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TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

TEACHING THE
INDUSTRIAL ARTS

By EMANUEL E. ERICSON

Professor of Industrial Education, University of California,
Santa Barbara College, Santa Barbara, California

PUBLICATIONS" 9

CHAS. A. BENNETT Co., Inc. PUBLISHERS
Peoria, Illinois

Copyright 1946

BY EMANUEL E. ERICSON

Reproduction of all or any part of this work in any form,
including the simplest types of duplication, is expressly for*
bidden under the Copyright Law of the United States. For
right to quote herefrom, permission must be secured in
writing from the publishers, The Manual Arts Press, Inc.,
Peoria 3, Illinois

85K33

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

To MAUR1NE

PREFACE

The activities of industrial arts teachers may be divided into
two general classifications. The first of these consists of analy-
sis and planning; the second covers presentation of teaching
material. The chief concern of this book is to encourage
teachers in service, and those who are in preparation for
teaching, to recognize and analyze the many problems and
opportunities that confront them as teachers, and to offer
suggestions that will lead to a more effective and satisfying
teaching career.

To this end this book is purposely practical in viewpoint,
and deals with teaching situations and personal relationships
rather than with backgrounds and psychological principles.
Patterns of organization, class management, teaching methods,
and lesson planning, while presented in detail, are not con-
sidered to be final, but serve as examples of definite planning
and organized procedure.

The general organization of the content from Chapter I
to Chapter X may be thought of as coordinated with the
teaching activities of the complete school year, from the time
of appointment to the final reports, while the remaining chap-
ters deal with many of the added responsibilities of the teacher
outside of his classroom.

Portions of material used in this book have previously ap-
peared in different forms in Industrial Education Magazine,
Education, Sierra Educational News, Industrial Arts and Vo-
cational Education, and in the book Teaching Problems in
Industrial Arts. Photographs and other illustrations used are
acknowledged in captions.

EMANUEL E. ERICSON.

CONTENTS

PREFACE 7

Chapter 1

STARTING THE SCHOOL YEAR 15

The basis for teaching success. Each year a new challenge. When
to arrive. Marking time or going to work. Getting acquainted.
Meeting the administrator. Filing the teaching credential. Look-
ing up records. Checking inventories. Ordering equipment and
supplies. Discarding the old. Conditioning equipment. What to
teach. Special meetings and institutes. Home-room duties. Check-
ing one's readiness. The instructor meets the class. Establishing
cooperative attitude. "When do we go to work?" Gaining time
by "losing" it. The slow learner. A new type of shop.

Chapter 11

METHODS AND PROCEDURES IN TEACHING 45

Teaching methods in common use. The demonstration. Teaching
methods and teaching techniques. The class demonstration. The
group demonstration. The individual demonstration. The lecture
or telling method. The illustrated lecture. Printed instruction or
textbook method. The use of instruction sheets. Types of instruc-
tion sheet. Teacher-made instruction sheets. Purchased instruction
sheets. Values of instruction sheets in shop teaching. Limitations
of instruction sheets. Discussion or conference method. Discovery
and problem-solving method. Planning detailed instruction. Les-
son planning. Analysis as a basis for planning instruction. Analysis
of instrucDonai material for lesson on use of marking gauge.
Approved steps in teaching. A sample teaching plan. The ab-
breviated teaching plan. Basic units covered by teaching plan.
The weekly report or checking sheet. Avoiding annoyances and
distractions. Techniques for maintaining interest.

Chapter III

DISCIPLINE IN THE SCHOOL SHOP 84

Interpretation of discipline. Pupil participation in discipline. The
teacher as a factor in discipline. Working conditions affecting

10 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

discipline. Good discipline a by-product. Elements of good disci-
pline. Maintaining good discipline. Advice to the disciplinarian.

Chapter IV

CLASS ORGANIZATION AND SHOP MANAGEMENT 102

Opportunities for student leadership. Student participation in
management. Rotating assignments. Making assignments effective.
Caring for tools. The central toolroom. The individual toolroom.
Student tool clerks. Procedures in checking tools. Disadvantages
of the toolroom. Free access to tools. The tool panel. The indi-
vidual tool kit. Identification of tools. The honor system. Limita-
tions of the honor system. Bases for good housekeeping. Caring
for equipment. Equipment repairs. Cleaning the shop. Handling
supplies. Use of requisition blanks. The supply clerk. Organiza-
tion for quantity-production work. Advantages of production
work. Disadvantages of production work. A typical quantity-
production job. General instruction in quantity production. Re-
assigning the personnel. Organizing the general shop. Starting
classes in general shop. Industrial-arts work for girls. Correlation
in shopwork. Record keeping. Records of equipment and sup-
plies. Who should furnish materials? Keeping down the cost of
shopwork. Who should handle money? Care of the shop library.
School repairs. What is exploitation? Educational trouble shoot-
ing. The home workshop. Credit for homework.

Chapter V

THE USE OF TEACHING AIDS 148

What are teaching aids? Use of books for industrial arts. Objec-
tions to books. Why use books? Values of books and reference
material. Motion pictures and still film. Procedures in using films.
Sources of films for teaching. Use of advertising materials. Using
models and mock-ups. Cutaway or sectioned equipment. Other
teaching aids.

Chapter VI

SAFETY INSTRUCTION AND ACCIDENT PREVENTION 163

The importance of safety. Conditions causing accidents. Preventing
accidents. Dull tools and machines. Motors and switches. Mark-
ing work areas. Better teaching and fewer accidents. Hazards
from overtime work. Exploration in the shop. Impressing the

CONTENTS 11

student. Value of danger signs. Additional suggestions. Fear as a
danger. Means for protecting teacher, pupil, and school. General
safety education through industrial arts.

Chapter VII

RELATED INFORMATION AND GUIDANCE 177

Types of related information. Related information for enjoyment.
Occupational information. Procedures in studying related or oc-
cupational information. Presentations by the instructor. Assigned
study about occupations. Presentations by outside speakers. Visits
to industries. Motion pictures as occupational information. Out-
line for evaluating occupations. How much related information?

Chapter VIII

TESTING AND RECORDING PUPIL PROGRESS 189

The need for records of accomplishment. Basis for a fair grad-
ing system. Grading as a teaching device. Characteristics of an
efficient grading system. Basic points for grading. Weighing
grade points. Periods for grading. The open grading system.
Variation in grade points. Uniformity in grading. Records of
grades. Student participation in grading. Measuring achievement.
Why measure progress? Lack of standards. Means of determining
achievement. Comparing results with objectives. Comparison with
work of others. The progress chart. Paper tests. Objective tests.
True-false test. Multiple-choice test. Completion test. Matching
test. Comprehension test. Procedure-arrangement test. Sugges-
tions for making objective tests. Occupational-aptitudes tests.

Chapter IX

EVALUATING TEACHING EFFICIENCY 223

Means for measuring teaching efficiency. The teacher rates him-
self. Rating by administration. Teaching loads and teaching ef-
ciency. Number of classes taught. Length of class periods.
Homogeneity of pupils. Size of classes for industrial arts. Physical
facilities for teaching industrial arts. Types of activity carried on.

Chapter X

CLOSING THE SCHOOL YEAR 235

Maintaining shop organization. Signs of breakdown. Preventing
idleness. Reconditioning tools. Care of power machinery. Con-

12 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

ditioning stockrooms. Order in the finishing room. Equipment
inventories. Advantages of an orderly finish. Reports. Teacher's
recommendations. Permanent records. Recommending equipment
and supplies.

Chapter XI

OBJECTIVES, OUTCOMES, AND GOALS 247

Clarifying objectives. Industrial arts and vocational education.
Aims, objectives, and goals. Listing desired goals. Kmphasis on
goals according to age levels. In the junior high school. Emphasis
for the senior high school. The cardinal principles. Social-
economic goals in America.

Chapter XII

ANALYSIS AND SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER 266

Accident or design? Basic considerations. Sources of teaching
material. Analysis the basis for selection. Determining the subject
matter. In the elementary school. A typical activity for elemen-
tary schools. In the junior high school. Subject matter in the
senior high school. In the rural school. Evaluating subject matter.

Chapter XIII

MAKING COURSES OF STUDY 286

The course of study. Procedure in organizing course. Who
should make the course? Basic approaches. Sequence of tool
processes. Sequence of articles to be made. Order of facts to be
learned. Student interest. Future usefulness. Types of course
organization. The abbreviated course. The comprehensive course.
Lesson planning needed.

Chapter XIV

PLANNING AND EQUIPPING THE SCHOOL SHOP 302

The evolution of the modern school shop. The unit or single-
activity shop. The general shop. The limited general shop.
Planning the school shop. Floor space for school shops. Propor-
tions of floor areas. Seating and demonstration areas. Tool and
supply rooms. Office or desk space. A check list for shop plan-
ning. Surveying equipment needs. Satisfying objectives. Investi-
gate before you buy. General usefulness of equipment. Is equip-
ment for instructional use? Relative cost. Frequency of use.

CONTENTS 13

Where will you put it? Order of purchase. Available funds.
Portable versus stationary machines. Combination or variety ma-
chines. Buying used equipment. Suggestions for selecting equip-
ment. Specifying equipment. Further suggestions. Placing equip-
ment. Buying small tools.

Chapter XV

EXTRACURRICULAR RESPONSIBILITIES 326

A variety of duties. The home room. Student morale. Student
clubs. Counseling students. Displays and exhibits. Objections to
exhibits. Advantages of exhibits. To be a faculty member. Teachers'
meetings. Mail boxes and bulletin boards. Personal appearance.
Out-of -school relationships. Relationships with business and indus-
try. Out of the basement.

Chapter XVI

PUBLICITY AND PUBLIC RELATIONS 339

The public and the schools. Should schools be publicized? Local
newspapers. The school paper. Special publications. Contests and
sponsored projects. Exhibits as a publicity feature. The open
house. Signs and signboards. For the superintendent and princi-
pal. A plan for publicity. Personal contacts.

Chapter XVII

THE TEACHER AND HIS PROFESSION 347

How one learns to teach. Cardinal qualifications for teaching
shopwork. Advancing professionally. Advantages of self-improve-
ment. The teacher's library. Conventions and institutes. Benefits
from conventions. What experience is most desirable? Looking
for the new. Contributing ideas.

Chapter XV II I

SOURCES AND PREPARATION OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS TEACHERS 359

Sources of industrial arts teachers. The school-trained product.
Strong characteristics of the college product. Weaknesses of the
school-trained teacher. Craftsmanship as background for teaching.
Strong qualities of the craftsman. Weaknesses of the craftsman
teacher. New recruits for the profession.

14 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

Chapter XIX

SCOPE OF SERVICE AND FUTURE OPPORTUNITIES 369

Teaching as an occupation. In comparison with industry. Why
teach? Outlook for the future. As a teacher of shopwork. Super-
vision and administration. Two Jcvels of supervision. The co-
ordmator. Occupational counseling and guidance. General school
administration.

INDEX 379

Chapter I
STARTING THE SCHOOL YEAR

The Basis for Teaching Success

The content of this book is organized upon the concept
that preparedness is the keynote to successful teaching. The
stressing of this concept does not, however, necessitate dis-
counting native aptitude as a factor in teaching success. It
simply means that whether a teacher has much talent or little
talent, much experience or little experience, his ultimate effec-
tiveness in the classroom will depend largely upon the detailed
preparation which he makes for his teaching. And at no time
is the need for careful preparation more pressing than in the
annual process of planning for a new school year.

In the field of industrial arts the need for planning becomes
more acute than in most other subjects because of the many
differences in conditions under which shopwork is taught.
And it is for the purpose of assisting both prospective and
experienced industrial arts teachers in planning ahead and
solving the many "teaching problems" that confront them
that this book has been written.

Each Year a New Challenge

The very nature of a teacher's activities makes him con-
scious of working by the year. One school year ends and
another begins. Whether he comes in as a new teacher or
stays where he is under the security of permanent tenure,
it is still true that with September comes a new year, new
students, and, in many cases, new subjects to teach. In this
condition lies an advantage in that there is a challenge to
renewed effort, better planning, and a new chance for think-
ing ahead.

15

16 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

Each year there is a large group of teachers who are going
into new positions. This group may be divided into three
classes: (1) those who have just finished their teacher train-
ing and have signed enthusiastically their first teaching con-
tracts, (2) those who have previously taught, but for some
reason did not stay in their place of service, and (3) those
who, while they continue to serve the same school system,
have been transferred to different buildings, or have been
appointed to teach different subjects. The following sug-
gestions for activities preliminary to the beginning of school
are offered for all these classes of teachers in so far as they
apply:

When to Arrive

When a contract is signed, or other appointment is made, a
date for official arrival of the teacher is usually specified. This
date may be that upon which school convenes in some cases,
but is more often one set for teachers 7 meetings, and sometimes
for institute meetings, preliminary to the beginning of the
school year. More and more it is becoming customary to call
for the arrival of all teachers, and particularly those working
in shop subjects, a number of days before school convenes.

With the conscientious teacher, the question is not, how-
ever, so much, "When am I compelled to arrive according
to my contract? " as, "When should I arrive in order to do
the necessary preliminary work?" The answer to the second
question cannot be uniform for all conditions. Because of
differences in types of work, differences in condition and
extent of equipment, status of courses of study, and the like,
each teacher will of necessity have to determine for himself
just how much time is needed for preliminary preparations.

Marking Time or Going to Work

Arriving on the job ahead of the prescribed time is of little

STARTING THE SCHOOL YEAR 17

value, however, unless the teacher develops a definite plan
for his activities after arriving. Many teachers have responded
to the urge to "be on the ground" early, but, having arrived
there, have found little or nothing to do. The reason for this
has been not that there were no problems to be solved, but
rather that the teacher had no organized method of locating
and solving such problems as existed and as do exist in every
school shop.

In this connection there is a clear necessity for job analysis
on the part of the teacher. If he will but concentrate his
thinking upon the details of his activities for the first week
or two after instruction begins, he will be greatly aided in
making the analysis of jobs to be performed and problems to
be solved as a matter of preparedness for the first roll call.

As a further aid in this regard it is recommended that the
instructor make out a written schedule or analysis of the pos-
sible duties that may be performed, and of the opportunities
for establishing himself, before the actual teaching process is
under way. The following paragraphs are intended to offer
suggestions covering the scope of such activities and oppor-
tunities, with further suggestions bearing upon possible pro-
cedures and solutions.

Getting Acquainted

The first demand upon the time of a new teacher can well
be for the purpose of becoming acquainted with people with
whom he will work and live and with general conditions that
will affect his duties and opportunities. While problems of
shop organization may be pressing, it would be a short-sighted
practice for the teacher to use all of his working time in the
solution of those problems, and thus fail to lay foundations
for his acceptance in the system as a general faculty member
and in the community as a new citizen and neighbor.

Many new teachers overlook the fact that persons who are

18 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

met as strangers today are expected to be one's friends and co-
workers tomorrow. The first impressions left with such per-
sons will be strong ones, and will determine in many
cases later opportunities for happiness and success. Thought-
less words and actions in early dealings with future col-
leagues, the office force, future students, and parents have
a way of causing embarrassment at later times. The same
suggestion holds regarding contacts with people outside of
the school. It is well to remember that the merchant in the
store, the real-estate man from whom one rents a house, or
the clerk in the water office might be a person whom one
will meet again in a social connection, or be one who is in-
timately connected with school affairs in some way or another.
These suggestions are given not so much with the thought that
a teacher would make it a habit to insult people with whom
he transacts business, but rather to emphasize the desirability
to be conscious of the value of a friendly attitude, and the
need for a definite program for making friends not only dur-
ing the early days of arrival but at all times.

Meeting the Administrator

It is obvious that the new teacher should report to the
school administrator as one of the very first activities after
arriving on the job. It is unwise to attempt to learn about
conditions in a roundabout way before reporting officially
to the proper administrator. This is true even though the
new instructor arrives much earlier than requested. If it be-
comes known at a later time that the teacher has approached
school-board members, other business men, teachers, cus-
todians, and others for information that should be of an
official nature, a suspicion might well be developed regarding
the ethics of the teacher or his judgment, or both.

When deciding who is the appropriate administrator to
approach, the teacher will need to use the best of judgment.

STARTING THE SCHOOL YEAR 19

Previous visits, correspondence, and official instructions will
help to clear this point. In general, the advice would be not
to "go over the head" of the person who is in immediate line
of responsibility. If a department head or supervisor has
been instrumental in working out the original appointment
to the position, that person should be recognized, and be
counted upon to make the contacts with other administrative
personnel. In smaller communities, the principal of the school
or the superintendent would logically be directly approached.

The extent and seriousness of the initial interview will be
determined largely by the administrator. Nevertheless, the
teacher should seek to obtain certain facts that will enable him
to begin at once his preparations for successful service. Some
of the items needing attention are: (1) a definite assignment
as to scope of work and subjects he is to teach, (2) the school
or shop in which he will be located, (3) means and methods
through which he may have access to his shop and equip-
ment, (4) availability of recorded materials in the form of
courses of study, outlines, invoices, and the like, (5) sug-
gestions with reference to possible expansion of program and
increase in equipment which may demand immediate attention,
and (6) an indication of correct administrative procedure in
connection with his professional routine.

The inexperienced teacher is justifiably concerned with
how to respond in these early interviews. Many teachers with
experience have apparently learned little of desirable tech-
niques. Hence the following suggestions:

1 . Do not prolong the interview beyond the time indicated
by the administrator. There are few surer ways of losing the
esteem of a superintendent or principal than to display a lack
of ability to leave as soon as the business is transacted, or
as soon as one has used up the time which seems to have
been set aside for the interview. There are many signs
through which the suggestion to leave may be recognized.

20 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

The ease with which subsequent interviews may be obtained
as well as many other advantages are closely related to the
teacher's good judgment as expressed in the first interview.

2. Do not try to be too familiar. Some administrators
carry on a very informal type of conference; others will be
offended by too much freedom taken for granted upon first
acquaintance.

3. Avoid calling for a definite statement as to budgets or
exact amounts of money available for the work. Chances are
strong that if needs are clearly shown after a survey, the ques-
tion of available funds is a flexible one. This is particularly
true if the teacher is dealing directly with the superintendent,
but also holds good to a large extent in a person's contact
with a supervisor. A general indication from the administrator
is better here than a definite statement of maximum funds.

4. Make no definite promises that may later lead to em-
barrassment. This applies not only to such matters as pro-
ducing projects and equipment for the school, but also in
reference to extra-curricular and social activities. Making
promises at this time regarding membership in clubs and
lodges, church attendance, and similar matters often leads to
later regrets and misunderstandings.

5. "Be a good listener" may well be the guiding advice in
this connection. Talk more after the needed information is
at hand. This does not mean, of course, that the opportunity
may not come for definite comments by the teacher, but such
should come only upon rather clear invitation.

With the first interview concluded, the strain of the ad-
justment process is somewhat relieved and the teacher is now
ready to continue his preparation for starting the year's work.

Filing the Teaching Credential

Teaching credentials granted by the state board of educa-
tion in the state where the teacher's professional preparation

STARTING THE SCHOOL YEAR 21

has been completed are a part of the equipment of the new
teacher. Often he will fail to realize, however, that possession
of this official document is not enough. It must be presented
to proper authorities before appointments become official and
salaries can be drawn. The school administrator who has hired
the teacher will give information regarding proper procedure
in filing the credential. Teachers moving from one state to
another should not take for granted that their credential is
automatically acceptable for their new position.

Looking up Records

Records will probably be available at all schools indicating
enrollments and other valuable data regarding students. Such
records should be used by the incoming teacher as a means
of learning about numbers in previous classes, ages of students,
and other details. It will furnish, also, valuable information
when ordering supplies, planning work, preparing material
for classes, and in other activities.

If the predecessor has fulfilled his duty in regard to records,
there will not only be available the information already men-
tioned, but also a record of the articles made and the product
turned out by each individual or class. This record may be
found in the form of progress charts covering also the grading
of the work, or in the teacher's record books.

Checking Inventories

The new teacher will safeguard his own interests as well as
those of the school by obtaining copies of inventories and lists
of supplies. From these inventories he should proceed to
satisfy himself that all items listed are actually turned over
to him. Since that record was made, vacation time has inter-
vened, with the possibility that a part of the equipment has
been used by janitors and other workmen, not to mention

22 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

the fact that, during the rush of the closing days of school,
many an inventory suffers from hasty compilation, and from
being handled by students.

With the inventories of the past year in the new instructor's
hands, he can proceed intelligently to locate the equipment
that will be under his care and to put it through such recon-
ditioning processes as may be required. Too much emphasis
cannot be placed upon the necessity of a detailed investigation
in this respect. Tools and machinery that will not function
during the early days of the semester are obstacles to success-
ful work, and direct evidences of lack of foresight on the
part of the teacher.

The hit-and-miss fashion of going about the shop to
pick up whatever "loose ends" one may find is not an efficient
method for reconditioning a school workshop. Too many
teachers waste time by employing this method, working
around in a circle and coming back to the starting point with
the job half done.

Using the inventory as a guide, one can proceed systemati-
cally to check each item listed. A special chart should be made
up for noting the condition of each tool or machine, with a
column in which to specify exactly what needs to be corrected
by purchase or repair in order to put it in first-class condition.
Failure at this time to record numbers and specifications of
the parts to be purchased, or of the manufacturers of the
article, with all other data necessary, will inevitably cause
loss of time in doing over a job which has been so nearly
completed otherwise.

The task indicated here may not be a small one; but to
perform it conscientiously will result in (1) having a new
and accurate inventory for the beginning of the year, (2)
being able to order all needed repair parts for tools and ma-
chines, (3) locating all necessary preliminary work to be
done on the equipment, (4) avoiding future misunderstanding

STARTING THE SCHOOL YEAR 23

regarding the amounts and condition of equipment, and (5)
impressing the supervisor or administrator with a businesslike
method of procedure, an impression which will lead toward
confidence and trust for future days.

It should be said here that unless the teacher who returns
to his previous location has done this work before leaving at
the close of the year, his job is not essentially different from
that of the new instructor.

Ordering Equipment and Supplies

When the survey of equipment has been completed, the
next step should be to obtain the items which have been listed
as missing. In addition to these, there may be reasons for
asking for other new equipment for which there appears to
be immediate need.

While the larger number of schools or school systems have
some person acting as purchasing agent, it often happens that
the instructor is authorized to make certain purchases directly
from commercial firms. In either case the instructor should
be aware of the necessity of specifying completely and tech-
nically every article to be purchased. Time is wasted by the
instructor, and patience is lost on the part of the purchasing
agents and merchants, through careless and incomplete orders,
to say nothing of the unfavorable impression of the instructor
that is established. Failure to insert a necessary figure or
specification in the original order can delay equipment for
months, while students are kept waiting and serious disciplin-
ary and other problems develop.

The teacher should know how to specify tools and ma-
terials; or, if he does not know, should find out before his
orders go in. It is not wise or ethical to leave it to the pur-
chasing agent, or even to the supervisor, to check and com-
plete items listed on requisitions. The teacher will be con-

24 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

sidered responsible in this respect, and he might well keep in
mind that these requisitions constitute evidence of efficiency,
or lack of it. As a help it is advisable to obtain standard order
blanks from firms selling the various types of items and to
consult catalogs for all tools. Failure to know, for instance,
what "length" means as applied to files, chisels, screw drivers,
and other tools has created many awkward situations.

The problem of estimating quantities of supplies involves
additional detail. Records of types of work, enrollment, and
other details of previous years, as well as those indicating
enrollments and new plans for the coming year, furnish the
most satisfactory basis upon which to act. Some school sys-
tems are demanding that supplies be specified for the entire
year or at least for a semester, while others offer the oppor-
tunity of ordering quantities as needed from time to time. If
the former system prevails the teacher can do nothing but
estimate, upon best available data, the maximum needs, and
act accordingly.

Careful analysis should be used, however, rather than a
blind guess at demands. If the instructor will obtain esti-
mates through the detailed process of figuring the needs of
one individual student in each prospective class according to
the activities contemplated, he will come close to actual needs.

What has been said with reference to specifications under
the heading of ordering equipment applies also to supplies.
Too much care cannot be exercised in making requests specific
and in conformity with common practices. It is rather late,
after useless material has arrived in the shop, to wake up to
the fact that faulty specifications are responsible; and an at-
tempt to place the blame on the purchasing agent will not
help matters.

Discarding the Old
To what extent a new teacher should feel free to recom-

STARTING THE SCHOOL YEAR 25

mend or institute changes for the first year is a problem that
troubles both beginning and experienced teachers. Every in-
structor who is interested in his work is likely to see oppor-
tunities for changing existing conditions toward what he
considers more successful teaching. How far to go in this di-
rection will depend upon a number of factors. The following
points may be given on the affirmative side:

1. The instructor will be of more value to the school for
the first year if allowed to use his own ideas or plan of organi-
zation, and his own methods of carrying out these ideas, than
if he must conform to some, to him, less workable scheme,
originated by a predecessor.

2. If his contributions are of value to the school system and
to the students, it is unfair to wait a year to put them into
effect. A year of the teacher's time as well as that of the
school would be lost as far as these ideas and practices are
concerned.

3. Money may be saved immediately by making such
changes. The previous teacher's pet schemes might have been
tolerated in the presence of their champion but appear un-
justifiable to others.

4. Teaching conditions may be bad and need immediate
attention.

5. Wise reorganization gives the teacher an opportunity to
show his ability and establish confidence for himself in the
mind of the administrator.

6. Students may actually demand changes in order that
they may feel justified in enrolling for further work in the
department.

7. Reorganization of the budget may call for changes in
the work.

8. The teacher may have been hired for the purpose of
reorganizing the program and putting new life into it.

9. With the coming of a new teacher the students expect

26 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

a variation in the program. The psychology of the whole
situation favors changes with reference to both students and
administration.

10. If the teacher has accepted a job within the field of
his specialty, he has a right to assume that he is qualified to
improve existing conditions, or he should not have been hired
for the job.

On the negative side of the question the following sug-
gestions may be considered:

1. The teacher should first prove his ability, and establish
confidence on the part of the administration, before proposing
changes.

2. Lack of knowledge of local conditions will stand in
the way of intelligent action at this time.

3. The proper morale of students and their support must
be established before attempting any revolutionizing of the
program.

4. Confidence of the administration can best be established
by following out existing programs intelligently, rather than
to appear critical of existing conditions.

5. Too rapid changes at this time tend to lead to criticism
and suspicion on the part of administration and co-workers.

6. There is danger that the teacher may be inclined to
make changes simply in order to make a showing and attract
attention.

7. It is much better not to start a thing than to run up
against unforeseen difficulties and leave the job unfinished.

8. There is danger of overbuilding the program, with sub-
sequent damaging reaction on the part of administration and
the public.

Local conditions should, of course, be studied in order to
determine whether the positive or negative arguments offered
here should lend the most weight. No rule can be made to
apply to all situations. It is probably just as bad to be totally

STARTING THE SCHOOL YEAR 27

lacking in the spirit of adventure as to be overprogressive
and have one's judgment questioned next time. No efficient
teacher is likely to stay a year on any job without finding
it desirable to make changes both in content and in teaching
procedure.

Conditioning Equipment

In too many instances students are annoyed and their in-
terest is diverted in the early part of the school year by the
fact that equipment is not in working order. Dull tools, that
no experienced workman could use successfully, machines
that are both unworkable and dangerous, paint brushes left
drying up from last semester, and toolrooms in which not
even the teacher can find anything are but a few of the
"interest killers" to which beginning students are often in-
troduced.

The teacher who has once experienced the rich rewards that
come from time spent in putting the shop in order is sure
to invest all the necessary effort needed to give his students a
proper start. With the possible exception of some advanced
classes, the teacher should not leave tool sharpening and
similar work for the student to do as an initial activity. Not
only are beginning students unable to do work of this type
properly, but such assignments are too foreign to the purpose
with which these students are embued.

Attention should be called here to the fact that some larger
school systems hire maintenance men to overhaul and condi-
tion all major equipment, including saw filing. This does not
relieve the teacher, however, of his responsibilities, nor from
a great deal of personal work in connection with remaining
chores.

Wfiaf fo Teach
One of the first questions that will be asked of the new

28 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

teacher on the first day of school is "What shall we make?"
The wise teacher will anticipate this question with its broader
implications covering the necessity for having courses of
study in some form in his possession before he meets his
classes. Even in systems where supervision is provided, teach-
ers cannot expect to be handed detailed instructions and
plans for all projects or activities. Hence it usually falls upon
the teacher to furnish his own instructional material, and
fortunate is the one who has provided himself with a col-
lection of blueprints and sample projects, courses, outlines,
and the like upon which he can draw hurriedly for ideas
and details and which may be used as basic material for future
reorganization after interests and needs of students are better
understood. Suggested procedures in making courses of study
will be found in Chapter XIII.

Special Meetings and Institutes

In addition to the details pertaining to the teaching of his
classes, the new teacher will be called upon to respond to
many of the more general activities incidental to opening of
the school years. Some of these are the following:

1. Faculty Meetings. A new teacher is not always given
the special instruction and notification regarding such meet-
ings that he may expect. Methods of spreading information
about such special meetings which seem sufficient to call the
permanent faculty members are sometimes unnoticed by the
newcomer. Whatever the reason for the new teacher's ab-
sence from such meetings, the fact remains that he failed
to appear, and while later explanations may partly clarify
the situation, the instructor is at a disadvantage at the outset.
It is well then to be diligent in search of information regard-
ing meetings and conferences and to dismiss, once and for
all, the attitude that says, "If they want me, they know where
I am!"

STARTING THE SCHOOL YEAR 29

2. Institutes. So-called "institutes" constitute another form
of meeting that teachers are asked to attend. Some teachers
of shop subjects have the feeling that these institute programs
have nothing of value for their work. This might be true
if the scope of activities of a teacher were not greater than
the confines of his shop. In the first place it may be realized
that the teachers of Latin, English, mathematics, and other
subjects probably have just as much reason to feel the same
way about some meetings, and if the shop instructor has a
right to stay away the same right should be accorded other
instructors.

Each instructor is in need of much general, broad informa-
tion bearing on problems of administration, subjects and
methods used in other departments, and means and methods
for making the entire school program harmonious and effi-
cient, in order that he may be of the greatest possible value
as a member of the organization. For these reasons much
of the feeling on the part of teachers that institute programs
have in them nothing of value is without justification.

3. Assisting the Administration. Assistance in enrolling, in-
terviewing, and scheduling students is another duty which is
likely to fall upon a great number of the instructors. Some
persons prove themselves more valuable at this point than
others. Some shun these duties if there is a possibility of doing
so; but in this way they stamp themselves as being less useful
in the school, and less likely to be thought of in connection
with more responsible positions. A teacher who is interested
in building up a department will welcome the opportunity
to make personal contacts with students outside of class hours
and with prospective students at all times.

Home-Room Duties

Another assignment for the new teacher which needs pre-
liminary planning is that of the home room. This assignment

30 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

is likely to be relatively foreign to industrial arts teachers,
and for this reason much preparation may be required for it.
While it may be true that not all teachers are required to take
on such a responsibility at the outset, the assignment is
sufficiently common to be listed as "usual." Valuable books
and references are available on this subject and some can
usually be had at the school library. Teachers with experience
may be consulted. If the teacher is aware of the fact that he
may suddenly be thrust into a home room on the first day of
school, he can find material and information from which to
plan definite procedures and programs for this activity. For
further discussion of the home room, see Chapter XV.

Checking One's Readiness

As the final important touch in the program of preparation,
comes anticipation of the first class meeting and the needed
set-up for a successful first contact. Here the test will come
of practically all qualities desirable in a teacher, as well as of
all the acquired skill and adaptability he may possess.

The chief things to be tested, however, will be his ability
to foresee, and his skill to prepare for that which he has
foreseen.

As a check upon one's readiness to meet the class for the
first time, the following points may be of value:

1. Visualize the class as fully as possible, as to age, train-
ing, temperament, aptitudes, and the like. Previous records
will assist here.

2. Be certain that equipment and tools are in perfect con-
dition.

3. Have a definite plan for the work for the semester.

4. Have materials on hand and ready for the first piece or
pieces of work to be done.

5. Have a lesson plan (preferably written out) for pro-
cedure for the first class meeting.

STARTING THE SCHOOL YEAR 31

6. Have the needed tools and other devices on hand for
the first lesson.

7. Be ready to assign students to working places and
lockers.

8. Plan a definite method for getting acquainted with the
class.

9. Prepare to be glad to see the students arrive, and to let
them know it. If a teacher is not glad to see the work start,
he should quit and let someone else take his place.

10. Have a definite plan for standards of order and dis-
cipline, and be prepared to put this plan in operation from
the start.

The Instructor Meets the Class

After a program of preparation of the type discussed on
previous pages, the instructor has reasons for anticipating a
definite and effective start in his work. If his foresight has
been comprehensive and analytical, and if his heart is in the
workin short, if he is a true teacher he should now be ready
to meet face to face the groups that will be under his care
for a specified period of time.

The importance of the first meeting with the students can-
not be overemphasized. At this initial contact impressions will
be received by the students and attitudes will be established
which will be large factors in determining the quality of
success to be experienced for a period to come. The students
will make up their minds during the first meeting whether or
not the instructor is a "regular fellow" and deserves their
cooperation. It may be possible that such impressions can be
changed at a later date, but the important thing is to make
the first contact with the students such that the results of
it are wholesome and lead toward cooperative feeling between
teacher and students.

While native traits and characteristics and qualities of per-

32 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

sonality on the part of the instructor count much in gaining
cooperation from students of all ages, it is also true that
methods and planned procedure form a good second set of
factors. Personality will not function long in place of a pro-
gram. But personality, plus a program for suitable, well-
thought-out procedure, makes an admirable combination.

The following suggestions are made for procedures in meet-
ing a group of from 24 to 30 boys of junior-high-school or
early high-school age, for the first class period.

1. Start something before the students do. When the boys
arrive they are ready for action; the teacher should be ready
also. If he stays in his office three minutes too long, the whole
performance may start off in the wrong direction. The in-
structor is the safest center of attraction at this time. He can
be engaged in doing something that attracts the crowd, even
though it be as simple a thing as to hand out cards of an
attractive color to be signed later, or talking to early arrivals
about some phase of the work. To focus the attention of the
students on a central point until the class can be called to
order is no small task, but is a very important one.

2. Get acquainted. This important feature is often over-
looked. It applies both from the student's and instructor's
angle. Too many students of the timid type will not feel at
home in the shop and free in their earlier attempts, because
they do not know the instructor and their classmates. Simply
to take the roll call is not sufficient in this connection.

It is just as important for the students to know the instruc-
tor's name as it is for the roll of students' names to be in the
hands of the teacher. If the latter's name is not clearly pre-
sented, this again promotes reticence among some students in
approaching the instructor. Let the teacher introduce himself
as he wishes to be addressed by the students, pronounce his
name so that all can hear, and then write it on the blackboard
as an additional help. The teacher's name imprinted on his

STARTING THE SCHOOL YEAR 33

shop coat will aid in the process. Boys are keenly interested
in their teacher, if, indeed, they are allowed to be; and with
intelligent treatment such interest will soon develop into pro-
found respect.

3. Recognize pupils. In order to carry this acquaintance-
ship further, the teacher could go so far as to allow the boys
to introduce themselves to him and to the rest of the group,
and perhaps tell something of their experience, particularly
in shopwork, both at home and in school, or about their pets,
hobbies, and other interests. Such procedure might well create
a new and refreshing schoolroom atmosphere, something sur-
prising in the experience of boys. Such a method might easily
be the means of getting started with a truly cooperative spirit
among students as well as between students and teacher.

4. Discuss values and purposes. Too many students take
courses in all grades without knowing just why they are as-
signed to the class or subject. It seems reasonable to assume
that a little time can profitably be spent during the initial
period of any new course, or with new students taking any
course, in discussing frankly the purposes of the work and the
outcome that may be expected. Such presentation should
obviously be kept on the level of pupil interest. But boys and
girls of junior- or senior-high-school age may be expected to
take greater interest in the work if they have a chance to
know the reasons why adults have decided that this particular
subject will make a valuable contribution to their education.
Many of the commonly listed aims or outcomes for industrial
arts are not too difficult for students to understand and ap-
preciate. Incidentally, it might clarify the purpose of the
teacher to force himself to list desired outcomes in phraseology
suitable for presentation to his students.

5. Review course content. As early in the course as pos-
sible, preferably at the first meeting with the class, it is well
to acquaint the group with the nature of the work that is

34 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

to be covered. Some teachers hesitate on this point with a
feeling that the plans presented will not seem attractive, and
that students may tend to drop out. In response to such feel-
ing it might be said that if the teacher has prepared a course
of study which is properly gauged for the students to whom
it is presented, there should be no danger of lack of interest.

It should be kept in mind also that the attitude displayed in
the presentation of the plan will probably have more to do
with its acceptance or rejection than the content of it. A tone
of voice or a general attitude that permeates the whole presen-
tation with a "take-it-or-leave-it" atmosphere will not color
the course of study, or the projects to be made, with attrac-
tive qualities that will make them interesting to students.

Establishing Cooperative Attitude

To preach constantly about rules of conduct in the school
or shop is poor practice. To make no attempt to arrive at a
cooperative attitude regarding conduct is still worse. One
of the very first considerations that must of necessity be placed
before the class is one covering attitudes toward the shop
and suitable personal conduct. Here, again, success in obtain-
ing results comes not from declaring rules and regulations but
rather from a sympathetic explanation of conditions which
exist. A few suggestions for the approach to this topic which
have proved helpful in classes of young boys are presented in
the following paragraphs:

1. Show confidence in the boys. A feeling set up within
the boys that they will be treated and dealt with as responsible
individuals is half of the success. With such a feeling not
many students will consciously violate established regulations,
and the offenses that take place because of lack of maturity
and judgment are not the ones that cause the grief. The
value of putting a boy upon his honor has not been fully

STARTING THE SCHOOL YEAR 35

realized in schools. That there are exceptional situations under
which these suggestions may be less effective is not to be de-
nied, but with all normal boys their value should not be over-
looked. While this is not all there is to the problem of con-
duct and discipline, it is an important starting point.

2. They come for 'work. It is wrong to approach a class
with the feeling that their chief interest is assumed to be in
play and mischief. That may be the case if nothing else is
Drovided for them to do. But the average boy or girl comes
:o the classroom and workshop for an opportunity to work
ind learn. If the teacher will start on this assumption from
:he outset, and provide abundant activity, he will have little
eason to be concerned about anything else. How to get the
ftudents away from the work when the class period is over
kvill soon become a greater problem than how to keep them
working, if the instructor has the right viewpoint and the
ight approach. Do not assume that they will play in the
;hop, and probably they will not.

3. The equipment belongs to the students. A wholesome
ittitude toward tools and equipment can usually be established
iirough a presentation of the idea that the tools are placed
here for the students. They are available for their use and
:are. They are no different from tools in their own or their
Others' workshops. They were paid for by tax money, and
ax money is contributed to by their parents.

These tools will be only as good as the care that they re-
ceive. No student can expect anyone else to treat the tool
tfhich he will use next any better than he is treating the one
;omeone else is to use. Consequently, there is little or no dif-
erence between having a tool kit for each individual and
laving a much larger tool kit for a group. It simply makes
t possible to have many tools which otherwise could not be
lad, and, because of this, opportunities are opened for doing
varied and better work.

36 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

Such a philosophy presented even to very young students
has seldom failed to establish the proper outlook upon the
work; and instead of the feeling of "grabbing something and
using it rough" has come a new viewpoint concerning public
ownership.

4. Their safety is at stake. It is not a difficult task to
impress students in shop classes with the fact that some rules
for conduct are made purely for the safety of the student.
Whether he fully understands the reason why he must secure
individual permission each time he wishes to use certain tools
or machines is not so important as his understanding that his
whole future health and happiness depend upon his obeying
the rule. This does not mean that explanations of all rules
should not be offered, but rather that tools and machines have
no human leniency in their make-up, and that, for the future
good of the individual who is not now mature enough to
appreciate the danger, these rules ^iust be respected. Safety
practices and procedures are further discussed in Chapter
VI.

5. Instructions must be specific. To talk about matters
in general and make no definite conclusions in particular is
probably an important cause of lack of proper response to
suggestions for behavior in the shop. Teachers fail at this
point, because, after all that was said, students are not abso-
lutely sure of what was meant; and even if they know in a
general way, they were not specifically impressed to the
point that impression results in action. Pointed presentations,
then, are basic requirements for success in all teaching, but
are even more keenly needed in connection with preliminary
suggestions for rules of conduct and response at the beginning
of the school year or term. Not too many rules for conduct,
but a few rules so presented that they are understood as fully
as possible, and accepted by the class, should be the objective
before the teacher.

STARTING THE SCHOOL YEAR 37

"When Do We Go fo Worfc?"

It is of utmost importance to the early success of teaching
in the shop to allow students to go "on the job" at the
earliest possible moment. Let us remember that in the boy's
mind the school shop stands for an opportunity to make
something. While that conception must be broadened later
by tactful planning on the teacher's part, it will still remain
that shop teaching makes its unique contribution in education
through activities. To attempt to substitute talking for doing,
particularly as an introduction to the semester's work, is to
fail to take advantage of the most fundamental and valuable
of all characteristics with which students are endowed.

It is highly important that uniform bases for response and
behavior be presented and accepted at the earliest possible
moment, before individuals have to be dealt with as offenders
or before bad habits have been established. But the custom
of some teachers to "drag in" theoretical discussions, and
teaching names of tools and parts of tools in large numbers
as necessary preliminary knowledge, is often an uncalled-for
means of disappointing students and killing interest.

Some teachers purposely defer definite demonstrations and
actual work for the reason that they expect additional enroll-
ment during following meetings and consider it a waste of
time to go on with the work. Such teachers may well ask
themselves the question whether one can afford to cool the
enthusiasm of from 80 to 90 per cent of the class while
waiting for the remaining few. Of course, it is extra trouble
to repeat instructions to late-comers. But why should those
arriving on time be punished for being punctual?

If the first class period consists of 90 minutes or more, then
it is quite possible and entirely feasible to get to the point of
giving a demonstration covering at least one unit of activity
and in many cases allowing the class to begin to carry it out.

38 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

While shop demonstrations are discussed at length in Chap-
ter II, it may well be stressed here that the first demonstra-
tion, however brief it may be, is probably the most important
one that the teacher will make to the class. It should be fully
organized, and based upon a complete analysis of the job
involved and the expected responses of the students, suitable
in all respects to the level upon which the members of the
class are expected to respond in thinking and action. A hap-
hazard presentation, obviously given because there seems to
be nothing else to do, will start the work in the wrong
direction and make a poor impression in the minds of the
class. In some cases where the teaching content provides
for activity under larger coordinated units, or where a gen-
eral-shop program is involved, students may get into early
activity through instruction sheets, through investigation of
projects to be made, or through the help of advanced students
in the shop. These approaches are discussed further in other
parts of this book.

Related study and information can and should be brought
in with great profit as the progress of the work may allow;
character training and cooperative responses may be developed
unconsciously to a great extent; but without definite manipu-
lative work at a very early stage the program is not likely to
get under way as it should.

Gaining Time fay "Losing" It

A word of caution against overanxiety to have students
get into the work at once may be in place here, although it
might seem to be in contradiction of statements made in
previous paragraphs. There is no actual contradiction, how-
ever, for it is obviously just as bad to send students to work
before they are ready as it is to hold them in drawn-out
preliminaries. Too much in the way of explanations, lee-

STARTING THE SCHOOL YEAR 39

tures, and demonstrations will kill interest; too little may fail
to arouse it. Inadequate directions may result in failure to
maintain it, because the student is at once faced with diffi-
culties that seem to him to be insoluble.

If, after the class has been allowed to go to work, it be-
comes evident that there is no fundamental understanding of
the problem, no common basis for procedure, and no organ-
ized plan for action in the student's mind, the instructor has
probably failed to take time to create atmosphere to set the
stage. It pays to "lose" some time at the outset with the idea
of gaining it back later on.

Fifteen minutes of time well spent in giving information
to the class may result in the saving of hours of time by
students, to say nothing of the teacher's time saved by not
having to correct a faulty start. Lack of understanding results
in lack of cooperation; and both are directly caused by lack of
painstaking effort on the part of the instructor to lay a basis
for intelligent response.

Tfie Slow Learner

There is a strong feeling possessed by many teachers that
their shops have been made a "dumping-ground" for the
misfits of the school system, with consequent resentment
against the practice. Since this feeling is usually rekindled at
enrollment time, a brief discussion of this problem may be
in place here.

If by "dumping-ground" is meant the assignment to shop-
work of students who have been pronounced failures else-
where, the statement pictures just exactly what often takes
place. But why register a complaint because such students
are directed toward the shop? There are two probable reasons
for this feeling. The first is that students of the type men-
tioned have been classified as "inferior" in their reactions to
Latin, mathematics, English, and other so-called academic sub-

40 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

jects, and because of this the shop teacher feels indignant
that he should be called upon to care for the "educational
wastebasket." A second reason, and one which the teacher
might not always wish to admit, is that he does not want
to have to bother with special cases. He has his work planned
for the average, "regular" student, and cannot take time to
react to "special" types.

But if we look a little deeper into this problem, it may
change appearance. In the first place, to transfer the stamp
of "inferior" with a student who is transferred from an
academic department to mechanical work may not be justifi-
able. To be sure, there are success qualities without which no
person will make progress as a student or in later life. Judging
a student's aptitude from the standpoint of the I-Q attached
to his record is not safe, however, outside of the traditional
school program, if, indeed, it can be considered safe within
that realm.

Interest in the work is an important prerequisite for suc-
cess in it. Interest is, with some people at least, largely de-
pendent upon a realization of usefulness of the subject studied
or work performed. And just at this point appears an im-
portant factor in connection with the question of the "dump-
ing-ground." Thousands of students have left school under
the stigma that they could not "make the grade," and many
of these have later made outstanding success in their work in
industry and business. Cases of nationally known people of
this type are too many to enumerate. This fact should serve
as a reminder that because a student does not avail himself
fully of the "regular" school program he is not necessarily
inferior as a future producer or a member of society.

The second reason given, namely, that the instructor has
no time for the student who lacks a reputation of conforming
to the program, has probably been shared by all other teach-
ers in the school. The teacher of each of the subjects which

STARTING THE SCHOOL YEAR 41

has been tried previously had no time for "different" individ-
uals, and so it is probably true that no one has had time to
learn much of anything about Johnny Jones except that he
asks too many questions, or fails to become interested, or
uses up too much energy in doing mischief.

With the coming of "special" students to the shop there
are only two possible responses that the teacher can make.
One is to take the attitude of those who "dumped" them;
the other is to accept the challenge. If accepting the chal-
lenge, it is not difficult to see in the "educational wastebasket"
a chance for turning out a new product. Then, instead of
a dumping operation, the problem becomes one of rehabilita-
tion.

Even in cases where there is admittedly no great talent
mechanical or otherwisebut where interest can be established
through manipulative work, there is an opportunity in the
school shop for the teacher who is sympathetic with the
problem.

However, in fairness to the teacher with an overcrowded
schedule, it should be said that working conditions often
make it impossible to find all the time necessary for special
attention for students of the type discussed here. Obviously
there should be time for special work with special people if
results are to be expected. The workshop is no doubt a
promising place for rehabilitating students who have lost
interest in school and lost confidence in education; but with-
out available time for personal attention not much effective
work can be done.

A New Type of Shop

A special shop or laboratory should be provided in every
large school, the most attractive in the building, for the pur-
pose of interesting noninterested students. In this shop there
should be a teacher who is a good mechanic, but more than

42 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

that. He should be a teacher, but not of the type that the
incoming students had previously run away from. Boy-Scout
philosophy should be the basis for his dealings with his stu-
dents. He should have wide knowledge of many occupations,
but his knowledge will make him the more humble and
willing to let the boys work out their own destiny. Analysis
of human nature will be his chief function, and his workshop
will be used as a laboratory for accomplishing it. As soon as
students find an interest in school and life and vocation, they
may be transferred elsewhere. Many will go back to the aca-
demic work whence they came with new vision of the per-
sonal values of an education. Others will go into the shops
for vocational training; while others, without stigma, will be
guided into jobs outside of school and followed up in their
occupational work.

PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS

1. Make a list of questions that a prospective teacher of shop-
work may ask the superintendent before signing the contract.

2. What would you reply to the suggestion of a prospective
employer that industrial arts should pay for itself in the school?

3. If in an interview with a prospective employer, you should
be asked to state the difference between industrial arts and voca-
tional education, what would you answer?

4. List all of the means through which a new teacher may get
information regarding the number and character of students for
various classes.

5. What ethical activities may a teacher engage in before
school begins, to insure an enrollment in a new class of shopwork?

6. What would be your reply to the statement by a prospec-
tive employer that "no one can teach industrial arts well unless
he has had extended practical experience"?

7. Make an analysis of the things a teacher may do between
the time of signing his contract and arriving on the job which
will better prepare him for his new position.

8. By what means can a new teacher learn what is his reason-,
able share of extracurricular and community activities?

STARTING THE SCHOOL YEAR 43

9. Make a list of values that you, as a new teacher, would
expect to realize from local institute meetings before the begin-
ning of the school year.

10. List all subjects that your teaching credentials entitle you
to teach.

11. What may be done to secure a cooperative attitude at the
outset from an especially unruly-appearing boy in the class?

12. Make a sample of a special card which may be filled out by
junior-high-school students the first day of school for the infor-
mation of the teacher. Do the same for senior high school.

13. Make a list of cautions for an inexperienced teacher to keep
in mind the first day of school.

14. In what subjects or activities in industrial arts do you think
it feasible to start manipulative work the first day?

15. What would you think of furnishing manufacturer's charts,
and drilling students on the names of the parts of tools, the first
day in shopwork?

16. If the instructor provided mimeographed copies of shop
rules and regulations for distribution to the class, would there be
need for discussing them? If so, why?

17. What should the new teacher do if his inventory of tools
and equipment did not agree with that turned in by his prede-
cessor?

18. What danger is involved in attempting to make attractive
the course of study to the students the first day?

19. What do you consider the best way to learn pupils' names
quickly and to help your class get acquainted?

20. To what extent should one show confidence in boys with
reference to custody of tools during the first part of the work?

21. Give reasons why it is important to give the first demonstra-
tion with extra care.

22. Would you expect boys to have developed the proper atti-
tude toward school tools and equipment from observing the
general attitude of the public toward municipal and state prop-
erties furnished for parks, beaches, camping grounds, etc.?

23. In the teacher's mind, which should be more important for
the boys "making something" or "learning something"? Why?

24. Under what conditions do you think that the industrial arts
teacher may justly complain that his shop is being used as a
"dumping ground"?

44 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

REFERENCES

1. Anthony, Willis B., "A Study of Method for the Beginning
Industrial-Arts Teacher," Industrial Education Magazine,
38:61-4, March, 1936.

2. Beggs, Margaret B., and Cleveland, Earl G, "Shop Work
and the Problem Boy," Industrial Education Magazine, 36:
203-4, September, 1934.

3. Broome, Edwin Cornelius, "Industrial Arts and the Problem
of the Maladjusted Pupil," Industrial Education Magazine,
38:15-17, January, 1936.

4. Christie, Jean, "Are We Educating Our Handicapped Chil-
dren?" The Educaticm Digest (from Midland Schools),
X: 28-31, February, 1945.

5. Corre, Mary P., "An Adjusted Curriculum for the Dull-
Normal Pupil," Occupations, 17:34-9, October, 1938.

6. Cutter, Harriet S., "A Program for Slow Learners," The
Education Digest (from The Fifteenth Yearbook of the Na-
tional Council for the Social Studies), X: 17-19, March, 1945.

9. Fearn, Harold, "A Remedial Industrial-Arts Program for
High School," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education,
31:330, October, 1942.

10. Fenn, Isadore M., "What Industrial Arts Means to the Boy,"
Industrial Education Magazine, 38:39-41, January, 1936.

11. Hoopes, Paul G, "The Annual Requisition," Industrial Arts
and Vocational Education, 22:181-3, May, 1933.

12. Jochen, Albert E., "Pointers for the New Teacher," Indus-
trial Arts and Vocational Education, 31:330, October, 1942.

13. Lancelot, W. H., Permanent Learning, John Wiley and Sons,
Inc., New York, 1944, Chap. 1.

14. Mays, Arthur B., "The Practical-Arts Teacher," Industrial
Arts and Vocational Education, 22:133-4, March, 1933.

15. Noakes, Geoffrey Bertram, "The Problems of the First Five
Minutes," Industrial Education Magazine, 38:211-12, Sep-
tember, 1936.

16. Stevens, R. C, "Hints to the New Teacher," Clearing House,
11:112-14, October, 1936.

17. Struck, F. T., Creative Teaching, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1938, Chaps. V, XIX.

Chapter II
METHODS AND PROCEDURES IN TEACHING

Teaching Methods in Common Use

A comprehensive study of available literature in the field
of teaching will reveal extensive listings of so-called teaching
methods as conceived and classified by various authors and
groups. As presented in this chapter, however, teaching
methods will be confined to a number of generally accepted
teaching practices and procedures which appear most suitable
for shop or laboratory instruction.

With this thought in mind, the fundamental teaching meth-
ods which will receive special consideration are the following
five:

1. The demonstration or showing method.

2. The lecture or telling method.

3. Printed instruction or book method.

4. Discussion or conference method.

5. Discovery or problem-solving method.

These five methods are presented here because they are
considered to have more distinct characteristics for teaching in
industrial arts than others found in educational writings. It
is evident that it would not be necessary or even desirable to
confine a teaching situation to the use of any one method.
Basic elements of several of these approaches may appro-
priately be combined for best results depending upon the age
of students and type of subject matter being taught. The
skillful teacher will use these methods in such rotation and
combination as will be indicated by existing needs.

The Demonstration

From the time that instruction in the manual arts was in-

45

46 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

troduced as a school subject, the demonstration has stood out
as the most definite and valuable means of instruction. It con-
tinues to be so whenever it is desirable to have students learn
exact and acceptable procedures in mechanical operations. Its
success is based upon imitation as a factor in learning, and it
is a well-known fact that imitation is a natural instinct which
figures greatly in all types of education.

The shop demonstration as performed by the skillful
teacher is unfailing in developing and maintaining interest
among students for various reasons: (1) There is an appeal
to the sense of vision; (2) skillful performance in hand manip-
ulations always attracts attention; (3) students see immediate
progress as result of effort; and (4) a desire is aroused to
emulate the work of the teacher.

The demonstration, then, is probably the teacher's greatest
asset in arriving at fundamental skills and practices and in
the shortest possible time. It may well be said that, for the
average school shop, the quality and quantity of work pro-
duced will depend greatly upon the instructor's use of the
demonstration.

Ability to perform in industry, or expert craftsmanship on
the part of the teacher, is not a sufficient guarantee, however,
of ability to demonstrate to others, necessary and desirable
as such craft skill is as a prerequisite. Ability to demonstrate
comes from analysis of the problem and from organization
of teaching procedure, plus an intimate knowledge of those
who are to learn from the presentation.

Demonstrations as used in this type of teaching may be
divided into three classes, namely: (1) class demonstrations,
(2) group demonstrations, (3) individual demonstrations.

Teaching Methods and Teaching Techniques

As discussed here, teaching methods are differentiated from
teaching techniques. The five teaching methods listed are

METHODS AND PROCEDURES IN TEACHING 47

thought of as broad, basic, coordinated procedures, each one
sufficient in scope to be used rather exclusively for teaching
segregated learning units. Techniques, on the other hand, are
considered as minor resources or procedures used to give
variety to the teaching process and to stimulate and maintain
interest in it. Under this interpretation, the "use of ques-
tions" could be a teaching technique used in connection with
the demonstration, the discussion, or the discovery method.
Clever blackboard sketching would not be a teaching method
but a technique for making a lecture presentation effective.
The organization of the class for student participation in
shop management would be a teaching technique but would
not be listed as a teaching method. Teaching techniques are
discussed further in Chapter V in connection with the dis-
cussion of teaching aids.

The Class Demonstration

It can well be assumed that in all groups where one subject
is being taught, there are reasons for giving demonstrations
to the entire class at one time. This is true particularly in
the early stages of a semester or course where individual ar-
ticles are being produced, and applies to the entire course
when production work is carried on. Wherever this can be the
procedure, several advantages may be noted: (1) the saving
of the instructor's time, (2) the fact that the entire class
receives the same instructions and suggestions with no chance
of later discovering that some have not been given certain
basic information, (3) the fact that in larger numbers, within
limits, there is more enthusiasm and interest.

The need for efficiency in the demonstration has already
been stressed. In addition, the following factors for a success-
ful demonstration are presented:

1. The class should feel a need for the demonstration. It
may be the task of the teacher to use some artificial means to

48 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

produce such an attitude; but in most cases the need for in-
formation about work which students are eager to do can be
the determining factor for the time of the demonstration. It
is an error to make demonstrations primarily because they had
been planned in advance for a certain date. (The preparation
of the student for the instruction is further discussed later in
this chapter.)

2. Confine the demonstration to a single unit of work.
Teachers often fail to analyze the instructional material into
sufficiently small units. As a consequence, the demonstration
becomes long, involved, and uninteresting. Emphasize a small
unit and enable the class to go to work as quickly as possible
after proper interest has been aroused in the work.

3. Have equipment and material in readiness. All devices
to be used in a demonstration must be at hand. While the
instructor goes to the toolroom or stockroom, or while he
sends some student, attention is diverted, and the emphasis
upon the unit of instruction is weakened or destroyed.

4. Make demonstration accessible to learners. The neces-
sity for planning the demonstration physically so that all stu-
dents can see it in detail and hear the oral explanation is not
always appreciated by teachers. Even teachers with much
experience fail to assume a position so that the processes
demonstrated will appear normal to those who observe. Fail-
ure on the part of students to do the work demonstrated often
comes from the fact that the teacher was facing the group
when performing, and therefore the students failed to follow
the motions of the teacher and in turn were unable to imitate
these motions when assigned to the work.

5. Use effective oral explanation. What should have been
a successful demonstration has more than once been killed by
too much so-called related information. In reality, it was not
related; it was foreign, and "dragged in." If it truly "relates,"
it may create interest. Too often the instructor is possessed

METHODS AND PROCEDURES IN TEACHING 49

by the urge to tell about his own experiences in school or
industry, or side-tracked by suggestions and questions of
members of the class. To decide beforehand just what
ground will be covered, and not to deviate too much, is
good advice in this connection. There are cases, however,
where teachers do not carry on sufficient conversation to
maintain interest in the demonstration. Oral explanations and
discussions are needed, but must serve to focus and hold
attention upon the work at hand.

6. Practice privately. Every demonstration covering a new
unit of work which has not been recently performed by the
instructor should be practiced beforehand. It happens too
often that the instructor runs against some unforeseen diffi-
culty when he relies upon his imagination and previous ex-
perience, and thus the class loses confidence in the instructor,
and inteiest in the work.

7. Do not demonstrate on studenfs 'work. It is unfair to
give one individual student the benefit of the work done in
the demonstration. The instructor should perform on a sep-
arate article which may belong to himself or to the shop when
completed.

8. Do not quit too soon. It is better as a rule to give a
longer demonstration, carried to a satisfactory completion,
than to stop short of the goal and attempt to cover the re-
mainder through oral directions. The proper confidence is
not thus established, and the complete visual image is not re-
ceived. This does not indicate that certain phases of the work
cannot be carried to completion by the instructor after the
class has been sent to work. But care should be taken to pre-
vent the impression that the instructor is afraid to try to per-
form certain processes because of lack of skill.

9. Use common tools. To reserve the newest and best-
looking tools for the teacher's demonstration bench is a mis-
take. Such tools may not work better, but they appear as if

50 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

they might, and thus create suspicion. Give the new tools to
students and use older ones for demonstration. This will show
that the outward appearance of tools has little to do with the
work they perform if they are in proper condition. The same
sizes of tools should also be used as those given to students.
Incidentally, the practice of using miniature tools for younger
students may be easily overdone.

10. Give an example in accuracy. The excuse by the teacher
that he is not taking the time to do the work as well as he
wants it done by the class is not always accepted by his stu-
dents. No greater accuracy or better technique can be de-
manded rightfully at any time, either in shops or drafting
rooms, than is set as a standard by the instructor's work.

11. Use accepted trade methods. There may be a good
reason why some teachers lack trade practice in some subject
which they teach. There is no reason, however, why they
should not learn from industry accepted procedures used in
the trade. After knowing such methods, there may be good
reasons for deviating from them because of differences in ob-
jectives, ability of students, lack of equipment, and so on, but
that is a different matter.

12. Check the success of the demonstration. Learn, before
sending the class to work, whether the demonstration has
served its purpose. This is probably best done by well-selected
questions. To ask for questions from the class will seldom
be helpful, for students do not know how to formulate them.
It is easier at this point to straighten out wrong thinking than
after material has been spoiled and time has been wasted by
students.

13. The jollow-up is important. The clinching feature of a
demonstration lies in diligent and patient checking to see that
it is put into operation. At the best, there will be need for
correcting wrong impressions, assisting in establishing correct
habits, and encouraging those who lack confidence to go on.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES IN TEACHING 51

The Group Demonstration

A group demonstration differs from the class demonstra-
tion only in that it is presented to a portion of the class, usually
while the remaining members are at work. Such demonstra-
tions are necessitated by one or more of the following condi-
tions: (1) A certain number of students in the class do not
get sufficient value from the class demonstration, and some
repetition is necessary; (2) in making individual projects, the
processes covered may vary too much to be of use and in-
terest to the entire class; (3) differences in ability and speed
of students have caused some to be too far ahead to make it
profitable for all to follow uniform demonstrations; (4) the
organization of the general shop divides the class into sections
doing entirely different work.

If there is a separate room where such groups may be taken
aside, efficient demonstrations become much easier. If they
must be given in the shop in the presence of noise and activity,
the load on the teacher is increased. In planning and perform-
ance, such demonstrations have much in common with those
given to the entire class. Since most group demonstrations
must be repeated at some other time to other groups of the
same class, it is very important to keep complete records of
the points covered, in order to be able to present the same
material and use the same basis for checking on the achieve-
ment of all groups. This suggestion might well be accepted
for all teaching, for the instructor who accumulates data and
material in organized form will soon find that much repeti-
tion of preparation of material can be eliminated, and the time
so consumed used to better advantage.

The Individual Demonstration

No teacher has yet succeeded in so organizing his work
that demonstrations to the class or even to smaller divisions of

52 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

the class cover the needs of all students. Neither would the
modern teacher desire to perfect such an organization if he
could, for to do so would necessitate an undesirable uniform-
ity in the work. There are various reasons for the fact that,
regardless of the efficiency of the general demonstrations,
there is always need for teaching individuals one at a time in
the shop. Variations in mechanical aptitude and in general
learning ability, irregularity in attendance, differences in
speed, and differences in problems attacked by the students
are some of the outstanding reasons involved.

The teaching of the individual student through demonstra-
tion of work on the individual basis is stressed here because
of the fact that there is a tendency to be less thorough in in-
structing one individual than when dealing with a class or
group. Individuals who need instruction at all need the right
kind, and whether one or ten students are involved, the prob-
lem is the same, namely, that of showing in detail the proce-
dure to be followed for a certain accomplishment in manual
work.

A conscientious follow-up of the general demonstration, as
suggested previously, and close individual touch with students
at all times will determine how much of this type of teaching
is needed. If 50 per cent of the class give evidence of lacking
ability to attack the problem without further assistance, the
general demonstration has not been a success, and the instruc-
tor needs to revise his procedure. If 90 per cent can go on
with the work without special difficulty, the teacher may be
proud of his job, and hasten to assist the remaining 10 per
cent.

The Lecture or Telling Method

The lecture or "telling" method is essentially the method
of teaching outside of manipulative work. In the shop it is
also useful, provided its place and function are known and

METHODS AND PROCEDURES IN TEACHING 53

appreciated. Facts to be learned in connection with the work
performed are often as important as the tool processes involved
in the performance. To tell facts to students may be the short-
est way to the acquisition of such facts. And, while the argu-
ment has been advanced that "telling is not teaching," it at
least offers opportunities for obtaining useful and essential
facts at a minimum expense of time. In many cases knowledge
may be just as effectively assimilated as if students were to
go to much trouble in finding it for themselves from reference
material and other sources. Because a student takes much time
to obtain certain facts is no guarantee of the increased value
of such facts.

The Illustrated Lecture

Whenever possible, the lecture or class talk should be illus-
trated in some way. This will increase the interest in the ma-
terials presented, and give a chance for impression through
various senses, sight, hearing, touch, smell. Wall charts, blue-
prints, samples of materials of various kinds, and motion pic-
tures offer suggestions for illustrative materials. The illustrated
lecture is particularly valuable in dealing with facts to be
learned, and material related to the operations performed.

This type of presentation of subject matter must not be
confused with the demonstration nor substituted for it. Some
teachers are in the habit of telling how to do things instead of
actually showing the operations, using tools only to illustrate
their lecture and failing to carry out the actual performance
of the demonstration in detail. Of course, any good demon-
stration involves oral explanations, but these come only as
means for strengthening the manipulative processes.

A good policy to establish, particularly with students of
junior-high-school ages, is to keep lecturing of all types down
to a minimum, and to confine oral presentations to very brief
periods. Instructors who naturally like to talk need to watch

54 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

themselves at this point. Unless there is a definite need felt
by the students, or unless such need can be established at the
outset, the instructor has no right to give vent to his constant
"desire to talk."

Printed Instruction or Textbook Method

Depending upon the printed page as the chief means of ac-
quiring an "education" has been the standard method of teach-
ers from time immemorial. In late years the value of the
textbook alone in teaching has been seriously questioned. In the
field of industrial arts the book method of teaching has been
less practiced than in most other subjects, and yet there are
many valuable uses for book assignments in industrial arts
teaching. A newer type of printed material for this field
which has received sufficient acceptance to be recognized as
a method is "instruction sheets."

The Use of Instruction Sheets

The changes in shop organization and layouts that have
brought about a variety of mechanical activities in schools in
place of the old program of one or two such activities, and
the recognition of the individual in shop teaching, have been
responsible, principally, for the popularity of instruction
sheets.

The general shop seems to be, essentially, where one looks
for the most extensive use of instruction sheets as a method of
teaching, but their use is by no means confined to that par-
ticular type of organization. They should readily be made a
useful feature in instruction in many types of schools or shops,
as pan-time continuation schools, evening classes, in the unit
shop of the junior high school, and in trade-preparatory
classes.

It should be kept in mind, however, that teaching through

METHODS AND PROCEDURES IN TEACHING 55

the use of instruction sheets has its limitations. While such
sheets constitute a most valuable teaching device, it is not in-
tended that they should supersede all other forms of instruc-
tion. The instructions must be prepared and the work
organized with this specific method of teaching in mind. Dif-
ficulties and disappointments are sure to follow the attempt to
make instruction sheets replace oral instruction, or to use them
without corresponding readjustments in class organization.

Types of Instruction Sheet

Experience in organizing material for instruction sheets and
using them has resulted in four distinct types: ( 1 ) operation
sheets, (2) information sheets, (3) assignment sheets, and (4)
job sheets. Each of these will be discussed briefly.

1 . Operation sheets. The operation sheet differs from other
instruction sheets in that it is based upon an operation or unit
of performance and not upon a job. Its use is applicable in all
types of teaching where the instructional area to be covered
can be analyzed into instructional units of performance, rather
than into jobs, such as "how to cut a miter," rather than "how
to make a picture frame," or "wiring an edge," instead of
"making a drinking cup." To the degree that such basic oper-
ations can be learned separately and later applied to job situa-
tions, time may be saved by the learner, provided that there
are indications that he will have future opportunities to make
such applications.

2. Job sheets. Teachers are probably best familiar with
this type of instruction sheet. It is the earliest type. Because
job sheets are most used, and perhaps the most promising as
a means in teaching, a complete sample sheet of one of the
available types is presented here. These sheets are designed
to cover a job or assignment in manipulative work, and the
material is divided up as shown in the sample, Figs. 1 and 2.

56

TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

Edited by
K. G. Smith

HOUSEHOLD MECHANICS
By Earl L. Bedell

JOB SHEETS
Class:

A-15

Student's Name:

Name of School: Date Begun:

THE JOB: To GLAZE A SASH.

Window panes are often broken in the house, garage, and other build-
ings. To be able to replace a broken window pane is often of great benefit,
especially if the weather is bad and no glazier can be found.

Cutting glass for picture frames, doors, and windows is a common job
about the house. It requires considerable practice to acquire the necessary
skill to cut a piece of glass but practice will soon enable one to do it very
well.

Putty is used to make a water-tight joint between the sash and the glass.
The putty must be plastic when used. Since air hardens putty it is often
necessary to remix it to the proper softness.

FIG. 23. Sectional
view of window.
A, putty; B,
glass , C, check
rail ; D, puttied
joint.

FIG. 24. Glass placed
in sash. A, back
puttied ; B, glass ;
C, putty; D, gla-
ziers points.

FIG. 26. Glass cutter.

Questions

1. What tools and materials does a glazier use?

2. What is (1) single strength window glass? (2) double strength win-
dow glass? (3) plate glass? (4) figured rolled glass?

FIG. 1. A Typical Job Sheet, Page 1.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES IN TEACHING 57

3. Where is each used? A-15

4. Explain why a sash should be primed with oil or paint.

5. Explain the purpose of "back puttying" or "bedding."

6. What purpose do the glaziers' points serve? The putty?

7. How long does it take for putty to dry and become hard?

References

Wood and Smith, Prevocational and Industrial Arts, p. 61.
Kidder-Nolan, Architects and Builders Pocket Book, p. 1487.

Tools and Materials

Sash, putty, glass, glazier's points, paint, oil, putty knife, glass cutter, and
ruler.

Procedure

1. Prime the sash with oil or thin paint.

2. Spread a thin layer of putty in the rebate of the sash.

3. Place pane of glass in sash convex side up, press firmly in place and
fasten with glazier's points. Have work checked by instructor.

4. Fill the remainder of rebate with putty. Smooth by running putty
knife over lightly.

Appraisal

1. Is the glass clean?

2. Is the putty neatly beveled against the sash?

3. Is the glass well fastened in the sa.L, and neatly back puttied?

Approval

Approved by the following pitpils:

Secure this approval before present- 1

ing the job sheet for the inspection of
the instructor. Poor woik should not
be approved. 2

If this job has been done at home it The two pupils whose signatures appear above.

together with the pupil who is doing the job, will

should be approved by an adult mem-
site the quality with wrucn V>u agree.

her of the family. agree to a grade (mark) by placing a cross oppo

' :h

1. Very good ( )

Approved by Instructor 2. Good ( )

3. Fair ( )

. , 4. Poor ( )

Date Completed 5. Unsatisfactory ( )

Instructor's grade

FIG. 2. A Typical Job Sheet, Page 2.

58 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

It will be noted that a job sheet covers processes which might
separately be taught by operation sheets. In the case of the
job shown in Figs. 1 and 2, separate operation sheets could be
available under "How to Cut Window Glass," "How to Ap-
ply Putty," "How to Prime a Sash."

3. Information sheets. This type of sheet is made to cover
some unit of information, and does not deal with performance
or manipulative procedure. Information sheets consist essen-
tially of textbook and reference material, organized in small
units and arranged from the standpoint and needs of certain
age and ability levels. Related information, occupational in-
formation, and, in fact, any of the "facts to be learned" in
connection with the shop program offer opportunities for the
use of this type of sheet.

4. Assignment sheets. According to Selvidge, 1 this type of
sheet possesses the following characteristics: (a) "A definite
statement of problems is given"; (b) "Sources of information
are stated with reactions"; (c) "Questions are assigned to di-
rect the reading, observation, and thought"; (d) "Provisions
are made for written answers to these questions."

Teacher-made Instruction Sheets

Some instructors feel that job sheets should be written by
the teacher who is to use them. This may be true under cer-
tain circumstances, such as (1) when no sheets covering the
subject have been published, (2) when the instructor is an ex-
pert organizer of this kind of material, or (3) when there is
ample time to spend on this phase of the work.

Purchased Instruction Sheets

Published sheets covering a wide range of subject matter
are now available, concerning which the following statements
may be made: (1) They can be purchased far more econom-

1 Selvidge, R. W., Individual Instruction Sheets (o.p.), The Manual Arts
Press, Peoria, Illinois, 1926, pp. 13-15.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES IN TEACHING 59

ically than the teacher can produce them; (2) the teacher's
time can profitably be spent on other phases of the work; (3)
the authors of commercial instruction sheets have usually had
extensive experience, and it will be difficult for the average
teacher to organize them as well; (4) it is possible to obtain
these sheets in large numbers so that each student may have
one; (5) it is a waste of students' time to have them copy cer-
tain kinds of material from the blackboard or other directions
furnished by the teacher. That sort of copying has proved
to have very little educational value, and is seldom in con-
venient or usable form.

Values of Instruction Sheets in Shop Teaching

When the instruction sheets are properly written, and,
properly used, they offer a number of advantages as a method
of instruction, among which may be mentioned the following:

1. Instruction sheets are a means for offering a greater va-
riety of work in the shop. Such variety could not be covered
by individual, personal instruction.

2. They save time of the teacher. The time so saved can
be used effectively in perfecting organization, and in other
phases of the work.

3. They save time of students that would otherwise be used
in waiting for attention of the instructor.

4. Interest of students is maintained, because they can pro-
ceed with the work without waking for demonstrations and
personal instructions.

5. They furnish printed directions to be followed. Success
in a great number of occupations depends upon ability to un-
derstand and follow directions set forth in this way; conse-
quently, the practice is of high importance.

6. Students are left on their own resources in carrying out
the work. The habit of "leaning on the teacher" at all times

60 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

does not produce an adequate sense of independence. Our
schools have been criticized by industry for failing to empha-
size initiative and self-reliance.

7. Instruction sheets are of great value as an aid to and
follow-up of the demonstration. They eliminate the need for
copying directions, and thus enable students to concentrate
upon the processes demonstrated. They also serve to establish
uniform checking levels in the progress of the work.

8. If standard instruction sheets are used, it is likely that
they are better organized with reference to procedure and
other material than would be the oral instructions of the
teacher.

9. They assist the teacher who might not be expert me-
chanically with reference to all phases of the work. Such
shortcomings on the part of the teacher are unavoidable where
a great variety of operations is covered.

If the instructional materials are not well written, or if the
instructor does not have his work properly organized, or if
he has failed to appreciate the real uses and purposes under-
lying this method of teaching, or if, as may sometimes be the
case, he is too indolent or careless to avail himself of this
teaching device in the proper way, some of the following
difficulties may develop:

Lf'mifcrf/ons of Instruction Sheets

The following are some limitations that may be listed in
connection with the use of instruction sheets:

1. The instructor may accept the use of the instruction
sheet as a substitute for personal teaching activities. "Get it
from the instruction sheet," will be his statement to the stu-
dents. He may be inclined to step out of the picture to the
same degree that the instruction sheets are brought in.

2. Some teachers may be inclined to allow tool processes
and mechanical performances to become less accurate, and the

METHODS AND PROCEDURES IN TEACHING 61

standards of workmanship indefinite. Such a condition would
develop from a tendency on the part of the instructor to omit
definite demonstrations to his students, and from failure to
check the work at prescribed periods as it progresses. This,
again, emphasizes the fact that for certain phases of instruc-
tion the written sheet is inadequate.

3. The argument that some boys are not well able to take
directions from written or printed material, or are not inter-
ested in doing so, has been raised against the wide use of in-
struction sheets. At this point it may well be said that success
in later occupational life is so largely dependent upon the de-
velopment of ability to read and understand that some training
in this phase of education would seem very desirable, if not
essential, for every boy. The habit of "leaning on the teacher"
which seems to be well established in some boys might be ef-
fectively discouraged through the use of the instruction sheet.

4. If the teacher is not wide-awake to his job, there may
be a tendency toward breaking down class organization and
regularity in conduct. This condition may come from the
fact that there is less personal contact with individual students
and that the class may not be so often assembled as a whole.
A good disciplinarian does not need many assemblies, how-
ever, in order to keep the members of the class in a coopera-
tive frame of mind. Interesting work is more effective toward
obtaining this end.

5. Under inefficient supervision the use of the instruction
sheet may lead to waste of material and improper use of tools.
These conditions may develop if students are allowed to pro-
ceed too largely in "trial-and-error" fashion, without first
making definite plans before they are allowed to go ahead
with the work.

6. Under improper organization there may be more danger
of accidents, because of the fact that the personal contact with
the instructor is less constant. This, again, depends greatly

62 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

upon whether the instructor is aware of the problem, and has
established a routine that fits in with this method of teaching
in the shop.

The fact might well be emphasized further in this connec-
tion that the difficulties here mentioned are not inherent in the
written instruction sheet, but arise because of the fact that
the instructor is uninformed as to the method, does not have
his work properly organized, is not sympathetic toward the
possibilities involved, or, for some other reason, is using the
method halfheartedly or as a means of saving himself from
work rather than of increasing the efficiency of his teaching.

Discussion or Conference Method

The discussion method is based upon extensive contributions
of ideas and expressions from the members of the group par-
ticipating. The conference technique, which has been devel-
oped to a high degree in dealing with adult groups, is
probably the most fully developed form of this method. The
conference method is extensively used in conducting f orman-
ship training, and with similar groups, but it need not and
should not be confined to adult programs. In various forms,
the discussion method is being used for all types of subjects
for all ages. It was considered a vital part of the project
method of teaching popularized in the 1920's and has been
stressed to a similar extent in connection with the concepts of
the "creative approach," "integration," "units of work,"
"child-centered" teaching, and similar movements of more re-
cent years toward democratic and socialized teaching proce-
dures.

Obviously there should be opportunities for self-expression
in the educational program of a democracy. Just how much
this method may be used will depend upon the type of work
engaged in, the objectives of courses taught, the students'
age, and the general organization of the entire school.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES IN TEACHING 63

Discovery and Profa/em-So/wng Method

The discovery and problem-solving method is well illus-
trated by the boy who spends hours on the living-room floor
or in his home workshop deciphering drawings for a model
airplane from a magazine and who improvises ways for build-
ing it. Under instruction from an expert teacher, that model
might be built in one half or one fourth the time. The question
remains as to what extent it is justifiable to expect or allow
students of junior- and senior-high-school levels to attempt to
discover their own methods of working or to solve their own
problems of procedure in doing the work.

At this point, opinion among teachers is divided. Those
stressing the need for problem solving would say: (1) The
traditional methods in teaching manual arts have been too dic-
tatorial; (2) modern educational theory places emphasis upon
individual thinking and self-expression; (3) industry and busi-
ness are looking for persons with initiative and originality
rather than blind following of tradition and directions; (4)
traditional methods and even skill are less important for the
rank and file of industrial arts students than traits leading to
character and general employability. In the opposite direc-
tion the following views might be held: (1) In most instances
in mechanical work techniques and methods of working have
been established through a long period of trial and experimen-
tation and to allow students to try to discover new and better
ways is a waste of time; (2) for one person who will be in
position to plan and originate work there will be ten who
must follow explicit directions; (3) many students are more
interested in following directions than in discovering methods
for themselves and will lose interest if made to do their own
planning; (4) following established methods is the best foun-
dation for inventing new ones.

It is obvious, however, that more responsibility should be

64 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

placed upon students in industrial arts classes for thinking out
and solving a larger number of problems than is commonly the
practice. To take the position, however, as some have done,
that all assignments in the school shop should be solved by
research and discovery is obviously a short-sighted viewpoint.
In the school shop there are many accepted ways of doing
work that can best be demonstrated and considered final, and
many established facts that can be stated and accepted with
the least expense of time and effort. But on the other hand,
there are many occasions for putting the student on his own
in connection with applications and combinations of tool proc-
esses and factual information.

It appears likely that success in the use of this method is
dependent to a large degree upon: ( 1 ) high initial interest on
the part of the student in the activity undertaken, (2) a cre-
ative and inventive type of mind, (3) projects within basic
experience and ability of the student, (4) reasonable length of
time allowed for concentrated work or for completion of
project, and (5) recognition of success or of promise of suc-
cess on the part of the student.

Planning Detailed Instruction

A knowledge of available teaching methods is a valuable
asset toward efficient teaching. Such knowledge is only a
foundation, however, upon which the daily work of the
teacher may be built. In the last analysis, teaching success
depends upon skillful application of teaching methods appro-
priately selected and applied in daily contacts between teacher
and pupil. In order to make his teaching effective, the teacher
must analyze his instructional content and plan his teaching
procedure ahead of time for each teaching unit to be covered,
regardless of the basic method used. Procedures in analyzing
technical content and organizing material for instructional use
are discussed extensively in Chapter XII, dealing with subject

METHODS AND PROCEDURES IN TEACHING 65

matter in industrial arts, and in Chapter XIII, covering organ-
ization of course of study. Techniques for lesson planning
are presented in this chapter as indicated in the following par-
agraphs.

Lesson Planning

The lesson plan is essentially a treatment in detail of a small
unit of subject matter for presentation to students. No teach-
ing unit can be presented with the greatest measure of success
unless the instructor has first developed a plan for his teaching
procedure.

The course of study furnishes an outline of the major phases
of the program to be followed. A comprehensive course may
furnish a part of the teaching directions. Nevertheless, it falls
upon the instructor to organize his material in complete form
before presenting that material, and only by making definite
preparation for each teaching situation can he hope to be suc-
cessful in his work. Just how detailed the written plan must be
will depend upon several conditions, among which are: (1)
the extent of the teacher's experience in teaching this particu-
lar subject to this particular age or grade of students, (2) the
extent to which he is skilled in the correct procedure from
the standpoint of mechanical performance, (3) his ability to
think in an abstract way through a series of steps without the
use of written analysis and steps of procedure.

The beginner who is learning to instruct through directed
teaching as a part of his professional training is usually re-
quired to make plans of the most extensive type. The person
who, for some reason or other, goes into teaching without
such a period of special training under supervision should con-
sider it necessary to write out in full his objectives, analysis,
and teaching procedure, in order that he may picture the
problems involved before he has to face them. Written lesson
plans are valuable also in that they furnish a check upon one's

66 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

activities for later reference. Teaching plans in industrial arts
work may be divided into two kinds: ( 1 ) the comprehensive
or detailed plan, and (2) the abbreviated or skeleton plan.

Analysis as a Basis for Planning Instruction

A minute analysis of the necessary operations or the facts
or principles that make up the teaching unit to be presented
is basic to successful teaching. If this concept is kept in
mind, it will then become imperative that such an analy-
sis be made before the steps of teaching procedure are deter-
mined upon.

Let us assume that a basic demonstration on the use of the
marking gauge is planned for a ninth-grade woodworking
class. Obviously the teacher will expect to present in proper
order all the necessary tool operations as well as a logical order
of facts that must be kept in mind when learning these opera-
tions and in applying them. But before he can list the instruc-
tional procedure for his lesson, he must have determined just
what it is that is necessary for the learner to know and to be
able to do in order to accomplish the aim of the teaching
presentation. This he does by analyzing the desired procedure.
The analysis may be based on experimentation by the instruc-
tor previous to the presentation, on available analyses made
by others as presented in printed material, or, when the
teacher has had extensive craft and teaching experience, from
memory and mental analysis. The source used is not important
provided the analysis is reliable so that important units are not
omitted, with consequent embarrassment to the instructor.
Procedures in analyzing industrial and craft processes for
teaching material are discussed more fully in Chapter XIII,
under the heading of courses of study.

Not only is it essential to have an analysis of operations and
facts pertinent to the presentation, but these must also be ar-
ranged in instructional order before they can be presented

METHODS AND PROCEDURES IN TEACHING 67

effectively to the class. As an illustration of the type of analy-
sis discussed here, the following list is presented as containing
the things that the learner must know and be able to do in
order to use a marking gauge correctly. These are arranged
also in the proper instructional order.

Analysis of Instructional Material for Lesson on
Use of Marking Gauge:

1. What a marking gauge is, and its functions.

2. Identifying functional parts of a marking gauge.

3. Reading a rule up to iV' divisions.

4. Setting the marking gauge to dimensions.

5. Checking the set-up for accuracy.

6. Method of holding stock while gauging.

7. Method of holding marking gauge while marking with
grain of wood.

8. Method of holding gauge when marking across grain
of wood.

9. Sequence of operations when marking various members
or parts of a construction job.

10. Reinforcing gauge lines with lead pencil.
It will be noticed that his analysis makes no reference to
techniques or to actual procedures for carrying out the ele-
ments of learning which are indicated. Making the student
acquainted with the best way of acquiring the desired knowl-
edge and the ability to use the marking gauge is then covered
under "teaching procedure" in the lesson plan. The analysis
as shown here may be included as a section in the teaching
plan. It can more properly be left out of the actual plan, how-
ever, in the interest of simplicity, and made separately for ref-
erence when the teaching plan is organized.

Approved Sfeps in Teaching

Plans for giving instruction in any unit in shopwork will

68 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

normally be based upon the following four recognized steps
in teaching:

1. Introduction.

2. Presentation.

3. Application and assignment.

4. Checking and testing.

These steps are largely self-explanatory. Step 1 refers to
the necessity of interesting the learner in the new material
which is to be presented and to assist him to establish connec-
tions between his previous experience and the projected new
experience. Reduced to its simplest terms, this means that the
teacher must be skillful and resourceful in making the new
topic or activity appear necessary and valuable before pro-
ceeding to present it in detail. Eagerness to learn should be
the normal result of a suitable introduction.

Step 2 embodies the actual teaching procedure in minute
detail. Whether a demonstration of tool processes or a topic
for discussion is involved the fact will remain that this part
requires most careful planning. The content under this step
comes from the analysis of content previously discussed, but,
of course, the technique of presentation must be organized
and suited to individual needs.

The interpretation of step 3 for teaching in the industrial
arts would be that the student is given a chance to make ap-
plication of the new learning at the earliest possible moment.
He should have opportunity to practice what has been pre-
sented in order that the material presented may become a part
of his own experience.

The practice of testing and checking as indicated in step 4
must be a definite part of every teacher's activity. This step
is not satisfied simply by giving examinations at infrequent in-
tervals. It means constant follow-up of every lesson or presen-
tation or assignment to see whether the learners have attained
the desired goal.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES IN TEACHING 69

A Sample Teaching Plan

While the four steps in teaching discussed in previous para-
graphs form the basis for the teaching plan, it becomes neces-
sary to add other items as preliminary matter when writing the
plans. Some of these items may vary according to individual
circumstances. They would normally include: (1) name of
school, (2) name of supervisor or supervising teacher, (3)
grade of students, (4) subject taught, (5) name of the teacher
writing the plans, and (6) date when lesson will be presented.

Even more necessary than these would be: (1) a statement
of immediate objectives or goals sought by the lesson or presen-
tation, and (2) a listing of tools, materials, and other teaching
aids to be used. The following sample teaching plan will indi-
cate the organization of material according to these proce-
dures:

TEACHING PLAN IN SHOPWORK

School: University High School Teacher:

Grade: 9B Supervisor:

Course: Woodwork Date to be Used:

I. Objective: To enable students to learn correct use of the
marking gauge and to acquire practice in manipulating it.

II. Tools and material used:

1. Standard marking gauge for woodworking.

2. Chart showing disassembled gauge and names of parts.

3. Chart showing various types of gauges and their devel-
opment.

4. Piece of stock for practicing.

5. Working drawing of footstool.

6. Legs and rails of footstool ready for laying out mor-
tise and tenon.

7. Rule.

70 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

8. Try square.

9. Pencil.

III. Preparation (developing proper mind-set in learner):

1. The marking gauge is one of the tools most commonly
found in the tool kit of all woodworkers. Is one of
the oldest tools used.

2. Historically, it has passed through various stages of
development as shown by charts available.

3. The value of the marking gauge is that it furnishes an
accurate method of making lines on wood parallel to
the edges of the stock. It makes it possible to mark
for thickness, width, etc., much more accurately than
with rule and straightedge and more rapidly.

4. The marking gauge is not so easy to handle, however,
as it might seem to be when a skilled workman uses it.
For this reason it is advisable to observe the procedure
carefully and then practice on waste stock until the
necessary skill has been acquired.

5. Many different kinds of gauges are used in trades and
industries, such as thickness gauges, wire gauges, depth
gauges, etc.

IV. Presentation (procedure in teaching):

(This lesson is taught by the demonstration method.)

1. The functional parts of a marking gauge are head,
beam (marked in inches and fractions), thumbscrew,
and spur, as shown on chart available.

2. The head is movable on the beam and is fastened at
any desired position by the use of the thumbscrew.

3. To set the gauge, move the head to the dimension
desired, according to the markings on beam, and
tighten the thumbscrew.

4. Now check the accuracy of the set-up by measuring
with the rule the distance between spur and beam. This
is necessary because the spur may be bent from its
original position.

5. A more accurate check may be had by testing the
gauge on a piece of scrap stock and measuring with
the rule upon the stock.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES IN TEACHING 71

6. When in use, the gauge is held in the right hand with
the head in the palm of the hand as if holding a ball or
similar object. The thumb is extended along the beam
(as shown by the instructor).

7. The stock is held in the left hand, with one end usually
resting against the bench stop or bench hook.

8. Always have stock face marked and run the head of
the gauge against the face of the stock.

9. Relax the muscles of the right hand in order to feel
the gauge running flat against the stock the whole
length of the stroke.

10. The stroke is made away from the operator.

11. It is advisable for the beginner to make a light line
with the first stroke and to reinforce it with an addi-
tional stroke or two.

12. The line made by the marking gauge may be made
more visible by running a sharp pencil along the
groove made by the spur.

13. When marking several members of a project such as
mortise-and-tenon joints for doors and frames, be sure
to mark all pieces before resetting the gauge.

14. Care must be taken not to bend the spur of the gauge,
causing the gauge to become inaccurate.

V. Application and assignment (learner applies new instruction
as assigned):

1 . Instructor asks appropriate questions to make sure that
learners understand presentation and know how to
apply it to new task.

2. Instructor points out direct application of presentation
to immediate learning needs of students.

3. Students will practice gauging on scrap stocks until
technique is established.

4. Students will proceed to gauge legs for footstool to
required dimensions under close supervision of teacher.

5. Individual assistance is given wherever needed.

VI. Checking and testing:

1. Each student will present practice gauging on scrap

72 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

stock for approval before proceeding with actual
work.

2. Instructor will check marking on actual work before
student planes the legs to size.

3. General difficulties will be reviewed in subsequent
lesson, or if too serious, the class is called together
again for discussion and further explanations.

4. Students may be given the responsibility for checking
their own and their fellow students' work.

This teaching plan can be used equally well with any one
of the teaching methods discussed earlier in this chapter. Part
IV of the sample plan, containing Presentation, is of course
adjusted to the type of procedure or technique employed. If
instruction sheets, or book instruction, furnish the main body
of information or direction, it will be so indicated in making
the plan. If a purely informational lesson is to be presented,
the facts that are to be taught will be listed under Part IV
and the Application will be organized accordingly.

The Abbreviated Teaching Plan

While it would, no doubt, be of benefit to teachers of ex-
perience to write out a comprehensive plan periodically in
order to check their own ability to analyze and organize their
work in complete detail, it is obvious that to continue to make
such a plan for every lesson or meeting with the class would
cause an undue drain on the instructor's time. It should be
kept in mind, however, that there must be some form of or-
ganized procedure thought out before the work is to be pre-
sented, and this procedure should be based upon the needs as
established through an analysis of the instruction unit. As
has been suggested previously, after much practice the instruc-
tor becomes able by habit to keep much of this in mind and
do much of the recalling and organizing in the presence of
students.

It is also true, on the other hand, that teachers become ha-

METHODS AND PROCEDURES IN TEACHING 73

bitually careless about the efficiency of their teaching, and, in
such cases, the plan is omitted not because it is superfluous
but because the instructor has grown stale on the job. Super-
visors and principals often require plans of some sort; but,
whether or not such plans are compulsory, the wide-awake
teacher will consider it good professional practice to plan his
work with regularity and definiteness.

An abbreviated form of plan which may reasonably be used
by all teachers is given below:

ABBREVIATED TEACHING PLAN
Grade: 9B Date used

Course: Woodwork
I. Topic to be covered: the use of the marking gauge.

II. Tools and materials needed:

1. Marking gauge.

2. Charts.

3. Practice stock.

4. Legs and rails of footstool.

5. Working drawing of footstool.

6. Rule.

7. Try square.

8. Pencil.

III. Preparation:

1. Importance of marking gauge in woodworking.

2. Historic development of gauge.

3. Skill needed for using gauge.

IV. Presentation (demonstration by teacher):

1. Names of principal parts of gauge.

2. Operating thumbscrew.

3. Methods of checking for accuracy.

4. Holding stock.

5. Holding gauge.

74 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

6. Reinforcing line with pencil.

7. Care of gauge.

V. Application and assignment (student work):

1. List of questions to check understanding and indicate
application to real job.

2. Learner will set gauge to l / 2 " and make line on practice
piece.

3. Do the same for %", %", and I'/z".

4. Learners will gauge legs of footstool to size.

VI. Testing:

1. Check gauging on practice piece.

2. Check set-up on gauge before student marks finished
work.

3. Students will check work of other students.

4. Names of parts of gauge will be checked in written test
with other tools included.

The use of a plan of this kind does not demand a large
amount of time in writing. The benefits will far outweigh
the effort put forth. If such plans are filed by the instructor,
they become equally useful when the work is repeated. They
also furnish an opportunity for checking results of the teach-
ing, in addition to being available at any time as an evidence
to the principal or supervisor of teaching efficiency.

Basic Units Covered by Teaching Plan

In shopwork the scope of teaching plans may be determined
by one of several considerations:

1. The unit plan. This type of plan is based upon an in-
structional unit, which again may consist of: (a) a unit opera-
tion or principle involved, or (b) a detail of construction of
an article. The plans submitted here cover one instructional
unit. This unit again is distinguishable as an operation. If the
objective had been "to lay out mortise and tenon for a foot-

METHODS AND PROCEDURES IN TEACHING 75

stool," then the unit would have been determined as a detail
of construction.

2. The project plan. This type of plan may cover the
work of several meetings of the class and several demonstra-
tions or lessons. It is based upon the complete article to be
constructed or the job to be done. In general it is difficult to
plan the teaching in this way. The course of study should
describe the entire block of instruction. The teaching plan
will treat the work in smaller units. Where pupil planning
and use of instruction sheets are stressed, however, it is some-
times necessary to make plans covering a larger scope of ac-
tivity by the teacher and students.

3. The daily plan. This plan is organized with reference to
the scope of work which is to be covered in one day or one
teaching period. It is difficult to use in shopwork, because one
cannot foresee with accuracy how much work can be ac-
complished.

4. The weekly plan. Here, again, the time element enters
and makes planning uncertain. The weekly plan is, however,
more workable than the daily plan, because it is extended over
a longer period of time.

The Weekly Report or Checking Sheet

Whether the teacher is working directly under a super-
visor or not, it is a good practice to use some means of check-
ing at regular intervals upon the success in teaching the
material outlined in the teaching plans. A more complete treat-
ment of evaluating teaching efficiency appears in Chapter IX.
It seems, however, that some type of checking and report
sheet is a distinct complement to the teaching plan, and for
this reason it is mentioned here. A form for this purpose
which has been used with apparent success by student teach-
ers under the author's supervision is furnished in this con-
nection:

76 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

WEEKLY CHECKING SHEET

Teaching Report for 'week ending

Assignment: School Teacher Grade

Days Hours

Course Attendance Supervisor ....

Project or Projects Under Construction:

Specific Information Topics Presented:

1

2

Demonstrations Given (group or Individual):

1

2

3

Apparent Success of Demonstrations Given:

1

2

3

Special Problems Met:

1

2

How solved:

a

b

Problems unsolved:

a

b

Original Ideas and Suggestions for Better Progress:

1

2

Criticisms Received:

1

2

Name of Teacher:

METHODS AND PROCEDURES IN TEACHING 77

Remarks by Supervisor:

This form, with slight variations, should be useful as a
weekly checking sheet by teachers on the job. Other forms
can easily be organized to suit individual conditions. Unless
frequent check is made upon one's teaching, and unless time
is taken to look back and evaluate one's progress as compared
to original plans, there is likely to be lack of correlation be-
tween what was intended and what has actually been accom-
plished.

Avoiding Annoyances and Distractions

A number of suggestions were offered in Chapter I for de-
veloping an initial interest in the work at the beginning of the
course or the school year. It is probably easier, however, to
establish an attitude of enthusiasm than to maintain it.

Unfortunately, the average school has not yet recognized
the student as the center of the school program. In theory,
all would agree that the school is organized for the students;
in practice, evidence would refute the theory to a great ex-
tent. By carelessness, more than by design on the part of teach-
ers and administration, the student is often annoyed, inter-
rupted, discouraged, and otherwise treated as if his time and
effort were of no real consequence. Too many of these an-
noyances are allowed to exist in the industrial arts shop. Some
of them may be unavoidable, but, in most cases, lack of plan-
ning and lack of understanding of adolescent psychology are
causes of their existence. The following list will indicate some
of the more obvious annoyances and distractions that tend to
kill interest and retard learning in school shops.

Distractions and Annoyances:

1. Dull tools.

2. Waiting for instruction.

78 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

3. Inadequate demonstrations.

4. Waiting for slow students.

5. Tools not available.

6. Materials not available.

7. Beginning and advanced students mixed.

8. Too much lecturing.

9. Too long demonstrations.

10. Lack of work stations for all students.

1 1 . Too large classes.

12. Too much theory and bookwork.

13. Loafing by some students.

14. Teacher lacking mechanical skill.

15. Lack of definite instructions.

16. Interruptions by assemblies.

17. Too many school projects.

18. Instructor working on personal projects.

19. Poorly arranged shop.

20. Poor light.

2 1 . Outside noises and distractions; playgrounds, etc.

22. Work projects prove too difficult.

23. Teacher has "pets."

24. Maintenance men working in shop.

25. Too much related and technical information.

26. Projects obsolete.

27. Too much repetition of information and toolwork.

28. Teacher leaves classroom over long periods.

29. Instruction interrupted by phone calls or by the admin-
istration.

30. Teacher's mannerisms.

3 1 . Too many rules.

32. Too much student participation in management.

33. Students called out by teachers and administration.

34. Tool man interfering with student activity.

35. Lack of locker space.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES IN TEACHING 79

36. Class time too short.

37. Problem students in class.

38. Too much tool maintenance.

39. Building too much shop equipment.

40. Too much practice work.

41. Power equipment in poor condition.

Remedies for most of these annoyances are obvious to wide-
awake teachers. Good teachers will not let many of these
conditions develop to a noticeable degree, and they will
quickly recognize and proceed to eliminate those that may
exist or threaten to appear. Some of them may be outside of
immediate possibilities for action, and the best thing the
teacher can do is to counteract them in the best way possible
and wait for future opportunities to act.

Techniques for Maintaining Interest

The following suggestions are offered for maintaining inter-
est and keeping it at a high pitch over a long period of time:

1. Call class together at the beginning of each period.

2. Have a definitely planned, small unit of instruction ready
for presentation for each class meeting before students go to
work.

3. Make each presentation different from that of the day
before. This can be brought about by differences in subject
matter or in manner of presentation.

4. Use variety of teaching aids both for instruction and for
stimulating interest. (See Chapter V for a discussion on teach-
ing aids.)

5. Draw upon popular magazines, motion pictures, news-
papers, etc., for examples of applications to work which stu-
dents are doing.

6. Rotate student jobs in class maintenance at frequent in-
tervals.

80 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

7. Indicate or present difficult, but interesting, problems for
solution by class, encouraging problem solving.

8. Use blackboard sketches for stimulating interest.

9. Give recognition to student effort. Do so often.

10. Keep a progress chart. Students like to see their degree
of progress indicated by marks.

11. Let students assist in solving problems rather than sim-
ply be told what to do.

12. Assign work so that each student can experience success.

13. Keep an atmosphere of joy and accomplishment in the
class at all times.

14. Make the work of the class progress at as rapid rate as
possible.

15. Use questions freely to stimulate thinking and sustain
interest.

PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS

1. What additions would you make to the thirteen factors for
a successful demonstration presented in this chapter?

2. Under what conditions should the teacher call upon stu-
dents to make demonstrations before the class?

3. Are trade methods always feasible or desirable in the school
shop? Why?

4. If a pupil begins four weeks late in a class in electrical work,
is it better to start him from the beginning or to let him go with
the class as far as possible?

5. Give a list of teaching units for the shop which you think
can best be taught by the lecture method.

6. How could industrial-arts content be used for the "core"
in the junior-high-school curriculum?

7. Discuss teaching methods other than those mentioned in
this chapter.

8. Explain what is meant by the "child-centered school."

9. To what extent do you feel that "integration" may be car-
ried out in teaching industrial arts?

10. How should one deal with the student who always wants
to do things a different way from that shown in the demonstra-
tion?

METHODS AND PROCEDURES IN TEACHING 81

11. What are the advantages and disadvantages in using stu-
dents as monitors?

12. What method or methods of teaching will best promote
"problem solving" and discovery on the part of the pupils?

13. In planning a lesson for a new group, what means would
one have for determining what is already known?

14. For what reasons should students be allowed to make up
their own procedure sheets?

15. Write a teaching plan on some unit of presentation involv-
ing the conference method. Follow the style of the comprehen-
sive plan presented in this chapter.

16. How would you deal with a custodian or janitor who
comes into your room and shows students how to do their work?

17. Discuss the relative length of class talk and discussion as
compared to the time allowed for manipulative work in junior-
high-school industrial arts. In senior-high-school.

18. Name five magazines in which the teacher would expect to
find suggestions for industrial arts projects.

19. List ten teaching units or topics which would lend them-
selves to the use of the conference method.

20. How much time should a shop teacher have for preparation
as compared to a teacher of mathematics?

21. What can industrial arts teachers do to impress upon prin-
cipals the need of scheduled time for preparation for daily work?

REFERENCES

1. Banks, Murray, "The Conference Method in Vocational
Education," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education,
34:7-8, January, 1945.

2. Bennett, Charles Alpheus, "Teaching Techniques," Indus-
trial Education Magazine, 40:32-4, January, 1938.

3. Commission for Teacher Education, Teachers for Our
Times, American Council on Education, 1944, Chap. III.

4. Dolan, Capt. F. D., "How to Use the Blackboard," Indus-
trial Arts and Vocational Education, 33:272-4, September,
1944.

5. Ericson, Emanuel E., "Implications of Progressive Educa-

82 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

tion for the Industrial Arts," Industrial Education Magazine,
41:7-11, January, 1939.

6. Friese, John F., Exploring the Manual Arts, The Century
Co., 1926, Chaps. IV and XII, and p. 329.

7. Fryklund, Verne C, Trade and Job Analysis, The Bruce
Publishing Co., 1942, Chaps. 10 and 12.

8. Giachino, J. W., "Student's Job Plan," Industrial Arts and
Vocational Education, 33:361-2, November, 1944.

9. Grinstead, Noel B., "The Value of an Experimental Atti-
tude," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 31: 149-51,
April, 1942.

10. Huntington, H. H., "Integration and Industrial Education,"
Industrial Education Magazine, 41:12-22, January, 1939.

11. Jackey, David F., and Barlow, Melvin L., The Craftsman
Prepares to Teach, The Macmillan Co., 1944, Chap. 7.

12. James, Hirchel M., "Operation Sheets Prepared by Stu-
dents," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 26:280-1
September, 1937.

1 3. Jesse, G., "Industrial- Arts Methods in Junior High Schools, v
Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 28:117-78, May
1939.

14. Karnes, Ray, "The Demonstration," Industrial Arts and Vo^
cational Education, 31:323-6, October, 1942.

15. Lancelot, W. H., Permanent Learning, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1944, Chap. 18.

16. Micheels, William J., "Planning the Daily Lesson," Indus-
trial Arts and Vocational Education, 31:414-7, December,
1942.

17. Newkirk, L. V., and Stoddard, G. D., The General Shop,
The Manual Arts Press, 1929, Chap. VI.

18. Rose, H. C., and Callahan, M. B., "Visual Aids on Teaching
Techniques," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education,
34:244-6, June, 1945.

19. Selvidge, R. W., and Fryklund, Verne C, Principles of
Trade and Industrial Teaching, The Manual Arts Press,
1946, Chap. VI.

20. Silvius, G. Harold, "The Student's Plan of Work," Indus-
trial Arts and Vocational Education, 34: 147-9, April, 1945.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES IN TEACHING 83

21. Siskind, Charles S., "What is Good Teaching?" Industrial
Arts and Vocational Education, 34:46-8, January, 1945.

22. Struck, F. T., Creative Teaching, John Wiley and Sons,
Inc., 1938, Chaps. VIII, IX, X, and XL

23. Wallen, Edward N., "Instruction Sheets," Industrial Arts
and Vocational Education, 34:124, March, 1945.

Chapter III
DISCIPLINE IN THE SCHOOL SHOP

Interpretation of Discipline

The interpretation of discipline in the schoolroom has
changed materially in recent years. In contrast to the old
thought of implicit obedience to rules and regulations, the
modern teacher considers effective discipline to be connected
with self-imposed personal and social adjustments on the part
of the pupil adjustments that will foster habits of thinking
and of conduct that will lead to social responsibility both in
present and future group life.

Under this interpretation of discipline, rules and regulations
will lose much of their importance except as they are under-
stood and accepted by those who are affected by them. It will
also be implied that enforcement of rales will be approached
from a new viewpoint, and that "reproof" and "correction"
will be administered, when necessary, in the light of individual
behavior, rather than of blind "punishment."

For the school shop, successful discipline of the type dis-
cussed here is largely dependent upon the following condi-
tions: ( 1 ) interest and understanding on the part of the pupil,
(2) careful planning by the instructor, and (3) suitable work-
ing conditions. These will be discussed in detail in following
paragraphs.

Pupil Participation in Discipline

In a modern approach to the problem of class management
and discipline in the school shop, the student must first be
considered. It is a trite saying that we must not teach subject
matter in our schools, but boys and girls. Yet it is true that

34

DISCIPLINE IN THE SCHOOL SHOP 85

even in our day numerous shop teachers, probably the ma-
jority, are approaching their work from some other viewpoint
than that of the student himself.

In order to have discipline we must have cooperation of the
students, and cooperation is a result of an attitude of mind.
The question of cooperative attitudes on the part of students
was briefly discussed in Chapter I. It has such direct bearing
upon the question of discipline that it can well be emphasized
again.

In dealing with this question of class management and dis-
cipline from the student's angle, the following factors should
receive consideration:

1. Is the student interested? Students who are not inter-
ested soon become a problem for the teacher. Take time now
to make a plan for interesting them, and save time later in en-
forcing discipline. Probably without exception every class
member can become interested in the work if properly en-
couraged.

2. Is he definitely occupied? "An idle brain is the Devil's
workshop," is a statement that applies here. Idle brains and
idle hands are closely associated. The instructor's responsibil-
ity is to plan work for everyone work that is educative and
interesting. The rapid worker often becomes a problem here.
With his work completed, and nothing more planned until
tomorrow, what is there to do but some kind of mischief or
useless activity for the rest of the day?

3. Does the boy appreciate time values? One of the most
difficult things of all in dealing with young, inexperienced per-
sons is to develop in them an appreciation of the value of time.
Wasting time appears to be the principal occupation of some
students, and where there are loafers present the question of
order and discipline soon becomes acute.

4. Does he take pride in his work? Some cases in discipline
probably arise from the fact that the student has no pride in

86 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

his own accomplishments. In many cases he has never ac-
complished anything praiseworthy, and, consequently, has not
experienced the joy of success. Make his work successful by
all means, in some accomplishment well within his ability, and
be sure to give recognition to even the smallest degree of suc-
cess. Habitual failure in work makes a student quit trying
and begin to play.

5. Does the student know what is required? Frequently, in-
structors mistake lack of knowledge of requirements for ill
will and lack of cooperation. It is the duty of the teacher to
give out definite information regarding shop practices, de-
tailed procedures in carrying out work, standards of work-
manship, care of equipment, and other requirements of the
shop program.

6. Does the student have a purpose? Upon the answer to
this question depends many so-called problem cases. Lack of
a purpose in the student's mind is the cause of lack of interest
in the shop as well as in English or Latin. A method of ac-
quainting pupils with values to be gained has been discussed
in Chapter I.

7. Does he think well of the teacher? Once the author
heard a school superintendent say that the greatest success
quality of the part of an elementary teacher is to be able to be
well liked and respected by her pupils. This statement de-
serves consideration by teachers of all grades. Some teachers
complain that students do not have the proper respect toward
them. The reply might well be that there is just as much re-
spect as has been instilled by the instructor. There is a differ-
ence between familiarity, on one hand, and friendliness and
frank dealing on the other. Aloofness on the part of the in-
structor for the purpose of preserving dignity is probably as
bad as a total absence of reserve. After all, the teacher must
be "looked up to" by those in his charge. Some teachers can
go further than others in meeting the students on an equal

DISCIPLINE IN THE SCHOOL SHOP 87

basis, but a certain amount of reserve seems to be essential for
successful discipline.

8. Does the student have aptitude? Total lack of aptitude
for the work is a cause of lack of interest in it. In extreme
cases of ineptness, might it not be better to substitute other
types of work, or change the routine in the manipulative work,
rather than to run the risk of developing undesirable habits
and personality traits? At any rate, lack of aptitude should be
recognized when dealing with discipline in the shop.

9. Is he socially adjusted to the group? Difference in age,
failure in other school subjects, being out of tune with the
group socially, economic status, and similar conditions typical
of adolescence must be understood by the teacher when deal-
ing with problems of discipline and class routine. In respect
to these problems the industrial arts teacher has superior op-
portunities to assist students because of the informal atmos-
phere that may be maintained and the close personal contacts
possible.

10. Is he properly dressed for work? When not properly
dressed for work, the student is at a disadvantage at the outset.
Such a condition makes him exempt from certain phases of
the work, and soon places him in the position of a privileged
or superfluous character.

The Teacher as a Factor in Discipline

The teacher and his attitudes have great bearing upon the
responses that students will give. Too often it is felt that stu-
dents are inferior in ability or irregular in their behavior when
in reality the instructor has failed to do his part. The ques-
tions which are directed toward the instructor in the follow-
ing paragraphs may throw some light upon his duties and
possibilities as a factor in discipline.

1. Is the teacher interested in teaching? It is obvious that
interest on the part of the teacher stimulates pupil interest.

88 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

Teachers whose hearts are not in the work, who have no real
love for the youth under their care, and who may be in the
teaching profession as a temporary measure only, will soon be
found out by their pupils. A disinterested teacher will soon
have disinterested pupils.

2. Is he interested in the subject 'which he teaches? A
teacher may be effective in certain subjects where his interest
is strong, and not so effective in some other subject. Interest
in the subject matter can be developed if one is interested in
teaching generally. Sometimes teachers are requested or re-
quired to teach new subjects when they have no particular
interest in such subjects. Unless the person soon develops an
interest in such work, the condition will have bad effects on
the students.

3. Does the teacher know his subject matter? This ques-
tion needs no elaboration. Many a teacher has lost the hold on
his class because of the one fact that he has not had sufficient
knowledge and teaching skill in the subject. Lack of respect
develops from lack of confidence in the instructor. If the in-
structor lacks knowledge or skill for efficient teaching, he
should improve himself without delay or quit his profession.

4. Does he have aptitude for teaching? There are "square
pegs in round holes" among shop teachers. The teacher with-
out aptitude has many troubles with reference to discipline.
The best he can do is to go into some other occupation or look
toward teaching some other subject.

5. Does he speak plainly and convincingly? The speech of
a teacher is either his asset or his liability. Extensive self -im-
provement can be brought about on this point. The manner in
which directions are given and the subtle effect of the voice
of the instructor are of great importance. From lack of per-
fection in this regard come many difficulties in discipline.

6. Can he control his emotions? It may seem strange to
question a teacher on this point. But the question is pertinent.

DISCIPLINE IN THE SCHOOL SHOP 89

No one who lacks the ability to control himself can expect to
be successful in directing and controlling others. One display
of lack of control of his temper will put the teacher at a dis-
advantage with his class. Whatever else a teacher may lack
he must of necessity have the ability to be calm and sensible
at all times.

7. Has he a sense of fairness? Lack of ability or inclination
to be fair may be unthinkable by some in connection with the
attributes of a teacher. Yet every instructor is human, and,
unless he checks his own attitudes and procedures closely and
often, there may creep into his reactions some dealings which
students will justly consider unfair. Also, there are teachers
who seem to lack the natural qualities of leadership and per-
sonality that enable them to make just decisions quickly and
acceptably to students. What has been said here should not be
confused with the tendency of students to have a temporary
feeling that they have gotten a "wrong deal." If the instruc-
tor is just at heart, and reasonably tactful in his contact with
students, such feeling will in the long run be replaced by one
of respect and admiration.

8. Are learning difficulties appreciated? Discipline prob-
lems sometimes are created by lack of sympathy with the pupil
in the early stages of his learning. Teachers are prone to for-
get the difficulties which they experienced in learning those
processes of thought and performance which have now be-
come habitual with them. The more expert the teacher is as a
mechanic, the more danger is there that he will underestimate
and sometimes ridicule important problems of beginning stu-
dents. Such an attitude on the part of the teacher leads to
difficulties because of the fact that young personsand older
ones as well will lose interest when that which is expected
of them is far beyond what they are able to produce. The
almost inevitable outcome of such a condition is that that stu-
dent gives up trying and becomes accustomed to failure.

90 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

9. Does the instructor support the administration? Appar-
ent loyalty toward the administration is necessary at all times
if the morale of the students is to be right. Lukewarmness
toward policies of the school, or, what is worse, adverse sug-
gestions to students, have no place in the teaching profession.
If the instructor himself cannot be loyal and cooperative, how
can he expect to receive the loyalty and cooperation needed
for effective work and good discipline? If a faculty member
wishes to criticize his superior or employer, he should go di-
rectly to the person concerned.

Working Conditions Affecting Discipline

Equal in importance to the pupil and the teacher in the
matter of student reaction and conduct stands the question of
the physical conditions under which students work. For it
has been proved that interest in the work is closely correlated
with conditions under which one works. This is true in indus-
try and schools as well; perhaps even more so in schools, be-
cause of the lack of other compulsory factors possessed by
industry. Consider the following questions in this connec-
tion:

1 . Does each student have an assigned 'work station? Stu-
dents not knowing where they belong cannot be expected to
go to work in a regular manner and attend to their work.
Continued interest cannot thus be maintained, and the play
spirit will begin to manifest itself. This does not mean that
under some shop conditions such working places may not be
reassigned often, but the student must know exactly where
he is expected to be, and that he will not be interfered with
while doing his work.

2. Is there sufficient space between benches or work sta-
tions? Lack of space for doing work, and too close contact
with other students, causes distractions that lead to broken
morale and weak class organization. However strict the rules

DISCIPLINE IN THE SCHOOL SHOP 91

may be against play in the shop, it is likely to manifest itself
when students are placed in too close proximity to one an-
other during the working period.

3. Is there adequate light? Working in poor light may
help to make a discipline case out of any type of student. Un-
consciously, perhaps, comes the spirit of rebellion which may
show itself in an infinite number of ways. Light conditions
for students may be improved in many ways, among which
are adding skylights, by putting in prism glass for diverting
light, by installing proper artificial light, by interior painting,
and, last but not least, by moving and changing workbenches
so that the light falls in the proper way and from the proper
angle.

4. Are machines and common equipment 'well located? The
location of machines for routing work, or for supervising in-
structional units, has an important bearing on this problem.
Lack of success due to lack of accessibility of equipment is a
forerunner to lack of interest, and lack of interest again leads
to a substitution of something else for purposeful work.

5. Are there special facilities for class teaching? An assem-
bly room where the class may be called together to sit down
is a desirable feature in connection with all shops, but an abso-
lute necessity where more than one class is at work in one
room. An orderly demonstration with proper attention can
hardly be given in a shop where a large number of other stu-
dents are at work. There should be facilities for instruction if
students are expected to profit by the work and pay attention
to it.

6. Are there adequate locker facilities? A place where the
student can keep his unfinished work is a valuable factor in
student morale. To lose work upon which hours of patient
effort have been expended leads to discouragement and dis-
satisfaction.

7. What is the condition of the equipment? Tools which

92 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

do not serve their purpose and machines which will not run
definitely cause weakening of student morale. Respect for
equipment is a factor in securing proper behavior in the shop
that ranks in equal importance with the respect for the teacher.
Probably one should go one step further, and list it as a pre-
requisite for the proper respect for the instructor, for unless
the instructor is able to maintain the equipment in good shape
he will very likely not hold the students' respect.

8. Is there order in the toolroom? The condition prevailing
in the toolroom is the key to the condition of the entire shop.
The way in which tools are handled here, the system of check-
ing tools, the language and manners allowed and practiced,
can easily be taken as a sample of the tone of the entire shop.
No orderly shop can have a disorderly toolroom. The loca-
tion of the toolroom also has bearing upon this topic. An
out-of-the-way toolroom causes waste of time, and offers
temptation to loaf.

9. Is there ample ventilation? Every experienced teacher
knows how intimately ventilation is connected with the prob-
lem of attention and concentration upon the work. In the
shop, where the working temperature should be lower than
in the regular classroom, there is no reason for disregarding
proper ventilation.

10. Is cleanliness practiced? This question can well be
asked with reference to washrooms, toilets, shop floors, tools
and machines, and the clothing of instructor and students.
Incidentally, it may be said that the proper shop clothing
goes a long way to establish the spirit of labor and "busy-

ness."

11. Is there a shop atmosphere? The spirit of mischief, or
of play, or of loafing, has a hard time surviving in a shop that
is saturated with the atmosphere of a real workshop. Once the
atmosphere of earnest endeavor has been established, the dis-
cipline problems have been diminished or have disappeared.

DISCIPLINE IN THE SCHOOL SHOP 93

An organization in which everyone has a job to do and is
doing that job, where no one has time to think of breaking
rules and where there are few to break, where industry and
effort are apparent on every hand in such a shop there need
be little time devoted to catching up with offenders.

Good Discipline a By-Procfucf

The foregoing discussion points to the conclusion that good
discipline is an outcome of proper organization, and is a by-
product rather than an objective. Teachers who must spend
their time constantly in securing and maintaining discipline
are wasting much of the time spent. It is better to spend the
time in preparation for interesting and profitable activities, and
let proper conduct and discipline come of its own accord.

Elements of Good Discipline

Little has been said about specific practices in class manage-
ment and details in requirements that would apply to good
discipline, although reference has been made to the fact that
practices vary with different teachers and different systems.
The reason for not attempting here to define methods and
procedure for teachers to follow is that there is no one set of
rules that can be successfully used by all teachers and all stu-
dents. However, the following suggestions may be helpful:

1. Freedom is essential. The best progress cannot be made
in the shop unless the student can have the feeling that he is
permitted to use initiative, to take responsibility to some extent
for his own actions. Also there is a need for opportunity to
observe one another's work. The concept of discipline in
schools should obviously go beyond the purpose of conform-
ing to school regulations. The ultimate purpose is, of course,
a self-discipline that is a result of accepted principles of demo-
cratic living and individual adjustment. This means that the

94 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

atmosphere of the school should, in so far as possible, be sim-
ilar to that of real life. And here is where the school shop has
an advantage, in that it can offer the student a freedom of
action and a chance to participate in group life with a more
natural opportunity to react than can be offered in most other
types of classrooms.

2. Order is essential. Freedom turned into license means
classwork in chaos. Whatever else might be expected as a re-
sult of work in industrial arts, it is reasonable to suppose that
some contribution should be made toward establishing habits
of cooperation and orderly procedure in dealing with mate-
rials and one's fellowmen. Unless a systematic schedule is es-
tablished for the conduct of each individual and followed to a
reasonable degree, the students will be deprived of a funda-
mental training for life and work that the school shop can
reasonably be expected to offer.

The criticism expressed by some principals and by academic
teachers that the boys go to the shops and acquire poor habits
and attitudes, in reference to manners and conduct, should be
seriously considered. There should be just as definite a range
of conduct permitted in the shop as anywhere else, and the
fact that the type of conduct may differ does not mean that it
should break down standards in the minds of students.

3. Students should respect authority. The most important
of all requirements in discipline is that the teacher be in con-
trol. The details may vary, and it is natural that they should
do so. Students will quickly adjust themselves to any reason-
able type of schedule, as long as the instructor does not lose
his hold upon the situation. The poor habits that may be de-
veloped will not come from the types of rules and regulations
that prevail but from the reactions of the students to them.
The first and most important criterion, then, for measuring
effective discipline is not, for example, whether students are
permitted to go to the toolroom without special permission,

DISCIPLINE IN THE SCHOOL SHOP 95

or whether they are allowed to leave their workbenches, but
that such system or regulations as have been set forth be car-
ried out without exceptions.

Maintaining Good Discipline

Preparedness has previously been emphasized as an attribute
of the shop teacher. Problems in discipline can best be avoided
through anticipating them and making plans for their elimina-
tion. Certain details in the routine of teaching, if given close
attention, will go far toward removing the seed of disciplinary
troubles. Among these are the following:

1. Start class 'with definite instructions. Calling the class to-
gether for a few words of directions or even for calling the
roll will settle the minds of the students upon the work at
hand and readjust them physiologically from the activities of
lunchtime or recess. The fact that there may not be anything
new to demonstrate does not necessarily mean that no such
meeting can take place. Brief suggestions can always be made
that will help to keep up interest and increase efficiency in the
work.

2. Be on guard for the first five minutes of the period. The
seed of trouble is often sown before the instructor considers
that the class has begun. Mark attendance, or have it marked,
promptly; and let earnest work begin at the first possible mo-
ment.

3. Check closely and frequently on students' work. The
instructor who becomes involved in the problems of one stu-
dent, and spends one half or more of the period with him, will
neglect other students who need help. Needing help and not
getting it, some of these students will start a "show" of their
own; for adolescent boys are not prone to sit quietly and wait.
Interest is also lost when frequent attention and comments are
not given by the instructor, whether such comments are sim-
ply approval of work accomplished or detailed instructions.

96 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

4. Grade students? ivork often. Grading of students' work
is discussed in detail in Chapter VIII. To grade often and let
students know their grades will increase their interest, thus
helping to eliminate discipline problems. Experience has con-
clusively shown that the morale of a class can be greatly im-
proved by more frequent grading, and by leaving the marks in
open view.

5. Stay in the roo?n. Some teachers have the habit of leav-
ing the room during the class hours. They leave for good
reasons, such as turning in requisitions, going for mail, and the
like. But their absence is not without effect upon the class.
The age of students and the type of work have some bearing
on this point, but for all younger students the advice should
most emphatically be, stay in the room.

6. Limit the time for closing the period. Too much time
for putting away work and tools is as bad as too little. One
should experiment to see how little time can be made to serve
the purpose. By close teamwork and student cooperation, this
amount of time can be reduced from the amount usually con-
sumed. The last five minutes are of almost equal importance
with the first five.

7. Get the supervisory habit. The habit of seeing all stu-
dents and all work at one time and at all times can be acquired
by the instructor. Not to allow himself to become "lost" in
any problem or individual, but to be constantly conscious of
the entire group, is an attribute of good teachers everywhere
but most particularly in the school shop.

Advice to the Disciplinarian

The following suggestions for effective discipline are largely
as suggested by Haynes in Teaching Shop Work, with brief,
original elaborations for each. 1 All of them may be of value
for checking procedure and effectiveness in class management
and discipline.

DISCIPLINE IN THE SCHOOL SHOP 97

1. Do not bluff. Bluffing is poor teaching procedure. Stu-
lents are advised against it. Too many teachers engage in the
>ractice. It may work until someone calls the bluff. But even
>ef ore that, students can usually tell insincerity when they see
t. It is better to admit a fault than to try to cover one up by
dditional errors.

2. Do not threaten. It furnishes too much of a challenge to
earn whether you intend to put the threat into effect. It is
nore effective to act without warning, other than a clear ex-
planation of rules of acceptable conduct. Some students may
Lever have considered breaking the rules until they hear of
viiat is going to happen to them if they do.

3. Do not lose your temper. Self-control is essential in a
lisciplined person. The teacher must have mastered it before
xpecting to instill it in his pupils. Brawls between students
nd teacher do not promote respect for the teacher's judg-
ment and authority,

4. Do not use sarcasm. Sarcasm cuts deeply and leaves
cars. Cooperative spirit cannot be developed by means of it.
t is a good method for making enemies uselessly, the kind of
nemies that are not inspiring or helpful. Of all temptations
i the way of the teacher that must be overcome, that to use
arcasm is probably the most important. It is a trap into which
he best instructors tend to fall, for the opportunity usually
omes without warning or premeditation.

5. Do not nag. The teacher who is constant in adverse
riticism becomes tiresome. So monotonous may nagging be-
ome that students pay very little attention to it except in
laking up their own mental picture of a "nagger." In correct-
ig errors of establishing habits, "one thing at a time and that
!one well" is of great importance. In order to emphasize that
ne thing, the instructor must temporarily "forget" all other

1 Haynes, Merrit, W., Teaching Shop Work, Ginn and Company, Unit
even.

98 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

things. To mention several difficulties at one time is to confuse
the student and probably get none or the great minority of
them corrected.

6. Make feiv rules and regulations. Too many rules are
worse than none. Make them few and obviously important.
The more rules there are, the more exceptions will be neces-
sary. Let cooperative spirit prevail and not many rules will
be required.

7. Do not exaggerate. Using superlatives and magnifying
ordinary errors have lost for many a teacher the respect he
should have from his students. Students know fairly well what
is a grave offense and what is not, regardless of exaggerations
by the instructor.

8. Do not humiliate the student. Who is there that has not
in his heart an unhealed cut, and a remembrance of bitterness
against some former teacher, because of having been unneces-
sarily humiliated before his classmates? To accuse individual
students before the entire class is a bad practice, and can lead
to no beneficial results. It is better to pass the grievance by
in the least noticeable way, and later deal with it on the indi-
vidual basis. It must not, however, be forgotten and allowed
to breed troubles later on.

9. Do not use group punishment. It would seldom happen
that an entire class would be guilty of violations of rules of
conduct. Teachers who punish the group for individuals' of-
fenses usually create ill will and invite future difficulties. Ap-
ply the correction justly to the individual who deserves it and
leave the group undisturbed.

10. Do not be anxious for the last 'word. Some teachers ap-
pear so afraid that they will not be justified before the class,
or that the victim will not be sufficiently "squelched," that
they continue in long arguments or lectures to make sure that
they have the last word. If the teacher is just, he will be so
considered by the class. Sometimes it is well to drop a matter

DISCIPLINE IN THE SCHOOL SHOP 99

that has no great moment, and let the students decide in their
own mind what is right.

11. Do not review misdemeanors. Silence about lost tools
or failure to obey rules is often more effective than airing such
matters before the class. So much can be said about the disap-
pearance of one or two tools that the feeling becomes general
that "everybody" is taking tools. Then, as a next step, it may
become fashionable to take tools. The better way is to work
upon the assumption that everyone is honest, that everyone
cooperates, and, if exceptions occur, attend to them as quietly
and privately as possible.

12. Do not draw premature conclusions. The teacher must
at all times be willing to wait for evidence before making pro-
nouncements or accusations. Circumstances and even previous
records are not enough for premature conclusions. The fac-
tual approach must always be used regardless of sentiment or
feeling involved.

13. Do not emphasize dignity and self-importance. If the
teacher has dignity, it will be known. If he is truly important,
the students will find it out. To call for cooperation on per-
sonal grounds, or to preach the idea of self-sacrifice of the
teacher, is a mistake. Many teachers like to tell their classes
how well they could do in business, what sacrifices they are
making in the interest of growing youth. If that is true it
should not be mentioned often; if it is not true, it should not
be mentioned at all. Students know very well that if such a
teacher should go into business, another (probably better)
teacher would come and take his place.

14. Take full responsibility for class management. Do not
depend upon other teachers and the principal for your con-
tribution to the students' habits of conduct. The line of least
resistance is the easiest one. Just as we too often leave good
English to be taught by the teacher of that subject, so we are
prone to leave the teaching of manners and social habits to

100 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

the principal, the counselor, or to the home-room advisor.

15. Use extreme measures seldom. A good disciplinarian
seldom uses extreme measures. The less disturbance and com-
motion, the more effective is the class management.

1 6. Maintain a sense of humor. A sense of humor will save
situations that might threaten to become serious. Laughing
with the class at some minor offense may often be more effec-
tive than serious scolding, besides being better for the nervous
system of the teacher.

PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS

1. In what ways may a teacher inadvertently cause himself
trouble in discipline?

2. List some problems of conduct that would necessitate your
taking the pupil to the principal.

3. Make a layout of an electric shop for twenty-four students
that is planned especially from the viewpoint of ease in instruc-
tion and class management.

4. Work out in detail a plan for self-government by a class of
twenty-four ninth-grade students in any industrial arts class.

5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of such a plan
from the standpoint of discipline?

6. Make a list of twelve rules for conduct that you think
would be reasonable for a beginning, ninth-grade, industrial arts
class.

7. Make a list of points for judging whether good order exists
in an industrial arts shop or laboratory.

8. What are some of the ways of approach to a boy who has
become a discipline case?

9. Just how might the lack of locker space for storing un-
finished work affect discipline?

10. What do you think of the idea expressed that modern
methods of class organization and discipline tend to eliminate
respect for the teacher and for adults in general?

11. What degree of "freedom" can be given to tenth-grade
students in a woodworking shop?

12. How would your procedure in class organization vary be-
tween the junior- and senior-high-school levels?

DISCIPLINE IN THE SCHOOL SHOP 101

13. Should shopwork be compulsory for boys who apparently
have little mechanical aptitude? Why, or why not?

14. Make a list of points and procedures that would increase
respect for the instructor.

15. In what respects does the matter of proper dress in shop-
work on the part of students and instructor affect student
conduct?

16. Just how does frequent grading of student work lead to-
ward good discipline?

REFERENCES

1. Alber, Glenn, "Devices Promoting Good Classroom Man-
agement in Metalwork," Industrial Education Magazine,
30:245-9, January, 1929.

2. Clark, Frank P., "Building Citizenship in the Shop," Indus-
trial Education Magazine, 27:112, October, 1925.

3. Coyte, Francis J., "Student Patrol and Court System for
Vocational Schools," Industrial Arts and Vocational Educa-
tion, 33:92:8, March, 1944.

4. Durbahn, Walter E., "The School That Boys Built," Indus-
trial Arts and Vocational Education, 30:143-8, April, 1941.

5. Edgar, P. Francis, "Class Control," Industrial Arts Maga-
zine, 18:375, October, 1929.

6. Fryklund, Verne Charles, "Success, Failure and Feelings in
Teaching Industrial Subjects," Industrial Education Maga-
zine, 39:30-1, January, 1937.

7. Good, Warren R., "Discipline: For Subservience?" The
Education Digest (from The University of Mich. School of
Ed. Bulletin), VII: 30-2, February, 1942.

8. Karch, R., Randolph, "Discipline Is No Problem," Indus-
trial Arts and Vocational Education, 34:14-16, January
1945.

9. Leasure, F. G., "The Open Shop in the General High
School," Industrial Education Magazine, 34:29-30, August,
1932.

10. Mays, Arthur B., and Casberg, Carl K, School-Shop Ad-
?ninistration, The Bruce Publishing Co., 1943, Chap. 12.

11. Struck, F. T., Creative Teaching, John Wiley and Sons,
Inc., 1938, Chap. IV.

Chapter IV

CLASS ORGANIZATION AND SHOP
MANAGEMENT

Opportunities for Student Leadership

The very nature of industrial arts work in the school pro-
gram is such that it offers superior opportunities for develop-
ing qualities of individual responsibility and group leadership.
It should not be assumed, however, that these qualities will
be developed to a high degree without careful planning and
skillful management on the part of the instructor. Students
are not in position to take upon themselves more leadership
responsibility than is delegated by the teacher, nor can they
be expected to take the initiative in participating in class
management. It thus becomes the teacher's responsibility to
so organize his class that students may receive maximum
benefits from assisting in problems of shop routine as well
as from the individual work accomplished.

With this concept in mind, the teacher will plan for stu-
dent participation in management in order to furnish experi-
ence in real-life situations similar to those found in adult
occupational life and in social groups. Whether the plan
saves time for the teacher becomes unimportant if it promises
to develop a sense of responsibility and leadership on the
part of the student.

Student Participation in Management

The degree and method of student participation will vary
according to ages of students, types of work engaged in, and,
probably, the ability of the teacher to plan and make the
plan work. In general, adolescent boys and girls like organi-

102

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 103

zation and will respond readily both to a reasonable plan and
to responsibilities placed upon them in carrying out such a
plan.

In larger classes where the instructor may take the general
position parallel to the "factory manager," the organization
has been carried out extensively with a supervisor or a "fore-
man" appointed for each of a large number of activities,
many of which are suggested by the following listing.

Roll call and personnel Maintain attendance, cooperation,
good personal attitudes, compliance with regulations.

Tools Check tools according to system used. Might also
study uses of tools and do repair.

Material Issue materials and keep records of stocks on
hand.

Production Assist in routing work, give technical assist-
ance, organize group work.

Planning and reference material Maintain reference ma-
terial, have charge of sample projects.

Safety Call attention to safety rules and practices.

Ventilation Have charge of windows, heaters, and venti-
lators.

Finishing room Check condition of room at beginning and
close of period.

Machinery maintenance- Oil and check machines, inspect
belts, make minor repairs.

Sanitation and cleanup Check washbasins, lockers, work-
benches, and machines at end of period.

Public relations Make contact with persons in the school
who request work from school shop or who have work in
progress in the shop.

Many other duties may be assigned, depending upon pre-
vailing conditions; but these will indicate the spread of
possibilities for giving practice in carrying out tasks in which
the entire group is interested. Some of these jobs will usually

104 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

involve the use of more than one person, in which case a
chairman of the group may be appointed.

Rotating Assignments

The procedure followed in making the appointments for
the various assignments may again differ according to cir-
cumstances. Some teachers feel that nominations and elec-
tions by the class are preferable, since such a method gives
practice in democratic living by the group. If a scheme of
rotating these positions is followed, each student will have
experience in all or practically all the assignments in due
time, and it might not make a great deal of difference on
what job he begins. The practice of rotation has obvious
advantages because: (1) It offers experience in a variety of
responsibilities; (2) it furnishes new interest each time the
shift is made; and (3) students get an equal share of the
more menial as well as the more responsible assignments.

The rotation system has its drawbacks, however, in that:

(1) Students are not equally well fitted for the responsibilities;

(2) some students may not care for places of leadership and
responsibility; and (3) certain functions, such as tool check-
ing and care of supplies, suffer from constant changes of per-
sonnel. With this feeling in mind, some teachers appoint the
general foreman, the tool checker, and the materials clerk
for longer periods and place other appointments on a weekly
basis.

The accompanying illustration, Fig. 3, shows one of the
many devices used by teachers for rotating students in shop
managerial jobs.

Making Assignments Effective

A word of caution may well be expressed against the use
of the idea of student participation as mere evidence of having
an organization in "social living" without following up the

FIG. 3. One Type of
"Assignment Wheel"

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 105

plan to a logical completion. If appointments are made to
jobs, the teacher must see to it that there is a job to do and
the appointment becomes a serious matter. Too often the
class is organized at the beginning of the school term and
before long the follow-up on the part of the teacher becomes
ineffective, with the result that habits of negligence and in-
difference are cultivated rather than those of responsibility
and leadership.

A definite list of responsibilities should be worked out and
posted before the class, showing in detail what is expected
in each job; and definite evaluations of efficiency should be
given each student at prescribed intervals.

Coring for Tools

Many systems and schemes for taking care of small tools
have been used by different teachers with varying degrees
of success. What scheme is used is probably not so important
as it is to work the scheme which has been adopted. The
attitude of mind of the teacher has much to do with whether
one type of organization or another will be the most suc-
cessful. Generally, it is expected that the instructor conform
to whatever scheme happens to be used in a system or a
school. In some instances, he may be instrumental in making
changes to suit his fancy, and if no other teachers are affected
it is legitimate that he should be allowed to use his favorite
plan. The following procedures for keeping tools are in use:

The Central Toolroom

Wherever several shops are so located that they can be
served by one toolroom, the central toolroom has been used
extensively. Under such an arrangement, one toolroom may
serve shops for automotive work, machine-shop practice,
woodwork, and others. Objections have been raised to this

106 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

scheme on the ground that the equipment becomes too com-
plicated to be handled efficiently, and that there is a tendency
to favor certain types of shops. Usually when such toolrooms
are in operation an employed attendant is in charge, and has
full responsibility. This chief tool clerk may be assisted by
students. But paid tool clerks add to the per-capita cost, and,
for small schools particularly, some other plan becomes neces-
sary.

The Individual Too/room

A separate toolroom for each shop is a quite common
arrangement. The individual toolroom is preferred by many
teachers because: (1) Responsibility for its condition is fixed
upon each individual instructor; (2) it is easier to place re-
sponsibility for lost tools, because fewer students are using
the equipment; (3) pride in proper condition of tools and
toolroom is more easily maintained woodworking students
caring little for metalworking tools, and vice versa; (4) less
opportunity is offered for using tools for wrong purposes,
such as checking out machinist's calipers for the wood-turn-
ing lathe and the like.

Student Tool Clerks

In the individual toolroom the tools are usually handled
by a student tool clerk, who is a member of the class and
serves in the toolroom for a brief period, after which he is
relieved by another member. If, for instance, there are twenty
weeks in a semester, and twenty students are enrolled, each
student will be assigned one week in the toolroom, and the
work will be planned for nineteen weeks of actual shop-
work.

The tool clerk spends the entire time in the toolroom, and
checks in and out all tools required by the class. But since
this does not usually occupy the full time of the student, the

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 107

problem of how to supplement his activities always presents
itself. To take the opportunity to become better familiar
with the tools which he is handling, or which may be in
reserve, seems to be a legitimate, supplemental activity.

Responsibility for checking broken tools and ordering
repair parts will give valuable training that may be useful
in later life. Forms for keeping a perpetual inventory of tools
and their condition should be furnished. If such information
is kept up to date, the teacher should have a much lighter
task at the time for taking inventories. Sharpening edged
tools, filing saws, and other similar duties would be highly
justifiable activities for the tool clerk's spare time.

If the instructor will plan for the types of work men-
tioned, there will be little danger of lack of interest or of
activity for the week the student will spend in the toolroom.
To have the tool clerk attempt to carry on his shopwork
either in the toolroom or outside, as some teachers do, is
likely to result in irregularity in the service and lack of at-
tention to it. Who knows but that the week's work in the
toolroom may be more valuable to him than any other week
in the shop when interpreted in terms of possible future appli-
cation?

Procedures in Checking Tools

Various means for keeping a complete check on tools
may be used. Some prefer to have students write on a paper
the name of the tool they wish to obtain. This may help
them learn the correct name of the tool and how to spell that
name. But it is wasteful of time, and tends to diminish
interest because the student is interested in doing his job.

A better way, in some respects at least, is the practice of
using checks made of metal, or metal-bound, paper tags. A
certain number, usually ten, of these, stamped or numbered
with identifying numbers to correspond, perhaps, with the

108 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

student's workbench and locker are assigned to each student.
The ten checks may be given to the student for a certain
deposit covering their cost, or they may be kept on a rack
in the toolroom. If the student carries the checks, he simply
presents one of them at the tool window as he calls for the
desired tool. Somewhere in the vicinity of the location of the
tool there is a hook upon which the check is placed when
the tool is removed. When the tool is returned, it is up to the
student to see to it that his check is removed and returned
to him.

If the checks are kept in the toolroom which in some ways
is less confusing since it eliminates loss of checks the tool
clerk simply moves the check from the rack to the tool as
the student gives his check number and calls for the tool,
and returns the check to its location when the tool is re-
turned. This method is subject to the objection that it is
too easy for the tool clerk to forget to return the checks,
and thus a student may eventually be held responsible for
tools that he once returned and that have been called for by
someone else. In spite of this objection it is probably the
easiest and most satisfactory method to handle, particularly
with younger students.

Disadvantages of the Too/room

Various objections have been raised by teachers to the tool-
room, and also to the practice of using a tool clerk, whether
paid or otherwise. Some of these are:

1. The toolroom is usually so arranged that many tools
are not visible; hence the instructor cannot readily check
up on the tool clerk, and the tool clerk cannot check on
his predecessor.

2. If a paid toolroom man is used, it is hard to find one
who has appreciation of school conditions or who is honest
or energetic enough to keep the room in good condition. The

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 109

instructors lose the opportunity for close checking, and are
relieved of individual responsibility.

3. If a student clerk is used, his responsibility to appear
at his next class is greater than that to stay and locate tools.
The "unwritten law" among high-school boys keeps him
from telling the instructor who has missing tools even if he
knows.

4. It becomes a "game" among the boys to see who can
beat the system. Some of them are quite successful in spite
of tool clerks.

5. Students are not generally interested in the toolroom
job, and consequently do not use up extra energy in making
it a success.

6. Young boys are not able, though they be interested,
to keep a checking system in perfect running order.

Free Access fo Tools

The scheme of locating tools for free access of students
has gradually come into favor with shop teachers. This scheme
is applied in at least three different ways: (1) the wall case
or cabinet with doors, (2) the open wall case, and (3) the
tool rack on the floor or bench.

The tool case with doors is simply another form of tool-
room, with the difference that when it is opened all the tools
are exposed to view and easily checked. While it is possible
to have a tool clerk for this case, and it is sometimes done, it
is customary to apply the honor system and to allow each
student to remove and replace the tools as needed. It is
quite feasible to let students have a set of checks for the pur-
pose of checking out their own tools. In this way it can be
determined at all times who is using the tools which are re-
moved, provided, of course, that everyone is conscientious in
following out the scheme.

If such a case is constructed with solid wooden doors, tools

110 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

can be fastened on the inside of these, and in this way the
capacity of the case is almost doubled. Experience indicates
that tools are fully as safe in a case of this kind as in a tool-
room, and when the saving of floor space is considered the
justification for a separate toolroom may well be questioned.
See Fig. 4.

The Too/ Panel

An entirely open panel, where the tools are accessible to
persons in the shop at all times, has been advocated and used
by some teachers. Upon this would be placed the necessary
tools, with an outline of each painted on the board to empha-
size its absence when removed. Students are then placed upon
their honor and allowed to use the tools freely. Under the in-
fluence of some instructors this scheme has proved very effec-
tive. No one will deny that it promotes efficiency in the
work. If persons aside from the instructor do not possess
keys to the shop, or if it is not open in the absence of the
instructor, it may be a desirable scheme. But most teachers
like the idea of being able to lock the door to a toolroom
or a tool case, and have no worries about tools until they
open them again. See Fig. 5.

The tool rack which is made to stand in an open place on
the floor is merely a variation of the open tool panel. Such
a rack or stand should also be so constructed that every tool
has a definite and conspicuous place. It is possible to put such
a rack on rollers so that, if desirable, it can be removed into
a separate room for safekeeping at least during vacation time.

The Individual Tool Kit

As a means of avoiding difficulties coming from the random
use of hand tools, the individual tool kit will be found most
effective. To furnish each student with a few most neces-
sary individual tools for his own use and keeping is an ex-

FIG. 4. An Example of a Well-organized Toolroom

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u

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6

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 111

cellent practice. Such sets of tools may be kept in individual
drawers in workbenches, or may be fitted in pigeonholes in
a case on the wall or in the toolroom. Such sets are most
effective in woodwork, automotive work, and in other shops
where success depends greatly upon the availability and con-
dition of a few smaller tools. The item of cost enters in this
connection wherever a number of classes come to the shop
each day, and particularly where various shifts are scheduled
during the week.

In woodworking it has often been a practice to arrange
tools in a rack upon the bench. This kind of tool rack has
lost its popularity because of the obstruction it offers to the
handling of the work. It was found extremely difficult also
to keep tools in their places in these racks, since they were
too easily accessible to students working at other benches and
were subject to the attention of the casual borrower who
frequents all shops. A drawer in the desk serving all students
who work at that particular location is superior to the tool
rack, altho it does not give the satisfaction of the individual
tool drawer or kit.

Identification of Tools

The more clearly the tools of the shop are marked for
identification, the more likely they are to stay in their places.
Because of this it is well not to depend upon marking with
small steel numbers or letters. Using paint for marking is
much more effective. A wrench with a stripe of green paint
across it is not likely to be a comfortable possession outside
of the shop. Such marking will also eliminate unintentional
mixing of school tools with those belonging to students, in
such work as auto repair or home-mechanics work. Where
there are several shops in a building, different colors can be
used to correspond to the different shops, which is especially
advantageous in large systems.

112 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

The Honor System

The so-called honor system applied to the care of tools is
favored by many teachers. When using this system in full,
the students are made individually responsible for the tools
they use and for their return. This scheme, to be successful,
must be launched only after proper, preliminary preparation.
To attempt it without first preparing the students fully, and
obtaining a popular acceptance of it, would be unwise. But,
if the individual members of the class are put into the frame
of mind that makes them zealous in carrying it out, there
is little danger of failure.

The honor system may be used in its widest sense, where
all tools are accessible without apparent supervision; or it
may be in a restricted form. In the latter case the most com-
mon, and particularly the larger, tools are kept within reach
of everyone. The smaller tools, and those needed less often,
are kept in a separate place and handed out by the instructor
or some appointed student. In making the change from a
strictly supervised checking system to the honor system, it
might be well to adopt and put into practice a limited type
of supervision for a season until a measure of success has been
obtained.

Limitations of the Honor System

The honor system in caring for tools can be used with any
of the types of toolrooms or cases previously discussed. It
works better with wall cases and floor racks than with en-
closed toolrooms, because: (1) The toolroom is usually so
constructed that many tools are kept in drawers and racks,
where they get out of place even with best intentions on the
part of the student; (2) honor, in some people particularly,
needs encouragement, and the open board furnishes such
encouragement through the fact that all tools are handled in
view of the entire class.

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 113

Bases for Good Housefceep/ng

After all, the key to the success of any system lies in the
hand of the instructor. It is he who makes a success or failure
of it. No system is self-sustaining for any length of time. The
student tool clerk might be conscientious or he might not.
If he were, he might lack ability and experience. The honor
system with open access to tools has many advantages, and
carries out modern thought in educational practice.

But wherever there is success in any of the methods, the
instructor is the secret of it. "Eternal vigilance" on his part,
and nothing short of that, will do the work. To be sure, the
less obvious such vigilance is the more effective it will be.
Attention to small details is the most important thing. To
leave responsibilities to students whenever possible, and yet
to give proper and sympathetic supervision to all activities,
is the task that lies before the instructor.

Caring for Equipment

While the larger pieces of equipment cause less worry with
reference to loss, a definite system is necessary for their
upkeep and care. The class can be organized for definite
responsibilities in this regard and these responsibilities shifted
from time to time. Among the jobs that may be assigned in
this way are: (1) oiling machines, (2) checking condition of
machinesbelt, motors, guards, and other details, (3) recondi-
tioning equipment filing saws, grinding knives, keeping
school trucks in repair, and other similar duties, (4) cleaning
tools and machines.

The closest possible supervision must be given to the oiling
of machinery, even after reliable students have been ap-
pointed to the task. Experience alone will tell whether oil-
holes are clogged, and if the instructor fails to give close ob-
servation the first warning sign may be a burnt bearing.

One student may well assist the instructor in the duties

114 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

listed under checking the condition of machines. This student
works in the capacity of assistant manager, and spends several
minutes at the close of each period checking the condition of
equipment with regard to usefulness and safety. He will often
see things that the instructor has overlooked, and may also
be more familiar with weaknesses in certain students. If a
checking system is not used for tools, a student will need to
be assigned to check condition of small tools at the end of
each period.

Equipment Repairs

Whether it is legitimate to expect students to assist in keep-
ing equipment in order has been, and still is, a debated ques-
tion. The teacher who believes that it is not may give the
following reasons: (1) The students have come for machine
shopwork, woodwork, or whatever the program may be, and
it is unfair to take a part of their time for reconditioning
machines; (2) it kills the interest of students if their regular
activities are broken into for this type of service; (3) they
are not able to do a first-class job of repair work on the
equipment; (4) it takes too long to have such work done in
this way, and the work of the classes is unduly delayed.

All of these arguments contain elements of truth, but
against them may be put the arguments of teachers who point
out that such work is quite the thing to do: (1) This type of
work gives training that cannot be had in regular shopwork,
and is likely to be valuable later: (2) the spirit of cooperation
and willingness to step into emergency situations is one of
the most valuable assets in life and vocational success; (3)
some students are not particularly interested in the regular
routine and would rather work on special problems; (4) there
are exploratory and guidance values in this work of emer-
gency trainingit opens a vision of new fields of vocational
opportunities.

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 115

Later in the chapter, an organization for taking care of
emergency work and "trouble shooting" for the school is
discussed in detail. If within the class the responsibility for
emergency work on the equipment is divided in such a way
and so organized that students may know that they are likely
to be called upon during the assigned period, the objection
usually raised, that time is taken up for illegitimate purposes,
is obviated.

There can be no question that work on the equipment,
whether repairs or new construction, has its value. When
overdone, however, and used for saving money, it becomes
exploitation, and cannot be tolerated under the name of
education.

Cleaning the Shop

How much cleaning of the shop, if any, should be done
by students? This question is variously answered. Not many
teachers insist that students should do the sweeping of floors
in the shops. Some still have to see it done in this way or
do it themselves. There seems to be no reason for demanding
that floors in shops be swept by students any more than in
recitation rooms.

There is, however, some question as to where the stu-
dents' responsibility leaves off and that of the janitor begins.
To make the janitor responsible for cleaning the tools would
be unwise even if it were possible.

The most successful arrangement seems to be to make the
floor the dividing line of responsibility. The students should
be expected to sweep off the workbenches; if the janitor
does it, he immediately becomes responsible for small tools
that may remain upon them. To clean all machines down to
the floor brings no hardships on students, and such responsi-
bility may result in some worth-while habits.

Many instructors prefer not to furnish duplicate keys for

116 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

toolrooms under any circumstances, and, consequently, they
assign students to care for cleaning this room, or do certain
parts of such cleaning themselves. This practice is to be
recommended, since peace of mind is thus purchased, through
a little extra physical labor at the most; and the assistance
rendered by students is not enough to interfere with their
regular routine.

Handling Supplies

In shops of the junior-high-school level the responsibility
for care and handling of supplies usually falls directly upon
the instructor. Exceptions to this occur in the furnishing of
such small items as screws, nails, bolts, rivets, and the like.
These are often kept in the toolroom, and where a tool clerk
is used he might also serve the members of the class with
these articles.

What has been said previously regarding watchfulness by
the instructor in connection with care of tools applies to an
even greater degree here. Tools are borrowed, and are to be
returned. Supplies are not expected to return, and because
of this fact it often happens that no account of them is taken
after they are once issued. There is unnecessary waste in
many school shops in the use of materials. Instructors who
allow such conditions to exist are subject to criticism from
two standpoints: (1) The per-capita cost, which is already
high in shopwork and which must be high, is unduly in-
creased to the point that serious questions may be raised about
the justification of the subject; (2) undesirable habits are
developed by the students, leading to lack of appreciation of
value of materials and lack of respect for articles produced.

Use of Requisition Blanks

Students should be required to make out and present bills
of material or requisitions for supplies that they wish to use.

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

REQUISITION FOR MATERIALS

117

Sold to
Instruct

or Date

Amt.

Size

Material

Unit
Cost

Total
Cost

Total

Approved by

Received Payment

FIG. 6. Bill of Material for Student Use.

118 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

This should be done whether or not such materials are fur-
nished free. Regularity in this respect is an essential factor
in the proper use of materials. Written orders, containing
estimated costs, also impress students with the value of ma-
terials and make them less likely to ask for additional amounts
without good reasons. A simple form for this purpose may
be made up as shown in Fig. 6. More detailed forms may be
used for certain types of work, and special blanks are valuable
for some types of shop, as for instance, the print shop. The
arrangement of the form is not essential; the fact that one
should be used is important.

Requisition forms should, of course, be filled out in dupli-
cate or triplicate, depending upon the routine involved in
their use.

The Supply Clerk

In larger systems where a paid tool clerk is used, the duties
of such a person are often made to include the handling of
supplies. In woodworking shops, particularly, these duties
also may involve the cutting of stock in the rough to fill
requisitions made out by students. This scheme relieves the
instructor of the direct responsibility in this regard, and also
has the advantage of leaving the materials in the hands of one
person. In the use of lumber, this should result in a distinct
saving of material, since more economical use of all pieces
could be expected.

Another approach to the solution of this problem is to
assign students to the duty of supply clerk in much the same
way as tool clerks are assigned. The value of such an assign-
ment has been pointed out especially for high-school classes
where one of the objectives is that of training future managers
and foremen. In this connection, a rather complete system
of bookkeeping can be evolved, including also a perpetual
inventory, through which a complete check is kept at all

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 119

rimes upon the materials remaining in stock. Where classes
are large, this type of work can obviously furnish excellent
practical experience in maintaining stockrooms.

Another source of assistance in keeping accounts of sup-
plies is the commercial department of the school. Often this
department will welcome the opportunity for work under
practical conditions, and the school shop may be made to fur-
nish a setting similar in many respects to commercial plants.

Organ/zaf/on for Quanfi'fy-Producfion Worfc

Quantity-production jobs in the school shop offer special
opportunities for student assignments in leadership situations
in addition to giving a natural setting for work experience
paralleling the routine and the personnel organization of mod-
ern industry. Quantity production is known as that form of
activity which results in the manufacture of a number of
similar articles, as a dozen chairs or desks, or trash cans, or
what not. The product from such effort may be sold, used
by the school board, or divided among the class members. If
used by students, members of the class agree upon an article
that each will want when finished. The class is then organized
for the production of the required number, and the members
each receive one when the job is done.

Some teachers are inclined to look upon production work
as merely a chance for the school board to exploit students;
others are enthusiastic about its values. While one instructor
fears the loss of interest if such activity is engaged in, others
testify to the fact that enthusiasm is stronger while produc-
tion work is under way than at any other time.

Whether it "goes over" or not probably depends more
upon the instructor than the students. Lack of interest on
the part of the teacher, lack of knowledge of methods in-
volved in manufacture, or lack of faith in the purposes and
principles under which the scheme is undertaken will go far

120 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

to prevent its success. Some instructors, sad as it may seem,
are still dominated by the natural human characteristic of
resisting the introduction of anything new.

Advantages of Production Work

Those who are favorable to this type of procedure in the
school shop refer to the following advantages:

1. It is the method of industry. One of the objectives of
shopwork in schools is always to give opportunity to explore
and study occupations. Individual work, where one person
completes an entire product, is not common in modern in-
dustry.

2. It puts "drive" into the work. Students who have diffi-
culty in realizing time values when working on individual
articles for their own keeping are now matched against
other students in such a way that an apparent measure is
given in the comparison. If this is not enough the student will
probably be told in plain words by his fellows to "speed up."

3. It raises standards of 'workmanship. The student may
make a bad joint on his own piece of furniture and expect
to remedy it. But if he cuts all tenons too thin for twenty
tables he will face a different situation. When made a mem-
ber of a working organization, many things which the teacher
has been helpless in impressing are impressed by force of
circumstance.

4. Cooperation is developed. The spirit of give and take
is a very necessary one in life and in employment. Individual
work for individual profit is not likely to develop it; produc-
tion work may.

5. It discovers and develops managerial ability. Leadership
qualities are found through this type of organization, where
the class is divided into groups with students acting in
foremanship and managerial capacities.

6. It gives an opportunity to inferior workmen. There are

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 121

many conscientious, willing students who cannot, with all
their trying, produce a completely finished article of which
anyone can be proud. In a production job they can be placed
according to their level of ability and be happy and successful.
They will contribute in their way to the finished product
and be proud of the job. They may also be helped to an
occupational choice in semiskilled work in industry.

Disadvantages of Production Work

Those who oppose this type of work also give reasons for
their position, among which the following might appear:

1. Group work takes away the feeling of individual re-
sponsibility. It leads to laxity on the part of the student
because, in the long run, no one else knows which was his
specific part in the project.

2. It produces loafers. In almost any school shop it is not
possible to provide jobs continuously for from eighteen to
twenty-four students on any project. Some soon get in the
habit of standing back and loafing on the job.

3. It kills interest. Students wish to construct work for
their own use. They lost interest in production work, unless
it be for distribution among the class members. Even then
they are not so keenly interested as if they were doing indi-
vidual work for themselves.

4. Students are exploited. The work starts under prom-
ising conditions. But often too large jobs are forced upon
the class, or jobs that have little instructional value, and the
class becomes simply a group of laborers for the school.

5. It wakes teaching difficult. More work is added to
teaching activities. Some of this comes from dealings with
those who are to use the product, some from having to perfect
a new organization, some from being left with unfinished
work in the last rush of closing the semester or year. The
responsibility is also greater because of the value of the

122 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

product and the danger of mishaps by inexperienced work-
men.

A Typical Quantity-Production Job

Let us assume that a class in tenth-grade woodwork has
accepted the order for twenty teacher's desks, including the
finishing. Each desk is to have a set of drawers and a low
rack on the top for pen and ink and for holding cards and
other memoranda. There is to be a self -locking device for
the drawers. The class consists of seventeen boys. The fol-
lowing will indicate a suitable method of organization:

1. Selecting manager and group foremen. The first step
in a typical organization for such a job would be to appoint
or have the class elect (under advice) a general assistant man-
ager who would work directly under the instructor. The
remaining sixteen students are divided into groups of four
each, with the personnel so divided that the strong students
are equally distributed among the various groups. The most
capable of the four is appointed foreman of the group.

2. Dividing up the jobs. The next problem would be to
find a sufficient number of approaches to the job so that each
group may begin to work on a separate job. In this case a
good solution would be to assign Group I to making the
frames; Group II to the tops; Group III to drawer construc-
tion; and Group IV to the racks to go on the desk tops.

3. Eills of materials. It is assumed that general drawings
and reasonable details are to be furnished at the outset. Bills
of materials for the specific parts to be manufactured would
be made as the first important step and checked first by the
assistant manager, then by the instructor. Such bills of mate-
rials should list both the rough and finished sizes when made
out for use of inexperienced persons. This means that each
group would be held responsible for the bill of materials
covering the work it is scheduled to do. In some cases the

124 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

tion of the equipment should not be considered as a prelim-
inary for the production job.

Needless to say, the bills of materials and the instruction
sheets must receive extremely close inspection from the in-
structor after they have passed through the hands of the fore-
men and the assistant manager. One of the most serious
pitfalls in this connection is the tendency for the instructoi
to place too much reliance on students and to get too busy
to catch errors in the working plans.

5. Checking levels. A definite system for checking al
certain points in the progress of the job is absolutely essential
and so is the conscientious use of such a system. All the way
from the student and foreman to the instructor there shoulc
be predetermined points beyond which the work may not
progress without specific inspection and approval. Some ol
these checking points would receive the attention of the fore-
man only, others would go through the entire organization
The more frequent these checking levels the more acceptable
will be the final product, and the more value will there b<
in the work for the individual student.

General Instruction in Quantity Production

It may be superfluous to say that the use of foremen, bilL
of materials, instruction sheets, and other devices will noi
take place of direct instruction by the teacher. If the mem-
bers of the class are fully accustomed to the use of machinery
a brief review of important points in regard to the machine
involved may be sufficient; if not, a complete series of demon-
strations is essential. Much of the basic instruction that ever)
member of the class must have can profitably be presentee
to the entire group. While there is truth in the argumem
that such instruction should be given at the time when stu-
dents are ready to apply it, it is also true that it is mucl:
easier, and consumes less time, to refresh the memory of indi

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 125

vidual students or groups through a later review than it is
to teach such subject matter to one or two individuals at a
time when specific problems are at hand.

Furthermore, in a production job of this kind, it is probable
that all the students will not have a chance to perform all
operations. But this does not prove that it is not profitable
to demonstrate as many as possible of the fundamental proc-
esses of hand and machine work to all the class. It appears
evident, in spite of what the adverse arguments may be, that
to have seen a demonstration of the setting up and operating
of a tenoning machine, of making dovetail joints, or of fluting
a table leg, is valuable education for all students whether
they are likely to apply it to an actual problem today, next
week, or not at all. And where such material is a link in a chain
of performances, so to speak, and is not an introduction of a
new type of work or study, there is no reason to believe that
all of its value will be lost. General demonstrations, and other
types of class instruction, followed up by instruction sheets,
can be used to advantage; and in a production job where
stress is laid on correct and standard operations as far as
possible, they furnish a means for establishing a standard for
the class both from the standpoint of mechanical performance
and cooperative thinking.

Reassigning the Personnel

The question of how completely the line-up of duties
should be changed to allow a variety of experiences in con-
nection with production work is a pertinent one. Some would
attempt to evolve a plan by which each student would get
practice in each of the operations involved. This type of
reasoning seems faulty in that it assumes that all students are
capable of doing any phase of the work, and, further, that
the chief value of such a job lies in the variety of manipulative
experience.

126 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

Not all students are interested in being foremen, or have
the natural aptitudes that are likely to put them into man-
agerial positions in later life. Why force a foremanship upon
them and take away the joy they experience as routine work-
ers? In the second place, it may be better by far, in attempting
to realize the values of this sort of organization, to allow
students to stay on one type of work to the extent of some
repetition in it than to change them too often simply in order
to give variety of experience. The factory atmosphere is
one of the important values in this connection. Further, as
has been suggested previously, to observe work of others as
a definite part of a project of this kind is not without value.

By the foregoing it is not meant, however, that changing
the work is not desirable. It is, and for two reasons: (1) in
order to give as large a variety of work as can legitimately
be given, and (2) to maintain interest in the group. For both
of these reasons, and perhaps others, the instructor will find
it profitable to watch and study the individual students and
the groups. Some boys will of necessity be assigned to work
in which they are not highly interested, and they should be
changed at the first opportunity, unless interest is developed
as the work progresses.

Generally speaking, the interest runs high in this kind of
organization. If the instructor takes the necessary care and
patience in launching the program, such a piece of work can
easily be a true educational "project," and not merely a piece
of production work.

Organizing fhe Genera/ Shop

The general shop has become an accepted organization for
both junior and senior high schools. Because of the distinctive
features of teaching methods and class management required
for the general shop, it deserves special discussion at this point.
The characteristics of the general shop as differentiated from

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 127

the traditional type of one-activity shop are indicated by the
following quotation from Newkirk and Stoddard. 1

The general shop is a broad group of educative industrial-arts
activities embracing techniques of shop organization and teaching
methods which enables a community, whether large or small, to
present a unified core of content, based on life needs, as sum-
marized in these aims: developmental experience interpretive of
the major phases of the world's industrial work, "handy-man
activities," consumer's knowledge and appreciation, guidance,
hobbies, social habits, and (for a very small per cent) vocational
preparation.

The same authors 2 point out seven types of general-shop
content: (1) trade exploratory, (2) home mechanics, (3)
farm mechanics, (4) general woodwork, (5) general metal-
work, (6) arts and crafts, (7) practical mechanics. Presum-
ably these seven types cannot always be readily separated and
clearly distinguished one from another, but, from the stand-
point of principal objectives, the classification does indicate
a certain degree of identification.

Starting Classes in General Shop

How to get the activities under way in a class of twenty-
five students, with five different kinds of work to introduce
at once, before the various groups can begin effective work, is
a recurring question wherever this kind of work is discussed.
Some teachers advocate full reliance upon instruction sheets
and let students follow to the best of their ability the written
instructions. A more widely accepted way appears to be to
hold all the actual work in abeyance until a series of basic
demonstrations have been made. This viewpoint is held by
Newkirk and Stoddard, 3 who advocate ten concise demon-

1 Newkirk and Stoddard, The General Shop, The Manual Arts Press,
Peoria, Illinois, 1929, p. 11.

2 Ibid., p. 19.

s Ibid., p. 127.

128 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL

Strations in the comprehensive shop covering the following
operations:

1. To tin a soldering copper.

2. To solder holes in sheet metal or cooking utensils.

3. To re washer a leaking compression faucet.

4. To apply stain, filler, and varnish.

5. To glaze a sash.

6. To make a window screen.

7. To detect and replace a blown fuse.

8. To read an electric meter.

9. To wire bells and buzzers in series.

10. To assemble an extension cord for an electric lamp.

These demonstrations would consume about ten minutes
for each. They would be given to the entire group, in the
belief that since each student will be expected to cover all
these processes at some time during the course, the demonstra-
tion will be helpful even if given at this time. While it might
be difficult to hold the interest upon ten demonstrations in
succession without giving a chance to apply any of them, the
procedure is probably preferable to the practice of allowing
students to begin the work without any personal instruction.

The work once being under way, individual instruction can
be given as may be needed, and further class or group demon-
strations at intervals.

Another approach favored by some instructors for getting
the work of the general shop under way is that of allowing
the work required by the project to guide the students from
one activity to another, the instructor furnishing the neces-
sary individual instructions and instruction sheets at the proper
times. This plan organizes the work according to "projects
to be made," rather than according to "processes to be per-
formed."

The general shop offers the teacher the opportunity to be
of more than ordinary service to his students. Compared to

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 129

the single woodworking shop so prevalent in many small
communities, it furnishes breadth of subject matter and ex-
perience, appeal to interest, variety in operations, and prepara-
tion for care and upkeep of a home. With a will to win, and
some ability to organize and plan, the instructor can be suc-
cessful in this type of organization.

Much good material is now available upon this subject, and
any teacher who decides to organize a general shop can profit
by the experience of those who have pioneered in the work.
Various forms of instruction sheets covering a wide range
of topics are also available.

Industrial-Arts Work for Girls

Not enough has been done toward giving girls of the
secondary-school level opportunities to work with tools and
materials. More emphasis needs to be placed on the necessity
for giving girls a preparation for living in our new age of
machines and appliances, as well as for enjoyable leisuretime
activities. In general, there are two areas of activities that
appeal to girls, (1) household mechanics, and (2) the indus-
trial-arts crafts. Classes may be offered exclusively for girls,
or enrollment may be mixed. From the standpoint of organ-
ization, class management is the same for girls as for boys. In
mixed classes, however, there may be a tendency for the boys
to assist the girls with their work, and for the girls to expect
such assistance. Definite organization on the part of the
teacher will establish proper cooperative attitudes. No more
difficulty should be experienced here than in other laboratory
classes containing mixed groups.

Correlation in Shopwork

Much valuable and interesting work can be arranged for
shop classes through the cooperation of other instructors and
other departments. This fact is often overlooked through

130 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

lack of vision or through misunderstanding. Such correlation
might well begin among teachers of the various shop subjects.
There is no reason why some parts of a project cannot be
made in one shop, and other parts in another, even though
the product will be individually owned. Nor should there
be objection to having certain parts constructed in one shop
one semester and the complete job turned out in some other
shop at a later time.

Only a part of the scope of natural student interest and
desire for expression lies within the work of any single shop.
Unless teachers of unit shops can correlate their work, they
will deprive youth of some of the fine opportunities for ex-
pression now offered in the general shop. A model boat can
be made in the woodshop and a motor made for it and installed
in the electric shop just as readily under a system of unit shops
as in the general shop, provided that the teachers concerned
are aware of the needs for correlation of the program.

Correlated and coordinated projects can and should be
arranged between various departments of the school. The line
of least resistance is to plan one's own work for the class. But
to do so always might limit unduly the experiences of the
group. Consider, for instance, the project of making scenery
for a school play. This is a problem with which most teachers
are familiar. Instead of considering such a piece of work a
necessary evil and preparing, by word and action, the stu-
dents' minds against it, why not welcome it as an opportunity
for a splendid, correlated project? If such an undertaking is
looked upon in the proper light, it can easily furnish experi-
ence and give knowledge far beyond what the woodshop
itself can give.

"Yes," you say, "but-\ am teaching woodwork!" Cer-
tainly, but ten years from now the skill in making a mortise-
and-tenon joint will not be the biggest value to nine out of
every ten of your students. Besides, if that skill can be col-

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 131

ored by contacts with the work of the art department and
of the drama class, it will disappear no sooner than if obtained
through more formal assignments. The teacher who wishes
to popularize and vitalize his teaching, then, might well reach
out for opportunities to correlate his work and make it fit
into a larger sphere of educational activity.

Record Keeping

In purchasing and using supplies, the instructor should be
careful to provide himself with all records necessary for
future reference. In the first place, he will profit greatly
when ordering supplies for the coming year or for coming
classes if he has provided for himself a means of knowing
how much has been used in the past, and how the materials
were distributed in various classes. He can also tell where
economy may be practiced through certain changes in courses
of study, use of equipment, or through changes in class man-
agement and teaching procedure.

It also happens occasionally that teachers are charged with
supplies that in reality were delivered elsewhere, and for this
reason a thorough check should be made of all items received.
Without detailed records the instructor starts each year anew
as a beginner, and wastes a great deal of time and effort in
getting the work under way. This applies to equipment as
well as supplies.

Records of Equipment and Supplies

For convenient handling of records of equipment and sup-
plies, the card file is probably the most satisfactory device.
It makes possible easy tabulation and reference, and sheets or
cards can be added or changed without difficulty. If forms
of the type shown in Fig. 7, for supplies, and Fig. 8, for equip-
ment, are used for recording information the instructor can
obtain at a glance at any time the data likely to be required.

132 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

RECORD OF PURCHASE OF SUPPLIES

Date
Received

Amount

Description

Cost

Where
Purchased

Address

FIG. 7. Form for Record of Purchase of Supplies. (Original
Printed on Stock 6/ 2 "x8!/ 2 ".)

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT
Article Shop

133

Inv.
Date

Amt.
Good

Pur.
Date

Cost

Amt.
Bad

Scrap-
ped

Bought During Year

Date

Amt.

Cost

FIG. 8. Form for Permanent Record or Inventory of Equipment.
(Original Printed on Stock 5"x3".)

With complete card files covering previous purchases of
materials and tools, the instructor can save a great amount of
time both in taking inventories and in making additional pur-
chases. Once the system is perfected it requires very little
time in keeping up to date.

Who Should Furnish Materials?

Is it better to charge students for materials, or to have
the school furnish them? Probably, no considerable group
of teachers would agree to the answer to this question. There
are advantages and disadvantages on both sides. In favor of
such procedure it might be stated: (1) The student feels more
responsibility for his work if he must pay for the materials;
(2) less material will be wasted, and better habits of thrift
and conservation are developed; (3) the per capita cost to the
school will be lessened, resulting in fewer objections by tax-
payers in general to the high cost of schooling; (4) whatever
is made on the individual basis will become the property of

134 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

the student, and always will be worth more than the materials;
(5) students will be less likely to be overambitious in selecting
large projects for construction; and (6) they will not insist on
working with unnecessarily expensive materials.

In arguing for free materials it may be said that: ( 1 ) Some
of the best students who could finish larger and more attrac-
tive articles must work on unimportant jobs because they can-
not afford to pay the price for materials; (2) public schools
should offer opportunities to rich and poor alike in the work-
shop as well as in other instruction; (3) many of the poorer
students come to the school shop, and charging for materials
is a cause of discouragement and of keeping down the enroll-
ment.

A reasonable practice is to provide a certain amount of
free material for the preliminary and required individual
work but in advanced work on the individual basis to expect
students to pay for their own. It should not be compulsory
to spend money for materials, and need not be, since there are
always opportunities for turning out a product for the school
or for some individual who will gladly pay for the cost of
the materials, plus, perhaps, a little profit to the student.

It appears unjust and unreasonable to expect, as some prin-
cipals and school boards do, that full reimbursement shall be
made by students for the value of all materials. When such
demands are made it places the instructor in the position of a
factory manager, and forces him to weaken instruction for
the sake of construction. Waste in the school shop, or else-
where, is inexcusable; but to expect to spend nothing on ma-
terials, particularly in classes of beginners and young students,
is a shortsighted attitude.

Keeping Down the Cost of Shopwork

The fact that the increasing cost of education is a serious
problem cannot be ignored. In shopwork, particularly, does

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 135

the per-capita cost register high. While it can easily be shown
that shop teaching must necessarily cost more than the in-
struction in most other subjects because of the very nature
of the instruction, it is also worth while to consider any
possible means for keeping the expense down to the lowest
possible figure consistent with efficiency in teaching. Aside
from the possibility of increasing the number of students in
shop classes and this number is now great enough in many
placesthe following possibilities are offered for considera-
tion in connection with the problem of costs and possible
reductions:

1. Consider the purchase of good used machinery and
equipment for certain types of work. Schools cannot hope
to lead industry in the use of modern machines. Much of
the standard machinery changes very little in principle in a
few years.

2. Solicit free material and equipment from manufacturers
and industrial firms. Such material and equipment can often
be had for teaching shopwork if the purpose of its use is fully
understood.

3. Get material by the salvaging method, such as pur-
chasing odd pieces of lumber at the mill, making use of
packing boxes, obtaining automobile parts at the wrecking
yard.

4. Stop all wastage in the classes, and teach students the
value of materials. Have a definite place for all kinds of odd
material, and require students to go to these sources before
using the new stock.

5. Have students make less pretentious articles in shops
where the school pays for the material. A smaller article
using less material may, and often will, serve the same purpose
educationally.

6. Manufacture articles for the school, where it can be
done without exploiting students.

136 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

Who Should Handle Money?

If students are expected to make payments for materials,
the teacher is burdened with another detail in his routine.
Experience has shown that such business transactions give
him the least worry, and take the least amount of time, if he
allows the money to be collected by some other agency in
the school. The financial office of the school or some person
in the principal's office can collect the accounts. One pro-
cedure would be to issue the materials needed as requested by
the requisitions previously discussed. When all the materials
have been received, and the work is finished, the instructor
checks the total statement, and the student pays the amount
at the office, bringing his receipt back to the instructor as a
permit to remove his product.

A more satisfactory method is to require payment of ma-
terials before the student begins the work on the project. The
procedure here is similar except that receipt for the money is
required by the instructor before the work begins.

In such matters as replacing broken tools, and in sending
for special materials, it may seem desirable for the instructor
to collect money for cooperative purchasing. A good rule,
however, is to keep clear of handling cash in the shop, because
it takes too much time in bookkeeping and offers too many
chances for getting into personal expense, to say nothing of
the possibility of being subject to suspicion. Neither is it a
good rule to appoint students to responsibilities involving the
care of funds unless one is in position to supervise the trans-
actions closely. Let the purchasing agent do the purchasing,
and collecting, from students, if possible.

Care of the Shop Library

A discussion of shop management would not be complete
without including a procedure for making reference material
available. What should go into a shop library and how the

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 137

library should be used is discussed further in Chapter V. The
concern here is how to house and manage such a collection of
materials and how to make it accessible to students in the
most efficient way. In the first place, a definite location should
be dedicated to such reference material as may be available.
If there is a separate lecture room or demonstration room,
such a room will probably be the logical place, since reading
can then be done away from the direct contact of shop activi-
ties. The important thing, however, is that the material is
located within easy reach of the students.

The so-called "browsing table" has been adopted success-
fully in many shops. This is a table provided with racks for
classified reading material, placed in some less congested part
of the shop but readily available to students. One of its advan-
tages is that no separate room is used, thereby making super-
vision easy for the instructor. Students can also obtain assist-
ance more readily than when having to communicate with
the teacher from another room.

Suitable cases should by all means be provided for books,
and under no circumstances should careless handling of refer-
ence material be allowed. Order in the use of this material
is absolutely essential, and order will be greatly promoted by
having a definite place for books, pamphlets, magazines, and
drawings.

Whenever books are to be taken for home use, a checking
system or card system should be used. The charging of such
books can be taken care of by a student who may be ap-
pointed librarian and have full responsibility for the reference
shelves. The duties for this office should be rotated as in the
case of the toolroom clerk.

School Repairs

A majority of teachers feel a strong resentment against
taking care of odd repair jobs in their classes. Seldom do a

138 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

number of such instructors get together without the conver-
sation being directed toward this important topic; not so
much, perhaps, in order to better conditions, as for the purpose
of expressing mutual indignation.

The common cry against the superintendent or principal
who wishes to have some cafeteria chairs repaired in the wood-
shop, or who comes to the electric shop when a switch fails
to operate or when an electric iron cord in the sewing-room
does not function, is that such requests interfere with the
course of study and with organized instruction in the shop.
A second objection, which is not always expressed to the
superintendent, is that this practice lowers the dignity of the
instructor and reduces him in rank to the level of a janitor
or school carpenter, and that it simply makes the students
his helpers in keeping the school plant in shape.

Both of these objections are valid in so far as they are true.
And the sad part is that they are often true. Through per-
sonal experience and that of fellow workers, shop instructors
have learned to fear "infringement" upon their plans. There
are probably administrators and boards of education who are
willing to let utilitarian objectives loom high, and to look
upon the shopwork as an opportunity to get some returns.
So-called "exploitation" is an ugly specter that stands before
the instructor as a hundred-headed monster, threatening to
make void his attempt to put over an "organized course."

What is Exploitation?

That leads us to the question, "What is exploitation, and
what causes it?" May not exploitation be caused one day by
certain work that would not fall under that classification at
some other time? And, does the teacher frequently so "set
the stage" through his organization and personal attitude that
any little job that may come in is felt to be an infringement
upon the rights of the students?

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 139

In other words, if the teacher has been careful to lay out
his course on the proposition that no such work is legitimate,
and has packed his course so full of what he would please to
call "instructional" material that no student can afford to
spend an hour or two on some special job without failing to
complete the assigned work, then it might be easy to prove
that any simple outside job is exploitation. And, of course,
in such a case, if special jobs of any kind have to receive at-
tention, it often falls upon the conscientious teacher to do
the work in preference to using the time of students.

This again leads to the questions: Who has decided that it
is instructional to build a library table and noninstructional
to repair a table for the school cafeteria? Or, why is a teacher
reduced in dignity because he takes the responsibility for
the repair of some school furniture? Are we not in practical
life often forced to quit what we are doing in order to under-
take some more urgent task? Or, is is not precisely the
criticism that industry and business have directed toward the
work of the school, including the traditional manual training
shop, that the work has been narrow, and that a practical
outlook has not been developed?

My personal feeling is that the matter of student exploita-
tion or the lowering of the teacher's dignity is largely an atti-
tude of mind and lack of planning and cooperation on the
part of the instructor. The whole thing is largely a matter
of interpretation, and shop planning and organization. Because
some teachers have allowed themselves to become janitors, and
others have spent much time, and lived in agony, guarding
their dignity, it is not proved that repair work and rush-order
jobs do not have educational value.

Educational Trouble Shooting

Of course, no one would insist that definitely planned work
should give way to emergency jobs. Such a practice would

140 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

furnish an impossible situation. But the point made here is
that there is educational value of a high order in such emer-
gency jobs, and instructors should look for these values instead
of closing their eyes and turning the other way for fear that
their pet program might be disturbed. Up to certain limits,
such jobs furnish unequaled opportunities for students: (1)
to do independent thinking and planning, (2) to diagnose
situations, (3) to meet "customers" and satisfy them, (4) to
fit into difficult social situations in dealing with nontechnical
people and handling technical material, (5) to develop ability
to shift their attention from one job or situation to another
and back again.

The following is a suggested organization for making a
number of odd jobs instructional and educational in any shop:

1. Let the teacher change his viewpoint toward the value
of emergency work. Such work probably furnishes the most
real jobs that come into the shop.

2. When the course of study is made up, leave a definite,
unscheduled amount of time in each student's program for
taking care of special jobs.

3. Prepare the minds of the students for such work by
pointing out the added values that come from it. The boy's
frame of mind will follow closely that of the teacher in this
respect.

4. Arrange the work schedule for the class so that one or
two students, depending upon recognized needs, are scheduled
each day for special emergency work. These students may
also do special jobs on shop equipment and new work for the
schools. Keep them busy on this type of work for the assigned
time and make no exceptions but see to it that the work has
educational value which is recognized by the student.

5. Rotate such work fairly and evenly among all students.
Any justifiable impression that favors are shown will injure
the program.

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 141

6. Have students study special problems in connection with
such assignments, write notes on the work done, and in some
cases make reports to the entire class.

7. Check such work closely, take an interest in it, and
give definite and separate grades, after first having applied
the practical test, "Does it work?"

8. Finally, accept no repair work or production work for
the school unless such work has recognizable educational value
for the group or individual student carrying it out as part of
the program.

The Home Workshop

Shopwork properly taught in the school should encourage
the boy to establish a workshop at home if he does not already
have one. The home workshop among boys is not so common
as it should be. Where such shops exist there is usually little or
no correlation between them and the school shop or instruc-
tor. A few teachers have given splendid service in this con-
nection by offering suggestions as to possibilities in planning
and in giving advice about tools. See Fig. 9. Many parents
desire that their boy have a workshop because of the possi-
bilities of occupying what would otherwise be idle time, but
too often they know nothing of how to equip such a shop or
how to encourage mechanical work.

If, for instance, shop instructors should spend a little time in
their classes in encouraging this idea, then work out a bulle-
tin covering needed equipment and valuable instruction book-
lets, offering also their personal service to the boy and the
home if need be, there is a likelihood that the effort would
repay in interest developed in both pupils and parents. It
would add a little work and be well worth it. Much of a boy's
best education is received while working in a shed or in the
backyard, solving the problem of how to repair a toy auto-
mobile or put together an alarm clock.

142 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

Credit for Homework

Shall school credit be offered for work done at home? This
is another question upon which there is divided comment.
Some teachers have been so brave as to say "Yes," and have
attempted to organize some scheme for checking homework.
One method used is personal visitation and inspection by the
instructor. This is unquestionably a good plan, and, when it
can be carried out, credit should be permissible. Another
scheme is to have a form for parents to fill out stating that the
work has been done by the individual, and that it has been
completed in a satisfactory manner. The latter is, of course,
less reliable because of the lack of ability of some parents to
tell when a fair mechanical standard has been attained, and,
what is more important, because of the tendency of some
parents to be unscrupulous in the desire to protect their chil-
dren's grades in school.

There would probably not be enough parents taking advan-
tage of the situation, however, to jeopardize the procedure of
giving credit for homework where there is a definite set-up
for doing it. A preliminary statement to parents telling of the
purposes, and calling for their cooperation, would help much
to establish the plan. Such statements should be so written
that they would be brought back with signatures of parents
before the work could begin. Neither boys nor parents are
often outright dishonest if they are made to understand the
standards by which their actions will be judged. Fig. 10 shows
a form that may be used for receiving the inspection record of
parents for homework done by students.

In this discussion of this problem the jobs that might be
considered for credit would be carried as auxiliary work, and
not as an independent course in itself. Some home problems
could be substituted for a part of the requirements in a general
shop. If the Mechanical-Progress Chart shown in Chapter

J-

o

1

o
X

a

u,

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

143

Michigan Slate Normal College

Roosevelt School

Types of work

General repair & maintenance

Glazing, painting, fitting. plumb-
Ing, sharpening tool*, farm machin-
ery, etc.

Woodwork

Beocbwork. carpmtry. turning

8oldtrin. tin era wotk. oeU roUI

Model building ..

Airplanes, boat*. U

Weaving.

Art libra, rop* CM*

Name
Address

Age ....Grade.

Home Shop Record

Jobs cumpkled

Improvements made in nhop

Date

FIG. 10. Report Card for Work Done in Home Workshop.

144 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

VIII, Fig. 15, is used, jobs done at home would satisfy some
of the listed work.

Perfunctory service on the teacher's part or satisfying mini-
mum time requirements will never produce home workshops.
A knowledge of subject matter alone will not inspire students
to home activities. A knowledge of boy temperament must
be added, as well as an interest in what he does with his leisure
time; and, most important of all, the energy and willingness
required to become more to the boy than just his "teacher."
The teacher who is able to do these things, and willing to
make the sacrifice that they demand, need not worry about
the enrollment in his shop for the coming semester, nor will
he need to complain that industrial arts is losing ground in the
schools.

PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS

1. Make a list in detail of all duties that may be performed by
the tool clerk.

2. To what extent should tools and equipment for industrial
arts duplicate those of industry?

3. How would you deal with a student tool clerk who was
found to be dishonest?

4. What advantages may be listed for the honor system in the
use of tools?

5. Would you as a teacher spend your own money to satisfy
needs of the class? If so, under what circumstances?

6. In what ways can it be said that the teacher may be the
cause for the losing of tools?

7. What should be the practice in regard to lending tools to
students for doing work at home?

8. List the different age levels at which you would allow vari-
ous power machines to be used in the shop.

9. Of what educational value is the use of requisition forms
for students?

10. List the various duties in the upkeep of the shop and equip-
ment which may be shouldered, in part at least, by students.

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

11. What reasons would you give a principal for not wishing
to have the students sweep floors in the shop?

12. Should high-school students be called upon to assist in tak-
ing inventories? Why, or why not?

13. Make a form for a sheet for keeping a perpetual inventory
of supplies.

14. At what age would you expect industrial arts students to
sharpen edge tools and saws for the shop?

15. Make a list of responsibilities for the general foreman for a
quantity-production job.

16. In what respects is it easier or harder on the teacher to
work on quantity-production work rather than on individual
problems?

17. Name twelve possible quantity-production jobs for a high
school.

18. Is there more or less danger of accidents in the shop when
a quantity-production job is under way?

19. To what extent do you believe that free choice of projects
should be allowed in the junior high school?

20. Make a list of correlated projects that you believe suitable
for the senior high school.

21. Make a list of suitable play articles that could be made in
a ninth-grade general shop.

22. Make a list of success qualities of a general shop teacher
from the standpoint of natural and acquired abilities.

23. Do you believe that school repair work has a tendency to
take away from or add to interest in the shopwork? Give rea-
sons for your answer.

24. Make a list of suitable "trouble-shooting" jobs that might
be cared for in high-school industrial arts classes.

25. Draw a floor plan for a small home workshop that a fifteen-
year-old boy might build and equip.

26. Make a list of tools that you would consider adequate for
the home workshop of a twelve-year-old boy. Name the specific
makes.

27. What proportion of boys do you think would be unreliable
in reporting their own work done at home?

REFERENCES
1. Bedell, Earl L., "Budgeting School Shop Departments," /-

146 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

dustrial Arts and Vocational Education, 28:87-90, March,
1939.

2. Berry, G. G., "Setting up a General Industrial-Arts Shop in
a Small High School," Industrial Education Magazine,
40:122-5, May, 1938.

3. Bowler, Earl M., "Integration Through Co-ordination," In-
dustrial Arts and Vocational Education, 30:9-10, January,
1941.

4. Cunningham, W. E., "Cooperation Between Industrial-Arts
and Science Departments," Industrial Education Magazine,
37:107-9, March, 1935.

5. Dohcrty, William J., "Where Does the Project End?" Indus-
trial Arts and Vocational Education, 30:433-4, December,
1941.

6. Friese, John Frank, "Achieving a Major Aim of Modern
Education Through Correlation," Industrial Education Mag-
azine, 37:178-80, September, 1935.

7. Giacomo, Frank D., "A Survey of the Production Problem
in the Junior High School Print Shops," Industrial Arts and
Vocational Education, 33:130, March, 1944.

8. Hiel, L. A., "That Tool Problem Again," Industrial Arts and
Vocational Education, 26:96-9, March, 1937.

9. Kinison, Charles R., "A System of Accounting for the Indus-
trial-Arts Shop," Industrial Arts Magazine, 18:342-4, Sep-
tember, 1929.

10. La Berge, Armand J., "The Semiproduction Method," hidus-
trlal Education Magazine, 40:38-41, January, 1938.

11. Mays, Arthur B., and Casberg, Carl H., School-Shop Admin-
istration, The Bruce Publishing Co., 1943, Chaps. 7, 10, 11.

12. Meade, Raymond D., "Learning by Doing," Industrial Arts
and Vocational Education, 30:228-30, June, 1941.

13. Newkirk, Louis V, and Stoddard, George D., The General
Shop, The Manual Arts Press, 1929, Chap. I.

14. Oberschmidt, Carl F., "Electric-Shop Pupil-Personnel Organ-
ization," Industrial A rts an d Vocational Education, 30:427-30,
December, 1941.

15. Parkes, George E., "Aviation Moves In," Industrial Arts and
Vocational Education, 33:145-7, April, 1944.

16. Preston, Harold Sands, "Instruction in Home Mechanics and

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 147

Maintenance for Girls, in the Industrial Arts Shop," Indus-
trial Education Magazine, 39:32^, January, 1937.

17. Rose, H. C., "Industrial Arts and the Girls," Industrial Arts
md Vocational Education, 24:292-4, October, 1935.

18. Schmidt, Leonard E., "Why Not Let the Boys Help?" In-
dustrial Arts and Vocational Education, 33: 101, March, 1944.

19. Smith, Robert E., "Teaching Methods Which Increase In-
dustrial-Arts Achievements," Industrial Arts and Vocational
Education, 27:185-8, May, 1938.

20. Parke, Roger I., "A Comprehensive Filing System for the
General Shop," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education,
33:195-6, May, 1944.

21. Silvius, G. Harold, "Combination Planning and Work Sta-
tion for Industrial Arts," Industrial Arts and Vocational Edu-
cation, 34:101-2, March, 1945.

22. Silvius, G. Harold, and Johnson, H. J., "Tool Storage: A
Place for Everything and Everything in Its Place," Industrial
Arts and Vocational Education, 33:276, September, 1944.

23. Struck, F. T., Creative Teaching, Wiley and Sons, 1938,
Chap. V.

24. Struck, F. T., "Examples of Good Housekeeping," Indus-
trial Arts and Vocational Education, 30:371-3, November,
1941.

25. Taylor, Byron M., "Industrial Arts Supplies," Industrial Arts
and Vocational Education, 22:183-6, May, 1933.

26. Thurman, Luther E., "The Home Workshop for Boys," In-

dustrial Education Magazine, 36:252, November, 1934.

27. Van Duzee, Roy R., "The Industrial Arts Budget," Indus-
trial Arts md Vocational Education, 28:90-3, March, 1939.

28. Vaughan, Samuel J., and Mays, Arthur B., Content and
Methods in Industrial Arts, The Century Company, 1924,
Chap. XVIII.

29. Willoughby, George A., and Chamberlain, Duane G.,
"School-Sponsored Home Workshops," Industrial Arts and
Vocational Education, 32:13-15, January, 1943.

30. Yager, Sylvan Austin, "Creating an Interest in the Home
Workshop," Industrial Education Magazine, 40:11-12, Jan-
uary, 1938.

Chapter V
THE USE OF TEACHING AIDS

What Are Teaching Aids?

As treated in this chapter, teaching aids will be thought of
as a physical means used by the teacher for the purpose of
strengthening the instruction and making it effective. Under
this interpretation "teaching aids" will be differentiated from
"teaching techniques," in that the latter constitute procedures
used by the teacher in giving instruction through various
teaching methods, while teaching aids are things or objects
brought into play to emphasize, clarify, or vitalize the instruc-
tion. A motion-picture film would be considered a teaching
aid, but the manner of showing it, preparing students for its
use, and giving tests after showing it would be classed as
techniques.

The following might be listed as among the more common
teaching aids for industrial arts:

books cutaway or sectional equip-

shop manuals ment

instruction sheets sample projects completed or

motion pictures disassembled

still films magazines

catalogues and advertising printed designs and drawings

material of projects

models and mock-ups

Use of Books for Industrial Arts

Books available for use in teaching industrial arts may be
divided into several classes: (1) textbooks, (2) problem and

148

THE USE OF TEACHING AIDS 149

project books, (3) shop manuals, and (4) reference books.
Each of this type will be discussed briefly.

1. Textbooks furnish definite, basic information regarding
the subject covered. In them should be found detailed expla-
nations covering the fundamental mechanical operations, as
well as information that has bearing on the subject as a whole,
rather than the construction of articles and projects. The
mission of books of this kind is not to furnish outlines for
courses or to give drawings and directions for things to be
made, but rather to treat the tool processes involved and to
furnish directions for proper tool processes, and for attaining
skill in the handling of tools. They may also treat related and
technical information pertaining to the subject. The skill or
knowledge thus attained will then be equally useful in the con-
struction of any article upon which it is applicable. Textbooks
as here defined are intended for individual use of students.

2. Under the classification of problem or project books
comes the type that covers specific projects that may be made
in the shop, with drawings, photographs, and specifications
for such projects. These books may or may not include work-
ing directions for making the articles for which designs are
furnished. They often take for granted that the worker pos-
sesses the general knowledge of tool processes and the skill
required, or that information about how to handle tools will
be obtainable elsewhere; and they make no pretense at any-
thing but to furnish ideas, drawings, and designs that may be
worked out in the school shop. Books of this kind are prob-
ably the most popular of all among instructors of shopwork,
since they bring with them new and varied ideas to the large
majority of teachers who lack training or aptitude for making
original designs.

3. A shop manual is here classified as the kind of printed
help that furnishes, mainly, detailed directions in steps of pro-
cedure for work to be done, and usually makes these direc-

150 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

tions apply to specific, prescribed projects or processes. Such
manuals may include also such bills of material, drawings, lists
of tools to be used, and other data, as are needed for the proper
completion of the job at hand. Under this classification would
come books made up of job sheets, and other instruction data
covering a prescribed set of articles and problems. Courses
of study are sometimes expanded into this form of material
so that the instructor or student receives working directions
at the same time the scope of work is prescribed. In many
respects this form of material is similar in organization to the
well-known physics and chemistry manuals used in schools.
They may or may not be purchased for individual use of
students, but whenever they cover the work sufficiently well
they can profitably be supplied on the individual basis.

4. Reference books fall in a different classification from any
of those mentioned so far. Their place is in the shop library,
and their principal usefulness is in connection with immediate
needs for information. They are valuable to students and
teacher alike for obtaining data of the related-information
type, or for solving problems or determining upon methods
of procedure. Under this class come also all sorts of cata-
logues, and some manufacturers' instructions regarding scope
of work and special uses of machines and equipment.

Objections to Books

In spite of the growing popularity of books in the school
shop there are still some teachers who do not seem to accept
them as a valuable asset. To explain this attitude, the follow-
ing reasons have been given:

1. Textbooks limit the program. Teachers argue that they
do not wish to tie up to a "stereotyped" program such as is
indicated by a book, or to follow instructions for students laid
out by someone in some other locality. "It will not fit," is the
usual comment in this connection.

THE USE OF TEACHING AIDS 151

2. Teachers prefer to use their own methods. Some teach-
ers have so much respect for their own methods and practices
which they have obtained by practical experience or otherwise
that they cannot tolerate the thought of different suggestions
coming from some other source. There is fear that damage
may be done to the students from learning about methods
that the teacher considers inferior to his methods and prac-
tices.

3. The expense is considered. Leaving out books will re-
duce the per-capita cost where books are furnished; or will
reduce the cost to the student where he must purchase them.
It is assumed that larger enrollments will result if the expense
to the student is kept down that is, the boys come to classes
because they are cheap. Such teachers adopt the same attitude
regarding their own professional books; they do not wish to
spend the money.

4. The habit must be formed. Some instructors have never
formed the habit of using books and other written material in
their work. They began to teach long ago when such material
was scarce, and do not realize that "times have changed." The
experiences of others have never been capitalized by these few
and probably never will.

5. Some are afraid. They fear that what they are doing
will not measure up to accepted standards, and that they will
be forced to exert themselves more vigorously if textbooks
are brought in. "Ignorance is bliss," among students, and it is
better to leave well enough alone.

All these arguments against books for shop subjects could
equally well be presented against books for mathematics, Eng-
lish, history, and other subjects. I once knew a teacher who
used no textbooks in algebra, and who gave several of the
reasons enumerated here to justify himself. No student in his
class shared his opinion, however, that the teaching was more
effective without a textbook.

152 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

Why Use Boots?

The following reasons have been given for using textbooks
in shop teaching:

1. Textbooks encourage the covering of a definite scope of
'work. This would hold for mechanical drawing as well as
auto mechanics. They also furnish a means of checking
whether the scope has been covered.

2. They check the instructor. His methods and practices
will necessarily be compared with those suggested in the text.
This means that he must be on safe ground always and have
good reasons for making variations.

3. They fix the responsibility on students. Textbooks help
to hold students responsible for a minimum amount of infor-
mation and knowledge. The excuse that they "did not hear"
or "did not understand" cannot be effectively used if a certain
chapter containing the material has been assigned.

4. Practice in reading is necessary. Ability on the part of
the student to read and interpret technical materials may be
of great value in later life. Too many people go through the
school shop with the habit of leaning on the teacher for all
information and inspiration. Independence and resourceful-
ness are not developed in this way. In all vocations of impor-
tance the ability to be guided correctly by written material
is of benefit, and such ability is extremely essential in all
phases of mechanical and technical work.

5. Books specify standards. Methods of procedure in me-
chanical work, in construction, and design need some common
interpretation. There is a tendency on the part of teachers
to be local in their shop practice and narrow in their vision
of possibilities. Without some outside help or guidance, in-
structors practice unreasonable variations in quality and types
of work required of students of different grades and ages.
Books tend to standardize teaching procedure.

6. Books assist in teaching. They enable the instructor to

THE USE OF TEACHING AIDS 153

give more attention to the auxiliary details and to do more
actual instruction by relieving him of the responsibility of im-
parting routine information.

7. They are an economical investment. Whatever time the
teacher can save through the use of a textbook or other writ-
ten material is a direct saving to the school. For at the best
there is never sufficient time for doing all the work that the
willing teacher sees to do. A book costing a dollar or two will
save time for the teacher to the actual value of many times
that sum.

Textbooks for shopwork should not be used to take the
place of personal instruction any more than textbooks in math-
ematics can eliminate the teacher. Where the use of a text
causes the instructor to withdraw to his desk or office, such
text has probably done more harm than good.

Values of Books and Reference Material

Books and reference materials, then, may be used in the
shop in several different ways:

1. To prepare for the demonstration. Before a demonstra-
tion is to be made, a certain part in the textbook, or specified
references, may be assigned for study. Such study would fa-
miliarize students with names of tools and technical terms in
connection with the work to be covered, and, in general, pre-
pare the minds of the class or group for the work to be pre-
sented.

2. To emphasize and follow up oral instruction. Some in-
structors prefer to use text and reference material to support
and review demonstrations and oral instruction. When this
method is used, the teacher will introduce the subject matter
in a general way as briefly and effectively as possible, but
leave out such details as can be covered later through the read-
ing assignment. Such procedure is not only a saving of the
teacher's time, but, most important of all, it makes it possible

154 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

to put the students upon their own resources for acquiring a
part of the facts to be learned.

3. To furnish a guide for manipulative processes. The most
complete type of published material for this purpose is the in-
struction sheet. (Instruction sheets are discussed more fully in
Chapter II.) Textbooks, also, usually contain directions for
procedure in actual work, particularly for covering funda-
mental manipulative processes. When classes are large or di-
vided into groups engaged in a variety of work, such use of
printed teaching material becomes very important. It may be
appropriate here to emphasize again the value to the student,
whether the class is vocational or otherwise, in getting some
experience in working from printed instructions. The prac-
tice of having students copy in their own notebooks the steps
of procedure is a waste of time if written instructions are
available.

4. For related information. In the discussion of the shop
demonstration, Chapter II, stress was laid upon the danger of
bringing in too much related information and thus destroying
the emphasis upon the work demonstrated. To attempt to
present in oral form to the class all the facts that should be
learned aside from the manipulative work is likely to be waste-
ful of the teacher's time and tiresome to students.

Motion Pictures and Still Film

Motion pictures and still films have found increasing favor
as a means in teaching. In spite of what appears to be popular
interpretation, however, they do not constitute the whole of
the field of audio-visual education. That term correctly inter-
preted would logically include all the teaching aids mentioned
in this chapter.

Motion and still pictures have a definite place in industrial
teaching, provided that the instructor appreciates their proper
use and will prepare himself and his class toward their maxi-

THE USE OF TEACHING AIDS 155

mum contribution in the educational program. In the first
place, the idea of showing pictures for pure diversion and en-
tertainment should be ruled out. After that is done there are
at least three classes of pictures that will be found valuable:
( 1 ) those that illustrate mechanical operations and work proc-
esses directly applicable to the work to be done in the school
shop, (2) those that give information regarding related tech-
nical data and knowledge about materials, manufacturing op-
erations, etc., and (3) those that will enlarge the students'
vision with reference to occupational opportunities and em-
ployment conditions in specified areas of occupational life.

Many good films have become available under the first of
these headings. Intricate parts of classroom demonstrations
may now in many cases be shown more effectively through a
motion picture or a still film than they can by manipulation on
the part of the teacher. The fact that distractions from outside
sources are eliminated in pictures, and that "close-up"" photo-
graphs can be shown large on the screen, contribute to their
advantages. Care must be taken in the selection of films show-
ing work operations and techniques, however, for not all films
advertised are likely to satisfy the instructor in regard to meth-
ods of working and other details.

Films giving technical and related information are available
in greater number and variety than those showing work proc-
esses. But here again selection must be made carefully because
of the fact that often the film is produced largely for the pur-
pose of advertising rather than for giving technical informa-
tion. The field here has become so rich that there is no need
for spending students' and teachers' time and interest on in-
ferior selections.

Knowledge of occupational opportunities, an essential part
of the education of every student in secondary schools, can
be largely acquired through suitable films. Here, motion pic-
tures are probably superior to other types of films or illustra-

156 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

tions because of close similarity to working conditions that
can be produced, including the sound of machinery.

Procedures in Using Fi/ms

As suggested previously, just to obtain a few films and have
a "picture show" does not signify that students are realizing
significant values from the performance. The following sug-
gestions for using films for educational purposes will indicate
accepted procedures:

1. The teacher should make himself thoroughly familiar
with the content of the film through catalogue descriptions
and previews.

2. The film should be evaluated for its specific contribution
and its possible contribution to the area of learning under con-
sideration. Here the question would be asked whether the
contribution is specific and applies to a single fact or process
such as cutting gears for a machine-shop class, or whether it
will contribute to a broad understanding of a subject such
as the Bessemer steel process.

3. After the film has been analyzed and its specific value
has been determined, the next step is to motivate the students
and assist them to obtain maximum benefits from the film.
This may be done either by oral discussion or by preparing
outlines and questions covering the content to be presented.

4. The method of presentation of the film is important.
Having selected the film carefully and prepared the minds of
the pupils for receiving education from it, give the necessary
time to make the actual showing effective. To do this, it is
often necessary to discuss the film after the first showing and
then show it again either partially or in full.

5. A final check of values received by students is an essen-
tial feature in effective use of films. This checking, which may
be either oral or written, will help to correct wrong impres-
sions received from the film and will serve to emphasize the

THE USE OF TEACHING AIDS 157

points that will contribute most to the objectives for which
the film was shown.

Sources of Films for Teaching

Four general sources of films are available for school use:
(1) rental of selected films, (2) purchase for permanent school
library, (3) local production of films, and (4) free use of
films contributed by industry.

For smaller school systems it will probably be found more
economical to rent most motion-picture films of the type that
would be used in industrial-arts classes. The size of the school
system and the frequency of use would determine when pur-
chases would be advisable. Still films and slides which are
planned as a definite part of the instructional program will be
found more useful if made available through local ownership.
This, of course, implies that the subject is such that the proc-
esses and facts to be shown are not likely to be revised and
obsolete until a reasonable period of time has elapsed.

Under the possibility of local production, film slides either
in black and white or in color can easily be produced with
very little special equipment. Where more complete facilities
are available, motion pictures can be produced. It is advisable,
however, not to attempt to produce functional motion pic-
tures without a background of technical experience. Some
experimentation with film slides may be carried on inexpen-
sively. The result will help to stimulate interest because of the
"local color" even if the pictures are imperfect from an educa-
tional standpoint.

Many valuable films are available without rental charge by
industrial or other firms who make them available as a part of
their publicity program. In using these, care should be taken
that the time of pupils is not wasted because the film is free.
If the procedure indicated previously for showing films is
followed, the teacher will be in position to eliminate objec-

158 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

tionable film before it has reached the final showing stage.
Sources from which educational films may be purchased or
rented have increased greatly within recent years and are still
increasing. The quality and usefulness of the service is im-
proving constantly. No modern teacher of industrial arts will
fail to take advantage of the educational film as one of his
many teaching aids.

Use of Advertising Materials

The rich sources of materials distributed free by manufac-
turers is not sufficiently tapped in most schools. These ma-
terials, consisting of bulletins, charts, photographs, instruction
sheets, samples of materials, and even cutaway equipment are
advertised widely in various magazines and in other ways.
While not all that is free is necessarily useful, school-shop
atmosphere could be greatly enriched if teachers would go to
the trouble of taking advantage of suitable offers of this type.
Then having obtained these materials, the next thing would
obviously be to use them to the fullest extent. That this would
be done might be assumed, were it not for the fact that every
supervisor and school administrator knows the hopeless feeling
of having provided materials of this type for teachers and
later finding them dust-covered in some obscure corner of the
shop or teacher's office. Under the topic "Techniques for
Maintaining Interest," Chapter II, was mentioned the need for
having a great variety of teaching aids. Free samples from
manufacturers and others will, if used, contribute greatly to
that variety.

Using Models and Mock-Ups

Models were one of the earliest forms of teaching aids used
in manual and industrial arts. The highly concentrated train-
ing program of the armed forces of World War II greatly

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THE USE OF TEACHING AIDS 159

revived and popularized the use of models in almost every
phase of instruction. Scaled models of airplanes, ocean-going
ships, airports, armored equipment, and scores of other types
were produced without regard to cost. Added to these were
the "mock-ups" which had received extensive previous devel-
opment mainly in the aircraft industry. While schools cannot
and probably need not adopt the practice of using these aids
to the extent indicated by the armed forces, it would indeed
be a nonprogrcssive teacher who would not see in these aids
an opportunity for putting new vigor into his teaching. See
Fig. 11.

Scaled models will probably continue to find their greatest
usefulness in connection with the teaching of aviation and
aviation mechanics so far as their illustrative value is con-
cerned. The construction of models by classes when carried
out does not obviously come under the classification of teach-
ing aids. Mock-ups, arranged on wall panels, or in the form
of floor units, can be made to illustrate segregated phases of
complicated controls and mechanisms, such as hydraulic sys-
tems of a plane or wiring of an automobile.

Cutaway or Sectioned Equipment

Cutaway equipment constitutes an exceptionally valuable
teaching aid. This is especially true in regard to operating
power units and similar equipment, such as aircraft engines,
automobile engines, electric motors, starters, generators, car-
buretors, magnetos, etc. Many of these may be available from
manufacturers or from the armed forces. They can be made
up in the school shop, however, from equipment on hand.
Usually it is not essential that late models of equipment be
used for this purpose, since the purpose of the cutaway equip-
ment is to teach principles rather than up-to-date operation
or expert maintenance. Their value lies in the exposure of in-
ternal and otherwise hidden parts and functions.

160 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

Other Teaching Aids

A few additional aids mentioned in the early part of this
chapter deserve further emphasis.

Sample projects made either by the instructor or by stu-
dents constitute a valuable means for stimulating interest and
for indicating construction procedures. These articles can
often be made collapsible, so that they can be disassembled
for inspection. Care should be taken, however, to see that all
articles of this type represent the best of design and work-
manship. The tendency to keep good sample projects indefi-
nitely should be guarded against. A project of this type may
be good, but it is seldom good for ten years or more.

The need for furnishing an abundant supply of ideas and
designs for student projects through blueprints, catalogues,
magazines, etc., can hardly be overemphasized. A method of
handling such material to the best advantage through student
participation has been discussed in Chapter IV, where the
"browsing table" was referred to as a solution. Students should
be given a chance to choose projects for construction up to a
certain measure. They should not, however, be expected to
be able to design these projects or have resources to draw upon
without definite assistance.

PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS

1. Would the fact that textbooks are used in all academic
subjects be a good reason for using them in the shop also?

2. From what sources may inexpensive material aside from
books be obtained for industrial arts classes?

3. Make a list of points under which any textbook for indus-
trial arts may be evaluated.

4. How much reading outside of class time would you expect
from ninth-grade students?

5. Make a list of fifteen books for the library of the wood-
working shop and finishing room.

6. Make a list of fifteen books that you would include in the
library of a general metal shop.

THE USE OF TEACHING AIDS 161

7. Show by a concrete example how a textbook may be used
to prepare students for a shop demonstration.

8. What proportion of time would you consider it legitimate
to take for reading during class hours?

9. Make a list of ten books for either woodwork, metalwork,
drawing, or automotive work that have been published in the
past ten years.

10. Name some disadvantages in making assignments before the
material has been covered in class by demonstration or discussion.

11. Why are reading assignments made after the topic has first
been covered in class considered better pedagogy by some?

12. Make out a complete procedure sheet for showing a motion
picture film on machine shop practice.

13. Make up a schedule for using a film each week in connec-
tion with woodwork in the ninth grade. Show title and sources
of the films.

14. Make a list of twenty-five firms or sources from which
valuable free material may be obtained as teaching aids. Name
the type of material that would be expected from each source.

15. List twelve firms or sources from which educational motion
films may be obtained.

16. From what sources may still films for classroom use be
obtained?

17. Name five subjects in which "mock-ups" may be used to
advantage.

18. What pieces of equipment can most profitably be "cut
away" or sectioned for instructional purposes?

REFERENCES

1. Bennett, Chas. A., "The School Shop Library," Industrial
Education Magazine, 27:308, April, 1926.

2. Bellinger, J. W., "The Shop Library," Industrial Arts Maga-
zine, 18:373, October, 1929.

3. Gore, L. Lawton, and Alexander, Carter, "Guide to the Lit-
erature on Industrial Arts," Industrial Education Magazine,
40:77-80, March, 1938.

4. Jackey, David F., and Barlow, Melvin L., The Craftsman
Prepares to Teach, The Macmillan Co., 1944, Chap. 11.

5. McEven, H. J., "The Recitation Period in the School Shop,"
Industrial Education Magazine, 24:306, April, 1923.

162 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

6. Shimmick, John Joseph, "Thirty-Five Claims for the Text-
book in Industrial Arts," Industrial Education Magazine,
40:92-4, March, 1938.

7. Sechrest, Charles H., "Teaching Aids and Devices," Indus-
trial Arts and Vocational Education, 32:290-1, September,
1943.

8. Smith, Homer J., "A Defense of Textbooks," Industrial Arts
and Vocational Education, 21:121-2, April, 1932.

9. Vaughn, Samuel J., and Mays, Arthur B., Content and
Methods of the Industrial Arts, The Century Company, 1924,
Chap. IX.

10. Whalin, Ralph W., "Visual Aids Quicken the Learning,"
Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 32:8-10, January,
1943.

11. Williams, Amos G., "Choosing Your Textbook," Industrial
Arts and Vocational Education, 34:344, October, 1945.

12. Wyman, William T., "The Selection of Textbooks for Vo-
cational Schools," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education,
21:285-9, October, 1932.

Chapter VI

SAFETY INSTRUCTION AND ACCIDENT
PREVENTION

The Importance of Safety

From the time that shopwork was first introduced in
schools, the possibility of accidents has weighed heavily upon
the conscientious teacher. In more recent years the moral re-
sponsibility has been augmented by a degree of legal liability,
coinciding with the increasing popularity of claims for damage
in connection with school accidents. Without attempting to
discuss legal responsibilities, it might well be assumed that
safety to the student should, and generally is, the most imme-
diate and constant concern of the shop teacher. While the
rate of accidents is probably not unduly high in most school
shops, their frequency can be further reduced, and to this
task every sincere teacher will dedicate himself.

Conditions Causing Accidents

All accidents in which the school or teacher may be at fault
may be divided into two general classes: ( 1 ) those caused by
faulty conditions of the room and the equipment and (2)
those caused by inefficient instruction and management. An
analysis of these general causes appears in the following:

Conditions of room and equipment 'which may cause acci-
dents:

1. Low ceilings.

2. Poor light (natural and artificial).

3. Bad location of machines, causing interference be-
tween operators.

163

164 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

4. Failure to mark safety zones around hazardous equip-
ment.

5. Unguarded belts.

6. Unguarded pulleys, gears, and cutters.

7. Dull tools and machines, particularly in woodwork.

8. Unguarded switches.

9. Waste and scrap stock on the floor.

10. Wrong type of clothing worn.

11. Inadequately protected stairways and ladders leading
to balconies and platforms.

12. Poorly constructed stock racks holding lumber and
other supplies.

13. Lack of ventilation in finishing rooms where lacquer
is used, and in rooms where forging, metal casting, or
similar work is done.

Inefficiency in instruction 'which may cause accidents:

1. Lack of teacher's knowledge of how to use tools and
machines.

2. Failure to give adequate preliminary instruction.

3. Failure to follow up such instruction and to supervise
the initial efforts or experiences of the students.

4. Allowing students to play in the shop.

5. Overtime work without supervision.

6. Allowing guards to be removed.

7. Failure to provide goggles and insist upon their use.

8. Allowing experimentation in the use of equipment.

9. Failure to establish proper attitudes toward the prob-
lem of accidents.

10. Failure to check the set-up of each machine before
allowing operation.

1 1. Failure to provide for adequate ventilation.

Some of these conditions will be given further explanation
in subsequent paragraphs.

SAFETY INSTRUCTION 165

Preventing Accidents

If it may be assumed that this analysis is acceptable, pro-
ceeding to check the shop and one's teaching is clearly the
next thing to do. The first group of causes cannot all be reme-
died at once, if they exist. Low ceilings, for instance, prob-
ably cannot be raised. Machines may have to stay where they
are for the present. But poor light conditions can be reme-
died in several ways: (1) by skylights, (2) by glass which
throws light where it is wanted, and (3) by proper aid of
artificial light. Light conditions have been found to have a
close connection with accidents. Belt guards, guards for pul-
leys and gears, and general guards for machines should be first
items listed for attention. If properly impressed, the adminis-
tration will supply them without too much delay. Some guards
can be made in the shop if no other means for obtaining them
is available. The tendency to allow school-shop equipment to
be more poorly guarded than that used in industrial plants
should not be tolerated.

Dull Tools and Machines

Dull machines, especially in woodwork, have probably
caused as much difficulty as many other causes combined.
Whoever has tried to put a piece of hardwood over a dull
jointer or tried to rip on a badly fitted ripsaw will realize the
truth of this statement. In Chapter I, stress was laid upon the
necessity for conditioning the equipment before school begins.
That is a splendid step in the direction of a year free from
accidents. It is, however, only a first step. It must be fol-
lowed by repeated and continuous attention to all phases of
the equipment, and especially to the matter of keeping all cur-
ting tools sharp. What has been said about machines holds
good also with reference to hand tools, although the conse-
quences are usually less serious in case of accidents with the
latter.

166 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

This brings up the problem of budgeting the teacher's time
for keeping up the equipment. Many shops get into poor con-
dition not because the instructor is careless but for the reason
that there is no time in his program for doing the necessary
work. Probably his inefficiency lies in the fact that he has not
been successful in having time set aside for the upkeep of his
equipment. It has been suggested previously that some teach-
ers expect the time actually spent in class instruction to con-
stitute their entire working day. That cannot be if the shop
is to be dangerproof, to say nothing of the needs for keeping
equipment in condition for efficient work. After all, it is prob-
ably much better to put in a little more overtime than to have
to be in a constant state of worry regarding conditions of
belts, switches, and other sources of accidents.

Everyone will agree that scraps and debris of various kinds
on the floor constitute a grave danger, particularly around
machines. But how many shops are absolutely free from this
evil? It takes a special place for such material, and full co-
operation in getting it there. Few teachers are spending enough
energy on this problem to solve it and keep it solved.

Motors crncf Switches

When planning new equipment it should be kept in mind
that individually attached motors provide for a safer source of
power than line shafting and belts. It is well also to provide
individual control of each machine on a wall panel where the
instructor can disconnect any that is not to be used without
special permission, or control any that may be out of order
temporarily. Available wiring codes, obtainable through vari-
ous channels, should be followed closely at all times.

Marking Work Areas

It is a good custom to mark the working space for each
machine on the floor, and to allow only the operator within

SAFETY INSTRUCTION 167

the marked area while the machine is in use. Mats, made out
of some nonslip material, are valuable as a support for the op-
erator. In the absence of these, some paint or glue and fine
sand may serve the same purpose. When mats are used it be-
comes necessary to secure all edges firmly.

Better Teaching and Fewer Accidents

The instructor is of necessity the central factor in avoiding
accidents. He bears the brunt of the whole matter when acci-
dents occur. And it is right that it should be so, even though
he may at times have good reason for declaring himself ham-
pered by the school and the board of education. Better teach-
ing and better organization will prevent accidents. The most
conscientious and able teachers have the fewest charges against
them in this regard; barring, of course, cases where students
seem deliberately to force accidents upon themselves.

Hazards from Overtime Work

In every shop where high interest in the work prevails, there
are always requests for a chance to stay after regular school
hours. Boys who ask for such privileges are usually the more
reliable ones. The instructor has duties to perform outside
of the room, and the worker or workers are sometimes left to
their own resources. In this practice there is danger. In the
first place, such work is usually done at the "peak hour" of the
day, as far as liability to accidents is concerned. It has been
found in industry that the larger number of accidents happen
toward the close of the day.

In the second place, there is always a tendency for students
to congregate after school hours whenever the shop is open;
and particularly is that true as soon as the instructor goes out.
Such conditions, even though irregularities are not intentional,

168 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

are likely to divert the attention of some student and an acci-
dent may thereby occur.

Exploration in the Shop

The adolescent age is one possessed of tendencies toward
rebellion against rules and regulations, desire to disregard ad-
vice, to try out new schemes and methods, to do a job differ-
ently from the way the teacher says it should be done. While
these tendencies have value and should be recognized in some
types of work, every means must be employed to side-track
them when power machinery is being operated. There are
probably not many good ways of putting a board through a
ripsaw, hoisting an automobile, or doing any of the standard
jobs that have been determined upon after much experience.
Just how to make young students see this is the problem of the
instructor. Very firm steps may need to be taken to prevent
dangerous experimentation just to see what might happen
when using power machinery; but prevent it we must.

Impressing the Student

In giving instructions to high-school boys concerning the
use of machines it is well to remember that they are used to
listening to many rules and regulations. This, however, does
not mean that they are in the habit of being governed by all
of them. On the contrary, they are likely to be fairly expert
in evading rules and "getting by." For this reason it will be
of little use to make a few general suggestions and expect per-
fect adherence to them. Unless they have a thorough under-
standing of the purpose of the rules for their conduct in the
use of machines, and can see how they will profit by observ-
ing them, they will probably take the same attitude toward
these rules as to the numerous others pertaining to their con-
duct in and about the school buildings.

It is absolutely necessary that the instructor get the full co-

SAFETY INSTRUCTION 169

operation of the students, and that they feel the responsibility
of the outcome of their own actions while at work on the
machines. It is the attitude of mind that prompts students to
violate rules and hope to "get by" that plays havoc with them
when they get into the shop or on the job.

Experience has proved the necessity of impressing the stu-
dents strongly with the facts that (1) the "safety-first" rules
for the shop are not arbitrary, and most of them do not profit
the school or the teacher, and (2) established methods of pro-
cedure carry within them the best safety rules. To accomplish
this, a statement may be made to the woodworking classes,
for example, similar to the following:

You boys are accustomed to hearing many rules and regula-
tions. There are rules for your conduct in class, for your be-
havior in the assembly hall and library, for your actions and lan-
guage on the school grounds. Whether or not you will be
penalized for violations of these rules depends, first, upon whether
you are caught in the act of disobeying, and, second, upon what
kind of talk you can put up to the one who catches you. The
general rules of the school are flexible; they are applied somewhat
according to the temperament of those who made them.

But it is not so in the use of power machinery. The most im-
portant rules here were not made arbitrarily, nor are they en-
forced arbitrarily. Each machine has its own rules, and the tragic
part of it is that they practice no irregularity in enforcing them.
The jointer says, "If you put your fingers into the knives when
they are revolving, you will have them cut off just as far as they
are put in! " And it never fails to make its threat good. It will
not be caught turning its back or looking the other way. The
ripsaw, the bandsaw, and all the rest of the machines, have similar
rules and are similarly regular in their enforcement.

The electric power at the switch is never asleep on its job. It
will not consider the inexperience of the beginner, and take pity
on him to the extent that it fails to deliver a shock because he
"did not know any better." Machines will not modify their rules
according to the condition under which they were violated or
who did the violating. It may be considered good sport by some

170 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

to see how many rules they can break and get by while no one
is looking. Such an experiment had better not be tried with
power machines.

After this sort of presentation, which, of course, should be
made kindly and sympathetically, the class is usually ready to
listen to demonstrations in the actual use of the machines. As
soon as the boys see that this is done for their safety and ef-
ficiency, the goal is reached. The degree of success of the
first lesson is a fair index of the remaining job resting upon the
teacher. It may, and probably will, take several lessons before
the ideal is reached or even approached, but a beginning to-
ward this ideal must be made at once.

Value of Danger Signs

The use of charts and signs calling attention to dangers in
use of machines, or stating rules to be followed, appears to be
of value only up to a certain point. Too many such signs be-
come commonplace and lose their value. They should not
be depended upon, for after they have been in place for a
while they are not noticed. Whatever subconscious effect they
might have is probably of questionable value. To clutter the
shop with large, unsightly signs of this nature probably does
more harm than good.

Additional Suggestions

The following additional suggestions to the instructor may
be of value:

1 . K?20 r w the state laws. The instructor should make him-
self fully familiar with laws of his state covering the guarding
of machines, and any other phase of legal ordinances that may
affect his work. All rules for guarding machines may not
apply to schools, but it is well to have the school shop con-
form in full to all regulations that can be put into practice.

SAFETY INSTRUCTION 171

Such procedure may eliminate embarrassing situations at a
later date. Neither should the instructor feel that he has made
a gain if the state inspector should fail to visit his shop. It is
better to call for him, and to follow his recommendations.

2. Know safety-instruction materials. Much printed ma-
terial bearing upon safety in school activities has become avail-
able in recent years. Chief among sources for such material is
the National Safety Council, 1 from which various suggestions
and outlines for safety programs may be obtained. The bulle-
tin entitled "Safety Education for the School Shop" is of spe-
cial value for teachers and supervisors of shopwork. State de-
partments of education will either have material of this type
for distribution or will be in position to refer the inquirer to
suitable sources. Many school systems in larger cities have
published extensive safety rules and suggestions for local use.

The teacher should familiarize himself not only with state
laws covering safety practices, but should also obtain all avail-
able suggestions for training pupils in safety habits both in
and out of school. Written material on safety should be avail-
able to students in the school for the reason that published
instructions will seem more factual and authoritative than oral
instructions given by the teacher. Available references for
safety instruction are listed at the close of this chapter.

3. Check studenfs 'work. Get the habit of checking every
set-up of every machine before permission to start the machine
is granted. This will often be the means of arresting many an
awkward situation.

4. Check unreliable students. Some students who may come
to the shop are not capable of handling a machine intelligently.
Some will never learn. Often such students can talk well and
give a false impression of their ability.

5. Check up prerequisites. It is well not to take students'

1 National Safety Council, 20 North Wacker Drive, Chicago, Illinois.

172 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

words for what they can do. Definite prerequisites should be
set up before students may work on the machines. Sometimes
an irregular student comes with the group and is not noticed
until his lack of experience gets him into difficulty.

6. Practice constant supervision. It has been suggested pre-
viously that announcements regarding safe practices are not
enough. Constant supervision is needed to be sure that ex-
ceptions are not allowed to creep in. The use of a safety fore-
man or "engineer" in the class organization, as discussed else-
where, is helpful in impressing students with needs for safety
practice.

Fear as a Danger

It is possible that while an instructor must make a strong
impression on some in order to make them sufficiently cau-
tious, there are a few who are overimpressed with the dangers
and become inhibited in their actions. If this is the condition,
such students must be released from their complex or their
caution constitutes a danger. Skillful demonstrations by the
teacher will help to overcome the difficulty. The best remedy
is probably some quantity job on a machine such as ripping
a large number of boards, or some similar piece of work, that
will make the person gain confidence in the fact that the ma-
chine in itself is not dangerous when properly handled. A
sympathetic understanding between students and instructor is
helpful at all times.

Means for Protecting Teacher, Pup/7, and School

Even after all steps have been taken for accident preven-
tion, it is still wise to think of the possibility of accidents, and
to be prepared for such possibilities. The teacher, the pupil,
and the school must all be considered. The teacher wishes to
protect himself against legal responsibility even though he has
satisfied his moral responsibility through efficient planning and

SAFETY INSTRUCTION 173

teaching. The safeguarding of children, instructor, and school,
in this connection, may reach out in the following directions:

1. Provide insurance. Some boards of education have pur-
chased blanket insurance covering all types of accidents that
may occur while children are legally charges of the school.

2. Permission from parents. In many school shops it is the
practice to request the parent or guardian to sign a permit for
the student to use machines in shopwork, and also to declare
that he will not hold the school responsible for accidents that
may occur. While such a statement still may not legally re-
lease the board of education from responsibility, it would
make the parent more hesitant to claim damages.

3. Have first-aid kit. Every shop should be provided with
adequate first-aid material. Antiseptics, bandages, and other
simple preparations should always be available for taking care
of smaller wounds, and for caring for more severe cases until
medical aid can be had.

4. Have students pass safety tests. A recommended prac-
tice for proving that proper instruction has been given in re-
gard to use of power equipment and in tool manipulations is to
give written tests to the students. The procedure in these tests
is such that the student puts down in writing the safety rules
covering each piece of equipment and writes out steps for
doing jobs on the various machines. These written test papers
are then put in the files of the principal or the board of educa-
tion and kept there until the student attains the age when he
and his parents have forfeited their rights to bring lawsuits for
injuries that he might have sustained in school.

5. Knowledge of first aid. Every teacher owes it to himself
and his students to know the elements of first aid to injured
persons. With such knowledge he can safeguard students in
severe cases of bleeding or shock. Most cities now offer courses
in such work under the auspices of the Red Cross or some
other agency, and all instructors who have not the needed

174 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

knowledge and skill in this regard should acquire such knowl-
edge and skill without delay. Small wounds or scratches
should always receive treatment and be reported through reg-
ular channels usually provided for by the school.

General Safety Education through Industrial Arts

It would seem reasonable to expect that every teacher in
elementary and secondary schools should accept the responsi-
bility of giving safety instruction and developing safety con-
sciousness in students. In the industrial-arts shop and
laboratory, superior opportunities for such instruction present
themselves because the nature of the work and the type of
materials and equipment used more nearly parallel conditions
in the home under which accidents occur. While the amount
of time that should be devoted separately to general safety
instruction may be a debatable question, it still remains that
in the industrial-arts setting, safety practices for the home can
best be stressed in connection with the use and handling of
such materials as acid, inflammable substances, paints and fin-
ishes, electrical appliances, fire, slippery floors, etc. Not much
time needs to be used in calling attention to the application of
these dangers to home conditions, since most of them must be
discussed in the course of the work in school.

PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS

1. Make a complete check of safety conditions in a school
shop, and write a report that might be given to the administra-
tion.

2. How may safety signs in the school shop be effectively
used?

3. Make a list of the most common causes of accidents in the
school shop.

4. What are some of the means by which the instructor can
interest the school board in spending money for adequate safety
appliances in the shop?

SAFETY INSTRUCTION 175

5. Make a form for use in checking safety conditions in a
school shop.

6. In what type of commercial shops do most accidents occur?

7. Is the answer to question 6 also true for school shops?

8. What should be the instructor's attitude toward keeping
the shop open after school hours?

9. Does the fact that the instructor has had extensive experi-
ence in industry always mean that he will prevent accidents
among his students? Show in detail in what respects he would
or would not do so.

10. To what extent are the schools of your state responsible
for children outside of the classrooms?

11. Is there any need in the school shop for considering fatigue
as a possible cause for accidents? Explain.

12. Show how a lack of cooperative attitude on the student's
part may be a cause for accidents.

13. Make out a form that you would send out for parents'
signatures before students would be permitted to use machines.

14. If children are taken out for observation trips into industry,
what is the teacher's responsibility for accidents that may occur?

15. Make up a list of safety rules for a woodworking shop, or
an electric shop.

16. In what ways may an instructor protect himself legally
against liability in connection with shop accidents?

17. Has there been a decline or increase in accidents in school
shops in the past decade?

18. What agency in your State enforces safety codes in in-
dustry?

REFERENCES

1. Dexter, Harry M., "General Shop Safety Instructions," In-
dustrial Arts and Vocational Education, 27:21-3, January,
1938.

2. Dudley, Robert G., "Preventing Accidents in the Cabinet-
making Shop," Industrial Education Magazine^ 30: 332, March,
1929.

3. Estabrook, Edward C., "The Shop Teacher's Part in Safety
Education," The Phi Delta Kappan, 21:221, January, 1939.

176 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

4. Hall, Samuel F., "Safety in the School Shop,'' Industrial Arts
and Vocational Education, 33:125-6, March, 1944.

5. Henig, Max S., "Intelligence and Shop Accidents," Industrial
Arts Magazine, 17:265-6, August, 1928.

6. Heron, Percy H., "Every Job Can Be Done Safely," Indus-
trial Arts and Vocational Education, 23:249-52, September,
1935.

7. Karch, R. Randolph, "Accidents and Health Hazards in
the Printshop," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education,
24:295-6, October, 1935.

8. Monroe, Lynne G, "Safety in the School Shop," American
Vocational Association Journal, 15:60-1, February, 1940.

9. Murri, Joseph, "Safety Provisions and Regulations for School
Shops," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 34: 1 3 1-3,
March, 194L

10. Pfister, Richard, "Safety Rules for the Machine Shop," In-
dustrial Arts and Vocational Education, 22:385, December,
1933.

11. "Safety Education," (Monthly Publication), National
Safety Council, 20 Wacker Drive, Chicago 6, Illinois.

12. Sproule, J. T., "Safety in School Shops," Industrial Educa-
tion Magazine, 36:200, September, 1934.

13. Stack, Herbert J., "Teaching Safety Through Visual Educa-
tion," Educational Screen, 15:82-4, March, 1936.

14. Struck, F. T., Creative Teaching, Wiley and Sons, pp. 359-
70, 1938.

15. Van Duzee, Roy R., "Safety in School Shops," Industrial
Arts and Vocational Education, 30:384-5, November, 1941.

16. Willis, William W., and Olson, Delmar W., "First Aid in the
Shop," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 27:172,
April, 1938.

Chapter VII
RELATED INFORMATION AND GUIDANCE

Types of Related Information

Material for related information may be classified under
three different kinds: ( 1 ) items that have direct bearing upon
the efficiency in performing work, (2) material that has to do
with increasing the general scope of vision of the learner or
workman, and (3) information leading to occupational infor-
mation and guidance.

Under the first of these classifications would come such
knowledge as would lead to best uses of applications of prin-
ciples of mathematics and science to the work performed, or
to the understanding of reasons for using certain procedures
or materials specified in connection with various assignments
or jobs. Effects of moisture and heat on lumber, the charac-
teristic of different kinds of glue, and the relative resistance
to rot by different woods would be items of this type. This
kind of related knowledge is essential to efficient work and to
the development of an intelligent workman.

Related Information for Enjoyment

Under the second type will fall information that may not
be considered essential for the performance of required work
or for progressing in it, but which, nevertheless, is valuable
in developing appreciation of the craft or of the work per-
formed, knowledge of the history of the industry represented,
or appreciation of social and economic implications of the
field. Under this classification might come the study of period
furniture for students in the woodworking shop, the operation
of a steel mill for machine-shop students, or the life of Guten-
berg for print-shop classes.

177

178 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

The material under this classification is worthy of presenta-
tion for its own sake rather than because of its relation to a
specific mechanical process. A woodworker could probably
be an expert in his trade and never learn from what sources
his woods came, or how they are handled before they arrive
in his shop. But he will not be an informed person. And it is
just here where the justification for broader information
(items of knowledge) comes in. In the junior high school
particularly, and to a large extent in the senior high school,
we are not training mechanics in the school shop; we are of-
fering a means of receiving an education. And if this educa-
tion is to be at all comprehensive we must think of it in
broader terms than simply the production of articles in wood,
metal, or other materials.

Information, then, even if having only a remote relationship
to the types of work being done in the shop, is justifiable, and
to the larger number of students fully as valuable as the actual
tool and machine operations.

There is no foundation for the belief held by some teachers
that this type of material is not sufficiently attractive to stu-
dents to be presented frankly for the sake of its own value.
On the contrary, such material creates an intense interest
among students if properly planned and organized, and does
not need to be hidden and lost in a demonstration.

Occupaf/oncr/ /nforaiof/on

Instructors of shop subjects are in a unique position for as-
sisting youth in learning about a large field of occupations.
One of the principal objectives for the work in secondary
schools is the opportunity to explore mechanical occupations.

With this aim in view, the instructor will at all times see to it
that shop conditions parallel as nearly as possible those of in-
dustry. The need for "shop atmosphere" has been stressed

RELATED INFORMATION AND GUIDANCE 179

previously. But the instructor's opportunity does not end with
the practical work at the bench or at the machine. There is
much valuable information about the occupation represented,
and about related occupations that will not come into the stu-
dent's possession through the limited amount of manipulative
work which is possible in the school. It is the duty of the in-
structor to analyze such informational material, and to select
from it such phases for presentation as will help the student to
make a more intelligent, future vocational choice.

There is no good reason why the instructor, when planning
the program for the theoretical material, should not also in-
clude such phases of that material as may have no other spe-
cific purpose than to enlighten students in regard to the
characteristics of the trade and its related branches as a possible
future vocation for the members of the class. The need for
covering the broad field of allied occupations is evident when
we consider the fact that one shop activity may represent ten
or more distinct trades.

Procedures in Studying Related or
Occupational Information

Information, whether for the purpose of enriching the sub-
ject matter or for giving an insight into occupations, may be
given to students in a number of ways. The methods and
sources of information are here discussed simultaneously for
both types of approach, since not only does the subject matter
often suit both purposes, but the methods of selection and
presentation are identical in a large number of cases. The fol-
lowing means have been used successfully:

1 . Talks by the instructor.

2. Study assignments and student reports.

3. Talks by men from industry.

4. Visits to industry.

5. Motion pictures and other films.

180 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

These will be discussed briefly in separate paragraphs, with
the understanding that no attempt is made to offer a compre-
hensive or complete program of occupational study. Such a
program must be developed from the conditions of the indi-
vidual school or school system.

Presentations by the Instructor

The method nearest at hand, but in many ways also the
least effective, is for the instructor to tell the class what he
thinks they should learn about the work or about the occupa-
tion. There are topics, no doubt, both in reference to items
of knowledge in connection with the subject matter and occu-
pations, for which this is the most desirable method. But, in
general, the instructor's voice becomes rather customary, and
other methods of approach are more desirable and produce a
more permanent effect. The best teacher is probably the one
who can stay in the background the most and stimulate the
educative process by other means.

Assigned Study About Occupations

If the shop library is at all complete, it should have in it
some good books on occupations. (Other books should be
available in the main library of the school.) To such books,
students may be directed for valuable information. Careful
selection of material is essential, for not all books on occupa-
tions are equally good. Study of occupational information in
this way has a distinct value in that it enables students to cover
more ground than can be covered by class talks. If definite
assignments are made, and reports required in class, this type
of program is economical with reference to student time, as
compared with some other methods that may be used. Need-
less to say, it is not equally effective with all students. Gov-
ernment bulletins and pamphlets published by other agencies
^re available for this study program.

RELATED INFORMATION AND GUIDANCE 181

Presentations by Outside Speakers

A series of talks by outstanding men in the field of occupa-
tions under consideration has been resorted to in various
schools. This type of approach creates interest among stu-
dents, particularly until it becomes commonplace. Extreme
care must be exercised in selecting the persons who assist in
such a program, or it may result both in waste of rime and in
unfortunate reactions. Even with the best selections possible,
it is necessary to impress such speakers beforehand with both
the purpose for the arrangement and the most effective pro-
cedure. Too many persons either feel that they have come to
entertain or else that they must attempt to induce every stu-
dent to reject or accept the occupation they represent. A defi-
nite outline for studying and presenting an occupation is of
value in the hands of such persons as a step in preparation for
a valuable talk.

Visifs fo Industries

Well-organized visits to industrial plants, buildings under
construction, drafting rooms, and other places where the
world's work is being done, are valuable in broadening the stu-
dents' views of occupation and their possibilities, as well as
in learning related and scientific facts. Next to the actual par-
ticipation in the occupation, this method is probably the most
effective for obtaining a fairly true picture of the work of an
occupation and the conditions under which the work is done.

To be most effective such visits must be planned for in ad-
vance. Simply to telephone for permission to "take the stu-
dents through" is not sufficient. The instructor should first
visit the plant personally, and note for himself just what phases
of the work will be most valuable. He might next make out
a form for the students to fill in with the information gathered
in their visit. Unless the class knows beforehand what they

182 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

should look for, there is danger that the trip will mean little
but a holiday.

It is to be regretted that in large cities the transportation
problem, accident hazards, distance to industries, personal re-
sponsibility to the instructor, and other considerations have
combined to discourage trips of this nature.

Another and more feasible approach to this problem is indi-
vidual visitation. Individuals can visit free of most of the ob-
stacles mentioned, with the additional advantage of spreading
out over a larger number of plants and getting more varied
and interesting reports for the class. The same type of report
blank can be used, although it may not be possible for the
teacher to make a preliminary visit in every case.

Motion Pictures as Occupational Information

Some prefer motion pictures to any other means available
for studying occupations. Even if the numerous difficulties in
the way of industrial visits were eliminated, it is argued that
pictures are preferable, and for this the following reasons are
given:

1 . The program can proceed without interfering with the
schedule of students with reference to other studies. This
cannot well be done when visiting industries, because the pe-
riod usually devoted to the shopwork is not of sufficient
length.

2. The attention of students can be concentrated more eas-
ily upon the subject at hand. On a visiting trip there are al-
ways a number of competing attractions taking away the
emphasis from the important points.

3. It is rarely possible for all students on a visiting trip to
get near enough to important phases of the work which may
be in progress to take with them a true picture of the condi-
tions that actually exist.

4. Oral explanations which are given in connection with

RELATED INFORMATION AND GUIDANCE 183

motion pictures can easily be heard, which is not so in the
average visit to industrial plants.

5. Motion pictures can often be slowed down, or suspended
where necessary, for further study of details.

While these advantages are worthy of consideration, it can
hardly be agreed that pictures are in every respect more de-
sirable than actual visitation. In most localities there would be
no pictures available of the larger number of local industries
in which students of the schools might expect to enter. Even
in the largest cities only a few of the most important industrial
plants can furnish films showing the scope of activity engaged
in, and, even when such films are produced, advertising qual-
ities rather than true occupational conditions may have been
given first consideration.

Motion pictures, as well as many other types of audio-vis-
ual-education material, do have a definite place in the program
of modern industrial-arts teaching. While the customary use
of films is thought of as pertaining to occupational and related
information, there are now valuable films available for giving
instruction in manipulative processes as well.

Every industrial-arts teacher should have access to proper
equipment for using film slides and motion pictures, and
should make full use of such equipment as a part of his teach-
ing procedure. The use of films was further discussed in
Chapter V.

Outline for Evaluating Occupations

In the study of an occupation, whether it be through any
one or all of the methods suggested in this chapter, the instruc-
tor must have an organized plan for arriving at the information
that will be of greatest value to the students. The outline
which follows has been used to indicate the type of analysis
desirable for such an outline. It is equally valuable for use
where the study is made as an auxiliary to the industrial-arts

184 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

program, or where the study of occupations has been organ-
ized independently on a broader basis.

OUTLINE FOR THE STUDY OF AN OCCUPATION

I. General statement concerning the vocation:

1. Value of the vocation as a social service.

2. Duties of one engaged in it.

3. Number engaged in it in local community.

4. Relative number engaged in it, in general, with its
probable future development.

5. Relative capital invested in it.

II. Personal qualities demanded:

1. Qualities of manner, temperament, character.

2. Mental characteristics.

3. Physical demands.

III. Preparation required:

1. General education.

2. Special or vocational education.

3. Apprenticeship conditions.

4. Experience required.

IV. Wages earned by workers:

1. Range of wages made (table showing distribution of
cases).

2. Average wage per week.

3. Relation of wage to length of experience and prep-
aration.

V. Length of 'working season, working week, working day.

VI. Health of the workers:

1. Healthful or unhealthful conditions.

2. Dangers, accidents, or risks.

VII. Opportunities for employment:

1. In local community.

2. In general.

VIII. Organization of the industry, including the relations of the
worker to his fellow workers, his employers, and to the
community.

RELATED INFORMATION AND GUIDANCE 185

IX. Status of workers:

1. Opportunities for advancement.

2. Time for recreation and enjoyment.

3. Adequate income for recreation and the comforts of
life.

4. Any other items of peculiar interest in this connec-
tion.

X. Biographies of leaders in the vocation.

How Much Related Information?

With all that has been said of the value and importance of
related and occupational information in this chapter, there is
no intention of suggesting that an undue amount of time be
spent on this phase of the work in an industrial-arts program.
Shopwork in the school is essentially manipulative in charac-
ter, and it should not be made into a discussion subject of the
academic type. But to narrow the shopwork down to the bare,
manipulative processes is to limit it in educational and explora-
tory value.

The amount of time used in dealing with discussional ma-
terial as compared to actual work in the school shop will vary
somewhat with the type of subject taught, the age of students,
and the objectives of the course. Electrical work, radio, air-
craft mechanics, and similar subjects will probably require
more time spent on theory and immediately related informa-
tion than will woodwork, printing, and welding.

As a definite suggestion, the opinion is registered here that if
the subject of industrial arts is to claim to be of educational
value parallel to other subjects in secondary schools, about
25% of the total time of the class period will probably be
needed for other than actual toolwork. This takes in consid-
eration all the activities such as roll call, tool checking, clean-
ing up, etc., as well as demonstrations, discussions, reports, and
occupational information. On the other hand, if the time so
used exceeds 50% of the time, there is probably danger that

186 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

the values of the subject as an activity are being sacrificed
and that it will be difficult to maintain interest in the class in
the long run.

PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS

1. Make a plan for eighteen weekly periods of fifteen minutes
each for discussion of related information in a woodworking
class or a class in electrical work. State the topics to be dis-
cussed and the methods of procedure in carrying out the plan.

2. Make a list of library or reference books necessary for occu-
pational study as related to industrial arts.

3. If there are separate occupation-study classes in your school,
would you still spend some time on occupational study in your
class?

4. At what age do you believe that pupils should be urged to
make the selection of their life's work?

5. How permanent do you consider occupational choices
which are made by boys fifteen years of age or less?

6. List in detail the steps of procedure which a teacher might
follow in arranging for an occupational visit with his class.

7. In what respects, if any, are industrial visits superior to
motion pictures for imparting occupational information?

8. Make up a sheet of information and suggestions which one
might give to the class before going on an industrial visit.

9. Make an outline for the students to follow in their reports
of industrial visits.

10. Would an employer or a journeyman worker be the best
type for giving occupational talks to the students? Why?

11. How would you go about preparing an outside person for
giving a talk on his occupation before a class of fourteen-year-old
boys?

12. Is there, in your opinion, danger in being too explicit in
suggestions to one who is to speak to a group of school boys? If
so, what is the danger?

13. What are some advantages in having students find and
present occupational information rather than having the teacher
do it?

14. What would be the cost of good equipment for showing
motion pictures of occupational films?

RELATED INFORMATION AND GUIDANCE 187

REFERENCES

1. Bawden and Others, Industrial Arts in Modern Education,
The Manual Arts Press, Chap. III.

2. Boodish, H., "Course Outline in Related Social Studies,"
Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 33:53-5, February,
1945.

3. Camp, Dalph, "Establishing Rapport with the Home as a
Basis for Guidance," Industrial Education Magazine, 41:
180-2, September, 1939.

4. Campbell, Herbert U., "Influence of Industrial-Arts Expe-
riences on the Subsequent Occupation," Industrial Education
Magazine, 36:253-5, November, 1934.

5. Dick, Arthur A., "Manipulative and Nonmanipulative Time
Elements," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 33:
129-30, March, 1944.

6. Douglas, J. H., "Motion Pictures in Industrial Arts," Indus-
trial Arts and Vocational Education, 29:147-8, April, 1940.

7. Dunning, W. J., "A Proposed Vocational Guidance Pro-
gram," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 30:136-8,
March, 1941.

8. Fenn, I. M., "Personnel Service in Industrial Arts," Industrial
Arts and Vocational Education, 30:138-40, March, 1941.

9. Fryklund, Verne C., "A Curriculum Instrument in Industrial
Education," Industrial Education Magazine, 41:171-5, Sep-
tember, 1939.

10. Goldstein, Hyman, "Vocational Guidance of the Under-
privileged," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education," 30:
45-6, February, 1941.

11. Gray, Harold M., "Three Essentials of a Functioning Guid-
ance Program," Industrial Arts and Vocation Education,
33:194-5, May, ' H4.

12. Karch, R. Rancjlph, "A Functional Related Course in the
Graphic-Arts Curriculum," Industrial Arts and Vocationd
Education, 32:47-9, February, 1943.

13. Karch, R. Randolph, "Graphic- Arts Occupations," Industrial
Arts and Vocational Education, 31:424-9, December, 1942.

14. Manzer, Emerson W., "Visual Instruction in Industrial Arts
Education," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 21:
23 3-5, August, 1932.

188 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

15. McLain, Henry, "What Is Related Work?" Industrial Arts
and Vocational Education, 32:230-1, June, 1943.

16. Selvidge, R. W., and Fryklund, Verne G, Principles of
Trade and Industrial Teaching, The Manual Arts Press, 1946,

Chap. VIII.

17. Sharer, Boyd C, and Giese, Willis E., "Training Workers
for Industrial Citizenship," Industrial Arts and Vocational
Education, 30:1-3, January, 1941.

18. Twogood, A. P., "More About Vocational Guidance," In-
dustrial Arts and Vocational Education, 32:316-17, October,
1943.

19. Wilson, Harry R., "Related Science," Industrial Arts and
Vocational Education, 28:136, 16A-24A, March, 1939.

Chapter VIII

TESTING AND RECORDING PUPIL PROGRESS

The Need for Records of Accomplishment

Determining and recording grades in shopwork are proce-
dures handled differently by different teachers. Some pay very
little attention to grades until word comes from the administra-
tive office that they are due. Others carry what would seem to
be an overorganized system of records that takes account of
every action of the student. Both extremes are undesirable.
There must, of course, be a system by which grades are
awarded. Students have a right to know what is the basis for
giving grade marks, and they must be made to feel that the
system in use is just to everyone.

Basis for a Fair Grading System

At the time when official grades are required, whether it
be at the close of the semester or at shorter intervals, most
teachers find that their records are very meager too meager
to insure students a fair deal and to enable the teacher to jus-
tify himself to the students after giving the grades. When
the student comes back to learn the reason for a low grade,
the instructor is put on the defensive, because he has graded
on general impressions rather than on systematic data. Par-
ticularly is this true if such items as attention, reliability, care
of equipment, speed, and other items are considered.

A student who loafed away a period or two last month has
probably forgotten all about it by now, even if the instructor
well remembers it; and one, who after many mistakes and
much "patching" has finally succeeded in producing some-

189

190 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

thing similar in appearance to other articles receiving higher
grades will, nevertheless, have difficulty in seeing why a "dis-
crimination" was made. Lack of an established system of
grading causes unpleasant aftereffects. A good way to avoid
later misunderstandings is to visualize, in advance, a possible
interview with the inquiring student after the final grade has
been given. Every student who feels that his grade is unjust
is a dissatisfied customer, whether or not he comes back to de-
clare his dissatisfaction.

Grading as a Teaching Device

Efficient grading of work is a distinct factor in efficient
teaching. Evaluation marks can be used not only for final
records but can and should be used as a distinct teaching de-
vice. To be sure, it is a common saying that students should
not work for grades and credits. We might as well say that
a worker should not be interested in wages or a raise in salary.
Why tell students that it is wrong to think of grade marks?
Where is there greater interest in grades than among a group
of teachers at a summer session? If tactfully handled, the
grading scheme can be a device for creating and maintaining
high interest.

Characteristics of an Efficient Grading System

In devising a system for grading industrial-arts work, a num-
ber of points are of importance. The following, at least, ap-
pear to be desirable characteristics of a grading scheme:

1. It should consume a minimum of the teacher's time.

2. It should be based upon a wide scope of student re-
sponses and attainment.

3. The grading should be frequent.

4. A uniform standard for grading should be applied.

5. Students should have access to their grades.

6. Grades should be made permanent.

TESTING AND RECORDING PROGRESS 191

Little further need be said about the necessity of a grading
system that will operate with a minimum amount of time con-
sumption. To organize such a complicated system for check-
ing and scoring work that little time is left for instruction is a
mark of poor judgment. By making an effort to save time
without sacrificing efficiency in grading work, the instructor
can simplify the marking and bookkeeping. Grade cards can
be so made up that punch marks will do the necessary marking
for the day or week. Plus or minus signs, or other symbols,
may be used. To reorganize a grading system in the light of
these suggestions is better than to let such a system lapse on
the ground that there is not time to carry it out.

Basic Points for Grading

In nonvocational shopwork, particularly, and in strictly vo-
cational classes to some extent, there is need for recognizing
other results of effort than what might show on the finished
article which has been produced. But here, again, there is a
limit to the number of desirable factors to be given attention.
If too great a list of points is used, students become confused
in their evaluation of the scale, while the teacher multiplies
work for himself. A larger number of qualities and character-
istics of a good student may be given and discussed, but for
the purpose of definite recognition on a grade card the follow-
ing may be considered sufficient by many:

1. Quantity of 'work accomplished (speed). There is need
for recognizing the fact that success in most lines of vocational
work depends upon the ability to produce; also that speed,
within reasonable limits, does not of necessity impair any other
quality of a good worker or student.

2. Quality of 'work (accuracy and workmanship). Opin-
ion is divided as to whether quality should be stressed first in
manipulative work, with the idea that quantity or speed will
come with added practice. Without attempting a final settle-

192 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

ment of the question, it might be said that there is too little
consciousness of the value of time in our schools. Many stu-
dents never learn, while in school at least, that they could
equally well do twice as much work. Generally the reason
for a slow pace is the lack of appreciation of this fact on the
teacher's part. A definite organization of the class for more
efficient use of rime would probably bring surprising rewards.

3. Effort put forth. There is good reason for recognizing
effort and application as a separate item in grading. These are
general success qualities which can be encouraged in the school
shop and which can be adequately tested there, better, per-
haps, than in any other room or subject in the curriculum.
Some students who try hard may be less successful in produc-
ing fine work than others who apply themselves less con-
stantly. Their effort should be given consideration to the
greatest possible extent.

4. Knowledge acquired and applied. The need of acquir-
ing definite items of knowledge in addition to manipulative
experience has been discussed previously. Checking up on the
acquisition of such knowledge, and particularly upon its use
and application to the problems at hand, should be a definite
part of the grading scheme. The knowledge here referred to
would be that of the related or information type, acquired
largely through study of the textbook and references. Some
of it might also have been presented in connection with dem-
onstrations and lectures. There are many students who excel
in working with their hands, but who do not even, without
much outside pressure, learn the correct names of the tools
they use.

5. Proper attitude. At this point would be considered atti-
tude toward equipment, toward work, and toward fellow stu-
dents. There seems to be no need for separating these atti-
tudes for individual marking. There is a variety of personal
qualities which the school should recognize and develop.

TESTING AND RECORDING PROGRESS 193

These attitudes can be frankly discussed as success qualities,
not only in school but in occupational life. Definite recogni-
tion of such attitudes upon the grade card goes far toward
promoting their development.

Weighing Grade Points

Different instructors give different values to these points ac-
cording to their own estimate of the importance. The objec-
tive or objectives of the work influence the distribution. For
industrial-arts courses in both junior and senior high schools,
the following division has proved satisfactory, allowing for:
quantity, 25; quality, 25; effort, 20; knowledge (acquired and
applied), 20; and attitude, 10. Total, 100.

Periods for Grading

In order to record the final grade mark with the greatest
degree of fairness, the instructor should provide himself with
a series of marks throughout the progress of the course. Such
a record will eliminate guesswork at the end of the semester.
The impression of the student who changes his ways during
the last month will not be strong enough to put him upon the
same level with those who have worked faithfully throughout
the course.

Periods for grading may be established in two ways:
1. Grading by projects or 'work accomplished. This
method is effective if the grading is sufficiently frequent. The
danger in its use lies in the fact that there is a tendency to post-
pone the grading until the article is completed, and then to
judge only from its final appearance. In all assignments that
involve more than one day's activity there should be definite
checking levels established beyond which the work should
not progress without the recording of marks. The more fre-
quent these periods, the more data will the instructor have,
and the more interest will there be in the class.

194

TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

When using this system in connection with a job in the
print shop, for instance, there might well be one grade for the
composition; one for the preparation of the type for the press;
another for preparing and inking the press; and still another
for the presswork. Fig. 12 shows a card designed for grading
by this method.

2. Grading chronologically. Under this scheme grading is
done by periods, such as daily, weekly, or monthly, regardless
of the type or condition of the work being done. This scheme
has the advantage of putting continuous stress upon those
points which are not always stressed when emphasizing the
quantity and quality of work. There is probably no better

GRADING CARD
Article constructed

Grades

Getting out rough stock

Laying out

Mortises and tenons

Jointing and gluing top

Smoothing parts

Assembling

Finishing

Final Grade

FIG. 12. A Form for Grading Students' Work at Progressive

Intervals.

scheme than the daily grading system, if the instructor has
evolved a method for handling it without sacrificing time that
should be used for other purposes.

TESTING AND RECORDING PROGRESS

195

Key to Grade Marks

DAILY GRADING CHART

Quality 25

Quantity 25

tffort 20

Knowledge 20

Miifude 10

h-

-.t

4 -

1-
- 4-

&MMAJ

FIG. 13. Chart for Daily Grading

The grading chart shown in Fig. 1 3 provides for daily grad-
ing at a minimum expense of time. It is based on the five points
discussed previously as a basis for grading, namely: (1) qual-
ity, (2) quantity, (3) effort, (4) knowledge of facts, (5)
proper attitude.

The chart is so constructed that the record of the entire
class is in view at one time. This is of value since it enables
the instructor to make comparisons of the accomplishments
of the various students. The size of the chart will depend
upon the number in the class and the extent of the course.

196 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

For eighteen weeks of work, if the class meets twice weekly,
there would be need for thirty-six squares for each pupil.
This chart is fastened upon a piece of wallboard and easily
kept.

The large square in the upper left corner gives the key to
the meaning of the marks in the various locations upon the
squares. The instructor will soon memorize the locations, and
if the students are given the privilege they will soon do it also.
It will be noticed that attendance is not given a place with the
other marks, for the reason that if the student is absent an "a"
is placed in the middle of the square for that day, and no other
mark is necessary. Space may be left in the chart for numeri-
cal averages at intervals if desired. These intervals would co-
incide with those used by the central office in calling for
grades.

The marking of the chart may be done in one of two ways.
The one shown in the illustration makes use of plus and minus
signs to signify good work or poor work. Unless there is
cause for comment in either direction no mark is made. This
means that not many marks need be placed in each square.
Usually there is need for some comment in the form of at
least one of these signs for each day. There should be just
as much eagerness on the instructor's part to find good points
for comments as poor ones.

Another way of keeping the chart is to mark only in case of
deficiencies, to use the chart for negative marking. In that case
no marks are recorded unless the student shows deficiencies
when measured in regard to the five points. The only advan-
tage in this practice is that it simplifies the marking; a nail
ground to certain shape, or pencil, could simply be used to
make a prick mark. The periodical averages would, of course,
appear marked in full. The particular form of card used is,
of course, not important. The essential thing is that some
type of record be used.

TESTING AND RECORDING PROGRESS 197

The Open Grading System

Should a chart of the type discussed be placed before the
class? The answer to that question settles the discussion of
open or closed grading. It has been customary so long to keep
grades and grade marks somewhat of a mystery that a teacher's
first reaction to the problem of open grading schemes is nearly
always unfavorable.

Many reasons are given against the practice. The chief ones
probably are that it is not fair to the students and particularly
the poorer ones, and that it will tend to kill interest in all
those who cannot stand at the top in the scale of grades as
well as to give a feeling of superiority to those who are lead-
ing the class. The most important reason is probably that the
teacher dreads the position of having to satisfy the student
at every point, and anticipates much unpleasantness to come
from the scheme.

In my supervision experience over junior-high-school stu-
dents some years ago, the question was put before several hun-
dred boys in shopwork whether they wanted to see their
grades and have everyone else see them. Without exception
the boys were enthusiastic about the opportunity. Daily grad-
ing cards covering six weeks' work were adopted, and were so
designed that all grading was done by punch marks. These
cards were kept on panels, one for each class, made available
to the class upon entrance. Each student was responsible for
removing his card from the panel, and caring for it during the
class period. Cards that were not removed from the hooks at
the time of the tardy bell were marked tardy, and those re-
maining later were marked absent by the use of the punch.

Sometime during the period the instructor would, as all in-
structors should, check the work of every pupil, and give him
a grade, discussing, if need be, the reason for that grade. This
removed the mystery from the grades, and, strange as some

198 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

teachers may think it, the arguments about grades were very
few.

The open grading system, in this connection, was instru-
mental in increasing the interest of the groups beyond all ex-
pectation, as it has also in later experiments, and this interest
can be sustained over a long period. There is no secret on the
athletic field about how far each boy can jump in the broad
jump; why should there be regarding achievement in the
schoolroom? If the teacher's record book is honestly kept, let
it be "audited" by the students.

Variation in Grade Points

The range of grading scale used in recording permanent
grades differs greatly in different school systems. Some express
percentages in numbers, and even go so far as to record frac-
tions. In later years the trend has been toward fewer points
in a rating scale, and some schools record simply a "pass" or a
"failure" at the end of certain periods.

In support of this scheme for shopwork in particular, the
statement has been made that from the viewpoint of industry
there can be but two evaluations of work and men, "satisfac-
tory" and "unsatisfactory." But, upon closer examination, one
might be inclined to question whether that is true. Two car-
penters or machinists apply for a job. Both have ten years'
experience and both carry journeyman's cards. This does not,
however, mean that one may not be an 80% craftsman and
the other 95%. There are graduations in the value of all men
in industry and business, and the term "satisfactory" has many
shades of meaning. Individual differences in human beings are
more far-reaching than to justify their division into two
groups only.

Probably the larger number of schools have now adopted
the five-point scale for grading, based upon a distribution ac-

TESTING AND RECORDING PROGRESS

199

cording to the so-called curve of probability. Briefly stated,
this distribution is based upon the discovery that within any
large group of unselected persons there may be noticed a
rather distinct natural subdivision into five classifications. For
instance, if one hundred men are examined as to height, three
or four will be extremely short; about twenty-five will be in
the next group, as below average; from forty to fifty will be
of about average height; about twenty-five will stand out as
being rather tall; and four or five will be extremely tall. In
a similar way all types of attitudes and abilities may be meas-
ured, including the accomplishments of students of all ages.

22?

A B C D L '

FIG. 14. Graph Illustrating "Curve of Normal Distribution."

And from this distribution comes the bell-shaped curve of
probability, shown in Fig. 14, with the five approximate di-
visions for the distribution of grades of one hundred students.
If the marks of A, B, C, D, F, were used, it would mean that
four students would receive A; twenty-two would be graded
B; forty-eight would receive C or average; twenty-two
would be marked D; and four would fail. So far have many
systems gone in the acceptance of this method that teachers
are urged, if not required, to follow it quite closely.

It must be remembered in this connection that the distribu-
tion can be accepted as true only with unselected groups. In

200 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

special work such as shop activities, where the work is elective,
the group cannot be said to be unselected. However, it is
well for teacher of the industrial-arts subjects to make the
grades that they give have as much meaning as those awarded
elsewhere.

Uniformity in Grading

The attempt by school administrators to unify to some ex-
tent the grading practices is not without justification. There
is an unreasonable amount of variety in grades given by differ-
ent teachers. Even teachers of the same subject with the
same general type of students do not show any marked
agreement on their basis for grading or distribution of grades.
Numerous experiments have been made in having different
teachers of a subject as exact as mathematics, for instance,
grade certain papers, with the result that astonishing differ-
ences in evaluation have been shown.

Adherence to the curve of normal distribution will tend
to make the habitual high grader and the low grader present
more uniformity in their averages. Making such adherence
compulsory, however, will obviously introduce causes for
difficulty and injustice. Not many teachers work with large
enough groups of unselected students to feel justified in apply-
ing the scheme 100%.

Records of Grades

The grading system in the shop should go beyond simply
meeting requirements of the administrative office. This is
advocated for the reason that such records as are required
do not contain a sufficient amount of detail. A daily grading
chart, like that shown in Fig. 13, or one recording grades at
less frequent intervals, is useful for future reference and
should always be filed. This is also true of the project-grading
sheet.

TESTING AND RECORDING PROGRESS 201

Two types of services may be rendered through permanent
records of this kind: one is in connection with students who
move to other schools and school systems; the other has to
do with recommending students for jobs in industry. Years
after a student has left the department, there may be a request
for this information and, if no other records than "pass" or
"fail" are available, such recommendation cannot be made
personal. The mechanical progress chart, described in a later
paragraph, is of great value as a record to go with the student
from one school to another or for future reference when
advising students regarding courses or occupational careers.

Student Participation in Grading

Some instructors have adopted the practice of allowing
their students to grade their own work and that of other
students. In the general shop, particularly, has this been
done with apparently good results. Some instruction sheets
are provided with a definite place for student grading to be
checked, of course, by the instructor. The drafting room
furnishes an opportunity for using students in checking work.
Whether or not a grade is marked by the student will depend
upon the wishes of the instructor. Checking for good work-
manship and scoring for commercial acceptance are activities
that contain definite training values. In spite of the general
opinion that students would take advantage of the opportunity
to give high evaluation to their own work, it has been found
generally that students are prone to underestimate their own
efforts as compared to the value the teacher would place upon
them. Grading one's own work involves a useful self -analysis,
which is a wholesome experience for the average student.

Measuring Achievement

In manual and industrial arts, more than in any other school
work perhaps, there has been a lack of attempts to measure

202 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

what has been accomplished by the students. Several reasons
may be given for this. In the first place, the work has been
manipulative in character, and effort has been mistaken for
accomplishment. A second factor may be that the subject
is a comparatively new one in the school, and while it has
grown phenomenally in popularity, it has not had time to
become standardized as to content and expected pupil attain-
ment.

It should be needless to point out, however, that teachers
who teach from the beginning of the year to the end without
attempting to check at regular intervals the progress and ad-
vancement of their students are failing in one of their im-
portant functions. The fact that the shop is humming with
activity may be a good sign in some respects, but it does
not guarantee that regular progress is made. If no means for
checking is used, some students may fail to learn the funda-
mental facts connected with their work; others may be re-
peating the same processes over and over within a narrow
scope of activity.

Why Measure Progress?

At least four reasons may be given for measuring the
progress of students in shopwork: (1) to ascertain the degree
of advancement made by pupils, (2) to learn of the difficul-
ties experienced by students, (3) to motivate the learning
process, and (4) to measure teaching efficiency. An examina-
tion of the first three of these reasons may change the attitude
of some toward available means for measuring progress and
achievement. Instead of thinking of such means as some-
thing made compulsory by a supervisor or principal, the
teacher will see in measuring devices an opportunity to come
closer to his students and to render them greater service. The
fourth reason need not be dreaded by the instructor who

TESTING AND RECORDING PROGRESS 203

appreciates the other three. He will welcome the opportunity
to check his own efficiency.

Lack of Standards

One difficulty in the way of determining what students
should be able to do in the various types of shopwork is
the fact that standards have been lacking by which teachers
determine what to teach and what degree of efficiency should
be attained in the subjects taught. A student may move from
one city to another, and bring with him a credit card showing
that he has "taken" ninth-grade woodwork or first-year elec-
trical work. To the instructor who receives it, this statement
has little definite meaning.

In woodwork, for instance, he might have been occupied in
any phase of activity, from toywork to building a garage.
Even if the statement on his credit sheet were narrowed down
to read "carpentry" or "cabinetmaking," he might in carpen-
try have spent his time on building bleachers for the football
field, or on constructing a four-room house, or in cabinet-
making his work might have been on a lawn seat or a cedar
chest. Even though a student has moved only from one
school to another in the same system there may be a similar
discrepancy in the work.

To be sure, some creditable attempts have been made to
place before teachers suggestions for attainment in various
types of shopwork activities. Some of these will be discussed
later in this chapter. Within the junior high school, particu-
larly, there is now some approximation of standard practices
in the various shop subjects.

Means for Determining Achievement

What has been said should not make teachers feel that there
are no devices available for checking achievements of students
in shopwork. Several such means appear in the following list.

204 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

It will be noticed that all of these also serve as a measure upon
teaching efficiency.

1. Comparing results wih original objectives,

2. Comparing the work with similar work of other
teachers.

3. Mechanical-progress chart.

4. Written tests and examination.

5. Manipulative tests.

Comparing Results with Objectives

The need of definite objectives in the mind of the instructor
before a course is begun has been stressed previously. It is
assumed that no instructor will start a course of any kind
without having in mind and on paper a detailed listing of
teaching content for the class. With a definite objective
before him at the outset, it should become a matter of routine
performance to make periodical investigations for the purpose
of determining whether the students are, in actual practice,
realizing those objectives. Frequent checking, then, at reg-
ular periods, through close examination of manipulative proc-
esses, and through adequate checking upon the facts to be
learned and upon the attitudes that are to be established and
maintained, will help materially to stimulate the efforts of
the students and to make the teacher realize whether his work
is efficient.

Comparison with Work of Others

The progress which has been made in making the work
of this field more suitable as a part of modern education has
been due almost wholly to the interchange of ideas between
persons engaged in the work. There has been a remarkable
eagerness on the part of a large number of the teachers of
the manual and industrial-arts subjects to come together to
observe and discuss ways and means for making their work

TESTING AND RECORDING PROGRESS

205

more effective. Those who fail to take advantage of the
work of their fellow teachers in these respects are depriving
themselves of one of the best means for evaluating the worth
of the work of their students and the efficiency of their teach-
ing.

The Progress Chart

A mechanical-progress chart, as shown in Fig. 15, is of great
value not only for the purpose of checking on the experiences
of the students, but also for making permanent the record
of such experiences. To be sure, it records no standards
or degrees of excellence with which the jobs were done other
than the estimate of the instructor. But if kept in an accumu-

FIG. 15. Suggestion for a Mechanical-Progress Chart for a
Class in Woodwork

206 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

lative form, and passed along with the student from place to
place, it will show in detail his accomplishments. Different
charts can readily be used for different shops, and all these
charts put together eventually indicate every specific experi-
ence received by the individual. Such a chart or charts also
show to what extent the student has been deprived of certain
valuable experiences in the use of tools or in the performance
of jobs and, without question, discourage a large amount of
duplication of the type of work which has lost its learning
value but which happens to be nearest at hand.

Another value of such records is that when John Jones
comes from a school in another system or another State with
credits in certain courses, reference can be made to his chart
for information about the specific technical processes which
he has performed, thus saving him and the instructor time and
difficulty in locating him correctly or in giving him the
opportunity that he deserves.

Paper Tests

To progressive teachers of shopwork, the use of written or
"paper" tests is not new. The old type or essay form of
examination has been of limited value, however, in this field
for determining pupil progress and achievement for two
reasons: (1) A great many students who are vitally interested
in mechanical work are not interested in essay writing; and
(2) ability to write essays does not necessarily indicate effi-
ciency in this type of work.

Objective Tests

The arrival of objective tests has solved the problem of
how to measure pupil progress without being forced at the
same time to measure his linguistic and writing ability. A
number of such tests are now available in published form for
testing students in shopwork. Their scope is confined so far,

TESTING AND RECORDING PROGRESS 207

however, to the technical and related information that stu-
dents should possess. This type of test differs from the essay
form chiefly in that a much wider field of material is covered
by questions or statements, which are so arranged that the
student can respond in a minimum amount of time by check-
ing or by writing a single word or statement.

There is now in existence a considerable variety of tests
falling under this general type. Of these the following are
most useful in shopwork:

True-False Test

This type is probably the most commonly used of all the
variety of possibilities. As shown by the accompanying sam-
ple, it is simple in construction and simple to score. The
student gives a positive or negative answer to the statement
given. In writing a test of this kind, care must be taken in
arranging the wording so that there can be no question as
to what is the correct answer. Objective tests cannot be based
upon opinions as can the old type of tests, and for this reason
they are more difficult to construct. When marking this type
of test, the student may circle the T or F as indicated for
the sample which follows, or write + for true and for
false. Writing + and is not recommended because of
possible accidental strokes by the pencil which may make the
marking doubtful.

TRUE AND FALSE STATEMENTS

(Nash and Van Duzee)

Directions: Below, you will find a number of statements, some
of which are true and some of which are false. In each case make
a circle around the capital T if you think the statement is true, or
make a circle around the capital F if you think the statement false.
Do not guess; each incorrectly marked statement counts as a pen-
alty against you

208 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

1. When stock is being squared up, the sliding T-bevel
should be used in testing for squareness T F

2. Basswood is a harder wood to work than oak T F

3. Oily rags and waste always should be placed in
wooden containers T F

4. It is good practice to surface very short boards in a
jointer T F

5. While working at the band saw, circular saw, or

hand jointer, it is best for pupils to work in groups. . T F

6. It is best practice to remove blocks of wood and
other waste material from the floor around the ma-
chine T F

7. Oak is an open-grained wood T F

8. When a flat surface is being sanded, the sandpaper
should be used on a block T F

9. When the beauty of the grain of the wood is to be
brought out, paint is used T F

10. Birchwood is a heavy wood T F

11. The size of the teeth in a saw determines the differ-
ence between a ripsaw and a crosscut saw T F

12. The setting of a marking gauge should be checked

with a rule before the gauge is used T F

A large number of items should be used in order to make
this test of maximum service.

Multiple-Choice Test

In this test, as will be seen in the accompanying sample,
several answers are given. One of these is the correct one. The
student is simply asked to underline the right word or phrase.
The larger the number of choices the less chance there will
be for correct guessing. From three to five are commonly
used. Tests of this type take somewhat longer to construct
that the true-false type.

MULTIPLE-CHOICE TEST FOR MACHINE SHOP
William L. Hunter

Directions: In each of the following sentences underline the

TESTING AND RECORDING PROGRESS 209

parenthetical term which makes true meaning. Time 5 minutes.

1. The spindle or barrel of a micrometer advances (1/25)
(1/40) (1/100) of an inch for each revolution.

2. The pointed instrument for marking around a templet is
called a (center punch) (awl) (scriber).

3. The pointed portion of a file which fits in a handle is called
the (shank) (tang) (point).

4. The hard layer on cast-iron formed in a sand mold is called
(rust) (scale) (slag).

5. The two helical grooves on opposite sides of a drill are called
(flutes) (hollows) (channels).

6. A tapered wedge for removing taper shank drills is called a
(pin) (jimmy) (drift).

7. Automobile springs are made of (manganese) (vanadium)
(nickel) steel.

8. A fusion of any two or more metallic elements is called an
(amalgam) (alloy) (oxide).

9. Galvanizing is a process of coating metal articles with (tin)
(zinc) (copper).

10. A hand tool for cutting threads on round bars is called a
(die) (knurling tool) (thread gage).

11. A hand tool for cutting inside screw threads as in a nut is
called a (chuck) (tap) (Woodruff key).

12. A tool with longitudinal cutters for enlarging or truing
drilled holes is called a (broach) (reamer) (boring tool).

13. A fixture used in the manufacture of duplicate parts for guid-
ing cutting tools is called a (templet) (metal pattern) (jig)

Completion Test

This test is so constructed that words are omitted in the
statements made. Care must be taken that only one answer
or one fact will give an acceptable meaning. The sentence
is always true after the correct insertion is made. More
thought is probably provoked by this type of test than by
either of the two discussed so far, because of the fact that no
suggestion is given as to the answer. An example of this kind
of test follows.

210 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

COMPLETION TEST FOR WOODWORK
William L. Hunter

Directions: Fill in the blanks with necessary words to complete
each of the following sentences. Time 5 minutes.

1. The tool used for making conical depressions for the heads
of flat-head wood-screws is called a

2. The tool used with a hammer to assist in driving finishing
nails below the surface of wood is a

3. Round pieces of wood used to assist in joining board which
are glued edge to edge are

4. A joint is made when two pieces of wood cross

at right angles, one-half of each piece being removed.

5. A tool used to turn screws into wood is a

6. A tool used for making lines parallel to a surface or edge is a

7. A joint is made when two pieces are cut at 45

degrees as for a picture frame.

8. A device which holds a saw in position for cutting a board
at various angle is a

9. Boards sawed with their larger surfaces in a plane with the
center of the tree are boards.

10. The part of a plane moved back and forth to afford different
widths of throat opening is called the

11. A saw is used to cut wood across the grain.

12. A piece of wood one inch or less in thickness must have

square inches of face-surface area in order to

contain one board foot.

13. A tool used for cutting various sizes of round holes from %
to 3 inches in diameter is called an

14. A tool having a crank and used to hold auger bits when
boring holes is called a

15. Dimensions for lumber are given in the following order:

16. The first side of a board planed is called the

17. Put on screws to make them go into wood more

easily.

18. A is used for laying off angles other than 90

degrees.

TESTING AND RECORDING PROGRESS 211

19. For accurate work a rule should be held on

20. A recess cut in wood as for a panel to fit in rail of a door
is called a

21. A two-handled tool used for curved surfaces and working on
the same principle as a plane is called a

22. A small hand tool used for testing to see that edges are at
right angles to surfaces is called a

23. A device about 20 inches high for holding lumber while it is
sawed by hand is a

24. The size of an auger bit in of an inch may be

found on the tang or round.

25. A recess cut in wood as for a pane to fit in a window sash is
called a

Your name Age

Grade or Classification

School

Number Right

Matching Jest

The matching test in mechanical work requires the student
to connect certain words or ideas which have been separated
by the method shown in the following sample. It serves as a
check upon the knowledge of mechanical or other vocabulary
or terms. Names of tools and materials can be checked by
this test.

MATCHING TEST FOR MACHINE SHOPWORK
William L. Hunter

Directions: From the list of words immediately following each
group select the word for each blank which in your estimation
comes nearest to forming (with the numbered word) another
word, idea, or association of words or ideas common to the ma-
chinist's trade. For instance, the word "drill" is associated with
the word "chuck;" and "tap" with "wrench" Words cannot be
transferred from one group to another. Time for test, 30 minutes.

Your Name

Grade or Classification

Percentage Received ~

212 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

1. drill rule

2. tin cleaner

3. off rolled

4. bolt gear

5. cold snips

6. file center

7. shrinkage chuck

8. back clipper

9. tap scraper

10. drift gear

11. chilled gauge

12. bearing pin

13. vernier per inch

14. threads wrench

15. bevel calipers

16. wire casting

17. end-cut drill

18. V iron

19. mild belt

20. flute screw

21. index thread

22. chain head

23. channel nippers

24. set steel

25. center edge

26. straight hammer

27. speed calipers

28. riveting washer

29. soft plate

30. face counter

31. inside square

32. lock steel

33. shrinkage taper

34. counter joint

35. die key

36. lathe holder

37. Morse shaft

TESTING AND RECORDING PROGRESS 213

38. Woodruff fit

39. universal chasers

40. tool dog

Comprehension Tesf

The so-called comprehension test, used in connection with
illustrations, has been arranged as shown in the accompanying
sample. In this connection is added the opportunity to exer-
cise the visual sense in recognizing facts in pictures. This
type of arrangement requires more time to organize and in-
volves more expense, but, of course, where tests are printed
for large-quantity distribution these factors do not seriously
affect the situation.

COMPREHENSION TEST FOR WOODWORK
William L. Hunter

Directions: By referring to the illustration on page 215, answer
each of these questions as definitely as you can. Time 5 minues.

1. What kind of joint is this?

2. What kind of saw teeth are these?

3. What kind of saw teeth are these?

4. What is this joint called?

5. This was made by a saw. Give name

6. Which of these is quarter-sawed?

7. Which of these is plain-sawed?

8. Often found in dried logs. Give name

9. How old is this tree?

10. A layer of growth. Give name

11. Toward center of tree. Give name

12. What is this recess called?

13. On first surfaces planed. Give name

14. Cut away as shown. Give name

15. What is this called?

16. What kind of joint is this?

17. An edge is cut like this. Give name

18. What is this part of a door?

214 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

19. What is this part of a door?

20. What is this part of a door?

21. What is this part of a door?

22. Holes out of line. Name operation

23. Name this part of the joint

24. Name this part of the joint

25. An edge is cut like this. Give name

Procedure-Arrangemenf Test

This is a test which is used by Newkirk and Stoddard in
their Home Mechanics Test. As will be seen from the por-
tion quoted, the requirement consists of rearranging the steps
of procedure into their logical order for carrying out the job.
Such ability should prove of value in planning any type of
construction. In the shop its value would show itself in the
making up of job sheets or procedure sheets by the students
themselves before proceeding with the work. As with the
other tests discussed, it is made to test the knowledge of steps
of procedure only, rather than the ability to perform the
operations.

PROCEDURE-ARRANGEMENT TEST

Newkirk and Stoddard

PART 1

No. 1 To Put New Fuller Ball in Faucet.
Procedure: (1) Fasten new fuller ball in place.

(2) Unscrew front half of faucet.

(3) Shut off the water.

(4) Remove fuller ball.

(5) Assemble the faucet, turn on water and test.

(6) Determine where the faucet leaks.
Rearrange the numbers to show correct procedure:

()()()()()()
No. 2 To Solder Holes in Sheet Metal or Cooking Utensils.

TESTING AND RECORDING PROGRESS

215

ILLUSTRATION FOR COMPREHENSION TEST

Copyright 1127, WiBum L.

216 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

Procedure: (1) Test the finished job for leaks.

(2) Allow solder a few seconds to cool.

(3) Apply flux to parts to be soldered.

(4) Clean parts to be soldered.

(5) Apply solder with a hot tinned copper.

Rearrange the numbers to show correct procedure:

Suggestions for Making Ob/ecf/Ve Tests

It is an economical procedure to purchase printed tests
for shopwork whenever such tests can be justified. Obviously
there are many situations, however, where suitable tests are
not available. In such cases the teacher will wish to construct
his own. The following suggestions are offered to the less
experienced teacher when making such tests:

1. Test should cover important items. As a background
for a test, the teacher would normally have a detailed course
of study with a list of topics to be taught. The topics should
also be rated for relative emphasis in the light of established
objectives and goals. The test questions to be used should
be made out in so far as possible before instruction is given
on the subject. This procedure will lead to insurance that the
test will cover important phases of the work covered, rather
than a random sampling hurriedly made up from memory
when time comes to give the test.

2. Statements should be brief. Brevity is essential in objec-
tive tests. When too many words are used in true-false state-
ments, for instance, there is danger that the student might
become confused in his interpretation of the real question in-
volved. The item under question should not be obscured by
unnecessary words, and the words used should lead to a
concise statement that can easily be interpreted.

3. Only one answer should be possible. Every statement

TESTING AND RECORDING PROGRESS 217

in objective tests should be checked and rechecked for pos-
sibility of more than one interpretation. It is advisable to
have someone else go over the material before presenting it
to the class.

4. Tests should cover many items. The larger number of
items presented the more likely is the total testing program
to be fair and effective. Comprehensiveness can, of course,
be obtained through a series of short tests carefully coordi-
nated. For younger students such procedure would be most
desirable, since the values previously listed for a testing pro-
gram would be better attained in that way. The point em-
phasized here is that the final rating of student accomplish-
ments should be made on a large number of items.

5. Obvious material should be omitted. Except for the
possibility of introducing comedy for the purpose of relieving
tension, statements obvious to anyone should be omitted. Not
many statements that would be answered correctly by 90%
or more of the class are justified.

6. Test should be within reach of students. Beyond the
necessity for reaching a degree of difficulty which cannot be
mastered 100% by many members of the class, questions
should not require unreasonable knowledge. If fewer than
10% have given the right reply, the teacher has failed to
teach efficiently or the question is probably out of place.

7. Problems should be arranged in order of difficulty. If
simpler questions are placed first, the student will be encour-
aged to proceed and will develop and maintain self-confidence.
Such arrangement will also enable the teacher better to analyze
learning difficulties and group students according to their
needs.

8. A variety of types should be used. Students are likely
to react differently to different types of tests. Some will
prefer true-false tests, others multiple choice, etc., and, even
in shop subjects, there are those who excel in the use of the

218 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

essay type. All these types can profitably be used during the
course of instruction of a class in industrial arts.

Occupational-Aptitudes Tests

A considerable variety of tests have become available under
the headings of "mechanical aptitude" or " occupational in-
terest." Two of the earliest of these were presented by Sten-
quist, 1 whose tests consisted of both paperwork and manipu-
lative processes, and MacQuarrie, 2 who brought out a paper
test based upon muscular control and correlation between eye
and hand. More recently, material which promises to be of
more definite value has been presented under the title of
Minnesota Rate of Manipulations Test?

Vocational-interest tests have been compiled by Strong, 4
whose test is built upon a comparison of interest of the indi-
vidual with the interests of persons successfully engaged in
various occupations, while Cleeton 5 has made available a
Vocational Interest Inventory built upon somewhat similar
data.

These and similar material are valuable in connection with
the presentation of occupational information as discussed in
Chapter VII.

PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS

1. In what type of shop classes would effort be given special
consideration?

2. In what ways would you determine whether a student is
acquiring and applying the necessary "items of knowledge"?

1 Stenquist, Mechanical Aptitude Tests, World Book Co., Yonkers, N. Y.

2 MacQuarrie, Test for Mechanical Ability, Educational Test Bureau,
University Avenue and Fifteenth Avenue, S.E., Minneapolis, Minn.

3 Minnesota Rate of Manipulations Test, Educational Test Bureau, Inc.,
720 Washington Avc., S.E., Mineapolis, Minn.

4 Strong, Edward K., Vocational Interest Blanks for Men and Vocational
Interest Blanks for Women. Stanford University Press, Palo Alto, Calif.

6 Cleeton, Glen U., Vocational Interest Inventory, Form A: Men; Form
B; Women. McKnight and McKnight. Bloomington, 111.

TESTING AND RECORDING PROGRESS 219

3. To what extent, if any, should the student's personality be
taken into consideration when giving marks?

4. Name a number of specific situations in which the "atti-
tude" of students would be tested.

5. Give your reasons for thinking that "pass" or "fail" is or is
not an adequate marking system.

6. Other factors being equal, would you give a higher or lower
grade to a student who has stayed after school in order to com-
plete a piece of work than you would give a student completing
it in the regular class time?

7. What would be the best scheme for grading in a production
job in the school shop?

8. Give a list of favorable and unfavorable points with refer-
ence to the daily grading system.

9. Do you think that the marking system based upon the stand-
ard curve should or should not be compulsory upon teachers?

10. Cite cases in which you or someone else was discriminated
against by some teacher because of a poor system of testing and
grading.

11. Make out a form for a record card that can go with the
student from school to school.

12. To what extent do you think that an open grading system
would discourage less able students?

13. Is there, in your opinion, danger that students may be so
interested in grades that they fail to benefit otherwise from the
instruction?

14. What are the advantages and disadvantages in having stu-
dents participate in grading their own work?

15. Do you think that students in general are inclined to grade
their own work higher or lower than its actual worth?

16. Do you believe that the industrial-arts field has profited in
some respects from lack of standard curricula? If so, how?

17. To what extent do you agree or disagree with the five-point
grading system suggested in this chapter?

18. Make out a complete mechanical-progress chart for a type
of work in seventh, eighth, and ninth grades, following the sample
shown in this chapter.

19. Do you consider that uniform standards of attainment for
woodwork or electricity for junior high schools should be set up
and adhered to?

220 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

20. In your opinion is the present tendency toward uniformity
of teaching content or away from it?

21. Upon what would you base a set of standards for attainment
in industrial arts?

22. What means would a teacher have for checking a true-false
test that he has made before he gives it to his class?

23. Make up a test containing twenty-five multiple-choice state-
ments and twenty-five true-false statements for a shop subject of
your choice.

24. Report, from your own experience, cases in which high I.Q.
and attainment in shopwork have shown a high degree of corre-
lation, or failed to do so.

25. Do you consider available achievement tests in industrial
arts to be as valuable as similar tests for mathematics and English?

26. In what ways do you think industrial arts may be said to
furnish superior opportunities for evaluating personal growth?

REFERENCES

1. Anthony, Willis P., "Testing the Results of Industrial- Arts
Instruction," Industrial Education Magazine, 36:152, May,
1934.

2. Beckley, Donald K., and Smith, Leo F., "Constructing
Achievement Tests," Industrial Arts and Vocational Educa-
tion, 34:52-4, February, 1945.

3. Bowers, Wm. H., "Fundamentals of Shopwork Test," Indies-
trial Arts and Vocational Education, 34:206, May, 1945.

4. Bowers, William H., "Test for General Shop," Industrial
Arts and Vocational Education, 32:63-4, February, 1943.

5. Brennan, Martin J. Jr., "Tests and Measurements in Indus-
trial Arts," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education,
30:52-5, February, 1941.

6. Bryan, E. W., "A Progress-Chart and Automatic Grader,"
Industrial Education Magazine, 31:77, August, 1929.

7. Coltharp, Raymond J., "Pretest for Industrial-Arts Labora-
tory Classes," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education,
31:15-17, January, 1942.

8. Crawford, John Edmund, "Spatial Perception Tests for
Determining Drafting Aptitude," Industrial Arts and Voca-
tional Education, 31:10-12, January, 1942.

9. Englehart, Max D., "How Teachers Can Improve Their

TESTING AND RECORDING PROGRESS 221

Tests," The Education Digest (from The Chicago Schools
Journal), IX: 28-31, February, 1944.

10. Erickson, Raymond E., "Grading in Terms of Our Objec-
tives," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 33:136,
March, 1944.

11. Friese, John F., Exploring the Manual Arts, The Century
Co., 1926, p. 339.

12. Jennings, Royalston F., "Individual Pupil Progress-Chart,"
Industrial Education Magazine, 37:102-3, March, 1935.

13. Jensen, Robert P., "Every Pupil Scholarship Test," Indus-
trial Arts and Vocational Education, 32:59-61, February,
1943.

14. Jensen, Robert P., "Industrial-Arts Test," Industrial Arts
and Vocational Education 30:56-8, February, 1941.

15. Marshall, D. C, "This Matter of Grades, Industrial Arts
and Vocational Education? 33:228-9, June, 1944.

16. McCall, William A., How to Measure in Education, The
Macmillan Company, New York, 1922.

17. Micheels, William J., and Karnes, Ray M., "Construction of
Written Achievement Tests," Industrial Arts and Vocational
Education, 32:269-74, September, 1943; 307-12, October,
1943.

18. Mitchell, David M., "Crediting Jobs Done in the Home,"
Industrial Education Magazine, 31:104, September, 1929.

19. Moore, Frank C., and Mason, William R., "Writing Objec-
tive Tests in Shop Instruction," Industrial Arts and Voca-
tional Education, 32:203-6, May, 1943.

20. National Society for the Study of Education, Forty-fifth
Year Book, Part I, The Measurement of Understanding. The
University of Chicago Press, 1946, Chap XVI.

21. Newkirk, Louis V., and Greene, Harry A., Tests and Meas-
urements in Industrial Education, Wiley and Sons, 1935.

22. Odell, C. W., Educational Measurements in High School,
The Century Co., 1930, pp. 301-9.

23. Orleans, Jacob S., and Sealy, Glenn A., Objective Tests,
World Book Co.

24. Reed, Howard O., "The Midget Wiggly Block Test for
Mechanical Ability," Industrial Arts and Vocational Educa-
tion, 30:153-4, April, 1941.

222 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

25. Selvidge, R. W., and Fryklund, Verne C, Principles of Trade
and Industrial Teaching, The Manual Arts Press, 1946.

26. Simnicht, George L., "General Test for Girls Home Me-
chanics," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 30:60-2,
February, 1941.

27. Smith, Homer J., "Grading Pupils in Industrial Subjects,"
Education, 65:600-8, June 1945.

28. Siro, Einar E., "Performance Tests and Objective Observa-
tion," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 32:162-7,
April, 1943.

29. Weichelt, J. A., and Caveny, C. C., "Reliability of Shop
Grades," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 34:233-6,
June, 1945.

30. Wilson, Lloyd R., "Industrial-Arts Test," Industrial Arts and
Vocational Education, 32:70-1, February, 1943.

31. Wilson, Lloyd R., 'Woodwork Tests for Junior High
School," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 32:69-70,
February, 1943.

32. Wynne, John P., The Teacher and the Curriculum, Prentice-
Hall, Inc., 1937, Chap. XXIII.

33. Young, O. L., "Testing Procedure," Industrial Arts and Vo-
cational Education, 34:254-5, June, 1945.

Chapter IX
EVALUATING TEACHING EFFICIENCY

Means for Measuring Teaching Efficiency

The conscientious teacher is always eager to learn to what
degree his work is efficient. Those who work directly under
a supervisor may receive suggestions and personal information
from time to time indicating the degree of success of their
work. But too often the teacher goes along for the major
part of the school year without being aware of any sort of
appraisal. In general, there are two available procedures for
rating teaching efficiency: ( 1 ) self -rating by the teacher, and
(2) rating by the administration.

The Teacher Rates Himself

Being rated by others is valuable in so far as the rating is
specific, detailed, and comes from an expert. But in the ab-
sence of such rating, and even in connection with it, it is of
great importance that the instructor should devise a scheme
for rating his own effectiveness and work such a scheme
conscientiously. To this end it is suggested that the instructor
check himself in the light of the following items:

1. Is enough time being spent on the 'work for 'which the
salary is received? There is a tendency for some teachers to
get into the habit of feeling that they are "sacrificing" them-
selves to the "cause," when in reality, a time card kept faith-
fully for a month would show some interesting facts. It is
possible to use much time in begrudging the service instead of
using the time to "put over" the job.

Some teachers allow themselves to become engrossed in
private enterprises. These, while innocent at first, and in some

223

224 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

cases almost a necessity, may gradually grow until they be-
come treacherous enemies of teaching efficiency.

2. Is the working time correctly apportioned among the
various teaching activities? Some instructors lose themselves
in building equipment, or in designing projects, to the detri-
ment of the students who come to be taught. Some of the
working time can also be spent in making outside contacts,
and in professional development, without having a feeling that
it has been stolen from the job.

3. Is the 'work being carried out according to a definite,
previously prepared plan? Are regular demonstrations and
other methods of teaching continued systematically, or is
the statement, "Go to work where you left off yesterday,"
becoming more common? How often does the instructor
have to apologize for lack of preparation in his teaching? Is
the course of study being followed, or has the teacher decided,
"It was too demanding," with the result that chaos reigns?

4. Is the teacher skilled in mechanical 'work? Largely upon
this answer rests the degree of efficiency that can be reached.
The best summer occupation for some teachers would be
employment in a trade. Standards of workmanship and meth-
ods of procedure practiced by the students cannot be expected
to surpass those demonstrated by the instructor.

5. Is the teacher's first interest in industrial arts? Teachers
who are making their work a temporary "stepping stone"
have no right to stand in the way of educational progress.
Academically minded shop teachers can at the best never get
beyond the use of the shop as a laboratory for a certain type
of experimentation.

6. What results are being accomplished? Is work being
finished in an orderly way, or is there an indication that the
semester or year will come to a close with storerooms full
of incomplete articles of various sorts a veritable monument
of poor management and lack of efficiency?

EVALUATING TEACHING EFFICIENCY 225

7. In 'what condition is the equipment? If the equipment
was in good shape at the beginning of the course, is it still
in that condition through constant care? Or is attention to
it becoming irregular, and are methods of handling it gradually
becoming lax? Poorly kept tools depreciate the efficiency of
teaching, and put the teacher on the defensive.

8. Are new ideas invited and put into practice? Will this
year's work be exactly like that of last year and the year
before, in spite of all the new ideas that have been offered
by members of the profession, and changes which have taken
place in industry? Are new wood finishes, automobile acces-
sories, drafting-room practices, and the like being investigated
and evaluated?

9. Is the teacher making himself acquainted with new
means for evaluating student work? Is the teacher familiar
with the attempts made to standardize phases of shop teaching
through objective tests? Such tests may still be imperfect,
but the teacher who would be efficient will hasten to make all
possible use of them and to assist in perfecting them.

10. Is the shop library being used? It is one thing to have
a shop library. It is quite another to keep it in use. Is the
"reading habit" being developed through these books?

11. Is related and technical information being applied?
There are teachers who start out bravely with a program for
regular presentation of such material. But soon the interest of
the teacher is on the wane, and the pupils' interest goes with
it. No longer can shop teaching be considered efficient
through the bare use of a few manipulative processes.

12. Are personal contacts being made? Some teachers
teach a lifetime without knowing a single student. They do
not come that close. Touching the life of the students is a
characteristic of efficiency in teaching. Contacts with parents
should be sought also.

13. In what condition are shop records? It may save

226 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

energy to fail to keep definite records, but it does not spell
efficiency in teaching. At the end of the year can parents or
prospective employers receive an intelligent statement of all
activities of a certain student? If another teacher comes on
the job next year, will he find intelligible and adequate infor-
mation regarding materials used, grades, courses of study,
numbers enrolled, and the like? Or must he start from the
bottom again?

14. Is the teacher's health being considered? It is well to
remember that if the instructor does not consider his own
physical welfare, no one else will. Supervisors or administra-
tors may not stress this factor until the time comes for the
merciless rating in favor of the survival of the fittest, and
then the one who has failed to consider his physical fitness
loses out in the race.

15. What is the relationship 'with fellow workers? The
attitude toward other teachers in the department, and toward
those in other departments, tells a forceful story. The in-
structor who fails to make friends professionally with his
associates, or who has a low opinion of them, can hardly
reach the maximum of success either in his professional work
or in his out-of -school contacts.

16. What is the relationship with the administration? By
administration is meant supervisor, principal, superintendent,
purchasing agent, or any other person in position to pass upon
the usefulness and value of the service of the teacher. Is
there a feeling of warm friendship mingled with wholesome
respect for the principal or supervisor? Or is there simply
a cool acceptance of orders, with an attitude of avoiding con-
tacts as far as possible? The latter condition is not always
caused by a feeling of insubordination on the part of the
teacher. Often, it may be a feeling that the teacher should
attend to his own business. Not infrequently, aloofness is
caused by sheer timidity. Whatever the cause may be, not

EVALUATING TEACHING EFFICIENCY 227

being acquainted with the administration is a disadvantage at
the time when the annual rating is being done.

17. What professional growth is being experienced? A
teacher's life is a many-sided one. The school looks for some
things in addition to the hours spent in the shop. Among
these is up-to-date information regarding modern policies and
practices, aims and objectives. Responses to such expectations
come from reading professional journals and books; and from
mingling with fellow teachers at institutes and other meetings,
including occasional attendance in summer schools.

Rating by Administration

Many kinds of rating forms have been evolved for determin-
ing the degree of efficiency shown by teachers. These are
of varying complexity and are used with varying degrees of
thoroughness, depending upon administrative zeal and avail-
able supervisory personnel. The following listing of items
has been made up from teacher-rating scales and will indicate
a fairly comprehensive sampling of points commonly used in
rating industrial-arts teachers.

POINTS USED IN RATING INDUSTRIAL-ARTS TEACHERS

I. Personal qualities:

1. Evidence of good health posture, bearing, cleanliness.

2. Appearance dress, posture, alertness.

3. Speech voice quality, diction, vocal variety.

4. Emotional stability poise, calmness, reserve.

5. Reliability punctuality, integrity, sincerity.

6. Interest enthusiasm, originality, initiative.

7. Loyalty to administration, to fellow teachers.

8. Ethical standards personal, professional.

9. Tact and self-control.
10. Attitude toward work.

228 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

II. Evidence of professional preparation:

1. Manipulative skill tool processes, blackboard sketch-
ing, designing.

2. Knowledge of subject matter.

3. Practical experience in craft work.

4. Use of English.

5. Knowledge of adolescent psychology.

6. Ability to analyze and organize subject matter.

7. Knowledge of related and technical material.

III. Teaching teclmique:

1. Arousing and maintaining interest.

2. Clearness in presentation of teaching material.

3. Class organization.

4. Student participation.

5. Skill in use of teaching aids.

6. Originality.

7. Following courses of study.

8. Coordination and integration of work with other
subjects.

9. Evidence of pupil growth.

10. Variety in instructional techniques.

11. Testing for results.

12. Results accomplished.

IV. Managerial ability:

1. Discipline.

2. Student participation in management.

3. Routing of work in shop.

4. Variety of projects.

5. Condition of equipment.

6. Use of exhibits.

7. System of tool keeping.

8. Making supplies available.

9. Turning in reports.

These points and others that may be used are usually rated
with numbers. The total of all points will indicate an overall
score in addition to individual marks for each item and sec-
tion. The items listed may of course be added to and amplified

EVALUATING TEACHING EFFICIENCY 229

in detail. This is done in some school systems, resulting in
extended listings of success qualities. The items as presented
here will suffice, however, to serve as a checking list for the
teacher who wishes to know what supervisors and administra-
tors are most likely to consider marks of successful teaching.

Similar points for evaluation are used in rating cadet teach-
ers under supervision in teacher-training institutions. There
appears to be a tendency, however, to simplify teacher-rating
scales for this purpose and attempts are often made to group
items into larger areas of success factors. Such practice should
generally be welcome both by the personnel that will do the
rating and the student being rated. Simplified rating forms
are also favored by many administrators in public schools.

Teaching Loads and Teaching Efficiency

Much has been said about the relative instructional load that
should be assigned to industrial-arts teachers in comparison
to teachers of the so-called "regular" subjects. Administrators
and teachers of subjects other than industrial arts have been
inclined to feel that, in this field of work, class organizations
and methods are such that teachers are favored. When this
feeling is expressed or allowed to influence teaching assign-
ments it is usually based upon the thought that industrial-arts
teachers need not make the preparation for classroom teach-
ing, do not have written papers to evaluate and correct, do
not give written examinations, can let students work with a
minimum of attention, and on a number of similar lines of
reasoning.

Industrial-arts teachers on the other hand are prone to feel
that their position in the school is misunderstood, that good
teaching in this field requires all that other subjects demand,
plus a great many extra details and responsibilities. Usually
they confine their reactions to talk among themselves and
do very little to clarify their position to those who are not

230 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

familiar with their instructional procedure, many of whom
would become more sympathetic if they were better in-
formed.

In discussing teaching loads for industrial-arts teachers a
number of factors need be considered. Among these are the
following:

1. Number of actual teaching hours per day.

2. Length of periods for this type of teaching.

3. Degree of homogeneity of students.

4. Size of classes.

5. Physical facilities for teaching.

6. Types of activity carried on.

7. Teaching methods and philosophy involved.

8. Extracurricular demands upon teachers.

Each one of these will be discussed briefly in following
paragraphs.

Number of Classes Taught

In many school systems it appears to be the custom to
assign the industrial-arts teachers to a program of continuous
teaching for the full school day, while teachers of other sub-
jects are given some free time. The reactions of the former
group to this condition is normal and to a great degree logical.
Modern industrial-arts teaching requires a large variety of
activity in order to satisfy boy interest. While the regular
classroom teacher has one topic to prepare for discussion, the
industrial-arts teacher must have ready a dozen plans and
ideas for the day. In addition there must be materials in readi-
ness, and tools kept in constant condition for work.

There might have been a time when many so-called shop
teachers, because of lack of training and vision, simply told
the boys to "go to work where you left off yesterday."
Today industrial arts involves a study of materials and phe-
nomena concerning industry as well as tool processes. It in-

EVALUATING TEACHING EFFICIENCY 231

eludes study about occupations and occupational opportuni-
ties, safety practices, intelligent consumption of goods and
services, and definite training in cooperative living in social
and work situations. To make these experiences a part of the
industrial-arts program requires time in preparation on the
part of the instructor.

Length of Class Periods

The length of class periods obviously has relationship to
the teaching load as counted in number of hours taught.
During recent years a definite practice has been to make the
industrial-arts periods of the same length as for other subjects
in the school. Shorter periods and, consequently, more of
them call for more planning for laboratory work, more fre-
quent demonstrations and presentations of information ma-
terial, and more constant checking on tools and equipment, to
say nothing of providing storage space and identification
procedures for the work of the added groups. Industrial arts
in modern education now receives equal status with other
subjects in the curriculum. It cannot do justice to that status,
however, unless the teacher is given equal consideration to
other teachers in regard to teaching assignments.

Homogeneity of Pupils

The load that the teacher can handle, and at the same time
be efficient in his work, depends upon many other factors,
however, aside from the number of classes or teaching hours
assigned. In industrial arts the drain upon the teacher's ener-
gies is often increased by unnecessary mixing of pupils of
various ages and grades. The possibilities of placing first- and
second-year mathematics students, or first- and second-year
history students, in the same class would not enter the minds
of administrators and program advisers. But in many cases
after care has been exercised to keep everything regular for

232 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

other teachers, the left-overs, scrambled in a great variety of
ages, classification, deportment records, interest and ability,
are sent to "take shop."

There is no intention here to claim that in all industrial
classes there must be a single group with reference to age and
grade. But the point needs emphasizing that, as the variety
increases, the pressure upon the teachers increases, necessi-
tating more time for planning and maintenance of routine.

Size of Classes for Industrial Arts

The size of classes that industrial-arts teachers should handle
has been a subject of much discussion. The teacher might
well point out that in this type of work individual contact
with pupils is a prime requirement. Without reasonable
opportunities for personal attention to the problems of each
member of the class, the most important outcomes sought
would be lost.

The administrator, on the other hand, is faced with prob-
lems that are not well understood by the teacher, the greater
per-capita cost in industrial arts being an important one.
During recent years a general tendency has been to increase
numbers in industrial-arts classes. Adoption of new teaching
techniques by versatile teachers has helped to keep the larger
number of objectives still attainable with considerable increase
in the size of classes. However, there is obviously a point
beyond which opportunities for any semblance of planned
activity cannot be offered.

Physical Facilities for Teaching Industrial Arts

One of the chief factors that determine the maximum num-
ber for industrial-arts classes is the size and condition of the
shop or laboratory in which the teaching is done. In general
when class enrollments are increased, reduction in learning
opportunities do not come from the increase in numbers as

EVALUATING TEACHING EFFICIENCY 233

much as from the fact that little or no attention is given to
a corresponding remodeling of the shop or laboratory for the
increased load. To place thirty-five pupils in a room that was
built and equipped for twenty-four means not only lack of
facilities for the added number but also the disorganization
of the program for all. In buildings constructed within recent
years, where plans have been made for larger numbers to be
accommodated in industrial arts and where the administration
has been frank in dealing with the problem of rooms, equip-
ment, and supplies, classes that a few years ago would have
frightened most teachers are being cared for under an orderly
procedure and with good results.

Types of Activity Carried On

It has been implied in this discussion when making com-
parisons between industrial arts and other subjects that the
type of subject taught will determine to a great degree the
number of pupils for the class. This is also true within the
industrial-arts offerings themselves. A class in mechanical
drawing, for instance, where problem or work books can
be used to advantage and where students are confined to a
limited working space, might consist of thirty or thirty-five
students, although the latter number is probably too high. In
a course in radio twenty might draw more upon the teacher's
energy and time. Similar differences would exist between
other subjects, depending upon working conditions, the nature
of the work, and the types and temperaments of the pupils.
These points are made to emphasize the thought that one can-
not justly stipulate a uniform number for all classes in indus-
trial arts.

PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS

1. Through what means may a shop teacher avail himself of
opportunities to compare his work with the work of other
teachers?

234 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

2. How much time do you consider that a teacher can devote
to private interests and still be efficient in his work?

3. What do you consider the best procedure through which
a teacher may improve his craft skill?

4. Through what procedure may a teacher learn how he is
rated by his fellow workers?

5. To what degree do you think that the points for rating
industrial-arts teachers listed in this chapter are justifiable?

6. Do you believe that it is good practice for administrators
to have teachers rate one another?

REFERENCES

1. Commission for Teacher Education, Teachers for Our
Times, American Council on Education, 1944, Chap. IV.

2. Flaherty, Edward B., "A Lesson Plan," Industrial Arts and
Vocational Education, 32:235-6, June, 1943.

3. Card, Theron D., "Evaluation of Teaching Efficiency," In-
dustrial Arts and Vocational Education, 32:160, April, 1943.

4. Karch, R. Randolph, "Quiz for Instructors of Printing,"
Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 34:64-6, February,
1945.

5. Miller, Murray Lincoln, "Industrial- Arts Teacher Traits,"
Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 32:401, December,
1943.

6. Mones, Leon, "Other Matters on Which I Rate Teachers,"
The Education Digest (from Clearing House), IX: 46-8,
March, 1944.

7. Rose, H. C, "Instruction Sheet on Teaching Techniques,"
Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 34:189-91, May,
1945.

8. Sands, Charles, and Seymour, H. C., "A Method of Teaching
Auto Mechanics," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education,
32:194-8, May, 1943.

9. Selvidge, Robert Washington, "A Professional Inventory,"
Industrial Education Magazine, May, 1939.

10. Wilbur, Gordon O., "A Study of a Test for Shop Teachers
to Show Professional Growth," Industrial Arts and Voca-
tional Education, 32:58-9, February, 1943.

Chapter X
CLOSING THE SCHOOL YEAR

Maintaining Shop Organization

The closing days of a course or a year are important days.
Often they are sadly neglected. There are many who are
enthusiastic in starring a thing, but not so many who will
carry that enthusiasm through to the very end. This applies
to teachers as well as to students, but students will make the
kind of ending that their instructors insist upon. Teachers
who have kept a fair degree of organization during the larger
part of the course relax at the thought of the work being
over, and the last week or ten days is a time of undoing many
of the good things that have been accomplished. There is
probably more danger of such conditions creeping in at the
close of the year with vacation time coming, but change of
semesters or classes often presents problems even if in less
acute form.

Signs of Break-Down

Many reasons can be recognized for the tendency of the
organization to weaken during this period: ( 1 ) Regular shop
demonstrations and other instruction may appear to be fin-
ished, or may have to be set aside, in order that students who
have either been too ambitious in the selection of jobs or
who have failed to use their time well may be accommodated.
(2) Students are rushed for time in completing work, and
feel that the year is about over; so tools and materials are not
being cared for as during previous days. This is merely an
expression of human nature, and not necessarily a sign of
worthlessness in students. (3) Tools are borrowed at this

235

236 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

time by other departments, and by groups arranging exhibits,
entertainments, and other special features. (4) Senior classes,
or individual seniors in classes, feel that they should have a
certain amount of freedom, and are often relieved of regular
attendance through orders from the central office. (5) The
instructor may not be scheduled to return. He may carry a
grievance. If he has nursed it long enough, his professional
pride and better judgment may be affected, and probably
there is lack of feeling of responsibility.

As a consequence of some of these and other factors, many
school shops during the closing days are in utter chaos. Con-
ditions may sometimes be so aggravated that students who are
already behind in their work find it impossible to carry on.
Tools are out of the places where they have been kept
throughout the year. The glue is burnt, the clamps are
gone, the files are broken or lost, belts are not pulling, and
many other facilities are out of adjustment. The well-meaning
teacher who assumes that because tools were still there ten
days ago they will be there at the close will have his assump-
tions changed after the rush is over.

Preventing Idleness

The loafer in the shop at this period is the greatest problem.
He is the student who in many cases has done the best work
and for that reason he is now idle. Each student will work
if given a job. And of jobs there should be plenty, if the
instructor can find time and resourcefulness enough to recog-
nize and organize them. If the instructor would take an hour
to make a list of the items of work which should be attended
to before he leaves for the vacation, or before he can meet
his next class, and then pick from these items all those in
connection with which the students can be helpful, he will
find enough work to keep everyone busy until the last minute.
Finding special jobs for students seems to be a gift among

CLOSING THE SCHOOL YEAR 237

teachers. Some can think of a number at any time; others
need to make definite preliminary plans for such assignments.
In all cases the special jobs should be rotated so that students
may get as wide experience as possible.

Reconditioning Tools

Hand tools of all kinds are likely to rust during the vaca-
tion months unless given special attention. Oily waste for
general cleaning, and fine emery cloth soaked in oil for rust
or discolored spots, will serve well. This part of the job
applies to all shops, and to do a thorough job will engage a
number of students for a considerable length of time. Here
is a suggestion also for the tool clerks for this period, if
there is spare time in their schedule.

In all shops, but particularly in the woodworking shops,
there is need for putting tools in condition for the coming
term. Grinding edged tools is a large task in itself, and if the
teacher leaves it for himself or his successor to do much time
will have to be spent in routine work which makes a good
training job for students if given at this time. If such work
is assigned, however, it must be followed up very closely,
for poor grinding of edged tools is worse than no grinding.
It takes as long to grind a tool over again as to do the job
right in the first place. No apology needs to be made for
asking students to assist in reconditioning tools that they
have worked with during the year.

Core of Power Machinery

Under this heading may be pointed out many jobs that
students can do under the teacher's direction, jobs that are
of as much value as any other work done during the year.
Teachers are inclined to feel that students of high-school age
are not reliable in such operations as lacing of belts, grinding
knives for woodworking machines, filing circular and band

238 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

saws, and the like, when at the same time those students are
grinding valves of automobiles, timing the spark, and even
completely overhauling automobiles, either at home or in
school.

If the teaching has been up to expectations during the year
the frame of mind of students at this time should be such that
they will gladly tackle any job assigned and welcome the
responsibility that goes with it.

Leather belts that have been in use throughout the year
are in need of thorough cleaning. Warm water and naptha
soap applied with a stiff brush will do this job. If such belts
are not to be used they may be stored in a separate place.
All belts not cleaned should be removed from the pulleys. If
outside workmen are to use the shops during the vacation
time, such an emergency is best provided for in woodworking
by having an extra set of knives and saws so that one set may
be kept under lock and key for use for opening school in the
fall.

Conditioning Stockrooms

No place in the shops is more likely to need special attention
than the stockrooms and supply cabinets. This is true whether
metalwork, auto mechanics, electrical work, woodwork, print-
ing, or any other type of shopwork is engaged in. Even with
the best type of system and teaching it is difficult to keep
supplies in perfect order, and the end of the year is no
exception.

Two phases of activity will appear in this connection: (1)
straightening of the stock, and putting it into an orderly
arrangement, and (2) taking a complete inventory of the
material on hand. In handling some types of material it may
be best to do these two jobs simultaneously; in some cases,
as with lumber, the inventory can be taken after the material

CLOSING THE SCHOOL YEAR

239

INVENTORY AND REQUISITION FORK
SHOP SUPPLIES

OB
Band

laount
Needed

Unit

Article

Unit
Prloe

Total

Lba

Nails: Finish, 124

1/8 Ib

Taokas Carpet, 1-os

1/8 Ib

4-0

1/8 Ib

8-os

1/8 Ib

Bill-Posters'

Box 100

Upholsterers*

Oal

Oils Compressor

Oal

Dynamo and Motor

Oal

Bed Engine

Oal

Zerolene No* 8

Lb

Cup-Greaae

1/8 pt

Household Lubricant

Oal

Gasoline

Oal

Kerosene

Onlj

Oilers Malleable-Iron No* 8

Only

Copperad-Steel No. 16

Only

Sztra Spout for No, 8 Oiler

Only

Extra Spout for No. 16 Oiler

Only

Padloofcs, Tale No. 818

Lbs

Bags, clean, white

Sheets

Sandpapers Trl-mlte, No. 100

Sheets

No. 20

Sheets

No. 80

Lbs

Steel Vools No. 3

Lbs

No.l

FIG. 16. Inventory and Requisition Form for Shop Supplies.
(Original Mimeographed on Sheets S l A"xll".)

240 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

is arranged according to kinds and sizes. A typical blank for
this purpose is shown in connection with the discussion under
inventories. See Fig. 16.

Order in the Finishing Room

The finishing room, whether it be in connection with
woodworking or metal finishing, is one which needs special
attention. Here three months of time, particularly of summer-
vacation time, can play more havoc than almost anywhere
else. And if there are teachers who because of their own
orderliness are inclined to feel that these suggestions are
unnecessary, it is recommended that they visit three or four
ordinary wood-finishing rooms in schools in order to get
first-hand information. Even a limited visit of that kind will
convince anyone that more needs to be said upon this subject.

That each brush that is worth saving is worth cleaning
first should be a matter of common agreement that will result
in action. Money is wasted on new brushes when the old
ones would serve just as well if they were washed in kero-
sene and wrapped in paper immediately after they were used.
Materials are available for softening brushes in which paint
has dried. The average student and, apparently, some teach-
ers, do not know that to lay a cover over a can of paint or
varnish is not to seal it up. Quantities of this kind of material
could be saved in the school if students were taught to step
on the cover and then turn the can upside down for storage.

A general cleaning of the room, scraping of paint and
putty from tables, and throwing out of old cans, sample
pieces, and other refuse, will go far toward starring right with
the next group.

Equipment Inventories

The students can be of help in taking the required inven-
tory of the equipment. This inventory should not be of the

CLOSING THE SCHOOL, YEAR

241

INVKNTORT AND REQUISITION FOItt
PRINT SHOP EQUIPMENT

On
Hand

Amount
Needed

Unit

Article

Unit
Price

Total

Only

Type-Cabinet: California Case

Only

Wisconsin Case

Only

Leader-Boxes, No 9185

Only

Letter-Boards, No. 495

Only

Back, Lead and Slug, No. 2225

Only

Stands: Case, 116,2548

Only

Type-Case, It each

Only

Back, Chase i steel

Only

Wood

Makeup and Storage Material

Tools, Iquipaent

Only

Bellows, Snail Talre

Only

Brushes, Benzine

Only

Conposins-Stiokss Adjustable, 6*

Only

8"

Only

10"

Only

12"

Only

20"

Only

Standard Job, 6x2 1/4

Only

12 x 1/4

Only

Font Metal Furniture, 29 Iba

Only

S* Font Steel Furniture

Only

Font Wood Furniture

Only

Oalleyst Single-Colossi

Only

Double-Column

FIG. 17.

1. Inventory and Requisition Form for Shop Equipment.
(Original Mimeographed on Sheets 8Mt"xll .)

242 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

kind so often taken in the school shop, one which actually
results in no definite value except to keep the boys busy, but
should be of the type acceptable in a business concern. If
this work is properly supervised it will furnish as fine training
as any that the boys have had during the course. When the
teacher has in his hands the results of this inventory, he
should be able to tell: (1) the number of tools of each kind
on hand, (2) the working condition of each tool, (3) parts
needed for repairs, and (4) where they are located. As the
inventories are taken the tools should be moved into certain
locations so that no duplication will take place.

In order to have this work produce definite results it is
necessary: (1) to have some kind of blank that calls for
specific data, and (2) to follow up the students closely to
see that no guessing is done in filling in these forms. An illus-
tration of a card from a card-file accumulative inventory is
shown in Fig. 8. A sheet of the kind often furnished by the
school board for this purpose is shown in Fig. 17. The exact
arrangement of the blank is not of great importance, provided
the necessary items are included. The inventories of the
previous year should be consulted as a matter of check. If
this is not done, some tools may be overlooked.

Advantages of an Orderly Finish

Many advantages of doing the work of the shop in an
orderly way are apparent, among which are the following:

1. Students receive additional knowledge and experience
and acquire valuable habits.

2. Students who leave the shop and do not return carry
with them a respect for the work and for the teacher.

3. Students who return will be in better frame of mind
to start in the right way, and will reap the profit of their
work done at the close of the year.

4. Visitors, of whom there are many during the closing

CLOSING THE SCHOOL YEAR 243

days, and prospective students form a good opinion of the
conditions maintained.

5. The teacher is largely relieved of the work which he
otherwise would be obliged to do before the beginning of
school.

6. It will be easier to start the work properly when new
classes come in.

Reports

Some teachers chafe under the idea of having to make
semester or annual reports. The more far-seeing ones among
shop teachers will welcome the opportunity to do so. Even
though no report is asked for, the instructor should take the
opportunity to put in writing some of the important phases
of the program for the semester or school year. Just where
such a written report should be sent the instructor can deter-
mine from circumstances. In smaller systems where there is
no supervisor it may be sent to the principal or directly to
the superintendent. Through the annual or semiannual report
the teacher has the opportunity of placing before the admin-
istrator a number of facts, including at least the following
items:

1. The number of students served.

2. The types of work covered or taught.

3. The number of hours taught.

4. New courses installed during the period.

5. Special projects engaged in, for school, community, or
other agencies.

Such report may well be accompanied by a few photo-
graphs of work done, or classes in action, with the possibility
that they may be shown to others that are interested, includ-
ing the board of education. The report should be brief and
to the point, with the material tabulated as far as possible.

244 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

Supervisors or superintendents do not wish to read verbose
statements in this regard, even though the best of English
and diction be used. The more that can be said in a small
amount of space, the more attention will the material probably
receive. There is publicity value in reporting upon the work.

Teacher's Recommendations

Connected with the type of report that has been discussed
there can well be recommendations for changes and expan-
sions. Conditions causing serious drawbacks to the work can
be mentioned, as well as suggested remedies.

Whatever recommendations are made should be based upon
sane reasoning, however, and made with the idea that action
will be taken. Before asking that things be done the instructor
must figure the result from all angles. The reasons upon which
requests are based should be shown in full. Requests can be
courteous and at the same time firm and decided. Without
a conviction that the instructor knows what he is talking
about the superintendent will not seriously consider any
recommendations. Some teachers are in the habit of asking
for much more than is expected. This is a bad practice, for
it displays insincerity on the teacher's part, and destroys con-
fidence on the part of the administration.

Permanent Records

In previous chapters the records of students and their work
have been discussed somewhat at length. It remains only to
say here that a teacher with professional pride will be scrupu-
lous in the task of completing all possible records for students.
These records may become of increasing value in the future,
and should be considered a sacred charge.

Recommending Equipment and Supplies

Requests for new equipment, and complete requisitions for

CLOSING THE SCHOOL YEAR 245'

needed supplies, should be furnished before vacation time
commences. This is a good practice, even though the in-
structor may intend to be on the ground during the inter-
mission, for it frequently happens that the major items of
expansion and expense are decided upon early and the money
for such expenses budgeted. What was said regarding recom-
mendations in general holds good here, namely, that it is
important to be positive in one's statements, and reasonable in
requests for expenditures. Clear justification should be offered
for each item requested.

How to arrive at figures for supplies was discussed briefly
in Chapter I. With the experience of the year or semester
as a background, the instructor will now be in better position
to make an accurate estimate of the needs. If he has been
thoughtful in keeping exact records of what has been used,
little time or effort should be consumed in preparing requisi-
tions of supplies for such courses as will be repeated in the
future.

Thinking ahead is the secret of being able to provide the
shop with the needs for future work. When the board of
education requests, as it often will, complete requisitions in
May for material needed in September, there is a temptation
to use a wholesale method of treating the problem rather than
to take time to analyze the situation. It might be suggested
here also that an efficient instructor has his requisitions ready
at the time requested. Such promptness is a matter of habit.
By efficient planning it is just as possible to be a day ahead
of one's schedule as a day behind.

PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS

1. What are some advantages of having the students take
inventory?

2. How should a shop teacher manage the problem of lending
tools to other departments?

3. Why is it a good practice for the teacher to keep a per-

246 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

manent record of the work of all pupils who take work under
him?

4. Write a report to a superintendent covering the work of a
junior-high-school class in woodworking in high school, or in
junior high school. Assume such a range of activity as you would
expect to have in operation.

5. Draft a set of rules for the wood-finishing room that will
largely do away with the problem of special attention during the
closing days.

6. Organize, on paper, a scheme for straightening the shop, in
which you think all students would be interested.

7. Upon what conditions, if at all, should students be allowed
to borrow tools for home use?

8. What can the teacher do with unfinished projects or articles
at the end of school?

9. Make out a requisition for material for a class of twenty
boys for one semester in cither electricity or elementary wood-
work, and show your methods of arriving at the amounts.

10. Make a list of jobs for students during closing days, aside
from those named in this chapter.

11. Make a written presentation to a superintendent proposing
the introduction of courses in radio for the ensuing school year
and show assumed conditions warranting the proposal.

REFERENCES

1. Bradley, William B., "Industrial- Arts Filing System," Indus-
trial Arts and Vocational Education, 34:165-6, April, 1945.

2. Deffendahl, George W., "Industrial- Arts Shop Inventory,"
Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 30:236, June, 1941.

3. Editorial, "The Last Week of School," Industrial Arts and
Vocational Education, J. J. Metz, editor, 24:150-1, May,
1935.

4. Fryklund, Verne G, "The Abilities of Industrial Teachers,"
Industrial Education Magazine, 36:57-63, March, 1934.

5. Mattier, A. P., "A Unit Inventory System," Industrial Arts
and Vocational Education, 34:105-6, March, 1945.

6. McHenry, Raymond B., "The Inventory as an Administra-
tive Device in Industrial Education," Industrial Education
Magazine, 39:270-1, November, 1937.

Chapter XI
OBJECTIVES, OUTCOMES, AND GOALS

Clarifying Objectives

Much has been written about objectives pertaining to the
field of applied and practical arts. These contributions have
ranked all the way from the adoption of general aims for
education as a whole to the most specific aims for individual
subjects. In 1933, Voth and Hunter 1 published a bulletin
presenting 199 annotated references to objectives in industrial
education as presented in professional literature from 1920
up to that time. While the period covered by that study
was marked by special interest in objectives it might well be
assumed that at least an equal number of new references
would be available since 1933. An analysis of available pub-
lished material in this area would lead the reader to the con-
clusions that: (1) There is concerted, broad, general accept-
ance of some repeated values of the industrial arts program;
and (2) there is great diversity of individual thought and
expression concerning emphasis and terminology used in
expressing specific aims and outcomes for various courses
and offerings.

Industrial Arts and Vocational Education

Much of the confusion in connections with aims and goals,
as well as in content and teaching methods, comes from a lack
of distinction between the fundamental purposes and position
of industrial arts as contrasted with vocational education.
While these two activities have common characteristics to the

1 Voth, John H., and Hunter, William L M Objectives in Industrial Arts
Education, Iowa State College, 1933.

247

248

TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

point that they may appear similar when viewed superficially,
they are two distinct and independent areas in education.
They must be so recognized if either is to be expected to ren-
der its maximum service in the educational program. The fol-
lowing listing should be helpful in pointing out the position
of each of these two fields.

CHARACTERISTICS OF
INDUSTRIAL ARTS

1. A definite phase of gen-
eral education based on values
derived principally from ma-
nipulative activity and study of
materials.

2. Emphasis placed upon ex-
ploration and participation
rather than upon skill and
efficiency.

3. Open and valuable for all
students whether talented or
not.

4. Pupils of all ages eligible.

5. Aims best served through
a variety of experience with
tools and materials representing
many industries and crafts.

6. Equipment need not match
industrial conditions.

7. Classes held for single
class periods except in special
cases.

8. Not reimbursed through
special federal funds.

CHARACTERISTICS OF
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

1. A specialized program for
the purpose of preparing stu-
dents for remunerative employ-
ment.

2. Development of a skill is
emphasized.

3. Students selected with ref-
erence to aptitude for the
work.

4. Available to students of
high-school age and older.

5. Concentration on one
trade or occupation.

6. Equipment should basic-
ally be parallel to industry.

7. Work carried on three or
more hours per day in trade
practice and related subjects.

8. Reimbursable through
state and federal funds.

OBJECTIVES, OUTCOMES, AND GOALS 249

9. Teachers primarily pre- 9. Teachers selected from

pared in teacher-training insti- trades and given professional

tution. (May have trade ex- teacher training,
perience.)

10. Course content, length of 10. Course content and dura-
time, etc., determined by tion of courses arranged
school representatives. through advisory committees

from industry, labor, and
schools.

11. Projects are chosen with 11. Work assignments based
reference to student interest. upon practices in the trade.

12. Standards of accomplish- 12. Standards of workman-
ment based upon pupil growth ship judged in the light of de-
rather than upon skilled work, mands of the trade.

Aims, Ofa/ecf/Ves, and Goals

Much criticism has been directed against the tendency to
declare aims and purposes on paper and then to ignore them
in the teaching process. Some of this criticism is justified.
However, there is probably less likelihood that a teacher who
has once stated a set of aims will forget to work for their con-
summation than there is that the person who has never formu-
lated any standards will lead his class toward definite goals.
Aims, if seriously formulated, in themselves imply procedures
for their attainment. There is need, however, for constant
emphasis upon results, outcomes, and final attainments of in-
tentions, rather than upon static aims and purposes.

Listing Desired Goals

With the thought in mind that it is more stimulating to the
teacher and more fruitful of results to think of final outcomes
rather than initial declarations, the following statements are
presented as "desired goals" for industrial arts. Somewhat re-
worded, they could all be made into statements of objectives
by anyone who prefers to use that term and approach.

250 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

1. Self -discovery by the pupil of his own abilities and apti-
tudes, leading toward maturing life interests.

2. Satisfying experience in self-expression through creative
effort leading to material accomplishments.

3. Understanding of industry and methods of production,
and of the influence of industrial products and services upon
the pattern of modern social and economic life.

4. Appreciation of good design and good workmanship
in their application to construction and to manufactured prod-
ucts.

5. Judgment and resourcefulness in selection, purchase,
use, and care of industrial products and services both in the
home and in occupational life.

6. Ability to use tools and materials leading to household
maintenance, leisuretime pursuits, and, in some degree, to basic
occupational skills.

7. Ability to read and make sketches and drawings used
for illustrative and construction purposes, including the ability
to read graphic and technical illustrations in books and mag-
azines.

8. Development of maturing work habits, feeling of re-
sponsibility, and ability to plan and execute work alone and
in cooperation with others.

9. Basic experience in the use of tools, machines, and ma-
terials of value in carrying on future educational and profes-
sional work on scientific and technological levels.

10. Development of safety habits and fundamental safety
consciousness not only in the school but in the home and in
future occupational life.

No attempt has been made here to refer to all values that
should come from participation in the industrial arts. Only
those goals which are peculiar to industrial arts or which are
thought to be best served by this field of schoolwork have

OBJECTIVES, OUTCOMES, AND GOALS 251

been listed. The following paragraphs will present a brief dis-
cussion of each of these goals.

1. Self-discovery by the pupil of his oixn abilities and apti-
tudes, leading toward maturing life interests. Self-discovery
has intentionally been placed first among these goals. As in-
terpreted here this thought goes far beyond the mere oppor-
tunity for exploring a few mechanical occupations and perhaps
selecting one of them for a life career. During adolescence,
at which time industrial arts work enters the program as an
independent subject, there is need for a setting or atmosphere
in which the dignity of self can be made known and appre-
ciated. Nowhere in the school is there a better opportunity
for perplexed youth to discover himself than in the industrial-
arts program under sympathetic leadership and guidance. In
the informal setting of this program and the customary social
organization of the class, students are relieved of much of the
strain and stress of the formal classroom or counselor's office,
and can more objectively discover their own likes and dis-
likes, their success qualities and their limitations, both in re-
gard to occupational choices and personality traits.

2. Satisfymg experience in self-expression through creative
effort leading to material accomplishments. All normal chil-
dren have a strong desire to construct things and to express
themselves through creative work. From opportunities for
such expression come growth and mental development. The
industrial-arts shop or laboratory is rich in promise for such
opportunities. It can be equally rich in results if the teacher
will guide pupil enthusiasm in right channels and see to it that
formality and lack of vision do not prohibit the attainment of
this goal.

3. Understanding of industry and methods of production,
and of the influence of industrial products and services upon
the pattern of modern social and economic life. With the in-
creased mechanization of the mode of living, it becomes in-

252 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

creasingly desirable, if not necessary, that every person shall
have a broadened appreciation of industry and its effect upon
modern life. The typical industrial-arts shop probably falls
short of giving maximum service to this goal. But industrial
arts has within its area of instruction the greatest opportuni-
ties afforded by the school curriculum in this important field
of education and the future teachers will be alert to take ad-
vantage of these opportunities. Mass-production jobs in the
school, visits to industry, suitable morion pictures, and class
organization patterned after factory management are but a
few of the possibilities leading to realization of this goal.

4. Appreciation of good design and of good workmanship
in their application to construction and to manufactured prod-
ucts. It has been argued that it is not possible in the limited
rime available in industrial-arts classes to make any significant
contribution under this goal. This might be largely true if
immediate abilities are to be the measure used. But the signi-
ficance is that basic principles and attitudes can be established
with young students in a limited amount of time, leading to-
ward continued investigation and study in this increasingly
important area.

5. Judgment and resourcefulness in selection, purchase,
use, and care of industrial products, and services both in the
home and in occupational life. Machines, mechanical devices,
and appliances are increasing at an appalling rate. Every per-
son's well-being is dependent daily upon their use. Some first-
hand experience with materials, tools, and machines will enable
a person better to solve the problems that pertain to their pur-
chase and use. The teacher must keep in mind, however, that
to teach routine tool processes only will not in itself guarantee
that pupils will attain this goal. Specific planning must be
done to give students the necessary stimulus for broad investi-
gation and to give them experiences upon which this type of
resourcefulness is built.

OBJECTIVES, OUTCOMES, AND GOALS 253

6. Ability to use tools and materials leading toward house-
hold maintenance, leisuretime pursuits, and to basic occupa-
tional skills. This goal needs little explanation. It is commonly
expressed and commonly accepted. The degree of skill to be
expected is, of course, dependent upon many factors age of
students and time allowance being two important ones. Skill
in itself cannot be considered undesirable provided that it is
not stressed to the point of excluding other values.

7. Ability to read and make sketches and drawings used
for illustrative and construction purposes. This is also a recog-
nized goal which needs no justification. It needs interpreta-
tion, however, for the reason that too many teachers confine
the opportunities in this area to a few exercises in lettering and
meaningless practice in the use of tools and instruments. If
this goal is to be reached as here interpreted the work must be
based upon future use on the part of every person rather than
by a few who will go into professional work in this field.

8. Developing of maturing work habits, Reeling of responsi-
bility, and ability to plan and execute work independently and
in cooperation with others. The common cry against young
people who go to work is that they have no established work
habits acceptable in business or industry. The industrial-arts
shop or laboratory is probably the best place in the school for
the development of such habit, provided, of course, that the
teacher is aware of the fact that they are not usually an auto-
matic product of his teaching. With conscious planning under
which the student is in a similar position to a workman on a
job, the qualities mentioned under this goal can be attained to
a marked degree even by boys of early adolescence.

9. Basic experience in the use of tools, machines, and ma-
terials of value in carrying on future educational and profes-
sional work. Advocates of industrial arts have long maintained
that this program is of value to all children. It has been made
compulsory in most junior high schools. But specific values

254 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

in the secondary schools for shopwork as a desirable back-
ground for students who expect to go into advanced work in
scientific research, technological work, medicine, etc., have
not been sufficiently recognized. The following quotation in-
dicates a clear recognition of the need of industrial arts for
this type of student.

. . . we shall say something about the importance of shop train-
ing in general education. For those who intend to go into sci-
entific or technological work, it has special relevance. The
manipulation of objects, the use of tools, and the construction of
simple apparatus all are required for entry into the world of
experimentation. Even the pure mathematician is greatly aided
by shop experience; the forms, contours, and inter-relations of
three-dimensional objects provide a stimulus and satisfaction not
to be achieved altogether within the limits of plane diagrams.
The lack of shop training is at present a most serious deterrent to
entry into all types of technological work and to college and
post-graduate training in science, medicine, and engineering.
What students should learn in secondary school specifically is
the use of simple hand tools and the execution of simple basic
operations such as soldering and elementary glass blowing and
joining. If the student can be taught to operate a drill press, a
wood lathe, and a machine lathe, so much the better. 2

The value of basic mechanical resourcefulness has been in-
creasingly apparent during the rapid expansion of technologi-
cal work and scientific progress of recent years. The ability
to do has become equal in importance with the ability to
think; and often discovery, research, and planning can be car-
ried out only piece by piece to the degree that mechanical
and manipulative work accompany theoretical developments.
When this importance is more fully recognized, institutions
of higher learning will be more ready to recognize mechanical
work as a legitimate part of entrance requirements.

2 Report of Harvard Committee, General Education in a Free Society,
Cambridge, Massachusetts. Harvard University Press, 1945.

OBJECTIVES, OUTCOMES, AND GOALS 255

10. Development of safety habits. This should be a legiti-
mate goal for two reasons: ( 1 ) Strenuous efforts must be made
to diminish the appalling accident rate; and (2) the very at-
mosphere of the school shop lends itself to the stressing of
safety habits. Not only can safety instruction be stressed in
regard to use of tools, machines, and materials in the school,
but it would seem most appropriate to carry over the instruc-
tion to use of cars, home appliances, electrical equipment, and
many other hazards in and around the home.

Emphasis on Goals According to Age Levels

Not all of the goals listed and discussed in this chapter are
of equal importance for all ages of pupils. In elementary
schools, including the first six grades, little or no formal work
is now carried on in separate industrial-arts classes. Here the
manipulative work is done in close coordination and integra-
tion with the total study program of the school. Self-expres-
sion and self-discovery are important outcomes. Sheer joy
experienced in doing things at this age is in itself valuable but
can be made more so if the experience is given relationship to
a "unit of work" or a body of knowledge of social and educa-
tional value. High interest developed in manipulative work
also tends to carry over into other fields, since investigation in
geography, history, arithmetic, and other studies is often stim-
ulated through the desire to construct things in material form.

In the Junior High School

All of the ten goals are most uniformly attainable for the
junior-high-school level. Here industrial arts is taught in its
most diversified form and without the restrictions of occupa-
tional-training bias or highly technical emphasis. Attention is
again called, however, to the fact that to state a desirable goal
is one thing and to attain it another. These goals are pupils'
goals and whether they will be reached will depend upon the
degree of effort contributed by the teacher.

256 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

Emphasis for the Senior High School

In the senior high school most of the goals discussed take
on an extended meaning. At this level the acquisition of skill
may receive more attention. Developments of maturing work
habits, and independent and cooperative effort, may be ex-
pected to reach more advanced stages at this age. Since there
is more likelihood that the student has made at least a tentative
choice of an area of occupational work he can now choose
subjects in industrial arts that will strengthen his background
for further education or occupational training.

The Cardinal Principles

A study and discussion of goals and objectives for any phase
of activity in secondary education would be incomplete with-
out relating these goals with the "seven objectives" as set forth
in "The Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education." 3 While
there has probably been some overanxiety in the attempt to
give to industrial arts a large share in the development of all
of these, it can easily be shown that through the industrial arts
a valuable and, with most of the subjects, a significant contri-
bution can and should be made. A list of the "seven objec-
tives," with brief comments upon each, follows:

1. Health. With reference to the contribution of industrial
arts to the attainment of this objective, the course of study of
the State of Minnesota 4 suggests that this field of activity
should: "Develop and establish in the lives of pupils the
method and processes of performing manual activities which
are in greatest accord with the conservation of human
strength, the gaining of muscular skill and control, and the
assurance of safety to life and health."

3 U.S. Office of Education, Department of the Interior, Bulletin 1918,
No. 35.

4 State of Minnesota, Department of Education; General Industrial Train-
ing Bulletin No. 9.

OBJECTIVES, OUTCOMES, AND GOALS 257

Even a most superficial survey of an industrial-arts program
will reveal a large number of connections with this objective.
Among these may be mentioned muscular control and knowl-
edge of the use of mechanical appliances, study and practice
in solving home-sanitation problems, knowledge of occupa-
tional hazards, and others.

2. Cownnand of fundamental processes. This may at first
seem to be confined to the activities of the regular and aca-
demic classroom. However, Schweickhard 5 points out that
industrial arts contributes in offering: "(0 innumerable situa-
tions for the application of these processes; (2) opportunities
for more firmly fixing them by means of tangible relationships,
particularly in arithmetical computations; (3) a necessary
stimulus to many pupils not otherwise attracted to abstract
fundamentals; (4) an insight into the fundamentals in actual
life outside of school."

3. Worthy home membership. One of the goals listed in
the earlier part of this chapter had particular reference to the
developing of common skills in use of materials (handy-man
activities) . Another covered the intelligent selection and use
of industrial products. Both of these have distinct relationship
to worthy home membership. The industrial-arts program
can and usually does function in offering courses covering
home planning, financing, location, and furnishing of the
home. All these and many others point to the important place
that this special subject may assume in relation to this objec-
tive with reference to both boys and girls.

4. Vocation. This objective may be looked upon in the
light of the industrial-arts program, excluding vocational
training, and still suggest a wide and comprehensive relation-
ship. At this point a quotation from the U. S. Office of Edu-
cation bulletin previously referred to will be of value: "This

5 Schweickhard, Industrial Arts in Modern Education, The Manual Arts
Press, Peoria, Illinois, p. 139.

258 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

ideal demands that the pupil explore his own capacities and
aptitudes, and make a survey of the world's work, to the end
that he may select his vocation wisely." The great emphasis
placed upon this very feature in all junior-high-school pro-
grams indicates clearly the service of industrial-arts activity in
attaining the "vocational objective.'*

This does not belittle the importance of a definite vocational
program in fulfilling this objective. The bulletin expressly
points out the duty of secondary education to "equip the indi-
vidual to secure a livelihood for himself and those dependent
upon him."

5. Civic education. The fact that much of the activity in
shopwork in the school calls for association in cooperative ef-
fort may be pointed out as a contribution to the realization
of this objective. Projects of the school shop which lead to
the benefit of the school, the community, or certain groups of
individuals make their contribution.

6. Worthy use of leisure. This objective has been men-
tioned previously in this chapter as being especially applicable
in industrial arts. It is by no means confined to that level, for
it fits in equally well in adult education. It is obvious that in
the latter field the industrial-arts program can render a service
more distinct than many of the other subjects in the curricu-
lum. Permanent interests may be developed not only in the
various manipulative possibilities, but in reading and investi-
gating technical material, inventions, and mechanical devices,
not to mention the possibilities in developing appreciation of
the artistic and beautiful.

7. Ethical character. In so far as qualities of character can
be established in the school, it is apparent that the school shop
can make a distinct contribution. Frankness, fair dealings,
honesty in claims for work produced, and similar attributes
are probably more consistently demanded for success in the
shop than elsewhere in school, unless in physical education.

OBJECTIVES, OUTCOMES, AND GOALS 259

Social-Economic Goals in America

A report of a more recent committee of the National Edu-
cation Association has been presented by that committee under
the title "Social-Economic Goals in America." 6 While these
goals are not listed exclusively for the educational program,
the assumption is that the goals proposed should and will be
the objectives of American schools of all levels. A brief con-
sideration of each should assist in broadening the industrial-
arts teacher's conception of the place and importance of his
contribution to the educational program. The goals are ten
in number and presented in the following order:

1. Hereditary strength. That the innate hereditary quality
of a people should be the chief concern of a nation or a com-
munity cannot be denied. Neither can it be denied that occu-
pational life and work conditions have to do with maintenance
or development of hereditary strength. Training in creative
activity both for a vocation and for leisuretime activity should
go toward integration of personality and good social habits.

2. Physical security. In another paragraph in this chapter
the opportunities for furthering the development of safety
habits through the industrial-arts program have been discussed.
In whatever subject or area of industry that may be under
consideration there must of necessity be inherent experiences
for students leading toward a recognition of dangers to life
and health. Physical security as a mental state may come
under consideration at this point. Freedom from fear should
develop through knowledge of safety practices in regard to
tools, machines, use of home appliances, and modes of trans-
portation so readily acquired through the industrial arts.

3. Participation in an evolving culture. Too much of so-
called "culture" has been administered as doses of medicine to

6 "Restating Our National Goals," Journal of the National Education
Association Vol. 23, No. 1, January, 1934.

260 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

our youth. Much of it has had very little effect, and some
probably has done harm and led toward innate rebellion. The
following quotation from the report will help clarify the posi-
tion of the committee: "Every individual must have command
of those skills, techniques, and knowledges that will enable
him, to the limit of his innate capacities, to use and enjoy the
culture of the group." There should need to be no supporting
discussion of a statement that ability to use and enjoy evolving
culture in America should not be confined to the acquiring of
knowledge and facts about older cultures, but should involve
information about modern industry, invention, transportation,
etc., as well as experience in manipulative arts and handicrafts.
Industrial-arts teaching can render a service at this point by
assisting in a reinterpretation and enlargement of the concep-
tion of culture to American youth.

4. An active, flexible personality. It was pointed out earlier
in this chapter that greater emphasis has come to be placed
upon personality development and social adjustment in our
industrial-arts objectives. Experiences which are inherent in
any well-conducted industrial-arts program will obviously as-
sist the pupil to acquire habits of flexibility, tolerant attitudes,
and cooperative living. Leaders in the field of industrial-arts
education have long maintained, and rightly so, that the very
organization of the group in these activities furnishes a su-
perior setting for social growth.

5. Suitable occupation. "A congenial lifework is a first
requisite of a rich personality," says the committee at this
point. Specific means suggested in the report for attaining
this goal through the school programs are (1) guidance, (2)
training, and (3) placement. One of the most commonly ac-
cepted aims for industrial arts on the junior- and senior-high-
school levels is guidance through exploratory experiences.
Industrial-arts and vocational teachers have long been active
in finding placement for their graduates, and logically so.

OBJECTIVES, OUTCOMES, AND GOALS 261

6. Economic security. Economic security may well be
considered the result of guidance and basic, occupational re-
sourcefulness. To the extent that the student is properly as-
sisted in finding his proper occupation, in preparing for it, and
in entering upon his employment in that occupation, to that
extent he will probably develop economic security through
regular work and dependable habits. Economic security with-
out a satisfying occupational choice can hardly be thought
possible unless a person is independent of his earnings for his
livelihood.

7. Mental security. It is a well-known fact that manipula-
tive work furnishes wholesome mental as well as physical re-
laxation and that many professional men under heavy strain
during working hours resort to craftwork as a hobby for re-
lief. This, it seems, would suggest the contribution that in-
dustrial-arts activity may make to the solution of this problem.

8. Equality of opportunity. Industrial arts has experienced
its phenomenal expansion largely because of the fact that chil-
dren are different and need different media for stimulating
their adjustment process to the requirements of society. With-
in the industrial arts group itself there should be ample oppor-
tunity under sympathetic instruction for a large variety of
choices of activity giving every pupil a chance to develop to
the maximum of his potentialities.

9. Freedom. Freedom in social order so complicated as the
one which our youth are facing must necessarily be estimated
in terms of the freedom of others as well. How to develop
the sense of freedom and individuality in the schoolroom, and
at the same time foster respect for the feelings and needs of
other members of the group, is an ever present problem. While
the industrial arts laboratory cannot claim to be able to offer
final solutions of all these problems, it can and does offer an at-
mosphere in which the meaning of freedom may be inter-
preted in a cooperative social setting.

262 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

10. Fair play. "By fair play as a social virtue," says the
committee, "we mean not only the justice defined by the
courts but also the good sportsmanship that should be prac-
ticed by the individuals constituting our society in all relations
with one another. . . ." The "give-and-take" opportunities
presenting themselves in manipulative, classroom work far ex-
ceed those of most other subjects. They can be further devel-
oped by thoughtful planning on the part of the teacher.

PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS

1. Make a list of goals or objectives for industrial arts which
you think are important but which are not listed in this chapter.

2. Do you consider leisuretime crafts and hobbies to be more
or less important than a generation ago? Why?

3. Show in detail how the "maturing of work habits" can be
accomplished through industrial arts.

4. By what procedure can safety habits in the home be de-
veloped in industrial arts?

5. Make a list of advantages that you think might come to a
person in adult life from becoming acquainted with fundamental
principles of good design in the school shop.

6. List twenty-five situations in which you think a person
would profit in later life from the degree of judgment in pur-
chasing and using industrial products that you would expect to
be developed from industrial-arts work.

7. How would you reorganize the ten goals listed in this chap-
ter for greater simplicity?

8. Do you think the goals presented in this chapter are equally
suited to all communities?

9. In your opinion are handy-man activities more or less im-
portant now than formerly in American life?

10. Show in detail how the seven objectives in the "Cardinal
Principles" may be served through industrial arts.

11. Do you think that the "Cardinal Principles" will tend to
become obsolete? Give reasons for your answer.

12. Do you believe that honesty, perserverance, industry, etc.,
are developed through industrial arts? Give reasons for your
belief.

OBJECTIVES, OUTCOMES, AND GOALS 263

13. To what extent do you think that industrial arts has special
values for personality adjustment that many other school subjects
do not have?

14. What reasons can you give for the fact that girls have not
more generally been encouraged to take industrial arts?

REFERENCES

1. Abercrombie, Towne R., "New Conceptions of Industrial
Arts," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 34:242,
June, 1945.

2. Ashley, Lawrence F., "Co-operative Relationships of Indus^
triai Arts and Vocational Education," Industrial Arts and
Vocational Education, 34:277-81, September, 1945.

3. Ashley, Lawrence F., "Interrelationships of Industrial Arts
and Vocational Education," Industrial Arts and Vocational
Education, 31:1-5, January, 1942.

4. Bawden, William T., and Others, Industrial Arts in Modern
Education, The Manual Arts Press, 1934, Chap. II.

5. Bedell, Earl L., "Contribution of Industrial Arts to a Func-
tional Education," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education,
30:141-3, April, 1941.

6. Bennett, Charles A., "Leisure and the Creative Arts," Indus-
trial Education Magazine, 36:92-4, March, 1934.

7. Brown, Kenneth W., "Industrial Arts and the Need of Ado-
lescents," Education, 65:589-95, June, 1945.

8. Christy, Elmer W., "The Place of Industrial Arts in the
Educational Program of Senior High Schools," Industrial
Education Magazine, 41:61-4, March, 1939.

9. Colthary, Raymond J., "Industrial Arts and Citizenship,"
Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 34:153-4, April,
1945.

10. Davidsen, Harold F., "Training for Citizenship in the Indus-
trial-Arts Department," Industrial Arts and Vocational Edu-
cation, 33:320-1, October, 1944.

11. Dodge, A. F., "Objectives of Industrial Education," Indus-
trial Arts and Vocational Education, 31:5-7, January, 1942.

12. Friese, John F., "Philosophy of Industrial Arts for American
Education," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education,
29: 1-5, January, 1940.

264 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

13. Fuzak, John A., "Reflective Thinking as an Aim in Industrial
Arts," Education, 65:583-8, June, 1945.

14. Groneman, Chris H., "Values of Industrial-Arts Education
in the Texas Junior High School," Industrial Arts and Voca-
tional Education, 30:312-3, 316, October, 1941.

15. Hippaka, T. A., "The Relationship Between Industrial Arts
and Vocational Education," Industrial Arts and Vocational
Education, 30:368-9, November, 1941.

16. Hopkins, James E., "Contribution of Industrial Arts to Gen-
eral Education," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education,
32:375, November, 1943.

17. Jochen, Albert E., "Developing Good Work Habits and
Attitudes," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education,
31:243-5, June, 1942.

18. Mays, Arthur B., "Neglected Values in Industrial Arts,"
Industrial Education Magazine, 39:169-72, September, 1937.

19. Mays, Arthur B., "Unified Industrial Education Programs,"
Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 33:395-7, Decem-
ber, 1944.

20. Mones, Leon, "Industrial Arts and Liberal Education," The
Education Digest (from School Shop), IX: 14-16, April,
1944.

21. Proffitt, Maris M., "Industrial Arts an Essential in the Cur-
riculum of American Schools," Industrial Education Maga-
zine, 40:231-4, November, 1938.

22. Rappaport, Bernard F., "Swedish Sloyd," Industrial Arts and
Vocational Education, 33:356-7, November, 1944.

23. Rasche, William F., "Vitalizing Elementary and Secondary
Education Through the Practical Arts," Industrial Arts and
Vocational Education, 31:233-5, June, 1942.

24. Richardson, Charles P., "A Reinterpretation of Industrial-
Arts Objectives," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education,
33:55-8, February, 1945.

25. Salomon, Otto, Theory of Educational Sloyd, Silver Burdett
and Company, 1911.

26. Shockey, Walter I., "The Consumer Looks at Industrial
Arts," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 34: 10, Jan-
uary, 1945.

27. Smith, Homer, J., "Industrial Arts Objectives and Their

OBJECTIVES, OUTCOMES, AND GOALS 265

Attainment," National Education Association Proceedings,
71:522-3, 1937.

28. Sotzin, Heber A., "Industrial Arts in a System of Public
Education," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education,
30:365-8, December, 1941.

29. Struck, F. Theodore, "A Few Aspects of a Philosophy of
Industrial Arts," Industrial Education Magazine, 41:129-32,
May, 1937.

30. United States Office of Education, "Industrial Arts, Its Inter-
pretation in American Schools," Bulletin 1937, No. 34, Super-
intendent of Documents, Washington, D. C.

Chapter XII

ANALYSIS AND SELECTION OF
SUBJECT MATTER

Accident or Design?

In the rapid expansion of manual and industrial arts in re-
cent years, subjects and course offerings have multiplied at a
rapid rate. While it is true that in general this development
has been accepted as a contribution to the education of youth,
it is also true that many course offerings and much of the de-
tailed subject matter have come into the program by accident
rather than by design and have later either found difficulty in
surviving or have been rejected. One does not need to go very
far to find in our schools "monuments" bearing evidence of
lack of vision, careless planning, or no planning at all, in con-
nection with expansive programs enthusiastically promoted by
someone, but now either in disrepute or abandoned. There is
too much evidence that, in many schools and systems, both
the industrial-arts and the vocation programs have "just
grown" rather than experienced a carefully directed develop-
ment.

The discussion in this chapter will attempt to call attention
to two important areas in connection with courses and subject
matter: (1) basic considerations underlying the introduction
and retention of course offerings in industrial arts, and (2)
source and evaluation of subject-matter content for various
courses and offerings.

Basic Considerations

This leads us to the point of inquiring in regard to determin-
ing factors that may be helpful in evaluating subjects for adop-

266

SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER 267

tion in a shopwork program. Can some kind of measuring
system be set up by which one may approach the problem in
a less haphazard way?

The following questions, while not conclusive, are offered
as one method of gaining evidence for or against the desirabil-
ity of introducing a new industrial-arts subject at a given time.
The larger number of them pertain to activities above the ele-
mentary school.

1. Does the type of 'work proposed represent a broad, typ-
ical industrial activity? This is particularly true where the
exploratory objective is strongly emphasized.

2. Is it rich in educational content? A subject, in order to
gain entrance into the curriculum, should have a content that
may be explored to advantage both from the manipulative
and technical information viewpoints. Bricklaying, for in-
stance, might represent a rather broad field of activity, but
would be limited in content as an industrial-arts subject.

3. Does the subject lend itself to school procedure? For
instance, if such a subject as seasoning lumber, and care and
handling of lumber in general, were otherwise desirable, it
might be difficult to adjust it to school procedures in the in-
dustrial-arts field.

4. Does the subject suit the ages and maturity of the stu-
dents? Work which must include extensive use of machinery
cannot be thought of as suitable for children from twelve to
fifteen years of age.

5. Is the cost of installation reasonable? The answer to
this question depends upon a number of factors. There can
be no question that the installation cost of a course has some-
times been out of proportion to its possible values. Machine-
shop practice might be referred to as one of these.

6. Are materials too expensive? In many cases other types
of work leading to lower per-capita cost can be substituted
without loss to the program.

268 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

7. Is there local representation of the activity? The ques-
tion of how far local representation should be allowed to in-
fluence the selection and installation of a subject is a debatable
one. It may well be pointed out that not many skilled me-
chanics on any job or in any factory learned their craft in
the locality where they are now working. Nevertheless, there
are times when this point should be considered in the total of
determining factors.

8. Are teachers available? Before a new type of work is
launched, the problem of instruction should be considered.
Too often in expanding a program it happens that one of the
teachers already in the system must be assigned to the new
work. Sometimes a teacher will volunteer to branch out into
some activity for which he has no real qualifications. It may
be better to hold fast to the present subjects, and call for no
expansion until efficient instruction can be assured.

9. Is there time in the schedule? Ambitious teachers have
been known to do a great amount of work in organizing and
offering an additional subject, only to find at the time of en-
rollment and scheduling that there is no available time in the
schedule set for it for students who are otherwise interested.

10. Are students interested? Much of the manipulative
work is on the elective basis. Many a teacher has found him-
self without students because he has failed to take into consid-
eration the interests of students, and has failed to practice some
salesmanship methods in advance.

11. Is local sentiment in favor? No school subject is safely
installed as a permanent part of a curriculum until there is a
public sentiment in its favor. In large communities this senti-
ment may, of course, be confined to the area served by the
school. In smaller localities it must be general, and in all cases
it is necessary, if the subject is new in the system, to have the
whole-hearted approval of the board of education.

12. Is the superintendent or principal enthusiastic? This

SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER 269

does not mean simply being tolerant. The superintendent and
principal may be tolerant, and approve the scheme, and yet
be lukewarm as to its value. They should be convinced with-
out delay that the subject to be introduced is eminently worth
while. If this cannot be done, it may be wise to leave it out.

13. Is it the teacher's pet sche?ne? Teachers, interested in
introducing new courses, should use every objective measure
available to determine the desirability of such work. There is
danger that the instructor will see matters from personal view-
points and with limited vision, and later wake up to the fact
that the ultimate success of his program has been hurt instead
of promoted.

The investigation suggested here, when augmented by refer-
ence to the broad general objectives and desired outcomes as
discussed in Chapter XI, will go a long way toward furnishing
a reliable basis for determining the suitability of a course or a
proposed-need offering. The form for evaluating subjects in
the light of objectives which appears later in this chapter will
be helpful in giving definite indications.

Sources of Teaching Material

The chief source from which to obtain subject matter or
teaching units for industrial arts is, obviously, industry itself.
This is particularly true if "industry" is considered in its
broader sense, including not only manufacture and mass pro-
duction, but also the service trades such as automotive repairs,
radio, etc., as well as individual craftwork and leisuretime in-
terests. In some cases it may be industry of the past which is
reproduced, as when studying various subjects and units in
elementary schools. But for regularly organized, industrial-
arts classes, the most modern representation of industrial ac-
tivity will furnish a fundamental source from which to
appropriate functional and vital subject matter, both from the
standpoint of manipulation and investigation.

270 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

Analysis the Basis for Selection

But industry, with its vast scope and intricate machine and
manipulative processes, may tend to confuse rather than to
assist in the solution of the problem. Which ones of the many
suggestions that industry may offer shall be accepted, and
upon what basis shall the details of subject matter be selected?

Before a trade or industry can be made useful as a source
of subject matter in manipulative work in the school, an analy-
sis must be made of its content and processes. This is true
whether the aim of the work is nonvocational or vocational,
whether it is elementary or advanced.

As an example, let it be assumed that it has been decided to
establish a course in house carpentry. It appears evident that
whether the course is to be vocational or nonvocational, the
first desirable step is an analysis of content included in the car-
penter's trade, the use and application of problems in mathe-
matics, facts of science, and phases of drawing. With anything
less than this as the basis of selection, the organization of sub-
ject matter would involve guesswork, and some of the most
valuable phases of the trade for the purpose at hand would
probably be ignored. Such a possible analysis is shown in the
following, covering blocks or main subdivisions of the trade.

ANALYSIS OF OPERATIONS IN THE CARPENTRY TRADE
(Based on Construction Units)

1. Foundations

(a) Laying out

(1) Establishing parallel lines

(2) Obtaining right angles

(3) Testing for squareness

(b) Batter boards

(1) Grade line

(2) Concrete forms

(3) Setting basement frames

2. Sill construction

SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER 271

(a) Box sills (several types)

(b) Solid or timber sill

3. Floor framing

(a) Joists

(b) Girders

(c) Headers and trimmers

(d) Bridging

4. Wall framing

(a) Plates

(b) Corner posts

(c) Studs

(d) Ribbons or ribbands

(e) Bracing

(f) Partitions

(g) Framing for doors and windows

5. Roof framing

(a) Rafter cutting: common, hip, valley, cripple

(b) Ridge boards

(c) Bracing

(d) Trimming for chimneys

6. Stair framing

(a) Straight flight

(b) Platform flight

(c) Winding

(d) Spiral

7. Porch framing

(a) Slant floor joists

(b) Special trimming

(c) Special beams and bracing

(d) Steps

8. Rough boarding

(a) Floor

(b) Walls

(c) Roof

9. Construction of frames

(a) Window: check-rail, casement

(b) Door: outside, inside

(c) Cellar or basement

(d) Box

(e) Special

272 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

10. Setting of frame*

(a) Window: common, box

(b) Door

(1) For brick work: inside, outside

(2) For frame buildings: inside, outside

(c) Basement

(d) Special

11. Shingling: common, fancy, with flashing, hip and valley

12. Laying special roofing

(a) Rubber

(b) Tar paper

(c) Slate shingles

(d) Asbestos shingles

(e) Tile

1 3 . Cornice construction

(a) Special lookouts

(b) Open cornice

(c) Box cornice

(d) Box cornice, horizontal plancher

(e) Brackets and ornaments

14. Porch finishing

(a) Construction of columns

(b) Laying floor

(c) Rails and balusters

(d) Entrance steps

(e) Lattice work

(f) Screening

15. Siding

(a) Matched

(b) Lap or bevel

16. Special outside fimshing

(a) Water-table construction

(b) Corner boards

(c) Fitting screens

(d) Fitting storm windows

17. Inside finishing

(a) Hanging windows: check-rail, casement, special

(b) Hanging doors: common, sliding, double acting, revolv-

ing, screen, special

(c) Hanging transoms

SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER 273

(d) Casing up: windows, doors, special openings, fitting

baseboard

(e) Stair construction: closed, open, panelled

(f) Laying floors: plain, fancy

(g) Glass cutting: plain window, plate, art
(h) Special inside work

(1) Inbuilt furniture: bookcases, cupboards, pantry and

kitchen fixtures, seats, refrigerators, drawers, iron-
ing-boards

(2) Beamed ceiling

(3) Colonadcs and grilles

(4) Panelling and wainscoting

(5) Breakfast-room furniture

(6) Special

It is obvious that this analysis furnishes only a rough listing
of the main divisions or blocks contained in the field of car-
pentry. Further analysis would subdivide each of the listings
into unit operations. This would need to be done before the
final choice of content for the course could be made.

It will be noted that this analysis makes reference only to
indicated production or construction units or areas. In order
to be functional as a basis for final selection of teaching units,
it should also include a listing of items or units of technical
knowledge needed by the worker who performs the opera-
tions. These items are implied in the outline shown here, but
need to be separated and listed in order to be recognized in
the teaching procedure. Such a list also makes the final selec-
tion of teaching units easier and more purposeful. A more
detailed discussion of related and occupational information has
been presented in Chapter VII.

The segregation of "items of knowledge" as separated from
operation units can be made simultaneously with the original
analysis of the trade or industry, but, unless the person carry-
ing out the analysis is experienced, it will prove easier to draw
up a separate list subsequently to the original analysis. The

274 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

following listing indicates the related-knowledge units that
may be appropriate for Section 4, Wall Framing, under the
Analysis:

WALL FRAMING
Block 4

Related Knowledge
(To Know)

1. Read blueprints.

2. Method of splicing members for plates.

3. Determine length of studs.

4. When to reject faulty stock.

5. Ordinances regarding scaffolds.

6. Safety practices when raising walls.

7. Standard measures for windows and doors.

8. Ordinances covering bracing.

9. Regulations regarding fire breaks.

The foregoing analysis is presented as showing a method of
approach to the selection of subject matter for any course in
industrial education. Electrical work, concrete and cement
work, printing, and others would be approached from the
same angle. Farm mechanics or household mechanics would
borrow their subject matter from the total possibilities in op-
erations performed within the fields of activity in question.
And the only way in which to learn just what possible sub-
ject matter is inherent in a field is through analysis. To be
sure, it is not necessary for every person to make such an
analysis anew. Published material is available giving suitable
subject matter that has been tested elsewhere. From such
sources much valuable material may be had.

Determining the Sub/ecf Matter

It is obvious, however, that analysis alone will not deter-
mine and single out the items of subject matter to be taught
in the school or shop. A selective process must follow this

SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER 275

analysis, in order to determine what particular parts of the
activity will fit in as teaching material. And this selective
process is best carried out on the basis of comparison of possi-
ble subject matter with the objectives which have been set up
for the course, plus a consideration of the age of learners avail-
able, time schedules, and other pertinent data.

For instance, the course in carpentry may be designed for
a ninth-grade group of students, to occupy one semester. The
objectives for the work would first be determined, as would
also the time allotments and prerequisites for the work. The
second step would be to analyze the content of home building
and repair as an occupation, or to locate such an analysis al-
ready made. The third step would be to select frO7ti this anal-
ysis those items 'which ivill prove most valuable in attaining
the objectives under prevailing conditions.

It will readily be seen in this case, by referring to the analy-
sis presented, that only a limited number of the trade processes
could be put into practice in a one-semester course with prob-
ably one ninety-minute period per day allowed for the work.
But that fact would not eliminate the value of surveying the
entire field for the most practicable units of subject matter.
And it would not eliminate the seriousness of the problem of
just how to determine which items in the analysis are valuable
and which are not.

This survey or analysis method serves just as well for types
of work for which trade practices are less definitely deter-
mined. In the field of household mechanics covering "handy-
man" activities, for example, the problem of selecting subject
matter has been approached successfully through the survey
method. Such a survey was made by Steidtmann and Scott, 1 in
New Orleans, in which a large number of questionnaires were
sent to home owners for determining jobs that need attention

1 Steidtmann, C. E., and Scott, Arthur J., "What Shall We Teach in
Household Mechanics," Industrial Education Magazine, Vol. XXVI, p. 192.

276 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

in and about the home. From all the jobs mentioned in the
returns, a frequency rating was made, and jobs were accepted
or rejected for the proposed course on the basis of serving
the objectives to be attained.

The examination of subject matter from the standpoint of
its value with reference to objectives or goals would probably
eliminate much of the meaningless and traditional, not only
in industrial arts, but throughout the entire curriculum in pub-
lic schools.

This third step in selecting and accepting subject matter for
manipulative work still leaves the material unorganized so far
as its presentation to the class is concerned. The organization
of subject matter into instructional order falls under the next
step, which is formulating courses of study. This step will be
treated in the next chapter.

In fhe Elementary School

While no attempt is made in this book to treat compre-
hensively the work of the grades below the seventh, a brief
discussion of subject matter for elementary schools may be
helpful.

In the organization of industrial-arts activities in the grades
below the seventh, formal work with tools and materials is
less and less favored. The woodworking program that once
was common has given way to a large extent to other types of
activity, with less demand for skill in the doing and more di-
rect relationship to the study program of the classroom and
to the life of the child. This means also that the special teacher
of shopwork is less used in these grades, and that the activity
carried on comes under the direct management and supervision
of the regular classroom teacher. Special teachers are prone to
feel that this is a lowering of standards of work, and probably
a means for developing poor habits in tool manipulation. In
many schools special rooms are used for the industrial-arts

SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER 277

activities; but in modern settings these activities are not con-
fined to formalized work. The equipment of such rooms may
include a variety of possibilities.

An examination of the three aims given indicates that the
formal aim of learning fundamental mechanical processes is
not included.

The suggestion made previously of going to industry for
detailed subject matter holds good to a great extent for much
of the industrial arts in the elementary school. And the sug-
gestion that subject matter be tested with reference to objec-
tives applies equally well.

A Typical Activity for Elementary Schools

As an example, in turning to the consideration of shelter as
a study for the sixth grade, the source of subject matter would
naturally be past and present practices and materials involved
in constructing dwellings. If the history and development of
human dwellings were to be considered as well as the modern
dwelling, sources of material giving accurate information
about dwellings of people throughout history would be lo-
cated and drawn upon. If the first objective listed above is
given preference, it is likely, however, that the historic phase
of the human dwelling would be considered to some extent in
earlier grades, and it might be well for the sixth grade to con-
fine its program to the modern dwelling.

As sources of subject matter for such a project the follow-
ing suggestions from the practical field present themselves:

1 . Materials used in building homes in the local community,
in the state, in America. This would include a great variety.
The teacher must necessarily make an analysis of possibilities,
select the suitable subject matter in view of the objectives,
and finally put these details of subject matter into a useful and
orderly organization for teaching procedure. This would in-
clude both the facts and sources of information regarding

278 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

such materials, and the possibility of making collections and
visiting stores of the materials.

2. Types of 'work represented in home building. At this
point an investigation would be in order regarding the various
kinds of workers that contribute to the building of homes.
This would include the manufacture and shaping of building
materials, the designer, and the workmen on the job. Even a
superficial study of this phase of the problem will reveal the
possibilities for selecting worth-while subject matter from this
division of the field.

3. The location of the home. An investigation into condi-
tions that have to do with desirability of location for one's
home will reveal many interesting facts. Reasons for differ-
ences in cost of building sites furnish an interesting possibility
for developing facts that children can easily appreciate.

4. The design of the home. From a large body of existing
details presented by an analysis of this phase of home build-
ing, a few fundamental ones could be selected for the consid-
eration of a sixth-grade class. It is the teacher's task to analyze
the problem and select those items which will be most val-
uable.

5. The famishing of the home. Here also an analysis of
practical life problems would furnish the suggestions for
worth-while items of subject matter for final choice.

It is obvious that from these five divisions more material
suggests itself than could possibly be covered in a semester or
a year. But having made the analysis or survey thoroughly,
the teacher is in much better position for selecting those items
which are most worth while than if the project is allowed to
"develop'* as the work progresses.

This method of approach for discovering subject matter
should apply equally well whether the study be regarding
foods, clothing, shelter, utensils, records for transmitting ex-
periences, or tools and machines, in a plan for organizing in-

SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER 279

dustrial arts in the elementary school upon the basis of use of
material and material products.

In the Junior High School

The organization of the junior high school has brought with
it a rapid increase in the variety of subjects and subject matter
for manipulative work. Where a grammar school has existed
previously, with woodwork as the only shopwork activity, the
establishment of a junior high school means at once five or six
different shop subjects or even more. This increase in variety
has brought with it shorter time periods for any one subject,
and, probably because of this fact, more concentration upon
essentials.

There is now a fairly uniform group of subjects accepted
for short, unit courses in the large junior high school. In this
group would probably come: (1) woodwork, (2) electrical
work, (3) drawing, (4) metalwork, (5) printing.

The home-mechanics course has received a place in many
schools which already have the unit-shop system. This is ap-
parently done with the conviction that there is a sufficient
number of technical items of value which are untouched by
the unit subjects. Cement work as a separate subject exists in
some places, although the more common practice seems to be
to make it a part of the general-mechanics or home-mechanics
course where such a course is in operation. The handcraft or
handicraft program has become popular as an industrial-arts
activity, although not as common as the five subjects listed.
Phases of aviation education are being stressed for all levels of
education, including the industrial-arts program. Photography
should be made available in both junior and senior high
schools, and the field of plastics is a valuable source for in-
dustrial arts activity.

Just what detailed items of subject matter should be in-
cluded in each of these courses has not been uniformly deter-

280 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

mined. Probably it never can be or should be. An analysis
of 223 courses of study in industrial arts reported by Bruner 2
and others indicates that while the variation is not so great in
courses offered in industrial arts, there is great differentiation
in subject matter and detailed content within the courses. In
general metal work for junior high schools, 27 courses were
analyzed. These courses furnished a combined listing of 50
operations or teaching topics. Only 5 of the 50 topics ap-
peared in more than 8 of the courses analyzed. In woodwork
for senior high schools, 25 courses of study were surveyed
presenting 59 different processes or topics. Only two of the
59 topics had a frequency higher than 7 in the tabulation.

A set of suggested teaching units under the headings of (1)
"what a student should be able to do," and (2) "what a stu-
dent should know," for most of the customary subjects of-
fered in junior and senior high schools, has been furnished by
a committee of the American Vocational Association. 3 This
publication was based on comprehensive surveys of opinions
of teachers and supervisors.

For the process of obtaining subject matter for any of the
courses in the junior high school, the method of analyzing
crafts and industry is again basic. Particularly where the ex-
ploratory value is stressed, it is important that the subject
should contain the true elements of the vocation represented.
A satisfactory selection can hardly be made except on the
basis of such analysis.

To be sure, other elements enter. Play and recreational life
may be represented; but, if so, an industry or craft usually
stands back of it. All things that may be constructed can be
traced in this way. Care should be taken, however, when se-

2 Bruner, Herbert B M and others, What Our Schools Are Teaching, Bu-
reau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York.

3 Standards of Attainment in Industrial Arts, American Vocational Asso-
ciation, Washington, D.C.

SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER 281

lecting and organizing subject matter, to keep in mind student
interest and nonvocational use rather than skills and finished
product.

Subject Matter in the Senior High School

Shopwork in the senior high school based upon the voca-
tional objective should be and usually is organized upon the
basis of trade analysis. The process is the same as that de-
scribed previously in this chapter. The selection takes place
with the objective in view, and for this reason the items of
subject matter would be different in vocational automobile
work from a ten-week course in the junior high school, or a
semester course in industrial arts in the senior high school.

Where the technical objective is the outstanding one, the
job is to find out if possible what body of facts and detailed
skills the field of work or future study represents, and then to
proceed to select from the total those items that lend them-
selves to the possibilities of the school shop.

Any other objective or set of objectives would be met in
the same way.

In the Rural School

In the small rural school the subject matter for the activity
program may be drawn from the life and activity of the com-
munity. The needs of the children and the home would be
considered. Every small rural school should have a tool equip-
ment for informal mechanical work, and for working out
projects in correlation with general subjects. Needless to say,
the activity should not be confined to formal tool operations.
Girls and boys alike should be given a chance to have experi-
ence in certain types of mechanical and construction work.
Technique, while desirable, should not be stressed above a
variety of experience.

282 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

Evaluating Sub/ecf Matter

It has been suggested repeatedly that evaluating subject mat-
ter in the light of objectives will establish its value to the
course. A concrete way of carrying out such an evaluation
is shown in the accompanying diagram. Fig. 18. For conveni-
ence, the ten objectives listed in Chapter XI are used, and it
will be noticed that the chart is made up for evaluating the
work of the junior high school. The form can, however, be
used equally well for senior-high-school work, either by ac-
cepting the objectives stated or by substituting others. Addi-
tional or a totally different set of subjects may be used in the
rating process.

When the chart is used it may be assumed that ten points
under any objective would be a perfect score. Thus if a sub-
ject were to receive ten points under each objective it would
score one hundred points in the right-hand column. A perfect
rating would probably not be given to any subject even by its
most ardent advocates. Each subject listed, and those that
might be added, would rate differently. The total rating at
the right would, however, be significant because, if the total
were too low, the particular type of work might well be re-
placed by another that would show a larger total of points.

The totals of the vertical columns, on the other hand, would
tend to show relative value of the objectives used. If the con-
sensus of a large number of persons using this sheet would
indicate a low total for some of the objectives for all subjects,
one might conclude that such objectives should receive less
stress than those receiving a high rating.

PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS

1. Are there situations in which industry and real life are not
reliable sources for furnishing subject matter for the school shop?

2. To what extent should the cost of the installation be taken
into consideration when planning to introduce new subjects?

SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER

283

CHART SHOWING
EVALUATION OF INDUSTRIAL-ARTS SUBJECTS'
FOR THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Self-
discovery

Self-
expression

Understanding
of industry

Appreciation
of design

Using products
and services

Handy-man
abilities

Reading
drawings

Work habits

Future
education

>m

P **
0>H

*

CO.CS

Totals

Woodwork

Drawing

Printing

Bench Metal

Aircraft

Electricity

Radio

Craftwork

General Metal

Home Mechanics

Total

FIG. 18. Chart for Use in Evaluating Subjects under Various Goals.

284 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

3. To what extent do you consider it logical to use leisuretime
interests of people as a source for teaching content in industrial
arts?

4. Make a list of activities that industrial-arts teachers may
carry on in order to keep their teaching content up to date.

5. To what extent should occupational-training content be
considered for industrial-arts courses?

6. Name some shop activities that do not represent a suffi-
ciently broad field to justify themselves in the school curriculum.

7. What subject matter would fit into a program stressing
self -activity in the elementary school?

8. What might be done to reduce the expense of materials in
an industrial-arts course?

9. Name some subjects for which materials would be too
expensive.

10. To what extent would you insist that an industry repre-
sented in school should be important in the community?

11. Are there any inherent dangers in a rapid expansion of
subjects in the shopwork program in the schools? If so, what?

12. If a survey of home-mechanics activities of parents were
made, to what extent would you consider it valuable in furnish-
ing subject matter for a home-mechanics course?

13. How can one justify the practice of going to industry for
subject matter for industrial arts when it is conceded that indus-
trial arts does not train for employment efficiency?

14. Make a list of twenty-five instructional units or operations
that would be suitable to rural schools.

REFERENCES

1. Bowman, Clyde A., "Graphic Aids in Continuous Occu-
pation Analysis," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education,
30:122-6, March, 1941.

2. Bruner, Herbert B., and Others, What Our Schools Are
Teaching, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College,
Columbia University, New York, 1941, Chap. V.

3. Caswell, William Earnest, "What Units Shall We Offer in
Industrial Arts?" Industrial Education Magazine, 39:123-7,
May, 1937.

4. Davis, Ed., "Trends in Methods, Organization, and Selection

SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER 285

of Subject Matter for the General Shop," Industrial Edu-
cation Magazine, 39:25-30, January, 1937.

5. Dell, Elwyn R., "Outline for Course on Care and Repair of
Tractors, Trucks, Automobiles, and Gas and Diesel Engines,"
Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 30:116-7, March,
1941.

6. Dunham, Arthur, "Modern Plastics," Industrial Arts and
Vocational Education, 30:7-9, January, 1941.

7. Fryklund, Verne G, Trade and Job Analysis, The Bruce
Publishing Co., 1924, Chaps. 6, 7, and 8.

8. Goppert, Harold R., "Analysis of Radio-Serviceman's
Trade," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 30: 112-15,
March, 1941.

9. Hambrook, Robert Wm., "Aviation Education and American
Youth," Industrial Education Magazine, 41:176-9, Septem-
ber, 1939.

10. Hoffman, Floyd Henry, "The Teaching of Units of Inte-
grated Industrial Arts Activities," Industrial Education Mag-
azine, 41:188-93, September, 1939.

11. Kirk, Harold H., "Arts and Crafts in Modern Living," In-
dustrial Arts and Vocational Education, 31:430-1, December,
1942.

12. Newkirk, Louis V., Integrated Handwork for Elementary
Schools. Silver, Burdett and Co., 1940.

13. Swope, Ammon, "Contemporary Life Interests of Boys as a
Basis for the Industrial Arts Curriculum," Industrial Educa-
tion Alagazine, 38:197-201, September, 1936.

Chapter XIII
MAKING COURSES OF STUDY

The Course of Study

A course of study is a presentation of teaching material or-
ganized and arranged for instructional use. In its simplest
form, it may consist of a mere outline of topics to be covered
or processes to be performed. In more complete form, it will
include additional features for the purpose of assisting the
teacher in the presentation of the subject matter. A course of
study should be differentiated from a curriculum, in that the
former refers to material covering a single subject for a defi-
nite grade or time limit, while a curriculum covers many sub-
jects extended over a longer period of time. A course of study
would be produced for eighth grade electricity. The indus-
trial-arts curriculum would contain not only all electrical
courses offered in the school system, but all courses in the field
of industrial arts, such as woodwork, drawing, metalwork,
printing, etc.

Procedure in Organizing Course

Much of the basic procedure and material entering into the
making of a course of study has been discussed in previous
chapters. Traced through its various stages, the making of a
course of study involves the following processes:

1 . Determine upon objectives or goals for the activity con-
templated. This would involve consideration of age, previous
experience, special emphasis upon desired values such as ex-
ploratory, home mechanics, vocational, etc. The objectives
must be clear-cut in order to function as a basis for course
making.

2. Make or obtain a complete analysis of possible operations

286

MAKING COURSES OF STUDY 287

or jobs. The procedure for this has been indicated in Chapter
XII. The extent of the listing of possibilities here will of
course depend upon the scope of work involved under the
stated objectives or goals. Such analysis should contain both
operations and information units.

3. From the total of this listing, select those items that ap-
pear to be feasible for the course being planned. At this point,
length of time, ability of students, equipment available, and
similar factors must be considered. This list will now contain
the teaching units to go into the course of study.

4. Organize the selected material into a course of study.
Possibilities and procedures in formulating courses of study
are discussed in the remaining part of this chapter.

Who Should Make the Course?

If the instructor is working under a supervisor, it is logical
to look to that supervisor for initiative in organizing and fur-
nishing courses of study. This is obviously a part of his re-
sponsibility. But even though the modern supervisor accepts
this responsibility, he is not likely to attempt to make out
courses single-handed for all the subjects. The attempt of
supervisors to make detailed courses, and to force them upon
their teachers, has probably made a large contribution to the
lack of confidence that some teachers have shown toward the
supervisor's work. Under a skillful supervisor the making of
the course of study will eventually come as a contribution by
the teachers, rather than as a document presented by the su-
pervisor.

When in addition to this the fact is considered that perhaps
the larger number of instructors in the field of industrial edu-
cation are working without expert supervision, the necessity
of some acquaintance with the technique of organizing courses
of study is apparent. No modern teacher will presume to start
a year's work without having at hand some type of course of

288 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

study, whether he works under a supervisor or not. Even in
larger school systems, detailed courses are not always fur-
nished, and it is left to the individual teacher to exercise his
ability to organize his own work.

Basic Approaches

The approach to the organization of subject matter into a
course of study may be made from several angles. The fol-
lowing will indicate some possibilities:

Sequence of Too/ Processes

This is an old, established form of approach used tradition-
ally in shopwork instruction. The Russian system of teaching
mechanical work was based upon a sequence of tool processes.
While modern pedagogy has discredited the theory of basing
shopwork progress on a series of practice exercises which often
were the result of this approach, there are still possibilities of
high order in the use of exercises. It is still used effectively in
trade training. Neither can it be said to be obsolete for the
industrial-arts program, although it can by no means be con-
sidered the only logical viewpoint. In either case, while ma-
nipulative processes are used as the basis, "sequence" is
receiving a new interpretation, and is made less rigid.

Sequence of Articles to Be Made

The Sloyd system, which influenced greatly the introduc-
tion of manual training into the schools of this country, was
based upon this approach. Consideration was given to the
learning difficulties in the selection of the "models," and "se-
quence" was stressed as ardently here as when stressing ma-
nipulative processes. Approaching a course through articles
to be made has the virtue of attracting the interest of the stu-
dents. It does not mean that other viewpoints must be for-
gotten. After all, the great and abiding question on the

MAKING COURSES OF STUDY 289

of adolescent students is "What can we make?" One of the
goals listed in Chapter XI has to do with the desire of youth
to make and do things.

Order of Facts to Be Learned

As a result of the broadened conception of the scope of the
industrial-arts program, particularly in the elementary school,
the approach through articles to be made has given way to
that of "information" or facts to be learned. Where formerly,
even in the lower grades, the manipulative work centered
around the making of a box or a booklet or weaving a rug
or, in the upper elementary grades, with making a birdhouse
or a toythis new conception may bring about the making of
a box as a result of the study of foods and their manufacture
and storage; a booklet, as a desirable illustration of the story
of how the race provides itself with records; a rug, as illustrat-
ing the work of thousands of people engaged in the weaving
industry, or of the homecraft of an Indian tribe; or, in the
upper grades, the construction of birdhouses, as a natural out-
come of the study of birds and their habits.

On the junior- and senior-high-school level also, this ap-
proach may deserve consideration. Desirable facts to be
learned, technical information as well as related and supple-
mental information, are thus listed as the items of basic im-
portance, and the manipulative activities that will illuminate
and apply to these items of information are selected as parallel
considerations. Such subjects as radio and basic automotive
work lend themselves to this approach. In any course in shop-
work the actual handwork must, of course, be given attention,
even though it is considered from the angle of its application
to the facts to be learned.

Student Interest
Interest as a factor in the educative process has been empha-

290 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

sized to the point that it has been given first consideration in
organizing teaching material into courses of study. Or it might
be nearer the truth to say that it has been emphasized to the
exclusion of a tangible course of study. Under the cover of
real or pretended zeal in approaching the subject of shop work
through the avenue of student interest, much wrong has been
committed against youth and sane teaching procedures. At
its maximum potential, this approach would lead to the con-
clusion that students should make what they wish, and, hence,
what would be the use of a course of study?

There is, however, a saner viewpoint possible in considering
student interest. Manual-arts work when introduced into the
various schools was heralded as a means for self-expression,
and for breaking down formalism. But in many settings this
new type of work became fully as formal as any academic
subject, and failed to "vitalize" the student and stimulate his
interest.

While the shifting interests of students may be dangerous
as the controlling factor in selecting and organizing subject
matter, it nevertheless is true that subject matter should be
tested by the measuring rod of student interest, and if there is
no chance that it is or can become interesting this fact alone
should suggest its reorganization.

Future Usefulness

For the general home-mechanics shop, particularly, surveys
have been made in order to determine the frequency of future
demands upon proposed skills. The frequency of the recur-
rence of repair jobs and other home services in a large number
of homes over a year's period may be used as the determining
factor in arranging jobs in the course of study. These jobs
may then be divided into compulsory and elective types, ac-
cording to their supposed usefulness. This method of ap-
proach, of course, conflicts with sequence in manipulative

MAKING COURSES OF STUDY 291

work, and in most shops that would probably be considered a
serious matter. In household mechanics this objection would
probably not be marked.

Types of Course Organization

From the viewpoint of final organization of material, courses
of study may be divided into two types: ( 1 ) the abbreviated
or skeleton-outline form, and (2) the detailed or compre-
hensive type. Between the extremes of these types there are
many variations, and many courses of study would probably
be difficult to classify under either of the two.

The Abbreviated Course

The abbreviated type of course or skeleton course outline
is the type often received by the teacher from the supervisor
or the administration. This outline usually contains ( 1 ) a list-
ing of the major operations that the class should perform, (2)
the units of related and technical knowledge that should be
taught. It may or may not suggest a series of articles that will
serve best in the process of acquiring the techniques and
knowledge specified. The subject to be taught, the grade level,
and the time allotted, will also be stated. This type of course
is helpful in that it gives a degree of uniformity to the major
areas of subject matter in systems where many teachers are
employed. It gives the instructor a great deal of freedom in
using his own teaching methods and in selection of projects or
articles to be made.

This type of course outline is based upon the legitimate as-
sumption that teachers can and will employ suitable techniques
for giving the instruction implied; and that they will have suf-
ficient skill, imagination, and experience to supply the detail
which is lacking. An example of a refined form of this type
of material is shown in the accompanying general metal course
from the Los Angeles City Schools, under the guidance of

292 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

Claude E. Nihart, Head Supervisor, Vocational and Practical
Arts. 1

B-8 EXPLORATORY GENERAL METAL

The B-8 Exploratory course in general metal provides an
introduction to the various occupations in the metalworking
field, with opportunity for the pupils to use tools and materials
typical of the trades represented. A reasonable degree of skill
and accuracy is expected. A demonstration by the instructor
will suffice in the more hazardous work such as metal casting
and welding.

J-I 10 weeks

Things a Boy Should Be Able to Do

SHEET METAL

1. Scribe around a templet using a scratch awl.

2. Cut sheet metal with the squaring shears.

3. Cut tin with combination tinners snips.

4. Adjust and use the bar folder for single folding and double
hemming.

5. Use the cornice brake for bending sheet metal.

6. Adjust and use the forming rolls for cylindrical forming.

7. Lay out circles with dividers.

8. Use a mallet for straightening, shaping, and seaming.

9. Make a grooved seam, using a hand groover.
10. Solder bright tin.

BENCH METAL

1. Lay out work from templets and drawings.

2. Insert blade and use hack saw for cutting metal stock.

3. Lay out, center-punch, and drill holes in metal.

4. Use files for filing metal to a line and truing up surfaces.

5. Clean files with file card and brush.

6. Use emery cloth for finishing metal surfaces.

7. Assemble bench-metal projects by riveting.

8. Set up and use the drill press for drilling holes.

9. Sharpen hand tools on the grinder.

1 Junior High School Industrial Arts Curriculum Book for General
Metal. Los Angeles City Schools. 1944.

MAKING COURSES OF STUDY 293

ART METAL

1. Hammer-mark metal.

2. Anneal and straighten hammer-marked metal.

3. Shape metal by raising.

4. Rivet art-metal joints.

5. Clean metal in acid solutions.

6. Color copper with chemicals.

7. Preserve metal finishes with lacquer.

FORGING AND HEAT-TREATING

1. Heat metal in a forge.

2. Forge a simple tool.

3. Harden and temper a simple tool.

WELDING ( Ox Y- ACETYLENE)

A demonstration of brazing and welding should be performed by
the instructor, followed by a discussion of the gasses used,
adjustments of regulators and torch, and safety precautions
exercised when welding.

METAL CASTING

1. Temper mounding sand.

2. Set a single pattern, fill and ram the flask.

3. Manipulate the cope and drag.

4. Place sprue, gates, risers, and overflow basins.

5. Rap and draw the pattern from the sand.

6. Use the different tools and swab in facing mold.

7. Trim a casting.

Note: The operation of the furnace and the pouring of the
molten metal into the mold is the responsibility of the in-
structor.

Things a Boy Should Know

1. The names of common hand tools and machines used in the
shop.

2. How to read a working drawing.

3. The economic use of materials to prevent waste.

4. The composition of solder.

294 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

5. The contents and purposes of soldering flux and cleaning
solutions.

6. The difference between bright tin and galvanized iron.

7. How to read a steel rule to -fa inch.

8. The names and characteristics of iron, steel, copper, brass,
and aluminum.

9. Names and use of common files.

10. Proper hack-saw blades to use for various jobs.

11. Correct lubricants for use on different jobs.

12. The designation of sizes of drills.

13. Correct adjustment of guards and tool rest on the grinder.

14. How to hold material when grinding.

15. How to grind tools without drawing the temper.

16. How to select proper forging tongs.

17. The effect of chemicals when cleaning and coloring metal.

18. The correct forging temperatures.

19. The sequence of heat colors for tempering.

20. The reason for pattern draft.

21. The functions of vents, gates, risers, and overflow basins.

22. Something about the history and the development of metal-
working trades and industries.

Project Suggestions

1. Biscuit cutter.

2. Scoop.

3. Tin cup.

4. Garden trowel.

5. Hammer.

6. Ladle.

7. Soldering copper.

8. Identification tag of aluminum.

9. Letter opener.

10. Ash tray.

11. Scriber.

12. Center punch.

13. Small cold chisel.

14. Cast ash tray.

15. Cast paper weight.

16. Cast fishing sinker.

MAKING COURSES OF STUDY 295

Introductory material in the curriculum book includes a
listing of objectives, a list of statements under "Our Point of
View"; a list of characteristics of industrial arts, and another,
depicting vocational education, and also the following general
statements for all courses in general metal:

JUNIOR-HIGH-SCHOOL GENERAL METAL

General metal work on the junior-high-school level includes
exploratory experiences in sheet metal, bench metal, art metal,
forging and heat treating, metal casting, machine-shop practice,
and welding.

The learning units listed under the heading of Things a Boy
Should Be Able to Do, so far as feasible, are to be incorporated
in projects that are rich in boy interest and appeal. However,
pseudo jobs and exercises may be used for practice immediately
before the processes are to be employed in a project. It must be
borne in mind that these units are not to be taught as separate
and unrelated things. It may not be possible on certain grade
levels for every boy to incorporate all the units into projects.
Nevertheless, it is the responsibility of the teacher to give demon-
strations covering the entire sequence of units included in the
course.

An understanding of learning units under the heading, Things
a Boy Should Know, enables the student to work intelligently
and to solve his own problems as applied to practical situations.

Students are not required to make the projects listed in the
course outline. These are merely suggestions of things to make
of a suitable degree of difficulty for the grade level on which
they appear. There are hundreds of other articles which the
wide-awake boy may want to make. The whole program is
flexible and is not organized around a fixed set of projects. It is
the responsibility of the industrial-arts teacher to keep his pro-
gram vital and meaningful in the life of the students, the school,
and the community.

DEVELOPMENT OF DESIRABLE TRAITS AND HABITS
IN TERMS OF GOOD CITIZENSHIP

1. Cooperation:

Works well with others as a part of a production group.

296 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

Has a good word for his instructor and fellow pupils.
Is willing to do his share in keeping the shop clean and
orderly.

2. Dependability:

Is straightforward in speech and action.
Is punctual arrives on time keeps appointments.
Is truthful and accurate in all statements.
Carries a job through to completion.

3. Resourcefulness:

Meets and overcomes obstacles.
Adjusts himself to new conditions and methods.
Plans work independently when necessary.
Can solve many of his own problems.

4. Economy of Time and Materials:

Gives constant attention to his work.

Is not easily distracted.

Is economical in the use of material.

5. Craftsmanship:

Appreciates the craftsmanship of others.
Takes joy and pride in doing a first-class piece of work.
Is accurate, neat, and orderly in all his craftwork.
Is continually trying to improve his craft skill.

The Comprehensive Course

Whenever greater uniformity of teaching procedure is
wanted or where it is desirable to assist instructors in suggest-
ing teaching methods, references, etc., or where the teacher
may wish to use the course as a teaching outline, the more de-
tailed course of study becomes valuable. A page from a course
of study in home mechanics is shown as an illustration of this
type of organization. See Fig. 19.

A complete course organized in this form will save a teacher
a great deal of time in planning his work and in locating ref-
erence material for it. A caution should be given, however,
against the tendency to accept such a course as final and fol-

MAKING COURSES OF STUDY

297

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298 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

low it year after year without variation, to the extent that the
material becomes stale and the teaching procedure perfunc-
tory.

Lesson Planning Needed

Regardless of the type of course of study used, it will be
necessary for the teacher to break down the items listed into
small teaching units and plan each of these units separately
for presentation to the class. And in these presentations he can
use an endless variety of techniques and aids to keep the sub-
ject fresh and alive. The course of study may be the same,
but the projects, the approach, the point of contact, and the
visual and other teaching aids need not be the same. Lesson
planning was discussed in detail in Chapter II.

PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS

1. To what extent do you feel that the job-analysis method
should determine the selection of material for the industrial-arts
shop?

2. Do you consider that "progressive-education" philosophy
minimizes the needs for a definite course of study? Explain.

3. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages in approaching the
course of study from the standpoint of immediate needs.

4. What is the best general approach for making out a course
of study for junior high schools?

5. Discuss this question also for senior high schools.

6. If the teacher has had extensive, practical experience, should
he depend upon that experience as a source for teaching content
as the work progresses rather than make a definite course of
study?

7. To what extent, if any, should pupils participate in making
up the course of study?

8. By what means may a teacher keep his course of study from
becoming static?

9. Is there danger in having a course of study worked out in
too great detail? If so, what is that danger?

10. In what respect would the teacher's previous training and

MAKING COURSES OF STUDY 299

experience determine the type of course of study that he would
need?

11. How often do you think a course of study in industrial arts
should be revised?

12. Can you recall having seen a teacher do excellent work
from all angles without the use of a course of study?

13. To what extent do you feel that "boy interest" should
determine content of courses of study?

14. In what form may course-of-study material best be kept for
easy revision from time to time?

15. What are some of the values in making groups of teachers
participate in producing courses of study?

REFERENCES

1. Bedell, Earl L., and Fryklund, Verne C, "Course of Study
Construction in Industrial Education," Industrial Arts and
Vocational Education, 28:261-3, September, 1939.

2. Behrens, R. H., "Photography in the High School," Indus-
trial Arts and Vocational Education, 30: 117-19, March, 1941.

3. Bricker, Arthur D., "The Development of a Program for
Industrial Arts," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education,
33:107-13, March, 1944.

4. Crowe, James W., "Ninth-Grade Shopwork: What Shall It
Be?" Industrial Education Magazine, 41:23-31, January, 1939.

5. Draper, Edgar M., Principles and Techniques of Curriculum
Making, D. Appleton-Century Co., 1938.

6. Emmett, J. A., "Boatbuilding as an Industrial-Arts Course,"
Industrial Arts and Vocational Education" 33:187-8, May,
1944.

7. Ericson, Emanuel E., "New Objectives in Architectural
Drawing," Industrial Education Magazine, 39:148-9, May,
1937.

8. Fales, Roy G., "Industrial-Arts Teaching Content," Indus-
trial Education Magazine, 36:185-91, September, 1934.

9. Fryklund, Verne C., Trade and Job Analysis, The Bruce
Publishing Co., 1942, Chap. 11.

10. Groneman, Chris H., "Teaching Materials for Industrial
Education," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 32:15-
18, January, 1943; 55-7, February, 1943; 244-7, June, 1943.

300 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

11. Grove, Joseph G., "Industrial Arts in Curriculum Revision,"
Industrial Education Magazine, 37:205-7, September, 1935.

12. Hargitt, George Harold, "Home Planning An Important
Industrial-Arts Subject," Industrial Education Magazine, 39:
260-5, November, 1937.

13. Harris, F. H., "An Industrial-Arts Course for Girls," Indus-
trial Arts and Vocational Education, 30:43-4, February, 1941.

14. Johnson, William H., and Newkirk, Louis V., "Crafts in the
School and Home," Industrial Arts and Vocational Educa-
tion, 32:399-401, December, 1943.

15. Johnson, Wm. V., "Industrial Arts in a Small High School,"
Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 33:88-9, March,
1944.

16. Lush, Clifford Keith, "Techniques for Selection of the
Course Content in Home Mechanics," Industrial Educational
Magazine, 41:71-5, March, 1939.

17. Meating, A. G., "A Practical Curriculum Enrichment," In-
dustrial Arts and Vocational Education, 33:406, December,
1944.

18. Newkirk, Louis V., "The Home Mechanics Laboratory in
the Chicago Public Schools, Education, 65:606-8, June, 1945.

19. Nihart, Claude E., "Trends in Industrial Arts Education in
California," Industrial Education Magazine, 41:89-93, March,
1939.

20. Petraglia, Frank, "Course of Study in Radio Communica-
tions," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 31:106-9,
March, 1942.

21. Rasche, William F., "The Industrial- Arts Curriculum in a
New Social Order," Industrial Arts and Vocational Educa-
tion, 29:135-9, April, 1940.

22. Schmidt, Leonard E., "First Year Hand Composition," In-
dustrial Arts and Vocational Education, 31:113-15, March,
1942.

23. Spears, Harold, Experience in Building a Curriculum, Mac-
millan Co., 1937.

24. Waltrip, Gerald L., "Outline for Instruction for Industrial-
Arts Metalwork," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education,
31:116-17, March, 1942.

25. Williams, Amos G., "Building a General-Shop Curriculum,"

MAKING COURSES OF STUDY 301

Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 33:307-9, October,
1944.

26. Vance, C E., "Industrial Arts from the Viewpoint of the
Superintendent," Industrial Education Magazine, 37:57-63,
March, 1935.

27. Van Duzee, Roy R., "Industrial-Arts Offerings in the Small
High School," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education,
32:357-9, November, 1943.

28. Wynne, John P., The Teacher and the Curriculum, Prentice-
Hall, Inc., 1937, Chap. IX.

29. Yager, Sylvan A., "Selecting General-Shop Courses," Indus-
trial Arts and Vocational Education, 24:359-60, December,
1935.

Chapter XIV

PLANNING AND EQUIPPING THE
SCHOOL SHOP

The Evolution of the Modern School Shop

The evolution of physical facilities for present-day indus-
trial arts has gone hand in hand with the philosophy and in-
terpretation of industrial arts as an integral part of the program
of general education. From the time when a dark corner in
the basement was considered good enough for the shop class,
with a carpenter or janitor elevated to become the "instruc-
tor," to the present, when often the most centralized section
of the building is devoted to this work, with a professionally
trained teacher in charge, is a period full of progressive devel-
opment. If space permitted, various steps of advancement
could be analyzed and connections could be made between
these developments and the leaders who have brought them
about. The purpose of this chapter, however, is to present
conditions and suggestions pertaining to planning of modern
school shops, and to further improvement of those which al-
ready exist.

The Unit or Single-Activity Shop

The unit shop is the oldest existing type. Both Swedish
Sloyd and the Russian system started in single-activity shops.
This type of shop may be the only one existing in or at a
school, or it may be one of many shops in a school or school
plant. The single woodworking shop, rather well standardized
a generation ago, was this type of a shop.

The Saint Louis Manual Training School, which was estab-
lished in 1879, was an example of a plan where many unit

302

PLANNING AND EQUIPPING THE SHOP 303

shops are used. In that school were separate shops for wood-
work, machine shop, drafting, forging, etc. Nor has that type
of plan become obsolete, for nearly all large junior and senior
high schools now use individual shops, each teaching a single
subject, and those who are deviating from the practice do so
only up to a certain point.

Unit shops are defended by both teachers and supervisors
for various reasons, among which are the following: (1)
Teaching in a unit shop can be made more definite and pur-
poseful; (2) the efforts of students can be kept upon one
subject long enough for some degree of maturity to be ex-
perienced in regard to processes and materials belonging to
the subject; (3) students are not distracted by a variety of
work carried on by other members of the same class; and (4)
some degree of efficiency in handling tools and material in any
one subject is better than a superficial smattering or trial-and-
error experience in other types of shops or laboratories. Ex-
amples of unit shops commonly found in schools are
woodshop, electrical shop, print shop, drafting room, auto
shop, machine shop.

The General Shop

The general shop is the result of two forces. One of these
is the feeling that work in unit classes is too formal and con-
fined. The unit shop excludes the possibility for coordinating
various shop and craft activities into the production of one
completed article. The other concept which has brought about
the general shop is that, in small schools where only one or
two teachers and shops can be justified, it is not reasonable to
limit students to one or two craft activities. In class organiza-
tion the general shop differs from the unit shop in that the
class carries on a variety of work at one time, with the stu-
dents divided up into groups.

General shops may be classified into: (1) comprehensive

304 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

general shops, Fig. 20, and (2) limited general shops, depend-
ing upon the scope of work carried on. The comprehensive
general shops, as existing, may be put into three classifications:

1. The general home-mechanics shop. This is probably the
oldest of the general shops. It stresses, as the term indicates,
activities pertaining to care and maintenance of mechanical ap-
pliances and other physical facilities of the home, including
leisuretime pursuits. This type of organization implies that
instead of learning about electricity in the unit electric shop,
there will be a "work station" for electricity in the general
shop. At this station each student will be assigned certain
problems, and he may also have access to the work at will, par-
ticularly in more advanced classes. Variety of experiences
without stress on skill or accuracy will probably be the chief
characteristic of the work. See Fig. 21.

2. The general industrial-arts shop. This type will bear re-
semblance to the home-mechanics shop in many respects. But
instead of stressing home and "handy-man" activities, empha-
sis will be laid on occupational exploration, craft processes,
child interests, sports projects, mechanical drawing, etc., tend-
ing to lay a background for industrial employability and basic
technical work as well.

3. The laboratory of industries or industrial-arts labora-
tory. This type of comprehensive general shop differs from
the other two in that the program stresses industrial informa-
tion rather than craft experience. This program explores in-
dustry and industrial materials not so much from the
standpoint of craft operations as from industrial activity and the
mysteries surrounding industry. The student activity is justly
named laboratory work rather than shop or craft work. Such
a program may introduce a very large number of experiments,
including etching, electroplating, lithography, glass blowing,
silvering mirrors, etc., in addition to the more common opera-
tions in dealing with woods, metals, and finishes.

PLANNING AND EQUIPPING THE SHOP

305

I

306 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

The Limited General Shop

This type of shop may be said to fall between the compre-
hensive general shop and the unit shop so far as class organiza-
tion is concerned. It may combine the activities of two or
more unit shops as in the case of the general metal shop, Fig.
22, or it may generalize the content of a unit shop, as repre-
sented by the graphic-arts shop instead of the formal print
shop.

The general metal shop usually combines elements from the
machine shop, the sheet-metal shop, and the welding shop,
and sometimes the auto shop.

A graphic-arts shop would simply broaden out the activities
in printing and related matter to include linoleum-block cut-
ting, silk-screen work, drawing on mimeoscope and similar
work. General woodworking, general handcraft, general avi-
ation, and general drafting can be handled in a similar manner.

Planning the School Shop

Every teacher of shopwork needs to be acquainted with the
basic elements underlying good shop planning in order to take
advantage of opportunities that will come to him sooner or
later either to plan new shops or to remodel old ones. In the
case of planning shops and shop buildings, it is the teacher's
duty and privilege to assert himself regarding his needs. After
the building is done there are usually many complaints against
poor planning and lack of facilities. But often the persons
who complain have done very little to forestall the incon-
veniences. Architects who plan buildings will usually be glad
to obtain information and advice regarding special services,
and those who are to use those sendees should not be too timid
to express their wants. While not many definite specifications
can be made to cover all situations, an attempt will be made
in the remaining part of this chapter to present suggestions

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PLANNING AND EQUIPPING THE SHOP

307

308 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

that should be helpful to the less experienced in planning and
equipping the school shop.

Floor Space for School Shops

The most common error in planning shops is not to allow
enough floor space. This error appears to be more frequent
with teachers than with architects. It is not enough to draw
a floor plan of the shop and hope for the best. All contem-
plated equipment should be laid out to scale and cut from
cardboard and placed on the plan.

A good means for estimating floor space is calculating aver-
age floor area per pupil. Obviously, no agreement can be made
as to the required floor area for all shops. Conditions will
differ according to subject taught, age of students, objectives
of the work, and other factors. Nevertheless, knowledge of
practices is helpful.

A limited study made by the author covering shops and
shop buildings featured in various periodicals furnishes some
suggestions. The average of ten home-mechanics shops in
junior and senior high schools shows 44 ! /2 square feet per stu-
dent. Ten drafting rooms for junior high schools averaged
33 square feet per pupil, ranging from 44 square feet for the
largest to 24 square feet for the smallest. The average floor
area for nine auto-mechanics shops for high schools was 107
square feet, with an average shop floor area of 2,1 50 square feet.
The largest automotive shop had a floor area of 3,600 square
feet. Fourteen junior-high-school woodworking shops aver-
aged 56 l /4 square feet per pupil. For electrical work, seven
junior-high-school shops averaged 47 square feet, while for
the same subject in eight senior high schools, the average was
75 square feet. More recent planning would indicate a ten-
dency to increase shop sizes. It can well be considered that 50
square feet should be the minimum per pupil floor space for all

PLANNING AND EQUIPPING THE SHOP 309

shop activities, with the possible exceptions of drafting for
junior high schools.

Proportions of Floor Areas

The proportions of the floor area of the shop has consider-
able bearing on the teaching situation. In general, it is a mis-
take to plan a shop square or nearly square. The best
proportion is probably from three to five to two to four. A
smaller shop can well be twice as long as it is wide, while
when an area is up to 3,600 square feet or more, a little more
width may be used to prevent the room from becoming too
long. Since stockrooms, offices, etc., are usually located in one
end of the room, this reduces the active floor area as far as
length is concerned. A longer room is usually easier to plan
for a good, natural light, unless skylights are available.

Seating and Demonstration Areas

Areas for seating the class and for adequate space for dem-
onstrations should be kept in mind when planning. In some
cases, it is possible to have a combination classroom which is
shared by one or more other shops. Automotive shops and
machine shops lend themselves to such arrangements, since
the nature of the shopwork is such that demonstrations cannot
well be given in a standard location. In woodwork, electricity,
and for most beginning work in junior high schools, it is de-
sirable to have a place in the shop for the students to sit down.
Loose chairs may be used so that they can be removed if the
area is needed for large assembly or other jobs.

Tool and Supply Rooms

Whether a separate toolroom is needed will be determined
by local conditions and by the wishes of the instructor. Vari-
ous procedures for handling tools were discussed in Chapter
IV. For shops where heavy tools are used, such as auto me-

310 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

chanics and machine shop, the toolroom may be justified. In
many settings the floor space provided for the toolroom can
be used to better advantage for other purposes and the tool
cabinet can be employed with equal satisfaction.

Office or Desk Space

Whether the teacher wishes to use a separate office or have a
desk in the shop might be a matter of local preference. The
location of such a space should be kept in mind when plan-
ning. Quite often the teacher will wish to have an office that
can be closed up from the dust and traffic of the shop, and
that wish is probably justifiable. But the error usually made
is to make such an office so small that it is a worry rather than
a comfort when it is built. The size of an office, particularly
for a shop where some pieces of equipment are likely to be
taken care of, should not be less than 8 feet by 8 feet. The
office should be within easy reach of the shop.

A Check List for Shop Planning

The foregoing are only a few of the important points that
must be considered when planning shops. In order not to omit
important items a check sheet is highly desirable. The accom-
panying check list has been compiled over a period of years.
If this or a similar list is used seriously by a person who plans
shops or shop buildings, there will be fewer regrets after it is
too late to add features or make changes.

CHECK LIST FOR SHOP PLANNING

A listing of items to keep in mind when planning new shops or
remodeling old ones.

1. Funds available.

2. Types of subjects to be taught.

3. Age or grade levels of students.

4. General objectives for work to be taught.

5. Location of shop with reference to other rooms or buildings.

PLANNING AND EQUIPPING THE SHOP 311

6. Possible future additions.

7. Outside entries, access for deliveries.

8. Contour of land.

9. Building codes, local and state.

10. Architectural style prescribed.

11. Safety precautions, state requirements.

12. Per-pupil floor space.

13. Proportion of floor area.

14. Types of floor.

15. Location and sizes of doors.

16. Height of ceiling.

17. Possibilities for future rearrangement and use.

18. Sizes of windows, legal requirements.

19. Windows set close to ceiling.

20. Direction of windows.

21. Scientific artificial lighting.

22. Provision for tools.

23. Adequate locker space.

24. Blackboard space.

25. Bulletin boards.

26. Acoustical treatment if concrete buildings.

27. Washroom facilities.

28. Locker space for each student.

29. Adequate heating and ventilation.

30. Provision for seating class.

31. Provisions for picture projection.

32. Office or desk space.

33. Stockrooms.

34. Electric outlets, for machines and service connections.

35. Library or "browsing table."

36. Master switch for machines.

37. Space for planning and drawing.

38. Space for storing projects.

39. Space for exhibits.

40. Sizes of equipment to be used.

41. Finishing rooms.

42. Room for enough "work stations."

43. Exhaust and ventilating systems.

44. Systems of locks and master keys.

45. Running water in shops.

312 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

46. Compressed air connections.

47. Gas outlets and services.

48. Color scheme for interior.

49. Blinds or shades for windows.

Surveying Equipment Needs

Before tools and equipment are determined upon for a shop,
it is obviously the duty of the person who will select them to
acquaint himself with conditions in other schools or shops
presenting similar programs. Yet it often happens that, with a
feeling of superiority, or without thinking, the instructor sits
down in his own office or shop and writes out from memory
or imagination what he considers a suitable list.

Probably no school could be found that would serve as a
complete example for any other school, but the instructor who
lacks the forethought to investigate not only what has been
purchased elsewhere, but how that which has been purchased
has served its purpose, is likely to cause himself embarrassment
at some later time. Boards of education that contemplate the
building and equipping of shops can often be persuaded to
send a representative to visit modern plants. Such a visit can
be promoted by instructors and supervisors if they themselves
see in them important possibilities for supplementing their own
knowledge. Accumulated information of this type will be
immensely valuable in avoiding errors made by others, and as
a factor in determining upon the desirable items of equipment
to be ordered, provided that there is no undue tendency
merely to copy or surpass other schools or school systems.

Satisfying Objectives

The objectives or the purposes underlying the organization
of a course have been referred to repeatedly as guiding princi-
ples in further procedure. This is especially true when select-
ing equipment. In recommending the purchase of equipment,

PLANNING AND EQUIPPING THE SHOP 313

one of the serious questions certainly should be, "What are
the objectives of the course, and through what procedure is it
proposed to satisfy or attain those objectives?" Is it an ex-
ploratory course in sheet metal, a vocational course, or simply
a home-mechanics course for which sheet-metal equipment is
needed? A cylinder grinder in the general metal shop, or a
tenoning machine in the short, exploratory woodworking
course in a junior high school may be difficult to justify as a
means for attaining the commonly accepted objectives in the
junior high school. These are far-fetched examples, but the
illustration applies also to hand tools of all descriptions unless
they have a definite place in the program.

Investigate Before You Buy

New designs of more suitable tools and machines for school
use are constantly manufactured and offered for sale. The
school that was equipped one or two years ago may not have
the latest equipment. Not that the latest is always the best,
but there is reason for believing that new designs have been
based upon needs made evident by failure of available tools
to function with perfect satisfaction.

Another suggestion here is that a variety of manufacturers
be approached. Addresses of such firms may be had from the
advertising pages of professional and trade magazines. The
fact that a certain firm had the best machine of a certain kind
five years ago does not prove that the same firm holds that
position today. There is too much tendency among instructors
to order the type of machine which they happen to have used
in industry, or in the teachers college where they obtained
training, without investigating all available sources of machines
of the type under consideration.

Firms not making schools a special field for their advertising
may sometimes have superior equipment both from the stand-
point of use and economy. This fact serve as one of the many

314 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

reasons why shop instructors should read trade journals as well
as those pertaining directly to their profession.

General Usefulness of Equipment

A teacher is hired to teach woodwork of the nonvocational
type in a small community, and is given free choice in selec-
tion of the equipment. He is a furniture maker by trade, and
appreciates fine work and good design in furniture. To him a
shaper appears to be an absolute necessity in any woodwork-
ing course, and, having bought it, he puts it to use in many
ways, perhaps. He buys jigs for fluting and reeding, special
chain clamps, and other devices. He leaves, and his successor
considers that the shaper has little place in a small woodwork-
ing shop. With many others, he rules out its use largely upon
the possibility of accidents to young students. A course of
study is organized more nearly similar to that found in other
schools, and the shaper stands as a monument to lack of knowl-
edge and to eccentric planning. Special, smaller tools of vari-
ous kinds may be found discarded or lying idle, because of the
fact that some teacher had allowed peculiarities in training, or
pet notions in carrying out the work, to guide his selection of
equipment, rather than commonly accepted principles and
practice.

Is Equipment for Instructional Use?

Equipment should be purchased for use of students, not for
the pleasure and experimentation of the instructor. The latter
may have highly specialized talents and training. The ten-
dency in such cases is to include equipment that appeals to the
instructor as a mechanic rather than as a teacher. This ten-
dency is a common cause of overequipping. Looking upon
the equipment from the standpoint of show and occasional
use must be guarded against diligently by teachers and super-
visors alike. Occasionally, pieces of equipment are added for

PLANNING AND EQUIPPING THE SHOP 315

the purpose of getting out stock for class use. Such installa-
tions do not share in the criticism offered here.

Relative Cost

The cost of education has mounted to the point where it
is an important social problem. It is well known that the per-
capita cost is higher in shopwork than in other subjects. It is
also conceded that, in spite of this, these subjects must remain
in the curriculum.

There is evidence, however, that the cost of equipping shops
in some places has been unnecessarily high. Equipment has
been bought because money was available, or because it was
offered at a reduction, or because other schools used similar
equipment. Fascination for fine, imposing appearance of the
shop has sometimes been a contributing factor, to say nothing
of the insidious work of the capable salesman.

Machines or tools should not be purchased because they are
cheap or expensive, small or big. All these types have some
use or they would not remain on the market. But the ques-
tion of cost can well be taken into consideration, and often-
times costs can be reduced through intelligent analysis of
needs and uses before the purchase is made. It is not neces-
sary that equipment be costly in order to be efficient.

Frequency of Use

How many hours per day or week or month will the equip-
ment be used? The answer to this question should enter into
the final decision regarding the purchase. Costly equipment
standing idle is overhead expense without earning. To be
sure, there are conditions under which highly specialized
tools and machines may be justifiable because of occasional
use, but the factor of use must not be overlooked.

Particularly does this suggestion have bearing upon items
of equipment purchased in large numbers for use of classes.

316 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

Instead of providing enough turning lathes for an entire class
in wood turning, why not supply lathes for one-fourth of
that class, and teach wood turning as a part of a course in
bench woodwork? In a machine shop it should be possible
so to organize the work that a lathe is not required for every
student and still offer progressive experience to all.

The organization of the general shop has found favor in
part because it is based upon the policy of continuous use of
the equipment.

Where W/7/ You Puf It?

This is a question which should be answered before the
purchase of any large piece of equipment is made. Sometimes
it has not been. It is not sufficient to attempt to visualize in
a general way the location of a proposed machine. After
taking accurate measurements on the floor for guards, pulleys,
and necessary attachments, in addition to the main part of the
machine, one often finds impossibilities which did not appear
at first sight. A smaller machine may be a necessity; and
planning the exact location for it beforehand will be a good
basis for intelligent selection. Determining exact locations
must be done through scaled drawings, if the requisitions must
be made. As suggested previously, pieces of cardboard should
be cut out to scale, representing each piece of equipment, and
then manipulated in various positions for a complete picture
of the best possible layout.

Order of Purchase

A group of teachers in a summer session was once asked
what machine for woodworking should be purchased first,
assuming that only one could be had at the start. The offhand
answers indicated preferences all the way from a tool grinder
to a turning lathe. While no large number of teachers would
probably agree upon the order of necessity in the purchase of

PLANNING AND EQUIPPING THE SHOP 317

tools and machines for any shop, there is evidence for the
belief that in some cases no serious thought has been given
to the problem at all, and that the shop equipment has simply
"grown."

Serious consideration should be given to a plan for buying
equipment for immediate needs, and for adding future pieces,
in order that correct selections may be made, and that the
floor space may be so used as to allow for the total scheme.

Available Funds

The amount of money available, both at present and in the
future, is an item that must be considered when planning
equipment. Should one spend all that now is at hand on one
or two "first-class" machines, or attempt to spread it over a
larger area, and insist less upon quality? The answer would
probably partly depend upon the chance of getting more
equipment at a later time. Present action might be different
if there is promise of another "allowance" next year.

A knowledge of the community with reference to its abil-
ity to pay will prove beneficial in solving the problem of
what type and quality of equipment to obtain. There are
some communities that give no promise of ever developing a
comprehensive program of shopwork, and in such communi-
ties it may be wise to spread the little money available over
as wide an area as possible.

Portable Versus Stationary Machines

The question of using small, portable machines for school
work is not easily settled. In fact, it cannot be settled, for
varied conditions deserve individual study and consideration.
Arguments can be furnished in favor of each, and many of
these can be had for the asking by turning to the manufac-
turers of each type. The following has reference to wood-
working machinery especially:

318 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

Portable machines are less costly, take less room, are prob-
ably less dangerous. One can have a greater variety of ma-
chines for the money spent, and can thus provide for larger
fields of experience. Machines may be duplicated for large
classes, and less time is wasted by students in waiting for a
chance to work. There is less power used; the installation
furnishes less of a problem; and the floor can be cleared if
needed for other purposes. Machines thus used for a semester,
or for a certain course, can be removed in favor of other
equipment, when another class is organized.

The larger machines are "real" machines, are more durable,
more foolproof. Large work can be handled, and their output
is greater. If a standard machine is obtained, it will take care
of all sizes and classes of work; the use of a portable machine
is limited. It is more difficult to obtain a larger machine at a
later date with a small one on hand.

Whatever may be said in opposition to small, portable ma-
chines, it must be admitted that they are rapidly making their
way into both schools and industry. In many cases they do
adequately all the work that a larger one would be called
upon to do. The difference in speed is probably not an im-
portant item for school work of the average type.

Combination or Variety Machines

Machines designed to carry on a variety of operations are
available for school use. Regarding the use of these, there is
also a division of opinion. There is opposition to them be-
cause: (1) It is usually dangerous for more than one operator
to be at the machine; (2) whenever the machine must be
converted from one function to another, it causes delay and
waiting; (3) these machines are usually not as sturdy and
foolproof as the one-purpose machines; and (4) in shop
classes there are enough students to justify separate machines.
Arguments for their use are that: (1) It is not necessary to

PLANNING AND EQUIPPING THE SHOP 319

allow more than one student to carry on work at the machine
at one time; (2) it would not be possible to buy machines for
all types of operations that could be provided for through
the combination set-up; and (3) some delay in the use of
machines is not so serious with students, since other work can
be assigned while they wait. At the worst, the work would
still be done sooner than if carried out by hand.

Buying Used Equipment

Under certain conditions it may be acceptable to purchase
used machinery for school use. When this is done, great
care must be taken to investigate thoroughly the suitability
and usefulness of such equipment. Unless the person respon-
sible for the purchase is an expert in the field, some experi-
enced person should be appointed to pass on the purchase.
In general, the buying of used equipment should be discour-
aged.

Suggestions for Selecting Equipment

In addition to the suggestions offered in previous para-
graphs, two other helps for making out a list of equipment
may be mentioned. One of these is the service rendered by
manufacturing concerns. Two types of assistance may come
from this source: (1) catalogues of tools and equipment, (2)
and lists of tools for various courses in shopwork. The cata-
logues are particularly valuable, in that they list all possible
tools for a certain type of work, and, by going through them
carefully, the teacher is thus reminded of items that he might
fail to consider in working from a mental picture. The second
source is lists of equipment used in other schools, and reported
in textbooks or magazines or surveyed through visitation.

Specifying Equipment

Every teacher should be familiar with standard procedures

320 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

in making out specifications for equipment. Such specifica-
tions are often necessary in order to comply with legal re-
quirements in asking for bids from various firms and jobbers.
But even more important is the use of specifications for the
purpose of obtaining equipment of the type or quality de-
sired. In order that inferior substitutions may not be made,
it is essential to write out all important requirements of a
machine or other piece of equipment. Among points that
must be covered, are size, weight, horsepower of motors, sizes
of tables, types of bearings, belts and pulleys, and the com-
plete list of all accessories expected to be furnished. Reliable
firms selling equipment will have such statements available
covering their products. These can be used as a pattern for
generalizing the specifications for bids.

Further Suggestions

Teachers with limited experience, and sometimes others,
report difficulties in receiving proper attention to their needs
from principals and superintendents. Lack of interest on the
part of the administration may sometimes be genuine, and
beyond alteration. But in many cases where teachers are
complaining, the root of the difficulty lies with themselves.
They have failed to analyze their own problem, and to or-
ganize it into a definite form for presentation. Hence the
following suggestions:

1. Keep the administration acquainted with progress. If
the superintendent or administrative office hears of the teach-
er's activities at no other time than when money is to be
spent, there may be a poor chance for getting what is wanted.

2. Have definite reasons for expansion or new organizations
already in mind and be ready to state them. Administrators
have an uncanny way of asking questions. If the teacher
appears uncertain and wavering in his replies, the chances for
favorable action are diminished.

PLANNING AND EQUIPPING THE SHOP 321

3. Show how the plan in question will increase facilities
for better teaching. Personal favors, or stressing of incon-
veniences to the teacher, are poor approaches to the problem.
Administrators hear too much self-pity; it becomes common-
place. But they must show interest in better education for
children and better facilities for giving it.

4. Know what you want. Talking in generalities, without
a definite plan of procedure, leads nowhere, and simply wears
out the proposed idea. Administrators should be approached
with definite, well-thought-out propositions. Have the list
of the desired equipment and its proposed use worked out
before asking for it.

5. Know the exact cost. One of the first questions asked
by the administrator is, "What will it cost?" A definite answer
to that question goes far toward securing results. If there is
not a ready answer, the issue may be postponed and left
indefinite.^ Exact quotations from reliable firms are most
convincing, but estimates from catalogues and price lists may
serve. Such estimates should, however, be reasonably correct.

Placing Equipment

A few considerations to be kept in mind when locating
pieces of stationary equipment in a shop may be of help. It
often happens that the service of equipment is materially re-
duced by poor placing of it. If a definite plan for placing
the equipment is made out, as previously suggested, the fol-
lowing points would probably receive attention:

1. Consider safety. This is the prime consideration at all
times. Guards, pulleys, power connections are important fac-
tors, in addition to the evaluation of every item, before pur-
chase, with reference to its foolproof qualities and safety fea-
tures.

2. Consider the operating space. Machines without ample
space for the operator are dangerous and inefficient. Room

322 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

for handling the material without strain or crowding is an
essential item. This working space should be so arranged that
interference from other students or workers is not inevitable.

3. Consider light conditions. Present location of windows
will be the main consideration here, unless additional windows
or skylights can be installed. Established artificial lights need
also to be considered.

4. Consider the routing of 'work. The location of some
machines is highly dependent upon this consideration; others
are independent in their function. Where machines must
coordinate in a chain of operations upon the material, a logical
order of sequence must be considered.

5. Consider room for later additions. Many a shop has
been ruined for continuous efficiency by the fact that all
available space has been taken up by a few machines. When
needs developed for additions, a costly scheme for reorganiza-
tion is necessary.

Buying Small Tools

The purchase of small tools does not often receive sufficient
study and planning. As a result the equipment presents a mix-
ture of haphazard tools which do not stand up under the treat-
ment received from beginners, and money is wasted through
spasmodic buying in small orders from scattered firms.

Small tools should be specified with the same care as ma-
chines and larger pieces of equipment. In general, it is not
sufficient simply to name a make of a tool wanted. It is
better to state sizes, quality of steel or other materials,
lengths, kinds of handles, etc. The more complete the specifi-
cation, the less is the likelihood that poor substitutions will
be made. Even when a specific make of tools is being ordered,
it happens too often that not enough data have been given
for the vendor to fill the order. Or if the shipment is fulfilled,
it may, upon arriving, give proof of the carelessness of the

PLANNING AND EQUIPPING THE SHOP 323

buyer in making out the order. Teachers who profess to be
instructing their students in thoroughness and accuracy should
take care to specify their needs so completely that they will
not draw criticism from their purchasing agents and from
business concerns.

PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS

1. Make a plan of the type of shop that you would recommend
as the only one in a high school of 400 total enrollment.

2. What reasons may be given for preferring the general metal
shop to a series of unit shops in a large junior high school?

3. Have changes in industrial and social conditions brought
about new forms of school-shop activities in the past ten years?
If so, what?

4. What separate unit shops and what general shops would
you recommend for a junior high school of 1,600 pupils?

5. What do you think of the idea of having a separate indus-
trial-arts room for elementary schools?

6. Explain why the planning of a new shop should be the
result of rather than the cause of new courses in the school.

7. What are the means by which one may learn what equip-
ment exists in other schools?

8. Make out a sheet showing points for inquiry in connection
with a visit to study school equipment for the purpose of getting
basic information for your own situation.

9. If a complete course of study were already made, just how
would you use it when making up the list of equipment?

10. What are some of the means of making the administrator
acquainted with the work of the shops?

11. Name some machines which you think should be in school
shops even though they are seldom used.

12. Make a list of firms manufacturing: (1) machine-shop
power tools, (2) woodworking machines, (3) printing equipment.

13. Work up a complete list of tools and equipment for a ten-
weeks' course in one of the common junior-high-school shop sub-
jects, and show the cost.

14. To what extent, if any, is a knowledge of the industries of
the community valuable in buying equipment, after the course of
study has been made?

324 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

15. If you were given $1,500 for purchasing machines in a gen-
eral metal shop, or general woodworking shop, just what ma-
chines would you purchase?

16. By what means would you stimulate interest in extracur-
ricular activities?

17. List the names of agencies outside of school which further
leisuretime interests of youth.

18. What would you estimate to be the cost per square foot of
floor space of a frame shop building? A concrete building?

19. What additions would you make to the "check list" pre-
sented in this chapter?

20. What would you consider to be reasonable expense for new
tools and equipment for: (1) a junior-high-school print shop,
(2) a senior-high-school woodworking shop?

21. Make up complete specifications for two woodworking
machines or for two machines for machine shop.

22. Write a requisition for twenty-five small tools for any in-
dustrial-arts shop. Be sure to include all necessary data.

REFERENCES

1. Badger, O. B., Hargis, B. W., and Dewey, D. E., "Planning
a Shop Building for a Junior High School," Industrial Educa-
tion Magazine, 31:381, April, 1930.

2. Brandt, J. A., "Mooseheart's New Industrial-Arts Wood-
working Shop," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education,
34:93-6, March, 1945.

3. Christy, Elmer W., "Planning School Shop Equipment,"
Industrial Education Magazine, 30:361, April, 1929.

4. Coleman, John B., and Oppermann, W. F., "The Trades and
Industries Building at La Crosse," Industrial Arts and Voca-
tional Education, 30:85-90, March, 1941.

5. Craigo, R. T., "The General Shop After the War," Indus-
trial Arts and Vocational Education, 32:420-1, December,
1943.

6. Ericson, Emanuel E., "Santa Barbara's New Industrial Divi-
sion," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 30:419-21,
December, 1941.

7. Fryklund, Verne C, "Analysis of Instruction as a Basis for
Planning Equipments," Industrial Education Magazine, 30:
397, April, 1929.

PLANNING AND EQUIPPING THE SHOP 325

8. Hamon, R. L., and Standish, H. E., "General Shop for Rural
Schools," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 24:49-
54, February, 1935.

9. Hunter, W. L., "Industrial Arts Laboratory Planning," In-
dustrial Arts and Vocational Education, 27:101-4, March;
137-9, April; 182-4, A/lay; 232-5, June, 1938.

10. Karch, R. Randolph, "Equipping the School Printing Depart-
ment," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 31:151-4,
April, 1942.

11. Karnes, Ray, "An Industrial-Arts Experimental Shop," Indus-
trial Arts and Vocational Education, 30:101-2, March, 1941.

12. Klehm, Walter Allen, "A Plan for Determining Equipment
Requirements in Industrial Arts Based Upon the Teaching
Objectives," Industrial Education Magazine, 40: 194-203, Sep-
tember, 1938.

13. Lush, C. K., "The Multiple Shop Concept," Industrial Arts
and Vocational Education, 29:85-7, March, 1940.

14. Mann, George G., "The General Shop at Haldane Central
School," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 29:89-91,
A/larch, 1940.

15. Mays, Arthur B., and Casberg, Carl H., School-Shop Admin-
istration, The Bruce Publishing Co., 1943, Chaps. 3 and 6.

16. Olson, Delmar W.,"A County Arts and Industries Program,"
Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 30: 126-31, March,
1941.

17. Roehl, Louis M., "A Rural High School Shop and Class-
room," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 30:103-4,
March, 1941.

18. Rose, Homer C, "Industrial Arts at Augusta, Wisconsin,"
Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 26:80-83, March,
1937.

19. Sturm, Raymond W., and Van Duzee, Roy R., "Planning
and Equipping a Graphic-Arts Shop," Industrial Arts and
Vocational Education, 30:219-25, June, 1941.

20. Thomas, H. D., "An Arts and Industries Laboratory," Indus-
trial Arts and Vocational Education, 30:94-6, March, 1941.

21. Weaver, Roger J., "Initial Steps in Planning Shops," Indus-
trial Arts and Vocational Education, 30:238-40, June, 1941.

Chapter XV
EXTRACURRICULAR RESPONSIBILITIES

A Variety of Duties

A teacher who considers that all of his duties are to be
performed in the shop or classroom is falling short of giving
maximum service to the school or community in which he
works. He who expects to render maximum service will
seek opportunities to do more than to teach so many periods
each day. In fact, practically all modern schools demand of
their teachers some type of service outside of their regular
teaching program. And while it may be true that the majority
of instructors carry a heavy load in connection with their
regular teaching, it is also true that anyone who expects to be
thought of as a valuable member of a teaching staff must of
necessity give thought to making contributions aside from the
regular assignments. To be a member of the working force
in an educational institution involves a greater challenge than
to be simply a shop teacher.

The Home Room

In the modern school a large number of instructors are
assigned to sponsorships of classes, or counselors of certain
groups of students. In most cases, such groups fall under the
so-called "home-room" organization. The home room may be
a place of compulsion, disciplinary struggles, and toleration
on the part of students; or it may be a cheerful place, where
the instructor lives with the youth as their big brother and
counselor. Too often the teacher of shopwork feels that he
is imposed upon in having to render such service, and would
rather be in his shop. In such an attitude, however, there is
failure to evaluate opportunities for special service, or to see

326

EXTRACURRICULAR RESPONSIBILITIES 327

the larger aspect of school life. The aim should be not only
to teach shopwork, important as that may be, but also to teach
students to appreciate qualities that go toward success and
happiness in life. Such qualities can, of course, be taught in
shopwork, but also outside of it.

From the standpoint of physical organization, a home room
consists of a group of students of approximately the number
found in a usual class, assigned to a teacher, for regular meet-
ings, daily or at less frequent intervals. The period for the
meeting is usually shorter than the regular class hour. In the
meeting, some activities are usually prescribed by the admin-
istration. Among these are announcements to be made, expla-
nations regarding school programs, fostering special school
activities, etc. A portion of the time, depending on the total
time available, remains to be used as planned by the home-
room teacher, or counselor. It is the planning of this part of
the program that will make either a success or a failure of
the home room. Not many teachers are making of it an out-
standing success. A variety of statements, purposes, and
activities are available to teachers. The following purposes
are presented by McKown: (1) to develop desirable pupil-
teacher relationships, (2) to guide the pupil, (3) to develop
desirable ideals and habits, and (4) to expedite the handling
of administrative routine educatively. 1 By analyzing each of
the areas of activity suggested under this listing alone, the
interested teacher will find a wealth of topics for discussion
and presentation in the home room. Local conditions in a
particular school or community will serve as a guide to ma-
terial of immediate interest and value to the members of the
home room.

To instructors of industrial arts the opportunity to mingle
with students outside of the shop should be especially wel-

1 McKown, Harry C M Home Room Guidance, New York, McGraw-
Hill Book Company, 1934, Chap. II.

328 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

come, for by dealing with materials and mechanical processes
constantly one stands in danger of becoming narrow, cold,
and perhaps unsympathetic.

Student Morale

There is a broad, general, undefined responsibility with ref-
erence to the welfare of all students which the shop instructor
must accept equally with other instructors. These duties
demand that the instructor show an interest in the students at
all times whether in or out of classrooms or hallways, and
that he take an interest in assisting students to follow out the
rules and regulations of the school. At this point the instructor
must consider himself a part of the disciplinary force of the
entire school, and be willing to stand the unpleasantness that
sometimes may come in connection with law enforcement.

No instructor, whether in shopwork or in other subjects,
has the right to shun the responsibility for holding up the
morale among the students, leaving it to others to do the
share that should come to him. On the other hand, the sug-
gestion may be given, particularly to inexperienced persons,
that it is not profitable to attempt to reform a student body
or a school singlehanded as an instructor. "When in Rome,
do as the Romans do," may be valuable advice. When com-
ing into a new school, it is well first to learn just what
standards are accepted by the administration, and then set
to work to uphold those standards. Whether such standards
are lower or higher than those of the individual instructor, it
will be well to accept them, and save possible future embar-
rassment; or, if not acceptable, to assert influence in proper
quarters for necessary changes.

Student Clubs

The special student clubs in which a teacher may interest
himself are of two kinds: (1) those organized within regular

EXTRACURRICULAR RESPONSIBILITIES 329

school hours, which form a part of the student program, and
(2) those falling outside of the regular school day. The for-
mer are probably the more frequent. In many junior and
senior high schools it has become a common practice to
organize the entire school into a series of groups or clubs for
a variety of extracurricular activities according to the choice
of the students and the ability of teachers to act as sponsors.
Such activities may range all the way from study of Greek
and Latin to camera work and clay modeling. These special
student activities offer a challenge to every instructor. It
may be easier to sit back and let other teachers do the job.
But to offer wood turning as a club activity for girls, for two
45-minute periods a week, or chip carving, or any similar
activity, may enrich their lives with experiences that would
not otherwise be theirs. Girls do wood turning without
previous tool instruction! If in doubt, try them, and find out.
Among activities falling outside of school hours may be men-
tioned radio clubs, home-workshop programs, stagecraft work,
photography, and various types of play programs.

Counseling Students

Counseling with students forms an important part of a
teacher's activities, whether or not the teacher has received
a definite appointment for such service. In fact, true teaching
has always been partly counseling. Youth needs counseling
and likes it, provided it is of the right type. Nagging is not
counseling, nor are dictation and forced advice.

To be interested in the individual instead of in the masses,
to deal with classes and groups and yet know and appreciate
the individual and be a friend and counselor to him, requires
more than craftsmanship and mechanics. Without having
developed an interest in helping each youth to form whole-
some attitudes toward his fellow man, vocation, and employ-

330 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

ment, an instructor is not fully prepared as a member of the
great profession to which he belongs. Many a student con-
tinues to build for himself false ideals and poor social habits
because each of his teachers is teaching subject matter instead
of boys and girls. What the world expects is not often ex-
plained to youth in a setting where the explanation is applic-
able. Every instructor must have the necessary courage to
be personal, friendly, and unbiased in assisting individuals in
this regard through private interviews and in other ways.

Displays and Exhibits

"Shall I have an exhibit this year?" is repeatedly the ques-
tion before shop teachers and supervisors. The answer will
vary with different teachers, according to whether they be-
lieve the exhibit to be worth while or not, whether they have
the necessary interest and initiative to put one on, whether
the administration calls for one, and whether they have done
work of the kind that will stand exhibition.

Ob/ecf/ons fo Exhibits

Aside from some of the childish arguments that have been
used against exhibits by teachers who in reality do not want
to do the extra work necessary, there are some points that
can logically be taken into consideration on the negative side
of the question in some situations. Among these are the
following:

1. Exhibits may have been used year after year in the
same way in the same place, until they have lost both novelty
and attraction.

2. The articles shown in exhibits are seldom representative
of the average accomplishment of work done, but rather of a
selected few, and often even the teacher's finishing touches
can be recognized upon articles exhibited.

3. The prospect of the exhibit discourages the less talented

EXTRACURRICULAR RESPONSIBILITIES 331

worker who is just as honest and industrious as the one who
is better adapted for the work.

4. Work held for exhibition is kept beyond the time when
boys and girls will have further interest in it, and so the keen
pleasure of ownership is destroyed, imperiling possible interest
in future work.

5. The fact that the work is to be displayed to the public
tends to lead to dishonesty in production, getting help from
other students and the teacher with the difficult parts of the
work.

6. In many cases the hardest and most difficult work done
is not recognized as compared with some of the more showy
and superficial type.

7. When students know that their articles are to be ex-
hibited, this fact may influence their choice of work rather
than real necessity and personal desire.

8. Students limited financially are at a disadvantage, since
they cannot pay for material for a large and expensive article.

9. Some of the articles are often damaged in shipment or
transfer or lost entirely, working a great injustice to their
owners.

Advantages of Exhibits

On the affirmative side of the question may be offered the
following suggestions:

1. If parents and patrons are accustomed to annual exhibits,
there would probably be more disappointment than the
teacher expects, should he leave them off any one year. Ex-
hibits do not have to be put up in the same way each year.

2. The prospect of the exhibit will stimulate better effort
on the part of practically all students, and such stimulation
can be kept in the right channels by the capable and interested
instructor.

3. New students are attracted through the proper type of

332 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

exhibits, largely because they are inspired by the success of
other students whom they know.

4. Taxpayers and patrons, and even the superintendent and
the principal, have an opportunity to see how the money has
been spent and what has been accomplished.

5. Exhibits stimulate the teacher to renewal of effort
toward producing high-grade work. A little thought of
approbation on the part of the teacher is no disqualifying
trait.

6. There is value in the thought, on the part of both
teacher and student, of spending their energy in such a way
that the result will show to best advantage. This ability
need not be mingled with dishonesty, and is usually rewarded
in practical life.

7. The exhibits involve opportunities for special training
and practice in spacing, arrangement, poster making, and
lettering, as well as meeting and dealing with the public and
explaining the work. See Fig. 23.

Exhibits have, without doubt, been a great factor in the
promotion of the school shop and of the manual-arts idea.
They are not yet obsolete, though there may be local condi-
tions that make their value doubtful.

To Be a Faculty Member

To be a member of a teaching staff is a greater charge than
to be a teacher of drawing or machine-shop practice. In
some respects the severest tests of the instructor's integrity
and all-around value come outside of his teaching hours. The
following suggestions may be of value at this point.

1. Be loyal. Loyalty to supervisor, principal, and superin-
tendent is the greatest of all requirements upon a teacher.
Without such loyalty, both felt and expressed, he cannot hope
to be worth his keep. One may differ with present policies
and practices and still be loyal. But if one cannot sympathize

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EXTRACURRICULAR RESPONSIBILITIES 333

with the work of the school and those that are responsible
for its management, at least if one cannot suffer in silence, the
only decent thing to do is to leave for other fields. There
may be teachers who feel that they should be the supervisor or
department head, and sometimes justly so. But since they are
not, if they are made of the right kind of stuff, they will
try to be good instructors and not try to undermine the work
of others; or get out to some other place where their abilities
and viewpoints may be more appreciated.

2. Be cooperative. Many teachers are good workers, but
not good teamworkers. Cooperation is looked for in any
school system, and particularly in shopwork, where the activi-
ties touch more directly upon the practical in life. Coopera-
tion with the principal, the coworkers in the department, and
with other departments of the school is absolutely necessary
for the ultimate success of one's own work as well as of that
of the entire school. Lack of cooperation is caused by im-
proper viewpoint. Suspicion of the motives of others, lack
of feeling of security in one's own position, limited vision,
and guarding one's own dignity are some of the enemies of
cooperation. An optimistic attitude, a habit of saying "yes"
instead of "yes but," and a belief in the integrity of others,
are the friends of it.

3. Appreciate the 'work of others. Lack of appreciation
of the values of so-called academic subjects is sometimes
shown by special teachers. Such attitude is a display of
shortsightedness and lack of understanding. To "knock" the
subject matter and teachers in other departments of the school
is to show ignorance and lack of vision. No thinking person
will attempt to build up his own work through the process
of tearing down that of others.

4. Build cautiously. Enrollment in a new department may
not be built in a day. Use fair and open methods to attract
students. They will stay longer after they come.

334 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

5. Do not be jealous. The other man's job is not what it
seems to be. If you got it, you would still wish for someone
else's job. The "big" salary that Mr. Brown earns he prob-
ably deserves through extra responsibility, longer working
hours, or for some other reason.

Teachers 1 Meetings

Teachers' meetings are likely to be looked upon as an
unnecessary evil. Sometimes they deserve to be so consid-
ered. Where such meetings are scheduled and carried out as
a perfunctory performance, with no definite plan or pro-
gram, they may not be inviting after the day's work is fin-
ished or nearly so. When preceded by purposeful planning
of program and procedure, faculty meetings can be made to
contribute not only to the efficiency of instruction and ad-
ministration, but also to the professional improvement of the
teachers.

Whether the meetings are of special interest or not, it is
the duty of teachers to attend. It is one of the activities for
which he draws his pay. The sooner he achieves this attitude
of mind, the better it will be for everyone concerned. Many
plausible reasons may be given why the shop teacher does
not go to these meetings, and every other teacher can prob-
ably furnish similar ones. Certain tools or other pieces of
equipment may need attention, materials are left in a place
or shape where they cannot be allowed to stay overnight, and
so on. And there is probably some tendency on the part of
administrators to overlook irregularities on account of these
special duties. Nevertheless, the efficient teacher plans his
work so that he can attend scheduled meetings for which he
has received due notification.

Ma/7 Boxes and Bulletin Boards

There is danger also that teachers of shopwork fail to see

EXTRACURRICULAR RESPONSIBILITIES 335

notices on bulletin boards, or otherwise miss various announce-
ments. Such failure comes in part from being located out of
the beaten path of activities. This means that such instructors
need to be doubly alert with reference to announcements and
general requirements. It is a deplorable fact in some schools
that shopmen have proved disappointing in their attendance
to special duties. The teacher with a professional mind will
be eager to attend all meetings to which he has been called,
and participate in discussions of all activities pertaining to the
entire school.

Personal Appearance

The problem of personal appearance and tidiness in dress
confronts the teacher of shopwork. It is not desirable, if it
were possible, for him to attempt to keep himself spotless
when teaching his classes. He should be dressed for actual
work, just as he wishes his students to be dressed for work.

Outside of his shop, however, he will wish to appear as any
other instructor rather than as a mechanic, and the dignity of
his position demands that he do so. This diligence in watch-
ing personal appearance tends to subside with time, and if
the teacher is not alert to the situation, he may find himself
failing to apply the energy needed in this connection. There
is no reason for being ashamed to get one's hands into grease
and dirt in the shop; neither is there any reason for carrying
that dirt too far outside the walls of the shop.

Out-of-School Relationships

An instructor can probably confine his activities to the
school and school plant, and still be considered a good teacher.
By common agreement he would, however, be a better teacher
if he let his activities go beyond that realm. Any community
is rich in worth-while opportunities for contributions to the
common good outside of the four walls of the school.

336 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

Just how much time should be spent in such activities, and
what the nature of them should be, will naturally be deter-
mined by each individual. The Boy-Scout movement offers
opportunities in this connection; and many smaller and larger
school systems are making participation in that work a re-
quired part of the services when furnishing the contract.
Charitable and civic organizations are often in need for
teaching service in craftwork, and churches bid for contri-
butions to educational and recreational programs.

No attempt is made here to define duties in connection
with these opportunities; it is sufficient merely to say that
from the teaching profession society expects and is entitled
to leadership which shall extend outside of the schoolroom.

Relationships with Business and Industry

A person who expects to maintain and increase his useful-
ness as a shop teacher or as any other type of teacher will
not fail to make and maintain contacts with business and
industry. This holds true in regard to both men and methods.
To one whose time is largely spent in the schoolroom dealing
with immature minds, the opportunities to mingle with men
of affairs in business life should be cherished. Organizations
of such men in the form of luncheon clubs, lodges, and others,
are open for memberships. From these, practical outlooks
upon problems may be gained, and the vision of the teacher
is widened.

Time should be set aside for regular contacts with indus-
tries, and with those who manage and operate those indus-
tries. Not of least importance is it to keep in close touch with
trade methods in craftsmanship and production, for these
methods change from time to time.

Out of the Basement
The antiquated custom of confining "manual training" to

EXTRACURRICULAR RESPONSIBILITIES 337

the basement, or to the most unattractive room, has left with
many teachers an apologetic attitude toward the subject and
its teaching. Recognition has come to the industrial arts as
one of the major and most essential subjects in the curriculum.
But many teachers still appear to have a "down-in-the-base-
ment" attitude of mind that makes them hesitate to accept
what both school administration and the public have come
to take for granted, that industrial arts is one of the most
valuable aspects of the school program.

PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS

1. In what ways does a shop teacher have superior opportu-
nities to teach courtesy, cooperation, and other desirable personal
qualities in his regular classwork?

2. As an instructor in a high-school shop, what contributions
could you make to the programs for faculty meetings?

3. In what respects, if any, are teachers expected to be superior
to other persons in personal conduct?

4. To what extent do you believe that a teacher should feel
responsible for the morals and manners of his students?

5. Name the type of clubs that you could sponsor in the
school, and show the value of such clubs.

6. Make a list of student activities not mentioned in this chap-
ter in which the teacher may be of value to the school and to the
administration.

7. Make a list of civic and social organizations that would
offer profitable membership for an instructor of shopwork.

8. Make a list of agencies and locations in a community which
may be brought into a comprehensive plan of exhibits of school
work.

9. By what means would you stimulate interest in extracur-
ricular activities?

10. Assuming that you were to use two hours a week for mak-
ing contacts with industry and business, make a schedule showing
exactly how that time would be spent for one semester.

11. List the names of agencies outside of school which further
leisuretime interests of youth.

338 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

12. Make a list of topics that may properly be discussed in the
home room.

13. Make out a plan for complete home-room activities for one
semester.

14. What should a teacher know about the entire school pro-
gram in order to be most useful in connection with extracurricu-
lar activities?

REFERENCES

1. Di Michael, Salvatore, "Interest and Vocational Choice," The
Education Digest (from the Fifteenth Yearbook of the
National Council for the Social Studies), X: 17-19, March,
1945.

2. Gray, Harold M., "How Can the High School Prepare
Students for College Work in Industrial Arts," Industrial
Arts and Vocational Education, 34:198-9, May, 1945.

3. Jackey, David F., and Barlow, Melvin L., The Craftsman
Prepares to Teach, The Macmillan Co., 1944. Chap. 13.

4. Larkin, Geraldine, "How to Know Your Pupils," The Edu-
cation Digest (from Educational Method), VII: 8-11 March,
1942.

5. La Voy, K. B., "Why Scouting?" Industrial Education Maga-
zine, 29:269, February, 1928.

6. McKown, H. C, Home Rooin Guidance, McGraw-Hill
Book Co., 1934.

7. Miller, E. A., and Hunter, William L., "Photography Offers
a Challenge," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 26:
4-7, January, 1937.

8. Smith, J. A., Jr., "Extra Industrial-Arts Activities," Indus-
trial Education Magazine, 29:93, September, 1927.

9. Struck, F. T., Creative Teaching, Wiley and Sons, 1938,
Chap. XXII.

10. Watson, Goodwin, "The Surprising Discovery of Morale,"
The Education Digest (from Progressive Education), VII:
33-36, February, 1942.

11. Wilber, Gordon O., "A Method for the Selection of Indus-
trial Arts Activities," The Education Digest (from The In-
dustrial Arts Teacher), X:53-5, April, 1945.

Chapter XVI
PUBLICITY AND PUBLIC RELATIONS

The Public and the Schools

Only recently have school people come to appreciate the
necessity for keeping taxpayers and parents informed regard-
ing programs and purposes of public schools. Both teachers
and administrators are inclined to become involved in the
serious business of carrying out the educational program to
the point of forgetting that support and good will are essen-
tials to the success of this program. If public understanding
is needed in regard to the commonly known subjects of the
school, it is even more important that such understanding be
established for the newer and less-known subjects, of which
industrial arts is one.

Should Schools Be Publicized?

Four reasons may be given why there is lack of publicity
in connection with the shop work program:

1. Teachers consider advertising unprofessional. There is
a feeling that the service is cheapened if means for spreading
the news of the work are used. This attitude is shared by
members of other professions, sometimes, no doubt, to the
disadvantage of persons who should have certain information.

2. The work should speak for itself. Many teachers take
the position that their work is of such importance that stu-
dents should rush forward to enroll. In this they fail to realize
that however important it is, students must know about it
before they can seek membership in the classes.

3. Some have not thought of it. A third class of teachers
have not realized the possibility of doing something outside

339

340 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

of receiving those who come. Students are sent from the
enrollment office, and the instructor considers that he can do
nothing if the attendance is not satisfactory except to carry
ill-feeling against the person who has charge of the student
programs.

4. Some need no more students. In many schools the shop
teachers are overcrowded with students, and have little in-
centive to undertake publicity schemes that might tend to
make their work even more popular.

If the instructor believes that the shopwork program func-
tions as an important part in the education of a large number
of students, he will be eager for those who may profit from it
to know that it exists.

Local Newspapers

Schools can usually depend upon the support of local news-
papers if that support is intelligently solicited. In spite of such
discouraging factors as misprints, exaggerated statements,
"flashy" reports, and the like, which have to be dealt with,
the newspaper has become an important institution of society,
and may be of great assistance in developing any public enter-
prise. The public schools, being owned by the community,
must be kept before the eyes of those who pay the bills if
intelligent support is to be expected. Too little publicity for
the program of the school has often led to misunderstanding
and lack of confidence.

In connection with newspaper items, as well as other forms
of publicity, care must be taken by the individual teacher
not to absorb the prerogatives of someone else who may con-
sider it his privilege and advantage to handle this phase of the
work. Principals may sometimes be jealous of such privileges,
and, if so, it is the duty of instructors to cooperate in such
practice as may be desired. The personal factor should, at
all times, be left out of consideration.

PUBLICITY AND PUBLIC RELATIONS 341

Two types of newspaper service may be considered: (1)
contributed news items, and (2) paid advertising. The
second is rarely necessary, but may be used in connection
with special adult programs and vocational classes, or in order
to advertise publicity schemes such as open nights, special
shows, or exhibits.

Items of news may appear at fairly regular intervals telling
of new courses, special projects for school and community,
special contests, and other activities. A profitable feature
has been the writing of a series of short articles telling of
the program of the school shops, its aims, and services. Such
a scheme should first be submitted to the principal for his
approval, and it is well to have the material read by him, or
someone else who has in mind the broader viewpoints of
the entire school, in order that no statement may be miscon-
strued or considered as a reflection upon any other phase of
the school program. The "copy" for such articles should not
be altered by the editor without permission of the writer, if
the latter's name is to appear with the contributions.

The School Paper

Too little attention is often given to the school paper as
a means for spreading the news of the industrial-education
program. The shops furnish interesting themes for youthful
reporters, but the difficulty is that those reporters do not
normally turn in that direction for material. Consequently,
it is the task of the instructor to stimulate the needed interest.

The school paper reaches the sources from which future
enrollment will come, namely, the students and the homes.
To be too busy to pay attention to this medium of publicity
may be to curtail possibilities of future success.

Special Publications

Bulletins issued by the department constitute a valuable

342 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

type of publicity material. These can be mimeographed or
printed, depending upon conditions. They have been used
largely in connection with vocational and adult-education
programs, but have their value also in spreading news of
activities in nonvocational work. There are many ways in
which a school print shop can thus be handling practical
jobs, and at the same time serve the interests of the department
or the school.

Confesfs and Sponsored Projects

Contests of various types have publicity value. Newspapers
in many places have taken great interest in promoting these.
In large and small cities alike, a motorboat race or regatta, as
a climax to a model-boat-making contest, will receive more
attention of the citizenship than the work of all the rest of
the program.

A bird-house-building contest sponsored on Saturdays for
boys of all ages will win the good will of mothers, and
mothers' good will should not be disregarded in connection
with advertising the school program. Kite and airplane flying
contests have come to be annual events in many communities,
sponsored often by such outside organizations as Boy Scouts,
Y.M.C.A., and others.

Exhibits as a Publicity Feature

Exhibits have long been used as a sure means of stimulating
interest in shop activities. If the exhibit is an honest one, and
so planned as not to disorganize regular activities, it still re-
mains in the front rank as a publicity feature. Advantages
and disadvantages of exhibits have been discussed in Chapter
XVI. Permanent exhibits should be used in offices and hall-
ways of schools, while periodical displays can be set up in
prominent windows of banks, stores and other locations in
the down-town section. See Fig. 24. An annual exhibit at

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PUBLICITY AND PUBLIC RELATIONS 343

the school may be varied from year to year, or may be omitted
entirely, in favor of the types of display just mentioned and
other special features.

The Open House

In many school systems the "open house" has become an
annual affair. On this occasion the entire school is usually
run in the evening as in daytime, in order to give the parents
and patrons an opportunity to see its varied activities. Need-
less to say, the shop program may be a large part of the attrac-
tion because of the very nature of the work. Exhibits may
be featured, as may also special construction devices and
machines.

A so-called "electric show" proved to be one of the most
profitable publicity features in the author's experience. On
this occasion all dealers in electrical appliances in the com-
munity were invited to "buy" exhibit space at a nominal fee
in the school gymnasium. The response was extremely gener-
ous. Special stunts ranging all the way from spanking ma-
chines to toy electric trains were arranged by the electrical
department, which also kept open house for the visitors. A
display was made of electrical "projects" completed and in
the making. In the main auditorium a special picture was
shown at a small admission charge. Since all the merchants
who offered exhibits participated in the publicity event, a
large attendance was assured. The money earned was used
for special radio equipment, and the purpose of the perform-
ance from this angle was announced beforehand.

Signs and Signboards

Vocational schools and special schools have used large sign-
boards to advantage. Such signs call attention to the fact that
facilities for training are offered by the school system, and
stimulate individuals to take advantage of them. An electrical

344 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

class or department will find the construction of signs to fur-
nish a practical problem, resulting in both publicity for the
school and application of electrical principles.

For the Superintendent and Principal

In many schools the superintendent, or even the principal,
knows very little of the work of the industrial-education
department. To be sure, the shop classes are thought of in
connection with bleachers on the football field, or furniture
for the cafeteria, or apparatus for the playground. But very
little is known of what is accomplished educationally. Some-
times the best publicity that can be done is to scheme out
some way through which to attract the attention of the prin-
cipal and superintendent, not to omit the academic teachers
and the board of education. Let something happen so that
newspapers and outsiders begin to give attention, and recog-
nition at home is likely to follow. An annual or semiannual
report, as discussed elsewhere, is a good means of publicity.

A Plan for Publicity

The teacher is justified in planning in a limited way a
publicity program for his department and its values just as
commercial firms make plans for theirs. Many instructors
who are doing splendid work in their shops receive no recog-
nition because no one knows of their activities. A sane pro-
gram for the purpose of letting outside people know the
objectives, procedures, and accomplishments is legitimate, and
while cheap and unsubstantial means and methods must of
necessity be ruled out, there is little danger that the public
will be reminded too often of what the schools are doing in
giving an education to its youth.

Personal Contacts
Another avenue and one which is most effective in building

PUBLICITY AND PUBLIC RELATIONS 345

good will and understanding toward the school program is
through personal contacts with community leaders and tax-
payers generally. The teacher of industrial arts, because of
his interests and background, probably has an advantage in
dealing with men from business and industry. A certain
amount of time should be set aside each week for planned
contacts with men of this type. This can be through partici-
pation in community projects or in club work, through sports
and recreation, and in other ways. If more of the taxpayers
know more teachers personally, there will be less likelihood
of lack of appreciation of the work of the schools or any
phase of the school program.

PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS

1. Make a list of possible evening activities through which a
teacher might further the growth of his shopwork program.

2. Have you known teachers to overdo the matter of adver-
tising? If so, in what respects?

3. Name a number of ways through which the principal,
superintendent, and board of education may learn about the
work done in the shops.

4. What publicity value is there for shopwork if the teacher
becomes connected with the Boy Scout activities of a com-
munity?

5. A young teacher stated that the first thing that he would
do when coming into a small community would be to go to a
newspaper office and get "written up." What do you think of
the idea?

6. Make a list of avenues for publicity not mentioned in this
chapter.

7. Would Saturday-morning "open house" in the shop for all
boys who wish to make things be a good publicity scheme?

8. Make out a complete schedule for the publicity of a shop
program in a small community where not more than two teachers
are engaged in this special work.

9. In what way may industrial motion-picture films be used to
promote the industrial-education program?

346 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

10. If you were organizing a vocational class in auto mechanics
or electrical work, what would you do to build up an enrollment?

11. In what ways may industrial-arts work be publicized
through the school paper?

12. List a number of schemes by which the general student
body in a high school may be informed about the industrial arts.

REFERENCES

1. Betts, High J., "Model Aircraft Exhibit," Industrial Arts and
Vocational Education, 32:268, September, 1943.

2. Carlyon, Lemoyne Bertian, "Selling Industrial Arts to the
Superintendent and Principal," Industrial Education Maga-
zine, 41:37-8, January, 1939.

3. Dell, S. M., "Industrial-Arts Contests and Exhibits," Indus-
trial Arts Magazine, 17:167, May, 1928.

4. Heath, James, "Home Sports An Industrial Arts Play,"
Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 30: 199-200, May,
1941.

5. Heilig, Herbert, "Advertising the Evening School," Industrial
Arts and Vocational Education, 30:383-4, November, 1941.

6. Moffitt, Frederick James, "Interpreting the Industrial Arts,"
Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 23: 116-19, March,
1934.

7. Parkes, Donald M., "An Assembly Program," Industrial Arts
and Vocational Education, 30:41-3, February, 1941.

8. Pelikan, A. G., "The Value of School Exhibits," Industrial
Arts and Vocational Education, 23:113-16, March, 1934.

9. Shiebler, Howard A., "Press Relations and the Schools," The
Education Digest, (from High Points), VIII: 20-3, February,
1943.

10. Skelton, James Dale, "Industrial Arts Radio Broadcast,"
Industrial Education Magazine, 36:250-1, November, 1934.

11. Sowers, John Irving, "Performance Contests as a Means for
Motivating Industrial- Arts Instruction," Industrial Education
Magazine, 37:213-15, September, 1935.

12. Tippey, J. M., "Promoting Industrial Arts Through an
Annual Regatta," Industrial Education Magazine, 37:220,
September, 1935.

13. Wise, Glenn O., "Socialized Publicity," Industrial Arts and
Vocational Education, 27:272-3, September, 1938.

Chapter XVII
THE TEACHER AND HIS PROFESSION

How One Learns to Teach

It has been said that there are four ways in which people
learn to teach:

1. Anticipation of teaching. By this is meant that in his
imaginative mind the person who possesses aptitude for teach-
ing will go through the actual setting of the contact with his
class. And in this imaginative procedure he will foresee and
determine upon problems that will be encountered, and action
to be taken in solving these problems. To be sure, such ability
to anticipate and "live" through the work of days and hours
which are yet in the future is a prerequisite to highly suc-
cessful teaching in any subject, but especially so in those
subjects in which manipulative work predominates.

2. Observation of teaching. This is another valuable ave-
nue of success as an instructor. Such observation is not neces-
sarily confined to the type that is controlled and required by
teacher-training institutions and boards of education. It is
probably true that teaching methods of our own teachers all
along the line of our educational career have done a great
deal toward shaping the actions and responses which we as
teachers now put into effect. Much of this background is, no
doubt, used unconsciously or subconsciously, but is, never-
theless, a powerful factor in any instructor's work. The
teachers whom we have most admired have, unquestionably,
impressed us most; but it might be well to realize that even
those might have had their imperfections as instructors.

3. Directed teaching, or cadet teaching. Here reference
is made to teaching carried out under direct supervision in a
teacher-training institution. If conditions are what they

347

348 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

should be, this type of preparation should stand out as a most
desirable and basic medium through which the prospective
teacher will learn to teach. For in this phase of a teacher's
preparation, there are more possibilities for definite supervision
than in any other type.

4. By teaching on the job. It will be agreed that actual
performance of work will, under reasonably favorable condi-
tions, lead toward perfection. This is not always true, how-
ever, because it is quite possible for one who learns solely
through his own efforts to persist in wrong practices and
inefficient and obsolete methods, while other people have
discovered more efficient ones that are unknown to him.
Learning to teach on the job, particularly in the first stages
of a teaching career, is effective largely in proportion to the
amount of criticism and suggestions the teacher receives either
from outside supervision or by self-examination and compari-
son of his work with standard practices.

Cardinal Qualifications for Teaching Shopwork

Three outstanding qualifications for successful teaching in
shopwork have been generally agreed upon and often ex-
pressed. They will bear repetition and emphasis:

1. Ability as a craftsman. This has to do with the neces-
sary mechanical skill required on the part of the teacher.
Lacking in mechanical skill, the instructor cannot hope to
accomplish maximum results. As has been pointed out else-
where, it is the duty of the instructor to qualify himself
through sufficient practice and contact with trade practice, if
such contact is lacking, in order that he may at all times set
the proper example in craftsmanship.

2. Ability to teach. A fine craftsman, however, is not
necessarily a good teacher. There is great difference between
being a producer and being able to analyze and present teach-
ing material to learners. As a matter of fact, habitual per-

THE TEACHER AND HIS PROFESSION 349

formance in industry is likely to be a drawback rather than
a help when attempting to teach persons without experience,
for the skilled worker is likely to overlook the learning diffi-
culties encountered by the learner. Successful teaching is
dependent upon knowledge of fundamental educational prin-
ciples and methods. Such knowledge comes from professional
work in teacher-training institutions and from continued
study and research. Requirements in this field of work are
now specified by state departments of education for certifica-
tion to teach in public schools. Unfortunately, such require-
ments are not uniformly stipulated for teaching in institutions
of higher learning, not even for colleges preparing the teach-
ers to be so certified. To have an appreciation of the mental
processes by which learning takes place is just as important
as knowledge or skill in the field of subject matter, and must
be so considered by everyone who expects to become a good
teacher.

3. Scholastic and cultural background. Knowledge of a
single subject, and knowledge of how to teach that subject,
would still not enable a teacher to be of maximum value in the
profession and on the job. A rather intimate knowledge of
other subjects of the curriculum, of social and economic as-
pects of education, of backgrounds that broaden one's vision
and create sympathy for other work and other instructors, is
a necessity as a third qualification of a well-educated teacher.

In this respect, the special-subjects teacher should be on full
equality with those teaching other subjects. The fact that
some of the earlier shop teachers were considered "mere me-
chanics" and "trouble shooters" can often be traced back to
the fact that in reality they were not much more than what
those terms imply.

Advancing Professionally
In the field of manual and industrial arts, the teacher's task

350 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

has grown with amazing rapidity. In many cases the job has
outgrown the teacher. At one time, woodwork and drawing
were considered sufficient for the smaller schools. They are
no longer so considered except by some teachers who have
not learned what progress has taken place.

The teacher who began teaching some decades ago, and
who does his work this year as last year and the year before,
has outgrown his usefulness. He has failed to catch the spirit
of progress through the various means which are within his
reach. The demands upon youth are changing, and so are
his interests and ambitions. Looking back upon past accom-
plishments, instead of forward to new possibilities, means to
grow stale in the work and commonplace in its presentation.
Looking forward will result in research, anticipation, further
preparation, and better service.

There is a tendency on the part of some shop teachers, how-
ever, to rebel against upgrading suggestions and requirements
that involve general educational training rather than special-
ized skills.

Teachers in the service today are confronted upon every
hand with the question of professional advancement. The
pressure brought to bear is variously interpreted. Some are
inclined to feel that the scheme is the result of the whims of
the superintendent, others that it is to increase the average
scholarship rating for the teachers in order to gain in reputa-
tion. Not all can see that they will be better teachers after
having completed further study, and the question in their mind
is, "What is it all about?"

Advantages of Self 'Improvement

Some of the reasons why teachers of shopwork can profit-
ably and cheerfully participate in a general upgrading pro-
gram for teachers have already been suggested. In addition,
the following points may be stated:

THE TEACHER AND HIS PROFESSION 351

1. Teachers are rated largely upon the basis of scholastic
attainment. Whether this should be so or not may be another
question. With few exceptions, it is so; and the teacher can
do no better than to adjust himself to the condition.

2. New teachers are more fully prepared. Qualifications
governing the entrance into the profession are gradually being
raised. Persons already in the field with less than those quali-
fications will find more serious competition, and usually wish
to consider the problem of attaining an equal rating in point
of credits.

3. The shop teacher should be at par 'with other teachers.
This includes educational refinement, use of language, appre-
ciation of general values of educational procedure, understand-
ing of the entire curriculum, and other essential qualifications.
Such qualities come from the proper attitude in regard to the
general aspects of the program, and from interest in and study
of the varied types of subjects and subject matter pertaining
to it.

4. Personal contacts 'with instructors of other subjects are
a valuable asset. To mingle only with one's own type is to
narrow the vision to too small a scope. Study and discussion
of basic problems, and even special problems in other fields
than one's own, will broaden the teacher's vision and make him
more useful in the service.

The Teacher's Library

No instructor can expect to measure up to the greatest pos-
sibility of success without gradually acquiring a personal li-
brary. Just how extensive this can be will depend somewhat
upon the type of work engaged in, and the peculiar interests
of the individual. The amount of material will probably be
governed by the length of time the teacher has been in serv-
ice. The material that can be gathered for help in teaching
may be classified into four kinds as follows:

352 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

1. Professional magazines. The value of periodicals as a
help in teaching is often underestimated. In these are pre-
sented the latest thoughts and the most mature judgments
with regard to principles and practices within the field. Their
one big mission is to keep teachers alive on the job. Profes-
sional magazines within the special field considered here are
now available at a cost that is low compared with values re-
ceived. To be able to find such magazines in the school li-
brary or public library is not enough. The effort and
inconvenience connected with obtaining them from such
sources too often prohibits their full use in the work of the
teacher.

2. Trade journals. To keep abreast with the work of the
world is an everpresent duty of the shop instructor. Unless
he guards himself he may findor others may find that he
is thinking in the past instead of the present. Methods used in
the trade ten years ago, when he served as a workman, may
not be used now. One way to keep up with modern industry
is through the journals of the trade. Some phases of mechan-
ical work represented in school change more rapidly than
others, but all are constantly changing. Professional journals
will keep the teacher informed in methods and procedure in
schools; trade journals will give him a review of industry.
Both are essential in the life of a modern teacher of shopwork.

3. Popular magazines. Another class of magazines, rich in
values and suggestions for the shop instructor, is the type
covering popular phases of science and craftsmanship. In these
are often to be found kinks for the shop, articles of interest
and educational value to boys and adults, and material for
topics of related and occupational information.

4. Professional books. Collecting and reading books per-
taining to one's professional work may not be a guarantee of
efficiency in teaching. But it is one indication of such effi-
ciency. If in doubt, make a survey of the men who have

THE TEACHER AND HIS PROFESSION 353

progressed and assumed leadership. Not that all parts of all
books are directly useful, but they build for the reader a back-
ground, a foundation upon which to base his own action, and
usually his action is more acceptable because of that which he
has read. Without becoming acquainted with principles and
teaching methods as organized and presented by others, the
instructor cannot expect to reach maximum efficiency in his
own work. Teachers are usually eager to obtain books of
projects and things to be made. They should be similarly
eager to discover the best possible methods of handling their
students, and of transmitting more lasting values than a few
tool operations and a little skill.

Convenf/ons and Institutes

Some teachers faithfully attend conventions and institutes
while others stay at home. Both receive the same salary. What
is one gaining that the other is not? Those who go, if their
attendance is voluntary, have answered this question in their
own minds. But those who stay home, or who wish that
they could stay home, have difficulty in finding sufficient val-
ues to justify them in spending time and limited resources in
order to attend.

Arguments against institutes are numerous. "The program
is always arranged for the other fellow" for the academic
teachers. "The convention is run by high-brows." "The
speeches cover material of no interest or concern to the shop
teacher." "The conventions are poorly managed; meetings
do not begin or end on time." "The same old stuff is repeated
over and over." "Certain individuals try to control the whole
performance." "Some sections of the state or county are re-
ceiving too much attention." "There is too much generalizing,
and not enough coming down to practical problems." "They
do not know as much as we do about it," and so on a consid-

354 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

erable part of which is true, but not yet convincing that such
meetings are not worth attending.

Benefits from Conventions

Let us show the other side of the question, and offer a few
advantages of attendance upon institutes and other profes-
sional meetings:

1. Become acquainted 'with leaders. Leaders in the field
may be found at conventions. To meet them personally, to
become inspired by their personality, to learn something of
the secret of their success, should be worth while to every per-
son in the ranks.

2. Learn new methods. Receiving a first-hand knowledge
of methods and organizations in schools and school systems
where the most effective work is done is another advantage
which changes from year to year. Programs of merit are re-
viewed by persons who have done more thinking and plan-
ning than the men in the ranks. Although not much of such
material can be taken home bodily and applied, the ideas set
forth will broaden those who receive them, and many of them
are usable in other forms.

3. General inspiration. The general inspiration that comes
from hearing speakers of power and vision, and the renewed
confidence in the worth-whileness of the work, are matters
worthy of consideration. "Without vision the people perish,"
is no more true anywhere than in the teaching profession.
And how can there be vision for the individual who never
shares the viewpoints of others working in the same field or
allied fields? The best of men will become discouraged when
struggling alone. A convention is a source of inspiration with-
out which no progressive teacher should plan his year's work.

4. While one gives he gets. To have a part in working
out unsolved problems, of which there are many in the field
of industrial arts, to assist in clarifying aims and objectives

THE TEACHER AND HIS PROFESSION 355

and in formulating policies for this increasingly important
phase of education, should be the ambition of every true
teacher. Some will contribute little, others much. But while
contributing, if only through interest and his presence, the
teacher builds for himself a greater foundation for service
that will reap rewards in due time. Assistance in building for
stability and permanence in the program will repay in oppor-
tunities to do better service as a teacher.

What Experience Is Most Desirable?

In the early part of this chapter the outstanding qualifica-
tions of shop teachers were classified under two heads. An
examination in regard to each of these requirements should
result in a reasonable decision with reference to the use of the
summer time, barring, of course, unusual financial or physical
difficulties. If the teacher is weak in mechanical skill, let him
go into the trade; if he is too much of a tradesman, and too
little of a teacher, let him seek the education needed in a suit-
able college; if he lacks backgrounds and appreciation, let him
study literature, economics, sociology, or simply find an op-
portunity to mingle with broadly educated men.

Some teachers can profitably be reminded of the need of
getting degrees and ratings; others, and not a small number,
should probably be encouraged to forget them for a while.
Professional advancement there must of necessity be, but of
what it should consist is another question. There is danger
that the tradesman never becomes educated into the spirit of
efficient teaching, but also that the teacher becomes educated
away from tools, labor, production. Both sides are real. The
"swivel-chair" vocational teacher, who has substituted telling
for doing, and surveys and card files for demonstration and
production, is just as inefficient as the industrial-arts teacher
who simply acts as a foreman for the group in turning out
production work.

356 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

Looking for the New

As previously brought out, one test of a teacher's effi-
ciency is whether his mind is open to new ideas and sugges-
tions. The spirit of experimentation keeps the shop instructor
alive. Too many are looking back instead of forward, and
doing their work this year as they did last year. The work
loses its freshness to the instructor and the pupils. Meanwhile,
there are teachers all about who discover and organize new
methods, new products, new approaches. Looking for the
new in magazines, books, industry, and in one's own imagina-
tion is a professional duty, and the joy of members of the
teaching profession.

Contributing Ideas

Many teachers who are doing outstanding and unique work
go to their graves with their "trade secrets." It should be an
accepted duty to contribute to others those problems and pro-
cedures which have originality and which have been found
to be of special value. Such contributions can be made in the
form of magazine articles, talks at teacher's meetings, or in
other ways.

PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS

1. What other means can you think of through which one
may learn to teach except through the four mentioned in this
chapter?

2. Make out a schedule by months for the school year showing
conscious activities through which an industrial-arts teacher may
grow in his profession.

3. Do you believe that it is necessary for a teacher to be
acquainted with the subject matter of a number of other fields
except his own?

4. Do you believe in the opinion of some that knowing the
subject is sufficient guarantee of good teaching? Explain.

5. Make a list of points that might be noted in an observation
trip in a junior-high-school woodworking shop or drafting room.

THE TEACHER AND HIS PROFESSION 357

6. In your experience to what extent do you feel that directed
teaching in a teacher-training institution has been helpful for
later teaching?

7. What means have been applied by boards of education for
encouraging teachers to do further study?

8. List ten professional books, with their authors and pub-
lishers, which you would wish an industrial-arts teacher to possess
and read.

9. Make a list of trade journals that have value for industrial-
arts teachers.

10. Name the national associations the activities of which should
be of interest to shop teachers.

11. Name four popular magazines which often contain sugges-
tions for shop projects and problems.

12. What teachers' organizations exist in your state for promot-
ing vocational and industrial-arts education?

13. What flaws do you find in the argument that teaching on
the job is the only worth-while way of learning to teach?

14. In your experience do you feel that you have absorbed
teaching methods unconsciously from your own teachers in high
school and college?

15. To what degree do you believe that a broad collegiate back-
ground makes an industrial-arts teacher more effective?

REFERENCES

1. Bawden, William T., "Professional Meetings for Shop Teach-
ers," Industrial Education Magazine, 36:75-80, March, 1934.

2. Bawden, W. T., and Others, Industrial Arts in Modern Edu-
cation^ The Manual Arts Press, Chap. VI.

3. Commission for Teacher Education, Teachers for Our
Times, American Council on Education, 1944, Chap. I.

4. Dewey, John, Experience and Education, The Macmillan
Co., 1938.

5. Ed. 22nd Yearbook, A.A.S.A., "Morale of Teachers," The
Education Digest, IX: 1-5, May, 1944.

6. Ewing, Claude E., "From Trade to Profession," Industrial
Arts and Vocational Education, 34:16-17, January, 1945.

7. Friese, John F., Exploring the Manual Arts, The Century
Co., Chap. XVI, 1926.

358 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

8. Herlihy, Charles M., "Professional Development of Indus-
trial-Arts Teachers," Industrial Arts and Vocational Educa-
tion, 32:414-15, December, 1943.

9. Jordan, Riverda Harding, Education as a Life Work, The
Century Co., 1930.

10. Mays, Arthur B., "The Attitudes and Outlook of Industrial
Arts Teachers," Industrial Arts Magazine, 18:87-9, March,
1929.

11. Meyer, E. D., "Follow-up Study of Industrial- Arts Grad-
uates," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 30:11-12,
January, 1941.

12. Pickens, V. L., "In-Service Training for the Industrial-Arts
Teacher," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 32:10-
13, January, 1943.

13. Radtke, Roy A., "An In-Service Training Program as a
Leisure-Time Activity," bidustrial Arts and Vocational Edu-
cation, 30:276-8, November, 1941.

14. Reed, Carroll R., "The Point of View of the Administra-
tion," Industrial Education Magazine, 36:113-16, May, 1934.

15. Selvidge, R. W., and Fryklund, Verne G, Principles of
Trade and Industrial Teaching, The Manual Arts Press, 1946,
Chaps. I and II.

16. Vaughn, Samuel J., and Mays, Arthur B., Content and Meth-
ods in Industrial Arts, The Century Co., 1924, Chap. XXI.

Chapter XVIII

SOURCES AND PREPARATION OF
INDUSTRIAL-ARTS TEACHERS

Sources of Industrial-Arts Teachers

From the very beginning of organized mechanical activities
in schools, the question of the sources of teachers and their
background has been an important one. Opinion has been di-
vided as to the relative importance of practical experience,
pedagogical training, and liberal-arts education, in the making
of an efficient instructor in the school shop. And where it has
been granted that an instructor of this special type of work
should possess all of these phases of preparation as a back-
ground, the question of which is of most importance has still
remained a debated one.

Teachers of shopwork in public schools have generally
come from one of two main sources: ( 1 ) teacher-training in-
stitutions, and (2) the crafts and industries.

Each of these types of teacher possesses, generally speaking,
certain definite characteristics. Each type has brought into
the work valuable contributions toward the development of
the total program of industrial education as we know it today.
Each, on the other hand, has lacked certain desirable abilities
and characteristics possessed, perhaps, by the other.

The School-trained Product

By a product of a teacher-training institution is meant the
teacher who has received his preparation for teaching through
a definitely organized school procedure. The high school and
the normal school or other teacher-training institution have
contributed to his preparation. Many administrators favor

359

360 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

this type. The baccalaureate degree, and the diploma indicat-
ing definite professional attainments, have come to be looked
upon as standard guarantees for admission into the teaching
profession. And while it may be said that many teachers of
this type have added other types of experience and training
to that received in schools, it is also true that there is still a
large number whose principal preparation, both technical and
pedagogical, has been obtained in schools.

Within this group belong two kinds of teachers: (1) those
who have prepared themselves principally to teach some aca-
demic subjects, and who later or simultaneously have acquired
a minimum amount of technical training, sufficient for taking
charge of a class or two in shopwork, and (2) those who have
pursued definite courses for preparing themselves to teach
only in this special field.

Strong Characteristics of the College Product

The strong qualities of a shop teacher who is a product of
a teacher-training institution may be enumerated as follows:

1. General academic and scholastic background. To know
some language, history, literature, and other liberal-arts sub-
jects, in common with other teachers of the school, is a valu-
able asset, even though the major portion of the work done is
to be in the school shop.

2. Professional preparation, including pedagogy and psy-
chology. There are general, tested principles upon which all
teaching is based, a knowledge of which adds to the value of
the work of a teacher. These principles have been studied ex-
tensively by this type of teacher.

3. Appreciation of general objectives in education. With
such appreciation a person will know better what part his
work will and must play, and will accord to other subjects
their rightful place in the total educational program.

4. Cooperation with fellow teachers. A broad vision of

PREPARATION OF TEACHERS 361

what education attempts to accomplish will make the teacher
tolerant and cooperative toward the work and problems of
other members of the teaching force.

5. Knowledge of school-shop organization. This type of
teacher has attended school recently and learned his work
under school conditions. Understanding of the organization of
the school shop is a natural result, aided by his professional
training in the special field.

6. Knowledge of customary school discipline. He will
know through his own experience, and through practice teach-
ing, what is considered proper conduct in the shop.

7. Knowledge of methods of teaching. In so far as his skill
in mechanical work extends, this type of teacher has been
trained in methods of procedure in demonstrating and explain-
ing his work.

8. Appreciation of problems of administration. Through
his professional preparation, he appreciates the larger aspects
of the work of administration, and is able to adjust himself to
better advantage.

9. Usefulness in related and extracurricular activities. A
broader knowledge of the entire program enables the teacher
to serve in connection with extra assignments, such as home
rooms, study halls, student enrollment and other activities.

10. Takes advantage of 'written and printed material. His
experience in handling available reference and text material,
job sheets, and other printed aids cause him to make use of
such material in his teaching.

Weaknesses of fhe School-Trained Teacher

The strong points mentioned, valuable as they are to any
instructor, do not cover all the desirable qualifications for an
efficient shop teacher. As disadvantages often characteristic
of this type of teacher, the following may be mentioned:

1. Lack of mechanical skill. With the best training and

362 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

practice that an institution can give, it is difficult to find suffi-
cient time for repetition of mechanical procedure until reliable
habits have been developed. Some acquire more skill than
others in the limited time available. Lack of skill is a serious
drawback in teaching mechanical work.

2. Lack of appreciation of standards of 'workmanship. Too
often work is allowed in schools that would not be acceptable
in industry, and if a teacher's training is too limited he may
not know the difference.

3. Lack of proper methods in production. Whether or not
this type of instructor fails at this point depends somewhat
upon the quality of instruction which he has received. But,
generally speaking, there is likely to be difficulty in this con-
nection.

4. Lack of appreciation of value of materials. If in his
training he has been allowed, as often is the case, to spoil one
piece and receive another without special comment or conse-
quence, the teacher may make himself subject to this criti-
cism.

5. Lack of appreciation of time values. Industry stresses
the value of time. In schools, even in teacher-training institu-
tions, the time element is not greatly considered. A great deal
of time is wasted in some school shops.

6. Lack of ability and interest to cooperate with industry.
There is danger that the school-trained man will busy himself
in his work at his school, and fail to make contacts with in-
dustry. His previous experience has not led him out in that
direction.

7. Lack of cooperation 'with labor. Much valuable assist-
ance and support are lost by teachers who fail to make con-
tacts with individual craftsmen and labor organizations. If the
instructor cannot "talk the language" of the trade, he is not
likely to solicit such contacts for their full value.

By listing these possible weaknesses it is not meant to indi-

PREPARATION OF TEACHERS 363

cate that all teachers who fall under the type discussed here
suffer from all the disadvantages mentioned. These are listed
as general tendencies. Many instructors whose preparation is
almost solely that of the teacher-training institution have been
remarkably free from nearly all these disadvantages; but this
fact does not eliminate the value of the suggestion that teach-
ers so trained can profitably examine themselves in the light of
these comments.

Craftsmanship as Background for Teaching

From the rank of tradesmen have come a large number of
men into the work of shop teaching. Some of these have been
subjected to a definite training program before entering the
school shop as instructors; others have come almost or totally
without such training. Skilled craftsmanship as a foundation
for this type of instruction has been held by many to be the
most important prerequisite. Some administrators have gone
so far as to say that skill of hand plus common sense make a
sufficient foundation for success in the school shop, while the
more recent practice seems to be a rather uniform demand for
a certain specified amount of definite teacher training before
certification to teach is granted.

Strong Qualities of the Craftsman

In common with the type of teacher already discussed,
the skilled tradesman brings with him into the school shop
many valuable assets, among which are:

1. Mechanical aptitude and skill. As has been suggested
previously, skill in doing is a prime requisite in teaching others
how to do manipulative work. This skill is first of all possessed
by the person who has become an outstanding craftsman.

2. Knowledge of standards of 'workmanship. The skilled
mechanic has a keen eye for qualities of workmanship, and is
inclined to demand that high standards be maintained.

364 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

3. Appreciation of time values. Experience in industry,
where a man must produce so much or give his job to another,
makes a person sensitive to the value of time. Loafing and
wasting of time by students are intolerable to the person who
is familiar with the demands of the trade.

4. Knowledge of standard trade methods. The basic meth-
ods and procedure of the trade are usually applicable to the
school. Tradesmen know these methods and will have them
used in the shop.

5. Ability to create and maintain shop atmosphere. The
proper atmosphere in the school shop is extremely important.
No other person can bring it about so naturally as the person
who has lived in it for years. Even a most casual visit will tell
the experienced observer whether such atmosphere of labor
and industry prevails.

6. Ability to cooperate 'with industry. The tradesman
"knows the language" of industry. He can coordinate the
work of the shop as need be with industry and with employ-
ers. He can get the confidence of those who furnish employ-
ment and who may lend support to his work.

7. Ability to make contacts with labor. Having come from
the ranks of labor, this type of teacher can obtain the full con-
fidence of labor. Such confidence is of value in developing
a shopwork program in the school. Wherever the program
has a vocational emphasis, this is doubly important, since the
graduates sent into industry will of necessity mingle with those
already in the trades.

Weaknesses of the Craftsman Teacher

As in the cases of the other type, not all the desirable char-
acteristics of an efficient teacher are found in the craftsman.
He is usually subject at least to the following difficulties:

1. Lack of knowledge of pedagogy and teaching methods.
There is a long step between being able to perform skillfully

PREPARATION OF TEACHERS 365

and being able to tell and demonstrate to others how to per-
form. To some men this step is more difficult than to others.
To all who are habitual producers, it involves something en-
tirely new. Without proper methods of instruction no suc-
cessful work can be done.

2. Lack of appreciation of the beginner's difficulties. After
manipulative work has become habitual, as in the case of the
journeyman worker, it is not a natural trait to analyze the
work from the standpoint of learning difficulties. Unless the
craftsman is caused in some way to reorganize his thinking, he
will err in this respect very seriously.

3. Lack of basis for proper discipline. The few regulations
or rules for conduct that might have been compulsory in the
shop will not apply to young boys in school. Men from the
ranks of industry are at a loss in regard to suitable regulations
for boys in the school shop, and are likely to be unnecessarily
strict, or to place no restrictions at all upon their students, in
many instances.

4. Overemphasis upon production. It is difficult for this
type of teacher to realize that efficient instruction in the school
shop is not always measurable by the weekly output of fin-
ished products. Acquisition of skill and knowledge by the
students must come first. In this there must be an output, but
its volume does not measure the amount of instruction given
or the value received.

5. Lack of appreciation of other subjects. The attitude
that considers shopwork the all-important phase of the school
program is a result of ignorance of other studies and their con-
tent. Full cooperation with other departments will best serve
everyone in the long run. Increased knowledge of the entire
curriculum will make the special teacher more valuable in
teaching his own subject.

6. Lack of appreciation of value of written and published
material. The craftsman is not accustomed to taking informa-

366 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

tion out of books. He may be slow in seeing their value for his
students.

7. Lack of cooperation 'with administration. Lack of
knowledge of school organization and problems in school ad-
ministration is often a cause of failure to cooperate.

8. Lack of general usefulness. The teacher who is consid-
ered to be of most value is the one who can serve the school
outside of his classroom as well as within. Unless the instruc-
tor has a broad knowledge of the general problems of the
school, and the principles underlying its organization, he will
be handicapped in this respect.

New Recruits for the Profession

In recruiting prospective teachers for industrial arts, both
the sources discussed in this chapter should be kept in mind.
Young men from the skilled crafts who have the proper back-
ground and personal qualities should be encouraged to enter
teaching as a profession. But they should be advised at the
same time to take a sufficient period of professional training to
become properly adjusted to their new profession. This can
not be done satisfactorily in summer session work, but should
include regular residence work, with cadet teaching. Men
with industrial background are needed for advanced work on
the technical level in high schools. A person who goes into
teaching as a lifework rather than as a means for semiretire-
ment will wish to take a sufficient amount of professional
preparation to equal others in the same field.

The chief source for recruiting suitable teachers will prob-
ably continue to be high-school graduating classes, and here is
where teachers in the service and counselors of high-school
students need to do a more thorough job. The teaching pro-
fession is now sufficiently attractive to interest the most able
of high-school graduates. But, as is often the case, teachers
think of other professions as more desirable than their own

PREPARATION OF TEACHERS 367

md fail to realize the need for recruiting strong candidates
For the many opportunities in this field of work.

PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS

1. What, in your opinion, can the school-trained shop teacher
do to remedy the deficiencies listed in the first part of the
chapter?

2. What type of teacher was considered most efficient in the
Swedish Sloyd system as advocated by Salamon?

3. From what sources were teachers obtained for the early
American, manual-training schools?

4. Make out what you consider the most desirable program of
experience and training for a shop teacher for junior high schools.

5. Repeat Number 4 for teachers of nonvocational subjects
in the senior high schools.

6. Name some teacher or supervisor of your acquaintance, and
show how his training has or has not contributed to his efficiency.

7. Make a list of strong and weak points in the types of teach-
ers discussed, in addition to the factors mentioned.

8. Make a study of six nationally known teachers or adminis-
trators in the field of industrial arts, and learn what has been
their background.

9. Make a study of the credential requirements in your state
for teaching industrial-arts subjects in the junior high school. In
the senior high school.

10. Make a similar study of the requirements for teaching voca-
tional, all-day, trade-preparatory classes under the Federal Voca-
tional Education Act, as administered by the state authorities.

11. What can a college-trained, industrial-arts teacher do to
learn about industrial methods and industrial production?

12. Is it possible in your opinion to have too much trade experi-
ence as a background for teaching industrial arts or vocational
classes?

REFERENCES

1. Brown, H. A., "Improved Teacher Education as a Basis for
Better Teaching," Education, 57:36-73, February, 1937.

2. Commission for Teacher Education, Teachers for Our
Times, American Council on Education, 1944, Chaps. I, IV.

368 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

3. Diamond, Thomas, "Standardization of Teacher Training
in Industrial Education," Industrial Education Magazine,
38:118-21, May, 1936.

4. Dodge, A. V., "What Should Be the Education and Training
of a Trade and Industrial Teacher?" American Vocational
Association Journal, 12:173-6, September, 1937.

5. Groneman, Chris Harold, "Enrollment in the Industrial Edu-
cation Teacher-Training Program," Industrial Education
Magazine, 41:140-5, May, 1939.

6. Herzberger, Oscar E., "Selecting Our Teachers to Be,"
Nations Schools, 18:35-6, November, 1936.

7. Leib, Benjamin Wiley, "Preparing Comprehensive General-
Shop Teachers in a Teacher's College," Industrial Education
Magazine, 41:165-70, September, 1939.

8. Pawelek, Stanley J., "Some Aspects of Industrial-Arts
Teacher Preparation," Industrial Arts and Vocational Educa-
tion, April, 1942.

9. Pickens, Verne L., "Changing Ideas in the Assignment of
Industrial-Arts Teachers," Industrial Education Magazine,
38:65-8, March, 1936.

10. Siepert, Albert Frederick, "The Prospective Industrial Arts
Teacher," Industrial Education Magazine, 41:65-7, March,
1939.

11. Stauffer, S. M., "Selecting and Training Teachers," School
Executive, 56:85-6, November, 1936.

12. Struck, F. Theodore, Methods and Teaching Problems in
Industrial Education, Wiley and Sons, Chap. L

Chapter XIX

SCOPE OF SERVICE AND FUTURE
OPPORTUNITIES

Teaching as an Occupation

The time is past when teaching as an occupation was open
to any person with some college training who found himself
prepared to do nothing else, or who failed to get a position
in the work for which he was specially trained. Now special-
ized preparation is expected and demanded for this service
as distinctly as for any other professional work.

And it is well that it should be so, for with these new de-
mands has come also a new and different evaluation of the
teacher and his work. The public, on the one hand, is real-
izing that the efficient teacher is worthy of rewards other than
the personal satisfaction of having rendered sacrificial service.
The teacher, on the other hand, is coming into the work with
a background of special training, and with the intention of
making teaching his lifework. With this intention in mind,
he proceeds to improve himself further in the service, and to
elevate the profession in which he is now a definite member.
He quits apologizing for being a teacher, and takes pride in
belonging to this professional group.

While teaching cannot now, and probably never will be,
considered a money-making occupation, it is, nevertheless,
true that the financial remuneration is more nearly commensu-
rate than ever before with the time used in preparation for the
work and the service rendered. It is probably as good on the
average as in similar occupations demanding an equivalent ex-
penditure of time and money in preparation, with a better
opportunity at the outset than in many of them.

369

370 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

In Comparison with Industry

In industry and business the aggressive person gets pro-
moted, and his salary is increased. In teaching, the same is
true. In teaching shop work and special subjects, particularly,
there are many opportunities for the live teacher to do more
than the minimum essentials for holding the job. Hard work
brings recognition here as elsewhere. When we are outside
looking in upon business and industry, we see the name of the
occasional person who receives the big promotion, but we
hear nothing of the unknown, routine worker, who has la-
bored faithfully and long to the exacting hours prescribed by
the firm, and who is yet a long way from the office manager's
or the general manager's position.

Why Teach?

But the financial remuneration alone is not the determining
factor. A true teacher finds in the work many other rewards,
among which are the following:

1. A chance to use initiative. Teaching usually involves
freedom to use one's own ideas; to organize the work and the
means for carrying it out; to use one's own methods in obtain-
ing results; and to use one's personality in putting over the
job.

2. Making human contacts. One who is a natural teacher
cannot fail to derive satisfaction from dealing with humanity
in its plastic state, and from being instrumental in shaping the
ideas and ideals of youth. In this opportunity lies a large por-
tion of the teacher's reward.

3. Variety in 'work. Teaching can never become a monot-
onous, routine job to one whose heart is in the work. There
is an endless variety of approaches and responses which will
keep the teacher alive. In the shop and laboratory this variety
is further multiplied, and the teacher's day can never seem
too long.

SCOPE OF SERVICE 371

4. Opportunity for outside contacts. The traditional idea
that the teacher is a shut-in, and has no chance for social or
other contacts outside of school, is probably no more true
than the teacher makes it true. There are ample outside asso-
ciations that may be formed, and that should be formed, and
the teacher can find time and opportunity to make such con-
tacts.

5. Continuous employment. Very few occupations are so
little dependent upon business, economic, political, and other
conditions for continuous employment as is that of a teacher.
Quality of service is the criterion upon which the teacher's
tenure of office usually depends, and it is right that it should
be so.

Outlook for the Future

Persons who contemplate entering the field of teaching in
industrial education, and those who are preparing themselves
for work in this field, have a right to be concerned over the
question of the scope and limitations of their future opportuni-
ties for service. Limited listing of the types of opportunities
which may come to those who have prepared themselves to
teach shopwork of various kinds may be of help in regard to
this question.

As a Teacher of Shopwork

Within the field of shopwork teaching a broad variety of
situations may be found. The extent to which a teacher can
fit into any or all of these will depend upon his training and
experience as well as upon his temperament and personal
choice. Requests for service of teachers over a period of years
have indicated the following types of demands, and types of
shop organizations:

I. Unit shops in junior high schools. Such shops have in-
creased in number very rapidly in city school systems. The

372 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

person who expects to be successful in this type of shop must
have a thorough knowledge of and skill in the specific sub-
ject involved; and must, in addition, have an interest in the
problems of early adolescence and a sympathy for the student
of that age.

2. General shop in junior high schools. The organization
of this type of shop has been discussed in Chapter XIV. For
success here are required the same personal characteristics as
those mentioned for the unit shop. The difference lies in the
fact that a broader scope of mechanical work is covered, and
consequently the teacher must possess a variety of skills in-
stead of being a craftsman in one type.

3. Industrial arts in elementary schools. Opportunities are
numerous for service in the smaller grammar schools where
the junior-high-school organization has not been introduced.
In many cases such appointments involve the serving of sev-
eral schools in carrying out the weekly program, and some-
times the teaching of other subjects in addition to shop work
becomes a part of the task.

4. The smaller high schools and union high schools. In these
schools it is often necessary to teach two or more distinct
types of shopwork. Requests for service coming from these
schools indicate that almost any combination of shop activities
may present itself. The general shop in all its variations is
found in these types of high schools.

5. Nonvocational 'work in city high schools. In this con-
nection the unit shop is the most common, but in many city
high schools, particularly where the ninth grade is included,
the general shop is in use. For teaching unit courses in any
high school the teacher must possess a definite degree of skill
in the subject which he attempts to teach, in addition to having
the required knowledge of the objectives, principles, and
methods pertaining to his special type of work, and to the
program of the school in general. The shopwork in this con-

SCOPE OF SERVICE 373

nection may be general in nature, or more strictly technical as
a preparation for engineering courses.

6. Vocational 'work in the high school. Mastery of the
trade, both from the standpoint of methods and skill in doing,
is the first prerequisite for teaching vocational classes. Methods
of teaching, knowledge of objectives, and understanding of
youth are of almost equal importance.

7. Special schools and classes. To teachers interested in stu-
dents of the special type who have not and will not profit by
the regular school program there are special opportunities for
service. The public-school systems often segregate such stu-
dents for special attention, and the instructor of construction
work becomes popular and valuable if he will learn to under-
stand the problems involved and prepare himself for solving
them.

8. The "industrial" schools. Persons with mechanical skill
and human sympathies, in addition to a knowledge of the
human mind, are needed in the special schools for boys who
have been placed in state or other institutions for correction.
To restore such individuals to society is a service worthy of
the attempts of the most skillful of teachers.

9. Part-time classes. The part-time education program
which has become a definite part of all larger school systems
offers opportunities for teachers of shopwork in all principal
types of shop activity.

10. Adult classes. Through night-school programs, teach-
ers of shopwork often have opportunity to extend their serv-
ices and earn additional salary. This field is rich in possibilities
for the industrial arts.

Supervision and Administration

While supervision is not a natural and logical ultimate at-
tainment for all ambitious shop teachers, it should be pointed
out that the supervisors usually come, and should come, from

374 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

those who have teaching experience within the field to be
supervised.

The fact might be stressed, however, that there must of
necessity be many teachers for each supervisor. It may also
be of value to point out that many persons who are doing
outstanding work as instructors do not become equally suc-
cessful as supervisors. To be a teacher of boys and girls is a
noble occupation for which some men are eminently fitted,
and in which they are happily engaged. The supervisor's job
is not easier; it is simply different. For a limited number of
outstanding teachers who are able to deal with men as well
as they have dealt with boys, it is a worth-while plan to obtain
the necessary additional preparation for service as a supervisor.

Two Levels of Supervision

In general, two separate types of supervision are recognized
by boards of education, and by systems of awarding creden-
tials:

1. Departmental supervision. As the term implies, this type
of supervision deals with a department in a school. It may in-
volve all the shopwork offered in that school, or may be con-
fined to a group of subjects, such as metalworking department,
woodworking department, and so on. For this type of service
there is a general demand.

2. General supervision of a field of 'work. Under this classi-
fication comes city-wide supervision of industrial-arts work,
or of vocational education, or, as is often the case, of the entire
program of industrial education, including both vocational
and nonvocational instruction.

The Coordinator

The coordinator, whose office has come to be a definite
part of industrial-education programs, is usually drawn from
the ranks of teachers. In a sense he is a supervisor and an in-

SCOPE OF SERVICE 375

structor in one person. In addition to knowledge of the trade
or occupation supervised, special interests and qualifications
are necessary for this type of activity.

Occupational Counseling and Guidance

While occupational study and guidance do not fall exclu-
sively within the realm of industries, it may be mentioned that
experience in industry and business forms a splendid back-
ground for rendering service in this field. Thus it happens
that teachers of shop subjects often become interested in a
certain group of students for whom the school of the past has
done very little, and through this interest they are welcomed
as counselors for larger groups. The practical outlook upon
life possessed by the teacher of technical and manipulative
subjects is the outlook needed by a large majority of high-
school students.

Genera/ School Administration

Positions of counselor, vice-principal, principal, and super-
intendent are logical goals of industrial-arts teachers who wish
to go into administrative work. As a matter of fact, teachers
whose background has brought them in contact with industry
and technology have an advantage in dealing with many as-
pects of school administration, including contacts with a large
portion of parents. The profound effect of invention and in-
dustry upon the pattern of modern living necessitates an un-
derstanding and appreciation on the part of persons in
administrative positions affecting the educational and social
development of youth. The teacher educated in industrial arts
should tye in a peculiar position to grow into such responsi-
bilities.

PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS

1. From where should our future teachers of industrial arts
be recruited and what qualifications should they have?

376 TEACHING THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS

2. Make a comparison between the training requirements for
teaching academic subjects in high schools fifteen years ago and
those of today.

3. Make a survey of the average salaries paid inexperienced
high-school teachers and of those paid engineering graduates in
their first positions.

4. Who in your opinion is responsible for recruiting suitable
teachers for the profession, and by what procedure should they
be recruited?

5. In what ways do you consider industrial-arts teaching to be
different today from what it was twenty years ago?

6. What are the principal discouraging factors in being a shop
teacher at this time?

7. Is teaching used more or less as a steppingstone to other
occupations now than formerly? Give reasons for your con-
clusions.

8. Make a list of reasons why persons quit teaching and go
into other work.

9. Ascertain what training is required before a person can be-
come a city supervisor of industrial-arts education in your state.

10. Answer the assignment in the foregoing paragraph with
reference to supervision of a program of vocational trade train-
ing in high schools.

11. Make a list of names of persons of your acquaintance who
have dropped out of the teaching profession and have gone into
other occupations.

REFERENCES

1. Bawden, William T., "The Outlook for Teacher Education
in Industrial Arts," Education, 65:623-9, June, 1945.

2. Christy, Elmer Willard, "Professional Outlook and Influence
of Industrial-Arts Leaders," Industrial Education Magazine,
38:113-17, May, 1936.

3. Jordan, Riverda Harding, Education as a Life Work, The
Century Co., 1930.

4. Meyn, Al. W., "The Future of Industrial Arts and Voca-
tional Education," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education,
34:1, January, 1945.

5. Park, Joseph Charles, "The Future of Industrial Educa-

SCOPE OF SERVICE 377

tion in the United States," Industrial Education Magazine,
41:252-8, November, 1939.

6. Schweichard, Dean Merrill, "New Horizons in Industrial
Arts," Industrial Education Magazine, 41:224-9.

7. Williams, Edward Lewis, "Estimating the Potential De-
mand for Industrial Arts," Industrial Education Magazine,
39:141-5, May, 1937.

INDEX

A

Abbreviated

course, the, 291

teaching plan, sample, 73
Accidents

caused by shop exploration, 168

conditions causing, 163

fewer, 167

from overtime work, 167

insurance, 173

prevention, 163, 165
Achievement, means for determining,

203

Activity, types of in shop, 233
Administration

general school, 375, 378

rating of teacher, 227

relationships with, 320
Administrator, meeting with, 18
Adult classes, 373
Advertising materials, use of, 158
Aids in teaching, 160
Analysis as basis for planning instruc-
tion, 66

Appearance of teacher, 335
Arrival on job, time for, 16
Articles to be made, sequence of, 288
Assignments

making effective, 194

rotating of, 104
Attitude, cooperative, 34

B
Books

objections to, 150

professional, 352

project, 149

shop manuals, 149

use of for industrial arts, 148

use of in shop, 136

values of, 153

why use? 152
Bulletin boards, 334
Buying for school shop, 313

Cardinal principles, 256

Cardinal qualifications for teaching

shopwork, 348

Changes, recommendations for, 244
Character building in student, 258
Checking sheet, 75
Citizenship, development of, 295
Civic education, 258
Classes

number taught, 230

size of for industrial arts, 232

starting in general shop, 127

types of activity carried on therein,

233
Class

discussion of purposes, 33

first meeting, 31

getting acquainted, 32

length of periods, 231

recognition of pupils, 33

review of course content, 33

when to begin work, 37
Cleaning the shop, 115
Clerk, the supply, 118
Clubs, student, 328
Combination machines, 318
Comprehensive course of study, 296
Conference method, 62
Construction unit, sample, 270
Contacts, personal by teacher, 344
Conventions, 353
Cooperation of student, 85, 168
Coordinator, the, 374
Correlation in shopwork, 129
Cost, keeping down in shopwork, 134
Costs, money available for shop, 317
Counseling and guidance, 375
Counseling of student, 329
Courses of study

abbreviated course, 291

basis approaches, 288

comprehensive, 296

for future usefulness, 290

junior-high-school general metal, 295

379

380

INDEX

Courses of study CorA

order of facts to be learned, 289
procedure in organizing, 286
who should make, 287
Culture, participation in, 259
Cutaway equipment, use of, 159

D

Daily teaching plan, 75
Danger signs, value of, 170
Demonstration

class, 47

group, 51

individual, 52

the, 45
Discipline

anticipation of problems, 95

as a by-product, 93

elements of, 93

in shop, 84

interpretation of, 84

maintaining, 95

pupil participation in, 84

technique of, 97

the teacher as a factor in, 87

working conditions affecting, 90
Discovery method, 63
Discussion method, 62
Distractions and annoyances

avoidance of, 77

list of, 78
Duties, variety of, 326

Education, civic, 258
Efficiency, means for evaluation teach-
er's, 223

Elementary school, 276
Elementary schools, a typical activity

for, 277

Emergency work in the shop, 139
Equipment, 35
Equipment and supplies, 23

caring for, 113

choice of machines, 317

conditions which cause accident, 163

for school shop, 302

frequency of use of, 315

general usefulness, 314

inventories, 240

order of purchase, 316

placing of, 321

purchase of used, 319

Equipment and supplies Cont.

recommending of, 244

records of, 131

relative cost of, 315

repairs, 114

selection of, 319

space for, 316

specification of, 319

surveying needs for, 312

use of cutaway or sectional, 159
Exhibits

as publicity feature, 342

objections to, 330
Experience, most desirable, 355
Exploitation of students, 138
Extracurricular responsibilities, 326

Faculty

meetings, 28

duties of member, 332
Fear as cause of accidents, 172
Films

procedures in using, 155

sources of, 157

still, 154

Finances in shop, 136
First-aid, need for knowledge of, 173
Foreman

selection of, 122

student, 103
Funds, available, 317
Future outlook for teacher, 371

General school administration, 375
General shop

limited, 306

organization of, 126, 303
Girls, industrial arts work for, 129
Goals, social and economic, in

America, 258

Grade points, variation in, 198
Grades, measuring achievement, 201
Grading

as teaching device, 190

basic points for, 191

by projects, 193

chart, 195

chronologically, 194

multiple choice tests, 208

periods for, 193

reasons for, 202

INDEX

381

Grading system

basis for, 189

efficiency of, 190

the open, 196
Grading

uniformity in, 200

weighing of points, 193
Guidance, 177

H

Health, student, 256

Heredity, 259

Home membership of student, 256

Home room, 29, 326

Homework, credit for, 142

Home workshop, 14 1

Honor system, the, 112

I

Idleness, prevention of, 236
Industrial arts, distinguished from vo-
cational education, 247
Industrial arts work for girls, 129
industrial schools, 373
Industries, visits to, 181
Industry, understanding of, 251
Information

occupational, 178

related, 177, 179, 185

sheets, 57

types of related, 177
Institutes, 28, 353
Instruction,

planning of, 64

sheets, 123

sheets, limitations of, 60

sheets, teacher-made, 58

sheets, types of, 55

sheets, use of, 54

sheets, value of, 59
Interest

importance of, 40

maintaining, 79

of pupil, 289
Inventories

checking, 21

of equipment, 240
I-Q, relation of to work, 40

J

Jobs, division of, 122
Job sheets, 55

Junior high school general metal, 295
Junior high school, subject matter for,
279

K

Keeping records, 130

Leadership, student, 102
Lecture

illustrated, 53

method, 53

Leisure, worthy use of, 258
Lesson planning, 65, 298
Library and shop, care of, 136
Library, teachers', 351

M

Machinery, care of power machinery,

237

Machines, 317, 318
Magazines, 352
Management, student participation in,

102

Manuals, for shop, 149
Marking work areas, 166
Material

reference, 153

sources of teaching, 269
Materials

bill of, 122

use of for advertising, 158

who should furnish, 133
Measuring achievement, 201
Measuring teaching efficiency, 223
Meeting the class, 31
Mock-ups, use of, 158
Models, use of, 158
Money, who should handle, 136
Morale, of student, 328
Motion pictures

as aids, 154

as occupational information, 182
Motors, safety of, 166

N

Newspapers, as publicity avenues, 340

Objective tests, suggestions for mak-
ing, 216

382

INDEX

Objectives

comparing results with, 214
satisfying in shop planning, 312

Occupation, choice of by pupil, 260

Occupational
counseling, 375
information, 178, 179, 180, 181

Occupations

assigned study about, 180
outline for evaluating, 183

Office, spare, 310

Open house, 343

Opening school, 16, 30

Operation sheets, 55

Opportunity, equality of for pupil, 261

Organization, 235

Overtime work as cause of accidents,
167

Permanent records, 244
Personality, emphasis on student char-
acter, 260

Personnel, reassignment of, 125
Physical security, 259
Principles, the cardinal, 256
Problem-solving method, 63
Procedures in studying related infor-
mation, 179

Production, quantity, 119
Production work

advantages of, 120

disadvantages of, 121
Professional advancement of teacher,

349
Progress

chart, 205

checking, 124

means for determining, 203

reasons for measuring, 202
Project plan, 75
Publicity, 339, 342, 344
Public relations, 103, 339, 343
Pupil

attitude, 192

development of work habits, 253

in junior high school, 255

in senior high school, 256

interest, 289

morale of, 328

progress, testing and recording of,
189

protection of, 172

Pupil Cont.

self-discovery by, 251

self-expression of, 251

counseling of, 329

homogeneity of, 231

recognition of, 33
Purchasing shop materials, SI 3

Quantity production
a typical job, 122
general instruction in, 124
organization for, 119

R

Recommendation for changes, 244

Record keeping, 130

Records

looking up, 21

of equipment and supplies, 131

permanent, 244
Reference material, 153
Related information, 177, 185
Repairs, 114, 137
Report, weekly, 75
Requisition blanks, use of, 116
Retarded student, 39
Rotating assignments, 104
Rural school, subject matter for, 281

S

Safety

education, general, 174

instruction, 163

provisions, 36

suggestions for, 170

tests, 173

Schools, in eyes of public, 339
School

paper, 341

protection of, 172

repairs, 137

year, closing of, 235, 242
Sectioned equipment, 159
Security, physical and mental, 259, 260
Senior high school, subject matter for,

281
Shop

buying for, 313

care of library in, 136

INDEX

383

Shop Cont.

cleaning of, 115

condition of, 90

discipline in, 84

exploration in, 168

general, 303

manuals, 149

new type, 41

office space, 310

order in, 93

organization of the general, 126

planning, 306

planning check list for, 310

relative cost of, 315

school, equipping of, 302

seating, 309

floor space for, 308

special, 41

tool and supply rooms for, 309

unit or single-activity, 302
Shopwork

correlation in, 129

keeping down cost of, 134
Showing method, 45
Signs, 343

Single-activity shop, 302
Social

goals, in America, 259

relations, 262
Sources

of films, 157

of industrial arts teachers, 359
Stockrooms, conditioning of, 239
Student

cooperation of, 85

exploitation of, 121

participation in management, 102,
103

retarded, 39
Subject matter

analysis basis for selection, 266, 270

determining, 274

evaluation of, 282

factors in choice of, 266

in elementary schools, 276

in junior high, 279

in rural schools, 281

in senior high, 281

sample analysis of, 270

typical activity for elementary

schools, 277

Superintendent, attracted through pub-
licity, 344

Supervision and administration, 373,

374
Supplies

handling of, 116

recommending of, 244
Supply

clerk, 118

rooms, 309
Switches, safety of, 166

Teacher

advancing professionally, 349
advantages of self-improvement of,

350

and his profession, 347
appearance of, 335
as faculty member, 332
as rated by administration, 227
contribution of ideas, 356
cooperation with faculty, 333
evaluation of, 87
future fields for, 371
health of, 226
loyalty to school, 332
out of school relationships, of 335
protection of, 172
relationship, 226, 336
self-rating by, 223
Teachers

characteristics of college- trained

teacher, 360

craftsman teacher, advantages of, 363
craftsman teacher, weaknesses of,

364

entering new positions, 16
future opportunities for, 369
library, 351
meetings, 334
recruiting new, 366
sources of, 359
weaknesses of college-trained

teacher, 361
Teaching

aids, 148, 160

approved steps in, 68

as an occupation, 369

cardinal qualification for teaching

shopwork, 348
compared with industry, 370
efficiency evaluation of, 223, 229
goals, 247, 249, 255

384

INDEX

Teaching Cont.

how one learns to teach, 347

material, sources of, 269

methods, 45, 53, 54, 62, 63

physical facilities for, 232

plan, 68, 69, 72, 73, 74, 75

reasons for, 370

steps preliminary to, 16

telling method of, 53

techniques, 46
Testing pupil progress, 189

completion, 209

comprehension, 213

matching, 211

multiple choice, 208

objective, 206, 216

occupational aptitudes, 218

paper, 206

procedure arrangement, 214

true-false, 207
Textbook method, 54
Time, saving of, 38
Tool clerk, student, 106
Tool kit, the individual, 110
Tool panel, the, 110
Tool processes, sequence of, 288
Toolroom

central, 105

disadvantages of, 108

individual, 106

use of, 309

Tools

buying of small, 322

care of, 105

free access to, 109

identification of, 111

procedures for checking, 107

reconditioning of, 236
Trade journals, 35
Trouble shooting, 139

U

Unit
plan, 74
shop, 302

Visiting industries, 181

Vocational education distinguished

from industrial arts, 247
Vocation, student exploration of, 258

w

Wall framing, sample related knowl-
edge unit, 274

Work

areas, marking of, 166
comparing with work of others, 204
starting in general shop, 127
when to begin, 37

Workshop, the home, 141