this reason ?

" Intelligent persons are much perplexed when they

56

GOD THE CREATOR

inquire into the purpose of the Creation. I will now
show how absurd this question is, according to each
one of the different theories above-mentioned. 37 An
agent that acts with intention must have a certain
ulterior object in that which he performs. This is
evident, and no philosophical proof is required. It is
likewise evident that that which is produced with
intention has passed over from non-existence to
existence. It is further evident, and generally agreed
upon, that the being which has absolute existence,
which has never been and never will be without
existence, is not in need of an agent. The question,
' What is the purpose thereof ? ' cannot be asked
about anything which is not the product of an agent ;
therefore we cannot ask what is the purpose of the
existence of God. He has not been created.

" According to these propositions it is clear that the
purpose is sought for everything produced intention-
ally by an intelligent cause ; that is to say, a final
cause must exist for everything that owes its existence
to an intelligent being ; but for that which is without
a beginning, a final cause need not be sought.

" After this explanation you will understand that
there is no occasion to seek the final cause of the whole
Universe, neither according to our theory of the
Creation, nor according to the theory of Aristotle who
assumes the Eternity of the Universe. For according
to Aristotle, who holds that the Universe has not had
a beginning, an ultimate final cause cannot be sought
even for the various parts of the Universe. Thus it
cannot be asked, according to his opinion, What is the
final cause of the existence of the heavens ? Why are
they limited by this measure or by that number ?
Why is matter of this description ? What is the
purpose of the existence of this species of animals or

57

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

plants ? Aristotle considers all this as the result of
a permanent order of things. Natural Philosophy
investigates into the object of everything in Nature,
but it does not treat of the ultimate final cause. . . .

" Now it is clear that man is the most perfect being
formed of matter ; he is the last and most perfect
of earthly beings, and in this respect it can truly be
said that all earthly things exist for man, i.e., that the
changes which things undergo serve to produce the
most perfect being that can be produced. Aristotle,
who assumes the Eternity of the Universe, need there-
fore not ask to what purpose does man exist, for the
immediate purpose of each individual being is,
according to his opinion, the perfection of its specific
form. Every individual thing arrives at its perfection
fully and completely when the actions that produce
its form are complete. The ultimate purpose of the
species is the perpetuation of this form by the repeated
succession of genesis and destruction, so that there
might always be a being capable of the greatest possible
perfection. It seems therefore clear that, according
to Aristotle who assumes the Eternity of the Universe,
there is no occasion for the question what is the object
of the existence of the Universe. 3 8

" But of those who accept our theory that the
whole Universe has been created from nothing, some
hold that the inquiry after the purpose of the Creation
is necessary, and assume that the Universe was only
created for the sake^of man's existence, that he might
serve God. Everything that is done they believe is
done for man's sake ; even the Spheres move only for
his benefit, in order that his wants might be supplied.

" On examining this opinion, as intelligent persons
ought to examine all different opinions, we shall

58

GOD THE CREATOR

discover the errors it includes. Those who hold this
view, viz., that the existence of man is the object of
the whole Creation, may be asked whether God could
have created man without those previous creations,
or whether man could only have come into existence
after the creation of all other things. If they answer
in the affirmative, that man could have been created
even if, e.g., the heavens did not exist, they will be
asked what is the object of all these things, since they
do not exist for their own sake, but for the sake of
something that could exist without them ? Even
if the Universe existed for man's sake and man existed
for the purpose of serving God, as has been mentioned,
the question remains, What is the end of serving God ?
He does not become more perfect if all His creatures
serve Him and comprehend Him as far as possible ; nor
would He lose anything if nothing existed beside Him.

" It might perhaps be replied that the service of
God is not intended for God's perfection ; it is intended
for our own perfection it is good for us, it makes us
perfect. But then the question might be repeated,
What is the object of our being perfect ? We must in
continuing the inquiry as to the purpose of the Creation
at last arrive at the answer, It was the will of God,
or His wisdom decreed it ; and this is the correct
answer. The wise men of Israel have, therefore,
introduced in our prayers the following passage :
* Thou hast distinguished man from the beginning,
and chosen him to stand before Thee ; who can say
unto Thee, What doest Thou ? And if he be righteous,
what does he give Thee ? '39 They have thus clearly
stated that it was not a final cause that determined
the existence of all things, but only His will.

" This being the case, we who believe in the Creation
must admit that God could have created the Universe

59

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

in a different manner as regard the causes and effects
contained in it, and this would lead to the absurd con-
clusion that everything except man existed without any
purpose, as the principal object, man, could have been
brought into existence without the rest of the Creation.
I consider, therefore, the following opinion as most
correct according to the teaching of the Bible, and best
in accordance with the results of philosophy, viz., that
the Universe does not exist for man's sake, but that
each being exists for its own sake, and not because of
some other thing " (Guide III, 13).

11. 7s the Universe Permanent ? We have seen what
importance Maimonides attaches to the belief that
the Universe had a beginning and is not eternal. He
also considers the question whether the world is
permanent, and concludes that the matter has no
bearing on one's religious faith. He leaves it an open
question, although he personally believes in the
permanence of the Universe.

" We have already stated that the belief in the
Creation is a fundamental principle of our religion ;
but we do not consider it a principle of our faith that
the Universe will again be reduced to nothing. It is
not contrary to the tenets of our religion to assume
that the Universe will continue to exist for ever. It
might be objected that everything produced is subject
to destruction, as has been shown ; consequently the
Universe, having had a beginning, must come to an end.

" This axiom cannot be applied, according to our
views. We do not hold that the Universe came into
existence, like all things in Nature, as the result of the
laws of Nature. For whatever owes its existence to
the action of physical laws is, according to the same
laws, subject to destruction ; the same law which

60

GOD THE CREATOR

caused the existence of a thing after a period of non-
existence is also the cause that the thing is not
permanent ; since the previous non-existence proves
that the nature of that thing does not necessitate its
permanent existence. According to our theory,
taught in Scripture, the existence or non-existence of
things depends solely on the will of God and not on
fixed laws, and, therefore, it does not follow that God
must* destroy the Universe after having created it
from nothing. It depends on His will. He may,
according to His desire or according to the decree of
His wisdom, either destroy it or allow it to exist, and
it is therefore possible that He will preserve the
Universe for ever, and let it exist permanently as He
Himself exists. . . .

" There remains only the question as to what the
Prophets and our Sages say on this point, whether
they affirm that the world will certainly come to an
end or not. Most people amongst us believe that such
statements have been made, and that the world will
at one time be destroyed. I will show you that this
is not the case ; and that, on the contrary, many
passages in the Bible speak of the permanent existence
of the Universe. Those passages which, in the literal
sense, would indicate the destruction of the Universe,
are undoubtedly to be understood in a figurative sense.
If, however, those who follow the literal sense of the
Scriptural texts reject our view, and assume that the
ultimate certain destruction of the Universe is part
of their faith, they are at liberty to do so. But we
must tell them that the belief in the destruction is not
necessarily implied in the belief in the Creation ; they
believe it because they trust the writer who used a
figurative expression, which they take literally. Their
faith, however, does not suffer by it " (Guide II, 27).

61

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

12. God's Name. In the view of the ancients, a name
was not merely a convenient label to distinguish one
person from another. It had significance and indicated
some relationship to the nature or characteristic of
the bearer. Consequently the " name " of God was
a matter of considerable import to those who
endeavoured to gain an understanding of His essence.
Maimonides discusses the distinctive Name used of
God in the Bible, viz., the Tetragrammaton or Name
of four letters.

"It is well-known that all the names of God
occurring in Scripture are derived from His actions,4<>
except one, viz., the Tetragrammaton, which consists
of the letters JHVH. This Name is applied exclu-
sively to God, and is on that account called Shem
ha-mephorash,* 1 ' the proper Name '. It is the distinct
and exclusive designation of the Divine Being ; whilst His
other names are common nouns, and are derived from
actions, to which some of our own are similar. . . .

" The derivation of the Name, consisting of JHVH,
is not positively known, the word having no additional
signification. This sacred Name, which, as you know,
was not pronounced except in the Sanctuary by the
appointed priests when they gave the sacerdotal
blessing, 4* and by the High Priest on the Day of
Atonement,43 undoubtedly denotes something which
is peculiar to God, and is not found in any other being.
It is possible that in the Hebrew language, of which we
have now but a slight knowledge, the Tetragrammaton,
in the way it was pronounced, conveyed the meaning
of ' absolute existence '. In short, the majesty of the
Name and the great dread of uttering it, are connected
with the fact that it denotes God Himself, without
including in its meaning any names of the things
created by Him. . . .

62

GOD THE CREATOR

" It was not known to everyone how the Name
was to be pronounced, what vowels were to be given
to each consonant, and whether some of the letters
capable of reduplication should receive a dageshM
Wise men successively transmitted the pronunciation
of the Name ; it occurred only once in seven years
that the pronunciation was communicated to a
distinguished disciple. I must, however, add that the
statement, ' The wise men communicated the Tetra-
grammaton to their children and disciples once in
seven years ',45 does not only refer to the pronunciation
but also to its meaning, because of which the Tetra-
grammaton was made a nomen proprium of God, and
which includes certain metaphysical principles "
(Guide I, 6if).

In addition to the distinctive Name used in the
Scriptures, Rabbinical literature mentions, without
specifying, divine appellations of a mystical character.
Maimonides refers to these afc follows :

" Our Sages knew in addition a name of God which
consisted of twelve letters,4 6 inferior in sanctity to the
Tetragrammaton. I believe that this was not a single
noun, but consisted of two or three words, the sum
of their letters being twelve, and that these words
were used by our Sages as a substitute for the Tetra-
grammaton whenever they met with it in the course
of their reading the Scriptures, in the same manner
as we at present substitute for it Adonai 'The Lord'.
There is no doubt that this name also, consisting of
twelve letters, was in this sense more distinctive than
the name Adonai ; it was never withheld from any of
the students ; whoever wished to learn it had the
opportunity given to him without any reserve.

" Not so the Tetragrammaton ; those who knew it
did not communicate it except to a son or a disciple,

63

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

once in seven years. When, however, unprincipled
men had become acquainted with that Name which
consists of twelve letters and in consequence had
become corrupt in faith as is sometimes the case
when persons with imperfect knowledge become aware
that a thing is not such as they had imagined the
Sages concealed also that name, and only communi-
cated it to the worthiest among the priests, that they
should pronounce it when they blessed the people in
the Temple ; for the Tetragrammaton was then no
longer uttered in the Sanctuary on account of the
corruption of the people.47 . . .

" There was also a name of forty-two Ietters4 8
known among them. Every intelligent person knows
that one word of forty-two letters is impossible. But
it was a phrase of several words which had together
forty-two letters. There is no doubt that the words
had such a meaning as to convey a correct notion of
the essence of God. This phrase of so many letters
is called a name because, like other proper names,
they represent one single object, and several words
have been employed in order to explain more clearly
the idea which the name represents ; for an idea can
more easily be comprehended if expressed in many
words. . . .

" Many believe that the forty-two letters are
merely to be pronounced mechanically ; that by the
knowledge of these, without any further interpretation,
they can attain to these exalted ends, although it is
stated that he who desires to obtain a knowledge of
that name must be trained in the virtues and go through
great preparations. On the contrary, it is evident that
all this preparation aims at a knowledge of Metaphysics
and includes ideas which constitute the ' secrets of
the Torah ' " (Guide I, 62),

64

CHAPTER II
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNIVERSE

i. Threefold Division of the Universe. Before
proceeding with the Attributes of God as defined by
Maimonides, an account must be given of his views
on the structure of the Universe. The world, as he
conceived it, consisted of three strata :

" The whole Creation is divided into three parts,
viz., (i) the pure Intelligences; (ii) the bodies of the
Spheres endowed with permanent forms (the forms
of these bodies do not pass from one substratum to
another, nor do their substrata undergo any change
whatever) ; and (iii) the transient earthly beings, all
of which consist of the same substance. Furthermore,
we desire to show that the ruling power emanates from
the Creator, and is received by the Intelligences
according to their order ; from the Intelligences part
of the good and the light bestowed upon them is
communicated to the Spheres, and the latter, being
in possession of the abundance obtained of the
Intelligences, transmit forces and properties unto the
beings of this transient world "* (Guide II, n).

" All that the Holy One, blessed be He, created in
His Universe is divisible into three classes. Some are
creatures composed of matter* and form, and are
perpetually coming into existence and perishing ;
e.g., the bodies of men, animals, plants and minerals.
Others are creatures composed of matter and form, but
do not change from body to body and from form to

65

5

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

form like the first class. Their form is fixed in their
matter eternally and they are not liable to change like
the others. They are the Spheres and the planets
which are in them. Their matter is also unlike the
matter of other things, and their form unlike other
forms. Finally, there are creatures possessing form
without any matter. Such are the Angels ; because
the Angels are incorporeal, being merely forms
distinguished one from another " (Yad, Yesode ha-
Torah II, 3).

2. The Intelligences of Angels. The uppermost of the
three strata is called by Maimonides " the Intelli-
gences ", a term borrowed from Aristotle, which the
Jewish philosopher identifies with the " Angels "
mentioned in the Scriptures. He attaches consider-
able importance to these supreme creatures as the
medium through which the divine influences pass to
earth.

" The belief in the existence of Angels is connected
with the belief in the existence of God ; and the belief
in God and Angels leads to the belief in Prophecy and
in the truth of the Torah. In order firmly to establish
this creed, God commanded the Israelites to make over
the Ark the form of two Angels. 2 The belief in the
existence of Angels is thus inculcated into the minds
of the people, and this belief is in importance next to
the belief in God's existence ; it leads us to believe in
Prophecy and in the Torah, and opposes idolatry. If
there had only been one figure of a Cherub, the people
would have been misled and would have mistaken it
for God's image which was to be worshipped, in the
fashion of the heathen ; or they might have assumed
that the Angel represented by the figure was also a
deity, and would then have adopted a dualism. By

66

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNIVERSE

making two Cherubim and distinctly declaring ' the
Lord is our God, the Lord is One ', Moses clearly
proclaimed the theory of the existence of a number of
Angels ; he left no room for the error of considering
those figures as deities, since he declared that God is
one, and that He is the Creator of the Angels who are
more than one " (Guide III, 45).

" The Angels are likewise incorporeal ; they are
Intelligences without matter, but they are neverthe-
less created beings, and God created them " (Guide I,

49)-

All the Angels are not equal in degree. They fall

into a series of classes, each class being dependent
upon the one immediately superior to it.

" In what, then, are the angelic forms distinguish-
able one from another, since they are not bodies ? In
that they are not equal in their status, but each one is
lower in degree as compared with his fellow and
exists through the power of the one next above him ;
but all of them exist through the power and goodness
of the Holy One, blessed be He. . . . Our state-
ment ' lower in degree as compared with his fellow '
does not refer to degree of place, like a man who sits
higher than his neighbour. It is used in the same sense
as when it is said of two wise men, of whom one is
greater in wisdom than the other, that the former is
of a higher degree than the latter ; or when it is said
of the cause that it is superior to the effect.

" The variety in the names of the Angels is in
accordance with their varying degrees. Therefore
they are called Hayyot ha-Kodesh (the holy creatures),3
which are the highest of all ; Ophannim (wheels) ;
Erelim (ambassadors ?)4 ; Hashmallim (the shining
ones ?)S ; Seraphim (the burning ones) 6 ; Malachim
(messengers)? ; Elohim (the mighty ones) 8 ; Bene

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

Elohim (sons of the mighty) 9 ; Cherubim (those having
the appearance of children) 10 and I shim (men) 11 .

" All these ten names by which the Angels are
called have reference to their ten degrees ; and that
degree, to which there is none superior than that of
God, is the degree of the Intelligence designated
Hayyot. . . . The tenth degree is that of the
Intelligence which is called Ishim, these being the
Angels who spoke with the Prophets and appeared to
them in the prophetic vision. For this reason they
are designated Ishim (men), because their degree is
nearest to the degree of the knowledge of human
beings " (Yad, Yesode ha-Torah II, 5-7).

Maimonides derived the ten degrees of Angels not
only from Scripture, but from philosophical literature.

" The later philosophers assumed ten Intelligences,
because they counted the Spheres containing stars and
the all-encompassing Sphere, although some of the
Spheres included several distinct orbits. There are
altogether nine Spheres, viz., the all-encompassing
Sphere, that of the fixed stars, and those of the seven
planets ; nine Intelligences correspond to the nine
Spheres ; the tenth Intelligence is the Active Intellect.
. . . As that which gives form to matter must
itself be pure form, 1 * so the source of intellect must
itself be pure intellect, and this source is the Active
Intellect "13 (Guide II, 4).

It is through the medium of these Intelligences that
God's Will operates in the Universe, an idea which is
found both in Greek and Hebraic speculation.

" We have already stated above that the Angels
are incorporeal. This agrees with the opinion of
Aristotle. There is only this difference in the names
employed he uses the term ' Intelligences ' and we
say ' Angels '. His theory is that the Intelligences

68

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNIVERSE

are intermediate beings between the Prime Cause and
existing things, and that they effect the motion of the
Spheres, on which motion the existence of all things
depends. This is also the view we meet with in all
parts of Scripture ; every act of God is described as
being performed by Angels. But ' Angel ' means
' messenger ' ; hence every one that is entrusted with
a certain mission is an Angel. Even the movements
of the brute creation are sometimes due to the action
of an Angel, when such movements serve the purpose
of the Creator, Who endowed it with the purpose of
performing that movement (cf. Dan. vi. 22).
The elements are also called Angels (cf. Ps. civ. 4).
. . . It is also used of ideals perceived by Prophets
in prophetic visions^ and of man's animal powers. 1 5

" When we assert that Scripture teaches that God
rules this world through Angels, we mean Angels that
are identical with the Intelligences. In some passages
the plural is used of God, e.g., ' Let us make man in
our image ' (Gen. i. 26) ; ' Go to, let us go down and
there confound their language' (ibid. xi. 7). Our
Sages explain this in the following manner : God, as
it were, does nothing without contemplating the host
above. 16 I wonder at the expression ' contemplating ',
which is the very expression used by Plato. 1 ? God,
as it were, ' contemplates the world of ideals, and thus
produces the existing beings '. In other passages our
Sages expressed it more decidedly : ' God does nothing
without consulting the host above 1 . 18 On the words,
' what they have already made ' (Eccles. ii. 12), the
following remark is made in Bereshit Rabba and in
Midrash Kohelet : ' It is not said " what He has made "
but " what they have made " ; hence we infer that
He, as it were, with His court, have agreed upon the
form of each of the limbs of man before placing it in

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

its position^; as it is said, " He hath made thee and
established thee " (Deut. xxxii. 6) '. In Bereshit
Rabba it is also stated that whenever the term 'and
the Lord ' occurred in Scripture, the Lord and His
court is to be understood.

" These passages do not convey the idea that God
spoke, thought, reflected, or that He consulted and
employed the opinion of other beings, as ignorant
persons have believed. How could the Creator be
assisted by those whom He created ! They only show
that all parts of the Universe, even the limbs of animals
in their actual form, are produced through Angels ;
for natural forces and Angels are identical. How bad
and injurious is the blindness of ignorance 1 Say to a
person who is believed to belong to the wise men of
Israel that the Almighty sends His Angel to enter the
womb of a woman and to form there the foetus, he will
be satisfied with the account ; he will believe it, and
even find in it a description of the greatness of God's
might and wisdom ; although he believes that the
Angel consists of burning fire and is as big as a third
part of the Universe, yet he considers it possible as a
divine miracle. But tell him that God gave the seed
a formative power which produces and shapes the
limbs, and that this power is called ' Angel ', or that
all forms are the result of the influence of the Active
Intellect, and that the latter is the Angel, the Prince
of the world, frequently mentioned by our Sages,* 1
and he will turn away ; because he cannot comprehend
the true greatness and power of creating forces that
act in a body without being perceived by our senses.
Our Sages have already stated for him who has under-
standing that all forces that reside in a body are
Angels, much more the forces that are active in the
Universe " (Guide II, 6).

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CONSTITUTION OF THE UNIVERSE

" Do not imagine that the Intelligences and the
Spheres are like other forces which reside in bodies
and act by the laws of Nature without being
conscious of what they do. The Spheres and
the Intelligences are conscious of their actions,
and select by their own free will the objects
of their influence, although not in the same
manner as we exercise free will and rule over other
things, which only concern temporary beings. . . .
The difference is that what we do is the lowest stage of
excellence, and that our influence and actions are
preceded by non-action ; whilst the Intelligences and
the Spheres always perform that which is good, they
contain nothing except what is good and perfect, and
they have continually been active from the beginning "
(ibid. II, 7).

3. The Spheres. The second stratum is called the
Spheres. They are nine in number. They are to be
thought of as hollow globes, one within the other after
the manner of Chinese boxes, or, to use Maimonides'
simile, the skins of an onion.

" The Sphere that is nearest to us is the Moon.
The second above it is the Sphere in which is the
planet called Kochab (Mercury). The third Sphere
above this is that in which is Nogah (Venus). The
fourth is that in which is Ifammah (the Sun). The
fifth is that in which is Ma'adim (Mars). The sixth
is that in which is the planet Tsedek (Jupiter). The
seventh is that in which is Shabbetai (Saturn). The
eighth is that in which are all the other stars that are
seen in the firmament. The ninth is the Sphere which
revolves daily from East to West, and also encompasses
and surrounds the whole. That you see all the stars
as if they were entirely in one Sphere is due to the

7*

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

fact that the Spheres are pure and transparent like
crystal and sapphire. Therefore the stars which are
in the eighth Sphere are visible beneath the first
Sphere.

" Each of the eight Spheres, in which are the planets,
is divisible into many more Spheres, one above the
other, like the skins of onions. Some of them are
Spheres revolving from West to East, and others
revolving from East to West, like the ninth Sphere
which revolves from East to West. Between none of
them is there a vacuum.

" All the Spheres are neither light nor heavy ;
they have neither a red, nor black, nor any other
colour. That we see them tinged with a bluish
colour is only an optical illusion due to the height of
the atmosphere. Similarly they have neither flavour
nor odour, because these accidents only exist in bodies
which are beneath them.

" All these Spheres, which encompass the world,
are circular like a globe, and the earth is suspended in
the centre. Some of the planets, however, have small
Spheres which are fixed in them and do not encompass
the earth ; but a small Sphere which is non-
encompassing is fixed in a greater which does encompass
the earth.

" The number of all the Spheres which encompass
the earth is eighteen, and the total of the small
Spheres which do^not encompass is eight. It is from
the course of the stars, from knowing the rate of their
daily and hourly revolutions, from their declension from
the South to the North, or from the North to the South,
and from their height above or proximity to the earth,
that the number of all these Spheres, the form of their
course and the direction of their revolutions may be
ascertained this being the science of the calculation

72

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNIVERSE

of the cycles and planets (Astronomy), on which the
wise men of Greece composed many books.

"As to the ninth Sphere which encompasses the
whole, the wise men of old divided it into twelve
parts, and to each part ascribed an appellation after
the name of the figure perceived therein reflected by
the stars which are beneath it. These are the signs
of the Zodiac, the names of which are Teleh (Ram),
Shor (Bull), Te'omim (Twins), Sartan (Crab), Aryeh
(Lion), Betulah (Virgin), Moznayim (Scales), Akrab
(Scorpion), Keshet (Bow), Gedi (Kid), Deli (Bucket),
Dagim (Fishes).

" But in the ninth Sphere itself there is neither
division nor any of those figures, not even a star. It
is only by the junction of the constellations which are
in the eighth Sphere that there appears in its large
stars the form of these figures or something similar.
These twelve figures only coincided with those parts
at the time of the Flood, when these names were
assigned to them ; but at this time they have moved
somewhat, since all the stars in the eighth Sphere
revolve in the same manner as the sun and moon,
except that they revolve slowly. The part of a circle
which the sun and moon traverse in a day, each of
those stars traverses in about seventy years.

" Of all the visible planets, there are some among
them which are small, so that the earth is larger than
any of them ; but there are also among them great
planets, each of which is many times larger than the
earth. Now the earth is about forty times larger than
the moon^ and the sun about a hundred and seventy
times larger than the earth ; therefore the moon is
approximately a six thousand and eight hundredth
part of the sun. There is none among the
planets larger than the sun, nor is there any planet

73

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

smaller than Kochab (Mercury), which is in the
second Sphere.

" All the planets and Spheres are entities possessed
of soul, mind and understanding. Moreover they are
endowed with life.*3 They exist and know the Creator
of the Universe. Each of them, in proportion to its
magnitude and degree, praises and glorifies its Creator,
in the same manner that the Angels do. And just as
they know the Holy One, blessed be He, so do
they know themselves, and also know the Angels
that are above them. The knowledge possessed by
the planets and Spheres is inferior to the know-
ledge possessed by the Angels, but is superior to
the knowledge possessed by human beings " (Yad t
Yesode ha-Torah III, 1-9).

What Maimonides intends in this last paragraph
is elucidated in the following excerpt :

" The enunciation that the heavenly Sphere is
endowed with a soul will appear reasonable to all who
sufficiently reflect on it ; but at first thought they may
find it unintelligible or even objectionable ; because
they wrongly assume that when we ascribe a soul to
the heavenly Spheres we mean something like the
soul of man, or that of an ox or ass. We merely
intend to say that the locomotion of the Sphere
undoubtedly leads us to assume some inherent principle
by which it moves ; and this principle is certainly a
soul. For it would be absurd to assume that the
principle of the circular motion of the Spheres was
like that of the rectilinear motion of a stone downward
or of fire upwards, for the cause of the latter motion
is a natural property and not a soul ; a thing set in
motion by a natural property moves only as long as
it is away from the proper place of its element, but
when it has again arrived theie, it comes to rest ;

74

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNIVERSE

whilst the Sphere continues its circular motion in its
own place.

It is, however, not because the Sphere has a soul,
that it moves in this manner; for animate beings
move either by instinct or by reason. By ' instinct '
I mean the intention of an animal to approach some-
thing agreeable, or to retreat from something
disagreeable ; e.g., to approach the water it seeks
because of thirst, or to retreat from the sun because of
its heat. . . . The heavenly Sphere does not
move for the purpose of withdrawing from what is
bad or approaching what is good. . . . The
circular motion of the Sphere is consequently due to
the action of some idea which produces this particular
kind of motion ; but as ideas are only possible in
intellectual beings, the heavenly Sphere is an
intellectual being. *4 But even a being that is endowed
with the faculty of forming an idea, and possesses a
soul with the faculty of moving, does not change its
place on each occasion that it forms an idea ; for an
idea alone does not produce motion, as has been
explained in Aristotle's Metaphysics.*5 We can easily
understand this when we consider how often we form
ideas of certain things, yet do not move towards them
though we are able to do so ; it is only when a desire
arises for the thing imagined that we move in order
to obtain it.

" We have thus shown that both the soul, the
principle of motion and the intellect, the source of the
ideas, would not produce motion without the existence
of a desire for the object of which an idea has been
formed. It follows that the heavenly Sphere must
have a desire for the ideal which it has comprehended,
and that ideal, for which it has a desire, is God,
exalted be His name ! " (Guide II, 4).

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

4. The Sublunary Sphere. The lowest stratum is the
earth inhabited by the human race. Both the
terrestrial Sphere and all it contains are formed out
of four elements fire, air, water and earth which
are qualities attached to one all-pervading substance.

" God created beneath the lunar Sphere a matter
which is unlike the matter of the Spheres. He also
created four forms for this matter which are unlike
the forms of the Spheres, and each form is fixed in a
part of this matter. The first form is that of fire ; it
was united to a part of this matter and there resulted
from both of them the body of fire. The second form
is that of air ; it was united to a part of the matter
and there resulted from both of them the body of air.
The third form is that of water ; it was united to a
part of it and there resulted from both of them the
body of water. The fourth form is that of earth ;
it was united to a part of it and there resulted from
both of them the body of earth. Consequently there
are beneath the firmament four different bodies, one
above the other, and each one encompasses that which
is beneath it on all its sides, like a wheel. The first
body, which is nearest the lunar Sphere, is the body of
fire ; beneath it is the body of air ; beneath that is
the body of water ; and beneath that is the body of
earth. There is between them no space which is void
and entirely without matter.

" These four bodies are not entities possessed of
soul. They have no understanding or perception, but
are like inanimate bodies. . . .

" These four bodies, viz., fire, air, water and earth,
are the elements of all the created things which are
under the firmament. Whatever exists, whether it
be man, cattle, bird, insect, fish, plant, mineral, gems,
pearls or other stones used for building, mountains,

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNIVERSE

lumps of clay the matter of them all is composed of
these four elements. Consequently all the bodies
which are under the firmament, these four elements
excepted, are composed of matter and form, and their
matter is composed of these four elements. Each of
the four elements, however, is composed of nothing
but matter and form alone.

" The nature of fire and air is that their movement
is from below, i.e., from the centre of the earth upward
towards the firmament. The nature of water and
earth, on the other hand, is to move from under the
firmament downward as far as the centre, the centre
of the earth being the nethermost point of all. Their
motion is not dependent upon their consciousness or
volition, but only upon a property and characteristic
which had been implanted in them. The nature of
fire is hot and dry ; it is the lightest of all the elements.
Air is hot and moist. Water is cold and moist. Earth
is dry and cold ; it is the heaviest of them all. Since
water is lighter than earth, it is as a consequence
found on top of the earth. Air, being lighter than
water, consequently floats on the surface of the water.
Fire is lighter than air.

" Because these are the elements of all bodies
under the firmament, every body whether it be that
of man, cattle, beast, bird, fish, plant, mineral or stone
will be found to have its matter composed of fire,
air, water and earth. All these four are intermingled ;
and at the time that they are mingled together, each
one of them becomes altered to such an extent that the
compound of the four is found to have no resemblance
to any one of them when by itself, and in the mixture
there is not even a single particle of fire by itself, water
by itself, earth by itself, or air by itself they are all
changed and converted into one body,

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

" In every body composed of the four elements
will be found together cold, warmth, moisture and
dryness. Yet some of them are bodies in which the
element of fire predominates, as for instance those
which possess animal life, and therefore warmth is
most conspicuous in them. Others are bodies in which
the element of earth predominates, as stones ; conse-
quently dryness is most conspicuous in them. Others,
again, are bodies in which the element of water pre-
dominates, and therefore moisture will be most
conspicuous in them. In like manner one body will
be found to be warmer than another warm body, or
one dry body with greater dryness than another dry
body. There will likewise be found bodies in which
cold alone is perceptible, and bodies in which moisture
alone is perceptible ; or bodies in which cold and
dryness are perceptible together and in an equal degree,
or cold and moisture together and in an equal degree,
or warmth and dryness together and in an equal
degree or warmth and moisture together and in an
equal degree. In proportion to the quantity of the
element which is in the basis of the mixture will the
effect of that element and its nature be perceived in
the component body.

" Everything that is compounded of these four
elements must ultimately be dissolved. Some dissolve
after a few days, others after many years. It is
impossible for a thing that has been compounded of
them not to be again decomposed into them ; it is
not even possible for gold or the ruby not to become
decomposed and reduced again to its elements, part
of it returning to fire, part to water, part to air, and
part to earth. . . .

" Whatever is destroyed is not reduced to the four
elements immediately on its destruction ; but when

78

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNIVERSE

destroyed, it first becomes another thing, and that
other thing becomes still another. Finally, however,
things must be reduced to their elements, and
consequently all things pass through a complete
circle of change.

" These four elements interchange constantly,
daily and hourly, but part of them only and not their
entire mass. For instance, the part of the earth
nearest to water changes, crumbles to pieces and
becomes water ; likewise the part of water nearest to
air changes, vapourises and becomes air. Similarly
with air, that part of it which is nearest to fire changes,
whirls about and becomes fire. So also with fire,
that part of it which is nearest to air changes, whirls
about, condenses and becomes air. Again, that part
of air which is nearest to water changes, condenses
and becomes water ; and finally, that part of water
which is nearest to earth changes, condenses and
becomes earth.

" This change takes place very gradually and over
a long space of time. Nor is it the entire element that
is changed, so that the whole of the water should ever
become air, or the whole of the air fire ; for it is
impossible that one of the four elements should cease
to exist. Part only of the fire is changed to air, and
part only of the air is changed to fire. It is the same
with each element and the others, an interchange
being found to occur between all four of them, and they
for ever pass through a complete circle of change.

"This change arises from the revolution of the
Sphere. It is through this revolution that the four
elements intermingle, and there result from them all
other substances as men, living creatures, plants,
stones, minerals. But it is God Who imparts to each
substance the form which is suitable to it through the

79

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

medium of the Angels of the tenth degree, viz., the
Intelligences called I shim (men) " (Yad, Yesode
ha-Torah III, lo-IV, 6).

5. The Universe a united whole. Complex though the
structure of the world be, yet it forms a harmonious
whole. It is a single entity. Maimonides illustrates
this truth by drawing an analogy between the Universe
and the human body.

" Know that this Universe, in its entirety, is
nothing else but one individual being ; that is to say,
the outermost heavenly Sphere, together with all
included therein, is as regards individuality beyond
all question a single being. The variety of its
substances I mean the substances of that Sphere
and all its component parts is like the variety of the
substances of a human being ; just as, e.g., A is one
individual, consisting of various solid substances,
such as flesh, bones, sinews, of various humours 26 and
of various spiritual elements. 2 ? In like manner this
Sphere in its totality is composed of the celestial orbs,
the four elements and their combinations ; there is
no vacuum whatever therein, but the whole space is
filled up with matter. Its centre is occupied by the
earth, earth is surrounded by water, air encompasses
the water, fire envelopes the air, and this again is
enveloped by the fifth substance (quintessence). . . .

" As the human body consists both of principal
organs and of other members which depend on them
and cannot exist without the control of those organs,
so does the Universe consist both of principal parts,
viz., the quintessence, which encompasses the four
elements and of other parts which are subordinated
and require a leader, viz., the four elements and the
things composed of them.

80

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNIVERSE

" Again the principal part of the human body,
viz., the heart, is in constant motion, and is the source
of every motion noticed in the body ; it rules over the
other members, and communicates to them through
its own pulsations the force required for their functions.
The outermost Sphere by its motion rules in a similar
way over all other parts of the Universe, and supplies
all things with their special properties. Every motion
in the Universe has thus its origin in the motion of
that Sphere ; and the soul of every animated being
derives its origin from the soul of that same Sphere.

" When for one instant the beating of the heart
is interrupted, man dies, and all his motions and
powers come to an end. In a like manner would the
whole Universe perish, and everything therein cease
to exist, if the Spheres were to come to a standstill.

" The living being as such is one through the
action of its heart, although some parts of the body are
devoid of motion and sensation, as e.g., the bones, the
cartilage and similar parts. The same is the case
with the entire Universe ; although it includes many
beings without motion and without life, it is a single
being living through the motion of the Sphere, which
may be compared to the heart of an animated being.
You must therefore consider the entire globe as one
individual being which is endowed with life, motion
and a soul. This mode of considering the Universe
is indispensable, that is to say, it is very useful for
demonstrating the Unity of God* 8 ; it also helps to
elucidate the principle that He Who is One has created
only one being. . . .

" There also exists in the Universe a certain force
which controls the whole, which sets in motion the
chief and principal parts, and gives them the motive

81

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

power for governing the rest. Without that force,
the existence of this Sphere, with its principal and
secondary parts, would be impossible. It is the
source of the existence of the Universe in aU its parts.
That force is God, blessed be His name ! " (Guide I,
72).

82

CHAPTER III
ATTRIBUTES OF GOD

MAIMONIDES devotes a long section of his Guide 1 to
the subject of the divine attributes, because several
important theological and philosophical problems
depend for their solution upon the true understanding
of God's essence. An incorrect comprehension of the
qualities possessed by God and of His nature must
react upon one's whole religious mentality. Before
dealing with the principal attributes ascribed to God,
it is necessary to grasp the interpretation which
Maimonides gives to the term.

i. Why attributes are ascribed to God. If the Deity is
to be anything more than an abstraction of thought,
it is inevitable that we should think and speak of
Him " in the language of the children of men ".*
From this fact springs the danger of misapprehending
God, because we view Him through a distort-
ing medium. The terminology applied to finite
beings is misleading when used of the Infinite. The
difficulty cannot be completely obviated ; its worst
effects can only be guarded against by careful
reasoning,

" There is a great difference between bringing to
view the existence of a thing and demonstrating its
true essence. We can lead others to notice the
existence of an object by pointing to its accidents,
actions, or even most remote relations to other objects.

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

E.g., if you wish to describe the king of a country to
one of his subjects who does not know him, you can
give a description and an account of his existence in
many ways. You will either say to him, the tall man
with a fair complexion and grey hair is the king, thus
describing him by his accidents ; or you will say, the
king is the person round whom are seen a great
multitude of men on horse and on foot, and soldiers
with drawn swords, over whose head banners are
waving, and before whom trumpets are sounded ;
or it is the person living in the palace in a particular
region of a certain country ; or it is the person who
ordered the building of that wall or the construction
of that bridge ; or by some other similar acts and
things relating to him. . . .

" The same is the case with the information
concerning the Creator given to the ordinary classes
of men in all prophetical books and in the Torah.
For it was found necessary to teach all of them that
God exists, and that He is in every respect the most
perfect Being, that is to say, He exists not only in the
sense in which the earth and the heavens exist, but
He exists and possesses life, wisdom, power, activity,
and all other properties which our belief in His
existence must include. That God exists was there-
fore shown to ordinary men by means of similes taken
from physical bodies ; that He is living by a simile
taken from motion, because ordinary men consider
only the body as fully, truly and undoubtedly existing ;
that which is connected with a body but is itself not
a body, although believed to exist, has a lower degree
of existence on account of its dependence on the body
for existence. . . .

" The perception by the senses, especially by
hearing and seeing, is best known to us ; we have no

ATTRIBUTES OF GOD

idea or notion of any other mode of communication
between the soul of one person and that of another
than by means of speaking, i.e., by the sound produced
by lips, tongue and the other organs of speech. When,
therefore, we are to be informed that God has a
knowledge of things, and that communication is made
by Him to the Prophets who convey it to us, they
represent Him to us as seeing and hearing, i.e., as
perceiving and knowing those things which can be
seen and heard. They represent Him to us as
speaking, i.e., that communications from Him reach
the Prophets ; that is to be understood by the term
" Prophecy ", as will be fully explained.3 God is
described as working, because we do not know any
other mode of producing a thing except by direct
touch. He is said to have a soul in the sense that He
is living, because all living beings are generally
supposed to have a soul. . . .

" Again, since we perform all these actions only
by means of corporeal organs, we figuratively ascribe
to God the organs of locomotion, as feet and their
soles4 ; organs of hearing, seeing and smelling as ear,
eye and nose ; organs and substance of speech as mouth ,
tongue and sound ; organs for the performance of
work as hand, its fingers, its palm and the arm. In
short, these organs of the body are figuratively
ascribed to God, Who is above all imperfection, to
express that He performs certain acts ; and these acts
are figuratively ascribed to Him to express that He
possesses certain perfections different from those acts
themselves. E.g., we say that He has eyes, ears,
hands, a mouth, a tongue, to express that He sees,
hears, acts and speaks ; but seeing and hearing are
attributed to Him to indicate simply that He perceives.
. . . Action and speech are likewise figuratively

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

applied to God, to express that a certain influence has
emanated from Him.

" The physical organs which are attributed to God
in the writings of the Prophets are either organs of
locomotion, indicating life ; organs of sensation,
indicating perception ; organs of touch, indicating
action ; or organs of speech, indicating the divine
inspiration of the Prophets. The object of all these
indications is to establish in our minds the notion of
the existence of a living being, the Maker of every-
thing, Who also possesses a knowledge of the things
which He has made " (Guide I, 46).

2. There is no similarity between God's attributes
and man's. A point which Maimonides emphasises
throughout is that a quality ascribed to God has no
affinity with the same quality as used of the human
being. The term is the same, because we cannot
invent intelligible expressions which could be reserved
exclusively for the Deity. The identity of term does
not imply identity of quality.

" Similarity is based on a certain relation between
two things ; if between two things no relation can be
found, there can be no similarity between them, and
there is no relation between two things that have no
similarity to each other. E.g., we do not say this
heat is similar to that colour, or this voice is similar to
that sweetness. This is self-evident. Since the
existence of a relation between God and man, or
between Him and other beings, has been denied,
similarity must likewise be denied. . . .

" Thus those who believe in the presence of essential
attributes in God, viz., Existence, Life, Power, Wisdom
and Will, should know that these attributes, when
applied to God, have not the same meaning as when

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ATTRIBUTES OF GOD

applied to us, and that the difference does not only
consist in magnitude, or in the degree of perfection,
stability and durability. It cannot be said, as they
practically believe, that His existence is only more
stable, His life more permanent, His power greater,
His wisdom more perfect, and His will more general
than ours, and that the same definition applies to both.
This is in no way admissible, for the expression ' more
than ' is used in comparing two things as regards a
certain attribute predicated of both of them in exactly
the same sense, and consequently implies similarity
between God and His creatures " (Guide I, 56).

" In the same way as all people must be informed,
and even children must be trained in the belief that
God is One, and that none besides Him is to be
worshipped, so must all be taught by simple authority
that God is incorporeal ; that there is no similarity
in any way whatsoever between Him and His creatures;
that His existence is not like the existence of His
creatures, His life not like that of any living being,
His wisdom not like the wisdom of the wisest of men ;
and that the difference between Him and His creatures
is not merely quantitative, but absolute as between
two individuals of two different classes. I mean to
say that all must understand that our wisdom and
His, or our power and His, do not differ quantitatively
or qualitatively, or in a similar manner ; for two
things, of which the one is strong and the other weak,
are necessarily similar, belong to the same class, and
can be included in one definition. . . . Anything
predicated of God is totally different from our
attributes ; no definition can comprehend both ;
therefore His existence and that of any other being
totally differ from each other, and the term existence is
applied to both homonymously "5 (Guide I, 35).

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

3. An attribute is an accident ; therefore God has no
attributes apart from His essence. Not only can no
comparison be made between God's qualities and
man's, but He does not possess attributes in the same
sense that the human being possesses them.

" It is a self-evident truth that the attribute is
not inherent in the object to which it is ascribed, but
it is superadded to its essence, and is consequently an
accident. 6 If the attribute denoted the essence of the
object, it would be either mere tautology, as if, e.g.,
one would say ' man is man ', or the explanation of a
name, as, e.g., ' man is a speaking animal ' ; for the
words ' speaking animal ' include the true essence of
man, and there is no third element besides life and
speech in the definition of man. When he, therefore,
is described by the attributes of life and speech, these
are nothing but an explanation of the name ' man ',
that is to say, that the thing which is called man
consists of life and speech.

" It will now be clear that the attribute must be
one of two things, either the essence of the object
described in that case it is a mere explanation of
a name, and on that account we might admit the
attribute in reference to God, but we reject it from
another cause, as will be shown7 or the attribute is
something different from the object described, some
extraneous superadded element. In that case the
attribute would be an accident, and he who merely
rejects the appellation ' accidents ' in reference to the
attributes of God does not thereby alter their character ;
for everything superadded to the essence of an object
joins it without forming part of its essential properties
and that constitutes an accident " (Guide I, 51).

" It is known that existence is an accident apper-
taining to all things, and therefore an element

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ATTRIBUTES OF GOD

superadded to their essence. This must evidently
be the case as regards everything the existence of
which is due to some cause ; its existence is an element
superadded to its essence. But as regards a being
whose existence is not due to any cause God alone is
that being, for His existence, as we have said, is
absolute existence and essence are perfectly identical.
He is not a substance to which existence is joined as
an accident, as an additional element. His existence
is always absolute, and has never been a new element or
an accident in Him. Consequently God exists without
possessing the attribute of existence. Similarly He
lives without possessing the attribute of life ; knows
without possessing the attribute of knowledge ; is
omnipotent without possessing the attribute of omni-
potence ; is wise without possessing the attribute of
wisdom. All this reduces itself to one and the same
entity ; there is no plurality in Him " (Guide I, 57).

4. God only describable by negative attributes. For the
reason that human language is misleading when
applied to God, one approximates most nearly to the
truth by speaking of Him in negative terms. It is
preferable to say what He is not than attempt to
describe what He is.

" Know that the negative attributes of God are the
true attributes. They do not include any incorrect
notions or any deficiency whatever in reference to
God ; while positive attributes imply polytheism 8 and
are inadequate. It is now necessary to explain how
negative expressions can in a certain sense be employed
as attributes, and how they are distinguished from
positive attributes. Then I shall show that we cannot
describe the Creator by any means except by negative
attributes.

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

" An attribute does not exclusively belong to the
one object to which it is related ; while qualifying one
thing, it can also be employed to qualify other things,
and is in that case not peculiar to that one thing.
E.g., if you see an object from a distance, and on
enquiring what it is, are told that it is a living being,
you have certainly learnt an attribute of the object
seen, and although that attribute does not exclusively
belong to the object perceived, it expresses that the
object is not a plant or a mineral. Again, if a man is
in a certain house, and you know that something is in
the house but not exactly what, you ask what is in
that house and you are told, not a plant nor a mineral.
You have thereby obtained some special knowledge
of the thing ; you have learnt that it is a living being
although you do not yet know what kind of a living
being it is. The negative attributes have this in
common with the positive, that they necessarily
circumscribe the object to some extent, although such
circumscription consists only in the exclusion of what
otherwise would not be excluded. In the following
point, however, the negative attributes are dis-
tinguished from the positive. The positive attributes
although not peculiar to one thing, describe a portion
of what we desire to know, either some part of its
essence or some of its accidents ; the negative
attributes, on the other hand, do not, as regards the
essence of the thing which we desire to know, in any
way tell us what it is, except it be indirectly, as has
been shown in the instance given by us.

" After this introduction, I would observe that
as has already been shown God's existence is absolute,
that it includes no composition, and that we comprehend
only the fact that He exists, not His essence.9
Consequently it is a false assumption to hold that He

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ATTRIBUTES OF GOD

has any positive attribute ; for He does not possess
existence in addition to His essence. It therefore
cannot be said that the one may be described as
an attribute of the other ; much less has He in
addition to His existence a compound essence, con-
sisting of two constituent elements to which the
attribute could refer ; still less has He accidents
which could be described by an attribute. Hence it
is clear that He has no positive attribute whatever "
(Guide I, 58).

" He is not a magnitude that any quality resulting
from quantity as such could be possessed by Him ; He
is not affected by external influences, and therefore
does not possess any quality resulting from emotion.
He is not subject to physical conditions, and therefore
does not possess strength or similar qualities; He is
not an animate being, that He should have a certain
disposition of the soul or acquire certain properties,
as meekness, modesty, etc., or be in a state to which
animate beings as such are subject, as, e.g., in that of
health or illness. Hence it follows that no attribute
coming under the head of quality, in its widest sense,
can be predicated of God. Consequently, these three
classes of attributes, describing the essence of a thing,
or part of the essence, or a quality of it, are clearly
inadmissible in reference to God, for they imply
composition, which is out of question as regards the
Creator. We say, with regard to this latter point,
that He is absolutely One " (Guide I, 52).

The view which Maimonides held of the divine
attributes led him to the paradoxical conclusion that
the greater our knowledge of God, the less are we able
to affirm of Him.

" The following question might perhaps be asked :
Since there is no possibility of obtaining a knowledge

9*

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

of the true essence of God, and since it has also been
proved that the only thing that man can apprehend
of Him is the fact that He exists, and that all positive
attributes are inadmissible, as has been shown ; what
is the difference among those who have obtained a
knowledge of God ? Must not the knowledge obtained
by our teacher Moses and by Solomon be the same
as that obtained by any one of the lowest class of
philosophers, since there can be no addition to this
knowledge ? But, on the other hand, it is generally
accepted among theologians and also among philo-
sophers that there can be a great difference between
two persons as regards the knowledge of God obtained
by them.

" Know that this is really the case, that those who
have obtained a knowledge of God differ greatly from
each other, for in the same way as by each additional
attribute an object is more specified and is brought
nearer to the true apprehension of the observer, so by
each additional negative attribute you advance toward
the knowledge of God, and you are nearer to it than he
who does not negative, in reference to God, those
qualities which you are convinced by proof must be
negatived. There may thus be a man who after having
earnestly devoted many years to the pursuit of one
science and to the true understanding of its principles,
till he is fully convinced of its truths, has obtained as
the sole result of this study the conviction that a certain
quality must be negatived in reference to God, and the
capacity of demonstrating that it is impossible to
apply it to Him. . . .

" It will now be clear to you that every time you
establish by proof the negation of a thing in reference
to God, you become more perfect ; while with
every additional positive assertion you follow your

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ATTRIBUTES OF GOD

imagination and recede from the true knowledge of
God " (Guide I, 59).

5. The Unity of God. Having expounded Maimonides'
general view of God's attributes, we may proceed
to deal with specific qualities. First in import-
ance is the Unity of God. Maimonides places it
second in his enumeration of the Scriptural com-
mandments.

" The second ordinance is the commandment which
He commanded us to believe firmly in the Unity,
i.e., we should believe that the Maker of existence and
its First Cause is One ; according to His declaration,
' Hear, O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is
One' (Deut. vi. 4). In many passages of Rabbinic
literature you will find such statements as, ' On
condition that you proclaim the Unity of My name ',
' On condition that you proclaim My Unity ', etc.
By such a phrase they intend that He in fact redeemed
us from bondage and performed for us the benefits
and kindnesses which He did, on the condition that
we believe in the Unity ; and we are indeed under this
obligation. The Rabbis often speak of ' the command-
ment concerning the Unity '. They further designate
this commandment ' the sovereignty of Heaven ' ;
they use the expression ' for the purpose of receiving
upon oneself the yoke of the kingdom of Heaven '
meaning the acknowledgment of the Unity 10 and the
belief therein " (Mitswot, Command. II).

The Unity of God is likewise the second of the
Principles of Faith which he formulated, and he
states it in the following terms :

" This implies that this Cause of all is one ; not
one of a genus or of a species, and not as one human
being who is a compound divisible into many unities ;

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

not a unity like the ordinary material body which is
one in number but takes on endless divisions and
parts. But He, the exalted One, is a unity in the sense
that there is no unity like His in any way. This is
the second cardinal doctrine of Faith which is
indicated by the assertion, ' Hear, Israel, the Lord
is our God, the Lord is One ' " (C.M., Introduction
to Helek).

" God is one ; He is not two or more than two,
but one. The oneness of any of the single things
existent in the Universe is unlike His Unity. He is
not one as a species, since this includes numerous
individuals ; nor one as a body, since this is divisible
into parts and sections ; but a Unity which is unique
in the world.

" If there were several deities, they would neces-
sarily be corporeal; because things that can be
numbered, which are alike in their essence, are
distinguishable one from another only by the accidents
which occur in bodily forms. If, then, the Creator
were corporeal, He would have limitations, because
it is impossible for a body to be without a limit ; and
everyone whose body has a limit must likewise be
limited in power.

" As for our God, blessed be His name, since His
power is without limit and never ceases, seeing that
the Sphere revolves continuously, His power must be
other than physical strength. And since He is not a
body, the accidents of bodies cannot occur to Him,
so that He should be divided and distinguished from
any other being. Consequently it is impossible that
He should be other than One " (Yad, Yesode ha-Torah

I. 7).

Maimonides advances several proofs for God's
Unity. One which is based on his philosophical

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ATTRIBUTES OF GOD

Propositions is too intricate to quote ; but the following
are more easily understood.

" If there were two Gods, they would necessarily
have one element in common by virtue of which they
were Gods, and another element by which they were
distinguished from each other and existed as two
Gods. The distinguishing element would either be
in both different from the property common to both
in that case both of them would consist of different
elements and neither of them would be the First Cause,
or have absolutely independent existence. But their
existence would depend on certain causes 11 or the
distinguishing element would only in one of them be
different from the element common to both : then
that being could not have absolute independence.

" Another proof of the Unity of God. It has been
demonstrated by proof that the whole existing world
is one organic body, all parts of which are connected
together" ; also, that the influences of the Spheres
above pervade the earthly substance and prepare it
for its forms. Hence it is impossible to assume that
one deity be engaged in forming one part and another
deity in forming another part of that organic body,
of which all parts are closely connected together. A
duality could only be imagined in this way, either that
at one time the one deity is active, the other at another
time, or that both act simultaneously, nothing being
done except by both together. The first alternative
is certainly absurd for many reasons ; if at the time
the one deity be active the other could also be active,
there is no reason why the one deity should then act
and the other not ; if, on the other hand, it be impos-
sible for the one deity to act when the other is at work,
there must be some other cause besides these deities
which at a certain time enables the one to act and

95

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

disables the other. Such difference would not be
caused by time, since time is without change, and the
object of the action likewise remains one and the same
organic whole. Besides, if two deities existed in this
way, both would be subject to the relations of time,
since their actions would depend on time T 3 ; they would
also in the moment of acting pass from potentiality to
actuality and require an agent for such transition ;
their essence would besides include possibility of
existence. H

" It is equally absurd to assume that both together
produce everything in existence, and that neither of
them does anything alone ; for when a number of
forces must be united for a certain result, none of
these forces acts of its own accord, and none is by
itself the immediate cause of that result, but their
union is the immediate cause. It has, furthermore,
been proved that the action of the absolute cannot
be due to an external cause. J 5 The union is also an
act which presupposes a cause effecting that union,
and if that cause be one, it is undoubtedly God ; but
if it also consists of a number of separate forces, a
cause is required for the combination of these forces,
as in the first case. Finally, one simple being must
be arrived at that is the cause of the existence of the
Universe which is one whole. It would make no
difference whether we assumed that the First Cause
had produced the Universe by creatio ex nihilo, or
whether the Universe co-existed with the First Cause.
It is thus clear how we can prove the Unity of God
from the fact that this Universe is one whole " (Guide
II, i).

6. The Incorporeality of God. Inseparably connected
with the doctrine of God's Unity is that of His

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ATTRIBUTES OF GOD

Incorporeality. Maimonides usually couples them
together in his philosophical discussions. He makes
it the third of his Principles of Faith.

" The removal of materiality from God. This
signifies that this Unity is not a body nor the power
of a body, nor can the accidents of bodies overtake
Him, as, e.g., motion and rest, whether in the essential
or accidental sense. . . . Wherever in the
Scriptures God is spoken of with the attributes of
material bodies, like motion, standing, sitting, speaking
and such like, all these are figures of speech, as the
Sages said, ' The Torah speaks in the language of
men ' " (C.M., Introduction to Helek).

" Behold it is explicitly taught in the Torah and the
Prophets that the Holy One, blessed be He, is not
corporeal ; as it is said, * The Lord He is God in heaven
above and upon the earth beneath ' (Deut. iv. 39).
But a body cannot be in two places at the same time !
It is further said, ' Ye saw no manner of form ' (ibid.,
15) ; and it is also stated, ' To whom then will ye
liken Me that I should be equal ? ' (Isa. xl. 25). Were
He a body, He would be like other bodies.

" If it be so that He is incorporeal, what of the
Scriptural phrases : ' under His feet ' (Exod. xxiv. 10),
' written with the finger of God ' (ibid. xxxi. 18), ' the
hand of the Lord ' (ibid. ix. 3), ' the eyes of the Lord '
(Deut. xi. 12), ' the ears of the Lord ' (Numb. xi. 18),
and other expressions * like these ? All these terms
are used in accordance with the mental capacity of
human beings who can only comprehend corporeal
beings. The Torah therefore speaks in human
language, and all these are merely metaphorical
expressions, the same as ' If I whet My glittering
sword ' (Deut. xxxii. 41). Has He, then, a sword, or
does He slay with a sword ! It is only a simile ; and

97

7

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

in like manner all the expressions quoted above are
metaphorical.

" A proof of this is that one Prophet declares that
he saw the Holy One, blessed be He, ' His garment
white as snow ' (Dan. vii. 9), whereas another saw
Him 'with crimsoned garments' (Isa. Ixiii. i). Moses,
our teacher, himself saw Him by the Red Sea like a
warrior waging battle (Exod. xv. 3), and upon Sinai
like the leader of a congregation wrapped in the Tallit 1 *
proving that He had neither likeness nor form, but
all this was only in prophetic imagery and vision "
(Yad, Yesode ha-Torah, I, 8f).

As with the Unity of God, Maimonides proves His
incorporeality with the aid of the philosophical
Propositions. Another argument offered by him is :

" Every corporeal object is composed of matter
and form 1 ? ; every compound of these two elements
requires an agent for effecting their combination.
Besides, it is evident that a body is divisible and has
dimensions ; a body is thus undoubtedly subject to
accidents. Consequently nothing corporeal can be a
unity, either because everything corporeal is divisible
or because it is a compound ; that is to say, it can
logically be analysed into two elements ; because a
body can only be said to be a certain body when the
distinguishing element is added to the corporeal sub-
stratum, and must therefore include two elements ;
but it has been proved that the Absolute admits of
no dualism whatever " (Guide II, i).

7. God is timeless and spaceless. The fourth of the
Principles of Faith is called by Maimonides " The
Priority of God ", which he defines as follows : " This
means that the Unity Whom we have described is
first in the absolute sense. No existent thing outside

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ATTRIBUTES OF GOD

Him is primary in relation to Him" (CM., Introd. to
IjiileK). Treating this idea from the philosophical
standpoint, he insists that time has no meaning with
reference to God.

" When we say God is the First, to express that He
has not been created, the term ' First ' is decidedly
inaccurate, for it can in its true sense only be applied
to a being that is subject to the relation of time ; the
latter, however, is an accident to motion which again
is connected with a body. Besides the attribute
' first ' is a relative term, being in regard to time the
same as the terms ' long ' and ' short ' are in regard to
a line. Both expressions, ' first * and ' created ', are
equally inadmissible in reference to any being to which
the attribute of time is not applicable, just as we do
not say ' crooked ' or ' straight ' in reference to taste,
' salted ' or ' insipid ' in reference to the voice.

" These subjects are not unknown to those who
have accustomed themselves to seek a true under-
standing of the things, and to establish their properties
in accordance with the abstract notions which the mind
has formed of them, and who are not misled by the
inaccuracy of the words employed. All attributes,
such as ' the first ', ' the last ', occurring in the
Scriptures in reference to God, are as metaphorical as
the expressions ' ear ' and ' eye '. They simply
signify that God is not subject to any change or
innovation whatever ; they do not imply that God
can be described by time, or that there is any
comparison between Him and any other being as
regards time, and that He is called on that account
' the first ' and ' the last ' " (Guide I, 57).

" It is quite dear that there is no relation between
God and time or space. For time is an accident
connected with motion, in so far as the latter includes

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

the relation of anteriority and posteriority, and is
expressed by number, l8 as is explained in books devoted
to this subject ; and since motion is one of the
conditions to which only material bodies are subject,
and God is immaterial, there can be no relation between
Him and time. Similarly there is no relation between
Him and space "*9 (Guide I, 52).

8. God and the impossible. Although Maimonides
firmly held the doctrine of divine omnipotence, he yet
maintains that there are things impossible for God
to do.

" That which is impossible has a permanent and
constant property which is not the result of some
agent and cannot in any way change, and consequently
we do not ascribe to God the power of doing what is
impossible. No thinking man denies the truth of this
maxim ; none ignore it but such as have no idea of
Logic. There is, however, a difference of opinion
among philosophers with reference to the existence of
any particular thing. Some of them consider its
existence to be impossible and hold that God cannot
produce the thing in question, whilst others think that
it is possible, and that God can create it if He pleases
to do so. E.g., all philosophers consider that it is
impossible for one substratum to have at the same
moment two opposite properties, or for the elementary
components of a thing, substance and accident, to
interchange, so that the substance becomes accident
and the accident becomes substance, or for a material
substance to be without accident. Likewise it is
impossible that God should produce a being like
Himself, or annihilate, corporify or change Himself.
The power of God is not assumed to extend to any of

these impossibilities

100

ATTRIBUTES OF GOD

" There are things which are impossible, whose
existence cannot be admitted, and whose creation is
excluded from the power of God ; and the assumption
that God does not change their nature does not imply
weakness in God or a limit to His power. Conse-
quently things impossible remain impossible, and do
not depend on the action of an agent " (Guide III, 15).

We may here insert Maimonides' explanation of
miracles. It is based on a Rabbinic theory. The
difficulty they raise is that a change in the laws of
Nature seems to imply a change in the will of God and
would be an imputation against His perfect knowledge.
If He foresaw the special circumstances which required
the performance of the miracle, why did He not provide
in advance means for meeting that contingency ? The
reply which Maimonides makes is that God did make
that provision. The miracle was ordained at the time
of Creation and thus comes within the laws of Nature.

" Our Sages said very strange things as regards
miracles they are found in Bereshit Rabba and in
Midrash Kohelet viz., that the miracles are to some
extent also natural ; for they say, when God created
the Universe with its present physical properties, He
made it part of these properties that they should
produce certain miracles at certain times, and the sign
of a Prophet consisted in the fact that God told him to
declare when a certain thing will take place, but the
thing itself was effected according to the fixed laws
of Nature. If this is really the meaning of the passage
referred to, it testifies to the greatness of the author,
and sho\vs that he held it to be impossible that there
should be a change in the laws of Nature or a change
in the will of God as regards the physical properties
of things after they have once been established "
(Guide II, 29),

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

9. God's Knowledge. Maimonides' view on this
attribute is that it is incomprehensible to the human
mind, because " knowledge " as ascribed to God has
no similarity with the knowledge possessed by man.
God's knowledge is identical with His essence. " He
is His knowledge, and His Knowledge is He ", is his
final conclusion (C.M., Eight Chapters VIII).

"The Holy One, blessed be He, perceives His
essence and knows it just as it is. But He does
not know with a knowledge which is distinct from
Himself in the manner that we know. We and our
knowledge are not one ; but with the Creator, blessed
be He, He, His knowledge and His life are one from
every point of view and in every mode of Unity. If
He were a living being with life, and cognisant with a
knowledge, distinct from Himself, there would be
several deities, viz., He, His life and His knowledge.* 1
This, however, is not so ; but He is one from every
point of view and in every mode of Unity.

" Hence you may say that He is the knower, the
known and knowledge itself all in one. Such an idea
as this the mouth has not the power of expressing,
nor the ear of grasping, nor the human mind of
perfectly comprehending. ... He does not
perceive creatures and know them by means of the
creatures, as we know them ; but He knows them by
means of Himself, so that from that fact that He knows
Himself, He knows everything, because everything is
dependent for its existence upon Him " (Yad, Yesode
ha-Torah II, 10).

The statement that God is " the knower, the known
and knowledge itself all in one " is demonstrated in the
Guide :

" There is no doubt that he who has not studied
any works on mental philosophy, who has not

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ATTRIBUTES OF GOD

comprehended the nature of the mind, who has no know-
ledge of its essence, and considers it in no other way
than he would consider the nature of whiteness and of
blackness, will find this subject extremely difficult, and
to him our principle that the intellectus, the intelligent
and the intelligibile^ are in God one and the same
thing, will appear as unintelligible as if we said that
the whiteness, the whitening substance and the material
which is whitened are one and the same thing. And,
indeed, many ignorant people refute at once our
principle by using such comparisons. Even amongst
those who imagine that they are wise, many find this
subject difficult and are of opinion that it is impossible
for the mind to grasp the truth of this proposition,
although it is a demonstrated truth, as has been shown
by Metaphysicians. . . .

" All intellect is identical with its actions ; the
ihtellect in action is not a thing different from its
action, for the true nature and essence of the intellect
is comprehension, and you must not think that the
intellect in action is a thing existing by itself, separate
from comprehension, and that comprehension is a
different thing connected with it ; for the essence of the
intellect is comprehension. In assuming an intellect
in action you assume the comprehension of the thing
comprehended. . . .

" Now it has been proved that God is an intellect
which always is in action and that there is in Him at
no time a mere potentiality, that He does comprehend
at one time and is without comprehension at another
time, but He comprehends constantly ; consequently
He and the things comprehended are one and the same
thing, that is to say, His essence^ ; and the act of
comprehending because of which it is said that He
comprehends, is the intellect itself, which is likewise

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

His essence ; God is therefore always the intettectus,
the intelligent and the intelligibile.

" We have thus shown that the identity of the
intellect, the intelligent and the intelligibile, is not only
a fact as regards the Creator, but as regards all
intellect when in action. a 5 There is, however, this
difference, that from time to time our intellect passes
over from mere potentiality to reality, and that the
pure intellect, i.e., the active intellect, finds some-
times obstacles, though not in itself but accidentally
in some external cause. . . . God alone, and
none besides Him, is an intellect constantly in action,
and there is, neither in Himself nor in anything beside
Him, any obstacle whereby His comprehension would
be hindered. Therefore He always includes the
intelligent, the intellectus and the intelligibile, and His
essence is at the same time the intelligent, the
intelligibile and the intellectus, as is necessarily the case
with all intellect in action " (Guide I, 68).

If it be true that God's knowledge is identical with
His essence, it must be absolute. It cannot change
and it cannot increase ; it remains constant.

" It is generally agreed upon that God cannot at a
certain time acquire knowledge which He did not
possess previously ; it is further impossible that His
knowledge should include any plurality, even according
to those who admit the Divine attributes. As these
things have been fully proved, we, who assert the
teaching of the Torah, believe that God's knowledge
of many things does not imply any plurality ; His
knowledge does not change like ours when the objects
of His knowledge change.

" Similarly we say that the various events are
known to Him before they take place ; He constantly
knows them, and therefore no fresh knowledge is

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ATTRIBUTES OF GOD

acquired by Him. E.g., He knows that a certain
person is non-existent at present, will come to existence
at a certain time, will continue to exist for some time
and will then cease to exist. When this person, in
accordance with God's foreknowledge concerning him,
comes into existence, God's knowledge is not increased ;
it contains nothing that it did not contain before, but
something has taken place that was known previously
exactly as it has taken place. This theory implies
that God's knowledge extends to things not in
existence and includes also the infinite. We never-
theless accept it, and contend that we may attribute
to God the knowledge of a thing which does not yet
exist, but the existence of which God foresees and is
able to effect. But that which never exists cannot be
an object of His knowledge ; just as our knowledge
does not comprise things which we consider as
non-existing " (Guide III, 20).

" Our knowledge is acquired and increased in
proportion to the things known by us. This is not the
case with God. His knowledge of things is not derived
from the things themselves ; if this were the case,
there would be change and plurality in His knowledge ;
on the contrary, the things are in accordance with His
eternal knowledge, which has established their actual
properties and made part of them purely spiritual,
another part material and constant as regards its
individual members, a third part material and change-
able as regards the individual beings according to
eternal and constant laws. Plurality, acquisition and
change in His knowledge is therefore impossible. He
fully knows His unchangeable essence, and has thus a
knowledge of all that results from any of His acts.

" It we were to try to understand in what manner
this is done, it would be the same as if we tried to be

105

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

the same as God and to make our knowledge identical
with His knowledge.* 6 Those who seek the truth and
admit what is true must believe that nothing is hidden
from God ; that everything is revealed to His knowledge
which is identical with His essence ; that this kind of
knowledge cannot be comprehended by us ; for if we
knew its method, we would possess that intellect by
which such knowledge could be acquired. Such
intellect does not exist except in God, and is at the
same time His essence " (Guide III, 21).

The problem of God's knowledge and man's free
will is discussed in Chapter VIII, 6.

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CHAPTER IV
THE WORSHIP OF GOD

i. God alone to be worshipped. The fifth Principle of
Faith declares :

" That it is He (be He exalted !) Who must be
worshipped, aggrandised, and made known by His
greatness and the obedience shown to Him. This
must not be done to any existing beings lower than
He not to the Angels nor the Spheres nor the
elements, or the things which are compounded from
them. For these are all fashioned in accordance with
the works they are intended to perform. They have
no judgment or free will, but only a love for Him
(be He exalted !). Let us adopt no mediators to
enable ourselves to draw near unto God, but let the
thoughts be directed to Him, and turned away from
whatsoever is below Him. This fifth principle is a
prohibition of idolatry. The greater part of the Torah
is taken up with the prohibition of idol-worship"
(C.M., Introd. to ffelek).

2. Prayer. Since God is worshipped mainly through
prayer, we first give Maimonides' teachings on this
subject.

" We are told to offer up prayers to God, in order
to establish firmly the true principle that God takes
notice of our ways, that He can make them successful
if we worship Him or disastrous if we disobey Him,
that success and failure are not the result of chance

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

or accident. . . . For the belief of the people
that their troubles are mere accidents 1 causes them to
continue in their evil principles and their wrong actions,
and prevents them from abandoning their evil ways.
. . . For this reason God commanded us to pray
to Him, to entreat Him, and to cry before Him in time
of trouble " (Guide III, 36).

This is the lowest form of prayer, viz., petition ;
the higher form, viz., communion, is indicated in the
following passage :

" We must bear in mind that all such religious acts
as reading the Torah, praying, and the performance of
other precepts, serve exclusively as the means of
causing us to occupy and fill our mind with the precepts
of God and free it from worldly business ; for we are
thus, as it were, in communication with God and
undisturbed by any other thing. If we, however,
pray with the motion of our lips and our face toward
the wall,* but at the same time think of our business ;
if we read the Torah with our tongue whilst our heart
is occupied with the building of our house, and we do
not think of what we are reading ; if we perform the
commandments only with our limbs, we are like those
who are engaged in digging in the ground or hewing
wood in the forest, without reflecting on the nature of
those acts, or by Whom they are commanded, or what
is their object. We must not imagine that in this way
we attain the highest perfection ; on the contrary, we
are then like those in reference to whom Scripture
says, * Thou art near in their mouth, and far from their
reins ' (Jer. xii. 2). . . .

" Turn your thoughts away from everything while
you read the Shema' or during the Tefillahj and do not
content yourself with being devout when you read the
first verse of the Shema' or the first paragraph of the

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THE WORSHIP OF GOD

TefillahA When you have successfully practised this
for many years, try in reading the Torah or listening
to it, 5 to have all your heart and all your thought
occupied with understanding what you read or hear.
After some time when you have mastered this, accustom
yourself to have your mind free from all other thoughts
when you read any portion of the other books of the
Prophets, or when you say any blessing, and to have
your attention directed exclusively to the perception
and the understanding of what you utter. When you
have succeeded in properly performing these acts of
divine service, and you have your thought, during their
performance, entirely abstracted from worldly affairs,
take then care that your thought be not disturbed by
thinking of your wants or of superfluous things. In
short, think of worldly matters when you eat, drink,
bathe, talk with your wife and little children, or when
you converse with other people. These times, which
are frequent and long, I think, must suffice to you for
reflecting on everything that is necessary as regards
business, household and health. But when you are
engaged in the performance of religious duties, have
your mind exclusively directed to what you are
doing.

" When you are alone by yourself, when you are
awake on your couch, be careful to meditate in such
precious moments on nothing but the intellectual
worship of God, viz., to approach Him and to minister
before Him in the true manner which I have described
to you not in hollow emotions. This I consider as
the highest perfection wise men can attain by the above
training " (Guide III, 51).

In a remarkable passage in his Pirke ha-Hatslalfrah,
" Chapters of Bliss ", 6 Maimonides describes the effects
of ecstatic prayer.

IOQ

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

praises, glorifies, and yearns with an ardent longing to
know the great God. As David said, ' My soul thirsteth
for God, for the living God ' (Ps. xlii. 3). And when
one reflects upon these very things, he immediately
starts back, is struck with fear and terror, and is
conscious that he is a creature insignificant, lowly and
immature, standing with only a slight and scanty
knowledge ; as David said, ' When I consider Thy
heavens, the work of Thy fingers . . . what is
man that Thou art mindful of him ? ' (Ps. viii. 4f) "
(Yad, Yesode ha-Torah II, if).

" He commanded us to love Him (exalted be He),
in that we should reflect and meditate upon His
ordinances, decrees and deeds until we comprehend
Him and delight with extreme pleasure in the compre-
hension of Him. That is the love prescribed for us.
. . . The Rabbis declared that this commandment
also includes the idea that we should invite all mankind
to His worship and to belief in Him. 8 Exactly as,
when you love a person, you proclaim his praises and
eulogise him and invite other people to be friendly
with him, soby way of simile- when you love God
truly in accordance with the comprehension of His
essence which has been attained by you, you will
undoubtedly invite the careless and ignorant to know
the truth which you know. . . .

" He commanded us to believe firmly in the fear
of Him (exalted be He), and the dread of Him, and
not be like those confident people who rest in security.
On the contrary, we should stand in awe of the
imposition of His punishment at all times " (Mitswot,
Command. Hlf).

Although both these emotions are aroused in man,
the feeling of love should predominate as the motive
for the worship of God.

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THE WORSHIP OF GOD

" Let not a man say, I will fulfil the commandments
of the Torah, occupy myself with its wisdom, for the
purpose of obtaining all the blessings which are written
therein, or for the purpose of meriting the life of the
world to come ; and I will refrain from the trans-
gressions against which the Torah utters a warning
for the purpose of escaping the curses which are written
therein, or for the purpose of not being cut off from the
life of the world to come. It is not becoming to serve
God in this manner ; for He who serves God thus
performs the service from fear, which is" not the
standard of the Prophets or the wise. Indeed, none
serve the Lord in this manner except ignorant men,
or women and children who are taught to serve Him
from fear, until their mind is developed and they
serve Him from love.

" He who serves God from love occupies himself
with the Torah and the commandments and walks in
the paths of wisdom, not for the sake of any worldly
advantage, nor from fear of calamity, nor for the
purpose of acquiring good fortune ; but he practises
truth because it is truth, and the good which is its
consequence follows in due course. This standard is
exceedingly lofty and not every wise man can attain
it. This is the standard which the patriarch Abraham
reached, whom the Holy One, blessed be He, called
His ' friend ' (Isa. xli. 8), because he had served Him
only from love. This is the standard which the Holy
One, blessed be He, ordained for us through Moses ;
as it is said, ' And thou shalt love the Lord thy God '.
For when a man loves the Lord with that love which
is due to Him, he will as a matter of course fulfil all
the commandments from love.

" What is the love which is due to Him ? It is
that one shall love the Lord with a love so great and

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

ardent until his soul is bound up in the love of the
Lord, and consequently he ever grows in it. He is
like a love-sick man whose mind is never free from his
love for a certain woman and grows in it whether
sitting or rising, both when eating and drinking
greater even than this must be the love of God in the
heart of His lovers who continually grow more fervent,
as He commanded us, ' with all thy heart and with all
thy soul '. That is what Solomon intended when he
said metaphorically, ' For I am lovesick ' (Cant. ii. 5).
The whole of the Song of Songs is an allegory on this
theme " (Yad, Teshubah X, 1-3).

4. Different degrees in worship of God. Since the
worship of God depends upon the " knowledge " of
God and men inevitably differ in their capacity for
attaining this knowledge, it must follow that there
are different degrees in the worship of Him. Maimon-
ides explains this by means of a parable :

" A king is in his palace, and all his subjects are
partly in the country and partly abroad. Of the
former, some have their backs turned towards the
king's palace and their faces in another direction ; and
some are desirous and zealous to go to the palace,
seeking ' to inquire in his temple ' and to minister
before him, but have not yet seen even the face of the
wall of the house. Of those that desire to go to the
palace, some reach it and go round about in search of
the entrance gate ; others have passed through the
gate and walk about in the ante-chamber ; and others
have succeeded in entering into the inner part of the
palace and being in the same room with the king in
the royal palace. But even the latter do not
immediately on entering the palace see the king or
speak to him ; for, after having entered the inner part

114

THE WORSHIP OF GOD

of the palace, another effort is required before they can
stand before the king at a distance or close by hear
his words, or speak to him.

" I will now explain the simile which I have made.
The people who are abroad are all those that have no
religion, neither one based on speculation nor one
received by tradition. Such are the extreme Turks
that wander about in the North,9 the Kushites 10 who
live in the South, and those in our country who are
like these. I consider these as irrational beings and
not as human beings ; they are below mankind but
above monkeys, since they have the form and shape
of man and a mental faculty above that of the monkey.

" Those who are in the country, but have their
backs turned towards the king's palace, are those who
possess religion, belief and thought, but happen to
hold false doctrines, which they either adopted in
consequence of great mistakes made in their own
speculations or received from others who misled them.
Because of these doctrines they recede more and more
from the royal palace the more they seem to proceed.
These are worse than the first class, and under certain
circumstances it may become necessary to slay them
and to extirpate their doctrines, in order that others
should not be misled. 11

" Those who desire to arrive at the palace and to
enter it, but have never yet seen it, are the mass of
religious people; the multitude that observe the
divine commandments but are ignorant. Those who
arrive at the palace but go round about it are those
who devote themselves exclusively to the study of the
practical law; they believe traditionally in true
principles of faith and learn the practical worship of
God, but are not trained in philosophical treatment
of the principles of the Torah, and do not endeavour to

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

establish the truth of their faith by proof. Those who
undertake to investigate the principles of religion
have come into the ante-chamber ; and there is no
doubt that these can also be divided into different
grades. But those who have succeeded in finding a
proof for everything that can be proved, who have a
true knowledge of God so far as a true knowledge can
be attained, and are near the truth wherever an
approach to the truth is possible, they have reached
the goal and are in the palace in which the king lives "
(Guide III, 51)

Like Hillel who affirmed that " the ignorant man
cannot be pious "," Maimonides despised those men
whose religion consisted in a blind, unquestioning
performance of ritual without any rational basis to
support it. In his Ethical Will which he addressed
to his son, he warns him against intercourse with the
Jfcws of certain districts, " because they are greater
fools, in my estimation, than all other men, although
they are extremely orthodox ; but God being my
witness, I regard them as no better than the Karaites^
who deny the Oral Law, since all their occupation with
the Torah, Scriptures and Talmud is brainless "
(Responsa II, 4ob).

5. Judaism and other Religions. Maimonides
naturally believed that of all religions Judaism was
the only Faith revealed by God, and it alone was in
every respect true. He declared :

" The desire of the other religions is to make their
falsehoods resemble the Faith instituted by God ; but
the divine work cannot be like the handiwork of man
except to a child who has no knowledge of either.
The difference between our religion and the other
religions, to which it is sought to liken them, is none

116

THE WORSHIP OF GOD

other than like the difference between the living,
sentient man and the image carved by the workman
from wood, or moulded from such metals as silver or
gold, or sculptured from a block of marble or other
stone and shaped into human form. The fool who
knows neither the divine wisdom nor human work, on
beholding that image resembling a man in all his visible
exterior and like to him in build and appearance,
thinks that it was made in exactly the same way as
the human being is made, since he is ignorant of the
internality of both ; but the- wise man, who possesses
that knowledge, is aware that inside the image there is
no functioning organ " (Iggeret Teman, Response* II, sa).

For all his exclusive attachment to Judaism,
Maimonides adopted a remarkably tolerant attitude
towards other religions. Although he, of course,
regarded Jesus and Mohammed as false prophets,
mainly on the ground that their teachings often
militated against the unchangeable ordinances of the
Torah, he yet refers to their activities as being, under
God's wisdom, " nothing else than a means for
preparing the way for the king Messiah " (Yad,
Melachim XI, 4). J 4 In other words, the two daughter-
religions, were the means of spreading the knowledge
of Israel's God and thereby hastened the advent of
His Kingdom.

In answer to a correspondent he wrote : " It is
permissible to teach Christians the commandments
and the doctrine of reward and punishment, for a
considerable number of them may recant. They
acknowledge that our Torah was given to us from
heaven by our teacher Moses (peace be upon him !),
and it is regarded in its entirety by them as Holy Writ,
although they at times interpret it wrongly " (Responsa
I, i4b).

117

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

Of the Mohammedans he wrote : " They are in no
way idolaters, and idol-worship has long passed from
their mouth and heart. They ascribe Unity to God as
is proper, a Unity without defect. . . . And if
anyone should say that the temple which they praise
is a house of idolatry and idol-worship^ is stored
there which their fathers used to worship ; what if
they do prostrate themselves before it to-day, so long
as their heart is directed to heaven ! " (Responsa

I, 34d.)

Towards the sect of Karaites, who practised the
ordinances of the Pentateuch but refused to acknow-
ledge the authority of the Oral Law as expounded by
the Rabbis, he likewise assumed a liberal attitude.
Although most of his contemporaries regarded them
with bitter hostility, he declared : " These Karaites,
who reside here in No-Ammon, Egypt, Damascus,
and other places of Arabia and elsewhere, deserve
to be treated with respect, and we should associate
with them and conduct ourselves towards them with
humility, truth and peace, so long as they, on their
side, conduct themselves towards us properly, cease to
slander the Rabbis of our time, and especially with-
hold their gibes at the words of the sainted Rabbis of
the Mishnah and Talmud, in whose teachings and
customs, established for us by their command and by
the command of Moses, derived from God, we walk.
On those conditions, it is proper for us to respect
them, inquire after their welfare even in their own
homes, circumcise their children even on the Sabbath, ^
bury their dead and mourn with them in their bereave-
ments " (Responsa I, 350).

In reply to a proselyte who inquired whether, when
reciting the Hebrew liturgy in private or with the
Congregation, it was right for him to utter such phrases

118

THE WORSHIP OF GOD

as " Our God and God of our fathers 'V? " Who hast
sanctified us with Thy commandments and com-
manded us ", " Who brought us out of the land of
Egypt ", etc., he wrote :

11 It is your duty to say them all as prescribed and
do not change a single word. Exactly as the man
born an Israelite prays, so do you likewise whether you
pray in private or whether you conduct a service in
public. The root of the matter is that our father
Abraham it was who taught all peoples and informed
them of the true religion and the Unity of God, spurned
idolatry and overthrew its worship, brought many
children beneath the wings of the Shechinah and
instructed them, and exhorted his sons and the members
of his household to observe the way of the Lord.
Therefore every one who becomes a convert until the
end of all generations, and every one who acknowledges
the Unity of God as it is written in the Torah, is a
disciple of our father Abraham and a member of his
household. . . . Consequently Abraham is the
father of his seed, the pure ones who walk in his ways,
and the father of his disciples, viz., proselytes. For
that reason you have the right to say, ' Our God and
God of our fathers ', because the patriarch Abraham is
your father. . . . Let not your descent be
lightly esteemed in your eyes. If we trace our
genealogical tree to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, you
may trace yours to the Creator of the Universe "
(Responsa I, 34a, b). 18

In agreement with Rabbinical teaching he main-
tained : " You must know that the Merciful One
demands the heart, *9 and the criterion is the intention
of the heart. Therefore the teachers of truth, our
Rabbis, declared, ' The pious of the gentiles have a
portion in the world to come ', ao if they have attained

119

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

what is due from them to attain relative to a knowledge
of the Creator, and corrected their soul with the
virtues. And there is no doubt about the matter
that whoever corrects his soul with purity of morals
and purity of knowledge in the faith of the Creator will
assuredly be of the children of the world to come. On
that account our Rabbis stated, ' Even the gentile
who occupies himself with the Torah of Moses is equal
to the High Priest ' " (Responsa II, 2^d et set].).

6. Idolatry. The point which is most strongly
emphasised in the fifth Principle of Faith is that there
must be no intermediary between God and man. To
interpose any obj ect of worship is idolatry. Maimonides
very acutely points out that the idol-worshipper does
not necessarily believe that the image of wood and
stone is actually a deity with power to respond to
prayer, but the image is the intermediary whose task
it is to act on behalf of the Creator. This is an
interpretation confirmed by modern anthropological
science.

" You must know that idolaters when worshipping
idols do not believe that there is no God besides them ;
and no idolater ever did assume that any image made
of metal, stone or wood has created the heavens and
the earth, and still governs them. Idolatry is founded
on the idea that a particular form represents the agent
between God and His creatures " (Guide I, 36).

Maimonides attempts to trace how idolatry came
into the world and corrupted the religious faith of
mankind.

" In the days of Enosh,** the sons of men made a
grievous error. Even the counsel of the wise men of
that generation was perverted, and Enosh himself
was also one of those who erred. Their error was this :

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THE WORSHIP OF GOD

They said, Since God created these planets and
Spheres to control the Universe, set them in the heights
and invested them with glory, and they are servants
which minister before Him, they must be worthy of
being praised and glorified, and having homage paid
to them. This must be the will of God, blessed be
He, that we should exalt and glorify whatever He has
exalted and made glorious ; just as a king desires that
those who attend on him should be honoured since
that is honour paid to the king himself.

" When this idea entered their mind, they began to
build temples to the planets, offer sacrifices to them,
praise them, glorify them with words, and bow down
to them, for the purpose according to their evil
thought of obtaining the favour of the Creator.
This was the fundamental principle of idolatry, and so
the worshippers who understood its principle used to
declare. They did not assert that there was no God
except that planet. . . .

" Later, as time passed, false prophets arose among
the sons of men, who said that God had commanded
them saying, Worship such and such a planet, or all
the planets ; offer sacrifices and drink-offerings to it in
such and such a manner, build a temple for it, and
make an image of it ; so that all the people, women
and children and all the other inhabitants of the earth
may bow down to it.

" The -false prophet displayed to them an image
which he had invented in his own heart, saying to
them that this was the image of such and such a
planet, which had been revealed to him in his prophecy.
In this manner they began to make images in temples,
under trees, on the tops of mountains and on hills, to
assemble together and bow down to them, declaring
to all the people that this image had the power of

121

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

doing good and harm, and it was proper to worship
and fear it.

" Their priests used to say to them, By this service
you will multiply and prosper ; do such and such and
avoid doing such and such* Then other deceivers
began to arise and declare that the planet itself, or
some Sphere or Angel, spoke to them, saying, Worship
me in such and such a manner describing the mode
of its worship do so and so, avoid doing so and so.
This thing spread throughout the world, viz., the
worship of images with rites differing one from the
other, the offering of sacrifices and prostrating oneself.
After a time, the glorious and revered Name was
forgotten from the mouth and mind of all mortals
and they knew Him not. As the result of this, all the
people of the earth, the women and children, knew
only the image of wood and stone, and the temple
built of stone, to which they were trained from their
infancy to bow down and worship and swear by its
name.

" Even the wise men among them, e.g., their priests,
imagined that there was no other God except the
planets and Spheres, for whose sake and in whose
likeness those images had been made. But as for the
Rock of the Universe, there was no man who perceived
or knew Him, apart from a few individuals in the
world, as, e.g., Enoch, Methuselah, Noah, Shem, and
Eber. In this manner the world went on revolving
until the pillar of the world was born, viz., Abraham
our father " (Yad, Akum I, if).

7. Superstition a form of idolatry. Consistent with
the teaching that the destinies of man are decreed by
God alone, Maimonides denied the existence of influ-
ences other than those controlled by the Creator

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THE WORSHIP OF GOD

which can affect the life of the human being. This
denial cuts at the root of superstition, against which
he has strong things to say in his writings. Despite
the fact that even in the literature of the Rabbis
frequent reference is made to " evil spirits ", he refuses
to regard them as real entities. Thus the phrase ruafy
ra'ah is explained by him to mean in one place
" melancholia " (C.M., Shabbat, II, 5), and in another
" Any injury which befalls a man not through the
action of his fellow, whatever the cause be " (C.M.,
Erubin IV, i).

Although, according to his theory, the Spheres are
a channel through which the will of the Creator passes
to earth, he sternly denounces astrology as a delusion
and a falsehood.*** He considers it as coming within
the category of idolatry.

" Witchcraft is intimately connected with astrology;
those that practise it assign each plant, animal or
mineral to a certain star, and believe that the above
processes of witchcraf t*3 are different forms of worship
offered to that star, which is pleased with that act,
word, or offering of incense, and fulfils their wishes "
(Guide III, 37).

" Thou mayest not believe the absurd ideas of
astrologers, who falsely assert that the constellation
at the time of one's birth determines whether one is
to be virtuous or vicious, the individual being thus
necessarily compelled to follow out a certain line of
conduct " (C.M., Eight Chapters VIII).

" I know that nearly all men are led greatly astray
in matters of this kind and think there is some reality
in them ; but it is not so. There are even good and
pious men of our own Faith who think there is reality
in these practices, but they are only, forbidden by the
Torah. They do not understand that these things are

123

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

hollow frauds, and we are commanded by the Torah
not to practise them in the same way as it warns us
against falsehood " (C.M., Abod. Zar. IV, 7).

" Remove this belief in astrology from your heart,
cleanse your mind of it, and wash your intellect as
people remove filth from soiled garments by washing ;
because there is nothing real in all these things. No
sound scholars, even those who do not believe the
Torah, hold them as true ; how much less, then, those
who accept the Torah " (Iggeret Teman, Responsa
II, 5b).

" Know, my masters, that the whole subject of
astrology, whereby people say so and so will happen
or not happen, and the constellation at a man's birth
determines that he should be such and such, and this
will befall him and not that all these things are not
science at all but folly ; and I have irrefutable proofs
with which to destroy their very foundations. Never
has one of the philosophers of Greece, who were true
philosophers, occupied himself with this subject or
written about it in his books. None made the mistake
of calling it a science with the exception of the Chaldeans,
Egyptians and Canaanites, to whom it was a religion in
those days ; but the wise men of Greece, and they were
philosophers, who composed books on the sciences and
studied all wisdom, endeavoured with convincing
proofs to destroy all their theories, root and branch.
Also the wise men of Persia believed that the astrology
of the Chaldeans, Egyptians and Canaanites was
false. . . . Nobody adheres to it except a
simpleton who believes anything or the person who
wishes to deceive others " (Responsa II, 25b).

As with astrology, so with enchantment and omens.
They are not only forbidden by the Torah, but they
are meaningless and senseless.

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THE WORSHIP OF GOD

" We may not practise divination as do the
heathens ; as it is said, ' Ye shall not practise
divination' (Lev. xix. 26). What is divination? As,
e.g., when a person says, Because a piece of my bread
dropped from my mouth, or my stick dropped from
my hand, I will not go to-day to a certain place, for
if I were to go, my business would not be transacted ;
or, because a fox crossed on my right side, I shall not
go outside the door of my house to-day, for if I were
to go out a deceiver will meet me. Similarly those
who listen to the chirping of birds and say that so and
so will happen or not happen, such and such is
advisable to do and something else is not ; or others
who say, Kill this cock which crowed like a raven, or
kill this hen which crowed like a cock. So also the
man who makes omens for himself, saying, If such and
such a thing happen to me, I will do a certain thing,
and if it should not happen to me, I will not do it like
Eleazar, the servant of Abraham (Gen. xxiv.). All
divinations such as these are prohibited. . . .

" All these practices are falsehood and deception,
with which idolaters of old used to mislead the ignorant
masses to be guided by them. It is unfit for Israelites,
who are of a higher mental calibre, to be led away by
these vanities, or bring it upon their minds that there
is the slightest use in them. Whoever believe in such
like things and imagine in their heart that they are
truth and wisdom, but only forbidden by the Torah,
are nothing but fools and weak-minded, or are of the
class of women and children whose intellect is imperfect.
But men of wisdom and enlightened minds know with
irrefutable evidence that all these things, prohibited
by the Torah, are not matters of wisdom, but inanities
by which the weak-minded are led astray, and for the
sake of which they abandon all ways of truth. . . .

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

Therefore the Torah, in warning us against all these
vanities, declares, ' Thou shalt be whole-hearted with
the Lord thy God ' (Deut. xviii. 13) " (Yad, Akum
XI, 4, 16).

" He prohibited us against divination, i.e., that
one should agitate the faculty of conjecture by a mode
of excitation ; because all who possess such a faculty are
they who announce what will take place before it
happens. This is in fact true of them when their faculty
of conjecture is strong, and in most cases it does hit
upon the truth and what is correct.^ In this manner
they perceive what is yet to be ; and they strive for
superiority in this just as all individual persons strive
for superiority, one against the other, in the various
other faculties of the soul. And it is inevitable that
these possessors of the faculty of conjecture, by the
procedure which they adopt,*5 agitate their faculty
an4 display its functioning.

" Some of them strike violent blows with a rod
upon the ground, give vent to extraordinary cries,
make their mind void of thought, and remain silent
with downcast eyes for a long time until a kind
of epileptic condition overtakes them ; then they
announce what will take place. I actually witnessed
this on one occasion in the extreme part of North
Africa. Others throw small stones into a leather
tablecloth and stare at them a long while ; then they
make an announcement. This was a well-known
practice in every place I passed through. Others,
again, throw a long leather strap to the ground, gaze
at it, and make an announcement. The purpose of
all this was to agitate the faculty which is in them,
not that the act itself accomplishes anything or gives
any indication.

" On this point the masses are in error, because,
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THE .WORSHIP OF GOD

when some of these announcements are verified with
them, they think that it is these acts which give the
indication as to what will happen. They are then
induced to proceed still further in their error until
they imagine that some of these acts are the cause of
the event happening ; just as the astrologers affirm
that the decrees of the stars are in the same category,
meaning, they are a kind of faculty-excitation, and
therefore individuals are not equal in the correctness
of the announcements they make although they are
equal in the science of the laws.

" Whoever performs any of these acts or anything
similar which falls in the same class is called a
' diviner ' ; and He declared, ' There shall not be
found among you one that useth divination " (Deut.
xviii. 10). . . .

" He prohibited us against the practice of astrology,
i.e., that we should say, This day is lucky for such and
such a task and we propose to do it ; or this day is
unlucky to do such and such a task and we will defer
it. This is what the Torah refers to in the statement,
' There shall not be found among you a soothsayer '
(ibid.) " (Mitswot, Prohib. XXXLf).

In similar manner he denounces charms and amulets,
especially those in which the divine Name is used.

" You must beware of sharing the error of those who
write amulets. Whatever you hear from them or
read in their works, especially in reference to the names
which they form by combination, is utterly senseless ;
they call these combinations shemot (' names ') and
believe that their pronunciation demands sanctifica-
tion and purification, and that by using them they are
enabled to work miracles. Rational persons ought
not to listen to such men, nor in any way believe their
assertions" (Guide I, 61).

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

" They who write inside the Mezuzah** the names
of Angels or the names of saints, or a Scriptural verse,
or sections of the liturgy, are in the class of those who
have no share in the world to come. Not enough for
these fools that they set at nought the divine com-
mands, but they treat a great precept, viz., the
proclamation of God's Unity and the duty to love and
serve Him, as though it were an amulet for their own
profit, thinking in their folly that this is a thing that
will gain them advantage in the matter of the vain
things of the world " (Yad, Tefillin V, 4).

And, finally, all superstitious use of the text of the
Bible is sternly decried.

" Whoever whispers a charm over a wound by
quoting a verse from Scripture, and likewise whoever
reads a Scriptural verse over an infant that it be not
terrified, or places a scroll of the Torah or phylacteries
on a child so that it should sleep not only are such
persons in the category of diviners and soothsayers,
but they are also to be included in the class of those
who deny the Torah ; because they use the words of
Torah for the healing of the body, whereas they were
only intended for the healing of souls " (Yad, Akum
XI, 12).

128

CHAPTER V
PROPHECY

T. Prophecy a natural gift. Maimonides' teachings
on Prophecy will probably come as a surprise to the
reader who meets with them for the first time. They
were not original with him, but had previously been
advanced by Abraham ibn Daud. The first intention
of Maimonides was to write a separate treatise on
Prophecy. In his Introduction to Helek he mentions
" the book on Prophecy which I have begun " (see
also Eight Chapters I), but he abandoned the plan
and incorporated his material in Part II of the Guide
(Chaps. XXXII-XLVIII).

In brief, Maimonides maintained that Prophecy
was not in essence an endowment bestowed by God
upon a few selected individuals, but a degree of mental
and moral perfection to which all may aspire. Man
by his own will and effort created the potential gift
of Prophecy which God converted into an actuality.
He embodies his opinions in his sixth Principle of
Faith:

" Prophecy. This implies that it should be known
that among this human species there exist persons of
very intellectual natures and possessing much per-
fection. Their souls were pre-disposed for receiving
the form of the intellect. Then this human intellect
joins itself with the Active Intellect, and an exalted
emanation is shed upon them. 1 These are the

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9

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

Prophets. This is Prophecy and this is its meaning "
(CM., Introd. to Helek).

2. Three views of Prophecy. Maimonides enumerates
three opinions on the subject.

" (i) Among those who believe in Prophecy, and
even among our co-religionists, there are some ignorant
people who think as follows : God selects any person
He pleases, inspires him with the spirit of Prophecy,
and entrusts him with a mission. It makes no
difference whether that person be wise or stupid, old
or young ; provided he be, to some extent, morally
good.* For these people have not yet gone so far as
to maintain that God might also inspire a wicked
person with His spirit. They admit that this is
impossible, unless God has previously caused him to
improve his ways.

* " (ii) The philosophers3 hold that Prophecy is a
certain faculty of man in a state of perfection, which
can only be obtained by study. Although the faculty
is common to the whole race, yet it is not fully
developed in each individual, either on account of the
individual's defective constitution, or on account of
some other external cause. This is the case with every
faculty common to a class. It is only brought to a
state of perfection in some individuals, and not in all ;
but it is impossible that it should not be perfect in
some individual of the class4 ; and if the perfection is
of such a nature that it can only be produced by an
agent, such an agent must exist. Accordingly, it is
impossible that an ignorant person should be a
Prophet ; or that a person being no Prophet in the
evening should, unexpectedly on the following morning,
find himself a Prophet, as if Prophecy were a thing
that could be found unintentionally. But if a person,

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PROPHECY

perfect in his intellectual and moral faculties, and
also perfect, as far as possible, in his imaginative
faculty, prepares himself in the manner which will
be described, he must become a Prophet ; for Prophecy
is a natural faculty of man. It is impossible that a
man who has the capacity for Prophecy should prepare
himself for it without attaining it, just as it is impossible
that a person with a healthy constitution should be
fed well and yet not properly assimilate his food.

" fiii) The third view is that which is taught in
Scripture, and which forms one of the principles of
our religion. It coincides with the opinion of the
philosophers in all points except one. For we believe
that, even if one has the capacity for Prophecy and
has duly prepared himself, it may yet happen that he
does not actually prophesy. It i? in that case the will
of God that withholds from him the use of the faculty.
According to my opinion, this fact is as exceptional
as any other miracle and acts in the same way. For
the laws of Nature demand that everyone should be a
Prophet who has a proper physical constitution, and
has been duly prepared as regards education and
training. . . .

" There are, however, numerous passages in
Scripture as well as in the writings of our Sages, which
support the principle that it depends chiefly on the
will of God who is to prophesy, and at what time, and
that He only selects the best and the wisest. We hold
that fools and ignorant people are unfit for this dis-
tinction. It is as impossible for any one of these to
prophesy as it is for an ass or a frog ; for Prophecy
is impossible without study and trainings ; when these
have created the possibility, then it depends on the
will of God whether the possibility is to be turned
into reality " (Guide II, 32).

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

3. The Psychology of Prophecy. The Greek philo-
sophers classified the activities of the soul under five
heads, one of them being imagination. 6 According
to Maimonides, Prophecy receives its stimulus from
the imaginative faculty.

" Prophecy is, in truth and reality, an emanation
sent forth by the Divine Being through the medium
of the Active Intellect, in the first instance to man's
rational faculty, and then to his imaginative faculty.
It is the highest degree and greatest perfection man
can attain ; it consists in the most perfect develop-
ment of the imaginative faculty. Prophecy is a
faculty that cannot in any way be found in a person,
or acquired by man, through a ciilture of his mental
and moral faculties ; for even if these latter were as
good and perfect as possible, they would be of no avail,
unless they were combined with the highest natural
excellence of the imaginative faculty.

" You know that the full development of any
faculty of the body, such as the imagination, depends
on the condition of the organ by means of which the
faculty acts. This must be the best possible as regards
its temperament and its size, and also as regards the
purity of its substance. Any defect in this respect
cannot in any way be supplied or remedied by
training. For when any organ is defective in its
temperament, proper training can in the best restore
a healthy condition to some extent, but cannot make
such an organ perfect. But if the organ is defective
as regards size, position, or as regards the substance
and the matter of which the organ is formed, there is
no remedy.

" Part of the functions of the imaginative faculty
is to retain impressions by the senses, to combine
them, and chiefly to form images. The principal and

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PROPHECY

highest function is performed when the senses are at
rest and pause in their action, for then it receives to
some extent, divine inspiration in the measure as it is
predisposed for this influence. This is the nature
of those dreams which prove true, and also of Prophecy,
the difference being one of quantity, not of quality.
Thus our Sages say that dream is the sixtieth part of
Prophecy? ; and no such comparison could be made
between two things of different kinds, for we cannot
say the perfection of man is so many times the perfec-
tion of a horse.

" In Bereshit Rabba the following saying of our
Sages occurs : ' Dream is the nobelet (the unripe fruit)
of Prophecy '. 8 This is an excellent comparison, for
the unripe fruit (nobelet) is really the fruit to some
extent, only it has fallen from the tree before it was
fully developed and ripe. In a similar manner the
action of the imaginative faculty during sleep is the
same as at the time when it receives a Prophecy, only
in the first case it is not fully developed, and has not
yet reached its highest degree. But why need I
quote the words of the Sages when I can refer to the
following passage of Scripture : ' If there be among
you a prophet, I, the Lord, do make Myself known
unto him in a vision, I do speak with him in a dream '
(Num. xii. 6). Here the Lord tells us what the real
essence of Prophecy is, that it is a perfection acquired
in a dream or in a vision ; the imaginative faculty
acquires such an efficiency in its action that it sees the
thing as if it comes from without, and perceives it as
if through the medium of bodily senses " (Guide II, 36).

Since the Prophet is possessed of the highest degree
of intellectual perfection and speaks under the direct
influence of the divine Spirit, his utterances as a
Prophet are unchallengeable when once his claim to

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

the dignity is admitted. Therefore Prophecy must
be the supreme source of human knowledge.

" You must know that there is a degree of
knowledge higher than the degree of the philosophers,
and that is Prophecy. Prophecy belongs to a separate
world where proof and debate do not apply ; for when
it is once made clear that it is a prophetic utterance,
there is no room left for proof. Consequently you
find that men never demand proof of a Prophet
except concerning the Prophecy itself whether it is a
Prophecy or not ; and that is what is called a sign.
But they do not seek a proof beyond the Prophecy,
because the Prophecy is superior to the proof and not
vice versa. ... To debate a prophetic utterance
on the basis of philosophy, which is of a lower degree,
can lead to no clear decision, since it cannot attain its
heights. It is like one who proposes to collect all the
waters of the world into a single small flask "
(Responsa II, 23c).

" The true Prophets undoubtedly conceive ideas
that result from premisses which human reason could
not comprehend by itself ; thus they tell things which
men could not tell by reason and ordinary imagination
alone ; for the action of the Prophets' mental capacities
is influenced by the same agent that causes the
perfection of the imaginative faculty, and that enables
the Prophet thereby to foretell a future event with
such clearness as if it was a thing already perceived
with the senses, and only through them conveyed to
his imagination. This agent perfects the Prophet's
mind, and influences it in such a manner that he
conceives ideas which are confirmed by reality, and are
so clear to him as if he deduced them by means of
syllogisms " (Guide II, 38).

Being thus endowed, the Prophets must necessarily

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PROPHECY

be the supreme authorities on questions of religious
beliefs, and reliance should be placed on their
teaching.

" Just as a blind man is saved from stumbling
when he depends on a seeing man by walking behind
him, because he knows that he lacks the sight which
would indicate the right way to him ; just as the
invalid who is ignorant of medical science is saved
when he obeys the advice of the doctor who prescribes
for him, since he himself does not know which things
kill and which cure, and therefore listens to all that the
physician tells him ; so it is proper for the multitude
to place full reliance in the Prophets, the men possessed
of real eyes, and be content when these teach that a
certain doctrine is true and another false " (Iggeret
Teman, Responsa II, 5d).

But on matters which come within the domain of
reason, the Prophet speaks with no exceptional
authority and his opinion may be rejected if proved
unsound.

" In the matter of opinion the Prophet is like the
rest of men. If a Prophet expresses an opinion and a
non-Prophet likewise expresses an opinion, and should
the former declare, ' The Holy One, blessed be He, has
informed me that my view is correct ', do not believe
him. If a thousand Prophets, all of the status of
Elijah and Elisha, were to entertain an opinion and a
thousand and one Sages held the opposite, we must
abide by the majority and reject the view of the
thousand distinguished Prophets " (C.M., Introduction).

4. Qualifications of a Prophet. The Prophet must be
perfect in every respect. Even his physical constitu-
tion must be such as to make a perfect instrument for
the activities of his soul.

135

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

" The substance of the brain must from the very
beginning be in the most perfect condition as regards
purity of matter, composition of its different parts,
size and position ; no part of his body must suffer
from ill-health ; he must in addition have studied and
acquired wisdom, so that his rational faculty passes
from a state of potentiality to that of actuality ; his
intellect must be as developed and perfect as human
intellect can be ; his passions pure and equally
balanced ; all his desires must aim at obtaining a
knowledge of the hidden laws and causes that are in
force in the Universe ; his thoughts must be engaged
in lofty matters; his attention directed to the
knowledge of God, the consideration of His works,
and of that which he must believe in this respect.
There must be an absence of the lower desires and
appetites, of the seeking after pleasure in eating,
drinking and cohabitation ; and, in short, every
pleasure connected with the sense of touch. . . .

" It is further necessary to suppress every thought
or desire for unreal power and dominion9 ; that is to
say, for victory, increase of followers, acquisition of
honour, and service from the people without any
ulterior object. ... A man who satisfies these
conditions, whilst his fully developed imagination is in
action, influenced by the Active Intellect according to
his mental training such a person will undoubtedly
perceive nothing but things very extraordinary and
divine, and see nothing but God and His Angels. His
knowledge will only include that which is real
knowledge, and his thought will only be directed to
such general principles as would tend to improve the
social relations between man and man " I0 (Guide

ii, 36).

" There are some who direct all their mind toward
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PROPHECY

the attainment of perfection in Metaphysics, devote
themselves entirely to God, exclude from their thought
every other thing, and employ all their intellectual
faculties in the study of the Universe, in order to derive
therefrom a proof for the existence of God, and to
learn in every possible way how God rules all things 11 ;
they form the class of those who have entered the
palace, viz., the class of Prophets " (Guide III 51).

" No Prophet received the gift of Prophecy unless
he possessed all the mental virtues and a great majority
of the most important moral ones." ... It is
not an indispensable requirement that a Prophet
should possess all the moral virtues, and be entirely
free from every defect, for we find that Scripture
testifies in reference to Solomon, who was a Prophet,
that ' the Lord appeared to Solomon in Gibeon '
(i Kings iii. 5), although we know that he had the
moral defect of lust, which is plainly evident from the
fact that he took so many wives, a vice springing from
the disposition of passion which resided in his soul.
. . . Thou must not be surprised to learn, however,
that a few moral imperfections lessen the degree of
prophetic inspiration ; in fact, we find that some
moral vices cause Prophecy to be entirely withdrawn.
Thus, for instance, wrath may do this, as our Rabbis
say, ' If a Prophet becomes enraged, the spirit of
Prophecy departs from him ' X 3 . . . Grief and
anxiety may also cause a cessation of Prophecy, as in
the case of the patriarch Jacob who, during the days
when he mourned for Joseph, was deprived of the Holy
Spirit, until he received the news that his son lived,
whereupon Scripture says, ' The spirit of Jacob, their
father, revived ' (Gen. xlv. 27), which the TarguwM
renders, ' And the spirit of Prophecy descended upon
their father, Jacob '. The Sages, moreover, say

137

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

1 The spirit of Prophecy rests not upon the idle, nor
upon the sad, but upon the joyous J 5 ' " (CM., Eight
Chapters, VII).

5. Degrees of Prophecy. Not all Prophets are on the
same plane of equality, because the term " Prophecy "
does not denote always exactly the same thing.
Maimonides enumerates no fewer than eleven degrees,
and he utters the warning note :

" Not all the degrees of Prophecy which I will
enumerate qualify a person for the office of a Prophet,
The first and second degrees are only steps leading to
Prophecy, and a person possessing either of these two
degrees does not belong to the class of Prophets whose
merits we have been discussing. When such a person
is occasionally called Prophet, the term is used in a
wider sense, and is applied to him because he is almost
a Prophet. ... It is possible for a Prophet to
prophesy at one time in the form of one of the degrees
which I am about to enumerate, and at another time
in another form. In the same manner, as the Prophet
does not prophesy continuously, but is inspired at
one time and not at another, so he may at one time
prophesy in the form of a higher degree, and at
another time in that of a lower degree ; it may happen
that the highest degree is reached by a Prophet only
once in his lifetime, and afterwards remains inacces-
sible to him, or that a Prophet remains below the
highest degree until he entirely loses the faculty ; for
ordinary Prophets 16 must cease to prophesy a shorter
or longer period before their death " (Guide II, 45).

There follows in the Chapter an enumeration of the
eleven degrees of which a summary is here given :

(i) " The first degree of Prophecy consists in the
divine assistance which is given to a person, and

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PROPHECY

induces and encourages him to do something good and
grand, e.g., to deliver a congregation of good men from
the hands of evil-doers ; to save one noble person, or
to bring happiness to a large number of people ; he
finds in himself the cause that moves and urges him to
this deed. This degree of divine influence is called
' the spirit of the Lord ' ; and of the person who is
under that influence we say that the spirit of the Lord
came upon him, clothed him, or rested upon him, or
the Lord was with him, 1 ? and the like ".

In this class the " judges of Israel and noble chiefs "
are to be included. " This faculty was always
possessed by Moses from the time he had attained the
age of manhood ; it moved him to slay the Egyptian,
and to prevent evil from the two men that quarrelled.
It was so strong that, after he had fled from Egypt
out of fear and arrived in Midian, a trembling stranger,
he could not restrain himself from interfering when he
saw wrong being done ". l8 When David was anointed
by Samuel, he was likewise filled with this spirit. 1 9

(ii) " The second degree is this : A person feels as
if something came upon him, and as if he had received
a new power that encourages him to speak. He treats
of science, or composes hymns, exhorts his fellow-men,
discusses political and theological problems. All this
he does while awake, and in the full possession of his
senses. Such a person is said to speak by the Holy
Spirit. David composed the Psalms, and Solomon the
Book of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and the Song of Solomon
by this Spirit ; and Daniel, Job, Chronicles and the
rest of the Hagiographa were written in this Holy
Spirit ; therefore they are called Ketubim (writings,
or written), i.e., written by men inspired by the Holy
Spirit. Our Sages mention this expressly concerning
the Book of Esther. . . .

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

" We must especially point out that David,
Solomon and Daniel belonged to this class, and not
to the class of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Nathan the Prophet,
Ahijah the Shilonite," and those like them. . . .
There is no doubt that this is one degree below that
form of Prophecy to which the words, ' I do speak
with him in a dream ' are applied. For this reason
the nation desired to place the Book of Daniel among
the Hagiographa and not among the Prophets.** I
have, therefore, pointed out to you, that the Prophecy
revealed to Daniel and Solomon, although they saw an
Angel in the dream, was not considered by them as a
perfect Prophecy, but as a dream containing correct
information. They belonged to the class of men that
spoke, inspired by the ruafy ha-kodesh t ' the Holy
Spirit '. Also in the order of the holy writings, no
distinction is made between the Books of Proverbs,
Ecclesiastes, Daniel, Psalms, Ruth and Esther ; they
are all written by divine inspiration. The authors of
these Books are called Prophets in the more general
sense of the term."

(iii) " The third class is the lowest class of actual
Prophets, i.e., of those who introduce their speech
by the phrase, ' And the word of the Lord came
unto me ', or a similar phrase. The Prophet sees
an allegory in a dream under those conditions which
we have mentioned when speaking of real Prophecy
and in the prophetic dream itself the allegory is
interpreted. Such are most of the allegories of
Zechariah."

(iv) "The Prophet hears in a prophetic dream
something clearly and distinctly, but does not see the
speaker. This was the case with Samuel in the
beginning of his prophetic mission."

(v) "A person addresses the Prophet in a dream,
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PROPHECY

as was the case in some of the prophecies of Ezekiel ."
Cf. Ezek. xl. 4.

(vi) " An Angel speaks to him in a dream ; this
applies to most of the Prophets." Cf. Gen.xxxi. n.

(vii) " In a prophetic dream it appears to the
Prophet as if God spoke to him." Cf. Isa. vi. i, 8,
i Kings xxii. 19.

(viii) " Something presents itself to the Prophet
in a prophetic vision ; he sees allegorical figures, such
as were seen by Abraham in the vision ' between the
pieces ' (Gen. xv. gf) ; for it was in a vision by day-
time, as is distinctly stated."

(ix) " The Prophet hears words in a prophetic
vision." Cf. ibid. 4.

(x) " The Prophet sees a man that speaks to him
in a prophetic vision." (Cf. ibid, xviii. i ; Josh. v. 13.)

(xi) " He sees an Angel that speaks to him in the
vision, as was the case when Abraham was addressed
by an Angel at the sacrifice of Isaac (Gen. xxii. 15).
This I hold to be if we except Moses the highest
degree a Prophet can attain according to Scripture,
provided he has, as reason demands, his rational
faculties fully developed. But it appears to me
improbable that a Prophet should be able to perceive
in a prophetic vision God speaking to him ; the action
of the imaginative faculty does not go so far, and
therefore we do not notice this in the case of the
ordinary Prophets. Scripture says expressly, ' I do
make Myself known unto Him in a vision, I do speak
with him in a dream ' ; the speaking is here connected
with dream, the influence and the action of the intellect
is connected with vision.

" When 1, therefore, met with statements in
Scripture that a Prophet heard words spoken to him
and that this took place in a vision, it occurred to me

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TEACHINGS OP MAIMONIDES

that the case in which God appears to address the
Prophet seems to be the only difference between a
vision and a dream, according to the literal sense of the
Scriptural text. But it is possible to explain the
passages in which a Prophet is reported to have heard
in the course of a vision words spoken to him, in the
following manner : at first he had a vision but subse-
quently fell into a deep sleep, and the vision was
changed into a dream. Thus we explained the words,
' A deep sleep fell upon Abram ' (Gen. xv. 12) ; and
our Sages remark thereon, ' This was a deep sleep of
Prophecy. '*3 According to this explanation, it is
only in a dream that the Prophet can hear words
addressed to him ; it makes no difference in what
manner words are spoken. Scripture supports this
theory, ' I do speak with him in a dream '. But in a
prophetic vision only allegories are perceived, or
rational truths are obtained, that lead to some know-
ledge in science, such as can be arrived at by reasoning.
This is the moaning of the words, ' I do make Myself
known unto him in a vision '. According to this
second explanation, the degrees of Prophecy are
reduced to eight, the highest of them being the
prophetic vision, including all kinds of vision, even
the case in which a man appears to address the
Prophet ".

In a striking and picturesque passage one of the
very rare specimens of fine writing in his compositions
Maimonides thus describes the difference between
men with respect to the illumination which constitutes
Prophecy :

" At times the truth shines so brilliantly that we
perceive it as clear as day. Our nature and habit
then draw a veil over our perception, and we return
to a darkness almost as dense as before. We are like

142

PROPHECY

those who, though beholding frequent flashes of
lightning, still find themselves in the thickest darkness
of the night. On some the lightning flashes in rapid
succession, and they seem to be in continuous light,
and their night is as clear as the day. This was the
degree of prophetic excellence attained by Moses, the
greatest of Prophets, to whom God said, ' But as for
thee, stand thou here by Me ' (Deut v. 31; Heb. 28),
and of whom it is written ' the skin of his face shone '
(Exod. xxxiv. 29). Some perceive the prophetic flash
at long intervals ; this is the degree of most Prophets.
By others only once during the whole night is a flash
of lightning perceived. This is the case with those
of whom we are informed, ' They prophesied, and they
did so no more ' (Num. xi. 25). There are some to
whom the flashes of lightning appear with varying
intervals ; others are in the condition of men whose
darkness is illumined not by lightning, but by some
kind of crystal or similar stone, or other substances
that possess the property of shining during the night ;
and to them even this small amount of light is not
continuous, but now it shines and now it vanishes,
as if it were ' the flame of the rotating sword ' " (Guide,
Introduction).

6. Test of a true Prophet. The criterion of a true
Prophet is not his ability to work miracles, but to
foretell the future in detail. The verification of his
statements is the guarantee of his genuine call.

" Any Prophet that may rise up for us and declare
that the Lord had sent him need not perform a sign,
like one of the signs of Moses our teacher, or like the
signs of Elijah and Elisha which involved a change
in the course of Natures ; but his sign should be the
announcement of events which are to happen in the

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

world and the verification of his words. Therefore if
a man who is worthy of Prophecy come with a mission
from God, and if he come not to add or diminish but
to serve the Lord with the commandments of the
Torah, we should not say to him, ' Divide the sea for
us ', or ' Revive a dead body ', or so on ; ' then we
shall believe you '. What we should say to him is,
' If you are a prophet, foretell events that are to
happen ', and he tells them. We then wait to see
whether his words will come to pass or not ; should
even the least part of what he foretold fail, it is certain
that he is a false prophet. If all his words come to
pass, he must be regarded by us as faithful^ ; but
we must examine him several times, and if all his
prediction prove to be correct, then he is a true
Prophet.

" But do not the soothsayers and diviners foretell
'that which is to happen !* 6 What difference, then, is
there between the Prophet and them ? With sooth-
sayers, diviners and such men, part of their words
is fulfilled and part is not. ... It is also possible
that none of their words should be fulfilled at all, but
they are entirely erroneous. ... In the case of
the Prophet, however, all his words are fulfilled.
. . . When, therefore, a Prophet rises up for us,
it is only to inform us of things which are to happen
in the world, such as plenty or famine, war or peace,
etc. He may even inform us of things concerning an
individual, just as Saul, when he sustained a loss,
went to a Prophet that he might inform him of the
place where the lost thing was to be found.*7 It is
things like this that a Prophet is to declare, and not
by any means to establish a new religion,* 8 or add or
abrogate any commandment.

" With regard to threats of punishment which the
144

PROPHECY

Prophet utters, as, e.g., if he were to predict that
such and such a person will die, or that in such and such
a year there will be a famine or war, etc. ; and if it
happen that his words do not come to pass, this is not
necessarily a refutation of his Prophecy, and we must
not say, ' Behold, he has spoken and it has not come
to pass ! ' Because the Holy One, blessed be He, is
slow to anger and of great kindness and relents con-
cerning threatened calamity. It is therefore possible
that the sinners had repented and had been forgiven,
like the people of Nineveh (Jonah iii. 10) ; or it may
be that He allowed them a respite, as with Hezekiah
(2 Kings xx. 5). If, however, the Prophet assured
them of something good, saying that such and such
will happen, but the good did not come to pass, then
it is certain that he is a false prophet ; because every
good thing which God decrees, though it be conditional,
He never retracts. a 9 . . . Hence we learn that the
prophet can only be tested by the good which he
foretells. . . .

" If a Prophet receives the testimony of another
Prophet that he is a true Prophet, he is thereby
confirmed as such, and it is unnecessary to submit him
to examination ; for behold, Moses our teacher
testified on behalf of Joshua and all Israel believed in
him, even before he produced a sign. Such is the rule
for future generations, viz., when a Prophet has become
known for his Prophecy and his words have been
repeatedly believed in ; or when a Prophet testified
for him and he has been walking in the ways of
Prophecy it is then unlawful to doubt or suspect
whether his Prophecy is untrue. It is further unlawful
to test him more than is necessary, so that we must
not be constantly proving him ; but when it has once
become known that this man is a Prophet, they are

145

10

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

to believe and know that the Lord is among them, and
they must not doubt or suspect him " (Yad, Yesod6
ha-Torah, X ; C.M., Introduction).

7. Moses the greatest of the Prophets. Maimonides
attached such importance to the uniqueness of Moses 1
status as a Prophet, that he formulated it into a
Principle of Faith. He was doubtless led to do
this because of the rival claim of each of the
daughter-religions that it had produced a prophet
greater than he. The seventh Principle, accordingly,
declares :

" The Prophecy of Moses our teacher. This
implies that we must believe that he was the father
of all the Prophets before him, and those who came
after him were all beneath him in rank. He was
chosen by God from the whole human kind. He
comprehended more of God than any man in the past
or future ever comprehended or will comprehend.
And we must believe that he reached a state of
exaltedness beyond the sphere of humanity, so that he
attained to the angelic rank and became included in
the order of the Angels. There was no veil which he
did not pierce. No material hindrance stood in his
way, and no defect whether small or great mingled
itself with him. The imaginative and sensual powers
of his perceptive faculty were stripped from him.
His desiderative power was stilled and he remained
pure intellect only. It is in this significance that it is
remarked of him that he discoursed with God without
any angelic intermediary. , . .

" The Prophecy of Moses differs from that of all
other Prophets in four respects :

" (i) Whosoever the Prophet, God spake not with
him but by an intermediary. But Moses had no

146

PROPHECY

intermediary, as it is said, ' Mouth to mouth did I speak
with him ' (Num. xii. 8).

" (ii) Every other Prophet received his inspiration
only when in a state of sleep ... or in the day
when deep sleep has fallen upon the Prophet and his
condition is that in which there is a removal of his
sense-perceptions, and his mind is a blank like a
sleep. . . . But to Moses the word came in the
day-time when ' he was standing between the two
Cherubim ' (see Exod. xxv. 22 ; Num. xii. 6-8).

" (iii) When the inspiration comes to the Prophet,
although it is in a vision and by means of an Angel,
his strength becomes enfeebled, his physique becomes
deranged. And very great terror falls upon him, so
that he is almost broken through it. . . . But not
so with Moses. The word came unto him and no
confusion in any way overtook him, as we are told in
the verse, ' And the Lord spake unto Moses face unto
face as a man 'speaketh unto his neighbour ' (Exod.
xxxiii. n). This means that just as no man feels
disquieted when his neighbour talks with him, so he
(peace to him !) had no fright at the discourse of God,
although it was face to face ; this being the case by
reason of the strong bond uniting him with the
intellect, as we have described.

" (iv) To all the Prophets the inspiration came
not at their own choice but by the will of God. The
Prophet at times waits a number of years without an
inspiration reaching him. And it is sometimes asked
of the Prophet that he should communicate a message
he has received, but the Prophet waits some days or
months before doing so, or does not make it known at
all. We have seen cases where the Prophet prepares
himself by enlivening his soul and purifying his spirit,
as did Elisha in the incident when he declared, ' But

147

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

now bring me a minstrel ! ' (2 Kings iii. 15), and then
the inspiration came to him. He does not necessarily
receive the inspiration at the time that he is ready for
it. But Moses our teacher was able to say at whatso-
ever time he wished, ' Stand, and I shall hear what God
shall command concerning you ' (Num. ix. 8). It is
again said, ' Speak unto Aaron thy brother that he
come not at all times into the sanctuary ' (Lev. xvi. 2) ;
with reference to which verse the Talmud remarks that
the prohibition, ' that he come not at all times ',
applies only to Aaron. But Moses may enter the
sanctuary at all times "3 (C.M., Introd. to Helek).

A phrase used in the above extract needs elucida-
tion, viz., " There was no veil which he did not pierce ".
The term faijab, " veil " or " barrier ", through which
man contemplates the Deity, was borrowed by
Maimonides from Mohammedan theology. The
Koran, e.g., states, " It is not fit for man that God
should speak with him but by vision or from behind a
veil " (Sura XLII). Man's defects throw up barriers
or veils which separate between him and God ;
consequently the elimination of vices causes the
removal of the partitions and brings about the
approximation of man to God. Moses being superior
in moral and intellectual attainments to the other
Prophets, what intervened between him and God was
thinner, and therefore his vision was more distinct.

" Many passages are found in the Midrash, the
Haggadah, and also the Talmud, which state that some
of the Prophets beheld God from behind many barriers,
and some from behind only a few, according to the
proximity of the Prophet to Him and the degree of his
prophetic power. Consequently, the Rabbis said that
Moses, our teacher, saw God from behind a single,
clear, that is transparent, partition. As they express

148

PROPHECY

it, 'He (Moses) looked through a translucent specu-
laria '.3* Specularia is the name of a mirror made of
some transparent body like crystal or glass. . . .

" When Moses, our teacher, discovered that there
remained no partition between himself and God which
he had not removed, and when he had attained per-
fection by acquiring every possible moral and mental
virtue, he sought to comprehend God in His true
reality, since there seemed no longer to be any hindrance
thereto. He, therefore, implored of God, ' Show me,
I beseech Thee, Thy glory ' (Exod. xxxiii. 18). But
God informed him that this was impossible, as his
intellect, since he was a human being, was still
influenced by matter. So, God's answer was, ' For no
man can sees* Me and live ' (ibid. 20). Thus, there
remained between Moses and his comprehension of the
true essence of God only one transparent obstruction,
which was his human intellect still resident in matter. 33

" God, however, was gracious in imparting to him,
after his request, more knowledge of the divine than
he had previously possessed, informing him that the
goal he sought was impossible of attainment, because
he was yet a human being. ... It is impossible
for mortal man to attain this high degree of compre-
hension, though Moses (peace be upon him) almost,
but not quite, reached it " (C.M., Eight Chapters VII).

How is this unique claim made on behalf of Moses
established ? Maimonides answers the question in
this way :

" The Israelites did not believe Moses, our teacher,
in consequence of the signs which he performed ; for
he whose belief rests on signs must still have a suspicion
in his mind of the possibility that the sign might have
been performed by magic or wizardry. All the signs
which Moses performed in the wilderness he did

149

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

through necessity and not to adduce evidence of his
Prophecy. When it was necessary to drown the
Egyptians, he divided the sea and plunged them into
it. When we had need for food, he brought us down
manna. When they were thirsty, he split the rock
for them. When the band led by Korah denied him,
the earth swallowed them up. And so it was with all
the other signs.

" On what ground, then, did they believe in him ?
It was in consequence of their presence at Mount
Sinai ; when our own eyes, and not another's, beheld,
and when our own ears, and not another's, heard, the
fire and the thunderings and the lightnings, whilst he
approached the thick darkness and the Voice spake
unto him in our own hearing, ' Moses, Moses 1 go and
say unto them thus '. . . . But how do we know
th^t their presence at Mount Sinai alone was evidence
of his Prophecy that it was true beyond all suspicion ?
Because it is said, ' Lo, I come unto thee in a thick
cloud, that the people may hear when I speak with
thee, and may also believe thee for ever ' (Exod. xix. 9).
It is to be inferred that previous to this, they did not
believe him with a perfect and lasting faith, but with
a belief which was still open to doubt and suspicion.

" Consequently the very men to whom he was sent
are the witnesses to the truth of his Prophecy, and it
was unnecessary to perform any other sign for them,
since both they and he were witnesses in the matter.
Just as two witnesses who together saw an incident
mutually testify, each to the other, that they speak
the truth, and neither of them need give proof to the
other, so with regard to Moses, our teacher, after their
presence at Mount Sinai, all the Israelites became his
witnesses and there was no need for him to perform
any sign for them. . . .

150

PROPHECY

" It follows that if a Prophet were to arise and
perform great signs and wonders, but sought to refute
the Prophecy of Moses, our teacher, we are not to
listen to him, and we are to know with certainty that
those signs had been performed by magic and wizardry,
because the Prophecy of Moses, our teacher, was not
established by signs, so that we could compare the
signs of one with those of the other. But with our
own eyes we saw and with our own ears we heard, just
as Moses himself heard. . . . Therefore the Torah
said that even if the sign or the wonder came to pass,
you shall still not hearken unto the words of that
prophet (cf. Deut. xiii. 3f). For lo, this man came to
you with a sign or wonder to refute what you saw with
your eyes ; and since we only believe a sign in conse-
quence of the commandment which Moses has ordained
for us, how can we receive the sign of a man who comes
to refute the Prophecy of Moses, our teacher, which
we saw and heard ! " (Yad, Yesode ha-Torah VIII).

CHAPTER VI

\

THE TORAH

i. The Torah a Revelation from God. The verbal
inspiration of the Torah is the very foundation of
Maimonides' whole system of thought. In every
letter it is the work of God. He was led to stress this
doctrine probably because the Mohammedans made a
similar claim for the Koran. They declared that it
wa& eternal and uncreated. It existed everlastingly
in writing upon a vast table which was located by
God's throne, and a transcript was brought from heaven
to' earth by the angel Gabriel. 1 The prophet did not
compose a single word of it. The form in which
Maimonides enunciated his eighth Principle of Faith
was no doubt determined by the claim which was made
on behalf of the Koran :

" That the Torah has been revealed from heaven.
This implies our belief that the whole of this Torah
found in our hands this day is the Torah that was
handed down by Moses and that it is all of divine
origin. By this I mean that the whole of the Torah
came unto him from before God in a manner which is
metaphorically called ' speaking ', but the real nature
of that communication is unknown to everybody
except to Moses (peace to him !) to whom it came. In
handing down the Torah, Moses was like a scribe
writing from dictation the whole of it, its chronicles,
its narratives and its precepts. It is in this sense
that he is termed ' lawgiver ', w

THE TORAH

" And there is no difference between verses like
' and the sons of Ham were Cush and Mizraim, Phut
and Canaan ' (Gen. x. 6), or ' And his wife's name was
Mehetabel, the daughter of Hatred ' (ibid, xxxvi. 39),
or ' And Timna was concubine ' (ibid. 12), and verses
like ' I am the Lord thy God ' (Exod. xx. 2), and ' Hear,
O Israel ' (Deut. vi. 4). They are all equally of divine
origin and all belong to ' The Torah of God which is
perfect, pure, holy and true '.* In the opinion of
the Rabbis, Manasseh was the most renegade and the
greatest of all infidels, because he thought that in the
Torah there was a kernel and a husk, 3 and that these
histories and anecdotes have no value and emanate
from Moses. This is the significance of the expression
* The Torah does not come from heaven ',4 which, say
the Rabbis, is the remark of one who believes that all
the Torah is of divine origin save a certain verse which
(says he) was not spoken by God but by Moses himself.
And of such a one the verse says ' He hath despised
the word of the Lord ' (Num. xv. 31). May God be
exalted far above and beyond the speech of the
infidels ! For truly in every letter of the Torah there
reside wise maxims and admirable truths for him to
whom God has given understanding. You cannot
grasp the uttermost bounds of its wisdom. 'The
measure thereof is longer than the earth, and broader
than the sea ' (Job xi. 9). Man has but to follow in
the footsteps of the anointed one of the God of Jacob,
who prayed ' Open Thou mine eyes that I may behold
wondrous things out of Thy Torah ' (Ps. cxix. 18).

" The interpretation of traditional law is in
like manner of divine origin. And that which we
know to-day of the nature of Succah, Lulab, Shofar,
Fringes and PhylacteriesS is essentially the same as
that which God commanded Moses, and which the

153

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

latter told us. In the success of his mission Moses
realised the mission of a ' trusted servant of God *
(cf. Num. xii. 7) " (C.M., Introd. to Helek).

Such is the sanct^ of the Torah that Maimonides
informed a correspondent that the script used in the
Synagogue Scrolls should not be employed for secular
purposes.

" It is right for you to know that this script which
is called ketab ashuri 6 inasmuch as the Torah was
given in it and the tables of the Covenant were written
in it should properly only be used for the Scriptures.
From the olden days Jews have been scrupulous in
this matter, and their writings, scholarly compositions
and secular documents were written in the ketab 'ibril.
You therefore find engraven upon the holy shekel
secular phrases written in the ketab 'ibri ; but we never
find a single letter of the ketab ashuri on any Israelite
antiquity which has been discovered, neither on a
coin nor on stone, but they are all in the ketab 'ibri.
For this reason the Sephardim 8 have altered their
script and so changed the letters of the alphabet until
they appear as an entirely different writing, in order
to permit of their use for secular matters " (Responsa
I, 3b, c).

2. Aim of the Torah. What is the purpose of the
divine Revelation ? What does it aim at effecting in the
life of the human being ? This is Maimonides' reply :
" The general object of the Torah is twofold : the
well-being of the soul and the well-being of the body.
The well-being of the soul is promoted by correct
opinions communicated to the people according to
their capacity. Some of these opinions are therefore
imparted in a plain form, others allegorically ; because
certain opinions are in their plain form too strong for

154

THE TORAH

the capacity of the common people. The well-being
of the body is established by a proper management of
the relations in which we live one to another. This we
can attain in two ways : first by removing all violence
from our midst ; that is to say, that we do not do
every one as he pleases, desires, and is able to do ;
but every one of us does that which contributes towards
the common welfare. Secondly, by teaching every
one of us such good morals as must produce a good
social state. . . .

" The latter object is required first ; it is also
treated in the Torah most carefully and most minutely,
because the well-being of the soul can only be obtained
after that of the body has been secured. For it has
already been found that man has a double perfection :
the first perfection is that of the body, and the second
perfection is that of the soul. The first consists in the
most healthy condition of his material relations, and
this is only possible when man has all his wants
supplied as they arise ; if he has his food and other
things for his body, e.g., shelter, bath and the like.
But one man alone cannot procure all this ; it is
impossible for a single man to obtain this comfort ;
it is only possible in society, since man, as is well-known,
is by nature social.9

" The second perfection of man consists in his
becoming an actually intelligent being ; i.e., he knows
about the things in existence all that a person perfectly
developed is capable of knowing. This second perfec-
tion certainly does not include any action or good
conduct, but only knowledge, which is arrived at by
speculation or established by research. . . .

" The true Torah, which as we said is one, and
beside which there is no other Torah, viz., the Torah
of our teacher Moses, has for its purpose to give us the

155

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

twofold perfection. It aims first at the establishment
of good mutual relations among men by removing
injustice and creating the noblest feelings. In this
way the people in every land are enabled to stay and
continue in one condition, and every one can acquire
his first perfection. Secondly, it seeks to train us in
faith, and to impart correct and true opinions when
the intellect is sufficiently developed " (Guide III, 27).

" It is also the object of the perfect Torah to make
man reject, despise and reduce his desires as much
as is in his power. He should only give way to them
when absolutely necessary. It is well known that it
is intemperance in eating, drinking and sexual inter-
course that people mostly rave and indulge in ; and
these very things counteract the ulterior perfection of
man, 10 impede at the same time the development of
his first perfection, 11 and generally disturb the social
order of the country and the economy of the family.
For by following entirely the guidance of lust, in the
manner of fools, man loses his intellectual energy,
injures his body, and perishes before his natural time ;
sighs and cares multiply ; there is an increase of envy,
hatred and warfare for the purpose of taking what
another possesses. The cause of all this is the circum-
stance that the ignorant considers physical enjoyment
as an object to be sought for its own sake. God in
His wisdom has therefore given us such commandments
as would counteract that object, and prevent us
altogether from directing our attention to it and has
debarred us from everything that leads only to
excessive desire and lust. This is an important thing
included in the objects of our Torah " (Guide III, 33).

" The ordinances of the Torah are not an infliction
on the world, but a medium of mercy, kindness and
peace in the world " (Yad, Shabbat II, 3).

156

THE TORAH

" Every narrative in the Torah serves a certain
purpose in connection with religious teaching. It
either helps to establish a principle of faith, or to
regulate our actions, and to prevent wrong and
injustice among men " (Guide III, 50).

3. Permanence of the Torah. Confronted as Judaism
was by the claim of Christianity and Mohammedanism
that each had brought a new dispensation to man
which superseded the Revelation at Sinai, it was
inevitable that Maimonides should make the immut-
ability of the Torah a Principle of Faith. His ninth
Principle is on

" The abrogation of the Torah. This implies that
this Torah of Moses will not be abrogated and that no
other Torah will come from God. Nothing is to be
added to it nor taken away from it, neither in the
written nor oral law, as it is said, ' Thou shalt not add
thereto nor dimmish from it ' (Deut. xiii. i) " (C.M.,
Introd. to Helek).

" It is a clear and explicitly stated feature of the
Torah that it is an ordinance to endure for all eternity,
and it does not admit of any alteration, diminution
or addition. . . . Hence we learn that no Prophet
has permission to introduce any innovation at any
future time. Should, therefore, a man arise, either
from among the nations or from among Israel, and
perform any sign or wonder and declare that the Lord
has sent him to add any commandment or to abrogate
any commandment or to explain any of the command-
ments otherwise than we have heard from Moses;
or should he declare that the commandments
which have been ordained for the Israelites are
not for; all time and for all generations, but were only
temporary enactments ; behold this man is a false

157

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

prophet, for he indeed comes to refute the Prophecy
of Moses. 1 * The penalty to which he is liable is death
by strangulation, J 3 because he presumed to speak in
the name of the Lord that which He had not com-
manded him. For He, blessed be His Name, had
commanded Moses that this ordinance should be for
us and our children ' for ever ', and God is not a man
that He should lie " (Yad, Yesode ha-Torah IX, i).

Maimonides, on the other hand, allows the possi-
bility of temporary abrogation, or the adaptation of a
law, should circumstances demand it, provided that
this is sanctioned by competent authority.

" When a Prophet's status has been confirmed in
the manner we have established, and he has made a
reputation like Samuel or Elijah or others, he has the
power to do with the Torah what no other being is
able to do. What I mean is, when he commands to
abrogate temporarily one of the positive command-
ments or permits something which is forbidden by a
negative commandment, it is obligatory upon us to
hearken to his word and obey his order ; and whoever
disregards him is liable to death ' at the hand of
Heaven '. The exception is a command to practise
idolatry. That is what the Rabbis declare, ' In
whatever a Prophet tells you to do involving a trans-
gression of the words of the Torah obey him, except in
the matter of idolatry *.*4 There is, however, a proviso,
viz., that the Prophet's order shall not be permanent,
that he shall not say that the Holy One, blessed be He,
commanded to abrogate this ordinance for ever, but
that He commands so for a special reason and for the
needs of the moment " (C.M., Introduction).

" God knew that the judgments of the Torah will
always require an extension in some cases and curtail-
ment in others, according to the variety of places,

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THE TORAH

events and circumstances. He therefore cautioned
against such increase and diminution, and commanded,
' Thou shalt not add thereto nor diminish from it ' ;
for constant changes would tend to disturb the whole
system of the Torah, and would lead people to believe
that the Torah is not of Divine origin. But permission
is at the same time given to the wise men, i.e., the
great court (Synhedrion) of every generation to make
fences round the judgments of the Torah for their
protection, and to introduce bye-laws (fences) in order
to ensure the keeping oi the Torah. Such fences once
erected remain in force for ever. The Mishnah there-
fore teaches : ' And make a fence round the Torah '.*S
" In the same manner they have the power
temporarily to dispense with some religious act
prescribed in the Torah, or to allow that which is
forbidden, if exceptional circumstances and events
require it ; but none of the laws can be abrogated
permanently. By this method the Torah will remain
perpetually the same, and will yet admit at all times
and under all circumstances such temporary modifica-
tions as are indispensable. If every scholar had the
power to make such modifications, the multitude of
disputes and differences of opinion would have
produced an injurious effect. Therefore it was
commanded that of the Sages only the great Synhedrion
and none else, should have this power ; and whoever
would oppose their decision should be killed. 16 For
if any critic were allowed to dispute the decision of the
Synhedrion, the object of this Torah would not be
attained ; it would be useless " (Guide III, 41).

4. Study of the Torah. Judaism attaches great
importance riot only to the practice of the Torah, but
alsd to its study. The fulfilment of its ordinances

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

should be intelligent, not mechanical. A point like
this would naturally make a strong appeal to a man
of the type of Maimonides, and he often refers to it in
his writings.

" Every Israelite is under the obligation to study
the Torah, whether he be poor or rich, whether in good
or bad health, whether young or in extreme age when
his powers are on the wane, even if he be a poor man
who is supported by charity and begs from door to
door. Even the father of a family is under the
obligation to fix a time for study of the Torah day and
night ; as it is said, ' Thou shalt meditate therein day
and night ' (Josh. i. 8).

" Some of the eminent Sages of Israel were hewers
of wood, others were drawers of water, and others
even blind ; still they devoted themselves to the
study of the Torah day and night. They belong to
the class who handed down the tradition from man to
man, direct from the mouth of Moses our teacher.

" Up to what time has a man the duty to study the
Torah ? Until the day of his death ; as it is said,
' Lest they depart from thy heart all the days of thy
life ' (Deut. iv. 9). All the time that he is not occupy-
ing himself with study, he is liable to forget. He must
divide the time of his study into three parts : a third
for study of the written law, a third for the oral law,
and a third for reflection and consideration of what
follows from the premisses to draw inferences and
make comparisons, and understand the hermeneutical
rules by which the Torah is expounded, 1 ? until he knows
the principle of these rules, and how he is to conclude
what is lawful and what unlawful and such like matters
based on tradition " (Yad, Talmud Torah I, 8-n).

" Among ail the commandments there is none
which is of equal importance with that of studying the

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THE TORAH

Torah ; this equals in importance all the command-
ments put together, 18 because study leads to practice.
Hence study in every case takes precedence over
practice "" (ibid. Ill, 3).

5. Interpretation of the Torah. Maimonides insists
that when a Scriptural passage is quoted to support
an argument, great care must be exercised that it is
not given a meaning which it could not bear in its
context. His canon of exegesis is thoroughly sound :

" Know that it is not permitted anyone to take
one word from a passage, the whole of which is closely
connected, to use as an argument and a support ; but
it is proper for him to study the context. That is to
say, he should first study the word on which he intends
to rely from the beginning of the phrase how it fits
in there to the end of the phrase ; then he will know
the intention of the speaker of the passage and he can
extract proof from it. It is improper, however, to
extract proof from a word which is torn from what
precedes and follows " (Iggerei Teman, Responsa II, ^b\.

As for the obscure and difficult passages which are
to be found in the Scriptures, he gives his son this
advice :

" Whenever you find a deep verse and an obscure
passage in the Torah or in the Prophets, or in the books
of the Sages which you do not understand and whose
hidden meaning you cannot perceive, and it appears
as if it contradicted the fundamental doctrines of the
Torah or is apparently nonsense, be not moved from
your faith and let not your mind be confused. Remain
firm in your conviction and ascribe the deficiency to
yourself. Set it aside, and do not contaminate your
whole faith for lack of understanding of some profound
subject " (Ethical Will, Responsa II, 38 b, c).

161

11

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

The full meaning of the Scriptures is not to be read
on the surface. One has to penetrate to the depths to
understand clearly what is taught. The literal
interpretation is consequently often superficial, and
one must resort to an allegorical exposition to grasp
the import of a passage.

"We read in Midrash Shir ha-Shirim Rabba,*9
' To what were the words of the Torah to be compared
before the time of Solomon ? To a well the waters
of which are at a great depth, and though cool and
fresh, yet no man could drink of them. A clever man
joined cord to cord, and rope to rope, and drew up and
drank. So Solomon went from figure to figure, and
from subject to subject, till he obtained the true sense
of the Torah '. So far go the words of our Sages. I
do not believe that any intelligent man thinks that
' the words of the Torah ', mentioned here as requiring
the application of figures in order to be understood,
can refer to the rules for building tabernacles, for
preparing the Lulab or for the four kinds of trustees. 21
What is really meant is the apprehension of profound
and difficult subjects, concerning which our Sages
said, ' If a man loses in his house a sela' or a pearl,
he can find it by lighting a taper worth only one issar.
Thus the parables in themselves are of no great value,
but through them the words of the holy Torah are
rendered intelligible '.

" These likewise are the words of our Sages ;
consider well their statement, that the deeper sense
of the words of the holy Torah are pearls, and the
literal acceptation of a figure is of no value in itself.
They compare the hidden meaning included in the
literal sense of the simile to a pearl lost in a dark room
which is full of furniture. It is certain that the pearl
is in the room, but the man can neither see it nor know

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THE TORAH

where it lies. It is just as if the pearl were no longer
in his possession, for, as has been stated, it affords him
no benefit whatever until he kindles a light. The
same is the case with the comprehension of that which
the simile represents " (Guide, Introduction).

In his search for " the deeper sense " of the
Scriptures, Maimonides occasionally displays a boldness
which shocked many of his contemporaries. He even
dared to suggest that the opening chapter of the
Bible was not to be understood literally.

" The account given in Scripture of the Creation
is not, as is generally believed, intended to be in all
its parts literal. For if this were the case, wise men
would not have kept its explanation secretes and our
Sages would not have employed figurative speech in
treating of the Creation in order to hide its true meaning,
nor would they have objected to discuss it in the
presence of the common people. The literal meaning
of the words might lead us to conceive corrupt ideas
and to form false opinions about God, or even entirely
to abandon and reject the principles of our Faith. It
is therefore right to abstain and refrain from examining
this subject superficially and unscientifically. We must
blame the practice of some ignorant preachers and
expounders of the Bible, who think that wisdom
consists in knowing the explanation of words, and that
greater perfection is attained by employing more words
and longer speech. It is, however, right that we should
examine the Scriptural texts by the intellect, after
having acquired a knowledge of demonstrative science,
and of the true hidden meaning of Prophecies "
(Guide II, 29).

Several supernatural incidents recorded in the
Bible are explained by Maimonides as having occurred
not actually but in a vision.

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

" When it is said in reference to Jacob, ' And there
wrestled a man with him ' (Gen. xxxii. 25), this took
place in a prophetic vision, since it is expressly stated
in the end (v. 31) that it was an Angel. . . .

" That which happened to Balaam on the way, and
the speaking of the ass, took place in a prophetic
vision, since further on, in the same account, an Angel
of God is introduced as speaking to Balaam.

" I also think that what Joshua perceived when ' he
lifted up his eyes and looked, and behold there stood
a man over against him ' (Josh. v. 13) was a prophetic
vision, since it is stated afterwards (v. 14) that it was
' the captain of the host of the Lord ' " (Guide II, 42).

Referring to the book of Job, he writes : " Accord-
ing to both theories, viz., the theory that Job did exist
and the theory that he did not exist, the introduction
to the book is certainly a fiction ; I mean the portion
which relates to the words of the adversary, the words
of God to the former, and the handing of Job to him "
(Guide III, 22).

6. Specimens of allegorical interpretation. In Maimon-
ides' writings we meet with allegorical interpretations
of Biblical passages after a style with which Philo has
familiarised us. The following are specimens :

" How wonderfully wise is the simile of King
Solomon, in which he compares matter to a faithless
wife*4 ; for matter is never found without form, and
is therefore always like such a wife who is never without
a husband, never single ; and yet, though being
wedded, constantly seeks another man in the place of
her husband ; she entices and attracts him in every
possible manner till he obtains from her what her
husband has obtained. The same is the case with
matter. Whatever form it has, it is disposed to

164

THE TORAH

receive another form ; it never leaves off moving and
casting off the form which it has in order to receive
another. . . .

" As regards the portion beginning, ' A woman of
valour who can find ? '*5 it is clear what is meant by the
figurative expression ' a woman of valour '. When
man possesses a good sound body that does not over-
power him nor disturb the equilibrium in him, he
possesses a divine gift. In short, a good constitution
facilitates the rule of the soul over the body, but it is
not impossible to conquer a bad constitution by
training " (Guide III, 8).

On Proverbs vii. 6-26 he comments : " The general
principle expounded in all these verses is to abstain
from excessive indulgence in bodily pleasures. The
author compares the body, which is the source of all
sensual pleasures, to a married woman who at the
same time is a harlot. . . . All obstacles which
prevent man from attaining his highest aim in life,
all the deficiencies in the character of man, all his evil
propensities, are to be traced to the body alone. The
predominant idea running throughout the figure is,
that man shall not be entirely guided by his animal or
material nature ; for the material substance of man is
identical with that of the brute creation" (Guide t
Introduction).

More remarkable still are the following : " Know,
my son Abraham, (the blessed God be merciful to you)
that the Tabernacle and its furniture are symbolic
of the body of an honourable man. It first mentions
the Ark which is doubtless the heart, since that too is
the first organ in the body. In the Ark were likewise
the tables of the covenant which correspond to the
human intellect. When it is stated ' the cherubim
shall spread out their wings on high ' (Exod. xxv. 20),

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

the symbol is here sound condition. The table of
shew-bread alludes to the liver, the candelabrum to the
gall. The altar of burnt-offering, of which it is said
' Fire shall be kept burning upon the altar continually,
it shall not go out ' (Lev. vi. 6), has a symbolic reference
to man's natural heat. The altar of incense is the
emanation from God to man " (Ethical Will, Responsa

II, 39d).

" The seven-branched candelabrum is a symbol
of the five senses and the powers of the soul, all
functioning in the service of Him Who is blessed "
(Pirke ha-Hatslafyah, Responsa II, 32b).

" Know, my son, that the kings of the house of
David are emblematic of one aspect of the human
intellect, viz., when it is said of them, ' He did that
which was right in the eyes of the Lord ' it is the
intellect engaged with the divine emanation. The
reverse is that which is devoted to physical lusts ; and
when it is mentioned that a heathen king came to fight
against them, it doubtless refers to the Yetser ha-ra
(the evil propensity in man). Know, further, my son,
(may the blessed God preserve you) that Samaria is a
symbol of the debased and accursed matter over which
only wicked kings have dominion they are the
lusts " (Ethical Will, Responsa II, 390).

In the same passage he treats several Biblical
narratives in an emblematic manner for the purpose
of deriving moral truths. E.g., he makes Pharaoh
represent the Yetser Art-ra,Israel the truth, Moses the
divine intellect, Egypt the body and Goshen the heart.
Truth, residing in the heart, is enslaved by evil desire
in the body, and is released by the intervention of the
divine intellect.

The story of Saul and David is similarly treated.
David is truth and Saul the evil impulse. The latter

166

THE TORAH

pursued truth to a place called Secu (i Sam. xix. 22)
which denotes the heart. But truth (David) had gone
to Ramah (' a high place ', i.e., the brain) to be with
Samuel (v. 22), the emblem of the divine intellect.
Finding himself powerless against his intended victims,
Saul ' stripped off his clothes ' (v. 24), i.e., the evil
impulse divested itself of its base lusts.

7. The Commandments of the Torah. Study must
lead to practice. The Torah does not only offer food
for the mind and soul, but it presents man with a
complete guide of life. Its ordinances are numerous,
but they were not intended by God to be a yoke
pressing heavily upon the human being. Maimonides
contends that the reverse is true. The Torah in fact
lightened the load which mankind was carrying at the
time of the Revelation.

" I maintain that the Torah which was revealed to
Moses our teacher, and which is called by his name,
aims at facilitating the service and lessening the
burden ; and if a person complains that certain
precepts cause him pain and great trouble, he cannot
have thought of the habits and doctrines that were
general in those days. Let him consider the difference
between a man burning his own son in serving his god,
and our burning a pigeon to the service of our God.
Scripture relates, ' For even their sons and their
daughters do they burn in the fire to their gods ' (Deut.
xii. 31). This was the way in which the heathen wor-
shipped their gods, and instead of such a sacrifice we
have the burning of a pigeon or a handful of flour in
our worship " (Guide III, 47).

The commandments were intended to be a source
of happiness to man, and it is in that spirit alone that
the ordinances of the Torah can be properly fulfilled.

167

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

" The joy with which a man rejoices in the per-
formance of the commandments and in the love of God
Who ordained them is a great service. Whoever
withholds himself from this joy deserves punishment ;
as it is said, ' Because thou didst not serve the Lord
thy God with joy fulness and with gladness of heart
. . . therefore shalt thou serve thy enemy ' (Deut.
xxviii. 47f). The person who makes his mind haughty
and thinks himself too proud in these circumstances
is a sinner and a fool. Against this fault does Solomon
utter a warning in the words, ' Glorify not thyself in
the presence of the King' (Prov. xxv. 6). But the
person who lowers his dignity and abases himself in
these circumstances is the truly great and honourable,
serving God from a motive of love. Similarly said
David, king of Israel, ' I will be yet more vile than
this, and will be base in mine own sight ' (i Sam. vi.
22) ; for true greatness and honour is but to rejoice
before the Lord " (Yad, Lulab VIII, 15).

" When a man performs any of the commandments
from no other motive than love of God and His service,
he therebj' publicly sanctifies His Name " (Ma'amar
Kiddush ha-Sheni, Response* II, I4b).

8. Reasons of the Commandments. An important
section of the Guide is concerned with the reasons
underlying specific ordinances of the Torah. Maimon-
ides held firmly that, with rare exceptions, the motive
of the enactment could be discovered by research.
His method is particularly interesting because he
anticipated the modem study of comparative religion.
He maintains the theory that many Biblical ordinances
have a relationship with the practices of idolatry and
were intended to wean mankind from heathenish rites ;
consequently it is necessary to study idolatrous

168

THE TORAH

systems to gain an insight into the Pentateuchal
legislation. In one of his letters he states : " I also
read deeply subjects connected with idolatry, until I
imagine that there is not a single book on this theme
in Arabic, translated from other languages, which I
have not read and fathomed to its depths. From these
books there has become clear to me the reason of all
the commandments, although all men think that they
are without reason and merely the decrees of Scripture "
(Responsa II, 25b).

Elsewhere he insists : " Although all the statutes
of the Torah are divine decrees, it is proper to reflect
upon them and assign a reason wherever it is possible "
(Yad, Temurah IV, 13). Another reference to the
same subject is : " It is proper for a man to reflect
upon the laws of the holy Torah and understand their
purpose to the utmost of his ability. But in those
instances where he cannot find a reason and cannot
understand the cause, let them not be light in his eyes,
nor let him presume ' to break through to go up to the
Lord lest He break forth upon him ' (cf. Exod. xix. 2 if );
nor should his thoughts in connection with them be the
same as with secular subjects. See how strict the
Torah is on the matter of Me'ilah* 6 If wood and stones
and dust and ashes since the name of the Lord of
the Universe had been called over them only in words
become holy things, and whoever employs them for
secular purposes commits a ' transgression ' and even
if he had done so in error he must undergo expiation ;
how much more so must a man not spurn the command-
ments which God has ordained because he does not
understand their reason, and invent explanations
concerning God which are incorrect, applying to them
his ideas on secular subjects " (Yad, Me'ilahVIII, 8).

"As Theologians are divided on the question
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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

whether the actions of God are the result of His wisdom,
or only of His will without being intended for any
purpose whatever, so they are also divided as regards
the object of the commandments which God gave us.
Some of them hold that the commandments have no
object at all, and are only dictated by the will of God.*7
Others are of opinion that all commandments and
prohibitions are dictated by His wisdom and serve a
certain aim ; consequently there is a reason for each
one of the precepts ; they are enjoined because they
are useful. All of us, the common people as well as
the scholars, believe that there is a reason for every
precept, although there are commandments the reason
of which is unknown to us, and in which the ways of
God's wisdom are incomprehensible. . . .

" There are commandments which are called
hukkim ' ordinances ', like the prohibition of wearing
garments of wool and linen, boiling meat and milk
together, and the sending of the goat into the wilderness
on the Day of Atonement.* 8 Our Sages use in
reference to them phrases like the following : ' These
are things which I have fully ordained for you, and
you dare not criticise them ' ; ' Your evil inclination
is turned against them ' ; and ' Non- Jews find them
strange '. 2 9 But our Sages generally do not think
that such precepts have no cause whatever and serve
no purpose ; for this would lead us to assume that
God's actions are purposeless. On the contrary, they
hold that even these ordinances have a cause, and are
certainly intended for some use, although it is not known
to us, owing either to the deficiency of our knowledge
or the weakness of our intellect.

" Consequently there is a cause for every com-
mandment ; every positive or negative precept serves
a useful object. In some cases the usefulness is evident,

170

THE TORAH

e.g., the prohibition of murder and theft ; in others
the usefulness is not so evident, e.g., the prohibition of
enjo)dng the fruit of a tree in the first three years
(Lev. xix. 23), or of a vineyard in which other seeds
have been growing (Deut. xxii. 9). Those command-
ments, whose object is generally evident, are called
1 judgments ' (mishpatim) ; those whose object is not
generally clear are called ' ordinances ' (fyukkim). . . .

" I will now tell you what intelligent persons ought
to believe in this respect ; viz., that each command-
ment has necessarily a cause, as far as its general
character is concerned, and serves a certain object ;
but as regards its details we hold that it has no
ulterior object. Thus killing animals for the purpose
of obtaining good food is certainly useful ; that, how-
ever, the killing should not be performed by poleaxing
but by cutting the neck, and by dividing the oesophagus
and the windpipe in a certain places these regulations
and the l'ke are nothing but tests for man's obedience "
(Gride III, 26).

" The reason of a commandment, whether positive
or negative, is clear and its usefulness evident, if it
directly tends to remove injustice, or to teach good
conduct that furthers the well-being of society, or to
impart a truth which ought to be believed either on
its own merit or as being indispensable for facilitating
the removal of injustice or the teaching of good morals.
There is no occasion to ask for the object of such
commandments ; for no one can, e.g., be in doubt as
to the reason why we have been commanded to believe
that God is one ; why we are forbidden to murder, to
steal, and to take vengeance, or to retaliate, or why we
are commanded to love one another.

" But there are precepts concerning which people
are in doubt and of divided opinions, some believing

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

that they are mere commands and serve no purpose
whatever, whilst others believe that they serve a
certain purpose which, however, is unknown to man.
Such are those precepts which in their literal meaning
do not seem to further any of the three above-named
results : to impart some truth, to teach some moral
or to remove injustice. They do not seem to have any
influence upon the well-being of the soul by imparting
any truth, or upon the well-being of the body by
suggesting such ways and rules as are useful in the
government of a state, or in the management of a
household. Such are the prohibitions of wearing
garments containing wool and linen ; of sowing divers
seeds, or of boiling meat and milk together ; the
commandment of covering the blood of slaughtered
beasts and birds, the ceremony of breaking the neck of
a calf in case of a person being found slain, and the
murderer being unknown ; the law concerning the
first-born of an ass, and the like. I am prepared to
tell you my explanation of all these commandments,
and to assign for them a true reason supported by
proof, with the exception of some minor rules and of a
few commandments. I will show that all these and
similar laws must have some bearing upon one of the
following three things, viz., the regulation of our
opinions, or the improvement of our social relations,
which implies two things, the removal of injustice and
the teaching of good morals " (Guide III, 28).

Here follow some examples of the method by which
Maimonides endeavoured to assign reasons to the
commandments :

Circumcision. Two purposes are suggested for
this rite : (i) " I think that one of its objects is to limit
sexual intercourse and to weaken the organ of genera-
tion as far as possible, and thus cause man to be

172

THE TORAH

moderate. Some people believe that circumcision is
to remove a defect in man's formations* ; but every
one can easily reply : How can products of Nature be
deficient so as to require external completion, especially
as the use of the foreskin to that organ is evident.
This commandment has not been enjoined as a
complement to a deficient physical creation, but as a
means for perfecting man's moral shortcomings. The
bodily injury caused to that organ is exactly that which
is desired ; it does not interrupt any vital function,
nor does it destroy the power of generation. Circum-
cision simply counteracts excessive lust ; for there is
no doubt that circumcision weakens the power of
sexual excitement and sometimes lessens the natural
enjoyment ; the organ necessarily becomes weak when
it loses blood and is deprived of its covering from the
beginning. . . .

(ii) " It gives to all members of the same faith,
i.e., to all believers in the Unity of God, a common
bodily sign, so that it is impossible for any one that is
a stranger to say that he belongs to them.3 For
sometimes people say so for the purpose of obtaining
some advantage, or in order to make some attack
upon the Jews. No one, however, should circumcise
himself or his son for any other reason but pure faith ;
for circumcision is not like an incision on the leg, or a
burning in the arm, but a very difficult operation. It
is also a fact that there is much mutual love and assist-
ance among people that are united by the same sign
when they consider it as the symbol of a covenant.
Circumcision is likewise the symbol of the covenant
which Abraham made in connection with the belief
in God's Unity. So also every one that is circumcised
enters the covenant of Abraham to believe in the Unity
of God, in accordance with the words of the Torah,

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

' To be a God unto thee and to thy seed after thee '
(Gen. xvii. 7). This purpose of the circumcision is as
important as the first, and perhaps more important.

" This law can only be kept and perpetuated in
its perfection, if circumcision is performed when the
child is very young, and this for three good reasons.
First, if the operation were postponed till the boy had
grown up, he would perhaps not submit to it.33
Secondly, the young child has not much pain, because
the skin is tender and the imagination weak ; for
grown-up persons are in dread and fear of things which
they imagine are coming, some time before these
actually occur. Thirdly, when a child is very young,
the parents do not think much of him ; because the
image of the child, that leads the parents to love him,
has not yet taken a firm root in their minds. That
image becomes stronger by the continual sight ; it
grows with the development of the child, and later on
the image begins again to decrease and to vanish.
The parents' love for a new-born child is not so great
as it is when the child is.pne year old ; and when one
year old, it is less loved by them than when six years
old. The feeling and love of the father for the child
would have led him to neglect the law if he were allowed
to wait two or three years, whilst shortly after birth
the image is very weak in the mind of the parent,
especially of the father who is responsible for the
execution of this commandment "34 (Guide III, 49).

Prohibition against eating blood. " In ancient days
people were very eager and anxious to eat blood as a
kind of idolatrous ceremony as is explained in the
book Tomtom35 ; and therefore the prohibition of
eating blood is made very stringent " (Guide III, 41).

" Although blood was very unclean in the eyes of
the Sabeans,3* they nevertheless partook of it, because

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THE TORAH

they thought it was the food of the spirits37 ; by eating
it man has something in common with the spirits,
which join him and tell him future events, according
to the notion which people generally have of spirits.
There were, however, people who objected to eating
blood, as a thing naturally disliked by man ; they
killed a beast, received the blood in a vessel or in a
pot, and ate of the flesh of that beast whilst sitting
round the blood. They imagined that in this manner
the spirits would come to partake of the blood which
was their food, whilst the idolaters were eating the
flesh ; that love, brotherhood and friendship with the
spirits were established, 3 8 because they dined with the
latter at one place and at the same time ; that the
spirits would appear to them in dreams, inform them
of coming events, and be favourable to them. Such
ideas people liked and accepted in those days ; they
were general, and their correctness was not doubted
by any one of the common people. The Torah, which
is perfect in the eyes of those who know it and seeks
to cure mankind of these lasting diseases, forbade the
eating of blood, and emphasised the prohibition exactly
in the same terms as it emphasises idolatry " (Guide

III, 46).

Dietary Laws. " I maintain that the food which
is forbidden by the Torah is unwholesome. There is
nothing among the forbidden kinds of food whose
injurious character is doubted, except pork (Lev. xL 7)
and fat (ibid. vii. 23). But also in these cases the doubt
is not justified. For pork contains more moisture than
necessary for human food, and too much of superfluous
matter. The principal reason why the Torah forbids
swine's flesh is to be found in the circumstance that
its habits and its food are very dirty and loathsome.
It has already been pointed out how emphatically

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

the Torah enjoins the removal of the sight of loath-
some objects, even in the field and in the camp39 ;
how much more objectionable is such a sight in towns.
But if it were allowed to eat swine's flesh, the streets
and houses would be more dirty than any cesspool,
as may be seen at present in the country of the
Franks.4o A saying of our Sages declares, ' The mouth
of a swine is as dirty as dung itself '.4*

" The fat of the intestines makes us full, interrupts
our digestion and produces cold and thick blood ; it
is more fit for fuel than for human food.

" Blood (Lev. xvii. 12) and nebelah, i.e., the flesh
of an animal that died of itself (Deut. xiv. 21), are
indigestible and injurious as food. Trefah, an animal
in a diseased state (Exod. xxii. 30) is on the way of
becoming a nebelah.

" The characteristics given in the Torah (Lev. xi.
and Deut. xiv.) of the permitted animals, viz., chewing
the cud and divided hoofs for cattle, and fins and scales
for fish, are in themselves neither the cause of the
permission when they are present, nor of the prohibi-
tion when they are absent ; but merely signs by which
the recommended species of animals can be discerned
from those that are forbidden. . . .

" It is prohibited to cut off a limb of a living animal
and eat it,4* because such act would produce cruelty
and develop it. Besides, the heathen kings used to
do it ; it was also a kind of idolatrous worship to cut
oil a certain limb of a living animal and to eat it.43

" Meat boiled in milk is undoubtedly gross food
and makes overfull ; but I think that most probably
it is also prohibited because it is somehow connected
with idolatry, forming perhaps part of the service, or
being used on some festival of the heathen.44 . .

" The commandment concerning the killing of
176

THE TORAH

animals45 is necessary, because the natural food of
man consists of vegetables and of the flesh of animals ;
the best meat is that of animals permitted to be used
as food. No doctor has any doubts about this. Since,
therefore, the desire of procuring good food necessitates
the slaying of animals, the Torah enjoins that the death
of the animal should be the easiest. It is not allowed
to torment the animal by cutting the throat in a
clumsy manner, by poleaxing or by cutting oft a
limb whilst the animal is alive " (Guide III, 48).

Miscellaneous Laws. "It is prohibited to round
the corners of the head and to mar the corners of the
beard,4$ because it was the custom of idolatrous
priests.47 For the same reason, the wearing of
garments made of linen and wool is prohibited4 8 ; the
heathen priests adorned themselves with garments
containing vegetable and animal material,49 whilst
they held in their hand a seal made of a mineral. This
you find written in their books. The same is also the
reason of the precept, ' A woman shall not wear that
which pertaineth unto a man ' (Deut. xxii. 5). You
find it in the book Tomtom that a male person should
wear coloured woman's dress when he stands before
Venus, and a female, when standing before Mars,
should wear a buckler and other armour. 5 I think
that this precept has also another reason, viz., that the
interchange of dress creates lust and leads to
immorality " (Guide III, 37),

" He who strikes his father or his mother is killed
on account of his great audacity, and because he under-
mines the constitution of the family, which is the
foundation of the state " (Guide III, 41).

" The great men among our Sages would not
uncover their heads because they believed that God's
glory was round them and over them "5 1 (Guide III, 52).

177

12

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

9. The Sacrifices. Maimonides makes the bold
statement that " burnt-offering and sacrifice are of
secondary importance " (Guide III, 32) ; and in this
Chapter of the Guide he works out his theory that the
sacrifices were not an end in themselves, but a means
to an end. 5*

" It is impossible to go suddenly from one extreme
to the other ; it is therefore according to the nature
of man impossible for him suddenly to discontinue
everything to which he has been accustomed. Now
God sent Moses to make the Israelites a kingdom of
priests and a holy nation (Exod. xix. 6) by means of
the knowledge of God. . . . But the custom which
was in those days general among all men, and the
general mode of worship in which the Israelites were
brought up, consisted in sacrificing animals in those
temples which contained certain images, to bow down
to those images and to burn incense before them ;
religious and ascetic persons were in those days the
persons that were devoted to the service in the
temples erected to the stars.

" It was in accordance with the wisdom and plan
of God, as displayed in the whole Creation, that He
did not command us to give up and to discontinue all
these manners of service, for to obey such a command-
ment would have been contrary to the nature of man,
who generally cleaves to that to which he is used ; it
would in those days have made the same impression
as a Prophet would make at present if he called us to
the service of God and told us in His name that we
should not pray to Him, not fast, not seek His help
in time of trouble ; that we should serve Him in
thought and not by any action. For this reason God
allowed these kinds of service to continue ; He
transferred to His service that which had formerly

178

THE TORAH

served as a worship of created beings, and of things
imaginary and unreal, and commanded us to serve
Him in the like manner, viz., to build unto Hima temple,
to have the altar erected to His name, to offer the
sacrifices to Him, to bow down to Him and to burn
incense before Him. . . .

f< By this divine plan it was effected that the
traces of idolatry were blotted out, and the truly great
principle of our Faith, the Existence and Unity of
God, was firmly established ; this result was thus
obtained without deterring or confusing the minds of
the people by the abolition of the service to which they
were accustomed and which alone was familiar to them.

" I know that you will at first thought reject this
idea and find it strange ; you will put the following
question to me in your heart : How can we suppose
that divine commandments, prohibitions and import-
ant acts, which are fully explained and for which
certain seasons are fixed, should not have been
commanded for their own sake, but only for the sake
of some other thing ; as if they were only the means
which He employed for His primary object ? What
prevented Him from making His primary object a
direct commandment to us, and to give us the capacity
of obeying it ? Those precepts which in your opinion
are only the means and not the object would then have
been unnecessary.

" Hear my answer, which will cure your heart of
this disease and will show you the truth of that which
I have pointed out to you. There occurs in the Torah
a passage which contains exactly the same idea ; it is
the following : ' God led them not by the way of the
land of the Philistines, although that was near ; for
God said, Lest peradventure the people repent when
they see war, and they return to Egypt ; but God led

179

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

the people about by the way of the wilderness by the
Red Sea ' (Exod. xiii. iji). Here God led the people
about, away from the direct road which He originally
intended, because He feared they might meet on that
way with hardships too great for their ordinary
strength ; He took them by another road in order to
obtain thereby His original object.

" In the same manner God refrained from
prescribing what the people by their natural disposition
would be incapable of obeying, and gave the above-
mentioned commandments as a means of securing His
chief object, viz., to spread a knowledge of Him among
the people, and to cause them to reject idolatry. It is
contrary to man's nature that he should suddenly
abandon all the different kinds of Divine service and
the different customs in which he has been brought
up, and which have been so general, that they were
considered as a matter of course. It would be just as
if a person trained to work as a slave with mortar and
bricks, or similar things, should interrupt his work,
clean his hands, and at once fight with real giants. . .

" As the sacrificial service is not the primary object
of the commandments about sacrifice, whilst supplica-
tions, prayers, and similar kinds of worship are nearer
to the primary object, and indispensable for obtaining
it, a great difference was made in the Torah between
these two kinds of service. The one kind, which
consists in offering sacrifices, although the sacrifices
are offered to the name of God, has not been made
obligatory for us to the same extent as it had been
before. We were not commanded to sacrifice in every
place, and in every time, or to build a temple in every
place or to permit any one who desires to become
priest and to sacrifice. On the contrary, all this is
prohibited unto us. Only one temple has been

180

THE TORAH

appointed, ' in the place which the Lord shall choose '
(Deut. xii. 26) ; in no other place is it allowed to
sacrifice ; and only the members of a particular family
were allowed to officiate as priests. All these restric-
tions served to limit this kind of worship, and keep it
within those bounds within which God did not think
it necessary to abolish sacrificial service altogether.
But prayer and supplication can be offered anywhere
and by every person " (Guide III, 32).

Maimonides occasionally points out that the
sacrifices and other ceremonial acts have a moral
significance which is capable of wide application.
Dealing with the ritual of the scapegoat on the Day of
Atonement (Lev. xvi.), he declares : " There is no
doubt that sins cannot be carried like a burden, and
taken off the shoulder of one being to be laid on that
of another being. But these ceremonies are of a
symbolic character, and serve to impress men with a
certain idea and to induce them to repent ; as if to
say, we have freed ourselves of our previous deeds,
have cast them behind our backs, and removed them
from us as far as possible " (Guide III, 46).

As the offering had to be perfect and of the best
of its species, " the same principle applies to every-
thing that is done in the name of God it must be of
the best. If a man build a house of prayer, it must be
more beautiful than his place of residence. When he
feeds the hungry, it must be of the finest and most
tasty that is on his table. When he clothes the naked,
it must be with the best of his garments. When he
devotes a thing to a holy purpose, it must be from the
best of his possessions" (Yad, Issure ha-Mizbeafr
VII, ii)

Dealing with the laws of impurity, he remarks :
" It is quite obvious that the regulations concerning

181

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

impurities and purities come within the category of
' statutes ' and do not belong to subjects which can
be rationally explained. Thus the act of immersion, to
rid oneself of impurity, is in that class, because the de-
filement is not material filth which can depart from the
body ; but the rite is dependent upon the intention of
the heart. On that account the Sages declared, ' If
a man took the immersion without the intention of
becoming ritually clean, it is as though he had not
taken it '.53 Nevertheless there is symbolical signifi-
cance in this matter. In the same way that a person
directs his heart to self-purification and attains
cleanliness by immersion although there has been no
physical change, so the person who directs his heart
to purify his soul from spiritual impurities, viz., wrong
thoughts and bad morals, becomes clean when he
determines in his heart to hold aloof from those
courses and bathe his soul in the waters of knowledge "
(Yad, Mikwaot XI, 12).

10. The Sabbath and Festivals. The following are
passages which deal with the holy days of the year,
and treat of their significance and the proper spirit
in which they are to be observed :

" The purpose of the Sabbath is none other than to
teach us to rest and abstain from the matters which
trouble us during the working-days and withhold us
from communing with God, viz., the affairs of the
material world. It urges us to attach ourselves to
His service in place of bondage to a Pharaoh ; as it is
stated in the Decalogue in Deuteronomy, ' And thou
shalt remember that thou wast a servant in the land
of Egypt, and the Lord thy God brought thee out thence
by a mighty hand and by an outstretched arm ; there-
fore the Lord thy God commanded thee to keep the

182

THE TORAH

Sabbath day ' (Deut. v. 15). The other reason upon
which the observance is based is that mentioned in the
other passage, ' For in six days the Lord made heaven
and earth ', etc. (Exod. xx. n). The mystic intention
here is this : You shall attain sanctification through
My work, and it shall be on the day when I perfected
My creation. On that day shall you perfect your
souls by abstaining from mundane affairs, to rest from
activities and labours to serve and commune with Me
that being the truly perfect rest. Then shall your
rest be twofold, of the body and the soul " (Ethical
Will, Responsa II, 3gb).

" The commandments relating to the observance of
the Sabbath and abstention from idolatry are each
equal in weight to all the other ordinances of the
Torah put together. The Sabbath is the sign between
the Holy One, blessed be He, and between us for ever.
Therefore, whoever transgresses any of the ordinances
comes within the class of ' the wicked of Israel ' ; but
he who publicly desecrates the Sabbath is similar in
every respect to an idolater.

" Everyone who observes the Sabbath in the
proper manner, honouring it and delighting in it in
accordance with his means, the reward which is
attributed to him by the Prophet is greater in this
world than even that reserved for the world to come ;
as it is said, ' Then shalt thou delight thyself in the
Lord, and I will make thee to ride upon the high places
of the earth, and I will feed thee with the heritage of
Jacob thy father ; for the mouth of the Lord hath
spoken it ' (Isa, Iviii. 14) " (Yad, Shabbat XXX, 15).

Of the proper way to observe the Festivals, he
writes :

" When a man eats and drinks on the Festival, he
is under the obligation to feed the stranger, the orphan

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

and the widow, together with the other destitute poor.
But if he locks the door of his court and eats and drinks
in the company of his wife and children, without
providing for the poor and distressed, that is not
' the joy of the commandment ' but the joy of his
stomach. To such as him do the Prophet's words
apply, ' Their sacrifices shall be unto them as the
bread of mourners, all that eat thereof shall be
polluted ; for their bread shall be for their appetite '
(Hos. ix. 4). Rejoicing of this kind is a disgrace to
such people. . . .

" Although eating and drinking on the Festivals
comes within the class of positive commandments, a
man should not eat and drink throughout the day.
But such is the proper procedure : In the morning, all
the people repair early to the places of worship, read
from the Torah the portion of the day, return home
from their meal, then go back to the House of Study to
read and learn until midday. When midday has
passed, they say the afternoon prayer (Minhah) and
then wend their way to their homes, and eat and drink
for the rest of the day until night.

" When a man eats and drinks and rejoices on a
Festival, he is not to indulge immoderately in wine
and laughter and levity, saying that to increase in
these things is to increase in the fulfilment of the
command to rejoice. Drunkenness and excessive
joviality are not rejoicing, but ' madness and folly '
(Eccles. i. 17) . It was not for this we were commanded,
but for that rejoicing in which there is the service of
the Creator " (Yad, Yom Tab VI, 18-20 ; Mitswot,
Command. LIV).

" They (the Festivals) promote the good feeling
that men should have to each other in their social and
political relations " (Guide III, 43).

184

THE TORAH

The Passover. " It is kept seven days, because the
period of seven days is the unit of time intermediate
between a day and a month. It is also known how
great is the importance of this period in Nature54 and
in many religious duties. 55 For the Torah always
follows Nature and in some respects brings it to
perfection ; for Nature is not capable of designing and
thinking, whilst the Torah is the result of the wisdom
and guidance of God, Who is the Author of the
intellect of all rational beings " (Guide, loc. cit.).

Another reason is suggested for the seven days'
observance. " If the eating of unleavened bread on
Passover were only commanded for one day, we should
not have noticed it, and its object would not have been
manifest. For it frequently happens that we take the
same kind of food for two or three days. But by our
continuing for a whole period of seven days to eat
unleavened bread, its object becomes clear and
evident " (ibid).

The Torah ordains the counting of the days that
intervene between Passover and the next Festival, viz.,
the Feast of Weeks. 5 6 The explanation which
Maimonides suggests for this counting is : " In order
to raise the importance of this day, we count the days
that pass since the preceding Festival, just as one who
expects his most intimate friend on a certain day counts
the days and even the hours. This is the reason why
we count the days that pass since the offering of the
Omer, between the anniversary of our departure from
Egypt and the anniversary of the Lawgiving. The
latter was the aim and object of the exodus from
Egypt " (ibid).

The New Year. "It is a day of repentance, on
which we are stirred up from our forgetfulness. For
this reason the ShofarS7 is blown on this day " (ibid).

185

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

The message of theShofar is thus explained by him :
" Awake, ye sleepers, from your sleep ; and ye who are
sunk in slumber, arouse yourselves and examine your
actions. Turn in repentance and remember your
Creator, ye who are forgetful of the truth because of
transient vanities, and go astray the whole year after
vain and idle things which are of no use and cannot
deliver you. Look to your souls, amend your ways
and deeds, and let every one of you forsake his evil
way and his impure thoughts !

" Therefore every man should regard himself during
the whole year as though he were half innocent and
half guilty, and also to regard the entire world in the
same light ; so that were he to commit but one sin
more, he would incline himself and the entire world
towards the scale of guilt and cause its destruction.
On the other hand, were he to perform one command-
ment, he would incline himself and the entire world
towards the scale of merit and bring salvation and
deliverance to himself as well as to others ; for it is
said, ' The righteous is an everlasting foundation '
(Prov. x. 15) i.e., the man who acts righteously
inclines the entire world towards merit and secures its
deliverance. On this account the House of Israel has
made it a practice to increase charity and good deeds,
and to engage in pious acts from the New Year to the
Day of Atonement, to a greater extent than during the
rest of the year. The custom has likewise been
established for all to rise in the night during these
ten days, and to pray in the Synagogues with words
of supplication and earnest pleading until daylight "
(Yad, Teshubah III, 4).

Day of Atonement. " The Fast creates the sense
of repentance. It is the same day on which the chief
of all the Prophets came down from Sinai with the

186

THE TORAH

second tables, and announced to the people the divine
pardon of their great sin.5 8 The day was therefore
appointed for ever as a day devoted to repentance and
true worship of God. For this reason all material
enjoyment, all trouble and care for the body, are inter-
dicted, no work may be done ; the day must be spent
in confession ; every one shall confess his sins and
abandon them " (Guide III, 43).

" He commanded us to confess the sins which we
had committed before God, giving utterance to them
with contrition. This is the form of the confession
and its intention : He should say, ' O God, I have
sinned, I have committed iniquity, I have transgressed, 59
and I have done so and so '. He should prolong the
utterance and beg forgiveness in this intention with
all the eloquence his tongue can command " (Mitswot,
Command. LXXIII).

Feast of Tabernacles. " The Feast of Tabernacles,
which is a feast of rejoicing and gladness, is kept
seven days, in order that the idea of the Festival may
be more noticeable. The reason why it is kept in the
autumn is stated in the Torah, ' when thou gatherest
in thy labours out of the field ' (Exod. xxiii. 16) ;
that is to say, when you rest and are free from pressing
labours. Aristotle, in the ninth book of his Ethics,
mentions this as a general custom among the nations.
He says, ' In ancient times the sacrifices and assemblies
of the people took place after the ingathering of the
corn and the fruit, as if the sacrifices were offered on
account of the harvest *. 6 Another reason is this :
in this season it is possible to dwell in tabernacles, as
there is neither great heat nor troublesome rain.

" The two Festivals, Passover and the Feast of
Tabernacles, imply also the teaching of certain truths
and certain moral lessons. Passover teaches us to

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

remember the miracles which God wrought in Egypt,
and to perpetuate their memory ; the Feast of
Tabernacles reminds us of the miracles wrought in
the wilderness. The moral lesson derived from these
Feasts is : man ought to remember his evil days in his
days of prosperity. He will thereby be induced to
thank God repeatedly, to lead a modest and humble
life. We eat, therefore, unleavened bread and
bitter herbs on Passover in memory of what has
happened unto us, and leave our houses on Succot in
order to dwell in tabernacles, as inhabitants of deserts
do that are in want of comfort. We shall thereby
remember that this has once been our condition,
although we dwell now in elegant houses, in the best
and most fertile land, by the kindness of God and
because of His promibes to our forefathers. . . .

" I believe that the four species 61 are a symbolical
expression of our rejoicing that the Israelites changed
the wilderness, ' no place of seed or of figs, or of vines,
or of pomegranates, or of water to drink ' (Num. xx. 5),
for a country full of fruit-trees and rivers. In order
to remember this we take the fruit which is the most
pleasant of the fruit of the land, branches which smell
best, most beautiful leaves, and also the best of herbs,
i.e., the willows of the brook. These four kinds have
also those three purposes ; First, they are plentiful
in those days in Palestine, so that every one could
easily get them. Secondly, they have a good appear-
ance, they are green ; some of them, viz., the citron
and the myrtle, are also excellent as regards their
smell, the branches of the palm-tree and the willow
having neither good nor bad smell. Thirdly, they
keep fresh and green for seven days, which is not the
case with peaches, pomegranates, asparagus, nuts
and the like " (Guide III, 43).

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CHAPTER VII
DIVINE PROVIDENCE

i. God is cognisant of man. The tenth Principle of
Faith declares :

" That He, the exalted One, knows the works of
men and is not unmindful of them. Not as they
thought who said, ' The Lord hath forsaken the land '
(Ezek. viii. 12 ; ix. 9), but as he declared who
exclaimed ' Great in counsel, and mighty in work ;
Whose eyes are open upon all the ways of the sons of
men ' (Jer. xxxii. 19). It is further said, 'And the
Lord saw that the wickedness of man was great in the
earth ' (Gen. vi. 5) ; and again, ' the cry of Sodom and
Gomorrah is great ' (ibid, xviii. 20) " (C.M., Introd. to
Helek).

Although this dogma is stated thus baldly,
Maimonides was aware that it raises difficult problems
on the meaning and scope of Divine Providence. He
declares that " on this question the words of those who
are expert in philosophy are wonderful and very
profound ; and he who is familiar with the sciences,
and the intelligent men eager for understanding,
should pay attention to their arguments, and unite
their opinions with the words of Scripture, ' Behold I
have set before thee this day life and good ' (Deut.
xxx. 15)" (C.M., Berachot IX, end). He devotes
three chapters to this discussion in Part III of the
Guide.

189

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

2. The Problem of Divine Providence. He states the
problem with his usual fairness and analytical skill :

" At first thought we notice an absence of system
in human affairs. Some pious men live a miserable
and painful life, whilst some wicked people enjoy a
happy and pleasant life. On this account the
philosophers assumed as possible the cases which you
will now hear. They said that only one of two things
is possible, either God is ignorant of the individual or
particular things on earth and does not perceive them,
or He perceives and knows them. These are all the
cases possible. They then continued thus : If He
perceives and knows all individual things, one of the
following three cases must take place : (i) God arranges
and manages human affairs well, perfectly and fault-
lessly ; (ii) He is overcome by obstacles and is too
weak and powerless to manage human affairs ; (iii)
He knows all things and can arrange and manage them,
but leaves and abandons them, as too base, low, and
vile, or from jealousy ; as we may also notice among
ourselves some who are able to make another person
happy, well knowing what he wants for his happiness,
and still in consequence of their evil disposition, their
wickedness and jealousy against him, they do not help
him to his happiness.

" This is likewise a complete enumeration of all
possible cases. For those who have a knowledge of a
certain thing necessarily either (i) take care of the
thing which they know and manage it, or (ii) neglect
it (as we, e.g., neglect and forget the cats in our house,
or things of less importance) ; or (iii) while taking care
of it, have not sufficient power and strength for its
management, although they have the will to do so.

" Having enumerated these different cases, the
philosophers emphatically decided that of the three

190

DIVINE PROVIDENCE

cases possible as regards the management of a thing
by one who knows that thing, two are inadmissible in
reference to God viz., want of power or absence of
will ; because they imply either evil disposition or
weakness, neither of which can by any means be
attributed to Him. Consequently there remains
only the alternative that God is altogether ignorant of
human affairs, or that He knows them and manages
them well. Since we, however, notice that events
do not follow a certain order, that they cannot be
determined by analogy, and are not in accordance
with what is wanted, we conclude that God has no
knowledge of them in any way or for any reason. This
is the argument which led the philosophers to speak
such blasphemous words. . . .

" You must notice with surprise that the evil into
which these philosophers have fallen is greater than
that from which they sought to escape, and that they
ignore the very thing which they constantly pointed
out and explained to us. They have fallen into a
greater evil than that from which they sought to escape,
because they refuse to say that God neglects or forgets
a thing, and yet they maintain that His knowledge is
imperfect, that He is ignorant of what is going on here
on earth, that He does not perceive it. They also
ignore what they constantly point out to us, inasmuch
as they judge the whole Universe by that which befalls
individual men, although, according to their own view,
frequently stated and explained, the evils of man
originate in himself or form part of his material nature.
We have already discussed this sufficiently. 1 After
having laid this foundation, which is the ruin of all
good principles and destroys the majesty of all true
knowledge, they sought to remove the opprobrium
by declaring that for many reasons it is impossible

191

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

that God should have a knowledge of earthly things,
for the individual members of a species can only be
perceived by the senses, and not by reason ; but God
does not perceive by means of any of the senses "
(Guide III, 16).

3. Five Theories on Providence. This subject was
keenly debated not only by the Greek philosophers
but also by Mohammedan theologians who split into
two sects on the question. Maimonides is accordingly
able to enumerate five distinct theories respecting
the problem :

(i) " There is no Providence at all for anything in
the Universe ; all parts of the Universe, the heavens
and what they contain, owe their origin to accident
and chance ; there exists no being that rules and
governs them or provides for them. This is the theory
of Epicurus, who assumes also that the Universe
consists of atoms, that these have combined by chance,
and have received their various forms by mere accident.?
There have been atheists among the Israelites who
have expressed the same view ; it is reported of them,
' They have denied the Lord and said He is not ' (Jer.
v. 12). Aristotle has proved the absurdity of the
theory that the whole Universe could have originated
by chance.3 He has shown that, on the contrary,
there is a being that rules and governs the Universe ".4

(ii) " Whilst one part of the Universe owes its
existence to Providence, and is under the control of a
ruler and governor, another part is abandoned and
left to chance. This is the view of Aristotle about
Providence, and I will now explain to you his theory.
He holds that God controls the Spheres and what they
contain : therefore the individual beings in the Spheres
remain permanently in the same form. . . . From

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the existence of the Spheres other beings derive
existence, which are constant in their species but not
in their individuals. In the same manner it is said
that Providence sends forth from the Spheres to the
earth sufficient influence to secure the immortality
and constancy of the species, without securing at the
same time permanence for the individual beings of
the species. But the individual beings in each species
have not been entirely abandoned ; that portion of the
materia prima which has been purified and refined, and
has received the faculty of growth, is endowed with
properties that enable it to exist a certain time, to
attract what is useful and to repel what is useless.

" That portion of the materia prima which has
been subject to a further development, and has
received the faculty of sensation, is endowed with other
properties* for its protection and preservation ; it has
a new faculty of moving freely toward that which is
conducive to, and away from that which is contrary to,
its well-being. Each individual being received besides
such properties as are required for the preservation of
the species to which it belongs. The portion of the
materia prima which is still more refined, and is
endowed with the intellectual faculty, possesses a
special property by which each individual, according
to the degree of his perfection, is enabled to manage,
to calculate, and to discover what is conducive both
to the temporary existence of the individual and to
the preservation of the species. All other movements,
however, which are made by the individual members
of each species, are due to accident ; they are not,
according to Aristotle, the result of rule and manage-
ment.

"E.g., when a storm or gale blows, it causes
undoubtedly some leaves of a tree to drop, breaks off

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

some branches of another tree, tears away a stone from
a heap of stones, raises dust over herbs and spoils them,
and stirs up the sea so that a ship goes down with the
whole or part of her contents. Aristotle sees no
difference between the falling of a leaf or a stone and
the death of the good and noble people in the ship ;
nor does he distinguish between the destruction of a
multitude of ants caused by an ox depositing on them
his excrement and the death of worshippers killed by
the fall of the house when its foundations give way ;
nor does he discriminate between the case of a cat
killing a mouse that happens to come in her way, or
that of a spider catching a fly, and that of a hungry
lion meeting a Prophet and tearing him.5

" In short, the opinion of Aristotle is this : Every-
thing is the result of management which is constant,
which does not come to an end and does not change
any of its properties, as, e.g., the heavenly beings,
and everything which continues according to a certain
rule, and deviates from it only rarely and exceptionally,
as is the case in objects of Nature. All these are the
result of management, i.e., in a close relation to Divine
Providence. But that which is not constant and
does not follow a certain rule, as, e.g., incidents in the
existence of the individual beings in each species of
plants or animals, whether rational or irrational, is
due to chance and not to management ; it is in no
relation to Divine Providence. 6 Aristotle holds that
it is even impossible to ascribe to Providence the
management of these things."

(iii) "This theory is the reverse of the second.
According to this theory, there is nothing in the whole
Universe, neither a class nor an individual being,
that is due to chance ; everything is the result of will,
intention and rule. It is a matter of course that he

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DIVINE PROVIDENCE

who rules must know that which is under his control.
The Mohammedan Ash'ariyah? adhere to this theory,
notwithstanding evident absurdities implied in it ;
for they admit that Aristotle is correct in assuming
one and the same cause (viz., the wind) for the fall of
leaves from the tree, and for the death of a man
drowned in the sea. But they hold at the same time
that the wind did not blow by chance ; it is God that
caused it to move ; it is not therefore the wind that
caused the leaves to fall ; each leaf falls according to
the Divine decree ; it is God Who caused it to fall at
a certain time and in a certain place ; it could not have
fallen before or after that time or in another place, as
this has previously been decreed.

"The Ash'ariyah were therefore compelled to
assume that motion and rest of living beings are
predestined, and that it is not in the power of man to
do a certain thing or leave it undone. The theory
further implies a denial of possibility in these things ;
they can only be either necessary or impossible. The
followers of this theory accepted also the last-mentioned
proposition, and say that we call certain things possible,
as, e.g., the facts that A stands and that B is coming ;
but they are only possible for us, whilst in their
relation to God they cannot be called possible ; they
are either necessary or impossible.

" It follows also from this theory that precepts are
perfectly useless, since the people to whom any law is
given are unable to do anything : they can neither do
what they are commanded nor abstain from what they
are forbidden. The supporters of this theory hold that
it was the will of God to send Prophets, to command,
to forbid, to promise and to threaten, although we have
no power over our actions. A duty would thus be
imposed upon us which is impossible for us to carry

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

out, and it is even possible that we may suffer punish-
ment when obeying the command and receive reward
when disobeying it. According to this theory, it must
also be assumed that the actions of God have no final
cause. . . . When we see a person born blind or
leprous, who could not have merited a punishment for
previous sins, they say, It is the will of God ; when a
pious worshipper is tortured and slain, it is likewise
the will of God ; and no injustice can be asserted of
Him for that, for according to their opinion it is proper
that God should afflict the innocent and do good to
the sinner/ 1

(iv) " Man has free will ; it is therefore intelligible
that the Torah contains commands and prohibitions,
with announcements of reward and punishment. All
acts of God are due to wisdom ; no injustice is found in
Him and He does not afflict the good. The Mu'tazila 8
profess this theory, although they do not believe in
man's absolute free will.9 They hold also that God
takes notice of the falling of the leaf and the destruction
of the ant, and that His Providence extends over all
things.

" This theory likewise implies contradictions and
absurdities. The absurdities are these : The fact
that some persons are born with defects, although they
have not sinned previously, is ascribed to the wisdom
of God, it being better for those persons to be in such a
condition than to be in a normal state, though we do
not see why it is better ; and they do not suffer thereby
any punishment at all, but, on the contrary, enjoy
God's goodness. In a similar manner the slaughter of
the pious is explained as being for them the source of
an increase of reward in future life. They go even
further in their absurdities. We ask them why is God
only just to man and not to other beings, and how has

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DIVINE PROVIDENCE

the irrational animal sinned that it is condemned to be
slaughtered, and they reply it is good for the animal,
for it will receive reward for it in the world to come ;
also the flea and the louse will there receive compensa-
tion for their untimely death. The same reasoning
they apply to the mouse torn by a cat or vulture ;
the wisdom of God decreed this for the mouse, in order
to reward it after death for the mishap. . . .

" I do not consider it proper to blame the followers
of any of the last-named three theories on Providence,
for they have been driven to accept them by weighty
considerations. Aristotle was guided by that which
appears to be the nature of things. The Ash'ariyah
refused to ascribe to God ignorance about anything
and to say that God, whilst knowing one individual
being or one portion of the Universe, is ignorant of
another portion ; they preferred to admit the above-
mentioned absurdities. The Mu'tazilites refused to
assume that God does what is wrong and unjust ; on
the other hand, they would not contradict common
sense and say that it was not wrong to inflict pain on
the guiltless, or that the mission of the Prophets and
the giving of the Torah had no intelligible reason.
They likewise preferred to admit the above-named
absurdities. But they even contradicted themselves,
because they believe on the one hand that God knows
everything, and on the other hand that man has free
will."

(v) " This is our 10 theory, or that of our Torah.
. . . The theory of man's perfectly free will is one
of the fundamental principles of the Torah of our
teacher Moses, and of those who follow the Torah.
According to this principle, man does what is in his
power to do, by his nature, his choice and his will ;
and his action is not due to any faculty created for the

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

purpose." All species of irrational animals likewise
move by their own free will. This is the Will of God :
that is to say, it is due to the eternal divine will that all
living beings should move freely, and that man should
have power to act according to his will or choice within
the limits of his capacity. Against this principle we
hear, thank God, no opposition on the part of our
nation.

"Another fundamental principle taught by the
Torah of Moses is this : Wrong cannot be ascribed to
"God in any way whatever ; all evils and afflictions as
well as all kinds of happiness of man, whether they
concern one individual person or a community, are
distributed according to justice ; they are the result
of a strict judgment that admits of no wrong whatever.
Even when a person suffers pain in consequence of
a thorn having entered into his hand, although it is at
once drawn out, it is a punishment that has been
inflicted upon him for sin, and the least pleasure he
enjoys is a reward for some good action. All this is
meted out by strict justice ; as is said in Scripture, ' All
His ways are judgment ' (Deut. xxxii. 4) ; we are
only ignorant of the working of that judgment " (Guide

in, 17).

4. Maimonides' views. 1 * " My opinion on this
principle of Divine Providence I will now explain to
you. In the principle which I now proceed to expound
I do not rely on demonstrative proof, but on my con-
ception of the spirit of the Divine Torah and the
writings of the Prophets. The principle which I
accept is far less open to objections, and is more
reasonable than the opinions mentioned above. It is
this : In the lower or sublunary portion of the Universe,
Divine Providence does not extend to the individual

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members of species except in the case of mankind. It
is only in this species that the incidents in the existence
of the individual beings, their good and evil fortunes,
are the result of justice, in accordance with the words,
' For all His ways are judgment '.

" But I agree with Aristotle as regards all other
living beings, and a fortiori as regards plants and all the
rest of earthly creatures. For I do not believe that it
is through the interference of Divine Providence that
a certain leaf drops from a tree, nor do I hold that when
a certain spider catches a certain fly, that this is the
direct result of a special decree and will of God in that
moment ; it is not by a particular divine decree that
the spittle of a certain person moved, fell on a certain
gnat in a certain place, and killed it ; nor is it by the
direct will of God that a certain fish catches and
swallows a certain worm on the surface of the water.
In all these cases the action is, according to my opinion,
entirely due to chance, as taught by Aristotle.

" Divine Providence is connected with divine
intellectual influence, and the same beings which are
benefited by the latter so as to become intellectual,
and to comprehend things comprehensible to rational
beings, are also under the control of Divine Providence,
which examines all their deeds in order to reward or
punish them. It may be by mere chance that a ship
goes down with all her contents, as in the above-
mentioned instance, or the roof of a house falls upon
those within ; but it is not due to chance, according
to our view, that in the one instance the men went
into the ship, or remained in the house in the other
instance ; it is due to the will of God and is in accord-
ance with the justice of His judgments, the method of
which our mind is incapable of understanding. I have
been induced to accept this theory by the circumstance

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

that I have not met in any of the prophetical books
with a description of God's Providence otherwise than
in relation to human beings. The Prophets even
express their surprise that God should take notice of
man, who is too little and too unimportant to be
worthy of the attention of the Creator ; how, then,
should other living creatures be considered as proper
objects for Divine Providence ! J 3 . . .

" It cannot be objected to this theory, Why should
God select mankind as the object of His special
Providence, and not other living beings ? For he who
asks this question must also inquire, Why has man
alone, of all species of animals, been endowed with
intellect ? The answer to the second question must
be, according to the three afore-mentioned theories :
It was the Will of God, it is the decree of His wisdom,
or it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. The
same answers apply to the first question.

" Understand thoroughly my theory, that I do not
ascribe to God ignorance of anything or any kind of
weakness. I hold that Divine Providence is related
and closely connected with the intellect, because
Providence can only proceed from an intelligent being,
from a being that is itself the most perfect Intellect.
Those creatures, therefore, which receive part of that
intellectual influence, will become subject to the action
of Providence in the same proportion as they are acted
upon by the Intellect. . . .

" Hence it follows that the greater the share is
which a person has obtained of this divine influence,
on account of both his physical predisposition and his
training, the greater must also be the effect of Divine
Providence upon him, for the action of Divine
Providence is proportional to the endowment of
intellects The relation of Divine Providence is

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DIVINE PROVIDENCE

therefore not the same to all men ; the greater the
human perfection a person has attained, the greater
the benefit he derives from Divine Providence. . . .

" When we see that some men escape plagues and
mishaps whilst others perish by them, we must not
attribute this to a difference in the properties of their
bodies, or in their physical constitution, ' for not by
strength shall man prevail ' (i Sam. ii. 9) ; but it must
be attributed to their different degrees of perfection,
some approaching God, whilst others move away from
Him. Those who approach Him are best protected,
and 'He will keep the feet of His holy ones' (ibid.)}
but those who keep far away from Him are left
exposed to what may befall them ; there is nothing
that could protect them from what might happen ;
they are like those who walk in darkness and are
certain to stumble. . . .

" Now consider how by this method of reasoning
we have arrived at the truth taught by the Prophets,
that every person has his individual share of Divine
Providence in proportion to his perfection. For
philosophical research leads to this conclusion, if we
assume, as has been mentioned above, that Divine
Providence is in each case proportional to the person's
intellectual development. It is wrong to say that
Divine Providence extends only to the species and not
to individual beings, as some of the philosophers teach.
For only individual beings have real existence, and
individual beings are endowed with Divine Intellect ;
Divine Providence acts, therefore, upon these
individual beings " (Guide III, iji).

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CHAPTER VIII
REWARD AND PUNISHMENT

i. God's Justice. Closely allied to the subject of
Divine Providence is that of Reward and Punishment.
It formed an important feature in Maimonides' theory
as expounded in the last Chapter. It is the theme of
his eleventh Principle of Faith :

" That He, the exalted One, rewards him who
obeys the commands of the Torah, and punishes him
who transgresses His prohibitions. That God's
greatest reward to man is ' the future world ', and that
His strongest punishment is ' cutting off '. . . .
The Scriptural verses in which the Principle is pointed
out are : ' Yet now if Thou wilt forgive their sin ;
and if not, blot me out of Thy book ' (Exod. xxxii. 32).
And God replied to him, ' Whosoever hath sinned
against Me, him will I blot out of My book ' (ibid. 33).
This is a proof of what the obedient and the rebellious
each obtain. God rewards the one and punishes the
other " (C.M., Introd. to Helek).

' ' When the Scriptures state of God, * Who respecteth
not persons nor taketh a bribe* (Deut. x. 17), the
reference cannot be to His acceptance of a bribe to
avert justice, for that would be nonsense and an
impossibility with God, something that could not in
any way be imagined. For how can bribery be
ascribed to Him ? What form could it take ? The
meaning is that He will not accept good deeds as a

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REWARD AND PUNISHMENT

bribe to overlook the bad. If, e.g., a man should
perform a thousand good acts and a single bad deed,
God will not pardon the one transgression because of
the numerous good acts, even by deducting one or more
of them ; but He will punish him for this one wrong
action and reward him for the good " (C.M., Abot
IV, 29).

So firm is his belief in God's strict justice, that
Maimonides feels certain that He would bestow reward
on an Israelite for secret obedience of the Torah, even
if he were compelled in time of persecution outwardly
to profess another religion. " If, according to the
Rabbis, 1 notorious evil-doers (like Esau, Ahab and
Nebuchadnezzar) are rewarded by God for a trifling
good deed which they performed, when Jews are forced
to apostasise and perform the commandments in secret,
how is it possible that He will not reward them ! "
(Kiddush ha-Shem, Responsa II, i3c).

" The man whose sins exceed his merits dies at
once in consequence of his wickedness. Similarly a
country whose sins are in excess perishes. So it is
also with regard to the whole world ; if its sins exceed
its merits, it is doomed to immediate destruction.
The balancing of sins and merits is not quantitative but
qualitative. There may be one good deed which
outweighs many sins ; and again there may be one sin
which outweighs many meritorious actions.* The
deeds can therefore only be balanced by the mind of
the God of all knowledge, and He alone is cognisant
how good deeds are to be estimated against sins "
(Yad t Teshubah III, 2).

2. Why Rewards and Punishments are promised. The
doctrine of Reward and Punishment is apparently at
variance with that great ideal of Judaism that God

203

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

should be served purely from love and without
ulterior motive.3 Maimonides therefore explains that
the Torah instituted Rewards for the incentive of those
who have not reached the stage of perfection where
they avoid the bad and adhere to the good on ethical
grounds only. Rewards and Punishments were
intended merely as a temporary expedient ; and he
illustrates this thought by means of a parable :4

" Figure to yourself a child young in years brought
to a teacher to be instructed by him in the Torah.
But the child, on account of the fewness of his years
and the weakness of his intellect, does not grasp the
measure of that benefit, or the extent to which it leads
him towards the attainment of perfection. The
teacher must therefore necessarily stimulate him to
learning by means of things in which he delights by
reason of his youth. Thus he says to him, ' Read, and
I shall give you nuts or figs, or a bit of sugar '. The
child yields to this. He learns diligently, not indeed
for the sake of the knowledge itself, as he does not know
the importance of it, but merely to obtain that
particular dainty (the eating of that dainty being more
relished by him than study, and regarded as an
unquestionably greater boon). And consequently he
considers learning as a labour and a weariness to which
he gives himself up in order by its means to gain his
desired object, which consists of a nut, or a piece of
sugar.

" When he grows older and his intelligence
strengthens, he thinks lightly of the trifle in which he
formerly found joy and begins to desire something new.
He longs for this newly-chosen object of his, and his
teacher now says to him, ' Read, and I shall buy you
pretty shoes, or a coat of this kind ! ' Accordingly he
again exerts himself to learn, not for the sake of the

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REWARD AND PUNISHMENT

knowledge, but to acquire that coat ; for the garment
ranks higher in his estimation than the learning and
constitutes the final aim of his studies. When, how-
ever, he reaches a higher stage of mental perfection,
this prize also ranks little with him, and he sets his
heart upon something of greater moment. So that
when his teacher bids him, ' Learn this section or that
chapter and I will give you a dinars or two ', he learns
with zest in order to obtain that money which to him
is of more value than the learning, seeing that it
constitutes the final aim of his studies.

" When, further, he reaches the age of greater
discretion, this prize also loses its worth for him. He
recognises its paltry nature and sets his heart upon
something more desirable. His teacher then says to
him, ' Learn, in order that you may become a Rabbi
or a Judge ; the people will honour you and rise before
you ; they will be obedient to your authority, and
your name will be great, both in life and after death,
as in the case of so and so '. The pupil throws
himself into ardent study, striving all the time to
reach this stage of eminence. His aim is that of
obtaining the honour of men, their esteem and
commendation.

" But all these methods are blameworthy. For
in truth it is incumbent upon man, considering the
weakness of the human mind, to make his aim in his
acquisition of learning something which is extraneous
to learning. And he should say of anything which
is studied for the sake of gaining reward, ' Of a truth
this is a silly business '. This is what the Sages
meant when they used the expression shello lishmah
' not for its own sake '. They meant to tell us that
men obey the laws of the Torah, perform its precepts,
and study and strive, not to obtain the thing itself,

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

but for a further object. The Sages prohibited this to
us in the remark, ' Make not of the Torah a crown
wherewith to aggrandize thyself, nor a spade where
with to dig '. 6 They allude to that which I have
made clear to you, viz., not to make the be-all and
end-all of learning either the glorification of man or
the acquisition of wealth. Also not to adopt the
Torah of God as the means of a livelihood,? but to
make the goal of one's study the acquisition of know-
ledge for its own sake.

" Similarly, the aim of one's study of truth ought
to be the knowing of truth. The laws of the Torah are
truth, and the purpose of their study is obedience
to them. The perfect man must not say, * If I per-
form these virtues and refrain from these vices which
God forbade, what reward shall I receive ? ' For
this would resemble the case of the lad who says,
' If I read, what present will be given me ? ' and
he receives the reply that he will get such and such a
thing . . . The Sages warned us against this also,
viz., against a man making the attainment of some
worldly object the end of his service to God, and his
obedience to His precepts. And this is the meaning
of the dictum of that distinguished and perfect man
who understood the fundamental truth of things
Antigonus of Socho 'Be not like servants who
minister to their master upon the condition of receiv-
ing a reward ; but be like servants who minister to
their master without the condition of receiving a
reward '. 8 They really meant to tell us by this that
a man should believe in truth for truth's sake "
(C.M., Introd. to Helek).

However worthy this principle may be as an ideal,
it can only be reached by a comparative few. The
multitude can only be withheld from wrong-doing by

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REWARD AND PUNISHMENT

means of threats and induced to obedience of the
commandments by the hope of reward.

" Our Sages knew how difficult a thing this was
(to be ' a server of God from motives of pure love ') and
that not every one could act up to it. They knew
that even the man who reached it would not at
once accord with it and think it a true article of faith.
For man only does those actions which will either
bring him advantage or ward off loss. All other
actions he holds vain and worthless. Accordingly,
how could it be said to one who is learned in the
Torah, ' Do these things, but do them not out of fear
of God's punishment, nor out of hope for His reward ' ?
This would be exceedingly hard, because it is not
every one that comprehends truth, and becomes like
Abraham our father.9 Therefore, in order that the
common folk might be established in their convictions,
the Sages permitted them to perform meritorious
actions with the hope of reward, and to avoid the
doing of evil out of fear of punishment. They
encourage them to these conceptions and their opin-
ions become firmly rooted, until eventually the
intelligent among them come to comprehend and
know what truth is and what is the most perfect
mode of conduct.

" It is exactly the way in which we deal with the
lad in his studies, as we have explained in our fore-
going simile. . . . The people at large are not
one jot the worse off through their performance
of the precepts of the Torah by reason of their fear
of punishment and expectation of reward ; for they
are in a state of imperfection. On the contrary,
they are by this means drawn to cultivate the necessary
habits and training for acting in loyalty to the Torah.
They bring themselves over to an understanding of

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

truth, and become ' servers out of pure love '. And
this is what the Sages meant by their remark, ' Man
should ever engage himself in the Torah, even though
it be not for the Torah's sake. Action regardless of
the Torah's sake will lead on to action regardful of
it ' "w (op. cit.).

3. The Highest Form of Reward and Punishment.
For the man who has passed the stage where he is
attracted by material reward or deterred by fear
of penalty, there is a sense in which he may still be
spurred on by recompense to do what is right.

" As regards the promises and threats alluded to
in the Torah, their interpretation is that which I
shall now tell you. It says to you, ' If you obey
these precepts, I will help you to a further obedience
of them and perfection in the performance of them.
And I shall remove all hindrances from you '. For
it is impossible for man to do the service of God when
sick or hungry or thirsty or in trouble, and this is
why the Torah promises the removal of all these
disabilities and gives man also the promise of health
and quietude until such a time as he shall have
attained perfection of knowledge and be worthy of
the life of the world to come.

" The final aim of the Torah is not that the earth
should be fertile, that people should live long, and that
bodies should be healthy. It simply helps us to the
performance of its precepts by holding out the
promise of all these things. Similarly, if men
transgress, their punishment will be that all these
hindrances will come into being, rendering them
powerless to do righteousness ; as we read,
' Because thou didst not serve the Lord thy God
with joyfulness. . . . Therefore shalt thou serve

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REWARD AND PUNISHMENT

thine enemy whom the Lord shall send against thee '
(Deut. xxviii., 47).

" If you give this matter more than ordinary
consideration, you will find it to be equivalent to being
told, ' If you carry out a portion of these laws with
love and diligence, we shall help you to a perform-
ance of all of them by removing from you all diffi-
culties and obstacles ; but if you abandon any of
them out of disdain we shall bring hindrances into
your path that will prevent you from doing any of
them, so that you will gain neither perfection nor
eternity '. This is what is meant by the assertion of
the Rabbis, ' The recompense of a precept is a precept,
and the recompense of transgression is transgression ' " xx
(C.M., Introd. to Helek).

" When we perform all the commandments of the
Torah, the good things of this world will fall to our
lot ; and when we transgress them, the calamities
recorded in the Torah will befall us. Nevertheless,
those good things are not the ultimate reward of
obeying the commandments ; nor are those calami-
ties the ultimate punishment for transgressing all
the commandments. The solution of the matter is
as follows.

" The Holy One, blessed be He, has given us this
Torah, which is a tree of life to everyone who performs
all that is written therein. Whoever knows it with
a perfect and correct knowledge thereby merits
the life of the world to come, and does so in proportion
to the greatness of his deeds and the abundance
of his wisdom. God has assured us in the Torah
that if we perform it joyfully and with a willing spirit,
constantly meditating on its wisdom, He will remove
from us everything which withholds us from per-
forming its ordinances, such as illness, war, famine

209

14

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

and the like ; and He will grant us all the good things
which strengthen our hands to perform the Torah,
such as plenty, peace, and abundance of silver and
gold ; to the end that we shall not, throughout our
life, occupy ourselves with the needs of the body,
but dwell in leisure to study wisdom and perform
the commandments, thereby meriting the life of the
world to come. . . .

" He has likewise informed us in the Torah that
if we wilfully abandon it and occupy ourselves with
the vanities of the time, the true Judge will remove
from those who abandon the Torah all the good things
of this world which strengthened their hands to spurn
it ; and He will bring upon them all the calamities
which prevent them from acquiring the world to come,
to the end that they may perish in their wickedness "
(Yad t Teshubah IX, i).

The form which the penalty inflicted upon the
wicked will take is thus described :

" The consummate evil (of punishment) consists
in the cutting off of the soul, its perishing and its
failure to attain durability. This is the meaning of
' cutting oft ' mentioned in the Torah. The meaning
is the cutting off of the soul, as the Torah manifestly
declares, ' That soul shall surely be cut off ' (Num.
xv. 31). And the Sages remarked : ' cut off ' in this
world, ' surely cut off ' in the world to come" . . .
All those who devote themselves to bodily pleasures,
rejecting truth and choosing falsehood, are cut off
from participation in that exalted state of things
and remain as detached matter merely " (C.M.,
Introd. to Helek).

" This ' cutting off ' will apparently take place
after the sinner has suffered punishment for his mis-
deeds. But Maimonides is very vague deliberately

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REWARD AND PUNISHMENT

so, no doubt on this point. All he tells us is :
" Gehinnom is an expression for the suffering that will
befall the wicked. The nature of this suffering is not
expounded in the Talmud. One authority there
states that the sun will draw near the wicked and
burn themes He gets his proof from the verse,
' For behold the day cometh, it burneth as a furnace '
(Mai. iii. 19). Another asserts that a strange heat
will arise in their bodies and consume them. He
derives proof for this from the phrase, ' Your breath
is a fire that shall devour you ' (Isa. xxxiii. n) "
(ibid.).

4. Repentance. Man is granted one means of escape
from punishment for his evil deeds, and that is sincere
repentance.

" Repentance is one of those principles which are
an indispensable element in the creed of the followers
of the Torah. For it is impossible for man to be
entirely free from error and sin ; he either does not
know the opinion which he has to choose, or he adopts
a principle, not for its own merits, but in order to
gratify his desire or passion. If we were convinced
that we could never make our crooked ways straight,
we should for ever continue in our errors, and perhaps
add other sins to them since we did not see that any
remedy was left to us. But the belief in the effect
of repentance causes us to improve, to return to the
best of the ways, and to become more perfect than
we were before we sinned " (Guide III, 36).

"At this time, when the Temple no longer
exists and we have no atoning altar, there remains
nothing but repentance. Repentance atones for
all transgressions. Even he who has been wicked
throughout his life, and at last repents, has not

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the least part of his wickedness recorded against
him.

" What constitutes perfect repentance ? It is
when a temptation befalls him who has previously
succumbed to it and he has the possibility of repeating
his offence, but he abstains from doing so from
repentance, and not from fear or lack of ability. If
one repent only in old age, at a time when it is not
possible for him to do what he has been in the habit
of doing, although this is not an ideal form of repent-
ance, it avails him and he is a penitent. Even if he
had been a sinner all his life, and repented on the day
of his death so that he die in penitence, all his sins
are pardoned. . . .

" What is repentance ? It is that the sinner
abandon his sin, remove it from his mind, and also
resolve in his heart never to do it again. He must
likewise feel contrition for having transgressed,
and call Him Who knoweth all secrets to witness that
he will never repeat this sin. He must also make a
verbal confession and give utterance to the resolu-
tions which he had determined in his heart. Whoever
confesses with words, without resolving in his heart
to abandon his sins, is like one who undergoes immer-
sion while clutching the unclean thing in his hand. J 4
The immersion is useless to him- until he throw
away the unclean thing. . . .

" It is of the manifestations of repentance that the
penitent should cry unremittingly before God with
weeping and supplications, practise charity accord-
ing to his means, keeping himself far from the object
of his sin, and alter his name as though to say, I am
a different person and not the same man who com-
mitted those actions. He must amend his whole
conduct and turn towards the right path. Another

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REWARD AND PUNISHMENT

thing he should do is to leave the place of his domicile,
because exile atones for iniquity,^ since it causes a
man to be humbled and thus become meek and lowly
of spirit.

" It is most commendable for the penitent to make
his confession publicly, and proclaim his trans-
gressions, disclosing to others the offences existing
between himself and his fellow-creatures in such
terms as these, ' In truth I have sinned against so
and so ; such and such have I done to him ; but to-day
I repent and regret it '. As for the man who is proud
and refuses to proclaim his transgressions but con-
ceals them, his repentance is not genuine. This,
however, applies only to transgressions between man
and man ; but with regard to transgressions between
man and God, he need not make them public. Rather
would it be effrontery on his part, if he were to
disclose them ; but he should repent only to God
and enumerate his sins before Him, only making a
general confession in public. It is preferable that his
sin be not published " (Yad, Teshubah I, 3, II, 1-5).

Maimonides maintains that sometimes God
penalises a heinous sinner by checking his will to
repent so that he should die in his wickedness and
receive punishment for his misdeeds.

" God at times punishes man by withholding
repentance from him, thus not allowing him free
will as regards repentance, x 5 a for God, blessed be He,
knows the sinners, and His wisdom and equity mete
out their punishment. Sometimes He punishes
only in this world, sometimes only in the world to
come, sometimes in both. Furthermore, His punish-
ment in this world is varied, sometimes being
bodily, sometimes pecuniary, and sometimes both at
once. ... It is not necessary for us to know

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

about God's wisdom so as to be able to ascertain why
He inflicts precisely such punishment as He does and
no other, just as little as we know why one species
has a certain particular form and not another. It is
sufficient for us to know the general principle, that
God is righteous in all His ways, that He punishes
the sinner according to his sin, and rewards the pious
according to his righteousness " (C.M., Eight Chapters
VIII.).

5. Free Will. The whole doctrine of Reward and
Punishment rests upon the supposition that man is
endowed with free will and has unhampered choice
of action to do good or evil, Maimonides accordingly
emphasises human freedom in this respect.

" Free will is granted to every man. If he wish
to direct himself to the good way and become right-
eous, the will to do so is in his hand ; and if he wish
to direct himself to the bad way and become wicked,
the will to do so is in his hand. That is what is
written in the Torah, ' Behold, the man is become
as one of us, to know good and evil ' (Gen. iii. 22)
that is to say, the human species has become unique
in the world and there is no other species like it in this
respect, viz., in knowing by itself, by its own know-
ledge and reflection, what is good and what is evil,
and in doing whatever it wishes without there being
anyone to withhold it from doing the good or the evil.

" Let there not enter your mind the assertion ol the
fools of other peoples and also of the many uninformed
men among the Israelites, viz., that the Holy One,
blessed be He, decrees concerning the human being,
from his birth, whether he is to be righteous or wicked.
The matter is not so ; but every man has the possi-
bility of becoming as righteous as Moses our teacher

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or as wicked as Jeroboam, wise or stupid, kind or
cruel, miserly or generous, and similarly with all the
other qualities. There is no one to compel, decree
or determine him as to either of the two ways ; but
it is he, of his own accord and mind, who inclines
towards whichever way he prefers. That is what
Jeremiah said, ' Out of the mouth of the Most High
proceedeth not evil and good ' (Lam. iii. 38) l6 ,
meaning, the Creator does not decree concerning a
man that he should be either good or bad. It con-
sequently follows that the sinner caused his own
downfall. It therefore behoves him to weep and
lament over his sins and for having done violence
to his soul. Hence the quotation proceeds, ' Where-
fore doth a living man complain ', etc. ; and Jeremiah
goes on to say, since our will is under our control
and we have consciously committed all the wicked
deeds, it behoves us to turn in repentance and
abandon our wickedness, because the choice is now
in our hands. That is what the text continues,
' Let us search and try our ways, and return to the
Lord ' (ibid. 40).

"This subject is a most important Principle
of Faith ; it is a pillar of the Torah and of the
commandments. ... If God were to decree
concerning man whether he is to be righteous or
wicked, or if there were anything in the nature of his
nativity which impelled him to either of the two
ways, or to a particular quality, or to a particular
disposition, or to a particular action, as the foolish
astrologers invent in their minds, how could He
have commanded us through the Prophets, Do
this and avoid that, mend your ways and go not after
your wickedness, if from the outset of his existence
his fate had been decreed for him or his nativity

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

impels him to something from which he cannot possibly
desist ? What place would there have been for the
whole of the Torah ? And by what justice, or by
what right, could He punish the wicked or reward
the righteous ? ' Shall not the Judge of all the earth
do justly ? ' (Gen. xviii. 25).

" Do not say in surprise, How can a man do all
that he desires and his actions be under his control ?
Can he do anything in the world without the per-
mission and will of his Creator ; as Scripture declares,
' Whatsoever the Lord pleased, that hath He done
in heaven and in earth ' (Ps. cxxxv. 6) ? Know that
everything is done according to His will, although
our actions are under our control. How is this ?
In the same way that the Creator willed that fire and
air should move upward, that water and earth should
move downward, that the Sphere revolve in a circle,
and that all other things which were created in the
Universe should have the tendency which He desired,
so did He desire that a man should be possessed of free
will, that all his actions should be under his control,
and that there should not be anything to compel
or withhold him, but that of his own accord and by
the mind with which God had endowed him, he should
do all that man is able to do. For this reason is
man judged according to his actions ; if he has done
what is good, good is done to him ; and if he has done
what is evil, evil is done to him " (Yad, Teshubah V,

1-4).

"The Rabbis expatiate very much upon this
subject in the Midrash Kohelet and in other writings,
one of their statements in reference to this matter
being, ' Everything follows its natural course '. f 7
In everything that they said, you will always find
that the Rabbis, peace be upon them, avoided

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REWARD AND PUNISHMENT

referring to the Divine Will as determining a particular
event at a particular time. When, therefore, they
said that man rises and sits down in accordance
with the will of God, their meaning was that, when
man was first created, his nature was so determined
that rising up and sitting down were to be optional
to him ; but they as little meant that God wills at
any special moment that man should or should not
get up, as He determines at any given time that a
certain stone should or should not fall to the ground. 18

" The sum and substance of the matter is, then,
that thou shouldst believe that just as God willed
that man should be upright in stature, broadchested,
and have fingers, likewise did He will that man
should move or rest of his own accord, and that his
actions should be such as his own free will dictates
to him, without any outside influence or restraint "
(C.M., Eight Chapters VIII).

A correspondent, however, questioned him as to
hpw it was possible to reconcile the doctrine of free
will with the Rabbinic statement that "marriages
were made in heaven ". X 9 His reply is rather curious :

" When the Sage stated that the daughter of A
is the predestined bride of B t this comes under the
heading of Reward and Punishment ; for if this man
or woman acted meritoriously entitling them to the
reward of a fine and praiseworthy marriage, He
couples them together. Similarly if He has to punish
them with a marriage which is to be productive
of constant strife, He couples them " (Responsa I,

6. Prescience and Determinism. Free will raises the
difficult problem of God's foreknowledge of events.
Maimonides' treatment of the subject was considered

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

by subsequent Jewish philosophers as weak and
unphilosophical, since he takes refuge in an agnostic
attitude and avoids the issue. His solution is as
follows :

" The reason for their belief (that man is deter-
mined in his actions) they base on the following
statement. ' Does God know or does He not know
that a certain individual will be good or bad ? If
thou sayest He knows, then it necessarily follows
that man is compelled to act as God knew beforehand
he would act, otherwise God's knowledge would be
imperfect. If thou sayest that God does not know in
advance, then great absurdities and destructive
religious theories will result '. Listen, therefore,
to what I shall tell thee, reflect well upon it, for it is
unquestionably the truth.

" It is, indeed, an axiom of the science of the divine,
i.e., metaphysics, that God, may He be blessed,
does not know by means of knowledge, and does
not live by means of life, so that He and His know-
ledge may be considered two different things in the
sense that this is true of man 20 ; for man is distinct
from knowledge, and knowledge from man, in
consequence of which they are two different things.
If God knew by means of knowledge, He would
necessarily be a plurality, and the primal essence
would be composite, that is, consisting of God
Himself, the knowledge by which He knows, the life
by which He lives, the power by which He has strength,
and similarly of all His attributes. I shall only
mention one argument, simple and easily understood
by all, though there are strong and convincing
arguments and proofs that solve this difficulty. It
is manifest that God is identical with His attributes
and His attributes with Him, so that it may be said

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that He is the knowledge, the knower and the known,
and that He is the life, the living and the source
of His own life, the same being true of His other
attributes. . . .

" Another accepted axiom of metaphysics is that
human reason cannot fully conceive God in His true
essence, because of the perfection of God's essence
and the imperfection of our reason, and because
His essence is not due to causes through which it may
be known. Furthermore, the inability of our reason
to comprehend Him may be compared to the inability
of our eyes to gaze at the sun,* 1 not because of the
weakness of the sun's light, but because that light
is more powerful than that which seeks to gaze into it.

" From what we have said, it has been demon-
strated also that we cannot comprehend God's
knowledge, that our minds cannot grasp it at all,
for He is His knowledge and His knowledge is He.
. . . Reflect, then, upon all that we have said,
viz., that man has control over his actions, that it
is by his own determination that He does either
the right or the wrong, without, in either case, being
controlled by fate, and that, as a result of this divine
commandment, teaching, preparation, reward and
punishment are proper. Of this there is absolutely
no doubt. As regards, however, the character of
God's knowledge, how He knows everything, this is,
as we have explained, beyond the reach of human
ken " (C.M., Eight Chapters VIII, end).

219

CHAPTER IX
ESCHATOLOGY

i. The Coming of the Messiah. Maimonides con-
cludes his formulation of the cardinal principles of
Judaism with a reference to Eschatology, i.e., the
doctrine of the last things, the final state of humanity
as a whole as well as of the individual in the here-
after. His twelfth Principle of Faith deals with :

" The days of the Messiah. This involves the
belief and firm faith in his coming, and that we should
not find him slow in coming. 'Though he tarry,
wait for him ' (Hab. ii. 3). No date must be fixed
for his appearance, neither may the Scriptures be
interpreted with the view of deducing the time of his
coming. 1 The Sages said, ' A plague on those who
calculate periods' (for Messiah's appearance).* We
must have faith in him, honouring and loving him,
and praying for him according to the degree of
importance with which he is spoken of by every
Prophet, from Moses unto Malachi. He that has
any doubt about him or holds his authority in light
esteem imputes falsehood to the Torah, which clearly
promises his coming in ' the Chapter of Balaam '3
and in ' Ye stand this day all of you before the
Lord your God '4. From the general nature of this
Principle of Faith we gather that there will be no
king of Israel but from David and the descendants
of Solomon exclusively. Every one who disputes

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ESCHATOLOGY

the authority of this family denies God and the words
of His Prophets" (C.M., Introd. to Ifelek).

2. The Personality of the Messiah. The fullest
expression of his views on this subject is found in
the Letter addressed by him to the Community of
Yemen which had been disturbed by the appearance
of a claimant to the Messiahship. Maimonides
denounces him as an impostor because his qualifica-
tions were not those which must be possessed by
the true Messistfi.

" The Messiah will be a very great Prophet,
greater than all the Prophets with the exception of
Moses our teacher. . . . His status will be higher
than that of the Prophets and more honourable,
Moses alone excepted. The Creator, blessed be He,
will single him out with features wherewith He had
not singled out Moses ; for it is said with reference
to him, ' And his delight shall be in the fear of the
Lord ; and he shall not judge after the sight of his
eyes, neither decide after the hearing of his ears '
(Isa. xi. 3). It is likewise said, ' And the spirit of
the Lord shall rest upon him, the spirit of wisdom
and understanding, the spirit of counsel and might,
the spirit of knowledge and of the fear of the Lord '
(v. 2) ; and ' Righteousness shall be the girdle of his
loins and faithfulness the girdle of his reins ' (v. 5).
The Holy One applied six names to him : ' Wonderful,
Counsellor, God, Mighty, Everlasting Father, Prince
of Peace ' (ibid. ix. 5). His being called ' God '
is hyperbolical, and intimates that his greatness will
be superior to that of all men.

" It is one of the known conditions with us that
every Prophet must have reached mental perfection
before God endows him with Prophecy ; for it is a

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

fundamental principle with us that Prophecy only
alights upon a man who is wise, mighty and rich,
i.e., mighty in self-control, rich in knowledge.5 But
when a man arises who is not renowned for wisdom,
claiming to be a Prophet, we do not believe him.
How much less do we believe one of the common
people (amme ha-arets) who claims to be the Messiah.

" One of the evidences that such a man belongs
to ' the common people ' is that he commands his
fellowman to part with all his money by distributing
it among the poor. 6 All who obey him are fools,
and he is a sinner who acts contrary to the Torah.
According to our Torah it is not proper to spend all
one's possessions in charity but only a part of it
not more than one-fifth? . . .

" As regards the origin of the Messiah and the place
of his appearance, he will first manifest himself in
the land of Israel ; as it is said, ' And the Lord,
whom ye seek, will suddenly come to His temple ;
and the messenger of the covenant, whom ye delight in,
behold, he cometh ' (Mai. iii. i). But with respect
to his origin, you cannot know it beforehand, until
it is declared of him that he is the son of so and so
and from such and such a family. A man will arise
who is unknown before his manifestation, and the
signs and marvels which will be seen through him
will be proof of the validity of his claim. 8 . For so
has the Holy One, blessed be He, informed us on this
matter : ' Behold, a man whose name is the Shoot,
and who shall shoot up out of his place ' (Zech. vi. 12).
Similarly declared Isaiah, ' For he shot up right forth
as a sapling ' (liii. 2). . . .

" The special feature with respect to him is that
at the time when he manifests himself, all the kings
of the earth will be stirred at the report of him and

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ESCHATOLOGY

will be filled with dread ; their Tdngdoms also will
be stirred. They will conspire how to withstand
him either by the sword or by other means ; that is
to say, they will not be able to dispute his claims
or deny him, but they will be stirred by the miracles
which will be evidenced by him and place their hand
upon their mouth (cf. Isa. lii. 15). He will put to
death by his word whoever wishes to kill him without
possibility of escape ; as it is said, ' And he shall
smite the land with the rod of his mouth, and with
the breath of his lips shall he slay the wicked '
(Isa. xi, 4) " (Iggeret Teman, Responsa II, Gc-ya).

" Let it not enter thy mind that the King Messiah
must necessarily perform signs and wonders, display
some novelty in the world, revive the dead, or do
something similar. It is not so ; for Rabbi Akiba
was among the greatest of the Sages of the Mishnah,
yet he was the armour-bearer of Ben Koziba, and
acknowledged him as King Messiah.9 Both he and
all the other Sages 10 thought him to be the King
Messiah until he was slain for his sins ; when he fell
in battle it was known that he was not the Messiah.
The Sages never demanded of him a sign or
miracle. . . .

" If there arise a king from the house of David
who meditates in the Torah, occupies himself with
the commandments after the manner of his ancestor
David, in accord with both the written and the oral
law, induces all Israel to walk therein and repair its
breach, and fights the battles of the Lord, it may
be presumed of him that he is the Messiah. If he
succeed in rebuilding the Temple on its site and
gathering the dispersed of Israel, he is certainly the
Messiah. But if he does not succeed to this extent
or is slain, it is certain that he is not the Messiah

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

promised in the Torah. He is to be considered like
all the other pious and upright kings of the house of
David who died, and the Holy One, blessed be He,
only raised him up to try the multitude ; as it is
said, ' And some of them that are wise shall stumble,
to refine among them, and to purify, and to make
white, even the time of the end ; for it is yet for the
time appointed ' (Dan. xi. 35).

" Even of him who imagined that he was the
Messiah, but was put to death by the Court, 11 Daniel
had previously prophesied ; as it is said, ' Also the
children of the violent among thy people shall lift
themselves up to establish the vision ; but they
shall stumble ' (ibid. 14). Has there ever been a
greater stumbling than this ? For all the Prophets
declared that the Messiah would be the deliverer of
Israel and their saviour, gathering their dispersed ones
and confirming the commandments. But he caused
Israel to perish by the sword, their remnant to be
dispersed and humbled. He induced them to change
the Torah and led the greater part of the world to
err and serve another than God.

" No human being, however, is capable of fathom-
ing the designs of the Creator ; for their ways ate
not His ways, neither are His thoughts their thoughts.
All these events, and even those relating to him who
succeeded the one referred to, 1 * were nothing else
than a means for preparing the way for the King
Messiah. It will reform the whole world to worship
the Lord with one accord ; as it is said, ' For then will
I turn to the peoples a pure language, that they may
all call upon the name of the Lord to serve Him with
one consent ' (Zeph. iii. 9). How will this be ? The
entire world has been filled with the doctrine of the
Messiah, the Torah and the commandments. The

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ESCHATOLOGY

doctrines have been propagated to the distant isles
and among many peoples, uncircumcised of heart
and flesh. They discuss these subjects which con-
tradict the Torah. Some declare these command-
ments were true, but are abrogated at the present
time and have lost their force ; while others assert
there are occult significations in them and they are
not plain of meaning the king has already come
and revealed their hidden significance.^ But when
the king Messiah will in fact arise and succeed, be
exdlted and lifted up, they will immediately all
recant and acknowledge the falsity of their asser
tion " (Yad, Melachim XI, 3f).

3. The Messianic Era. " The days of the Messiah
will be the time when the kingdom will revert to
Israel who will return to the Holy Land. The king
who will then reign will have Zion as the capital of
his realm. His name will be great and fill the earth
to its uttermost bounds. It will be a greater name
than that of King Solomon and mightier. The
nations will make peace with him, and lands will
obey him by reason of his great rectitude and the
wonders that will come to light by his means. Any
one that rises up against him God will destroy and
make him fall into his hand. All verses of Scripture
testify to his prosperity and our prosperity in him.

" So far as existing things are concerned, there
will be no difference whatever between now and then,
except that Israel will possess the kingdom. And
this is the sense of the Rabbis' statement, 'There
is no difference between this world and the days of the
Messiah except the subjugation of the kingdom
alone '. X 4 In his days there will be both the strong
and the weak in their relations to others. But

225

15

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

verily in those days the gaining of their livelihood
will be so very easy to men that they will do the lightest
possible labour and reap great benefit. It is this
that is meant by the remark of the Rabbis, ' The
land of Israel will one day produce cakes ready
baked, and garments of fine silk >X 5 . . .

"The great benefits that will accrue to us at
'that epoch will consist in our enjoying rest from the
work of subjugating the kingdoms of wickedness,
a work which prevents us from the full performance
of righteous action. Knowledge will increase, as it
is said, ' For the earth shall be full of the knowledge
of the Lord ' (Isa. xi. 9). Discords and wars will
cease, as it is said, ' Nation shall not lift up sword
against nation ' (Micah iv. 3). Great perfection
will appertain to him that lives in those days, and he
will be elevated through it to the ' life of the world
to come '. But the Messiah will die, and his son and
son's son will reign in his stead. God has clearly
declared his death in the words, ' He shall not fail
nor be crushed, till he have set the right in the earth '
(Isa. xlii. 4). His kingdom will endure a very long
time and the lives of men will be long also, because
longevity is a consequence of the removal of sorrows
and cares " (C.M., Introd. to Helek).

" The King Messiah will arise and restore the
kingdom of David to its former position and original
dominion. He will rebuild the Temple and gather
the dispersed of Israel. All the ordinances will
come into force in his days as they used to be in the
olden times ; sacrifices will again be offered ; the
year of release and the Jubilee 16 will be again observed
according to their commandments as stated in the
Torah. . . .

" Let it not enter the mind that in the days of the
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ESCHATOLOGY

Messiah anything in the world's system will cease to
exist, or any novelty be introduced into the scheme
of the Universe ; but the world will go on as usual.
The statement of Isaiah, ' The wolf shall dwell with
the lamb, and the leopard shall lie down with the
kid ' (xi. 6), is a metaphorical expression signifying
that Israel will dwell in safety among the wicked
of the heathens who are likened to wolves and
leopards (cf. Jer. v. 6) l6a . They will be converted
to the true religion, and will no more plunder and
destroy, but will live honestly and quietly like
Israel. . . .

" The Sages and Prophets did not long for the days
of the Messiah for the purpose of wielding dominion
over all the world, or of ruling over the heathens,
or being exalted by the peoples, or of eating and
drinking and rejoicing; their desire was to be free
to devote themselves to the Torah and its wisdom,
without anyone to oppress and disturb them, in order
that they might merit the life of the world to come.

" In that era, there will not be famine or war,
jealousy or strife. Prosperity will be widespread,
all comforts found in abundance. The sole occupa-
tion throughout the world will be to know the Lord.
Hence Israelites will be very wise, learned in things
that are now hidden, and will attain a knowledge
of the Creator to the utmost capacity of the human
being ; as it is said, ' For the earth shall be full of
the knowledge of the Lord, as the waters cover the
sea ' (Isa. xi. 9) " (Yad, Melachim XI, i ; XII, i, 4f).
" On this account all Israel, their Prophets and
their Sages, longed for the days of the Messiah. It
was for the purpose of obtaining relief from the
kingdoms which do not allow them to. occupy them-
selves with the Torah and the commandments in a

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

proper manner ; to the end that they may experi-
ence quietness and increase in wisdom, and so merit
the life of the world to come. . . . The ultimate
reward and final bliss, to which there is neither
cessation nor diminution, is the life of the world to
come ; whereas the days of the Messiah belong to
this world, and the Universe will continue as usual,
except that the sovereignty will revert to Israel "
(Yad, Teshubah IX, 2).

Maimonides apparently associates the Garden of
Eden (Paradise) with the Messianic Era and not
with the world to come, because he locates it in the
sublunary world.

" As for the Garden of Eden, it is a fertile spot
on the earth's Sphere rich in streams and fruits.
God will of a certainty disclose it to man one day,
and will show him the path leading to it. Man will
reap enjoyment within it, and there may possibly
be found therein plants of a very extraordinary sort,
great in usefulness and rich in pleasure-giving
properties, in addition to those which are renowned
with us. All this is not impossible nor far-fetched.
On the contrary, it is quite near possibility, and
would be so even if the Torah failed to allude to it.
How much more is it the case seeing that it has a clear
and conspicuous place in the Torah ! " (C.M., Introd.
to Ifelek).

In addition to the fact that the Torah mentions
the Garden of Eden as a place located on earth,
Maimonides was doubtless influenced by the thought
which he stresses that physical pleasures are unknown
in the world to come. 1 ?

4. Calculating the Time of the Advent. Considerable
mischief was sometimes done by attempts to foretell

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ESCHATOLOGY

by means of abstruse calculations when the Messiah
would come. The approach of the date would
create expectation in the hearts of the people, and,
what was worse, induce an impostor to put himself
forward as the awaited deliverer. It was in cir-
cumstances of this kind that, in 1172, Maimonides
addressed a Letter to the Jews of Yemen, in which
he warned them :

" It is your duty to know that it is not proper
for any man to endeavour to ascertain when the
' end ' will truly come ; as Daniel explained, ' The
words are shut up and sealed till the time of the
end ' (xii. 9). But some of the learned have indulged
in much speculation on this question and imagined
they had solved it ; as the Prophet foretold, ' Many
shall run to and fro, and knowledge shall be increased '
(v. 4) meaning, the opinions and conjectures on
this point will be increased. The Holy One, blessed
be He, had previously declared through His Prophets
that some men will calculate ' ends ' for the Messiah,
but these will pass by without fulfilment. After
that, He warned us not to despair on account of this,
saying, Do not distress yourselves if their calculation
proves wrong, but however long the Messiah delay,
heighten your hope in him. Thus it is said, ' For
the vision is j^et for the appointed time, and it
declareth of the end, and doth not lie ; though he
tarry, wait for him because he will surely come, he
will not delay ' (Hab. ii. 3). . . .

" Daniel has explained to us the profundity of the
knowledge concerning the ' end ', and that it was
' shut up ' and concealed. For that reason the
Sages withheld us from calculating the advent of
the Messiah, since it becomes a stumbling-block
to the masses and leads them to make mistakes

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

when the foretold ' end ' arrives, when in fact it has
not. And so the Sages exclaimed, 'A plague on
those who make such calculations ! ' " l8 (Iggeret
Teman, Responsa II, 5a).

Despite this strong stand against working out a
date for the coming of the Messiah, the same Letter
contains a calculation, supposed to have been made
by Maimonides himself :

" We have a tradition on this matter that the
saying of Balaam, ' Now (lit. like the time) is it said
of Jacob and of Israel, What hath God wrought 1 '
(Num. xxiii. 23), contains a secret that from that
time is to be reckoned the same period that had
elapsed up to then from the Creation of the world,
and then the Prophets will say to them, ' What hath
God wrought ! ' This Prophecy was uttered in the
fortieth year from the Exodus from Egypt ; and you
will find that from the beginning of the era up to that
time was 2,488 years. According to this analogy
and explanation, the Prophecy will be fulfilled in
Israel in the year 4,976 from the Creation of the
world " (op. cit. t 5b, c).

This date corresponds with the year 1216 of the
current era. But it hardly seems possible that
Maimonides should have practised in the same letter
the very thing which he wrote the letter to denounce.
As Dr. Friedlander, the translator of the Guide,
points out, " The inconsistency is so obvious that it is
impossible to attribute this passage to Maimonides
himself. It is probably spurious, and has, perhaps,
been added by the translator ". X 9

5. The World to Come. It is to be gathered from the
quotations in 3 that Maimonides regarded the
Messianic Era as a helpful preparation to the attain-

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ESCHATOLOGY

ment of the bliss of the world to come ; but whereas
the former is a condition to be experienced in the
lifetime of man, the latter awaits the righteous after
death.

" The good which is treasured up for the righteous
is the life of the world to come ; it is a life which is
deathless and a happiness free from all adversity.
. . . The reward of the righteous is their meriting
this bliss and enjoying this happy state. The punish-
ment of the wicked is that they do not merit this
higher form of life, but are cut off and die. Whoever
does not merit that life suffers death without ever
recovering life again ; he is cut off in his wickedness
and perishes like the beast " ( Yad, Teshubah VIII, i).

" The reason why the Sages called it ' the world to
come ' was not because it does not exist now, and this
world must first perish and after that the other world
comes into being. That is not so ; but it is actually in
existence. The only reason the Sages called it ' the
world to come ' was because that life comes to man
subsequently to the life of this world in which we
exist both with body and soul, and is the first stage of
existence through which all men pass " (ibid. 8).

6. Who will have a share in the world to come. " All
the wicked (of Israel), though their sins be numerous,
are judged according to their wrongdoings, but still
have a share in the world to come ; because all Israel
have a share therein, although they have sinned.
. . * Likewise the pious of the nations of the world
have a share in it. ao

" The following (Israelites) have no share in the
world to come, but are cut off, perish and are con-
demned for all eternity because of their great
wickedness and sinfulness ; viz., infidels and heretics,

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

they who deny the Torah, they who deny the resurrec-
tion of the dead and the coming of the Redeemer,
apostates, they who cause the public to sin, they who
deviate from the accepted practices of the Community,
he who commits transgressions presumptuously and
openly like Jehoiakin, informers, they who overawe
the Community, not for a religious purpose, they who
shed blood, slanderers, and he who obliterates the
mark of his circumcision " ( Yad, Teshubah III, 5f).

" Our statement that none of these sinners has a
share in the world to come applies only when he dies
without repentance ; but if he turn from his wickedness
and die a penitent, he is of the sons of the world to
come, because there is nothing which can stand
against repentance. Even if one denied a fundamental
principle of religion all his life but finally repented, he
has a share in the world to come " (ibid. 14).

Martyrdom is a certain qualification for the bliss
of the hereafter. " The man whom God makes worthy
to ascend to this highest degree, viz., to be slain for the
sanctification of the Name, even were his iniquities
to be like those of Jeroboam the son of Nebat and his
associates, he is destined for the world to come. This
is so, even if he were not learned in the Torah ; for thus
said the Sages,* 1 ' No creature can attain the height
which is achieved by those who are slain by an
idolatrous government ' " (Kiddush ha-Shem, Responsa
II, I 4 c).

The performance of a single commandment from
disinterested motives will also secure a person that
happiness. " It is a cardinal principle of faith in the
Torah that should a man fulfil one of the 613 command-
ments in a proper manner, without associating with
it any worldly motive whatever, but performing it
for its own sake from a sentiment of love, he merits by

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ESCHATOLOGY

that act the life of the world to come " (CM., Makkot
III, end).

7. The Immortal Soul. Maimonides does not specify
the immortality of the soul as a separate Principle of
Faith, because it is clearly implied in that relating to
the Resurrection of the Dead. But with reference to
immortality he understands " soul " in a special sense.

" The soul that remains after the death of man is
not the soul that lives in a man when he is born. The
latter is a mere faculty, while that which has a separate
existence after death is a reality. M Again, the soul
and the spirits of man during his life are two different
things ; therefore the souls and the spirits are both
named as existing in man ; but separate from the
body only one of them exists 3 4 " (Guide I, 70).

Maimonides identifies the immortal soul with the
rational faculty.

" The soul of all flesh is the form*5 thereof which
God gave to it ; and the superior knowledge which is
found in the soul of man is the form of the man who is
perfect in his knowledge. Concerning this form it is
said in the Torah, ' Let us make man in our image,
after our likeness ' (Gen. i. 26), a6 meaning that man
should possess a form that is able to know and compre-
hend the Intelligences which are incorporeal like the
Angels, who are form without matter, until he becomes
like them. This does not refer to that form which is
perceptible to the eye, viz., the mouth, the nose, the
cheek-bones, or the other features of the body, the term
for which is toar, ' shape '. Nor does it refer to the
' soul ' which is common to all living creatures, by
which it eats, drinks, propagates, feels and reflects*? ;
but it refers to the knowledge which is the form of the
soul, 38 and it is of the form of the soul that Scripture

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

declares 'in our image, after our likeness'. This
form is of ten called nephesh and also ruafy. . . .

"This form of the soul is not composed of the
elements, so that it ever could be decomposed into
them ; nor does it proceed from the power of the
breath of life (neshamah), so that it should stand in
need of the breath of life in the same manner that the
breath of life stands in need of the body. But it issues
from God, from Heaven ; therefore when the matter,
which is composed of the elements, becomes decomposed,
and when the breath of life also perishes since it
cannot exist apart from the body, and is in need of the
body in all its functions this form is not destroyed,
because it is not in need of the breath of life in its
functions, but knows and comprehends the Intelli-
gences that are separate from matter, and knows the
Creator of all things. It endures for all eternity "
(Yad, Yesode ha-Torah IV, 8f).

" Whenever the expression nephesh is used in this
connection, it does not refer to the breath of life which
is in need of a body, but to the form of the soul, viz.,
the intelligence which comprehends the Intelligences
that are separate from matter, as well as other created
things " (Yad, Teshubah VIII, 3).

" When it is established that this soul (which is
identical with the rational faculty) is in no way matter
and is not dependent on matter, it cannot be doubted
that when it parts from the body, it returns to the
original source whence it issued and remains immortal
for all eternity " (Ma'amar ha-Yifyud, pp.

8. Resurrection of the Dead. Maimonides 1 last
Principle of Faith contains nothing more than this :
"The resurrection of the dead. We have already
explained this ". The explanation alluded to is that

234

ESCHATOLOGY

given earlier in the Introduction to gelek in the
following terms : " The Resurrection of the Dead is
one of the cardinal doctrines of the Torah of Moses.
He who does not believe in this has no religion, and no
bond with the Jewish Faith. But it is the reward of
the righteous only, as is shown by the statement in
Bereshit Rabba : ' The great benefits of rain are for
both the righteous and the wicked, but the resurrec-
tion of the dead applies to the righteous only '.*9 And
forsooth how shall the evil-doers live after death,
seeing that they were dead even in life ; as the Sages
said, ' The wicked are called dead even during their
lives, but the good are called living even after death '.3
And know that man is bound to die and become
dissolved into his component parts ".

Maimonides' statements with reference to this
subject created the impression that he doubted the
resurrection of the human being, and in reply to a
challenge on the point, he composed in 1191 his
Ma'amar Tehiyyat ha-Metim, " Essay on the Resur-
rection of the Dead ", to refute the charge. But in
this essay he insists that there are no material enjoy-
ments after death, and he regards that as a conclusive
argument that there are no bodies in the world to
come.

"Behold it has been explained that the entire
necessity for the existence of the body is for one
function, and that is the reception of food for the
preservation of the body and the propagation of its
kind for the preservation of the species. When that
function is removed because its necessity no longer
exists, viz., in the world to come as our Sages have
informed us, ' In the world to come there is no
eating, drinking or sexual intercourse '3' that is clear
evidence of the non-existence of the body. Because

335

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

God brings nothing into existence to serve no purpose
whatsoever, and does nothing only on account of
something else.S" Far be it from Him that His works
should be modelled on those of idol-worshippers whose
images have unseeing eyes, unhearing ears and a nose
that smells not. Similarly, in the view of these people,
God creates bodies, i.e., organs, not to function at all
in the way for which they were created, nor for any
purpose. And if the people of the world to come are
not, in the opinion of these persons, possessed of
organs, but are just bodies perhaps solid globes, or
pillars or cubes this is simply ludicrous " (Tetyyyat
ha-Metim, Responsa II, gc).

He attaches no importance to the matter as a
doctrine of religion, and we find him telling a
correspondent :

" It will not harm your religious faith to think
that in the world to come people will have bodies.
. . . Even if you were to hold that they eat and
drink and propagate in the high heavens or in the
Garden of Eden, as some declare, it would not injure
jour faith " (Responsa II, i6c).

9. Happiness in the World to Come. For all that,
Maimonides is very firm in his teaching that bodies
do not exist in the hereafter, nor are physical joys
experienced.

" Know that just as a blind man can form no idea
of colours, nor a deaf man comprehend sounds, nor a
eunuch feel the desire for sexual intercourse, so the
bodies cannot comprehend the delights of the soul.
And even as fish do not know the element fire because
they exist ever in its opposite, so are the delights of the
world of spirit unknown in this world of flesh. Indeed
we have no pleasure in any way except what is bodily,

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ESCHATOLOGY

and what the senses can comprehend of eating,
drinking and sexual intercourse. Whatever is outside
these is non-existent to us. We do not discern it,
neither do we grasp it at first thought, but only after
deep penetration. And truly this must necessarily
be the case. For we live in a material world and the
only pleasure we can comprehend must be material.

" But the delights of the spirit are everlasting and
uninterrupted, and there is no resemblance in any
possible way between spiritual and bodily enjoyments.
We are not sanctioned either by the Torah or by the
divine philosophers to assert that the Angels, the stars,
and the Spheres enjoy no delights. In truth they have
exceeding great delight in respect of what they compre-
hend of the Creator. This to them is an everlasting
felicity without a break. They have no bodily
pleasures, neither do they comprehend them, because
they have no senses like ours, enabling them to have
our sense-experiences.

" And likewise will it be with us too. When after
death the worthy from among us will reach that
exalted stage, he will experience no bodily pleasures,
neither will he have any wish for them, any more than
would a king of sovereign power wish to divest
himself of his imperial sway and return to his boyhood's
games with a ball in the street, although at one time
he would without doubt have set a higher worth upon
a game with a ball than on kingly dominion, such being
the case only when his years were few and he was
totally ignorant of the real significance of either
pursuit, just as we to-day rank the delights of the body
above those of the soul.

" And when you will give your consideration to the
subject of these two pleasures, you will discover the
meanness of the one and the high worth of the other.

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

And this applies even to this world. For we find in
the case of the majority of men that they all burden
their souls and bodies with the greatest possible labour
and fatigue in order to attain distinction or a great
position in men's esteem. This pleasure is not that of
eating and drinking. Similarly, many a man prefers
the obtaining of revenge over his enemies to many of
the pleasures of the body. And many a man, again,
shuns the greatest among all physical delights out of
fear that it should bring him shame and the reproach
of men, or because he seeks a good reputation.

" If such, then, is our condition in this world of
matter, how much more will it be our case in the world
of the spirit, viz., the world to come, where our souls
will attain to a knowledge of the Creator as do the
higher bodies, or more. This pleasure cannot be
divided into parts. It cannot be described, neither
can anything be found to compare with it. It is as
the Prophet exclaimed, when admiring its great glories :
' Oh, how abundant is Thy goodness which Thou hast
laid up for them that fear Thee, which Thou hast
wrought for them that take refuge in Thee, in the sight
of the sons of men ' (Ps. xxxi. 20). And in a similar
sense the Sages remarked, ' In the world to come there
will be no eating and no drinking, no washing and no
anointing and no marriage ; but only the righteous
sitting with crowns on their heads enjoying the
splendour of the Shechinah '.3 By their remark,
' their crowns on their heads ', is meant that those
souls will reap bliss in what they comprehend of the
Creator, just as the holy Hayyot and the other ranks
of Angels enjoy felicity in what they understand of
His existence.

" And so the felicity and the final goal consist in
reaching to this exalted company and attaining to

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ESCHATOLOGY

this high pitch. The continuation of the soul is
endless, like the continuation of the Creator Who is
the cause of its continuation in that it comprehends
Him, as is explained in elementary philosophy. This is
the great bliss with which no bliss is comparable and
to which no pleasure can be likened. For how can the
enduring and infinite be likened to a thing which has a
break and an end ? This is the meaning of the
Scriptural phrase, ' That it may be well with thee and
that thou mayest prolong thy days ' (Deut. xxii. 7),
for which we possess the traditional interpretation :
' That it may be well with thee in the world which
is all good ; and that thou mayest prolong thy days
in a world which is of unceasing length ' "33 (C.M.,
Introd. to Helek).

" In the world to come there is no bodily form,
but the souls only of the righteous without body, like
the ministering Angels. Since there are no bodies in
it, there can likewise be neither eating nor drinking
nor any other of the things which the bodies of men
need in this world. Nor can any of the accidents to
which bodies are subject in this world, such as sitting,
standing, sleep, death, pain, laughter, etc., occurthere.

" Perhaps that bliss will be lightly esteemed by you,
and you will think that the reward for fulfilling the
commandments and for being perfect in the ways of
truth consists in nothing else than indulging in fine
food and drink, enjoying beautiful women, wearing
raiment of fine linen ^.nd embroidery, dwelling in
apartments of ivory, and using vessels of silver and gold
or similar luxuries, as those foolish and ignorant Arabs
imagine who are steeped in sensuality.34 But wise
and intelligent men know that all these things are
nonsense and vanity and quite futile ; since with us,
in this world, they are only considered as something

239

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

desirable because we possess bodily forms, and because
all these things are needs of the body, whereas the
soul neither longs nor yearns for them apart from the
cravings of the body, so that its desires may be
gratified and it be preserved in a perfect state. At
a time, however, when there is no body, all these
things must necessarily cease to exist.

" As for the great bliss which the soul is to enjoy
in the world to come, there is no possibility of compre-
hending or knowing it in this world ; because in this
world we are only cognisant of the welfare of the
body and for that we long. But the bliss of the world
to come is exceedingly great and cannot bear comparison
with the happiness of this world except in a figurative
manner. Actually, however, to compare the bliss of
the soul in the world to come with the happiness of
the .body in this world by means of eating and drinking
is quite incorrect. That heavenly bliss is great beyond
limit, and there is nothing to be compared or likened
to it " (Yad, Teshubah VIII, 2, 6).

240

CHAPTER X
PSYCHOLOGY

i. The Soul and its Faculties. In his teachings on
Psychology, Maimonides closely follows the system of
Aristotle as expounded in De Anima. By the term
" soul " as used with reference to Psychology,
Maimonides means something different from that part
of the human constitution which makes man God-like
and survives death. It is the nephesh which human
beings, as well as all living creatures, possess. It is
" the vitality which is common to all living, sentient
beings" (Guide I, 41).

The soul is a unity. " Know that the human soul
is one, but that it has many diversified activities.
Some of these activities have, indeed, been called
souls, which has given rise to the opinion that man
has many souls, as was the belief of the physicians,
with the result that the most distinguished of them 1
states in the introduction to his book that there are
three souls, the physical, the vital and the psychical.
These activities are called faculties and parts, so that
the phrase ' parts of the soul ', frequently employed
by philosophers, is commonly used. By the word
' parts ', however, they do not intend to imply that the
soul is divided into parts as are bodies, but they
merely enumerate the different activities of the soul
as being parts of a whole, the union of which makes
up the soul* " (C.M., Eight Chapters I).

241

16

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

Five Faculties of the Soul. " The soul has five
faculties : the nutritive, the sensitive, the imaginative,
the appetitive, and the rational.3 . . . The
nutritive faculty by which man is nourished is not the
same, for instance, as that of the ass or the horse.
Man is sustained by the nutritive faculty of the human
soul, the ass thrives by means of the nutritive faculty
of its soul, and the palm-tree flourishes by the nutri-
tive faculty peculiar to its soul. Although we apply
the same term nutrition to all of them indiscriminately,
nevertheless, its signification is by no means the same.
In the same way, the term sensation is used homony-
mously4 for man and beast ; not with the idea, how-
ever, that the sensation of one species is the same as
that of another, for each species has its own
characteristic soul distinct from every other, with the
result that there necessarily arises from each soul
activities peculiar to itself " (ibid.).

The Nutritive Faculty. " The nutritive faculty
consists of (i) the power of attracting nourishment to
the body, (ii) the retention of the same, (iii) its
digestion, (iv) the repulsion of superfluities, (v) growth,
(vi) procreation, and (vii) the differentiation of the
nutritive juices that are necessary for sustenance from
those which are to be expelled " (ibid.).

The Sensitive Faculty. " The faculty of sensation
consists of the five well-known senses of seeing,
hearing, tasting, smelling and feeling, the last of
which is found over the whole surface of the body,
not being confined to any special member, as are the
other four faculties" (ibid.).

The Imaginative Faculty. " The imagination is
that faculty which retains impressions of things
perceptible to the mind, after they have ceased to
affect directly the senses which conceived them.

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PSYCHOLOGY

This faculty, combining some of these impressions and
separating others from one another, thus constructs
out of originally perceived ideas fresh ideas of which
it has never received any impression, and which it
could not possibly have perceived. For instance, one
may imagine an iron ship floating in the air, or a man
whose head reaches the heaven and whose feet rest on
the earth, or an animal with a thousand eyes, and many
other similar impossibilities which the imagination
may construct and endow with an existence that is
fanciful " (ibid.).

On this point Maimonides clashed with a class of
Mohammedan philosophers, called MutakallimunJ
who held " that all creations of the imagination were
possible" (ibid.). This theory he criticises in the
following terms :

" If you know the nature of the soul and its
properties, and if you have a correct notion of every-
thing which concerns the soul, you will observe that
most animals possess imagination. As to the higher
classes of animals, that is, those which have a heart,
it is obvious that they have imagination. Man's
distinction does not consist in the possession of
imagination, and the action of imagination is not the
same as the action of the intellect, but the reverse
of it. For the intellect analyses and divides the
component parts of things, it forms abstract ideas of
them, represents them in their true form as well as in
their causal relations, derives from one object a great
many facts, which for the intellect totally differ
from each other, just as two human individuals appear
different to the imagination ; it distinguishes that
which is the property of the genus from that which is
peculiar to the individual and no proof is correct
unless founded on the former; the intellect further

243

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

determines whether certain qualities of a thing are
essential or non-essential.

" Imagination has none of these functions. It
only perceives the individual, the compound in that
aggregate condition in which it presents itself to the
senses ; or it combines things which exist separately,
joins some of them together, and represents them all
as one body or as a force of the body. Hence it is that
some imagine a man with a horse's head, with wings,
etc. This is called a fiction, a phantasm ; it is a thing
to which nothing in the actual world corresponds.
Nor can imagination in any way obtain a purely
immaterial image of an object, however abstract the
form of the image may be. Imagination yields there-
fore no test for the reality of a thing " (Guide I, 73
Note to Tenth Proposition).

" Part of the functions of the imaginative faculty
is to retain impressions by the senses, to combine them,
and chiefly to form images. The principal and highest
function is performed when the senses are at rest and
pause in their action, for then it receives, to some
extent, divine inspiration in the measure as it is
predisposed for this influence. 6 This is the nature of
those dreams which prove true, and also of Prophecy,
the difference being one of quantity, not of quality "
(Guide II, 36).

The Appetitive Faculty. "The appetitive is that
faculty by which a man desires or loathes a thing, and
from which there arises the following activities : the
pursuit of an object or flight from it, inclination and
avoidance, anger and affection, fear and courage,
cruelty and compassion, love and hate, and many other
psychic qualities. All parts of the body are subservient
to these activities, as the ability of the hand to grasp,
that of the foot to walk, that of the eye to see, and that

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of the heart to make one bold or timid. Similarly,
the other members of the body, whether external or
internal, are instruments of the appetitive faculty "
(C.M., Eight Chapters I).

The Rational Faculty. " Reason, that faculty
peculiar to man, enables him to understand, reflect,
acquire knowledge of the sciences, and to discriminate
between proper and improper actions. Its functions
are partly practical and partly speculative, the practical
being, in turn, either mechanical or intellectual. By
means of the speculative power, man knows things as
they really are, and which, by their nature, are not
subject to change. These are called the sciences in
general. The mechanical power is that by which the
arts, such as architecture, agriculture, medicine and
navigation are acquired. The intellectual power is
that by which one, when he intends to do an act,
reflects upon what he has premeditated, considers the
possibility of performing it, and, if he thinks it possible,
decides how it should be done " (ibid.).

2. The Human Intellect. The endowment of man
which places him in a separate class, and the highest
class of creatures, is the intellect.

"Man, before he develops understanding and
acquires knowledge, is accounted as the beast. He is
only distinguished from the rest of the animal creation
by the consciousness that he is a living being possessed
of intellect that is to say, by the consciousness
whereby he formulates ideas to his soul. And the
supreme idea which he has to formulate to his soul is
the Unity of God and all the divine concepts which are
associated with that thought " (C.M., Introduction).

" On this account, i.e., on account of the divine
intellect with which man has been endowed, he is said

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to have been made in the form and likeness of the
Almighty " (Guide I, i).

Since the supreme purpose of intellect is to direct
the soul to God, it must be the connecting link
between Him and man.

" The intellect which emanates from God unto us
is the link that joins us to God. You have it in your
power to strengthen that bond, if you choose to do so,
or to weaken it gradually till it breaks, if you prefer
this. It will only become strong when you employ it
in the love of God and seek that love ; it will be
weakened when you direct your thoughts to other
things " (Guide III, 51).

Maimonides gives the following analysis of the
intellectual virtues :

" They are (i) wisdom , which is the knowledge of
the direct and indirect causes of things based on a
previous realisation of the existence of those things,
the causes of which have been investigated ; (ii) reason,
consisting of (a) inborn, theoretical reason, that is
axioms, (b) the acquired intellect, and (c) sagacity and
intellectual cleverness, which is the ability to perceive
quickly, and. to grasp an idea without delay, or in a
very short time " (C.M., Eight Chapters II).

As regards wisdom, it " is used of four things :
(i) it denotes the knowledge of those truths which lead
to the knowledge of God ; (ii) also knowledge of any
workmanship ; (iii) the acquisition of moral principles ;
(iv) cunning and subtlety" (Guide III, 54).

What is intended by inborn reason is explained in
this passage of the Guide : " Thfcre are many things
whose existence is manifest and obvious ; some of
these are innate notions or objects of sensation, others
are nearly so ; and in fact they would require no proof
if man had been left in his primitive state. Such are

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the existence of motion, of man's free will,7 of phases
of production and destruction, and of the natural
properties perceived by the senses, e.g., the heat of
fire, the coldness of water, and many other similar
things " (I, 51).

The acquired intellect is " not a power inherent in
the body, but a power which is absolutely separate
from the body, and is from without brought into
contact with the body " (Guide I, 72). Since it is a
power " absolutely separate from the body ", it is
capable of surviving the body's dissolution, and is, in
fact, the immortal element in man. As the name
suggests, it is acquired by the conversion of potentiality
into actuality. It is the result of the addition of
" form ", derived from the Intelligences, to the hylic
intellect? 4 which is the peculiar possession of the
human being. The function of the hylic intellect is
thus described :

" An animal does not require for its sustenance any
plan, thought or scheme ; each animal moves and
acts by its nature, eats as much as it can find of
suitable things, it makes its resting-place wherever it
happens to be, cohabits with any mate it meets while
in heat in the periods of its sexual excitement. In
this manner does each individual conserve itself for a
certain time, and perpetuates the existence of its
species without requiring for its maintenance the
assistance or support of any of its fellow-creatures ;
for all the things to which it has to attend it performs
by itself.

" With man it is different ; if an individual had a

solitary existence, and were, like an animal, left without

guidance, he would soon perish, he would not endure

even one day, unless it were by mere chance, unless

-he happened to find something upon which he might

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

feed. For the food which man requires for his
subsistence demands much work and preparation,
which can only be accomplished by reflection and by
plan ; many vessels must be used, and many
individuals, each in his peculiar work, must be
employed. It is therefore necessary that one person
should organise the work and direct men in such a
manner that they should properly co-operate, and that
they should assist each other. The protection from
heat in summer and from cold in winter, and shelter
from rain, snow and wind, require in the same manner
the preparation of many things, none of which can
properly be done without design and thought.

" For this reason man has been endowed with
intellectual faculties which enable him to think,
consider and act, and by various labours to prepare
and procure for himself food, dwelling and clothing,
and to control every organ of his body, causing both
the principal and the secondary organs to perform
their respective functions. Consequently, if a man,
being deprived of his intellectual faculties, only
possessed vitality, he would in a short time be lost "
(Guide I, 72).

Closely allied to man's intellect is his intuitive
faculty. "All possess it, but in different degrees.
Man's intuitive power is especially strong in things
which he has well comprehended, and in which his
mind is much engaged. Thus you may yourself guess
correctly that a certain person said or did a certain
thing in a certain matter. Some persons are so strong
and sound in their imagination and intuitive faculty
that, when they assume a thing to be in existence,
the reality either entirely or partly confirms their
assumption. Although the causes of this assumption
are numerous, and include many preceding, succeeding

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and present circumstances, 8 by means of the intuitive
faculty the intellect can pass over all these causes, and
draw inferences from them very quickly, almost
instantaneously. This same faculty enables some
persons to foretell important coming events " (Guide
II, 38).

3. The Functioning of the Intellect. Maimonides
crystallised the purpose of mind in the statement,
" It is the function of the intellect to discriminate
between the true and the false " (Guide I, 2). He
followed the Greek thinkers in his psychological
analysis of the working of the intellect.

" Man, before comprehending a thing, comprehends
it in potential when, however, he comprehends a
thing, e.g., the form of a certain tree which is pointed
out to him, when he abstracts its form from its
substance, and reproduces the abstract form, an act
performed by the intellect, he comprehends in reality,
and the intellect which he has acquired in actuality
is the abstract form of the tree in man's mind. For in
such a case the intellect is not a thing distinct from the
thing comprehended. 10 It is therefore clear to you
that the thing comprehended is the abstract form of the
tree, and at the same time it is the intellect in action ;
and that the intellect and the abstract form of the tree
are not two different things, for the intellect in action
is nothing but the thing comprehended, and that
agent by which the form of the tree has been turned
into an intellectual and abstract object, viz., that
which comprehends, is undoubtedly the intellect in
action.

"All intellect is identical with its action; the
intellect in action is not a thing different from its action,
for the true nature and essence of the intellect is

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

comprehension, and you must not think that the
intellect in action is a thing existing by itself, separate
from comprehension, and that comprehension is a
different thing connected with it ; for the very essence
of the intellect is comprehension. In assuming an
intellect in action you assume the comprehension of
the thing comprehended. This is quite clear to all
who have made themselves familiar with the figurative
language common to this discipline. You therefore
accept it as proved that the intellect consists in its
action, which is its true nature and essence. Conse-
quently the very thing by which the form of that tree
has been made abstract and intelligible, viz., the
intellect, is at the same time the intelligens, for the
intellect is itself the agens which abstracts the form
and comprehends it, and that is the action on account
of which it is called the intelligent ; but itself and
its action are identical ; and that which is called
intellect in action consists, in the above-mentioned
instance, of nothing else but of the form of the tree.

" It must now be obvious to you that whenever
the intellect is found in action, the intellect and the
thing comprehended are one and the same thing;
and also that the function of all intellect, viz., the act
of comprehending, is its essence. The intellect, viz.,
that which comprehends and that which is compre-
hended, are therefore the same, whenever a real
comprehension takes place. But when we speak of
the power of comprehension, we necessarily distinguish
two things : the power itself and the thing which can
be comprehended ; e.g., that hylic intellect 12 of A is
the power of comprehension, and this tree is, in like
manner, a thing which is capable of being compre-
hended ; these, undoubtedly, are two different things.
When, however, the potential is replaced by the actual,

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and when the form of the tree has really been compre-
hended, the form comprehended is the intellect, and
it is by that same intellect, by the intellect in action,
that the tree has been converted into an abstract idea
and has been comprehended.

" For everything in which a real action takes place
exists in reality.^ On the other hand, the power
of comprehension and the object capable of compre-
hension are two things ; but that which is only
potential cannot be imagined otherwise than in
connexion with an object possessing that capacity,
as, e.g., man, and thus we have three things : the
man who possesses the power and is capable of
comprehending ; that power itself, viz., the power of
comprehension ; and the object which presents itself
as an object of comprehension and is capable of being
comprehended. To use the foregoing example, the
man, the hylic intellect and the abstract form of the
tree are three different things. They become one
and the same thing when the intellect is in action, and
you will never find the intellect different from the
comprehensible object, unless the power of compre-
hending and the power of being comprehended be
referred to " (Guide I, 68).

The powers of the intellect are subject to the same
conditions as the physical organs. Overstrain leads
to defective functioning.

" Mental perception, because connected with
matter,^ is subject to conditions similar to those to
which physical perception is subject. That is to say,
if your eye looks around, you can perceive all that is
within the range of your vision ; if, however, you
overstrain your eye, exerting it too much by attempt-
ing to see an object which is too distant for your eye,
or to examine writings or engravings too small for

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

your sight, and forcing it to obtain a correct perception
of them, you will not only weaken your sight with
regard to that special object, but also for those things
which you otherwise are able to perceive : your eye will
have become too weak to perceive what you were
able to see before you exerted yourself and exceeded
the limits of your vision.

" The same is the case with the speculative
faculties of one who devotes himself to the study of
any science. If a person studies too much and
exhausts his reflective powers, he will be confused,
and will not be able to apprehend even that which had
been within the power of his apprehension. For the
powers of the body*5 are all alike in this respect.

" The mental perceptions are not exempt from a
similar condition. If you admit the doubt, and do
not persuade yourself to believe that there is a proof
for things which cannot be demonstrated, or to try
at once to reject and positively to deny an assertion
the opposite of which has never been proved, or attempt
to perceive things which are beyond your perception,
then you have attained the highest degree of human
perfection ; then you are like Rabbi Akiba who ' in
peace entered (the study of these theological problems)
and came out in peace \ l6 If , on the other hand, you
attempt to exceed the limit of your intellectual power,
or at once to reject things as impossible which have
never been proved to be impossible, or which are
in fact possible, though their possibility be very
remote, then you will be like Elisha After ; you will
not only fail to become perfect, but you will become
exceedingly imperfect. Ideas founded on mere
imagination will prevail over you ; you will incline
towards defects, and towards base and degraded
habits, on account of the confusion which troubles

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PSYCHOLOGY

the mind, and of the dimness of its light ; just as
weakness of sight causes invalids to see many kinds of
unreal images, especially when they have looked for a
long time at dazzling or at very minute objects "
(Guide I, 32).

This psychological fact leads to the practical
conclusion that the burden placed upon the intellect
must be proportionate to its power of sustaining it.
Hence the study of philosophical and theological
problems must be graduated and should be commenced
in the earlier stage of life.

"It is necessary to initiate the young and to
instruct the less intelligent according to their compre-
hension ; those who appear to be talented and have
the capacity for the higher method of study, i.e., that
based on proof and true logical argument, should be
gradually advanced towards perfection, either by
tuition or *by self-instruction. He, however, who
begins with Metaphysics, will not only become
confused in matters of religion, but will fall into
complete infidelity. I compare such a person to an
infant fed with wheaten bread, meat and wine ; it
will undoubtedly die, not because such food is naturally
unfit for the human body, but because of the weakness
of the child, who is unable to digest the food and
cannot derive benefit from it " (Guide I, 33).

4. Sources of True Knowledge. There are three
channels through which accurate knowledge is
derivable :

" Know that it is not proper for a man to believe
except one of three things : (i) that for which the mind
offers clear proof, as, e.g., arithmetic, geometry and
astronomy ; (ii) that which he can grasp through the
five senses ; e.g., he knows and sees that this is black

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

and that red, etc., through the vision of the eye, or
he tastes that this is bitter and that sweet, or he feels
that this is hot and that cold, or he hears that this
sound is clear and that blurred, or he smells that this
is malodorous and that pleasant, and so on ; (iii) that
which is received from the Prophets and righteous
men. 1 ?

"It is necessary that a man should be mentally
able to classify in his mind and thought all that he
believes, and say, ' This I believe because it is handed
down from the Prophets ; this I believe from my
senses ; and this I believe from reason '. But whoever
believes anything which does not fall within these three
categories, to him applies the dictum, ' The thought-
less belie veth every word ' (Prov. xiv. 15) " (Responsa
II, 2 5 a).

With regard to the first source, Maimonides
attaches supreme importance to the power of logical
reasoning as a factor in attaining true knowledge of
God. He remarks : " We can only obtain a knowledge
of Him through His works ; His works give evidence
of His existence, and show what must be assumed
concerning Him that is to say, what must be
attributed to Him either affirmatively or negatively.
It is thus necessary to examine all things according
to their essence, to infer from every species such true
and well-established propositions as may assist us in
the solution of metaphysical problems. . . .
Consequently he who wishes to attain to human
perfection must therefore first study Logic, next the
various branches of Mathematics in their proper
order, then Physics, and lastly Metaphysics " l8 (Guide

I, 34)-

In placing reliance upon the senses as a source of
knowledge, Maimonides opposed the doctrine of the

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PSYCHOLOGY

Mutakallimun, who held that "the senses mislead,
and are in many cases inefficient ; their perceptions,
therefore, cannot form the basis of any law, or yield
data for any proof " (Guide I, 73 Twelfth Proposition).
Finally, the teachings of the Prophets must be a
medium of true knowledge since, on his hypothesis,
the gift of Prophecy presupposes a perfect intellectual
endowment. J 9

5. Limits of the Intellect. Ardent rationalist though
he was, Maimonides admits that " a limit is set to
human reason where it must halt " (Guide I, 32).

" I declare that there is a limit to the knowledge
of man, and so long as the soul is in the body, it
cannot know what is beyond Nature. Since knowledge
resides in Nature, it cannot perceive beyond it.
Therefore when the mind essays to contemplate what
is beyond, it is unable to do so for the reason that the
matter is too high for it ; but whatever is in Nature,
it is able to know and reflect upon " (Responsa II, 23b).

" Know that for the human mind there are certain
objects of perception which are within the scope of
its nature and capacity; on the other hand, there are,
amongst things which actually exist, certain objects
which the mind can in no way and by no means grasp :
the gates of perception are closed against it. Further,
there are things of which the mind understands one
part, but remains ignorant of the other ; and when
man is able to comprehend certain things, it does not
follow that he must be able to comprehend everything.
This also applies to the senses : they are able to
perceive things, but not at every distance ; and all
other powers of the body are limited in a similar way.
. , . How individuals of the same species surpass
each other in these sensations and in other bodily

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

faculties in universally known, but there is a limit to
them, and their power cannot extend to every distance
or to every degree.

" All this is applicable to the intellectual faculties
of man. There is a considerable difference between
one person and another as regards these faculties,
as is well-known to philosophers. While one man
can discover a certain thing by himself, another is
never able to understand it, even if taught by means
of all possible expressions and metaphors, and during
a long period ; his mind can in no way grasp it, his
capacity is insufficient for it. This distinction is not
unlimited. A boundary is undoubtedly set to the
human mind which it cannot pass. There are things
(beyond that boundary) which are acknowledged to
be inaccessible to human understanding, and man
does not show any desire to comprehend them, being
aware that such knowledge is impossible, and that
there are no means of overcoming this difficulty "
(Guide I, 31).

The imperfect capacity of the human mind is the
source of error; but that is not its only cause.
Maimonides enumerates three suggested by Alexander
Aphrodisius* and himself proposes a fourth :

" There are three causes which prevent men from
discovering the exact truth : first, arrogance and
vain-glory; secondly, the subtlety, depth and
difficulty of any subject which is being examined ;
thirdly, ignorance and want of capacity to comprehend
what might be comprehended.

" At the present time there is a fourth cause not
mentioned by him, because it did not then prevail,
viz., habit and training. We naturally like what we
have been accustomed to, and are attracted towards
it. This may be observed amongst villagers ; though

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PSYCHOLOGY

they rarely enjoy the benefit of a douche or bath, and
have few enjoyments, and pass a life of privation,
they dislike town-life and do not desire its pleasures,
preferring the inferior things to which they are
accustomed to the better things to which they are
strangers ; it would give them no satisfaction to live
in palaces, to be clothed in silk, and to indulge in
baths, ointments and perfumes.

" The same is the case with those opinions of man
to which he has been accustomed from his youth ;
he likes them, defends them, and shuns the opposite
views. This is likewise one o'f the causes which prevent
men from finding truth, and which make them cling
to their habitual opinions " (ibid.).

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17

CHAPTER XI
ETHICS

i. Varying Dispositions in Men. If all men were
exactly the same in physical constitution and tempera-
ment, they would act alike in the same set of
circumstances. But dispositions vary widely, and
consequently there is variety in conduct.

" Individuals are possessed of very varying
temperaments, differing widely one from the other to
an extreme degree. Some are passionate and in a
constant state of irritation. Others are composed of
mind and are hardly ever irritated ; and should they
be put out, it will be very slightly during a long period
of time. Some there are of an extremely proud
nature ; others are very humble. Some are addicted
to voluptuousness, whose appetites are never sated ;
while others are of a very pure heart and do not long
even for the few things which the body requires.

" Again, there are men so avaricious that they
would not be satisfied with all the wealth in the world ;
but others curtail their desires, and are contented even
with a little which does not suffice for their needs and
do not strive to obtain all they require. Some there
are who rather afflict themselves with hunger to hoard
wealth, and do not spend the smallest coin on them-
selves without considerable pain ; whereas others
deliberately squander all their possessions. It is the
same with all other dispositions, e.g., the jovial and

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ETHICS

morose, miserly and generous, cruel and kind, faint-
hearted and brave, etc.

" Between each disposition and its opposite extreme
there are intermediate qualities which also vary one
from the other. Of all the dispositions, some are
innate in man according to his physical constitution ;
others are such that the nature of certain men is more
readily inclined to adopt than other dispositions ; and
there are still others which are not innate in man but
acquired by example, or voluntarily adopted because
of his ideas, or through having heard that such a
disposition is good and proper for him to follow, and
he accustoms himself to it until it is fixed in his heart "
(Yad, Deot I, if).

Maimonides is emphatic that the human being is
not born either good or evil. " He is not endowed
with perfection at the beginning, but at first possesses
perfection only in potentia, not in fact. 1 ... If
a man possesses a certain faculty in potentia, it does
not follow that it must become in him a reality. He
may possibly remain deficient either on account of
some obstacle, or from want of training in practices
which would turn the possibility into a reality "
(Guide I, 34). In the same way, any evil disposition
with which he may have been endowed need not
necessarily become an overpoweringly strong force in
his life.

" It is impossible for man to be born endowed by
nature from his very birth with either virtue or vice,
just as it is impossible that he should be born skilled
by nature in any particular art. It is possible, how-
ever, that through natural causes he may from birth
be so constituted as to have a predilection for a
particular virtue or vice, so that he will more readily
practise it than any other. For instance, a man whose

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

natural constitution inclines towards dryness, whose
brain-matter is clear and not overloaded with fluids,
finds it much easier to learn, remember, and under-
stand things than the phlegmatic man whose brain is
encumbered with a great deal of humidity. But, if
one who inclines constitutionally towards a certain
excellence is left entirely without instruction, and if
his faculties are not stimulated, he will undoubtedly
remain ignorant. On the other hand, if one by
nature dull and phlegmatic, possessing an abundance
of humidity, is instructed and enlightened, he will,
though with difficulty, it is true, gradually succeed in
acquiring knowledge and understanding.

" In exactly the same way, he whose blood is some-
what warmer than is necessary has the requisite
quality to make of him a brave man. Another,
however, the temperament of whose heart is colder
than it should be, is naturally inclined towards
cowardice and fear, so that if he should be taught and
trained to be a coward, he would easily become one.
If, however, it be desired to make a brave man of
him, he can without doubt become one, providing he
receive the proper training which would require, of
course, great exertion.

" I have entered into this subject so that thou
mayest not believe the absurd ideas of astrologers,
who falsely assert that the constellation at the time of
one's birth determines whether one is to be virtuous
or vicious, the individual being thus necessarily
compelled to follow out a certain line of conduct. We,
on the contrary, are convinced that our Torah agrees
with Greek philosophy, 2 which substantiated with
convincing proofs the contention that man's conduct
is entirely in his own hands, that no compulsion is
exerted, and that no external influence is brought to

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ETHICS

bear upon him that constrains him to be either
virtuous or vicious, except inasmuch as, according to
what we have said above, he may be by nature so
constituted as to find it easy or hard, as the case may
be, to do a certain thing ; but that he must necessarily
do, or refrain from doing, a certain thing is absolutely
untrue " (C.M., Eight Chapters VIII).

Hereditary forces, therefore, are not the deciding
factor of a man's conduct in life. Ultimately he
himself determines the course he follows and the
responsibility of choice is his alone. Commenting on
the verse, " Be ye not as the horse or as the mule which
have no understanding ; whose mouth must be held
with bit and bridle " (Ps. xxxii. 9), Maimonides
remarks : " This means that what restrains beasts
from doing harm is something external, as a bridle
and a bit. But not so with man. His restraining
agency lies in his very self, I mean in his human
framework. When the latter becomes perfected it is
exactly that which keeps him away from those things
which perfection withholds from him and which are
termed vices ; and it is that which spurs him on to
what will bring about perfection in him, viz., virtue "
(C.M., Introd. to Helek).

" Man's shortcomings and sins are all due to the
substance of the body and not to its forms ; while all
his merits are exclusively due to his form. Thus the
knowledge of God, the formation of ideas, the mastery
of desire and passion, the distinction between that
which is to be chosen and that which is to be rejected,
all these man owes to his form ; but eating, drinking,
sexual intercourse, excessive lust, passion, and all
vices have their origin in the substance of his body.
Now it was clear that this was the case it was
impossible, according to the wisdom of God, that

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

substance should exist without form, or any of the
forms of the bodies without substance, and it was
necessary that the very noble form of man, which is
the image and likeness of God, as has been shown by
us, should be joined to the substance of dust and
darkness, the source of all defect and loss. For these
reasons the Creator gave to the form of man power,
rule and dominion over the substance ; the form can
subdue the substance, refuse the fulfilment of its
desires, and reduce them, as far as possible, to a just
and proper measure " (Guide III, 8).

Maimonides discusses the question as to who is
on a higher ethical plane : the saintly man who feels
no evil desire, or the man who experiences such a
desire but refuses to yield to it. The Greek philo-
sophers award the palm to the former ; the Rabbis,
apparently, reverse this estimate ; and Maimonides
reconciles the conflicting opinions.

" Philosophers4 maintain that though the man of
self-restraint performs moral and praiseworthy deeds,
yet he does them desiring and craving all the while
for immoral deeds, but, subduing his passions and
actively fighting against a longing to do those things
to which his faculties, his desires, and his psychic
disposition excite him, succeeds, though with constant
vexation and irritation, in acting morally. The
saintly man, however, is guided in his actions by
that to which his inclination and disposition prompt
him, in consequence of which he acts morally from
innate longing and desire. Philosophers unanimously
agree that the latter is superior to, and more perfect
than, the one who has to curb his passions, although
they add that it is possible for such a one to equal the
saintly man in many regards. In general, however,
he must necessarily be ranked lower in the scale of

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ETHICS

virtue, because there lurks within him the desire to
do evil, and, though he does not do it, yet because his
inclinations are all in that direction, it denotes the
presence of an immoral psychic disposition. . .

" When, however, we consult the Rabbis on this
subject, it would seem that they consider him who
desires iniquity, and craves for it (but does not do it)
more praiseworthy and perfect than the one who
feels no torment at refraining from evil ; and they
even go so far as to maintain that the more praise-
worthy and perfect a man is, the greater is his desire
to commit iniquity, and the more irritation does he
feel at having to desist from it. This they express by
saying, ' Whosoever is greater than his neighbour has
likewise greater evil inclinations '.5 Again, as if this
were not sufficient, they even go so far as to say that
the reward of him who overcomes his evil inclination
is commensurate with the torture occasioned by his
resistance, which thought they express by the words,
' According to the labour is the reward '. 6 Further-
more, they command that man should conquer his
desires, but they forbid one to say, ' I, by my nature,
do not desire to commit such and such a transgression,
even though the Torah does not forbid it '. Rabbi
Simeon ben Gamaliel summed up this thought in the
words, ' Man should not say, " I do not want to eat
meat together with milk ; I do not want to wear
clothes made of a mixture of wool and linen ; I do not
want to enter into an incestuous marriage ", but he
should say, " I do indeed want to, yet I must not, for
my Father in Heaven has forbidden it " '.7

" At first blush, by a superficial comparison of the
sayings of the philosophers and the Rabbis, one might
be inclined to say that they contradict one another.
Such, however, is not the case. Both are correct and,

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

moreover, are not in disagreement in the least, as the
evils which the philosophers term such and of which
they say that he who has no longing for them is more
to be praised than he who desires them but conquers
his passion are things which all people commonly
agree are evils, such as the shedding of blood, theft,
robbery, fraud, injury to one who has done no harm,
ingratitude, contempt for parents, and the like. The
prescriptions against these are called commandments
(Mitswot), about which the Rabbis said, ' If they had
not already been written in the Torah, it would be
proper to add them ' 8 . . .

" When, however, the Rabbis maintain that he
who overcomes his desire has more merit and a greater
reward (than he who has no temptation), they say so
only in reference to laws that are ceremonial prohi-
bitions. This is quite true, since, were it not for the
Torah, they would not at all be considered transgres-
sions. Therefore, the Rabbis say that man should
permit his soul to entertain the natural inclination for
these things, but that the Torah alone should restrain
him from them " (C.M., Eight Chapters VI).

Another question discussed is how is a man's
conduct to be estimated by the number of his good
actions, or their quality ? Maimonides decides in
favour of the former criterion.9

" Man's virtues do not accrue to him in accordance
with the qualitative magnitude of a single action but
in accordance with the numerical magnitude of his
actions. This is to say, the virtues really accrue by
reason of the frequent repetition of good deeds and
thereby man attains a strong position ; but not
through the performance of merely one great act of
goodness does a man attain a strong position.

" This may be illustrated by the case of a man who
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ETHICS

gives a deserving person, on a single occasion, a
thousand gold pieces, but to another he gives nothing.
By this one great act he does not acquire the quality
of generosity as does a man who donates a thousand
gold pieces on a thousand occasions, giving away each
gold piece through a generous feeling. The latter has
repeated his generous act a thousand times and
attained a strong position ; but as for the other, on
one occasion only was his heart deeply moved to
perform a kind action, and after that it ceased.
Similarly in the Torah, the reward of a man who
redeemed a captive for a hundred dinars, 10 or per-
formed charity to a poor man to the extent of a hundred
dinars sufficient for his needs, is not the same as the
reward of a man who redeemed ten captives or supplied
the needs of ten poor persons, each at a cost of ten
dinars ; and so on. Hence the Sages declared, ' All
is according to the numerical value (rob) of the deed ',
not ' according to the greatness (godel) of the deed ' "
(C.M., Abot III, 19).

2. Virtues and Vices. Of the five soul-faculties
enumerated in Chap. X, i only two come within the
purview of Ethics.

" Know that transgressions and observances of the
Torah have their origin only in two of the faculties of
the soul, viz., the sensitive and the appetitive, and that
to these two faculties alone are to be ascribed all
transgressions and observances. The faculties of
nutrition and imagination do not give rise to observance
or transgression, for in connection with neither is there
any conscious or voluntary act. That is, man
cannot consciously suspend their functions, nor can
he curtail any one of their activities. The proof of
this is that the functions of both these faculties, the

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

nutritive and the imaginative, continue to be operative
when one is asleep, which is not true of any other of
the soul's faculties.

"As regards the rational faculty, uncertainty
prevails (among philosophers), but I maintain that
observance and transgression may also originate in
this faculty, in so far as one believes a true or a false
doctrine, though no action which may be designated
as an observance or a transgression results therefrom 11 .
Consequently, as I said above, these two faculties
(the sensitive and the appetitive) alone really produce
transgressions and observances. . . .

" Moral virtues belong only to the appetitive
faculty to which that of sensation in this connection
is merely subservient. The virtues of this faculty are
very numerous, being moderation, liberality, honesty,
meekness, humility, contentedness, courage, faithful-
ness, and other virtues akin to these. The vices of
this faculty consist of a deficiency or of an exaggeration
of these qualities.

" As regards the faculties of nutrition and imagina-
tion, it cannot be said that they have vices or virtues,
but that the nutritive functions work properly or
improperly ; as, for instance, when one says that a
man's digestion is good or bad, or that one's imagina-
tion is confused or clear. This does not mean, how-
ever, that they have virtues or vices " (C.M., Eight
Chapters II).

Vice is a disease of the soul, while virtue is a
manifestation of the soul's healthy state.

" The ancients 1 * maintained that the soul, like
the body, is subject to good health and illness. The
soul's healthful state is due to its condition, and that
of its faculties, by which it constantly does what is
right, and performs what is proper, while the illness

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ETHICS

of the soul is occasioned by its condition, and that of
its faculties, which results in its constantly doing
wrong, and performing actions that are improper.

" The science of medicine investigates the health
of the body. Now, just as those, who are physically
ill, imagine that, on account of their vitiated tastes,
the sweet is bitter and the bitter is sweet and likewise
fancy the wholesome to be unwholesome and just as
their desire grows stronger, and their enjoyment
increases for such things as dust, coal, very acidic and
sour foods, and the like which the healthy loathe and
refuse, as the} are not only not beneficial even to the
healthy, but possibly harmful so those whose souls
are ill, that is the wicked and the morally perverted,
imagine that the bad is good, and that the good is
bad. The wicked man, moreover, continually longs
for excesses which are really pernicious, but which,
on account of the illness of his soul, he considers to be
good " (C.M., Eight Chapters III).

3. The Mean. Since a moral vice is defined as " a
deficiency or an exaggeration of the moral qualities ",
it must follow that virtue consists in the happy medium,
or to use Aristotle's term " the Mean " (/teo-orj??).
This criterion for determining the right path to follow
and the right action to perform is advocated by
Maimonides.

" The right way is the middle course in every one
of the dispositions in man ; it is that disposition
which is equidistant between the two extremes, so
that it is not nearer to one than to the other. The
Sages of old have therefore recommended that a man
should always keep estimating his dispositions,
calculating and directing them into the middle course, J 3
so that he may be perfect in his bodily constitution.

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

How is this meant ? He should not be passionate
and easily irritated, nor like a corpse which is without
feeling; but he should hold the Mean between the
two, not giving way to vexation except in some serious
matter where it is proper for him to be vexed, in order
that a similar thing may not be repeated " (Yad,
Deot I, 4).

" Good deeds are such as are equibalanced,
maintaining the Mean between two equally bad
extremes, the too much and the too little. Virtues are
psychic conditions and dispositions which are mid-way
between two reprehensible extremes, one of which is
characterised by an exaggeration, the other by a
deficiency. Good deeds are the product of these
dispositions. To illustrate, abstemiousness is a
disposition which adopts a mid-course between in-
ordinate passion and total insensibility to pleasure. J 4
Abstemiousness, then, is a proper rule of conduct,
and the psychic disposition which gives rise to it is an
ethical quality ; but inordinate passion, the extreme
of excess, and total insensibility to enjoyment,
the extreme of deficiency, are both absolutely
pernicious. The psychic dispositions, from which
these two extremes, inordinate passion and insensi-
bility, result the one being an exaggeration, the
other a deficiency are alike classed among moral
imperfections.

" Likewise, liberality is the Mean between sordid-
ness and extravagance ; courage, between reckless-
ness and cowardice ; dignity, between haughtiness
and loutishness ; humility, between arrogance and
self-abasement ; contentedness, between avarice and
slothful indifference ; and magnificence, between
meanness and profusion. Gentleness is the Mean
between irascibility and insensibility to shame and

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ETHICS

disgrace ; and modesty, between impudence and
shamefacedness. So it is with the other qualities.

" It often happens, however, that men err as
regards these qualities, imagining that one of the
extremes is good, and is a virtue. Sometimes, the
extreme of the too much is considered noble, as when
temerity is made a virtue, and those who recklessly
risk their lives are hailed as heroes. Thus, when
people see a man, reckless to the highest degree, who
runs deliberately into danger, intentionally tempting
death, and escaping only by mere chance, they laud
such a one to the skies, and say that he is a hero. r 5 At
other times, the opposite extreme, the too little, is
greatly esteemed, and the coward is considered a man
of forbearance ; the idler, as being a person of a
contented disposition ; and he, who by the dullness
of his nature is callous to every joy, is praised as a
man of moderation. In like manner, profuse liber-
ality and extreme lavishness are erroneously extolled
as excellent characteristics. This is, however, an
absolutely mistaken view, for the really praiseworthy
is the medium course of action to which every one
should strive to adhere, always weighing his conduct
carefully, so that he may attain the proper Mean "
(C.M., Eight Chapters IV).

Since Maimonides holds that heredity is not the
all-powerful factor in determining a man's actions, he
concludes that environment must be that force.
Virtues and vices are fixed by constant repetition of
acts of goodness or wickedness respectively, and a
man's surroundings will be such as to give him scope
for good or evil, as the case may be.

" It is the innate characteristic of man to be drawn
in his dispositions and in his actions after the example
of his friends and associates, and conduct himself

269

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

according to the customs of his countrymen. A man
ought therefore to associate with the righteous and be
constantly in the company of the wise, so that he may
learn from their actions. He must likewise keep far
from the wicked who walk in darkness, so that he
should not learn from their actions. . . . Conse-
quently if he is in a country where the customs are
evil and the inhabitants do not walk in the right way,
he should go to a place where the inhabitants are
righteous and conduct themselves in the way of good
men.

" If, however, the inhabitants of all the countries
which he knows, and the report of which he has heard,
conduct themselves in a way which is not good, as in
our days, or if he be unable to go to a country where
the customs are good, in consequence of hostile troops
or illness, he should lead a solitary life. And if his
countrymen be so wicked and sinful that they do
not allow him to dwell in that land unless he mingle
with them and conform to their evil customs, he
should repair to caves, thickets, and deserts rather
than conform to the way of sinners " (Yad, Deot VI, i).

Association with good and wise men, or the avoid-
ance of the wicked, is, accordingly, the first step to
the acquisition of virtues and the eradication of vices.
Maimonides included this duty of associating with the
wise in his list of the Biblical ordinances :

" The commandment which orders us to mingle
with the learned, associate with them, be continually
in their society and company in every possible way,
in the matter of food and drink and business trans-
action, that by these means there result to us the
imitation of their deeds and belief in true ideas from
their words . That is what He, exalted be He, declared,
' To Him shalt thou cleave ' (Deut. x. 20) ; and the

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ETHICS

ordinance was repeated likewise in the phrase ' to
cleave to Him ' (ibid. xi. 22). And the explanation of
this latter phrase occurs thus : ' Cleave to the wise and
their disciples ' this being the expression of the
Sifr& l6 They similarly deduce proof of the duty to
marry the daughter of a learned man and give one's
daughter in marriage to a learned man, to feed the
learned and have transactions with them, from the
statement ' To Him shalt thou cleave ', declaring, ' Is
it then possible for a man to cleave to the Shechinah ?
For lo, it is written, " The Lord thy God is a devouring
fire ' ' ! (ibid, i v. 24) . But whoever marries the daughter
of 1 ? a learned man, transacts business for the learned
and allows them to enjoy his possessions, the Scriptures
account it to him as though he clave to the Shechinah
(Mitswot, Command. VI).

A second and more drastic method of acquiring
virtue and eradicating vice is to undergo " a cure,
exactly as he would were his body suffering from an
illness. So, just as when the equilibrium of the
physical health is disturbed, and we note which way
it is tending in order to force it to go in exactly the
opposite direction until it shall return to its proper
condition, and, just as when the proper adjustment
is reached, we cease this operation, and have recourse
to that which will maintain the proper balance, in
exactly the same way must we adjust the moral
equilibrium.

" Let us take, for example, the case of a man in
whose soul there has developed a disposition of great
avarice on account of which he deprives himself of
every comfort in life, and which, by the way, is one of
the most detestable of defects, and an immoral act.
If we wish to cure this sick man, 18 we must not
command him merely to practise deeds of generosity,

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

for that would be as ineffective as a physician trying
to cure a patient consumed by a burning fever by
administering mild medicines, which treatment would
be inefficacious. We must, however, induce him to
squander so often, and to repeat his acts of profusion
so continuously until that propensity which was the
cause of his avarice has totally disappeared. Then,
when he reaches that point where he is about to become
a squanderer, we must teach him to moderate his
profusion, and tell him to continue with deeds of
generosity, and to watch out with due care lest he
relapse either into lavishness or niggardliness.

" If, on the other hand, a man is a squanderer, he
must be directed to practise strict economy, and to
repeat acts of niggardliness. It is not necessary,
however, for him to perform acts of avarice as many
times as the mean man should those of profusion.
This subtle point, which is a canon and secret of the
science of medicine, tells us that it is easier for a man
of profuse habits to moderate them to generosity,
than it is for a miser to become generous. Likewise,
it is easier for one who is apathetic to be excited to
moderate enjoyment, than it is for one, burning with
passion, to curb his desires. Consequently, the
licentious man must be made to practise restraint
more than the apathetic man would be induced to
indulge his passions J and, similarly, the coward
requires exposure to danger more frequently than the
reckless man should be forced to cowardice. The
mean man needs to practise lavishness to a* greater
degree than should be required of the lavish to practise
meanness. This is a fundamental principle of the
science of curing moral ills, and is worthy of remem-
brance " (CM., Eight Chapters IV).

The standard of the Mean is the prudent course to
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ETHICS

adopt, but Maimonides concedes the praiseworthiness
of those who allow themselves to be deviated in
moderation therefrom to the right side.

" He who is extremely punctilious with himself
and departs from the middle course slightly towards
either side is termed fyasid ' saint '. For instance,
whoever holds aloof from haughtiness for the opposite
extreme and becomes exceedingly humble earns the
title of hasid ; and that is the quality of saintliness.
If, however, he holds aloof from haughtiness for the
middle course only and becomes meek, he earns the
title of hacham ' wise ' ; and that is the quality of
wisdom. It is the same with all other dispositions.
The saints of old used to incline their dispositions from
the Mean towards the two extremes. Some disposi-
tions they would incline towards the second extreme
(of excess), while others they would incline towards
the first extreme (of deficiency). This is the meaning
of the phrase ' within the line of the law '. We are
commanded to walk in the middle path, which is the
good and right path " (Yad, Deot I, 5).

He further admits that the Mean is not always
the correct attitude to adopt. With some moral
qualities a tendency towards excess is desirable.

" There are some dispositions, in regard to which
man is forbidden to adopt the middle course, but
should rather remove from one extreme to the other.
This is the case with haughtiness of mind ; because it
is not the good way for a man to be merely meek, but
to be of humble mind and exceedingly lowly of spirit.
Therefore it is said of Moses our teacher that he was
not just meek, but very meek (Num. xii. 3). Conse-
quently the Sages exhorted us, ' Be exceedingly lowly
of spirit *. I 9 They further declared, ' Whoever makes
his heart haughty denies a cardinal doctrine ; for it is

273

18

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

said, " Then thy heart be lifted up and thou forget
the Lord thy God" (Deut. viii. 14)'.* They also
taught, ' Whoever is possessed of haughtiness of spirit
deserves excommunication '. 3I

" Anger is likewise a most evil quality, and man
should keep aloof from it to the opposite extreme, and
train himself not to be vexed even by a thing over
which it would be legitimate to be irritated. Should
he desire to impress fear upon his children, his
household or the community if he be their leader
and wish to display anger against them that they
return to good behaviour he may show himself in
their presence as though he were angry for the purpose
of reproving them, but he ought nevertheless to be
composed within himself, like a man who pretends to
be vexed though really he is not. The Sages of old
said, ' Whoever gives way to anger is as though he were
an idolater ', M ' Whoever gives way to anger, if he be a
wise man his wisdom departs from him, and if he be a
Prophet his Prophecy departs from him ',*3 ' The life
of the passionate man is not truly life ' M The Sages
have therefore ordered that a man should keep tar
from anger until he accustom himself not to take
notice even of things that provoke irritation : this
being the good way.

" The way of the righteous is this : they may be
insulted but they do not insult, they hear themselves
reviled but make no retort. They act from Love of God
and are happy under affliction " (Yad, Deot II, 3).

4. Asceticism. To one deviation from the mean
Maimonides devotes special attention, because it was
generally considered to be a characteristic of saintly
men, viz., the ascetic life. He distinguishes between
true and false asceticism.

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ETHICS

" When, at times, some of the pious ones deviated
to one extreme by fasting, keeping nightly vigils,
refraining from eating meat or drinking wine, renounc-
ing sexual intercourse, clothing themselves in woollen*5
and hairy garments,* 6 dwelling in the mountains, and
wandering about in the wilderness, they did so, partly
as a means of restoring the health of their souls, as
we have explained above, and partly because of the
immorality of the townspeople. When the pious saw
that they themselves might become contaminated by
association with evil men, or by constantly seeing their
actions, fearing that their own morals might become
corrupt on account of contact with them, they fled
to the wilderness far from their society. . . .

" When the ignorant observed saintly men acting
thus, not knowing their motives, they considered their
deeds to be virtuous, and so, blindly imitating their
acts, thinking thereby to become like them, chastised
their bodies with all kinds of afflictions, imagining
that they had acquired perfection and moral worth,
and that by this means man would approach nearer
to God, as if He hated the human body and desired its
destruction. It never dawned upon them, however,
that these actions were bad and resulted in moral
imperfection of the soul.

" Such men can only be compared to one who,
ignorant of the art of healing, when he sees skilful
physicians administering to those at the point of death
such purgatives as colocynth, scammony, aloe, and the
like, and depriving them of food, in consequence of
which they are completely cured and escape death,
foolishly concludes that since these things cure
sickness, they must all the more be efficacious in
preserving health, or prolonging life. If a person
should take these things constantly, and treat himself

275

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

as a sick person, then he would really become ill.
Likewise, those who are spiritually well, but have
recourse to remedies, will undoubtedly become
morally ill.

" The perfect Torah which leads us to perfection
. . . recommends none of these things. On the
contrary, it aims at man's following the path of
moderation, in accordance with the dictates of Nature,
eating, drinking, enjoying legitimate sexual intercourse,
all in moderation, and living among people in honesty
and uprightness, but not dwelling in the wilderness or
in the mountains, or clothing oneself in garments of
hair and wool, or afflicting the body " (C.M., Eight
Chapters IV).

On this principle Maimonides denounces the
spending of all one's possessions on religious objects.

" A man should never devote all his possessions to
religious purposes. To act thus is to transgress the
intention of the Scriptural verse which states, ' Of all
that he hath ' (Lev. xxvii. 28) not ' all that he hath ',
as the Sages comment. 2 ? This is not piety but folly,
because he deprives himself of all his money and has
to resort to assistance from his fellowmen. On such
a man we are to have no pity, for he belongs to the
class, described by the Sages, ' Pious fools who destroy
the world '.* 8

" Whoever wishes to spend his money on religious
objects should not exceed one-fifth, and thus resemble
the man whom the Prophets commend, ' that ordereth
his affairs rightfully ' (Ps. cxii. 5), both in religious and
worldly affairs. Even in the matter of the sacrifices
which a man was in duty bound to bring, the Torah
has consideration for his resources and regulates them
according to his means.*9 How much more so, then,
in matters where there is not the obligation apart from

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ETHICS

a vow which he places upon himself, should he not vow
more than is commensurate with his means " (Yad,
Arachin VIII, 13).

Luxuries and comforts, if they are not made the
be-all and end-all of one's activities and desires, may
even serve a beneficial purpose from the ethical
standpoint.

"There are, indeed, times when the agreeable
may be used from a curative point of view, as, for
instance, when one suffers from loss of appetite, it
may be stirred up by highly seasoned delicacies and
agreeable, palatable food. Similarly, one who suffers
from melancholia may rid himself of it by listening to
singing and all kinds of instrumental music, by
strolling through beautiful gardens and splendid
buildings, by gazing upon beautiful pictures, and other
things that enliven the mind and dissipate gloomy
moods. The purpose of all this is to restore the
healthful condition of the body, but the real object in
maintaining the body in good health is to acquire
wisdom. Likewise, in the pursuit of wealth, the main
design in its acquisition should be to expend it for
noble purposes, and to employ it for the maintenance
of the body and the preservation of life, so that its
owner may obtain a knowledge of God, in so far as
that is vouchsafed unto man. . . .

" Our Rabbis of blessed memory say, ' It is becom-
ing that a Sage should have a pleasant dwelling, a
beautiful wife, and domestic comfort '3<> ; for one
becomes weary, and one's mind is dulled by continued
mental concentration upon difficult problems. Thus;
just as the body becomes exhausted from hard
labour, and then by rest and refreshment recovers,
so it is necessary for the mind to have relaxation
by gazing upon pictures and other beautiful objects,

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

that its weariness may be dispelled " (C.M., Eight
Chapters V).

On the other hand, Maimonides clearly recognises
that self-indulgence is inimical to mental and moral
development.

" With the formation of intellectual concepts, one
is obliged to abstain from most physical enjoyments,
because the beginning of intellect is to formulate the
idea that the mortification of the soul is brought about
by care for the body and mortification of the body
by care for the soul. When a man follows his lusts,
allows his desires to master his thoughts, and sets aside
his intellect for his cravings, until he returns to the
level of the beast which formulates no other longing
to its soul than eating, drinking and sexual inter-
course, then the divine power, i.e., the intellect, cannot
manifest itself, and he becomes a mere creature
swimming in the sea of matter " (C.M., Introduction).

5. Correct Living (Physical). The doctrine of mens
sana in corpore sano is stressed in Maimonides 1
teaching. The effect of the physical condition upon
the functioning of the soul is clearly perceived by him.
He lays down the principle : " The well-being of the
soul can only be obtained after that of the body has
been secured " (Guide III, 27).

" Know that the perfection of the body precedes
the perfection of the soul, and is like the key which
opens the inner chamber. Let, then, the chief aim
of your discipline be the perfecting of your body and
the correcting of your morals, to open before you the
gates of Heaven " (Ethical Will, Responsa II, 38a, b)

" Man's only design in eating, drinking, cohabiting,
sleeping, waking, moving about, and resting should
be the preservation of bodily health; while, in turn,

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ETHICS

the reason for the latter is that the soul and its
agencies may be in sound and perfect condition, so
that he may readily acquire wisdom, and gain moral
and intellectual virtues, all to the end that man may
reach the highest goal of his endeavours " (C.M.,
Eight Chapters V).

He advised his son : " Eat that you may live and
condemn excess. Believe not that much eating and
drinking makes the body grow and enlarges the
understanding, like a sack which is filled by what is
put into it. It is just the reverse. By moderate
eating the stomach acquires strength to receive it
and, through the natural heat, to digest it. Then a
man grows in physical health and his mind is settled.
But if he eat more than is necessary, the stomach
cannot receive it and the natural heat cannot digest
it ; it will come out before him. c It is a vile thing ;
it shall not be accepted ' (Lev. xix. 7). His body will
be emaciated, his understanding negligible, his purse
empty. Take care, then, that you do not eat except
what you can digest, because it is injurious to the body
and purse, and it is the cause of most illnesses "
(Ethical Will, Responsa II, aga).

Such importance did Maimonides attach to this
matter, that he included a long list of dietetic rules
in his codification of Rabbinic law. Some of them
occur in the Talmud, but he considerably elaborated
them. As he was a noted physician, his regulations
are not without interest.

" Since the preservation of the body in a healthy
and perfect state belongs to the way of life prescribed
by God since it is impossible for a man to understand
or have any knowledge of the Creator when he is in
poor physical condition it is consequently necessary
that he should keep himself aloof from things which

279

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

are injurious to the body and accustom himself
to the use of things which are healthful and
invigorating.

" They are as follows : A man should never eat
except when he is hungry, nor drink except when he
is thirsty ; and he should not delay the performance
of the act of purgation.3 1 ... He should not
keep on eating until his stomach is filled, but leave
about a fourth part of his appetite unsatisfied. He is
not to drink water during a meal,3* but only a little
water mixed with wine. When the food begins to
digest, he may drink as much as is proper ; much
water, however, should not be drunk even when the
food is digesting. He should not eat until he is
completely assured that he has no need of performing
his natural functions. He should not eat until he has
walked before the mealss a sufficient distance for the
body to begin feeling warm, or do some kind of work,
or undergo another form of exertion. The general
rule is, he should exercise his body and tire it daily in
the morning, until it begins to feel warm, rest a little
until he is refreshed, and then have his meal. To take
a hot bath after exercise is a good thing, but after it
he should wait a little before having a meal.

" One should always remain seated while eating
or recline on his left side ; he should not walk, ride,
undergo exertion and induce perspiration. He should
not walk about until the food becomes digested ; and
whoever walks about or exerts himself immediately
after a meal brings on himself serious illnesses.

" Day and night being twenty-four hours, it is
enough for a person to sleep a third part thereof, viz.,
eight hours. These hours should be towards the end
of the night, so that there are eight hours from the
beginning of his sleep to sun-rise, and he consequently

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gets up from his bed before the sun rises. It is not
proper to sleep lying on one's face or back34, but on
the side at the beginning of the night on the left, and
at the end of the night on the right side. He should
not retire to sleep immediately after a meal, but wait
about three or four hours. He should also not sleep
during the day.

" Things which are laxative, e.g., grapes, figs,
mulberries, pears, melons and all kinds of cucumbers
and gurkins, one may eat as hors d'ceuvre, not partaking
of them together with the food, but waiting a little
while and then eating his meal. Things of a costive
tendency, such as pomegranates, quinces, apples and
Paradise-pears he may eat immediately after a meal,
but should not overindulge in them.

" If one wish to partake of poultry and meat at
the same meal, he should eat the poultry first.
Similarly in the case of eggs and poultry, he should
eat the eggs first ; lamb and beef, he should give
precedence to the former. A person should always
partake of the lighter food first and then the
heavier.

" During the Summer he should eat cooling things
and not take too much spice ; but he may use vinegar.
During the Winter he should eat warmth-giving
food, use much spice, and take a little mustard and
asafcetida. He should follow these directions in cold
countries and hot, in each place according to the local
conditions.

" There are foods which are exceedingly harmful
and a person should never eat them ; e.g., large, salted
and stale fish, salted stale cheese, mushrooms and all
fungi, stale salted meat, wine fresh from the press,
and cooked food which has been standing until its
flavour has gone ; likewise any food which is

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malodorous or excessively bitter is to the body like a
deadly poison. There are, on the other hand, foods
which are injurious, though not to the same extent as
the former ; therefore it is right that a person should
indulge in them sparingly and at rare intervals. He
should not accustom himself to the use of them as food,
or frequently eat them with his food. In this
category are large fish, cheese, milk which has stood
more than twenty-four hours from the time of milking,
meat of big bulls and rams, beans, lentils,35 chick-peas,
barley bread, unleavened bread, cabbage, leek, onions,
garlic, mustard and raddish. All these are harmful
food of which one should eat but very little indeed,
and only in Winter. In Summer one ought not to eat
them at all. Beans and lentils by themselves should
not be eaten in Summer or Winter ; gourds, however,
may be eaten in Summer.

" There are some foods which are injurious, though
not to the extent of the above-mentioned ; e.g., water-
fowl, small pigeons, dates,3 6 bread toasted in oil or
kneaded in oil, fine flour which has been so thoroughly
sifted as to leave not even a particle of bran, brine
and pickle. One should not overindulge in them ;
and the man who is wise, curbs his desire and is not
carried away by his appetite, abstaining from them
altogether unless he requires them as medicine, is
'mighty '.37

" A person should always withhold himself from
fruit of the trees and not eat much of them even dried,
still less fresh ; but before they are thoroughly ripe,
they are like swords to the body. Similarly carobs
are always harmful ; likewise all sour fruits are bad and
should only be eaten in small quantities in Summer
and in hot climates. Figs, grapes and almonds are
always beneficial, whether fresh or dried. One may

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eat of them as much as he needs ; but he must not
keep continually eating them, although they are more
beneficial than all other fruits of trees.

" Honey and wine are bad for the young, but
beneficial to the old, especially in Winter. One need
eat in Summer two-thirds of what he eats in Winter.

" There is another rule stated in connection with
the healthy condition of the body : As long as a person
works and takes plenty of exercise, does not eat to
satiety, and his bowels are regular, no ailment will
befall him and his strength keeps developing, even if
he eat unwholesome food. But whoever sits idle
and does no work, or defers the natural functions or
is of a costive nature, even if he eat wholesome food
and take care of himself according to medical regula-
tions, will suffer all his life and his strength will grow
weaker. Excessive eating is to the body of a man like
deadly poison and is the root of all diseases. Most
illnesses which befall men arise either from bad food
or from immoderate indulgence in food, even of the
wholesome kind. . . .

" The rule about the baths* is this : A man ought
to enter the bath-house each week, but he should not
enter it immediately after a meal, nor when he is
hungry, but when the food begins to digest. He
should bathe the whole of his body in hot water, but
not of a heat to scald the body. The head only is
to be washed in very hot water. After that he should
bathe in luke-warm water, then in water still cooler,
until he finally bathes in cold water. The head,
however, should not be immersed in luke-warm or
cold water. One should not bathe during Winter in
cold water, nor take the bath until the whole body is in
a state of perspiration and has been shampooed. He

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

should not stay long in the bath, but as soon as his
body perspires and has been shampooed, he should have
a shower-bath, and go out. . . .

" When he leaves the bath, he should dress and
cover his head in the outer room, so as not to catch
cold ; even in Summer he must be careful. After
leaving the bath, he should wait a while until he has
refreshed himself, his body has rested and the heat
departed ; then he may take a meal. If he can sleep
a little on leaving the bath, before his meal, this is very
beneficial. He should not drink cold water when he
comes out of the bath, much less drink it while in the
bath ; but if he is thirsty on leaving the bath and
cannot resist drinking, he should mix the water with
wine or honey and drink. If he anoint himself with
oil in the bath, during Winter after he has had a
shower-bath, it is beneficial.

" A person should not accustom himself to constant
blood-letting ; he should only be cupped in a case of
great urgency. He should not undergo it either in
Summer or Winter, but a little during the days of
Nisan and a little in the days of Tishri.39 After fifty
years of age one should not submit to blood-letting.
Nor should a person have cupping and enter the bath
on the same day, nor cup and go on a journey, nor have
it on the day he returns from a journey. On the day
he has blood-letting he should eat and drink less than
usual ; he should rest on that day, not tire himself,
nor do exercise and walking.

" Whoever conducts himself according to the rules
we have prescribed, I guarantee that he will not be
afflicted with illness all his days until he reaches
advanced age and dies. He will not need a physician,
but always enjoy good health, unless he was physically
weak from birth, or gave way to evil habits from early

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youth, or some plague or drought befall the world "
(Yad, Deot IV, 1-18, 20).

6. Correct Living (Moral). In general, man's life
should be motived, and his actions guided, by three
God-like qualities, viz., besed " kindness ", tsedakah
" righteousness " and mishpat " judgment ". Mai-
monides gives the following definition of the terms :

" Hesed is especially used of extraordinary kind-
ness. Lovingkindness is practised in two ways : first,
we show kindness to those who have no claim what-
ever upon us ; secondly, we are kind to those to whom
it is due, in a greater measure than is due to them. . . .

" The term tsedakah is derived from tsedek
' righteousness ' ; it denotes the act of giving every
one his due, and of showing kindness to every being
according as it deserves. In Scripture, however, the
expression tsedakah is not used in the first sense, and
does not apply to the payment of what we owe to
others. When we therefore give the hired labourer
his wages, or pay a debt, we do not perform an act of
tsedakah. But we do perform an act of tsedakah when
we fulfil those duties towards our fellow-men which
our moral conscience imposes upon us ; e.g., when we
heal the wound of the sufferer. Thus Scripture says,
in reference to the returning of the pledge to the poor
debtor, ' It shall be tsedakah unto thee ' (Deut. xxiv.
13). When we walk in the way of virtue, we act
righteously towards our intellectual faculty and pay
what is due unto it ; and because every virtue is thus
tsedakah, Scripture applies the term to the virtue of
faith in God. Comp. ' And he believed in the Lord,
and He accounted it to him for tsedakah ' (Gen. xv. 6).

" The noun mishpat ' judgment ' denotes the act
of deciding upon a certain action in accordance

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

with justice which may demand either mercy or
punishment.

" We have thus shown that fyesed denotes pure
charity ; tsedakah kindness, prompted by a certain
moral conscience in man, and being a means of
attaining perfection for his soul ; whilst mishpat may
in some cases find expression in revenge, in other cases
in mercy " (Guide III, 53).

Maimonides in the passage just cited restricts his
definition of tsedakah to its connotation in the
Scriptures. In Rabbinic Hebrew it acquired the
meaning of " benevolence ". This quality must be
a conspicuous feature of the moral life.

" The law of the Torah commanded us to practise
tsedakah, support the needy and help them financially.
The command in connection with this duty occurs in
various expressions ; e.g., ' Thou shalt surely open thy
hand unto him ' (Deut. xv. 8), ' Thou shalt uphold
him ; as a stranger and a settler shall he live with
thee ' (Lev. xxv. 35) . The intention in these passages
is identical, viz., that we should console the poor man
and support him to the extent of sufficiency. . . .
The saying has come down to us that even if he were a
poor man who is maintained by charity, this duty, viz.,
of tsedakah, is obligatory upon him, whether it be to
one who is worse off than he or in a similar state to
himself, though it be with a trifling amount " (Mitswot,
Command. CXCV).

After detailing the laws regulating the giving of
alms to the poor, he concludes :

" We are in duty bound to be more careful with
the fulfilment of the commandment relating to alms
than all the other commandments, for almsgiving is
the characteristic of the righteous man of the seed of
Abraham, our father ; as it is said, ' For I know him

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ETHICS

to the end that he command his children and his
household after him, that they may keep the way of
the Lord, to do tsedakah ' (Gen. xviii. 19). Nor can the
throne of Israel be firmly established and the true
Faith stand by any other means than tsedakah ; as
it is said, ' In tsedakah shalt thou be established ' (Isa.
liv. 14). Further, Israel will only be redeemed by the
same virtue ; as it is said, ' Zion shall be redeemed with
justice, and they that return of her with tsedakah '
(ibid. i. 27). 4<>

" A man is never impoverished through almsgiving,
nor is evil or injury ever caused through it ; as it is
said, ' The work of tsedakah shall be peace ' (ibid.
xxxii. 17). Who displays mercy shall have mercy
displayed towards him ; as it is said, ' And show thee
mercy and have compassion upon thee, and multiply
thee ' (Deut. xiii. 18). Whoever is hardhearted and
merciless gives cause for suspecting his pure Israelite
descent, because hardheartedness is only found among
gentiles ; as it is said, ' They are cruel and have no
compassion ' (Jer. vi. 23) . Whereas all Israel and those
who ally themselves to them are like brothers ; as it
is said, ' Ye are .children of the Lord your God ' (Deut.
xiv. i), and if brother is not merciful to brother, who
should be merciful to him ! To whom, then, should the
poor of Israel raise their eyes in pleading ? To the
gentiles who hate and persecute them ! Surely their
eyes can only be raised to their brethren.

" Whoever closes his eyes against charity is called,
like the idol-worshipper, impious. . . . Whoever
gives alms to the poor with bad grace and downcast
looks, though he bestow a thousand gold pieces, all
the merit of his action is lost ; but he must give with
good grace, gladly, sympathising with the poor man in
his trouble. If a poor man solicit alms of you and you

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

have nothing to give him, console him with words ;
and it is forbidden to upbraid the poor or raise the
voice against him, since his heart is broken and crushed.
. . . Woe, then, to the person who shames the
poor man ! Be to him, rather, like a parent whether
in compassion or in kindly words. . . .

" There are eight degrees in alms-giving, one
higher than the other : Supreme above all is to give
assistance to a co-religionist who has fallen on evil
times by presenting him with a gift or loan, or entering
into a partnership with him, or procuring him work,
thereby helping him to become self-supporting.

" Inferior to this is giving charity to the poor in
such a way that the giver and recipient are unknown
to each other. This is, indeed, the performance of a
commandment from disinterested motives ; and it is
exemplified by the Institution of the Chamber of the
Silent which existed in the Temple, where the righteous
secretly deposited their alms and the respectable poor
were secretly assisted.4*

" Next in order is the donation of money to the
charitable fund of the Community, to which no
contribution should be made without the donors
feeling confident that the administration is honest,
prudent and capable of proper management.

" Below this degree is the instance where the donor
is aware to whom he is giving the alms but the recipient
is unaware from whom he received them ; as, e.g., the
great Sages who used to go about secretly throwing
money through the doors of the poor.4* This is quite
a proper course to adopt and a great virtue where the
administrators of a charitable fund are not acting
fairly.

" Inferior to this degree is the case where the
recipient knows the identity of the donor, but not

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ETHICS

vice versa ; as, e.g., the great Sages who used to tie
sums of money in linen bundles and throw them
behind their backs for poor men to pick up, so that they
should not feel shame43.

" The next four degrees in their order are : the man
who gives money to the poor before he is asked ; the
man who gives money to the poor after he is asked ; the
man who gives less than he should, but does it with
good grace ; and lastly, he who gives grudgingly "
(Yad, Mattenot Aniyyim X, 1-14).

Another important virtue of the moral life is
chastity.

" It is proper for a man to practise self-control and
exercise himself in additional holiness and pure thought
and correct morals to be saved from going astray.
He must guard against intimacy which is the great
cause of sinning. He should likewise accustom himself
to keep far from levity, intemperance and erotic
subjects, because these are important factors which
conduce to immorality. Nor should he live un-
wedded ; since marriage tends to purity. But above
all this, advised the Rabbis, let him turn himself and
his thoughts to the study of the Torah and enlarge
his mind with wisdom44 ; for lustful desire only
prevails in a heart which is empty of wisdom " (Yad t
Issure Biah XXII, 2of).

A forgiving disposition is likewise advocated. " It
is forbidden a man to be hard and unrelenting. He
should, on the contrary, be easily appeased and hard
to provoke ; and when the offender begs his pardon,
he should forgive wholeheartedly and willingly. Even
though the man may have grievously injured or offended
him, he ought not to avenge himself nor bear a grudge,
this being the characteristic of the seed of Israel and
their uprightness of heart " (Yad, Teshubah II, 10).

289

19

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

Another moral virtue is the correct use of the
power of speech.

" A fence to wisdom is silence.45 A man should
therefore not be hasty in replying, nor talk too much.
He should teach his pupils in a quiet and pleasant
manner, without shouting and without prolixity.
As Solomon said, ' The words of the wise are spoken
in quiet ' (Eccles. ix. 17).

"It is forbidden a man to accustom himself to
words of flattery or seduction ; nor should he be
otherwise in his speech than he is in his heart, but
alike within as without, so that what is in his heart is
identical with the words in his mouth.

" It is forbidden to deceive one's fellow-creatures,
even a gentile. For instance, a man should not sell
to a gentile the flesh of a beast which died of itself
as the flesh of a slaughtered beast, or a shoe made of
the hide of a beast which died of itself as the shoe
made of the hide of a slaughtered beast. He may not
press his friend to eat with him when he knows that
he will not eat with him, nor continue to urge gifts on
him when he knows that he will not accept them ;
nor open casks for him which he is obliged to open for
the purpose of sale, in order to deceive him that it was
in his honour that he had opened them ; and so on.
Even a single word of seduction or deception is pro-
hibited. Instead there should be truthful speech, an
upright spirit, and a heart pure from treachery and
mischief " (Yad, Diot II, 5!).

Maimonides draws a detailed picture of the
manner of living to which the " wise " man should
conform. He, first of all, rigorously submits to the
rules of correct physical living. He also adopts the
following outward characteristics :

" A wise man should not shout or be noisy when
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ETHICS

he speaks, like animals, nor should he raise his voice
too high ; but his speech with all people should be
quiet. When speaking in a quiet tone, he must take
care not to exaggerate, so as to appear as one talking
haughtily. He also anticipates every man with his
greeting, so that all are favourably disposed towards
him.46 He judges every man leniently,47 recounts the
praise of his friend but on no account says whatever is
discreditable. He loves peace and pursues it.48 jf h e
perceives that his words are helpful and listened to he
gives utterance to them, otherwise he keeps silent.
For instance, he will never attempt to pacify his
neighbour whilst the latter is angry, or question him
concerning his vow at the time he made it, but waits
until his mind has grown calm and composed. He
does not comfort the mourner while the dead body
still lies in his presence, because the mourner is too
overcome before the burial; and so on. He does not
enter the presence of his friend at the time of the
latter's disgrace, but averts his eyes from him.49 He
does not depart from his word, neither adding to it
nor subtracting from it, except when peace is involved.5
In general, he only speaks on scholarly subjects or to
practise benevolence. He does not converse with a
woman in a public place, even if it be his wife, sister
or daughter. 5 1

" A wise man should not walk with a haughty
demeanour ; nor should he walk with slow and
measured gait like women and proud people ; nor
run about in public roads like madmen ; nor stoop
like a hunchback ; but he should gaze downwards as
though standing in prayer, and walk in the street
like a man occupied in business. From the manner
of a man's walking, it may be perceived whether he
is wise and intellectual or foolish and ignorant.5*

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

" The dress of a wise man should be suitable and
clean. It is forbidden that stains or grease-marks
should be found on his garment.53 He should not
wear the apparel of princes, e.g., garments of gold
and purple, to attract the attention of people, nor the
clothes of paupers which bring disrespect on the
wearer ; but his garments should be of a medium
character and suitable for him. His flesh should not
be visible through his apparel, like the very fine linen
garments made in Egypt ; nor should his dress drag
along the ground like that of the haughty, but should
only reach to the heel and the sleeves to the tips of the
fingers. He should not wear his TallitS* conspicuously
long because it appears like haughtiness, except on
Sabbath if he has no other in its place. He should
not wear patched shoes in Summer, but if he is a poor
man he may wear them in Winter. 55 He should not
go out into the street perfumed, nor with scented
garments, nor use any perfume for his hair, but it is
allowable if he anointed his body with perfume to
remove the bad odour. 5 6 He should not go out alone
at night unless there be a fixed time when it is his habit
to go out to attend to his study.57 All these rules are
intended to avoid suspicion.

" A wise man measures his words with judgment,
eats and drinks and supports his household according
to his means and prosperity, and does not encumber
himself with unnecessary burdens. . . , The
Sages recommended that a man should spend upon
food less than his means, upon dress up to his means,
and expend in honour of his wife and children more
than his means. 5 8

" The course adopted by a man of intelligence is
first to determine upon an occupation to maintain
himself, then to purchase a dwelling-house and then

292

ETHICS

to marry. 59 . . . But fools first marry, then if
they can afford it acquire a dwelling-house, and
afterwards when advanced in years go about to find a
trade or have to be supported from charity. . . .

" All transactions of the wise man must be in truth
and integrity. 60 His nay should be nay, his yea yea.
In financial calculations he must be strict with
himself but generous with others. 61 He pays the
purchase-money immediately 6 * ; he does not make
himself a surety or responsible for others, nor undertake
the liability of a power of attorney. 6 3 He does not
enter in the course of business into such obligations as
the Torah has not imposed upon him, so that he may
abide by his word and not depart from it. If others
are legally indebted to him, he grants them an extension
to pay, is forgiving and lends graciously. He does not
interfere with the business of his neighbours, and never
acts harshly towards anybody. In general, he is
rather of the persecuted than of the persecutors, of the
offended not of the offenders " 6 4 ( Yad, Deot V, 7-13).

The highest incentive to correct moral living is the
consciousness of being always in the presence of God.

" We do not sit, move and occupy ourselves when
we are alone and at home, in the same manner as we
do in the presence of a great king ; we speak and
open our mouth as we please when we are with the
people of our own household and with our relatives,
but not so when we are in a royal assembly. If we
therefore desire to attain human perfection, and to be
truly men of God, we must awake from our sleep, and
bear in mind that the great King that is over us, and
is always joined to us, is greater than any earthly
king, greater than David and Solomon. The King
that cleaves to us and embraces us is the Intellect that
influences us, and forms the link between us and God.

293

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

We perceive God by means of that light that He sends
down unto us, wherefore the Psalmist says, ' In Thy
light do we see light ' (Ps. xxxvi. 10) ; so God looks
down upon us through that same light, and is always
with us beholding and watching us on account of this
light.

" When the perfect bear this in mind, they will be
filled with fear of God, humility and piety, with true,
not apparent, reverence and respect of God, in such a
manner that their conduct, even when alone with their
wives or in the bath, will be as modest as they are in
public intercourse with other people " (Guide III, 52).

7. Social Life. Like Aristotle who described man as
a " social animal ", Maimonides declares of him that
he "is naturally a social being, that by virtue of his
nature he seeks to form communities ; man is there-
fore different from other living beings that are not
compelled to combine into communities " (Guide II, 40).

" It is well known that man requires friends all his
lifetime. . . . When man is in good health and
prosperous, he enjoys the company of his friends ; in
time of trouble he is in need of them ; in old age,
when his body is weak, he is assisted by them. This
love is more frequent and more intense between
parents and children, and among other relations.
Perfect love, brotherhood, and mutual assistance are
only found among those near to each other by relation-
ship. The members of a family united by common
descent from the same grandfather, or even from some
more distant ancestor, have towards each other a
certain feeling of love, help each other, and sympathise
with each other. To effect this is one of the chief
purposes of the Torah " (Guide III, 49).

It is the duty of man to take his place in the social
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ETHICS

life around him and contribute his share towards its
well-being. To live idly and depend on charity is a
degradation to man.

" A man should ever suffer the deepest privations
rather than have recourse to his fellowmen or throw
himself Upon the Community. Thus the Sages
exhorted, ' Make thy (living on the) Sabbath as on a
week-day, and be not dependent upon thy fellow-
men '. 6 5 Even if he be wise and honoured, should he
grow poor he must engage in a trade, however lowly,
rather than have recourse to charity. ' Flay a carcass
in the street and earn a living, and say not, " I am a
great man and the work is below my dignity 11 !' 66
Some of the great Sages were hewers of wood, carriers
of logs, drawers of water for the gardens, metal-
workers, smiths ; but they asked nothing from the
community and refused whatever was offered to
them " 6 7 (Yad, Mattenot Aniyyim X, 18).

To the question, Why did not God create all men
lovers of knowledge and highly endowed intellect-
ually ? Maimonides gave this answer :

" If all men were seekers of wisdom and philosophy,
the social order would be destroyed and the human
race quickly disappear from the world ; because man
is very helpless and needs many things. Consequently
it would be necessary for him to learn ploughing,
reaping, threshing, grinding, baking and how to
fashion implements for these tasks, for the purpose of
securing his food-supply. Similarly he would have to
learn spinning and weaving to clothe himself, the
building art to provide a shelter, and to fashion tools
for all these works.

"But the life of Methuselah would not be
sufficiently long to learn all these occupations which
are indispensable to human existence. When, in these

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

conditions, would he find leisure to study and acquire
wisdom ? Consequently, there is necessity for other
types of men to follow these occupations which are
essential in a city, so that the student may have his
wants provided, the land may be inhabited and
wisdom found among men " (C.M., Introduction).

He denounced gambling as an anti-social act,
because no advantage accrued from it to the advance-
ment of civilisation ; and he continued : " It is a
fundamental teaching of the Torah that a man should
properly only occupy himself in this world with one of
two things : either in Torah for the purpose of
perfecting his soul in its wisdom ; or in an occupation
which helps him to gain a regular living, or in trade and
commerce. But it is right to decrease the time spent
in obtaining a livelihood and increase the time devoted
to Torah " (C.M., Sanhedrin III, 3).

On social relationship with a man's neighbours
Maimonides writes :

" It is a commandment upon each man to love his
brother-Israelite like himself. 68 A man ought there-
fore to recount his neighbour's praise and be
scrupulous with his money as with his own, and be
concerned for his honour as he is concerned with his
personal honour. 6 9 Whoever glories in the shame of
his fellowman has no share in the world to come.7

" Love of the stranger who comes and enters
beneath the wings of the Shechinahl 1 is ordained in
two commandments : First, because the stranger is
included in the definition of ' neighbour ' (Lev. xix.
1 8) ; and secondly, because as a stranger he is included
in the command ' Love ye therefore the stranger '
(Deut. x. 19). . . .

" Anyone who hates his fellow-Israelite in his
heart transgresses a prohibition ; for it is said, ' Thou

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ETHICS

shalt not hate thy brother in thine heart ' (Lev. xix.
17). . . . If a man is injured by another, he
should not bear hatred towards him in silence ; but
he is commanded to acquaint him with his grievance
and say to him, Why have you done so to me ? Why
have you injured me by such a thing ? And if the
other repent and ask his pardon, he must forgive him
and not be hard.7*

" Whoever sees his fellowmen commit a sin, or
walk in the way which is not good, is under the
obligation to bring him back to the proper way and to
make known to him that by his wicked actions he sins
against himself. He who rebukes his fellow, whether
in matters between man and man or between man and
God, should rebuke him in private, talk to him quietly
and in gentle language, and let him know that he is
only telling him this for his own good, for the purpose
of bringing him to the life of the world to come. If
the other listen to him, well and good ; but if not,
he should rebuke him a second and a third time ; and
so he must rebuke him continually until the offender
strikes him and says, I will not listen. But he in
whose power it is to prevent others from sinning, but
does not do so, becomes himself responsible for the
iniquity, because it was possible for him to have
prevented them.73

" He who rebukes his fellow should not at first
talk to him harshly so as to put him to shame. . . .
It is forbidden a man to put an Israelite to shame, least
of all in public ; for although shaming a fellowman is
not an offence punishable by flagellation, it is never-
theless a great sin. Thus the Sages declare, ' He who
puts his fellowman to shame in public has no share
in the world to come '.74 Consequently a man should
be very careful not to shame his neighbour publicly,

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TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

whether he be an inportant person or insignificant.
He must not call him by any name of which he is
ashamed, nor relate in his presence anything of which
he may be ashamed. 75

" This, however, applies only to matters between
man and man ; but as regards matters relating to God,
if he does not recant as the result of private rebuke,
we may put him to shame publicly, proclaim his sin,
reprove him in his presence, disgrace and denounce
him until he amend, in the manner that the Prophets
acted against Israel.

" If a person has been injured by his fellow and
does not wish to reprove him, or mention it at all,
because the offender is too vulgar a person or of
disordered mind, but pardons him in his heart without
hating or reproaching him, behold this is the degree of
saintliness? 6 " (Yad, Deot VI, 3-9).

8. The Purpose of Life. Maimonides devotes
attention to the question for what purpose man
exists. The answer to this question must be the basis
of the ultimate problem of Ethics, viz., What should
be the goal of human endeavour. His answer is based
on the assertion, " Man is not endowed with perfection
at the beginning, but at first possesses perfection in
potentia, not in fact " (Guide I, 34). His purpose is
therefore to convert potentiality into actuality.

" When the philosophers discovered that the end
of all things in the Universe was to provide for the
existence of man, they were compelled to continue
their investigation and determine why man exists
and what is the reason for his creation. After long
research into this problem, they found that man
possessed numerous activities, whereas all other
animals and plants possessed only one or two directed

ETHICS

to one end. We, e.g., see that the palm has no other
activity than to produce dates, and similarly with
the other trees. Likewise with animals, we find that
some only spin, like the spider ; some build, like the
swallow which constructs nests in Summer ; others
store up food on which to subsist, like the ant.

" Man, on the other hand, performs many activities
of a varied nature. The philosophers, accordingly,
investigated all his activities seriatim to discover from
them the purpose of his creation. They found that
his purpose resolved itself into one function only on
account of which he was created, and the rest of his
activities were merely to maintain his stability so that
he may thereby fulfil that one function which is, to
formulate in his soul concepts of the intellectual
mysteries and to ascertain the exact truths. For it
is self-evident how utterly false it is that the purpose
of man should be eating, drinking and cohabiting, or
building a wall or being a king ; because all these
occurrences happen to him without developing his
inner power, and also in these matters he is allied to
most creatures. But it is wisdom which develops
his inner power and removes him from a lowly
to a dignified status, since he was only man in
potentia, but has become man in reality" (C.M.,
Introduction).

" It was impossible, according to the wisdom of
God, that substance should exist without form, or any
of the forms of the bodies without substance, and it
was necessary that the very noble form of man, which
is the image and likeness of God, should be joined to
the substance of dust and darkness, the source of all
defect and loss. For these reasons the Creator gave
to the form of man power, rule and dominion over the
substance ; the form can subdue the substance, refuse

299

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

the fulfilment of its desires, and reduce them, as far
as possible, to a just and proper measure.

" The station of man varies according to the exercise
of this power. Some persons constantly strive to
choose that which is noble, and to seek perpetuation
in accordance with the direction of their nobler part
their form ; their thoughts are engaged in the formation
of ideas, the acquisition of true knowledge about
everything, and the union with the divine intellect
which flows down upon them, and which is the source
of man's form. Whenever they are led by the wants of
the body to that which is low and avowedly disgraceful,
they are grieved at their position, they feel ashamed
and confounded at their situation. They try with all
their might to diminish this disgrace, and to guard
against it in every possible way. . . .

" Some consider all wants of the body as shame,
disgrace, and defect to which they are compelled to
attend ; this is chiefly the case with the sense of touch,
which is a disgrace to us according to Aristotle, and
which is the cause of our desire for eating, drinking
and sensuality. Intelligent persons must, as much as
possible, reduce these wants, guard against them, feel
grieved when satisfying them, abstain from speaking
of them, discussing them, and attending to them in
company with others. Man must have control over all
these desires, reduce them as much as possible, and only
retain of them as much as is indispensable. His aim
must be the aim of man as man, viz., the formulation
of ideas, and nothing else " (Guide III, 8).

On this view, the world is man's training-ground in
spiritual development, and only when it is regarded as
such are the opportunities it offers rightly used.

" After death there is no opportunity for man to
attain perfection or increase of virtue ; he can only

300

ETHICS

do so in this world. Solomon hints at this when he
says, ' There is no work, nor device, nor knowledge,
nor wisdom in the grave whither thou goest ' (Eccles.
ix. 10) ; but these objects, which a man should pursue,
remain for him so long as he lives. Therefore it is
obligatory that he should strive for them during his
brief span of life and not waste his time in the acquisi-
tion of anything but the virtues ; because his loss is
great if he neglects his opportunities, since he can
never repair it.

" When the saints perceived this, they took care
not to spend their life except in acquiring wisdom and
increase of the virtues, and devoted all their time to
following the path of truth, and squandered none of it
in the pursuit of material things, apart from the very
minimum which necessity demanded. Others, how-
ever, spent all their time on material things only, and
left this world as they entered it, thereby incurring
eternal loss. But the masses invert the truth in this
connection and maintain that the former class (the
saints) wasted their life in this world, while the latter
made the most of it. The contrary is the truth, as
we have declared ; for these men make darkness for
light and light for darkness. Woe to them who
destroy the truth ! " (C.M., Abot IV, 22).

9. The Ultimate Goal of Living. All that has been
prescribed to guide man in the right way of life,
physically and morally, is but the means to an end.
These rules of conduct are the necessary preparation
for the attempt to reach an ultimate goal which
must be man's constant ideal throughout his life.

" It is possible for one to shape one's conduct
entirely from the point of view of utility, as we have
stated, with no aim beyond that of maintaining the

301

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

health of the body, or guarding against disease. Such
a one does not deserve to be called virtuous, for, just
as he strives for the enjoyment of good health, another
like him may have as his aim the gratification of eating,
or of sexual intercourse, none of which actions leads
towards the true goal. The real duty of man is, that
in adopting whatever measures he may for his well-
being, and the preservation of his existence in good
health, he should do so with the object of maintaining
a perfect condition of the instruments of the soul,
which are the limbs of the body, so that his soul may
be unhampered, and he may busy himself in acquiring
the moral and mental virtues.

" So it is with all the sciences and knowledge man
may learn. Concerning those which lead directly to
this goal, there is naturally no question ; but such
subjects as Mathematics, etc., which do not tend
directly towards that goal, should be studied for the
purpose of sharpening the mind, and training the
mental faculties by scientific investigations, so that
man may acquire intellectual ability to distinguish
demonstrative proofs from others, whereby he will
be enabled to comprehend the essence of God"
(C.M., Eight Chapters V).

" Man ought to direct his heart and all his actions
solely towards knowing God, blessed be He 1 so that
his sitting down, and his rising up, and his conversa-
tion should altogether tend to this goal. For instance,
when he engages in business transactions or manual
labour for remuneration, the intention in his heart
should not be merely to accumulate money ; but he ought
to do these things with the view of providing for his
physical wants, such as food, drink, a home and
marriage. Similarly, when he eats or drinks or cohabits,
his purpose should not simply be physical gratification,

302

ETHICS

so that he does not eat or drink except what is pleasant
to the palate . . . ; but he sets as his purpose
when eating or drinking nothing else than the preser-
vation of his body and limbs in good health. . . .
" He who conducts himself according to medical
regulations, if he make it his object merely that his
whole body and his limbs be perfect and that he
should have sons to do his work and labour for his
requirements, this is not the right way. He must
intend that his body should be perfect and strong to
the end that his soul may be fit to know the Lord ;
because it is impossible for him to reflect and study
the sciences when he is hungry, or ill, or any one of his
limbs aches. He must likewise intend to have a son
in the hope that he will be wise and a great man in
Israel. Consequently, he who walks in this way
throughout his life serves the Lord continually, even
at the time when he is engaged in commerce, even when
performing his marital duties ; because his object in
all this is to provide his needs, so that his body may be
perfect to serve the Lord. Even at the time when he
sleeps provided he sleeps that both his mind and body
may enjoy rest, so that he may not become ill and be
unable to serve the Lord when he is unwell his very
sleep will be found to be a service of the Omnipresent,
blessed be He ! In this respect the Sages have
commanded, ' Let all thine acts be for the sake of
God '.77 And this is likewise what Solomon said in his
wisdom, ' In all thy ways acknowledge Him, and He
will direct thy paths ' (Prov. iii. 6) " (Yad, Deot III, 2f).

Maimonides sums up his whole teaching in the
concluding chapter of the Guide, where he enumerates
four types of perfection and argues that the fourth is
the true one after which man should aspire :

" The ancient and the modern philosophers have

303

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

shown that man can acquire four kinds of perfection.
The first kind, the lowest, in the acquisition of which
people spend their days, is perfection as regards
property the possession of money, garments, furni-
ture, servants, land, and the like ; the possession of
the title of a great king belongs to this class. There
is no close connection between this possession and its
possessor ; it is a perfectly imaginary relation when
on account of the great advantage a person derives
from these possessions, he says, This is my house, this
is my servant, this is my money, and these are my hosts
and armies. For when he examines himself he will
find that all these things are external, and their
qualities are entirely independent of the possessor.
When, therefore, that relation ceases, he that has been
a great king may one morning find that there is no
difference between him and the lowest person, and yet
no change has taken place in the things which were
ascribed to him. The philosophers have shown that
he whose sole aim in all his exertions and endeavours
is the possession of this kind of perfection, only seeks
perfectly imaginary and transient things ; and even
if these remain his property all his lifetime, they do
not give him any perfection.

" The second kind is more closely related to man's
body than the first. It includes the perfection of the
shape, constitution, and form of man's body ; the
utmost evenness of temperaments, and the proper
order and strength of his limbs. This kind of per-
fection must likewise be excluded from forming our
chief aim ; because it is a perfection of the body, and
man does not possess it as a man, but as a living being ;
he has this property besides in common with the lowest
animal ; and even if a person possesses the greatest
possible strength, he could not be as strong as a mule,

304

ETHICS

much less can he be as strong as a lion or an elephant ;
he, therefore, can at the utmost have strength that
might enable him to carry a heavy burden, or break a
thick substance, or do similar things, in which there is
no great profit for the body. The soul derives no
profit from this kind of perfection.

" The third kind of perfection is more closely
connected with man himself than the second per-
fection. It includes moral perfection, the highest
degree of excellency in man's character. Most of the
precepts aim at producing this perfection ; but even
this kind is only a preparation for another perfection,
and is not sought for its own sake. For all moral
principles concern the relation of man to his neighbour ;
the perfection of man's moral principles is, as it were,
given to man for the benefit of mankind. Imagine a
person living alone, and having no connection what-
ever with any other person ; all his good moral princi-
ples are at rest, they are not required, and give man no
perfection whatever. These principles are only necessary
and useful when man comes in contact with others.

" The fourth kind of perfection is the true perfec-
tion of man ; the possession of the highest intellectual
faculties ; the possession of such notions which lead to
true metaphysical opinions as regards God. With
this perfection man has obtained his final object ; it
gives him true human perfection ; it remains to him
alone ; it gives him immortality,? 8 and on its account
he is called man. Examine the first three kinds of
perfection; you will find that, if you possess them,
they are not your property, but the property of others ;
according to the ordinary view, however, they belong
to you and to others. But the last kind of perfection
is exclusively yours ; no one else owns any part, of it,
' They shall be only thine own, and not strangers' with

305

20

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

thee ' (Prov. v. 17). Your aim must therefore be to
attain this fourth perfection that is exclusively yours,
and you ought not to continue to work and weary your-
self for that which belongs to others, whilst neglecting
your soul till it has lost entirely its original purity
through thedominion of the bodily powersoverit. . . .

" The Prophets have likewise explained unto us
these things, and have expressed the same opinion on
them as the philosophers. They say distinctly that
perfection in property, in health, or in character, is
not a perfection worthy to be sought as a cause of
pride and glory for us ; that the knowledge of God,
i.e., true wisdom, is the only perfection which we
should seek and in which we should glorify ourselves.
Jeremiah, referring to these four kinds of perfection,
says : ' Thus saith the Lord, Let not the wise man
glory in his wisdom,79 neither let the mighty man
glory in his might, let not the rich man glory in his
riches ; but let him that glorieth glory in this, that he
understandeth and knoweth Me that I am the Lord
Who exercise lovingkindness, judgment and righte-
ousness in the earth ; for in these things I delight,
saith the Lord ' (Jer. ix. 22f). . . .

" The object of the above passage is to declare that
the perfection, in which man can truly glory, is
attained by him when he has acquired as far as this
is possible for man the knowledge of God, the
knowledge of His Providence, and of the manner in
which it influences His creatures in their production
and continued existence. Having acquired this
knowledge he will then be determined always to seek
lovingkindness, judgment and righteousness, and
thus to imitate the ways of God.". 8

On this exalted note the Guide ends. It is the
culminating point of Maimonides' system of teaching.

306

CHAPTER XII
SOME OBITER DICTA

WHEN I have a difficult subject before me when I
find the road narrow, and can see no other way of
teaching a well-established truth except by pleasing
one intelligent man and displeasing ten thousand fools
I prefer to address myself to the one man and to
take no notice whatever of the condemnation of the
multitude (Guide, Introd.).

A truth, once established by proof, does neither
gain force nor certainty by the consent of all scholars,
nor lose by the general dissent (ibid. II, 15).

The fact that a certain proposition has been proved
by a dialectical argument will never induce me to
accept that proposition, but, on the contrary, will
weaken my faith in it and cause me to doubt it. For
when we understand the fallacy of a proof, our faith
in the proposition itself is shaken (ibid. II, 16).

If a person studies too much and exhausts his
reflective powers, he will be confused, and will not be
able to apprehend even that which had been within
the power of his apprehension (ibid. I, 32).

307

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

It is in fact ignorance or a kind of madness to
weary our minds with finding out things which are
beyond our reach, without having the means of
approaching them (ibid. II, 24).

He who has studied insufficiently, and teaches and
acts according to his defective knowledge, is to be
considered as if he sinned knowingly (ibid. Ill, 41).

Do not consider a thing as proof because you find
it written in books ; for just as a liar will deceive
with his tongue, he will not be deterred from doing
the same thing with his pen. They are utter fools
who r accept a thing as convincing proof because it is
in writing (Iggeret Teman, Responsa II, 5d).

The truth of a thing does not become greater by
its frequent repetition, nor is it lessened by lack of
repetition (Tehiyyat ha-Metim t Responsa II, gd).

Whenever the words of a person can be interpreted
in such a manner that they agree with fully established
facts, it is the duty of every educated and honest man
so to interpret them (Guide III, 14).

It is through the intellect that the human being
has the capacity of honouring God (C.M., Hagigah II,i).

The heart is the tabernacle of the human intellect
(Ethical Will, Responsa II, 39c).

308

SOME OBITER DICTA

The wise man is a greater asset to a nation than is
a king (C.M., Horayot III, end).

A man should never cast his intellect behind him ;
his eyes are in front, not behind (Responsa II, 26b).

Wisdom is the consciousness of self (Guide I, 53).

Let the truth and right by which you are
apparently the loser be preferable to you to the
falsehood and wrong by which you are apparently the
gainer (Ethical Will, Responsa II, 38c).

Moral conduct is a preparation for intellectual
progress, and only a man whose character is pure,
calm and steadfast can attain to intellectual perfection
that is, acquire correct conceptions (Guide I, 34).

A miracle cannot prove that which is impossible ;
it is useful only as a confirmation of that which is
possible (ibid III, 24).

Make matter subject to the intellect, i.e. the body
to the soul ; for this subjection is your freedom in
this world and the world to come (Ethical Will,
Responsa II, 38d).

It is of great advantage that man should know
his station, and not erroneously imagine that the
whole Universe exists only for him (Guide III, 12).

309

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

The multitude does not estimate man by his true
form, but by the perfection of his bodily limbs and the
beauty of his garments (ibid. Ill, 45).

It is to be feared that those who become great in
riches and comfort generally fall into the vices of
insolence and haughtiness, and abandon all good
principles (ibid. Ill, 39).

It is in the nature of man to strive to gain money
and to increase it ; and his great desire to add to his
wealth and honour is the chief source of misery for
man (ibid. loc. cit).

Ease destroys bravery, whilst trouble and care for
food create strength (ibid. Ill, 24).

It is a natural phenomenon that we find consola-
tion in our misfortune when the same misfortune or a
greater one has befallen another person (ibid. Ill, 40).

It is indeed a fact that the transition from trouble
to ease gives more pleasure than continual ease
(ibid. Ill, 24).

When we continually see an object, however
sublime it may be, our regard for that object will be

310

SOME OBITER DICTA

lessened, and the impression we have received of
it will be weakened (ibid. Ill, 47).

The sight of that to which a person has been
accustomed for a long time does not produce such an
ardent desire for its enjoyment as is produced by
objects new in form and character (ibid. Ill, 49).

NOTES
INTRODUCTION

1 See Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, IX, p. 873.

2 Cf. Radin, Jews among the Greeks and Romans.

3 See Contra Apionem I, 22.

4- E.g., j. Betsah II, 5, 6ic (a philosopher and Bar Kappara),
Abodah Zarah 540 (philosophers in Rome and the Rabbis),
Genesis Rabba XI, 6 (a philosopher and Rabbi Hoshayah).

5 See Delitzsch, Biblical Psychology, pp. 292^.

6 Abot I, 17 (Authorised Prayer Book, ed. Singer, p. 186).

7 Hagigah I4b.

8 Literally " another ", the nickname given to Elisha ben
Abuyah when he " cut the plants ", i.e., abandoned Judaism.
He was then considered as having become a different person.

9 Abot III, i$ (Singer, p. 194).

10 Even Maimonides comments in a similar strain on this
verse : " God alone has a perfect and true knowledge of the
heavens, their nature, their essence, their form, their motions
and their causes ; but He gave man power to know the things
which are under the heavens ; here is man's world, here is
his home, into which he has been placed, and of which he is
himself a portion " (Guide II, 24). In one of his letters he
states : " Whatever is beyond Nature no savant or philosopher
is able to establish with clear proof, but whatever is in Nature
is not hidden from his eyes " (Responsa II, 24b). If Maimon-
ides had been charged with inconsistency in holding such an
opinion and yet indulging in philosophical speculation, his
answer would probably have been as follows : I admit the
limited range of which the human intellect is capable and I
have pointed out in my works (cf. Chap. X, 5) that it is
idle to attempt to penetrate the mysteries of God. All I
have done is to extract from His revealed word the utmost
it contains and applied my intellect to the fullest possible
development of its teachings.

11 Maimonides writes of Aristotle that his intellect reached
the highest plane of perfection attainable by man, apart from
the Prophets who had been directly inspired by God (Responsa
II, 28d).

12 Only the briefest outline of the subject could be given
in this Introduction. The story of the Jewish philosophers
is fully told in Husik, History of Medieval Jewish Philosophy.

*3 For a fuller account of his biography, the reader is
referred to the excellent monograph by David Yellin and
Israel Abrahams.

J 4 Literally " judge ", i.e., member of a Rabbinic court.

313

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

In the Guide II, 9 he mentions " Ibn Aflafc of Seville
with whose son I was acquainted . . . also the excellent
philosopher Abu-Bekr ibn Alzaig, one of whose pupils was
'tiy f ello\v -student."

16 The question is examined by Friedlander in the preface
to his translation of the Guide (3 vol. edition, I, p. XXXIII) and
Margoliouth in the Jewish Quarterly Review (old series), vol.
XIII. They both give their decision in favour of Maimonides.

*7 Norn de plume of Asher Ginzberg, one of the foremost
of modern Jewish writers. See his fine essay, " The Supremacy
of Reason " in Essays on Zionism and Judaism, especially
pp. igSff.

18 See p. 115.

J 9 See Chap. IV, 5.

20 The first of the six Orders into which the Mishnah is
divided.

21 It is in fourteen books, hence the name Yad which in
Hebrew has the numerical value of fourteen.

22 History of the Jews (American edition) III, pp. 466f .

2 3 See p. 320, note 5.
2 * See p. 51.

2 5 An interesting essav by Israel Friedlander on the way
Maimonides' style reflects the character of the man is con-
tained in the memorial work Moses ben Maimon, I, pp. 42Qff.

26 Kohler, Jewish Theology, p. 30.

2 ? Lazarus, Ethics of Judaism, I, pp. 274!

28 Jowett, Dialogues of Plato, III, pp. 4i5f.

2 9 Roth, Spinoza Descartes and Maimonides, p. 77.
3 Paulsen, Introduction to Philosophy, p. 282.

3i Jowett, III, p. 470.
3 Husik, op. cit., p. 236.

33 Joel, Die Peligionsphilosophie des Maimonides, p. 4.
3+ An account of this intellectual warfare is given by
Schechter, Studies in Judaism (fiist series), pp. iggff.

35 Cf. Singer's edition, pp. 2f. and 8gf.

3 6 Abrahams, Jewish Life in the Middle Ages, p. 371.

37 Roth, Spinoza Descartes and Maimonides.

3 8 This great genius, one of the finest exponents of Kant's
philosophy, was a Lithuanian Jew, born in 1754 and later
migrated to Germany. A sympathetic sketch of him is given
by Zangwill in Dreamers of the Ghetto. Out of admiration
for the author of the Guide he assumed the name of Maimon.
He states in his autobiography : " My reverence for this
great teacher went so far that I regarded him as the ideal of a
perfect man, and looked upon his teachings as if they had been
inspired with Divine Wisdom " ; Lebensgeschichte II, p. 3.

39 He studied the Guide in his boyhood. See Jewish
Encyc., VIII, p. 479.

4 Two Latin translations were published, one by Justini-
anus in 1520 based on an earlier version, the other by the
younger Buxtorf in 1629.

* z Yellin and Abrahams, p. 157.

4 2 Husik, p. 306.

314

NOTES

CHAPTER I

1 An explanation of this term will be given below in 5.

2 On the Intelligences or Angels and the Spheres, see
Chap. II.

3 Maimonides reads into the Hebrew word emet " truth "
its later philosophical connotation, viz., reality.

* In its narrower sense, Torah (lit. teaching, direction)
denotes the Five Books of Moses as distinct from the rest of
the Scriptures. In its wider sense, it signifies the whole
corpus of Jewish law and doctrine which is based on the
Pentateuch.

3 The ordinances of the Torah are divided into two classes :
(i.) commandments of Do, i.e., positive commands, and (ii.)
commandments of Do not, i.e., negative commands or pro-
hibitions. The former number 248, the latter 365.

6 For a discussion of this point where Maimonides disagreed
with Aristotle, see below 8.

? The Propositions are too long, and the argument which
Maimonides bases upon them too intricate, to be quoted
in extenso. The reader will find a good summary in Husik,
Medieval Jewish Philosophy, pp. 254ff.

8 This deduction follows from Prop. VII : " Things which
are changeable are at the same time divisible. Hence every-
thing that moves is divisible and consequently corporeal ;
but that which is indivisible cannot move and cannot therefore
be corporeal " ; and from Prop. V : " Motion implies change
and transition from potentiality to actuality." The reason
why changeability implies divisibility is that the change is not
instantaneous over the entire object. There must be a
moment when part is changed and part unchanged ; therefore
the object is capable of division. Motion is a form of change.

9 Prop. XVI states : " Incorporeal bodies can only be
numbered when they are forces situated in a body ; the several
forces must then be counted together with substances or
objects in which they exist. Hence purely spiritual beings,
which are neither corporeal nor forces situated in corporeal
objects, cannot be counted, except when considered as causes
and effects." If, then, there be two gods, i.e., two incorporeal
and infinite beings, only one of them can be regarded as the
First Cause, because one can only be distinguished from the
other by the relationship of cause and effect. One must, in
fact, have brought the other into existence.

10 This is a deduction from Prop. XV : " Time is an
accident that is related and joined to motion in such a manner
that the one is never found without the other. Motion is only
possible in time, and the idea of time cannot be conceived
otherwise than in connection with motion ; things which
do not move have no relation to time ".

11 Prop. VIII states : "A thing that moves accidentally
must come to rest, because it does not move of its own accord ;
hence accidental motion cannot continue for ever ". A
material body can only have accidental motion, because it

315

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

does not move unless something or somebody sets it in motion.
Since its motion is accidental, it cannot be perpetual. Simi-
larly a force within a body can only cause accidental motion,
since it can only move with the motion of the body, which
consequently cannot be perpetual. Therefore if the heavenly
Spheres have perpetual motion, the cause cannot be a body
or a force within a body. The cause must be incorporeal.

12 By an " absolute " Being is meant a Being independent
of all cause and accident.

*3 By the agens is meant what the philosophers called
causa efficiens, the " efficient ", or producing, cause. Aristotle
(Physics II, 7) describes the four causes as matter, form,
that which moves, and that for the sake of which a thing
subsists.

T * For the meaning of " form ", see the Introduction,
p. 2 1 . The sense in which God is spoken of as the form of the
Universe is explained in the next .

J 3 It is essential to regard God as both " cause " and
Creator. If He were only the Creator, it would be possible
to believe that the Universe could exist without Him, in the
same way that a building can continue in existence when the
builder dies. But if God is the " cause " which includes the
" form " of the Universe, His non-existence must also involve
its non-existence.

16 Denned in 5.

J 7 Daniel xii. 7. There the phrase is usually rendered
" He that liveth for ever." Cf. also Prayer Book, ed. Singer,
pp. 17, 36.

18 The root-meaning of Paid in Arabic and Shtfa* in Hebrew
is rather of " abundance ", and when applied to a water-
spring it describes its overflow rather than its flow.

*9 Cf . line 6 of the Prayer Book version of his Principles of
Faith (ed. Singer, p. 3) : " The Shtfa' of His Prophecy He gave
unto the men of His choice ".

20 Several sayings to this effect are, e.g., found in Gabirol's
Choice of Pearls. Cf. Nos. 510, 536!, 556. Plato likewise
declares : " We acknowledge the world to be full of many
goods and also of evils, and of more evils than goods " ;
Laws X, Jowett, V, p. 293.

21 See Chap. II.

22 See Chap. XI, 5.

2 3 He means that they are not evil in themselves, but only
in respect to the absence of good.

2 4 See Introduction, p. 21.

2 5 See below 10.

26 See Midrash ad he.

*? And yet we believe in the incorporeality of God, because
it is possible to interpret these expressions in such a manner
that they do not conflict with that doctrine.

28 By the words " such as they are ", he means in their
present state as consisting of form and matter. God not only
created the form but also the basic substance.

316

NOTES

*9 Plato also taught that time was created. He wrote
in the Tim&us : " There were no days and nights and months
and years before the heaven was created, but when he con-
structed the heaven he created them also . . . Time,
then, and the heaven came into being at the same instant
in order that, having been created together, if ever there
was to be a dissolution of them, they might be dissolved
together ". Jowett III, pp. 456!

3 The philosophical term " accident " is denned by
Maimonides as follows : "A peculiarity which is found in
many of a species or a few of it, and does not constitute it
as a species, is called an accident. . . . Accidents are of
two kinds : (i.) inseparable from the object, as, e.g., the
blackness of pitch, the whiteness of snow, the heat of fire ;
(ii.) separable, as, e.g., standing or sitting in the case of a
person, the heat of iron and stone " (Millot, Chap. X). With
this may be compared Aristotle's definition. He also dis-
tinguishes two kinds : (i.) " that which attaches to some-
thing and can be truly asserted, but neither of necessity nor
usually " ; (ii.) " what attaches to each thing in virtue of
itself but is not in its essence " (Metaphysics V, 30).

3 1 Just as whiteness cannot exist as an abstraction apart
from matter, so time could not exist as an abstraction.
Consequently if there were time before the Creation, there
must also have been matter and motion.

3 2 The Hebrew word 'olam means " Universe " and also
" eternity ". Maimonides gives it the latter signification in
this verse.

33 The meaning seems to be that by creating the materia
prima which is the basic substance of the entire Universe,
the Creation of the beings above and the things below became
possible.

34 This refers to the apparent daily motion of the heavenly
bodies from east to west, ascribed to the motion of the outer-
most Sphere in this direction (Friedlander).

35 The Sphere of Mercury, according to the opinion of the
ancient astronomers, was above that of the Sun, and yet the
Sun moves with greater velocity than Mercury. Maimonides 1
own opinion was that the Sphere of the Sun is above that of
Mercury (see p. 71) (Friedlander).

3 6 Maimonides refers here to the Sphere of the Sun and that
of Venus which complete their course in the circle of the Zodiac
in about the same time (Friedlander). According to Plato :
" Three planets (Sun, Mercury and Venus) he made to move
with equal swiftness, and the remaining four (Moon, Saturn,
Mars and Jupiter) to move with unequal swiftness to the
three and to one another, but in due proportion " (Tim&us,
trans. Jowett III, p. 455).

37 i.e., the theory of the Creation and that of the eternity
of the Universe.

3 8 Those who assume the eternity of the Universe recognise
only changes in the individual members of each species, and

317

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

can consistently only inquire into the object of these changes.
They rest content when these are satisfactorily explained by
the perpetuation of the species and the production of the most
perfect form in each species. It would be inconsistent with
their theory of the eternity and stability of the species and the
whole Universe to ask for the purpose of these permanent
beings (Fried lander).

39 This passage occurs in the concluding service of the Day
of Atonement. See Prayer Book, p. 267. There are variants
in the readings.

4 i.e., are descriptive of His deeds, e.g., King, Judge,
Merciful, etc. They are not used exclusively of God.

4* This phrase means " the name which is set apart ", i.e.,
reserved for God and applied to none but Him.

4* Sotah VII, 6, Tamid VII, 2.

43 Yoma VI, 2.

44 i.e., a point in the letter to double its sound. Gutturals
and an initial could not have the dagesh, so the only letter
possible of reduplication would be the third, and the word
pronounced Yehavveh.

45 Kiddushin 71 a. The translation of shabua* by " seven
years " is more correct than " week " given in the Jewish
Encyc. XI, p. 263. It is so rendered in Vol. IX, p. 162.

4 6 The name consisting of twelve letters is not specified
in the Talmud (Kiddushin 71 a). Maimonides therefore
conjectures that it did not consist of a single word but of an
entire phrase. Narboni in his commentary on the Guide
is surprised that Maimonides ignored the form of the name
which is mentioned in the SSfer ha-Bahir (a mystical work)
in the name of R. Nehunyah ben Hakanah, and consisted
of the Tetragrammaton pronounced in three different ways,
viz., YiHVoH, YaHVeH, YaHaVaH (Friedlander).

47 The priests discontinued the use of the Tetragrammaton
forty years before the destruction of the Second Temple
(Yoma 39b).

4 8 Kiddushin 71 a. What these letters were is not known
with certainty. For the Kabbalistic form of the name of
forty-two letters, see Jewish Encyc. IX, p. 164.

CHAPTER II
A similar idea is found in Plato. See Timaus, Jowett,

I, pp.
* The

he Cherubim, Exod. xxv. i8ff.

3 These, the Ophannim and Cherubim occur in Ezekiel's
visions (Chap, i, and x.). The ffayyot ha-kodesh and Ophannim
are mentioned together in an old liturgical poem ; see Prayer
Book, p. 129 bot.

4 Derived from the Hebrew word occurring in Isa. xxxiii. 7.
Its use to designate Angels must have been fairly early, because
when Rabbi Judah the Prince died, about 200 C.E., the dirge
was uttered over him, " The Erelim and mortals struggled

318

NOTES

for the divine ark (i.e., the Rabbi), but the former were the
victors " ; Ketubot i04a.

3 The word denotes a glittering substance and occurs in
Ezek. i. 4, 27. On the basis fo the word Hashmal, these
Angels have been defined in the Talmud (Hagigah i3a) as
IfAyyot eSH meMALlelot, i.e., " creatures of fire which speak ",
or 'ittim IfASHot 'ittim meMALlelot, i.e., " sometimes they
are silent and sometimes speak ".

* Cf. Isa. vi. 2, 6.

7 The Common Biblical word for Angel.

8 The word is so interpreted in Ps. xcvii. 7. But
Maimonides probably has in mind the phrase elohi elohim
" God of gods " in Deut. x. 17, which some commentators
explained as " God of the angelic host " (see Ibn Ezra on
Gen. i. i).

9 Cf. Job i. 6, ii. i, xxxviii. 7.

10 This definition of the word is given in the Talmud,
IJagigah i3b.

11 This term for Angels is not found in Biblical and Rabbinic
literature. Maimonides is possibly thinking of Biblical
passages where the Angel is called 7s h "man"; e.g., Gen.
xviii. 2, xxxii. 25 ; Josh. v. 13 ; Ezek. ix. 3, x. 2 ; Dan. x. 5.

" See Chap. I, 5.

X 3 Through the Intelligences the human being derives his
intellect in potentia, but through the influence of the Active
Intellect that potentiality is converted into actuality.

x * The reference is to the Ithim, the lowest of the ten
degrees of Angels.

x * It is not certain what Maimonides means. He is
perhaps thinking of the narratives (e.g., Gen. xviii.
Judg. xiii.) where an Angel announces the birth of a son to
a barren woman.

16 Sanhedrin 38b ; cf. Genesis Rabba VIII, 8. In both
passages the word used is " consulting " not " contemplating ".
Maimonides often quotes loosely (probably from memory)
from Talmud and Midrash.

V It is doubtful whether Maimonides is actually quoting
Plato. It has been plausibly suggested that Arab writers
often confused Plato with Plotinus, and attributed ideas to
the former which belong to the Neo-platonists. The idea
Maimonides expounds here is found in Philo : " God having
determined to found a mighty state, first of all conceived its
form in His mind, according to which form He made a world
perceptible only by the intellect, and then completed one
visible to the external senses, using the first one as a model "
(On the Creation of the World, IV).

18 Sanhedrin 38b.

X 9 Koh&et Rabba ad he., Genesis Rabba XII, i. The
word " king " in the verse is applied to God.

20 LI, 2.

* x Cf. Yebamot i6b, ijullin 6oa.

319

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

22 Actually the moon is about one-fiftieth the size of the
earth ; but Maimonides underestimates the immensity of the
sun as compared with the earth.

2 3 This is a thought borrowed from the Greek philosophers.
Plato described the planets as " living creatures having
bodies fastened by vital chains " (Timaus, Jowett, III, p. 457).
Aristotle speaks of the heaven as being " animated " (On the
Heavens, II 2). He adds that we must " consider (the Spheres)
as participating in action and life " (ibid. II, 12), and "it is
necessary to think that the action of the stars is similar to that
of animals and plants " (loc. cit).

2 * Two kinds of intellect were assumed in the explanation
of the perpetual motion of the Spheres ; the intellect which
the Spheres possess, i.e., the faculty of forming ideas, and the
Intellect or Intelligence which is purely spiritual, separate
from the Spheres. The former alone could not produce
perpetual motion, according to Prop. VIII (quoted on p. 315,
note n), because it participates accidentally in the motion of
the Spheres. The cause of the perpetual motion of the
Sphere must be a purely spiritual being that does not parti-
cipate in the motion of the Sphere (Friedlander).

2 5 The reference is to Metaphysics XII, 6 : "If there is
something which is capable of moving things or acting on them,
but is not actually doing so, there will not necessarily be
movement ; for that which has a potency need not exercise
it " (trans. Ross).

26 The ancient physicians thought that there were in the
human being four humours, coloured respectively red, white,
green, black ; and his disposition varied according to the
colour which predominated.

2 ? In one of his medical treatises Maimonides wrote :
" What the medical men call ' spirits ' are vapours which
exist in the bodies of animals. . . The vapours in the blood
of the liver and the veins which issue from it are called the
physical spirit ; in the heart and the arteries they are called
the vital spirit ; in the inner part of the brains and in the
canals of the nerves they are called animal spirit "
(Friedlander).

28 For the proof of the Unity of God based on the oneness
of the Universe, see Chap. Ill, 5.

CHAPTER III

1 Part I, Chap. 46f, 51-60.

2 A Rabbinic aphorism (Berachot 3ib) which Maimonides
is fond of quoting when treating of anthropomorphisms in
the Scriptures.

3 See Chap. V, 3.

* " Soles " are mentioned in Ezek. xliii. 7.

5 A homonym is defined as " a noun used with several
significations " (Millot, chap. XIII). The opening chapters
of the Guide are devoted to the discussion of the homonyms
used in the Bible as applied to God.

320

NOTES

6 See p. 317, note 30.

7 In the Guide I, 52, he argues that definition by means
of affirmative attributes is impossible with God.

If we ascribe to God a positive attribute, it must have
existed eternally together with His essence. But it is the very
basis of the monotheistic creed that nothing existed eternally
apart from God's essence.

9 This is reminiscent of Philo's teaching that we know
that He is, but cannot know what He is. Cf. Drummond,
Philo JudcBus, II, pp. iSff.

10 The expression " receive upon oneself the yoke, etc."
is commonly used to denote the reading of the Shema 1 , the
declaration of faith in the Unity. Cf. Berachot isb.

11 This follows from Prop. XIX : "A thing which owes
its existence to certain causes has in itself merely the possi-
bility of existence ; for only if these causes exist, the thing
likewise exists. It does not exist if the causes do not exist
at all, or if they have ceased to exist, or if there has been
a change in the relation which implies the existence of that
thing as a necessary consequence of those causes."

See Chap. II, 5.

*3 It would then follow that time preceded the existence of
the deities or co-existed with them eternally. But philosophers
agree that time was created. See Chap. I, 8.

x * Consequently their existence would not be absolute ;
but if God exists at all His existence must be absolute. Cf.
Chap. I, 2.

*5 Based on Prop. XX : "A thing which has in itself
the necessity of existence cannot have for its existence any
cause whatever ".

16 A mantle of wool with " fringes " at the four corners,
worn at the time of prayer. God is depicted as wrapped in
the Tallit in Rosh Hashanah lyb.

17 Prop. XXII states : " Material objects are always
composed of two elements, and are without exception subject
to accidents. The two component elements of all bodies
are substance and form. The accidents attributed to material
objects are quantity, geometrical form and position ".

18 The idea of expressing motion by number is illustrated
by a cinematograph film. The moving object in passing from
point to point is represented in a series of pictures which can
be numbered. Time is called an accident of motion because
it is inseparable from it although not forming part of its
essence.

*9 Space is an accident of a physical body. If God is
incorporeal, the idea of space is inapplicable to Him.
ao Cf. Genesis Rabba V, 5.

21 Because each of these qualities would have had to be
co-existent with God and therefore eternal.

22 i.e., the intellect, the being exercising intelligence and
the idea formed by the intellect.

321

21

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

2 3 Since the ideas formed by the intellect are identical with
the intellect, and since the action by which the idea is formed
is also identical with the intellect, it follows that the intellect
is identical with its action.

*4 If the essence of intellect is comprehension and God
comprehends constantly and He and the things comprehended
are one and the same, the conclusion is that He is intellect,
the Being exercising intellect and the idea formed by the
intellect.

*5 What is true of God is true also of the human being
when his intellect is functioning. With man, however, the
intellect is not always in action, as, e.g., during times of
unconsciousness.

26 Maimonides confesses, " How God rules the Universe
and provides for it is a complete mystery ; man is unable to
solve it " (Guide I, 72).

CHAPTER IV

1 He contraverts this view in Chap. VII, 4.

2 An attitude based on the action of Hezekiah (Isa.
xxxviii. 2 ; 2 Kings xx. 2). The Talmud accordingly
teaches that nothing should intervene between one who
prays and the wall (Berachot 5b).

3 The Shema' is the daily affirmation of belief in God's
Unity. See Prayer Book, pp. 42ff. The Tefillah, or " prayer ",
is a collection of benedictions which forms the central part of
the daily devotions (Prayer Book, pp. 44-54).

* According to the Rabbinic decision, the law is fulfilled
if only the first verse of the Shema' is uttered with Kawwanah,
i.e., with the deliberate intention of performing the religious
duty of recital, and with concentration of mind (Berachot I3b).
Maimonides declares that the requirement of the law must
be exceeded in this matter.

5 When it is read in the Synagogue in the course of the
Service on Sabbaths, Festivals, Mondays and Thursdays.

6 The Maimonidean authorship of this small treatise has
been questioned by the historian Graetz ; but see Bacher's
defence in the Jewish Quarterly Review (old series), vol. IX.

7 i.e., he loses consciousness of his body and its physical
senses which pull the soul away from the purely spiritual
beings, the Intelligences, with which it is akin, so that it is
enabled to merge itself in them.

8 Cf. Sifr to Deut. vi. 5 : " Make Him loved by all His
creatures, as did the Patriarch Abraham ".

9 He alludes to them again in Guide III, 25 as being among
the " ignoble remnants of the nations left in the remote
corners of the earth ". FriedlSnder suggests that he has in
mind Ezek. xxxviii. 6, " the house of Togarmah in the
uttermost parts of the north ".

10 The Ethiopians.

11 Ahad Ha'am comments on this passage : " We of the
present day feel our moral sense particularly outraged by

322

NOTES

his cruel treatment of the second class ' those who happen to
hold false doctrines ' though we can understand that a
logical thinker like Maimonides, who always went the whole
length of his convictions, was bound to draw this conclusion
from his philosophical system. For that system regards
' true opinions * as something much more than ' opinions ' :
it attributes to them the wonderful power of turning the reason-
ing faculty into a separate and eternal being, and sees therefore
in the opposite opinions a danger to life in the most real sense.
But in Maimonides' day the persecution of men for holding
false opinions was a common thing (though it was done in the
name of religion, not of philosophy) ; and even this piece of
philosophic ruthlessness created "no stir and aroused no
contemporary protest " . Essays on Zionism and Judaism,

P. 193-

12 Abot II, 6 (Singer's Prayer Book, p. 187).

*3 They were the medieval successors of the Sadducees and
denied the authority of the Rabbinic code of law.

x * The passage is quoted in full in Chap. IX, 2.

X 5 The reference is to the Kaabeh or " black stone " at
Mecca, around which the Moslem pilgrims walk seven times
and kiss the stone in each round.

x6 The point of the words " even on the Sabbath " is that
the law only permits this in the case of an Israelite. Maimon-
ides is therefore willing to recognise the Karaite who does
not openly deride Rabbinism as a brother- Jew.

x ? The ancestors of the proselyte having been, of course,
heathens.

18 Maimonides explains that the command to love the
GY (proselyte) is specifically mentioned in the Torah
although he is included in the general precept " love thy
neighbour as thyself ", because additional love must be shown
to him (Mitswot, Command. CCVII).

X 9 Sanhedrin io6b.

20 Tosifta Sanhedrin XIII, 2.

21 Sifra, Ahan? Mot, 143. Our texts read " who performs "
not " who occupies himself with ".

22 The son of Seth (Gen. v. 6).

* 2a Lecky, Rationalism in Europe (1910 ed. II, p. 282,
note) remarks, " Maimonides wrote a letter on the vanity of
astrology which two popes applauded ". It is quoted below:

2 3 In the passage preceding this quotation he describes
certain practices connected with witchcraft.

2 * In Maimonides' psychology, one of the intellectual
virtues is " sagacity and intellectual cleverness " (see p. 246),
and Aristotle regarded sagacity as " a species of happy con-
jecture" (Eth. Nic. VI, 10). This faculty, if strongly developed,
" enables some persons to foretell important coming events "
(Guide II, 38).

a * From the description that follows one gathers that the
procedure induced auto-hypnosis.

26 A case, containing a piece of parchment on which is
inscribed Deut. vi. 4-9, xi. 13-21, affixed to the door-post.

21a

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

CHAPTER V

1 See Chap. I, 5.

2 Maimonides himself makes a somewhat similar state-
ment in his Ma'amav ha-Yihud, Chap. II. " Know that it
is one of the cardinal principles of this Torah that thou
shouldest be aware that the Creator confers the prophetic
gift on whomsoever He wishes and speaks to whomsoever
He chooses of the children of men, only that Prophecy
alights on one who is worthy of it." He continues to urge
that, according to the Rabbis, it is a condition that the man
should possess mental and moral virtues.

3 viz., the Aristotelians.

4 These philosophers taught that nothing could be
possible with a class without at least one member of that class
achieving it.

3 The idea that study is an essential pre-requisite of Pro-
phecy is also found in Rabbinic teaching. " If there were no
children, there would be no pupils ; without pupils there
would be no Sages ; without Sages there would be no Elders ;
without Elders there would be no Prophets " (Genesis Rabba
XLII, 3).

6 See Chap. X, i.

? Berachot 5yb.

8 Genesis Rabba XVII, 5.

9 This is evidently an allusion to the imperialistic ambitions
of Mohammed.

10 This is an important point. According to Maimonides,
one of the great purposes of the Torah is the improvement
of the social relationship between man and man (see Chap. VI,
2). A true Prophet cannot act contrary to the teachings of
the Torah. Therefore if a man, claiming to be a prophet, by
his doctrines creates dissension between men, he cannot be a
true prophet.

11 But this is something impossible of achievement. Says
Maimonides elsewhere, " How God rules the Universe and
provides for it is a complete mystery ; man is unable to solve
it " (Guide I, 72).

12 This qualifying clause is necessary, because " there
is not a righteous man upon earth that doeth good and sinneth
not " (Eccles. VII. 20).

*3 Pesahim 66b.

T * The Aramaic translation of the Pentateuch which
embodies the Rabbinic exegesis.

*5 Shabbat 3ob, Pesahim nya. The Talmudic text
reads " Shechinah " in place of " spirit of Prophecy ".

16 By " ordinary Prophets " he means all with the excep-
tion of Moses of whom it is recorded, " his eye was not dim, nor
his natural force abated " (Deut. xxxiv, 7).

V These and similar expressions are often found in the Book
of Judges (cf. ii. 18, vi. 34, xiv. 6).

18 Referring to the assistance he gave to Jethro's daughters
against the shepherds (Exod. ii. 17).

324

NOTES

*9 i Sam. xvi. 13.

20 Megillah 7a.

21 Cf. i Kings xi. 296*, xii. 15, xiv. 2ff.

22 In the Greek version, the Septuagint, Daniel is placed
between Ezekiel and Hosea ; but the Talmud (Baba Batra
i4b) inserts it between Lamentations and Esther.

2 3 Genesis Rabba XLIV, 17.

2 * Maimonides depreciates the value of miracles as a sign
of the prophet's claim because such evidence was used both
by Christians and Mohammedans in support of Jesus and
Mohammed respectively. He could not prove that they had
not performed the wonders credited to them, and was there-
fore compelled to deny the validity of this criterion. He was
further influenced by the teaching of the Torah in Deut. xiii. 2.
See Introduction, pp. gi.

2 5 Cf. Deut. xviii. 2if.

26 Maimonides admits this as a possibility. Cf . Chap. IV, 7.
*t i Sam. ix. 6ff.

28 Clearly a hint at the activities of Jesus and Mohammed.

2 9 A Rabbinic dictum ; Berachot 7a.

30 Sifra ad loc.

3* Yebamot 49b.

3 2 Maimonides explains that see " refers to perception by
the intellect, and by no means to perception with the eye as
in its literal meaning " (Guide I, 4).

33 Cf. Guide III, 9, "The corporeal element in man is a
large screen and partition that prevents him from perfectly
perceiving abstract ideals ".

CHAPTER VI

1 See Nicholson, Literary History of the Arabs, pp. 163, 368.
Ia Deut. xxxiii. 21. The Targum renders by " Moses

the great scribe of Israel ".

2 Ps. xix. 8, 10.

3 Sanhedrin ggb.

4 Mishnah Sanhedrin X, i ; Sanhedrin gga.

5 The Biblical passages where these are ordained (Lev.
xxiii. 42 ; ibid., v. 40 ; ibid., v. 24 ; Num. xv. 38 ; Deut.
vi. 8) give no detailed account how these commandments are
to be carried out. The manner of their observance is tradi-
tional and, according to the Rabbis, was explained to Moses
on Mt. Sinai.

6 " Assyrian script ", viz., the form of the alphabet in
which the Scroll of the Law is written. It is also known
as ketab merubba' " square script ".

7 " Hebrew script ", i.e., the old Hebrew form of the char-
acters which was preserved by the Samaritans. There is a
statement in the Talmud (Sanhedrin 2ib) to the effect :
" Originally the Torah was given to Israel in the ketab ( ibri
and Hebrew language ; it was retransmitted to them in the
days of Ezra in the ketab ashuri and Aramaic language ".

325

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

8 The Jews who traced their descent from the community
in Spain. Other Jews also have adopted a different script for
secular use.

9 See Chap. XI. 7.

10 viz., his spiritual and intellectual perfection.

11 viz., the physical, since excess is harmful.
w See Chap. V, 6.

X 3 Sanhedrin goa.
X 4 Sanhedrin, loc. cit.

Abot I, i (Singer's Prayer Book, p. 184).
16 Sanhedrin XI, 2.

x ? There are thirteen such rules, and they will be found in
the Prayer Book, pp. i3f.

18 Peah I, i (Prayer Book, p. 5).
X 9 To I, i, 8.

20 See p. 188.

21 Exod. xxii. 6-14.

22 A silver coin worth 96 issar, the Roman as. In the
Midrash (Shir, loc. cit.) the text reads " gold coin ".

2 3 The doctrine associated with ma'aseh berfchit " the work
of creation " formed a branch of the occult lore.

2 4 Prov. ii. i6ff. Maimonides' interpretation is doubtless
suggested by the Platonic comparison of matter to woman
and form to man. See Introduction p. 22.

2 5 Prov. xxxi. 10.

26 The offence of using for a private purpose what had been
donated to the Sanctuary. See Lev. v. i5ff.

2 ? This was the opinion of the orthodox school of Moham-
medan theologians, the Ash'ariyah. Cf. Chapter VII, 3,
Third Theory. A similar conception is sometimes found in
Rabbinic literature. E.g., "Why do we silence a man who
says in his prayer ' To a bird's nest do Thy mercies extend ' ?
Because he makes the ordinances of the Holy One, blessed
be He, to be simply acts of mercy, whereas they are injunc-
tions " (not necessarily with a purpose) ; Berachot 330.

28 Maimonides offers explanations for all of these.

2 9 Yoma 6yb, Numbers Rabba XIX, 5.

3 He however suggests a reason for this below.

3 X Such an opinion is held by Saadya, Emunot III, 10.

3 2 If Maimonides is thinking only of the physical sign, his
argument loses force owing to the fact that other peoples,
e.g., the Mohammedans, also practise circumcision.

33 But it is known that among the Mohammedans cir-
cumcision is usually performed when the boy is five or six
years old, and among the peasants not infrequently at the
age of twelve or even fourteen. See Lane, Modern Egyptians,
Chap. II. The real reason why the Bible ordains that it should
be done on the eighth day is that for the first seven days the
child, or young of an animal, was not regarded as having an
independent existence. Cf. Exod. xxii. 30 (Heb. 29),
Lev. xxii. 27.

34 Kiddushin 2ga.

326

NOTES

33 This was a work on magic translated into Arabic from
an Indian original. Maimonides refers to it three times in
the Guide.

36 The people of Saba or Sheba in S. W. Arabia. He intends
the heathen Arabs of pre-Mohammedan times.

37 The same idea is found among the ancient Greeks.
Cf. Odyssey XI where the blood of a slain sheep is poured into
a trench to attract the spirits of the dead.

3 8 Cf. Frazer, Folklore in Old Testament, III, pp. 2998.

39 See Deut. xxiii. i3f.

4 al-Ifrang, orginally the French, but generally applied
to all Europeans who do not belong to the Turkish Empire.
The Mohammedans do not eat swine's flesh.

4 1 Berachot 25a.

4* This is not explicitly commanded in the Torah, but the
Rabbis derived it from Deut. xji. 23 (Hullin loib). The
prohibition is one of the " seven commandments of the sons
of Noah " (Sanhedrin 56a).

43 See Robertson Smith, Religion of the Semites, p. 343.

44 Exod. xxiii. 19, xxxiv. 26 ; Deut. xiv. 21. Radin in
American Journal of Semitic Languages, XL, pp. 209-218,
associates the practice with the Orphic-Dionysiac mysteries.

45 No description of the method of slaughter is given in the
Pentateuch, but the Rabbis inferred that instructions had been
given orally to Moses on Mt. Sinai from the statement, " thou
shalt kill of thy herd and of thy flock ... as I have
commanded thee " (Deut. xii. 21), the last words being under-
stood in the sense, " according to the method I commanded "
(Hullin 28a).

4 6 Lev. xix. 27.

47 He repeats that explanation in Yad, Akum XII, 7.
Herodotus (III, 8) reports of certain Arab tribes that they
"cut their hair in a ring away from the temples" in honour
of their god. Numerous superstitions are associated with
cutting the hair ; cf. Frazer, Folklore in Old Testament, III,
Part IV, Chap. IV, and Smith, Religion of the Semites, pp. 3236".

4 8 Lev. xix. 19 ; Deut. xxii. u.

49 Elsewhere he declared, " This is a well known practice
tfi-day among the Coptic monks in Egypt " (Mitswot, Prohib.
XLII).

5 The traditional Jewish interpretation of " that which
pertaineth unto a man " is armour. See the Targum and
Nazir 59a where it is explained that women may not fight in
the ranks of an army. In the Talmudic passage it is also
suggested that the purpose of the enactment is to check lust.

5 1 Kiddushin 31 a.

5* The theory that the purpose of the sacrificial system
was to divert the Israelites from the worship of idols is found in
Leviticus Rabba XXII, 5.

53 Hagigah iga.

34 The changes of the moon are marked by periods of seven
days. A leper was examined each seventh day (Lev. xiii.)
as a turning-point in the progress of the disease.

327

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

53 E.g., the Sabbath, Passover and Tabernacles. Cf.
also Lev. xii. 2.
& Lev. xxiii. 15.

57 The ram's horn.

5 8 This is according to Rabbinic tradition. The Revelation
occurred on Sivan 6th ; Moses stayed on the Mount forty
days and descended on Tammuz fyth when he broke the
tables. He then spent forty days in prayer on behalf of
Israel, ascending the Mount for the second tables on Ellul ist
and descending on Tishri loth.

so These were the words used by the High Priest in the
confession he made on that day (Yoma III, 8).

60 The passage Maimonides cites occurs at the end of the
eighth Book of the Ethics and reads : " For the ancient festivals
and assemblies seem to take place after the gathering in of the
harvest, being of the nature of a dedication of the first fruits,
as it was at these seasons that people had most leisure ".

61 Used in the lulab, Lev. xxiii. 40.

CHAPTER VII

1 Cf. Chap. I. 6.

2 He expounds this view as held by Mohammedan thinkers
in the Guide I, 73, First Proposition.

3 Physics II, 5f., Metaphysics XI, 8. Aristotle contends
that there cannot be a science of the accidental, i.e., of what
exists by chance.

4 The term Providence in the philosophical system of
Aristotle has not the same meaning as it has in theology.
Whilst in the latter it is chiefly to the changes and vicissitudes
in human life that the term is applied, in the system of Aris-
totle Providence is the cause of the continual existence of
everything that is either permanent or changes in accordance
with certain constant laws (Friedlander).

5 i Kings xiii. 24. Note especially v. 26, " the Lord
hath delivered him unto the lion ".

6 Aristotle admits that Providence watches over men who
are worthy, because he declares, " The wise man is the most
beloved of heaven and therefore the happiest " (Eth. Nic. X, 8).

? A sect of theologians founded by al-Ash'ari. They
held the doctrine of Predestination and denied the reality of
free will. " They believe that when a man has the will to do
a thing and, as he believes, does it, the will has been created
for him, then the power to conform to the will, and lastly
the act itself. The act is not accomplished by the power
created in man ; for, in reality, no act can be ascribed to that
power " (Guide I, 73, Sixth Proposition). Cf. Macdonald,
Muslim Theology, p. 192.

8 Literally " secessionists ". They were the opponents
of the Ash'ariyah and denied Predestination.

9 They " contend that man acts by virtue of the power
which has been created in him " (Guide, loc. cit.). God, as

328

NOTES

it were, created the free will for each act which man per-
formed voluntarily.

10 i.e., the Jewish theory generally held. He advances
views of his own which differ from those held by Jewish
teachers.

11 This is in contrast to the Mu'tazilite theory.

12 The points on which Maimonides diverges from his
Jewish predecessors are : (i.) Providence is restricted to human
beings ; (ii.) it varies with human beings according to their
state of perfection.

*3 He goes on to point out that the Biblical passages
which speak of God's mercy to animals (e.g., Ps. civ. 21,
cxlv. 1 6, cxlvii. Q) do not contradict his theory, because
they refer to species and not to individual animals.

** This is precisely Aristotle's view. See p. 328, note 6.

CHAPTER VIII

1 Tanhuma, Kedoshim, 15 ; Ta'anit 25b; Sanhedrin Q6a.

2 This does not agree with the passage cited from C.M.,
Abot.

3 See Chap. IV, 3.

4 Bachya uses a similar illustration in his Duties of the
Heart, Section IV, Chap. IV.

5 The Roman denarius, which was both a silver and gold
coin. The silver denarius was about the size of a sixpence.

6 Abot IV, 7 (Singer's Prayer Book, p. 196).

7 Maimonides held strongly that one should not take pay
for teaching the Torah (C.M., Abot IV, 7).

8 Abot I, 3 (Prayer Book, p. 184).

9 He is held up by the Rabbis as the pattern of one who
served God purely from love (Sotah 31 a).

10 Pesahim 5ob. In the Talmudic text it is " Torah and
the commandments ", i.e., both study and practice.

" Abot IV, 2 (Prayer Book, p. 195).

ia Sanhedrin 64b, 9ob. According to the exegesis of the
Rabbis there is not a superfluous word in the Torah. Therefore
the addition of " surely " to " cut off " must have signifi-
cance. The Hebrew is'literally " cutting shall be cut off ",
the word " cut " occuring twice. Hence there must be two
excisions, viz., one in this world and the second in the world
to come.

X 3 Abodah Zarah 3b, Nedarim 8b. The verse in Malachi
concludes : "It shall leave them neither root nor branch ",
on which the Talmud comments : "no root " in this world,
" no branch " in the world to come.

* Ta'anit i6a.

Berachpt 56a.

X 3* That is how Maimonides explains the hardening of
Pharaoh's heart by God. " Pharaoh and his followers,

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

already of their own free will, without any constraint what-
ever, had rebelled by oppressing the strangers who were in
their midst. . . The punishment which God then inflicted
upon them was that He withheld from them the power of
repentance, so that there should fall upon them that punish-
ment which justice declared should be meted out to them "
(C.M., Eight Chapters VIII).

16 The R.V. rendering is : " Out of the mouth of the Most
High cometh there not evil and good ? " and " evil " means
calamity.

# Abodah Zarah 54b.

*8 See Chap. VII, 3.

X 9 Mo'ed Katon i8b ; see Abrahams, Book of Delight,
pp. xyaff.

20 See Chap. Ill, 2, 9.

21 That analogy was used by R. Joshua ben Hanayah in
an argument with a Roman Emperor (Hullin 5Qb).

CHAPTER IX

1 See below, 4.

2 Sanhedrin 97b.

3 In Yad, Melachim XI, i, he writes : " The doctrine of
the coming of the Messiah is also mentioned in the Chapter
of Balaam, and there he prophesies concerning the two
Messiahs the first being David who saved Israel from the
hand of his enemies, and the second being one who will arise
from among his descendants and save Israel. He declared,
'I see him, but not now* (Num. xxiv. 17), i.e., David;
' I behold him, but not nigh ' i.e., king Messiah. ' There
shall step forth a star out of Jacob ' i.e., David ; ' and a
sceptre shall rise out of Israel ' i.e., king Messiah."

4 i.e., the section comprising Deut. xxix. g-xxx. 20.
The verse he is referring to in particular is xxx. 3, " the
Lord thy God will turn thy captivity " etc., to which he
attaches a Messianic significance (Yad, loc. cit.).

5 See Chap. V, 4.

6 He is evidently thinking of Jesus ; see Luke xviii. 22.

7 See Chap. XI, 4.

8 These signs and marvels will not consist of miracles in
the ordinary sense of the term, since these are no valid proof
of a prophet's claim (see Chap. V, 6). The conclusive proof
of the truth of the Messiah will be seen in the effect of his
advent.

9 " Armour-bearer " means supporter. Akiba hailed Bar
Koziba, or Bar Kochba, as the expected Messiah, and applied
to him the phrase, " There shall step forth a star out of Jacob "
(see above, note 3); j. Ta'anit IV, 68d.

10 This is not quite accurate. The Talmud (loc. cit.)
records that when Akiba acclaimed Bar Kochba as the
Messiah, Rabbi Johanan ben Torta retorted, " Akiba, grass
will grow in thy cheeks and still the son of David will not
come ".

330

NOTES

i.e., Jesus.

12 i.e., Mohammed.

X 3 The allusion here is to the Christian and Mohammedan
attitude towards the legislation of the Pentateuch.

*4 Berachot 340, Shabbat 6$&.

*5 Shabbat sob.

16 See Lev. xxv.

l6d Maimonides defends this metaphorical interpretation
against critics in his Maamar Tehiyyat ha-Mdtim (Responsa
II, gd, loa), and repeats it in the Guide III, n.

J 7 See 9 below.

18 Sanhedrin gyb.

X 9 Introduction to his translation, p. XXI. Kaufmann
also pronounces the passage to be an interpolation (Revue
destudes Juives XXIV, pp. H2ff).

20 Tosifta Sanhedrin XIII, 2.

21 Pesahim 5oa.

22 Maimonides adopts Aristotle's view that the human
soul at birth is a tabula rasa. It is consequently only a
potentiality. The knowledge acquired during life converts
it into reality, and that reality survives death. See Intro-
duction, pp. 24!

2 3 The nephe^h and ruah, the former being the vitality
which ends with death and the latter the immortal element.

2 * viz. : the niah. In Guide I, 40, one of the meanings he
gives to this term is " that which remains of man after his
death and is not subject to destruction ". Cf. Ecclcs. xii. 7.

2 5 See Introduction, pp. 2 if.

26 Explaining the word " image ", Maimonides remarks :
" the term signifies ' the specific form ' of man, viz. his
intellectual perception " (Guide I, i).

2 ? See Chap. X, i.

28 Since knowledge is the essential quality which con-
stitutes the soul as a reality, it bears to it the same relationship
tl'at form does to matter.

2( > The source of the quotation is Ta'anit ya.

3" Berachot i8a.

3 1 Berachot iya ; cf. Matthew xxii. 30.
3i* See Chap. I, 10.

3 2 Berachot iya.

33 Kiddushin 39b, Hullin I42a.

34 Compare the description of Paradise in the Koran
(Sura LV), " They shall repose on couches, the linings of
which shall be of thick silk interwoven with gold . . .
Therein shall receive them beauteous damsels, refraining their
e,\res from beholding any besides their spouses . . . having
Complexions like rubies and pearls ".

CHAPTER X

1 i.e., Hippocrates.

2 This was Aristotle's view. He maintained " numerically
( ey (viz., the vital principles) are one and the same part,

331

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

although in their mode of expression they are manifold and
different " (de Juventute I).

3 In Aristotle's analysis he includes motion and omits
imagination (de Anima II, 3). But Maimonides regarded
motion as not a soul-faculty but " an accident pertaining to
living things actuated by physical needs or the desire to escape
what is injurious " (Guide I, 26).

4 See p. 320, note 5.

5 Literally " they who dispute ". They were scholastic
theologians concerned with the philosophy of Mohammedanism.

6 See Chap. V, 3.

7 But there were men who denied free will (see pp. 1942)
and there were philosophers, e.g., Zeno, who denied the
reality of motion (Aristotle, Physics VI, 2).

7a From OXi; " matter ", because it is, as it were, the
basic substance which receives the form from the Intelligences
to produce ideas. See Introduction, p. 24.

8 i.e., premisses, conclusions and inferences.

9 i.e., his intellect possesses the capacity of compre-
hension. The possibility of comprehending the thing exists ;
but the act of comprehension turns the possibility into
actuality.

10 Through the activity of the mind, the comprehension
has become identified with the intellect.

" Cf. Chap. Ill, 9.

12 See above p. 247.

X 3 When the intellect performs the action of compre-
hending, it becomes something in reality, not merely in
capacity.

x * Since the mind necessarily resides in a body.

X 3 The Sciences deal with physical objects and their study
falls within the scope of the imaginative faculty which is a
" faculty of the body . . . (and) depends on the con-
dition of the organ by which the faculty acts " (Guide II, 36).

16 The reference is to the passage in the Talmud (I^agigah
i4b) which relates that " four men went up into Paradise ".
See Introduction, p. 4.

V See Chap. V, 3.

18 In a letter to his pupil, Joseph ibn Aknin, prefaced to
the Guide, he wrote : " Observing your great fondness for
Mathematics, I let you study them more deeply . . .
Afterwards I took you through a course of Logic . . . and
I considered you fit to receive from me an exposition of the
esoteric ideas contained in the prophetic books ". Else-
where he declared : " Such subjects as Mathematics, the study
of Conic Sections, Mechanics, the various problems of Geo-
metry, Hydraulics, and many others of a similar nature . . .
should be studied for the purpose of sharpening the mind,
and training the mental faculties by scientific investigations
so that man may acquire intellectual ability to distinguish
demonstrative proofs from others, whereby he will be enabled
to comprehend the essence of God " (C.M., Eight Chapters V).

332

NOTES

Commenting on his parable of the king in his palace whose
audience is sought by his subjects (see pp. 114!), he states :
" When you understand Physics, you have entered the hall ;
and when, after completing the study of Natural Philosophy,
you master Metaphysics, you have entered the innermost
court and are with the king in the same palace " (Guide III, 51).

*9 See Chap. V, 4.

20 Alexander of Aphrodisius (his birthplace) was the lead-
ing exponent of Aristotle's philosophy. He was the head of
the Lyceum at Athens about 200 C.E.

CHAPTER XI

1 It is with perfection as with intellect. See Chap. X, 2f.
3 See Chap. VII, 3.

3 i.e., the intellectual faculty.

4 He is referring to Aristotle's Eth. Nic. VII.

5 Sukkah 52a.

6 Abot V, end (Singer's Prayer Book, p. 204).

I Sifra to Lev. xx. 26. The teacher's name is Eleazar
ben Azariah not Simeon ben Gamaliel.

8 Yoma 67b. The Jewish theologians, following the lead
of Saadya (Emunot III, 2) classify the commandments into
rational and revealed. The latter may or may not have a
rational basis, but they are only incumbent because they are
commanded by God.

9 Cf. Chap. VIII, i.

10 This would be the golden denarius worth twenty-four
times the silver coin, about thirteen shillings.

II Cf. Guide III, 27 : " This second perfection (i.e., of the
Intellect) certainly does not include any action or good
conduct ".

12 i.e., the Greek philosophers, as contrasted with the later
Arab metaphysicians.

*3 The principal passage in the Talmudic literature where
the middle course is advocated is : " This Torah is com-
parable to two paths, one of fire, the other of snow. Should
a man turn aside to the former he will be consumed by the fire,
and if to the latter he will perish from cold. What, then,
should he do ? Walk in the middle way " (j. Hagigah II, i , 770).

x + Aristotle denies the existence of men insensible to
pleasure. He says : " We never find people whose love of
pleasures is deficient, and whose delight in them is less than
it ought to be. Such insensibility to pleasures is not human "
(Eth. Nic. Ill, 14).

*3 Aristotle says of the man who fears nothing that he is
either a madman or insensible to pain (ibid., Ill, 10), and in
the subsequent chapter he distinguishes five spurious forms of
courage.

16 Sifrfe ad loc. ; ed. Friedmann, p. 85a.

** The text of the Talmud (Ketubot nib) reads " who-
ever gives his daughter in marriage to ".

333

TEACHINGS OF MAIMONIDES

18 Aristotle held that avarice was incurable (Eth. NIC IV, 3).
*9 Abot IV, 4 (Singer's Prayer Book, p. 195).
20 Sotah 4b.
2 * Ibid., 5a.

22 Nedarim 22a.

2 3 Pesahim 66b.
2 * Ibid., U3b.

2 5 The mention of " wool " is probably meant as a refer-
ence to the Suns, the Mohammedan ascetics.

26 Usually worn by Christian ascetics.

2 7 Sifra dd he.

28 Sotah III, 4.

2 9 See, e.g., Lev. v. 7, u.

3 Shabbat 25b. It is also said, " Three things make
the mind cheerful ; a beautiful home, a beautiful woman,
beautiful utensils " (Berachot 5yb).

3 1 It causes dropsy and jaundice (Berachot 25a).

3 2 This is at variance with Talmudic teaching, viz., " He
who makes his food float in water will not suffer with indiges-
tion " (ibid., 4oa).

33 Ibid., 23b.

34 Lying on the back is actually denounced (ibid. I3b).

35 The Talmud declares, " He who makes it a habit to
eat lentils once in thirty days keeps croup away from his
house ; but not every day. . . It is bad for the breath
of the mouth " (ibid. 4oa). Mustard should also be used
sparingly because it is bad for a weak heart (ibid.). Cabbage
is nourishing, but " woe to the body through which vege-
tables keep constantly passing " (ibid 44b).

3 6 Dates are one of the things which " enter the body
without its deriving any benefit therefrom " (ibid. 57b).

37 As that term is defined in Abot IV, i, (Prayer Book,
p. 195) : " Who is mighty ? He who curbs his desire ".

3 8 He refers to a vapour-bath.

39 i.e., Spring and Autumn.

4 In all these passages Maimonides gives the word tsedakah
its later signification. ,

4 1 Tosifta Shekalim II, 16. This system of charity was
adopted outside the Temple in several Palestinian and
Babylonian cities.

4 2 Ketubot 6;b.

43 loc. tit.

44 Cf. Abot II, 2 (Prayer Book, p. 187).

45 Abot III, 17 (Prayer Book, p. 193).

4 6 It is recorded of Rabban Johaiian ben Zakkai that he
never allowed anybody to greet him first, not even the
heathen in the street (Berachot I7a).

47 Abot I. 6 (Prayer Book, p. 185).

48 Ibid., I, 12 (Prayer Book, p. 185).

49 lbid. t IV, 23 (Prayer Book, pp. I97f).

50 Yebamot 65b.

5* Abot I, 5 (Prayer Book, p. 185), Berachot 43b.

334

NOTES

5* Cf . Berachot 43b.

53 Shabbat 1143..

54 See p. 321, note 16.

55 Berachot 43b.

56 Ibid.

57 Ibid.

5 8 Cf. Baba Metsia' 52a. But in Genesis Rabba XX, 12,
man is advised to spend according to his means on food, less on
clothing, and more on his house.

59 Sotah 44a. In Abot V, 24 (Prayer Book, pp. 2031) there
is a teaching which apparently contradicts this. The passage
is usually translated, " At eighteen for marriage, at twenty
for seeking a livelihood ". But Herford, in his edition, p. 144,
renders, on the authority of Rashi, " at twenty for pursuit of
righteousness."

60 Yoma 86a.

* Cf. Megillah 28a.

62 Cf. Yoma 86a.

6 3 Yebamot xoga.

6 4 Baba Kama 93a, Sanhedrin 49a.

6 5 Shabbat n8a.

66 Pesahim 1133, Baba Batra noa.

6 7 See p. 329, note 7.

68 Maimonides refers to Lev. xix. 18, " Thou shalt love
thy neighbour as thyself ". He evidently understands
" neighbour " to mean brother-Israelite, as many modern
exegetes do. Although Jewish ethics stresses the duties of the
Jew to his coreligionist, it emphatically declares that those
obligations extend to all men (Gittin 6ia).

6 9 Abot II, 17, 15 (Prayer Book, p. 189).
7<> j. Hagigah II, i, 770.

7 1 i.e., proselytes. See Chap. IV, 5.
7a Baba Kama VIII, 7.

73 Arachin i6b.

74 Baba Metsia' 59a.

75 Ibid., 59b.

76 Cf. Arachin i6b.

77 Abot II, 17 (Prayer Book, p. 189).

7 8 Since it is the rational soul that survives. See Chap. IX, 7.

79 For the definition of " wisdom " see Chap. X, 2.

80 The " imitation of God " is the eighth commandment
in his Mitswot.

335

INDEX

Abraham, 52, 119, 122, 141,

207

Abraham ibn Daud, 27, 129
" Accident/' 317
Ahad Ha'am, 8ff., 322
Aher (Elisha ben Abuyah) 4,

252

Akiba, Rabbi, 4, 223, 252, 330
Albertus Magnus, 29
Alexander Aphrodisius, 256,

333

Almohades, 7

Angels, s.v. Intelligences

Anger, 274

Anthropomorphisms, 9/f.

Apostates, 203

Aquinas, 29

Aristotle, i, 3, 5, 6, 8, 17, 19,

21, 33. 50. 55, 57*-. 68 >
75, 187, 192*1., 241, 313,
316, 317, 323, 328, 331,

332, 333. 334
Asceticism, 274*1.
Ash'ariyah, 195, 326, 328
Astrology, i23f., 260
Atonement, day of, 186

Bachya, 329
Balaam, 164
Behaviour, correct, 2906*.,

Blood, eating the, 1741., 327
Body, care of, 283!

Charity, 222, 286ff.

Chastity, 289

Christians, attitude towards,

117

Circumcision, 1726*., 326
Comfort, value of, 277
Commandments, purpose of,

Confession, 187, 213
Conic Sections, 332

Creation, from nothing, 50*1.;
purpose of, 566. ; Biblical
account of, 163

Daniel, 140

David, I39f., i66f., 220
Design in Universe, 546*.
Determinism, 217*1.
Dietary laws, 175!
Dietetic rules, 2785.
Divination, 125*1., 144
Dress, correct, 292

Eden, garden of, 228

Emanation, 37*1., 132

Epicurus, 192

Evil, problem of, 396*., 198

Evil spirits, 123

Error, sources of, 256

" Fence " to the Torah, 159
Festivals, the, i83f.
Forgiveness, 289
" Form," 2if., 36, i64f.
Freewill, 4, 40, 196*1., 214*1.
Future, foretelling the, 134,
1431., 175, 249

Gabirol, 316

Gehinnom, 211

Geometry, 332

God, knowledge of, i8f., 227 ;
attributes of, 21, 836*. ;
existence, 316. ; unity, 33,
93*1. ; cause of the Uni-
verse, 34f. ; " form " of
the Universe, 36 ; not
cause of evil, 39*! ; His
work purposeful, 46if. ;
existed before the Uni-
verse, 5 iff. ; names of,
62 ff. ; incorporeality,
g6ff. ; eternity, 98*!. ;
omnipresence, loof. ; His

337

INDEX

knowledge, 1026*., 2i8f. ;
love and fear of, noff.,
2O4ff. ; revealed the
Torah, I52ff. ; cognisant
of man, 189!!. ; Divine
Providence, 1926*. ;
justice of, 202f. ; with-
holds power of repentance,
2i3f. ; consciousness of,
293f. ; imitation of, 306,
335

Hasdai Crescas, 6, 27

Heart, in primitive psy-
chology, 2f.

Hebrew' language, 62 ;
script, 154, 325

Herodotus, 327

Hippocrates, 331

Homer, 3, 327

Homonym, 320

Humility, 273

Hydraulics, 332

Idolatry, I2off., 158, 169, 177
Imagination, 132, 242!!.
Imitation of God, 306, 335
Immortality, 233f.
Intellect, 245fL, 249!?., 255!,

3o8f. ; the Active, 129,

130, 136
Intelligences, the, 31, 39, 40,

65if., 238, 319
Interpretation of Scripture,

i6iff.
Isaiah, 140

Jacob, 137, 164

Jeremiah, 140

T esus, 117, 224, 325, 330

ob, 164

osephus, i

oshua, 145, 164

udah Halevi, 6

udaism, n6f.

Karaites, 11, 116, 118

Kindness, 285

Knowledge, sources of, I33f.,

253*-
Koran, 148, 152, 331

Labour, 295

Levi ben Gerson, 27

Life, purpose of, 2<)8ff. ; goal

of, 30 iff.
Logic, 254, 332
Lulab, 1 88

Man, 40^., 49!, 58!!., 113, 155,

245ff., 258ff., 310
Marriage, 217, 293
Martyrdom, 232
Mathematics, 254, 302, 332
Matcria prima, 76, 193, 317
Matter, eternity of, 17, 5off. ;

constitution of, 76ff .
" Mean," the, 19, 2676.
Mechanics, 332
Messiah, 22of.
Metaphysics, 64, 137, 253,

254, 333

Miracles, 9, 54, 101, 223, 309
Mohammed, 8fL, 117, 224,

3^4, 325
Mohammedans, 118, 239, 323,

325, 326
Moses, 9f., 17, 139, 143, 145*

1466., 152, 221
Mutakallimun, 243, 255
Mu'tazila, 196!

Nature, 43, 46, 49, 55!, 60,

101
New Year, 1851.

Passover, 185, 187
Perfection, kinds of, 3045.
Philo, 319, 321
Physics, 34f., 37, 333
Plato, 22, 69, 316, 317, 318,

319, 320, 326
Predestination, 4, 2176*.
Prescience and determinism,

2176*.
Prophets and Prophecy, 9f.,

12, 38, 49, 68, 69, 85,

I29ff., I57f., 22if., 254,

324*-

Proselytes, n8f., 296, 323
Providence,
Pythagoras, 3

338

INDEX

Reason, 9!, 15, 245
Resurrection, 2 3 4ft.
Repentance, 186, 21 iff., 232
Revelation, 17, I52ff.
Reward and punishment,

202ff.

Righteousness, 285

Saadya, 326, 333
Sabbath, i82f.
Sacrifices, 178*1., 226
Saintliness, 273, 301
Scriptures, the Hebrew, i6i.,
5of., 61, i52ff., 2o8ff., 276,

324

Shofar, iStf.
Sin, 203, 21 if., 261, 297
Social life, 294if .
Solomon, 137, i39f., 162, 164,

220, 225
Soul (spiritual) 210, 233f. ;

(psychological) 24 iff.
Spheres, the, 31, 33!, 55f., 58,

65, 7iff., I92f., 317, 320
Speech, correct, 290
Spirits, communication with,

175

Study, of Torah,

purpose of , 302
Sufis, 334
Superstition, I22ff.
Synhedrion, 159

Tabernacle, symbolism of,

Tabernacles, feast of,
Tetragrammaton, 62ff., 318
Time, created, 5 if., 317

Universe, created, soff. ;
permanent, 6off. ; a unity,
8off.

Vices, 265ff.
Virtues, 265^.

Weeks, feast of, 185

Witchcraft, 123

World to come, 23off., 235tf.

Zechariah, 140
Zodiac, 73

339