U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
OFFICE OF INFORMATION
DIVISION OF PUBLICATIONS
TECHNICAL BULLETINS
Nos. 176-200
WITH CONTENTS
PREPARED IN THE INDEXING SECTION
UNITED STATES
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON : 1931
CONTENTS
Technical Bulletin No. 176. — The Citrus Rust Mite and Its
Control (W. W. Yothers and Arthur C. Mason) : Page
Introduction I
Origin and distribution 2
Systematic history 2
Economic importance 3
• Host plants 3
Specific preference 5
Mites mistaken for the citrus rust mite 6
Rust-mite injury 7
Injury to the fruit ^_ 7
Injury to the leaves and branches 16
Life history and habits 17.
Methods of rearing 17
The egg 20
The larva 21
The adult 21
Seasonal history 26
Methods of spread 27
Distribution on nursery stock 27
Distribution by insects and birds 28
Distribution by wind 28
Distribution by crawling _-_ 28
Natural control 29
Climatic factors influencing the number of rust mites 29
Relation to site 32
Insect enemies 33
Fungi 34
Artificial control 35
Ineffective insecticides 35
Effect of sulphur on rust mites 39
Effect of w^eak dilutions of lime-sulphur solution on rust mites. _ 41
Efficiency of various sulphur compounds for rust-mite control-- 42
Thoroughness in spraying needed 46
Time to spray 47
Effect of rain following spraying with lime-sulphur solution 47
Injury following the use of lime-sulphur solution 48
Dusting with sulphur for rust-mite control 49
Summary 54
Literature cited 55
Technical Bulletin No. 177. — Commercial Irrigation Companies
(Wells A. Hutchins):
Introduction 1
Conclusions as to present usefulness of commercial companies 2
As a means of irrigation development 2
As a permanent irrigation-utility investment 3
As a means of best serving the interests of water users 4
Classification of commercial companies 5
Construction or development companies 5
Private-contract companies 5
Public-utility companies 6
Contribution of commercial enterprises to irrigation development — 6
Why commercial-company investments have been generally unprofit-
able 6
Construction or development companies 7
Private-contract companies 8
Public-utility companies 9
1
Z CONTENTS
Technical Bulletin Xo. 177 — Continued. l*age
Internal features of commercial companies 1 15
Character of organization • 15
Securities 15
Water rights 16
Qualifications of consumers 17
Rights of consumers upon transfer of utility properties 18
Water charges and collections 18
Management 22
Public regulation of irrigation utilities 23
Power of State to regulate 23
Companies subject to regulation 23
Regulating agencies 25
Proceedings 25
Rates 25
Service 31
Security issues and construction 33
Accounting 34
What public regulation has accompMshed 34
Appendix 36
Literature cited 39
Technical Bulletin No. 178. — Properties of Soils which Influence
Soil Erosion (H. E. Middleton):
Introduction 1
Outline of investigation 2
Experimental work 2
First group 3
Second group 7
Third group . 11
Discussion 13
Summary 15
Literature cited 15
Technical Bulletin No. 179. — Cooperative Marketing of Fluid
Milk (Hutzel Metzger):
Introduction 1
Development of milk-marketing associations 2
Cooperatives of the Philadelphia milk shed 4
Development in the New York milk shed 6
Development in other sections 8
Chicago milk producers' strike 11
Other strikes follow 11
Influence of United States Food Administration 13
Legality of associations questioned 13
The Capper-Volstead Act 14
Present status of fluid-milk cooperatives 15
Types of associations 17
Bargaining associations 17
Operating or marketing associations 20
Organizations of milk-marketing association 21
Pooling practices 22
Financing milk cooperatives 23
Sources of capital for current operating expenses 24
Seasonal variation and production control plans 29
The basic surplus plan 31
The contract plan 38
The plans compared 45
Price policies and plans 46
Price methods of some individual cooperative associations 51
Some representative associations 60
Dairymen's League Cooperative Association (Inc.) 60
Maryland State Diarymen's Association 63
The Inter-State Milk Producers' Association 69
Connecticut Milk Producers' Association 73
The Dairymen's Cooperative Sales Co 75
Cooperative Pure Milk Association 79
Twin City Milk Producers Association 81
- California Milk Producers Association 84
National Cooperative Milk Producers Federation 86
Appendix * 88
CONTENTS 6
Technical Bulletin No. 180. — Origin and Distribution of the
Commercial Strawberry Crop (J. W. Strowbridge) : i*a«»
Introduction i 1
Commercial position of the crop 4
Growth of the industry 5
Areas of production 5
Yield per acre 9
Production 11
Trend of acreages 12
Production and shipments 14
Crop-movement period 16
Varieties of strawberries 22
Review of the strawberry industry by States, 1920 to 1926, inclusive. 24
Approximate distribution from five important districts 53
Carload unloads at 50 markets 63
Origin of the carload strawberry supply of 69 markets 68
Cost per quart for transportation of strawberries 101
Conclusions » 104
Technical Bulletin No. 181. — Clubroot of Crucifers (F. L.
Wellman) :
Introduction 1
Early history, importance, and geographical distribution of clubroot. 2
Certain phases of the life history of the causal organism 3
Spore germination 4
Comparison of temperature ranges of spore germination and
disease development 8
Soil moisture and the infection period 9
Soil reaction in relation to clubroot 11
Review of literature 11
Methods used in determining soil reaction 13
Results of survey of infested soils 14
Influence of addition of various chemicals to the soil 15
Liming for control of clubroot 17
Previous investigations ^ 17
Greenhouse pot tests 19
Field experiments 20
Discussion of control studies 25
Summary 27
Literature cited 28
Technical Bulletin No. 182. — Factors Affecting the Mechanical
Application of Fertilizers to the Soil (Arnon L. Mehring and
Glenn A. Cumings) :
Introduction 1
Early mechanical distributors 2
Purpose of the investigation 5
Preliminary work 5
Description of experimental apparatus, materials, and methods 8
Air-conditioning plant 8
Fertilizers and distributors selected 11
Experimental methods 15
Factors affecting the drillability of fertilizers 17
Weather 17
Hygroscopicity 22
State of subdivision 24
Heterogeneity 32
Specific gravity 33
Friction between particles 35
Conditioners 40
Distributors, their construction and operation 42
Types of distributors 42
Types of fertilizers used in the study of distributors 42
Experimental procedure 44
Distributor No. 1, grain-drill attachment 47
Distributor No. 2, grain-drill attachment 51
Distributor No. 3, potato-planter attachment 54
Distributor No. 4, potato-planter attachment 56
Distributor No. 5, potato-planter attachment 58
4 CONTENTS
Technical Bulletin No. 182 — Continued.
Distributors, their construction and operation — Continued. J*»ge
Distributor No. 6, corn-planter attachment 60
Distributor No. 7, broadcast or 3-ro\v distributor 62
Distributor No. 8, single-row distributor 63
Distributor No. 9, single-row distributor 66
Distributor No. 10, single-row distributor 67
European types of distributors 70
Factors affecting the operation of distributors 72
Depth of fertilizer in the hopper 72
Inclination of distributor 75
Variation in distributing units 77
Unrestricted flow of fertilizer through the distributing mechanism 80
Use of agitators 81
Feed-wheel speed 82
Positive action of the distributing mechanism 83
Uniformity of distribution 84
General results and recommendations 87
Conclusions 93
Literature cited 94
Technical Bulletin No. 183. — Life History of the Oriental Peach
Moth at Riverton, N. J., in Relation to Temperature (Alvah
Peterson and G.J. Haeussler) :
Introduction 1
Explanation of terms 1
Methods and equipment 2
Insectary and orchard compared 8
Life history of the oriental peach moth 9
General discussion 9
The egg 10
The larva __.. 14
The cocoon 1 17
The pupa 21
The adult 22
The life cycle 25
Generations per season 26
Temperature and effective daj' degrees 1 27
Summary 35
Literature cited 37
Technical Bulletin No. 184. — Erosion and Silting of Dredged
Drainage Ditches (G. E. Ramser) :
Introduction 1
Relation of velocity to erosion and silting 2
Velocity due to three factors 4
Conditions affecting erosion and silting in a channel 5
Vegetation 5
Caving and sloughing banks 6
Backwater 7
Variation in water stages 8
Enlargement of cross section 8
Silt charge in streams 9
Variation in fall of channels 9
Volume of run-off water 10
Effects of erosion and silting on the discharge capacity of a channel. _ 10
Field measurements 11
Computations 11
Tabulated results 12
Description of channels 16
Streams in Lee County, Miss 16
Streams in Bolivar County, Miss 21
Streams in western Tennessee 29
Streams in western Iowa 41
Application of results 49
CONTENTS O
Technical Bulletin No. 185. — Irrigation Requirements of the
Arid and Semiarid Lands of the Southwest (Samuel Fortier and
Arthur A. Young) : Page
Introduction 1
The Southwest 2
Soils of the larger irrigated areas 3
Climatic conditions 5
Water resources 11
Agricultural resources 15
Irrigation practice 17
Crops grown under irrigation 19
Relation of water applied to crop yield 20
Water requirement of crops 22
Sorghums 22
Cotton 25
Alfalfa 26
Rhodes grass 26
Corn 27
Vegetables 28
Summary of water requirements of leading corps 28
Conditions influencing the quantity of water required for irrigation. _ 29
Physical conditions 29
Character of equipment, etc 30
Conditions relating to farm management 30
Economic phases 30
Duty of water as affected by State, community, and corporate re-
gulations 31
Statutes and court decisions 31
Community regulations and contracts 32
Arid-land reclamation and monthly and seasonal irrigation require-
ments 34
Appendix 37
Use of water on crops in the Southwest, irrigation water applied,
rainfall, and crop yields in Colorado, California, Arizona, New
Mexico, Texas, and Oklahoma 37
Technical Bulletin No. 186. — The Bacterial Blight of Beans
Caused by Bacterium Phaseoli (W. J. Zaumeyer) :
Introduction 1
History of thfe disease 2
Host plants 3
Distribution and economic importance 4
Symptoms 5
Moisture as a factor influencing infection 6
Transmission of bacterial blight 9
Seed transmission 9
Overwintering on bean straw 10
Insect transmission 11
Dew as a factor in dissemination 11
Other evironmental factors aflecting dissemination 11
The presoaking of seed as a factor in dissemination 13
Relation of parasite to host 13
Materials and methods 13
Relation of parasite to leaf tissue 14
Relation of parasite to stem tissue 16
Cell-wall disintegration through bacterial action 21
Relation of the parasite to pods and seeds 23
Penetration of bacteria into the cotyledon 27
Varietal resistance , 30
Methods 30
Varietal tests 32
Summary 33
Literat ure cited ' 34
6 CONTENTS
Technical Bulletin No. 187. — Ventilation op Farm Babns (M. A. R.
Kelley) : ^aK«
Introduction 1
Character of tests 2
Description of instruments 3
Explanation of terms 3
Correlation of variable factors 4
Summary 5
Animal heat a primary factor in ventilation 6
Food, the source of animal heat 7
Heat losses 7
Effect of thermal environment 8
Comparison of heat production of horses and cows 9
Carbon dioxide in ventilation 12
Composition of pure air 13
Weight of air 14
Composition of expired air 14
Production of carbon dioxide in the stable 14
Composition of barn air 15
Moisture in ventilation 17
Production of moisture 17
Moisture content of air 17
Causes of damp walls 18
Effect on animal life 18
Effect on structures 19
Climatic conditions affecting construction " 20
Length of stabling season 21
Volume of air space per head of stock 22
Wall construction and insulation 26
Function of insulation 27
Selection of materials 27
Air-tightness 29
Amount of insulation 29
Storm sash and vestibules 31
Representative test 32
Description of physical conditions 32
Description of test 33
Comparison of ceiling and floor outlets 37
Drip and condensation • 39
Wind effects 40
Heat balance 41
Factors affecting operation of ventilation system 42
Maintenance of stable temperature 42
Effect of changes in intakes and outtakes 44
Ceiling and floor outtakes 46
Effects of outside temperatures ^ 48
Stable humidity 50
Factors affecting efficiency of system 53
Height and construction of flue 53
Effect of open ventilator base 56
Windows as intakes 56
Back drafting 59
Effect of wind on flue velocity 60
Furnace registers 61
Automatic intakes 61
Ha}^ chutes 62
Determination of flue sizes 63
Consideration of basic factors 63
Development of formula 64
Literature cited 72
Technical Bulletin No. 188. — Life History of the Plum Curculio
IN the Georgia Peach Belt (Oliver I. Snapp) :
Introduction 1
The Georgia peach belt and its climate 2
Methods and equipment 3
Studies of oviposition 3
Studies of incubation 3
Studies of the larval period 3
CONTENTS 7
Technical Bulletin No. 188 — Continued.
Methods and equipment— Continued. Page
Larvae from peach drops 3
Studies of pupation .. 4
Emergence of adults 4
Studies of parasites 4
Studies of hibernation 4
Results of jarring 5
Studies of longevity 5
Feeding tests 5
The insectary 6
Weather records 6
Life history and habits of the plum curculio, as observed from 1921 to
1924, inclusive 6
The egg 7
The larva 27
The larva, pupa, and adult in the soil 37
The adult 45
Time required for transformation from egg to adult 58
Occurrence of beetles in orchards throughout the seasons of
1921 to 1924, inclusive 60
Relation of temperature to appearance of plum curculios from
hibernation 70
The relation of moisture and temperature to the development
of the curculio 73
Parasites of the plum curculio in Georgia 77
Feeding tests with lead arsenate 80
Conotrachelus anaglypiicus as a peach pest 88
Summary 90
Technical Bulletin No. 189. — Experiments on the Control of
Tomato Yellows (Michael Shapovalov and F. Sidney Beecher) :
Introduction 1
Alteration of the environment 2
Reduced sunlight 3
Shading with tall-growing plants 4
Shading with muslin tents 6
Shading with low and densely growing plants 7
Spraying and dusting 9
Soil management 10
Irrigation and fertilization 11
Soil dryness and preirrigation 13
Green manuring 13
Green manure with lime and fertilizers 14
Time of planting 16
Methods of handling seedlings 17
Development of resistant varieties 19
Summary and conclusions 20
Literature cited 21
Technical Bulletin No. 19 \ — A Study of the Lesser Migratory
Grasshopper (R. L. Shotwell) :
Introduction 1
History and synonymy 1
Geographical range 3
Variation 3
Habitat 5
Economic importance 6
Life historv 8
The egg 8
The nymphal stages 10
The adult 21
Reproduction 21
Seasonal history 23
Migratory habits 23
Nymphal migrations 23
Migrations of adults 26
Feeding 26
Enemies 27
8 CONTENTS
Technical Bulletin No. 190 — Continued. Page
Economic bearing of the information obtained 22
Control measures 30
Summary 31
Literature cited 39
Technical Bulletin No. 191. — The Production, Extraction, and
Germination of Lodgepole Pine Seed (C. G. Bates):
Introduction J 1
Character of lodgepole pine cones and seeds 3
Relation of fire to lodgepole pine distribution 3
Soil preferences 4
The cones 5
The seeds 6
Seed production of lodgepole pine 7
Description of the experiment 7
Comparison of the Medicine Bow and Gunnison stands 8
Amount of seed produced 9
Seed collecting and extracting 20
Cone collecting 20
Cone storage 21
Seed extracting 21
The loss of water by cones 26
The relative importance of temperatures in opening cones 31
Effect of various treatments on quantity and quality of seed 33
The economy of storage and air drying 50
Germination of lodgepole pine seed 57
The method of germination tests 57
Characteristics of greenhouse germination 70
Studies of field and nursery germination 73
Summary 79
Production 79
Extraction 80
Germination 83
Appendix 85
A model seed-extracting plant for lodgepole pine cones 85
A mechanical kiln 89
Cone-drying sheds 89
Literature cited 91
Technical Bulletin No. 192. — Wintering Steers in the North
Central Great Plains Section (W. H. Black and O. R. Mathews):
The section and its problems 1
Objects of the experiments 2
Plan of work and steers used 2
Feeds used 3
Summer pastures 5
Weather conditions during the experiments 5
Experiment 1, 1923-24 6
Experiment 2, 1924-25 •_ 7
Experiment 3, 1925-26 8
Experiment 4, 1926-27 9
Experiment 5, 1927-28 10
Average of the five experiments 11
Summary and conclusions 12
Technical Bulletin No. 193. — Experiments on the Processing and
Storing of Deglet Noor Dates in California (A. F. Sievers and
W. R. Barger) :
Introduction 1
The Deglet Noor date industry in California 2
Methods of handling the crop 2
Characteristics of Deglet Noor dates 3
Experimental work 4
Methods of sampling and analysis 5
Examination of fresh dates 6
Effect of processing conditions 8
Effect of slow processing on general conditions of fruit 11
CONTENTS 9
Technical Bulletin No. 193 — Continued.
Experimental work — Continued. Page
Experiments on storage 15
Effect of pasteurization and freezing on keeping quality 20
Summary 22
Literature cited 23
Technical Bulletin No. 194. — Economic Status of Drainage Dis-
tricts IN THE South in 1926 (Roger D. Marsden and R. P. Teele) :
Introduction 1
Purposes of the investigation 2
Drainage, soils, and agriculture in the districts 4
St. Francis Basin, Mo. and Ark 10
Black and Cache Rivers area, Missouri and Arkansas 12
Southeastern Arkansas 14
Yazoo Basin, Miss 15
Louisiana 17
Eastern North Carolina 20
Southern North Carolina 21
South Carolina 22
St. Johns Basin, Fla 23
Central Florida 24
West coast area, Florida 25
Indian River area, Florida 26
Lower east coast area, Plorida 27
Rate and degree of land development 27
Sale and settlement of the land 29
Missouri, Arkansas, and Mississippi 29
Louisiana 30
North Carolina and South Carolina 31
Florida 32
Conditions influencing land settlement 32
Location 33
Soils and crops 34
. Community development 34
Land-sales policies 35
Land prices 36
Cost of the drainage districts 36
Financial status of the districts 40
Indebtedness 40
Drainage and other taxes 42
Delinquent taxes 45
Means of increasing revenues 46
Conclusions 47
Technical Bulletin No. 195. — Control of the Mountain Pine
Beetle in Lodgepole Pine by the Use of Solar Heat (J. E.
Patterson) :
Introduction 1
Previous investigations 2
The method 4
How the insects are killed 4
Technic of application 4
Experimental procedure 5
Experimental data 5
Discussion of the data 11
Practical application in the Crater Lake Park project 16
Physical conditions on the project area 16
Application of the method 16
Comparison of the solar-heat treatment with the burning method 18
Summary 19
Technical Bulletin No. 196. — The Canning Quality of Certain
Commercially Important Eastern Peaches (Charles W. Culpepper
and Joseph S. Caldwell) :
Introduction 1
Review of literature 3
Plan of work 5
Source of material 6
10 CONTENTS
Technical Bulletin No. 196 — Continued. Pa«e
Chemical and physical studies 6
Methods of analysis 7
Results of analyses 8
Pressure tests 13
Changes occurring in storage 15
Canning tests 26
Methods employed in the canning experiments 26
Points considered in comparing the canned products 26
Relation of maturity to canning quality 27
Conparison of varieties 31
Canning after storage 33
Cold storage as an adjunct to canning 34
Selection and handling of material for canning 34
Stage of maturity for canning 35
Harvesting the fruit 36
Grading the fruit 38
Pitting the fruit 38
Lve peeling 38
Packing 39
Strength of sirup 39
Siruping and exhausting 39
Processing 40
Cooling the cans 40
Some factors determining the success of a canning enterprise 41
Development of a southeastern peach-canning industry 42
Summary 43
Literature cited 45
Technical Bulletin No. 197. — Milling and Baking Qualities of
World Wheats (D. A. Coleman, Owen L. Dawson, Alfred Christie,
H. B. Dixon, H. C. Fellows, J. F. Hayes, Elwood Hoffecker, J. H.
ShoUenberger and W. K. Marshall) :
Introduction 1
Source of samples 6
Factors determining the milling and baking quality of wheat 9
Methods of analysis used 11
Grain grading methods 11
Chemical methods 12
Milling methods 12
Baking methods 16
Method of presentation of data 19
Milling and baking qualities of North American wheats 20
Canada 20
Mexico 43
United States 44
Milling and baking qualities of South American wheats 78
Argentina 78
Chile 95
Uruguay 97
Milling and baking qualities of European wheats 99
Belgium 99
Bulgaria 103
Czechoslovakia 107
Denmark 109
England 111
Estonia 115
Germany 118
Greece- 1 ^ 123
Hungarv 125
Irelandl 127
Italy 130
Latvia 136
Lithuania 139
Netherlands 141
Norwav 145
Poland 148
Russia (Union of Socialist Soviet Republics) 151
CONTENTS 11
Technical Bulletin No. 197 — Continued.
Milling and baking qualities of European wheats — Continued. Page
Scotland 158
Spain and Portugal 161
Sweden 166
Switzerland 170
Milling and baking qualities of wheats grown in Africa 174
Egypt 174
Morocco 177
Tunis 179
Union of South Africa 182
Milling and baking qualities of Asiatic wheats 187
India 187
Iraq 194
Japan 197
Palestine 201
Other Asiatic countries 203
Milling and baking qualities of wheats grown in Oceania 203
Austraha 203
New Zealand 213
Summary 216
Literature cited 223
Technical Bulletin No. 198. — Relative Insecticidal Value of Com-
mercial Grades of Pyrethrum (C. C. McDonnell, W. S. Abbott,
W. M. Davidson, G. L. Keenan, and O. A. Nelson) :
Results of previous experiments 1
Tests of powders against insects 2
Materials tested 2
Tests of effectiveness 4
Conclusions S
Literature cited 9
Technical Bulletin No. 199. — Trading in Corn Futures (G.
Wright Hoffman) :
Introduction 1
Importance of corn futures 2
Future trading in corn on the Chicago Board of Trade 5
Corn supplies and prices in recent years 10
An implied assumption 10
Fundamental factors affecting corn prices 10
Corn futures: Volume of trading, open commitments, and prices
compared 12
Volume of trading compared with range in price 13
Open commitments compared with price 15
Deliveries and deliverable supplies in their relation to prices 16
Volume of deliveries of corn and other grains 16
Volume of deliveries of corn compared to volume of future trading. 17
Variations in the volume of deliveries within the delivery month. _ 18
Relative price changes resulting from the delivery situation 18
Deliverable supplies compared to price ^ 20
Transactions of special groups of traders in their relation to prices — 22
Description of special accounts 22
Small and medium sized speculative traders 23
The market position of three groups of traders, by weeks 23
The market position of three groups of traders compared to
prices, by days 26
The importance of outstanding speculative accounts 29
Standards used 30
Combined position of leading speculative lines 1 32
Large net trades compared with net price changes 33
Summary 37
Appendix 40
Technical Bulletin No. 200. — Irrigation Requirements of the
Arid and Semiarid Lands of the Columbia River Basin (Samuel
Fortier and Arthur A. Young):
Introduction 1
The Columbia River Basin 2
Soils of the Columbia River Basin 4
12 CONTENTS
Technical Bulletin No. 200 — Continued.^ Page
Climatic conditions 6
Water resources 7
Agricultural resources 12
Forests 13
Cut-over and burned-over lands 13
Swamp and overflowed lands 14
Native-grass lands 14
Dry-farmed and nonirrigated lands 15
Irrigated lands 16
Irrigation practice 17
Irrigation development- ._ 17
Delivery systems 19
Relation of water applied to crop yield 20
Water requirement of crops 20
Potatoes 20
Wheat and other small grain 22
Alfalfa 23
Trees 23
Conditions influencing the quantity of irrigation water required 25
Physical conditions 26
Farm management 26
Economic conditions 27
Results of investigations 27
Character of works 28
State, community, and corporate regulations 28
Land reclamation and the monthly and seasonal irrigation require-
ments 31
Appendix 34
Literature cited 54
Technical Bulletin No. 200
October, 1930
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS
OF THE ARID
AND SEMIARID LANDS
OF THE
COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN
BY
SAMUEL FORTIER
Principal Irrigation Engineer
and
ARTHUR A. YOUNG
Assistant Irrigation Engineer, Division of Agricultural Engineering
Bureau of Public Roads
United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. -------- Price IS cents
Technical Bulletin No. 200
October, 1930
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF THE
ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS OF
THE COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN
By Samuel Fortier, Principal Irrigation Engineer, and Arthur A. Young,
Assistant Irrigation Engineer, Division of Agricultural Engineering, Bureau of
Public Roads
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction.-. 1
The Columbia River Basin 2
Soils of the Columbia River Basin 4
Climatic conditions 6
Water resources 7
Agricultural resources 12
Forests 13
Cut-over and burned-over lands 13
Swamp and overflowed lands 14
Native-grass lands 14
Dry-farmed and nonirrigated lands 15
Irrigated lands 16
Irrigation practice 17
Irrigation development.. 17
Delivery systems 19
Relation of water applied to crop yield 20
Page
Water requirement of crops 20
Potatoes 20
Wheat and other small grain 22
Alfalfa 23
Trees 23
Conditions influencing the quantity of irriga-
tion water required 25
Physical conditions 26
Farm management 26
Economic conditions 27
Results of investigations 27
Character of works 28
State, community, and corporate regula-
tions 28
Land reclamation and the monthly and seasonal
irrigation requirements 31
Appendix 34
Literature cited 54
INTRODUCTION
This bulletin, one of a series on the irrigation requirements of the
arid and semiarid lands of the Western States, deals with that portion
of the Northwest which is drained by the Columbia Kiver and its
tributaries. The irrigation development of the Columbia River Basin
has been in progress for about 50 years and has resulted in the reclama-
tion of some 4,000,000 acres of desert lands, the greater part of which
is in southern Idaho. It was from the latter section that most of the
statistical data herein given were obtained. In 1909 the need for
reliable information concerning the irrigation requirements of the arid
lands of Idaho and the water requirements of their crops was keenly
felt by farmers, irrigation engineers, and water administrators. To
obtain it a cooperative agreement was entered into between the Idaho
State Board of Land Commissioners and the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture.^
1 The irrigation work of the United States Department of Agriculture was originally conducted under the
supervision of the ofTice of experiment stations and designated Irrigation Investigations. Later, under a
reorganization of the department, this and other agricultural-engineering activities were grouped in a
division of agricultural engineering and made a part of the Bureau of Public Roads.
116327°-30 1
2 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 200, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
This agreement provided for investigations covering duty of water,
seepage losses from canals, irrigation practice, and other phases of
applied irrigation. The cooperation was continued for four consecu-
tive years, with Don H. Bark, of the Bureau of Public Roads, in charge
locally and the senior author in general charge, and was enlarged from
time to time so as to include informally the director of the Idaho
Agricultural Experiment Station, the local officials of the Bureau of
Reclamation, irrigation companies, and individual farmers.
In November, 1913, a cooperative agreement was entered into
between the Bureau of Public Roads and the board of county com-
missioners of Twin Falls County, Idaho, the Southside Twin Falls
Canal Co., and the Twin Falls Commercial Club, to provide for
controUed-irrigation experiments in the proper use of water on crops
and the time and frequency of water applications. A tract of 20
acres of raw land Iji miles east of Twin Falls was used until the close
of 1916, when the station was abandoned largely because waste
water had accumulated on the lava bedrock and interfered with the
proper control of soil moisture. For results obtained in Idaho since
1916, credit is mainly due to the Idaho Agricultural Experiment
Station.
The statistical data for Oregon and Washington w^ere obtained
either by cooperation with their State experiment stations or through
investigations conducted by them independently.
The Department of Agriculture of the Dominion of Canada estab-
lished an experimental station at Summerland, British Columbia,
which is in the Columbia River Basin and represents agricultural
conditions similar to those of Washington. Some of the results of its
experimentation relating to water requirements have been supplied
by the station superintendent and are summarized in the Appendix.
The irrigation requirement of arable land is defined as the quantity
of irrigation water required for profitable crop production under
normal climatic and physical conditions. The water requirement of
crops is the total quantity of water, regardless of its source, required
by crops for their normal grow^th under field conditions.
The water requirement is applicable to individual crops grown on
relatively small tracts and includes soil moisture and rainfall in
addition to the irrigation requirement. Both requirements are meas-
ured in acre-feet of water per acre.
The design and construction of irrigation systems usually involve
consideration of one of two sets of conditions. Under the first set of
conditions, the area to be irrigated has been determined, and the
water supply is ample; under the other set, the water supply is limited,
and the area w hich may be irrigated is restricted only by the available
water. In both cases the basic quantity of water to be considered by
the engineer consists of the irrigation requirement, the transmission
loss, and other canal losses.
THE COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN
The Colimabia River Basin comprises a major portion of Oregon,
Washington, and Idaho, and a minor portion of Montana, Wyoming,
Nevada, and Utah, besides a part of British Columbia. (Fig. 1.) It
extends from the Pacific coast to the Teton Mountains in Wyoming
and from the upper extremity of the Windermere Valley in British
Columbia to the northern boundary of the Great Basin in Nevada.
DOM INION
OF
mm
nest
akei
J'endL
Lake
\R D'AI
•oeiirD'A
NEVADA •
Figure 1.— Map of the Columbia River Basin in the United States, showing the various duty of ^
CANADA
•4000^1
TWIN FALt
WDlTTG^^^ P.
R. R.
•^ utah\ •.
Lake
'irious duty of water divisions (bounded by dotted lines) and the net requirement of each
116327°— 30. (Face p. 2.)
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN 3
Geologically the basin is new as compared with the rock formations
of the Appalachian Mountains or those of the Mississippi River
drainage area. As late as Tertiary times the Cascade Range did not
exist, though now it extends 650 miles, from the Canadian boundary to
the vicinity of Mount Shasta in California. Instead, lowlands, shallow
estuaries, and lakes extended from the coast to the sandstone, shale,
and limestone formations of the Belt series, which constitute the chief
part of the northern Rocky Mountains. Then the climate was warm
and moist — not unlike that of the Florida Everglades — as is evi-
denced by the fossil remains of magnolias, figs, palms, and hundreds
of other species of trees, shrubs, and ferns which are closely allied to
similar plants growing in the Everglades.
The ice sheet at one time or another during the glacial period
extended as far south as Missoula, Mont., Pend Oreille, Idaho, Spo-
kane, Wash., and far southward in western Washington. The
agricultural development of the present era has been made possible
by (1) the filling in of large lakes of Tertiary times which now con-
stitute the most fertile farming areas; (2) the extensive deposits of
basaltic lava and volcanic ash, which have been transported by winds
and formed into fertile soils; and (3) the changes brought about in
relief, stream courses, and character of the soil by glacial action and
cUmatic influences.
In climate, topography, and other physical features, the basin
exhibits a wide diversity. The annual precipitation in extreme cases
is 150 inches near the coast and as little as 7 inches on parts of the
arid, treeless plateau, while the elevated tablelands and mountains
may be enveloped in deep snow. Extremes in temperatures likewise
may vary from 110° F. in summer to —50° in winter and from the
rigors of a far northern latitude to the mildness of the Pacific coast.
The range in altitude is from sea level to tablelands 3,000 to 5,000
feet above sea level and their surmounting peaks 9,000 to 14,000 feet
above sea level, while the older rock formations lie buried mostly
beneath thick blankets of lava or glacial drift or both.
The natural vegetation is likewise varied. In some localities giant
conifers tower skyward, in others sagebrush covers the parched earth,
while grass strives to grow wherever a blade can be nourished. Con-
ditions pertaining to climate, soils, and topography have fostered
the reproduction and growth of Douglas fir and western yellow pine
in the Cascades, western yellow pine, western white pine, Douglas
fir and larch in Idaho, Douglas fir and western yellow pine in western
Montana, and lodgepole pine in western Wyoming. Between the
Cascade Range on the west and the Bitter Root and Rocky Moun-
tains on the east, sagebrush is the predominant type of vegetation,
and wheatgrass and bromegrass, the most valuable forage.
The drainage area of the Columbia River above The Dalles is
nearly as extensive as that of the Colorado River, but a heavier pre-
cipitation and lighter evaporation create a run-off about ten times as
great. If it were feasible to control and utilize all surface streams
for agricultural and other purposes, there would be sufficient water
to supply the needs of all the arable land, but the relationship of
stream flow and arable land in respect to location and elevation is
such that only a relatively small part of the water supply can be
utilized for irrigation.
4 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 200, XJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The Columbia River system comprises 26 principal tributaries,
and some of the tributary basins have a scanty water supply with an
abundance of fertile arable land, while others have an abundant
water supply with limited opportunities to apply it to agricultural
uses. Furthermore, the Columbia River has cut so deep a channel
throughout a part of its course that diversion of its flow for irrigation
is not feasible. Dams several hundred feet high would be required
to raise the water to the level permitting its conveyance through
gravity canals. On the other hand, although barred from obtaining
more than a small proportion of the water supply for irrigation, the
people of the Northwest are not confronted with insurmoim table
natural obstacles in any efforts they may choose to make in utiUzing
to the fullest economic extent the power latent in waterfalls.
A vohmie of water averaging annually 151,000,000 acre-feet passes
The Dalles, and future diversion of water for irrigation will not lessen
the discharge in any marked degree. This does not imply that the
reclamation of arid lands above The Dalles has reached its maximum
development, but rather that the quantities of water diverted for
such purposes in the future will be small as compared with the total
discharge of the river. In western Montana, southern Idaho, eastern
Washington, and eastern and central Oregon, a large area of land in
the aggregate can be reclaimed by the storage of flood waters, but
such storage and diversions will not lessen appreciably the flow of the
main river or impair its navigability. One reason for this condition
is that the waters of such tributaries as Salmon, Clearwater, and
Spokane can be used only to a small extent for irrigation, and the
combined annual discharge of these three streams alone is 20,000,000
acre-feet, or more than sufficient to water all land now irrigated in
this basin.
SOILS OF THE COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN 2
The Columbia River drainage basin includes widely contrasting
and diverse soils. Of these, only a few dominant regional soil groups
can here be noted.
The great volcanic plateau or Snake River plain of southern Idaho
supports a desert vegetation dominated by sagebrush. It is deeply
entrenched by stream canyons and marked by a barren, rocky lava
bed and extinct lava and cinder cones and ridges. Stream valleys
are mainly narrow and contain but minor areas of recent alluvial
soils. The basaltic rocks, where exposed, are slowly weathered, and
the fine weathered soil material where accumulative in unsheltered
localities is quickly swept away by winds. These soil materials are
derived in the main from accumulations of loessial or wind-borne
deposits. The parent wind-laid materials have in part drifted in
from areas of weathered basaltic soils and stream-laid deposits close
at hand, but they include foreign materials of fine texture which appear
to have been derived from volcanic ash and from distant silty deposits
in dessicated beds of lakes of a former geologic period. They have
been superimposed over a variety of materials, including basaltic
bedrock, clays and silts of former lake beds, and gravels and alluvial
deposits of earlier river-laid deposition. The surface soils are friable,
2 By Macy H. Lapham, senior soil scientist,LUnite(i States Bureau of Chemistry and Soils.
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN 5
easily cleared and cultivated, and when placed under irrigation take
water readily and are of good water-holding capacity.
Because of low rainfall the soils are unleached of soluble mineral
plant food, and the subsoils contain accumulations of lime. In places
this is excessive and has led to cementation of subsoil materials and
the forming of a hardpan which is in part firmly cemented and in
part fragment al or relatively soft. This region is characterized by
immense areas of uniform, friable, surface soils of widely varying
depth and by subsoils and underlying materials of widely divergent
character. These variable conditions of depth, subsoil, and sub-
drainage, and location with regard to feasible water supply for irri-
gation, determine the economic importance of the soils.
The soils of northeastern Oregon and central and southern Wash-
ington, which include the Big Bend, Walla Walla, and Palouse areas,
are similar in general conditions of texture, profile, topography, and
origin to those of the Snake River plain. However, alluvial soils of
the stream bottoms are more extensively developed, and in the
vicinity of the larger streams there are extensive areas of open, porous,
windblown sand of hummocky topography, not well suited to irriga-
tion. In the eastern part of this region and extending to the foothills
of the Blue Mountains and into northern Idaho, the loessial soils are
subject to higher rainfall, sagebrush vegetation gives way to bunch
grasses and short prairie grasses, the relief becomes more hilly, the
surface soils are of darker color and higher organic-matter content,
and lime and other of the more soluble materials are leached to greater
depth or removed from the weathered soil material. These consti-
tute the great dry-farm wheat-producing soils of the Palouse area.
The soils of northern Idaho and northern Washington occur under
conditions of moderate to heavy rainfall, and are rather sparsely to
heavily timbered. The residual soils which are developed on sub-
strata of weathered consolidated rock are predominantly shallow,
stony, and of rough relief and limited utilization. The arable soils
are mainly developed on weathered glacial ice-laid and glacial out-
wash deposits, and on cumulose and sedimentary deposits in former
glacial lakes. The soils derived from glacial materials are pre-
dominantly of light-yellowish or light-brown color and of low organic-
matter content below a superficial layer of forest litter, or humus
accumulation. They are leached of lime and other soluble minerals and
are characteristically acid in reaction. The soils derived from ice-
laid materials are frequently stony and of rough relief, but are mod-
erately productive. Those derived from glacial outwash deposits
occupy old stream terraces of smooth surface which are more easily
cleared and cultivated. However, they are usually underlain by
porous, gravelly and sandy subsoils of low water-holding capacity
which are subject to drought, and irrigation is sometimes necessary
in localities of moderately heavy annual rainfall. The soils derived
from glacial lake sediments are of light to dark color depending on
drainage and native vegetation and organic matter content. They
are usually retentive of moisture during periods of drought. They
are probably the most productive of the glacial soils but frequently
require drainage.
The soils west of the Cascade Mountains and south of the limits
©f glaciation cover southwestern Washington and the extensive
Willamette Valley and adjacent drainage slopes in Oregon. They
b TECHNICAL BULLETIN 200, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICtTLTtJRE
include areas of deep, friable, recent alluvial soils occupying bottoms
of the streams, and extensive areas of weathered materials developed
on older stream-laid deposits which now occupy stream terraces and
the valley slopes and floor. Some of these are timbered while others
are prairie areas. They are predominantly brown in color, with areas
of dark-colored and of lighter grayish colored soils occupying the
flatter areas of deficient drainage. Leached of lime, they range from
mildly acid to decidedly acid in reaction. Their topography is favor-
able, and they are productive except in low flat areas, which can be
improved by drainage and the application of lime. They are utiUzed
for general farming, dairying, and for a variety of special crops includ-
ing prunes, walnuts, brambleberries, cherries, hops, and strawberries.
With these soils are associated areas of peat and muck, large tracts of
which have been drained and are utilized for truck crops, cranberries,
and other specialties. The adjacent hill slopes include soils which
are deeply weathered from basaltic and sedimentary rocks. These
are predominantly of red to rich reddish brown color and are locally
loiown as the ''red-hill soils. '^ While clearing is often expensive and
the soils sometimes require working for some time before producing
well, they are extensively utilized for the culture of apples, plums,
prunes, walnuts, and berry crops.
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS
The Coast Range and the Cascades in the west and the Bitter Root
Range and Rocky Mountains in the east give the relief of the Columbia
River Basin a rough and moimtainous character save where broad
plateaus and valleys intervene. Warm winds of the Pacific passing
over the cooler area of the Cascades are deprived of most of their
moisture before reaching the central plateau of Washington and Ore-
gon, and this air movement, with consequent moisture loss, creates
two more or less distinct climates — a humid climate except during the
summer season west of the Cascades, and an arid climate east of them.
Corvallis, Oreg., near the center of the Willamette Valley in the former
territory, has an annual precipitation of 42 inches, whereas Yakima,
Wash., near the center of the Yakima Valley in the latter territory,
has an annual precipitation of about 7 inches.
East of the Columbia River lies a sagebrush plain of more than
2,000,000 acres. The precipitation here is too scanty for dry farming,
and the cost of irrigation is too high for the land to repay under present
conditions. During years of favorable precipitation some wheat is
grown, but most of the land lies idle, awaiting the time when a greater
demand for food products will warrant the high cost of supplying
irrigation water.
A different condition exists in southeastern Washington. There
the rainfall on a large area is sufficient for the growing of wheat.
Most of the rainfall comes in the winter and spring and Ettle during
the summer. Wheat being an early crop, needs spring rains, and the
dry summers which follow provide ideal weather for harvesting.
The Snake River Valley, in southern Idaho, holds the greatest
irrigated area within the basin, extending in large scattered tracts the
entire width of the State. At its eastern border the rainfall is about
20 inches; midway, it decreases to less than 10 inches and remains
about the same to the western border of the valley. This and the
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN 7
arid Salmon Kiver Valley, northward from American Falls, constitute
the driest portions of Idaho. Other parts of the State, as a rule,
have enough rainfall to support large areas of pine and other forests.
Farther east, in the Bitterroot and Flathead Valleys of Montana,
rainfall is likewise scanty, and crop production is dependent mainly
upon irrigation.
There is likewise a wide variation in temperature. Although the
northern latitudes are those of Minnesota, the winters are mild, and
in the lower altitudes last only a few weeks. As altitude increases,
snows are deeper, and spring is later. Extreme cold may occur in
widely scattered localities. In the irrigated valleys, from April to
October is generally the frost-free period, but numerous exceptions
occur. Late spring frosts are more harmful to fruit than to other
crops and, when occurring as late as May, may do great damage.
Central and southeastern Oregon, where altitudes vary from 3,000
to 4,500 feet, have cool nights in midsummer, and frosts may occur
in any month of the year.
In the lower altitudes summer temperatures sometimes reach 100°
F. for short periods, but the air is dry, and warm days are usually
followed by cool nights. In the irrigated valleys the long growing
season, warm summers, long periods of sunshine, ample water supply,
and fertile soil combine to produce heavy crop yields.
Like the Pacific Ocean, the Rocky Mountains temper the climate of
the Northwest. Forming the eastern rim of the Columbia River
Basin, they constitute a barrier against the cold from the Canadian
prairies and eastern Montana.
Precipitation, temperature, and the duration of the frost-free
period influence the quantity of water required for irrigation. Data
pertaining to them, compiled from the records of the Weather Bureau
for 18 typical stations within the basin near which irrigation is prac-
ticed, have been averaged from the time the stations were established
to 1921, and are shown graphically in Figures 2 to 4.
WATER RESOURCES
The Columbia River Basin occupies an area of 259,000 square
miles of the Pacific Northwest and drains portions of seven States
besides the Province of British Columbia. The Missouri River
drainage is adjacent on the east and the Great Basin on the south,
while in western Washington and Oregon, streams flow directly to
the Pacific.
The Columbia River rises in eastern British Columbia and drains
a forested, mountainous area of nearly 40,000 square miles before
crossing into northeastern Washington. Near the border it is joined
by Clark Fork, an important eastern tributary. Thence winding
southerly across the State, mostly in a depressed channel too far
below the surrounding country to permit of its use for irrigation.
Near Washington's southern boundary it is joined on the east by
the Snake River, and near Portland by the Willamette. Many other
streams of considerable size flow into the Columbia, and all of them
irrigate adjoining lands. Of these the Yakima River is the most
highly developed for irrigation and supplies water for the largest
body of irrigated land in Washington. It rises, in Keechelus Lake
on the eastern slope of the Cascades, which with other lakes collects
8
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 200, TJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTTTBE
4
1
1
1
1
^
^
1
1
i:
1
1
1
1
1
*
1
1
t
§>
^
1
1
^ S3
1^
YAKIMA. WASH. elev. 1,070
AVERAGE. FROST-FREE PERIOD
I I I I ^
PR ECIPITATION
TEMPERATURE
2.5 2.5
2.0 2.0
1.00 1.0
0.5 0.5
0 0
00 100
k-
?
50 ^ 50
0 0
ODESSA, WASH. elev. i^ao' |
AV
ER/
VGE FROST- FREE PERIOD 1
PRECIPITATION
1
1
■
■
1
1
m
1
1
i
1 1
1 1
1
1
temperature:
0
V,
J
„
P
J,
fp
y.
i'
W'
■pi"
11
1
1
w
1
i
§
!i
0R0VILLE:,WASH. elev. 922-
AVEF
^AG
E FROST- FREE P
ERIOC
\
'
PRECI
PITATION
1
1 1
1
1
1
1
■'
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
t
EMP
ERA1
ruR
E.
„ P
R
™
d'
_[■;
t\
PI
r/ 1
|.'
J^-
J.
M
1
IJ
1
1
~§i, '
i
WALLA WALLA, WASH. elev. woo- |
A
VERAGE FROST-FREE PERI
OD
PR
ECIPITATION
c?
§
1
0 0_
1
1
TET
vIPERATURE
r
n
^—S'.
n
to
' ^
1 j
i -51
MM
ll
1 1 U<
50 ^ SO -
:LliLrflL_J
Q
0 c!
«
SPOKANE, WASH. elev. 1.943'
AVERAGE FROST-FREE PERIOD
I I I I I
PRECIPITATION
TEMPERATURE
2.0 c 2.0
1.5 § 1.5
1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5
0 0
100 k* 100
H:
50 o 50
Uj
Q
NEAR WENATCHEE,WASH. elev. 2.200
AVERAGE FROST-FREE PERIOD
PRECIPITATION
TEMPERATURE
Figure 2. — Condensed climatology of typical stations in Washingtonj showing average frost-free
period, mean monthly precipitation, mean maximum temperatures (single-lined bars), mean mini-
mum temperatures (double-lined bars), and mesan temperatures (solid bars)
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN 9
i
UMATILLA, OREG.ELEv.34o
AVERAGE FROST-FREE PERIOD
Mill
PRECIPITATION
TEMPERATURE
3.0 3.0
2.5 2.5
2.0 2.0
5^ 1.5
mill
t
^ Co
Oct
Afov.
Dec.
CORVALLIS, GREG. elev. aee-
AVERAGE FROST - FREE PERIOD
!_<-< I r- I 1 /-v
' ^' '
■
I
1
■
1 a
1
1 1
1 1 I L I 1
1 1
■ -r
■ f ■
TEMPERATURE.
^
r^
\, „
n r
m/ Vi
n
mil
1
"'
m
|i|
LA GRANDE, 0 R EG. elev. 3,784- 1
AVERAGE FROST-FREE PER
OD
1 ^ 1 j i
PRECIPITATION
i
1
TE
MPERATURE
_r —TV.
■ X
J
^ '' 1
[]
mm
i
1
m
Wi
VALE, GREG. elzv. 2,242]
AVERAGE FROST-FREE PE
1 — i^T*T — 1 —
-RIOD
PRECIPITATION
4^i+
1 ,
1 1 1
III
1
1
1 1 1
TEMPERATURE
,...,
p
p
- ;■
F i
■ 1
1;
p
,
ii
III
||||i
1
'■ ;
Figure 3.— Condensed climatology of typical stations in Oregon, showing average frost-free per-
iod, mean monthly precipitation, mean maximum temperatures (single-lined bars), mean mini-
mum temperatures (double-lined bars), aad mean temperatures (solid bars)
116327°— 30 2
10 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 200, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUR3
1
1
1
1
1
^
t
§>
^
1
§
1
1
1
1
II
1
§=
^
1
1
BOISE, IDAHO EJ.EV.^739'
AVERAGE. FROST-FREE PERIOD
PRECIPITATION
TEMPERATURE
LEW 1ST ON, IDAHO elev. 757- |
AVERAGE FROST- FREE PERIOD
3.0 3.0 —
1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — -
PRECIPITATION
«9
,
1
1
0 0
1
1
1
1
temperature:
IC
p
c
^
J"
5 -
50 "U 50 -
•t —
0 0.!
:|j
li
1
1
„
j
1
1
IDAHO FALLS, IDAHO zLty.^i
AV
ERAG
1
:. frost- free pe
RIOC
)
PF
^ecipitation
1
1
1
I
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
TE^
1PER
ATU
RE
p,
n _r
M,
^
n
-4
ll
1
t
i
1
i
i-
i
f
TWIN FALLS, IDAHO elev.3^25|
AV
IRA
GE FROST- FREE PE
Riot
)
3.0 3.0
PRECIPITATIO
N
za ^ 2.0
1.5 ^ 1.5
10^ 10
0.5 ■ 0.5
0 0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
^
1
1
1
100 100
T
EM
= ER
ATU
RE
y
Q
u:
p
P
f
50 Jji 50
Jr
^
I
|!
j
1
|/
i
3;
-R
i
i
i
[
:
f
i
KALISPELL. MONT, elev.j^sts
AVERAGE FROST- FREE PERIOD
H-^^
PRECIPITATION
TEMPERATURE
50 Ct ^0
MISSOULA, MONT. elev. 3^25- |
AVE
RAGE FROST- FREE
. PERK
3D
J.U
— 1 i 1 1 H-
PRELCIPITATIC
N
2.0
1.0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
rEMPERATUR
n
„
p
_
p
J^
^0
n J
}g
^
m _■
1
'-'\
1:1
1
i'
II
p|"
-^
0
3j
A.
Figure 4.— Condensed climatology of typical stations in Idaho and Montana, showing average
frost-free period, mean monthly precipitation, mean maximum temperatures (single-lined bars),
mean minimum temperatures (double-lined bars), and mean temperatures (solid bars)
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN 11
the drainage run-off from a densely forested, mountainous area hav-
ing an annual snowfall varying from 15 to 30 feet. Similar condi-
tions exist for 100 miles southward, as the Cascades parallel the river
on the west, and it is from these mountains that most of the river's
tributaries flow. A number of reservoirs hold the spring flow for
summer use on crops.
Clark Fork, with a mean annual discharge into the Columbia of
20,000,000 acre-feet, has its source near the Continental Divide and
traverses western Montana and the panhandle of Idaho. In this
400 miles are two tributaries — the Bitterroot and Flathead Rivers —
which irrigate about half of the 300,000 acres watered by the Clark
Fork system. Many good storage sites exist in this mountainous
drainage area. Probably the largest of these are Flathead Lake,
Mont., and Pend Oreille Lake, Idaho. About 2,500,000 acre-feet
can be stored in these lakes at low cost.
Snake River, the largest tributary of the Columbia, rises in Yel-
lowstone Park and flows through Jackson Lake, which is also used as
a storage reservoir. Through southern Idaho the natural flow of the
river and much stored water are used to irrigate about 2,250,000 acres
of productive land. In 1920 3,320,000 acre-feet of storage was re-
ported {30) ^ on the Snake River and tributary streams. More re-
cently additional storage has been developed, notably that at Ameri-
can Falls, and now not less than 5,000,000 acre-feet of stored water
is available for irrigation in the Snake River Valley.
Willamette River flows through a valley in Oregon the annual
rainfall of which exceeds 40 inches; consequently it is not much used
for irrigation. However, during the dry summer months and during
years of less than normal rainfall supplemental irrigation is beneficial.
In general, the waters of the main stream of the Columbia are not
available for irrigation by gravity. They adjoin large areas of avail-
able land, but because of the elevation of these areas and the cost
of pumping they have not been reclaimed. On many of the tributary
streams, however, land is irrigated to the limit of the water supply.
This is especially true of the Yakima River.
In 1919 the Columbia River system supphed water to irrigate
3,871,000 acres of land, and this area can be increased to 11,000,000
acres by (1) water storage and regulation; (2) prevention of canal
and other losses; and (3) a more economical use of water on the
land. As water for irrigation becomes scarcer and the economic
pressure for irrigated land increases, these improvements will gradu-
ally be made.
Table 1 shows the maximum, minimum, and mean discharge of
typical streams of the. Northwest, based upon stream measurements
by the United States Geological Survey and other agencies over periods
varying from 10 to 45 years. In many cases records were kept before
streams were regulated, but with the increasing use of storage reser-
voirs, stream flow will tend to become more uniform.
> Italic numbers in parentheses refer to Literature Cited, p. 64.
12 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 200, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 1. — Discharge of typical streams of the Columbia River Basin
River
Station
Years of
Watershed
record
area
Square miles
45
237,000
31
4,800
20
2,130
19
7,800
12
15
685
10
23
3,550
12
25,100
21
9,50
17
1,850
13
1,280
10
356
14
1,120
13
7,740
13
3,450
33
4,350
13
11
2,230
10
13.600
12
4,850
17
7,010
Discharge for year
Maximum Minimum
Mean
Columbia
Willamette...
Umatilla
John Day
Deschutes
Clackamas...
Hood
Yakima
Clark Fork..
Chelan..
Methow
Wenatchee...
Klickitat
Naches
Okanogan
Smihkameen.
Spokane
Snake
Boise.
Salmon
Clearwater...
Flathead
The Dalles, Oreg
Albany, Oreg...
Umatilla, Oreg
McDonald, Oreg
Mecca, Oreg
Cazadero, Oreg
Hood River, Oreg
Union Gap, Wash...
Meteline Falls, Wash
Chelan, Wash
Pateros, Wash
Cashmere, Wash
Glenwood, Wosh
Yakima, Wash
Okanogan, Wash
Oroville, Wash
Spokane, Wash...!..
King Hill, Idaho
Arrowrock, Idaho
Whitebird, Idaho
Kamiah, Idaho
Poison, Mont
Acre-feet
222, 000, 000
15,500,000
819,000
2, 720, 000
4, 170, 000
2, 740, 000
1, 160, 000
4,690,000
28, 100, 000
2, 070, 000
1, 750, 000
3, 230, 000
891,000
1,880,000
2, 920, 000
2, 270, 000
7, 050, 000
10, 900, 000
2, 530, 000
10, 700, 000
8,220,000
11,900,000
Acre-feet
93, 800, 000
6, 440, 000
188,000
757,000
3, 130, 000
1, 530, 000
647,000
1, 570, 000
14,600,000
672,000
828,000
1, 330, 000
452,000
671,000
1, 550, 000
946,000
2, 645, 000
7,090,000
986, 000
5.600,000
4, 020, 000
5, 880/000
Acre-feet
151,000,000
10, 500, 000
450,000
1,520,000
3,635,000
2,030,000
869,000
3,330,000
19, 600, 000
1,560,000
1,200,000
2,500,000
667,000
1,300,000
2, 120, 000
1,610,000
5, 145, 000
9, 100, 000
1,840,000
8, 700, 000
6,440,000
8,280,000
Figures 5 and 6 show for various streams the mean flow each month
and the periods of high and low water.
COLUMBIA RIVER, OREG.
^^jIl.
JAN. FEB.MAR.APR,MAY JUNE JULY AU6.SEPT. OCtNW. DE:C,
Figure 5.-
-Mean monthly flow of typical streams
of Columbia River Basin
1200
800
400
0'
SNAKE RIVER, IDAHO
■■■■I, _,
"t
80O
400
0
<K 900
^ 400
BOISE RIVER, IDAHO
- - ■ ■ ■ .-^T^
YAKIMA RIVER, WASH.
■ !!■■
WENATCHEE RIVER, WASH.
^ 400
I °
5 1200
i±t
SPOKANE RIVER,WASH.
>^ 800
^ 400
0
mlll^
DESHUTES RIVER, OREG.
■JUJU ■ ■ ■ ■
HOOD RIVER, OREG.
"°;i ■■■■■■■■■■■■
JAN. F£fl. MAR.APR.MAY JUNC jaY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC
Figure 6.— Mean monthly flow of typical streams
of Columbia River Basin
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
The lands of the Colimibia Eiver Basin may be grouped under (1)
forests; (2) cut over and burned over lands; (3) swamp and overflowed
lands; (4) native-grass lands; (5) dry-farmed lands and nonirrigated
farm lands; and (6) irrigated lands. From the standpoint of rural
prosperity and public welfare generally, there is a close relationship
between these resources although the economic importance of each is
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN 13
far from being constant but rises or falls with changing conditions.
While this bulletin is concerned chiefly with irrigated and irrigable
lands, it is difficult in many cases to decide what lands should be
irrigated, since there may exist other uses or other types of farming
which will serve a better purpose. For this reason the extent,
character, and economic importance of each of these six main resources
are briefly outlined.
FORESTS
There remains in forest of the area originally forested east of the
Great Plains less than 9 per cent and west of the Great Plains 55 per
cent {15). A large part of the latter is to be found in the Columbia
River Basin. According to Allen {1), the virgin stand of timber in
Oregon is 395,800,000,000 feet board measure, covering 20,750,000
acres, of which approximately 50 per cent is in the Columbia River
Basin. The stand in Washington is 282,000,000,000 feet, covering
14,200,000 acres, of which approximately 57 per cent of the acreage
is in the same basin.
According to one authority (23) the area supporting forests of
commercial size in Idaho within the Columbia River Basin is 9,514,000
acres, and the quantity of timber of all species is estimated to be
81,000,000,000 feet board measure.
In that part of Montana west of the Continental Divide and drained
by the Columbia River, the area in timber of commercial size is
estimated (6') to be 5,860,000 acres and the total quantity of all
species of timber 37,492,000,000 feet board measure.
The estimated timbered area of that part of Wyoming, Utah,
and Nevada located in the Columbia River Basin is 3,000,000 acres
and the quantity of timber 30,000,000,000 feet board measure.
Hence, the Columbia River Basin may be credited with possessing
500,000,000,000 feet board measure of valuable timber occupying
36,000,000 acres of commercial forests in addition to an area approx-
imately 70 per cent as extensive consisting of immature forest growth,
watershed area, and other land requiring forest protection.
CUT-OVER AND BURNED-OVER LANDS*
The cut-over and burned-over lands of the Columbia River Basin
embrace an area of about 24,500,000 acres. Other forest lands con-
taining scrub growth and scattering noncommercial timber embrace
an additional area of about 8,250,000 acres. As compared with virgin
forests, these lands have little value, and the fact that the area so
occupied is increasing at a rapid rate creates a serious problem for
the States of the Northwest. The rate at which virgin forests are
cut adds about 400,000 acres annually to the cut-over lands, and the
destruction of forests by fire has averaged during the past 10 years
about 174,000 acres a year, a total of 574,000 acres annually.
About 60 per cent of the area of forest land of all classes in the
Columbia River Basin is included in the national forests. Under
Government regulation the annual cut is linaited to the annual growth,
and cut-over lands are left in shape for natural reproduction or are
reforested artificially.
< Reproduced in part from a statement to the authors by Elers Koch, assistant district forester, Missoula,
Mont.
14 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 200, XJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The national forests in general do not include the best timber-
producing lands, most of which are in private ownership. The future
of the cut-over and burned-over lands owned by individuals and lum-
ber companies is a matter of vital concern to the Columbia Basin
States, and the best disposal to be made of them is far from being
determined. It is doubtful whether more than 5 per cent of the cut-
over and burned-over lands in the region will ever be converted iuto
farms. Parts of the remaining 95 per cent have some grazing value,
but in general the best and highest use of these lands is for growing
timber.
SWAMP AND OVERFLOWED LANDS
The agricultural lands in the Columbia River Basin subject to
periodic overflows or too swampy to cultivate, aggregate 500,000 acres,
of which about one-fifth has either been reclaimed or is included in
reclamation districts. The soil is generally fertile and although the
profits derived from grazing them in their unreclaimed State are small,
they possess fairly high potentialities in that they can be fitted for
profitable farming at a relatively low average cost. Such lands may
be grouped under three classes: (1) Lands which require dikCvS or
channel improvement or both as a protection against overflow; (2)
lands which require dikes and interior drainage; and (3) lands which
require drainage first and irrigation afterward. Most of the wild
meadow and tule lands of Oregon are along the banks of the lower
Columbia and Snake Rivers. Parts of six counties bordering the
Columbia River in Washington have swamp and overflow lands. A
smaller extent of similar lands form part of each of the counties of
Spokane^ Okanogan, Pend Oreille, and Stevens in the same State.
The swamp and overflow lands of Idaho are confined mainly to the
Pend Oreille Lake and River, the Coeur d'Alene Lake and tribu-
taries, and the Kootenai River, while in Montana they are found
mainly in the vicinity of Flathead Lake.
NATIVE-GRASS LANDS
In Oregon the public domain includes over 13,000,000 acres (32)
approximately 5,500,000 acres of which are drained by the Columbia
River. These consist mainly of grass-covered table-lands and forested
mountain slopes on which more or less grass grows. A large part of
the national-forest area, 9,000,000 acres of which are situated in the
Columbia Basin, are now and are likely to continue to be used as
range grazing land. Part of this area is in virgin timber, another
part in cut over and burned over lands, and a comparatively small
part in natural parks. Concerning privately owned grazing lands,
the State in 1925-26 fixed low valuations on nearly 14,000,000 acres
of nontillable lands, of which over 9,000,000 acres are drained by the
Columbia. To these figures should be added about 500,000 acres of
forested, cut over, and burned over lands owned by the State.
As compared with some other Western States, Washington has a
small extent of vacant public land, less tlian 1,000,000 acres of such
lands being included in the territory of the Columbia Basin. The
largest area of Federal land is in the national forests, covering nearly
10,000,000 acres, of which about 5,000,000 acres are drained by the
Columbia River. The State likewise owns a timbered area in the
same basin of less than 1,000,000 acres. The Census of Agriculture,
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN 15
1925 (50? gives the area of pasture lands in private ownership, other
than plowable pasture in the Columbia River Basin, as 4,250,000
acres.
The vacant public lands and unperfected entries located within the
Columbia River Basin in Idaho include an area of approximately
10,500,000 acres, the gross area of land within the national forests
nearly 19,000,000 acres, and State owned forests nearly 1,000,000
acres. In 1925 the State fixed an equalized assessed value of $25,382,-
093 on 5,513,113 acres of privately owned grazing lands.
The privately owned grazing lands in Montana drained by the
Columbia River included in 1926 an area of 2,686,259 acres; the
national forests located in the same basin 7,950,000 acres, and the
vacant public domain approximately 3,000,000 acres.
The Columbia River Basin likewise includes about 5,000,000 acres
of grazing lands in western Wyoming, north-central Nevada, and
northern Utah.
Indian reservations and national parks and monuments located
within the basin, all of which are used more or less for grazing pur-
poses, would increase the grazing area by 5,000,000 or more acres.
On the other hand, all of the lands listed contain a percentage which
may vary from 10 to 30 per cent of land that possesses little or no
value for grazing purpose. When these adjustments are made it
would appear that the native grazing lands of the basin approximate
77,000,000 acres. The annual value of the pasturage to be obtained
from this area, on the basis of an average annual unit value of 5 cents
per acre, would be $3,850,000.
DRY-FARMEP AND NONIRRIGATED LANDS
Considered by counties and computed on the basis of total crop
land plus plowable pasture in 1924, less the area irrigated in 1919 as
given by the United States census {30) , {31) for these two years, the
area of nonirrigated land farmed in the Columbia River Basin is, in
round numbers, 10,000,000 acres. Of this total slightly more than 3
per cent is in Montana, 14 per cent in Idaho, nearly 35 per cent in
Oregon, and over 48 per cent in Washington.
In Idaho and Montana the area of nonirrigated land farmed may
be rightly regarded as equivalent to the area dry farmed. The same
is true of Washington wdth the possible exception of a relatively small
area having a climate sufficiently humid to permit of rotation of
cereals with legumes and thus dispensing with summer-fallow prac-
tice. It is only in Oregon that an estimate of 3,500,000 acres of dry-
farmed land is likely to be considered too high, since it includes the
cropped lands of the Willamette Valley, which in climate is subhumid
if not humid, the rainfall being ample for crop production except
during three or four dry months in summer. A large proportion of
these lands, however, is in need of drainage, and other parts would be
benefited by irrigation. With the coming of these changes, there wiU
be a change in the type of farming practiced. The size of the farm is
likely to be reduced, and more intensive farming in smaller units will
probably take the place of the growing of cereals now practiced on
extensive areas. As these changes occur, the need for supplemental
irrigation in summer will become greater for drained as well as
irrigated land. Other large areas in Washington, Idaho, and Mon-
16 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 200, TJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
tana which are classed in this estimate as dry-farmed and nonirrigated
lands may be converted in the future into irrigated lands.
Accordingly, considered as a whole, there is little to indicate that
dry farming in the Columbia River Basin will progress much beyond
the point it has already attained. As a result of a series of favorable
years with precipitation above normal and fairly high prices for
wheat, the area at present seeded may increase, but in unfavorable
years with subnormal precipitation and low wheat prices, it is reason-
ably certain to decrease. Furthermore, many agriculturists question
the permanency of the dry-farming type of agriculture. Severance ^
says :
The whole semiarid area is being gradually depleted of organic matter and the
drifting area has increased markedly since cultivation first began. We know of
no method by which this organic matter can be renewed economically. No
doubt conditions will improve during favorable cycles but the general trend of
agricultural conditions in the dry belt seems to be downwards.
Dry-farmed lands as an agricultural asset have a low value in
comparison with irrigated lands. The assessed valuation, the revenue
derived from taxation, and the net profits derived from dry farming
are much less than those of irrigated lands. When, therefore, the
former can be converted economically into the latter, the common-
wealth and the community are the gainers. So regarded, it is reason-
able to expect that considerable areas now dry farmed wdll be con-
verted in future into irrigated farms.
IRRIGATED LANDS
Of the 3,871,000 acres irrigated in the Columbia Kiver Basin in
1919, 59 per cent was in Idaho, 17 per cent in Oregon, 14 per cent in
Washington, and 8 per cent in Montana. (30.) However, if future
development may be judged by present indications, there is likely
to be a considerable increase in irrigated area during the next two
decades. When the last irrigation census was taken in 1920, a large
area in the aggregate was found to be included in irrigation enter-
prises although not then irrigated. Since that date many new projects
have been investigated and pronounced feasible under the present
Federal reclamation policy which provides interest-free funds, and a
considerable extent of land has been classified by competent authorities
as irrigable. A partial review of these reveals the extent and to some
degree the character of the development contemplated, whenever the
demand for food supplies and the profits derived from irrigated farm-
ing warrant the construction of new works to provide water for
agricultural purposes.
C. S. Heidel, former State engineer of Montana, estimated that
an area of 425,600 acres in addition to the 292,000 acres irrigated in
1919, or a total of 717,600 acres, was irrigable in the Clark Fork
Basin of Montana. He also called attention to the fact that on
160,000 acres of nonirrigated land and 31,000 acres of irrigated land
in the same basin, the value of irrigated crops in 1920 averaged
$23.85 per acre, while the value of nonirrigated crops averaged $5
per acre. The storage of the flood waters of the Snake River and
its tributaries involves one of the largest items of expense in the
reclamation of additional land in Idaho. The American Falls dam
6 George Severance, in charge of farm management and agricultural economics, Washington State Col-
lege, in letter to the senior author.
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN 17
and reservoir project, recently completed, will store 1,700,000 acre-
feet and in making available so large a volume of stored water will
provide adequate water rights to lands now short of water and
extend the irrigated area by the reclamation of new lands. W. G.
Swendsen, when commissioner of reclamation of Idaho, estimated
that 4,750,000 acres could be irrigated in that State. Deducting
250,000 acres of irrigated and irrigable land which drains into the
Great Basin through Bear River, 4,500,000 acres remain in the
drainage basin of the Columbia River.
In Washington a few irrigation projects are being constructed,
and others are under consideration. Of the latter, by far the largest
is known as the Columbia Basin irrigation project, under which it
is proposed to irrigate 1,753,000 acres in the central part of the
State by storage and diversion of part of the flow of the Clark Fork.
If this project is included, it will place the irrigable area of that part
of the State located in the Columbia River Basin at approximately
3,100,000 acres. The extent of the irrigable lands of Oregon located
within the drainage area of the Columbia River is in round numbers
2,500,000 acres. This estimate includes a considerable area in the
Willamette Valley. The results of a recent soil survey of this valley
under the supervision of W. L. Powers, of the Oregon State Agri-
cultural College, indicate that there are 1,250,000 acres of land in
need of tiling and also about 500,000 acres of free-working soils
which are suitable for irrigation and are located where water may be
made available by gravity canals or pumping from wells or open
water surfaces under moderate lifts.
The irrigable lands of Wyoming, Nevada, and Utah located in
the basin are estimated at 182,000 acres.
IRRIGATION PRACTICE
IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT
Early irrigation practice in this basin was confined mainly to two
general types. One of these consisted in irrigating comparatively
level bottom lands by wild flooding with large volumes, and the
other in diverting from streams much smaller quantities of water
through ditches. The former had its origin in the natural flooding^
of marsh and tule lands and the enlargement of lakes during high
water, followed by the recession of waters and the growth of native
grasses on the areas temporarily submerged in flood periods. This
natural process was made to cover larger areas by the building of
brush and rock dams at favorable places in the stream channels and
the removal of water from meadows by digging drainage outlets.
The development of irrigation by means of numerous small ditches,
diverting water from a common source brought about a condition
which has proved extremely diflScult to rectify, especially on the
medium-sized and larger streams. The first settlers in a locality
exercised their privilege of selecting the best sites as regarded land
and water, and built either individual or partnership ditches. These
were followed by others who had to make selections from the remain-
ing land and water.
Finally all the bottom lands which could be served easily and
cheaply were taken up, and there remained second and third bench
116327°— 30 3
18 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 200, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
lands or lands of higher elevation and farther removed from the
stream, which could not be irrigated otherwise than by canals of
considerable length, capacity, and cost. Such undertakings were
beyond the financial ability of the individual or the small partnership
group, and their accompHshment was usually effected by mutual or
cooperative companies. In this way water rights in a common
source of supply were often acquired by and became vested in a large
number of farmers who built, maintained, and operated a corre-
spondingly large number of small ditches, often more or less parallel.
These have proved to be inefficient conveyors, in that much water is
wasted and the cost of operation and maintenance is high in propor-
tion to their capacity and the area served.
Irrigation development of this kind is subject also to interminable
disputes and litigation over water rights, especially when the stream
traverses two or more valleys separated by bluffs or canyons, thus
dividing the appropriators into antagonistic groups of upper, inter-
mediate, and lower water users. The situation arising from the
uncertainty of water rights was rendered all the more imtenable by
the long delay in adopting a comprehensive irrigation code in most of
the States of the Northwest. The Oregon irrigation code was enacted
in 1909, that of Washington in 1917, and the citizens of Montana
thus far have not been successful in adopting appropriate legislation
to provide for the equitable settlement of water rights and the ad-
ministration of public water supplies.
R. Kaufman, formerly judge of the superior court of Kittitas
County, Wash., in an address before the Washington Irrigation In-
stitute (21), stated that from the time settlement began in Kittitas
County until the irrigation code was enacted there was constant con-
troversy and litigation over the use of the streams of that county.
The enactment of the irrigation code and the establishment of the
office of State hydraulic engineer put an end to such controversy.
Wherever suitable measures have been adopted for the settlement
of existing water rights and the orderly acquirement of new rights,
the work is progressing satisfactorily, but these improvements do not
provide a remedy for the physical condition of a large number of
poorly located and poorly constructed ditches. That form of pubHc
municipal corporation known as the irrigation district has been serv-
iceable in accomplishing the difficult tasks of reorganizing irrigation
communities, amalgamating their interests, and reconstructing their
faulty systems, but unfortunately it is not adapted to all the varied
conditions which exist. There is need for another type of organiza-
tion broader in scope and more elastic in its provisions, which would
include all the owners of irrigable land within a given watershed.
The irrigation district law is based on the theory that those who come
under its provisions are the owners of irrigable land which it is desir-
able to irrigate at costs to be assessed at equal rates per acre; whereas
in most cases organized community effort is required for the benefit
of farmers who are struggling along with only a partial water supply
inefficiently served through a defective ditch system. Such com-
munities need storage reservoirs to provide late water and to enlarge
their irrigated area. They likewise need a centralized management
And a remodehng of their irrigation works, the purpose being to unite
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN 19
landowners having irrigable land but no water rights with those inad-
equately supplied with water from small systems, and apportion the
cost of an adequate and dependable water supply in accordance with
the benefits received. If a law could be devised that would enable
rural communities to bring about these and other much-needed im-
provements, it would prove a great boon to the West.
DEUVERY SYSTEMS
In the Columbia River Basin the most common methods of apply-
ing water to soils and crops are (1) flooding from field laterals, (2)
furrow irrigation, (3) the corrugation method, which is a modification
of the furrow method, and (4) the border method, which is increasing
in use. These methods are so well known as to need no description
here. (7, 10, 11, 22.)
The adoption and long practice of continuous delivery of water
to irrigators have produced injurious results which might in part
have been obviated. The origin of this method is not difficult to
trace, nor is it difficult to account for the favor with which it is re-
garded. In the early development of irrigation, the ditches were of
smaU capacity and of short length, and water diverted but not used
readily found its way back into the channel. Water was also needed
for stock and domestic purposes, and it was convenient to have a
supply on hand ready to use when stock, a dwelling, or a field or
garden needed water. Later, when larger irrigation systems were
built, the same practice of continuous delivery was frequently fol-
lowed, resulting in the apportionment of a relatively small quantity
of water to each individual water user. These deliveries were too
small to admit of being used otherwise than by furrows. Hence
furrows were prepared and water permitted to flow in them with
little or no attention for long periods of time.
Much of the water so applied was wasted in deep percolation and
produced in time a water-logged soil which could only be reclaimed
by drainage. A striking example of the waste of water and the water-
logging of soil resulting in a large measure from the common practice
of continuous delivery and furrow irrigation is afforded by the Sunny-
side proj ect in Yakima Valley, Wash. The practice of irrigation began
in this valley in the early nineties, but in 1899 well water was still
40 feet below ground at Sunny side. Two years later the irrigation
of bench lands was begun and this upland irrigation, coupled with the
excessive quantities of water applied in continuous streams, and fur-
row irrigation on the whole tract raised the water table at Sunnyside
to within 10 feet of the surface at the close of 1902. In 1905, drainage
was first begun, and although the drained area has increased each
year, about 22,000 acres were in need of drainage in 1923.
When a system is designed and built to deliver water in continuous
streams and when farms are laid out and prepared for furrow irriga-
tion, it involves much labor cost and many delays to change to the
rotation delivery or to other methods. However, such considerations
should have no weight in planning new irrigation enterprises. These
can be designed and built for rotation delivery and the methods of
applying water which v/ill best meet the physical conditions to be
found on the enterprise.
20 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 200, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
RELATION OF WATER APPLIED TO CROP YIELD
The more arid the climate, the greater is the effect on crop yields
of applied irrigation water. A certain quantity of water is required
to germinate the seed, more to produce stems and leaves, and still
more to bring the plant to maturity. During the severe drought of
1918 and 1919 in Montana and Alberta, there was sufficient soil
moisture to germinate seed, but dry-land wheat on thousands of acres
withered and died before it was many inches high. It was only where
more moisture was available that any grain was produced.
The relationship between the quantity of water applied and the
yield of crops grown under arid conditions has been quite fully dis-
cussed in previous bulletins (8, 12). Although less striking in effect,
a similar relation exists under semihumid conditions, as may be
learned from a consideration of crops grown near Corvallis, in the
Willamette Valley. Here the normal precipitation is 42 inches, but
of this less than 5 per cent occurs during June, July, and August.
Judged by the latitude, the winters are mild but not sufficiently so to
permit of much growth. Frosts may occur over a period of 185 days,
and the summer's drought, especially during July and August, limits
the most favorable growing weather to 100 days, more or less, in the
spring and fall.
It is obvious that crops grown under such climatic conditions
woiild not require a high seasonal application of irrigation water, but
the addition of a relatively small supplementary quantity increases the
yield, as is shown by the results of experiments carried on partly under
a cooperative agreement between the Bureau of Public Roads and the
Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station, and later by the station
independently. The experiments were begun in 1907 and continued
for more than a decade. Several hundred individual-plot tests were
made on a 10-acre tract forming part of the experiment station farm
west of Corvallis. The water used was pumped from Oak Creek,
conveyed in a wooden flume, and measured over a weir. The soil is a
rather heavy silt loam of uniform character and weighs about 80
poimds per cubic foot when dry. The optimum moisture content
is not far from 23 per cent and the water-holding capacity approxi-
mately 2 acre-inches per acre-foot. The climatic conditions during
the period were not far from normal.
In Figure 7 comparisons are given between average yields of various
crops grown in the Willamette Valley under the natural rainfall and
the same crops grown imder like conditions but with the addition of a
known quantity of irrigation water.
In some of the experiments the quantity of soil moisture used by
the crops was determined, and this is likewise shown.
WATER REQUIREMENT OF CROPS
POTATOES
Both the climate and soil of the Columbia River Basin are well
adapted to the growing of potatoes. The Nation's per capita con-
sumption of this crop does not vary much from 3 bushels a year, and a
much greater part of the 360,000,000 bushels required to meet this
demand could be produced in the Northwest were it not for the cost of
transporting a product so bulky. In 1924, these three States produced
nearly 20,000,000 bushels on 136,853 acres, or at the average rate of
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN 21
145 bushels per acre. The chief centers of this production were the
counties of Bingham and Bonneville, in Idaho; Yakima, Spokane, and
Clarke, in Washington; and Clackamas, Marion, and Washington, in
Oregon.
1'
WATER APPLIED
CROP
YIELD
Inches in depth on land
ALFALFA
• Tons per acre
20 15 10 5
5 10 15 20
6
4
4
3
4
1
=
1
1
1
m^i
1
^^^m
■
^^
^
~
■
H
^^^
1
3
2
CLOVER
1
1
1
1
■
1
^■■H
■
4
2
5
,
v<>^^^^<^i>U^>^<^yy
KALE
^^ft:^
''^^^^i^^^<>^<'i>:>:f^.
■
.
T
™
3
2
^
CORN FODDER
%;?s%si%<::^;<:?i%S*
^^*
7
2
6
6
BEETS
^^^
^
^^
I
"
1
"""
"
"""
■ 1
■
""'
2
1
2
SUGAR BEETS
I
1
^ 1
1
^^
■
^^
^™
2
2
2
BEANS
Bushels pen acre
5 ID 15 20
It
■-
1
■
■ 1
IE
^^^
^^*
"■■^'
^^^
10
8
7
6
6
■
POTATOES
50 100 150 200 250 |
^^
1
1
yyi^^^^^^^^
^"
■
^^
■
zt
IXI
1
■
'"*'
^^
Jrrigation.
ffainfall.
Rainfall and soil moisture.. ^222222^
Figure 7.— Relation between quantity of water supplied and yield of several crops grown in the Wil-
lamette Valley, Greg. Each crop plot contained one-tenth acre; soil, heavy gray silt loam; subsoil,
yellow heavy silt loam; optimum moisture content, 23 percent; wilting point, 11 to 14 per cent;
usable water capacity, 2 acre-inches per acre-foot
In the territory under consideration an adequate supply of soil
moisture and its proper control are essential to successful potato
growing.
22 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 200, U. S. DEPT. OF ARRICtJLTtJRE
In the arid portion of the basin the rainfall during the potato-
growing period averages less than 3}^ inches, and much of this is
evaporated from soil surfaces. Of 16 experiments made on plots in the
Snake River Basin of Idaho, eight received less than VA acre-feet per
acre including rainfall and produced an average of 160 bushels per acre,
four received more than VA and less than 2% acre-feet per acre and
produced an average yield of 251 bushels, while the remaining 4
received from 2^ to 3% acre-feet including rainfall and produced an
average yield of 284 bushels. Of 49 experiments made in the more
humid Willamette Valley where the plants received more or less soil
moisture derived from the previous winter rains, the plots which
received from one-half to 1 acre-foot per acre of irrigation water and
summer rainfall averaged 233 bushels while those which received from
1 to IK acre-feet per acre averaged 263 bushels.
These citations indicate that medium yields under arid conditions
require 2 acre-feet of water per acre, while heavy yields may require
as much as 2}^ acre-feet.
WHEAT AND OTHER SMALL GRAIN
During the crop-growing seasons of 1913, 1914, and 1915, wheat was
grown in each of six tanks at Bozeman, Mont. The experiments were
conducted cooperatively by the Bureau of Public Roads and the Mon-
tana Agricultural Experunent Station, with L. F. Gieseker, of the
station, in charge, the main object being to determine the relation
between water applied and crop yield. Each tank was weighed
semiweekly, and weighed volumes of water were added at stated
intervals to compensate for transpiration and evaporation losses.
The plants when mature were separated into straw, heads, roots, and
threshed grain, and dried in an oven at a temperature of 90° C. In
1913 the mean weights in grams of the several parts of the plants
were as follows: Straw, 174.9; heads including grain, 121.2; roots,
63; total, 359.1. The mean water requirement expressed in pounds
of water transpired and evaporated per pound of dry matter for the
18 individual experiments was 508 pounds of water per pound of
dried matter in the entire plant and 1,514 pounds of water per pound
of dried grain. To produce a yield of wheat of 40 bushels per acre
(disregarding the difference in weight between oven-dried and stored
grain), a volume of water equivalent to 1.32 acre-feet per acre is
required in a 1,514 to 1 ratio. This should be regarded as a theoretical
minimum, since in its computation no allowance is made for deep per-
colation, run-oif, and other losses inseparably connected with ordinary
irrigation under field conditions. If 30 per cent is added to make up
for these losses, the total quantity becomes 1.71 acre-feet per acre,
which, as mil be pointed out, corresponds quite closety to the average
use of water for this crop on the arid lands of the basin for the pro-
duction of medium to heavy yields.
Of 85 experiments on plots and fields of wheat in the Snake River
Basin of Idaho made by the Bureau of Public Roads in cooperation
with the Idaho State Land Board and the Idaho Agricultural Exper-
iment Station, 23 which received more than 0.25 acre-foot per acre
and less than 1.25 acre-feet and an average of 0.86 acre-foot per acre,
produced an average yield of 24.5 bushels. On 41 plots and fields the
quantity of water applied varied from 1.25 to 2.25 acre-feet per acre
and averaged 1.75 acre-feet; the average yield was 35 bushels per acre.
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN 23
The remaining 21 plots and fields received large quantities of water,
averaging 3.17 acre-feet per acre, but the crop yields were low, aver-
aging less than 28% bushels per acre. From these and other results
it would appear that 1 % acre-feet per acre was sufficient for profitable
crops of wheat throughout the arid portions of the basin.
The water requirements of oats, barley, and peas are very similar
to those of wheat growTi under similar conditions. The results of 438
experiments with wheat in the Missouri and Arkansas River Basins
gave an average use of 1.78 acre-feet per acre; 372 experiments with
oats gave 1.72 acre-feet; 282 experiments with barley gave 1.70 acre-
feet; and 42 experiments with peas gave 1.67 acre-feet per acre (12),
ALFALFA
Under the cooperative agreement previously mentioned, alfalfa was
grown in tanks at Bozeman, Mont., during 1911 and 1912. The mean
of 1 1 experiments on the first crop of alfalfa indicated a water require-
ment of 1,060 pounds of water to 1 pound of dry crop; 12 experiments
on the second crop, a water requirement of 718 to 1; and 6 experi-
ments on the third crop, 728 to 1. On these findings a seasonal yield
of 4 tons of dried alfalfa per acre would require 2.45 acre-feet of
water. This represents the minimum requirement to provide for
transpiration and evaporation. If to this is added 30 per cent to
provide for ordinary losses in applying water, the water requirement
becomes 3.19 acre-feet per acre.
Chiefly during the years 1910 to 1913, inclusive, 114 cooperative
experiments were made by the Bureau of Public Roads in southern
Idaho to determine among other things the water requirement of
alfalfa. Excluding six experiments in which more than half the water
applied was not included in consumptive use but returned to the
stream for reuse, the average use in the remaining 108 experiments
was 2.9 acre-feet per acre and the average yield 4.37 tons. In the
large majority of these experiments, a better preparation of the sur-
face, shorter runs, and a more skillful use might have reduced the
water requirement considerably, but even with reasonable improve-
ment in methods it is probable that at least 2.75 acre-feet per acre will
be required, to produce heavy yields of alfalfa.
TREES
Under this heading are included orchard trees and forest trees.
In 1908, 1910, and 1911 the Bureau of Public Roads determined the
quantity of water used on 1 1 deciduous orchard tracts at Wenatchee,
Wash. With a few exceptions, the trees were 6 or 7 years old from
planting and consisted mainly of apple trees although peach, pear,
cherry, plum, and crab apple trees formed parts of some orchards.
The soil, a sandy loam, was irrigated by means of six shallow furrows
600 to 700 feet long between the tree rows which were spaced 20 feet
apart. The tracts varied in area from 6 to 50 acres and averaged 22.5
acres. The quantity of utiHzed irrigation water applied per season
varied from less than 1.25 to 2 acre-feet and averaged 1.61 acre-feet
per acre. Clean culture was practiced throughout so that no water
was used for either cover crops or intermediate crops. The annual
precipitation was about 10 inches.
On one of the Dominion experiment farms at Summerland in the
Okanogan Valley of British Columbia, where the climatic and soil
24 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 200, XJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTTJKE
conditions are quite similar to those at Wenatchee, Wash., experi-
ments have been carried on since 1916 with six orchard tracts of 2
acres each planted to apple, pear, prune, plum, cherry, and apricot
trees. These orchards since they were planted in 1916 have been
imder different treatment as regards clean cultivation, cover crops,
intercrops, and quantity of irrigation water applied. The following
facts regarding the results are noted from the annual report for
1922 {17):
(1) The soil deteriorates under clean cultivation; (2) the growing of leguminous
cover crops or the application of manure is necessary to maintain an adequate
nitrogen content in the soil; (3) more water is required for orchards in which cover
crops or intercrops are grown; (4) the water requirement of trees increases with
the age of the trees. The average quantities of water used on the six orchards
was 0.69 acre-foot per acre for the first year and 1.33 acre-feet per acre for the
sixth year.
In 1914 and 1915 the quantity of water used on 10 plots of apple
trees 8 and 9 years old, grown on fine sandy loam in southern Idaho,
was measured by Ta3^1or and Downing {29) of the Idaho Agricultural
Experiment Station, the average water requirement for the two years
appearing as 2.20 acre-feet per acre, including an average of 0.42 acre-
foot per acre of effective rainfall.
Few, if any, results are available to show the quantity of water used
on nut trees in the Columbia Kiver Basin, but many determinations
have been made on walnut trees in Orange County, CaHf. Here, as
elsewhere, the rainfall and time of its occurrence are influential
factors. Under normal conditions and an annual rainfall of 15 inches
a heavy irrigation approaching 1 acre-foot per acre is applied in March,
when cheap water can be obtained. A second watering is given in
June and a third in August, to fill out the nuts. The two summer
waterings combined require about 1 acre-foot, so that when the winter
rainfall is included the trees receive 38 to 40 inches of water.
The literature of forests abounds in discussions of the relationship
of forests to water and water supplies, but reliably conclusive data as
to the quantity of water absorbed by roots of trees and transpii'ed by
their foliage is not to be found. There is, however, a close relation-
ship between forest growth and precipitation apart from such other
influencing factors as atmosphere, temperature, altitude, latitude, and
soils, and the observations and deductions therefrom serve to convey
some idea of the quantity of water used by different types of trees,
particularly as regards the minimum quantity when measured in
annual precipitation.
In reporting on the irrigation requirements of the arid and semiarid
lands of the Southwest it was pointed out that trees did not grow
generally where the precipitation was less than 20 inches a year.
This is true also of the Columbia River Basin when allowance is made
for less arid conditions, resulting in a higher eflSciency on the part of
plants in the use of rainfall. Dense stands of magnificent conifers
grow in a zone 35 to 75 miles wide along the crest of the Cascade
Range in Oregon, where the annual precipitation is 40 to 80 inches,
and similar stands are found on the western slope beyond the Coast
Range to the Pacific Ocean when supplied by a rainfall of 40 inches
or more. On the eastern slope of the range the terrain falls off rapidly
from elevations of 6,000 feet and more near the summit, to 3,000 feet
and over, on the plateau, with a great decrease in the annual precipi-
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN 25
tation. In the western portion of Crook County, Oreg., the precipi-;;
tation is about 50 inches a year on the summit but less than 16 inches''
on the arable land of the plateau 15 to 30 miles distant. Here a
scanty precipitation of 10 to 12 inches is apparently adequate for
sagebrush. A somewhat greater natural water supply supports
scattering juniper trees used for fuel and fence posts. Ascending the
slope toward the crest, scattering commercial timber grows where the
precipitation is 17 inches, and the stands increase in density and value
as the precipitation increases unless otherwise controlled, imtil the
maximum water requirement for sugar pine is attained.
The water requirements of several types of trees common to the
basin is thus summarized by Larsen : ®
_, ^ Annual precipita-
Type of tree tion (inches)
Western yellow pine 17-22
Douglas fir 20-25
Lodgepole pine 20-25
Larch and Douglas fir mixed 20-30
White fir, hemlock and cedar, mixed 27-44
Obviously precipitation requirements can not be regarded as
equivalent to water requirements, since trees in common with other
kinds of vegetation use only a part of the total annual precipitation.
Zon (34, p. 20) says:
The more highly developed the vegetal cover the faster is moisture extracted
from the soil and given off into the air. In this respect the forest is the greatest
desiccator of the soil. The experiments of Otozky, which have been fully con-
firmed by many observers in other countries, have conclusively shown that the
forest, on account of its excessive transpiration, consumes more moisture, all other
conditions being equal, than a similar area bare of vegetation or covered with some
herbaceous growth. The amount of water consumed by the forest is nearly equal
to the total annual precipitation.
While the foregoing, especially the last statement, doubtless appUes
to those portions of the forested areas of the basin which receive a
moderate precipitation of 17 to 22 inches annually, it does not apply
to those which receive a much larger precipitation, as is evidenced by
the run-off.
On the basis of the known water requirements of orchard trees and
the minimum requirements of virgin forests, the average water
requirements of the grass, weeds, brush, and trees of all ages of the
forested area of the Columbia River Basin may tentatively be
estimated at 2 acre-feet per acre.
CONDITIONS INFLUENCING THE QUANTITY OF IRRIGATION WATER
REQUIRED
• In arriving at the quantity of irrigation water required for a tract
of land, whether project, district, or farm considered individually or
collectively, each of a number of factors should be taken into account*
These may be considered to be as follows: (1) Physical conditions;
(2) farm management; (3) economic conditions; (4) results of in-
vestigations; (5) character of works needed to control, convey, dis-
tribute, and apply water; and (6) State, community, and corporate
regulations.
« LAESEN, J. FOREST TYPES AND THEIK CLIMATIC CONTROL. (Unpublished.)
116327°— 30 4
26 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 200, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUEE
PHYSICAL CONDITIONS
In previous bulletins {8, 12) attention has been called to the waste of
water arising from transmission and deep percolation losses, the former
occurring between the intake of the canal and farmers' headgates, the
latter on irrigated farms and in farmers' ditches. The water users of
the Columbia River Basin on land east of the Cascades are subjected
to hea\^ losses of this nature by reason of the character of the surface
rock and the soil from which it is mainly derived.
The soil derived from lava rock and from wdnd-borne volcanic
ash is fine-grained, holds water well, and is fertile, but contains
httle clay. The absence of this ingredient or its presence in small
amounts causes this kind of soil to be fairly pervious notwithstanding
the fineness of its particles. Furthermore, lava soils are shallow
rather than deep. In may parts of the Snake River Basin, where the
latest flows occurred, sufficient time has not elapsed to convert rock in
sufficient quantities to form deep soil. In consequence large tracts
are covered with shallow soil superimposed upon the parent rock.
This, in brief, is the character of the soil and rock formations of
the region. It is impracticable to confine the use of irrigation water
wholly to the purpose for which it is intended or to prevent the
wastage of a large proportion of that diverted from streams. A
study of the results of return-flow measurements conveys some idea
of the extent of this wastage. During the period July 1 to October 1,
1922, the discharge of Snake River immediately below Milner Dam
was 14,700 acre-feet, while at King Hill, 93 miles farther dowTi the
stream, it was 1,294,000 acre-feet, the increase of 1,279,000 acre-feet
being derived largely from springs and return flow. If return waters
can be reused the loss in revenue is not keenly felt, but in the case of
southern Idaho the water escapes from a locafity where it has a high
value because it can be diverted by gravity canals and reenters the
river in a locality w^here it has little value because it can be utilized
only by being pumped through high lifts.
There is a marked variation in the precipitation of the basin, and
this is reflected m the character of the native vegetation. In localities
having an annual precipitation of 20 inches or more, virgin forests
abound; where the annual precipitation is between 7 and 15 inches,
sagebrush is the predominant growth ; and in the zones which receive
15 to 20 LQches, a scattered growth of noncommercial timber mixed
with brush is usually found. Yakima Valley is one of the most arid
parts of the basin, having a normal precipitation of about 7 inches
with httle effective rainfall during the entire crop-growing season.
Contrasted with this is the Willamette Valley, having a normal raia-
fall of 40 to 44 inches which occurs chiefly in the fall, winter, and early
spriug seasons, leaviug three or four months of the best growing part
of the year with little rainfall for the nourishment of crops. The
temperature is much lower, and evaporation and transpiration are
much less than in the southwest and these climatic conditions tend
to lower the irrigation requirements.
FARM MANAGEMENT
Lava soils in their natural state contain, as a rule, an abundance of
the mineral iugredients of plant food but are deficient in organic
matter. Efficient farm management, therefore, requires that this
deficiency be made up by growiQg leguminous crops in rotation. By
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF COLUMBIA RIVER BASIX 27
plowing under alfalfa after it has grown three years, a large amount
of decayed vegetable matter, chiefly roots, is added to the soil, and
this addition renders it more productive, freer to cultivate, more
retentive of water, and the ratio of water requirement in pounds to
each pound of dry matter produced is much less. Furthermore, in
order to obtain a high service from irrigation water, diversification
of crops is necessary. When the bulk of the crops on the farm con-
sists of small grains which mature early, there is little need for water
during the latter part of the irrigation season. On the other hand,
it is possible and usually more profitable to make use of water over
the greater part of the frost-free period by growing such crops as
alfalfa, clover, roots, and vegetables in conjunction with small grains.
By following this course, a scientific rotation of crops can be practiced,
the fertility of the soil not only maintained but increased, and a larger
revenue derived from the use of a given quantity of water.
ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
In localities where the gross annual value of crops falls below $40
per acre, little can be done within economic limits in lining canals or
substituting pipes for earthen ditches. The cost of water also must
be kept reasonably low to permit farmers to pay for it out of meager
earnings. Such economies, however, do not apply in general to the
preparation of the surface of fields for rapid and efficient irrigation.
Measured in money invested for the betterment of the irrigated
farm, the difference between a field poorly prepared and one well
prepared would not exceed on an average $12 per acre. The interest
on the cost of this permanent improvement would be less than $1 a
year and at least six substantial benefits would be derived from it.
These are (9): (1) Larger yields of crops, (2) better quahty of crops,
(3) reduction in the waste of water, (4) saving of time and labor in
irrigating, (5) keeping the soil productive, and (6) enhancing the
value of the farm.
In sections where the use of water in irrigation wiU bring gross
returns of $60 or more per acre, measures designed to lessen trans-
mission losses and provide efficient farm systems of irrigation are
generally justified. Much water may be saved by adopting right
methods in its disposal. If the water user contracts for water at a
stated price per acre-foot, he is rewarded for saving and penaHzed for
wasting. On the contrary, when a farmer's water-right contract
merely calls for sufficient water to irrigate a definite area, the canal
company receives the benefit of any economies he practices.
RESULTS OF INVESTIGATIONS
The work of State and Federal agencies in studying irrigation
problems in a practical manner probably has done more to improve
practice and bring about a more economical use of water than an}^
other influence. So long as ignorance prevailed regarding the capac-
itv of canals and ditches, transmission losses, return flow, and the use
of water on farms, little could be done to better the situation. It was
not until data were made available concerning these and other in-
fluential factors and a fuller knowledge was gained of the relationship
between water applied and yield that excessive use could be curtailed.
Such investigations have been carried on for 30 years or more, and
their importance is evidenced by the fact that they are increasing
28 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 200, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
rather than diminishing and that more and more dependence is placed
upon the results obtained. For years State administrative officers
have based the irrigation requirements of new projects on expert
knowledge derived from the results of investigations, and courts sel-
dom issue decrees pertaining to the quantity of water required per
acre without first having expert testimony bearing on the needs of
soils and crops for water.
CHARACTER OF WORKS
Many portions of main canals in Idaho, Washington, and Oregon
which leaked badly have been lined with concrete. In some of the
fruit-growing sections of eastern Washington and eastern Oregon,
wooden pipes, and to a less extent concrete pipes, have been installed
to convey and distribute water. With these exceptions the channels
are formed in earth, and great loss is caused by absorption and
seepage. Much water is also wasted by deep percolation resulting
from running small streams in furrows and borders over long distances.
The results of experiments conducted by the Bureau of PubUc Roads
in cooperation with the State Land Board of Idaho on porous, gravelly
soils near Rigby, Idaho, showed that the quantity of water used in
single irrigations or throughout the season increased as the length of
run increased. In one case when the run was reduced from 2,560
feet to 853 feet, a saving of 28 per cent of the water appHed was
effected; in another case when it was reduced from 2,570 feet to 428
feet there was a saving of 32 per cent ; while in a third case when the
run was reduced from 2,359 feet to 337 feet there was a saving of over
90 per cent.
STATE, COMMUNITY, AND CORPORATE REGULATIONS
Public control of the use of water was not adopted by the Western
States during the earlier stages of irrigation development. The right
to appropriate water for beneficial use was recognized in connec-
tion with the earliest developments, but for many years no provi-
sion was made to determine the extent or date of appropriations or
to provide agencies to protect appropriators against later claimants.
Colorado made provision for the administration of pubhc water
supphes in 1881. Since then each of the 17 Western States, with
the exception of Montana, has enacted a more or less comprehensive
code of laws governing the acquirement and estabhshment of water
rights, equitable allotments of water, protection of rights and other
features pertinent to irrigation, in which the interest of the pubhc is
represented by State officials or administrative bodies. Although
the end to be attained is the same in each State, the procedure and
the State agencies employed differ. This difference is seen in the
States in which the Columbia River Basin is located.
There is, in fact, in these States a difference in fundamentals.
Oregon and Washington have recognized the doctrine of riparian
rights with important limitations noted hereinafter as weU as the
doctrine of appropriation; the remaining five States have abrogated
the riparian doctrine altogether. In Wyoming, the State engineer
and board of control are empowered to direct and supervise aU
functions pertaining to water, the courts being used mainly for
purposes of appeal; in the remaining five States (exclusive of Mon-
tana) the State engineer collects and presents the requisite data for
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN 29*
determination by the court in the settlement of water rights. Wy-
oming, Idaho, and Nevada have placed a maximum limit upon the
quantity of water which may be appropriated or used for irrigation
purposes but the limit differs for each State. In Wyoming it is
1 second-foot for 70 acres, but since no time limit is specified, the
quantity of water allowed is indefinite. In a seasonal use over
100 days it would be 2.8 acre-feet per acre; in 150 days it would be
4.2 acre-feet. The limit in Nevada is 1 second-foot of delivered
water for 100 acres and 4 acre-feet per acre for stored water in the
reservoir, while in Idaho it is 1 second-foot for 50 acres of diverted
normal flow and 5 acre-feet per acre of diverted storage water. In
the opinion of the authors such limitations tend to encourage rather
than curtail excessive use. It is objected to on the ground that
conditions are too varied to make it applicable; that all appropri-
ators would insist on receiving the maximum allowance, and that the
limit fixed must of necessity be high so as not to injure many rights.
In its earlier stages, irrigation was confined to the more arid of the
Western States. Here rights to water were acquired by prior appro-
priation for beneficial use. In time the courts confirmed this pro-
cedure and abrogated the common-law doctrine of riparian rights as
unsuited to prevailing conditions. At that time a large territory
bordering the Pacific Ocean and a larger territory on the eastern
slope of the Rockies forming the western portion of the Great Plains
area was considered semiarid if not humid. It is not surprising,
therefore, that certain courts having jurisdiction in these territories
based their decisions on the riparian doctrine in effect throughout the
humid portion of the country. In course of time, however, irrigation
practice was extended far beyond the confines of the strictly arid
States, and as a forerunner of this extension came the adoption of the
doctrine of prior appropriation.
Thus for a generation the Pacific Coast States and the Great
Plains States have been handicapped in having in effect within the
same jurisdictions two diametrically opposed doctrines concerning
the basis of title to water rights, although recent court decisions in
Washington and Oregon, in sharp contrast to those in California,
have done much to eliminate the confusion caused by the dual situa-
tion in those States. The one doctrine paves the way for water
conservation and economical use, the other places legal barriers across
the pathway of progress. They are thus contrasted by Chandler
{5, p. 862): ^
The western doctrine of prior appropriation has thus far met every requirement
and, owing to its flexibility, is certain to continue so doing. * * * Tj^e
recognition of riparian rights causes injustice and wrong and it is nowise suitable
to our conditions.
On the basis of the total area of land irrigated in the United States,
the acreage of land claiming riparian rights in 1909 was 2.1 per cent,
and in 1919 it was 1.9 per cent, the trend being downward. In spite
of certain reactionary decisions, the scope of the riparian-rights
doctrine on the whole is being definitely curtailed, principally by
modifications but occasionally by abrogation. An important limita-
tion in Oregon ^ was made to the effect that the doctrine did not
apply to public lands settled upon after passage of the desert land
7 Hough V. Porter, 51 Or. 318, 95 P. 732, 98 P. 1083.
30 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 200, TJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
act in 1877; and in a recent decision ^ the act defining what shall be
deemed to constitute a vested right in a riparian proprietor, namely,
'* Actual application of water to beneficial use prior to the passage of
this act by or under authority of any riparian proprietor," was
upheld as constitutional.
In Washington, furthermore, where a constitutional provision
asserts State ownership of beds and shores of all navigable waters, it
was decided that ''common-law riparian rights in navigable waters
* * * have not existed or been recognized in this State since the
adoption of our Constitution;" ^ and a recent decision ^° even further
modified the doctrine by declaring that
waters of nonnavigable streams in excess of the amount which can be beneficially
used, either directly or prospectively, within a reasonable time or ip connection
with riparian lands, are subject to appropriation for use on nonriparian lands.
The effect of these decisions is that both Washington and Oregon,
w^hile recognizing the modified doctrine of riparian rights, nevertheless
hold the riparian proprietor to beneficial use.
For many years Montana had been considered a riparian-rights
State, although the early decisions had left the matter open to some
question; but all doubt was removed in 1921 when the State Supreme
Court,^^ after carefully reviewing the subject, concluded —
that the common-law doctrine of riparian rights has never prevailed in Montana
since the enactment of the Bannack Statutes m 1865; that it is unsuited to the
conditions here. * * *
Experience has shown that water will perform a greater service and
be used in a more orderly and wise fashion if controlled and adminis-
tered by specialists in that line. It is now quite generally recognized
that the furnishing of water to irrigators, its control and measurement,
and the making of equitable allotments to users are hydrauHc problems
and that the interests of a State are best served by placing men of the
requisite training and experience in charge. Well-considered legisla-
tive enactments have been of great service in establishing right
policies and in outlining proper courses of procedure, but these aids
to an orderly use of water have their Hmitations, and in the end the
heaviest and most continuous burdens and responsibilities rest on the
State administrator, who is called upon not alone to enforce the laws
but also to deal out even-handed justice to thousands of water users.
It is true that one of the functions of the judiciary is to determine
the quantity of water which each lawful claimant shall receive, but
no stream is the same to-day as it was yesterday or will be to-morrow.
Rivers rise and fall, floods and droughts occur irrespective of judicial
mandates. It is wise, therefore, to have some administrative officer
clothed with sufficient authority to meet situations as they arise.
That the administration of water may become a complicated prob-
lem is revealed by the situation in the Upper Snake River Basin in
Idaho. Here the ffow of a large river has to be parceled out among
120 main canals. This in itself would not be a difficult task if the dis-
charge of the river were constant and the canals on the same legal
status respecting priorities. The river, however, fluctuates greatly
because of melting snows'and rainstorms, and the canals have superior
8 In re Hood River, 114 Or. 112, 227 P. 1065.
» State ex rel. Ham, Yearsley & Ryrie v. Superior Court of Grant County, 70 Wash. 442, 126 P. 945, 949.
10 Brown et ux ». Chase, Supervisor of Hydraulics, 125 Wash. 642, 217 P. 23.
11 Mettler v. Ames Realty Co., 61 Mont. 152, 201 P. 702, 708.
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN 31
and inferior rights. Besides, a large quantity of diverted water re-
turns to the river and is available for reuse. To complicate matters
still more the excess flood waters of the river are stored in four large
reservoirs, the combined storage capacity being over 2,700,000 acre-
feet {3). In the case of three reservoirs the stored water is conveyed
over long distances in the natural channel where losses occur in vary-
ing quantities. The water in the reservoirs is likewise subjected to
losses by percolation and evaporation and to gains by bank storage.
Community and corporate regulations have been discussed in
previous bulletins {8, 12) and what was there stated applies to the
Columbia River Basin.
LAND RECLAMATION AND THE MONTHLY AND SEASONAL IRRIGA-
TION REQUIREMENTS
One of the outstanding reasons why only a partial use is being made
of the 77,000,000 acres of grazing land in the Columbia River Basin,
is the scarcity and high price of alfalfa hay — a product of the irri-
gated farm. Much more of the arid land of the region could be
reclaimed by means of irrigation. Notwithstanding the aridity of
the climate over extensive areas, the basin has a large run-off, as is
evidenced by the discharge of the Columbia River into the Pacific
Ocean, the mean of which is in round numbers 164,000,000 acre-feet
a year. The remainder of the water supply, estimated to be 140,000,-
000 acre-feet, is absorbed by the roots of plants and transpired by
their foliage or is evaporated. At first glance this appears to be an
enormous drain on a valuable agricultural resource, but in reahty it is
not so because the water yield from main and tributary drainage
areas on which the bulk of the forests grow can not be utilized for
farm crops. The potential value of forests is so high that they
should not be sacrificed on the theory that productive farms will
replace them.
Except to a small extent in favored localities having good local
markets, it is more profitable and economical to reclaim for farming
purposes treeless arid lands by means of irrigation than to establish
farms on cut-over lands that are not physically adapted to agriculture.
In line with this belief, the irrigable lands of the basin have been
selected almost wholly from nonforested areas. On the basis of the
avaDable water supply, a total of 11,000,000 acres can be reclaimed
in the basin when conditions warrant the cost. The rate of such
development will depend also on the cost of a water right and the
labor and equipment necessary to make irrigated holdings remimera-
tive, as well as on the profits to be derived from irrigated farms.
To take cognizance of the varying conditions which affect water
requirement and at the same time to recognize geographic position
and similarity of climate, products, soils, and types of farming, the
basin has been separated into the 19 subdivisions shown in Figure 1
by placing in the same sub-division, so far as is practicable, all of
the contiguous arable lands requiring similar average quantities of
water for profitable crop production.
In anticipation of a time when agriculture will require an extension
of the present irrigated area, the irrigation requirements of the above-
named 19 subdivisions have been carefully considered and a quantity
of water in acre-feet per acre has been tentatively allotted to each.
These allotments are given in Table 2 and on Figure 1. They are
32 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 200, V. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
based on the results of the experiments summarized in this bulletin,
on the anticipated extension of irrigated area, and on the expected
improvements in irrigation practices. It is to be noted that in some
instances the allotment is less than the quantity now used. In
making this reduction there was no intention on the part of the au-
thors to handicap water users of future enterprises by granting too
little water for their legitimate needs; rather the purpose was to
emphasize the fact that it is more economical to expend labor and
money in preparing land and providing faciUties for the application
of water than to pay for the excess of water required for poorly pre-
pared farms.
Table 2. — Monthly and seasonal net irrigation requirements of the various sub-
divisions of the Columbia River Basin
Divi-
sion
No.
Description of division
Percentage of total seasonal net irrigation require-
ments in—
Sea-
sonal
net
Apr.
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
irriga-
tion re-
quire-
ment
per acre
1
Snake River Valley in Idaho
Per
cent
4
3
Per
cent
17
13
7
12
8
11
15
17
19
14
16
11
14
14
12
14
10
9
12
Per
cent
23
32
35
34
38
18
23
25
22
25
22
29
20
24
26
23
18
19
20
Per
cent
25
30
40
36
44
30
24
27
26
28
23
34
22
26
27
25
28
28
27
Per
cent
19
20
17
14
10
30
20
14
20
20
21
26
20
19
21
20
27
26
26
Per
cent
11
2
1
2
Per
cent
1
Per
cent
Acre-
feet
2 5
2
Upper Snake River Valley in Idaho. .
Jackson Lake and upper Snake River
Basin in Wyoming and Idaho
2.3
3
1.7
4
Southwestern Idaho and northern
Nevada. .. _. .. ...
2
1 9
5
Salmon River Basin in Idaho
2 0
6
Northern Idaho ...
11
10
9
8
10
8
1 5
7
Basins of the Bitterroot and Missoula
Rivers in Montana
6
8
5
3
7
1
1
2 1
8
Flathead Lake and River basins in
Montana...
1 8
9
Basins of the Owyhee and Malheur
Rivers in Oregon
2 4
10
Northeastern Oregon
2 0
11
Lower basins of the Umatilla, John
Day, Deschutes, and Hood Rivers
in Oregon
3
2 5
12
Central Oregon
2 4
13
Basins of the Yakima and Wenatchee
8
4
3
4
10
10
9
10
17
18
15
5
3
2
3
1
1
2 6
14
Southeastern Washington. ...
2 1
15
Northeastern Washington...
2.2
'16
Okanogan River Basin in Washing-
ton
2 3
17
Lower Columbia River Basin in
Washington.. . ...
1.3
18
Willamette River Basin in Oregon.. .
1.2
19
Puget Sound district in Washington i_
1.4
1 Not in the Columbia River Basin.
In arriving at the extent of irrigable lands on which water is to be
appUed, no deduction has been made for nonirrigated portions. In
every irrigated district a certain percentage of the total area under
ditch is not irrigated. This comprises roads, lanes, building sites
corrals, fences, ditches, and farm lands which for one reason or
another are not irrigated. On the other hand, the net seasonal re-
quirements as given in Table 2 do not include transmission or other
losses which may occur between the source of supply and the margin
of farms.
All the reliable records available pertaining to the measured use of
water on crops in the Columbia Kiver Basin have been compiled and
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN 33
are herein appended in the form of tables. These tables give the
seasonal and monthly use of water on plots and fields. Some date
from a time when water for irrigation was relatively cheap and
abundant and crude and careless methods characterized its use.
These have been included more on account of their historical value
than for any purpose they might serve in determining future allot-
ments for dry land.
The records given in the tables have been obtained from unpub-
lished reports on this subject and from the pubUshed reports hsted
in Literature Cited (p. 54).
APPENDIX
USE OF WATER ON CROPS IN THE COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN, IRRIGATION WATER
APPUED, RAINFALL, AND CROP YIELDS IN IDAHO, OREGON, WASHINGTON, MON-
TANA, AND BRITISH COLUMBIA
Table 3. — Irrigation water applied, rainfall, and crop yields in the Snake River
Valley, Idaho *
ALFALFA
Year
Soil
Application of water in—
ftJ2
rr, H
Water received
by crop
1906
1906
1908
1910
19B0
19H)
1910
19H)
19K)
1910
19H)
1910
1910
19H)
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
19M)
1910
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1913
1913
1913
Feet
Medium clay loam..
do -
Impervious clay
loam
do.
do
Uniform clay loam..
.—do
—.do
Impervious clay
loam
....do
Uniform clay loam..
Mediiun clay loam..
....do
.-..do
....do
Very gravelly.
do
Very sandy.
do
do
do
Medium clay loam..
Very sandy loam . . .
Medium clay loam..
do
do
do
.-.do...
Shallow clay loam..
..-.do
do
Impervious clay
loam
Very gravelly
do
do.
Medium clay loam..
do
Shallow clay loam.
do...
do
Deep clay loam
do
Medium day loam.
do
Clay loam...
do
Deep clay loam
Clay loam
do..
3,572
3,572
2,367
2,367
2,367
4,742
4,742
4,742
2,482
2,482
2,607
3,800
3.800
3,800
3,572
4,949
4,949
4,497
4,497
4.497
4,949
3,572
3,700
3,750
3,800
3,800
3,825
3,825
3,800
3,800
3,800
2,607
4,949
4,949
4,949
3,572
3,572
3,800
3,750
3,750
3,800
3 i
2^607
2,607
4,300
4,550
4,550
Acres
40.00
21.06
Plot
3.72
3.56
2.81
3.69
2.84
3.20
3.16
3.37
6.21
5.08
2.92
2
3.38
.98
2.51
6.77
3
4.15
4.29
10.65
.97
No.
Feet
Feet
Feet
1
2
4,
4,
4
4
4
5.381
3.85
9.39
5,
5.73
10.65
.57
.37
24
38
4,
3,
3.
4,
5,
6
7,
4.77
6.10
3.61
2.70
3.45I
0.31
.51
.48
.43
.81
27
0.17
.56
.34
.17
.48
.26
.40
.40
.59
.67
.49
.41
.55
.60
.79
1.62
1.01
2.33
.51
.48
.43
1.02
.41
.35
.61
.71
.88
.38
.97
.30
.31
.45
.44
.81
1.07
L47
.48
.62
.41
.41
.71
.34
.46
.54
.71
.31
.42
.56
0.55
.19
.78
.74
.53
.65
l.W
.23
.68
.50
.17
.50
.48
1.19
2.05
.92
.63
2.22
1.04
.21
.51
.41
2.50
2.50
2.80
.70
.68
.57
1.15
.59
'."45
.55
.83
.57
.33
.49
Feet
0.43
.54
.53
1.02
.54
.90
.92
.42
.30
.50
.84
.63
1.16
1.27
.77
3.26
2.21
.59
1.35
1.98
3.16
1.41
.97
L16
.58
.87
.57
.81
.43
.85
1.07
1.33
.97
2!
1.13
1.
.53
.47
.80
.70
.75
.48
.50
.94
Feet
0.55
.32
.40
Feet
0.65
.33
.53
.93
.36
.57
.63
.43
.33
.46
.60
1.40
1.73
.80
1.42
1.34
2.70
1.09
.55
.62
".'77
.36
.51
1.23
.52
.52
2.12
2.85
2.93
.22
.55
.83
.48
1.05
"."45
.47
.61
.75
1.28
.75
.45
.53
24
,30
.67
.65
.35
.48
60
53
.41
Feet
1.63
.87
1.85
1.87
2.10
1.89
2.85
.3.45
1.41
1.95
2.22
2.11
2.25
2.82
2.34
4.05
4.71
4.49
9.40
6.92
L61
2.65
4.82
11.20
4.00
2.61
3.26
1.29
2.52
1.31
2.77
1.
2.33
2.55
3.81
6.40
7.22
11.53
2.53
2.93
2.34
2.51
3.15
1.06
1.80
1.71
2.07
1.87
2.89
2.36
1.28
1
,223
,02i
4.38
See footnotes on p. 38.
34
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN 35
Table 3. — Irrigation water applied, rainfall, and crop yields in the Snake River
Valley, Idaho — Continued
ALFALFA.— Continued
Year
Sou
'2
s
i
Application of water in—
Water received
by crop
1
•s
i
^^
.
3
<
g
<
1
1
<
^
S
1
<
e
1
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
Deep loam clay
Uniform clay loam. .
do
do
Deep sandy loam...
Uniform clay loam. .
do
do
Feet
4,850
4,850
3,572
3,572
3,572
4,700
4,700
4,570
4,570
4,570
Acres
5.12
6.60
.50
.48
.54
2.69
3.70
3.12
2.82
4.05
No.
3
4
7
10
13
1
1
2
2
3
Feet
Feet
.99
1.20
.82
1.11
1.21
1.51
1.88
.48
.93
.51
Feet
"'17
.44
.48
.50
Feet
1.00
1.49
.50
.85
.96
l."38
.78
.77
Feet
.47
.88
.22
.61
.44
""."66
Feet
"."23
"I"
Feet
2.46
3.74
1.98
3.05
3.34
1.51
1.88
1.86
1.71
1.94
Foot
.61
.61
.20
.20
.20
.65
.65
.65
.65
.65
Feet
3.07
4.35
2.18
3.25
3.54
2.16
2.53
2.51
2.36
2.59
Tons
4.00
3.68
5.85
6.99
7.51
«2.60
«2.84
3.90
4.10
3.89
Ref.
No.
RED CLOVER
1910
Very gravelly
4,949
8.40
9
2.06
2.75
1.14
2.45
8.40
0.20
8.60
4.85
4r
CLOVER
1911
Very gravelly
4,949
4.32
7
1.11
1.54
0.64
3.32
1
6.61
0.58
7.19
3.25
4
TIMOTHY AND CLOVER
1911
1911
1911
Sandy loam
do
do
2,547
2,547
2,547
5.43
5.46
4.53
7
8
9
0.49
.60
0.48
.56
0.84
.88
0.50
.98
0.95
1.42
3.26
4.44
6.04
0.57
.57
.57
3.83
5.01
6.61
4.63
4.57
3.84
4
4
4
WHEAT
1906
22.52
18.59
20.80
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
.59
.77
5.06
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
3.16
3.07
4.11
2.72
4.76
4.96
4.94
4.79
4.98
.62
.64
3.59
7.49
2.56
3
2
2
3
2
3
3
3
2
1
3
4
2
5
6
4
5
6
4
5
7
4
5
1
1
2
4
4
4
4
3
5
2
2
2
0.75
1.25
.67
.28
.28
2.00
1.12
.61
.98
.58
1.25
.79
.72
.45
.25
1.27
1.84
1.44
1.21
1.44
.95
1.10
1.60
.91
1.09
1.79
3.20
3.96
.76
1.05
2.93
2.40
2.27
2.30
4.73
.91
1.79
.64
1.12
1.19
0.39
.39
.50
.15
.15
.13
.15
.34
.33
.33
.15
.15
.16
.15
.15
.15
.15
.15
.15
.15
.15
.20
.20
.19
.19
.19
.20
.20
.20
.20
.33
.33
.46
.46
.67
2.39
1.51
1.11
1.13
.73
1.38
.94
1.06
.78
.58
1.42
1.99
1.60
1.36
1.59
1.10
1.25
1.75
1.06
1.24
1.94
3.40
4.16
.95
1.24
3.12
2.60
2.47
2.50
4.93
1.24
2.12
1.10
1.68
1.76
Bush.
< 636.0
<38.5
^34.3
3^6.5
3ni.2
3^3.2
3<8.7
U8.2
<6.9
<5.9
25.7
26.4
67.2
33.3
33.5
23.8
32.2
34.-4
30.4
35.0
37.6
35.8
39.0
27.8
26.9
27.3
10.0
11.1
11.3
32.7
31.0
31.5
63.2
53.4
49.0
24
1906
0.45
"6."33
24
1906
24
1907
.40
.33
.30
.25
1907
1907
.80
.28
.45
1907
.22
.25
.29
.47
1908
1908
1908
1910
1910
Medium clay loam .
do
do....
do
do
do
do
:''"'do'."""":""
do...
.—-do
Gravelly clay
do
Very sandy
3,572
3,572
3,800
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3, 572
4,949
4,949
4,497
4,497
4,497
4,949
4,949
4,949
4,949
3,572
3,572
3,750
3,750
2,607
.29
.30
.74
.25
.25
.27
.27
.31
.28
.23
.26
.41
.42
.70
.43
.41
.54
.37
.51
.51
.48
.72
1.59
1.58
"i.'05
2.93
1.27
1.24
1.31
2.44
.66
.75
.40
.59
.90
.57
1.12
1910
1910
.53
.78
.14
.46
• .78
.12
.38
.81
1.61
2.38
.76
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
do
do
Very gravelly
do.
- do
1910
1910
.47
.51
.37
2.29
.25
1.04
.24
.53
.29
.66
.52
.62
1910
1910
1910
do.
Medium clay loam .
do
1911
1911
1911
do.
do...
Sandy loam
1911
1911
See footnotes on p. 38.
36 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 200, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 3. — Irrigation water applied, rainfall, and crop yields in the Snake River
Valley, Utah — Continued
WHEAT— Continued
Year
Soil
1
<
1
i
o
1
Application of water in—
Water received
by crop
1
•s
12
I
1
<
1
t-»
1
<
4
^1
in
I2
1
1911
1911
Medium clay loam.
"I"do"""I""'I"
Sandy loam..
do
Very gravelly
Sandy loam
do
Medium clay loam_
do
do
-.-do
do
do
do
Il.-do'-'-II---
Feet
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
4,949
4,949
4,949
2,400
2,460
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,750
3,800
4,000
4,000
3,800
2,607
2,607
4,300
4,300
4,700
4,550
4,550
3,572
3,572
3,672
3,572
3,572
3,572
4,550
4,550
3,550
Acres
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
14.91
9.83
15.51
6.21
5.55
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
4.41
6.09
7.72
4.16
8.27
1.42
3.57
4.19
3.18
3.07
3.01
4.17
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
3.53
6.06
4.45
No.
6
4
4
5
3
4
3
3
3
3
2
6
7
10
4
6
7
4
6
7
10
3
3
3
4
2
3
4
3
2
3
2
3
4
5
I
6
9
5
4
5
0
(
4
Feet
Feet
Feet
1.24
.84
.74
1.43
.83
.80
1.36
1.13
Feet
.28
.90
.63
.43
.32
.65
2.05
.98
.52
.46
■f,
.94
1.17
.26
.95
.92
.24
.83
.87
1.05
.68
.84
.33
.61
.38
.58
.70
.31
.45
.77
.51
.51
.53
.72
1.06
1.12
.58
1.02
.73
.68
.63
Feet
Feet
Feet
1.52
1.74
1.37
1.86
1.15
1.45
5.34
3.47
1.38
1.19
1.37
1.81
2.38
2.64
1.18
2.12
2.22
1.27
1.82
2.14
2.44
1.66
1.21
1.44
1.60
1.16
.95
1.18
1.39
1.00
2.28
1.00
1.62
.98
1.18
1.86
2.20
1.10
1.84
2.34
2.68
3.29
.00
.63
.25
.66
.55
.54
.81
2.24
.00
1.38
Foot
.33
.33
.33
.33
.33
.33
.68
.58
.58
.67
.67
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.32
.32
.31
.31
.31
.69
.69
.61
.61
Feet
1.86
2.07
1.70
2.19
1.48
1.78
5.92
4.06
1.96
1.76
1.94
2.10
2.67
2.93
1.47
2.41
2.51
1.56
2.11
2.43
2.73
1.98
1.53
1.76
1.91
1.47
1.64
1.87
2.00
1 fil
Bmh.
22.8
26.1
23.1
18.8
28.5
30.6
30.0
31.6
20.9
43.96
49.6
24.1
27.5
33.7
29.6
24.7
29.5
24.6
26.6
26.6
30.8
43.8
24.1
37.65
28.60
82.9
37.32
38.38
35.32
51.57
31.59
24.24
25.77
28.4
25.6
42.9
60.6
42.2
59.0
17.13
18.72
20.45
7 18.8
7 19.2
722.7
723.5
723.9
7 26.6
7 20.5
7 27.9
7 24.4
7 27.8
4
4
1911
4
1911
4
1911
4
1911
4
1911
1911
1.93
1.36
.86
4
4
1911
4
1911
.73
.91
1.04
1.44
1.47
.92
1.17
1.30
1.03
.99
1.27
1.39
.48
.37
1.11
.99
.78
.37
.48
.70
.55
.88
.49
.63
.45
.46
.80
1.08
.52
.82
.26
.96
.58
4
1911
4
1912
1912
4
4
1912
4
1912
4
1912
4
1912
4
1912
4
1912
4
1912
4
1912
do....
Deep clay loam
Shallow clay loam..
Clay
4
1912
1912
.50
4
4
1912
4
1912
Medium clay loam .
Impervious clay
loam __
4
1912
1912
4
4
1912
do
Medium clay loam.
do
Deep clay loam
Clay loam
4
1913
1918
.38
4
4
1913
1913
.63
.61 2.89
.61- 1 fii
4
4
1913
1913
1913
do
Uniform clay loam .
do
do
do
do
do
.48
.61
.20
.20
.20
.20
.20
.20
.61
.61
.61
.26
.26
.26
.26
.26
.26
.26
.26
.26
.26
2.23
1.18
1.38
2.06
2.40
1.30
2.04
2.95
3.29
3.90
.26
.89
.51
.92
.81
.80
1.07
2.50
.26
1.64
4
4
4
1913
4
1913
4
1913
4
1913
4
1913
.65
.20
.66
.70
.84
1.42
4
1913
1913
1914
-I-do.-"-""--
Medium clay loam . _
4
4
1914
-I-do.-----"]
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
1914
1914
1914
1914
1914
1914
1914
1914
OATS
Medium clay loam . .
do
do
do..
Impervious clay
loam
--Ido-'-----;
Sandy loam
do...
See footnotes on p. 38.
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,672
4,742
4,742
4,742
3, r '
3,968
6.52
36.79
5.92
.96
.96
4.48
1.
3.46
3.44
3.66
3.91
3.73
0.28
.34
.44
.45
1.33
.90
.33
.37
.67
1. 10 . 38
2.44
2.02
1.33
1.10
1.46
1.77
2.49
1.22
1.70
2.13
2.20
0.39
.39
.39
.16
.15
.16
.15
.20
.20
.20
.12
.12
2.83
2.41
1.72
1.25
1.60
1.92
2.64
1.19
1.42
1.90
2.25
2.32
135.7
<56.3
M4.0
52.6
58.6
54.6
73.7
44.6
49.7
54.3
22.8
27.7
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN 37
Table 3. — Irrigation water applied, rainfall, and crop yields in the Snake River
Valley, Idaho — Continued
OATS— Continued
Soil
Impervious
loam
do
do
clay
Very gravelly
do -.
Sandy loam
Medium clay loam .
do
do
do
do
.—do
do
Sandy loam
Clay loam
Sandy loam
Impervious clay
loam
do
clay
Clay loam..
Impervious
loam
do
.....do
Sandy loam
Very gravelly
Sandy loam
Clay loam
Medium clay loam
do
do
do
do
Uniform clay loam
do
do
do
do...
do.
do
do
Medium clay loam.
.-..do...
— .do
.do.
.do.
-do.
.do.
Feet
2,482
2,482
2,482
4,742
4,949
2,460
3,752
3,752
3,750
3,750
3,750
3,825
3,825
3,968
4,100
3,700
2,600
2,600
2,460
2,607
330
547
000
572
3,572
3,572
4,300
4,300
4,700
4,700
4,700
4, 550
3,572
3,572
3,572
4,570
Acres
36
56
09
78
93
61
.63
.61
5.80
4.82
7.02
6.10
4.03
4.15
4.98
4.17
2.03
2.03
2.37
4.56
1.35
3.69
2.55
4.03
4.16
3.86
.38
.39
.33
6.25
2.27
4.73
4.80
4.90
5.06
.95
.49
.49
4.35
No.
Application of water in—
Feet
Feet
.48
.42
.29
.35
21
.63
Feet
.49
.52
.53
2.15
1.83
.21
.71
.60
.79
.78
.35
.69
.64
.89
.64
.72
.26
.17
.75
.26
.32
.47
2.00
1.04
1.24
.78
.83
1.21
.37
.41
.23
.36
.50
Feet
.15
.28
.33
1.00
.65
.51
.25
.93
.37
.63
.44
.48
1.63
1.00
".'§3
.41
.49
.33
.30
.30
.30
1.64
2.08
.27
.19
.49
.75
.82
.45
.42
.23
.90
1.07
.89
.42
.51
1.09
.72
Feet
30
2.30
1.11
.25
.39
.32
.57
-I
Feet
Water received
by crop
•C.2
Feet
1.12
1.22
1. 45
4.14
3.26
1.01
.96
1.53
1.16
1.41
1.44
1.17
2.27
1.89
.64
1.05
.83
.97
Foot
.23
.23
.23
.20
.20
.25
.33
.33
.27
.27
.52
.48
.44
.34
.34
.57
.57
.57
.57
.58
.52
.57
.31
.29
.29
29
.61
.61
.61
.61
.61
.61
.20
.20
.20
.65
.26
.26
.26
.26
.26
.26
.26
.26
Feet
1.35
1.45
1.68
4.34
3.46
1.26
1.29
1,
1.62
1.87
1.90
1.44
2.54
2.41
1.12
1.
1.17
1.31
1.65
1.13
1.19
41.34
6.52
3.71
1.88
1.74
1.56
1.87
2.32
1.89
2.21
1.39
1.87
2.18
1.50
1
1.81
2.94
1.
.26
.57
.69
1.00
.72
.73
1.04
1.25
.26
2.46
Bush.
21.8
33.8
29.4
34.2
22.0
58.0
36.6
39.8
64.3
51.9
65.3
63.2
68.9
50.8
76.5
35.0
31.0
33.5
73.0
28.
34.
31.
68.
45.
59.
25.
84.
76.
89.
44.
49.
41.
41.
41.
36.
43.
43.
51.
33.
7 25.
7 29.
7 29.
7 28.
7 33.
735.
7 27.
739.
731.
740.
BARLEY
1906
7.07
.96
.97
.97
.33
.31
1.41
.75
.74
.65
.69
.60
3
4
5
2
3
5
2
3
5
1
2
3
0.40
.28
.35
0.46
.65
.71
.67
.84
.99
.75
.94
1.54
".'39
.60
0.28
.38
.82
.28
.22
.53
1.14
1.31
1.88
.95
1.06
1.52
1.37
2.67
2.75
.39
.82
1.43
0.39
.15
.15
.33
.29
.29
.20
.20
.20
.20
.20
.20
1.53
1.46
2.03
1.28
1.35
1.81
1.57
2.87
2.95
.59
1.02
1.63
*43.0
36.7
40.5
40.0
85.0
90.0
25.6
25.5
32.8
44.7
41.5
48.2
25
1910
1910
Medium clay loam..
do
do
Uniform clay loam. .
do
do
do
do.
. .do
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3.572
3,572
3,572
3,572
1911
191?
^9^?.
1913
"6.'65
.64
.62
.48
.57
.39
.43
.53
1913
.60
1913
1913
1913
1913
.30
See footnotes on p. 38.
38 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 200, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 3. — Irrigation water applied, rainfall, and crop yields in the Snake River
Valley, Idaho — Continued
POTATOES
Year
Sou
o
1
i
<
•+3
Application of water in—
Water received
by crop
•s
2
1
3
I
1
^
%
t-»
Hi
<
li
Is
1
2
.2
1907
Feet
Acres
1.0
Plot.
No.
3
1
0
1
0
1
5
4
6
Feet
Feet
Feet
Feet
0.76
.34
Feet
0.28
Feet
Feet
1.04
.34
0
.44
0
.17
1.84
1.63
1.91
Foot
0.15
.37
.26
.26
.26
.26
.26
.26
.26
Feet
1.19
.71
.28
.70
.26
.43
2.10
1.89
2.17
Sacks
»«8.48
"17.09
7 67.8
7 88.0
7 69.6
7110.0
7 157. 6
7 142.2
7 120.8
Ref.
No.
14
1908
1914
Medium clay loam _
1914
do....
do
do....
do
.....do.
do
1914
1914
1914
~
1914
""
1914
SUGAR BEETS
1906
14.0
0.83
0.52
0.56
1.91
0.53
2.44
Tons\
15.92
i
24
1 All experiments included in this table for the years 1910 to 1913, inclusive, were made under a coopera-
tive agreement between the Idaho State Board of Land Commissioners and the Bureau of Public Roads.
A part of the experimental work was conducted at the Gooding Experiment Station, the Bureau of Public
Roads and the Universitv of Idaho Experiment Station cooperating. Other experiments were conducted
on the farms throughout southern Idaho.
2 First-ye^r crop clipped only.
3 Soil was shallow clay loam grading into hardpan. Yields were light because soil was new and lacked
humus.
< These experiments were conducted under a cooperative agreement between the Bureau of Public
Boads, United States Department of Agriculture, and the University of Idaho Experiment Station.
« Two cuttings only.
6 Waste water included.
7 From impublished reports of cooperative work on plots ne-ar Twin Falls, Idaho, in 1914, 1915, and
1916, by the Bureau of Public Roads, the South Side Twin Falls Canal Co., and other local organizations,
but because of shallow soil overlying basaltic rock, ground water increased with each irrigation, rendering
the second and third vear experiments of doubtful value and for this reason the results of the work done
in 1915 and 1916 are not here included.
Table 4. — Dates of first and last irrigations, water applied, rainfall, and crop yields
in the Snake River Valley, Idaho ^
alfalfa
Year
Water receiv
edby
Alti-
tude
Area
irri-
gated
Irri-
tiOBS
First irri-
gation
Last irri-
gation
crop
Irriga-
tion
Rain-
fall
Total
Num-
Feet
Acres
ber
Feet
Foot
Feet
3,572
5.75
2
May 7
June 19
1.31
a 15
L46
4.949
2.33
4
May 3
Aug. 12
6.35
.20
6.55
2.482
6.32
7
May 7
Aug. 30
1.43
.25
1.68
3,572
.94
3
May 10
Aug. 23
L78
.33
2.11
3,572
.93
6
...do.....
Sept. 15
3.33
.33
3.66
4,949
5.45
4
May 22
Aug. 7
5.40
.58
5.98
4,100
9.98
1
May 20
.99
.48
1.47
3,700
2.65
6
May 10
Sept. 6
1.89
.44
2.33
2,607
4.94
9
Apr. 26
Sept. 14
2.14
.57
2 71
2.607
4.21
11
Apr. 25
...do....-
3.51
.57
4.08
3,800
4.96
5
May 8
Sept. 20
3.16
.27
3.43
3,825
4.78
5
May 14
Aug. 28
3.21
.27
3.48
3.750
3.72
4
May 31
Aug. 25
2.68
.45
3.13
3,750
3.76
6
May 19
Sept. 15
3.79
.45
4.24
4,949
4.36
5
May 31
Aug. 13
1.98
.71
2.69
Liter-
1910
1910
1910
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1912
Medium clay loam.
Very gravelly
Impervious clay
loam
Medium clay loam.
do
Very gravelly
Deep clay loam
Very sandy loam. .
Impervious clay
loam
do
Medium clay loam.
do-
do
do
Gravelly
Tons
3.30
3.78
2.85
3.77
5.30
1.99
3.10
1.50
2.11
3.93
»5.76
4.97
4.56
6.00
2.52
Ref.
No.
See footnotes on p. 43.
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN 39
Table 4. — Dates of first and last irrigations, water applied, rainfall, and crop yields
in the Snake River Valley, Idaho — Continued
ALFALFA— Continued
Year
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
Soil
Gravelly .
do..-.
do....
do....
do....
Medium clay loam.
— -do
...-do
— -do
--.do
Deep clay loam
Shallow clay loam-
Medium clay loam,
.-..do.
do.
Clay loam
Deep clay loam.
do
do ...
Alti-
tude
Feet
4,949
4,949
4,949
4,949
4.949
Clay loam 2,607
Medium clay loam.
Uniform clay loam-
do
Deep clay loam
do
3,572
3,572
3,572
572
800
750
800
572
572
572
500
850
4,300
4,300
4.100
4,200
4.700
Area
irri-
gated
Acres
4.94
4.75
3.68
2.65
2.13
3.62
3.50
5.31
7.06
26.25
6.78
7.68
10.32
7.24
5.85
3.85
1.42
2.65
15. 67
.37
.59
.37
.58
7.71
4.82
14.28
Plot
Plot
Plot
3.44
7.52
3.82
5.77
71.27
18.96
21.62
20.87
3.58
Num-
ber
3
6
4
4
4
Irri-
ga-
tions
10
First irri-
gation
June 21
June 1
June 4
June 5
June 4
May 16
May 14
May 13
May 15
May 16
May 21
May 18
May 26
May 21
May 16
May 18
May 19
May 20
May 16
May 27
May 14
. —do--.
13 May 15
" May 16
May 24
May 27
May 22
May 21
May 10
May 30
May 29
May 26
May 4
May 26
Last irri-
gation
Aug. 14
— do—
Aug. 13
Aug. 14
Aug. 13
Aug. 18
Sept. 18
Aug. 29
Sept. 2
Sept. 8
Sept. 9
Sept. 14
Sept. 15
Aug. 20
—.do—.
Sept. 25
July 11
Aug. 25
Sept. 21
July 10
July 18
Aug. 1
Aug. 9
Sept. 10
Aug. 22
Aug. 29
Aug. 16
— -do— .
Aug. 15
Aug. 27
July 31
Aug. 8
Aug. 24
Water received by
crop
Yield
Irriga-
tion
Rain-
fall
Total
Feet
Foot
Feet
Tons
2.03
.71
2.74
1.48
2.58
.71
3.29
1.58
3.05
.71
3.76
1.82
3.31
.71
4.02
2.00
6.72
.71
7.43
2.50
2.96
.69
3.65
4.11
5.66
.69
6.35
3 5.92
3.40
.69
4.09
3 4.67
3.26
.69
3.95
3 4.67
3.37
.69
4.06
3 3.19
3.80
.69
4.49
3 3.63
4.02
.69
4.71
3 3.63
3.10
.69
3.79
3 3.58
2.72
.69
3.41
3 3.25
3.11
.69
3.80
3 3.42
2.21
.69
2.90
3 3.00
4.63
.69
5.32
3 3.25
2.32
.69
3.01
3 1.92
2.47
.69
3.16
3 3.05
.62
.29
.91
2.85
1.31
.29
1.60
4.00
2.06
.29
2.35
5.41
4.00
.29
4.29
6.31
3.38
.31
3.69
5.70
1.59
.32
1.91
4.42
2.41
.32
2.73
6.00
1.18
.20
1.38
5.30
1.82
.20
2.02
4.84
1.85
.20
2.05
5.20
2.69
.61
3.30
3.03
1.42
.61
2.03
3.83
1.33
.61
1.94
3.94
3.54
.61
4.15
6.10
3.48
.61
4.09
3.00
5.30
.61
5.91
3.13
2.94
.61
3.55
4.12
3.81
.61
4.42
2.17
1.04
.6.
1.69
1.76
RED CLOVER
1910
1910
1911
1911
Very gravelly-
do
do
do
4,949
3.31
7
4,949
3.98
10
4,949
3.31
5
4,949
3.98
9
May 6
May 4
May 20
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
27
6.92
0.20
7.12
3.78
26
12.98
.20
13.18
4.60
16
5.25
.58
5.83
2.69
5
14.72
.58
15.30
2.91
CLOVER
1912
8.66
1.96
5
6
May 16
May 18
Sept. 25
Sept. 29
3.36
3.66
0.69
.69
4.05
4.35
«2.57
3 5.74
4
1912
4
TIMOTHY
1912
5.11
8
May 15
Sept. 20
3.58
0.69
4.27
3 2.74
4
I footnotes on p. 43.
40 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 200, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 4. — Dates of first and last irrigations, water applied, rainfall, and crop yields
in the Snake River Valley, Idaho — Continued
WHEAT
Year
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
xl911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
Son
Medium clay loam.
do
do
— -do
do_
do...
do
...-do
...-do
....do
....do -
—.do
....do
..._do
Uniform clay loam.
-.-do
...-do
Very gravelly
....do
Gravelly clay
Uniform clay loam.
..-.do-— .-
....do
Medium clay loam..
do
....do-
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do.
.....do
do
Sandy loam and
clay
Sandy loam
do
Coarse sandy loam.,
-—do
Impervious clay
loam
....do
do
Medium clay loam..
Shallow clay loam..
do
do
Medium clay loam-
do--. .-
do
do
do.
do.:
do
do.
do.
do.
do.
do...
do
do
Alti-
tude
Feet
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,800
3,800
3,800
4,949
4,949
4,949
2,607
2,607
2,607
3,800
3,800
3,572
3,572
3,572
3.572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3.572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
2,460
2,607
2,607
2,400
2,400
2,600
2,600
2,600
3,750
3,800
3,800
3,800
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3.572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
Area
irri-
gated
Acres
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
4.72
4.55
4.43
4.02
4.93
3.60
4.24
3.84
3.98
4.95
5.06
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
4.40
6.17
5.79
3.74
4.14
2.05
1.19
1.65
5.42
4.24
4.73
5.25
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Irri-
ga-
tions
Num-
ber
0
2
3
4
9
0
2
3
First irri-
gation
May 20
...do....
...do....
May 21
May "20"
...do—.
May 21
May 21
May 20
..do
May 26
.-do-.-.
..do
-.do
June 5
June 4
June 10
May 27
May 23
May 27
June 5
May 24
June 1
June 2
— d0-__.
June 3
Jime 1
June 2
-.do..-.
June 3
June 1
June 2
June 3
...do._-.
June 27
June 8
...do-...
June 9
Jime 10
June 25
June 26
June 25
Jime 14
June 11
June 7
June 5
June 3
..do-._.
June 4
June 3
--do....
June 4
June 3
...do....
May 29
May 28
May 27
Last irri-
gation
June 14
July 2
...do
July 26
June
July
July
July 26
June 14
July 2
June 17
June 30
-do
-do-...
July 29
July 27
July 11
June 22
-do
June 26
June 21
July 13
July 27
..do....
July 14
July 27
..do
July 14
July 27
...do.._.
July 16
..do....
July 1
July 12
July 14
-.do.._.
July 11
July 17
July 11
June 26
July 20
July 26
July
July
July 2
July 26
July 2
Juoe 21
Jime 27
Water received by
crop
Irriga-
tion
Feet
0
.53
.71
.84
2.49
0
.35
.53
3.01
2.36
0
.43
.59
.78
.55
.89
.95
3.70
7.08
2.64
.72
.84
1.13
.87
2.20
0
.48
1.29
2.56
2.82
0
.38
1.18
2.85
3.16
0
.42
1.84
2.16
2.83
.77
1.37
1.43
.87
1.25
.26
.27
.50
1.81
.86
1.62
2.15
0
.59
1.24
1.48
0
.34
1.19
2.80
0
.48
1.27
.64
1.09
1,65
Rain-
fall
Foot
0.15
.15
.15
.15
.15
.15
.15
.15
.15
.15
.15
.15
.15
.15
.15
.15
.15
.20
.20
.20
.24
.24
.24
.16
.16
.33
.33
.33
.33
.33
.33
.33
.33
.33
.33
.33
.33
.33
.33
.33
.57
.57
.57
.57
.57
.34
.34
.34
.46
.45
.45
.45
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
,29
Total
Feet
0.15
.t9
2.64
.15
.50
.68
3.16
2.51
.15
.58
.74
.93
.70
1.04
1.10
3.90
7.28
2.84
.96
1.08
1.37
1.03
2.36
.33
.81
1.62
2.89
3.15
.33
.71
1.51
3.18
3.49
.33
.75
2.17
2.49
3.16
1.34
1.94
2.00
1.44
1.82
.61
.84
2.27
1.31
2.07
2.60
.29
.88
1.53
1.77
.29
.63
1.48
3.09
.29
.77
1.56
.93
1.38
1.94
Yield
Bwsh.
8.0
22.0
26.0
31.0
34.0
10.0
20.0
20.0
44.0
33.0
10.0
22.0
23.0
22.0
8.3
15.9
12.4
24.3
30.2
30.6
36.3
38.0
34.4
44.5
59.3
16.0
19.0
21.0
25.0
17.0
15.0
17.0
19.0
21.0
13.0
18.0
21.0
26.0
19.0
16.0
45.4
35.5
37.6
27.8
33.6
12.0
5.0
5.0
64.0
30.6
33.8
38.0
19.0
19.0
25.0
25.0
15.0
20.0
19.0
28.0
18.0
19.0
23.0
39.0
38.0
37.0
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN 41
Table 4. — Dates of first and last irrigations, water applied, rainfall, and crop yields
in the Snake River Valley, Idaho — Continued
WHEAT— Continued
Year
Soil
Alti-
tude
Area
irri-
gated
Irri-
ga-
tions
First irri-
gation
Last irri-
gation
Water received by
crop
Yield
Irriga-
tion
Rain-
fall
Total
Feet
Foot
Feet
Bmh.
0
.69
.69
13.6
.34
.69
1.03
18.0
.53
.69
1.22
22.1
.69
.69
1.38
29.7
.95
.69
1.64
32.4
.86
.69
1.55
34.9
1.04
.69
1.73
57.4
1.20
.69
1.89
3 17.9
1.89
.69
2.58
344.0
.74
.31
1.05
67.5
.87
.31
1.18
72.1
.93
.31
1.24
31.2
.97
.32
1.29
39.6
2.05
.32
2.37
42.1
.28
.32
.60
15.9
.79
.32
1.11
18.0
.78
.69
1.47
34.9
2.47
.69
3.16
31.2
0
.20
.20
0
.30
.20
.50
18.1
.51
.20
.71
27.8
.54
.20
.74
29.1
.93
.20
1.13
21.7
0
.20
.20
0
.26
.20
.46
18.5
.48
.20
.68
29.7
.69
.20
.89
36.7
1.18
.20
1.38
31.3
1.26
.20
1.46
30.5
.00
.20
.20
0
.26
.20
.46
22.7
.50
.20
.70
33.7
.69
.20
.89
24.2
1.50
.61
2.11
14.5
1.04
.61
1.65
26.15
2.33
.61
2.94
17.0
.76
.61
1.37
24.7
1.31
.61
1.92
23.8
.66
.61
1.27
33.2
2.19
.61
2.80
32.3
.71
.61
1.32
32.3
1.24
.61
1.85
46.8
Liter-
ature
cited
Impervious
loam
do
do
do
do
.--do
do
clay
Medium clay loam..
do
Shallow gravelly
Deep clay loam
do
Shallow clay loam..
do
Impervious clay
loam
Clay loam
Uniform clay loam..
I^I^do-IIII""""
.—do
do
—.do
....do
do
do
do
...-do
do
....do
....do
.-.do
Clay loam...
Deep clay loam
....do
Medium clay loam.
do
....do
...-do
Feet
2,763
2,763
2,763
2,763
2,763
2,763
2,763
3,800
3,800
4,000
3,750
3, 750
3,800
3,800
2,607
2,607
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3, 572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3.572
4,550
4,700
4,700
4,300
4,300
4,300
4,300
Acres
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
16.52
4.85
4.78
6.91
6.05
3.98
13.36
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
35.81
38.24
3.03
6.00
5.16
3.92
4.34
3.19
3.43
Num-
ber
0
1
2
3
4
4
5
3
3
1
1
2
2
3
1
2
2
2
0
1
2
3
4
0
1
2
3
4
5
0
1
2
3
June 25
---do.--.
June 12
...do-...
..-do....
—do..-.
June 20
June 5
June 21
June 24
June 7
June 3
June 2
June 26
June 18
June 5
June 19
July 3
...do.._.
July 17
...do....
July 24
Aug. 5
July 28
June
26
July
10
July
30
July 24
July 10
July 13
June 3
.--do---.
June 4
.-do--.
July 8
..-do.._-
July 22
June 3
June 4
...do._-.
...do.._.
..-do.-..
July 8
..-do-...
July 22
..-do...-
June 3
June 4
...do.--.
July 8
...do...
June 6
June 30
June 27
June 7
June 5
June 28
June 26
Aug. 3
Aug. 8
Aug. 1
July 2
Aug. 3
July 15
July 14
OATS
Very gravelly.
do
Medium clay loam.
Coarse sandy loam..
do
Medium clay loam.
Impervious clay
loam
do
-—do
Sandy loam
Medium clay loam.
Clay loam .-.
do...
Sandy loam
do
do
do
Medium clay loam.
Sandy loam__
do
See footnotes on p. 43.
4,742
2.44
4
June 3
Aug. 3
4.48
0.20
4.68
21.7
4,742
4.50
6
June 2
Aug. 20
5.68
.20
5.88
33.2
3,572
.96
2
May 24
June 16
.56
.15
.71
43.8
2,460
2.77
5
May 20
July 15
1.36
.25
1.61
55.0
2,460
2.57
6
May 19
July 19
2.31
.25
2.56
47.0
3,572
5.70
3
May 12
July 14
1.40
.15
L55
43.3
2,482
5.16
4
June 15
July 26
.65
.23
.88
16.1
2,482
4.03
5
June 14
Aug. 12
1.03
.23
1.26
25.4
2,482
4.31
6
June 18
Aug. 14
1.22
.23
1.45
27.3
3,968
4.51
5
May 31
Aug. 26
3.31
.12
3.43
27.6
3,572
.63
1
June 16-
..38
.33
.71
35.1
2,460
2.58
2
June 2
June 30
.46
.57
1.03
43.0
2,460
2.30
3
June 4
July 12
.70
.57
1.27
63.0
4,949
3.85
3
July 16
Aug. 21
4.51
.58
5.09
31.8
4,949
2.96
5
June 28
Aug. 20
10.37
.58
10.95
57.2
3,968
3.56
1
July 12
.45
.52
.97
29 5
3,968
3.66
2
June 21
July 17
1.14
.62
1.66
45.9
3,825
4.01
1
June 28
.30
.27
.57
56.6
3,700
4.29
3
June 8
July 23
.66
.44
1.10
23.3
3,700
4.01
3
June 6
July 19
,89
.44
1.33
26.0
42 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 200, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 4. — Dates of first and last irrigations, water appliedy rainfall, and crop yields
in the Snake River Valley, Idaho — Continued
OATS— Continued
Year
8oU
Alti-
tude
Area
irri-
gated
Irri-
ga-
tions
First irri
gation
Last irri-
gation
Water received by
crop
Irriga-
tion
Rain-
fall
Total
Yield
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
Deep clay loam
do.
Sandy loam
....do
Very gravelly
do
Impervious clay
loam
—.do
....do...
...-do
Sandy loam
—..do
.-.-do
Medium clay loam.
do --.
-—do
do _.
—..do
do
...-do
-—do
Shallow clay loam-.
-..-do
Very gravelly
-—do-
—do
Clay loam ---.
— -do
Medium clay loam.
Deep clay loam
Uniform clay loam.
Medium clay loam .
Uniform clay loam .
Feet
4,100
4,100
2,547
2,547
5,330
5,330
2,600
2,600
2,600
2,600
2,600
2,600
2,600
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,572
4,000
4,000
4,949
4,949
4,949
4,550
4,550
4,300
4,570
Acres
5.11
4.42
6.72
5.67
8.63
5.55
3.06
2.08
2.60
2.02
5.38
7.29
6.25
.38
.38
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
1.83
3.23
5.40
5.52
5.73
30.33
19.32
33.70
27,96
14.58
5.08
5.07
4.11
3.91
102.53
4.14
40.8
ber
1
1
3
3
2
3
2
3
3
4
1
1
1
1
3
0
4
0
4
0
4
2
4
3
3
3
2
3
2
2
3
1
2
3
2
June 22
June 15
June 12
June 5
July 12
June 23
June 24
June 23
June 24
May 11
May 30
May 24
June 3
June 6
— do— .
July 17
July 7
Aug. 1
.-.do--.
July 12
July 14
July 17
July 14
July 12
Jrme 11
June ii
July 12
July 12
June 11
June 5
June 1
June 28
June 29
June 28
June 17
June 12
June 23
June 26
-.do
July 2
June 28
May 31
July 18
July 12
--do
July 25
Aug. 6
Aug. 15
..do--..
July 18
July 28
--do----
July 17
Aug. 10
July 27
Aug. 9
Aug. 20
Feet
1.32
1,65
1,28
3,10
4,28
6.30
.29
.37
.42
.53
.19
,20
.25
.42
.86
.00
1,02
.00
.99
.00
.85
.49
1.75
2.95
3,24
4.26
1.04
1.73
1,09
,88
1,09
.36
1.33
.65
2.91
1.97
1,46
1,04
Foot
.48
.48
.57
.57
.52
.52
.34
.34
.34
.34
.34
.34
.34
.29
,29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
,29
.31
.31
.71
.71
.71
.61
.61
.61
.65
.61
.61
.61
Feet
1,80
2.13
1.83
3.67
4.80
6.82
.63
.71
.76
.87
.53
.54
.59
.71
1.15
.29
1.31
.29
1.28
,29
1,14
,80
2.06
a66
3.95
4.97
1,73
2.42
1.78
1,57
1.78
,97
1,94
1.26
3.56
2.58
2.07
1.65
Bu*h.
73.5
72.4
47.3
54.1
39.9
40.9
22.0
26.0
26,0
11,0
16,0
10,6
17,7
65.6
75.8
30.5
49.4
<33.3
^58.8
<32.9
M8.9
10.9
24.8
76.7
63.0
74.7
3 55,0
'53.7
'51,9
3 32.2
3 40,8
33.9
33.8
34.4
16.6
14,3
36,2
31.3
BARLEY
1910
1911
1911
1912
1913
1913
Medium clay loam. .
do
do -
do
Deep clay loam
Mediimi clay loam . .
0,96
.99
.95
.33
6.50
6.21
May 17
June 21
June 17
June 11
June 18
July 17
1.03
.56
1.68
.43
1.97
0.15
.33
.33
.29
.61
.61
1.18
.89
2.01
.72
2.58
2.07
30.8
32.0
32.5
59.7
32.3
40.3
FALL RYE
1911
Sandy loam
3,700
6.89
1
May 12
0.73
0.44
1.17
11.6
4
SUGAR BEETS
1913
Uniform clay loam_.
4,570
7.83
2
Aug, 8
Aug, 25
1.64
0.66
2.30
Tons
15.72
4
See footnotes on p, 43.
IRRIGATION REQUIREMIINTS OF COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN 43
Table 4. — Dates of first and last irrigations, water applied, rainfall, and crop yields
in the Snake River Volley, Idaho — Continued
JONATHAN APPLES
Sou
Alti-
tude
Area
irri-
gated
Irri-
tions
First irri-
gation
Last irri-
gation
Water received by
crop
Yield
Liter-
Year
Irri-
tion
Rain-
fall
Total
ature
cited
1914
Feet
Acres
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Num-
ber
6
5
3
5
5
4
5
3
3
3
6
4
2
3
3
3
2
3
2
3
Feet
3.28
2.31
1.21
2.75
2.38
1.82
2.71
1.33
1.35
1.16
3.28
1.72
.64
1.84
2.09
1.43
1.17
1.32
.76
1.27
Foot
0.35
.35
.35
.35
.35
.35
.35
.35
.35
.35
.49
.49
.49
.49
.49
.49
.49
.49
.49
.49
Feet
3.63
2.66
1.56
3.10
2.73
2.17
3.06
1.68
1.70
1.51
3.77
2.21
1.13
2.33
2.58
1.92
1.66
1.81
1.25
1.76
Boxes
8 283.7
8 278.7
8 307. 6
8 250. 2
8 380.2
8 317.2
8 242.2
8 267.3
8 262.3
8 253.0
8 248.9
8 222.6
8 100.8
8 70.4
8 102. 4
8 206.9
8 125.0
8 114. 1
8 42.8
8 53.5
29
1914
do
do
do
29
1914
29
1914
29
1914
29
1914
29
1914
29
1914 Hn
29
1914
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
29
1914
29
1915
29
1915
29
1915
29
1915
29
1915
29
1915
29
1915
29
1915
29
1915
29
1915
29
POTATOES
1910
1910
1910
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1912
1912
1912
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
Medium clay loam
do
do.
Very sandy.
.....do
.—do
Medium clay loam .
do
do.
Sandy loam
Medium clay loam.
do
do..-.
Uniform clav loam.
do ;
.-.-do
3,572
3,572
3,572
3,700
3,700
3,700
3,572
3,572
3, 572
4,949
3,572
3, 572
3,572
3, 572
3,572
3,572
0.64
.65
.64
2.89
2.90
3.27
.63
.63
.61
7.11
.63
.63
.64
.64
.64
.62
38.82
32.76
.87
6.34
May 13
— do.....
...do.....
July 12
June 19
June 22
July 9
July 2
June 29
July 20
July 1
June 30
June 29
July 12
July 11
July 10
July 15
Aug. 9
Aug. 18
Aug. 21
Aug. 4
Aug. 20
Aug. 11
Aug. 9
Sept. 4
July 18
Aug. 14
Aug. 21
Aug. 12
-\ug. 28
Bushels
0.88
0.15
1.03
105.0
1.50
.15
1.65
199.0
2.05
.15
2.20
216.0
.61
.44
1.05
112.8
.96
.44
1.40
108.1
1.06
.44
1.50
128.1
.54
.33
.87
122.5
2.21
.33
2.54
279.0
3.64
.33
3.97
279.0
2.83
.58
3.41
211.8
.54
.29
.83
202.0
1.94
.29
2.23
311.0
2.52
.29
2.81
278.0
.79
.20
.99
204.0
1.25
.20
1.45
307.0
3.13
.20
3.33
368.0
Sacks
2.32
.61
2.93
79.8
1.43
.61
2.04
32.0
1.46
.61
2.07
86.0
1.79
.61
2.40
63.0
^
1 All experiments included in this table for the years 1910 to 1913, inclusive, were made under a coopera-
tive agreement between the Idaho State Board of Land Commissioners and the Bureau of Public Roads.
A part of the experimental work was conducted at the Gooding Experiment Station, the Bureau of Public
Roads, and the University of Idaho Experiment Station cooperating. Other experiments were conducted
on farms throughout southern Idaho.
2 2 cuttings only. Water applied after second cutting not included.
3 Waste water included.
* Received some fall irrigation in 1911.
» Soil was shallow clay loam grading into hardpan. Yields were light because soil was new and lacked
humus.
« These experiments were conducted under a cooperative agreement between the Bureau of Public Roads,
United States Department of Agriculture, and the University of Idaho Experiment Station.
' From unpublished reports of cooperative work on plots near Twin Falls, Idaho, in 1914, 1915, and 1916,
by the Bureau of Public Roads, the South Side Twin Falls Canal Co., and other local organizations, but
because of shallow soil overlying basaltic rock ground water increased with each irrigation rendering the
second and third year experiments of doubtful value, and for this reason the results of the work done in
1915 and 1916 are not here included.
« All grades from extra fancy to culls.
44 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 200, V. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 5. — Irrigation water applied, rainfall, and crop yields in the Willamette
Valley, Oreg.^
ALFALFA
Soil
Irriga-
tions
Depth of
water
applied each
irrigation
Total quantity of water re-
ceived by crop
Yield per
acre
Year
Irriga-
tion
Rainfall
and soil
moisture
used*
Total
Litera-
ture cited
1911
Number
0
1
2
1
2
2
3
1
9
6
1
Inches
0
5
5
6
6
4
4
4
4
0
6
Acre-feet
0
.42
.88
.50
.50
.67
1.00
.33
.67
0
.50
0
.42
.83
.83
0
.33
.50
.67
0
.42
.62
.88
0
.67
1.00
1.33
0
.42
.58
.75
0
.50
.83
1.17
Feet
1.01
1.12
L21
.98
.98
1.20
.93
1.27
1.49
1.41
1.60
3 1.00
3 1.00
3 1.00
3 1.00
3.76
3.76
3.76
3.76
3.73
3.73
3.73
3.73
3.32
3.32
3.32
3.32
3.98
3.98
3.98
3.98
3.54
3.54
3.54
3.54
Feet
1.01
1.54
2.04
1.48
1.48
1.87
1.93
1.60
2.16
1.41
2.10
1.00
1.42
1.83
V 1.83
.76
1.09
1.26
1.43
.73
1.15
1.35
1.61
.32
.99
1.32
1.65
.98
1.40
1.56
1.73
.54
1.04
1.37
1.71
Tons
2.17
4.36
4.99
4.41
4.59
4.51
5.22
3.80
4.22
2.15
4.22
2.1
2.2
2.6
2.4
2.8
4.2
5.2
4.2
3.74
4.23
5.31
5.31
4.47
5.7
7.3
6.6
3.3
5.3
4.9
5.4
3.6
4.18
5.13
4.43
Ref. No.
25
1911
25
1911
25
1911
25
1911
25
25
1911
1911
25
1913
25
25
1913
1913
25
1913
25
1914
Silty clay loam
28
1914
do.-_ -
28
1914
1914
1916
"/'.do'//.'.'///"."'.'..'.
do --
28
28
28
1916
1916
1916
1917
.-—do
do
do
„..do
28
28
28
28
1917
1917
1917
1918
do
do
do
Silty clay loam ... .
28
28
28
28
1918
1918
1918
1920
do
do
do
do.
28
28
28
28
1920
1920
1920
1921
do
do
-.—do
do
28
28
28
28
1921
..do
28
1921
19?1
'/'/.'.do'././/'/'.'.'.'.'.'./
28
28
CLOA
^ER
1910
1911
1911
1911
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
0
0
0.99
0.99
4.32
0
0
1.09
1.09
Z70
5
.42
1.03
1.45
4.79
5
.83
1.25
2.08
5.14
0
0
3.72
.72
5.00
4
.33
3.72
1.05
5.33
4
.67
3.72
1.39
5.70
5
.42
3.72
1.14
5.10
5
.42
3.72
1.14
5.18
5
.83
3.72
1.55
4.93
POTATOES
1910
0
1
3
3
2
0
1
2
1
0
5.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
0
5.0
2.5
3.0
0
.42
.25
.50
.50
.00
.42
.42
.25
0.62
.44
1.18
1.07
1.09
1.25
1.00
.99
1.05
0.62
.86
1.43
1.57
1.59
1.25
1.42
1.41
L30
Bushels
,56.0
140.0
250.9
254.9
258.1
135.1
190.9
240.7
176.4
25
1910
25
1911
25
1911
25
1911
25
1911
25
1911
25
1911
25
1911
25
1 Plot experiments conducted at Corvallis, Oreg., by the Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station.
A few of the earlier experiments were in cooperation with the Bureau of Public Roads.
2 Soil moisture used by crop is the difference between the moisture in the soil before crop was put in and
after it was harvested.
3 Rainfall only, April to September, inclusive, soil moisture not included.
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN 45
Table 5. — Irrigation water applied, rainjall, and crop yields in the Willamette
Valley, Oreg. — Continued
POTATOES— Continued
Soil
Irriga-
tions
Depth of
water
applied each
irrigation
Total quantity of water re-
ceived by crop
Yield per
acre
Year
Irriga-
tion
Rainfall
and soil
moisture
used
Total
Litera-
ture cited
1911
Number
2
3
0
1
2
0
1
2
1
3
1
2
0
1
2
0
1
1
1
0
Inches
3.0
3.0
0
2.0
2.0
0
2.0
2.0
3.0
1.0
3.0
2.0
0
3.0
2.0
0
3.0
4.0
2.0
0
Acre-feet
.50
.75
0
.17
.33
0
.17
.33
.25
.25
.25
.33
0
.25
.33
0
.25
.33
.17
0
0
.13
.21
.29
0
.12
.21
.29
0
.21
.38
.54
0
.17
.25
.33
0
.08
.16
.25
Feet
».82
'.82
.85
.81
.84
1.13
1.14
1.12
.96
1.07
.47
.47
.55
.55
.50
.60
.80
.57
.61
.41
.52
.51
.47
.37
.50
.54
.52
.55
.40
.43
.45
.32
.55
.45
.60
.44
.28
.25
.29
.65
Feet
1.32
1.57
.85
.98
1.17
1.13
1.31
1.45
1.21
1.32
.72
.80
.55
.80
.83
.60
1.05
.90
.78
.41
.52
.64
.68
.66
.50
.66
.73
.84
.40
.64
.83
.86
.55
.62
.85
.77
.28
.33
.45
.90
Bushels
308.5
292.5
U09.8
* 172. 2
* 145. 2
S300.5
» 342. 0
s 260. 0
* 213. 3
« 329.0
313.0
355. 5
233.6
262.5
400.6
232.0
515.0
266.2
251.5
237.5
201.1
219.0
233.2
260.0
317.6
371.2
342.1
385.0
195.0
215.3
229.1
222.1
127.3
166.0
183.0
178.0
61.0
78.0
114.0
82.0
Fef. No.
25
1911
25
1913
25
1913
25
1913
25
1913
25
1913
25
1913
25
1913
25
1913
25
1914
27
1914
27
1914
27
1914
27
1914
27
1914
27
1914
27
1914
27
1914
27
1914
27
1915
27
1915
27
1915
27
1915
27
1916
0
27
1916
27
1916
27
1916
27
1917
■ " 6'
27
1917
27
1917
27
1917
27
1918
0
27
1918
27
1918
27
1918
27
1919
0
27
1919
27
1919
27
1919
27
KALE
Tons
0
0
0.65
0.65
8.67
5.0
.42
.45
,87
12.73
2,5
.42
.57
.99
11.25
0
0
3.82
.82
6.43
2.5
.42
3.82
1.24
7.03
0
0
.72
.72
16.70
2.5
.42
.55
.97
18.00
5.0
.42
.55
.97
20.55
0
0
1.10
1.10
9.86
2.0
.17
1.10
1.27
13.75
2.0
.33
.93
1.26
10.75
CORN FODDER
0
0
0.48
0.48
2.57
5
.42
.40
.82
4.31
0
0
3.82
.82
9.90
5
.42
8.82
1.24
11.30
0
0
.77
.77
9.05
3
.25
.57
.82
12.07
0
0
.92
.92
11.19
3andl
.33
.84
1.17
17.18
8 Rainfall only, April to September, inclusive, soil moisture not included.
* Grown on unirrigated alfalfa sod.
• Groyrn on irrigated alfalfa sod.
46 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 200, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 5. — Irrigation water applied, rainjall, and crop yields in the Willamette
Valley, Oreg. — Continued
WHITE BEANS
Soil
Irriga-
tions
Depth of
water
applied each
irrigation
Total quantity of water re-
ceived by crop
Yield per
acre
Year
Irriga-
tion
Rainfall
and soil
moisture
used
Total
Litera-
ture cited
1911
Number
0
2
Inches
0
3 and 2
Acre-feet
0
.42
Feet
3 0.82
3.82
Feet
0.82
1.24
Bushels
9.03
17.26
Fef. No.
25
25
1911
BEANS
1913
0
1
1
2
0
2.0
3.5
2.5
0
.17
.29
.42
3 0.72
3.72
3.72
3.72
a 72
.89
1.01
1.14
14.92
19.41
16.25
22.78
25
25
25
25
1913
1913
1913
CARROTS
1913
1913
0
3.0
25
3 0.72
3.72
0.72
.97
Tom
13.03
23.43
BEETS
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
5. 0 and 1. 5
2. 6 and 1. 5
0
0
2. 5 and 1. 5
5. 0 and 1. 5
0
2. 5 and 1. 5
5. 5 and 1. 5
0
2.5
5.0
0
5.0
2.5
0
2.5
5.0
0
3.5
0
2.0
2.0
0.54
3 0.82
1.36
16.65
.54
3.82
1.36
16.00
0
3.82
.82
10.66
0
3.82
.82
13.68
.54
3.82
1.36
16.41
.54
3.82
1.36
16.78
0
3.82
.82
7.43
.54
3.82
1.36
12.20
.58
3.82
1.40
15.05
0
3.68
.68
17.71
.42
3.68
1.10
15.03
.42
3.68
1.10
23.09
0
3.68
.68
17.73
.42
3.68
1.10
25.86
.42
3.68
1.10
17.96
0
3.68
.68
17.75
.42
3.68
1.10
20.90
.42
3.68
1.10
28.64
0
3.72
.72
13.51
0
3.72
.72
17.40
0
3.72
.72
12.70
.17
3.72
.89
15.33
.33
3.72
1.05
16.20
SUGAR BEETS
1911
0
3
2
0
1
0
2. 5 and 1. 5
6. 0 and 1. 5
0
3.5
0
.54
.54
0
.29
3 0.82
3.82
3.82
3.72
8.72
0.82
1.36
1.36
.72
1.01
•8.05
6 14.98
6 12.03
13.00
13.57
25
1911
25
1911
25
1913
25
1913
25
PUMPKINS
1913
1913
2
2.5
0.00
.42
3 0.72
3.72
a 72
1.14
15.40
17.23
3 Rainfall only, April to September, inclusive, soil moisture not included
6 Half sugar variety.
IRRIGATIOiV REQUIREMENTS OF COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN 47
Table 6. — Irrigation water applied, rainjall, and crop yields in the Powder Valley,
Or eg}
ALFALFA
Soil
Alti-
tude
Area
irri-
gated
Irriga-
tions
First
irrigation
Irriga-
tion
sea-
son
Quantity of water
received by crop
Yield
per
acre
Year
Irriga-
tion
Rain-
fall
and
soil
mois-
ture
used 2
Total
Liter-
ature
cited
1915
1915
191R
Fine sandy loam
Gravelly loam
Fine sandy loam
Feet
3,300
3,200
Acres
62.0
21.0
6.0
8.4
11.6
Num-
ber
May 1
May 21
June 25
,-do.....
—do
12
Feet
0.76
1.46
1.46
1.32
1.05
Feet
0.70
.71
3.55
5.65
3.55
Feet
1.46
2.17
2.01
1.87
1.60
Tms
3.24
4.23
5.12
3.56
3.23
26
26
26
1916
1916
do
do
26
26
BARLEY
1915
1915
1915
Gravelly loam.
do
do
3,500
3,500
3,500
5.70
5.04
2.72
June 9
July 12
June 7
1.36
1.31
.84
0.85
1.11
2.21
2.42
1.33
Bush.
54.4
52.3
50.4
26
TIMOTHY
1915
1915
1915
1915
Loam
— .do
..-.do
Gravelly loam
3,667
3,667
3,667
3,200
3.24
13.9
76.0
May 22
May 23
...do
May 26
2.94
2.55
2.12
0.46
.46
,75
3.53
3.40
3.01
2.87
2.02
Torn
3.99
4.14
2.46
2.21
POTATOES
1915
1915
1915
Loam.
..do...
-.do..
3,500
3,500
3,500
2.27
1.70
1.67
July 11
July 14
July 15
0.65
.47
.37
0.59
.40
.54
1.24
.87
.91
Bush.
133.3
125.0
116.6
1 These experiments were conducted by the Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station cooperatively with
the Bureau of Public Roads.
2 Soil moisture used by crop is the difference between the moisture in the soil before crop was put in and
after it was harvested.
3 Rainfall only, April to September, inclusive, soil moisture not included.
48 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 200, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 7. — Irrigation water applied, rainfall, and crop yields in the Umatilla Valley,
Orcg.^
ALFALFA
Year
Soil
Alti-
tude
Area
irriga-
Irriga-
tions
Dopth
of water
applied
each ir-
rigation
Quantity of water re-
ceived by crop
Yield
per acre
Litera-
Irriga- Ra
tion fa
in-
11
Total
cited
1914
Coarse sand...
Feet
460
460
460
460
460
460
460
460
460
460
460
460
460
460
460
460
460
460
460
460
460
460
460
460
460
480
460
460
460
460
460
460
460
460
460
460
460
460
460
460
460
460
460
460
tor cs
0.20
.20
.20
.20
.20
.20
.20
.20
.20
.20
.20
.20
.20
.20
.20
.10
.10
.10
.10
.10
.10
.10
.10
.10
.20
.20
.20
.20
.20
.20
.20
.20
.10
.10
.10
.167
.167
.167
.10
.10
.10
.10
.10
.10
Number
24
12
8
21
11
7
7
11
21
7
11
21
Inches
4.69
5.26
6.75
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
Feet Fc
9.69 0
5.26
4.38
7.00
3.67
2.33
2.33
3.67
7.00
2.92
3.67
5.25
5.00
3.75
3.33
2.08
2.12
2.92
5.25
7.00
9.50
2.67
3.00
3.25
3.33
8.83
9.25
1.71
2.08
2.33
2.58
3.17
2.25
2.67
4.00
6.42
7.42
10.00
4.00
4.92
6.00
2.25
3.08
3.50
XJt
18
18
18
20
20
20
34
34
34
28
28
28
19
19
19
14
14
14
14
14
14
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
Feet
9.87
5.44
4. .56
7.20
3.87
2.53
2.67
4.01
7.34
3.20
3.95
5.53
5.19
3.94
3.52
2.22
2.26
3.06
5.39
7.14
9.64
2.85
3.18
3.43
3.51
9.01
9.43
1.89
2.26
2.51
2.76
3.35
2.43
2.85
4.18
6.60
7.60
10.18
4.18
5.10
6.18
2.43
3.26
3.68
Tons
5.57
5.31
103
5.67
162
3.50
125
6.36
6.72
110
5.97
5.95
6.13
5.48
140
8.83
8.58
9.12
6.28
100
3.88
5.35
5.79
6.27
5.01
5.35
107
8.27
7.40
9.56
7.82
7.86
7.17
6.97
6.07
1.12
2.35
.97
1.81
2.03
2.21
8.25
8.50
7.43
Ref. No.
2
1914
1914
1915
1915
1915
1916
1916
1916
1917
1917
1917
do
do...
do
-.-do
do
do
do...
do
do
do
do
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1918
do
do
28
1918
28
1918
do
28
1919
28
1919
do
28
1919
do
28
1919
Coarse sand
28
1919
do
28
1919
do
28
1921
28
1921
do
do
do
— -do
do
Very fine sand
do
do
do
do
IVIediuni sand
28
1921
28
1921
28
1921
28
1921
28
1921
28
1921
28
1921
28
1921
28
1921
28
1921
28
1921
-.-..do
do
28
1921
28
1921
28
1921
do
do
do
do
--..do
Fine sand
28
1921
28
1921
28
1921
28
1921
28
1921
28
1921
do
do
28
1921
28
These experiments were conducted by the Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station,
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN 49
Table 8. — Irrigation water applied, rainfall, and crop yields in the Wallowa Valley,
Oreg.^
ALFALFA
Soil
Alti-
tude
Area
irri-
gated
First
irrigation
Quantity of water re-
ceived by crop
Yield
per
acre
Year
Irriga-
tion
Rain-
fall
and
soil
mois-
ture
used 2
Total
Litera-
ture
cited
1915
Fine sandy loam
Feet
4,100
4,100
4,100
Acres
4.3
4.3
4.3
July 9
July 20
July 21
Feet
2.80
1.86
1.57
Foot
3 0.63
3.82
3.76
Feet
3.43
2.68
2.33
Tons
3.09
3.05
3.09
Ref.
No.
26
191f)
do.
26
1916
do
26
OATS
Bushels
4,100
3.68
July 8
1.04
0.86
1.90
65.0
4,100
2.78
.._do._..
.54
.84
1.38
60.0
4,100
3.56
July 10
.32
.83
1.15
55.0
26
BARLEY
1915
Fine sandy loam
4,100
4,100
4,100
4.47
5.51
6.08
July 12
July 15
July 13
1.07
.87
.74
3 0.79
3.75
3.81
1.86
1.62
1.55
63.6
St4.6
53.1
26
1915
do . .- .
26
1915
do
26
1 These experiments were conducted cooperatively by the Bureau of Public Roads and the Oregon Agri-
cultural Experiment Station.
2 Soil moisture used by crop is the difference between the moisture in the soil before crop was put in and
after it was harvested.
3 Rainfall only.
Table 9. — Irrigation water applied, rainfall, and crop yields in Deschutes Valley^
Or eg A
ALFALFA
Year
Soil
Alti-
tude
Area ir-
rigated
First ir-
rigation
Quantity of water
received by crop
Yield
per acre
Litera-
ture
cited
Irriga-
tion
Rain-
fall 2
Total
1912
Feet
Acres
Feet
L50
1.00
1.29
1.58
.67
.88
1.21
1.17
L42
L67
1.58
2.00
2.42
L60
L83
2.17
Foot
0.57
.37
.37
.37
.37
.37
.37
.19
.19
:«
.19
.19
.19
.19
Feet
2.07
1.37
L66
1.95
1.04
L25
1.58
1.36
1.61
1.86
L77
2.19
2.61
1.69
2.02
2.36
Tons
3.3
.9
1.0
LI
.95
LO
1.1
2.06
2.12
2.5
2.4
2.9
3.0
3.7
4.2
4.7
Ref. No.
28
191K
Medium sand
1.0
LO
1.0
L3
1.3
1.3
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
28
1918
1918
do
- - do-
28
28
1918
Medium loamy sand
28
191S
do
do
28
1918
28
1919
28
1919
28
1919
28
1919
28
1919
28
1919
28
1919
M^dinm sanri
28
1919
do
do
28
1919
28
1 These experiments were conducted by the Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station, a part of the work
being in cooperation with the Bureau of Public Roads.
2 Rainfall measured at Bend, April to September, inclusive, for all alfalfa experiments.
50 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 200, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 9. — Irrigation water applied, rainfall^ and crop yields in Deschutes Valley ,
Oreg. — Continued
ALFALFA— Continued
Year
Soil
Alti-
tude
Area ir-
rigated
First ir-
rigation
Quantity of water
received by crop
Yield
per acre
Liter a-
Irrigar
tion
Rain-
iaU
Total
cited
1919
M^dinTTi In^iTTiy SAnd
Fed
Acres
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
3.0
17.5
4.0
6.5
6.5
.75
.75
.75
15.75
1.85
1.85
3.0
Feet
1.67
2.00
2.33
1.83
2.17
2.67
1.67
2.00
2.33
2.83
2.33
2.33
2.33
3.83
1.67
2.00
2.33
1.67
2.00
2.58
1.67
Foot
.19
.19
.19
.19
.19
.19
.30
.30
.30
.30
.30
.30
.30
.30
.30
.30
.30
.30
.30
.30
.30
Fed
1.86
Z19
2.52
2.02
2.36
2.86
1.97
2.30
2.63
3.13
2.63
2.63
2.63
4.13
1.97
2.30
2.63
1.97
2.30
2.88
1.97
Tons
3.0
3.1
3.95
3.30
4.55
5.59
3.0
3.5
4.0
2.9
2.8
3.7
2.6
3.1
2.6
3.25
3.50
2.2
3.25
4.15
3.00
Ref.No.
28
1919
II"'do."""""I""""I"
I""do'""""-II""I""I"
Medium sand.-
::::::::
28
1919
28
1919
28
1919
28
1919
28
1920
28
19?0
do...
do
28
1920
28
1920
MediiiTTi loftTTiy sand
28
1920
.do
28
1920
Medium cnarsfi sand
28
1920
Gravelly sand
28
1920
do
28
19?0
Mf^dinm Inamy sand
28
19W
do
28
1920
do
28
1920
.do
28
1920
... do
28
1920
do
28
1920
Medium sand
28
OATS
1915
1915
1915
Medium sand
do...
do
Bushels
2.700
2.0
June 26
1.49
0.10
1.59
32.15
2,700
2.0
Jime 20
1.04
.24
1.28
29.70
2,700
2.0
July 2
.28
.14
.42
27.35
26
WHEAT
1915
1915
1915
Medium sand.
do .,
..-.do
2,750
1.0
June 30
0.95
»0.25
1.20
20.0
2,750
1.0
June 26
.69
3.30
.99
22.0
2,750
1.0
July 8
.83
3.24
1.07
17.0
26
3 Soil moisture used is included with rainfall.
Table 10. — Irrigation water applied, rainjall, and crop yields of alfalfa in the
Yakima Valley, Wash.
Area irri-
gated
Irriga-
tions
Depth of
water
applied
each irri-
gation
Total quantity of water re-
ceived by crop
Yield
per acre
Litera-
Irriga-
tion
Rainfall
Total
ture cited
1924
Acres
0.25
.25
.24
.25
.25
.25
Number
12
5
4
7
7
7
Inches
3
7
Fed
3.00
2.92
4.17
L17
3.50
5.83
Foot
0.14
Fed
3.14
3.06
4.31
1.31
3.64
5.97
Tons
4.10
2.58
3.93
L32
4.18
5.31
Ref. No.
33
1924
33
1924
33
1924
2
6
10
33
1924
33
1924
33
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN 51
Table 11. — Irrigation water applied, rainfall, and crop yields in the Biiierroot
Valley, Mont}
OATS
Year
Area irri-
gated
First ir-
rigation
Last irri-
gation
Total quantity of water re-
ceived by crop
Yield
Irrigation
Rainfall
Total
per acre
1900
Acres
161.7
102.2
Apr. 25
...do
Aug. 31
...do...-
Feet
1.30
6.06
Foot
0.13
.13
Feet
1.43
6.19
Bushels
33.0
1900
34.0
CLOVER
161.7
102.0
Apr. 25
...do
Aug. 31
—do
1.50
2.22
0.49
.45
1.99
2.67
1901
1901
Tons
9.0
1.0
» From unpublished reports of the Bureau of Public Roads.
Table 12. — Irrigation water applied, rainfall, and crop yields in the Okanogan
Valley, British Columbia^
ALFALFA
Sou
•
1
E
1
to
1
Monthly application of water
Total quantity
of water re-
ceived by crop
i
I
Year
ft
<
§
^
1-9
-4J
<
0
1
1
1
^
1
2
1917
Acres
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
2.0
3.75
2.5
1.5
18.0
27.75
26.0
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
No.
Feet
Feet
Feet
Feet
Foot
Feet
Feet
3.03
3.48
L80
L79
5.66
5.29
6.27
6.17
2.57
.94
.20
2.58
1.00
LOO
2.42
Foot
Feet
Tons
3.56
4.92
2.75
2.81
6.25
»3.84
3.73
n.77
3.38
4.13
2.21
3.14
7.90
3.48
2.39
Ref.
No.
17
1918
17
1919
17
1920
17
1921
1921
1921
19?1
Gravelly loam
.^]lIdo-I-.--M]]^]^''^^
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
"i.li
.32
L07
.65
2.29
1.26
1.07
3.68
2.50
L70
4.83
.77
"o.'96
L92
.08
.42
0.91
.23
.04
0.38
.38
.38
.38
.38
.38
.24
.72
.72
.19
.24
6.04
5.67
6.65
a 55
2.95
L32
.44
3.30
1.72
L19
2.66
16
16
16
16
1921
1921
.10
.21
16
16
19??
17
1923
18
1923
18
1924
.75
.75
.25
19
1925
L67
20
CLOVER AND GRASS
1921
Gravelly loam
2.0
.03
LOl
2.62
3.16
0.27
8.09
0.38
8.47
3.56
BARLEY
1921
Gravelly loam.
2.0
0.54
0.08
0.62
0.38
LOO
Bush.
30.7
16
WHEAT
1921
1921
Gravelly loam.
do -.-
5.0
0.25
0.58
0.62
.68
L22
2.42
0.39
.39
2.81
L07
25.83
25.7
> These experiments were made at the Summerland (British Columbia) Experimental Station by the
Department of Agriculture, Dominion of Canada.
* Third cutting not included.
52 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 200, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 12. — Irrigation water applied, rainfall, and crop yields in the Okanogan
Valley, British Columbia — Continued
SORGHUM
§
1
Monthly appUcation of water
Total quantity
of water re-
ceived by crop
&
2
.2
,
Sou
1
£
<
Years
p.
<
>>
03
>-»
1
!
<
1
O
1
1
1
1
3
1922
Gravelly loam
Acres
Plot.
Plot.
No.
Feet
Feet
Feet
0.34
Feet
0.26
Feet
Feet
Feet
0.60
.67
Foot
0.24
.72
0.84
1.39
Tom
3 16.32
17
1923
12. 58l 18
SUDAN GRASS
1922
Gravelly loam
do
Plot.
Plot.
0.34 0.26
0.60
.67
0.24
.72
0.84
1.39
3 6.91
6.57
17
1923
18
SUNFLOWERS
1921
Silt loam _ _
2.0
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
0.48
.34
2.07
2.11
.26
1.17
.29
0.43
3.02
.60
3.24
.75
0.38
.24
.24
.72
3.40
.84
3.48
1.47
11.00
3 19.15
* 13.87
28.06
16
1922
Gravelly loam
]I"-do""I--III"-'
17
1922
17
1923
0.12
.21
0.13
18
CORN FODDER
1921
1921
1921
1920-1922
1920-1922
1920-1922
1920-1922
1921
1923
Light gravelly loam
Gravelly loam
Light gravelly loam
Sandy loam...
^"IIdoI'[Il-"---"-
do...
do
do
4.75
2.0
1.0
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
0.76
.44
.30
0.52
.72
2.76
0.22
0.32
.61
.....
4
5
6
.30
1
.38
.12
.29
.02
.21
"o.'i3
.12
1.50
1.48
3.97
.50
1.00
1.50!
2.00]
.52
0.38
.38
6.36
6.36
1.88
1.86
4.35
.86
1.36
1.86
2.36
.90
5 6.78
5 12.35
5 16.37
4.06
5.46
5.20
5.02
2.02
TOMATOES
1920-1922
1920-1922
1920-1922
1920-1922
1923
1923
1923
1923
1924
1924
1924
1924
1925
1925
1925
1925
Sandy loam
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do...-.
do
do
do
Plot.
Plot.
3
4
0.50
1 00
60.36
6,36
0.86
1 36
10.60
11.74
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
5
6
3
4
5
1.50
2.00
.50
LOO
1.50
6.36
6.36
.72
.72
.72
1.86
2.36
1.22
1.72
2.22
14.76
14.19
11.52
9.41
6.70
0.17
.25
.30
0.17
.25
.30
0.16
.50
.60
0.30
Plot.
6
.33
.33
.67
.67
2.00
.72
2.72
7.11
Plot.
3
.17
.17
.16
.50
.19
.69
17.89
Plot.
3
.25
.25
.25
.75
.19
.94
21.30
Plot.
Plot.
4
5
.30
.33
.30
.34
.60
.67
L20
1.67
.19
.19
1.39
1.86
22.74
21.06
.33
Plot.
3
.17
.17
.16
.50
.24
.74
3.14
Plot.
4
.25
.25
.5C
1.0(]
.24
1.24
4.20
Plot.
5
.3C
.60
.6C
1.5C
.24
1.74
8.52
Plot.
6
.33
.67
.67
0.33
2.00
.24
2.24
7.85
POTATOES
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
3
4
5
6
1-i
2100
1.25
1.63
6 0.36
6.36
6.36
6.36
.18
.36
0.86
L36
L86
2.36
1.43
L99
Bush-
els
373.0
604.0
542.0
591.0
139.8
205.1
0.83
.56
0.42
.60
0.47
1920-1922
1920-1922
1920-1922
1920-1922
1922
1921-1922
Sandy loam
--..do
.--do
-...do
Gravelly loam
3Average of six plots.
♦Average of ten plots.
6 Fertilized with 15 tons of manure.
6Average rainfall for 1921 and 1922.
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN 53
Table 12. — Irrigation water applied, rainfall, and crop yields in the Okanogan
Valley, British Columbia — Continued
CUCUMBERS
Sou
1
1
d
Monthly application of water
Total quantity
of water re-
ceived by crop
I
T3
2
Years
<
^
^
>->
to
a
<
1
a
t
§
to
t-H
1
'3
-a
1
2
1920-1922
Sandy loam
do
— -do
-—do —-
Acres
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
No.
3
4
5
6
Feet
Feet
Feet
Feet
Feet
Ferf
Feet
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
Foo«
6 0.36
8.36
8.36
«.36
0.86
1.36
1.86
2.36
TOTW
11.60
19. 05
20.57
25.44
Ref.
No.
17
1920-1922
17
1920-1922
17
1920-1922
17
CARROTS
1920-1922
•
Sandy loam
do
— --do
do
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
3
t
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
6 0.36
6.36
6.36
6.36
0.86
1.36
1.86
2.36
6.81
7.54
9.04
11.22
17
1920-1922
17
1920-1922
17
1920-1922
17
CANTALOUPES
1920-1922
Sandy loam
do
do
do
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
3
4
5
6
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
«0.36
6.36
6.36
6.36
0.86
1.36
1.86
2.36
8.12
11.59
9.62
9.24
17
1920-1922
17
1920-1922
17
1920-1922
17
CABBAGE
1920-1922
1920-1922
1920-1922
1920-1922
Sandy loam.
do
do
do
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
60.36
6.36
6.36
0.861
1.;
1.1
2.361
4.58
7.32
9.74
BEANS
1920-1922
1920-1922
1920-1922
1920-1922
Sandy loam.
do
— -do
— -do
Plots.
Plots.
Plots.
Plots.
0.50«0.36
1.00
1.50
2.00
6,
6.36
0.86
1.36
1.86
2.36
Lbs.
11,038
12,858
13, 278
12, 740
FLAX
1921
Light gravelly loam..
0.25
0.15
0.20
0.13
0.48 0.20 0.68 2,008
16
MANGELS
1921 Light sandy loam Plot.
0.11 0.33 2.25 0.32
3.01
0.38
3.39
Tons
715.24
16
» Average rainfall for 1921 and 1922.
' Average of 39 varieties, fertilized with 10 tons of manure per acre.
54 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 200, tJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
LITERATURE CITED
(1) Allen, E. T.
1927. FOREST FIGURES FOR* PACIFIC COAST STATES . . . Timberman 28
(6) : 42-44, 46.
(2) Allen, R. W.
1918. the work of the umatilla reclamation project experiment
FARM IN 1917. U. S. Dept. AgF., BuF. Plant Indus. W. I. A.
Circ. 26, 30 p., illus.
(3) Baldwin, G. C.
1928. transmission and delivery of reservoir water. amer. soc.
Civ. Engin. Proc. 54: 1080-1084.
(4) Bark, D. H.
1916. experiments on the economical use of irrigation water in
IDAHO. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 339, 57 p., illus.
(5) Chandler, A. E.
1917. THE DOCTRINE OF RIPARIAN RIGHTS (iN THE WESTERN UNITED
states). Second Pan-Amer. Sci. Cong. Proc. Sec. 3:. 861-868.
(6) Cunningham, R. N., and others.
1926. MONTANA forest AND TIMBER HANDBOOK. Mont. State Univ.
Studies no. 1, 162 p., illus.
(7) FORTIER, S.
1925. irrigation of alfalfa. U. S. Dept. Agr, Farmers' Bui. 865, 37
p., illus. (Revised.)
(8)
1926. USE of WATER IN IRRIGATION. Ed. 3, 420 p., iUus. New York.
1927. THE BORDER METHOD OF IRRIGATION. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers'
Bui. 1243, 35 p., illus.
1927. ORCHARD IRRIGATION. U, S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bull. 1518, 28
p., illus.
1925. IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF THE ARABLE LANDS OF THE GREAT
BASIN. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 1340, 56 p., illus.
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
1928. IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF THE ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS OF
THE MISSOURI AND ARKANSAS RIVER BASINS. U. S. Dept. Agr.
Tech. Bui. 36, 112 p. illus.
(13) French, H. T.
1907. report of the director for the year ending june 30, 1907. idaho
Agr. Expt. Sta. Ann. Rpt. 1907, 46 p., illus.
(14)
1908. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1908. Idaho
Agr. Expt. Sta. Ann. Rpt. 1908, 37 p.
(15) Greeley, W. B., Clapp, E. H., Smith, H. A., Zon, R., Sparhawk, W. N.,
Shepard, W., and Kittredge, J., Jr.
1923. timber: mine or crop? U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1922: 83-180,
illus.
(16) Helmer, R. H.
1922. report of the superintendent for the year 1921. Canada
Expt. Farms, Summerland (B. C.) Sta. Rpt. Supt. 1921, 60 p.,
illus.
(17)
1923. REPORT OF THE SUPERINTENDENT FOR THE YEAR 1922. Canada Expt.
Farms, Summerland (B. C.) Sta. Rpt. Supt. 1922, 93 p., illus.
(18) Hunter, W. T.
1924. report of the superintendent for the year 1923. Canada
Expt. Farms, Summerland (B. C.) Sta. Rpt. Supt. 1923, 58 p.
(19)
1925. REPORT OF THE SUPERINTENDENT FOR THE YEAR 1924. Canada
Expt. Farms, Summerland (B. C.) Sta. Rpt. Supt. 1924, 71 p.,
illus.
(20)
J926, REPORT OF THE SUPERINTENDENT FOR THE YEAR 1925. Canada
Expt. Farms, Summerland (B. C.) Sta. Rpt. Supt. 1925, 75 p.,
illus.
5
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF COLtJMBIA RIVER BASIN 55
(21) Kaufman, R.
1918. THE KITTITAS PROJECT. Ann. Meeting Wash. Irrig. Inst. Proc. 6:
85-86.
(22) Mark, J. C.
1923. THE CORRUGATION METHOD OF IRRIGATION. U. S. Dcpt. AgT.
Farmers' Bui. 1348, 24 p., illus.
(23) Miller, F. G., Cunningham, R. N., Fullaway, S. V., Jr., Whiting,
C. N., and Morse, C. B.
[1927]. the IDAHO forest and timber handbook. Idaho Univ. Bui. v.
22, no. 22, 155 p., illus.
(24) Nelson, E.
1907. irrigation investigations. Idaho Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 58, 46 p.,
illus.
(25) Powers, W. L.
1914. irrigation and soil-moisture investigations in western
OREGON. Greg. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 122, 110 p., illus.
(26)
1917. THE ECONOMICAL USE OF IRRIGATION WATER. Greg. Agr. Expt. Sta.
Bui. 140: 1-76, illus.
(27) and Johnston, W. W.
1920. IRRIGATION OF POTATOES. Greg. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 173, 28 p.,
illus.
(28) and Johnston, W. W.
1922. IRRIGATION OF ALFALFA. Greg. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 189, 36 p.,
illus.
(29) Taylor, E. P., and Downing, G. J.
1917. EXPERIMENTS IN THE IRRIGATION OF APPLE ORCHARDS. Idaho Agr.
Expt. Sta. Bui. 99, 48 p., illus.
(30) United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census.
1922. fourteenth census of the united states, taken in the year
1920. V. 7, 741 p., illus.
(31)
1927. UNITED STATES CENSUS OF AGRICULTURE, 1925. Pt. 3, The Westem
States. 512 p., illus. Washington, D. C.
(32) United States Department of the Interior, General Land Office.
1927. VACANT public lands on JULY 1, 1927. U. S. Dept. Int., Gen. Land
Off. Circ. 1131, 15 p.
(33) Wright, G. C.
1924. irrigation investigations. Wash. Agr. Expt. Sta. Ann. Rpt. 34,
Bui. 187: 99-104.
(34) ZoN, R.
1927. FORESTS AND WATER IN THE LIGHT OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS.
106 p., illus. (Reprinted with rev. Bibliography, 1927, from
Appendix V, Final Rpt. Natl. Water Ways Comn., 1912.
U. S. Cong. 62d, 2d Sess., Sen. Doc. 469: 205-302.)
ORGANIZATION OF THE
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
WHEN THIS PUBLICATION WAS LAST PRINTED
Secretary of Agriculture Arthur M.Hyde.
Assistant Secretary R. W. Dunlap.
Director of Scientific Work A. F. Woods.
Director of Regulatory Work Walter G. Campbell.
Director of Extension Work C. W. Warburton.
Director of Personnel and Business Admin- W. W. Stockberger.
istration.
Director of Information M. S. Eisenhower.
Solicitor E. L. Marshall.
Weather Bureau Charles F. Marvin, Chief.
Bureau of Animal Industry John R. Mohler, Chief.
Bureau of Dairy Industry ^__ O. E. Reed, Chief.
Bureau of Plant Industry William A. Taylor, Chief,
Forest Service R. Y. Stuart, Chief.
Bureau of Chemistry and Soils H. G. Knight, Chief.
Bureau of Entomology C. L. Marlatt, Chief.
Bureau of Biological Survey Paul G. Redington, Chief.
Bureau of Public Roads Thomas H. MacDonald, Chief.
Bureau of Agricultural Economics Nils A. Olsen, Chief.
Bureau of Home Economics Louise Stanley, Chief.
Plant Quarantine and Control Administration. Lee A. Strong, Chief.
Grain Futures Administration J. W. T. Duvel, Chief.
Food and Drug Administration Walter G. Campbell, Director of
Regulatory Work, in Charge.
Office of Experiment Stations , Chief.
Office of Cooperative Extension Work C. B. Smith, Chief.
Library Claribel R. Barnett, Librarian^
This bulletin is a contribution from
Bureau of Public Roads Thomas H. MacDonald, Chief.
Division of Agricultural Engineering S. H. McCrory, Chief.
56
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1930
iM!'iiiiKiiniiiiiiiiiiinMiiMiuiiiiMiiiiii.iiM.ii!iiiiMiiiiiTnifii^TiTin^
Technical Bulletin No. 199
October, 1930
TRADING IN CORN FUTURES
BY
G. WRIGHT HOFFMAN
Consulting Grain Economist
Grain Futures Administration
United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C.
Price 20 cents
Technical Bulletin No. 199
October, 1930
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
TRADING IN CORN FUTURES
By G. Wright Hoffman
Consulting Grain Economist, Grain Futures Administration^
CONTENTS
Introduction 1
Importance of corn futures 2
Future trading in corn on the Chicago
Board of Trade 5
Corn supplies and prices in recent years 10
An implied assumption 10
Fundamental factors affecting corn
prices 10
Com futures: Volume of trading, open com-
mitments, and prices compared 12
Volume of trading compared with range
in price 13
Open commitments compared with price. 15
Deliveries and deliverable supplies in their
relation to prices 16
Volume of deliveries of corn and other
grains 16
Volume of deliveries of corn compared to
volume of future trading 17
Variations in the volume of deliveries
within the delivery month 18
Relative price changes resulting from the
delivery situation 18
Deliverable supplies compared to price.. 20
Transactions of special groups of traders in
their relation to prices 22
Description of special accounts 22
Small and medium sized speculative
traders 23
The market position of three groups of
traders, by weeks 23
The market position of three groups of
traders compared to prices, by days. . _ 26
The importance of outstanding speculative
accounts 29
Standards used 30
Leading speculative lines 30
Combined position of leading speculative
lines 32
Large net trades compared with net price
changes 33
Summary 37
Appendix 40
INTRODUCTION
Of the various grains in which future trading is maintained, wheat
ranks first in importance. For this reason most of the investigations
by the Grain Futures Administration, and particularly those appear-
ing in published form, have related to wheat. Its popularity as a
trading medium is due to several factors. It is the leading commercial
grain crop ; it constitutes over 60 per cent of the volume and approxi-
mately 75 per cent of the value of our grain exports. It is a staple
food with a wide and general consumption; and, being grown in many
countries and under a variety of conditions, its price is subject to
continual and uncertain change.
While wheat has thus deserved the emphasis given it, the other
grains, and particularly corn, are also extensively traded in. Trading
in corn futures has been large during the last two crop years; a number
of speculative lines of unusual proportions have been built up, and on
several occasions close supervision and regulation have been necessary
in order to prevent market manipulation. A study of trading in
1 The materials for this study were compiled principally from the records of the Grain Futures Admin-
istration at its Chicago office. The author is deeply indebted to the staff of the Grain Future Adminis-
tration for aid in preparing this report and especially to Dr. J. W. T. Duvel, Chief of the Grain Futures
Administration, under whose direction the study was made, and to Mr. J. M, Mehl, Assistant Chief,
who read the manuscript in its final form.
116329°— 30 1
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
corn futures is justified, therefore, on the ground of its importance
as well as its timeliness.
The grain futures act was approved by the President on September
21, 1922. A temporary stay of the enforcement of the law pending
the determination of its constitutionality by the United States
Supreme Court, however, delayed its operation until the spring of
1923. Kegulations under the act were promulgated by the Secre-
tary of Agriculture on June 22, 1923, and shortly thereafter the
Grain Futures Administration began the systematic receipt of
daily trading information from the clearing members of the grain
futures exchanges. To the close of the present study, September
30, 1928, daily reports have thus been regularly received and tabu-
lated for a period of a little over five years.
It is proposed in this study to analyze and summarize the infor-
mation relating to corn futures during this 5-year period, making
such comparisons with future trading in other grains, and especially
wheat, as seem worth while. Particular emphasis will be placed
upon the manner and extent to which the trade in corn futures
relates itself to the price of corn. Because of the outstanding impor-
tance of the Chicago Board of Trade as a futures market, unless
otherwise stated, the data will relate to this exchange.
IMPORTANCE OF CORN FUTURES
It is in place, at the outset, to summarize the trade in corn futures
in its relation to the entire field of future trading in grain. This
may be done by comparing the volume of trades transacted each
day in the various grains or by comparing the contracts carried
forward each day; i. e., the open commitments of traders. The
difference between these two approaches is analogous to the differ-
ence between the income statement and the balance sheet in the
field of finance. For certain purposes, as will be shown presently,
the volume of trading is more instructive; for other purposes, the
open commitments serve better.
Table 1. — Grain futures: Average daily volume of trading in each grain and in
each market for the 5-year period, October 1, 1923-Septemher 30, 1928
[In thousands of bushels; i. e., 000 omitted]
Num-
ber of
trading
days
Grain futures
All
Market
Wheat
Corn
Oats
Rye
Barley
Flax
gram
futures
Chicago Board of Trade
1,507
1,507
1,508
1,504
1,508
1,505
1,507
729
1,507
1,507
409
39, 077
1,394
2,567
1,611
676
263
72
24
18, 557
467
'""764"
4,647
40
651
7
1,765
2
220
64,046
Chicago Open Board of Trade....
Minneapolis Chamber of Commerce..
Kansas City Board of Trade
1,903
122
67
3,627
2,382
Duluth Board of Trade
266
4
121
1,067
St. Louis Merchants Exchange
117
79
380
41
13
205
Seattle Grain Exchange
24
1
14
1
Ban Francisco Chamber of Com-
merce
14
New York Produce Exchange
436
5
441
All markets!
46,120
62.2
19,984
27.0
5,391
7.3
2,266
3.1
141
.2
188
.2
74,090
Percent
100.0
1 The totals of the average daily volume of trading of each grain at all markets are not precisely accurate,
since the various markets did not trade the same number of days. This is notably true for the Seattle
Grain Exchange which began trading on May 1, 1926, and for the New York Produce Exchange which
traded only from Aug. 1, 1926, to Dec, 8, 1927, a period of 409 trading days for wheat and 124 for oats. These
2 markets make up only a small fraction of the total trading, however, and for this reason a simple sum-
mation is practically accurate.
TRADING IN CORN FUTURES 6
Table 1 presents a comparison of the average daily volume of
trading in corn futures with the trading in each of the other grains
for the 5-year period, October 1, 1923-September 30, 1928. The
particular dates marking the beginning and closing of this 5-year
period were chosen because they represent fairly well the limits of
the crop year in corn futures. The close of trading in the Sep-
tember future on the last day of that month marks the close of
trading in the old-crop futures for corn each year. In Table 1,
the trading is shown not only by grains but also by markets. The
list of markets includes all those on which any transactions in grain
futures were made during this period and which conform to the
requirements of the grain futures act as '^ contract markets."
Judged by the volume of trading, wheat futures are decidedly
the most important of the various grain futures. For the 5-year
period shown, trading in wheat futures accounted for 62.2 per cent
of the total volume of trading on all the markets and averaged
46,120,000 bushels each day. Corn ranks second in importance
and, compared with the remaining grains, is decidedly the leader.
For the period included in Table 1, it comprised 27 per cent of the
total volume of trading, oats ranking a poor third with 7.3 per cent.
The trading in corn for this period was, in fact, over twice as large
as the total of the remaining grains — oats, rye, barley, and flax.
Attention should be called to the importance of the trading on the
Chicago Board of Trade compared with the other markets. Table 1
shows the trading in all grain futures to have averaged 64,046,000
bushels per trading day for this market for the 5-year period, while for
the entire group of 11 markets the figure is only 74,090,000 bushels
per trading day. This makes the leading Chicago exchange over six
times the size of the other 10 markets combined, its total volume of
trading exceeding 86 per cent of the entire volume.
For com futures, in particular, the Chicago Board of Trade domi-
nates. Com futures were traded in on five exchanges during this
period — Chicago Board of Trade, Kansas City Board of Trade,
Chicago Open Board of Trade, St. Louis Merchants Exchange, and the
Milwaukee Chamber of Commerce. Over 92 per cent of the total
trading on all five exchanges was transacted on the Chicago Board of
Trade. Kansas City ranked second with less than 4 per cent. An
analysis of the trading in corn futures on the Chicago Board will
approximate, therefore, a similar survey covering all five markets.
The importance of future trading in corn may also be presented
through a comparison of open commitments both with other grains
and between markets. (Table 2.)
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 2. — Average daily open commitments in each grain future arid in each market
for the 5 -year -period, October 1, 1923-Septemher 30, 1928
[In thousands of bushels; i. e., 000 omitted]
Market
Num-
ber of
trading
days
Grain futures
All
Wheat
Corn
Oats
Rye
Barley
Flax
grain
futures
Chicago Board of Trade
Chicago Oi)en Board of Trade -.
Minneapolis Chamber of Commerce.
Kansas City Board of Trade
1,507
1,229
1,508
1,504
1,508
1,330
1,331
729
409
95,841
1,035
16,623
11, 738
4,806
1,282
440
336
1,474
66,349
668
"5,'796'
42, 746
228
10,458
179
12,985
13
2,780
217, 921
1,944
32,411
17,707
1,641
909
Duluth Board of Trade
3,093
46
1,145
9,090
1 948
St Louis Merchants Exchange
666
573
Milwaukee Chamber of Commerce
621
176
:
1 810
336
98
1,572
All markets!
133, 575
46.9
74,046
26.0
54, 330
19.1
19,047
6.7
1,687
.6
2,054
.7
284,739
Per cent -
100 0
1 See footnote to Table 1 which applies similarly to the totals of open commitments. No data are avail-
able on open commitments for Los Angeles and San Francisco, nor for the Chicago Open Board of Trade and
the St. Louis Merchants Exchange prior to Sept. 1, 1924, and May 1, 1924, respectively.
A brief explanation of the term ''open commitments'' is necessary
to a proper understanding of Table 2. An illustration can be con-
veniently used. Assume a trader buys 5,000 bushels of the July com
future on April 3. If this is his only market commitment, this pur-
chase makes him ''long" 5 July com, in which "5" represents 5,000
and "July" implies a future contract maturing in that month if not
offset earlier. If this trader later sells say 10 July corn, he will then
be "short" 5 July corn. It follows that each trader or account on
the books of a brokerage firm is either long or short or even at any
particular time. It follows, too, that there is no necessary relation-
ship between the volume of purchases and sales of a trader during
any day and his market position at the close of that day. Thus a
scalper frequently buys and sells, within the limits of a trading day,
large amounts of a particular future but equalizes his trading so that
his net position at the close of the day is even or practically so.
A commission house has many customers,^ some of whom are long
and some of whom are short. Each clearing firm reports to the Grain
Futures Administration the total of all of its long accounts and the
total of all of its short accounts, by futures and by grains, as of the
close of each trading day. Each of these aggregates describes the
open commitments of the customers of the commission firm. For an
individual firm in, say, the July corn future, the aggregate long might
be 4,805,000 and the aggregate short 2,360,000 (giving the firm a
combined net position for its customers of 2,445,000 long at the close
of a particular day). When the open commitments of all of the report-
ing firms are added, the total of open commitments of all customers
both long and short is obtained. Since each long position occasioned
by a purchase has a corresponding short position occasioned by an
equal sale, it follows that when the total of all customers' commitments
is obtained that the long side will exactly equal the short side. In
tabulating the total open commitments, either by futures or all futures
combined, therefore, it is necessary to record only one side.
In Table 2 an average of the daily total of open conmiitments for
each grain and for each market covering the 5-year period, October
1, 1923-September 30, 1928, is shown. The observations which
* A customer may, of course, be an individual trader; or it may be a company or firm as is usually the case
with hedging accounts; or it may be another commission firm as for example a correspondent in another
city.
TRADING IN CORN FUTURES 5
were made in presenting Table 1 apply with about the same force
here. Wheat ranks a decided first with corn second among the
various grains; and the Chicago Board of Trade clearly outranks the
other markets. It should be observed, however, that the importance
of wheat compared with the other grains and of the Chicago Board
of Trade compared with the other markets is somewhat less marked
when judged by the open commitments than when judged by the
volume of trading. Thus the average of open commitments in wheat
futures for all markets during this 5-year period amounted to 47 per
cent of the total for all grains against 62 per cent based on the volume
of trading, while the total of open commitments for all grains on
the Chicago Board of Trade constituted only 76.5 per cent of the
total of all markets in contrast to 86 per cent when determined by
the volume of trading. The reason for this difference in both cases
is due mainly to the large amount of scalping trade in wheat futures
on the Chicago board, which enlarges the volume of trading on this
market without increasing correspondingly the size of the open com-
mitments. The difference is occasioned in part also, by the fact
that the smaller futures markets include a larger proportion of hedge
trades than the Chicago Board of Trade.
Relative to the other grains and to the other markets, corn main-
tains about the same importance judged by the open commitments
as by the volume of trading. Twenty six per cent of the open com-
mitments for all grains was in corn futures for this period; of this,
the open commitments of the Chicago market made up 89.5 per
cent. By both the tests of volume of trading and of open commit-
ments, therefore, the Chicago Board of Trade stands preeminent
among the five corn-futures markets.
FUTURE TRADING IN CORN ON THE CHICAGO BOARD OF TRADE
Trading in corn futures on the Chicago Board of Trade is main-
tained mainly in four futures — December, May, July, and September.
Beginning with the fall of 1927, the March future was added but it
has not as yet assumed an importance equal to any one of the other
four. From day to day and month to month throughout each crop
year, these various futures change in relative importance. Thus
during the winter months, the May future has a larger volume of
trading and maintains a larger proportion of open commitments
than any one of the other futures; during a part of April, all of May
and a part of June, the July future is dominant; during the remainder
of June, all of July and a part of August, the September future leads
and from August to and including a part of November, the December
future is the most important.
Just how these various futures change in relative importance is
shown in Tables 3 and 4. The former presents the volume of trading
in each of the principal futures by months, and the latter shows the
open commitments by futures at the close of trading on the last day
of each month on the Chicago Board of Trade. Reference to either
table will show the manner in which successive futures supersede
earlier ones. As a rule, trading in a new future is not started until
two or three months after trading has ceased in the previous one of
the same month. However, for the May future, which is usually of
greatest length, trading was commenced for two of the years during
the month following the expiration of the previous future.
6 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 3. — Corn futures: Volume of trading in each of the principal futures by
months, Chicago Board of Trade, for the period, October 1, 1923-September 30,
1928, inclusive
[In thousands of bushels; 1. e., 000 omitted]
Month
1023
October
November...
December
1924
January
February
March
April
May
June
July--
August.
September.. -
October
November...
December
1925
January
February
March
April
May
June.
July--
August
September...
October
November —
December
January —
February- -
March
April
May
June
July--
August
September.
October —
November.
December..
1927
January
February
March..
April
May
June
July---
August
September-..
October
November...
December
1928
January
February
March
April
May.
June
July.--
August
September...
May
future
127, 709
148,029
173,415
240,006
279, 679
174, 793
45, 669
20
47. 528
226, 656
262, 159
327, 287
337,030
494,807
489, 344
415, 112
379, 878
152, 790
19,560
20
10,431
33,475
83,904
99,852
108, 676
357, 777
233, 612
168, 159
204,458
144, 197
20, 327
5
41,481
87,360
117,915
166, 985
306,579
205,489
215, 283
285, 309
167,074
40, 246
75
181
3,840
68,480
164,492
468,928
369, 489
602,063
488, 511
263, 230
39,106
3,307
18,016
July
future
16,064
18,982
23,643
60,422
44,541
81,404
75,480
121,009
105, 654
24,525
2,289
6,848
26,425
63,603
111,229
133,640
146,820
261, 564
320, 674
298,694
115, 075
20, 562
2,440
8,237
48, 362
41,136
40,284
68, 617
92,813
139,151
157,490
17, 512
641
14,792
29,082
31, 655
45,414
88,488
94,058
412, 559
266, 845
20,108
3,753
31, 489
87, 369
147,823
339,871
403, 188
197, 195
61,848
Septem-
ber
future
20,667
22,079
45, 746
46,439
96, 268
160,096
150,199
78,658
24, 612
634
37, 993
61,780
113, 600
147, 742
124, 862
262, 266
246, 647
161,605
48,763
2,739
8,511
21,846
32, 270
51, 223
119, 535
247, 873
121, 812
12, 712
2,153
8,107
25, 332
26, 229
197,040
606, 385
349, 665
221, 691
65,311
176
21,484
87.133
188,031
256, 221
306,473
301, 246
104,617
Decem-
ber
future
257, 186
188, 247
56,771
90
3,621
127, 994
308, 874
384, 354
353, 941
276,990
126, 356
44,670
5
165
907
34,363
151,468
152, 390
173, 902
281, 160
210, 213
179, 945
71,466
1,141
10,441
43, 689
152, 610
244, 938
241, 576
197, 816
176,069
29,221
20
46
20
170,778
419, 291
614,335
383, 663
210,704
48,902
802
13,605
71,146
141,082
232,217
198, 135
March
future
30, 801
113,962
97, 534
64,489
108, 978
69,623
69, 395
17, 824
1,814
33,428
25,090
Other
futures
1,544
310
426
858
612
5
1,053
3,269
1,823
15
15
70
110
222
776
1,054
635
55
1,575
75
3
5
"iso"
750
60
30
267
29
11
305
300
All futures
Total
402,503
355,588
254, 326
415,449
306, 620
406, 849
296, 807
265,567
394, 376
631, 131
692, 910
650, 829
632, 626
616,003
651,256
661,047
623, 717
755, 197
622, 113
477,479
628, 942
430, 020
369,204
414, 603
313, 559
297, 493
477,660
279,062
217, 029
294,824
270, 427
221, 142
320,783
418,000
408, 231
341, 648
316, 377
367,846
366,332
240,047
268,864
399,209
287, 381
649, 891
863,280
540, 516
671,864
787,448
649,944
439, 686
630,561
470, 789
649, 031
675,642
691,036
643, 930
624, 573
511,522
570, 497
346, 894
TRADING IN CORN FUTURES /
Table 4. — Corn futures: Open commitments in each of the principal futures on the
last trading day of each month y Chicago Board of Trade, for the period, October 1,
1923-Septemher 30, 192S, inclusive
[In thousands of bushels; i. e., 000 omitted]
Last trading day of
month of—
May
future
July
future
Sep-
tember
future
Decem-
ber
future
March
future
Other
futures
All futures
Last
trading
day of
month
Daily
average
for the
month
1923
October
November...
December
1924
January
February
March.
April
May
June
July
August
September. -.
October
November...
December
1925
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September. . .
October
November
December
1926
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September. --
October
November. . .
December
1927
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September...
October
November...
December
1928
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September. . .
35,639
43, 131
45, 936
49, 121
43, 763
23.406
6,825
15, 957
21,609
29, 951
40, 349
49, 517
49, 632
49, 056
32,564
11, 019
16
26
3,354
8,040
12, 867
18, 979
26,283
33, 785
40, 569
41,700
33,806
11, 024
5
9,558
14,449
27,545
42, 756
52, 798
63,453
60, 453
48, 335
20,544
40
131
1,258
12,704
35,538
50,601
63, 784
73, 819
58.561
15,790
4,856
8,429
11, 012
15,504
18,886
23,296
27, 151
29, 570
9,320
436
2,080
5,747
12, 444
20, 591
21,636
25, 726
30, 142
30, 905
29,070
8,662
723
8,555
13, 303
18, 462
30,202
35, 440
9,683
4,740
8,023
11, 181
18. 055
26, 370
42, 148
43,808
8,820
1,713
8,044
21, 353
29,971
55,678
48,716
28,280
1,013
50
4,879
8,672
12, 774
16, 834
21,917
19, 954
18, 530
10, 818
2
291
7,479
11, 835
13,529
17,060
21. 943
24, 052
26, 176
12, 917
15
1,032
3,267
6.745
12, 367
17, 826
32, 973
30, 257
6,350
798
2,798
6,750
11,606
27, 873
65, 825
58,948
25, 912
160
6,087
17, 190
29, 612
33,882
38, 792
24,371
27, 808
16, 577
70
1,659
15,086
24,237
25, 260
31,410
28,251
15,003
7,463
14, 125
20, 117
25, 567
29,701
32,768
26,299
4,349
12,706
22,068
31,615
34,229
33,277
11. 836
20
21
16
20,280
47,088
48,228
43, 513
19,666
5,484
545
5,079
14,441
30, 666
44,044
50,686
110
135
230
120
5
611
105
177
45
70
90
230
6,385
13, 310
17,292
20,236
23,017
21, 076
10,333
1,167
8,423
12, 016
225
"26'
69, 767
60,780
64,423
66,319
76, 679
79,833
67, 461
53, 146
44,480
49, 597
53,082
66,087
63, 949
67, 796
70,409
78, 747
86, 622
76,323
69, 493
58, 492
46,865
49, 647
46,629
42, 760
62, 515
65,041
40, 211
50, 161
58,270
59, 013
54, 502
57, 615
55, 362
62, 330
47,623
48, 678
61, 111
59, 332
61,051
76, 432
81,306
81, 456
74, 318
71, 702
74, 661
79,268
79, 516
62, 796
73, 519
75, 449
75, 341
92,903
105, 656
94, 619
89,203
83,407
76,603
71,863
78,531
68,112
60, 674
62, 931
58,802
70,264
80,155
74, 969
62,188
48, 733
46, 977
64,419
53,906
63,704
67,045
74,800
73,860
81, 782
83,546
65, 755
54, 477
55, 272
46, 553
51, 403
46, 393
46, 647
56, 161
45, 102
45, 958
54, 717
69, 434
57, 876
63,831
60, 624
62,196
63,654
46,780
54,427
63,758
60,191
68,526
77, 933
84,960
80,416
69, 326
76, 816
78, 319
82,329
69, 773
68,679
77, 134
75,150
83,533
98, 133
98,849
91,532
82,361
83,174
78, 156
79, 207
77, 168
8 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE
The shifting of trading and market positions of traders and groups
of traders from one future to another increases greatly the problem of
analysis and presentation of trading accounts. This is particularly
true where an attempt is being made to include a long period of time.
In this study the policy of combining the trading and market commit-
ments in the various futures has been followed. By doing this,
account is taken of those situations in which a trader is ^'spreading''
between two futures, i. e.,is long one and short the other, as well as
instances in which a trader or account is either long or short in more
than one future at the same time.
Where comparisons are to be made with changes in the course of
future prices, further difficulty is encountered. Because the commit-
ments in the various futures overlap, the prices at which these commit-
ments are made also overlap. As a rule the course of prices between
two or more futures maintains a high degree of parallel relationship.
But usually, also, they are at sUghtly different levels and it is not
practical to combine them. To overcome this difficulty, the rule has
been followed in this study of using the prices of those futures whose
total of open commitments is the largest. By following this rule,
definite assurance is had that comparisons are being made with the
most important price series each day.
Table 5. — The period of dominance, based on the open commitments, of each of the
various corn futures from October 1, 1923, to September 30, 1928, inclusive
Future
Period of dominance
From—
To-
Number
of calen-
dar days
dominant
1923— December.
1924— May
July
September
December.
1925— May
July
September
December.
1926— May
July
September
December.
1927— May
July.......
September.
December.
1928— May
July
September
December.
Oct.
Nov.
Apr.
June
July
Oct.
Apr.
June
Aug.
Dec.
Apr.
Jrme
Aug.
Nov.
Apr.
June
Aug.
Nov.
Apr.
June
Aug.
1,19231
3,1923
30, 1921
18, 1924
15. 1924
29. 1924
3, 1925
10. 1925
19. 1925
1, 1925
22. 1926
22, 1926
11. 1926
5,1926
22,1927
9,1927
22. 1927
26,1927
18. 1928
26, 1928
9,1928
Nov.
Apr.
June
July
Oct.
Apr.
June
Aug.
Nov.
Apr.
June
Aug.
Nov.
Apr.
Jime
Aug.
Nov.
Apr.
June
Aug.
Sept.
2,1923
29, 1924
17, 1924
14. 1924
28,1924
2. 1925
9,1925
18. 1925
30,1925
21. 1926
21, 1926
10. 1926
4. 1926
21. 1927
8,1927
20,1927
25,1927
17. 1928
25,1928
8,1928
30, 19281
179
49
27
106
156
68
70
104
142
61
50
86
168
48
73
96
144
69
44
1 Not complete. Period of dominance for 1923 December future began prior to Oct. 1, 1923, and period
of dominance of 1928 December future ended subsequent to Sept. 30, 1928.
The periods during which each corn future was relatively the most
important, namely was dominant, during the 5-year period are shown
in Table 5. This table also shows the number of days each future
was dominant which brings out clearly the importance of the May
future. May ranks first, with December ranking second, July third,
and September last.
TRADING IN CORN FUTURES
9
Table 6. — Corn futures: Average daily volume oj trading and open commitments
on the Chicago Board of Trade for the life of each future completed within the period
October i, 1923-Septemher 30, 1928
[In thousands of bushels; i. e
., 000 omitted]
May future
July future
September
future
December
future
March future
Other futures
Year
Vol-
ume of
trad-
ing
Open
com-
mit-
ments
Vol-
ume of
trad-
ing
Open
com-
mit-
ments
Vol-
ume of
trad-
ing
Open
com-
mit-
ments
Vol-
ume of
trad-
ing
Open
com-
mit-
ments
Vol-
mneof
trad-
ing
Open
com-
mit-
ments
Vol-
ume of
trad-
ing
Open
com-
mit-
ments
1923
4,515
7,390
4,925
5,129
8,716
18,905
16, 271
15,606
18, 824
22,201
25
39
21
21
18
13
116
1924
6,126
11,462
5,308
6, 165
9,005
28, 105
28,198
20, 741
32, 113
29,649
2,218
5,236
2,588
4,106
6,916
14,654
16, 106
13, 276
16,760
27,266
2,530
4,882
2,749
6,571
6,877
11,531
14, 539
12,631
23,032
21,682
231
1925
59
1926 .
35
1927
64
1928
2,785
13, 776
35
Average i
7,620
27, 704
4,099
17, 071
4,599
16, 336
6,152
19, 157
2,785
13, 776
Daily average of entire period.
In Table 6 there is shown the average daily volume of trading and
open commitments during the life of each future for the 5-year
^^^
Figure l. — Corn futures: The average daily volume of trading and the average daily open commit-
ments, by months, all futures combinad, Chicago Board of Trade, for the period October, 1923-Sep-
tember, 1928
period under study. Here the relative importance of each future can
be determined on both the basis of trading and of contracts carried
forward from day to day. By placing the data on a daily basis the
factor of the length of each future is removed. On this daily basis, the
May future ranks first in importance, with the December, July, and
September following in the order named.
Figure 1 shows the general course of trading in corn futures over
the 5-year period being studied. It shows by months the average
daily volume of trading in all corn futures for the Chicago Board of
Trade, and, similarly, for each month for this same period, the average
daily open commitments. Comparisons with the course of prices
over this period both of a general and detailed character will be made
in subsequent sections. Figure 1 is designed to give simply a broad
10 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, U. S. DEPT. OF AGPJCtJLTURE
picture of future trading in corn for the entire period. It will be seen
that the periods of October, 1923-May, 1924, and October, 1925-
April, 1927, are characterized by a volume of trading somewhat below
the average for the entire period; and that the periods June, 1924-
September, 1925, and May, 1927-September, 1928, include trading
periods of large size. Later comparisons in connection with leading
speculative accounts and the course of corn futures prices will empha-
size the importance of these variations in trading activity.
CORN SUPPLIES AND PRICES IN RECENT YEARS
The manner and extent to which the trade in corn futures relates
itself to the price of corn will be considered in this and the following
two sections. In subsequent sections it will be necessary to con-
sider particular groups of traders and trading methods in their
relation to prices.
AN IMPUED ASSUMPTION
In studying the relationship of future trading to corn prices there
is an implied assumption that factors which affect futures prices also
affect cash prices to an approximately equal extent. The accuracy
of this assumption has been shown many times and need not be
demonstrated again here. It is called^ to the reader's attention
simply to record the fact that the analysis in this bulletin is based upon
this relationship. Corn futures contracts are rights to corn. And as
long as these rights can be freely converted at the will of the buyer or
seller into actual corn, the price of futures and the price of cash com
will remain closely related.
This fact is of unusual significance both from a legal and from an
economic view point. Were this relationship destroyed, future
trading would revert to a mere gambling status in the eyes of the law;
and from an economic standpoint it would lose its significance entirely
since its twofold function of directing prices and furnishing hedging
facilities would be destroyed. This interdependence of cash and
futures prices should thus be held in mind in examining subsqeuent
sections. What evidence is presented there regarding the relation
of future trading to futures prices is of significance only because cash
corn prices in turn are affected.
FUNDAMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING CORN PRICES
The corn crop of the United States has averaged, during the last
15 years, about 2,825,000,000 bushels per year. For this same period
world production has averaged approximately 4,215,000,000 bushels.
The corn crop of this country thus constitutes two-thirds of the
world crop which gives to it an important position in determining
corn prices. This is particularly true with reference to the price
structure within the United States. Because of the small annual
United States export trade in corn, amounting to considerably less
than 2 per cent of the crop, the price of corn at Chicago is determined
mainly by the corn situation within this country.
The trend in the United States production of com for several
decades prior to 1910 was gradually upward. Since 1910 the trend
has been practically level, occasioned mainly by the fact that the
annual acreage devoted to this crop during the last 15 years has
barely held its own. The price of corn, in contrast, has continued
TRADING IN CORN FUTtJRES
11
with an upward trend since 1896, reaching unusual levels during the
World War. This upward trend has been due almost entirely to the
rising general level of prices and not to an increasing demand for
corn. These facts are reviewed in order to discuss more intelligently
the basic situation of corn prices during recent years. Assuming a
fairly stable schedule of demand, the factors affecting the price of
corn are reflected through changes in supply and changes in the value
of the dollar.
Figure 2 illustrates this relationship. The supply figure used in
the preparation of the chart is an average of published information
as of November 1 and the following March 1 of each crop year. For
November 1 the carry-over of farm stocks and visible supply was
added to the merchantable portion of each year's crop, the merchant-
able figure rather than the total production being used because of its
/S/3 /S/^ /S/S /S/e /S/7 /S/S /S/S /^2<P /S2/ /S2Z /S23 /A?*« /S2S /S2^ /927
Figure 2.— The influence upon corn prices of changes in the annual supply of corn in the United
States, by crop years, for the 15-year period, 1913-1927
closer relation to terminal market prices. For March 1 the supply
represented by farm stocks and visible was used. For the price
curve the data used were weighted average prices of No. 3 YeUow
corn, Chicago, for the five months of each crop year — November,
December, January, February, and March. The entire year was not
used for the reason that new-crop prospects during the summer months
influence old-crop prices. This average price was then deflated, i. e.,
the effect of a changing general level of prices was removed, by
dividing each average price by a corresponding 5-month average all-
commodity price. ^
Figure 2 illustrates the extent to which supply, and variations in
supply, broadly control the course of prices. Except in peiods of
unusual change in the general level of prices such as occurred during
the war, supply is the controlling force in establishing the level of
prices in a staple commodity such as corn. The degree of relation-
3 Using the U. S, Bureau of Labor Statistics revised all-commodity index.
12 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE
ship shown in Figure 2 was much less pronounced during the first half
of the 15-year period than during the last half, due doubtlessly to the
general lack of economic equilibrium during the war.
The last five years shown in Figure 2 include the period of primary
interest to this study. One of these years — the 1924 crop with the
accompanying carry-over — reveals an unusually small supply with
a correspondingly high price. It is necessary to go back over 20 years
to find a corn crop as small as that of 1924. The years 1923 and 1925
reveal crops above the average in size and, for the five months in-
cluded, the supply reflects a price considerably lower than that of
1924. The crops of 1926 and 1927 were somewhat below the average.
This fact is shown in the higher level of corn prices during the latter
of the two years, but for 1926 the carry-over front the previous year
was sufficiently large to bring the total supply up to an average figure.
While it is thus an accurate statement to say that during these five
years the supply of corn and changes in the supply of corn have served
as the primary and fundamental force in determining the level of
corn prices, it should be noted in making this observation that supply
and price are being broadly treated as average annual figures. In this
treatment no consideration is given to variations from month to
month, from week to week, or from day to day. These variations,
and particularly those from day to day and from week to week, can
be either large or small without necessarily affecting the average
figure for the season. Having surveyed the general price situation,
the next problem is to consider corn prices over shorter periods of
time and particularly with reference to their relation to future
trading.
CORN FUTURES: VOLUME OF TRADING, OPEN COMMITMENTS, AND
PRICES COMPARED
For a market to be attractive to speculators, large and frequent
price changes must occur. This is an observation familiar to all
interests actively following the market, whether it be in the field of
commodities or of securities. When price changes are large, either
in a bull market or in a bear market, speculative activity is also large;
when prices move within narrow limits, interest wanes and trading
declines. The reason for this direct relationship is also well known.
Large price movements afford ample opportunity to buy and sell or
sell and later buy in at a profit. Without price ^' swings^' of substan-
tial size, this opportunity would not be present.
Some light is thrown upon this general proposition in Figure 3.
For the 5-year period, October, 1923-September, 1928, the volume of
trading, the open commitments, and the price of corn futures on the
Chicago Board of Trade are compared by months. For the volume
of trading an average of the daily trading, all corn futures combined,
for each month is used. For the open commitments all futures are
likewise combined, the average of the daily open commitments for
each month being plotted. For the price curve a composite of the
four major futures is shown. Each future is represented for those
months during which it was the most important when measured by
the size of the open commitments in that future. For the months in
which a shift from one future to another is made the prices are over-
lapped to show the extent of the price change. The bars represent
TRADING IN CORN FUTURES
13
the monthly range and the connecting line the trend in average daily
closing prices from month to month.
The general contour of the three curves of Figure 3 exhibits a rough
similarity. During the first year and a half, or up to March, 1925,
the trend of each was upward. During the summer and fall of 1925
a rapid decline took place. This low level of prices, trading, and
open commitments continued through 1926, and during 1927 and
1928 the three were again high.
Figure 3.— Corn futures: The average daily volume of trading and the average daily open commitments
all futures combined, compared with a composite futures price, by months, Chicago Board of Trade
for the period October, 1923-September, 1928
VOLUME OF TRADING COMPARED WITH RANGE IN PRICE
On closer observation, it will be seen that the relationship between
the volume of trading and the course of prices is closer than either the
price and open commitments or the volume of trading and open
commitments. The occasion for this lack of close relationship on the
part of the open commitments will be discussed presently. The
proposition set forth at the beginning of this section, that the larger
the price variations the larger the volume of trading, is fully borne out
by Figure 3. Months of unusual price range such as those of the fall
and winter of 1924-25 are also months of large volume of trading;
and months of small price range such as the periods October, 1923-
May, 1924, and September, 1925-April, 1927, are similarly periods of
relatively small volume of trading.
This relationship can be more easily seen by placing the price
range and volume of trading for each month of the 5-year period on a
common base. (Fig. 4.) The mean of the monthly price ranges and
14 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
of the monthly vohimes of trading was calculated. Percentage
deviations from the mean for each month's price range and volume
of trading were then obtained and plotted. The closeness of the
relationship can be easily seen.
To further test out this relationship between volume of trading and
price, a correlation of daily figures was made. By using daily data,
the number of pairs of items is greatly increased, thereby increasing
the reliability of conclusions drawn. By resorting to correlation in
comparing the two series, an exact quantitative measure of their
interrelation is obtained. If the price and trading change in size
from day to day in perfect accord, the index or coefficient of correla-
tion measuring this relationship will be the maximum amount of
+ 1.0 (or if an inverse perfect relationship, — 1.0). If the two series
are entirely unrelated in size and direction of movement, then* co-
efficient of correlation will be 0.0.
0./^.^.i/.f/i.A/i.JUAS.O.N.P.>^./:M.Anj.J.AS.aA/.P.J.^M.AAJ.J.J.j^.S.aMliU/=M.A/-/.J.^^
/S^3 /S24- /&2S /02e /S27 /S23
Figure 4.— The interrelation of price fluctuations and volume of trading in corn futures for the 5-year
period October, 1923-September, 1923
Correlating the daily range in price (using the dominant future)
with the daily volume of trading (all futures combined) for the entire
5-year period of 1,507 trading days gave a direct correlation of
+ 0.73. Correlating the data by crop years, namely, from October
1 to September 30, for each of the five years gave the following
results :
Year: Correlation
1923-24 + 0.82
1924-25 +0. 70
1925-26 +0. 72
1926-27 +0.88
1927-28 +0.58
Finally by correlating the data by periods of large or small price
swings the following results were obtained :
Price movement: Correlation
Period of small price change, Oct. 1, 1923-Mav 31, 1924. + 0. 65
Period of large price change, June 1, 1924-Sept. 30, 192f _ + 0. 73
Period of small price change, Oct. 1, 1925-Apr. 30, 1927_+0. 71
Period of large price change, May 1, 1927-Sept. 30, 1928. + 0. 70
TEADING IN CORN FUTURES 16
The results of these correlations give a quantitative confirmation to
the statement that speculative activity is dependent upon price
activity. A correlation coefficient of +0.73 for the entire period
reveals a definite and significant positive relationship, though by no
means a perfect one. This is but another way of saying that increas-
ing price activity is usually accompanied by increasing trading ac-
tivity, but at times prices may move somewhat less or somewhat more
than trading.
Attention should also be called to the fact that limitations of the
price data preclude an ideal test due in part to the fact that the price
range of only one future is compared with the combined volume of
trading of all futures. Occasionally, also, the price range of an indi-
vidual day may be narrowed or widened by a momentary ^' bulge" or
''break" in price of little consequence in trading activity. Disre-
garding these minor limitations which serve to lower the result, the
degree of correlation indicates clearly the interrelationship.
When the comparison is made by crop years, substantially the same
results are obtained, though considerable variation occurs from year
to year. When compared by type of price movement to determine
whether the degree of relation of trading to price activity increases or
decreases as prices move from a period of small change to one of large
change, no substantial difference was found.
OPEN COMMITMENTS COMPARED WITH PRICE
While, in a general way, the open commitments tend to rise and fall
with the large price movements, they are by no means concurrent.
Thus the first large price movement reached an average high in Janu-
ary, 1925 while the average of open commitments was high in March,
1925. In March, 1927, and again in March, 1928, the average open
commitment figure reached a peak, but with no corresponding high
in price until several months later.
One reason for this lack of close relationship is to be found in the
fact that the open-commitment figures include a large amount of
hedges. It mil be shown later that hedges vary in size in direct
relation to the visible supply of corn and bear no necessary relation-
ship to price movements. They impart to the open commitments
curve of Figure 3 a distinct seasonal swing, rising to a high during
February, March, and April each year and falling off to a low during
July, August, September, and October. It is possible to average the
same months for the 5-year period and obtain a seasonal curve of
open commitments which when divided into the totals will leave a
curve with the seasonal element removed. This was done with the
result that the relation of open commitments to price was improved
but still not close. A period of five years is, however, hardly long
enough to obtain a representative seasonal curve.
In addition to the seasonal element of hedging, there is another
important factor affecting the open commitments and not always
to an equal and similar extent the price. This is the factor of specu-
lative activity. Information presented in earlier bulletins of the
Grain Futures Administration ^ has demonstrated the fact that price
is most closely associated with the market activity of leading specu-
lators. The extent to which this is true for corn futures will be
* Compare, for example: Duvel, J. W. T., and Hoffman, G. W., major transactions in the 1926
DECEMBER wheat FUTURE. U. S. Dcpt. AgT. Tech. Bul. 79, 62 p., illus. 1928.
16 TECHNICAL BULLETIiST 109, U. S. DEF1\ OF AGRICULTURE
demonstrated in a subsequent section. When the price does reflect
closely the changes in market position of a particular group of traders,
for certain periods it will move directly with the total of open commit-
ments and for other periods opposite to the total.
The reason for this is to be found in the nature of the trading of the
particular group of traders. If they are accumulating a long position,
Erice and the total of open commitments will likely move up together;
ut if they are short covering, the price will likely move up and the
total of open commitments down; similarly if they are liquidating a
long position, price and the total open commitments will decline;
but if they are short selUng, and the price declines, the total of open
commitments will probably increase. To make a comparison which
will give promise of bringing out the relationship, if any, between
price and open commitments, it will thus be necessary to divide the
fatter into groups or classes of traders. This will permit direct com-
parison of each group with the price and the elimination of those
groups which show no significant relation and the further analysis of
those which do. This is done in subsequent sections of this bulletin.
DELIVERIES AND DELIVERABLE SUPPLIES IN THEIR RELATION TO
PRICES
Some instructive information regarding the nature of corn futures
is to be found in the deliveries of corn made on futures contracts.
Every agreement to purchase or sell for future dehvery involves the
possibility of subsequent fulfillment by the transfer of actual grain.
While, in fact, very few contracts are so fulfilled, the right to do so
continues to the last day of the delivery month and this right frequently
affects strongly the course of futures prices and the actions of traders.
VOLUME OF DEUVERIES OF CORN AND OTHER GRAINS
The information regularly collected by the Grain Futures Adminis-
tration regarding deliveries consists of daily reports by each clearing
firm of the amount of each grain delivered or ''put out" through that
firm and the amount received or ''taken in " by it. Since the contracts
in grain futures are mainly for the four months of May, July, Septem-
ber, and December, deliveries data are limited mainly to these months.
Summary information for the Chicago Board of Trade covering a
period of four crop years, December, 1924-September, 1928, for the
four grains traded in, is presented in Table 7.
Table 7. — Deliveries of grain on futures contracts, Chicago Board of Trade, for
the four major futures, December, May, July, and September combined, by grains
and by crop years, 1924-25 to 1927-28
[In thousands of bushels; i. e., 000 omitted]
Crop year
Corn
Wheat
Oats
Rye
Total
1924^25 -
21,588
34,696
31,514
33,740
25,911
15,688
30,994
38, 727
25,746
20,788
21,906
11, 161
20,318
8,838
10, 459
3,822
93,563
1925-26-_ --
80,010
1926-27 -
94,873
1927-28 - -
87, 450
Total
121, 538
111,320
79,601
43, 437
355,896
TRADING IN CORN FUTURES
17
Corn leads in volume of deliveries, which is in keeping with the size
of the crop and receipts on the Chicago market, though, to be in the
same proportion to receipts of wheat, deliveries of com should be
much larger.
Table 8 presents the volume of deliveries in com by futures for the
same 4-year period.
Table 8. — Deliveries of corn on futures contracts, Chicago Board of Trade, hy futures
for four crop years, 1924-25 to 1927-28
[In thousands of bushels; i. e., 000 omitted]
Corn future
Crop year
Decem-
ber
May
July
Septem-
Total
1924-25
2,210
8,749
3,241
11,306
6,397
9,882
11,018
6,647
7,590
10,646
7,586
12,863
5,391
5,419
9,669
2,924
21,588
1925-26
34, 696
1926-27
31, 514
1927-28 _
33, 740
Total
25,506
33, 944
38, 685
23,403
121, 538
July ranks first in importance in deliveries, with the May future
second. Considerable variation is shown between individual futures
and from one crop year to another.
The delivery figures given in Tables 7 and 8 consist of the volume
of warehouse receipts passing from sellers to buyers in fulfillment of
contracts during delivery months. They do not represent accurately
net amounts of grain handled through this channel for the reason that
the same warehouse receipt frequently passes through several hands
during a delivery month. This increases the volume of deliveries,
while the quantity of actual grain involved remains the same. Seven
futures have been studied in this connection^ and they indicate that
the actual grain involved is approximately one-third of the deliveries
made by warehouse receipt.
VOLUME OF DEUVERIES OF CORN COMPARED TO VOLUME OF FUTURE TRADING
It is of general interest to compare the deliveries of com with the
volume of trading in corn futures for this 4-year period. By dividing
the deliveries of a particular future, by the total volume of trading
during the life of that future the proportion of purchases or sales
which are fulfilled by the transfer of actual grain is obtained. For
the entire 4-year period of 16 futures deliveries amounted to slightly
less than 0.5 per cent of the volume of trading. For any one future,
the maximum ratio for the period occurred in the 1926 July future,
being 1.73 per cent; and the minimum ratio of 0.14 per cent occurred
in the 1924 December future.
The above comparison between the volume of trading and dehver-
ies shows clearly that purchases and sales of corn futures are not made
for the purpose of merchandising com. In fact, were the actual
amount of com used, instead of deliveries, compared with the volume
« See the following publication: United States Department of Agriculture, yearbook of agri-
culture, 1927:788.
116329°— 30 2
18 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
of trading, the percentages given would be still smaller. On the basis
of actual grain used, the figure of 0.5 per cent would be reduced to
0.17 per cent.
While these results show that only a negligible fraction of futures
contracts ultimately mature in the actual handling of grain, it should
not be implied from this fact that the remainder of the trading is of
no value. The usefulness of hedging, for example, is well established,
but very seldom is delivery involved in this practice. It is desired to
emphasize only one point here, viz, that trading in grain futures is
not simply the buying and selling of grain to be delivered in the
future; rather, trading in grain and trading in grain futures are two
distinct processes, a fact not always clearly recognized.
VARIATIONS IN THE VOLUME OF DEUVERIES WITHIN THE DEUVERY MONTH
If the deliveries on the first trading day of each delivery month for
a considerable number of futures be added together, and likewise the
deliveries of the second trading day, and so on to the last delivery-
day, an index showing the relative importance of each delivery day
will be obtained. This was done for the 16 com futures shown in
Table 8. When reduced to a percentage basis it was found that 23.2
per cent of all deliveries for this 4-year period were made on the first
trading day of the month; 8.6 per cent were made on the second trad-
ing day; 4.8 per cent on the third; and 13.9 per cent on the last
trading day. On no other single trading day was the proportion as
much as 4 per cent. On these four days, the first three and the last
trading day, over 50 per cent of all com deliveries were made.
The seller of a future has the right to elect the particular day during
the delivery month upon which he will deliver. The facts just recited
suggest that the seller may have one of two motives. The seller
who delivers upon one of the first three trading days is attempting
to pass along grain already acquired and against which storage charges
continue to accumulate. The seller who selects the last delivery day
faces an entirely different situation. Here he has likely been, until
the last days of the delivery month, a short seller hoping prices will
break so that he may acquire his supplies at a lower level. To this
end he remains short until forced at the end of the month to fulfill
his contract at which time the price may rise reflecting a squeeze of
the shorts, or if supplies are ample they may break letting the short
seller out with a profit.
Deliveries are thus closely tied up with future prices. As a delivery
approaches, traders shift to a more distant future, the market for the
current future becomes increasingly narrow, buyers and sellers are
faced with the possibility and ultimate necessity of taking or making
delivery, and the proportion of contracts standing open to the avail-
able supply of actual grain is continually being weighed and reflected
in the price of the near-by future.
RELATIVE PRICE CHANGES RESULTING FROM THE DEUVERY SITUATION
The extent to which the near-by or current future price is affected
by the delivery situation can be measured by noting the relative
changes in prices between the near-by and a more distant future.
Both futures will reflect the fundamental factors substantially alike.
But delivery factors affecting the current future will not equally
TRADING IN CORN FUTURES
19
affect the more distant future and thus the margin of price difference
between the two will widen or narrow accordingly.
In Figure 5 the relative price changes between the near-by and the
next succeeding future have been plotted for 15 major futures for the
5-year period, October, 1923-September, 1928. Similar futures for
the period have been grouped together. Four days were selected for
comparison, viz, one month and one day before the first delivery day,
one day before the first delivery day, the 15 or mid-point of the de-
livery month, and the last delivery day. Closing prices were used
and the price differences recorded as a plus ( + ) when the current
future was above the more distant, and as a minus ( — ) when below.
To be complete, the September future should also be included, but
it could only be compared with the new crop — December future —
which is influenced by
a fundamentally dif-
ferent supply situation
and hence the price dif-
ferences would fail to
reflect conditions of de-
livery alone. The Sep-
tember-December com-
parison has accordingly
been omitted.
For the three com-
binations of futures,
the normal relationship
should be one in which
the near-by future is
below the more distant
future by an amount
reflecting a carrying
charge. The extent to
which this normal situ-
ation prevailed for each
future for the 5-year
period can be easily seen
in Figure 5. In 13 out
of the 15 comparisons,
the current future was
lower in price than the next succeeding future, though for 2 of the 13
this was not true for the entire period. The two exceptions were
the 1924 July and the 1928 July. For each of these comparisons,
the near-by future was higher in price and is shown accordingly
on the chart in the plus area. The explanation for the 1924 July is
to be found in the small available supply of corn for delivery. The
explanation of the 1928 July is to be found in part in the small supply,
but in part also in the unusually large holdings of July futures by
three leading speculators during this period, causing this future to
rise rapidly in comparison with the more distant September future.
The direction in which each curve moves in Figure 5 is also of
significance. The arrival of each delivery period for each successive
future is the signal for a battle between the longs and the shorts.
The conflict is not one to obtain grain to merchandise but rather one
for price advantage. For the most part, the longs do not want ulti-
J/ JO /S J/
rtj4y j(//ff Mir je/ir
J/ Ji/ /s 3/
Figure 5.— Changes in the current future price relative to the next
succeeding future for specified dates approaching the delivery
month, for three corn futures, for five years
20 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
mately to accept delivery of grain nor do the shorts want ultimately
to deliver grain. Rather, each side is interested in forcing the other
to start to close out their contracts first. If, for example, the longs
in the early part of the delivery month fear delivery by the shorts and
accordingly commence selling out their interest, in taking the initia-
tive, their bargaining position is weakened and the current future is
likely to decline relative to the more distant futures.
The extent to which the long interest or the short interest had the
advantage for the period covered for each future is clearly brought
out in Figure 5. To a striking degree, the current future declined
relative to the next succeeding one during the month preceding deliv-
ery and rose from the 1st to the 15th of the delivery month. From
the 15th to the close of the delivery month, the price rose in 10 out of
the 15 cases.
The downward movement during the month preceding delivery is
occasioned by the switching of long accounts to a more distant future
prior to delivery. This shifting takes the form of selling the current
future and buying a succeeding one, generally accomplished by a
single order placed at a fixed difference, a procedure causing the price
of the former future to decline relative to the latter. That the initia-
tive is here taken by the long interest is occasioned by the fact that
the seller has the option of choosing the day during the delivery
month on which he will deliver. There is, therefore, no urgent reason
for the shorts to close out their position prior to the first day of
delivery.
The cause of an upward movement during the delivery month is
the fear on the part of the short interests that they can not obtain
grain to meet their contracts. It should be borne in mind that during
a delivery month the volume of open commitments in the current
future has declined to comparatively small proportions. Hedging
accounts and the more fundamental, long-run speculative accounts
have been shifted to more distant futures. There remains a group of
longs, frequently identified with elevator interests, who are in a posi-
tion to benefit by any increase in the price of the current future during
the delivery month, and a group of shorts who continue short fre-
quently until the last trading day in the hope that supplies will in-
crease, the longs liquidate, and the price decline to their advantage.
If the cases of Figure 5 are typical, this seems to be a vain hope
usually.
DELIVERABLE SUPPUES COMPARED TO PRICE
The supply of grain available for delivery on futures contracts is
thus the heart of the delivery problem. If the supply is small or
closely held, a squeeze with an accompanying run-up in the current
future price will develop; if ample, this price derangement will not
likely occur. Figure 6 illustrates the degree of relationship between
deliverable supplies of corn and the current corn-future price. The
supply curve represents the deviations from the 5-year average of the
supply of com in private and public elevators in Chicago on the 15th
(or the nearest Saturday to the 15th) of the delivery month. Siini-
larly, for the price, the deviations from the 5-year average of price
differences between the current and next succeeding future on the
15th of the delivery month were plotted. The deviations of the five
December futures, to five May futures and the five July futures for
the period, October, 1923-September, 1928, are shown.
TRADING IN CORN FUTURES
21
The extent of the inverse relationship can be easily seen. The
futures of 1923 December, 1924 May, 1924 July, and 1928 July clearly
stand out as periods of small supply and high relative price, while the
1926 December, 1926 and 1927 May, and 1926 and 1927 July show
relatively large supplies with prices correspondingly below the average.
Dehveries of corn and variations in deliveries were also plotted to
note the extent to which they were related to either the supply or
the price or both. The results obtained were negative, no consistent
relationship being shown in either case. The reason for this is to be
found in the fact that deliveries are used largely as a means of clear-
ing contracts and in some years of small supply a large volume of
deliveries was made, trading being stimulated by the uncertainty in
the market situation.
The problem of adequate means to fulfill open contracts is as old
as futures trading. In its extreme form, it is the problem of pre-
venting market corners. The cause is inadequate deliverable sup-
*/o
A
1
%'
/ \
.''
A
\ ' \ /
\
1
\ /
\
\
f \
\ 1
\
\ /
\l
«
\
1 \
\ 1
\
J
\
1 t
\ 1
\
\ '
J
\
1 »
1
f
\/
\ ^
A
4 ^
x*
y'
\ /
/\
1
I^N^
— "^/e/^sf
\ 1
/ \
/ ' ~p/e/c£
^£y/Ar/o/^
/
i.
/
P£y//ir/OAis
/
. /
' \
.' \
/
/ si/z'/'/.r
y' \
/
si/^PLr
1 OfM'/y^T/O/^S
^ S//PPIY \
^^ £'^/ir£
£>£y/>ir/o/^
1
I
1
e£yii/iT/0A/s ^""^
£>£^//ir/my
,/9Z3 /SZ^
/92S /S2ff /S27^
/s^-^ /J2S /^^<?-
/azr ASt^s,
J92^ /S2S /S2S
/S27 /S28,
Figure 6.— The relationship between the supply of corn in public and private store in Chicago on the
15th of the delivery month and the current corn futures price, for three futures, for five years
plies and the effect is uncertainty of price movements with frequent
derangements in price. To meet this problem several means have
been adopted by grain futures exchanges. They include usually
seller's option of day of delivery and of the grade of grain within
certain limits, a multigrade contract, rules prohibiting comers and
price manipulation, and permitting track deliveries during the last
few days of the delivery month and in an emergency on any delivery
date.
It is believed by the Grain Futures Administration that this situ-
ation would be further improved by a rule on the part of the exchanges
prohibiting trading in the current future beyond the 15th or 20th of
the delivery month and allowing the remaining 10 or 15 days for the
sellers to provide, if they have not already done so, the necessary-
supplies to meet their contracts. Such a rule would at once elimi-
nate the chief trouble under the present plan: the continual hope on
the part of the short interest that the price will break, a hope that
frequently continues to the last minute of the last trading day of the
dehvery month.
22 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
TRANSACTIONS OF SPECIAL GROUPS OF TRADERS IN THEIR
RELATION TO PRICES
Thus far the analysis of trading in com futures has been limited to
four fundamental phases of the subject: (1) The importance of fu-
ture trading in corn, (2) annual supplies of corn in the United States
in their relation to corn prices, (3) the total volume of trading and
total open commitments in corn futures compared to future prices,
and (4) deliveries and deliverable supplies compared to prices. Con-
sideration has thus been given to trading factors having a general
effect upon the market as a whole. It is now in place to consider, in
some detail, particular groups of traders and trading methods in their
relation to corn prices. For this purpose the information regarding
individual traders and firms regularly collected by the Grain Futures
Administration will be used. The data relate to trading activities
on the Chicago Board of Trade and for this study include the 4-year
period October 1, 1924-September 30, 1928.
DESCRIPTION OF SPECIAL ACCOUNTS
Mention has already been made of the fact that each clearing firm
of the board reports daily, by grains and by futures, its total volume
of trading and the aggregate of its long and of its short accounts as
of the close of trading. In addition, clearing firms are required to
report daily the separate market positions of each of their largest
accounts. For this purpose the regulations provide with respect to
wheat, corn, and oats that every account having a net position in any
one future of 500,000 bushels or over must be reported for each day
the particular grain and future equaled or exceeded that amount.
For rye this limit is 200,000 bushels.
Accoimts covered by these latter reports are known as special
accounts. Necessarily they include only the records of the largest
traders or trading interests. The requirements being general, they
include, also, several types of accounts, viz, speculative, hedging,
commission house, and spreading. These can be grouped to obtain
totals for each type of large-scale trading interest. Such a grouping
has been carried out for corn in the present study for the two impor-
tant groups of speculative accounts and hedging accounts. No
attempt has been made to compile a group of spreading accounts as
the number of accounts of this size is too few. Nor was any analysis
made of the group of commission-house accounts since they include
very diverse trading interests and frequently combine traders of large
and small size and as a result, unless selected with extreme care, the
sample obtained is not typical of any trading interest.
For the two groups selected — speculative and hedging— all of the
accounts of 500,000 bushels or over which could be definitely identi-
fied with one of these two classes were included. In some cases, the
account appeared above the half-million-bushel limit for only a few
days; in other cases it continued for many months.
For the 4-year period covered, October 1, 1924-September 30, 1928,
there were in all 95 special accounts which were speculative in char-
acter. These 95 accounts did not, however, represent as many dilfer-
ent individual speculators. In some cases a trader carried an account
with two or more different firms at the same time; in other instances
traders changed houses, thus adding another account to the record
TRADING IN CORN FUTURES 23
but not another trader. Identifying these accounts with the trader,
it was found that tliere were in all 69 in this speculative group. Of
these 69, 63 represented individual traders and 6 trading companies
or speculative firm accounts. It is probable, however, that some of
those apparently trading as individuals had others financially asso-
ciated with them.
In the hedging group there were in all 67 accounts reaching the
500,000-bushel level during the entire 4-year period. These were
identified, however, with not more than 40 different interests, all of
which might be classified as company or firm accounts. Like the
speculative records, they were of a wide variety in size and continuity
though as a rule they displayed, as might be expected, much greater
stability of market position.
SMALL AND MEDIUM SIZED SPECULATIVE TRADERS
To obtain additional representation of trading activity in corn
futures, a group of records typifying the trading of small or medium
sized speculators was compiled. The data for this type of trader
were derived from a selected list of clearing firms of the Chicago Board
of Trade. Fifteen firms were chosen for the purpose, none of whom
was known to handle any large volume of hedging trades nor any of
the large speculative accounts comprising the group described in the
previous section. Each of these firms handles a commission business
of speculative traders of moderate or small size. Their clientele
typify what is popularly known as the ''general public.'' A com-
bined aggregate of the long accounts, a combined aggregate of the
short accounts, and a combined net position of the customers of these
15 clearing firms was compiled, by days, covering the same 4-year
period as that included in the compilation of hedging and speculative
accounts.
THE MARKET POSITION OF THREE GROUPS OF TRADERS, BY WEEKS
Figure 7 presents the net position of each of the three groups of
traders just described. Market positions as of the close of trading
each Monday were used. These were compared with a composite
price of successive corn futures open during this period, the future
used, and the period during which it was used, being in each instance
the one whose open commitments were largest. The data for this
chart are to be found in the Appendix, Table 12.
Some general observations can be made from Figure 7 preliminary
to a more detailed comparison of these three groups with price shown
in Figure 9. The general location of the curves of the three trading
groups is of significance. The hedging group was predomin^tly on the
short side of the market, and, with only minor exceptions, this was true
throughout the entire 4-year period. This is a fact to be expected
from the nature of hedging practice since actual holdings of corn in
store generally exceed forward orders for corn.
The market positions of each of the other two groups were, in
contrast, generally long. This was especially true of the 15 clearing
firms representing the market position of the small and medium sized
trader and conforms to the popular belief that the so-called general
public is characteristically bullish in temperament. The group of
large speculators, while long most of the 4-year period, was occa-
24 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
sionally short, though not to any marked extent, with the exception of
August and September, 1928. These large-scale traders are the mar-
ket leaders and include those referred to usually as professional specu-
lators. The belief is frequently expressed that as a rule this group
takes the short side of the market. This, however, was not the case
during this 4-year period for corn.
The large speculators taken as a group did not build up a market
position of any size until the early part of 1927. Considerable market
interest was shown from the fall of 1924 to the spring of 1925 but this
gradually diminished and throughout the greater part of 1925 and all
of 1926 few large traders were in the market. Beginning in January,
1927, several leading traders built up long lines principally in the 1927
May and the 1927 July futures and these were not liquidated, as
J >t J- o /v
Figure 7.— The combined net position of three groups of traders compared with the average closing
price, by weeks, for corn futures, for the period October, 1924-September, 1928
Figure 7 shows, until the end of September of that year. Again in
January, 1928, in the main this same group of traders assumed a long
position which was not liquidated until the close of the 1928 July
future. These were the only outstanding positions taken by this
group of leading speculators.
A pronounced seasonal movement is revealed in the hedging group,
this group being on the short side of the market during almost all
of this 4-year period. Each year the curve swings downward to a
maximum short position during the winter and spring months and
upward again as the late summer and fall is approached. The size of
the hedging position varies considerably from year to year, being
somewhat smaller during the first crop year and unusually large
during the third. The cause for these variations in hedging position
TRADING IN CORN FUTURES
25
is to be found mainly in the changes continually occurring in the
visible supply of corn. This fact is clearly brought out in Figure 8.
Here the visible supply of corn as reported to the Chicago Board
of Trade each Saturday is plotted to the same scale and for the same
dates with the net position of the hedging group. Both in movement
and size from year to year, the two series move inversely. The larger
the visible supply, being a position on the long side of the market,
the larger the short sales as hedges; and conversely, as the visible
decreases toward the end of each crop year, the short hedges are
removed by buying back the futures.
»^^lllllMliri*rll<MiilMriliM*iii<.ijiliiiiliMliliiiifciMAiiJii.jl.iliiliiii>iiilliiliMiitiiilliii>MlhiiiliiiMtiiilMillni>inBjiHiiitr riiiiliii.liiiitiiiitiiiliiiAi,iiliiitiii<iiiitiiiliii*i,iliiiliir
^O A/P ^J F M j^ M (/ (J /I S O /if P.i/ /= Af^ M U l/ » S O // O^O F M y^ Af U J y!l S O Af £>, </ ^ Af /I Af i/ J ^ S,
yS^^ TsSS- 7^26 7327- ^9^ '
Figure 8.— The United States visible supply of corn compared with the combined net position of
67 large hedging accounts, by weeks, for the period October, 1924-September, 1928
Figure 8 also indicates, in a measure at least, the importance, rela-
tive to the entire body of hedges in corn futures, of these leading
accounts. They constitute, for the 4-year period, 58 per cent of the
visible supply. This is nothing more than a rough approximation,
however, since not all of the supply usually hedged is to be found in
the visible and not all of the hedging is included in the accounts
above the limit of 500,000 bushels. The figure is suggestive of the
importance of the large hedging accounts as well as of the proportion
of the visible supply of corn usually hedged. For the crop year,
1924-25, the proportion was 42 per cent; for 1925-26, 53 per cent;
for 1926-27, 81 per cent; and for 1927-28, 43 per cent.
26 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE
THE MARKET POSITION OF THREE GROUPS OF TRADERS COMPARED TO PRICES,
BY DAYS
Figures 9, 10, 11, and 12 make a more detailed comparison of the
three groups of traders just described with the course of futures
prices. They are divided by crop years with each year ending Sep-
tember 30, and present daily figures for the 4-year period, October
1, 1924-September 30, 1928. Aside from the fact that daily data
are shown, they differ from Figure 7 in one particular. Instead of
including new crop future positions with the totals for the three
groups during each spring and summer, these were removed, thus
4 ^^TtMihiriihmliiiiiliiiiiNiMliiiilmijiiiilniiiliiiiiliiMHmil^^ I...iI.ii.iI,,i..i„.mI I , X....|.,„.l I,.,, i.m.l,. .,!,., ..l,,..,!,,,
i^J.^ ^27^^/0 //Z* / S xS^ZZS//3 /y X i SAgJV!^ g /SJJ 3/^6 /J 29 77 4 // a 2S /, 8 /S J^ JS ,f /3 iO ^/ ^ /O /7Jif J/^a /4^/ ^J,
ocros£/z, /K?>25K«5e^ Z^e/L 7i!r? <ym£ .jmy^ ^i/ffu^r s£fv^£Meie
/S^'^ /S2S
Figure 9, — The combined net position of three groups of traders compared with the average clos-
ing price, for corn futures, for the period October 1, 1924-September 30, 1925
separating the futures positions of each crop. Similarly for the
price, the old-crop September future was continued through Septem-
ber 30 instead of introducing the new crop December. By making
this change, the futures, both in market position and price, represent
one crop only for each year.
The four years shown in Figures 9-12 differ widely in market
positions and price. For the crop year 1924-25, while the price of
corn futures reached unusually high levels, the combined net posi-
tions of both the large-scale speculative group and the small specu-
lative traders represented by the 15 clearing firms were comparatively
small. The reason for this lack of pronounced speculative interest
TRADING IN CORN FUTURES 27
was apparently the unusual trading and erratic price movements
during the year in wheat futures. Trading interest being centered
in wheat, prices were bid up to a maximum of $2.05% for the May
futiu-e on January 28. Corn prices, moving in sympathy, rose to a
maximum of $1.37% for the May future on February 4, 1925. With
reference to the combined position of the hedging group, it will be
seen that no relation to price or to the other trading interests is
shown.
The crop year 1925-26 is characterized by a low and declining
price level with little speculative interest. The hedging group shows
the usual seasonal swing in short position. What relation is shown
<^/22ase z^^MoEe ffci/f3£/i MMwter /"fg/iu^iir ma^cm ^»e/i "^^ ju^f ^M? yn/^t/sr jsf/vKwftEC
/szs /S2e
FiGUBE 10. —The combined net position of three groups of traders compared with the average clos-
ing price, by days, for corn futures, for the period October 1, 1925-September 30, 1926
between the other two classes of traders is inverse in character, the
market position of one group increasing as the other decreases and
later the former decreasing as the latter increases. This inverse
relationship, however, is not pronounced.
In contrast with the two previous years, the crop year 1926-27
shows a large net position by the speculative group and during the
latter half of the crop year a definite relation to price. Led by a
group of four leading longs, a combined net market position of
37,923,000 bushels was reached on August 8, 1927, with the price of
September corn closing at $1.13^^, the latter also being the highest
closing price during the life of the 1927 September future.
For this crop year, the combined position of the small speculator
group again moved inversely to the position of the leading speculators
28 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, U. S. DEFP. OF AGRICULTURE
and likewise to price, their position increasing as the price declined
and decreasing as the price advanced. The hedging group is again
characterized by a pronounced seasonal swing showing little relation
to price.
ffcrc>ff£/i wysnsf^ i>fc£/is£g Uj^wajw f£g£wijey i*f^ec» «*%z M^iy ^/c/ve ut/ir yi(/&c/ST sff^fMse/i
Figure 11. — The combined net position of three groups of traders compared with the average closing
price, by days, for corn futures, for the period October 1, 1926-September 30, 1927
The crop year 1927-28 again shows the large-scale speculators in
the market and to fairly large proportions. Their combined trading
relached a maximum long position on February 23 of 21,390,000
bushels and a secondary high of 19,035,000 bushels on May 14.
During July the combined position of this group declined, shifting
TRADING IN CORN FUTURES
29
to the short side of the market and reaching a maximum short posi-
tion of 10,555,000 bushels on August 22. These changes in the mar-
ket position of this group are reflected in the course of futures prices
for the year and reveal, as in the year previous, a direct relationship.
The course of the market position of the small speculative traders
was again inverse to that of the large speculators and to the price,
while the hedging group shows the same pronounced short position.
THE IMPORTANCE OF OUTSTANDING SPECULATIVE ACCOUNTS
An examination of the individual records comprising the group of
large speculative accounts reveals the fact that trading activity
•//.^o
,airroaf^ /vo^^s^e ^fcf/faf/e u/9//e//f/er f£SXM£r Af/^^c/* ^,^/z /k^k tja/vf </</zr ^t/oc/sr ss/'ritMOfie
Figure 12.— The combined net position of three groups of traders compared with the average closing
price, by days, for corn futures, for the period October 1, 1927-September 30, 1928
usually centers around a very few leaders. These few give character
to the combined position of all due to the unusual proportions of their
position while in the market. These leaders, however, vary somewhat
from time to time. Some are leaving the market, at least as large
traders, as others are entering or re-entering; for certain periods,
several are in the market at the same time, and for other periods, the
market is devoid of speculative leadership. In this section some con-
sideration will be given to these outstanding speculators and, in
particular, for those periods during which their market position was
unusually large,
30 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
STANDARDS USED
For this purpose, standards are necessary to determine what
accounts to include and for what periods. It was decided first of all
that where a trader had more than one account open at the same time
these should be combined. Also, all futures were combined for each
trader. Having then a single record for each large speculator, those were
selected for further analysis whose market position equaled or exceeded
on any day 2,000,000 bushels. The 2,0q0,000-bushel level was
selected partly because it proved to be a dividing point at which the
outstanding positions would be included, while at the same time
omitting the other large but less important accounts. In part, this
level was selected because of its use in earlier studies in wheat futures
in which it was found to be a significant point.
Having selected the 2,000,000-bushel-or-over traders, the next
problem was what portion or portions of their individual records to
use. A trader might have built up, for example, a line to a limit
exceeding 2,000,000 bushels during August, 1925, Hquidated it during
September, 1925, and for the remainder of the 4-year period never
have entered the market again to any considerable amount. In such
a case (and this frequently occurred), it seemed advisable to include
only that portion of his record during which the 2,000,000-bushel
line was being built up and being liquidated whether on the long side
or the short side of the market. This plan was accordingly adopted.
In Table 13 of the appendix are to be found the market positions
of these leading traders for the periods selected. These periods include
each day during which a trader was building up or short selling a line
of 2,000,000 bushels from the day his position equaled or exceeded
500,000 bushels; and they include each day during which this trader
was liquidating or short covering this 2,000,000-bushel-or-over line
to the day it fell below 500,000 bushels. It includes, therefore, the
outstanding speculative lines in corn futures for the 4-year period,
October 1, 1924-September 30, 1928.
LEADING SPECULATIVE LINES
It was pointed out in a previous section that there were 69 specu-
lators, who, at some time during this 4-year period, had attained a
market position of 500,000 bushels or more in corn futures. Seven-
teen of these sixty-nine reached the 2,000,000-or-over limit. These
traders are designated in Table 13 by the letters A, B, C, etc. It will
be observed that only five of them accumulated large lines during the
first two of the four crop years. The other 12, as well as 4 of the 5
just mentioned, accumulated large lines during the last two years.
These 17 largest traders accumulated and later liquidated, in all,
48 lines of 2,000,000 bushels or more during this period, the average
number of calendar days each line was open being 84. These facts
are summarized in Table 9.
TEADING IN CORN FUTURES
31
Table 9. — Periods during which speculative lines of 2,000,000 bushels or over were
accumulated and liquidated, together with the date and amount of maximum
position, from October 1, 1924, to September SO, 1928
Trader
Period in market '
Maximum position in market
Date
Amount (1,000
bushels)
Calendar
days in
market »
A..
B-.
C.
C.
D..
C.
A..
C.
D..
E..
D.
D.
C.
F..
G.
D.
H.
D.
D.
F..
I.-
J--
K.
L.
M.
M.
A.
C.
C.
C.
B.
D.
F.
D.
N.
N.
H-
?.:
Q-
Q.
D.
I..
M.
P.
D.
O.
D.
Oct. 1-Dec. 19, 1924
Oct. 1, 1924-Jan. 28, 1925....
Nov. 12-Dec. 20, 1924
Jan. 12-Jan. 24, 1925
Jan. 14-Jan. 22, 1925
Feb. 2-Mar. 12, 1925
June 16-Sept. 15, 1925
Aug. 13-Sept. 14, 1925
Sept. 3-Sept. 22, 1925..
Oct. 6-Dec. 8, 1925
Nov. 13-Nov. 25, 1925
Jan. 15- June 9, 1926
Feb. 10-Mar. 4, 1926
Apr. 14-June 14, 1926
June 30, 192&-Sept. 27, 1927.
July 15-July 27, 1926
Oct. 29, 1926-Mar. 18, 1927..
Nov. 17-Dec. 27, 1926
Dec. 29, 1926-May 26, 1927.
Dec. 22, 1926-Sept. 23, 1927.
Jan. 4-July 5, 1927 ..
Feb. 18-Oct. 11, 1927
Apr. 30-Sept. 2, 1927.
May 14-Sept. 12, 1927
May 4-June 9, 1927
June 13- July 15, 1927
July 21-Aug. 27, 1927
July 25-Aug. 13, 1927
Aug. 29-Sept. 3, 1927
Sept. 7-Sept. 15, 1927
Aug. 5-Aug. 18, 1927
Sept. 14-Sept. 23, 1927
Sept. 26-Oct. 3, 1927
Oct. 13-Nov. 12, 1927
Nov. 1, 1927-Feb. 7, 1928...
Feb. 23-Mar. 15, 1928
Jan. 17-Sept. 19, 1928
Jan. 10-Mar. 21, 1928..
Jan. 10-July 30, 1928...
Feb. 16-Aug. 10, 1928
Aug. 11-Sept. 19, 1928
Feb. 2-Mar. 17, 1928
Feb. 6-June 14, 1928..
Feb. 8-Feb. 28, 1928
Mar. 28-May 16, 1928
Apr. 1&-May 12, 1928
May 22-Sept. 19, 1928
June 14-Sept. 26, 1928
Dec. 10-16, 1924
Oct. 22-23, 1924
Dec. 11, 1924
Jan. 20, 1925
Jan. 19, 1925
Feb. 16, 1925
Aug. 19, 1925
Aug. 26-Sept. 12, 1925
Sept. 5, 1925
Oct. 8-27, 1925
Nov. 23, 1925
Apr. 23-28, 1926
Mar. 1, 1926
Apr. 2^June 11, 1926.
July 29-30, 1927
July 20, 1926
Feb. 11-21, 1927
Dec. 14, 1926
Apr. 28-May 3, 1927..
May 26, 1927
May 25-26, 1927
June 28, 1927
June 9, 1927
Aug. 29-30, 1927
June 3-9, 1927
July 6, 1927
Aug. 26-27, 1927
Aug. 8-10, 1927
Sept. 3, 1927
Sept. 15, 1927
Aug. 10, 1927
Sept. 19, 1927
Sept. 28, 1927
Oct. 25, 1927
Jan. 27-28, 1928
Mar. 13-15, 1928
July 11, 1928
Mar. 9, 1928....
May 18-June 30, 1928.
July 7-11, 1928-
Aug. 13-20, 1928
Mar. 15, 1928
Mar. 19-Apr. 14, 1928.
Feb. 23-27, 1928
May 2, 1928
May 3-4, 1928
Aug. 23, 1928
Aug. 10, 1928
Long 2,785..
Short 2,500.
Long 3,260-
Long 3,765..
Long 2,650.
Long 2,350-.
Long 2,800..
Short 2,000.
Long 3,780..
Short 2,250.
Short 2,050.
Short 3,445.
Short 4,055.
Long 2,810..
Long 8,530..
Long 2,400-,
Long 2,705.
Long 3,800-.
Short 6,150.
Long 10,405
Long 3,200-
Long 2,305.
Long 2,060..
Long 2,400-
Long 3,600.
Long 2,850-
Long 2,700-
Long 2,700-
Short 2,100.
Long 2,700.
Long 2,250-
Long 2,585-
Short 2,780-
Long 2,910.
Short 3,070.
Short 2,045.
Long 7,730-
Long 3,300-
Long 3,400.
Long 5,465.
Short 2,000.
Long 4,520.
Long 3,500.
Long 2,000.
Long 2,060.
Short 2,610.
Short 6,005.
Short 4,680.
Number
79
119
38
12
8
38
91
32
19
63
12
145
22
61
454
12
140
40
148
275
182
235
125
121
36
32
37
19
6
8
13
9
7
30
98
21
246
71
202
176
39
44
129
20
49
24
120
104
Number of traders, 1'
* Number of periods, 48.
' Average number of days, 84.
In Table 9 are shown the date of entry and the date of disappear-
ance of each Hne built up by the 17 leading traders. There is also
shown the date and amount of maximum position for each individual
line and the total number of calendar days each line was in the market
above the minimum hmit of 500,000 bushels. Fifteen of the forty-
eight lines were less than a month in duration. Eighteen were over
three months in length, six over six months, and one ran for a period
of over a year.
Considered by traders, it will be observed that trader D accounted
for the greatest number of lines for the period, being 12 in all. Trader
G, however, with only three lines, was in the market for the longest
period of time, the total being 669 days. Trader F accumulated the
largest line for the period, reaching a maximum long position of
32 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE
10,405,000 bushels on May 26, 1927. Of the 48 Hnes of the period,
33 were long and 15 short, a fact of considerable significance with
reference to the course of prices during the crop years 1926-27 and
1927-28. Thus for one period of over a year, March 5, 1926-August
27, 1927, only one leading short account was in the market and for
portions of this period all of the accounts in the market were long.
As a rule a greater amount of time was involved in coming into the
market than in getting out. Thus the average numl;)er of days used
in building up a line was 55, while the average period of liquidation
or short covering was 24, being somewhat less than half. This pro-
portion is in line with that found in a similar comparison for wheat
futures where it was suggested that in accumulating a position the
need of secrecy is much less than in liquidating, and hence less cause
to act quickly. In fact, it is frequently desirable to maintain a cer-
tain amount of publicity in accumulating a line for the purpose of
creating a following which will later aid in supporting the market
when liquidation is decided upon.
COMBINED POSITION OF LEADING SPECULATIVE UNES
In Table 13 these leading lines are brought together at the right
into a combined position for the group. By doing this the net effect
of their trading activity was obtained. Thus at the close of trading
for a particular date, if two of the traders were long 1,000,000 bushels
each, while another was short 1,200,000 bushels, their combined net
position would be long 800,000 bushels; and it may reasonably be
assumed that this 800,000 figure more nearly represents the market
position of these leading speculators than does the separate accoimt
of any one.
During the first two years of the 4-year period included in Table 13
there were very few individual large accounts and for this reason the
combined position is of little more significance than that of the indi-
vidual records composing it. The maximum position reached at any
time during this period was 6,960,000 bushels, while for considerable
periods of time none of the accounts appeared in the market.
During the last two years, however, these leading fines assumed
unusual importance. Their combined market position during the crop
year 1926-27 at one point amounted to over 26,000,000 bushels and
during 1927-28 to over 19,000,000 bushels. Both of these positions
were on the long side of the market, the first being reached in the
months of May, June, and July, 1927, and the second in May, 1928.
The relative importance of these large lines for this 2-year period is
shown in Figure 13. Here the combined net position of the leading
lines is compared by weeks with the combined net position of the
entire speculative group and with the futures price. It will be seen
at once that these large lines, composed of the operations of 16 traders,
constituted practically the entire position of the large-scale speculative
group. In fact, at certain points the position of the smaller group
exceeded that of the entire group, due to the fact that the remainder
of the larger group was on the opposite side of the market at these
points.
When compared with corn-futures prices during this period; the
results reveal that the combined position of the smaUer group corre-
lates quite as closely with the course of prices as does the entire group.
Both show a high degree of positive relationship with price, increasing
TRADING IN CORN FUTURES
33
in position as the price rises and decreasing as the price falls. The
degree of correspondence is not, however, perfect. Thus between
early December, 1926, and the early part of May, 1927, the long
position of the leading lines, as well as the entire speculative group,
was increased several million bushels during which time prices grad-
ually sagged. Other minor swings in net position, such as the
period during March and early April, 1928, do not find their counter-
part in price movements. On the whole, however, the degree of
correspondence is marked and in sharp contrast to the preceding 2-
3^ear period during which the speculative operations of these leading
^jlZ?
— - — " - — v£ juir ytc/g^. s^/T OCT M^M' fifc u^M ffs 0/1/6. y4/x. ^Ax i/i/Aff i/i/ir ^e/£sl^r
ocr wtr ^ic i/»m f£e t/te ytfe
Figure 13. — The combined net position of 16 leading speculators compared with the combined net
position of the entire groux> of large speculators and with the average closing price, bv weeks, for corn
futures, for the period October, 1926-September, 1928
traders were on a much smaller scale and the degree of correspondence
with price much less pronounced.
LARGE NET TRADES COMPARED WITH NET PRICE CHANGES
The point of primary interest wdth reference to these leading
speculative lines is their relation to future prices. Do they show a
direct and significant relationship to price and, if so, under what con-
ditions? Or are they simply a part of the entire body of trading
showing little or no clear connection with price?
There are two methods of approach in seeking an answer to this
question. The first method, and the one followed thus far in this
bulletin, is to compare each day's closing price with the combined
market position of leading speculators as of the close of trading. In
116329°— 30 3
34 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, V. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
making the comparison in this form, account is taken not only of the
price and market changes occurring from one day to another, but also
the cumulative effect of changes which have already occurred.
Thus market movements or swings, such as those shown in Figures
7 — 13, can be compared over considerable periods of time.
The second method of approach is to compare net changes in
price each day with net changes in market position. Thus, on June 1,
the July com future might have closed at 82)^ cents and on June 2 at
84 cents, making a net price change for June 2 of +1% cents. Simi-
larly, the combined net position of the leading speculators, at the
close of trading June 1, might have been long 14,200,000 bushels and
at the close of June 2, long 15,000,000 bushels, making a net change
of +800,000 bushels. This net change of +800,000 bushels consti-
tutes the net volume of trading made by the group during June 2.
Figures of this kind will be referred to in tliis section simply as net
trades though it should be clear that they do not necessarily constitute
the entire volume of each day's trading for the group nor are they
made as single amounts at some particular time within the trading day.
In certain respects, a comparison of net trades and net price changes
is superior to closing market positions and prices. This method
removes, for the most part, any trend or seasonal element in the
trading and price data and thus permits of accurate comparison of
each day as a separate unit.
From Table 13 in the appendix, one may derive the leading net
trades in corn futures for the 4-year period. These net trades may
be derived for each separate trader or for all traders combined. Of
particular significance in relation to price are the net purchases or sales
each day of all of the 17 leading traders combined. In merging their
separate trading positions, proper account is taken of those days
during which two or more speculators made large trades either on
opposite sides of the market or on the same side. If on opposite
sides, then their trades offset each other, leaving little change for the
day; if on the same side of the market, their combined position will
more nearly reflect the importance of the day's trading by the market
leaders.
Table 10 has been prepared from the combined net-position figures
of Table 13. It gives by days all net trades of 500,000 bushels or
over, the days on which they occurred, the exact size of each net
trade, whether a purchase or a sale, and the net change in price for
the day,
TRADING IN CORN FUTURES
35
Table 10. — The days on which the combined net trading of 17 leading speculators
amounted to 500,000 bushels or more in all corn futures' combined, together with
the net change in futures price, from October 18, 1924, to September 20, 1928
Date
1924
Oct. 18-.
Nov. 8...
Nov. 12-
Nov. 14.
Nov. 18-
Nov. 19-
Dec. 15..
Dec. 17-.
Dec. 18-
Dec. 20-.
Dec. 22-
1925
Jan. 12
Jan. 14
Jan. 15
Jan. 16
Jan. 17
Jan. 19
Jan. 21
Jan. 23
Jan. 26
Jan. 29
Feb. 2
Feb. 7
Feb. 10
Mar. 2
Mar. 13
June 16
Aug. 13
Aug. 14
Aug. 25
Aug. 26
Sept. 3
Sept. 4
Sept. 14
Sept. 15
Sept. 16
Sept. 19
Sept. 23
Oct. 6
Oct. 7
Oct. 8
Oct. 29
Oct. 31
Nov. 13
Nov. 23
Nov. 24
Nov. 25
Nov. 27
Dec. 4
Dec. 9
1926
Jan. 15
Jan. 16
Jan. 30
Feb. 4
Feb. 6
Feb. 8
Feb. 10
Feb. 15
Feb. 17
Feb. 27
Mar. 1
Mar. 4
Mar. 5
Mar. 17
Mar. 19
Mar. 22
Mar. 23
Net price
Net of
change,
purchases
(domi-
and sales i
nant
future) «
1,000
bushels
Cents
-850
+ V4.
+550
+m
+1,455
-{-2H
+645
-m
+1,185
+3
+990
+H
-795
-H
-2,790
-3
-530
+1^
-505
-m
-1,110
-%
+720
+m
+2,460
+1H
+1,696
+H
-1,780
+m
+865
+1H
+2,335
+214
-2,240
-2H
-2,300
-3
-1, 395
-2H
+500
+2%
+500
+H
+680
+li
+655
-d^
-1, 180
-H
-730
-6%
+915
-IH
-500
-H
+800
+H
-1,600
-m
-1,830
-3H
+1,880
-\-m
+2,200
-2
-3, 630
-m
+1,100
-H
-1,110
-H
-595
-m
+1,800
-m
-750
+1H
-1,000
-2H
-500
-¥4
+925
+H
-750
-m
-1,300
+%
-950
-H
+660
+1H
+810
0
+580
-1
+700
-m
+1,050
+3
-700
-15^
-600
-m
+800
— j^
-500
—%
-845
-H
-800
-1%
-1,200
-m
-1,200
-H
-500
-m
+665
+%
-1,000
-2H
+3.180
+1^
+800
-1
-700
-H
-900
-3H
+1,000
-m
+500
■h'A
Date
1926
Mar. 30
Apr. 14
Apr. 17
Apr. 29
May 7
Junes
June 10
June 14
June 15
June 30
July 13
July 15
July 22
July 28
Aug. 25
Aug. 30
Sept. 9
Sept. 15
Sept. 25
Sept. 30
Oct. 29
Nov. 4
Nov. 6
Nov. 10
Nov. 17
Nov. 22
Nov. 23
Dec. 2
Dec. 4
Dec. 6
Dec. 9
Dec. 21
Dec. 22
Dec. 28
Dec. 29
Dec. 30
1927
Jan. 11__..
Jan. 12
Jan. 14_--.
Jan. 19
Jan. 21
Jan. 27....
Feb. 16....
Feb. 18..-.
Feb. 23-.-.
Feb. 24....
Mar. 18-...
Mar. 19—.
Mar. 23—.
Mar. 24—.
Mar. 28—.
Apr. 1
Apr. 14—.
Apr. 30—.
May 2
May 4
May 5
May 6
May 10....
May 11..-
May 14
May 16—.
May 17—.
May 18—.
May 19-...
May 20—.
May 21.-..
May 24— .
May 25
Net of
purchases
and sales i
1,000
bushels
-750
+615
+600
+750
+790
+1, 145
+695
-1,360
-1,370
+500
+700
+1,205
-1,055
-1,385
-800
-500
+600
-650
+500
+1,200
+500
-600
+650
-1,050
-1,550
+700
+620
+2, 115
+1,250
+525
+1, 135
-560
-585
-840
-750
-535
+750
+880
+1, 325
+800
+500
+700
-550
+730
-1,030
-1. 175
-2,000
-1,050
-1,370
+600
-650
+510
-600
+510
+500
+2.350
+1. 175
+985
+520
+2,635
+675
+1,580
+1.240
+525
+1,520
+1,180
+1,095
-710
+2, 055
Net price
change,
(domi-
nant
future »
Cents
-H
+74
-3/4
-m
+2H
-2H
-H
+2H
+m
-2M
-■'A
+1/4
-%
+1/2
-IH
0
-%
-IH
-H
0
+'A
-H
+'A
+H
+m
0
-m
+ni
-m
-m
+H
+?i
-Vi
-Vi
-%
-Vi
-^4
-2H
-H
-iH
-m
-IH
+H
-H
+2H
+1H
+2^
+^
+2^
+VA
-1
+H
+m
+m
+1
-m
+2H
-m
Net of
Date
purchases
and sales 1
1,000
1927
bushels
May 28
-825
May 31
-1,535
June 1
-625
June 3.
+2,700
June 4
+500
June 10
-7,465
June 11
-580
June 13
+585
June 14
+1,410
June 17
+845
July 1 -
+830
July 2
+1,461
July 6
-2, 170
July 15
-1,690
July 16
-750
July 18
-525
July 19
-515
July 20
-555
July 21
+500
July 25
+1,050
July 27
+850
Aug. 1
-510
Aug. 4
+1, 105
Aug. 5
+1,015
Aug. 6
+595
Aug. 11
-2,100
Aug. 12
+1,080
Aug. 15
-500
Aug. 18
-620
Aug. 19
-650
Aug. 24
-530
Aug. 29
-4,790
Sept. 2
-1, 075
Sept. 3
-1,485
Sept. 6
+2,375
Sept. 7
+1,200
Sept. 10....
-515
Sept. 12
-1,345
Sept. 13
-1,000
Sept. 14
-630
Sept. 15
+500
Sept. 16
-3,765
Sept. 17
-970
Sept. 19
+1, 360
Sept. 20-_..
-3, 145
Sept. 22
-1,140
Sept. 24
-2, 755
Sept. 26
-865
Sept. 27...-
-2,585
Sept. 28
-3, 130
Sept. 29
+795
Sept. 30.-.
+1,315
Oct. 4
+670
Oct. 14
+750
Oct. 17
+500
Oct. 26
-1, 365
Nov. 1
-1, 175
Nov. 14
-1,670
Nov. 28..-
+665
Nov. 30
-650
Dec. 15
+500
1928
Jan. 10
+1,355
Jan. 11
+500
Jan. 17
+655
Jan. 18
+1,070
Jan. 30
+870
Feb. 1
+645
Feb. 2
+1,000
Feb. 4
+700
Net price
change,
(domi-
nant
future) «
1 The plus sign (+) indicates a purchase and the minus sign (— ) a sale.
» The plus sign (+) indicates an increase and the minus sign (— ) a decrease in the futures price from the
close of the day previous to the close of the day shown.
36 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 10. — The days on which the combined net trading of 17 leading speculators
amounted to 500,000 bushels or more in all corn futures combined, together with
the net change in futures price, from October 18, 1924, lo September 20, 1928 — Con.
Net price
Net of
change,
Date
purchases
(domi-
and sales
nant
future)
1,000
1928
bushels
Cents
Feb. 6.
+550
-H
Feb. 8
+4,760
+2H
Feb. 10
+880
Feb. 11
+580
+m
Feb. 14
+1,205
+1H
Feb. 15
+885
+%
Feb. 16
+1,480
+H
Feb. 17
+820
-1
Feb. 18
+500
+H
Feb. 21
+860
+2
Feb. 23
+855
-m
Feb. 27
+740
+2
Feb. 28
-1,095
-li
Feb. 29
+775
+H
Mar. 3
-650
-H
Mar. 5
+595
+H
Mar. 9
+850
-H
Mar. 10
-1,890
-m
Mar. 15
+560
+H
Mar. IG-.-
+1,260
+m
Mar. n.-.-
-2, 415
Mar. 21....
+525
-H
Mar. 22....
-1,585
-H
Mar. 27
-1,600
-H
Mar. 28.._.
+605
+H
Mar. 29.--
+1,055
+m
Apr. 2
-1,550
-2
Apr. 11
-795
+1H
Date
Apr. 12
Apr. 13
Apr. 16
Apr. 17
Apr. 18
Apr. 19.
Apr. 20.
Apr. 24
Apt. 25
Apr. 27.
Apr. 28.
Apr. 30.
May 1.
May 2.
May 4.
May 5.
May 7.
May 11
May 14
May 15
May 17
May 18
May 22
May 25
June 4..
June 14.
June 15.
June 16.
Net price
Net of
change,
purchases
(domi-
and sales
nant
future
1,000
■■ !
bushels
Cents
+700
-m
+1,510
+H \
-760
+H
+645
+H ;
-610
+2H
+720
+2
+1, 835
-IH
+1,230
+V4
+885
+1
-1,295
+H
-1, 145
-H
-1, 380
+m
+2,810
-2
-710
-2H
+590
+%
+920
+2^
-635
-H
+1, 210
0
+680
-2%
-1, 055
+1%
-925
+%
+690
-H
-930
+%
-1,015
+800
— H
-1,825
0
. -700
+^
-500
+^
Net of
Date
purchases
and sales
1,000
1928
bushels
June 19
+500
June 21
-705
June 25
-500
June 26
-710
June 29
+1, 470
July 2
-1,130
July 3
-520
July 16
-1,560
July 24
-585
July 26
-870
July 28
+2,225
July 30
-805
July 31
-7,415
Aug. 1
-825
Aug. 2
+680
Aug. 3
-1,135
Aug. 10
-1,335
Aug. 11
-3,365
Aug. 13
-1,610
Aug. 21
+530
Aug. 22
-515
Aug. 24
+2,165
Aug. 25
-785
Aug. 28
+1,205
Aug. 30
-680
Sept. 12
+2,080
Sept. 20.- _.
+1,525
Net price
change,
(domi-
nant
future)
Cents
-3H
-IH
-IH
+2H
+H
-H
+m
-H
-2H
+3H
+1H
-2^
-H
+3H
+2H
-4H
-VA
-H
+%
-1
+H
-H
+H
+2H
-3,4
0
+H
As a rule on days on which the trading of the group resulted in a
net purchase the net change in price was upward and on days on
which the trading resulted in a net sale the net price change was
downward. Furthermore, the size of the price changes was in a
measure, commensurate with the size of the net trades.
The facts of Table 10 are summarized in Table 11, showing the
extent to which the combined net trading of the market leaders and
the net changes in price moved in the same direction.
Table 11. — Number of days on which the net of purchases and sales of 500,000
bushels or over and the futures prices moved in the same direction, for corn, for 17
leading speculators, all futures combined, from October 1, 1924, to September 30,
1928
Net of purchases and sales (1,000 bushels)
Total
number
of days
Days in which
price and net of
purchases and
sales moved in
the same direc-
tion
Days in which
price and net of
purchases and
sales moved in
the opposite di-
rection 1
Number
Per cent
Number
Per cent
500 or over ..
288
123
32
10
4
2
2
2
176
86
23
9
4
2
2
2
61
70
72
90
100
100
100
100
112
37
9
1
39
30
2,000 or over.
28
3 000 or over
10
4 000 nr nvftr
7 000 nr nvpr
Includes days when there was no net change in price
TRADING IN CORN FUTURES 37
Two points of importance are revealed in Table 11. The first is
that price and the net of purchases and sales usually agree in direc-
tion of movement, i. e., if the net trading for the day was a purchase,
the price rose; if a sale, it declined. The second point is that the
degree of correspondence between trading and price increased with
the size of the net trade, being in the proportion of 6 cases out of 10
for all trades above the 500,000-bushel limit, 7 cases out of 10 for
trades ranging above 1,000,000 bushels, 9 cases out of 10 for trades
3,000,000 bushels or over, and 10 cases out of 10 when the size is
4,000,000 bushels or over. These results supplement the findings in
the preceding section of this study : that the trading activities of the
outstanding speculators give direction to the market, whether con-
sidered by individual days or for the course of trading over longer
periods of time.
It is of interest to compare the results of Table 11 with similar
studies in wheat futures made by the Grain Futures Administration
and covering the 2-year period 1925-1926. Two hundred and fifty-
seven days were included for this analysis of wheat-futures trades
and the percentages of concurrency between trading and price were
as follows :
Per cent
* Net trading 500,000 bushels or over 69
Net trading 1,000,000 bushels or over 75
Net trading 2,000,000 bushels or over 82
Net trading 3,000,000 bushels or over 86
Net trading 4,000,000 bushels or over 89
Net trading 5,000,000 bushels or over 91
Net trading 6,000,000 bushels or over 91
Net trading 7,000,000 bushels or over 100
It will be seen that these results reveal in general the same facts as
those of Table 11, though the degee of agreement between trading
and price was considerably higher for wheat futures than for corn
futures.
SUMMARY
Of the various grains, future trading in corn is second in importance
only to wheat. For the 5-year period October 1, 1923-September
30, 1928, the volume of trading in corn futures averaged approxi-
mately 20,000,000 bushels per trading day. This trading was
maintained on five exchanges, of which the Chicago Board of Trade
was by far the largest, having 92 per cent of the total volume.
Because of its outstanding importance, the present study has been
limited to the trading upon this one exchange.
Corn-futures contracts are rights to corn. If either the buyer or
the seller of a future chooses, he can under normal conditions compel
fulfillment by actual delivery of corn. While it is true that not
more than 0.5 per cent of the total volume of corn futures actually
matures by ultimate delivery, this right to require such fulfillment
closely links together futures prices and cash prices. This gives to
future trading a commanding importance in relation to the price of
corn both at terminal and country markets.
The relationship which future trading bears to com prices is the
central problem of this study. The materials used in attacking
this problem consisted of the information regularly reported to the
Grain Futures Administration by members of the Chicago Board
of Trade. This includes the daily volume of trading and the daily
38 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
open commitments of each clearing firm of the board together with
special accounts having a market position of 500,000 bushels or more
in any one future. For most of the comparisons a period of four
years was used from October, 1924, through September, 1928; in
some cases monthly data were presented, in others weeldy, and in
others daily.
The results obtained are difficult to summarize. In most cases
accurate generalization should include a description of methods
employed with adequate qualifications. These can only be found
by referring to the detailed materials in the body of the bulletin.
With this in mind, the following points are enumerated as the most
important:
(1) The annual level of corn prices as well as corn-futures prices
is determined mainly by the size and quality of the crop, by the
demand for corn and by the general level of prices for all commodi-
ties. These factors account for broad changes in the level of prices
from one crop year to another. Future trading is related to these
general changes in price by being stimulated by them and by an
anticipation of them. Trading, in turn, frequently is built up to
an extent that prices are carried beyond the point to which they
would otherwise have gone only to react later, by the same trading
inertia, to abnormal levels in the opposite direction.
(2) While the annual level of prices is determined by broad crop
and marketing factors, smaller fluctuations in price occurring from
day to day and from week to week are frequently affected purely by
trading activity. Here again, however, it is impossible to separate
in each instance cause and effect, price at times reacting strongly to
trading activity and the latter, in turn, being stimulated by unusual
market changes. Correlating price range and volume of trading by
days for the 5-year period October 1, 1923-September 30, 1928,
revealed a direct relationship of +0.73 in which perfect correlation
is shown by a +1.0 and an absence of correlation by 0.0.
(3) The conditions under which contracts can be fulfilled as the
month of delivery is approached and diu-ing the month of delivery
affect futures prices. Because of the option which the seller has of
choosing the day of delivery, current futures prices show a tendency
to fall relative to the more distant futures immediately prior to the
delivery month and rise during the delivery month. The price of
the current future is also affected by the deliverable supplies of
com during the delivery month, being relatively high if the supplies
are small and relatively low if they are large.
(4) There were, in all, 69 individual speculators, each having a
market position in corn futures of 500,000 bushels or more at some
time during the 4-year period October 1, 1924-September 30, 1928.
There were 67 hedging accounts reaching a similar level during this
same period. A combined position was tabulated, by days, for this
large-scale speculative group and for the group of large hedging
accoimts. Similarly, a daily combined market position for a group
typifying small and medium sized speculative traders was compiled
from the records of 15 clearing firms. The market positions of these
three groups were compared by days with the price of corn futures
for this 4-year period. During the first two years very little relation-
ship was shown. The large-scale speculative group was not in the
market to any large extent and its position correlated only slightly
TRADING IN CORN FUTURES 39
with the course of futures prices. The group of small and medium
sized speculators revealed a small inverse relationship, and the
hedging group no relationship to price. During the last two years,
however, the large speculators came into the market to build up a
large long position and during this period a pronounced positive
relationship was shown. During this period the combined market
position of the small and medium sized speculative group moved
inversely to the course of prices while the hedging group again revealed
no relationship to price.
(5) The combined position of the group of hedging accounts was
compared by weeks with the course of the United States visible sup-
ply of corn. It was found to move inversely to the visible — increasing
in short position as the visible grew in size and decreasing as the
visible declined. A controlling factor in the size of the hedging opera-
tions in corn is thus the size of the visible supply.
(6) The fact that the combined market position of the large-scale
speculative group directly correlated with corn-futures prices sug-
gested further analysis of this group. It was found that of the 69
individual trading interests comprising it, 17 had, at some point during
the 4-year period, reached a market position of 2,000,000 bushels or
more. By calculating a combined figure, by days, for the outstanding
positioms of this smaller group and comparing with price, a direct
correlation just as pronounced as that for the entire group was found.
The trading of these 17 leaders thus proved to be the directing force
for the entire group, the operations of the others being unimportant
in their relation to price.
(7) The trading of the 17 leading speculators was not of equal
importance, however, throughout the entire 4-year period. They
were in the market much more extensively during the last two than
during the first two years and on particular days their trading reached
large proportions. A figure representing the net amount of futures
bought or sold by the group for each trading day was calculated.
For those days upon which their net trading amounted to 500,000
bushels or more the net trade was compared to the net change in the
futures price. It was found that these outstanding trades usually
moved in the same direction as the price — i. e., if the net trade was
a purchase, the net change in price that day was usually upward;
if a sale, the net price change was usually downward. It was further
found, after classifying these net trades according to their size, that
the larger they were the greater the degree of concurrence with the
price, amounting to 61 per cent for the trades 500,000 bushels or
over in size, to 72 per cent for the trades 2,000,000 bushels or over in
size, and to 100 per cent for trades 4,000,000 bushels or over in size.
Studies similar to the present one have been made by the Grain
Futures Administration for wheat futures. They include the years
1925 and 1926. The observations drawn from the present analysis
of corn futures conform in general to those obtained from the earlier
studies. The present study does not show, however, as pronounced
a degree of relationship between the course of prices and the trading
operations of the outstanding speculators as did those in wheat
futures. One reason for this was the lack of speculative interest ui
corn futures during the years 1925 and 1926, years when trading in
wheat futures were far more attractive than in corn futures and during
which the trading operations of the market leaders in wheat futures
were on a very large scale.
APPENDIX
Table 12. — The aggregate long and the aggregate short of 69 speculative traders,
67 hedging accounts, and 16 clearing firms, together with the total open commit-
ments of the market, for all corn futures combined, by days, Chicago Board of
Trade, from October 1, 192 J^, to September 30, 1928
[In thousands of bushels; i. e
.,000 omitted]
Total open
commit-
ments,
all corn
futures
(long or
short)
Position of—
Date
69 speculative traders,
all com futures com-
bined
67 hedging accounts,
all corn futures com-
bined
15 clearing firms, all
corn futures combined
Aggregate
long
Aggregate
short
Aggregate
long
Aggregate
short
Aggregate
long
Aggregate
short
1924
Oct. 1---
58,343
59, 689
61,606
59,599
60, 957
61, 152
62. 315
61, 926
64, 082
65, 182
63, 788
65, 040
64,523
66, 827
65, 135
65, 424
66, 176
67, 140
67,249
65,388
62,628
62, 774
63,968
65, 438
65, 999
63,949
63,843
64,288
64,268
63,988
64,946
64,474
65, 141
66, 852
65, 76.5
65,866
66, 372
64,917
67, 252
68,654
71,506
69,750
70,650
70, 493
70,256
68,684
69,229
67,796
69, 323
71,232
72, 924
73, 374
75, 932
76, 974
76,223
77,309
77, 817
77,002
76,624
2,235
2,235
2,535
2,535
2,735
2,935
3,335
3,685
4,185
4,385
5,680
5,835
3,535
3,535
3,585
3,585
3,585
3,585
3,585
3,585
3.085
3,085
3,085
4,085
4,600
4,600
4,585
4,585
4,585
4,085
4,085
4,085
3,835
6,340
6,240
7,490
7,695
7,970
9,655
9,845
10, 245
9,830
10, 265
10, 340
10,450
10, 470
10,565
10, 165
10, 425
10, 460
11,330
12,230
12,400
12,230
12,630
12, 455
12, 810
12, 975
13, 215
950
950
2,000
2,000
2,025
1,050
1,050
975
1.175
2,225
1,910
2,050
1,890
3,615
4,250
4,380
4,520
4,690
5,010
5,080
5,030
5,025
4,775
5,100
5,065
2,300
2,800
2,800
2,800
2,800
2,800
2,785
3,015
3,515
3,765
4,015
4,015
4,015
3,615
2,715
3,015
2,365
2,365
2,385
2,885
3,475
3,475
3,045
3,255
3,705
4,730
4,710
4,410
4,410
4,245
4,245
4,345
3,970
4,130
2,340
2,360
2,845
2,850
2,845
2.860
3,030
3,025
3,005
3,000
3,045
3,080
3,030
2,465
2,460
2,445
2,450
2,455
2,450
2,430
1,785
1,790
1,795
1,775
1,780
1,820
1,805
1,805
1,810
1,800
1,830
1,850
1,830
1,825
1,805
1,785
1,810
1,815
1,760
1,745
2,640
2,500
3,030
3,065
3,075
3,645
3,740
4,415
3,965
4,220
5,120
5,930
7,875
11,250
11,985
14, 310
14, 470
14,265
15, 325
13,537
13,211
14,246
10,649
11, 143
11,421
11, 372
12,036
12,221
12, 593
11.067
11,581
12,428
13,068
11,540
12,504
12, 955
13,499
13,885
14, 726
13,224
13, 555
13, 727
12,388
12, 619
12,540
12,723
13,327
12,340
12,123
11,996
11,493
11,950
12, 165
12,153
12, 776
13,258
12,502
12,220
13,647
14,306
13, 192
13,566
14, 112
13,466
12,764
12,697
12,836
13,105
13,450
13,429
13.671
14,224
13, 476
12,108
12,816
12,859
12,517
13, 439
9,818
Oct. 2
10, 459
Oct. 3
10,386
Oct. 4._
7,382
Oct. 6-_
7,921
Oct. 7._
8.556
Oct. 8
9.124
Oct. 9
500
500
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
500
500
600
600
600
600
600
600
9.263
Oct. 10-_-
9.878
Oct. 11
10,150
Oct. 14
8.614
Oct. 15
9,474
Oct. 16
11.244
Oct. 17 _
11, 726
Oct. 18- .
10,086
Oct. 20
10.551
Oct. 21
10, 719
Oct. 22
11, 057
Oct. 23
10,925
Oct. 24...
10, 677
Oct. 25
9,020
Oct. 27
9,416
Oct. 28_-.
9,775
Oct. 29 -
9,454
Oct. 30
9,952
Oct. 31
8,919
Nov. 1
9,239
Nov, 3..
9,406
Nov. 5
8,863
Nov. 6.
8,770
Nov. 7
8,408
Nov. 8
9,506
Nov. 10
9,803
Nov. 12...
10,805
Nov. 13
11,592
Nov. 14
11, 824
Nov. 15...
11,894
Nov. 17..
10,953
Nov. 18
11, 897
Nov. 19
11,923
Nov. 20
12.729
Nov. 21.
10,542
Nov. 22... .
10,930
Nov. 24
11. 148
Nov. 25
10,652
Nov. 26-
9,721
Nov. 28
9,625
Nov. 29
10.020
Dec. 1..
10.125
D«c. 2...
10, 435
Dec. 3
11.044
Dec. 4
11,344
Dec. 6--.
12, 457
Dec. 6 .
11,492
Dec. 8..
10,753
Dec. 9
11,339
Dec. 10..
10, 769
Dec. 11
10, 475
Dec. 12
11, 177
40
TRADING IN CORN FUTURES
41
Table 12. — The aggregate long and the aggregate short of 69 speculative traders^
67 hedging accounts, and 15 clearing firms, together with the total open commit-
ments of the market, for all corn futures combined, by days, Chicago Board of
Trade, from October 1, 1924, to September SO, 1928 — Continued
Date
Total open
commit-
ments,
all corn
futures
(long or
short)
Position of—
) speculative traders,
all corn futures com-
bined
Aggregate
long
Aggregate
short
67 hedging accounts,
all corn futures com-
bined
Aggregate
long
Aggregate
short
15 clearing firms, all
corn futures combined
Aggregate
long
Aggregate
short
Dee. 13.
Dec. 15.
Dec. 16.
Dec. 17.
Dec. 18.
Dec. 19-
Dec. 20-
Dec. 22.
Dec. 23.
Dec. 24-
Dec. 26.
Dec. 27.
Dec. 29.
Dec. 30.
Dec. 31.
1924
1925
Jan. 2
Jan. 3
Jan. 5
Jan. 6
Jan. 7
Jan. 8
Jan. 9
Jan. 10
Jan. 12
Jan. 13
Jan. 14
Jan. 15
Jan. 16
Jan. 17
Jan. 19
Jan .20
Jan. 21
Jan. 22
Jan. 23
Jan. 24
Jan. 26
Jan. 27
Jan. 28
Jan. 29
Jan. 30
Jan. 31
Feb. 2
Feb. 3
Feb. 4
Feb. 5
Feb. 6
Feb. 7
Feb. 9
Feb. 10
Feb. 11
Feb. 13
Feb. 14
Feb. 16..
Feb. 17
Feb. 18
Feb. 19
Feb. 20
Feb. 21
Feb. 24....
Feb. 25
Feb. 26....
Feb. 27
Feb. 28
Mar. 2
Mar. 3
Mar. 4
Mar, 5
75,204
€.77, 048
75,587
75, 332
75,442
76, 119
76,368
75, 379
74, 486
74, 395
73, 362
73,667
73, 513
73, 749
70,409
71, 148
71,446
70, 453
68,992
69, 585
70, 458
71,464
71, 367
72, 074
72, 850
72,945
73, 521
74,053
73, 782
72,290
72,288
73,784
74,067
77, 376
77, 798
76, 411
78, 182
78, 178
78, 435
78, 674
78, 747
79, 101
79,903
79, 275
79, 110
79, 962
79, 669
81,828
82,866
81,823
80,777
78,403
79,202
78,601
80,432
82,720
83,942
82,700
84,347
85, 345
86,335
86,246
86,622
87,557
87,866
87,900
88,833
13, 395
12,600
13, 315
8,805
6,355
5,725
5,220
3,810
4,345
4,090
3,445
3,345
3,145
3,145
3,645
3,565
2,960
2,760
3,320
3,320
2,765
2,965
2,410
2,920
2,800
4,340
6,035
4,455
5,820
8,405
8,610
5,520
5,260
2,860
3,355
1,000
1,000
1,580
1,625
1,730
1,695
2,295
2,825
2,700
2,170
2,170
3,410
4,035
3,945
4,845
4,955
4,955
4,960
4,635
4,610
6,090
6,240
6,240
5,890
5,890
5,910
6, .750
5,125
3,895
4,545
3,940
2,400
4,130
4,730
4,695
4,720
4,520
4,520
4,620
4,620
4,255
4,255
3,735
3,535
3,535
3,085
2.985
3,455
4,055
3,855
4,000
1,725
1,150
1,150
1,925
2,415
2,395
1,475
1,525
1,525
1,525
1,525
1,450
1,350
1,350
1,250
1,060
2,590
2,790
2,790
2,290
2,290
1,730
1,730
1,730
1,230
1,230
1,230
1,230
580
1,255
1,255
1,155
1,320
625
725
825
625
575
575
675
700
500
500
500
505
505
505
1,055
1,155
1,165
1,145
1,145
1,145
1,095
1,055
1,055
1,060
1,140
1,165
1,295
1,360
1,360
1,345
1,350
1,315
1,290
1,305
1,275
1,275
1,330
1,305
1,340
1,330
1,330
1,315
705
705
705
705
705
520
15,085
15, 365
15, 692
15, 460
15, 145
14, 895
14, 975
14,690
14, 665
14,645
14,680
14,729
14, 895
14,490
11, 675
11, 577
11, 376
11,235
11, 190
11, 125
11, 115
11, 255
11, 340
11, 660
11, 875
11,800
11, 670
11, 740
10, 435
11,560
11, 590
11, 410
11,440
11,190
11, 195
11, 620
11,645
11, 720
11, 725
11, 755
11,680
11, 740
11, 855
11,840
11,750
11,750
11, 725
11, 770
11,545
11,645
11,635
11, 915
11,760
11, 855
11, 785
11,800
11, 655
11, 725
11,965
12, 795
12, 825
12,790
12,960
13,180
13, 465
14,030
14,170
11,881
12,024
10, 470
12, 133
13,138
13, 119
14, 077
13,402
13,086
13,085
12,604
13,632
13,994
13, 977
12,335
12,506
13,293
13, 770
12,454
12, 751
12, 910
12, 767
12,635
12,263
12,298
12,085
13,022
13,027
12,834
11,696
12,027
12,724
12,766
14, 019
14,225
15,204
14,309
11, 721
11, 951
12,150
12,797
12, 851
12,834
13, 318
12, 470
13,363
13, 957
14, 219
14,234
13,660
13,694
13,644
13,250
13, 695
13, 121
13,329
12, 717
13, 021
12, 913
12,063
11, 757
12, 025
12, 105
13,547
14,662
116329^—30 4
42 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, U. S. BEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 12. — The aggregate long and the aggregate short of 69 speculative traders,
67 hedging accounts, and 15 clearing firms, together with the total open commit"
ments of the market, for all corn futures combined, by days, Chicago Board of
Trade, from October 1, 1924, to September 30, 1928 — Continued
Date
Total open
commit-
ments,
all com
futures
(long or
short)
Position of—
5 speculative traders,
all corn futures com-
bined
Aggregate
long
Aggregate
short
67 hedging accounts,
all corn futures com-
bined
Aggregate
long
Aggregate
short
15 clearing firms, all
corn futures combined
Aggregate
long
Aggregate
short
1925
Mar. 6
Mar. 7
Mar. 9
Mar. 10-._.
Mar. 11—.
Mar. 12...-
Mar. 13..-.
Mar. 14....
Mar. 16—.
Mar. 17....
Mar. 18.-..
Mar. 19..-.
Mar. 20-..-
Mar. 21..--
Mar. 23..-.
Mar. 24..--
Mar. 25....
Mar. 26..--
Mar. 27...-
Mar. 28..-.
Mar. 30..--
Mar. 31-.-
Apr. 1
Apr. 2
Apr. 3
Apr. 4
Apr. 6
Apr. 7
Apr. 8
Apr. 9
Apr. 11
Apr. 13
Apr. 14
Apr. 15
Apr. 16
Apr. 17
Apr. 18
Apr. 20-...
Apr. 21
Apr. 22
Apr. 23-...
Apr. 24....
Apr. 25
Apr. 27
Apr. 28..-.
Apr. 29
Apr. 30....
May 1
May 2
May 4
May 5
May 6
May 7
Mays
May 9
May 11....
May 12....
May 13....
May 14
May 15
May 16
May 18....
May 19-...
May 20--..
May 21-...
May 22-...
May 23.-..
May 25....
May 26
90,747
91,948
92,017
90,789
90,709
92,924
88,609
84, 407
84,031
78, 972
78, 495
78,485
78,649
79, 033
77, 785
76, 877
77, 895
77,734
77, 782
78, 105
77, 732
76,323
76, 689
75, 738
71,958
65,429
64,513
64,291
65, 021
64,526
63,988
65, 760
65, 786
66,266
67,429
66,769
67,281
66,969
67,458
66,763
63,524
63,200
62,043
60,968
61, 353
60,657
59, 493
56,995
55,468
55,094
54,777
53,768
54,182
53,739
54,075
54,511
54,438
54,196
53,469
52,445
52,388
52,681
53, 352
53,271
52, 949
53, 355
54,125
55,047
55,502
3,010
3,520
3,020
3,240
4,565
4,665
1,100
1,100
1,200
1,400
1,400
1,400
1,400
1,400
1,400
1,375
1,975
375
700
700
700
700
600
600
600
950
1,050
1,050
1,050
1,100
1,100
1,100
1,100
1,100
1,700
1,720
1,720
545
545
545
595
620
620
620
620
570
1,670
1,670
1,670
1,570
670
720
700
680
500
500
500
500
500
500
1,000
500
610
555
625
625
625
625
625
625
625
625
625
1,625
1,625
1,625
1,640
1,690
1,690
1,690
1,690
1,690
1,690
1,690
1,690
1,690
1,690
1,690
690
690
250
250
250
250
250
250
250
14,360
14,350
14,295
14, 435
14, 855
14, 810
16,330
15,550
14,905
14,990
14, 930
14,780
14,740
16, 925
17,390
17,285
15,400
15,600
15,540
15,565
15,505
15,554
15, 510
15,440
15,005
14, 815
14, 855
14, 515
14,265
14,155
13,835
13,650
13,455
13,060
13,405
13,250
13, 125
13, 165
13,200
13,150
13, 015
12,890
12, 815
12, 715
12, 755
12, 210
12,060
9,300
9,190
9,095
8,435
8,280
8,025
7,910
7,670
7,570
6,255
6,255
6,255
6,150
6,035
5,975
5,920
5,890
5,960
5,965
6,060
6,115
5,960
15, 314
16, 257
16,509
16,267
15, 626
16,243
16, 310
15, 436
16, 174
15, 132
15,332
15,007
15,386
15,309
14,639
13,623
13, 316
12, 774
12,628
13,120
12, 978
13,584
14,388
14,262
14,862
13,536
12, 347
11,523
11, 617
10, 785
10,566
11, 125
11, 143
11, 510
11,687
11,386
11,196
11,686
12,109
11, 752
11,887
12,300
12,106
11, 871
11,234
11, 076
10, 812
10,204
10, 378
10,585
9,525
9,280
10, 419
9,918
9,983
10,320
9,265
10, 013
9,814
10,227
9,273
10, 355
10,163
9,929
10,106
9,220
10,041
10, 691
10,567
TRADING IN CORN FUTURES
43
Table 12. — The aggregate long and the aggregate short of 69 speculative traders,
67 hedging accounts, and 15 clearing firms, together with the total open commit-
ments of the market, for all corn futures combined, by days, Chicago Board of
Trade, from October 1, 1924, to September SO, i5^<^— Continued
Date
1925
May 27
May 28
May 29
June 1
June 2
June 3
June 4
June 5
June 6
Junes
June 9
June 10
June 11
June 12
June 13
June 15
June 16
June 17
June 18
June 19
June 20
June 22
June 23
June 24
June 25
June 26
June 27
June 29
June 30
July 1
July 2
July 3
July 6
July 7
July 8
July 9
July 10
July 11
July 13
July 14
July 15
July 16
July 17
July 18
July 20
July 21
July 22
July 23
July 24
July 25
July 27
July 28
July 29
July 30
July 31
Aug. 1
Aug. 3
Aug. 4
Aug. 5
Aug. 6
Aug. 7
Aug. 8
Aug. 10
Aug. 11....
Aug. 12
Aug. 13.-..
Aug. 14
Aug. 15....
Aug. 17....
Total open
commit-
ments,
all corn
futures
(long or
short)
Position of—
) speculative traders,
all corn futures com-
bined
Aggregate
long
55, 955
57, 651
58,492
57,227
56, 530
57, 070
56,738
56,851
57,032
57, 660
58,384
59, 430
59,450
i:8,903
59,115
57, 575
57, 209
56,242
55, 06-1
55,650
55, 227
53, 599
52, 810
52, 148
fO, 828
51, 143
50,030
48, 279
46, 865
45, 077
43,840
43,0^
43, 198
43, 586
43, 789
44,132
45, 356
45, 653
45, 343
45, 167
46, 340
46, 135
46,285
46, 382
47,560
47, 148
47,282
48,542
48, 771
48, 651
49, 432
50,119
50,323
49, 545
49. 647
49, 709
49, 872
49, 742
49,9^4
50, 038
50,271
49,794
51,323
52,887
52, 137
53,406
54,207
:3, 756
53,442
720
685
685
690
690
915
915
915
1,915
2,015
1,915
1,915
1,715
915
915
915
915
1,115
1,165
1,165
1,165
1,165
1,190
1,365
1,365
2,115
2,165
1,415
1,515
1,515
1,515
1,515
1,515
1,515
1,515
1, 515
1, 515
2,545
2,550
2, 550
2,550
2,650
2,675
2, 675
2,775
2,775
2, 775
2,775
2,775
1,790
1,790
1,790
1,790
1,790
1,790
2,590
2,590
2,590
Aggregate
short
690
690
690
750
830
830
850
850
1,450
1,450
1,960
2,110
2,260
2,460
2,460
2,310
2,420
1,890
1,840
1,840
1,990
1,990
1,990
2,090
2,070
2,120
2,120
2,880
3,020
2,995
2,170
2,170
2,170
2,170
2,170
2,170
2,170
2,170
2,170
3, 030
3, 825
3,820
3,900
3,695
3,675
3,900
3,920
3,895
4, 465
5,205
5,610
5,675
4,750
5,645
5,210
4,165
4, 165
4, 140
3,690
4,730
3,995
4, 095
4,095
4,095
67 hedging accounts,
all corn futures com-
bined
Aggregate
long
Aggregate
short
5,865
5,835
5,910
6,005
5,615
5,420
4,895
5,250
5,070
4,960
4,960
5,075
5,045
4,835
4,840
4,775
4,730
4,565
4,580
4,560
4,505
4,300
4,200
4,205
4,015
4,000
3,425
3,365
3,225
3,105
3,140
3,025
2,920
2,830
2,850
2,820
2,690
2,745
2,695
2,620
1,995
1,980
1,935
1,885
1,805
1,720
1,670
1,625
1,590
1,590
1,560
1,565
1,520
1,340
1,340
1,320
1,445
915
915
870
865
880
880
945
1,480
1,475
1,480
1,595
1.490
15 clearing firms, all
corn futures combined
Aggregate
long
10,268
9,862
10,042
10,268
9,684
9,976
9,787
10,292
11,043
10, 617
11, 091
10,846
10, 807
10,368
11,075
11,661
12, 142
11, 374
10, 787
11,177
9,128
11, 551
11, 148
11,141
11,349
11,071
10, 902
10,589
10. 391
9,963
8,615
9,045
9,266
9,349
8,927
8,744
8,851
9,013
8,634
9,159
9,343
9,170
9,358
9,254
9,608
9,549
9,956
9,873
10, 452
9,737
10,099
10, 030
9,792
10, 208
10, 373
9,871
9,446
9,504
9,143
9,262
9,278
9,441
9.864
10, 174
9,875
10, 503
10, 441
9,827
Aggregate
short
44 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 12.- — The aggregate long and the aggregate short of 69 speculative traders,
67 hedging accounts, and 15 clearing firms, together with the total open commit'
menis of the market, for all corn futures comhined, by days, Chicago Board of
Trade, from October 1, 1924, to September 30, 1928 — Continued
Date
Total open
commit-
all corn
futures
(long or
short)
Position of—
) speculative traders,
all corn futures com-
bined
Aggregate
long
Aggregate
short
67 hedging accounts,
all corn futures com-
bined
Aggregate
long
Aggregate
short
15 clearing firms, all
com futures combined
Aggregate
long
Aggregate
short
1925
Aug. 18
Aug. 19
Aug. 20
Aug. 21
Aug. 22
Aug. 24
Aug. 25
Aug. 26
Aug. 27
Aug. 28
Aug. 29
Aug. 31
Sept. 1
Sept. 2
Sept. 3
Sept. 4
Sept. 5
Sept. 8
Sept. 9
Sept. 10
Sept. 11
Sept. 12
Sept. 14
Sept. 15_.„.
Sept. 16
Sept. 17
Sept. 18
Sept. 19
Sept. 21
Sept. 22
Sept. 23
Sept. 24
Sept. 25
Sept. 26
Sept. 28
Sept. 29
Sept. 30
Oct. 1
Oct. 2
Oct. 3
Oct. 5
Oct. 6
Oct. 7
Oct. 8
Oct. 9
Oct. 10
Oct. 13
Oct, 14
Oct. 15
Oct, 16
Oct. 17
Oct. 19
Oct. 20
Oct. 21
Oct. 22
Oct. 23
Oct. 24
Oct. 26
Oct. 27
Oct. 28
Oct. 29
Oct. 30
Oct. 31
Nov. 2
Nov. 3
Nov. 4
Nov. 5
Nov. 6
Nov. 7 ,
52,534
53,068
53, 824
54,661
54,645
55, 627
53, 993
48, 367
47, 340
48,164
47,065
46, 629
47,700
47,696
49, 889
50, 180
50,221
51,067
50,503
50,816
50,644
50,035
47. 759
44, 632
44,940
45, 359
44,941
44,405
44,458
44,832
43, 859
42, 799
43, 310
42, 462
42, 353
42, 198
42. 760
42, 681
42, 926
43, 340
43, 313
44,058
45,106
45, 767
44,983
45, 077
44,829
45, 574
46, 320
46,800
46, 937
46,801
47, 030
46,484
46,640
46,685
47, 310
48, 789
50,097
49,946
51,028
51,780
52, 515
53, 343
53,152
53,324
54,607
55,462
55,354
2,780
2,800
2,780
2,780
2,730
2,730
1,630
800
800
800
2,095
3,045
5,395
5,675
5,676
5,475
5,465
6,565
5,240
6,235
1,300
910
500
500
4,095
4,765
5,465
4,665
4,665
6,265
6,115
5,270
5,995
4,906
4,380
4,430
4,380
4,355
4,405
4,405
4,206
4,205
4,205
4,405
4,895
4,945
4,485
1,655
730
706
1,106
1,700
1,800
3,265
2,665
2,510
1,710
1,660
1,860
1,145
1,110
570
590
680
670
1,320
2,320
2,820
2,860
2,860
2,860
2,880
3,000
3,000
3,000
3,000
3,000
3,000
3,000
3,000
3,600
3,600
3,600
3,275
2,860
2,860
3,100
3,100
3,100
3,100
3,350
3,550
3.550
585
740
745
915
925
926
926
915
925
925
926
915
920
915
916
915
915
915
915
916
926
930
1,006
986
986
986
986
985
986
985
985
985
1,015
1,025
1,560
1,665
1,570
1,480
1,486
1,416
1,630
1,560
1,535
1,630
1,645
2,190
2,210
2,235
1,485
1,485
965
955
1,000
996
865
805
1,306
1,285
1,426
1,490
2,345
2,366
2,440
2,440
2,425
2,445
2,660
2,380
2,320
2,250
2,240
2,270
1,900
1, 2fi6
1,265
1,766
1,846
1,880
1,870
2,090
2,760
2,765
2,830
2,760
3,020
2,830
2,860
3,476
3,456
3,38.5
3,265
3,220
2,465
2,380
2,350
2,240
2, 185
2,180
2,116
1,625
1,676
1,645
1,536
1,586
1,610
1,605
1, 565
1,555
1,060
1,055
1,056
1,076
1,630
1,645
1,680
1,640
1.655
9,622
9,622
9,606
10,283
10,303
10,780
10,881
10, 447
9,839
9,413
9,115
8,817
8,624
8,124
7,843
7,600
7,921
8,273
8,010
8,339
8,543
8,568
8,861
8,404
8,731
8,626
8,767
8,661
8,626
8,665
8,211
8,138
9,234
8,787
8,941
8,435
8,021
8,317
8,298
8,304
8,358
8,635
9,196
9,607
9,350
9,584
9,345
9,438
9,783
9,786
9,740
9,761
9,871
10, 012
9,909
10,047
10, 251
10,756
10.846
10, 919
10,854
10,994
11,609
11, 672
11,180
10, 367
11,253
11,663
11,322
TRADING IN CORN FTJTUEES
45
Table 12. — The aggregate long and the aggregate short of 69 speculative tradersy
67 hedging accounts, and 15 clearing firms, together with the total open commit-
ments of the market, for all corn futures combined, by days, Chicago Board of
Trade, from October 1, 1924, to September 30, 1928— Conimued
Date
Nov
Nov
Nov
Nov
Nov,
Nov,
Nov,
Nov,
Nov,
Nov,
Nov,
Nov,
Nov,
Nov.
Nov.
Nov.
Nov.
Dec.
Dec.
Dec.
Dec.
Dec.
Dec.
Dec.
Dec.
Dec.
Dec.
Dec.
Dec.
Dec.
Dec.
Dec.
Dec.
Dec.
Dec.
Dec.
i:)ec.
Dec.
Dec.
Dec.
Dec.
Dec.
Dec.
1D25
. 9
. 10
, 12
, 13
, 14
16....
17
18
19
20
21
23
24
25
27
28
30
1
2
3
4
5
Jan. 4..
Jan. 5..
Jan. 6..
Jan. 7..
Jan. 8..
Jan. 9..
Jan. 11.
Jan. 12.
Jan. 13.
Jan. 14.
Jan. 15.
Jan. 16.
Jan. 18.
Jan. 19.
Jan. 20.
Jan. 21.
Jan. 22.
Jan. 23.
Jan. 25.
Jan. 26.
Jan. 27.
Jan. 28.
Jan. 29.
Jan. 30.
1926
Total open
commit-
ments,
all corn
futures
(long or
short)
Position of—
69 speculative traders,
all corn futures com-
bined
67 hedging accounts,
all corn futures com-
bined
15 clearing firms, all
corn futures combined
Aggregate
long
Aggregate
short
Aggregate
long
Aggregate
short
Aggregate
long
Aggregate
short
55, 284
55, 977
55,415
56, 136
57,042
57, 071
56,842
56,354
56,940
57,324
57,862
58,034
3,550
3,550
3,550
4,550
4,950
4,950
4,950
5,050
5,050
5,050
5,250
6,225
5,515
4,880
3,625
4,400
4,400
5,790
6,130
5,185
4,495
4,380
3,915
3,915
1,945
1,945
1,935
1,925
1,925
1,925
1,925
2,425
3,425
3,420
4,020
4,020
3,400
3,295
2,925
2,725
1,675
1,225
2,225
2,245
2,245
2,250
2,270
2,260
2,280
2,300
2,335
2,305
2,300
2,260
2,245
2,205
2,205
2,195
1,865
1,805
1,150
1,150
840
550
525
1,655
1,640
1,630
1,645
1,655
1,650
1,670
1,670
1,625
1,565
1,585
2,265
2,370
2,460
2,625
2,605
3,160
2,855
2,925
3,070
3,130
3,010
3,140
2,580
2,575
2,400
2,765
2,365
2,330
1,910
2,045
2,130
2,225
2,510
2,685
2,875
3,190
3,530
3,745
4,020
6,510
7,210
8,020
8,515
8,820
8,975
9,050
9,340
9,575
9,815
9,995
10, 120
10,295
10. 315
9i785
10,075
10, 030
10, 575
10,500
10,680
10, 735
10. 795
10,980
11,045
11, 125
11,385
12,185
11, 153
11,188
11, 320
11, 144
11,208
11, 235
11, 382
11, 327
11,804
12,185
12,564
12, 747
12, 820
12,887
13, 279
13, 126
12,180
12,054
11,846
12, 315
12,458
12,038
12, 731
12,060
11, 349
11,102
10, 827
10, 925
10, 892
10,669
8,299
8,652
8,381
8,119
7,949
8,298
8,148
7,769
7,513
7,608
7,353
6,978
7,084
7,070
6,910
6,992
7,115
6,584
6,693
6,657
6,501
6,427
6,733
6,514
6,752
6, 222
6,331
6 102
600
900
1,500
1,600
1,700
1,500
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
57,841
58, 315
57, 586
57, 407
55,041
53, 357
52, 861
50, 688
50, 266
49, 822
50,304
48,890
1,000
1,100
1,100
1,100
1,500
2,800
2,900
2,200
2,235
2,235
2,235
2,310
2,695
3,220
3, 335
3,635
3, 6.50
3,700
3,745
3,825
3,245
3,880
4,055
2,375
1,775
1,775
1,775
1,825
2, 775
1,785
1,810
2,300
2,410
2,410
1,800
1,800
1,775
1,775
1,775
1,775
1,775
1,300
1,310
1,310
1,310
1,310
1,310
1,310
1,310
1,310
1,310
1,860
1,860
1,860
1,860
45, 433
44,556
43, 455
44,273
44, 233
44, 539
6,117
6,342
43,250
43,690
10,788
11,010
11,184
11,480
10,988
10,986
10,984
10, 335
10,067
8,958
10,029
9,898
10, 197
10, 935
10, 972
10, 697
9,842
10, 313
10, 245
10, 195
10, 574
11,251
11, 721
12,046
11,694
11,822
12,098
12,464
12, 426
12, 698
13, 039
12,999
13,060
12, 932
13,202
12,956
5,688
5,663
5,630
5,636
5,656
5,587
5,340
5,423
5,403
6,181
5,716
5,084
4 517
43, 957
43, 562
43, 711
42,966
41,517
41, 766
40,796
40, 218
41,437
42, 893
40, 211
1,360
825
40,904
40,640
4,392
4,541
4,375
4,598
4,354
4,590
4,691
4 713
41,099
40,641
40, 658
40, 144
41, 691
42, 289
42,699
44,719
6.50
1,350
1,950
1,950
2,550
2,550
2,850
3,100
3,100
3,100
3,100
3,100
3,000
3,050
1,650
5,235
5,439
5,282
4 753
46,048
47,081
47,225
48,590
5,136
5,447
5,850
5 725
49, 159
49,823
49,888
49,984
5,576
5,536
5,602
5,542
5,658
5,260
4,749
50,197
49, 931
49,868
49,922
49,641
50,161
46 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 12. — The aggregate long and the aggregate short of 69 speculative trader Sy
67 hedging accounts^ and 15 clearing firms, together with the total open commit-
ments oj the market, for all corn futures combined, by days, Chicago Board of
Trade, from October 1, 1924, to September 30, 1928 — Continued
Total open
commit-
ments,
all corn
futures
(long or
short)
Position of—
Date
69 speculative traders,
all corn futures com-
bined
67 hedging accounts,
all corn futures com-
bined
15 clearing firms, all
corn futures combined
Aggregate
long
Aggregate
short
Aggregate
long
Aggregate
short
Aggregate
long
Aggregate
short
1926
Feb. 1
50,844
50,750
50,701
51, 795
52.067
52, 270
53,239
53,048
53,579
53,412
53.483
55.504
56.354
56.583
56,675
56,864
56,729
57, 498
58,117
57, 931
58,063
58, 270
60,894
60,383
61, 021
60,385
59,156
59,205
58,939
58,981
58,913
58,643
59. 172
59, 101
59, 351
59,242
60,008
60,771
60,502
59,983
59,390
58,590
58,924
58,495
58,625
58,617
59, 012
59,390
59, 013
58,553
58.730
58,970
58,720
58,374
57,407
58.517
58,424
58,162
57, 709
57, 736
58,133
58,844
59. 074
58,924
58,416
57,587
57, 672
57,928
57, 461
1,860
1,860
1,870
1,870
1,870
1,870
1,870
1,870
1,870
1.870
2.480
2,480
2,480
2,280
2,280
2,280
2,280
2,530
2.980
2,980
2,980
2.980
?,980
2,980
2,980
2,980
2,980
3,170
3,395
3,495
3,495
3,495
3.495
3,485
3,495
3,495
3,495
3,295
2,345
2,345
2,345
2,345
2,345
2,895
2,945
2,945
2,945
2,845
2,925
2,925
2,925
3,045
3,045
2,995
2,995
2.995
2,995
2,995
2,995
3.610
3,860
4,055
4,655
4,915
5,060
5,260
5,360
5,360
5,360
1,650
1,750
1,750
2,450
2,550
3,395
4,245
3,945
5,145
5,545
5,690
7,000
7.290
7,665
7,665
7,705
7,630
7,690
7,690
7,690
7,710
7,045
8,040
8,355
8,355
3,780
2,980
2,980
2,530
2,530
3,030
3,045
2.885
2,530
2,100
1,895
2,595
2,750
3,960
3,960
2,960
2,435
2,190
2,190
2,165
2,155
2.145
2,895
2,885
2,875
3,435
3,775
3,775
3,755
3,755
3.755
3.755
3,755
3,755
3,755
3,135
3,125
3,125
3, 015
2,995
2.990
3,245
3.445
3,445
12,485
12,460
13, 115
13,240
13,360
13, 495
14,345
14,690
15,030
15, 465
15.405
16, 465
16, 925
16, 735
17, 170
17,300
17,835
18,235
18,280
18,360
18, 435
18, 510
18,505
18, 480
18,500
18, 660
18, 815
18,805
18, 930
18, 970
19, 135
19,290
19, 365
19,590
19,920
19, 975
19,990
19,885
20,405
20.515
20.545
20,555
20,885
20,870
20,545
20.450
20,520
20,460
20,420
20,325
20,180
20,190
20,200
20,210
20,170
19,905
19,880
19, 345
19. 415
19, 345
19.310
19,315
18.405
19, 195
18, 995
18, 950
18,590
18, 570
18,665
13,236
13,281
13, 212
13,299
13,631
13.885
14,204
14,274
14,081
13, 919
13, 775
14,490
15, 177
15. 559
15, 517
15, 345
15, 524
15, 981
15,905
15,801
15, 542
15, 470
16,334
16,086
16. 107
15,928
15, 787
15,549
15,438
15,698
15,384
15, 274
15,532
15, 413
15, 659
15,036
15,630
15,883
16,309
15,810
16, 143
15, 570
15, 386
15,328
15, 425
15,460
15,584
15, .541
15,594
15,217
15, 242
15.291
15,053
14,784
14,601
15,203
15,229
14,993
14,828
14,804
14,837
15, 072
14.466
14,500
14. 357
13,650
13,882
13,706
13,631
4.726
Feb 2
4.496
Feb. 3
._
4,455
Feb. 4
4,727
Feb. 5 - -
4,737
4,764
Feb. 6
Feb. 8
5,129
Feb 9
5,240
Feb. 10
470
470
470
470
470
740
740
740
740
840
840
840
840
840
840
860
860
860
860
860
860
860
800
860
860
860
860
860
860
860
860
930
930
930
930
930
930
930
930
930
930
930
940
1,140
1,140
1,140
1,140
1,140
1,140
1,140
1,140
1,140
1,140
1,140
1,140
1,140
1,140
1,140
1,140
1,140
1,140
5,482
Feb. 11
5.417
Feb. 13
5.525
Feb. 15 -.-
5,949
Feb. 16
0.446
Feb. 17
6,543
Feb. 18
6.500
Feb. 19
6.576
Feb. 20 -
6,525
Feb. 23
6.327
Feb. 24
6,531
Feb. 25
6,526
Feb. 26
6,331
Feb. 27
6,145
Mar. 1
7,117
Mar. 2
7,002
Mar. 3
6,926
Mar. 4
5,567
Mar. 5
4,832
Mar. 6 . -
4,743
Mar. 8 -
4,810
Mar. 9
5,029
Mar. 10
5,032
Mar. 11
4,809
Mar. 12
4.805
Mar. 13
4,865
Mar. 15
4,914
Mar. 16
5,463
Mar. 17
5,492
Mar. 18
5,584
Mar. 19
5.857
Mar. 20
5,727
Mar. 22
5,261
Mar. 23
5,071
Mar. 24
4,976
Mar. 25
4.73a
Mar. 26
4,725
Mar. 27
4,727
Mar. 29
4, 815
Mar. 30
5,011
Mar. 31
5,023
Apr. 1
4,792
Apr. 3
5.080
Apr. 5
5,492
Apr. 6
5,506
Apr. 7
5,649
Apr. 8
5,545
Apr. 9
5,685
Apr. 10
5.783
Apr. 12
5,479
Apr. 13
5,632
Apr. 14
5,739
Apr. 15
5,667
Apr, 16 - -
5.692
Apr. 17
5,970
Apr. 19
5,997
Apr. 20
6,019
Apr. 21
6,160
Apr. 22
6,111
Apr. 23
6,205
Apr. 24
6,103
TRADING IN CORN FUTURES
47
Table 12. — The aggregate long and the aggregate short of 69 speculative traders,
67 hedging accounts, and 15 clearing firms, together with the total open commit-
ments of the market, for all corn futures combined, by days, Chicago Board of
Trade, from October 1, 1924, to September SO, 1928 — Continued
Date
Total open
Position of—
commit-
ments,
all corn
futures
69 speculative traders,
all com futures com-
bined
67 hedging accounts,
all corn futures com-
bined
15 clearing firms, all
corn futures combined
(long or
short)
Aggregate
Aggregate
Aggregate
Aggregate
Aggregate
Aggregate
long
short
long
short
long
short
57, 575
5,360
3,445
1,140
19, 015
13, 855
6,277
57, 762
5,360
3,445
1,240
19, 305
13.880
6,215
55,840
5,460
3,445
1,240
18, 695
13,296
6,067
55. 891
5,700
3,260
1,335
18,000
13, 380
6,113
54,502
5,650
2,960
1,395
18. 085
12, 931
5,457
61,968
5,650
2,925
1,395
16,200
12, 183
5,239
51, 247
5,650
2,675
1,675
16,150
12, 137
5,002
51,630
5,450
2,740
1,715
16, 245
12, 265
4,569
51,289
4,450
2,735
1,720
16,200
12,209
4.270
52, 021
5,450
2,440
1,745
16,220
12, 510
4,416
51, 697
4.650
1,650
1,795
16, 245
13.153
4,874
51, 157
4,650
2,105
1,805
16. 240
13, 161
4,750
51, 499
4,650
2,050
1,555
16,400
13, 101
4,647
51,884
4,650
1,990
1,555
16,420
12,882
4,787
53,398
4,650
2,125
1,300
16,360
13,205
4,771
52, 419
4,650
2,155
1,300
17, 475
13, 651
4,796
53,444
4,650
2,130
1,300
17.545
13.549
4.937
53,307
4,650
2,130
1,300
17, 625
13, 463
4,963
54,035
4,650
2.900
1,300
17, 415
13, 938
5.169
54,531
4,650
2,910
1,300
18, 125
14, 138
5,407
55, 232
4,650
3,010
1,300
18, 115
14, 193
5.587
54,480
4,650
3,010
1,300
17,990
13, 834
5,721
54,554
4,650
3,010
1,750
18, 315
13, 752
5,673
55, 107
4,650
2,990
1,825
18, 375
14, 180
5,789
55, 887
4.650
3,225
1,685
18,450
14. 487
5,728
56,196
4,650
3,585
1,300
19,850
14. 210
5,025
56,406
4,650
3,835
1,300
19, 470
14, 183
4.767
57, 357
4,675
3,845
1,300
19,605
14.801
4,905
58,413
4,675
4,345
1,300
19, 930
14, 863
4,998
57, 615
4,675
4,240
1,300
20,075
14, 957
4,652
58, 361
4,675
4,850
1,300
20,460
15, 201
4,842
58,869
4,675
4,750
1,300
20,595
15,234
4,971
59,461
^ 5, 175
4,805
1,300
20, 810
15.046
4,894
59,925
5, 175
4,785
1,300
20,890
15. 391
5,031
61,120
5,175
4,785
1,300
20, 390
15,665
5,229
60,238
5,175
3,275
1,300
20,630
15,106
5,569
60,530
6,320
2,455
1,300
20,680
14, 721
5,942
61, 322
6,520
2,640
1,300
20,690
15, 084
5,843
60,988
5,840
1,785
1,300
21, 110
15, 518
5,884
61, 555
5,840
1,785
1,300
21, 105
15, 705
5,998
62, 164
5,760
1,810
1,300
21,095
15, 917
5,991
63, 117
4,410
2,510
1,345
21, 675
16,507
5,321
63, 840
3,900
3,610
1,395
21, 650
16, 465
5,508
64,052
3,900
3,710
1,410
21,580
16, 375
5,445
63, 872
4,150
3,760
1,415
21, 530
16,396
5,568
63,852
4,040
3,760
1,435
21, 410
16, 592
5,492
63, 453
4,000
3,860
1,440
20,465
16,522
5,409
62,835
4,245
4,760
1,455
20,315
16,627
5,912
61, 651
3,750
4,750
1,690
19.995
16, 468
5,714
59, 979
3,535
4,385
1,690
19,380
16, 455
5,739
59,754
2,440
3,390
1,690
19. 405
17,003
5,939
59,850
2,380
3,290
1,855
19,265
17, 651
6,481
58,225
2,380
3.165
2,395
18, 915
16, 981
5,813
56,261
2,880
2,750
2,415
19,095
16, 732
5,345
55. 599
2,870
2,225
2,415
18, 955
16,561
5,069
55, 362
3,500
840
2,415
19,320
16,447
5,651
50,741
3,265
960
2,395
16,590
15, 782
5,107
49, 632
3,265
960
2,390
16,890
15. 341
4,8C9
50,352
3,315
1,010
2,425
16, 895
15,050
5,007
50,361
3,315
1,010
2,350
16, 870
14,786
5,041
50,575
3,515
1,210
1,855
16,865
14, 721
4,971
51, 194
3,315
1,210
1,855
16, 735
14,528
4,800
51, 014
3,315
1,210
1,855
17, 010
13, 957
4,844
51, 374
3,675
2,030
1,700
16, 980
13,999
5,157
51, 681
4,475
1,705
1,700
17,005
13, 898
5, 416
51, 210
5,875
1,405
1,700
17, 085
13, 138
5,120
53,664
6,575
1,000
1,700
16,990
13, 157
6,380
51,830
6,675
1,000
1,700
16. 870
13, 910
5,456
51,065
6,175
1,000
1,700
16,925
13, 113
5,236
1926
Apr. 26.--
Apr. 27-—
Apr. 28...-
Apr. 29---
Apr. 30
May 1
May 3
May 4
May 5
May 6
May 7
May 8
May 10
May 11---
May 12----
May 13—-
May 14
May 15--
May 17—
May 18.—
May 19
May 20.-. -
May 21---
May22.-.
May 24
May 25--
May 26
May 27—
May 28-.--
May 29
June 1
June 2
June 3
June 4
June 6
June 7
June 8
June 9
June 10
June 11
June 12
June 14
June 15
June 16
June 17
June 18
June 19
June 21
June 22
June 23
June 24
June 25
June 26
June 28
June 29
June 30
July 1
July 2
July 6
July 7
July 8
July 9
July 10
July 12
July 13
July 14
July 16
July 16
July 17
48 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 12. — The aggregate long and the aggregate short oj 69 speculative traders,
67 hedging accounts, and 15 clearing firms, together with the total open commit-
ments of the market, for all corn futures combined, by days, Chicago Board of
Trade, from October 1, 1924, to September 30, 192S — Continued
Date
Total open
commit-
ments,
all corn
futures
(long or
short)
Position of-
69 speculative traders,
all corn futures com-
bined
Aggregate
long
Aggregate
short
67 hedging accounts,
all corn futures com-
bined
Aggregate
long
Aggregate
short
15 clearing firms, all
corn futures combined
Aggregate
long
Aggregate
snort
1926
July 19....
July 20....
July 21
July 22....
July 23
July 24....
July 26
July 27....
July 28....
July 29....
July 30....
July 31
Aug. 2
Aug. 3
Aug. 4
Aug. 5
Aug. 6
Aug. 7
Aug. 9
Aug. 10
Aug. 11.--.
Aug. 12--.-
Aug. 13---
Aug. 14
Aug. 16..-
Aug. 17.-.-
Aug. 18..--
Aug. 19---
Aug. 20
Aug. 21-.-
Aug. 23—.
Aug. 24
Aug. 25
Aug. 26
Aug. 27—-
Aug. 28...-
Aug. 30—
Aug. 31-..
Sept. 1
Sept. 2
Sept. 3
Sept. 4
Sept. 7
Sept. 8
Sept. 9
Sept. 10...
Sept. 11...
Sept. 13...
Sept. 14...
Sept. 15...
Sept. 16...
Sept. 17...
Sept. 18...
Sept. 20...
Sept. 21...
Sept. 22...
Sept. 23...
Sept. 24...
Sept. 25...
Sept. 27...
Sept. 28- _.
Sept. 29. _.
Sept. 30...
Oct. 1-— .-
Oct. 2
Oct. 4
Oct. 5
Oct. 6
Oct. 7
51, 486
53, 199
54,803
54,074
54, 766
54,034
53, 662
53, 219
53, 172
53,041
62, 422
52, 330
52,480
53, 935
54,584
54. 913
54,946
53, 677
53, 446
54, 259
55, 640
56. 118
55,911
55, 277
54,231
54,270
54,046
54,041
53, 633
53, 719
54, 763
53, 996
53, 425
52, 875
52, 017
51, 162
50. 119
47, 523
44, 730
43, 468
44,999
44, 139
44, 677
45, 075
45, 912
45, 768
46, 365
46, 722
46,964
47, 145
47, 397
47, 751
46, 462
46,302
46, 175
47, 452
47, 149
48,288
49, 470
49, 558
49,904
48, 959
48, 678
49, 413
60,040
60,346
50,698
51, 137
51,284
7,470
8,570
7,885
6,165
6,605
6,005
5,005
5,305
4,420
4,125
4,525
4,995
6,865
6,815
6,095
6,175
6,335
6.535
5,360
5,360
5,805
6.805
4,755
4,455
3,650
3,650
4,230
4,330
4,330
4.350
4,350
4,350
2,835
2,805
2,805
3,105
2,305
1,760
1,880
2,050
2,050
2,050
2,455
2,455
3,055
3,060
2,600
2,500
2,570
2,485
2,645
2,520
2,620
2,575
2,625
3,075
3,260
3.340
3,875
3,915
3,885
3,840
4,950
4,960
4,950
6,350
6,610
5,210
4,810
1,000
1,600
1,816
1,855
1,855
1,866
1,856
1,796
2,145
2,400
2,105
2,375
1,300
1,375
1,715
1,745
1,670
1,665
540
640
436
436
435
435
780
1,325
1,196
1.300
1,220
800
1,300
1,600
785
756
155
155
355
200
400
640
575
575
576
860
970
875
1,295
1,655
1,650
1,560
1,060
870
1,210
1,760
1,826
1,396
1,240
1,520
1,485
1,475
1,546
1,645
1,676
600
500
500
600
480
480
295
295
230
130
130
130
20
195
16,280
16, 310
16, 170
15, 975
16, 205
16,050
16,050
16,000
15, 910
15, 470
15,360
15, 245
15, 350
15,490
15,490
15,400
15, 370
14,960
15,120
15, 555
15, 215
14, 625
14, 710
14,480
14, 130
14,000
14,360
14, 165
14,346
14. 175
14, 175
13,760
13, 920
13, 570
13,390
12,290
11,700
11,360
11,270
11,620
12,260
12,185
11,820
12, 110
11,990
11,966
11,980
11,916
11,960
11,880
12,000
11, 572
11, 661
11,736
11, 656
11,780
12,070
12,450
12,326
12, 245
12,205
12.365
12,210
11, 925
12,635
12,640
12,750
12, 756
12,755
12. 816
12,689
13, 370
13, 410
13,536
13, 437
13, 101
12,866
12, 476
12, 326
12,967
12,945
12,605
12, 653
13,283
13. 311
13,722
13,104
12,530
11,948
11,696
11,788
12,604
13, 089
13, 159
13,253
13, 189
13, 252
13,249
1?,509
13, 356
13, 814
13, 772
13, 817
13,835
13,764
13, 574
12,346
11,601
11.722
11,538
11,894
11, 892
12, 162
12, 221
11,613
12,208
12,282
12,367
12, 972
12,899
13,500
14,037
14,026
13,855
14,251
14. 131
14,337
14,480
14, 165
14,262
14,124
14, 425
14,444
14, 918
14, 627
14,481
14,068
14,641
TRADING IN CORN FUTURES
49
Table 12. — The aggregate long and the aggregate short of 69 speculative traders,
67 hedging accounts, and 16 clearing firms, together with the total open commit-
ments oj the market, for all corn futures combined, by days, Chicago Board of
Trade, from October 1, 1924, to September 30, 1928 — Continued
Date
Total open
commit-
ments,
all corn
futures
Gong or
short)
Position of-
3 speculative traders,
all corn futiires com-
bined
Aggregate
long
67 hedging accounts,
all com futures com-
bined
Aggregate Aggregate
short long
Aggregate
short
15 clearing firms, all
corn futures combined
Aggregate
long
Aggregate
short
1926
Oct. 8
Oct. 9
Oct. 11
Oct. 13
Oct. 14
Oct. 15
Oct. 16
Oct. 18
Oct. 19
Oct. 20
Oct. 21
Oct. 22
Oct. 23
Oct. 25
Oct. 26
Oct. 27
Oct. 28
Oct. 29
Oct. 30
Nov. 1
Nov. 3
Nov. 4
Nov. 5
Nov. 6
Nov. 8
Nov. 9
Nov. 10
Nov. 12
Nov. 13...-.
Nov. 15
Nov. 16-...
Nov. 17
Nov. 18
Nov. 19
Nov. 20
Nov. 22
Nov. 23
Nov. 24
Nov. 26
Nov. 27
Nov. 29
Nov. 30
Dec. 1
Dec. 2
Dec. 3
Dec. 4
Dec. 6
Dec. 7
Dec. 8
Dec. 9
Dec. 10
Dec. 11
Dec. 13
Dec. 14
Dec. 15
Dec. 16
Dec. 17
Dec. 18
Dec. 20
Dec. 21
Dec. 22
Dec. 23
Dec. 24
Dec. 27
Dec. 28
Dec. 29
Dec. 30
Dec. 31
51, 164
51,665
51, 924
63, 117
53,444
53,579
53, 081
53,785
53,639
54,024
55, 057
55,888
67, 386
58,439
59,230
60, 035
61, 054
60,147
61,111
62, 191
62,446
62, 175
63,066
64,351
64,990
64,583
64,667
64,145
64,042
64,244
65,688
65,053
64,655
64,630
63, 671
63,606
63,379
64,462
64,626
63,637
63,099
59, 332
59, 141
68,662
68,161
59,502
69, 112
69, 579
69,738
60,260
60,006
60, 276
59,728
60,111
60,618
62,266
62, 985
62,880
62,002
59, 471
59,051
59,223
69, 922
59,190
60,470
60,966
60,727
61,051
4, 810
4,810
4.310
4,450
5,020
5,635
5,605
6,300
5,896
5,820
5,820
6,820
6,320
6,896
7,135
6,775
6,510
6,595
6,610
6,635
6,635
6,085
5,930
7,410
8,130
7,805
6,765
7,295
7,330
7,325
8,535
6,695
6,305
6,175
• 5,375
6,625
6,990
6,806
7,005
7,160
7,490
6,015
6,756
8,290
8,655
9,905
10,365
10, 145
10, 160
11,460
11,830
12,205
11,350
11,446
11,285
11,650
10,920
10,536
9,820
9,260
8,816
8,815
7,975
7,975
7.976
2,260
2,350
2,410
2,060
2,606
2,195
2,020
2,075
1,640
1,830
2,055
1,995
2,390
2,365
2,410
2,265
2,836
3,775
4,095
3,845
3,840
4,385
4,000
4,065
4,465
3,895
4,025
4,030
3,965
3,635
3,730
6,280
4,945
4,715
3,300
5,050
4,670
4,685
4,725
4,890
3,445
3,415
3,415
3,336
3,370
3,370
3,305
3,295
3,170
3,166
3,085
3,460
3,765
3,250
3,365
2,810
3,740
3,205
785
175
175
540
540
750
1,285
1,985
40
90
90
90
100
100
100
100
605
620
610
616
620
646
645
645
650
665
655
705
870
860
870
655
630
140
140
150
165
180
190
200
205
210
220
206
205
65
10
10
15
20
20
20
12,485
12,990
13, 105
13,060
12, 825
13, 525
13,540
14, 070
14, 525
14,725
16, 035
17,190
17, 710
18,205
18, 596
18,990
19, 550
19, 855
19. 675
20,250
21, 305
22, 165
23,240
23, 970
24, 245
24, 245
24,090
24, 625
24,085
23,645
23,655
23,705
24, 130
24,160
24,290
23,565
23,547
23,225
23,255
23,298
22,830
23,025
23,135
23,065
22, 715
22,890
22,815
22,750
22, 710
22,540
22. 676
22,600
22,645
22,690
22,880
22,980
23,245
23, 395
23,735
23,980
23,885
23,845
23,956
24,240
23,790
24,464
25,225
26,565
14, 733
14, 627
14, 712
15,423
15,634
16,664
16,638
15, 762
15,584
15,620
15, 831
15, 798
15,998
16, 034
16,247
16,432
16, 759
17. 469
17, 645
17,599
17,668
17,950
18,263
18, 146
18, 111
17, 761
17,868
18,231
18,129
18,081
17,998
17,660
17, 535
17,188
16, 976
17, 707
17, 427
17,582
17,300
16, 814
16,947
16,881
15,754
14. 470
14, 301
14,425
14,768
14,637
14,628
15,100
15,287
15,251
15,651
15, 860
16,058
16, 867
16,585
16, 932
16, 978
15, 573
16,231
16, 765
17,069
17, 173
14,002
17,850
17,484
18, 189
50 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 12. — The aggregate long and the aggregate short of 69 speculative traders^
67 hedging accounts, and 15 clearing firms, together with the total open commit-
ments of the market, for all corn futures combined, by days, Chicago Board of
Trade, from October 1, 1924, to September 30, 1928 — Continued
Date
1927
Jan. 3
Jan. 4
Jan. 5
Jan. 6
Jan. 7
Jan. 8
Jan. 10
Jan. 11
Jan. 12
Jan. 13
Jan. 14
Jan. 15
Jan. 17-...
Jan. 18
Jan. 19
Jan. 20
Jan. 21
Jan. 22
Jan. 24
Jan. 25....
Jan. 26
Jan. 27
Jan. 28
Jan. 29
Jan. 31
Feb. 1
Feb. 2
Feb. 3
Feb. 4
Feb. 5
Feb. 7
Feb. 8
Feb. 9
Feb. 10
Feb. 11....
Feb. 14....
Feb. 15....
Fet- 16.—
Feb. 17
Feb. 18....
Feb. 19....
Feb. 21....
Feb. 23.-..
Feb. 24....
Feb. 25
Feb. 26.-.
Feb. 28....
Mar. 1
Mar. 2
Mar. 3
Mar. 4
Mar. 5
Mar. 7
Mar. 8:..-
Mar. 9
Mar. 10-.-
Mar. 11...-
Mar. 12....
Mar. 14....
Mar. 15...-
Mar. 16...-
Mar. 17....
Mar. 18....
Mar. 19....
Mar. 21-...
Mar. 22....
Mar. 23...-
Mar. 24....
Mar. 25.—
Total open
commit-
ments,
all corn
futures
(long or
short)
62,129
62, 568
63,189
64,905
64,864
65,244
65,606
65, 451
65,360
66,100
67,385
67, 545
68,214
68,835
69,504
69, 486
70, 930
71, 181
71,511
71,849
72, 983
73,863
74, 423
74,590
75, 432
75,669
76, 101
76,884
77,286
76,886
76,611
76, 925
76,403
76,754
76, 670
77, 357
77,353
77,703
78,264
78, 947
79,023
80,058
79,639
77,807
80,163
80,726
81,306
82,830
83,317
84,164
84,904
86,014
87,768
88,553
89,295
89,554
89, 525
88,811
87, 985
88,033
88,070
87, 211
85,125
84,518
84,163
81, 765
80,154
81,306
81.681
Position of—
J speculative traders,
all corn futures com-
bined
long
13,680
14,205
14,490
16,220
15,280
15,605
16,005
16, 175
16,160
16, 705
17,045
17.055
17,605
18,320
18,700
18, 895
18, 965
18, 885
18,790
18, 930
19,590
20,265
20,500
20,725
20,750
20,355
20, 920
21, 260
21, 460
21,390
21,315
21, 410
20,590
21,260
21,560
21, 855
22,240
22,230
22, 330
23,130
23,535
24, 190
21, 685
20, 435
21, 625
21, 465
21, 195
22, 635
22, 370
22, 665
22, 570
22, 460
22, 525
23,040
23,345
23,235
23, 410
23,705
23,590
23,865
24,075
22,935
21, 695
20,545
21,090
19,541
17,837
17, 845
18,050
Aggregate
short
4,334
3,597
3,594
4,043
3,985
3,925
4,040
3,305
2,650
2,735
2,392
2,522
2,512
2,477
2,637
2,842
3,102
3,172
3,192
3,262
2,997
3,182
3,332
3,142
2,942
3,356
3,196
3,296
2,916
2,806
2,631
2,681
2,586
2,221
2,111
2,251
2,436
2,766
2,761
3,505
3,127
3,399
3,910
3,728
4,108
4,117
4,877
4,556
4,681
5,296
5,076
5,220
5,199
5,474
5,051
5,239
5,179
5,178
5,145
5,180
5,330
5,570
6,345
6,625
6,895
6,970
6,970
7,270
6,725
67 hedging accounts,
all corn futures com-
bined
Aggregate
long
1,075
1,005
1,045
910
910
850
705
695
675
595
625
650
610
585
585
495
500
500
525
535
530
525
665
615
620
695
650
660
600
475
530
530
600
500
490
500
525
610
610
705
870
908
1,458
1,510
1,650
1,390
1,375
1,320
1,350
1,425
1,440
1,520
1,425
1,440
1,445
1,580
1,595
1,480
1,495
1,550
1,700
1,885
1,780
1,630
1,635
1,640
1,630
Aggregate
short
15 clearing firms, all
com futures combined
Aggregate
long
29,208
29,518
29,554
29,579
29,640
29,709
29,999
30,276
30, 578
30,686
30, 693
30, 710
31,060
31,311 i
31, 476
31, 759
31,844
31,842
32,058
32,353
33, 107
33, 507
33,800
34,046
.34, 438
34,852
35, 317
35,586
35,794
35,866
36,186
36,299
36,298
36,531
36,590
36, 851
37,058
37, 142
37, 379
37,526
37, 621
38,022
38,202
38,490
38, 722
38, 843
39, 076
39, 985
40, 211
40,469
40, 719
40,653
40,620
40.601
40, 325
40,324
40,326
40, 362
40,420
40,384
40,346
40,070
39, 774
39,559
39, 307
39, 147
38,500
38,309
38,253
18, 621
18, 719
18,760
18.594
18, 919
18.636
18,603
18,134
18,001
17,694
17,829
17,665
17,656
17,444
17,645
17,569
17,804
18, 073
18,846
18,854
18,429
18,665
18,840
18,806
18,948
19, 575
19,580
19, 610
19, 724
19,382
19,330
19,507
19, 737
19, 736
19,628
19, 751
19,643
20,114
20,267
20,549
20,509
20,717
21,368
21, 182
21,234
21,602
21, 986
21,593
21, 695
21, 384
22,092
22,843
23,115
23,076
22,728
23,033
23,049
22,589
22,588
22,499
22,154
22,616
22,809
22,078
21, 592
21,148
20,854
20,530
20,512
Aggregate
short
TKADING IN CORN FUTtTRES
51
Table 12. — The aggregate long and the aggregate short of 69 speculative traders^
67 hedging accounts, and 15 clearing firms, together with the total open commit-
ments of the market, for all corn futures combined, by days, Chicago Board of
Trade, from October 1, 1924, to September SO, 1928 — Continued
Date
1927
Mar. 26.
Mar. 28-
Mar. 29-
Mar. 30.
Mar. 31.
Apr. 1..
Apr. 2-.
Apr. 4-.
Apr. 6..
Apr. 6..
Arp. 7..
Apr. 8..
Apr. 9..
Apr. 11.
Apr. 12.
Apr. 13.
Apr. 14.
Apr. 16.
Apr. 18..
Apr. 19-.
Apr. 20-
Apr. 21..
Apr. 22..
Apr. 23..
Apr. 25..
Apr. 26..
Apr. 27-.
Apr. 28-.
Apr. 29..
Apr. 30-.
May 2...
May 3-..
May 4...
May 5...
May 6...
May 7...
May 9...
May 10..
May 11..
May 12..
May 13-
May 14..
May 16..
May 17..
May 18..
May 19..
May 20..
May 21..
May 23-
May 24..
May 25..
May 26-.
May 27..
May 28-
May 31-
June 1...
June 2—
June 3-.-
June4-..
June 6...
June 7—.
June 8-- -
June 9...
June 10-.
June 11.-
June 13.-
June 14-.
June 15..
June 16.-
Total open
commit-
ments,
all corn
futures
(long or
short)
81,580
82,563
82, 226
81,446
81, 455
82, 385
82, 402
82, 648
82,800
82, 771
82, 693
82, 913
82,383
82,039
81, 714
79, 994
80,400
79, 680
79,683
79,283
79,300
79, 756
80, 072
79,945
80,154
79, 359
79,306
78,289
76, 115
74, 318
68,468
68,165
67,806
68, 476
68,343
68,263
67, 795
67, 922
65, 985
67, 279
66,327
66, 972
67, 989
69,104
69,861
69, 014
70,490
70, 322
71,066
70,785
72,502
73, 370
72, 873
72, 262
71, 702
73, 123
76,954
76,030
77, 117
78,095
78, 151
78,065
77,502
77, 332
71,846
76,043
75,729
77,858
78,108
Position of—
) speculative traders,
all corn futures com-
bined
long
18,240
18, 610
18,840
18,645
18, 710
19, 570
19,600
19, 985
19, 985
20, 895
21, 035
21,840
21, 270
20, 160
19,285
18, 695
18, 950
18,940
19, 120
19, 625
19,820
19,560
19, 695
19, 540
19, 525
19, 590
19, 450
19, 465
1",290
19, 210
19, 795
20, 450
23,345
25, 261
25, 686
25,311
25, 147
25, 362
26,043
26, 742
26, 687
28,237
28, 912
30, 057
29, 487
30,837
32,537
32, 595
32,400
31,815
33,030
34, 520
34,700
33, 630
31, 855
32, 195
30, 920
32,860
34, 225
33, 510
33, 370
33,950
34, 340
30, 555
26, 740
28, 765
30,250
31,615
32,230
Aggregate
short
7,375
7,450
7,225
7,091
7,301
7,646
7,921
7,786
7,546
7,756
7,446
7,261
7,351
8,241
8,276
8,936
9,131
8,801
8,632
8,638
9,108
9,173
9,453
9,863
9,728
9,413
9,343
8,573
7,914
6,929
6,884
5,754
5,200
4,825
4,880
5,570
5,460
3,015
2,760
3,085
3,210
3,205
2,890
3,245
2,580
1,665
2,527
2,878
1,213
2,408
2,488
658
588
743
933
1,478
1,165
1,001
1,066
1,190
1,385
2,150
2,820
2,775
1,555
1,196
1,100
1.260
67 hedging accounts,
all corn futures com-
bined
Aggregate
long
1,640
1,625
1,626
1,626
1,606
1,601
1,601
1,601
1,600
1,605
1,615
1,605
1,640
1,665
1,655
1,540
1,530
1,525
1,550
1,540
1,670
1,730
1,585
1,560
1,610
1,595
1,630
1,615
1,570
1,680
1,690
1,600
1,520
1,135
1,160
1,105
1,095
1,125
925
885
940
920
970
785
806
865
690
510
585
205
500
440
460
490
565
660
476
506
640
755
865
930
1,166
1,936
1,866
1,390
1,205
1,035
1.010
Aggregate
short
38, 340
37, 969
36, 944
36, 430
36, 410
36, 242
36, 026
35, 793
35, 701
36, 850
35,796
35, 692
36, 685
35, 528
35, 072
34, 324
34,406
33, 176
32, 648
32, 456
32, 432
32, 126
32,061
31, 688
31, 438
31, 156
30, 546
30, 014
29,956
28,829
27, 118
27, 069
27, 587
27, 319
27, 236
26, 910
26, 614
26, 401
26, 423
26, 740
26, 642
26, 565
26, 225
26, 332
26,604
26, 573
26, 518
26,231
25, 949
26, 203
26, 187
26, 282
26, 901
27, 149
27, 617
28, 563
28, 719
28, 898
28, 731
28, 729
28, 762
28, 376
27, 719
26, 695
26, 343
26.694
26, 962
27, 110
27,386
15 clearing firms, all
corn futures combined
Aggregate
long
20,274
20,796
20, 461
20, 544
20, 544
20, 319
20, 371
20, 381
20, 441
19, 791
19, 697
19, 251
19, 153
19, 771
19,728
19, 327
19, 363
19, 137
18, 732
18,094
18, 058
18,090
18, 141
17, 892
17, 956
17, 890
17, 984
17, 338
16, 531
16, 366
13, 737
13,488
12, 108
12, 260
12, 800
12, 657
12, 368
12, 606
11, 966
11, 421
11,073
11,882
12, 038
12,036
11, 497
11,894
11,865
12, 515
12, 213
11, 179
11,228
11,236
9,875
11,074
10, 823
13, 072
11, 634
11,619
12,760
11, 926
12, 241
12, 313
13, 469
13,488
13, 426
13, 591
13, 747
13,882
Aggregate
short
52 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 12. — The aggregate long and the aggregate short of 69 speculative traders^
67 hedging accounts, and 16 clearing firms, together loith the total open commit-
ments of the market, for all corn futures combined, by days, Chicago Board of
Trade, from October 1, 192^, to September 30, 1928 — Continued
Date
1927
June 17
June 18
June 20
June 21
June 22
June 23
June 24
June 25
June 27
June 28
June 29
June 30
July 1
July 2
July 5
July 6 ,
July 7
Julys
July 9
July 11
July 12
July 13
July 14
July 15
July 16
July 18
July 19
July 20
July 21
July 22
July 23
July 25
July 26
July 27
July 28
July 29
July 30
Aug. 1
Aug. 2
Aug. 3
Aug. 4
Aug. 5
Aug. 6
Aug. 8
Aug. 9
Aug. 10
Aug. 11....
Aug. 12
Aug. 13
Aug. 15
Aug. 16
Aug. 17
Aug. 18
Aug. 19
Aug. 20
Aug. 22..-.
Aug. 23..--
Aug. 24
Aug. 25
Aug. 26
Aug. 27-...
Aug. 29
Aug. 30....
Aug. 31....
Sept. 1
Sept. 2
Sept. 3
Sept. 6
Sept. 7
Total open
commit-
ments,
all corn
futures
(long or
short)
78,605
78,340
78, 673
78, 221
77, 227
76, 817
76,801
77,120
77, 738
76, 217
75,837
74,661
74,964
75,502
77, 132
78, 017
77,831
76, 731
75,388
75,301
77,428
77, 413
77, 111
78,008
77,068
77,709
78, 497
79,443
79,587
79, 270
79, 433
81,224
81, 970
81,454
81, 327
80,902
79, 268
79,945
80,845
80,849
82, 376
83,162
84,192
83,161
83,836
83, 315
82,942
82,604
83,248
83,003
83,960
81, 862
82,388
82,700
82,400
83,162
83,391
82,408
82, 556
80, 925
80,893
82,225
81, 122
79, 516
78,255
76, 825
75, 296
72,468
72.760
Position of-
9 speculative traders,
all corn futures com-
bined
Aggregate Aggregate
long short
31, 850
32, 070
31, 230
31, 635
32, 010
32,060
32,225
32, 475
33,760
33,320
33,005
32, 375
33, 470
36,095
36, 365
34, 750
34, 895
36, 135
35,160
34, 736
35, 065
34, 910
34, 725
33, 616
32,890
30,646
31, 166
31, 706
31. 695
32, 630
32,040
34, 810
36, 246
35,640
35. 265
34,445
34, 155
34, 236
33,985
34, 220
36, 365
37,400
37,840
39, 056
38,945
39, 166
36,006
37, 355
37,960
36,995
36, 345
34, 930
35. 266
35,660
36. 696
36,996
37, 436
36,250
36, 056
35, 795
35, 610
30, 776
29, 870
29, 246
28, 765
26,945
36, 275
25, 970
26,805
2,045
2,145
2,235
2,080
1,870
1,430
1,706
2,397
1,632
1,432
1,497
1,602
3,237
3,048
2,844
3,069
2,704
2,854
3,028
1,048
1,238
973
1,028
3,468
3,368
1,258
1,268
1,358
1,606
1,588
1,887
1,112
847
1,107
1,112
967
1,221
1,406
1,736
1,786
1,522
1,221
1,372
1,242
1,692
1,919
2,014
1,809
3,009
2,119
2,344
3,039
3,129
3,244
3,229
3,084
2,784
2,079
1,779
3,989
3,994
3,829
4,274
3,969
4,659
2,619
2,894
67 hedging accounts,
all corn futures com-
bined
Aggregate
long
1,115
1,110
1,200
1,190
1,160
1,200
1,360
1,680
1,350
1,475
1,505
1,635
1,720
1,620
1,575
1,615
1,620
1,620
1,625
1,610
1,635
1,655
1,705
2,017
1,979
1,974
1,899
1,806
1,785
1,900
1,901
1,566
1,666
1,546
1,711
1,766
1,806
1,813
1,860
1,854
1,862
1,886
1,888
2,004
2,089
2,164
2,110
2,115
2,110
2,165
2,290
2,605
2,475
2,480
2,460
2,460
2,445
2,360
2,566
2,450
2,455
2,785
2,735
2,750
2,700
2,726
3,000
2,845
2,770
Aggregate
short
27,050
26,962
27,686
27,633
27,328
27,12^
26,868
26, 659
27, 279
27, 673
27,506
27,682
27, 473
27, 738
27, 874
28,055
28,299
28,172
28,032
28,054
28,226
28,198
28,032
27,962
27,907
27, 791
27, 795
27, 421
27, 416
27,536
27,344
27, 391
27, 578
27, 778
27, 512
27, 162
27,256
27, 058
27,238
26,834
26,762
26,600
26,733
26,508
26,544
26, 371
26,025
25,856
26, 073
25, 765
26,125
24,848
24,935
24,604
24, 671
24,168
24, 126
22.694
23.820
23,632
23, 979
23. 978
23,672
22.613
23,210
22, 261
21, 653
21,996
21,900
15 clearing firms, all
corn futures combined
Aggregate Aggregate
long short
13, 879
13,349
13,267
13,683
13, 433
13,254
13,822
14,368
13,866
13, 893
14,232
12,886
13,463
13,315
13, 055
13, 819
13, 132
13, 191
13,033
12,882
13, 251
13,649
14,322
14, 017
14,322
16, 119
15,503
15, 389
16, 626
16,163
16, 619
15, 811
16,002
16, 076
16, 562
16, 116
16,706
16,366
16,581
16,783
16, 161
16,726
16,906
17, 010
17,009
16, 913
15,650
14,964
14, 746
14, 581
15,128
15, 079
15, 614
16,828
16, 673
17,204
16,826
16,580
16, 187
15, 114
14,682
16,848
17, 679
17, 176
17, 439
17, 719
17,441
16,920
16, 721
TRADING IN CORN FUTURES
53
Table 12. — The aggregate long and the aggregate short of 69 speculative traders,
67 hedging accounts, and 15 clearing firms, together with the total open commit-
ments of the market, for all corn futures combined, by days, Chicago Board of
Trade, from October 1, 1924, to September 30, 1928 — Continued
116329'
Position of—
Total open
ments,
69 speculat
ive traders.
67 hedging
accounts,
15 clearing firms, all
corn futures combined
all corn
futures
all corn futures com-
bined
all corn futures com-
bined
(long or
short)
Aggregate
Aggregate
Aggregate
Aggregate
Aggregate
Aggregate
long
short
long
short
long
short
73,109
27, 035
2,659
2,775
22, 089
17, 178
6,430
73, 489
27, 195
3,076
3,005
22, 310
15, 913
5,742
73, 674
26,900
2,211
3,190
22, 369
17, 265
6,000
73, 670
25,100
1,801
3,365
23, 393
18, 318
6,603
71,845
24,025
2 355
3,370
23 294
72, 573
24,005
2,901
3,440
23, 483
17, 538
6,137
73, 745
26, 245
3,616
3,160
22, 870
17, 559
6,005
67, 818
19, 899
1,325
2,710
22, 243
16, 166
5,845
67,520
18, 925
1,486
2,720
22, 411
16, 032
6,032
68, 733
19, 995
2,281
2,750
22, 552
16, 159
5,938
66,693
16, 310
1,906
2,560
21,963
17, 838
6,052
65,940
16, 765
1,961
2,535
21, 874
16, 792
5,197
66,056
16, 330
2, 051
2,575
22,066
16, 752
5,244
66,350
16, 080
2,046
2,675
22, 186
17,063
5,400
64, 891
13, 425
2,146
2,000
22, 162
16, 138
5,130
65, 566
12,390
3,076
2,575
22, 319
17,003
5,640
63, 926
9,760
3,046
2,900
21, 821
17, 951
5,373
65,043
9,215
4,931
2, 885
21, 420
19,983
6,500
65,296
8,340
4,341
2,915
21, 264
20, 271
6,092
62,796
8,115
3,551
2,955
21, 025
19,280
4,899
63, 915
7,960
3,756
3,025
20, 637
19,309
4,945
64, 813
9,185
4,196
3,015
20, 062
20,682
6,356
65, 174
9,250
2,851
3,020
20, 255
20,677
6,006
65, 161
9,160
3,236
3,025
19, 778
21,033
6,360
66, 045
10, 230
3,451
3,020
19,640
20,876
6,117
67, 480
10, 190
3,570
3,015
19, 539
21, 959
6,417
67,920
10,000
3,595
3,035
19,275
22, 114
6,607
67,500
9,780
3,135
3,050
19, 234
21, 304
6,183
65, 989
9,280
2,732
3,000
18,072
21,807
6,667
66, 319
9,275
2,020
3,025
17,806
22,191
6,859
65, 075
8,075
1,805
3,055
17, 562
20,510
6,685
66,011
8,065
1,255
3,050
17,747
20,689
7,343
67, 169
8,980
1,795
2,990
17, 776
21, 108
7,971
68, 379
9,495
1,335
2,930
17, 105
20,992
8,112
69,208
10,390
1,020
3,180
17, 102
21, 648
9,129
69, 575
11, 070
900
3,170
17, 239
22,297
9,302
70, 685
10, 720
1,510
3,220
17,442
22,627
9,819
72, 030
10,845
1,530
3,230
17,887
22,390
10,067
71, 593
10, 695
1,340
3,285
18, 023
21, 261
8,603
71,790
10, 665
2,165
3,310
18, 052
21,700
8,905
74, 015
9,955
2,596
3,275
17,600
22,505
9,243
72, 967
9,320
3,226
3,260
17, 525
21, 107
8,439
72,975
9,640
2,772
3,185
18,092
19, 891
7,780
71,667
9,815
2,872
3,155
18, 086
18, 522
6,775
73, 519
10, 180
2,572
3,270
18, 419
18,843
6,903
72, 747
10, 130
6,015
1,860
15, 705
18,303
6,717
75,402
10,560
6, 655
1,860
16, 335
18,289
6,429
75,227
11,160
6,975
1,860
16,290
18, 126
6,375
74, 734
11,160
6,940
1,860
16, 435
18,260
6,245
74, 965
10, 565
6,355
1,850
16,090
18,728
6,613
74, 419
10, 605
6,465
1,820
16,200
17,944
6,165
76, 178
10, 650
6,830
1,720
15,420
18, 214
6,346
76, 348
10, 695
6,850
1,720
15, 815
17,998
6,392
76,360
10,980
6,510
1,720
15, 810
17, 802
6,766
77, 557
10,900
6,550
1,720
15, 745
17,060
7,072
78,274
9,775
6,845
1,720
14,995
17, 344
6,840
79, 371
10,600
7,390
1,720
15, 010
17,409
7,103
79, 546
10, 670
7,825
1,720
14, 915
17, 779
7,594
79,642
10,985
6,315
1,720
15,355
17, 826
7,611
79, 176
10,910
5,880
1,675
15, 210
17, 820
7,680
79, 039
10,630
6, 145
1,635
15,050
17,083
7,290
78,788
9,875
6,820
1,685
14, 110
16, 410
7,039
78, 774
9,310
7,260
1,685
13, 485
16,053
6,967
78,780
9,200
7,200
1,685
13, 335
16, 532
6,833
79,127
10,405
6,950
1,685
12,725
16,347
7,042
78, 513
10,500
6,950
1,690
12,705
16,550
7,088
76, 544
9,400
6,245
1,690
12, 655
15,867
7,253
76, 245
8,870
5,765
1,690
12,420
16,025
7,236
75, 449
9n
9,745
6,660
1,690
11,807
15,991
7,091
54 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 12. — The aggregate long and the aggregate short of 69 speculative traders^
67 hedging accounts, and 16 clearing firms, together with the total open commit-
ments of the market, for all corn futures combined, by days, Chicago Board of
Trade, from October 1, 1924, to September SO, 1928 — Continued
Date
Total open
Position of—
commit-
ments,
all corn
futures
69 speculative traders,
all corn futures com-
bined
67 hedging accounts,
all corn futures com-
bined
15 clearing firms, all
com futures combined
(long or
short)
Aggregate
Aggregate
Aggregate
Aggregate
Aggregate
Aggregate
long
short
long
short
long
short
73,640
7,860
7,445
1,800
11,510
15,703
6,986
73,039
8,525
7,075
1,796
11,460
14,371
6,994
72, 778
8,645
7,005
1,790
11,475
14,600
7,124
73,404
10,660
6,435
1,790
10, 665
14,063
7,111
75,027
10,380
6,455
1,805
10, 776
14, 077
7,233
74,601
10, 065
6,180
1,805
10,420
14,704
7,011
73, 151
8,990
6,050
1,930
10,350
15,129
6,519
74, 925
8,690
6,440
1,940
10, 475
16, 148
6,816
74,683
8,485
6,430
1,940
10, 526
15,896
7,107
75, 596
8,840
6,650
1,940
11,135
16, 148
7,316
73,204
8,380
6,350
1,940
11,590
16, 706
6,658
74,857
8,330
6,425
1,940
13,090
16,328
7,266
74,953
8,040
6,215
1,940
14, 325
16, 378
7,241
75, 598
9,330
6,530
1,930
14,550
16, 032
7,296
75,607
• 9,360
6,780
1,930
14,860
16,406
6,913
75,648
9,360
6,900
1,930
14,550
16,288
6,349
75,549
8,220
6,350
2,036
14, 670
17, 214
6,187
76, 472
6,475
6,225
2,036
14,996
17,340
6,818
76, 521
6,475
6,235
2,035
15,120
17,184
6,861
75,804
5,835
7,446
2,045
16,400
17, 561
5,827
75,941
5,835
7,485
2,045
16,800
17,261
5,615
76, 056
6,835
6,840
2,046
16, 806
17,590
5,820
77, 207
5,535
7,280
2,046
16,985
17, 131
6,051
77, 166
5,535
6,670
2,046
17, 035
17, 745
6,616
77, 133
5,535
6,715
2,045
16,970
17,646
6,268
75, 341
4,290
5,930
2,005
16, 706
17,288
5,861
75, 221
4,505
5,480
2,536
16,240
17,190
5,964
76,366
4,705
6,605
2,535
16, 276
16,763
6,684
76, 750
4,705
6,605
2,636
15,930
16,338
7,081
77, 158
6,735
6,935
2,536
16, 616
16, 146
7,423
77,469
5,735
6,170
2,335
15, 945
16, 116
7,535
78, 335
5,905
6,305
2,335
15,800
16,462
7,629
78, 392
6,730
6,100
2,335
15,656
16,566
7,887
79, 470
6,630
5,400
2,335
16,580
16,231
8,605
80, 441
7,520
6,260
2,325
15,840
15,840
8,768
82, 159
7,970
6,206
2,325
15, 926
15, 849
9,136
83,095
8,115
6,330
2,860
15,840
16,985
9,167
82, 992
8,340
6,730
2,875
16,835
16,706
9,240
84,411
9,366
6,200
2,880
16, 525
16,906
10,082
83, 451
9,700
5,910
2,865
15,440
16,480
9,889
84, 160
10,035
6,965
2,870
15, 716
16,733
9,424
85, 974
10, 010
5,775
2,895
17,006
17,240
9,485
86,844
10,035
5,150
3,390
17,325
17,303
9,083
87, 519
8,445
5,300
3,430
17, 656
17,628
8,998
87, 779
8,145
5,300
3,430
18,060
17, 397
9,231
87, 134
8,645
4,516
3,405
18,186
17,632
8,683
88,728
9,745
4,390
3,526
18, 375
17,923
9,116
89,700
10, 365
4,535
3,620
18, 415
17,709
9,065
90,340
10,300
4,636
3,680
18, 665
17,889
9,088
91,540
11, 376
5,120
3,855
19, 306
17,832
9,447
92, 903
11, 395
4,760
3,830
20,620
17,998
9,314
93,008
11,605
4,645
3,790
21, 330
17, 624
9,216
93, 178
11,650
4,115
3,746
21, 280
18,239
9,226
93,808
11,660
4,075
3,767
21,360
18, 226
8,990
93,804
12, 225
3,876
3,760
21, 595
18, 439
9,230
94,213
13, 406
3,876
3,786
23,260
18,609
9,066
95, 220
13, 680
4,385
3,740
23,575
18,483
9,666
94, 387
14, 815
1,210
3,255
23, 475
17, 707
10,246
94,974
16, 160
1,865
2,976
23, 390
17, 567
10,089
95, 899
15,830
1,835
3,010
23,615
17, 916
10,288
98,158
17,965
1,720
2,880
24,880
17, 136
10,840
97, 855
19, 510
2,220
2,805
24, 845
16, 059
11,269
99,285
20,160
2,615
2,830
24, 825
15,649
11,511
98, 598
20,906
2,290
2,855
24, 725
15, 107
12,060
98, 384
21,400
1,985
2,755
24,260
15, 231
12,100
99,464
21,700
2,035
2,405
24,090
15, 196
12, 109
100, 141
21.750
2,036
2,450
24,490
16,325
11.844
1927
Dec. 1
Dec. 2
Dec. 3
Dec. 6
Dec. 6
Dec. 7
Dec. 8
Dec. 9
Dec. 10
Dec. 12.-..
Dee. 13—.
Dec. 14
Dec. 15
Dec. 16-..-
Dec. 17-...
Dec. 19
Dec. 20.--
Dec. 21
Dec. 22-.-
Dec. 23—
Dec. 24-—
Dec. 27.—
Dec. 28—.
Dec. 29.—
Dec. 30..-.
Dec. 31.—
1928
Jan. 3
Jan. 4 -
Jan. 5
Jan. 6
Jan. 7
Jan. 9
Jan. 10
Jan. 11
Jan. 12
Jan. 13
Jan. 14
Jan. 16
Jan. 17
Jan. 18
Jan. 19
Jan. 20
Jan. 21
Jan. 23
Jan. 24
Jan. 25
Jan. 26
Jan. 27
Jan. 28
Jan. 30
Jan. 31
Feb. 1
Feb. 2
Feb. 3
Feb. 4
Feb. 6
Feb. 7
Feb. 8
Feb. 9
Feb. 10
Feb. 11
Feb. 14
Feb, 15
Feb. lO-.-
Feb. 17..-_
Feb. 18..-
reb.20...-
TRADING IN CORN FUTURES
55
Table 12. — The aggregate long and the aggregate short of 69 speculative traders,
67 hedging accounts, and 15 clearing firms, together with the total open commit-
ments of the market, for all corn futures combined, by days, Chicago Board of
Trade, from October 1, 1924, to September 30, 1928 — Continued
Date
Feb. 21.
Feb. 23.
Feb. 24.
Feb. 25.
Feb. 27.
Feb. 28.
Feb. 29-
Mar. 1.-
Mar. 2..
Mar. 3..
Mar. 6..
Mar. 6..
Mar. 7..
Mar. 8..
Mar. 9..
Mar. 10.
Mar. 12-
Mar. 13.
Mar. 14.
Mar. 15.
Mar. 16.
Mar. 17.
Mar. 19.
Mar. 20.
Mar. 21.
Mar. 22.
Mar. 23.
Mar. 24.
Mar. 26.
Mar. 27.
Mar. 28.
Mar. 29.
Mar. 30..
Mar. 31..
Apr. 2...
Apr. 3...
Apr. 4...
Apr. 5...
Apr. 7...
Apr. 9...
Apr. 10..
Apr. 11-.
Apr. 12-.
Apr. 13-.
Apr. 14--
Apr. 16--
Apr. 17--
Apr. 18.-
Apr. 19.-
Apr. 20-.
Apr. 21..
Apr. 23- -
Apr. 24- -
Apr. 25- -
Apr. 26--
Apr. 27-.
Apr. 28-.
Apr. 30.-
May 1...
May 2...
May 3...
May 4._-
May 6...
May 7.__
May 8...
May 9...
May 10. .
May 11.-
May 12—
Total open
commit-
ments,
all corn
futures
(long or
short)
100,082
100, 372
100,686
102, 094
103, 912
103, 873
105, 655
103, 147
103, 088
102, 542
103, 197
103, 433
102, 941
102, 232
102, 144
101, 733
101. 991
102, 323
101, 027
99,700
98, 218
95, 861
95, 255
95, 272
95, 552
96, 187
96, 719
95, 577
95, 813
95, 153
95, 196
94, 912
95,183
94,619
94,044
93, 790
93, 489
92, 727
93, 171
92, 844
93, 079
92, 413
92, 926
92, 846
93, 113
92, 827
92,263
92,968
91,188
90,220
90,083
90,367
89,888
87, 466
87,811
89,209
88,822
89,203
87,590
86,839
84,476
83,393
82, 490
82, 672
82,657
82,230
81, 973
82,068
82,236
Position of-
9 speculative traders,
all corn futures com-
bined
Aggregate
long
22,100
23, 520
23,300
23, 020
23, 760
22,965
23, 970
23,900
23, 715
23,190
23,695
23, 705
23,505
23, 990
23, 690
21, 895
22,990
23, 760
23, 720
24, 520
23, 260
20,550
20,550
20, 405
21, 135
20, 160
19, 965
18, 915
18, 380
17,530
17, 685
17,890
18, 845
18,945
17, 145
16, 760
16, 355
14, 915
14, 555
14, 690
14, 365
13, 550
13,800
14, 410
15, 255
14, 395
14, 590
15, 315
16,535
18, 370
18, 450
18, 845
19, 175
20, 510
20, 345
21, 140
20,700
20, 555
21,065
20, 820
20, 320
20,710
20, 475
20,400
19,260
19,205
19, 5i0
20,180
20,000
Aggregate
short
1,985
2,130
2,185
2,550
2,415
2,635
2,880
3,415
3,460
3,705
3,785
3,245
3,395
3,295
3,210
4,145
4,295
4,650
3,960
3,650
2,305
2,430
2,030
1,680
1,940
2,190
1,625
2,075
2,175
2,075
2,075
2,215
3,015
3,025
3,295
3,290
3,315
3,315
3,315
3,815
4,240
3,810
3,340
3,530
3,310
2,985
2,980
2,850
3,600
3,600
3,025
3,025
3,025
3,025
3,025
3,655
3,905
4,405
4,720
5,105
3,440
3,160
2,160
2,160
2,160
2,060
2,725
2,190
1,970
67 hedging accounts,
all corn futures com-
bined
Aggregate
long
2,360
2,230
2,330
2,340
2,335
3,030
3,355
3,470
3,455
3,315
3,315
3,290
3,305
3,290
3,300
3,470
3,470
3,465
3,455
3,355
3,805
3,635
3,315
2,810
2,050
2,080
2,160
2,135
2,125
2,155
2,160
2,030
1,910
1,845
1,890
1,950
1,950
2,155
2, 185
2,105
2,110
2,020
2,035
2,040
1,920
1,860
1,740
1,630
1,600
1,495
1,490
1,500
1,485
1,940
1,725
1,955
2,083
1,590
500
500
500
500
500
990
1,025
875
500
500
500
Aggregate
short
24, 340
23, 670
23, 405
23,404
23, 980
25, 320
25, 325
24, 340
24, 535
24, 620
24, 735
24, 855
25, 475
25, 660
24, 970
24, 040
25, 275
24, 950
25, 430
24, 960
25, 245
25, 215
24, 345
23, 880
23, 795
23,990
23,950
23,630
23, 355
23, 035
22, 510
22,400
22, 300
23, 130
22, 470
21, 970
21, 855
21, 280
20, 680
20, 665
20,532
20, 615
20, 280
19, 790
19, 890
19, 475
19, 965
21, 180
20,785
19, 550
19, 203
19, 145
19, 435
19, 055
19,095
19, 180
19, 330
19, 805
19, 190
19, 365
18, 705
17, 555
17,640
17,590
18, 105
18, 365
17,760
17, 610
17,550
15 clearinfT firms, all
corn futures combined
Aggregate
long
14,589
15, 257
15, 090
15, 487
15,704
15, 807
15, 967
15, 272
14, 919
15, 2C8
15,817
16,068
16, 422
16, 570
15, 560
16, 082
15, 583
15,518
14, 634
13, 815
13, 186
13, 637
13, 407
13, 230
14, 020
14, 48G
14, 724
15, 4K
14, 639
14, 908
14, 925
14, 134
13, 95J
13, 718
14,888
14, 991
15, 285
16, 859
16, 905
16, 420
16,531
16, 528
16, 707
16, 695
15,566
15, 936
15,581
15,350
14, 957
13, 450
13, 489
13, 207
12, 927
12, 774
12,889
12,988
13, 131
13, 315
13, 416
14, 128
13,668
13, 274
11,873
11,711
12, 133
12, 251
12, 245
12, 251
12,190
AgsTregate
short
11,808
11,499
11,260
11, 489
11,883
11,456
11,607
11,599
11, 624
10, 978
10,833
11, 337
11, 179
10, 947
10, 808
10, 163
10, 501
10, 436
10, 329
10,509
10,806
10,589
10, 409
10,601
10, 401
9,492
9,500
9,596
9,409
9,412
9,618
10, 079
10, 012
9,509
9,440
9,573
9, e<J5
9, 7( 4
10, 200
10, OOJ
10, 224
10, 018
9,947
10,888
11,021
11,067
11,593
10. 710
10, 191
10, 3i;]
10, 43'J
10, 172
9,70J
9, 4:^6
9,270
9,143
9,132
9,416
9,254
9,506
9,077
9,526
9,621
10,031
9,902
9,619
9,902
L5o7
56 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 12. — The aggregate long and the aggregate short of 69 speculative traders,
67 hedging accounts, and 15 clearing firms, together with the total open commit-
ments of the market, for all corn futures combined, by days, Chicago Board of
Trade, from October 1, 1924, to September 30, 1928 — Continued
Date
Total open
commit-
ments,
all corn
futures
(long or
short)
Position of-
69 speculative traders,
all com futures com-
bined
Aggregate
long
Aggregate
short
67 hedging accounts,
all com futures com-
bined
Aggregate
long
Aggregate
short
15 clearing firms, all
corn futures combined
Aggregate
Jong
Aggregate
short
1928
May 14
May 15
May 16
May 17
May 18
May 19
May 21
May 22
May 23
May 24
May 25
May 26
May 28
May 29
May 31
June 1
June 2
June 4
June 5
June 6
June 7
Junes
June 9 A.
June 11
June 12
June 13
June 14
Jtme 15
Jrme 16
June 18
June 19
Jime20
June 21
June 22
Jime 23
June 25
June 26
June 27
June 28
June 29
June 30
July 2
July 3
July 5
July 6
July 7
July 9
July 10
July 11
July 12
July 13
July 14
July 16
July 17
July 18
July 19
July 20
July 21
July 23
July 24
July 25
July 26
July 27
July 28
July 30
July 31
Aug. 1
Aug. 2
Aug. 3
79,806
77, 965
78, 515
78, 055
77, 992
79, 701
81,091
82, 398
83,800
85,093
83,385
82,657
83,809
85, 182
83,407
83,956
84,207
84,462
86,297
87,224
87,144
88,586
87, 812
88,609
88. 358
88,391
84,797
84, 038
83,344
82, 973
80, 356
80,360
80, 327
80, 244
79, 331
79,685
79, 545
79, 455
79, 415
77,006
76,603
75, 873
76, 137
76, 474
77, 119
77, 217
76, 996
77,258
78, 266
78, 331
78, 356
78, 713
79, 755
78,583
77, 520
78, 312
78,602
77, 517
78,768
79,920
80,678
80,648
80,718
80,044
80,224
71,863
72,834
72, 314
74,299
19, 810
18, 755
18, 990
18, 615
18, 255
18,705
19,300
19, 310
19, 290
18, 955
18, 705
18, 955
19, 355
19,830
20, 015
20,510
20,915
21, 065
21, 065
20,510
20, 960
21, 415
20,570
20,700
20,700
20,980
18, 610
17, 910
17, 415
17, 150
17,160
16,900
16,650
16,690
16,690
16,700
16, 745
16,860
17,260
17, 710
17, 915
16, 930
16,900
16,980
17,420
17, 010
16, 820
16, 845
16, 735
16,635
16, 395
16,190
16, 105
15, 920
15, 675
15, 455
15, 370
15,360
14,285
14,055
13,650
14,095
14,220
14,450
13,820
6,620
6,710
7,745
7,670
775
650
650
520
520
575
975
1,440
1,570
1,905
2,320
2,770
3,585
3,155
3,100
3,060
3,125
2,325
2,195
2,320
2,785
3,535
3,610
3,685
3,835
4,400
4,395
4,290
4,490
3,890
3,495
3,895
3,800
4,450
4,510
5,310
5,175
4,975
5,225
3,805
3,405
3,510
3,900
4,210
4,210
4,465
5,060
4,760
4,335
4,930
5,100
5,040
6,810
6,380
6,790
7,325
6,860
6,840
7,320
8.400
8,455
9,520
8,895
7,780
8,175
7,515
8,720
7,865
10, 415
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
855
1,005
1,005
1,540
1,555
1,545
1,475
1,000
500
500
950
1,500
1,825
2,185
2,845
2,845
2,845
2,860
2,860
2,880
2,860
2,860
3,305
1,915
1,720
1,885
2,185
?,315
1,865
1,865
1,865
1,865
2,365
2,365
2,365
2,465
2,965
2,975
3,105
3,130
3,585
3,495
3,450
3,740
3,850
4,190
4,015
3,720
3.875
4,025
4,600
5.315
5,860
6,440
6,615
7,330
7,560
7,805
8,320
9,060
9,055
9,450
17,190
16, 370
16, 305
16, 335
16, 305
16, 265
16, 590
16, 620
16, 730
16, 725
16, 330
16,100
16, 080
16,060
15, 950
15, 495
15, 405
15, 265
14, 060
14,135
13, 535
13, 615
13, 185
12,590
12, 330
12,120
11,645
11,571
11,285
11,315
11, 085
10.250
9,565
9,065
8,825
8,700
8,060
7,395
7,330
7,365
7,230
6.005
5,895
5,615
5,490
4,890
4,365
4,230
4,450
4,505
4,665
4,615
4,705
4,950
4,755
4,795
4,565
4,180
3,815
3,625
3,060
3,240
3,355
3,735
3,950
1,480
1,480
1,490
1,380
11, 467
11,058
10, 653
10, 331
10, 529
10,993
11,633
11, 793
11,336
12,364
11,991
12, 476
13,044
13, 419
13, 059
13, 210
12, 722
12, 651
12,723
12, 466
13, 270
13, 336
13,250
13, 664
13, 399
13, 785
13, 219
12, 942
12, 736
12, 609
12, 617
12, 214
11,768
11, 619
11,100
11,471
12, 535
12,220
12,244
11, 104
11, 219
11,187
11,141
11,081
10,998
11,232
10, 696
10, 353
10, 324
9,710
9,645
10,350
10, 472
10, 018
9,696
10, 177
10,807
10, 451
10, 549
10,450
10,728
10, 339
9,869
9,691
10,439
9,977
10. 135
9,906
10,268
TRADING IN CORN FUTURES 57
Table 12. — The aggregate long and the aggregate short of 69 speculative traders,
67 hedging accounts, and 15 clearing firms, together with the total open commit-
ments of the market, for all corn futures combined, by days, Chicago Board of
Trade, from October 1, 1924, to September 30, 1928 — Continued
Date
Total open
commit-
ments,
all corn
futures
(long or
short)
Position of-
9 speculative traders,
all com futures com-
bined
Aggregate
long
Aggregate
short
67 hedging accounts,
all corn futures com-
bined
Aggregate
long
Aggregate
short
15 clearing firms, all
com futures combined
Aggregate
long
Aggregate
short
1928
Aug. 4
Aug. 6
Aug. 7
Aug. 8
Aug. 9
Aug. 10
Aug. 11
Aug. 13
Aug. 14
Aug. 15
Aug. 16
Aug. 17
Aug. 18
Aug. 20
Aug. 21
Aug. 22
Aug. 23
Aug. 24
Aug. 25
Aug. 27
Aug. 28
Aug. 29
Aug. 30
Aug. 31
Sept. 1
Sept. 4
Sept. 5
Sept. 6
Sept. 7
Sept. 8
Sept. 10
Sept. 11
Sept. 12
Sept. 13
Sept. 14
Sept. 15
Sept. 17
Sept. 18
Sept. 19
Sept. 20
Sept. 21
Sept. 22
Sept. 24.....
Sept. 25....
Sept. 26....
Sept. 27....
Sept. 28
Sept. 29
74,564
77,409
78,008
79, 186
79,066
82,239
81,064
81,404
82, 116
82, 336
80,846
81, 714
81, 026
80,338
80,990
80,936
81,025
80, 115
80,190
79,507
78,967
79, 181
78,387
78, 531
79, 110
79, 184
78,993
78,444
78, 930
78, 356
78, 525
80, 616
80, 189
79,128
79,043
78, 993
78,620
76, 759
76,620
75, 302
75, 470
74,767
74,442
74,840
76, 810
75, 876
74, 899
68,112
7,165
7,270
7,355
7,355
7,355
7,505
3,420
3,670
3,670
3,670
3,670
3,670
3,670
3,670
3,670
4,020
4,240
4,490
4,360
4,255
4,150
4,480
4,215
4,215
4,215
4,215
4,215
4,215
4,215
4,215
4,180
4,180
4,040
3,840
3,755
3,355
3,045
3,035
2,895
2,715
2,670
2,960
3,100
2,610
2,610
2,610
2,610
2,810
10,805
12,050
11,790
12, 195
11,480
12,460
11,725
14, 130
13,720
13, 610
13, 325
12,850
12,660
13, 345
13,405
14, 575
14, 785
12, 870
13,875
14,325
12,890
10, 615
11,295
11,290
11,265
11, 805
11, 455
11, 455
11, 010
10, 915
11,040
8,880
8,335
7,860
7,580
7,495
7,545
7,445
7,500
6,050
4,775
4,385
4,365
4,225
3,925
3,305
3,205
3,305
9,940
10, 415
10,995
11, 705
12, 375
12,700
12, 695
12, 745
12, 870
12, 575
12,065
12,220
12, 295
12, 355
12. 215
12,290
12, 310
12, 330
12, 315
12, 305
12,260
12,230
12,220
12,230
12, 246
12, 276
12, 276
12, 176
12,238
12, 222
12,257
11,849
12, 249
12, 184
12,228
12,223
12, 213
12, 221
12. 216
11, 776
11,594
11,504
11, 615
11,643
11,657
11, 327
11, 404
11,419
1,380
1,390
2,710
2,885
2,895
3,385
3,610
4,090
4,140
4,150
4,150
4,135
4,135
4,600
4,570
4,100
4,130
4,125
4,120
4,500
4,650
4,465
4,695
5,020
5,099
4,556
4,408
4,415
4,436
4,460
4,411
5,268
5,319
5,396
5,396
5,387
5,912
5,912
5,968
6,027
6,155
6,203
6,325
6,387
6,583
6,582
7,299
6,911
10, 611
10,898
10, 716
11, 109
10, 674
11,630
11,660
11, 917
11,940
12,146
11, 722
11,806
11,637
11,403
11,238
11, 269
11, 433
10, 854
11,092
10, 352
10,603
10, 666
10, 973
10, 862
10, 784
10, 897
10,688
10,865
10, 853
11, 089
11,258
11,205
11, 517
11,002
11,087
11, 471
11,400
11, 117
11, 393
11, 108
10,889
12,268
11,837
12, 107
11, 993
12, 438
11,983
9,733
10, 156
9,915
10,445
10, 366
10, 871
10,790
10, 484
10, 372
10,297
10, 477
10,205
10, 471
10,404
10, 438
10, 138
10,446
10, 705
10, 582
10, 714
11,019
11, 349
10, 843
10, 726
10, 821
10,950
11,050
11, 174
11, 531
11, 467
11, 272
13, 045
13, 162
12,331
12,484
12,858
12, 914
12,266
12, 321
12, 278
12,596
11, 861
11,746
11,949
11, 977
11,603
11,340
10, 461
58 TECHNICAL LULLETIN 199, U. S. DEFP. OF AGRICULTURE
II
so
«■«
§S 1
£0- I
§§ S
•<s> S^
<» g w
§.8 &
.2 ?^
■^.2
•<s> «5
CO ^
2i
SI
^ hi?
^
I. s
pq
<»
0
0
1
1
1
0
a
0
1
o-
fi^
0
Z
S
h]
M
l-s
HH
w
0
Ph
w
ft
0
+ ++
m
1 1 ^^r-.-^-^ 1 ^■-^-,-i,-,',^•-^•-csrc<rc^•■(^f(Nc4■c^*(N(^r(^fcscsf!^rc^fc^*(^^^
-^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 M 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
<
'f^-N-(N'(^^c>fc4~(^f(N(^f<N(N(^fc>^<^1^->fc4-(^f(^f(Ne^^
1
1
c
IT
1
1
l>
ex
t
C
c
t
C
c
t
c
c
c
c
z
c
1
%
§5
s
C
c
85
t
C
c
1
>
>
c
>
c
QC
>
c
z
>
1
>
c
0
>
0
;5
TRADING IN CORN FUTURES
59
' ! ! : 1 ! : ; ; 1 ! ! ! ; ! ; ! : I ! 1 ; ; ;gggiSR[^{« iiif^f^j^^j^"':^ i !
i i i i 1 i 1 i i 1 1 ! i 1 i i 1 I i i j i i i i
o»o'o»oo>o»oio'--:)000'o>oioooo»oio>ooo»o«5»oio>oo i ■ > > > i i i i i i i i uoo
i i i : ! ! ! ! ! i i ! ; i i i i i ! 1 ! i i i : i i ; ; i : i : i i i ' : i : i +
C^"c<rc^*c^'e-rMCsc<r(NC>fc^"cs{Neo«M■~^^cceseoc^^ 1 1 1 1 ! 1 1 ! ! ! 1 ! ! 1 1 !++(N«r
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 t 1 i 1 1 r 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II
QQOQQOOOOOOOOOOQOOQQOO
^-,-rl II II I I II II I II II I II i
I I
I I I I II I I
§QO»0>0
I I I I I
O O O lO kC kO »0 lO lO »o ic >o 03
o o o t^ t>. t^ r^ t^ t^ t^ t^ tN.
oc 00 00 1^ t-- 1^ t^ t-- 1~- r— t^ t--. s
I I I I I I I I I II I ^
OOQOQOOOQOOOQOQOQOOOQOOOCOCOI^t--iOeOOOOOOOOOOOOOt^t^C5i
t^-OOOTg
t^ooojOrHjj^
?JcJ;^S85S.
<N"«;^'^'«'ocJo'2^:S:J2SS^22S?3S5^§5J:5S^S ^
5lll:l;?:ll;||;z;;^QQQQfiqftfiQQPQPflQQfifiQqpfifififiQ
H c H c d d a c a d a a
60 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
1
■si
o.t2
8
1
^
^
^
^
c^ O -»■ t^ >¥ ?5 25 CX5
(Necioufeow-
i§ssi§i§§iii§ig§iisi2|iiii
1
o
•B
'i
P4
o-
fU
O
Z
1^
hJ
M
»-»
1
•
hH
w
o
^
i
w
ft
+1, 785
+2,060
+2, 650
+2, 635
+2, 590
+2, 170
o
OOiOiCOOOiC
+500
+500
+875
+875
-<-875
•ififfiiiifffiiSft"^
11
11
m
12 J5 15 S S S S S S2
1 1 1 1 M 1 1 1
t r
-<
5
ee
ft
'"'cgt^
1-
I—
^
§
»-
c;
?3
i:
1—
85
»-
a
a
P>^
i
5C
1
P^^
1
1
Ph
oc
P>^
c
1
1
S5
XJ
?5
XJ
«
i
^
•*
fe
^
TRADING IN CORN FUTURES
61
t^ t^ t^ !>• t^ r^ <
«0»0»0>OiOkOiO«0"5>0«OQQQQOQQOO
'•
i-
+700
+710
+710
+730
+730
+730
lOiOiOiOiCQiOiOiOiOCiC'CiOiOOiOCiCiOiCgg'O'OQOQOQOOQO
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
to
t~
Oi
c
__
CS
s
t~-
2
CT
s
?^
g5
s
^'
s
^
?i
^
(N
«
«c'
t>-
od
OS
d
cc
2
S
«c
t^
oe
8
S
?i
gj
s
^
^
^
g
^
eo
00
Tfl
«c
o
t^
«'
o3 08 I
t->i-»i-»i-»i-»i-»(-jH,i-»t->i-»i-»i->h->(-,i->»->h-»»-ji-»<i<;-<;<5<<<;-«q
62 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
II
o
o
!>• f- .-H>. 00 00 t'.
>ooogg«oo
re<5ece>5eoe«5cfc>f
oooooo»oopooo»oooo
OOOOQOCXlt^t^OOf^COCOiOOOOQ
r-TcOeO CO coco coco --T I I I r^r-^^^r^
++++++++
i I I I I I I I I I I i I I I I I
OOOQQOOOQOOOOOQQQQOQQOOOOOOOOOO
05»03SOT030J00O0000CCC0«OOOOQOiO'0»0>O>Oi0»0i0»0O.-i
t>-r^t^t^io»o»ot^oot^t^t^r-coooooooooooo0i-<'^»o>0'0io«oio»cecoi
»4".-4".4",-H"(Nc>fc<r(NcscMc^'~es"e>fr-rH — I — I — I — I — l-i-rT-rT-H"i-ri-rr-rr-rr-rrH,-H +
++++++++++++++
I C<l PO Tt< »0 t^ 00 03
22g?Jg3c5J5a^^?5gj;
i?jS
bObUbCbCbCbCtiCbOtaDCiCbCtiDMb/DbCbCtUDbCtiC
S S 3 3 3 3 3 fl 3 3 3 3 d 3 S 3 3 3 S 5" Q, as' ©' ©' a>' ©' «' « ID o) 05' « o » ®
<l < <* <1 .<i <5 <5 <1 < <i <i "< -< <5 <J <} <t <J -< M M OQ M OQ CQ 03 M OQ ca 02 OQ Ca Oi CC CC
o
TRADING IN COKN FUTTJHES
63
rH c^ cs (>f (rf (>f cs <^T cs (^l' CN f i (^f c^ cs C4" c4' .-T .-T .
r ,-r r-T F--7 r-T CS C^ CS (N C^ C^* M C»2 CC M CO CO CC « Tj<" CO <N
SOQO!
"O OT 00 (
I CO emo t^ (
OOOOOOOOOOOi
l(M(N05<
III
i-T c<f c<f c^" N (>f c<r c^ ci (>f (rf c4" c<r c^" c^" c<f c^f r-^" f-H th rH .-T r-T 1
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
r c<r c^ c4^ (^^ c^ c^r cs 1-T .-4' .-T c^" (N (^f of c^' (N c^' c^' e^ c^" c^' csT c^
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I i I I I I I
joeoi
I I I I I M I I
S22:i22^28c5gJ?5?;SS^?5S^c3^"^''^«'^°^-^------^^?5^^^^^^
C^ CO ■<«< lO t-- 00
ooo«oooooo«ooooooooo«oooooooooooooooooooooooa)®a5_ _ _ _
ooooooooooooooooooooo;z;:z;;z;:zi;2;:z;:z;:z;;zi;z;;2;:z;;2;:zi:z;;z;S2;:2i;z;:z;;2i2:z;fiQpfififlA
64 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
1
1
03
'S
!!■:-!!
2
^
^.^,^
^
700
700
700
700
1,200
1.300
»OiO>0»0>0000
C^f C^ of tP •^jT V »0 <5
«do
ttToo
«r««r«5««
•
o
1
1
o-
\
Ph
o
z
^
H^
M
•-»
(-1
H
O
fM
W
fi
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
' cceo cc wTiN (^f(^f
l 1 1 1 1 1 1
Q
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
W
<{
1
P
s i 1
o> I !
22S
t-st-sl-5
k
3 0
J 0
5^'
: c
3 C8
sl-s
3^
3 0
i
5 0(
5C
c
-X
'1
"x
1
«
'1
a
1
1
?5
1
1
1
1
IM
1
TRADING IN CORN FtTTTJRES
65
<© CO Cf (N C>f (N C^' <N of C<r C<I
1,895
2,595
2,750
3,650
3, 650
2,650
■!!!
■^
"^■■C^C^"(NC<N(N(Nc4"c4"(N"c<rC«l"el"<N.^''r-r,-H~
1
•!
1
1^
2
So-
000«0««U3»C»0»0«C»00000
»-Ht^050(M(NC<)<N(N<NC^OOOOQOCX3
-^-^••^•■cvfcsr(Nc^"(Nc>fofc<rof(Nc<rc*
OiOiO>C'CiC»0»C'0»0«0>OiO»C>0>'5»0»0'C«OiCO»0'0»0'0»C»000>0>0
M c<f of cs" of (N c<f c^* c^ cs* (^f 1-^ c^r c^" CO CO c^" (N t-h" .-h" ,4~ r-T
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
(CO'OCOt^OOO^'-t'-H'-H^-
;2S222;:22^2Sc^g^?5^S5^?5?5^-co
66 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, IT. S. DEPT. OE AGRICULTURE
-2°
^^^rt F-T r-Tl-SrH r-TrH -Tl-H rH^rH Cf CC C^ C>f C^ ^
+ + +
ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo
(jooooooooOQOooooooooaoooooxoooooocoooaooOQOoooOQOcx)oooooocoooQOooi>-eo
Oi" N CsT C<f (N esf (N (N C^ CsT (N (>f M C<r M c4~ N W (N c^f c^" c^" c4" c^ c^
O'COOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOQQOOQiOiOiOiOiOO'O
^t---^OC»3Me«3«C»0»0'Oi0^iOiOiO>Ot^Oi:OCCrOfOCO(N(NCS<NOOI>«0
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
CS CO ■* IC t^ QO 05
I I I I I Vv/ 1—1 W^ V'J -sj' "^
•*>0<Ot>.QO'-l'-l»-^'-Hi-(rH
S?3S^e5^c5Sc^.-ie^
I I < I ■ ■ lO-KNTjtO i I
,,-v,.^.-w""------ ..ieo-*«ot^oooi— i.-ir-i»-(co^c^
TBADING IN CORN FUTURES
67
;|||§S8
r ci ci c^' eo CO CO (N th r-T ^ rf
^S^^g888SS888i888!
!888888^8S
¥
:88s
++++++,
B88888SSS8S;
1888888888^88
;88;
r-Tr-T ,-r<N<>fc^4 — I — I — I — h
i22;2^22S?5?5SS5^^g5^;;-^'c^
68 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, XJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
88888!
i^ l^ t>. eo CO (
^^r^r-^c4 cfctcSmcfe'^eoeoc^cS'ne^eSoicS
88S8SSSSS88S888888^
+++++
188!
i-HT^(MC<l(M(MCOCCCOCOCOCOCCCOCOCCeOCC
!Si2Si::;2S?3?3?5^^S^85SS
ftD.caD,aaao.ac!,Cuq:.ac!,aapHD.ac c-g -g -g
ooooooooooooooo
OioQOQi^cQcacQtBOQaicQOQai^cooQaiOCiajaQoQccOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
TRADING IN COEN FUTURES
69
POOOOOOO":i»CiiCQ'OiO>0>000»OOQ»0»r5»OOOOiOkO»CO"OOiOiOOOOiO
eoe«5weoeceoeoeo«coeceoeoeo«jTirT)receo
iSiiiiii
OOOOOOOQQ>C»0»C
. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
^ ., 1 .. ^ » ^_1_ ^^-»-^.»»..^».,».>
1
1
1
+
4
+
+
+
-f
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-f
+
4
4-
-f
4-
-h
-f
4
4
4
4
COCOMC»5MMC«fcOMMeOeOC<^C^f(^fM'C^^C^"(^^C^"cfC^^
i(NIM(N(NCOCOCOCOC»5COfOC<3fOC^«
c^4-
Mill I I I II I
JJa>'JS22SS!:;S2S?5?5^SS5S!
ic^co-
ICO'
I lO Ot^cJO
CNCM
S ?3 <M c5 S c^ S>i S N CO '
oooo"Sooooo00oooooooooooooooooooooa)®a)a5ai(i)a)»aiai4)<i>a>«<i)a)a)oa>
oooooooooo:?.;z;;zi:z;:2;^:2;;z;;2;;2;^:2;;z;;z;^2;:z;;z;^:z;!i5;z;:z;flQflflflfiQfififififififififififlfi
116329°— 30 6
70 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, TJ. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE
s-s
it
^ S
ae
CO S
:■§!
00 5J
1. g fl
m
<
•So
mm%\
t>. t^ t>. «D O »0 «C
OQOOOO
0000000 OOOOOOOOiOiC(
CS (N (N (M (N IM (M CO CO CO CO CO fO M OO lO O (
1-1 r-H i-H r-H i-H 1-1 1-1 00 00 QO 05 OJ OS i-l O O i
+++++++
ooooooo
oI^I^^l^J^I^ OOO'
^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^■^^^^^^.
»0»010>0»0»0'0 lOiOiOiOiOiOiOiOkOiOiOiOiCiCtOiOiCu^uliOiCiCiCiCuOiCiOiO
i<pi»«p«pi-H cst^oooooooooor-ir-ii-(00-^r-ioooccocococoi-';c^Ti<-n"r'^-<?>Tti
r C<f C^ C<r C<r (N (N (N C<f C^' CO* eo" CO* CO" CO -"T •<»''' ■<1«' ■
%x%
I I
iQiOiOiCiOiOiOiOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OCOCOCOCOCOOOCOOi-Ht—*i-H»—Ii—*T— It— *»—l«-Hl-Hf—ll-H»—*1— II— *»—»»— !•—*
>oo5a)eoeoeoeoooo03iO'0'Oio»oiOiO»co»o>oio»o>ciiCiO>cio
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
'?5^S5SS?
t^odS;522;2;2e22SS?3?3^^SS585S?3'-««'
o o o a o o o
<u ^ ^ 0? ^ Q> ©
eO'<j<>o«oi
c c c d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d-S-g-g
a3CSci3c3o3c3c3c3e3o3a3c3«cecic3cC03i32c3c3c3^o:«[>^(^j>'
TRADING IN CORN FUTURES
71
eb<=C=t3(3C5OOOOOOO'0»CO'0»0»0OQ'0OO>0O'0O»0»0>0Qi0»0i0»0Q»0i0»0i0>0«0>0»0»0i0»0i0»0u:iO
ooooT-^''H^<-^^r-?^*(^f(^fc4■1-iooc^ooooooooooo
lO'OO'OOOO'OO
iCOOOOO.-Hi-i.-i(M-flh
lO QQ lO O »0 <
00 O Q CO lO t^ (
"o to o «o 00 00 <
>ooooooooo<
>ooooo<
+++++++-
OQOQQOOOOOOOOOOOOO<
++ ++++++++4+
»OT}<-^S5cOt^t-t:-t^t^t^l^t^OOOOOOOOOO'-t!N<NC<3COCOC<3COCOfCi
c^ c^ c^ cC of c<f (^^ M m" c^" of c^f (N c^" rH t-h" --H i-T , H~ of (n' c^" (N (^^ c^^
CO CO 1-1 oi ?5 Ci
ofofiM~(NCf+
iOO<
>oooooooooooo<
lOOt
;sss
>OOOOOOQOO»OQOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
>OQOQQQ'0OO'0OMC0ecC0eCC0OOOOOOOO
■>*'Tt<Tj('^cocofOMcoMeocofOccMcccceoMcocococoeccoe«3eoc*5ooeococoeccccof<5foe<3coeoeo
;0«30tO«boOtDOOO. OOOOOOCOOOO
Tjf^ooaooooooooooooooooooooooooooocjoo
I0»0i0i0>0i0»0»0»0>0i0»0i
COOOOCDCOCDOCDCOCOOOCOCDCDOCDCD^CO«DO
00<N(NiM<N<N(N(MC^{NCN(N(N(MIN<MiOOOOOO
>o»OlOiOuolOiOu:>u:!ooooc^c^c^u:>u^t^^^t^oooooo^"0'0^^^^t:^^-.^-^»'0<»ooooooeccoTt^I-ll-(I-(C^csc<^c^(^^T^
^ ^ ,_r ,-7 rt ^ T-H r-T rt ^"^ r-T (N c^"" c^' (^f cs (^f c^' (^f M ec M M eo
1 i 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 M 1 1 1
JJJJj2;::2::fidj::2d?i?55;dd8^J«>iJJJJJj2d2S22^2
72 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, tJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
s
^
^2S
«
^
?>
J^
o-o
s s
^
1.
.2
r«
<^
?i
^
^o^?h
^
>-i
^
O
^
<^
>
^
o
1?
S
s
S
?
^
g
-2
e
■^
C5J
si
J
:^
8
eo
O
o
^
^
'^
.^
S
s
e
S
s e
£=5
.2 ?^
CO ^
5- 5J
pq
o
H
88888888888888388
S8Sgg?gg
++++++++
S28888S^S^^^^^^g^ggg
:888888888S888S8S8S88S
!8888SS8S
^S8888888888888888888S88888S88S8888S8S
OOOOOQOOOOQOOOOiCOOOOOi
oooooooooooooooTriooooo<
ec CO CO ec w c<5 ec CO CO M CO CO CO CO e«5 e«3' CO CO CO cc^
goggggogggcgojc
Tf»o»i:io»c»cicoc/COr:ccP5iO
io>o>o'C>o>o>o>o»oic»oicicioioioioic»oicioic»ooo'Oicico»ooooo»o>r;c4S
8§88SSSS^Sa^S^^Sa§^gSgg-S;5;;:3^5g^S2i::gS5gSg".^.
«o CO o cd"co CO CO to ?d"50 «D ^o CD cc <c o o i» 50 o'cc'r-Too oo<» 00 2
gOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOiCiCiOiOCC
CO^OJ3C'f^'*"^'^"*'3"^"^"^'^'''5»^"'"5"5'-'COC
■^Tt<CvjT-iOcOt^t^l^l:^t^Oi-ii-i,-ir-iT-ii-ii-HT-ii-(eot^<
uitei^iSuitauSuiia lo'i^Tco coco co co co co co co co uo T»rTir'«jr.^'',ir,H~i--r.--r,-r I I ,-r,-r I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I M
'OOiCiCiOifliCOOOOOOOOOOO
>»«i-ieoccgpcocooooococococococot^QCoo
I'-ieot^OO.-H.-icocccoccooooooccSS
«lo^;::^2^222S?3?5S5S^S^i5S^o.'co'
iOi-ic<>eoTi"cct^occ5 0i-Hco
Llu^Ll^Llt^l2tll^tZl^Lltlt^LlL^t2t_'tZ ^i ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ p^ p% ^ ^ p^ ^ p> p^ p^ P»
TRADING IN COEN FUTURES
73
giOOOto^guoiOiOOOgJgJO^QOOOOOO
"^'^
"§[?f^
escsr(^fM'^5'eoeococo"eo■co■co■(^^co■
8SS888§S8S88S8S8888SS88SSS8S8888SSSg8888S8SS88gS88SS
H I rr-H"i-H'^"^",-H",--ri-4~.-H~,--r^"r-r,-H"T-H"--rt-H",-H~rH~,-H,-H"r4~rH~rH
8888888888!
Si0i0i0i0>0000000<
COCOCOCCOOi-Hi— lT-lr-l?pa3C
lOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOiOOOOOOi
©OOOOOQOiO»OOOOQOt-t^OO
C^*Ml^5e>f.-4",-H~T-T,-^,-H"^H"---^,-^"rHC^",-H'r-^,--^,--^,-^",— '
(N (N c^f c^" c^* c<r c4~ |^f m" (rf c-f n" (N~ IN" of
iioo>oooooooooooc;
I— looiococcQOcococccooooogct
ICICOCXJOCCOOOOOCXDOOSOOOO!
lo 1:0* o lO* io~ M CO cc it^" ko lo" u^T u^T lo i^T !»■ o to" «r <o «r crT ;^
£'-<OOOOTr-^Tt<-^Tt;>OiOO>OkOO»OiO»0»OiOiOiCiOiO»OiO»OOiOiO>0»000000000000000«OiO>OiO»0
I^^SlS-So'S-SS-^A^.^.^.^.^.^^^^ S S S S S S S8 § S S S g? S 2 2 S
I I I
+
++++
&^^^^^§ s § s § s § s s s s s s s s g s s s § § s s S g 2 >.>.>.>.>.>.>.>.>._>.>.>.^>.>.>.>.^
'^ i^f^ "^ 1^ '<>-»»-»<->'-»'->»-»*-» ^^ "-> H» i-» i-» i-» I-, ^^ h, h, )-» H» i-» h^ h, h^ H» h, h, h^ h, >^ ^^ ^ h^ h^ ^q ii; ^
"3 -3
74 TECHNICAL BULLETIN: 199, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
a
2g
88888SS8S8|
cs es cs c>f c4" c4" c^ c^" cT c^ r-T r-T (n" c^ c>f (rf <^f c<r M c^ cs" c>f of r-H' cf c^' M
;gg8S88888S8S88S8SS!
iOOOOOOO»OiCOO^OiCiC'CiCOkOiOiO'OiOfcO*OiOiOOO<
r+++++
_ >oooooooo<
>00000'OOOOOOQQOOOOOOOOQ>r5iO«OiOiOiOQ»0«0
l(N24CSC^(MOCNiO'OlOiCOO»OCOrOt«5C«3CO>0'OOOOOOQOOOCCOQOt>.t>-
>oooooo'<ti'-i»ocsoicocoo5coc^cs<M'-ioo'-ii^ic«!cc5C»coot>.03a)
Oi 05 05 05 Oi Oi 05 Oi Oi 05 Oi Oi O^ Oi Oi Oi O^ O O 05 C> 05 Oi O Ci Oi Oi ^ ^ ^^ ^ ^ ^ »"< »~* *"< »"H
"5CCCOCOeOCCC*5COOCOeCM»OOOu:]>OOiOiOiOU5iOiOO>OiOCOOOOOOOQO«0>--i'-ii--irH
'OOOOOOOO
+++++++++++
mill
I I I I I I
;oggogggoo
lOr-iiCiOOt^OOOO
CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO 1
C^ CS~ (N' c^ c<f of of of of of of (N" c^ c>f of cs
S^?5^^-I<^''=^^''r:idoda!
0»-ioico»occt^oo2^S^«^!
i 01 S CO (
>>>^>>>>>>bcbcbct«bCbCbctcbcbcboticbcMbCbCbCbCbcbctsctJCiJCMtiCbcbO
S 13 3 S 3
333333333333333333333333333
lO) coeot^
ccaco.
f^ >^ »^ Hs H^ <5 <J <1 <1 <1 <J <1 <J <1 <1 <1 <5 <1 <5 <? <5 <1 <J <1 <; <; <i <5 <J <1 <5 "< CO CQ OQ CQ C
TRADING IN CORN FUTURES
75
I ! I 1 1 ! ! 1 I ! ! ! I I I ! Ill I ; j 1 I 1 ; ! ! 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ;
OOiC Q000>0i0i00>0":ii00i00 1 loOOOOOOOOOuOiCOOOOOOOOOiOiCiOiOiOOOOOiOCO
' i i i i i i i i i i i i i it-J^SoSSSjo
I 1 r r 1 1 1 1 1 lO lO 00 00 a> 05 f-t
: : ; ; ; 1 ; : ! ; ! ; ; ; : 1 1 1 1 1 1 ^-
: 1 ! i 1 ! ! 1 1 ! : ; ! ! ! 1
+2,000
+2,000
+1,485
+1,000
........
i^^^mSS^SSm
N N N N N N N I N N 1 N N N N
1 1 1 ! 1 ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
»CiC«CiO»0»0»0 OOOOO QOOQiO 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 '
«D t^ t^ t^ t^ t^ t^ «o ■<*< Tj< -^r -* CO CO M CO r-i 1
+++++++++++++++++ !;:;!:;:;:;;
1 ! ! 1 !o000>00000 1 1 1 '< I 1 i I 1 • ! 1 ! '< l>C"OOOOOOOOOOiOiO>C»CiO>0"5«5>OiOiO>0
i ! I : ! 1 1 +^-of^-^-^-^- ! ! ! ! 1 ; ! ; 1 ; ! ! : ; ;+^-^-cs(Nc^'~cs(N(Ne^*'c<rr-r,^-,^--,-r^-'++,-r^-rH^-^'-
! I I ! : ++++++ ! ! : : ! 1 ! ! : ! ! 1 : : ! +++++++++++++++ +++++
+1,200
+1,200
+1,200
+2,200
+2,200
+2,200
+2,700
'.v.'.'..'.'.
i ; ! ; 1 i i i i i i ! ! ! i ! ! I ! i 1 1
1 1 1 ! ! ! ! i ! ! i i i ! : ; ! i i ! i ! i i i i i i !
S :5' d 2 2 8 ?3' ?j' JJl' ^' J^' J^' 8^ ^ d -^' ^' «^ ^' "^ '^ '"^
majwmwwwwwMwwoSwwwoQOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO;^;;?;;^;;^;;^;:^;;?;
(XQ.Ci.O.Q.Q.O.O.O,Q.O.aO.O,0.0.0.0,aO,
76 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 199, tJ. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE
1
8
CO
!-!
■!!
2|||gg
!!!!
8§|
■!
1
_s
■^
■!
1
!-!
2,065
2,065
2,065
2,060
1
S22
L
o
o
1
O*
Pk
o
!z;
»C1C»COOOOOOOO»C«C>000000000>OOOOOQOOOOOOIC10IOO
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
^
^
-
M
H>
1— 1
a
o
^
w
fi
o
fp
<1
Date
c
%
'i
12
tc
l>
«
a
?
s
?5
s
^
85
g
^
(M
ec
lO
«;
l>
oc
C5
c
c<
e<
■»1
»r
«
tN
o
§
e5
?
g
S'
oooooooooooooooo6«©«®«««®««©®a
:zi^:2;;z;;z;;z;;z;:2;;z;;z;;zi:z;:z;;z;;z;;2;:2;Pflflflflfififlftflflfifl
ft
a
&
fifi^fifi
TEADING IN CORN FtTTURES
77
iU3iO»CC5"500>'5»COO'
nocoooc^iooo'O'OQOcoi
(N l>» (N <M (N (N rH
05 05 Oi Q5 ^ ^ t*^ ^~*
t^ CO t^ t^ -ri !-i ^ r^ tr ^ 3J c^ M i-H 05
OOC<505050t^P*COO't<l
r-T i-T c^ CO CO ■^" -^jJ" oT oT o .
COOOQOoSt^lS
in" CO ■«*<" "O ic »o o t>^ t-T tC
'o>oo50i05Tt<^cocococococoeoeococococo^^'-<^'--''-i05oi":i>o-«r<>»coooooc30'Coooooo
o»oooooo(»a>Oi-i'-i'--i'--'oocoooc>oooooooooooooi-Hi-Hcoco«ocDCT>t--0505'-Hooo
+++++
ooooo
Mill
o^^ocOT^c^^io5C>0'*|^•<*^'*<Mco'o>oc>^^^OO^^c6N^^^-•l:^^^oo
(>f cs" N (N (rf M m' t-T .-T ,-J (N (N c^ (>r c^ M (N c^' c^ c<r e>f CO CO c<f ^
I I I II I I I I I I I I I I I I I I II I I I I I I I I I I
I I I
OOOOOOOOOOOC
(M o o o o o o o o o o <
<0i-(Tt<OC0C0C0i0i0i0>0<
+ ,4" r-T .-T ,-r ,-r r-T r-T T-4" r-T ,-r (N (N C^
lOO
lOO
>oo
lOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
ss\
I lO lO lO iC 1
>ooooooooooo
oooooooooooooooo
0000000>0»OiO>OiOiOiOiiOiO»OiCiOiOOOOOO»OiOiO>0
oooooooo
OOGOOOOOGoSlOO
r^t^t--t^r^t^ooo50i0^coS*oooooOOTW
Tf<T}<(£)<D!DCD'*IQOCOOCO'*r-lr-l.-H,-l,HSJl4
" of cf c>f CO CO CO CO ■<j'" tp TjT TfT rfT TjT TiT
c5c5Ncoco
i2So5S5?;s5
f*\^^ r*\^ rfroo5wC3rto3CTrtrtOTrtrtrfCflCTC3OT'rf^cflc3ci3c3OTr
78 TECHNICAL BtJLLETIN 199, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUEE
•2°
QO>0»000»0>OOOOOOOOOQOQQ«0
^^C0<0'»T<'»tC005OOO^^9Q5Q'»<'J5i-(SOQ0
■>*<<3D0000»OlN«0MOOeC0000f*N-<»<T)irJ<OO«O
++++++++
I I I I r^y^^r-^r^r^r-^r-^^cfc^C^
I I I I I I I I I I I I
oo
+
+4-4-++
iOOOQOOOOOOO<
|00000000000<
4" r-T rH e^ CS" <vf <vf <V*^ l^f <V^ Iv^" <r'" '^'^ <=^ <^^
§ooo<
oooc
>oooo<
oooooooooooooooooooooooooo
OOOQOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
1^ o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
- - - - — "— ' ^ '— ' 2 S '--' S ~ '
c^McoMMMcocccoMcococoeocCl^:)cococc^ccoco^oc<5«^5l^5Mcowc«5cococc^o^o?o
lO lO IC lO *
ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo
lOtOOO
§§S§8SSgS
r ^ (N c^ (N <>f c^ c^' c<f c^ (T^" c^ c<r C^' M M c^' c^"" of (^f c^^ c>^^ cs" c^ e^~ c^
0>OiO>OiO»0>0>0»OiO»OiCio»OOOiOO
T-JOOOOOOOOOOiOiOiOMC^IMiO
r+
l(MCOiO<»t-OOOi^.-(T-l.
HOOt^OSO— 'C^CC-^CDt^OO
CD t^ OOOi I
Ui >-i u. iJ
'5'S'5<Sc3cSo3c3o3c3c3c3o3(Sc3o3o3c3o3(Sc;c:cncc(33c:c3C3CCCC/-v(-v>5,(SfS«
TEADING IN CORN FtjTtlEES
79
iO>OU3ioiOOOO»OiOC50>OQ«COOQpOOO'00'OOOOOiOO'OiOiO>OiO»0>.':!OpOO>0«OpOOQQOQiO
oo(»oirtioQ^'-^-^oSSt^«5<ce5^»5^Tt<co>o,-Huo-<»<t--o5ooop-^^oo^oooocs
; N N h N 1 i ! i ; I ! i M ! i ; i ; ; i i ; ! ! i ! 1 ! ! i ! i i : : i ; ! I : : 1 i : N
+550
+805
+815
+895
+920
+1,000
+1,465
+1,605
+1, 770
+1,770
+1, 785
+1,790
+1,915
+1,915
+2,020
+1,870
+2,040
+2,045
+2,060
+1,960
+1,750
+1, 670
+1,430
+1, 165
+950
+950
+950
+695
+695
+600
+535
' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ! ' ' i ' i i i i I 1 ! I I 1 ! 1 I 1 1 I ! isss{ot2wSSSSSJ22°°'=>s
!!lI!!lll!!II!!!lIIl!!lii!lii.iii!lo5^^^Soocccooocoioooo5co^5J-<»*
! ! ! ! ! 1 ! ! ; ! ! ; ! ! ! ! ! : 1 1 1 ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 : ! ! ! ! i ! i ^''rH-c4-c^'-(N (n (tTcn (N^'~^"^*'cfcfN<>r
;;;;;; 1 ;;;;;;;;!;;;;!;;;!!;! 1 ;;;;; : i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i
PQQQiOOOPOOOppQppppQpOQPPQPOQQOpOpQQOQPPQOOOppopOOPQP
oSoo^OQpoooSoooppSoopooooopoopSopoooooooooopSoo
eo M M cc c<r c^ c>f c^ c^' c^r c^" c^ of cs" of c>r c^ cc co~ m' CO co" CO
ecocooc^e<^OrHOOoOQO-^rtcooo■^050iooQOooaococo•»*^<C(N(^^c<^o<o^-l^t^^^oS1-^I-^rHr-^^^-Hr-^rHt-^r^
^»^-Ht-■•*•^C)0C0OO«>O^-OOC0C0001-^'--lCSOOOC<lC0OC0C0CC.-^T--tOOOOOOT-H1-H,-l1-Hr-(l-Hl-H,-HT-HT-H^--l1-H,-H^.-^
§OOOOCOOOOOOOOO'00"'^'OiOiOOQPOOiO>OiC»OiO>0»OiOiOUOiOiOiOiOiOiO»OiO'OiOiO>OiOiCiO
OOOOOOCOOOOOOC^003pQOOOOOSOcCScO->*iT}<'>5<'*i-^Tt<-^-^-^->*i-«t'-^-^
SoOOO«3C5OOOcCOT}<c0»0OOC^CSCSC^C^<NC^C-4e^C0.— 0000<OCCOC0 55<£300 000?DOO«0
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
! ! 1 ! 1 lio>o^ooooooppooooooooooo 1 j 1 1 1 ! i j 1 1 1 ; \ I \ 1 ; j | | ; j • •
! ! ! I I iSoecccwSoooooo^tOr-cSfcSSSSSIoSoicX) 1 1 I ! 1 1 I 1 I • ; ; • > ■ ; ; • ; ; ; • j I
; 1 ; ! ; ; 1 ^-^- 1 1 1 1 1 _r^-csfcf cf of (N.^-rH-^-^-^- M ! 1 1 : ! I ! I I : ! ! ! ! ! ! 1 1 : 1 ! ! ! !
;;;;;; i i i i i i i i i i i i i i !;;;;;;;;;;;;; 1 !!:; I :;; ;
dd2'^'sd2S'Sc^'?5'^'c5'§'s'§5'^JoiM'J.c'Jodj2:^'2's'2's'|:;'22S'c^'^
. • . • . • . • .• ._• ^- .:: l: .J .J .J .J .J 1^ .J tj >• >» >> >> >> >^ >» >> ^' ^ >' ^ ^ -^ -^ ^' ^' ^ ^ ''' ^ ^ ^ ^"^ ^ 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Cl,D.O,&iO.P.O.C-D.D.O.D.O.&C.(-. U.^ tHi-<»r-t»iH^Hi--i«Hw-'>trivHS-(i-H^i^ipHi-^vHkr-ik--(iir-iiiH>-Hir:t'>HVH 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
80 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 109, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE
to I
Si
eoCQ
^ o
05 ;S
rOrO
CO a,
j:'^
'^ S
I s fl
<
S O
8
1
I 1 ; : 1 1 ! 1 : I : i ! : ! ! ! i : : : : 1 : ! ; I I ; ; : I i ! : : ! I
J
2
o
a
o
1
O"
PW
O
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ; 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
z
s
^
M
Hrs
§ililillilililiii§gSiiiSiiiiiiiiiiilii
M co~cc co'co M ec oo'crT cc « CO CO « M ec CO c<^(^r^ c<r.-c ^ V iVVZuVT iT-ulIillllllllilulal
-
+2, 530
+2, 530
+500
w
o
iC>OU5iCOuo>OiOiO>OiOiOiOOQOOOOOiCJOiOJOjOOOJOJO«COOOjO«29SS
SSS^SS;2;;*;2;;2;^;2;;*sl§ssgss^^^S5;^^2S§§S§S^^§
f^
w
ft
; ; 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
o
m
<
a
TEADING IN COKN FUTURES
81
1 1 1 1 m ifl O ifl lO »fl O O »C O O O O O O »0 O O 'O »0 O lO O »0 »0 IC O "O O »0 »0 O 'O lO O O "O O W5 »C >0 O "5 W5 »C »0 lO >o
o5r4o-icoOi^t^OI^*00505:5'=i*C»OOMoSoc»co;=;QOC<lt^t>.W
1 1 1 lt>•r-MC<^OCOC^COMOa>'OCO^^(NCs(cOO^OlO■*l^5r-^OJ'CMr^O■*00«Dl«»r^Ol>•005(^^.-HM
6,025
8,250
7,445
30
NHiNNiNniNHNNNINNMNiliiliNiliiiniN
lit 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Ill
1 1 1 1 ! 1 1 1 1 ! 1 1 1 1 1 ! 1 1 1 1 I ! 1 1 ! i 1 ! 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 ! 1 1 1 I 1 I 1 1 1 I 1 ■! 1 1 1
O O »0 lO O >0 lO O O O O O ^ O 'O O >0 »0 »0 O »0 O "O »0 O >0 »0 »0 C O Q »0 lO lO iC «0 lO o »o «Q »0 Q Q O O "O 1 1 1 1 1 1
eY3rH"r-rrH"cs'csco'ccM"(»M'co«co-*'-><^"TfT)rTirT}rTjrT^ 1 1 T-Ti-TrH !!!!!!
i 1 1 M i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 M 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 M 1 1 1 M 1 1 i 1 mi:;;:::
NnHiNNNHNiNM||NiNNNiNNNN|NM
iJINNiiNNilNNNMNINNNNiNilNilNNNn
• 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I ) 1 I I > I I 1 1 1 1 I • 1 1
1 1 : 1 1 1 1 1 1 :: 1 ;: 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 [ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 j j
a 1 1 i , 1 1 , 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 , 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I 1 . 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 J j 1 j 1 1 1 1 1
;:::: t :: 1 1 :: 1 1 ::: 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II II II II 1 1 I I I 1 1
1 : 1 1 : 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 : : ; : : I : : : : : I 1 I 1 I 1 • i § ■ i ■ i ■ ■ ■
too>o : 1 1 : 1 : t : 1 : 1 : : : : : : ; ; : : : : : : : : : : : : 1 ; 1 : : : : 1 ; I 1 1 1 ; : : : :
^A^. i i i i i i i ! i i i i i i i i i i i i i 1 i i i i i i ! i i ! 1 i i i : : i i ; i i : : i i i :
+++ i i i : : i i i i i i 1 i ! i i i i i i : 1 i : ! i i ! : : ! ! ! i i i i ! i i i : : : : : : : :
«ro"»c4"M(Nc<rcs"csc^''c^"cs<N(Ncs(Nc^~(NM(N(^f(^^ ::;::;
C-lSt-OoSSt^OOOOI:^ lOOOOOOOt^t^oSSStOCCr-^OOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOoSoOQOOOOOOOOO 1 1 1 1 1 1
TtT^-^-co « «•« co-Tji-^-TirTirM 1 <N c^'(N (N (N c^-c^'-Tr-T^-^^'-^-^'r-r^'-^'- 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 :;;;;;
+++++++++++++ ; 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ;;;::;
i ; ; ; ; i ! ; ! i ! i i ! ! i ; ! ! 1 : I i ; ! 1 ; ! ; : i ; ! i ; i i ! i i i i ; ! i i ! ! ! ! ; ;
:::::: 1 :: 1 1 1 : 1 ::: 1 :: 1 1 1 : 1 1 1 1 : 1 :: 1 :::::::::::::::::: :
lOiOOOOOOOOOOOOOiOiOiOiOiOiO'O'O'OOQOOOOOOOOOO'OO'C'O'OO'COOOOiOiOOiCiOlO
t^l^S^QOC<^ooc»(»(XcooQ^^t^^^^^l^^:^t^|>t^oSco<oo«o«Scct^t^t^c^CMOiC>^oo5^-0305C^-c6»oo^rH^^^>.
t^t^coMo6oooooSo^i=^S?5coMMl^^coco«c^^c^^^oooooc»OiC»t>-t^t-ccM■^03t^
w•■(WM~co■cococoVV^•'^'■^"^■'T)r„'■Mececco«eo(^f<w^ 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
i : i i : ! i i i i i ! ! i i i i i i ! i 1 i i i ! i i i ! i i i i ! i i ! i i i i i i i i : : i i
: 1 1 : 1 : 1 : 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 : 1 1 1 1 1 ! 1 1 1 1 1 : 1 : 1 : 1 : : I 1 > 1 1 I : : : : I : : ■
::::::: 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 :: 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 I I 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 •
t : : ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 ! 1 i 1 1 1 i ! 1 1 1 ! 1 1 1 : 1 1 1 1 : : 1 1 : 1 1 1 1 1 1 ; 1 1 1 : : : :
: : : 1 : 1 1 : 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 : : 1 1 1 1 1 • i • 1 ' • ' J j [ ' • • J i i i : :
: 1 : 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 : : 1 : : : 1 : 1 1 : : : I : : : 1 : : 1 1 • • : : : : : : : : : : 1
mmmmtimmmimimiiiiMMimiiMm
ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
WHEN THIS PUBLICATION WAS LAST PRINTED
Secretary of Agriculture Arthur M. Hyde.
Assistant Secretary R. W. Dunlap.
Director of Scientific Work A. F. Woods.
Director of Regulatory Work Walter G. Campbell.
Director of Extension Work C. W. Warburton.
Director of Personnel and Business Adminis- W. W. Stockberger.
tration.
Director of Information M. S. Eisenhower.
Solicitor E. L. Marshall.
Weather Bureau Charles D. Marvin, Chief.
Bureau of Animal Industry John R. Mohler, Chief.
Bureau of Dairy Industry O.E. Reed, Chief.
Bureau of Plant Industry William A. Taylor, Chief.
Forest Service R. Y. Stuart, Chief.
Bureau of Chemistry and Soils H. G. Knight, Chief.
Bureau of Entomology C. L, Marlatt, C/ize/.
Bureau of Biological Survey Paul G. Redington, Chief.
Bureau of Public Roads Thomas H. MacDonald, Chief.
Bureau of Agricultural Economics Nils A. Olsen, Chief.
Bureau of Home Economics Louise Stanley, Chief.
Plant Quarantine and Control Administration Lee A. Strong, Chief.
Grain Futures Administration J. W. T. Duvel, Chief.
Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration. Walter G. Campbell, Director of
Regulatory Work, in Charge.
Office of Experiment Stations , Chief.
Office of Cooperative Extension Work C. B. Smith, Chief.
Library Claribel R. Barnett, Librarian.
This bulletin is a contribution from
Grain Futures Administration J. W. T. Duvel, Chief.
82
U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1930
Technical Bulletin No. 198 K^y^SS^^/^^^W/ July. 1930
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
WASHINGTON. D. C.
RELATIVE INSECTICIDAL VALUE
OF COMMERCIAL GRADES
OF PYRETHRUM
By C. C. McDonnell, Principal Chemist in Charge, W. S. Abbott, Senior EntO'
mologist, W. M. Davidson, Associate Entomologist, Insecticide Control, G. L.
Keenan, Microanalyst, Microanalytical Laboratory, Food, Drug, and Insecticide
Administration,^ and O. A. Nelson, Chemist, Chemical and Technological
Research, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils
CONTENTS
Page
Results of previous experiments ---. - 1
Tests of powders against insects 2
Materials tested .-. 2
Tests of effectiveness. -. _ 4
Conclusions .- .— 8
Literature cited - 9
RESULTS OF PREVIOUS EXPERIMENTS
It has been the generally accepted opinion, particularly in the
trade, that the effectiveness of insect powder (pyre thrum) varies
greatly, depending on the maturity of the flowers^ from which it
was made. Powder made froiji flowers known in the trade as ''closed ''
has been considered the most effective, that from ''open" flowers
the least effective, and that from "half-closed" or mixed flowers of
intermediate effectiveness. The closed flowers, and the powder made
from them, therefore, have always commanded the highest price.
This opinion does not seem to have been based on any experimental
data, and how it originated is not clear. McDonnell, Roark, and
Keenan, in their work on Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium (5),^
showed that the greatest activity (against roaches) is in the fruit
(achenes).'^ As much of the fruit from very mature flowers may be
lost during curing and handling, the effectiveness of powder made
from such flowers would be materially reduced, a fact which may
account for the observation that commercial open flowers may be
low in effectiveness.
Investigations by several European workers at about the same
time, reported by Juillet, d'Everlange, and Ancelin (5), showed that
the generally accepted view on the distinction between the effective-
ness of powders of various commercial grades does not merit the
credence accorded it.
1 The writers are indebted to L. J. Bottimer, Wallace Colman, and Q. D. Reynolds for assistance in
conducting the field tests reported in this bulletin.
» The word "flower" as used in this bulletin refers to the flower head composed of disk and ray florets.
» Italic numbers in parentheses refer to " Literature cited," p. 9.
* Achene, botanically, is a small dry, indehiscent, 1-seeded carpel with a leathery pericarp, and popularly
known as the seed.
114415°— 30
Z TECHNICAL BULLETIN 198, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Fryer, Tattersfield, and Gimingham (i, "p. 44-5), in a report on the
results of their work with alcoholic extracts of pyrothrum flowers
grown in England from seed obtained from various sources, state
that ^'the toxicities of extracts of equal weights of pyrethrum flowers
tested at different stages of development differed very Httle/' These
investigators point out further that harvesting the crop in the closed
stage causes a loss in actual yield of flowers per unit area of nearly
60 per cent, as compared with the yield when the crop is taken with
the flowers fully open.
It has also been frequently stated that powder made from flowers
grown in Japan is less effective than that from flowers from Dalmatia.
TESTS OF POWDERS AGAINST INSECTS
To obtain more definite information on these questions, pyrethrum
flowers grown in Europe, representing the three commercial grades
(closed, half-closed, and open), and flowers from Japan, bought on
the open market, were ground into powder and tested against aphids.
All of the flowers used were Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium. The
tests were started in 1926 and were conducted at intervals over a period
of two years.
MATERIALS TESTED
The following conmiercial grades of flowers were used: Japanese
flowers (samples 4 and 14); closed Dalmatian flowers (samples 5,
15, and 16); open Dalmatian flowers (samples 6, 10, 13, and 20);
and half-open Dalmatian flowers (sample 7). All the samples were
of the crop of 1926, except samples 5 and 7, which were of the crop
of 1925, and samples 6 and 20, the crop year of which could not be
determined.
Each lot of flowers was examined microscopically. Representative
samples of Dalmatian flowers, consisting of about 50 grams from each
bale, were separated into their different flower components. (Table 1 .)
No attempt was made to separate the Japanese flowers into their
principal parts, as they had been baled under hydraulic pressure and
the various components were so broken that accurate separation was
impossible.
Table 1. — Microscopical separation
of pyrethrum flowers
Sam-
Grade
Achenes
Disk
florets
Ray
florets
Recep-
tacles
Miscel-
laneous 1
5
Closed Dalmatian .
Per cent
13.0
6.9
6.5
57.1
47.9
51.4
47.4
34.7
Per cent
34.0
44.4
43.2
5.5
18.8
14.0
13.4
23.1
Per cent
24.8
19.9
21.0
13.0
16.0
14.8
19.8
19.9
Per cent
24.0
28.0
28.0
18.0
16.4
18.3
18.3
22.0
Per cent
4.2
15
do
.8
16
8
do... —
Open Dalmatian -
L3
6.4
10
20
do.-
do
.9
L5
13
7
do.-_
Half-open Dalmatian _ - -
LI
.3
Small pieces of stems, bracts, etc.
As would be expected, the closed flowers have a higher proportion
of disk and ray florets than the other grades, and the open flowers
have a very much higher porportion of achenes (fruit), the half -open
flowers occupying an intermediate position^
RELATIVE INSECTICIDAL VALUE OF PYRETHRUM 6
The flowers were powdered by running them two or three times
through a mill of the impact type, when all but 5 to 7 per cent would
pass an 80-mesh sieve. That portion remaining on the sieve was
further pulverized in a ball mill to pass a 70-mesh sieve.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Chemical analyses of the powders were made. The results are
given in Table 2.
Table 2. — Chemical examination of pyrethrum flowers
Sam-
Grade
Moisture
Total
ash
Acid-
insoluble
ash
Ether
extract
Nitrogen
5
Closed Dalmatian __
Per cent
6.32
7.67
6.43
6.38
5.97
6.40
6.70
6.61
6.25
6.59
Per cent
7.20
6.87
6.54
7.09
7.09
6.63
6.70
7.83
7.49
7.17
Per cent
0.16
.15
.12
.18
.26
.14
.15
.18
.35
.22
Per cent
6.12
6.05
7.03
6.94
6.96
7.07
7.06
6.10
6.94
6.25
Per cent
1.55
15
do ....
1.76
16
do.--
L82
6
Open Dalmatian
L46
10
do
1.60
20
do
L65
13
do --
1.64
7
Half-open Dalmatian.
1.56
4
Japanese
1.68
14
do - —
1.79
The chemical results show no striking differences between the
flowers of the various types. On the basis of the averages for the
different grades, the ash is a little higher in the Japanese than in the
other grades, and the ether extract is sUghtly higher and the nitrogen
the lowest in the open flowers.
ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS
The determination of the active constituent of insect flowers baffled
the skill of the most careful investigators for many years. Finally,
two Swiss chemists, Staudinger and Ruzicka (7), isolated and deter-
mined the chemical structure of two toxic constituents, to which they
gave the names Pyrethrin I and Pyrethrin II, and published methods
for their quantitative determination. They state that these con-
stituents are present in the flowers to the extent of only from 0.2 to
0.3 per cent and that they consist of approximately 40 per cent of
Pyrethrin I and 60 per cent of Pyrethrin II. No results showing the
distribution of these compounds in the various flower parts are
reported, however. In a later article, Staudinger and Harder (6)
state that the content of the active principles may in favorable cases
be 0.6 per cent. They state also that no great difference was found
between open, half-open, and closed flowers.
Tattersfield, Hobson, and Gimingham (5, p. 296) report results on
flowers obtained from different sources ranging from 0.6 to 1.2 per
cent total pyrethrins, made up of approximately equal quantities of
Pyrethrin I and Pyrethrin II (determined by the acid method).
Tested in alcoholic solution against Aphis rumicis Linn^, Pyrethrin I
was found to be " about ten times as toxic to these insects as Pyrethrin
II." The data available were insufficient *'to show a significant
correlation between the size of flower heads and the content of
poison."
4 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 198, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTTJKE
Gnadinger and Corl (2) developed a method for the determination
of the active constituents of pyre thrum based on their action in
reducing alkaUne copper solution, similar to the action of the reduc-
ing sugars. The method does not differentiate between Pyrethrin I
and Pyrethrin II. These investigators found total pyrethrins from
0.40 to 1.21 per cent in the samples of pyrethrum flowers and powders
which they tested by this method. The pure pyrethrins were found
to be extremely toxic to cockroaches, Pyrethrin I being slightly more
toxic than Pyrethrin II.
The active constituents in the powders used in the tests here
described were determined by three methods: (1) The acid method
of Staudinger and Harder (6), (2) the modification of this method
by Tattersfield, Hobson, and Gimingham {8), and (3) the method of
Gnadinger and Corl {2).
Table 3.
-Active principles in pyrethrum powder $ determined by three different
methods
Sam-
ple
Grade
Method of Staudinger and
Harder
Method of Tattersfield,
Hobson, and Qimingham
Method
of Gnad-
inger and
Cori>
No.
Pyrethrin
Pyrethrin
II
Total
Pyrethrin
1 j
Pyrethrin ^otal | etSSs
^I I and II
6
15
16
Closed Dalmatian
do
do
Average
Percent
0.41
.47
.36
Per cent
0.44
.42
.41
Per cent
0.85
.89
.77
Per cent
0.11
.13
.07
Per cent
0.44
.42
.41
Per cent
0.55
.55
.48
Per cent
0.40
.41
.39
.41
.42
.84
.10
.42
.53
.40
Open Dalmatian
do
6
10
.54
.42
.38
.24
.63
.56
.33
.48
1.07
.98
.71
.72
.19
.09
.08
.05
.53
.66
.33
.48
.72 i .69
.65 1 .39
13
20
do
do
Average
.41 i .43
.53 .40
.40
.48
.87
.10
.48
.58 .45
Half-open Dalmatian —
Jananfisp.
7
4
.36
.46
.82
.11
.08
.18
.46
.59
.80
.57
.67
.98
.38
.71
14
do
.68
.80
1.48
.62
1 The determinations reported by this method are by Gnadinger and Corl and it is through their courtesy
that these results are published.
From the variations shown on the same samples by the different
methods it is evident that the methods are not all that might be
desired. The averages of the results by the different methods are in
the same order for the different grades of flowers however — the closed
Dalmatian flowers being the lowest in total pyrethrins, the open Dal-
matian flowers very slightly higher, and the Japanese flowers the
highest, although the number of samples involved is too small to
serve as a basis for drawing definite conclusions. As great differences
are shown between samples of the same grade as between those of
different grades.
TESTS OF EFFECTIVENESS
As the undiluted powders used as dusts under the conditions that
prevailed in these tests would have given practically a 100 per cent
mortality, it was necessary to run a number of preliminary experi-
ments with mixtures containing various percentages of the powdered
KELATIVE INSECTICIDAL VALUE OF PYBETHKTTM O
flowers in order to obtain a mixture that would give a kill of between
25 and 75 per cent. Figures in this range are much more reliable
statistically than those of either extreme. Mixtures of 20 per cent
pyrethrum and 80 per cent wheat flour (by weight) generally fell
within this range, and preparations made by this formula were used
in all of the tests here considered.
For each test, 15 small potted cabbage plants infested with aphids
{Myzus persicae Sulz.) were used. The number of aphids per plant
varied from 75 to 300. The aphids on each plant were counted, and
the individual plants were then carefully and thoroughly dusted and
placed in the greenhouse. A paper collar was fixed around the stem
of each plant to catch the aphids that dropped off, and an untreated-
leaf was placed at the base of the stem on which any aphids that were
knocked off but not killed could take refuge. Although observations
indicated that practically all of the aphids affected fell from the
plants within an hour, the final observations were not made until
about 24 hours after treatment. The number of living aphids on the
plant and on the leaf was then counted, and the percentage of dead
on each plant was calculated.
Most of the aphids affected fell from the plants within an hour
after the application. Many of these did not move again, except to
flex their appendages, but others crawled about in an apparently
dazed condition. A few, seemingly unhurt, were able to settle and
feed, often finding their way to the leaf at the base of the plant.
The aphids included under the term ^'dead'^ were those that dropped
oft' the plants and failed to settle on the leaves at the base of the
cabbage plants.
At least five experiments, covering not less than 75 plants, were
made with each material. The mean dead and its probable error
were computed on the basis of the percentage of dead from each
plant considered as a unit, and of the total number of aphids on all
the plants. For computing the probable error of the mean, the
n(n-l)
the efl&ciency of the sample in question
formula 0.6745-W Z^ ^^ was used. This was taken as a measure of
EXTERNAL FACTORS
Study of a representative series of these tests showed that the ratio
of eft'ectiveness between two mixtures remained nearly constant in
parallel tests. It was soon noted, however, that the efficiency of a
given sample varied greatly from day to day, owing probably to the
effect of external factors, such as light, humidity, and temperature.
As it was impossible to control these factors, it was necessary to test
on the same day and at the same time the mixtures that were to be
directly compared. In this way the effect of the external factors
would be the same on each sample and the results would be com-
parable, the pyrethrum dust used being the only variable factor.
In order to obtain some measure of the effect of humidity and tem-
perature, 43 tests were selected and correlation coefficients computed.
The correlation coefficient for the percentage dead and humidity was
0.56 ±0.07. That for the percentage dead and temperature was
0.23 ±0.10. These correlation coefficients indicate that the relative
humidity is much more important than the temperature.
6 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 198, U, S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Under the conditions that prevailed it was not feasible to measure
and accurately evaluate the effect of light, but the indications are
that this factor is at least as important as the humidity. This phase
of the problem is being investigated.
FLOWERS OF DIFFERENT GRADES
One sample of half-closed Dalmatian flowers, two samples of open
Dalmatian flowers, three samples of closed Dalmatian flowers, and
two samples of Japanese flowers were tested, 75 plants being used in
each test. The results are shown in Table 4.
Table 4. — Effectiveness of pyrethrum of different commercial grades against Myzus
persicae
Experiment
No.
Sample No. and grade of pyrethrum
Aphids
Dead
(mean)
Difference
error
fNo. 4, Japanese..
\No. 14, Japanese.
fNo. 6, open Dalmatian..
\No. 5, closed Dalmatian.
fNo. 6, open Dalmatian..
\.No. 10, open Dalmatian.
fNo. 16, closed Dalmatian.
\No. 5, closed Dalmatian..
fNo. 6, open Dalmatian...
\No. 16, closed Dalmatian.
fNo. 16, closed Dalmatian.
\No. 10, open Dalmatian..
fNo. 5, closed Dalmatian.
\No. 10, open Dalmatian.
fNo. 15, closed Dalmatian
\No. 7, half-closed Dalmatian.
fNo. 4, Japanese
\No. 15, closed Dalmatian.
fNo. 14, Japanese
\No. 7, half-closed Dalmatian.
fNo. 4, Japanese
\No. 7, half-closed Dalmatian.
fNo. 15, closed Dalmatian.
\No. 14, Japanese
Number
5,584
5,424
5,888
5,796
6,888
6,921
6,371
6,796
6,888
6,371
6,371
6,921
6,796
6,921
6,004
6,347
6,584
6,004
6,425
6,347
5,584
6,347
6,004
6,425
Per cent
70. 1±1.8
65. 6dz2. 0
14. 5±2. 7
69. 4±1. 2
58. Od=l. 4
IL 4±1. 8
69. 4±1. 2
44. 6±1. 4
24. 8±1. 8
64. 5±1. 2
68. Oil. 4
6. 5±1. 8
69. 4±1. 2
64. 5dzL 2
4. 9dzl. 7
64. 5±1. 2
44. 6±1. 4
19. 9±1. 8
58. Oil. 4
44. 8±1. 4
13. 2±2. 0
69. Idzl. 8
50. 5±2. 0
8. 6±2. 7
70. 1±1. 8
59. 1±1. 8
11. 0±2. 5
55. 6±2. 0
50. 5±2. 0
5. I=b2. 8
70. 1±1. 8
50. 6±2. 0
19. 6±2. 7
59. Izhl. 8
55. 6db2. 0
3. 5±2. 7
6.4
8.8
18.S
1.6
1»
U.1
6.6
S.2
4.4
LS
7.S
LS
A significant difference in efficiency was found in experiments 1, 2,
3, 6, 7, 9, and 11. The results in experiments 10 and 12 do not show
RELATIVE INSECTICIDAL VALUE OF PYRETHRTJM
a significant difference. In experiments 4, 5, and 8 the differences
are probably significant, although the ratio of difference to error is
not great enough to establish this with certainty.
The greatest difference was 24.8 per cent, between two samples of
open flowers (experiment 3). In two cases (experiments 2 and 5)
open flowers were superior to closed flowers, but this is reversed in
experiments 6 and 7, in which samples of closed flowers were the more
effective. The open flowers used in experiments 6 and 7 were the
least effective of any of the samples tested. There was a significant
difference between two samples of the same commercial grade in
experiments 1 and 3, and probably in experiment 4, and in four cases
this was greater than the difference between two samples of different
grades.
These results show that the commercial grading does not furnish
an accurate criterion of the efl'ectiveness of the pyrethrum and that
individual samples in one grade may vary more widely than samples
from different grades.
FLOWER PARTS
An attempt was made to ascertain which portion of the pyrethrum
flower contains the greatest amount of the insecticidal principle.
For this purpose a part of sample 13, open Dalmatian flowers, was
separated into nearly pure samples of achenes, disk florets, and
receptacles. (The quantity of ray florets was too small for the
tests.) These were ground, sifted, and tested in the same manner as
the other samples. The chemical analyses of these powders are
given in Table 5, and the results of tests on aphids in Table 6. One
hundred and five plants were used in each test.
Table 5. — Chemical examination of flower parts ^ of sample ISj open Dalmatian
flowers
Part of flower
Moisture
Total
ash
Acid-
insoluble
ash
Ether
extract
Nitrogen
Achenes
Per cent
6.11
8.41
7.87
Per cent
5.07
6.81
7.37
Per cent
0.17
.19
.26
Per cent
6.65
5.45
3.65
Per cent
1.51
Disk florets.
L49
Receptacles
L18
1 Not enough material was available for the determination of the pyrethrins.
Table 6. — Results of tests against Myzus persicae with the achenes, disk florets, and
receptacles from pyrethrum flower heads j sample 13, open Dalmatian flowers
Part of flower
Aphids
Dead
(mean)
Difference
error
Number
8,714
8,902
8,714
8,250
8,902
8,250
Per cent
67. 4±1. 1
50. 3±1. 3
Disk florets
17. 1±1. 7
10.1
Achenes _ _
67. 4d=l. 1
29. 3=bl. 3
Receptacles _
38. Izhl. 7
22.4
Disk florets . _ . .
60.3±1.3
29. 3±1. 3
Receptacles « «
21. Oil. 8
11.7
8 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 198, TJ. 8. DEPT. OF AGRICXJLTUKB
The results in Table 6 show that the seeds are the most effective,
the disk florets next, and the receptacles the least effective and that
the differences are in every case significant. These results agree with
those previously reported (5), which showed that the relative effec-
tiveness against roaches (time required to kill) of the flower parts,
beginning with the most efficient, are as follows: Fruit (achenes)
disk florets, receptacles, ray florets, and involucre.
As the achenes are the most effective portion of the flower, it would
seem that the more mature flower would have the greatest insecti-
cidal value, although this is contrary to the general opinion of the
pyrethrum trade, which considers the closed flower superior to the
open flower. An explanation of this may lie in the fact that in the
open or mature flower the achenes are shed rather readily and may
often be lost during curing or sift out of the bales, so that the material
when ground consists largely of receptacles, which the tests show are
much less effective. Examination of commercial samples of open
flower collected at the ports of entry frequently shows that a large
proportion of the achenes has been lost.
The foregoing tests were made with 20 per cent pyrethrum and
should not be considered as indicating the actual effectiveness of these
pyrethrums, as all of them no doubt would be effective against the
insects ordinarily controlled by pyrethrum if used undiluted.
CONCLUSIONS
On the basis of the experiments and tests here reported, neither
the commercial grade of pyrethrum flowers nor the locality in which
the plants were grown can be accepted as giving an accurate criterion
of the effectiveness of the product against insects. These experi-
ments also show that there may be a greater difference in efficiency
between two samples of the same commercial grade than between two
samples of different commercial grades. This difference in effective-
ness may be due to, or influenced by, one or more of the following
factors: (1) Pyrethrums of different varieties, or grown under differ-
ent climatic and soil conditions, may contain different amounts of
the active constituents (i), (4), and (2) conditions existing at the time
of harvesting and the method of curing the flowers as well as the con-
ditions encountered in shipping and storing them probably have an
influence on their effectiveness. It is impossible under commercial
conditions to harvest the product when all flowers are in exactly the
the same stage of growth. Furthermore, open (mature) flowers are
Hkely to have lost a certain proportion of the achenes, which are
the most effective portion of the flowers.
Tests with the powdered achenes showed them to be significantly
more effective than the disk florets and the disk florets more effective
than the receptacles. In view of this, and the further fact that the
greatest yield is secured when the achenes have reached maturity,
it would appear that the most economical time to harvest the flowers
would be when fully ripened, provided the crop can be handled so as
to avoid loss of the achenes.
¥
EELATIVE INSECTICIDAL VALUE OF PYKETHRUM 9
LITERATURE CITED
(1) Fryer, J. C. F., Tattersfield, F., and Gimingham, C. T.
1928. ENGLISH-GROWN PYRETHRUM AS AN INSECTICIDE. I. Ann. Appl.
Biol. 15: 423-445.
(2) Gnadinger, C. B., and Corl, C. S.
1929. STUDIES on PYRETHRUM FLOWERS. I. THE QUANTITATIVE DETER-
MINATION OF THE ACTIVE PRINCIPLES. JouF. Amer. Chem. See.
51: 3054-3064.
(3) JuiLLET, A. d'Everlange, M., and Ancelin, M.
1924. LE PYR]fcTHRE INSECTICIDE DE DALMATIE. ORIGINS, CULTURE,
PRINCIPES ACTIFS, APPLICATIONS A l' AGRICULTURE. Min. Com.
et Indus., Off. Natl. Mati^res V6g. [France], Not. 16, 236 p.,
illus.
(4) Kazanetski, N.
1928. LES ENNEMIS DU CHRYSANTH^ME (pYRIjTHRE) DE DALMATIE EN
RAPPORT AVEC LA DEGENERATION DE LA PLANTE. Rev. Appl.
Ent. (A) 16 (pt. 5): 216.
(5) McDonnell, C. C., Roark, R. C., and Keenan, G. L.
1920. INSECT POWDER. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 824, 100 p., illus. (Revised,
1926.)
(6) Staudinger, H., and Harder, H.
1927. INSEKTENTOTENDE STOFFE. 12. MITTEILUNG. tJBER DIE GE-
haltsbestimmung des insektenpulvers. Ann. Acad. Sci.
Fennicae v. 29, no. 18, 14 p.
(7) and Ruzicka, L.
1924. INSEKTENTOTENDE STOFFE. I. UBER ISOLIERUNQ AND KONSTITO-
TION DES WIRKSAMEN TEILES DES DALMATINISCHEN INSEKTEN-
PULVERS. Helvetica Chim. Acta 7: 177-201.
(8) Tattersfield, F., Hobson, R. P., and Gimingham, C. T.
1929. PYRETHRINS I AND II. THEIR INSECTICIDAL VALUE AND ESTIMATION
IN PYRETHRUM (CHRYSANTHEMUM CINERARIAEFOLIUM) . JOUT.
Agr. Sci. 19 (pt. 2): 266-296, illus.
ORGANIZATION OF THE
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
Jane 16, 1930
Secretary of Agriculture Arthur M. Hydb.
Assistant Secretary R. W. Dunlap.
Director of Scientific Work A. F. Woods.
Director of Regulatory Work Walter G. Campbell.
Director of Extension Work C. W. Warburton.
Director of Personnel and Business Adminis- W. W. Stockbergeb.
tration. ^
Director of Information M.S. Eisenhower.
Solicitor E. L. Marshall.
Weather Bureau Charles F. Marvin, Chief,
Bureau of Animal Industry John R. Mohler, Chief.
Bureau of Dairy Industry O. E. Reed, Chief.
Bureau of Plant Industry William A. Taylor, Chief.
Forest Service R. Y. Stuart, Chief.
Bureau of Chemistry and Soils H. G. Knight, Chief.
Bureau of Entomology C. L. Marlatt, Chief.
Bureau of Biological Survey Paul G. Redington, Chief.
Bureau of Public Roads Thomas H. MacDonald, C/w'e/.
Bureau of Agricultural Economics Nils A. Olsen, Chief.
Bureau of Home Economics Louise Stanley, C/iie/.
Plant Quarantine and Control Administra- Lee A. Strong, Chief,
tion.
Grain Futures Administration J. W. T. Duval, Chief.
Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration.. Walter G. Campbell, Director of
Regulatory Work, in Charge.
Office of Experiment Stations , Chief.
Office of Cooperative Extension Work C. B. Smith, Chief.
Library Claribel R. Barnett, Librarian.
This bulletin is a joint contribution from
Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration- W. G. Campbell, Director of Regu-
latory Work, in Charge.
Insecticide Control C.C. McDonnell, Principal Chem-
ist, in Charge.
Microanalytical Laboratory B. J. Howard, Principal Micro-
scopist, in Charge.
Bureau of Chemistry and Soils H. G. Knight, Chief,
Chemical and Technological Research C. A. Browne, Chief,
10
S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1930
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. O. Price 6 cents
Technical Bulletin No. 197
October, 1930
MILLING
AND BAKING QUALITIES
OF WORLD WHEATS
BY
D. A. COLEMAN
Senior Marketing Specialist, Grain Division .
OWEN L. DAWSON
Senior Agricultural Economist, Division of Statistical and Historical Research
ALFRED CHRISTIE
Assistant Marketing Economist, Grain Division
H. B. DIXON
Assistant Chemist
H. C. FELLOWS
Assistant Marketing Economist
J. F. HAYES
Senior Laboratory Aid
ELWOOD HOFFECKER
Senior Laboratory Aid
J. H. SHOLLENBERGER
Formerly Marketing Economist
and
W. K. MARSHALL
Formerly Assistant Marketing Economist, Bureau of Agricultural Economics
United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. d
Price 35 cents
Q*
O
cs
d
lO
o
a
o
<D
to a
ro -H
• O
K3 rH
J3
0) o
- ^ t*
CVi -^ bO
iD ^ ^
o
S 5 -
is °
g 5
o
jcx -^ (A
ai ='
<D
&5
to
lO
a
r3
0)
OS
CO o
<D ^
r-l CO
a ©
CO -H
(D
ft
CQ
73
O
■H
®
bO
bO -^
u ©
^^ W
©
4->
©
<i^ 'H ^ to
g) 5 t s
2 s
Technical Bulletin No. 197
October, 1930
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF
WORLD WHEATS
By D. A. Coleman, Senior Marketing Specialist, Gram Division; Owen L. Daw-
son, Senior Agricultural Economist, Division of Statistical and Historical Research;
Alfred CnmsTiii, Assistant Marketing Economist, Grain Division; H. B. Dixon,
Assistant Chemist; H. C. Fellows, Assistant Marketing Economist; J. F. Hayes,
Senior Laboratory Aid; Elwood Hoffecker, Senior Laboratory Aid; J. H.
Shollenberger, formerly Marketing Economist; and W. K. Marshall,
formerly Assistant Marketing Economist, Bureau of Agricultural Economics ^
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction 1
Source of samples. 6
Factors determining the milling and baking
quality of wheat 9
Methods of analysis used 11
Grain grading methods 11
Chemical methods . 12
Milling methods 12
Baking method 16
Method of presentation of data 19
Milling and baking qualities of North Amer-
ican wheats:
Canada.. 20
Mexico 43
United States 44
Milling and baking qualities of South Amer-
ican wheats:
Argentina 78
Chile 95
Uruguay 97
Milling and baking qualities of European
wheats:
Belgium 99
Bulgaria 103
Czechoslovakia 107
Denmark 109
England 111
Estonia 115
Germany 118
Greece. 123
Hungary 125
Ireland 127
Page
Milling and baking qualities of European
wheats— Continued.
Italy- 130
Latvia. -- 136
Lithuania 139
. Netherlands 141
Norway 145
Poland 148
Russia ^ 151
Scotland 158
Spain and Portugal 161
Sweden 166
Switzerland 170
Milling and baking qualities of wheats grown
in Africa:
Egypt 174
Morocco 177
Tunis 179
Union of South Africa 182
Milling and baking qualities of Asiatic
wheats:
India 187
Iraq.. 194
Japan 197
Palestine 201
Other Asiatic countries 203
Milling and baking qualities of wheats grown
in Oceania:
Australia 203
New Zealand- 213
Summary 216
Literature cited 223
INTRODUCTION
World production of wheat, excluding that produced in Russia and
China, in 1928 was nearly 3,900,000,000 bushels, according to the
statistics compiled by the United States Department of Agriculture,
which are given in Table 1. Grown as it is under a wide range of
1 For supplying samples of export material, thanks are extended to the Office of Foreign Plant Intro-
duction of the Bureau of Plant Industry, to the Superintendence Co., and to certain foreign agriculturists.
To Ray Weaver, principal scientific aid, Bureau of Agricultural Economics, credit is given for baking
a number of the samples. '
112424°— 30 1
2 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
soil, climatic, and topographical conditions, this wheat necessarily
varies considerably in its adaptability to milling and baking purposes.
Earlier attempts to classify the milling and baking qualities of wheat
grown throughout the world have not been successful because such
data as are available have been obtained in many different laborato-
ries which use widely different methods of analysis.
In recognition of the need for information relative to the milling
and baking properties of the wheat grown throughout the world as
essential to economical marketing and utilization of the world's wheat
crop, plans were made by the United States Department of Agricul-
ture, through the grain division of the Bureau of Agricultural Eco-
nomics, to obtain such information.
Requests were made of every wheat-producing country for samples
of wheat to be milled and baked into bread by a standardized milling
and baking procedure. As a result of these requests, wheat was
obtained from 38 countries distributed through the two hemispheres.
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
S 4j^ ococ
>2S
<1
> ^ T^ r^ CO cs
' SroQO
«> iC CO !D '
c5 CO >-i ^ I
Tj<ooaiioooooocooo5^'
i^coooojcxj-'ri^OTt^asoas'^i
(Mcoo5t^?5oicioMicoo-^evi(
CO to ITS
0>(Nt-t^
> CO »o o »o
WOiCOO
t^T»<r-HC35 (M -H rr t- lO ^ ■>*<
■a ::
C<t(X) lOOi i-H «0 00 <
^^^^t^C<ICOCOTt<
C'l'O^COCOOt^-^OS'-^ __
lOM^i-Hoooies^cooo-^oeocot^-^
«3t^Ttl-^OiOOOCOt-030
o r~ ■<*< CO m
OQO OCO OiMO(
1-t l-H C5 •»*< r-l (
orot^ooco(No05iOT*Hcooco-^Tt<coo5f02t;cocoe<>
t^CSC^COCO^COOS^OCDTt^OOCOCOMOOOOTfOC^QOO
§1^
Oi 05 O CO O Ol lO O CO <C t^ O I O O C< lO »0 05 lO Oi C^ CO
co03«5cx5t^coodC3(N"^'rH>-H iodcocoidt--^coc<i»-Ho6'<s5
CO CO CO CO C>^ CO •* TJH TtKM (>> T-( 1 1— I CO CO CS C^ M C^ i-l T-l .-I
uOC^COOOC^i-HCOC^lOiOi— iTfccOOl-'tiOlt^O^'OiOOOO
M CO lo i-I Tt< 00 ■^' o '-< oJ rH CO o "O ci t^ CO lo 03 c<i o lo im'
COCOCOtJ<(MC<1CO-*'^'— l(N>-lr-(i-ICO(NlM(MrHi-l.-li-lr-l
"^oooooo
■Si>Tt<odod
)t^t^oocoo5ooco(M-*a30i— ic><-*>-^c350c<>i-Hioo'o
_iodt^05cd'-H-<^T-it6c5t^coo6odcoTtI<
CO CO CO CO (N CO CO ■^ CO --I I— I T-l rH CO (N 1
;OCTiO<N
; cc5 CO lOOJ
05icooco<ci^'*»oo50iocoo5CSi-ico'<*<coooo5ooi-n>-
01
■^oot^-co
C^OlOS-^iOOOrH.— i5000t^t>-OOtDCOCOC<10eOCDTj<t^t^
fit
looiot^o^
«^1
CJJ»0^-*<
) COt^CS
.-( Tj< TJH ,-< (M t^ V,
2: •* t^ CO
■ B ?f X'^-
CO t- CO rt< »C ■«ti ■* (
I CO "—I CO »o
COC^t-»tS>OC»COCO
I^CO o
CO C^ lO t~-
53 00 05 cs
00O<N rt
^ lO 05.-I '-I
CO to »o O lO
COO^ <N
CO CO CO
COI^CO
^31 CO CO
.-I ■«*« Tj< ^ (M t^
ooo
(NiMOOiO
COIN
C^I-^C^^iOCOiOl--.
CO»OCOl^t^CO-^lM
rH CO 05t^0'-l rt
(NOi-i(N
t^OlM CO 00
1 lo o >d o t>-
CO rHco-^r-Tc^oo
COOC^l
. ■<*< Tt< t^ (N IM
■^COfNOiOt^CO^
i-( CO lo Tfi o «o 1— I
CO CO CO »0 CO
cO'<*<'OC0O5
»OQ00
t>. 05 O
o CO o
r-r(Nt>r
'c^S
00 Tt< t^ o
CO O IM O
) Oi lO 00 C<1 C<) -^ <
iO(N t^>-H (
l-H TflO
§'S®3
-3
-u 3
K q fl aj,
T} a 9. o.
® ct:^
£
CD
O^S«'332Q,o'3'k«3S33£D3
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, V. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTtJRE
8
•t
Si
Sh
>»-•
<
Oi t^ 05 t'^ 05 Oi
I ^ C^ CO •<»« O 00 t^
^ ec eo to 05 •<*" "2
JS 9> t^ CO t^ 'C oo
: vOC><«5oSo6
oj ^ r-* 00 QO 05 r*
oeowe
§^ <-H '«• t»
00 »^«c«>c2
^ NIC I
00 on o I
00 (5a<r 1
OP« oew ■*»
is oS-^"
2S SC:255
00<O -^"O
-^s
?o
si SIS-
^1 S2
to ■-• 00 op 05 o
03 OJ is
^tO^NOOOStO
rfi 00 to •« ■»*< p cm'
I ^-
•2 c» 00 CM ^ CM 00
*)
<; 00 1^00 to-^oi
•2 CM 00 CM f<5 t^ 1
•« CO CO lO '9' 20 — 1
lOtOOCMiO'
to to to •«*' O I
"SOiO-^OO^CM
■g C5 "o t-^ >c t~^ c5
I
eocoo>o
ooo toco
t*c^o»«o
OOOtOJO
OtN. t^»-(O00
tcjtdt^^
»ot>. ecooo>o
09 o 5(5 "-J CO 00
to 00 to CM
©•* osco^oo
cm' ^ CO .-; (3> -J
t^O Pioeco
ill
l^li
8 ss=:s
i-H to too u?
„ O t^ >« t-» Tj< -H
SOiOOO
too»o
CO -<»<■* to
I^ p toos
^ toeoc^oscx
i^OCM
i-*^; fo
I t^OO »o
:;-§«
l-l-H tO»C 1
05 r^ -^os
S -^
CM to CM CM
t^-HO to
eMTt<T»<-««<
l«0 rt 00
2|5S?5-i
8552:
t^ U3 CO (
2?5 ^JS'
8 -"'
§
3. in
2
5 d
fc- 03 C ^
°^3t2
<5g
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
-g5
cdoT
00 ^00005^00
OCOOOGOiOCCMTfl
05 t^ «D C«5 •<*< lO CO
1-J Tjn'ts;
ci 00 CO M* t>;
t^Oi-flOrHOOOOOO
p lo o 1-1 05 1>.' CO ui
05rHr-lrH ,-H CO
0S05C<IO?O-<*<00«D
1-5 1>.' i-I ci oo' t^' c^ cJ
2 11 S
o oo' CJ t-' c ^' oo'
lO «0 05 JO
OsdoO 05
§ 8
2 II 8
CO CO lO "H rH
CO >i3 i-H t-, 05
O(M00'*ir-<t000M
•«** CO 00 t— 00 oo c^
e><Tfo5(Noo coc^i
rH t^
<1'a
p>4
S5
be
£.S
OX)-.
o ♦J 00
«.3
W as
5. a
'■S o
I <-l i-H CO
> as «o o
>t- c5oo
»0 i-(
CO M
Oi o
00 o
s 8
'.a*oS;^§
gs Seagal
ill
•Sim
W 03X3
t: fl o
O 05 ©
CO ^-S
i 3
CO
II
OS k.
11.
O ©
!z; ©
-s.iaiS -75
e w
03 &(
PI
TJ 3
£o3
03 "m
a§
^^
Kb
©
•HH
gS
da
^o
OQ
2^
^•s
>t
'^^
^
S^
§a
fl ©
i-i,a
?.a
SS3
•5 0
03
fp^
©
o«
£
8.9
1
H
^
fi >>
8S
w-o
"3 ®
2-3
S 0
•S ®
SX3
^^1
V- 3
CO
3-kj
^!
^^
w5
6 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, tJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTXJRE
SOURCE OF SAMPLES
The wheats tested were of two types — wheat varieties and export
wheats. The samples of wheat varieties were obtained from agricul-
tural officials, and private breeders located in the various countries.
These varieties were secured through the assistance of John H.
Stevensqn of the Office of Foreign Plant Introduction, Bureau of
Plant Industry, grateful acknowledgment of whose assistance is hereby
made. In asking for these wheat varieties it was requested that only
varieties or types of wheat that are of commercial importance, in
each country, be sent.
The samples of export wheats were obtained through the assistance
of the Superintendence Co., of New York, at various foreign seaports
from cargo shipments of wheat at the time the wheat was unloaded.
A similar series of samples of United States export wheat was secured
through the cooperation of the several Federal grain supervisors located
at United States shipping points.
The total number of samples tested in this study was 852. Of
these, 421 were varietal samples and 431 were samples of export wheat.
Data showing the number and kind of samples obtained from each
country are given in Table 2, which also gives a list of the countries
that contributed samples of wheat for this study and the number and
kind of samples sent. Most of the wheats were grown during the
crop year 1926, but some were grown in 1927.
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
II
1
1
^«=x
«00C<C000'*C0Tf<'»l<t^C«>O-»Jit>»OT}HC0OC0>O0>05
C»(NOO«
S?
OiOeo
i
1
.3
1
a
IS
ij^Og gC^"^ OOOOOOWOOOOOOOOOOOOONO OOOO OOOOO
1
.-2
IS
1
»
(N
II
1
1
s
to
1-^
1
5B S
a
2
a
Q
1
""*
1.1
1,
>o CO
i
1
1
03
1
i-H
CO
>o
5
1
1
eOrH
^co^
.-HCO
(NtO
(N«(N^
Tj<i-H iO»0 Ti ;oC^ I
C
^
Is
II
1
t-OS "<«<
coco
(N(N
■^
N to CO C^ C>1 r-l
.-< 0> -^ (M CO 00
CO T}<
CO i
>^
1-^
1
s ^
'-'
a
1
»0 rH
CO
c^
CO
COi-H
^^co
i-i
^co
(NCO
(N
If
*5^
■^
•^
CO cow
w
^«Oi-l
«o
CO>H
»0 tH
"* i
8
1
s
a
>
E
3
*
1
'ii
a
a;
a
«
1
o
>
z
w
1
2
c
ca
3
X3
1
a
;z;
a
1
!
tf
C
1
c
c
1
02
1
1
CO
1
1
c
3
<
o
a
_c
c
f
HH
c
B
cs
i
1
8
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
ll
1
•*
S
a
.§
1
■s
1
i
ft
I
h
fe3 =
s
3
1
_|2 i
a
11
5^
1
1
t^
If
1
g
a
g
1
CO
1^
s
1
ft
a
B
.2
^
1""
1
s
1
1
1
■<*<
8
1
Is
IS
o>
1-^
1" i
S !
§5
a
s
1 i
QO
1^
1" i
S
1
.2 -
S
1
1
1
MILLING AND BA.KING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 9
It is to be regretted that Algeria, China, France, and Yugoslavia
did not forward samples of the various varieties of wheats produced in
their respective countries for inclusion in this study.
Because of changes in environmental conditions that control the
production of wheat from year to year, observations based on analyses
of samples of one year's crop should not be considered as final. But
the baking properties of the wheats produced in the majority of the
countries were so widely different, according to this study, that the
differences can scarcely be attributable, in any significant degree, to
annual variation in the sample characteristics. Moreover, with but
one or two exceptions the statement accompanying the samples was
to the effect that the wheat they represented was grown in an average
crop year. Considering these facts, and the difficulties encountered
in obtaining the samples for testing, a continuation of the study was
deemed inadvisable.
FACTORS DETERMINING THE MILLING AND BAKING QUALITY OF
WHEAT
Quality in wheat is an expression which conveys different ideas to
the minds of producers, millers, and bakers. To the wheat producer,
generally speaking, quality in wheat means high yields per acre of
sound, plump wheat of high test weight. Supplementary to this
definition, the protein content of the wheat is assuming importance
in some quarters.
For the miller, this definition does not go far enough. To his mind,
quality wheat in addition to being plump and of high test weight
per bushel, should likewise be of good color, should be reasonably
free from foreign material, should be practically free from damaged
kernels of every description, should have characteristics of easy milling,
and should be free from admixtures of wheats of other commercial
classes.
The miller wants wheat that is plump and of high test weight
because the test weight per bushel is related to the flour-yielding ca-
pacity of the wheat; the plumper the wheat the greater is the per-
centage of endosperm (floury portion), and the less is the percentage
of seed coats or bran. Good color is evidence that the wheat has not
been exposed to conditions that would damage the grain. Among the
hard wheats, kernel texture is important, since, other factors being
equal, there is a close relation between the percentage of dark, hard,
and vitreous kernels and baking quality (8).^
Foreign material in wheat is of various kinds and has various effects
upon the milling value of wheat. Some types of foreign material
can be easily removed by machinery, whereas others, because of
similarity to the size, shape, and specific gravity of the wheat kernel,
are very difficult to remove, and in some cases it is even impossible
to remove them by mechanical means. Foreign materials that can
be removed in the ordinary process of preparing wheat for milling
have no effect on the milling of wheat, except when they impart an
objectionable odor to the wheat, such as the seed of sweetclover.
But they play an important part from an intrinsic-value standpoint,
inasmuch as such foreign material does not, as a rule, produce flour.
Foreign material of the inseparable types greatly influence the milling
value of wheat, as has been shown by Mifler (6).
» Italic numbers in parentheses refer to Literature Cited, p. 223.
10 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, TJ. S. BEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Damaged wheat of any type is objectionable to the miller. Modern
milling is possible because the bran coat, the germ, and the endosperm
of wheat differ in relative toughness or friability. When wheat is
damaged in any way, especially by heat of fermentation or by early
frosts, the toughness of the bran coat is lessened, and milling difficul-
ties ensue. Then, too, the bread-making (luahties of such damaged
wheat are injured, as has been shown by Coleman and Rothgeb (3)
in the instance of heat-damaged wheat, and by Johnson and Whit-
comb (4) in their work on frosted wheats.
Mixtures of various classes of wheats are not liked by the miller
because the classes of wheat do not all mill alike, and the presence of
one class in a lot of another class interferes with the efficient milling
of any given class.
After the wheat has been milled certain information in addition to
the yields of flour and of offal are important to the miller in helping
him to decide as to the merits of the wheat in question. These are
the color and texture of the flour, and its ash and protein content.
From the color standpoint, the whiter the flour the more desirable
it is for the manufacture of bread, biscuits, or cakes. For certain
purposes, as for making macaroni and alimentary pastes, a creamy
product is more desirable. The protein content is intimately associ-
ated with the baking quality of the flour and the ash content indicates
something regarding the grade of flour as well as the adaptability
of the wheat in question to the miller's needs.
For the baker there is no set standard of quality, inasmuch as
there is no universally standardized method for making bread. Nor
are there any uniform standards for the finished product. Baking
characteristics differ in degree of importance, as viewed by different
people, depending upon the kind and quality of the product desired.
Under such conditions it is well for the baker to have access to
detailed observations with respect to each of the various factors that
are generally recognized as indicative of quafity so that he can select
flour on the basis of his own requirements.
The baking characteristics of most importance to the baker include
the following: Length of time for fermentation and for proofing;
water absorption of the flour; volume, weight, and break and shred
of the loaf; color, grain, and texture of the crumb; and color of the
crust.
The length of time that dough can be allowed to ferment and proof
before deterioration of the gluten begins, is highly indicative of the
strength of the gluten. The longer the dough will ferment or proof
before the gluten begins to deteriorate, the greater is the fermentation
tolerance or the margin of safety, and the more neglect or punishment
will the gluten stand before unsatisfactory results follow. Com-
mercial bakers who use machine methods for baking give considerable
importance to this factor.
When the dough is allowed to ferment to the point at which the
loaf of greatest size possible to that dough is produced, the loaf
volume (in tests in which uniform quantities of flour, yeast, salt, and
sugar are Tised) may be considered an expression of the relative
strength of flour whether in commercial or household baking.
The water-absorbing capacity of a flour is of some importance in-
asmuch as it is related in a measure to the quantity and quality of
the gluten in the flour. Other things being equal, a flour mth a high
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 11
gluten content will absorb more water than one with a low gluten
content. There are frequent exceptions, however, because of the
quality factor ever present in gluten. In other words, a flour con-
taining a high percentage of gluten of low quality will absorb less
water than a flour containing a lower percentage of gluten of high
quahty. Water absorption is likewise related to the weight of the
loaf as a flour containing gluten of good quality will absorb and hold
the added water against the heat of the baking oven.
Clearness, brightness, and whiteness of flour are the requisites for
high color scores.
Grain of crumb indicates the size and regularity of the cells or
holes in the crumb and the thickness of the cell walls. Small cells
or holes, uniform in size, slightly elongated, and with thin walls, are
considered the most desirable.
Texture of crumb refers to the smoothness, softness, and resihency
as determined by the sense of touch.
When baked under uniform and controlled conditions, weight of
loaf is of value in calculating the number of loaves of unit weight
that can be produced from a given quantity of flour.
''Break and shred" is a term synonymous with oven spring. The
heat of the bake oven causes an expansion of the dough. This
expansion is accompanied by a stretching of the fibers on the outer
surface of the loaf — usually on one side of the loaf only. The result-
ing appearance of the loaf at the point at which this occurs is referred
to as break and shred. If the fibers stretch uniformly without
breaking and with a shredded or comblike appearance, the break and
shred is considered good. When the length of time the dough is
allowed to ferment does not extend beyond the point at which the
gluten begins to deteriorate, the character of the break and shred of
the baked loaf is a further indication of the elasticity of the gluten.
Color of crumb has reference to the top crust of the bread. A
dark-brown color of crust is usually considered more desirable than a
pale-brown color.
Shade of color of crumb is a description of the inside color appear-
ance of the loaf with respect to the degree of creaminess and to other
colors present. It is not so inclusive as the color score of the bread
which, in addition to taking into account the various color combina-
tions present, considers them from the standpoint of desirability.
In making the comparative studies reported upon later in this
bulletin, the magnitude of the quality factors were recorded and are
presented in the appropriate tables.
In addition, a detailed study was made with regard to the com-
ponent parts of the gluten proteins in the flour to ascertain whether
there was sufficient variation in the glutenin-gliadin ratios to account
for some of the differences in the baking quality of the several flours.
METHODS OF ANALYSIS USED
The methods of analysis used to determine the various factors
relative to milling and baking quality, were as follows:
GRAIN GRADING METHODS
The tests made relative to the quality and condition of the grain
with regard to its suitability for milling purposes were those described
12
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
in the Handbook of Official Grain Standards (9) issued by the United
States Department of Agriculture. *
CHEMICAL METHODS
The chemical determinations were completed as described in the
book of methods of analysis of the American Association of Cereal
Chemists (1).
MILUNG METHODS
Determination of the milling qualities of the different samples of
wheat was made with experimental or laboratory equipment rather
than with the type of equipment used in commercial estabUshments.
The type of experimental mill used consists of four pairs of 6-inch rolls
(three corrugated and one smooth), a sifter, and sieves appropriate
for making the various separations of stock- required. (Fig. 1.)
Figure 1.— Interior of experimental mill
The operation of an experimental mill necessarily differs in some
respects from that of a commercial mill. In the experimental mill
there is no continuous or automatic flow of stock from one machine to
another as in a commercial mill. This is an advantage in that it gives
the operator a better opportunity to vary his method of grinding and
bolting to suit the character and condition of the individual sample.
Furthermore, it decreases the possibility of losing material or of con-
taminating one sample with another because of the smaller number
of places in which material may lodge. Other points of difference are
the absence of purifiers and bran and shorts dusters. In spite of these
differences, a skillful and experienced operator is able to accompUsh
results on this mill which compare favorably in quality and efficiency
with the work of commercial mills. The various grindings necessary
for milling a sample and the size of sieves to be used in the sifter after
each grinding are indicated on the flow sheet shown in Figure 2.
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
13
To accomplish the five breaks shown on the flow sheet the first stand
of rolls, having 16 corrugations per inch, is used for the first and second
breaks, the second stand with 20 corrugations per inch is used for the
§N
DUJ
IS
n
third break, and the third stand, having 24 corrugations per inch,
is used for the fourth and fifth breaks. In those instances in which one
stand of rolls is used for two breaks, the rolls are reset when changing
14 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
from one break to the other to grind to the fineness desired. The
speed differential of the break rolls is 2}^ to 1.
The smooth rolls are used for the reduction of middlings and tail-
ings. The reduction of the different grades of middlings stock on
these rolls is merely a matter of proper adjustment. The speed dif-
ferential of the smooth rolls is 1}^ to 1.
The sifter is so constructed that five sieves can be used at one time.
The sieves used in the sifter in making separations from the first break
grinding are, from top to bottom, clothed with No. 16 wire, 30, 50,
and 70 grit gauze, and 10 XX silk, respectively. The sieves used for
the separation of stock from the second, third, fourth, and fifth breaks
Figure 3.— Oat kicker used in cleaning samples
are, with the exception of the top sieve, the same as for the first break.
The top sieve used for sifting second break is clothed with No. 18
wire, sieves for third and fifth breaks are clothed with No. 20 wire,
and the sieve for the fourth break is clothed mth No. 24 wire.
In milling a sample the ground material is transferred by hand from
the rolls to the sifter and from the sifter to the rolls. All the separa-
tions resulting from each sifting are not removed immediately from
the sifter, but some are left to accum.ulate through the siftings of
several different grindings.
Before the actual grinding or milling of the sample begins, certain
preparatory operations are necessary. First, the sample to be milled
is reduced to the proper size for making the milling tests. For the
purpose of these studies the original weight of the sample was 2,200
grams. This weight of grain is run over a small cleaning machine
known as an ^'oat kicker" (fig. 3), and then through a small
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
15
milling separator (fig. 4), to remove foreign material. The cleaned
grain is weighed, and this weight serves as the basis of determining
the percentage of foreign material or screenings removed. The
weighed and partially cleaned grain from the milling separator is then
put through a small-sized wheat scourer (fig. 5), and the loss in weight
is noted. From this loss the scouring loss is determined. By adding
together the loss as screenings and the loss due to scouring, the data
that are given in the tables on milling quality under the heading
"Screenings and scourings removed" were obtained. The test
weight per bushel of the wheat, on the basis of the Winchester bushel,
is then determined. The sample is then reduced to the exact weight
to be used for milling — 1,800 grams. At this point the moisture
content of the wheat is determined so that this information will be
available for the pur-
pose of tempering.
The sample is then tem-
pered, a closed con-
tainer being used for
this purpose.
The tempering proc-
ess consists of adding
sufficient water to the
wheat to raise its mois-
ture content to the per-
centage desired for the
milling test. This is
done 18 to 24 hours
before the sample is to
be milled. The mois-
ture content considered
desirable for the experi-
mental milling of the
soft red winter and
white wheats was 14
per cent. The hard red
winter, hard red spring,
and durum wheats were
tempered to 15 per cent
moisture.
The products — bran,
shorts, and flour — ob-
tained from the milling
of a sample are weighed and the weights recorded. These weights,
together with the recorded weight of the wheat used for milling,
serve, in conjunction with a knowledge of the moisture content of the
wheat and flour, as the means of calculating milling yields.
In these studies the yield is computed on the basis of the moisture
content wf the wheat at the time of milling. This plan has been
adopted for several reasons. The moisture content of freshly milled
flour varies considerably. There are a number of causes, principal
among which are the original moisture content of the wheat, the
conditioning of the wheat for milling purposes, and the temperature
and humidity of the atmosphere in the mill at the time the sample is
being milled. To compute flour yields on any other moisture basis
Figure 4.— Experimental milling separator used for cleaning samples
16
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEF1\ OF AGKICULTURE
than that of the original moisture content of the wheat at the time of
milling makes the milling performance of the wheat under test a
matter of milling conditions rather than of the sample under test.
Bran and shorts may be considered as total feeds, and the percentage
present may be considered as the difference between the flour yield
and 100,giving due con-
sideration to a small
experimental error inci-
dent to the milling
performance.
The flour yields are
expressed on two bases:
(1) On the basis of the
weight of dockage-free
wheat; and (2) on the
basis of the weight of
the cleaned and scoured
wheat. From a grading
standpoint the first
method is the preferred
one, although the sec-
ond procedure is fre-
quently used. Further,
to facilitate a decision
as to the milHng quality
of the wheats under test,
the weight of the wheat
under study that is nec-
essary to produce a
barrel of flour (196
pounds) containing 13.5
per cent moisture has
been computed.
BAKING METHOD
In testing the bak-
ing quality of the
experimentally milled
flours a straight-dough
method was used, nuxed
according to the fol-
FiGURE 5.— Experimental wheat scourer used in cleaning samples lOWing baSlC lOrmulai
Grams
Flour 340
Sugar 12
Salt 6
Yeast 10
Shortening 6. 8
Water (distilled) sufficient to produce a dough of the proper ^
consistency.
The samples of flour were aged at least a week. The night before
being baked they were put into small tin boxes with covers, in the
fermentation cabinet (fig. 6) and kept at 30° C. The earthenware
crocks in which the doughs were to be fermented were put in the
fermentation cabinet at the same time to insure a uniform tempera-
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OP WOELD WHEATS
17
ture of the flour and the equipment throughout. The relative
humidity within the fermentation cabinet was maintained at a high
point (at least 85 per cent) by means of shallow pans of water put in
the bottom of the cabinet.
Previous to mixing the dough, the salt, sugar, and shortening were
weighed out individually for each test. The yeast solution was
prepared in bulk in the ratio of 30 cubic centimeters of distilled water
to 10 grams of yeast. Care was taken to have the temperature of
the yeast suspension 30° C. Experience has shown that 38.5 cubic
centimeters of the resulting yeast and water suspension at 30° carry
the equivalent of 10 grams of yeast.
The 1-loaf mixing device (fig. 7) was next assembled, warmed to
30° C, and placed in
position for operation.
One hundred and sev-
enty to one hundred
and eighty cubic centi-
meters of distilled water
at 30° (the quantity ac-
curately known) was
placed in the bowl of the
dough mixer, and the
salt, sugar, and shorten-
ing added. One-half of
the flour was then added,
and 38.5 cubic centi-
meters of the yeast sus-
pension, which has been
thoroughly agitated
before withdrawal, was
pipetted off. The re-
maining portion of the
flour was then added and
the mixing operation
started. More distilled
water was added from
a measuring cylinder
until the dough reached
the proper consistency.
The water absorption
of the flour was determined by adding together the quantity of water
first placed in the mixing bowl, the water added in the yeast suspen-
sion, and the water added from the measuring cylinder to bring the
dough to the proper consistency, and dividing by the weight of the
flour used ; that is, 340 grams.
The dough-mixing time was standard for all samples, namely, five
minutes.
The temperature of the dough was maintained at 30° C. during
mixing as nearly as possible in order to prevent rise in dough tempera-
ture occasioned by the friction of the bearing of the dough mixer and
the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere. Temperature
control was accompHshed by placing the dough mixer in an ice bath
and adding cracked ice to the bath from time to time.
112424°— 30 2
Figure 6.— Fermentation cabinet
18
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, XJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
After being mixed the dough was removed and placed in one of the
previously warmed earthenware crocks. The temperature of the
dough was noted. A tin cover was placed over the top of the crock
to prevent the dough from crusting, and the crock was then placed
in the fermentation cabinet and allowed to ferment. The fermenta-
tion time was variable, depending largely upon the inherent quality
of the flour. Hard wheat flours received two punches, and then
rested 20 minutes before being panned. Soft wheat flours receive
but one punch and were allowed to rest for a period equal to one-half
of the first punch and are then panned.
While the doughs were fermenting they were closely watched to
determine the proper time for the first punch. The experience of the
technician, with regard to the feel and action of the dough, suggested
the proper time for the
first punch. The time of
the second punch was
determined in accord-
ance with a previously
prepared schedule.
This schedule had 'been
compiled as the result
of extended experience
in baking the various
classes of flour in ques-
tion.
The dough was
punched by being re-
moved from the crock
and folded over or
rounded up in the hands
four or five times; it was
then returned to the
crock in the cabinet.
All doughs received the
same degree of round-
FiGURE 7.— Dough-mixing machine fe ■t'' i «. i
At the end of the total
fermentation period the doughs were removed from the cabinet and
molded on a mechanical 1-man loaf molder. They were then placed
in a commercial type of bread pan having the following dimensions:
4K by 9K inches at the top, Sji by 8K inches at the bottom, and 2%
inches deep. The pans were placed in the proofing cabinet.
The proofing cabinet was constructed like the fermentation cabinet
but had a larger number of pans of water on the bottom shelf to afford
more extensive humidity as the doughs w^ere not covered during
proofing. The temperature of the proofing cabinet w^as maintained
at 35° C. Proper proofing was determined by the appearance of the
dough and its height in the pan. The objective was to catch the
dough at a point just under its maximum proof to avoid the danger
of overproofing.
The loaves were baked at 225° C. for 30 minutes. They were then
removed from the pans and placed upon a wire rack to cool. About
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 19
one-half hour after being taken out of the oven the volume and weight
of each was recorded. The outside scoring of the loaf was made the
day it was baked. The inside scoring was made on the following day.
The loaves were cut in half and scored for the factors of quality pre-
viously discussed. Numerical scores were given to color and grain
after comparison with a standard loaf baked daily, which had been
previously given arbitrary scores.
METHOD OF PRESENTATION OF DATA
In this bulletin it is assumed that most of the wheats grown through-
out the world are ground into flour for bread-making purposes;
therefore in estimating quality in addition to milling quality, their
t-
1^ ^^^^^^^^^HHH^^Hf ,^^^^^^^^^H^H^H
Figure 8.— Electric baking oven
utility for bread-making purposes has been used as the yardstick of
quality. Further, the ability of the various flours to make bread
that meets the American standards of bread making has been used
as the basis of quality throughout. It is conceded that some of the
wheats that prove inferior under this system of evaluation might make
acceptable products if a different standard of baking quality were
used.
To relieve the tables relating to the milling and baking qualities of
the world's wheats of as many footnotes as possible, footnotes have
been placed only on Tables 3, 4, and 5, but these footnotes apply in
the same way to tables of identical form made up for the wheat of
each country.
In evaluating the milling and baking properties of the various
wheats, the average values found by Shollenberger and Clark (7) in
their study of the milling and baking properties of the wheat varieties
of the Unuted States were taken as a guide.
20 TECHNICAL BtJLLETIN 197, tJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
For convenience and ease of discussion, the countries have been
grouped according to continents, as follows: Africa, Asia, Europe,
North America, South America, and Oceania. The milling and baking
properties of the wheats of North America are discussed first.
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WHEATS
The production of wheat in North America is in excess of 1,400,-
000,000 bushels. Canada, Mexico, and the United States produce
this wheat.
CANADA
Wheat is Canada's most important crop. Production in 1928
exceeded 500,000,000 bushels. The crop is mainly spring grown,
although some winter wheat is produced. The centers of wheat
production are the plains Provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and
Manitoba, and the peninsula of Ontario.
In Ontario, the heavy snows and the lack of extreme winter tem-
perature favor the production of winter wheat. The high rainfall
(30 to 40 inches) and the humidity in this region create conditions
favorable to the production of a soft wheat.
In southern Alberta, owing in part to the warming influences of the
Chinook winds, and to the shorter and milder winters as compared
with the other western Provinces, the conditions are favorable to the
production of winter wheat, but of a harder type. Nevertheless, the
production of winter wheat in Canada during the period 1923-1928
did not exceed 5 per cent of the crop.
The spring- wheat belt of Canada adjoins the spring-wheat section
of the United States. Over 75 per cent of the spring wheat is grown
in the Provinces of Manitoba and Saskatchewan. The spring- wheat
belt is limited on the north by a short growing season and low summer
temperature; and on the southwest by insufficient rainfall.
CANADIAN VARIETIES
The commercially important varieties of wheat grown in Canada,
the milling and baking qualities of which were tested, were Dawson
Golden Chaff, (O. A. C. 61), Garnet, Huron, Kharkof, Kubanka,
Marquis, Mindum, O. A. C. 104, Quality, and Ruby. The samples
were obtained through the courtesy of A. G. O. Whiteside, cerealist,
Central Experimental Farms, Ottawa, Canada.
Garnet, Marquis, and Ruby are hard red spring wheats. Garnet is
a new variety with early-maturing characteristics and high produc-
tivity. In 1926, 12,000 acres were sown to Garnet in western Canada.
Marquis comprises about 90 per cent of the spring wheat grown in
Canada. It is sown principally in the prairie Provinces of Alberta,
Manitoba, and Saskatchewan. Ruby is an early-maturing variety.
The principal areas of production are in southeastern Manitoba and
northern Alberta. The variety Garnet was growTi at the experimental
farm at Leacross; the variety Marquis was grown at the experimental
farm at Scott, Saskatchewan; the variety Ruby was grown at the
experimental farm at Morden, Manitoba. All samples were from the
varieties grown in 1926.
The variety Huron, although regarded as a white wheat in Canada,
is to be classified as a hard red spring wheat under the United States
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 21
standards for ^rain. Huron is the leading variety in eastern Canada ;
it is grown chiefly in eastern Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and
Nova Scotia. The sample tested was grown at the central experi-
mental farm at Ottawa.
Kubanka and Mindum are durum varieties. Kubanka is said to
be sown to about one-third of the acreage devoted to spring wheat in
Manitoba. It is sown chiefly in southern Manitoba and southeastern
Saskatchewan. It is believed that Mindum, which was recently
introduced into Manitoba and southeastern Saskatchewan, will even-
tuaUy occupy a considerable proportion of the acreage that is now
sown to Kubanka. The sample of Kubanka was grown at the ex-
perimental farm at Brandon, Manitoba, whereas the variety Mindum
was raised at the Winnipeg Agricultural College, both during the crop
year 1926.
The production of hard red winter wheat in Canada is confined
almost wholly to southwestern Alberta. The variety Kharkof, which
was tested, is representative of this wheat. The sample was grown
at the experimental farm at Lethbridge, Alberta, in 1926.
The varieties Dawson Golden Chaff, O. A. C. 104, and Quality,
are white wheats. The first two are of winter habit; the last variety
is of spring habit. Dawson Golden Chaff is representative of 60
per cent of the soft wheat grown in the Province of Ontario, and the
variety 0. A. C. 104 represents about 30 per cent. These two varie-
ties are grown principally in the western section of the Province.
The samples tested were grown at the Ontario Agricultural College
at Guelph, during 1926.
The variety Quality is sown on about 5 per cent of the acreage
devoted to hard spring wheat in the Province of Manitoba. It is
found chiefly in the Brandon district. The sample tested was grown
at the experimental farm at Brandon, Manitoba, in 1926.
Club wheat is not of commercial importance in Canada.
The data shown in Tables 3, 4, and 5 were obtained from milling
and baking these samples in the manner described above.
22
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, V. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
be'"' !rti2
•^S
O 60
Q05
oeocsooooooo
■cJ
^oo«ceoooecMO«otoo
*^.-<^ ■ 00 i-H «d csl c4 * '
• »ooSo5S«OT-(SSa>
• oeooooooooo
«c>
a
"O-S 3 B-t^O} a! QJ CJ fl
oSosSBeao'g'gcOea
.5'C
•CO s-o
•h Im H
C9 CS d
ttWQ
a
»- aj o
So
3 ■*-*
3x5-2 q « ii*< ^ Ja C
I ill
*;.■" o o o c o o
S 0*0 "CO 03X3X5
«5S ! ; ;o
^S?5g??S:5?3S^^
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
23
j(q 8i3ire jan^joo)
-ojd n9;n[3 ill niua^nio
jnog m nta^jojd ua^nio
J Jtiog m mpeno
J inog m uina^nio
J jnog m uja^ojd aptuo
ui uiaijojd 9pnJ0
ppe oipBT:
Hd
8 ijBaqM m qsy
I jnog UT qsy
janiBAaujiosBo
c>4c4c4c^.-;i-<cic^»-HCJ
O * rH to 05 OJ N O 03 ci O CO
Q"i»»iOe<505CC'«tit050t>-CS
<Jo^otoa>5oa6c*ooQO
■«Oi(35-i»<t^»C-<t'COt^«O00
(1, •«i<' ■»j' >o TjJ ■<s< CO c4 c4 «o «*'
Q- M ^' o c<i e>i i-i t-^ t^ ^' ^
ti'<t<rHlO?<0.-l.-(00«0«0
•Qoososooecoo'-icoos
t^d
•«;otOi-'Mt^ooooN<»
D^a>;ocdcd«D«650«d<D«d
■wOOOrH(N05iON05C10
'Joot>--<»<eO'005"5cooeo
ftjo
I S XS .-S "O 'O "O *©
II
Is
bt).22
II
JO laxreq iad !jB8qA\.
8 }BaqAi aaij
-82WJ[0Op STSBg
8 ^BaqAV
pwnoos puB
I anTjadraa^ aioj
-9q :)BaqAV jo ajinsiojv
paAoraaj s3m
-jnoos paB sSniuddjas
c3 '''!«!' c3 '
3 o o o [3 I ©"3 o
i1 ; i i1 i
©-« o ! 1^ ;
" ' © ' o ™ S o
50":>>o«o»oot:-t^»o
.»CQOP50r-l(N«'^OS«0
I eq oi N a> t^ CO M '
. «O««(N'-iO00OS00>O
o>
■«.-IOJ»CTf<t^Ot^«OQO
t pqsnq
i9d iqaia^ ;s8X
I
go
r
t^;oS50«OtO«D«0'C«0<
^n^^?^^u^^\
60
Tl
d
^
03
s
"^
<M
©
o
5
+J
d
s
1
£•2
II
5 c
a
3
ea
»a-!
1
1
© ^
a
a
8
fl
s
-a
o a
;:iS
s.
c8
5^
d
III
a
03
CO
03
rti
^c
M
■^ 05X1
oO o
O
1
T3 «
0050
O ©
M
n «
w ■«
«>
24
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, V. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
S.O.
o
'3 3
be c3
"or*
^1^
g 6
\^^^^^
.^ . o o o o o
O O O ' ' ' " ■
o X 5 : :
pkhph ; ; :
il
bH
woo o^ . o^ P
•3 2 .Sfa .Sf2
a :2
sao^asasoa
£2 fe2222
oo ;>oouo
la !|
o « o
§5 I* io'3o"3 6
phO :pm ;ph^phPmO
^t^«Oit>.«0«<0'<l<l
> t>. OS 00 t» «D <
lOOt^OOOOOOC
^
QCSQOOOOOQO
,(35csoa>05oot^«»i-H
•«t^oooost^o><ot^ooj
jxjdoi^'oocdeoc^QoJ
IS
u o
o •-<
flco
§1
£•3
5^
•18
l!o
2§£
-*^.„ 5
ill
Acq 03
Spqpq
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 25
From the data in Tables 3 and 4, it is apparent that all the Canadian
varieties examined were of excellent milling quality. The wheat
kernels were plump in size, heavy in weight, and in most instances
the samples were practically free from foreign material of any kind.
The yield of flour obtained from each variety was high, showing that
it would be possible to manufacture a barrel of flour from a consider-
ably smaller quantity of this wheat than is usually necessary for this
purpose.
The color of the flour milled from the hard red spring, hard red
winter, and white wheats was white, whereas the durum wheats
produced a creamy flour, as was to be expected.
The ash content of the bread-wheat flours was slightly above the
average for these classes of wheats.
Judging the baking properties of these varieties of wheat from the
appearance of the baked loaf (Table 5), only the varieties Garnet
and Ruby, among the bread wheats, could be considered as having
outstanding baking qualities. Kubanka appeared to be the best
durum variety, and Quality appeared to be the best white variety.
Of the two white wheats of winter habit, the variety O. A. C. 104
showed to the best advantage.
CANADIAN EXPORT WHEATS
The population of Canada does not require the entire supply of
wheat produced. According to the statistics in Table 6, Canada
ranks first among the wheat-exporting nations of the world. Of late
years over 65 per cent of the crop has been exported.
26
TECHNICAL BtJLLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICXJLTtIRE
Table 6. — Wheat, including flour: International trade, average 1910-1914,
annual 1925-1928
Country
PRINCIPAL EXPORT-
ING COUNTRIES
Canada
United States.
Argentina
Australia
British India '.
Hungary
Russia
Yugoslavia'...
Rumania
Algeria
Chile
Tunis
Bulgaria
Spain
PRINCIPAL IMPORT-
ING COUNTRIES
United Kingdom....
Italy
Germany
France
Belgium....
Netherlands _
Brazil*
Japan...
China 2
Czechoslovakia
Austria.. _
Switzerland
Greece
Irish Free State
Sweden _.
Egypt-.
Denmark
Poland
Union of South Af-
rica
Norway.
Cuba
Finland
New Zealand
Syria and Lebanon*.
Latvia
French Indo-
China«
Estonia
Ceylon*
Total.
Year ended June 30—
Average 1910-
1914
Imports Exports
1,000
bushels
447
1,8(
13
17
<332
» 7, 214
»556
0
»196
»639
1170
« 1, 746
»0
6,009
219, 474
56,431
91,851
44, 081
72, 877
» 80, 702
20,495
» 4, 116
6,691
0
8 11,402
i 16. 937
17,035
0
«7,080
»8.244
» 7, 155
0
16.274
» 3, 674
4,248
1 4, 912
1163
0
0
1,000
bushels
94,286
104,967
85,220
1 49, 732
< 50, 821
« 49, 116
S164, 862
0
54,630
« 5, 936
1 2, 593
»960
» 11, 182
71
4,'
3,637
23,300
1,230
21,965
58,435
0
5.401
0
«871
«14
12
0
823
6
«597
0
1253
«0
0
10
1918
0
0
692,969 795,602 794,787
1925
Imports Exports
1,000
bushels
651
6,201
2 10
3
49
1,029
0
0
752
« 2, 702
2
1,035
» 1,943
2
234, 512
102, 126
76,243
43, 818
45, 135
30,623
28,592
15,205
31,569
23,902
16,406
14. 355
6 21. 791
19. 101
11.461
9.476
7,265
« 16, 571
6.773
5,489
6,019
4,212
3,007
2,065
6 1,963
1,089
849
791
1,000
bushels
194,849
260,802
125,289
124, 112
45,209
15,630
301
9,570
4,788
1,892
8,822
547
323
18, 443
5,867
5,227
2,646
5,791
4,507
17
793
«:
«254
0
«0
0
107
88
796
«23
16
«16
0
0
2
0
«20
1926
Imports Exports
1,000
bushels
372
15, 679
15
3
1,327
34
0
0
280
» 1, 182
731
611
»5
1,466
201, 313
66,339
76, 410
35, 978
42,722
29,150
27, 452
27,980
10, 162
19,388
14,822
14.245
s 18, 590
18,539
6,677
12.520
6,886
3,460
6,063
6,346
5.773
4,879
2.978
3,168
• 1, 579
1,094
952
1,000
bushels
320,649
108, 035
99,803
77,234
8,054
19,345
27,085
11,549
8,558
6,007
1,696
3,437
4,128
13,420
2,'
20,252
1.955
3,701
1,699
22
4,899
1,343
212
7 171
0
«0
90
639;
26|
897
6,080
1927
Imports Exports
1,000
bushels
408
13,264
14
4
2,428
1
0
0
»1
»3,584
758
1,142
»1
56
226,908
88,184
99,252
53,878
41,236
29,060
31, 143
18.458
22.354
21,085
16.888
17.220
19.502
19. 511
8.484
8.861
7.695
8,331
15 4. 110
» 5 5, 944
0;
0 4.854
1 2, 769
0 1,980
«2 « 1,690
840,312 688,066 753,161 784,030
I
1,143
902
927
1,000
bushels
304.948
219. 160
138,240
96,584
11,088
21, 143
49.202
10,034
8 11,038
2,182
516
1.970
2,236
10,292
1,034
5,735
592
1,378
867
38
4,014
374
0
0
37
2,576
64
1,085
833
1928. prelim-
inary
Imports Exports
1,000 1,000
bushels btishels
476i 305,658
15,734 206,259
178. 135
72,962
14,328
22,135
1,788
2
«0
*0
» 1,597
622
1,127
222,270
87,796
98,557
53.717
44,607
31,534
7 32, 216
21,995
15,464
21,323
16,230
18,427
0
1
0
»60
18, 691
10, 391
6.803
10.704
7,840
8,212
6.862
5,499
1,032
1,062
898,486: 762,680
» 1,156
» 7, 431
6.351
585
629
2,125
11, 181
1.111
6,798
137
2,651
586
(J)
4.859
1,464
41
165
0
56
,660
433
220
225
8
84
849,354
Bureau of Agricultural Economics. Oflficial sources except where otherwise noted.
I Average of calendar years, 1909-1913.
» Year ended Dec. 31.
' Sea-borne trade only.
< Includes some land trade.
8 Year ended July 31, International Yearbook of Agricultural Statistics.
• International Crop Report and Agricultural Statitics.
International Yearbook of Agricultural Statistics.
Through the courtesy of the Superintendence Co., samples of
Canadian wheat, representing 144 cargo shipments unloaded in
European ports, were received for testing; 140 of these cargoes were
of hard red spring wheat, 2 were of durum wheat, and 2 were of white
wheat. It is questioned whether the white wheats were of Canadian
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 27
origin, as the classification assigned, western white, would indicate
a substantial percentage of club wheat, a type of wheat not of com-
mercial importance in Canada.
Of the 140 cargoes of hard red spring wheat, 135 lots were repre-
sentative of all the Canadian grades represented by the 1926 crop.
Thirty-one samples were representative of No. 1 Manitoba Northern
wheat; 33 of No. 2 Manitoba Northern; 28 of No. 3 Manitoba North-
em; 14 of No. 4 Manitoba Northern; 7 of No. 5 Manitoba Northern;
3 of No. 6 Manitoba Northern ; and 1 of Feed wheat. In addition
there were studied 3 samples of wheat representative of the Canadian
grade No. 1 Manitoba Northern, Tough; 12 samples of the grade
No. 2 Manitoba Northern, Tough; and 3 samples of the grade No. 3
Manitoba Northern, Tough.
It is to be regretted that the ^' tough" wheat could not have been
milled with its original moisture content, as the milling and baking
results obtained after dryiag out the wheat are virtually the same as
the results obtained on the samples of the same grade without the
designation 'Hough." If it can be conceded that the moisture content
of the tough wheat was the average of the spread allowed in the grade
Tough (14.4 to 16.9 per cent), 15.6 per cent, the figures for flour
yield as well as the test-weight values would be reduced by approxi-
mately 3 per cent.
The complete data relative to the milling and bakiQg qualities of
all the samples of Canadian wheat studied are given in Tables 7, 8,
and 9. For convenience, the data pertinent to the hard red spring
wheat samples are summarized in Table 10.
28
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
o
N0«0 ON C4C4^^C<^
ioe<i«t».-HO^ oNO'-i «
lls-i
■^jN «>■* .-i-*(
oocoec NN
NNt^esc^co woo c<»oo>«.-io oooo'* -^
(N • • •
NM ooi-it- r^«ot^o> »oo
C^ -H- -h" C^ c4
^(O coo <OtC>(0
I «D •^ i-i '«< t^ ■^ t^ P3 »H 00 t^ t^ O 00 iC OS »0 00 O
1.
is
OCt "tf^OOO '^•00000
« 1-1 1>. 00 M •* eotoooo-*!^-*-* cc^ot^ «
;•««< «ooo •<«<t»eo t^«o^«o
I'^'O'^cooo eo<
i«o«oor^eo toccc*" «c
"2 o o
I BO I I I I
i€ i i 1 :
® GO
! !oo. I 1
! 'l^^ ! ! i i
s d-^V, o d d d
i :QW i ! ■ '
I 1«^ ■ I
oooooo ooooooooo
*© 'O 'O 'O ^O 'O T3 X? 'O 'O 'O TS 'O 'O 'O
c^c* je5
i§i
ij ® o >> o o o t;
OxT
i5>
o :
• 3 I
-OX! O
o
C9 O
G 03
WO
1^
;o|o|
p o •
11=
;kw
3W
WK
s ■
I ! I I S Sr © j< .i< *<
03 n ^ fc< fcj a
SU m c8 e8 fl
O > C C W
..... -sC -5<?Q
i i i i ii3 e^^"
i 1 1 ! l-og .o„-^«>2
.....© >so oj-o a
■ ' ' : ',X< assort
I OJ ® Oi 05 ?? ' OS I OJ lO OiO> I OJ
;Sj
^.3
oiz; :
i Jl
'^ 6 d
\z : !
. 1 ® d
(•O'O'O'O'O'a
J-l o
IT3 <J
^11
•^ ^ CO ■^ -^ ^
I CO CO c
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
29
NC^ M||«'0'i< i-liO'«mNT}tt>.Tj<OiOC^lTj<MC^t^ t^Tl4»0 «0(N»Oi-l C^C^rHC^OC^WMCO C<l
l-H Clt^
« MNM-
lo 05 CO 00 CO 00 o N »o ec <D c<; 03 CO lOOioo n c<i o »o co co t-h «c oo m <-< co <
r-l" CO * ' p4 <N T-^ ' i-H CO .-H c4 >
(N ^(N
rtOC^ rH O 00 00 O C5 05 (N ^ t^ OS Tl< ,-1 CO 5COOS COOC^t^ >C t>. <» O C^ M ■<*< C3 -"l^
W OOCO
iiOOO 0«0-*0<N-«J< 0>OOC^CC M(NOS
TfOOiO T-H T}i CO O C C^ (N t~- 05
t^t^i-H lo t^ to lO CO 00 t-» ■«*< •<*i »r5 O -^ »C '
Tj<cooo O'lj^eooo '^ CO CO «o lo «o o ■'f 00
p. ' ft
e IS
flj be a>
1 tic2 be
I.95.S
I ft c ^
;l.a
g
jy bi
bc 2 bf ■ Sy bC £
'goo
w ! ;
s'^-OJ*! d C'2'^'2 o o o^'g
0'^ d-g
o ; a ; ; o q,o
^ ©"g d c'-i^'g^ o'
1^-
§300
SH
B :
li
*3 d o
w ;
CO 1-- CO CO t^ I~- t>- O CO I 1 1 CO ICO I c
?5iMC^ ?5(N(N(N?Sc5 1 1 iC^ i(M r I
05 C5 OS a> 05 oi 05 C3 05 I I 1 o> lO 1 1
6 S>' 6 S^ ® (jj^o d o > o cT c^
r^cct^
C35 C5 03
■•'9 O
r^S ^ ° ° b <^ b O
o q— o Q D,'^ * ^
u b ti tj ^" O O O b,' o J" J"
s^'S'O'O'o OX? o g
;sop
>' o o J' o o o
O «'
aj ft
0 ;-a
Sois
« :^
I ^
o-o-^
iP-CQ
'•Sfe
. g >
o£go
' G ^
1 ««h5 1
!a> !
?3 ^S
S'O^
icoioC5Tt<c^-^ocooo--<coi
iioS?cocnoQOOOC^.-i'
CO T»< Tti ••»< ■<ti CO CO -^ •<*<■«*< ■^ -f rf> Tfi T»< rf tT Tfl Tt< Tj< CO CO
OS O CJ 00 (
III gl
C»(NOt^C
!$^^55^
30
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, TJ. S. BEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
r|
-€ o
.2
I
-ra aj
,_,
t>.,-iTt<ioi-ttoecec«0'«'»o
I**
eo t>. CI o ^
t^«ceo«o«»^
»0 '*' t- t- "*
w
c^
Ills!
.S-'
''-"^'
o a o -^ o
a;
fri B "O
Dam-
aged
ker-
nels
■goo
0»tOI^CS«00(»0«0.-<tO
2
«ooo-«»<oo«o
^•o(Neotco
<co«:r^«o
M
00
!>;=
c^«^' •^«"
'^
c»idic«Oi-I
rn" ec (N <N >0 «5
t>: ^'^'cDM
'-'
iC
Test
weight
per
bushel
P0(Nr-CCOO00»O'^<N(N
M
s
«5 C5 <N .-1 1-
gggss
0
00
3
0,
^:5
ft; 00
«ooo-«»<oo<»QO«<c»oe^«c
(N
MW-^-^t^
»-i«eow«eo
00«0'*''H
CO
«
88§8SSSi££B§B8SS8
S5
t- t^ OC t- S
{^g'S^^f::
s'ss'sss
{::
P
^5
Tt< rf (xj t^ to Tt< «c o t^ r^ »« 1 i--
>C00t^QOt^
t^wQOrHicr^
I- Tf <C .-1 ■^
00
<o
,-H ' ■ ,_(
' ' ' I-H ' *
. . . ^ .
■
Gi'
;
I ! ! ! bi ! ! I I 1 tc I bi bo 1 ! I
be tc I ! bc I
bc 1 be '< tc
bc
M
1
I ! ! ! 2 ! I I I I.S I .5 S 1 I !
C (3 ! ! C 1
a ; c ; a
_H
a
•c-c : !•:: ;
•n ;-n ;-c
1 1 1 iC 1 1 1 1 i'« 1 "CC 1 1 1
*C
1
, , 1 1 a ; j ; 1 ; D, • aa ; > .
ca ; ; o. :
a . D. ; a
D.
Q.
[
MM CCCQ bC
cccQ ; \m I
CO btm cQ
OD
m
;
E-IS IB
§
a
til
«bc® «^®D,
05 « <u
1^1 :|
©
©
C
1 1 ! !£a ! 1 1 !5 < ^^ > '^
j^x: .c
s:
x:
-«->'•-> 1 ■ -M ■
♦^
! i ; isE \ \ \ \o i So i ;c
~ U il
SEfe is
j-
Im
O
a.
CO
c o ' o
0
0
o o o o^'2 o o d c^ J J^^oo-^
:^z-' ;:z: !
:2:|:z: i^
•^ t!-^ d-^
iz;
;z:
V.
M^o ou d
i<
M
^
sis-^-c. S'o
Sfefe'C.S
^
^
a
; i ; joa ; i : iQ j pq ; jiz;
CO ! ;Q
0:2:0 ;Q
0
0
'-
1 j 1 l^r-< 1 1 I I,-. 1 (NM i l(N
^(M 1 iM 1
•*eceo iC^
«
c
s
1 1 1 ! ! ! 1 ! 1 ! 1 I i=! I ! ! !
!!!:::
! I 1 ! 1
!
o
j3
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1-1 1 1 1 I
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1
2
4J
5
! I I ! I [ I I ! [ ! ! O I 1 I I
i i i i i !
i i i i i
I
S
Z
i i ! i i 1 i i i i i \ ^ \ \ W
1 I ! i i 1
I I ! ! !
I
1
ce
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 gj 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1
-g^
! 1 ' ! ! ! ' 1 ! 1 i ! x: 1 I I 1
* o . . . .
i 1 ' 1 ! !
' ' ' ! i
1
©
.t^-S ; ; i ; ; ; . ; i ; ; .tj ; ; ; ■
fla'oocoooooooo acooo
1 1 1 ' I '
'''11
1
I
^3
c o c d o d
c 0 c d d
d
d
2
fi g -C -O T3 -C XJ -O -C -O -C -C T3 1 cCtJ'O'O'O
-O'O'O'O'O'C)
TJ'CJ'C'C'C)
TJ
•0
Eh
s^ ! i ;;;;;;;; ; ; s ! ; ; ;
i 1 i 1 1 i
<N
1 1 1 I . 1 1 1 [ . 1 1 ec 1 1 1 1
! i ! i ! :
i i i i i
i
bb
!!!:;!;;!!; ; bc i ! ; :
1
bO
fl
1 1 1 1 ! 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 a > 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
[
a
*c
; !;;;;;;;; i : x: ; ; ; ;
1 1 1 1 1 i
1 1 1 1 1
'
"eS
&
I ; 1 1 . 1 I 1 1 ; 1 1 ft ; 1 . I
!!!!'.!
1 I ! 1 1
;
^ CO
T3
2
o o o o o o o o o o o ! •^ c o o 6
o o d d d d
c 0 0 d d
d
d
'S
'C'O'C'O'O'C'a'O'C'O'O • •otj'O'Ot:)
•o -o -O -O TJ TJ
'O'O'O-a'a
•0
•0
iS
S3
a
1 1 i i 1 i 1 ! 1 1 1 i fi i i i j
!!!!!!
! ! ! ! 1
[
bO
«D
t-t-oocccct^t^t^it^ ! o!!!o
o o cr « t- 1-
§§!§ :
;
§
M-
§
|||g|§gS| '§ ! g j j ;|
SoSoSoi
1
>-<
1— 1 .— 1 <— 1 l-H 1
]
>-H
H
iiiiiW Wi
ilM
Mil
4
i
<
bO
•3
bC
a
i i ; i^ i i ibc i 1 i i i i^^
i ! ; il i ilw i 1 i s i ip
1 i-g :S I'S'i, ! i ! § i is .
I'd 5 !
fe
0
t
15 o el's © >
d © -
o
1
-5^
: ;a ja \::i^< ; ; ! « ■ \Ui<
Kaah^i::o
1 = ;:^ ;-<
cs«
<o
t^ Icoooo Ir-o It- ! o ! ! !o
iliiig
§ ill 1
;
i
= 3
0°
g
§5 'SiSSct loS IS 1 S 1 1 l§
;
•-»
io'§i§'i
C,t3 0 ©T3
4
1
^:z:^cgP^
"^ ;OQ i
be
a
1 1 1 1 1 ! 1 1 © 1 ! I 1 I ! 1 1
o d!^ o o o c-^ §-S o a HddgS
1 i i i '2 5^ 1 > -a i iS°
1 1 1 1 i 1
1 ; OB 1 ';
a
I
"S
^
o ok" o o o
> Is i ;
I I.S' ' ^
1 ^ I-
0
Hi
CO
©
>
1
1
Labo-
ratory
No.
M
liiiS
iiliii
Igggg
s
•«*<
1
^
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
31
N
■<*.T*.<N
r-l(M(N
lOTj-c^
Tt<
o
»o
o
Tf
t^MCJ
.-iC^-<*<
(N
coco
t^o
■«J<
«o
oeoos
ClOOi
0(NtJ«
Oi
CO
t^
i^
W
M
■^
CO
Ot>-CJ
00 (N'*'
^
0-*
y-iOO
■00
o
oujod
t>:«^
t-tO«C
■*
tN
CO
^
C<5
Oi
rt<
r-
00 wt-
00 05 00
00
2?5
S85
r^
^
IOCS to
«OO00
lOt^'^Ji
>o
Ir^
CO
00
•ccl
(N
C^
r^
OJt-os
^05 00
o
t^o
(M05
Ol
s
ggg
sss
g§s
g
g
s
g
g
g
g
g
gg§
ggg
g
ss
gs
§
w
e^t^o
t-^o
t^l-lo
1-1
00
<N
«o
•o
o
PO
t^
'^OO
Tj<(N-<t(
T-l
00 05
(MO
00
K
sss
sss
f2?2J5
1
s
S
00
^
g
^
§{2?i
t^t^n
K
t5J2
ss
s
■«*<
t^iOO
t-oo«o
1>-Tt<0
l:^
00
OS
Tt*
t-
t^
<c
o
0 05 05
TjH^rH
00
05t-
00 «D
O)
'^
^
"^
T-( I— 1
^ :^
g.S g
o g o
Sort
; a
I «
I o
o'^ d
So
a o S a -
9«^^.a5oo
CC
£ O ^ ^
000 000 000
-5^
rt Q-q
'O'O'O 'O'D'O
s ^
05 03<
:^
;^;^
^ c5 c5
< ^ >^
(N M <N(M
5 S S ^S
(M <N<
5 II
• a
1^ a
•OS
. o
1^^
! O M
W w O
i § ^ .
il§lis
rt <5 W
w p
O Oj
.T3 3
low
-a
o w P-o o
•O a H H'O
O'O >-
O HI
cS cSiN
<J 12;^
^00
S ; !
'8 S5
;^ ^ ft
s^^
5 p.'o
5 1^1
;^ 52;
i.-^ aoc^cg r-i^t-i c^tocn
i i§i ^li sli
S I
)t^ -^ IOC
32
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICTTLTUKE
I
■^ o
i
i-iOCOtOOO^
ii9
?M a
•C<N
O r-tCO Q0«O«O
iri 1— ■ ^ t>^ 00 CO
i-tT»< •*00
•V «ot^ ««o«o
S SS
I CO *0 QO »
CD CO O O <
fH 00 CO 00 CO o
^ CO CO CO ^ 00
15.5
'03 u
IP
bO M M, M 1 bt-O •
C S C g ; c a>C'
flgag ;'§'«©
fe © S ® I t^ iT ft
goo o
a
I
B
TfPN^OQ lOQ
C 3 C 5
'g
3 •
O !
be
•o-S
c3 o
(N M CS IM Cq i(M
S bo is _o b o v;
2 3 ^-S ^-oa
\^ \l
Ǥ-g^'03
o o
H ft
; bo
• a
-d-^ 3
3 few
-T -r- 2
, bc
cW
Gs:
O 03 3 o _
3 q S a_r3 0-3332
o S cS^ o 3 n © o s
<5 O W<^ ^AO<
i o o o o o
I -co "CO "O
o
^
03 CD Od * 03 t ^
-g © 3.
•rH ~ © © *-^ 3
3 I
c o
©TJ
S 12;
S >
Qj I a) © I Q)
> « > o fl >
i3 O
3 '^
O
CO ■f T»t
eoostCQcgsep
S-^ cc cc «c e^i
•^ ^ ^ ^ ^ CO
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
33
c
CM
«
Tf
<N y~l
(N
S 5;
Tf Tl*
03
O
1
if
CO
1
d g
;
J" 60
O <
u i
« i
1 1
^s :
^ 1
1 1
i i
s. s.
i i \
> 1
'
\ \
1
i
X 12424°— 30 3
34
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGKICULTtmE
lU'^p
c«t^ CO Tf< 00 « r^ o 00 o OJ o «D t^ S Ss o S 00 o S 2 1^ S t^ c? o ?5 J2 S 88
N rH* d r-; rH* ^ TH C^ r-; ^ ^ f-<" r-i rt* ,-; rH C^ -<■,-; eS -^ -;
I e^'-i e^e><»
S|S8§
i»-H«ooo50>oooc^-<»<'-i'»»<ooc^i;ct~ooo-^<o-<»<eNes(N«u5es»-<^r-.
i.eoe<3eceO'^oo'^ecc^eococococO'«i»<eoeoeOT»<e<5(M'«j'e<5ecfoec«cO'<r^'«»'
•ol
r-
loop^»cc^^^-ooc^^^M^^^-ec«o^-•QO•OQpeoQ50QOQQooo5'->^^<c■
c^Q«0'^<35WQQoO'*03'«!»<ecos«5es^cso«oSt^«ooO'^'^oi-He»5'
1=*
c^i^t^(NOse5t^ec>ct^O«DQOOoo-^— itDQO-^'COi-^-^'COioo'C-^eocj
g^S
t^»C>Ot^-^«5i-iC0
Q«OM
t^(NO>C<HO»0'005Q«500^0(N05C^OOO-Ht:--»J<<0»C«0«0-«teO«COQc^
OeOOOO>-tOi-ieCOCOt^0500.-i05.-i0505t^O^(N<-HO<N00050t^Ot^
c >
•a
© O O O O'
a a
c8 03
o ; o
>. I >>
i i >»
; -a -o -o -o ^ .ts "O TJ ^ .-S x: .t^ "O "CO ■« ,£3 .-ti ^.ti £ .'ti x: 'O .ti "C "C t; xj -o ^ .-S'Ots -c
J3 1 1 I I £i)43 I ' M^ bC^ I 1 I 1 ^JS »- ^ t*^ b£';Cl'','M,ClI '
l§
3 o o o o o o
CO "CO "O '073
es ;
IccO
'. ! 1 1 ! Ife ,
O O O O O O r3 lOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
'0'0'C'c!'C'c!'0--T3'a'Cx3'a'0'C'a'a'0'C'a'0'0'a'0'0'0'0'C'C'0'0
e8lllll'g03Plllllllll''i>>illllll
C I I I i I l«2hH ! ! I I I i ! 1 1 I ! ! I ! I I I I i I ! !
"a c^ 05 o o o r- 1
)«£5Qopq;<Nc><csot^Mt^oo
C5-«f c^
pq-o
PiX3
K»OO05<-Hi«O«0Ot^05M05C0-^t^(N'Hrt-^iO05 00«005t^00eS?C0>Tt<c<5
13 73^
SC^OOO»OOOOOOiCOO^>OC^'^000500C^l^t^05000'^fO«0<Ot^cC
a-
•Igl^a-s
;t^.-(eoooi>-c<jooc<i^HiOt^T-ie^oooi«05i— iico»oe<«c^'<*<eot^>c-<tieoe<»05
ll^4^,_;^^^,4(^^c^'-H■o1-H.-H■^c^-^r-H^c^c^l^^c4l^^(^^(^^c«^'^0'-^|^^1--'■
^^a-al a
!O(NOOOr-(.-iOr-iOO.-iOOOi-iONOOO<»(Ne0.-HOOO^O'-<
io ■
(» «.9 a
:pOMec>o^r^cs<D»0(N-^ot^o»oc>^oo>-irt»ceoooM^.i-(«oosoO'^05
i rt' ^ C^ T-; e^ rH* r4 ^ rH CJ (H W C^ '-H 1-H ,-< r-i C4 <-H 1-5 --H <-< eC C^ C^ .-H ^' M Tji rt*
ieo<-H«oi-iooo?D'*eoc<ii-i05t-'^t^OJ'-"»<eci-Hr-iooO'00550>o»ccc
<D <0 ^ O ^ CO ^ ^ ^ ^ O ^
§1
•>of^t>t>oO'^*iooo<Ncccor^oo
i'^t-OQ(M-HC'Jt«c2S5CS350iM
2
o> t: '^ Q "^ ^ -^ 5<> "^ f^ o ^o -^ 1^ c<i 05 "^ c<\
Tj<oo«cioccccic»cic>o:^QOTf<iO'>*'T»< cm
-- ?J (M rr iC iC CC CC 5C C£ >« C^l JV| CM -^ Tf t^
Milling and baking qualities of world wheats
35
«oiSi^05t^t^ooocScccoeoc«50-<oo^t^t^05C>^«50^^a)^t^05'-i»o«ceo
c<>coeoc»5c4ecc<5foeowcopo
or^c^c^e<5oo»oO'*'C^05r~-^po«OC^^«C'-i'CcOCT>ot^c»5C^'25>fOQO>o»f5
I 05 O O CT) O t^
1 CO t^ »c t^ >o Tt<
I C^ C^ C<l C^ C<1 c^
CO CO CO ^ <^ CO cc5
CO OO O CO
CO CO •« lO
CO CO coed
I CO ■««< CO CO ■«!»< 00
iC'0'*i-*0'OTt<'«tlM<-
§^§2gS§§^g§§2^SS^28J^SfeSSSS2S§^g^fe^
iili^i'^iiiiiciii^l'^
3 o OS « or3 030000000 otn ® H
3'0'0^.-t^'0x;."t^'^'0'0'0'0'0'0'a^.-t::ja .«
I ; ; bcx3 ; tic^ I 1 I I I I 1 I .£f -G £ -^
I'-^Lf ^ L> I I I I I I "^ >■ r^ >•
I II I
(oseoo-^
^ CO CO (
1 00 ^ i-H CO CO 00 Tt< Tj< lo -H c^ ic ":; Tt< N c>< e^ ^ Oi 05 00 co 53 o -^ co ^ (N co co >-; eo co co
coNt~-«oooM'ocoicooooioo-*ooa)OOoO'^osco-*OJ-««*cO'-ico»ococ<'-iooc<i
C<lrHOOrH0500TH-<lH.-HOC^
Tt<aot>-«ocooO'^«ooO'^CJi-i05Tt<»ot>.'-iTj<kOi-(iO'!*'t^coi-ioooooot^cot^-*o
c^cocDOieooo->**oOr-(eo«ci^
»c^o»>-icoecco»ooocoosco-^eo«oi-ii-iice«-^>oc<eseoeoo»-*c»NO«ot^«o
,J rH c3 »H ,-H c4 .-^ N '-i' OS c> OS -J ^* -H* ^ ^* rJ c4 'H r-; rH CO »^ c5 1-^ c5 C5 o es c^ .-^ e4
oocoi-t«-io»t>-'^»ooo»o-<ifr^
r4,-5e^coi-5'He>ici.-H.-H^c4
eoi-<eoNeoe^Ot-(eoNco.
lOOi-IOr-4C^^rHOO»-l.-(>-l,-IOMC<ION
IOrHrHC<OMi-<OC<J-
C««oioosoo»ceo05t^05^^0'^»oco«oc^05«oooot>.rHioeoe^coTf<.-iooeooo
C4>-HC^r4.-;rJrH.-HC>iCSic4C^C>iN^.-^C^^.-HC4c4i-H.-^C^(N.-;C^C4c4.-H.-Hi-;rt^
»0'-iC^iO-<»<00C0»0O'^OC^
c^c^.-5coc^'-<'-5rHc^c4e4c4
'-iOcoeo^'C-*Tt<t^.-Heocooc^o>i-iCT>co05CSOJO"50ooococ^eoOTj<t^co
COCOCOCOCOS^^COCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO
.-c.-ie«t^'!t<O500i-iTj<t^00co
CO CO CO CD CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO
^ ^ cc ^ ^ ^ ^ c^ CO ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ '^ '^ ^ ■^ ^ ^
■*T»< CO CO ■<»<'<*"*' ■*■
^'c^ <
CO "^ "^ CO CO
36
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
so
11
Si
liir«"F
S8o8^2oi?SSobo8ooSSoo8J^S?5SooS2SoSS5S
>Sao
ooSc*
9 fl-M
.we»5ccc^c^c^eoecc^ecc^eNiesc^'«eoe»5c4cic^'c^c>ie»5C^c<5C^c>ie><
§§s
<^
p
r
»c ■<*' -"f «o CO «o t^
•<* O 'C
-si
KosQ>cOTHeoQ.-ioo>OQOt^05Nr^^c<r>.'<*<iooQO'*<«c^oooi^
S ® d
0-" >
§WMNQC5e^cjocj»c(NC<^»cr:<NS'ooo(Nt^eoc^QOt^o»
.-i(3spo««Seo05r-ce^a>.-ir-i»oc^ooeooOCT>— ii-io5t^ooooQOO>
SB;
c o
^ 1
!!!!!!!!>»!!
) O O O O O O 073 CS 03 OtS ®73 ® _ _
I I ! ! ! ! t Im^od^ loQ^S^ 153^ \m I^S
:& 1
II
SJ-
.0000000 o5 0000000
j'O'O'OxJ'O'O'O'O^'O'a'O'O'O'O'd
I I I I
I I I t I I ' I
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I
I ail
'ac^-*o6'0«-nocseco5D'*eo<
1^
"Si
s:c^t^ooocot^Tj<o-*»ot^osr^Oi»0'-it^i-i;DTf<i3>oooootooc<j-<j<
^=1
5it^C<»Nt^«0">*»«0C>»Oi
)»oNO>c««0'-<0'««o»«oo»eor^Oi
. i^ t^ ;o t^ t^ t^ t^ <
) t^ t>. o r» t-- !
o«oo
wc5oJOi-5'-3po»HC<«'-<'-HOC^(
^-B-it
eT-ie<.-iect>.T-(.-ieoeooeo«
wo
S Sf-O t3 *- 1^
« 5f fl S w >
Koo>t^o>ot^cicoeoTj<«)ko
0(N(N(N(N(N»-5cic4eo.-;M^
»0'Ot^oooMi-ia60oseo-*<c«c>o
i-Jcsi-^c^'c^c^eccii-HcirHcii-Ji-Hi-JrH
'X3oo-«i*eorHoccst^c^Tt<oosN
ffi00C«COeO»Ct^C<J»-iQ0t^l-»«DQ0t>»CO
1^
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 37
S?l§8g2c
^ C>i IN c^ ^ c^ >
So C>< •«*< —I t^
coo-* CO t^
'occo5c5
1 Tl< OS t- o
i CS Oi (N (N
(NC<i
C4<N
Sooi-i30coS»occi?5»0'Hiot^
.-J c>i cc (N c^ CO <N M c^' im' c>i (N (M* — <■
•^ t^ ■«*< -^ 05 Ol t^
(M* r-J (n' c^" ir4 (m' <n
(N rH(N^
(NooMC^ fo
wecNcsicoNcccoeoc^C^fiiNco
t^ Ol 3< t^ O t^ 00
CO ^ e«5 S ■<1< CO S
eooj
S»oooco»oio^»oa5«ocD'So
CO <o CO O CO o o
CO io >« »o (
•O T»l ■^ •«*< Tj< ■»*< •
•«*toso6t^<5>t^ooooot^O'
t 00 C^ 00 GO o
:gSS
o|8
:::!: i :::>>: 1 i >»
1
;;;>>;;! ;
i 1 i 1 i i i i ii i i>ii
;
1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 >. I '. £ >>
oooooooo oS o o ^'3
1
! I ife I : I !
'
I ! ; >> ; 1 I !
o
O O <C+3 tt) o o o
•0'T3'0'0'OT3T3'd'C!^'0'aj:«Jj3
•a
^3 TJ .ti J3 .t^ '^3 T3 -O
; ; ; ; 1 : ! ; :s ; ;qm
;
>.
>.
a
fe
fe
>.
>.
S.^
73
^
bCj3 bO
^^
;^
cn
I i >.
™ <jj o o o "^
ja .tj t3 T3 "O ^
_u)xi ; I I .^
m^ 1 I I m
i«
O O) o o
I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I
: : : ! ! : ^
OOOOOO ''^
I I I I I I ffi S3 I
! I I : ! I >W I
c<05C<it^^t^pt^a>ocoo.-n
iO»OOO(Nt^00 (N OSt^lM
?5 CO c5 coSc5c5N eoeoco co co c^
it^coooo— iocooo<Ncooor^«o
^00(M^O(N(N
Tj<oecco.
)000500CT>O0505OOt^I^C
)CO«0?CtOCOtOOI:^l--.COCD!
l05iOcO«Ot^C^i-HOCOC<HOTj<t^
00 1-1 «o ec 1-1 CO t^
o 00 00 00 o
t^ o o <o t^
oc^occ*
S to «
t^CO «5 «0 t^
»-lTJ^e<5e^C^^^•»»^OSrH»CC^^lCO500
ed •-< (H c^ ci ^ ^ rH ec (N CO cs o ^'
O O Oi 1-1 <©i-i O
CO -4 rH co' 1-1 <m' co'
lO coco
^ .-Jco
05 o Oi a> CO
C^ i-I iH M ^'
b- CO
-<'o
ooiHC<|i*»Hi-HOi-ieoi-4e<c^c^c>«
ooc^ecc<i
t^c^'*ooooeo50>-iTj<i
C4 e<i e4 (N c^' »-H c>4 (n' c4 !-< .
■ oooe^
OP* Tl< CO ^ N CO
•*■■<)<■ C^ (N CO <N <N
CM 00 CO
COTj<»COtO
p4 pi P4 CO c<i
•OCO
e0'^Ol>>50O»OQ0i-l«0i-l«0e0««
CM a> o to ko CM Tt<
CO CM iC 00 <
SSSSSSSSSSSS8S
op to 05 o » ^ a
lo >o ic »o lO *o »c
iSS
t- to CO T»< CO GO ><»< 00 t^ I* »C OO Q t^ <} Tf CO lO lO •^
CMiQic-^f-^jiiocibTficoto-^iCoio •^oO'Otot--
t^ CM ■^ ■^ Tf Tti CM Tt< Tf< Tfi lO lO »?5 »0 "O S •^ •^ CM
eC'*-* -^^
"" gS
OS CO to<
■^ -^cotficoCM gogo cO (
Tt< Ttl Tt< 'J< T»< CO ^ ■* Tfl «
38
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OK AGEICULTUBE
Mi
8Si
f^ ;o^
o o
WP^O !
8.b
aj ^ ■
" 2
X O
WO
^'^,
Of^ ;ow O f«^OW
2.Sf
£f 2
til o
Esc I &
geaa ;a
a:::^^a::o
2 Sf
O h3
I"
oq
HO
O o
1 '=3 ° 53
a ' 3
:wOf
3 !
a ;
in I
o o
o o
03 _0
a
C3 ; o C3 O ; X O
P^ :OEmO IWO
IW O
a
a
« O S3 o
WOf^ O
O b
JS S 00 05 06 00 S c
I
si
§1
11
llOioS"
.PpOQi
_ ope
t^ 1^ o5 <
O O T-H I
>OOOOOOOOOOOOpOOOOPPOO<
iOOi
I O >— I >-H .-( .— I O
0(NC<rc^".-r<N(rf.--rc4~c>fc^"c4'(N'c4"rHC^"c>fcfc^cs".-Hi-HM
Soop'Oco«oo5T)<»oi-iO'-Hoo.-ie^t^t^c^»-iT-(0?0'>!f<05T-(ccooco»0'oec»o
§■Qdc^^-^'-<oiQdojoi05Qd^-^o6o5^-^od^^?o•^'-^c5^'C3^0505Cs^^aopc2
^;DO«lNOe50005»C'<tii-iiOP»Or^Qp^H05'«i<cC-Hpi0^t^QQ05C<»QOCS
^a *^
J
s^^
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
« •^ «p ^ -H N Q ^ CO Q CO CO -^ — I fc ic — < ^ c^ >-i i-( ,-1 lo o> eo >o -"ti lO M «5 ^ lO >-i eo co co >o © — < ■^ eo >c o Oi •-i -h co
asisasss8ssssss«ssssa8S8aasasa8sas a aaaaaaaaaasaa a
39
WCfeW
0(1hO
O O ;3 O O O ' -3 O ■ '^ _! -3
■ o • • ~ -■ • ~ -■ -» -■
SOS io ; ;w ; ; ;ow lowow
O X ct X o
WO
^-q
Es-q
>^(^
a
is
o
(3
o
beg
3n
o
to
X2
a
>.>.
£J>£ ! £ ' i £Sf£ i £2
1 SoS
^ 03J3 oJJ^ 03X1 03^^ 03 03^jnj3J3
K/s oji K*^ a:) Kri fli K/\ flu ' C C- fcijh tub *^'^ *^'
easa
d '^ ^ ^
^ , a; o O) «
^^o c3 o o
11
A ra,^ cCri-> U3A ca
£f £ Sf £.£f £ £f £ ■ • i: c; .sy.^- ^- ^-
.i^ t^.^ t^.^ t^,^ Ui
oggoooo
'O c3j3 c9
£!a>£
;dh:io
S'0'OT3T3
-soa
wo
:a
' 3
lOesoooceO 'xo ' as o >^. lOxOxio 'cjo
;owooowo :wo ;wow ;owowo ;wo
o o
I o c
> o o
:oo
« , o o
ce o
WO
WO
ooooo>ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooQoSooo6ooc»oooi8ooooooooo5oo05
^ 05 O IM CO (
000000000OQ6060008060806
i r^ o ^ g CO 00 c>2 5
1 10 «o »o in io «o lo '
! 10 O g IM Tt< c^ ■
) 10 »c »o iC 10 *o '
OOOpOpOOOOOQOOOQOQOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
t^co»o?5-H?5Tt<-ait^©ooQ^'a<iCCT^Qcocoic-^Tf<Tti^co'-iTj<toioco>oo
0^-(OOC»C500000000000r-<— ,-,,-irtO^CS(M.-i,-i^O-HOO
C^' (N (N CS N' rt' i-T C^f (N C^' C^* C^f (N C<f C^' C<r <N C^r <N CS C>f (N C^^
«Tt<CO-^iO'«*<iftrHfO«i55
0050'-<0'-iO'-ii-imO
C^' C^"" rt <N <N CS C4" <N~ (N (N <N (N'
.-•t^iO0»<-IC00Je0t^0JC«00»C«0OO<DOt^0i»C00O0000C<lTj<t^<000C00>-<J<
«oeoT}fOt^t-»o050t^Oeo
iSS<J5u5StoioOeD050'0'oSotO«D<D>oSSo»05Dt^5S«0'0»0'3
^»HN«^oost^-^-^c^co
iTt<»o<o>oeoeoNocoeoco
i-HTt<-Hco50'005T»<(NTf<ooQoai-<eoQOi<
S:2f:j?5?:5S?S?ig8Sofe55S;2^S?§
lTt*eOTt<Tt>Tt<'<!t"C0CO-^->»l'^-^'*Tj<Tt<Tjt'<»'-
ieoooNeo-iOs(MQr^oo'0'<*«,-ico
McOCOUKNoOiOaiOt-**
CO ^ ^ CO CO ^ 'tj* "^ ^ ^ ^ ^
40
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Ml
to ^ ^ 55 OS w on eo «c <-i 1— ® 00 m « <-i -H i c^
SS!
•CD
§
feWO
8S
X o
wo
;wo
•o
WO
5 o
2
f go
^2
"^S^
fl o ^ fl d d d 6
2 !.£f2
m ih^pq
13 So
2 ""2
E
aa
ea
sa :
2 '^ '
53 ;
>»
2
be
asas
c3 bo 03 be
S ^» >
be g be g
3u3o
as
"aa
Q i-^OO
O
a ;
3 I
;owo
I ea o o « o
IWOOWO
11
3 h
oi''3oooco o oo'3 o o
^OWO i IfeOOOOO O OOfe O O
ill
' 08 O O
;woo
O b
s^a
§1
) t^ «>< r^ »o <
) 1ft iC O »C I
I lO O ^ I
iSioSl
11
fOOOOQOOOOOOOOpOOOOOOOOOOOOO
O e^" c^ c^* c^ c^ c^' c^ c^ (rf c^ c^ c^ c<f c<f c^ c^ c^ c^ c^ M c^ c4^ c^ cs (^f cf M M
CO o CO cE ^
SI
eooosoi'-i-*<T-(t^c<nco»-i«o>oi^c^eoosT}<eoo^eoi^o-*c^t-c^
ooo-<i<
e«icco«ot*
-H OJ eo cs ci
CO U3 ffitt CO
"S CD CO S CO CD CD <
»|2a
i05t>-«)Cs»Tt<oit^oeo
i5je<»'*'»ocD-<*<'^«o»o
SS!
<t-
1
<«1
5:3gS
III
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
41
OS C^ Q O? «0 O !>■
eceoS
ISSSSS
ss
J "^
O !-!
> o
J "S
X) ■ O « 0) O 03 o
PhO
"2 >-:"^
•3 I §
Pm O Ph
•CO^e ^"CO >.&'0
1 Ih^pq ; i^m
d d"^ 1=1 d d
o
« o
o u
o o ■
^ n w
S 2
►-5 P^
73 M)
bO
g gg g
5 bcS M
£ ^ >»
c3 I TO c5 « c3 "^
bo 1 be tao bc bc bo
c3 g g c5 g c5 H
-a b£c3'0 ^XJ g
,i_uj,i_w ■— • as <S ^ cS ji ci si
55 bcxJ
BBB
c3 c8 03
<S O) «
g g g
bC b£ b£
C+-' P o o
£a2 , ,^
2s I
big .bp
II
lit
OWO!
J'OXJ'O'
I O O I
, O O I
loo ;
O ' O I X o
t? O 5 O
<B O !-! O
o
> O O I
) O O '
-O J
OOPhOO
X o
WO
i^ o ea
00 (N >0 00 Oi -<*<
00 00 "* 00 00 05
oooot^ooaoaooo^oo
00 00 oo 00 00 00 00
) 00 00 00 00
I -"l* c^ o »c o ^ t^ •
I lO »o »o »o >o »c >o >
o> t^ O o CO eo lo
40 O kO ^ o ^ to
8^2
»o «o «o
Q0«O ® CO CO lO
»o ic o >o »o ko
00 lO
§§§i§iiss
Cf (N C^ C>f of (N >-r C>f Ci
ooopooo
00 00 to fi o >o «o
C>f cf C^ <N irf of (N
oooooc
iC © »c -^ <© s
gs
t^^OO00O»O00O
oJesfOM-^o»o^"c»5
05 CO o •"*< -^ c<i t^
•^ 00 t^ O (N O "O
CD CO O CO CO cO CD
tN. OO'* »c <
OS 00
2§g
l(N -*< «C O Q .-I O ^
><OCOCOt>-OCOt~oCO
e<5 QO OS CD c^ -^ t^
to >0 U3 CD CD CD kO
ss
Ncotcost^cDQOeo
i^2§
SSobrfCOCO'^iCCO'C
1* CO lo "J ■"»< CO CO
•«< 00 "5 CO t>; T»< ■*;
»o CO 3 •* es •* «o
^ CO ^ * * * ^
r^c^S
CO OS CO 00 I
•^■^jcoSi
»C lO o •* ■
IS
42
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 107, XT. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE
e
Si
a
o
V.
SP
'5
e
•Sal
.9 '3
llioi
1^ X3 «
W-O
pq ®
1 o**
I o; •- « a © m .— I
£.9g8.s2o
^1-9 §8.9
2«« © o a »^ sp
S So
> Xi
1^
.o»^e5<o<Na>'OC5CT>5N
iSwMM-^
a,d
a !
box: bcx; M
ts
•-< o o oJ 05 o cad 5C (N th
OOOt^»0«COTJ4l-»Tfl
;oO'<}<eo.-i»oosi-Heoi-ioo
;-*pO'-ioo5;dooo5.-i->*<
;C^Mcc-<}<-*Tt<T}<(©coo
■*j<©-«JH(NC^i-HO00COC<>«O
/.•cccoodb'.'t^T-Jcoi-H-HO
1 00 00 r>- oc t^ t^ ?o <
a.
e<3eoc^ooeOTf<t>.coi
^oeo cc-iC^
'J3 'Xi iJS
I (JO I be ; bc
3 3 3
o I o I o
iC_| it^ iCh
egs'cs'gsss
c "s S 'e 5 '3 '5 "3 '3 «
§|S|S|SSS|
666666666^
111
S.SOO
n jo
73
^2
SJ3
o
^a
o 3
Moo
bOo
O c3 ©
gooooooooo
g'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O
pq ;;;;;;;; ;
!-?>»
a ' ' ' ' a s
i i ! ; lis :si
g^ o S o o^ " orj
o o
X3 V-
.SP'S =3
© o o
o o H
H^ > 3
O O O O O O «><
-C "O 73 "C "O TJ "O >>'0'§
f^ooooooQOocooooc
»ot^Moooot^i^05>cooo
..-HO»ooooiroccoo«o
5JCO<00000-^C5l»t^OiO
.0000'-"-i.-i-Hn-,(N
O of c>f c^c^f cs dcid'c^c^
. afl^ 3
fa ®'I2-
a '
eoo3-<*<oo5i^-*cq
«0 CO «o
«oo
ScO
I S o <« «fl
© 3
11.9 1
I o ic es 00 'H 00 ® <
1 O lO r- 1 «0 t>. «0 OS '
c>i o< oi oj i-< -H o '
© fl «
t, ©•'-''3
I ers oi oi M "O ■
13 I 3 3
o 1 O I o
:H '.H :h
CCCCGCCHH
o o
^^
X5J=
O O
O O O O O O O
cj « K a cJ c; cj
jo x: .c X2 x: X3 X!
o o c c o c o
cccccnccc
r-l i-( CS (M e7cC •<*< «0 «5 ^
o" d o* d d d d d d §
;z;;z;:z;;z;:z;:z;;z;;z;;z;fa
tuxi
2|
©is
i|
fle.
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WOKLD WHEATS 43
On the basis of the average figures given in Table 10 as the index of
quality of the Canadian shipments, it is apparent that the wheat
represented by the Canadian grades No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3 Manitoba
Northern, was of excellent milling quality, especially the first two
[grades. The wheats of all three grades weighed at least 60
pounds per bushel, and were practically free from dockage, insepar-
able foreign material, and damaged kernels.
From the samples of each grade a high percentage of flour of high
protein content, low ash, and good color was obtained. The water
absorption of the flour was high, and except for the fact that the
baked loaf in each instance was somewhat below the average size of
■loaf, the baking quality of all the flour milled from No. 1, No. 2, and
No. 3, Canadian Northern hard red spring wheat was excellent.
On the other hand, the samples of wheats graded as No. 4, No. 5,
and No. 6, Manitoba Northern, and the sample of Feed wheat were
of progressively inferior milling quality as the grade changed from No.
4 to No. 6, and to Feed wheat. The undesirable factors that are
indicative of poor milling quality such as a lower test weight and
percentage of dockage, inseparable foreign materials, and damaged
kernels, increased as the grade was lowered.
The flour milled from the samples of the lower grades was progres-
sively poorer in color and higher in ash content. On the other hand,
as is characteristic of frost-damaged wheat, the water absorption of
the flour milled from these lower grades was noticeably higher than
was the case with the flours milled from No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3
Manitoba Northern.
With the increased water absorption of the flour, the volume of the
baked loaf from the flours milled from grades No. 4, No. 5, and No. 6,
as well as Feed wheat was slightly larger, but the bread was of
distinctly poorer color than that made from the flour milled from No.
1, No. 2, or No. 3 wheat.
The slightly greater size of the loaf of bread from No. 4, No. 5, and
No. 6 Manitoba Northern, and from Feed wheat flour, is due, no
doubt, to the condition of the gluten in the lower grades of wheat.
The gluten in frost-damaged wheat, which is the predominating type
in the lower grades of Canadian wheat, is somewhat weaker and
more mellow than the gluten in sound wheat. Flour milled from
frosted wheat would, therefore, tend to expand to a greater extent in
the baking process, and the result would be a larger loaf.
The milling and baking qualities of the two samples of durum wheat
were excellent. Judging from the samples of the white wheats, one
cargo was of excellent quality, whereas the other was below average
quality.
MEXICO
Production of wheat in Mexico averages about 11,000,000 bushels
annually. There has been little increase in production since the
World War. Very little wheat is imported, and practically none is
exported.
The more important wheat-producing States in the order of their
acreage in 1926 were Guanajuato, Coahuila, Michoacan, Sonora,
Mexico, Chihuahua, and Neuvo Leone.
Climate, soil, and plant disease are the factors limiting the produc-
tion of wheat in Mexico. Wheats produced in Coahuila, Chihuahua,
and lower California are grown under irrigation. The chief wheats arQ
44 TECHNICAL BtJLLETIN 197, tJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICTJLTTJKE
soft red winter and white. They are usually fall sown. Club wheats
are occasionally grown.
Samples of the commercially important varieties of wheat grown in
Mexico were obtained through the courtesy of Senor Juan A. Gonzalez,
chief of the extension office at San Jacinto, Distrito Federal, Mexico.
The names of the varieties tested and the State in which they are
commercially important, are found in Table 11.
The majority of the varieties of commercial importance are white
wheats, with a scattering of soft red winter wheat. If graded under
the United States grain standards act, the majority of the Mexican
wheats would be graded as mixed wheats on account of the presence
of white wheat in red wheat, or vice versa.
From a milling standpoint and judging by the samples (Table 12),
the white wheats of Mexico are slightly superior to the soft red winter
wheats, as flour yields from the samples of white wheats were more
uniform, and the quantity of wheat necessary to make a barrel of
flour was slightly less with the white wheats than with soft red winter
wheats.
The flour milled from the samples of Mexican wheats contained
about the usual quantity of protein for the white and soft red winter
classes of wheat. The flour was soft in texture, slightly creamy to
white in color, and on the average was low in ash content. The
water absorption of the flour from both classes of Mexican wheats
was below the average usually associated with flour milled from
similar classes of wheat grown in the United States.
The baking quality of the flour milled from the samples of Mexican
wheats is shown in Table 13. The bread baked from the Mexican
flours demonstrated that there was a wide variation in those factors
which indicate baking strength. Fermentation time varied from 90
to 135 minutes, proofing time from 51 to 69 minutes, loaf volume
from 1,690 to 2,660 cubic centimeters. Equally wade ranges occurred
in the color, grain, and texture of the crumb of the loaf and the color
of the crust. The flours milled from the wheats grown in Chihuahua
had, on the average, the greatest baking strength. With the excep-
tion of one sample of wheat grown in Aguascalientes, which produced
flour of an excellent milling quality, there does not appear to be any
decided order of merit in which the wheat from the other States
should be listed. The white wheats of Mexico appear to rank, as
far as baking strength is concerned, along with those of Australia,
and, with the exception of the white wheats grown in the United
States, appear to have better baking strength than do any white
wheats grown in any of the 38 countries that contributed wheat for
this study.
UNITED STATES
Wheat is one of the most important crops grown in the United
States. It is outranked in value only by corn, hay, and cotton and
is the great bread crop of the Nation. About one-third of the farmers
grow wheat. Production is above the pre-war level and averages
over 800,000,000 bushels a year. Statistics on the production of
wheat for the years 1920-1928 are given in Table 14. The data in
this table are arranged according to the five commercial classes of
wheat grown in the United States. . More hard winter wheat is
produced than of any other class, followed in order of production
by hard red spring, soft red winter, white, and durum.
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
45
I CO rH tH O 'i' ^
"-HO r-( ■^00<
08 O
.^0»HOO.-iOO
«c5
0»flt^O
C5
cccococo CO cc^ccco CO ccc^
'T3MOO»OCOTf<-»»<000
So5050505(-^Q'Ht>;
rH 00.-lt^t^
CO OS ■^ o »o o
E3
O OJ »o e<3 >o o «o
oo>co c^
i
S
S^
a a
Oj3
8x>
?3 ?5
)c o a
-„ „ ® -rr X! x:
aj o ® ox3^
,^s.
e o
n, O <=>
O
J3
^ m ^ „ 3
" ® * 05
"^3
o 3
J2^
pqu«
-S.2.
3 o
;« IS
aS-o i >
I fell
e o
08 OJ S'o'
es ^
3 O
2
u a o
©2
o
G
O
02
08 C S^
CO CO CO CO C5 CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO
I^gc^c
46
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, TJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
00 <a
^
-ojd ua)ni3 uj niu9:jni£)
jtiog u] uiojojd ue^nio
jnog m nipBiio
jnog ni mu9:jnio
jnog ui in9!)0Jd epiuo
)B9qM. UI uigjojd 9ptuo
2®
piOB OnOBI
Hd
I'BQiiMi. m qsy
^ ^ ^ ^ CO ^ ^ ^
fc,-^c^Ti;coe<3e»5coc^->»<eocs<HN
C»3Mi-iC000«C«i>O
cocccooocscococo
^05C0CS(NC<5<MO»0<DO0S00C0
t^(--C<5Q0»OO>OJQ0
a^;::
T-it^coc^ooooo<
"OCCOO-^
-•55cOC<».-HrHC^C^(NTtic»5C^C^CS-^CO
•^ «o C^ O CJ t^ ?» c
c<i f< ec c<o ■* '
CDOOCO^COCO^O^COOCOO
O CO o o o o ^ o
•«ecoo50C»»o050<c-<*<ooo«o<
jnog UT qsy
9niBA guipsBO
I CO «0 Tfi CD lO -^ 1
I cs oco »o e<5 I
S 1
s
®^ S «> o 073 © 073 o S
> o H-n
■So
jnog
JO pajBq J9d ;B9qAi
+jdodddddddddoddddd >> J d
cQ I i I ! I ! 1 I I I 1 ! I ! I I !>co !
^BgqAi 99aj
-93B:^oop sisbq:
}B9qM
p9jnoos puB
P9UB9I0 STSBg
3inJ9dra9!j 9J0j
-9q ^B9qAv JO 9Jn;sioj^
p9Aora9J s3nT
-jnoos puB S3uld99J0S
loqsnq J9d jq3i9iS\ ^S9j,
icooo«Dooeo(N-<*<oiooo5C^oooo«ocoiO'«t<oo»o
> 00 cvi 10 c 00 CO
• I© t>. «5 1^ S «o
I CO >-H 00 OS CO
* "^r t>i ^_j ^^ ^^ t«^ i.^ ^_; '— ' t^ ^^ ^>i u^ c^j (.>< wi ^ CO ^^ O 00
;cocqooo»coc^c^'-H'«*<rHC<jcO'McooO!
' ■'j' CS O -H -h' d (N O -h' CO — <■ <N CS CO (N OS ■
;ooo0505-«**t^eoco»or^ooc>i-^-«tiio^
■ 'H CO d d !-< c5 04 "-I c^' »-< ^' c^' <H -^' d co"
0-<*<00 05CO
<N co" d d d
.CO'CTtfC^eOCOCOQOiCOOOOO'CQOOJO
. C<i .-H -l5 CO >-J --H r-H ci N C^ 1-J »-i »-H .-< Xj! C<
t^OsOOCO
;c<i ^T-icocir^'OOi'-i 00 ococ^io 010000 .-It-
CD ^' t>^ •>*
tC CD >0 >0
) CO CO CO CO CO 00 CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO (
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OP WORLD WHEATS
47
1 I
csna
S3 C3i3 03X3 =3^.
aa^aa"
o S o
O *ri O
bC^ tti loo
I- O M o
© O 05 O
P
.hoooooooo
SOoOoOoOO
« o.
O.fc! O.iJ 1 o
O c3 O 03 I O
OX5
.3 a
,»oeoiosa)Soooj»oa>t>-05t>.ooo5
^
I
oS Q0O> 00 00 00
^o
I O t^ r^
I lO T»< lO
1 ■* Tj< TJI -Tji
OOOOQPOOOOOOOOO
T»<r^tc>oopooo'^eDTt<GOi^eoo
ooooop
OOOOSO©
ill
ic-»»<Tt<coc<iooo":i»cit^c^c^c>ioo
«> T-H CO C^ Oi »o
>0 >S to O kC >o
13
Ph
I iC o S o <
§ g ®
a-Ba
}T»< lOrHlOgO
I 1-1 PO i-H oo
eOCOOOCiOC<5c«5C»5fCCOOOCOfCMCOCOffOCOC«5COe«5COCC
48
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, V. S. DEPT. OF AGRICtJLTUKE
Hard red spring wheat is grown extensively in the north-central
area in Iowa, Minnesota, Montana, North Dakota, and South
Dakota.
Durum wheats are found in almost the same area, Iowa being the
exception.
The hard red winter wheats are found in the central southwestern
part of the country, particularly in Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Okla-
homa, and Texas and in parts of eastern Colorado, Idaho, and
Wyoming.
Table 14. — Wheat production, by classes, United States, 1920-1928
Year beginning July—
Hard red
winter
Hard red
spring
Durum
Soft red
winter
White
Total
1920
1,000 bushels
302, 447
290, 050
279, 957
241, 852
365,000
206,000
360,000
317,042
384,176
1,000 bushels
139, 893
131, 075
169, 615
126, 876
192,000
156,000
121,000
201,927
195, 106
1,000 bushels
52,180
56, 974
90,817
55, 255
66,000
65,000
48,000
83,162
97,833
1,000 bushels
247,300
237, 393
247,884
271, 631
189,000
170,000
229,000
180,887
139, 788
1,000 bushels
91,207
99,413
79,325
101, 767
52,000
80,000
73,000
95,356
85,846
1,000 bushels
833,027
1921
814, 905
1922
867, 598
1923
797, 381
1924
864,000
1925
677,000
1926 - -
831,000
1927
878, 374
1928
902,749
Based upon reports to the Division of Crop and Livestock Estimates and studies of the Bureau of Plant
Industry.
The soft red winter wheats are grown mostly in the humid East
Central States. Large acreages are sown to soft red winter wheat in
Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Missouri, Maryland, and Pennsylvania.
Both spring and fall-sown white wheats are found in the north-
western and northeastern parts of the country. Considerable com-
mon white wheat is grown in New York. In the Northwest, large
acreages are devoted to the white wheats, especially in California,
Idaho, Oregon, and Washington.
According to Clark, et al. {2) more than 200 distinct varieties of
wheat are grown in the United States. This is natural, as wheat
is produced commercially in all of the 48 States, under a wide range
of environmental conditions. Many of these varieties are adapted
only locally; others are well adapted to a wide range of conditions.
Among the spring wheats grown the variety Marquis is the most
important. In fact the area devoted to the production of Marquis
wheat in 1924 exceeded 9,600,000 acres or to approximately one-fifth
of the total wheat acreage of the country. Other prominent spring
wheat varieties are Ceres, Kota, Preston, Ruby, and Power.
More than 14,000,000 acres are sown to hard red winter wheats.
Turkey, Kanred, Kharkof, and Blackhull are the most important
of the hard red winter group of wheats.
Fulcaster, Mediterranean, Poole, Leap, and Trumbull, are the
foremost varieties of the soft red winter wheats.
Among the durum varieties, Kubanka, Kahla, Peliss, and Amautka
are extensively grown.
Representatives of the common white wheats {Triticum vulgar e),
Goldcoin, Baart, and Pacific Bluestem are outstanding varieties.
Of the club wheats (T. compactum) the variety Hybrid 128 is the
leader.
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 49
1^ From the standpoint of the uses to which the wheats produced in
IB the United States are put, they may be grouped into three subdivisions.
IH'The hard red spring and the hard red winter wheats are essentially
^Rbread wheats; the soft winter and white wheats are used largely for
^■pastry and biscuits and to some extent for bread; the durum wheats
Hfurnish semolina, which is used in the manufacture of such products
^■as macaroni and spaghetti.
IP!
UNITED STATES VARIETIES
To compare the relative milling and baking properties of the
wheats of the United States with those of similar usage and classi-
fication grown in other parts of the world, selected varieties represent-
ing the five commercial classes were milled and baked. The varieties
Kanred, Kharkof, and Turkey were chosen to represent the hard
red winter wheats; the varieties Kota, Marquis, Power, and Ruby,
the hard red spring wheats; the varieties Kubanka, Mindum, and
Nodak, the durum wheats; the varieties Fulcaster, Fultz, Harvest
Queen, Minhardi, and Red Rock, the soft red winter wheats; and
the varieties Pacific Bluestem, Federation, Hard Federation, Quality,
and White Federation, the white wheats. To minimize the effect
of changes in climate and soil conditions upon the relative merit of
any given variety, samples of the variety under discussion were
obtained from several sources as shown in Table 15. Other milling
and baking data are found in Tables 16 and 17.
112424°— 30 4
50
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 107, tJ. S. DEPT. O^ AGRICULTURE
.2P C S S rt
' o
X3
feS
ooooooooooooocs
ooooo ooooooooooooo
ID t! Ui
l-pl
0'He^tOf-ioeco5'*<»-i«oooo«o
oi-; to
OJQOM
1--5 I e<5 o> «o
CO 1 eo e4 eo
•§
•OiOOSNOMt-OOr-^OO-'fOeOO
qiC'C'00'S«0»C'OTt<«0«5«D'OtO
(NCOMiCO
■^O— lOSlOf-HTtH-J't-Ht^CSI-
r-lO '-ICSOO
■gO'-HOOOOi-i®OOOOC^O
2^=5
ooooo
C>»CSOOOOOC>J— lOOOO
t-eo«Ob-
t^ooiooeoo
« csi cs ci CO eJ
oo.-ioooeocsiooc4NM
a
-2
be be be
R H 1=1
•E •£:•!:
CBCOM
u a a
a°
o o o
03 03 03 C3 03~
rH r-H CO —I 1-1 1
I be
I o
I'E
I a
ICQ
bebe _ bc
'.9 S E.S
I »- t- (D b
iCCCO-gOi
! fl CO H
I ih iH b ii
I o oi? o
(M»CCQi-i
be be
li Im l-i
rQ O O O O
^ * ' ' '
c a
-co
2S
ll I-
03 03
0) o
.5.5
fe ce'« 03 S'C 03 ce'^
PQ \PP ICQ
fc-':?
03 (s'o a
SQ ;Q
oooooooo
w ;
ft
K ;
o o o o o c
ooS.oooco'-o
o ! 1 * I 1 I I I 5 I 3
<u o OJa: ocooooojoo
;eh
.S5gjc.2^gfe®.5go.Sx
-i^tf S-eSt^ o5S.i<! o^.i«:-t^
^- c « c --
^o;?;c;
^ (^ ^ ^ l-H .
4*!
I 03
03 C -^ C 03 g^ 03 C --
31^
icco^-^c
I JiOit^OS ■
(35 CCCNt^cO
1- CCIC 50l^
CO CO CO CC CO
t~ GC lO 00 t^ 1^ lO CC
eocococoececcococococofOfo
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
51
OO O OOOOOOOOO O rHOOOOOClOPleOO
COiCi-l©iO^»-tOO
OOC«iOl^C«OC»i-40C«
^
tesOiOi
00 P3 ■^ CO C»
cocicicsT:5
OOC*-<J<r-l
nci
eodTi!
ooc^i-co-^oo-^oo
OO'-it^Q0NC^b--^0SC»5
OOOOOO'HOOiOOC^O
e4ooocc£>or>^c^5RC^'os
t^ O^ w^ O) O) O Od Od O^ O) Od
i-iO^C-l«^00'
a G a a
<9 V
.S.S
.15X3
^x! ;x3xi
Sn ;S;2J '^n
.-ic<i lecp*
2 ;
«S o o o
i-B
3 03 i;2 ©
I I 1^ 1-1 I fl
:;z:
■ Ch o:
55 "d
fe _-:S s 5 ^- 5 3 a c- fe "a ! iflS « cii « c ^-a
1^ ;«^£»^^
— icoococ^M'Tcoinco
62
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, TJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRlCULTtJRE
(q 9iau8 J9U^OO)
r^ ei ,-; -J e< ,-; rH r-i r^ 1-^ .-; .-; e>i -H
■o «c t- e^ M
sni9)
pScOCO'<»<0>«OflOO»t-
jnog ai nie^oid ne^nio
jnog UT njpBiio
r^t^t^t^o
jnog n\ njuajnio
00«DOt-HCO
mog m uie^ojd epiuo
■otC'ii»'OC^«D-«*<»cioiOTfTi<tot-.
CO »o lo •»»; ■
»OCO-^'Tt<-»j5cOCO«rf«rf
h
g
^
_5)^
'X3
■»^
J
a
S
<
cw
c
>5
s
«>
•?:
o
»
'*=i>
^BeqAs. tij nw^ojd epruo
•C^OC<Or-<00<0>000.-ip<C
Tj" LO » »0 Tf<
lOTii'^'iO'^coecedcd
PIOB Oi;OBT
.• CC Tf c<i ■
:SSS2
S3?5S?5?Si
' CO O 05 r^
ICOCCWt-i
SiiigSSgi
H<i
■^ ■^ iC "^ lO "^ W^ i
o o ^ CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO co co
'coiocot^
cccocooco
cdcocOcOc^cOcOcOctf
^B9tiM ui qsy
•"OO'OOOt^'-i'OOSOS'OOJt^C
Q, N p4 ^' C4 C4 rH ,-; r-I (N r-i i-i t-< 1-5 T
«o*t^-«}<oot^SS§
jnog UI qsy
Sr^ 00 CO 00
G,o
11
9niBA OUJIOSBO
g5§Sg8§2S^SSgS^S
• t^»oooo«oc^gc»
a a a a
o3 ^ ! CO ,03
£ £ 2 S
cpoca^S^a-
^ m Ih Oi
a > C oj C
; i^
O !
i3 2*-S
w ;
Jtiog
JO i9UBq aad iB9qA\.
iisi
C^(N(N(N5<COIMes«(N<N(M
05 CO (
CS C^ CS|(N(
-93B3100P SISBQ:
•gOiOi-ioooo-<*<t>.coco"0«;oiiooo
5B9qAV
pgjnoos puB
p9nB9p sisbq:
'C0C0OO00i-H;Dc0t^Tt<00O50C>»
a> oec o ec
oi c^ ^" ic -^ o 00 -^ c5
co-<*<»CrHOs-«*<ocooo
t^ t>. t^ O I^ t^ '
3lITJ9dra9; 9J0J
-9q jB9"qi». JO amjsioK
loeooicoiooit^oooc^t^
T-5 O t-i T^" -H ,-< CS C5 C) (N — <■
P9A0UI9J s3tIT
-anoos puB s3uiu99aos
■«o»i>o
oiooooc><coc^Oi«o<
.-Hi-JrHC^coe^'i-Hcoc^ii-J.
isqsnq J9d ;q3i9i^ }S9X
•^ ^' O r-H*
OrHTt<COt~t^05 0COeC(
O5<35"lo:t^
I »H 05 N t^ CO 05 CB <
; c5 ^' o ^' (N o -H ,
00 00 »o 00 c<>
CO i-H (N i-i eo
I •<*i00t^C<>t^OlN00t
^^c«i.-H-^-co^.
oo-*c«t^t^
C^OOOONt^oo^eo
I
> o5 toe^t^eo >
_-< r» 1— t 00 1-H 00 ^^
CO CO CO CO 00
Soo^
: 00 m o
CO CO CO
COCO!
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
53
Ot-OOOOsOOc
cs' ^ ci ff4 rH T-i c4 c<i .
GO ^t^'-l
c4 c<i ci y-i oi ^' ci ^ ci
»o oc oot^ to
ci pi t-H cm" r-I .-i
csTfiQC'-icot^cSiot^
1^^;
^5 cs o CO OS I
ot^cioc o 00 o o* '
esp5NScconoo>S
»-<■ O O" CO* 00* CO* O CO* ^'
t^ ;0 <N OCi -f IM
ns
aooO'-H-<»<oic>ioor5
«0 05 t--* V «o t^* >o* »o* o
to* «o* urJ t^* •^ t>-' io to* «d
CO CO «D ■<*' 00 CO
■^ t>. "5* CO* •*' >0 ■^* ■^* >o"
a!T-Hvoc^ooo>Oi-ieo
TjJ Tj<* Tji o CO* UO* ■^' CO* lO*
CO CO CO CO lO lO
NCOiOCOCOCOPIOt^
0»Oior^T}<cooooiM
(N (NOS-^Oie^^-^— i(NCO
(N>OT)HC^iOt^OM00
co^o0'<»<oco«o0'0
CO* csi 1-H* lo* 05 »o* >-! lo* CO*
Oi 00 Tfi oi "o Tfi
8f^
t^rH-ailOTj<OCOC005
05050t^05C^t-(NC^
es* ai o* o* c^* >o iM* CO* ■"*<*
■^* CO* CO* CO* O CO* <N* CO T}J
C^OSOOCO uooo
00 CO CO 00 CO lO
<ji 05* lO O* O lO
CO CO t^ lO O lO •' IM
eococoPiCNco ics
I O CO CO O »C 00 (N O
i^socoosg^oog^
CO CO C^ CO CO <
CD Oi CO i-H OO r-H
ic c<ico t^ ■* es
(MCOC^IN(MCO
00 CO
coco
CO ICOCO^COCOCOCOCOCO
>ceo'^T»<o»oco>C'-i
COCOCOCOCOvOCOCOCO
O CO CD CO CO CO
COOi-HcOXCO-«tO <
CO O »0 00 CO ■* t- »0 I
O rH GO O "0 CO
QOOUOCO CD-^i
u5 05 •«*i 05 CD 00 >
o> oo.»o t^ t--. <
O vOC<»-<OcOC><t^<
■<*< (N O C» lO ■«»<
t«OCOTj<|
(OCO o<
b\
i'O'O'O'O S'O ^
I I I I >> r I I I I I I >>
® O O O 0+3 o o o o ® o CS «> o
i^
, « o
iCCCQ
■«»<05:a'O5cocor^co«o
ii^eoot^ 00 Tj<oo.
O-Hi-HOsOSi-irt^OOPJ
o
t^CDCfit^
CO O 00 CO OJ 00 CD .
CO t^ W .-I CO c^
^OC005'-l00-^»ClO
C>i rt* O 'H* rt" (N* ^ -H* QO*
ococoi-nceoc^->*<o»
00 o CO •«*< Tj< CO
coco
^o■<^p^(N^Ol^^co
CO* oi pi -H* es o* CO* co* ^*
Ot^«OCDTt<00 05P>00
O* C5 IN* O* O O* (N* ^* ai
t^ t^ 00 00 05 CO
O* O rH* O* rH* rH*
00 1^
CO Pi
«Ot^^T»<t^CO-«»<005
^* pi CO* »-i »-; pi rH* rH rH*
cop^p^cop^•<J1CT>oo•-l
pi pi rH* pi pi pi ■ ,-i pi
T-H CO 00 00 lO T»<
pi CO* Tji rH* 1-H* ■^jJ
"OOit^OOlOrHTjfOO
S' lO t-* rH* pi Pi 05* rH 05*
U3iOCOCOCO>OCO>0
COOOt>.t^OOOiOJCO
COCOCO>CCO>0>0>0<0
PI -"J" OS o o •^
I lO CO CO u?
w
§
S r-<tO
»0 eo > «C CO OS >C so P< 00 P« N > co 0» P> P» OO rn O rn P< > OS r-<tO O C«^ PI
coco CO c<5 CO CO CO CO CO CO CO Tf Tf rti CO •«# CO c<b e^ •>* c% eo c^ M eo eo
54
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, TJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICtJLTtJKE
!§i§iiiiss^is^?i
lilgi
MOM I O H I I
WOW low I !
1 °
lifil t
o ;wow >
.S3 !
PhW O
o o
1 H O I ]
!wo 1 :ww
l-i
w o
2
ir
SO
!H-5pq
5 «
:QnQw
I
©do o
o
?J5
228
1 >>
aaa"ao"ao
o a> a> bc ® ] ui'^
uouSo :3o
g o o o.
fe a
"ao
o >o
1"^ >» -
! >>
I OS
as
^aa"a.
a iaSfifi 'a
^a^a^aaS
b' S Hig £"§§■§£ fc 2 2'i'
a^a
WW
§18'
X O X
wow
> O' o
I I O I
I 1 O I
; :o I
1^ I
IS !
I a ;
2 « 2
O XI o
OWOl
I ililjl
>> '^'©'2'®'^ >>
L o o o o I L
S o x o X ' S
> OWOW I >
a
3
olIa'I'hgHllS'a !
X 'OX 'O 'OeSXo30o3 ' X o
w low lO lOWWWOW IW O
o"
OX!
Si
^ ;D05 «OfO <
g »o «o »o «0 1
, CO >o '
lO «0 »C lO »o
a's
OOOOOOOOOQOOOO
;'-H.-i«>c!|(MC<5COCOC<)C^OcO(MeO
* Q lo a><
05 O Oi 00 <
^"es'-r.-r,
OOOOOOOOOQOOOQO
■g<i-i2=ooo2:i>.cccoooo»o<-ii;T'^»<
OOCCOOOCC000005»-HC5COOSOO^
c<f irf c^* (N cs c^' .-T c^ rt" of ,-r e>f r-T r-T N
« S 9 o
;Tj<05t^'^THi-H05»ceoc«5C^C<»i
t^COIN TjtoO
<J«DcoStoScO»0»C«Oi005000
N CO CO lO -^
<o o <o to «c
05»ococ>^CT>»oeofocol^^oo^«5l^^
o o »Ci
*»co-^e5QOe5-^»o05.-H»oo5copo<
lo lo *o ic »c
C>^-«<CO<N.-^CSt^OOONTj<-^05000i
Tf t>. Tf< lO PO
•^ Tf CO -^ »o
S 6
1^
I t--. 05 Tf — <
leococccococococoeocooot
r^ CD »o cc t^ ■*q
CO CO CO CO CO
, 00 1^ t^ >o so OS lo to C3 00 c^ <N >
I Q 00 iM ■* «c ao cc es g CO Ttt 05 ^
) 00 »o CO -^ CO to Tf «; 00 ■«*< ■^ «o ^
CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO (
CO CO CO CO CO CO
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WOELl) WHEATS
55
1 1-1 CO c^ 05 lO T) 00 t^ Tt< ec 05 <p r^ •-I t^ t^ lo t^ r^ M
'rt 'Q 'O ' w t3
o is o I .ij o .t3 o .t3
o'S o I'S o'c3_o'ca
o g o o o
'O ^ 'O "O "O
■ o ■ ■ ■
feoB
2m :2pq
>^2 >>s >>fe
-T! 'O TJ 'd 13 13
f^ lO
go
OOOOQQ'COOtOOl'*"
oooo5ocX)oooOQoao(
0050005Q050><
OOOOOOOOQ
^Tf<COi-<iOCC'— icc»o
0<N>-HOO^(MCOO
Cf C^ C>f <N of (N cf IM" IM"
eooio«Mi-i.-iec05
«0«iS»0t>-»SS»O»O
§§2S2;::i^S5S
COT»<«O00l^l^00T-i(Nt^00
0000000000O000O1O5GO00
(N'-l.-lTt<>0'#«0i»'0i0O
)oo(Na>^'-i.-(iocooo5
r r-T pf .-T c4~ c^ rf (n" (N (M*" .-T
0500-«*<r^«ocoecoo5Tf<
00— iQOiOCT>'it''-iQO'Ct^
t^ 1-1 oi 'o (^
g25;;2S§^s:38;2
)^ to 001
■ 05 t^ <
fO (M (N ^ f<5 lO CO
OS CO OJ 05 CO 05 1^
_ . _ Tt<'OC0«0'Ot050-^
CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO
56 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, V. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Considering the hard red spring wheats first, it is apparent (Table
16) that there are some differences in the milling qualities of the four
varieties of spring wheat selected. On the basis of the milling quality
of the weight of wheat necessary to produce a barrel of flour, Kota
ranked first. Ruby second, Power third, and Marquis fourth. How-
ever, on account of its creamy color, the flour milled from Kota would
probably not be as acceptable as that produced from the other three
varieties.
From a baking standpoint all the flours milled from the spring
wheat varieties exhibited excellent strength. The water absorption of
the flour was high and fermentation tolerance was excellent, as were
all the other factors entering into the scoring of a good loaf of bread.
Moreover, the quantity of bread that could be baked from a barrel of
floiu* by the method of baking used was high.
The milling quaUty of the ^ve durum varieties was Hkewise good
because high test weight per bushel and high flour yield went hand in
hand to make possible the production of a barrel of flour with the
average quantity of wheat necessary to accomplish this purpose.
From a baking standpoint, due consideration being given to the
fact that durum wheat flour is not extensively used for bread making,
the strength of the durum flour was good. But the durum flour did
not have the baking strength of the spring wheat flour, for weakness
w^as apparent, particularly in the texture of the crumb and the break
and shred of the loaf.
The hard red winter wheat varieties showed a greater variation in
milling properties than did either the hard red spring or the durum
wheat varieties. The test w^eight per bushel varied from 54. .3 to 62
pounds. The flour jdeld varied from 65.6 to 72.5 per cent. Ranked
in the order of their milling properties, Kanred was first, and Turkey
and Kharkof followed closely.
The baking quality of the hard winter wheat varieties was variable
mostly with regard to volume of loaf and color of crumb. As far as
water absorption of the flour, fermentation time of the dough, and
texture of the loaf are concerned, average to above average condi-
tions prevailed with but one or two exceptions. Bread production was
high, averaging 295 pound loaves per barrel of flour. On the average,
a sHghtly better loaf of bread was obtained from the spring-w^heat
flours than from the winter-wheat flours.
The milling properties of the soft red winter samples showed some
variation. Flour yield from the samples of this class of wheat was
somewhat below average; it w^ould take more wheat of any one of
these varieties to produce a barrel of flour than is the case with the
hard red winter varieties.
The quahty of the bread baked from the soft red \\dnter wheat
flours was not equal to that made from the flours milled from the hard
red spring and hard red winter wheat varieties. The difference was
largely in the size and weight of the loaf. Partly because of the low
average water absorption of the soft red winter wheat flour, a light-
weight loaf resulted. This precludes the possibility of making a large
number of 1 -pound loaves of bread from a barrel of flour.
From a milling standpoint, the quality of the white wheat varieties
tested was variable. Test weight per bushel varied from 54.1 pounds
to 60.7 pounds. Flour yields, dockage-free basis, varied from 66.2 to
72 per cent. As a result, milling quahty expressed as the quantity of
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
57
wheat necessary to produce a barrel of flour varied from 263 to 290
pounds. Of the five varieties tested, QuaHty appeared to have out-
standing merit.
The flour milled from the white wheats produced good bread, some-
what inferior to that made from the spring wheat and hard winter
wheat flours, but slightly . superior both from a quahty and a quantity
standpoint, to the bread made from the soft winter wheat flours.
I
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF UNITED STATES EXPORT WHEAT
Wheat and wheat flour constitute a very important part of the
international trade of the United States, as the United States stands
second in the exportation of wheat, Canada holding first place. In
value of crops exported, wheat stands second only to cotton. Exports
of wheat for the period 1920-1928, by commercial classes are given in
Table 18.
Table 18. — Wheat, excluding flour: Exportfi from the United States by classes,
1920-1928
Year beginning July
Hard red
winter
Hard red
spring
Durum
Soft red
winter
White
Total
1920
1,000 bushels
162, 544
99,651
61, 165
26,984
120, 578
9,677
73, 123
65, 184
30, 530
1,000 bushels
18, 421
25, 613
13. 975
2,068
21, 567
4, 958
2,174
6,146
1,248
1,000 bushels
31, 937
25,645
43, 188
18,836
33, 811
26,834
21, 970
30, 946
29, 839
1,000 bushels
59,296
29,274
22,770
10,464
8,333
2,563
31, 352
13, 452
1,733
1,000 bushels
21, 070
28, 138
13, 853
20,441
11,201
19, 157
27,631
30,271
9,416
1,000 bushels
293, 268
208, 321
154, 951
78, 793
195, 490
63, 189
156, 250
145,999
103, 114
1921
1922
1923-..-
1924
1925
1926
1927
19281
Based upon reports to the Division of Crop and Livestock Estimates of the Bureau of Agricultural Eco-
nomics, to the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, and studies of the Bureau of Plant Industry.
1 Six months, July-December.
Durum wheat, hard winter wheat, and white wheat constitute the
bulk of the export wheats of the United States. Exports of soft red
winter wheats have declined with the decrease in production.
To learn about the milling and baking properties of the United
States export wheats, a large number of cargo samples were secured
abroad through the courtesy of the Superintendence Co. These were
subjected to the milling and baking tests previously described.
Results are given in Tables 19, 20, and 21.
58
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
B3
t-ii-Jcieo
CO to «j »c .
:^ I
>oo eooO'ireo
i>.-^»< eo
«> «doo-hc«» «d "O n «c ■«*< c3 eo •^»<eoi^
.-Jcoeo 'cl *
3eo coo i-He<i«<(
-; _; ^ ^ c4 ^' c> (
O <0 CO (O «0 CO o <
00 •>«<t^coi-H oi ■«»< e^ 00 o •^ t^ cDcooo
CO COScOCO ®0>COO>C>C lO tCO
coco coeo>-<
CO 00'<»<CDrJ< lO CI O •>«< •^ "3 00 C<C^Tt<
p
«00 t^OO W05C0O
' T^ ' ' ' "Cirt"
00 -i"©
c4 coco
»c «otj<o-* ec 00 1^ m 00 1^ o c«c»i
Q<1
i
• ■ a
\ ^
\ ill
! iW^
«5
as 08^
11
03 H
02 -<
d d d'2
II
W
6
O <DO COCO cocococo
0 05
I 05 05
:2;Q :z;Q<1h
^ OQ
OS 05 1 05 05 1 » 05 Oi 1 C5 '
1
0^
as O
0£ o^ o
. B bC
3 J'Sw
i^li^li lid
w<5 w<i w ;«a
CI n
W 1
- £f H
r-l H^ bO
i •««
la
>»
;^' bc
a <
; ; ; 1 bo
>>
ia
03
'^ •=■
Si '
: ' "c fl
o3
1 0)
s
•r
e i
: i :§«
E
p
OJ
! O
O 1
®
1
o
'r^-c"
o ;
I I ' an
O
1 a
bB
r/1 O
be
i ; :«.3
be
!•§
5d|S^
5d
o c c o c-cx:
^ ^-M
a^.-Sss
^ ^'
-^-^-^-gg
C CTS ® ea
03
' OJ >-^
• ' • O >-
. O H
w
lPi<
w :
: : :^<
H
;o
q5
OJ OJ 0> Cs OJ OJ Oi
OJ • I OS OJ I OJ 05 05 OJ I 1 OJ OJ OJ
r 2 >6 > 6 h rt
i5 :z;Q :z;Q^:^
Hj COZ
; t^ o ti)J'bc*e o o iA6^
;q^
3 «
►:;g<i
II
tc a
pqS
ji^ ;-s
o o S
-co >
: ; <
fc, c "-a ' ' ' 2 •"> ' '
;(i.mO
IMS
d>^
§0 OJ O «0 -^ CI C^ ■^ 1^ "0
OJC<lt^ t^OJOOiOJOiO
CO CO -^ CO CO CO -^ CO CO CO ■*
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
59
I
l>. 0500'0'CC*'. <DCi-^^ OiOOSC^C^Ol CM COCO'O-^'O -^CC ONr^»0!00>'OTtiT»<C>^OOCCO.-IU3e«5 o
'rA ec ".-;
(NCM CM rt
00O3 O lO T)< ■<*< e<5 O CM'-l^OO -"J" CO ^ 00 05 lO
OOlOOS tOtH OlOO t^t^rHiOOOCOCMOO OOiiCCM.
c^.-ieocMco eoeo
Tt< r- eo CM T*i to .-I CO 00 CMCMCM
t*'<4< CMQOOseo'oeo ojotcmoo eo r-i ^f rn t^ <
eOrt<CO»CiOO CMOS cm «0 ■«*< CM O O Tf. O ri Tf o t^ t^ 00 •«*< or
SrHOlOOJ QO> O OS 05 QO O 05 05 Oi d Q OJ OO 05 00 rH (
OOO 00O«50005O Tt<iOO-«»< Tj< Tt< o o .-< CC
Q^' 05CMt»<cmoco oioooo t^OOSCOt^OS
^ CO CO <0 CO Tt< O t>. tfJOOQOOO O O «0 » •.* Tti
lO .-< X t^ «0 ■<1< O 1000050 CM CM •«*< OS CM CM
r-i r-i ■ ■ ■ ' F-i ' cm" ' .-i T-i cm' ■ ' cm' r-J
TjiCMiOCO":! T}<t^ O >0 CO ■* Tt< O CO CO ■* »0 -^ >0 iO «D to T}-
WW
is i.s
ii i^
'^03c3«30o3c3o3o3 c3 '^
jWWQ^WWWWW
IcMCMi-l eOCMrHCOCM
a a a c a >
<1> O O OJ 05 ^^
4) Qj Qj I 1 o a>
.1^ ^ .1^ I I -^ -^^
c c G ; ; c fl
rHCOCM I iCOCM I I iCM
111
« Oi O)
CMC^CM
OOOOOO Ouo
OOO
'O "CO
0 > d
: ! : ! 1^
5 o o o oL, o o
) -o -o -o TS ^, x; -o
oo oooooo
oooooo
'« 1 !
g o o d 6
to CO CO t^
CM CM CM CM
OS OS OS OS
i§ ; :i
i^ CO CO <
CM£J CM (
OS OS OS <
IS ; ! :
:8g IS
tH'*;^>oc>4Jt^ocoo>^-o>
a ^ o o -o x; o a-o tj t3 xj o o -c o
Od
§§•3
Wo
1 >» ,
I a bo
. r ! ! be 3
^ Lh o mm;
b I I 3 a .ft] 3 I
3 . . s >j2 3 s ;
Q ! ;w<j WW :
-a:. :Q 6
m3
all!..
2 o o o o o
"' ■ 3 . . _
3 gW 3 c
« >. 1 ■
c3'3 o'
I P 3 o
1 3 c3 3
I <X''5bg
C3 3
<o
-Q°
!W
« «
O fl . : 3 13 I- I 1 3
F3T3OX2^!3COj0SC>O''OJ2O
,qaw^ >^< :w^p I iww I ;w iw ;
^ ! :§
! CO CO CO
. t--. t^ CO
» OS OS Cs
:SSl
0"S
^ o o o o >> tij_r "3 6
o'0'C3'0'3'3 3 o-O O)
o ; ! ! ;S <o ',Q
o ^
bC*ft>C"t?0 — "JS b'iliOjjOO-tfOOO >i bt)^ _ w
jg'IS'l §1 |&'^.|'«,'^,&^.'«.'«.3^|&'^,^
! I I I <^'^ I ! ! M
i i i i|S ! i la
] ] ! 1 i-^^ . j [ I e8
OOOO-^+jgCOOOfi"
'O'3'C'C^ M 2'O'C'O'*^
;::!}:< oO I 1 1 ^
o ! o 1 j
r^ O S O O
^'3^-;3'3^'3
O) I'S '' I
^ :« ! ;
o>
Sod
33 ! g
p c; O a>
-3 I ; > b ; <I
»CO .-( OS »-l t^ CO c»
OS* SoOOOst^
coco CO ■^ •* -^ CO CO
CO Q ^ "O OS Q ^ t^ 00 CM COOO
_ _ _- .- 5<-^ *iOS(_ ___.- - - , .
CO CO -^ CO ■T^ -n* ■^ •«»* CO CO -^r •^ ■«?' CO CO CO CO CO Tf. rf CO ■
nOC<»COt^^OSOOt->0!
iSc3oS^t^t^OSOO<
' CO CO CO CO CO ^ '
60
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, tJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
*8
to
J
ft.
^ o
I
00 O
1
I
0*2 ii.ja
sis
1^
ll
■^ 03
08 O
fig
ll
iW tO-^CC
OOOO «OMMi
ft 0C(*O>
ci xp »o -a< «j C 05 00
OOOOOO OeC-HO —IC^M
'E'2'H
®5
22
WW
o o
! :5«
: :2>^
i i^^
! ,«^
ml
i^ c o
J3
a
03 C5 05 <
I C
K 1 S c •
^•^ g fl -3 -c S g fl
w ;<i w \'^<
1 o ,
> Co
! >
;3
Jo'b
CC t^ O 1 CO 1 o o
Oi Oi O^ I Oi I O^ Oj
x:'-g2'-g
.-I C^
W
§ §
o o d 2
; 10 5
03 1
03 '
1 •- I I I I CTi
's*! ! i ! !§
o o cs o o o o£
-c ^■•s'O -ceo**
i>P^ 1 I ! iCQ
o :' !
P^ ! !
I CC CO C>l .-I 1
> o CO CO ?o <
) CO t^ OSt»< I
< ■'J' CO CO-^ (
> C^ ^ CO o o
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OP WORLD WHEATS
61
c« «■ ci c^ N N c<i N ci c4 N
.-<■ n' c<i e<i « ei N cj ci .-; rH »h' H H (N -<■,-; c4
OC..S
coo'-ioooMt^»oc»«0'Oooabe!5«»-<«<o25
1(N r-< rt o o >-i c><
0>000)00000>0>OOiOO)0>(3300>
oB. ^
c<n~-.o»-i»-it^aboos'>**CT>
ci ^" csi ci CO c^i ^' —<■ O <-< <N
<^
Is*
1^
073 g o o o o" o
I ti) © ' ' ' ' bo '
iSo 1 I 1 IS I
' >l
>i
I I I >!,
: ! !a
11
0
I >>
>>
I I I >.
dS 0)'^ oj 0 0 0+3 <D 0 6
I bj)j3 W)j3 : ! 1 Mj3 ! !
:g^
^^
1 ! ;s^
; ;
£b
S^-
^ i
to
> I
^2
W !
5 o ^"-^
d c3 a 5
o « 2 5 2* fl
(2^
r
t^ o <
It^l^OOt^t^
■<t<-*l:^t^»O(NC5Ot^00eC
^' CO Ci »-<■ -H r-< CC C4 ^' ^* rH
ICSM(N(N(N(M(NNC<IC^C<1
co«ot^eo5CO»0'*.-iosoo»oo5t^eoobeoQO
I ^ O5 00 r^
■<*i'-H":icst^t>>oO'-io>oM«o.-i«OQOi--»c«o
.-leoNeoeoc^wt^oO'^os'-i'ON.-i-^eceo
-H o o o -H --H o i-J c3 c> o ci '-4 ^* .-H* c> o c5
«6
i«o«>t^'«*<o»cot^t^<©N
(C><iOo»coo«ooo«o.-i>oeoeoooc<Tf<«o
2 S'g S - ^
c<w5r-uoosooioor-.oci
Csj 00 e<5 •>* Ci CO CO "5 •«»< <c »o
r^'c<icoco'c4coco'cofococ4c^'«!i<coeoMcico
H ^
|o5
osooc^coot^cot^T-H^^
t^^oeocieot^o^rHN«DC<«c^e<5 0ooc<
CO •<!»< CO •* Tf ■* Tf< CO CO CO CO ■^ CO CO CO T»< CO CO CO ^ CO CO CO ^ CO Tfl CO CO CO CO
62
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, TT. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
.s§
O "to
(to ©•
31
Ell
5 £"^
0,a ^
>.ca
iO)OOd^O&OdO)^^*^^^OdOO
lss§S2^S:SSSS?^g§55
.ooo»ooa>ooO'-c»c^'^'
s^iSiiSil^S^liSiS
<o CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO
coo>cs90t^eC'i3'r^'»«'C^3'Qcoo»
e^ic-«M-^e5-«fe>ii^cor^co-*<ccc3e<50>
cen-i«ccs»0'«t>coocsc50coc^ecoQO
odcJoooooooiooodoJoJ
M«0Oc0C<l^-^^C0>0»C»-i05CDg00S
cococococccocodcocodcocccodco
•-9
1^ ^^^.
• 25 iO
6®§
r^Qcoooos'OOfcoeMM(N«i^ooo
o o
1 , 1 . >, ■ .
is
1 i i il i i
1 u
1 1 1 1 U 1 1
I >>
I I I 1 >> I !
o-lS <»
O O O 073 o o
-oS.ti
-C -co -0^-0 "O
] j [ jbO ] j
1 1 '. ;Sq ! !
5§
3 ; I ;;;;;;;;; ;
Soooooooooooooo
Im 'O 'O 'O 'O 'O 'O 'O 'O 'O 'O 'O 'C 'O 'O
o ! ! ! ; I ! ! I I ; ; ! ■
iioooooooooooooo
K ; : ! I i 1 I 1 : ; : :
e8 e8"t; Ih
«X3 ° 3
C0Q0C0^-H-»}<-iti0SOOt^-<»<Q000«0'9<
SOTt<COi-it^OOC<5 0t^cCl^t^QOO
'OOi'>*ie<5005cc»ococ5cccor^05T*<t^
St--.rHO-*eo'*Hooc^05^cooc^cO'
. t>- r- r- r- CO t^ CO I
Tt<cococ<sfoecoooooocDosoooo3t^<
OOO050501-HOC3O05O0500O-H
t^t^t^cococot^t^cot^cot^cccct^t^
.»3 0-S2:
sllSi-^
^0S05
Ttt»coscoeco5e^->*'t>-'Oooc^eo
d c5 d '-<■ d d d CO c^ CNi c) ^' -H
t^»ococ^»oOio>c-*oo«ooiaowoc«
o^"^"o^*c^e>ic<id-^oJ05C5d^>-J
•s^^
eoc>«oc^»-ioot^Tf<oocooo<o
^«c-i.-i,-ie<eoc>»e««0'*p<^oc<
gill'l
I^
el • i-o
1-9° 1.11
xCCOC<l»C00«OCOi-("5O5O>«Oi-H
ci CO CO ci co" CO eo CO "^ N N TjH ec
t-icoes^-«*<-^c^'^cecct>.»cooi-i»-ic>i
c^iciecc^'esc^Mccc^cococo-^ciesi
>t^00O5C0»OiC^N^»OCS00
)^cococococoo25cococo35
«CCDOCX)C0e005'^C000'-i-<*<-^00C^^H
>-hOOOO05OO050SO<3>0SOO
)COCOCOCO«0>OCiJcD''5''5«C»0»OCOS
j
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
63
»-H e>< ci p4 c^ e4 c^
c^ c* ci c<i pi pi c^ rH c^ c^ cs c^ c^' c^ c^ c<i
0> 00 00 O O QO 03
ect^csoocoo»0'<*<<c®i-iO'<»<<Mt^5<
oo^OT-HCJ—Ii-Iododoioooooodod
c^ N ■«l< 00 t>- «o ■«»<
O Od 03 O *~* Od o
<Nt^(M^?«e<5Tj4t^t^00O0C^O5>CO000
i5iftO03'<«<Oa>MCS<iC0Q'-lt^t^^
cc CO «o rt c^ t^ o
St^MOOOOOOlOi-iPOl^OSOOr-HOlt^
I lO Tti >C ■^
S'«*iQ'-ic<«'-i^-^oot-(ooo50oooc
;:s^SJ::§85SS§^^SS^2
o o o o o^ <o
■c -o -o -o -o ,^ *^
dbbbbo*^ o oooooooooo ^.J o o o o
•a T3 "O T3 X) "O "g 13 -O TS T) XJ X) TJ T! "O T3 T) S q'^'^'^'^
I I 1 1 1 !ai 1 1 ' 1 i 1 1 I 1 1 I>cc 1 I
! 'O
i ; ; : ;S
! 1 I ! l5
d d d d d '3 -w
! I ! ! IcQcQ
ood*jf3+jOOOoo
■J3
is
<» o
iCOCQ
CO PO CO <o ■^ »-H »—*
!>. r>- 1- o t> b- 1--
N M M c^ c^ N cs
<C<H^i-H00C^<O00C^.-HiC(
^ -^ t^ 05 >0 03 t>-
t^OQOi--^Qdoot>^odt^t^odb-^o6t--^odo6
' O O CD CO O <
U5 CO t- t^ O 00 O
0«05fO'<*<03COOOOl^>Cit^OOO-*
W >0 00 Tj* N -* CO
r-; C> ^' r-^ O O C5
05C^OSOO»OCOe<300b»"5t^0500COOO
Or-Jo—t—i^'oOOOlM'cJOCDINeO
CO rH eo CO N O i-<
0«0»-iO.-iOOOOO'-tOOOT-i»0
■»i' O CO c^ 00 f-< »o
c^' >c CO CO «c CO eo
t^O»0CC05<0r-(C^C<le0i-HOC0»O05«D
c<5coeseoc^*cooO'«j'«dT»!'<i5iO'»i;-»i5coc<i
o o c^ ^ c^ o> ■«*<
oo5i-(cot^-^t~-a>'»»'cooicot>-ccTj<co
I CO •«»< Tf iw^ Tt" Tfi ■^ CO CO ■^ CO CO CO eo •^ •
■'MM
64
TECHNICAL BtTLLETIN 197, TJ. S. DEFT. OF AGRICTJLTURB
^2 3
^§islii§m
§§isl§sigll§lli8^gggilS§li
'3 8 i'a
o
o'S o
8-a'§-§8
fl d d d d
fl o d o
d fl d d -
W^:?
bc 2 s* 2 5*
beg bc
2«2
03
H^ >
2 ® bJ.®
a ;a
eS i S3
H o*^ B*^ S*^ 2*^ "
g IbCgbCgbCgbO
s
OS
£,
g 6 6 6 d " P 6 6 6
5x3-0 -COS mTSTJ-O
3o
OS
e
.1.
2S2
a
I -OS
ddd"o
o
I >»
:a
'29
6 d o "^
-_^ , .2 I 1 03 X o 3 ; : 9 3 o'S
„ '3
■fls'S
OX5
p a
wSoocoSososQOGoSoe
05 OS 05 TO 00 <
ooSooSooooooooOToooo
oocoSwajoooJoooooo^ooooSooSSwwSoSSooSSSc
.Sfo
igt-ooo(
llO »0 lO "O I
)oo^C3eoo«5»c»'iC3;-;c£OTgoi2^o«OQoe<t*go
>0»— IOOOO0505OOO^O050505O0a05O*-H»-^»-^O
Noooor-i^OJoooos'-H
OgQOOOOO<
05 Q 05 Oi 05 CS CO ^' N ^ OS
»CW»0«0«0>0C0O«D?D»0
■*«OsO<N50 0 0fOe»5W*0-^'HM(M-^»OOS-*r^iC>OC»0
os*ost>^Qo6o6osQQOr>^«dr^*i~-'>d-Htt5t~-">oic«ct>;odoso>ooo
iO»fl«00>C>C«oSiC'0'0'0»0»0<0'0»0«0»0»0>C>0>0«0«Du5
Ph
1"°
oot^»0'*«ooooot^csoo-<t<
;0>OCOCO<0;0>C>OCOCOCO
*OCOCO<OCOCO^COOOt^<OCO^CDCOOCOCOOCOCDOcOCCCO
• « CI
1=
050(Nt^O>0
CO ^ ^ CO CO CO
■^lOcoQC^c^Qt^ior-osoo-^Qi-Ht^os^Hr^os
Tt<C0-^>ft'*<CO^C0'^'*<C0(NCOCOC0^C0CO-*CO
I-.
s
I
'i «0 Q CJ Q "-H •^ lO t^ OS 5l ■*< S Cfc OS C^ t>.t~- OSQ OS OSOS Ot^ »^ «OS OS OS QQQ OS t^ O O O
■*co^'<j<^T)<Pococoeo-«*< cccoco-^eocSM^cocoeo-fcoTjicococoeo^^^cocoTj^-^Tj*
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
65
I ?< f< C^ ?< (N C^ (M (N C^l CM CM O* CS C^ C^ C
oo o ;ooooo i ;oO<;o-ioo ;doooooo
"CO TJ im "O "d T3 73 t3 ' jj T? >, tH "O ' T3 ^3 j_ "CO 73 T3 "O "O X3
O ' I ' ' '.S O I Ui O '.S I I O I I ' I ' I I
o'[i''eBO|aio;fl8''o
— c— o c
5pq3
a
;^
o
(-I
',P^^
o ©"^ o
'O'O r-. TJ
Ph ; Ih-J
' ' 2 beg bc
pq3pq3
o o ; 1 lo_| oooooo
'a 73 '"C v^ '"CO 1^ t3 t3 73 73 73 73
1 1 .5S O o .h I o '--
03 O o I
if^^ocMtH !Cpm i ; I ; i ip^pm
O O O p OTj o
'OtJ'C S 73 ri 73
' ' ' p : M
^>> '<
o a " G o
Ill
o o o
bc bubc , bC g bc
2 bC
o3
as
c3 c3
g2 a
I bc 5
;a
ao\2a^i^"a i^ s^VSa^aaaoo^o^a*^-
2 Ibcgbcbc^© "> £ i£f£a>££2 ' > I 1®£
"O a) 73 "CO a> '
Co 1 o o o
ox I o c X
cw ;oow
a§a
is
'3 c'o3"c3 O I C3
p^PHfx^f^^O IPh
i 73 -'^ m 'O XJ tT . -'■
I o .G o .h I o o 1 o .51
' O & O a I X O 'OCT5
o
73 73
O
O
O
ill!
m.
I o o.a I
1 o o CS '
IOPhPn
o
ui CO
o o '
o o
phPh :
a
o o o
^^73 73
b.a o.hi o
; o ao c3 o
;(L,E^OPm Ph
> O Od Od O O) o^ o^
I CX) Oi t^ Oi t^ ^ 00
) Oi Oi <X> Oi Oi yj
) t^ CO t^ <o o 00 <
lO <0 *C »0 lO »
r^05i0«00QC<l'^t^>0'0IMCMCMt^C0CM(MO'-HC0
^ Tt^ Tj< T}< ^ '
iCMOOCOi-HCCTfi^COT-KMOlt^CM
r CM* CM CM* CM* CM* cm"
JOOOOOOOOQOOOQOQOOOOOOC
ICM5CCMCOC»CMI^OOCMCMC00050000:QO»OiO>05
jrt^OfOCM^OO— I'-iCMr-HCM.-i.-iOOiOOOOOC
CM* CM* CM cm' CM* CM* CM* CM* CM* CM* CM* CM* CM CM* CM* CM* CM* r-T CM CM* CM .-T r
I eo CO 05 1^ t^
) 1^ 00 1^ oi oi oo 00
> »0 «5 «0 "O >o «c »o
■^OsOCOTHC<lr-<oOO'OTt<?OC^COt^a>P005"5CO>0-S'aO
oooooooooooooooo
lOCMOOCOOlCOiOCMCOCSCOCRrOCMCOt^
i-HT-ia>a>ooooo30500ioot--050cx)
I .-1 C^ CM i-H .-( CM t-H >
.eOC»Tj<t^CM05-^CM»CeO«5t^CM
) CM •^ CM ^" i-H* ■^ cm'
CM •^ CM ^ i-H ■^ CM
tC iO to tc >o to >c
g;s
lO to ?o ^ <
iO<SCO<Ci
f^;2g'^§8?^2;^S2fe§§C:^gJ2^SSS2S
0'-<CMrtCMCCCM-^OOdO^OCMCM
I'Ht^OOCM >■ COQOCOI
1 r^ Oi o oo <
112424° —30-
66 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, V. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUKE
Because of the small quantity of spring wheat exported and the
fact that the distribution is scattered widely throughout Europe, a
sample from only one cargo of spring wheat was secured. From a
milling standpoint and judging by the sample this wheat is somewhat
below average, as it would take 280 pounds of this wheat to make a
barrel of flour.
Eleven samples representing cargo shipments of durum wheat
were received.^ Wheat in these cargoes was of excellent milling qual-
ity, according to the sample, averaging over 61.1 pounds in test weight
per bushel and yielding on the average 70.4 per cent of flour, dockage-
free basis. For durum wheats the bread-making quahty was good.
The bread made from the durum flour w^as shghtly creamy, but the
loaves were very acceptable in volume and in texture.
Samples from 33 cargoes of hard red winter wheat w^ere received
from European ports. These cargoes averaged 60.2 pounds in test
weight, contained 1 per cent of dockage, 1.2 per cent of inseparable
foreign material other than dockage, and 0.9 per cent of damaged
kernels. The average flour yield, dockage-free basis, was 70.2 per
cent. In many instances the flour yield was much higher. An aver-
age for the 33 cargoes show^ed that 271 pounds of wheat w^ould be
required to manufacture a barrel of flour out of the hard red winter
export wheat. The protein content of the w^heat was 10.82 per cent,
calculated on a 13.5 per cent moisture basis. The protein content
of the resulting straight grade of flour was 10.04 per cent, on the same
basis. Associated with this low protein content was a low average
water absorption value for the flour. For the same reason the fer-
mentation time of the dough was shorter than is usually true in the
case of hard red winter wheat flour.
Although in 85 per cent of the instances the volume of the loaf of
bread was satisfactory, an examination of the texture of the bread
and of the break and shred of the loaf showed that approximately 40
per cent of the hard winter flours were slightly deficient in baking
strength. On the other hand, there w^ere some excellent wheats in
the group.
All of the 23 samples of soft red winter wheat obtained overseas
w^ere clean. They contained, on an average, 0.4 per cent of dockage,
0.6 per cent foreign material other than dockage, and 2.6 per cent of
damaged kernels.
From a milling standpoint the quahty of the soft red winter export
samples was not quite so good as that of the hard red winter exports,
for it would be necessary to use 276 pounds of the soft red winter
wheat to produce a barrel of flour as compared with 271 pounds of
hard red winter wheat.
The quahty of the bread made from the soft red winter wheat
flours w^as not quite so good as that obtained from the baking of the
hard red winter w^heat flours, the most noticeable points of difference
being in the grain and texture of the crumb of the loaf. Practical^
the same quantity of bread, how^ever, resulted from a barrel of flour
milled from either class of wheat, being 290 pounds in the instance
of the hard red winter wheat flour and 291 pounds for the soft red
winter wheat flour. The protein in the soft red ^\inter wheat flour
3 Since considerable quantities of durum wheat are shipped overseas by way of Montreal, Canada, where
it is mixed with Canadian durum wheat, the identity of the cargoes moving out of Montreal will liave to
be assumed.
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 67
was apparently of better quality than that in the hard red winter
wheat flour as a smaller quantity was present in the soft wheat flour
and the average loaf volume was approximately the same.
Sixteen samples were obtained representing cargoes of white wheat.
These cargoes contained a more variable type of wheat than has been
heretofore mentioned. Samples of eight cargoes represented the
subclass hard white, three the subclass soft white, and three the
subclass western w^hite. According to the United States standards,
wheats of the w^hite class become progressively less valuable from a
baking standpoint as the subclass changes from hard white to western
white.
Among the white wheats examined, but one cargo was of a grade
below No. 2. There was shghtly more dockage in the white wheats
than in the hard red winter or soft red winter wheats. On the other
hand, the percentage of inseparable foreign material and the per-
centage of damaged kernels were less. The weight per measured
bushel averaged 59.5 pounds, varying between 58.3 pounds and 61.5
poimds.
From the standpoint of the average test weight per measured bushel
and the standpoint of flour yield, the milling quahty of the white
class was somewhat low, as, on the average, it would be necessary to
use 280 pounds of wheat to produce a barrel of flour.
From a baking standpoint, as compared with the four other classes
of flour just discussed, the flour milled from these white wheats lacked
bakmg strength. Volume of loaf, except for the wheats carrying the
designation ''hard white," was low, as were, in most instances, the
grain and texture of the crumb and the break and shred of the crust.
Water absorption of the flour was below the average for this class of
wheat. In a general way the relationship between subclass and
baking quahty was apparent.
For additional information relative to the quality of the wheat
exported from the United States, milhng and baking tests w^ere made
every month during the crop year 1926-27 upon composite samples
of the several classes of w^heat exported from two interior markets
and six seaboard markets.
The results of the milling and baking tests as well as other pertinent
data from this study are given in Tables 22, 23, and 24, which cover
14 hard red spring wheats, 34 hard red winter wheats, 40 soft red
winter wheats, and 30 white wheats.
Fortunately, with the supplementary study, it has been possible
to secure more evidence regarding the quality of the spring wheat
exported from the United States. These data wifl be found at the
top of Tables 22, 23, and 24.
68
TECHNICAL BtJLLETIN 197, TJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUHE
o « o *j 5
*.-; ' ' 'i-HrH *,-;,-< rH .-H Ci t-< i-J Ci CSi 1-t 1-4 i-I i-I
e
•90
e^ r-t fc ":> cc e^ ;d Tt< c<> CO ec ccr>.
oi oi o oi oi oi oi oi Q 00 0(5 0^0
10 10 CO "O iC »0 "5 lO O "3 «C «C O
^MOiooiCOi'>«<'-He«Tj<co'«»««o«o<ot^coeocst>-eo
iCO »c «o <
0 >0 "O »C "C ^C 'C <
05 05 oi OS 05 00 i-H -^ 'S' eo CO ooco
Woo
OSb»OOCOC><0<COOC^t^OOO»OOOQO(Mr^CO^COO>
10 00 ■^" •<*< OS rH 06 CD CO Oi 1^ Q »0 »0 CSf lO V Q t-' »C «0
(C^i-lrHOOOrHr-lTjlt^
eO-<»<C<CO-*T}<Cli-(,-HC^rHi-ie»5000C<COOO'«'
> o o o o o o o o-^
fl CI
u u
o o
22
3 a
p a I
_ ;5? I i _ _
d d d'2'2 o d d d
■ ■ ■ ;sK ! ; ■ '
a
■^
2^
-a -a
03
M
5 -S-S
It: aa
I o mcQ
3'JhOOOOOOOCOOS
ao o
(N i-IIM
o o"? 000000000000000
:i iii
H, -< CO O 2; Q (^ 1-5 H, -
OQ
a I
Q 1
>5ooo>-®o S®
J a'O^'c^'O^ ^jj-o a+j
I 2 I I I di C5 I 3 03
o ; I o , , , ,*j , , , , , I , ,
^o^^ooooSoooooooo
.'-s ; ;
',0 ; ;
o o oO
;;^
IP
t^ t^ 00 lO CO t^ ro -^ t> OS OS O
cs cs <M o * -g" CO 00 is (M (N ro
CO CO CO CO 00 CO ■^ •>* -^ 00 -^ -"tl
; OS ■<»• ict- 30 o -^ "c t- 25 ds o — ' -H ts '*"*< L^ t^
I CO CO CO CO CO ■>»" ■
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OP WOELD WHEATS
69
<oc><ocoo>oto>c-^oooO'*' CO CO coiocoeo»o«or^co<-i>ocoot>-05»o>ocoo5b-cocooc^ic-*«ocoio>C'^oo05<M>oo'Cco
coicoeoTj<<oiOTt<r-iio«DOt^c>i«occ05r-ioooooO(N>ooot^oooo.-HOO«>'-<oc«ooeo
.-4 CI -^l*' (N (N CO (N C^ C>i rH ■ r-4 rH rH ' (M" .-I Csf i-i CS (M* CC C^ CO' --<'-< (N C<j CO" CO' Tf? OJ CO* C^" C4 r-I Ci
00 •<!»' O O (N CO (M (N a> CO rH CD -^
00 05 05 Q Q" Q •-<' Q oi oi Q •-I r-i
iO*C*C^^OCOO>OiCOcO CO
<35t^>o-^a>t^ooocoiot^cocDO(MCS'-ico05t^t^t~-'^rHic-Tt<Tt<t-oooo5oocoiMC<ir-oo
050iOi0505C50i000050i0505000iCiCiOiOiOsc
iC«0i0i0>0i0iCOS®>0'0'0»CCDC0i0i' ' ^ " ""
1 lO »o vO »c >c <
) lO »0 «0 »0 >0 lO !
W C^ »C CD 00 CD 00 T»< T*< o CO Tj< M
't>^03r-it^'oiodpodQoio6 in'
i
^•
I ■^ Tt< ic CO O >-i CS (N C<1 iM 05 O
0<NC^OlNO<NOOOrHr-c<^eOOOOOO'-iO<N>-HOOO'-iO(N— KNOO^OOO
;««
?§ "i
-ceo Je
I-
O c3
.s.s
51^
tf«
oooooooooooooooooooooooooo
'CO'O'O'O
'C'O'O'O'O'CCO'O'C
%^^
o o o o o o
ooooooooooooooooooooo
'O'ca'O'C'O'ca'CC'O'c
'O'CTJTS'O'O
c^
' ■§ i^ '■!
°l-
3 g-o©
s§'
sai-
l's-
?^>:^sss'
;f^;^
|§li|l|i tllllllli
1 ', °
) d^ o c
o
?
n 08
' I ® o 1 I I 1 I 1 I 1 . o I I I I ', ^ \o 1 i ; 1 ', 1 I© ; ; I !
,2 of!! Sooooooooo^oooooOo'^ocooooo'Ooooo
+^ X? ^ "T^ 'O 'O ^O 'O 'O 'O "O ^O 'C? c5'^ 'O "^ '^ "^ t> '^ L*. "^ "^ "^ '^ '^ "^ '^ "^ '^ '^ "^
lo
;^ ;/c
oSOOtrOsoyDOcoQco ic cso»o>ait>-'^'^r^p'i05^o>oooQQOO— <t^-Hr^co>o»oa>oOr-^q;^«<ioo«DC^cD<
■ rp^^iMcocoooS^T-i ^ eo>-HQ®occ(Ne^icoeo5»05ioccco?5c!5-*<coo«oo?1(NcoCNC^coOQ»ooco(N«(
id5-HC^5^g<5;t~-*0'-'':r <* »or-*o-^^es'^'!t<io'^ooa»0'^'0'^Tttioi^<»'-ic^-^-fiOco->rt^c6o5'-H'-''-i'<t"'
I CO It" T»i TJ" -^ M CO CO •><»< •«t< CO CO eO CO CO -^ r»< Tt< -^ -^ •^ TJ< CO CO CO T)< ■<*< Tt" ■<». T»< CO CO CO ■«»< ■.»< -^ T»< Tt< CO CO CO CO CO -^ -^ -^ •«»< ■
70
'ITCCHNICAL BULLETIN I!I7, V. S. IJEIT. OF AGKICUL'l-URE
^t3
KSi o
•no
o
o « o *» 5
So *
C<I^N^OM'»"<N-iOP3N®>COC^'»<M-«l<e<5-*M«0't< 10<0 ©-"J^iCM
'-<o>-<ooc>»o^c<io»-i oe><Wi-ic<oocsMto-HMo '*'oo tco^-^
00100«*00«^»000»«00>'*00<0«0-^«CO»OCOl^
I lO iC >c
•32
W5
00«OOOi-i'«<©Ot>'e<5eOC>IN«»(0«^'*QO
esiio-^^»oot^t^'-it^<o<c»c«oeo«o«oo«ooo««or>-o o>o •o<-ioo
g g
-2ffi£"^£
to ® 3^ 13
I 0
2§
5®
2
£S
^^ ^.
©s
^8
"52
do
a
2 ;
"2 o o d o d d
K :
g i2S ; ;«
o'S o*^'« o o t? o o
'W '°° ' ■> • ■
» is
i^.^'l
;§'
I 3 o
a o o ^ o o
c;?
-I
cs 3
g^*
S 03
G
10 1^
cceo
I « oc ic to ^ (M c<? t- ao c; cs cc 00 JO o -^ 05 -«»• «s IN — lo r- cc to <^^ '^ !S -r
^rc — iciC'^Tf-^ — .— — ccrccot^??rc — re — ■^coro--i ■V'* •— i^rcsrc
C*? CC CO CO CO -
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WOULD WHEATS
71
iiii^t-
Cvj C<5 r-H r-; .-H rH ^' r-i r4 C4 rH C<S .-H (N
.r^fN^CSOQO^CCQO^OOO
.-H(N^(NO<NIMC^<N^C0CCOO
(N c^ (N c^ c<i c^' c4 r-I c>^ c<i eq c<i ci <N im" <n c<i c<i (n iri (n oi
I ■^ Tf 00 "O IT
) 50 00 00 a> t >
i 00 O OS Oi CTJ 05 O O O C> O O O* O O O O 00 oi o
OS. ^
•^2R05u:)r-iao05>o^eoo»coo«t-
• CJC^(N<N(N(MCCC<5CC(NeCCO^O
M«c»o0 50-*io2o-<tc5(M'<i<»ot^3ocecioo(Noo
O O 05 04 O O O O IM* 1-H 1-H r-4 r-J r4 i-H r-I ^ r-H t-I O i-H O
.OO1CH000OCC50
'^eocoM 00 coco IMC5 coco
(M ?555t^O t£
- ' ■ (NCOCO
t^>Oin(N(M005CO^t^(N05i
KN-^^CC^DT-^t^lM
(N (M CO T}i CO CO <
ICO(N(N<N(NCMC0IMeClMC^COIMCO
0,0
«X5
^ CO CO CO CO CO CO CC5 CO C^ CO CO CO CO
Oat^Oii-i^OOOCOCOiO'^COi-Hl~^CO'^iO'«tQ'^OOt^
lOiocoTt^cococoo^io^-^-'j^coioiOTrcococococi
CD CC> CO CO CO C^ ^ CO CD CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO o
w fl 5
■QiO
SCO .-I,
. COOi CO
»0 *0 IC lO »o "^
■ ooo-*Q05t^-*50cooeooQrHe<noi-i(N»«ccoo
i<NCO.-i^t^OO>(N-<*<CO>OTt<^,-nOeO'-''<»<C^>Ot~
O-^p:
>>>.
a !s
ca c8
£ £
XI 5 .t^ js .ti X
_bt « x; .bC^C _M^ j \,^ \xi
:fi
! >>
_ 00+jO©00 73 ©0!30®^C5073®0"0<»7300®0000
X! ! tie I x3 b£j3 I ^Xi \t£\Xi<^', 1;G 1 I ! !
13
o o o o o.
oooooo o oooooooooooooooooooooo
fci TS 'C 'O 73 -O "pr S -co "CO -co 13 TS -O T? TJ XJ XJ i3 t3 "O TS TJ 73 xJ T3 TS TJ TS -O 'O X! X3 T3
o I 1 1 1 Imo I : ; ! I ! i I ! 1 I ! : I I I ! I I ! ! I I ; ; I ; ; ;
im
'«t^iCOSO-<l<Or-i'*l^(MOeOt-CO
Kt^t^t^OOt^r^t^t^t^OQI^QOt^t^
rt<0'^Q-^»C'*-«*<0500l^0050C)Q'^«Oc<5t--QOOO<
55 5:; ScS^
_^. iCOOO»005-«l<Ot^01<0iMOTt<
^ 00 05 C5 od Oi t^' 00 Oi 00 l~-* O t--' C35 00
iOrH,-iOOO(N-HOOi05»Ci(MT»<,-iCOOt^'r!00'^»CC<3
ci r-I ^ lo o a>' OS o* i~-' ^ 00 1~-' oi oi t-I .-4 o oi ^tAqci^
05 aj ® "t^
.>o>oeo«o-*oeOTj*t^o«oec05<M
' 05 O O OS ^* O O C> Oi OS —J 00 O o
'£>t-tOO'-HCC>C005 0t-»OOC^CDCOt^OOt^005t^-<*<
£9 £?' :** *i ?* o -^ >-< '^' s*' cJ o im' r-H CO cn <m CO CO ci o o
^.t^t-030^-*<CC^O'*0>05(NCC
^ o o ^' .-i o 05 00 -<■ »-< ^" O CJ O OJ
>COOt^Ot^OOCOCOiOr-it005(N-<J<t^t^OJ.-iOCOOJ05
.-J 1-H OS ^" ci O O 00 O <M O Os' OS 00 00 OS* OS* rH ^* -4 O OS
.e>iiceOTt<eoc<«e<ieoeoi-ioO'*»c
i»o(Mt-w^t--<j<o>osoo»0'<»<'*c^t^ecc<ec<ooo
i ^ c i - >
cc ".2 9
.TtlOSrHr-lt^Ol-~i-H«OOSOO-<»*tOU5
^ <M* tA im' (M* C<i CO* C4 .-I T-H* rH (M c4 IM* CO
t^ooo'^c»«ocooot^ooi-ii-i>ot>'eoooooo>-no»o
1-H .-H id IM* IM* C^* CO C4 rH* (M* CO r)? -^t? eC IM Ci CO >-H* rH* C^i CO -^
'«005t^OO'^C^»OC<IC^«;0»COS«0
C0C0t-r-HCDC^05t^0ii0C0C0t^rHOi-^O0iOC0'^C^
cococoScoco®cocococococococDcoco^cocDcoS
72
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, tJ. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE
Oi-UC00C0i-lO>-<r-cMC>«O
ci fj ri (N (m' (N oi c4 CT ci w ci
'■i"& oi o n 'Ten •*
^ C5 O OO *^ *-H
lO Op C^ 00 »« C>» M
e-5 ■* lo t- 05 o o
c-i e^i r-< im' c^" (N ci (H c>i c^i ei i-I i-H M (N* ci c^ c^ i-H c>i c4
^•9 H
^•22c3SS:^SS5[^8?S
•-i S o ®
■yOOr-ICOl
f-^^r-^oooai050
0>WOOOOOOo6o6oOWOOWOOWC>C5CX3000>OJOCo5
ooo>ooosc>ooo^oJooooioooc5o
s
Q
V.
<w
o
'W
S
c
^
O)
OJ
<»
-d
^
o
«
a
Er^
fl
+j
s
rt
•«s>
o
^^
U
<;i
1
rO
s
?J
S
-<
'ti
s
eo
o
<4.-
v.
'a,^
s
-^
c
<^!
CO
s
-»0
^
O
^'^
CO
^
•c^
^
1.
s.
J-
O
?5,
Ct,
5J
?;
-«?
';:^
^
CO
<3
•rj a
•W0QiC^P>0500»0O»O'S«CO
ci-»cabfoi-oo>?5oQfQ^^g6i~<ifJa>'^05i
ic^co5ic<5<Nw<9«clcc^eoeoc5eseoco<NC^CN<
«C>iC«DOOCD<r><CiOOO<C
6<cS
I .-H r-( ,-1 M ,
O -"f •^ O CO CO -*l <
: ! >>
S
<» O OZS ®73 <D o o o
.tJ xJ TJ ^ .ti j:; .t^ -co T3
^ I ; M^ bc^ ; I ;
^ ! Im^m^ I I I
;!&
I III i^-^r-* I I I I I I iCCl>-
gooooooooooo
o I ! ; ; 1 ! ! I ; ; 1
O +J o o c
I !
_ ocoooooooooocoo
' lOco ! I I ! I I ! ! I I ! ! I ! !
^M-'
ooooooooooooooo
w
iii°i
'W^OC^'-<(McOOOOO«OiO(M
o>o-H-^cciOTt<ccco>oo-*Q-<i<>CQOO'-;c2eo
- cooot^occi^<ct^oooooot^ot^ao2oooooor^
(N (N IM 04 (N C^ (N <N <N (N IM OJ C^ (M C^ C^ C<» (N (M (N (N (?<
5 O a>5j3
.00-*I:^iOCOCO<NO,-HOOOCO
* 00 ^ 00 o o t~-' o cJ a> o go o>
it
W5
.O5cooo'^oo05>ooooooooo
"^COO^'-ioO^^'-H^O^H-
OO.^HO»0-^tOCO(N'*OiOO(N000000001COt^C^CO
c^a>eoc<iioO'*co.-iot^eoeooooooo5eooi-H
bo
.(Nt-iOC0C005t-00'*t^-*O
' aJ 00 oJ ^' -H o c> ai 00 oJ o o
COIMCRt^OOt^OOi-l-^OCOSOOOCOCOt^lO-^e^XC^
(m" i-H C5 oc 00* 05 oi — <■ -^" o o en 00 oo' r-I o 05 »-■ c^ c o»
.00-*-*0(NcO.-iOO-*0>-iOO
"S '^^^^
>C^i-lO<MOC>^iO«OCOCO>-i»OC<li-iiO
.t^OlCCSrHOOOMOJt^t^lO
'■^eOCOr-HC^T-H(M'cO<M'>-HCO-*
t^r-i-<i<oit^oo»ocooooor-o-*'*oooccc^it^co
IM' CO -*■ CO" Ci Ci ■<S< rH r-I r-J .-i CO "'l' CO' .-^' --! <N* r-< (N' iH "^
H g
"al
« o
1^
'«-*oot^t^05oo'* 00 00 >o CO •
coo>ci<©co'Coococooooc<»^HkOTti!d^t^coc<o»
^^c^(Mrococo<
CO->!fi-<*l-*lTj<COCOCO-
:5-:2
lO > Csi o :
! t- 3i Q
) CO CO ^
VSIMC^COCOI^S^'OwCOCOCO-^COO'
COCO CO CO CO ■* Ti -^ -^ ■* -^ ■* CO CO CO "
^ ■^ CO CO CO
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 73
(N c^ 1-J (N M N oi <m' '-i ci c-i (N (N c>i M c^' M .-i e^i
(N (N r-; (^^ c^ <N cs (^^ (N c^" cs" (^^ cs" <N c>4 c^i c^' c^ (N (N M M M (^^ (^
S
C^
oJooMoiooJoJoJodoiaJaooioioDodooQOoo
oi
?5§§§j;5^:S^2js^2^^S?f:J5;;S??
S
SI2g?g85ggS;2:;§^^g5;;jg^3-§r!:SSSgg?^S?^g{^
S
0000^'-"-iOOOOOOOOOOi05CT>
o
°^'^^^22'^;^222SJ^^;2^;2S''^^^^32^^3^2;i:3^^^
o
S5
i
^§:2SS§^;3^J?gJ5fe§5SSl§^S
^
■<*<
ot^ooc^oiCT>oooo^'Ooe^oooioooo5ooio<».-HTt<o«ooorH»ot^i-ioo
r-
■^
o«5»»«oa5«®«»«o«5«5«5«5d«5
^
o®«5«j«to«50oo^o«d«cdoow»oo«co«6«do«d;d
o
SS^S^fe5^?^:Sl§S^5^^5J£?
toc^t^o»oa>oo05>o»o-<*'i^eo<oo5<N50(M-^iot^ooooOTt<>oio.-<ooco
S
g?g2i:^l2gj2i§g?i::§^g§23S^^S
?J
S2gSS2^^S2SSSSS3{2K22^{^S5^5sSSgS;S2
S
"
rt r-l r-H i-H r-H rH r-( r-H >-H i-( rH r-H r-H rt ,-H .-H t-H rl r-l i-(
^
1 i I >> 1 .
I o c:;3 ® o
I 1 ', SJ-«
; i I >»
O O OS « o
I -co "Ox; "S'C
■ ■ ■ I bcj5 ;
i>!X
;ocB
, » o ,
«C t^ h- t^ I
> 30 00 00 C^
. t- t^ r^ t^
(NO00-<*<«D«(M010i05
t^or^oot^r^oot^r-o
IM(NC^J(N<N(N<M(NCS(M
1 i-H rH M I
. t^ 00 t^ I
(N (MCS(
cot^ioeoicooooi^oot^
_- ^ t^(^i^oot^oot^t^r-oot^
(N(NCSC^(M(N(N(NiM(N(N(N(NIM(NC^l(N
, »o «o — ■ ■ — ■ ■
) cc t^ t^ 00 r^ 1^ I
'Ci-HOC^IOOOOi-irti-
> t^ 00 t-~^ OJ
05ooccTt<oa>a>ooc<ia)i-itOi-Hco«5t^ot^ooo50>ot^e»5e<5oo(Nio.-it^
T»<>coi-c»-nceo>o05C^'<*<ooTt<c<«-<j<0505t^cc
":)cot^o-*oc><Or-iTi<oioocoiot^>oc<>a>»cit^t^»OTj<i^o5Tj<oc^kO.-i
od cJ ^' r-H* o --H o o o» oi 00 a> 05 r-J .-H o --H o OS
co-^-»j<r-(c^t^«oojTjico»c»ocoio<oi^c<ic<»«cooJ05C^Trooa>OJoo»ot^
HC5o50>oioiC50ioi05000t>-'oc>0'--<'oOO'-HOoicioio>OC>
c<c<c^ece«rHioeooeOT»<^o«oeo»-(0-*cs
OO>-HOOTHi-l.-(i-<OOTHOOOO00i-(TH^O»OOr-lO-««<T-iOeCC^
OJTj<i»»eooe«eoc<jrHOOseoTt<c<t^^c<it^«c
C^ CO rH i-J rH F-< CN> M «0 «d C^' CO eO T-I 1-; (N T»J CO CO
tD«ooot>.oo«5a>Tt<t^t^eoeo(Mcocococ<«o-»»<oico-^cot>.'<f<ooeo>ooo
--^■c4eccococ^'c^cseoc^ecc^(^^c^eoc<^cocOT»^■^«dc^^Tl5Tl;^-:tOTl;eo■«15(^^
t^00«Ol^t^rH>0CSO»-H50O>-0r^OO'-i»00C
c5oc5ooooJooooooc5-^'-<'Qr-<Q
eqO'-HrHO.-H.-Hi^T»<coi-i«c^05«5fo-*o>ooooM'«»<ooo«0'<tio»Cir5o
•^'•^■coc^'c5•^NC^^c5cocs"'-^*c>^c^ic^odoo'coojoioio6osQoio5^oioi©
< CO CO CO CO CO -"J" -rj"
' ^ ^ CO CO ^
COCOCOCOCO'<»<-<!f<Tfi-^'r)<Tt<-«r'J<rJ-TffOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO-«"-^'V«*l
74 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, V. S. 1)EP1\ OF AGRICULTURE
^2-
liill^is^^slsas
M'Miw^^MiMMmmmmir^^
fe ;o
§ 8
. o o ,
o c c'S
O O OS O C OB
5 O O O
; St
jS'O'Cl^ ^ ,c "^ "^
fl :Sco
pq 1-3
! fl
o bc
«2
c ; a
o o
CLHpQK^PQh^
?a.
03 fl
ss
H^s«s"^s:;oao
+j S °*^ S o
i3 o ;li;u
>> !
OS ■
& ;
ss
o ;
lit!''
[^
■fca
O
O
o
O
®'2
BO
'as o I
BO 1
IBO I
O 1
O I
o :
;^ r- ' O O O O
I c3 O >< C O
IfeOBOO
iOOB
I C 1^.
-co
c c.Jr
OOB
) OS O Oi 03 03 C^ (
o C
,0000000500050000000000000000
^
Ml o
) lO -^ Tjl i
05 05^ I
> --I (N 00 t^ <
>00iO00QOd3'053»
>O0505OOO^000d
^o
.2 3
OOCOOOCQOOOOOO
Tfi-^OOiOOCClMO'COOt^'-i-^l^
■'-i(NOlN<N<N<M(NO'-i^-H'-i03
(^f (N C^Cvrc4"C^~C>f (N C4"(N Cf (N (N .-T
C<fc^1-H'c^C^CSC^c4~C^CS^CSC^(NC>^(NCMe^CSCS^C^Csfc4'C^Csfc^fc^*(^«
co(M-<*ia>F-iio»ooocsoc^ooo«c
Ot^ O^t^OfOOSQ^OCCCi-HCOlCt^OSCTlOO >—•«*<— I" OrHt^CO
!0>oo5oot^t^ffi5CC5oooooo»coo<ct^5Ct^t^oooco5oot^r^>ooo
?5 0cot^»ocor--.ooo5cot--^-^'*i.-H
s
52
go
1=^
«o^oooo5cccoco>-ic-iait^^'C
)CO(MO<S>'-iCO'0'OaOiOC^M050t~OOCOC«50i»»C050500^H
cc cc -^ -^
rr T)- CO CO ;
' CO CC CO CO CO "^ Tt^ -
" ^ CO CO CO -^ -^ -^ ■
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
75
P^ fu
"^ c o o o o
^ei-
c
is
o
o o
^^ o c
PHhJpLH
o o
.S c.a o.S o ■ ■
C3 O S O ^ O
pti Ph E^ Pl( psH Ph
O bC O r
^ o o
.^-3 2 03.^
HqpHpqp-(K5
^ !^ b t^"' b I >> t*-- >>
a>bc®tiC® jtCbCbC
p C3
g3 be
oo3 ;2o ;3
X2
.a o
03 O
PmPh
o o C
o
fiHI-5PM
g o^ o o g o
be
; o o g o o
lO
■c-d
o 5'
•CO
c o
c o
ill
' O 03
s :
S !
I o o o
I o o o
1 2 ^
I o ca
o.a
O (fl
PhP"^
o "
-o -T^'O'a'CTJ
I .h o c o o
I 3 o o o o
IPU fe
JOOOOlMCJli-HCOpoOOC
)CftO5O5O5O5O0O500OT0OO5C
ioaioa>i>
>O5 00C»00t^
00 00 t^ C^ 00 t^ O 00
00 00 00 00 CO 00 oi oc
^i-iOOO<£i0000^05C5QO(M-<*iT-(OOCC00505(N(Mt^i-ia>0->*<t^OOOOt^OOOOOOO>I^05CC
Oia>c5ooooooooo5ooooc5o505ooc>ooooo5ooooo5ooooo5ooo5oooo0505oooooooooic»oooooooo
I O t- CO rp lO ^
i ■^^ -^ lo lO lo ir:
o>oc^ii— irt<csooic-»tic^^t^c^ooc^c^ococO'— ir^GOt^i^:3;c<i05'-|C^050cccooiccooot^io
030oa5C»0502ooooooaoo30>t^C3t^oooiooc5--oooo30ot-.ooocooc350oioo0505ooooooooo50so5
I -H o) o a> ^
(N Ol C>< C-< Ol 1
oooooooc
' «0 lO (N -^ lO O r-
. -. . ,-- .. .iM^{NOO5O00
(n" c^" e^" rt" c^" (N <N e^* (N of <n~ (N es* cf c>f c^' (m" (N c>f ^ (N ^
00 F-H Tf i-H l^ I
05lMl^0^iO^C^C<lt^^05C<IOO»OiOT*<iO'#05CD'— i0505O00<0«5'O»O?0'^Ot^-^eC00t^»Ci00
S iC "O lO »0 ;C 50
SoS
O 0 O l^
??8g§gg2i::?^^g^2::?5S2S?^?52§;2?^g;2SS?;22S2S22?3S^g
-* t^ 05 O --i l^
ro CO CO Tfi Tf CO 00
•O > (MO
CO^OcCOCOC!|IMfOCO?<05>Ct
^* ^ ^ CO CO CO '
lOOO-nr^rH
CO CO CO -ft* ■
coo»coNi?5coc»NcooQ»ooco<M<M
cocoroTti-»t<'*-^-«fcococo?sco'
<M CO CO CO ^ •
Tfl -Tfi >0 lO t^ •
■■ Tt< Tti CO CO ■
76
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
T3» 3
JSs^^ss^^^^asaiiiassslssims^
?
o
o o
t; o oZ, fl o o o o
"So IMS " ■ ■ ■
H5pq i^m
i c
il
I O
IN
PMpq
2
3
08
be
o luo
'~ 08 c3^", C8^ c8 >>x: cS ^ c3 t^ 08 J3
££.Sf -£.£f£fe.Sf2.£f£S3£.Sf
O « O I.
O X o
■la
la-e
lis
a|s
owo ;f^ ;pqp»HO
■^ a
OX5
^ t^ 10 ^ 00
03 03 O^ O) o
00 ic to >o »o ^ o
T»< 10 -^ •<<< T»H -^ Tj<
iiC0l»O«0OQ0iC>Q<
)0000030)00000<
tOOOOQQOOOOQOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
.-H03 0'*OQOO'£5gi-^Qt-(NaOO>-H;-;0«030)fOTt<Q=»C»OOr^-H
^ ^ ^ ^ 5 25 05 o o (N © <N ^ t-i <N <N o 03 —I oi r^ r^ •-H o o 05 25 ^ r-H
•C^(N(NCsfc^fTH(Nt-^'C^fC^"c<C^'c^'c^'(NC>fcsfN.-HC>f^"W.-H
IS o 3
1-3 o
11^
t^eocO'*<ot^t^'^'0>oi»'003oo«05-^c^i-<tit^^t^i-(oO'-HOTj«F-JOJ«5
>; i-^ •»*; «:;■ Tj< T»S -^^ uo ■»^' TjJ 10* ^-^ eo e»i CO «5 c<i «d TtJ 10 -"^ -"if 10 M cc
a;
*0-moC<l-^(MIM0005-^I:^a0t--C^Q0'-^'-^'*^00'^00>OO^^'MOr^?PO>
^i^iO?00«>0»0'0»5D"5«OOcOf')t>-tOO»0«»OtO»0000'0>00<
ill'
I
C<l 50 00 »C CO ^ C<I ec t^ 00 35 (M CO 00 eo O ■* 05 Tfi O (N »-< 10 t^ CC «C (M 10 10 •-I >
fO CO ^ »0 ^ Tt< Tti ■^ ^ ^ -- CO CO CO (^ CO CO -- CO --H TT CO CO '^ -^ Tj< -^ -^ iM CO ^
CO »0 t^ 05 OS -H ^ -H IM (M (M Tf ■«< iC O CO -* t^ 10 t^ 05 CO iC t^ C3 Oi ^ -H <M ■<»< <5
cocoeoeoeo'*ir»<-«tiTf*Tj<Tf<'*-^T»<cococococoeocococococo-*-*'^-^
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 77
It is apparent from the data supplied from the milKng of the hard
red spring wheat samples that they were of fair average quality. The
average test weight, dockage-free basis, was 59.4 pounds. The yield
of flour on the same basis averaged 68.7 per cent. With such figures
it is readily computed that the quantity of wheat necessary to manu-
facture a barrel of flour will be, in round numbers, 276 pounds.
Such figures compare closely with those obtained from the milling of
•^o. 3 Manitoba Northern wheat.
IB ^^^ other hand, with the exception of the fact that it was
■possible to make only an average number of loaves of bread from the
flour milled from the hard red spring wheats, the baldng quality of
the flour was fairly good. Size of loaf, color of crumb, grain and
texture of the crumb, as well as crust color, and break and shred,
were normal for this class of wheat.
The grading data on the monthly composite samples of hard red
winter wheat compare closely with the average data obtained from
the Superintendence Co.'s samples of the same class. On an average
basis, the quantity of dockage in the monthly composite samples was
0.3 per cent, as compared with 1 per cent; kernel texture was 51.5
per cent, as compared with 58.5 per cent; test weight per bushel was
60 pounds, as compared with 60.2 pounds; damaged kernels were
1.3 per cent, as compared with 0.9 per cent; foreign material other
than dockage was 1.3 per cent, as compared with 1.2 per cent.
Similarly with the soft red winter wheat samples, on an average
basis, the dockage of the monthly composites was 0.1 per cent as
compared with 0.4 per cent; the test weight per bushel was 60 pounds,
as compared with 59.7 pounds; damaged kernels were 2.1 per cent,
as compared with 2.6 per cent; the average quantity of foreign
material other than dockage was 0.6 per cent in both instances.
From a milling standpoint the hard red winter wheat monthly
composites were of the same quality as the average of the company's
samples for this same class of wheat. The average weight of wheat
necessary to make a barrel of flour from both series of samples was
the same, namely, 271 pounds.
The milling quality of the monthly composite soft red winter
wheats was practically the same as the company's samples of the
same class, as the quantity of wheat necessary to make a barrel of
flour averaged 275 pounds as against 276 pounds for the company's
samples.
From a baking standpoint no large differences in quality were ap-
parent in the flour milled from the hard red winter wheat obtained
from either source. On the basis of average figures, the comparative
data are as follows, the figures for the monthly composite samples
being stated first in each instance: Fermentation time, 137 minutes,
as compared with 139 minutes; proofing time, 65 minutes, as com-
pared with 63 minutes; water absorption of flour, 57.7 per cent, as
compared with 58.2 per cent; loaf volume, 2,176 cubic centimeters,
as compared with 2,112 cubic centimeters; weight of loaf, 501 grams,
as compared with 504 grams; color score of crumb, 88, as compared
with 87; score of grain of crumb, 91 in both instances; shade of color
of crumb, light creamy as compared with creamy; color of crust,
light brown in each instance; pounds of bread per barrel of flour,
289, as compared with 290. As was the case with the Superintend-
ence Co.'s hard red winter wheat samples, approximately 40 per cent
78 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
of the monthly composite sample flours exhibited some deficiency in
baking strength.
For the soft red winter wheat flours the average comparative
figures are as follows: Fermentation time, 116 minutes as compared
with 112 minutes; proofing time, 65 minutes as compared with 62
minutes; water absorption of flour, 53.6 per cent as compared with
53.3 per cent; volume of loaf, 2,152 cubic centimeters as compared
with 2,098 cubic centimeters; weight of loaf, 488 grams, as compared
with 490 grams; color score of crumb, 89, as compared with 88; score
of grain of crumb, 89, as compared with 87; texture of crumb, fair in
each instance; color of crust, light brow^n in each instance; break and
shred, poor in each instance; pounds of bread per barrel of flour, 282,
as compared with 291. The baking quality of the company's samples
was, therefore, the better.
The monthly composite white wheats were of somewhat better
quality than those supplied for similar tests by the company. Higher
bushel weights prevailed, as did higher flour yields, wdth the result
that it took 6 pounds less of the wheat to make a barrel of flour than
was necessary to use with the wheats supplied by the company.
The ratio was 274 to 280 pounds.
There was also some superiority in the baking quality of the flours
milled from the monthly composite wheats. This was largely a
matter of loaf volume, and of interior characteristics of the loaf.
On an average basis the comparative figures are as follows: Fer-
mentation time, 116 minutes, as compared with 114 minutes; proofing
time, 62 minutes, as compared with 58 minutes; water absorption
of flour, 54.6 per cent, as compared with 54.8 per cent; volume of
loaf, 2,074 cubic centimeters, as compared with 1,970 cubic centi-
meters; weight of loaf, 494 grams, as compared mth 498 grams;
color score of crumb, 88, as compared with 87; score of grain of
crumb, 87.9, as compared with 84; texture of crumb, good as com-
pared with poor; shade of color of crumb, creamy yellow, as compared
with creamy; color of crust, fight brown in both instances; break
and shred, fair as compared with poor; pounds of bread per barrel
of flour, 285, as compared with 287.
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF SOUTH AMERICAN WHEATS
Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay, are the important wheat producing
countries in South America, Argentina outranking the other countries
by far. The relative milling and baking quality of South American
wheats will be found below.
ARGENTINA
Argentina ranks sixth among wheat-producing countries of the
world, but when exports are considered it is exceeded only by the
United States and Canada. Wheat is grown mostly in the Provinces
of Buenos Aires and Cordoba, and to some extent in the Provinces
of Santa Fe and Entre Rios, and the Territory of La Pampa. The
first two Provinces produce about 70 per cent of the wheat of the
country and the five areas together about 95 per cent of the crop.
The trend of wheat acreage from 1890 to about 1912 was sharply
upward; from that tinie until the drop in acreage following the
World War, the increase in acreage w as less rapid. After the postwar
decrease, the trend in acreage has again been strongly upward.
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 79
Until 1900 most of the increase in wheat was to the north. In
recent years this increase has been more rapid to the south and west,
and particularly in La Pampa. The average production of wheat
for the crop years 1924-25 to 1928-29 amounted to 237,000,000
bushels; the prehminary estimate for the crop year 1928-29 was
307,000,000 bushels. Further increase in production is strongly
Umited by high temperatures in the north and low temperatures
and lack of rainfall to the south, and by uncertain rainfall to the
west. Flax and corn Hkewise have competed successfully with wheat
in the Province of Santa Fe, where the acreage of wheat has actually
decreased during recent years.
The bulk of the Argentine wheat crop is usually s.eeded in June
and July and havested in December. It is possible to sow wheat
over a long period. If the weather is dry during May and June, much
more is seeded in the latter part of June and in July. Dry weather
in May and June is not especially to be feared unless it continues
well into June. In Buenos Aires, the most important wheat-pro-
ducing Province, the bulk of the wheat is sown in July. Exports
are made from the new crop in January and occasionally, to a slight
extent, in December, but the heaviest movement usually comes in
February or later. By the end of June over 70 per cent of the year's
exports, on an average, has left the country, and by the end of May,
60 per cent has usually been exported. The Argentine exports thus
move during the season when shinments from the Northern Hemi-
sphere are normally lightest.
ARGENTINE VARIETIES
Among the varieties of wheat grown in Argentina, Barleta is prob-
ably the oldest and most widely sown. Barleta resembles the Turkey
Red wheat of Kansas, but is somewhat softer. It was originally
imported into Argentina by immigrating Italians and proved suitable
for cultivation under the conditions of Argentine soil and climate.
It is said to furnish an abundant product of good quality and to pos-
sess a high degree of resistance to drought, rust, hail, and excess heat.
It is also less likely to be damaged by cold, damp fog, and late frost
than are other varieties. It develops early and is hardy, qualities
which explain the extent of its cultivation. As it does not shatter
easily, it is able to withstand the violent winds during the ripening
period, which reduces harvesting losses to a minimum. It also has
good milling and baking quality.
Ruso is a commercial variety cultivated extensively in the western
part of the Province of Buenos Aires and in the Territory of La Pampa.
It was one of the chief wheats in this zone until recently; it is now
being replaced by Kanred and other new pure varieties,
80 TECHNICAL BtJLLETIN 197, V. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE
Favorite is a commercial variety, grown generally over the entire
cereal zone of the country. It is a high-yielding variety but is being
sown on decreasing acreages because of its inferior baking charac-
teristics.
In the far north, that is, in northern Santa Fe and northern Entre
Kios, where the soil and climate are not well suited to bread wheats,
practically the only class of wheat grown is durum. The principal
varieties of durum wheat sown are Candeal, Anchuel, and Tongarro.
Calchaqui and Peruano are the more important commercial varie-
ties of winter wheat grown in the northern wheat country.
The Argentine Department of Agriculture is reported as giving
much attention to developing new varieties adapted to Argentine
conditions. As a result of this work the varieties known as Record,
Universal, and San Martin are giving excellent results as regards
yield, quality, and milling and baking properties.
The United States variety Kanred, a hard red winter wheat, is
coming into favor on account of its ability to grow under southern
Argentine conditions, and on account of the quality of the flour pro-
duced from it. Kanred is said to be especially adapted to the cold
and drought experienced in southern Argentina, and likewise does
well on sandy and poor lands. It has been found to produce wheat
that is richer in protein and gluten than are some of the other varieties
that can prosper on such lands.
A study of the milling and baking properties of certain Argentine
wheat varieties was made possible through the courtesy of Ingeniero
Carlos D. Girola, honorary director of the agricultural museum of the
Argentine Rural Society of Buenos Aires, and Ingeniero Agr. Ale-
jandro Botto, director general, Eusenanza Agricola, Buenos Aires,
who sent samples of the following varieties: Barleta, Calchaqui,
Candeal, Favorito, Peruano, Record, Ruso, San Martin, Sin Rival,
and Universal II.
Under the grain standards of the United States, the varieties Bar-
leta, Record, Ruso, and Universal II, would be classified as hard red
winter wheats; the varieties Calchaqui, Favorito, San Martin, and
Sin Rival, as soft red winter wheats; the variety Candeal, as a durum
wheat; and the variety Peruano, as a white wheat. The grading
characteristics of these samples are described in Table 25.
The data relative to the milling and baking qualities of the varieties
tested are given in Tables 26 and 27.
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
81
h
i|
^ <=■ C^ O '
O IM O !0 -^ -^ O
I lO t- ccm
co>o coc^
GO oi
,^^^ '
) O JS l>- «>• OS 05 00 I en
ws
!
C PI
^^
c3 CO ca"^ ^"^ S
PCS .Q fi
!«■
® P <U !>
" o o c
53
ff c
s
t: =5
-3 §
CO a>
PQco
«5
Si
cC 3
(1< «
t^ »c 00 o a> t^ CO
iC lO »0 iC lO »o »c
112424°— 30-
82
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 107, XJ. fi. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE
5© -si
§-§
•<s>
•<s>
555
-ur! joiqjoy) x9[)
-ui Ajj[mib uo^nio
SUIOJOJCl
Jtiog
UI u!9}0Jd uejnit)
jnog UI uipBjio
jnog UI uiue^nio
c^ ei w c^ es c^ rn
O' "-H O CO CO •^ O •-I
Q* oc td "i ic r^ ITS co
ft ■ ic •«»< Th Tf' e<5 CO M*
I^
jnou
ui uiojoid epnJ3
^t39qM
ui uio^ojd epnjo
ii
piOB OipB"!
Hd
^caqAv ui qsv
jnou ui qsv
en n 0 s B £)
::3 o
jnog
joi8xitJqj9d :iB9qAi
-^tjgqM
99 JJ-93B
-jjoop siSBg
:jH9qM p9
-JtlODS pUB
p9nB9p SlSGg
a,s:
G O t- 02 O OC' 00 CT>
I «
«D (M — 1 (N O '
Q,Si:i^
a,c5
»C O CO C^ CO 00 -^
r-llO CO >o -f ■* •«»<
CO O CC CO O O CC
,-<*"*• >C Tt* I
t^ 00 ""i t^ CO -^ r-1
t^ .-H IM iC OO (N to
oc ac t-^ O
io«o»cco
CO CC CO ^
•*ot-oo
oicJod ^
C>003<N
ipeco
CO 05 CO CO I 05
TjH »C >C CO I •^
CO cdcdcD CO
|»CIC(N CO
1 . . . .x: g !
coOoa
o c^
o o
O -^ CC t^ Ol^
1 00 CCOjft'
•« CO o -'J' 00 -<*' »o
- • CO 00 im' <>i oi t^
d, CO O t- t- CO CC
•^ (M C5 O CO ■* 05
3uTJ9dra9^ 9J0j9q
:jB9qAV JO 9Jn;sioi^
p9Aora9J sSmmoos
pUB S3UIU99J0S
leqsnq
a9d ?q3i9Ai %s9jj
2°
•M t- (N rH t>. CO r^
^ • r-H (N .-! N (N (N
Q^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
CO (N
•« CO CO QO CO 05 00
^^^ • • • •
j^ t-H CO CO OS oc t^
»fl CO CO t^
05 -H CO -^
05<N>C '
oit>^
coco
ooo
coco
gs
ss
>o
sss
?5 5iS5j
CQ CS Cj C3
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
83
i^ii iii§
IS ^^
so
O fe
§•5
O
o
ojO
B£
bcS 5 tie
i?Sb6S
^ Ty, S 03 iS
>>03
o X
03 o
:o
O.J2
o 3
,S050
si
^o
' -^i lo lo »r j lo «o ic
OOO <Ni
11
OOO pooo
^ CO QO M "C l^ C<l
. o o -^ OS oo 00 oi
^ Cf Ci (N rn' r-X r-T ,-r
'O o<
I CX5 t^ «
l^x:-
e . . .
*;OOlOO
«J «c >0 'O
lOCoS ■
00 oi lO C>
C<5 05
Ot-^
£-2 0
I <£) »C
Oi >0 ^ lO
^ .-( «o 1— I eo »-( ■* eo
S
SS?
o
- _ S bs uo iC ifS
cotCM coeccoeo
C^ CO CO CO CO CO CO
84 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, tJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
As material suitable for milling, each of the varieties was sound in
every respect and absolutely free of dockage or inseparable foreign
material. From a milling standpoint, contrary to the usual expe-
rience with wheat containing a high percentage of dark, hard, and
vitreous kernels, a majority of the samples of hard red winter wheat
varieties produced a flour soft in texture, much like the flour milled
from soft red winter wheat. Of the four hard red winter varieties
tested, Barleta ranked first, Record second, Ruso third, and Universal
fourth.
A comparison of the data relating to the milling and baking
quaUties of the hard red winter wheat varieties grown in the United
States and in Argentina, using the average figures for the class as an
index, are as follows (the figures for the United States wheats are
presented first): Test weights per bushel, 58.9 pounds, as compared
with 60.7 pounds; kernel texture, 92.3 per cent, as compared with
90.8 per cent; damaged kernels, trace as compared'with 0.2 per cent;
flour yield, dockage-free basis, 70.1 per cent, as compared with 69.4
per cent; weight of wheat per barrel of flour, 274 pounds as compared
with 278 pounds; fermentation time, 146 minutes, as compared with
129 minutes; proofing time, 59 minutes in each instance; water
absorption of flour, 61.3 per cent, as compared with 59.3 per cent;
loaf volume, 2,207 cubic centimeters, as compared with 2,016 cubic
centimeters; weight of loaf, 511 grams, as compared with 510 grams;
color score of crumb, 86, as compared with 90; score of grain of crumb,
90, as compared with 91 ; shade of color of crumb, creamy, as compared
with creamy gray; color of crust, brown in each instance; break and
shred, good in each instance; pounds of bread per barrel of flour, 295
pounds, as compared with 294.
The milling quality of three of the four varieties of soft red winter
wheat tested was excellent. The flour was true to type, was of low
ash content, and contained slightly more protein than is usual
in straight grade soft red winter wheat flour. The variety of outstand-
ing milling quality was Calchaqui; the varieties San Martin, Favorito,
and Sin Rival ranked next in the order named.
The baking quality of the flour milled from the Argentine soft red
winter wheats was somewhat weaker than that of the flour milled
from the Argentine hard red winter wheats. This difference is most
noticeable in the size of the loaf, the texture of crumb, color of crust,
and break and shred of the loaves made from the soft w^heat flours.
The soft red winter wheat varieties grown in Argentina compare
favorably with varieties of the same class of wheat grown in the
United States. On the basis of average figures, the yield of flour
obtained from the Argentine varieties was about 1}^ per cent higher
than that obtained from the United States varieties — 70.2 per cent,
as compared with 68.6 per cent. The Argentine soft red winter
wheat flour had a higher water absorption, 58.5 per cent, as compared
with 55.4 per cent; a greater fermentation tolerance, 128 minutes,
as compared with 112 minutes; and a better quality of the gluten in
the flour, a viscosity coefficient of 2.33, as compared with 2.11. In
spite of this high coefficient of gluten quality, Argentine soft wheat
flour did not bake into as large a loaf of bread as the flour milled from
soft wheat grown in the United States — one loaf being 269 cubic
centimeters less in volume.
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WOELD WHEATS
85
_^ o t- CO o .
i^i.O'-^ooOi-<ooO'«tiocoo»-ioo«5t^co»oooo5oo
c^i cs' csi' r-T r-i esf (n' eo r-J .-T .-f r-n i-i i-! i-J * * r-i 1-! r-H " ,-<
Q^
> (M C^ ■* 00 O C>1 Tt<
cocoi^e^ooooc^«oo5QO'
I Ol OOO OOOO "O
r^odt^t^«dcc5t^o6t-^t~-^«dt--'t^'b^«d>dh-:cc5<c<Oti<t-:
Tf< Ttl (M t^ 1
eO(N(NiO-*-*-«»<'-i(M(M«OaiCOOOOO(MOC^OOCOr-i-^
<So»o
%j r-< .-( (m' ,-; r-i cs e4
050 o
i-ir-i (M'
oio>oo500i-iTtii-iTti05C^c<ie<ioooo>cioc^»oo305
eci-^M<N«c»ceccsrHr-;rHC<«'-Hc4r-ir-;csic<ie^<Nr-H,--;
o o o o *;■«
iS^
'^xi
I'O'O I I I I I ! ! ! I I !
S ^j "^ 73 "-J T-H 'O 'O 'O T3 T? 'T^ 'O 'O 'O "^ t^
:S : igg ; ; ! ; I ; : ; ; 1 ;
CO
S 3
aa
^g
lec
® (D
o o
c3 c3
WW
; ,'W W IW W
cS I
w :
a"^
1 lO
! i 13
> o S o
!T3 g-O
r^ a -53)
OS
i-5cQ M
OS
-O
i £ fl i o i^
!Ofeo . :o
, , I 3 fl 3 -«
O O OX! «?jO ■
lai
;feo
g-^ a^ g-^ a g'^.'^'^ e g al-^ a-^^-^ g a
pq m ;pq ;Wn I ! !WnWi^ IW I ! InW
T5 03
;i! 1=1
Is
II
22
i§ §
O) Od O) O Od 03 O) O^ O O O^ O O) w^ O^ O^ O^ O^ O^.Od <
) o d d d d^ ^
C8 3
«; i ;;;; im ;;;;;;;;;;; ;
ajOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
X: 1 1 1 r I 1 c « I 1 I 1 I I
a <<<<•<' a
^ o o
Tf a M CO CT> ■»»• ■
•>»< 03 O Tt> — < rf (
t^ CO ■^ r^ 05 c^ <
CO CO CO CO CO CO (
•»t'?5c^Tt<cOTf<ioco(
co0505cococ0r^co<
CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO c
leoos^Soo— i-*Tf<SS*0
86
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, tJ. S. DEFr. OF AGRICULTURE
e
o
Si
;3
•?;
.Sf'C a> Q ea
O 03 o ♦^ O
0>0»Tf< iC
05 ic i-< t>. N 'tf* ec <
eceOMi^ •«
ifi
5-
QOeo-^ososooTfeo
Eh® ^3
|8S ^S^ S
•-iOT»<oeooo«c
i-H N 00 <o t^
o Oi o^ o6 1~^
© ic «C «c c;
C^OO
55
MS
<-> coo S uOO 50
osoffii'-ffoooN
) CO ^ ^ CO
00 <©■<*'■<»< ■*
o5icr>:^o6
lo lO "O oeo
•goo OOO "C
b- iCi r-l o t^ ec o -^
C>< ,-; ,-i r-i ■ r-; CO (N
<N3;oo
a
S o o o 2
.2 -ceo .2
CO (D
^§
■cJ>
o
-^
e
OCOOOOCO
a
god
es
s
® a
"J
a (=1
o o G1
e3 O S . o o f
«^ o ® o o^
pqK ;k : :Ktn
£ c3 ax: .
3^^-SS
BS c c-c
d^p-ss-g
«di
t> S c > °
o o
O >»
r- r^ t^ (^
(NCS(M C^
05 C5 Oi ^
CC O O CO ^ O CC <
05 05
c^ cs S c^ c^
05CS05 a;05
S^(
gooo-rooo
§ ; i !l i ■
2
3 ■ <B
»cac05ac(MeoQCO
CO c; '^^ 'X' ^ -^ ■* CO
cocor^cococct^ic
CO CO CO CC CO CO CO CO
f2§
iC O l-O
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 87
Candeal, the durum-wheat variety examined, did not prove to be a
pure variety as it contained 11.9 per cent of soft red winter wheat.
No doubt influenced by this admixture of soft wheat, the milling
yield of this variety was low, necessitating the use of 288 pounds to
yield a barrel of flour. The flour was of high ash content, was very
creamy in color, and had a low protein content. Bread baked from
this flour was of low quahty, being deficient in volume and in color
and grain of crumb.
Peruano, the variety of w^hite wheat tested, was likewise impure,
there being 32.9 per cent of soft red winter wheat kernels present. As
would be expected, this did not influence the flour yield from this
variety, and a high yield of flour resulted. The flour was soft in
texture, creamy in color, and of a more-than-average ash content.
The protein content of the flour was typical of white wheat flours.
The bread baked from this flour was poor, being deficient in every
factor characteristic of a good loaf of bread.
ARGENTINE EXPORT WHEATS
A large proportion of the wheat grown in Argentina is exported.
These export w^heats are characterized by specific trade names.
Rosafe is the commercial name given to wheat grown in the regions
of Rosario and Santa Fe which is shipped by way of Rosario. It is
highly regarded among the South American wheats, although it is
said to be of uncertain nature. Produced under climatic conditions
which are fairly moist, it is semisoft in character. Barusso is Barleta
or Ruso wheat shipped from the port of Bahia Blanca. It assumes a
character of its own by reason of the cooler climate in which it is grown.
Baril is a contraction for Barleta and Ruso. There is no special point
for loading this wheat, although it is usually understood that the wheat
is shipped from Buenos Aires. In general, the Argentine wheats
are called Plate wheats. Entre Rios is the name given to wheat of
the Province of Entre Rios. It is usually a hard wheat of good milling
quality.
Fifty-nine samples of Argentine wheat, representing cargo ship-
ments from the 1926 and 1927 crops, w^ere received from certain
European ports through the courtesy of the Superintendence Co.
These samples were forwarded to the United States Department of
Agriculture, where they were milled and baked in the manner hereto-
fore described.
Ten of these cargoes represented Baril wheat, 30 Barusso wheat,
15 Rosafe wheat, 1 Entre Rios wheat, and 3 carried the general
designation of Plate wheat. Sufficient of the 1926 crop arrived
in good condition so that 41 milling and baking tests were made.
Eighteen milling and baking tests were made on the 1927 crop.
The results of the grading tests made upon the various cargoes of
Argentine wheat are found in Table 28.
As the Argentine wheat was graded it became apparent that this
wheat was not uniform in kernel type. In any given sample, wheat
kernels characteristic of hard red spring wheat, hard red winter wheat,
soft red winter wheat, and in some instances white wheat, were
found. The relative proportions of the various types of wheats
depended to a large extent upon the particular commercial class of
wheat under discussion. Some suggestion of the predominance of
these ty])es of kernels in the various classes will be found in the next
paragraph.
88 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 107, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Whept of the Baril class contained a large quantity of typical hard
red spring wheat. An average of 36 per cent of such wheat was
found in the cargoes examined. The quantity in each cargo varied
greatly, ranging from 19.6 per cent to 91 per cent. According to the
samples, 8 of the 10 cargoes showed a range in the quantity of hard
red spring kernels of 24.9 to 46 per cent. Baril wheat also contained
considerable quantities of typical soft red winter wheat. The aver-
age quantity present was 7.4 per cent. As high as 13.9 per cent and
as low as 0.5 per cent were found in the 10 cargoes examined.
Fifty-six per cent of the Baril wheat was typically hard red winter
wheat. The quantity of this wheat in Baril w^heat likewise varied
greatly, that is, from 43.2 per cent to 90.5 per cent.
The cargoes of Barusso wheat represented by the samples, were
characterized by a much higher percentage of the hard red winter
types of wheat. This class of wheat, on an average, contained 77.2
per cent of typical hard red winter wheat, 14.2 per cent of typical
hard red spring wheat, and 8.4 per cent of typical soft red winter
wheat.
As usual, there was considerable variation in the relative propor-
tions of each type of wheat present, as the percentage of hard red
winter wheat varied from 58.9 to 96.3 per cent; the percentage of the
hard red spring wheat types varied from 4.9 to 35.7 per cent; and the
variation in the soft red winter wheat types was from 0.8 to 15.8 per
cent. Only an occasional quantity of white wheat w^as foimd in the
Barusso wheat.
An examination of the samples of the 19 cargoes of Kosafe wheat
showed them to contain the greatest percentage of typical hard red
winter wheat. An average of 79.9 per cent of hard red winter wheat
was found in this class of wheat. Soft red winter kernels were present
to the extent of 13.7 per cent, whereas the quantity of hard red spring
wheat LQ Eosafe wheat was measurably less than in either Baril or
Barusso wheat. An average of 5.8 per cent of typical hard red spring
wheat was noted. A few cargoes had a trace of white wheat.
The samples of wheat from Entre Kios were insufficient to form
the basis of a discussion of the relative merits of this commercial type.
The one sample available for test indicated an exceptionally good
cargo.
Under the United States grain standards act, w^heat containing
mixtures of the various classes, either singly or combined, when in
excess of 10 per cent is graded as mixed wheat.
Test w^eight per bushel, the most rehable index of the milling
quahty, was decidedly low for the 1926 crop in all four commercial
types examined. The average test weight per bushel of the 7 cargoes
of Baril wheat was 56.4 pounds. For the 22 cargoes of Barusso wheat
the test weight was 57 pounds, and for the 8 cargoes of Kosafe w^heat
it was 54.5 pounds. The one sample of Entre Rios w^heat w^eighed
54.8 pounds per bushel. Under the United States standards for
wheat, grain of these test w^eights would grade No. 3, 4, or 5. Of the
41 cargoes examined, 87 per cent graded as No. 3 wheat on account of
test weight per bushel. Because of the presence of hard red spring
wheat or soft red winter wheat in the samples, the designation "mixed"
would have to be added to the numerical grade designation.
From a grading standpoint there does not seem to be any great
difference in the quality of the two commercial types of Argentine
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 89
wheat, Baril and Barusso. According to the samples, in 1926 the
Bariisso wheat was sUghtly better, whereas in 1927 the Baril wheat
was slightly superior. On the other hand, in 1926 the Rosafe wheat
was not nearly so good as either the Baril or the Barusso wheat, and
was slightly inferior to these commercial types of wheat in 1927.
The protein content of the wheat of the 1926 crop varied from
10.03 to 13.55 per cent. Most of the cargoes, however, had a protein
content of between 10 and 11 per cent. In 1927 the protein content
of the cargoes varied between 10.55 and 12.65 per cent with the
majority of the cargoes containing between 11 and 12 per cent of
protein.
Judged from the milling data in Table 29, Baril and Barusso wheat
have about the same milling characteristics. It took 293 pounds of
Baril wheat of the 1926 crop to produce a barrel of flour, as compared
with 295 pounds of Barusso wheat. In 1927, the quality of the wheat
was considerably better. The number of pounds of wheat of the
1927 crop necessary to make a barrel of flour from Baril wheat was
278, while for Barusso 281 pounds were required. The quality of the
flour milled from both classes of wheat was very similar. If anything,
the Barusso wheat produced a slightly better quality of flour, in
respect to its color and protein content.
90
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGKICULTUKE
I
(q 8i8ut? j9uviOQ)
xaput A^iBuh ua^nio
jnog HI ma^oad epaiQ
ijeeqM m njajojd 9pruo
piDB oi^obt:
Hd
c4 c^ c^ e4 M (N
'05 05 05 0 05 05
tJ O >0 (N S «C -^
«• o c> o c5 o c5
, e<5 f eo ^^ CO eo
a.c5
O !C 50 ?d O «5
c^ c^' c>i e^ m' oi csi cs* M c^ pi c>i es c>i ci c^ c>i c^ ci ci
Sf?^
iO «o »o
«5 o o
82S5g52§Sf3 5:^Si5S8
000500000005 0^000000
^•.^:H;?8j5g2SSSfe8J2g?
— oo — es^ocoo — o-- — oo
weocS eoeceoeceoeoeoMMco icof
;cotc>oi:c<coo«;cciC'0<c,c?D50
inog UT qsy
0.0
eniBA eujiosBO
:2s?5^g
S5Sg§^8S§g85522S§;
: o d ^ ©'
-^ -11.1:^
3 xi Mx; .spx:
500— ©:;3«ii©'oCOCO
jTd'OJsl.-tii^.tixi.-ti'S'C'O'C'c
I I I U* ^^ Kr r-^ Kr\ ,— t t t I - -
I CD " — ^ •— ~
o3
T3 fl
3 O w
03 i-g 1 03 ; , , ; ;
3 !■" 1*3 00000
bti'§db,
:om
\Om
bc.2
CI
<D O 1 © C
« , O »
x: o
1"^
I Ir
, o n ; o o^ 00000
*jj^ '42 'Si5 ' 'S ' ' '
o©|o!©o||S!l!
WXi iCQ iCCOl 1 iCQ I 1 1
^
§.
C35
inog JO pjjBq J9d ijBaqAV
aaaj-a3B2ioop sisBg
-jBaqAv pajTioos
pUB P8UB9P sisBg;
oj -^ti t^ o o lO ec
'H ecMC^eo
•»- OS r^ Tf GO 05 1^
t^ ^' 00
ot^o
00 (NO
lOcoiocscoc^oot^ooTticsoxicoo
cooeoeDOo<ioocccco500«o
OCD-rttOeOO'CC^'-'t^^'C'ifeOOS^
3nTj9dniai
ejojaq :}B9qAv jo 9jn;sioi\[
I (N M O 00 <N t^
• ^' (N (N O O tH
C< IOCS
.-<■ c4 <m'
' O o csi ^' O C^' — ' <M* ec CC — ' o' o o o
panitn SB
:jB9qAi ui [Biig^eui uSigjoj
p9A0Tn9J
sSnunoos puB s3um99J0g
I9qsnq J9d :}q3i9Ai. 5S9X
•« i-H CO «o '-H o «o
^.o • •^- • •
r005>0«Ot^t^l^t^t^>C(N(N^I^O<
; ec IM CO -* O ■>*<
• T}? Tji rjJ 10 -^jJ r(!
C»5»C00
coc^'co
cot^c^«:)>oo-^OC<«>o^^oOTH05>cao
irf ■»<< t>; TjJ Tj< oi -"^J CO ■*' "*' ■^* '-< Tj< >o t-" CO
aj" t^ C^ N O ■* 00
►>^ iS 10 lO S »o >c
0005>Ot-i0505005<£)-<*«DO>05i-hOiO
1^ 05 CO
•OOiM — ?C — I-001-C3
■^c^c^-^'*"":>05'^ooo-^
C00505CCCOt-COCO-*TflO
cococococococococc^^co
51?§J
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES CF WORU) WHEATS
91
C^ Ci C4 C^ r-H (N |4
S t^ o CO OS ^ r-
o o •-< cJ o —J — <
, r-, ^ a> '-' c<» a
1 00 1~- "o t~- ^
• t^ o 55 o •*
CO CO o <o o o o
T)< Q "5 t^ 05 05
Tf" 55 c^ CO ■«»< ffo
(N c^ (m" c<i c4 ci
Oi CO o5 UO >0
OS O O ^ OS 9
^ rt 0000
CO CO CO CC CO M
CO CO CO CO CO CO
r^ CO-* "J CO
■«*<cscoooo
C<i (H (N i-H (N
-<■ ^* r-; rt" OS
f5?5ooo(
(NiMC^e^ o
CO CO lO o o
SScococo
CO O »^ CO O
CO CO CD CO CO
(Mt^OSQOCO
si;
a :s
3 a> o o
;wo
c3 o M o d
;o \> \o
ea
\ti ;e :a ii ae
, O) , o , <c o « o
iC/5 iCC iCQ OJ COM
g
i
CO >C CO CO 00 i-H OS
g
i
ssiiii
CO
gisii
s
§i
i
m
i
0
t-
CO
^
^
1-1 0 (N t^ »0 CO 0
10
CM
coosco^OT**
CO CO CD "O 0 S
00
oscot^oeo
CO CO CO CO CO
i
COrH
CMO
2
OS
OS
t^ 00 OS t^ t^ Tf< CO
<N
OS
OS Tt< CO CO 10 CO
CO
iOCOCOO»0
CDCOftOCDcO
00
5B
10 t-
§5
3
OQO
8S
OS
0
CO
ic T>< ,-( OS »o CO 0
c4 c4 rH j-H e4 j4 c4
0
CM
C<l
10 00 00 00 "O 1-1
00
CMCM^»OCM
CM CM CM CM r^
0
CM
COr-<
CM CM
cm'
rHCO
CM CM
■*
CM-
Tf
0
CO t^ C^ CO "O OS .-1
>o
^CMCMOOCM
^.
CM^rH^O
^.
»o^
■*
oeo
CM
CO
Tt< OS 0 ■* 00 >o ■*
ci c6 -^ oi ci CO -rfi
CO
t^
•«»<
0 ■<»< >* CM OS CM
■*■ CO •««< CO CO «c
0
00>Ct»4COCO
r-; CM (N CM CM
CM
000
U3^
OS
0.^
CM CM
0
p4
0
CM CO CO CO ■* CO QO
CO --1 •* CO CM r-t
CM00Tt<iOO
0
10^
CO
^cs
.<
t
^CM -^CMin 10
I 10 »C CD 10 CO »0
I lO M< ift >0 »0 CO
I •>*< -^ ■>*< Tf< Tji •*
1 OS OC CM CO !
OS •»»< 06 Tfl T»< <
CO t^ eO CO M <
CO CO CO CO CO c
CO CO
92
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
III
i^^l^Ss
■^•^N.
S^^
^m?*
'3 o
a
is
o
u
._ ©So .t- .tj
a O O O 03 03
o
PQ «
o o o
•3 ' ■ '
PQiJ
o
a
3 !o
i
rj (S C3
kJOO
3 >>
S2
bc d 3 b£ § b£ 3 M rt 2 fe fe
a a^^a csa*^a*.^*^«a o«a
g g bcbog § 2 teg bcg bit/)£
*.a«a
,C 03x: S3
txg bCg
o
fin
o o o
o
o
O
P
3 t<
03 O
o o.t! o o
o o 3 o o
0330 130
o'oj'cs o I'cj o
ico ; o
:-2a
'E3
.b o .is o
o; C flj O
Ox:
.as
3 3
^o
, 00 00 00 QO 01 GO
52 05 ci o oi oi Ci
g TP Tjl l« ^ T}< Tti
c
ooSosQOoOooooooooSooooSooojoooo
ecoQC^oooo«DcO'-^r^co<-ioooot^c<5
OJOiOOQOSOJQOOOiOOOlQOOJO
S55
fea'
O «H
, o; c<i 1— 1 1— 1 o '-'
OOOQOOOOQOOOOOOOO
coi:ce<50Tf<-<rt^r~o--^>oooc<i-^or^'<*"
(NO'-l(Nr-4(N"rH(N— i(N<NM(M.-H.-ieO
of c>f cf <N of ci pfcf cf c>f c^cs c<rof N of C>f
of of cf of
.0-<*'0»0t^
OJiOTj'C5>O^OOC5t^C5t^'-iO)t^ft^
«C -^ -^ -^r 't 'C >c
lO »o 10 *o ^ *o *o
kC ^ o o
oa
•5 a
_^ § O 1© «5 O »C
*5 5C^OOQ«00
ss
r-<00C0^O0»01— ii-cOIC0-*-*-^COO4O1
ssss
r^ojoo
£ o
■^ a oi cc 05 T<«
"* * O ■<»< — I ■*
r^ CO -* t^ 05 CO
CO CO CO coco CO
«oio» ^^«^
r^coi^oitot^Q-t
Sc5»o J^
I CO CO CO CO CO c
<^2
a
I
fe
88 3S;
COM— I
CS of ci
ISS
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
93
2 ,
- ■ ■ >< O
' « 2
ill
O c8 O cS X
-co
§
J '^.'^ •=
^ o o S
-o J
i!
I g bO U) g;^ bO
^'2 2
12
:a
' O
o
OOf
§8
_^ o -o
S o 1 o 1
K o I o 1
WO lO !
gs
OCR O t^
00 00 00 00
M GCfOfOOOO
O C5 O Oi C5 ci
O I QOOQOO
^ I COOO?4COC^
0< C^ <N IM CS iM C<l
lo Oi-i 00 ot^
iH »c lo »c »o lo
1-1 -rH t^ M lO Ci
CO «o lo «5 o «o
) 00 05 «5 <
) 00 00 00 <
g8R8S
.-I CO cs .-H o
CSCS(N<NIM
CT> t-~ O 01 O
lO >C ^ iH )0
S«3 toS
to2§S
oo
2
. . _ Oj _ _ -
C^UOO t» ■3! gOOSOQOlCOQ t* tOt^OOOOiQ p» MO > 9S^ f*
>o»?5o ■*< ^ cci^c'bMroo •*; -<»<5<3<ubTf< <; -^jifS ■*< "5":i ^
COCOCOCOCOCO ^TT^i^^ ^'
O i^
(NCTi I O
lO lO lO
94 TECHNKJAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. 1)EF1\ OF AGRICULTURE
The Rosaf^ wheat of the 1926 crop was decidedly low in milling
quality. On an average basis, 311 pounds of Rosaf^ wheat were nec-
essary to produce a barrel of flour. In certain cargoes 330 pounds
were needed for tliis purpose. In 1927 the quahty of Rosafe wheat
was much better, but it was not the equal of Baril or Barusso wheat of
either crop year.
There was Uttle difl'erence in the baking quality of the flour milled
from Baril, Barusso, or Rosafe wheats of the 1926 crop. (Table 30.)
There was slightly more uniformity in the quantity of bread that could
be baked from a given unit of Baril flour, and the dough of Baril flour
had slightly greater fermentation tolerance than the flour milled from
either Barusso or Rosafe wheat, but except for these two points no
marked differences in baking quahty were noted. The bread baked
from the flour milled from the 1927 crop was of about the same quality
as that baked from the 1926 crop; the yield of bread, however, was
slightly less than that obtained from the flours milled from the 1927
crop.
Judged as to baking quality, the Argentine wheats can not be con-
sidered as strong wheats, as the flour milled from them is lacking in
strength. On this account they would not be able to ''carry" any
weaker wheats in a mill mix. On the other hand, they appear to be
good filler wheats, as they need but little help from stronger w^heats.
As compared with the hard red winter w^heats exported from the
United States (average values for the two series of samples described
in Tables 19 to 24, inclusive) the average quality of the 1926 Argentine
crop, aU three commercial classes considered, w^as of the following
order (the values for the United States export wheat being given
first): Dockage, 0.6 per cent, as compared with 2.2 per cent; kernel
texture, 54.9 per cent, as compared with 55.8 per cent; test w^eight
per bushel, 60 pounds, as compared with 56.3 pounds; damaged ker-
nels, 1.1 per cent, as compared with 0.8 per cent; foreign material
other than dockage, 1.2 per cent, as compared wdth 1.3 per cent;
flour yield, 70 per cent, as compared with 64.6 per cent; pounds of
wheat necessary to produce a barrel of flour, 271 pounds, as compared
with 298 pounds; ash content of flour, 0.52 per cent, as compared
with 0.49 per cent; crude protein of wheat, 10.87 per cent, as com-
pared with 10.97 per cent; crude protein of flour, 9.96 per cent, as
compared with 10.07 per cent; gluten quality index, 2.23, as com-
pared with 2.37.
As stated above, the grading and milling quality of the Argentine
crop was considerably better in 1927 than in 1926, but it w^as not
equal to that of the United States export wheats.
A study of the baking quality of the wheats under discussion reveals
the following comparisons (the values of the United States export
samples being stated first): Fermentation time, 138 minutes, as com-
pared with 128 minutes; proofing time, 64 minutes, as compared with
60 minutes; water absorption of flour, 57.9 per cent, as compared with
55.8 per cent; volume of loaf, 2,144 cubic centimeters, as compared
with 2,181 cubic centimeters; w^eight of loaf, 502 grams, as compared
with 497 grams; color score of crumb 86, as compared with 87; tex-
ture score of crumb, 91 in both instances; pounds of bread per barrel
of flour, 289, as compared with 286 pounds.
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WOKLD WHEATS 95
CHILE
vKt The agricultural area of Chile is divided into three sections — north-
^^OTn, central, and southern. The northern section includes the Prov-
inces of Coquimbo and Aconcagua; the central section comprises the
territory between Santiago and Concepcion; and the southern section
includes all the lands south of the Bio-bio River. Wheat is grown in
all three sections, but chiefly on the land that lies along the coastal
range and extends eastward to the foot of the Andes and extends
between the thirty-third and forty-second degrees of south latitude.
In the northern Provinces, where the temperature is warm, cultiva-
tion of wheat is dependent upon the availability of irrigation water.
In the south, and on the island of Chiloe, excessive rains become the
limiting factor of production. Plant disease, rust and smut, high
winds, and excessive humidity also exert considerable influence upon
the production of wheat in Chile.
In 1923-24 the largest acreage of wheat occurred in the Provinces
of Malleco, Bio-bio, Kuble, Cautin, and Llanquihue, in the order
named. The production of wheat for the crop years 1924-25 to
1927-28 averaged 26,000,000 bushels. A small portion of this wheat
finds its way into the export trade.
White 'wheat is the predominating class of wheat grown in Chile.
Durum wheat, on account of its resistance to drought, high tempera-
ture, and plant disease, is grown to a small extent in the northern
zone, particularly in the Province of Atacama. Production of durum
wheat does not exceed 5 per cent of the crop.
In the central and southern zones common white wheats predomi-
nate. In the central zone, which is the commerciall}^ important zone,
the common white wheats are cultivated. The more important
varieties are Australiano, Florence, Oregon, and Richelle de Napoles.
In the southern zone, on account of their resistance to excessive rains,
the white club (Triticum compacturn) and red winter varieties are the
important types. Prominent varieties are Linaza and Colorado de
Traiguen.
Through the courtesy of Dr. Alberto Wiedmaier, Director of I'Esta-
cion Experimental de la Sociedad Nacional de Agricultura Santiago,
Santiago, Chile, samples of the varieties Australiano, Florence, Ore-
gon, and Richelle de Napoles were received for study. In transmit-
ting the samples the following data relative to the importance and
distribution of the varieties were appended.
The variety Australiano originated in Chile. Its area of cultivation
extends from the Province of Aconcagua to Concepcion. It is of
winter habit of semilate maturity, but is not resistant to red rust.
On this account its cultivation is restricted.
The variety Oregon is of Australian origin. It was introduced into
Chile in 1873 under the name Orange White Lammas. Its original
qualities have changed so favorably that it can be considered as a
Chilean variety. It is a winter wheat, a good yielder, but unfortu-
nately is not resistant to rust. For this reason the cultivation of this
variety has been greatly reduced in recent years. Its distribution is
similar to that of Australiano.
The variety RicheUe de Napoles is a recent introduction into Chile.
Its area of cultivation extends from the Province of Coquimbo to the
Province of Cautin. It is said to be resistant to red rust, to produce
well, and to .be of good milling quality.
96
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, V. S. DEFf. OF AGRICULTUKE
Florence is cultivated more than any other variety in Chile. It is
grown principally in the central and north central zones, from the
Provinces of Coquimbo to Concepcion. It is reported to be very
resistant to rust and to produce grain of excellent milling quahties.
A grave defect of this wheat is its inability to tiller; and as it is of
spring habit, acre yields are not so large as are those from the white
winter varieties.
The results of the grading, milling, and baking tests made on the
varieties of wheat grown in Chile are found in Tables 31, 32, and 33.
Table 31. — Wheats grown in Chile: Description and characteristics of the variety
samples
6
1
1
21
1
Z
t
Province
where
grown
Designation
Predomi-
nating class
Grade
9
I
M
11
08
^ ■
xi
«
fr^
t
1
1
1
1
OS
ft
(^
P.ct.
p.ct.
Lba.
Gms.
p.ct.
P.ct.
14226
Santiago..
Florence
White
1 Hard White... .
0
82.. 5
63.5
5.1'
0.0
0
14228
...do
Australiano
...do
1 Soft White
0
42.7
63.0
5.4
.5
0
14227
...do
Oregon
...do
do
0
14.0
60.8
5.1
.1
0
14229
...do
Richelle de
Napoles.
...do
2 Soft White
0
4.4
59.8
5.2
.0
0
Table 32. — Wheats grown in Chile: Milling properties of the variety samples
described in Table 81, and certain chemical constituents of the wheats and of the
flour made from them
Flour yield —
Test
Screen-
ings
Mois-
ture of
Wheat
weight
and
wheat
Basis
Basis
dock-
age-free
wheat
per bar-
per
scour-
before
cleaned
rel of
bushel
ings re-
temper-
and
flour
moved
mg
scoured
wheat
Pounds
Per cent
Per cent
Per cent
Per cent
Pounds
64.6
1.3
13.0
76.4
75.4
258
64.0
1.2
11.9
72.0
71.1
271
6L9
.9
12.9
71.7
7L1
274
60.5
1.7
12.1
7L3
70.0
276
Color of flour
Milling char- i Texture of
acteristics ! flour
14226-
14228.
14227.
14229.
Laboratory
No.
14226
14228
14227
14229
Ash In
flour
Per cent
0.48
.60
.52
.51
Ash in
wheat
Per cent
L45
L79
1.77
1.66
Acidity of wheat
as—
PH
Lactic
acid
Per cent
0.490
.542
.451
.509
Crude
protein
in
wheat
Per cent
11.40
7.21
8.27
7.59
Crude
protein
in flour
Per cent
10.67
6,29
7.18
6.72
Glu-
tenin in
flour
Per cent
3.43
2.11
2.25
2.06
Gliadin
in flour
Per cent
5.71
2.67
3.58
3.24
Gluten
protein
in flour
Glu-
tenin in
gluten
proteins
Per cent
9.14
4.78
5.83
5.30
Per cent
37.53
44.14
38.59
38.87
Gluten
quality
index
(Gort-
ner
angle b)
2.26
2.85
2.78
2.88
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
97
Table 33
—Wheats
grown in
ChUi
; Baking properties of
the vari
3ty samples
i
described in Tables 31 and 32
^^
•
V-l
•m
Xi
XJ
,
a
Q, ^
cS
es
ij
il
.2
a
§■
O
B
a
5S
2
M
^a
O
5
o
o
Texture
Shade of color
Color of
Break
and
shred
as
1
So
03.2
a
5
be
1
o
o
O
of crumb
of crumb
crust
Afin-
Min,
ti^CS
utes P.ct.
C. c.
Om.
Score
Score
Lbs.
14226
105
62 i 61. 6
2,290
511
90
92
Good...
Light creamy.
Brown..
Fair...
295
14228
109
61 1 56.3
1,640
497
84
65
Poor Very creamy. -
Pale
Poor..
287
14227
106
60 ^ 55. 1
1,840
500
86
78
Fair Creamy
...do
...do...
288
14229
99
60 ; 53. 9
1,590
484
88
52
Poor...' do
...do....
...do...
279
Without question, the variety Florence was of outstanding miUing
quahty, as the sample showed that it is possible to produce a barrel of
flour with as little as 258 pounds of wheat. The milling quality of
the varieties Australiano and Oregon was very good. The milling
quality of the variety Richelle de Napoles, although not of such a
high level, was good.
From a baking standpoint, only the flour from the variety Florence
was of excellent baking quality. The flour milled from the other
three varieties all exhibited outstanding weaknesses in baking strength.
URUGUAY
The area now devoted to wheat production in Uruguay is very
small in proportion to the total agricultural area, although it has
shown a moderate increase since prewar times. The average produc-
tion of wheat in Uruguay for the crop years 1924-25 to 1928-29
averaged 12,000,000 bushels.
The climate of Uruguay is not especially adapted to the growing of
wheat. Kains are frequently excessive at seeding time, during May
and June, and are often deficient when the crop is reaching maturity,
in October and November. Large production losses are occasioned
by rust and high wdnds. Excessive heat in the northwestern part of
the wheat section is likewise a limiting factor in wheat production.
In Uruguay hard red spring type of wheats predominate. Some
durum wheat is grown in the northern part of the wheat section.
White wheat and club wheats are not grown in Uruguay.
The variety Pelon is most widely grown. This variety is similar to
the Argentine variety Favorito. As with Favorito, less acreage is
sown to Pelon each year on account of its inferior milling and baking
qualities. Pelon is of spring habit and must be sown early to insure
the best results.
Artigas and Larranaga, two varieties which have recently been
distributed by the Institute Fitotecnico y Semillero Nacional La
Estanzuela, are being sown on a larger scale on account of their high
yielding qualities and good milling characteristics. Both of these
varieties are of spring habit.
In the Department of Paysandu the varieties Rieti and Barleta are
sown on account of their resistance to rust and to shattering. The
variety L 'Americano, a mixture of Rieti and Barleta, is likewise
grown extensively because of its hardiness and good yielding qualities.
Variety names are not available for the durum wheats.
112424°— 30 7
98
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEFP. OF AGRICULTUKE
Samples of several of the varieties just described were obtained
through the courtesy of G. J. Fischer, subdirector of the Institute
Fitotecnico y Semillero Nacional La Estanzuela. Milling and baking
tests were made upon them in the manner heretofore described. The
names of the varieties tested as well as the data obtained are found in
Tables 34, 35, and 36.
Table 34. — Wheats grown in Uruguay: Description and characteristics of the
variety samples
6
Place where grown
Variety
Predomi-
nating
class
Grade
o
1
i|
1
s
It
i
II
15066
14123
Agricultural Ex-
periment Sta-
tion, La Estan-
zuela.
0)..
Artigas 123..
Artigas
Hard red
spring.
...do
1 Hard Spring...
1 Dark North-
ern Spring.
do
3 Dark North-
ern Spring.
1 Amber Durum
3 Amber Dunun
do
P.ct.
0
0
0
0
0
0
p.ct.
97.8
98.2
92.6
92.1
78.2
99.7
97.4
Lbs.
63.3
58.8
59.7
63.3
63.3
60.3
59.2
Gm.
3.8
2.9
2.7
4.5
4.3
3.5
3.8
p.ct.
0.0
.2
.0
5.1
.1
4.6
5.4
P.ct.
0
0
15064
15065
15063
15061
15062
Agricultural Ex-
periment Sta-
tion, La Estan-
zuela.
do.___
do
do
do
Pelon 33 c...
IV c 100
Larra-
naga.
Duro 1048_..
Dure 106 b-_
Duro 106 d-.
—do
...do
Durum. _.
...do
...do
0
0
0
0
0
1 Not stated.
Table 35. — Wheats grown in Uruguay: Milling properties of the variety samples
described in Table 34, and certain chemical constituents of the wheats and of the
flour made from them
Labo-
ratory-
No.
15066.
14123.
15064.
15065.
15063.
15061.
15062.
Test
weight
per
bushel
Pounds
64.2
59.9
60.9
64.5
63.4
60.3
59.4
Screen'
ings
and
scour-
ings
remov-
ed
Per cent
0.9
L5
1.0
LO
L7
L7
L6
Mois-
ture of
wheat
before
tem-
pering
Per cent
11.5
10.0
n.7
12.0
11.5
n.4
n.2
Flour yield—
Basis
cleaned
and
scoured
wheat
Per cent
71.6
67.5
73.5
73.9
76.3
69.4
Basis
dock-
age-
free
wheat
Per cent
71.0
66.5
72.7
73.2
73.4
68.2
68.4
Wheat
per
barrel
of flour
Pounds
270
283
264
263
261
281
279
Milling
character-
istics
Soft
...do
...do
...do
Very hard
...do
...do
Texture
of flour
Very soft..
...do
...do
..do
Granular..
...do
...do
Color of flour
Visual
White.
....do
do
....do
Creamy......
do
Very creamy
Gaso-
line
value
1.15
.89
L58
LOl
L92
L82
2.25
Laboratory
No.
15066
14123
15064
15065
15063
15061
15062
Ash in
flour
Per cent
0.53
.51
.51
.41
.79
.81
Ash in
wheat
Per cent
L53
L66
1.74
L64
L65
L85
L85
Acidity of
wheat as—
PH
6.67
6.64
6.73
6.63
6.70
6.68
6.64
Lactic
acid
Per cerd
0.225
.207
.274
.302
.300
.342
.381
Crude
protein
in
wheat
Per cent
12.21
11.47
10.45
11.99
10.44
13.85
13.90
Crude
protein
in flour
Per cent
11.28
10.56
9.61
10.80
10.02
13.70
13.45
Gluten-
in
in flour
Per cent
3.79
3.64
3.18
3.39
3.39
4.77
4.80
Gliadin
in flour
Per cent
5.85
5.40
5.05
5.90
5.17
6.98
6.74
Gluten
protein
in flour
Per cent
9.64
9.04
8.23
9.29
8.56
11.75
11.54
Gluten-
in in
gluten
proteins
Per cent
39.32
37.59
38.63
36.49
39.60
40.59
41.59
Gluten
quality
index
(Qort-
ner
angle b)
2.08
2.24
2.80
L93
2.80
2.68
3.18
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
99
Table 36. — Wheats grown in Uruguay: Baking properties of the variety samples
described in Tables 34 and 35
o
efl •
1
ll
1
5
1
.o
J2
g
^3
>
■1
1
3
o
.s
2 .
o
Min-
Min-
vies
utes
P.d.
C.c.
Gm.
-Score
Score
l.SOfifi
170
65
61.1
1,990
506
88
90
14123
125
59
56.0
2,000
501
88
91
150f)4
156
63
56.7
1,780
491
85
96
1.5065
1.58
73
60.7
2,060
507
90
88
15063
1.56
67
63.6
1,660
520
86
85
15061
157
.58
69.7
1,970
515
85
88
15062
160
62
70.8
1,700
541
82
84
Shade of color of
cnimb
Light creamy.
Creamy
-...do
Light creamy.
Very creamy
....do
Very, very creamy
Color of crust
Brown
Light brown
....do
Brown
Foxy brown
....do
....do
Break and
shred
Fair..
Poor,
.-do.
Fair
Poor
..do
Very poor.
-o o
(fl-
ee
m
Lbs.
291
289
283
292
300
297
312
Four of the varieties were classified as hard red spring wheats,
and three were classified as durum wheats. The wheat of the durum
varieties was considerably damaged, presumably at harvest time.
Three of the hard red spring wheat varieties — Artigas 123, Pelon,
and Larranaga — were of excellent milling quality. The other hard
red spring variety, Artigas, was of noticeably lower milling quality.
Among the durums, the variety Duro 1048 was of outstanding
milling quality; the other two were of questionable milling quality.
As far as baking quahty is concerned, the same order of merit
does not obtain among the varieties with either class of wheat.
Whereas the hard red spring variety Artigas 123 was of the best
milhng quality, the flour from the variety Larranaga had the best
baking quality, followed in order by the varieties Artigas, Artigas
123, and Pelon. Among the durum wheats, only the flour milled
from the variety Duro 106 b was of good baking quality. The
flour from the other varieties produced more bread per barrel of
flour, but the quality of the loaf was distinctly inferior.
Uruguay exports some wheat, which, in the world markets is
usually recognized and graded as Baril wheat. The milling and
baking qualities of the export wheats of Uruguay are similar to
Argentine wheat of the Baril type.
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF EUROPEAN WHEATS
Production of wheat in all Europe is considerably greater than
the amount grown in North America. The production during the
crop year 1927-28, exclusive of Russia, was 1,413,000,000 bushels,
whereas for North America the figure was 1,447,000,000 bushels.
In Europe wheat is grown in 29 different countries. The milling
and baking qualities of the wheat grown in 22 of these countries
are discussed below.
BELGIUM
Wheat production in Belgium is not extensive. From 12,000,000
to 18,000,000 bushels of wheat are raised annually. This is not
sufficient for domestic consumption, and it is necessary to import
from 40,000,000 to 45,000,000 bushels, depending upon the size of
the domestic crop.
The production of wheat is influenced markedly by climate, soil,
and relief. The winters are very irregular; the occurrence of much
100 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 107, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
alternate freezing and thawing is very damaging to the wheat plants,
especially on the shallow soils. Heavy freezes sometimes kill the
plants, so that fields must be resown.
Cold-air currents in the Ardennes in southwest Belgium have such
an important effect upon wheat that it is often replaced by spelt,
which is more w^inter-resistant. On the other hand, hot winds
frequently damage wheats on sandy soils, especially in the districts
of Condroz and Jurassique. Spring wheat is frequently seriously
damaged by long drought.
According to the International Institute of Agriculture, the white
wheats Wilhelmina and Double Stand Up are extensively grown in
Belgium, especially on the rich soils of Flanders. Wilhelmina,
Double Stand Up, and Reliance, make up about 62 per cent of the
wheat grown. The following varieties make up the remainder:
Descat de Carter, 20 per cent; Pansar, 3 per cent; Dattel, 3 per cent;
Champion and Grenadier, 1 per cent; and all others 6 per cent.
Belgian wheats are of w^inter habit. They are sown from Septem-
ber to December, depending upon the altitude. Harvesting usually
begins in August.
Through the courtesy of the director of la Station d'Amelioration
des Semences de I'Etat, at Gembloux, Belgium, samples of the follow-
ing six varieties were received : Champion, Hybride de la Station,
Hybride du Tresor, Millioen, Wilhelmina, and a local variety. No
information was supplied relative to the importance and distribution
of these varieties. Only two of the wheats mentioned by the Inter-
national Institute of Agriculture as being important in Belgium are
included in the group tested. Three of the varieties — Wilhelmina,
Millioen, and Hybride de la Station — are white wheats; the other
three varieties are soft red winter wheats.
The results obtained from the samples milled and baked in the
manner heretofore described are given in Tables 37, 38, and 39.
Table 37. — Wheats grown in Belgium: Description and characteristics of the
variety samples
1
e
_»
1
o
o
ft
Place where
grown
Variety
Predomi-
nating
class
Grade
1
1
8
bC
c a
C3
a>
^
x:
U,a3
o
1
1
■^
B
a
;^
0
M
H
!^
Q
fc
P.ct.
P.ct.
Lbs.
Gm.
P.ct.
P.ct.
15245
Agricultural Ex-
periment Sta-
tion, Gembloux.
Local variety
Soft red
winter.
1 Red Winter-
0.5
60.2
4.9
0.5
0
15244
-—do
Hybride du Tre-
...do
2 Red Winter.
.2
68.4
4.9
1.0
0
15243
do..
Champion
...do
4 Red Winter.
.0
57.1
4.9
7.4
0
15247
do
Hybride de la Sta-
tion.
Whlte.-.-
2 Soft White.
.5
22.6
59.2
6.0
2.2
0
15248
do
Wilhelmina
...do.
do
.0
54.2
58.9
4.2
1.5
0
15246
do.
Millioen
...do
3 Soft White.
.9
63.0
57.0
4.6
2.8
0
MILLING AND BAKING
QUALITIES
OF WORLD
WHEATS
101
Table 38. — Wheats grown in Belgium: Milling properties of the variety samples
described in Table 37, and certain chemical constituents of the wheats and of the
Hour made from them
Flour yield-
Color of flour
Test
Screen-
ings
Mois-
ture of
Wheat
Mifling
character-
istics
Labora-
tory No.
weight
per
and
scour-
wheat
before
Basis
cleaned
Basis
dock-
age-free
wheat
per
barrel
Texture of
flour
Gaso-
bushel
mgs re-
temper-
and
of flour
Visual
Une
moved
ing
scoured
wheat
value
Pounds 2
Per cent
Per cent
Per cent
Per cent
Pounds
15245
15244
61.2
58.4
2.2
2.5
9.8
9.8
71.9
71.1
70.7
69.4
266
271
Soft
Soft
Ver>
White
...do
0.66
Very soft..
r soft..
.93
15243
58.0
4.4
10.0
69.9
66.8
282
Soft
—do
—do
1.46
15247
59.2
3.0
9.2
71.5
69.7
268
...do
...do
-.do
1.17
15248
59.7
2.5
9.8
70.1
68.3
275
...do
...do
...do
1.79
15246
58.2
3.5
10.0
71.5
69.6
271
...do
Soft
...do
1.00
Acidity of
Laboratory No.
Ash in
flour
Ash in
wheat
wheat as—
Crude
. protein
in
wheat
Crude
protein
in flour
Glu-
tenin
in flour
Gliadin
in flour
Gluten
protein
in flour
Gluten-
in in
pHi
Lactic
acid
gluten
proteins
Per cen
t Per cen
f.
Per cen
t Per cen
t Per cent
Per cent
Per cent
Per cent
Per cent
15245
0.47
1.67
. 0.344
9.66
9.18
2.84
3.86
6.70
42.39
15244
.51
1.60
.341
8.23
7.28
2.56
3.21
5.77
44.37
15243 .
.58
.52
1.63
1.69
.455
.416
9.38
9.28
8.16
8.26
3.09
2.84
3.36
3.79
6.45
6.63
47.91
15247
42.84
15248
.52
.59
1.62
1.70
.412
.417
8.23
8.42
7.15
7.14
2.68
2.61
3.01
3.02
5.69
5.63
47. 10
15246 -. -
46.36
I"
1 No dete
rminatior
s made
on accou
nt of nap
)thalene
in sampl
es.
*"'
102
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, tJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
C3S
oq
^li
1^
si?
gg
S*D
1
«|o
'C
i ! I i !
^o 6 6 6 ;
r^
p-.-O TI -O ri iH
«
0) ; 1 ; ; o
> 1 ; ; :^
1
g
oj 1 1 1 1 1
o
« 1 : : : !
^o o o o o
o
Ij^-O -C T3 -O -O
r-^
IH
O
QJ 1 1 1 1 1
U
> I 1 1 ! 1
^
a
1 >> I I I
1 03 1 1 1
<<-i
1 >H 1 1 1
o
1 U) 1 1 1
1
i i| li i
o
bfl I'd j 5 j
*o
>. !>%>>£>.
<0
aofia«a
■73
r\mi
C3
o ;oo>u
•' >>
X!
IS
a
:a
>> ; 3 ;>> ; ;
3 ; bS ; '
^
1 ib| i !
o
£
o i >■ o ; I
3
X
o
H
>,T3 >, i^X}^
Ih ' t-. V< ' '
0, 1 aj ® ' >
>;>>;;
s-
— 1 1^ b- •«*< o» OS
OX5
^ 00 1^ t^ t^ t^ r>.
!3 9
^
2H
^
O"
^-S
05 CO 05 (N O ■«*<
^ 00 00 l:^ 00 OC 00
11
1
O"
Sillll?
§1
•iiiiii
■^?
•.>>..>_
^^^^^^^
>°
Water
absorp-
tion of
flour
■g rH Tj* CM 00 1© 00
bC
la
2**2
':?
Sflm
|^^Sg5^2
Pi
s
|3-3
§
31^
m^ii
If
510 iC If
StOiO
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 103
With but one exception, a large yield of flour was obtained from
all the varieties of Belgian wheat tested. This is true in spite of the
relatively low test weight per bushel of the varieties of wheats involved.
The flour produced was of good color, of a slightly high ash content,
but of a low protein content. The water absorption of the flour
milled from the soft red winter wheat varieties averaged 56.2 per cent;
this is an average value for the soft red winter wheat flours of American
origin. The water absorption of the white wheat flours tested averaged
55 per cent; this value is somewhat low in comparison with the value
that is usually associated with flours of a similar class milled from
wheats grow^n in North America.
As with the soft w^hite wheats of continental Europe, the Belgian
flours lacked strength. Loaves of bread baked from the Belgian
flours of both classes of wheats were small in volume and coarse in
texture. From the color of the loaf it was apparent that these flours,
in addition to being low in protein content, were deficient in diastatic
activity. Blending these varieties with strong wheats appears to be
the best way of improving the baking quality of Belgian flours.
BULGARIA
The acreage of wheat in Bulgaria is slightly above the pre-war
level, and production has increased rapidly. As compared with the
pre-war average (1909-1913) production of 37,823,000 bushels, the
estimated production in 1928, was 50,691,000 bushels. Exports are
variable, seldom exceeding 4,000,000 bushels annually. The principal
wheat-producing sections of Bulgaria are Burgas in the eastern part
and Stara Zagora in the central part. The greatest territory of surplus
production is in the north along the Danube River opposite the great
wheat districts of Rumania. Winter wheat predominates, but sprinsr.
durum, and white wheats are grown.
The characteristic cHmatic factors limiting the production of wheat
are autumn drought and winter freezing, especially in the mountainous
sections and in the interior of the Danubiaii plain. In the spring,
droughts in April and May are the most harmful factors. During the
summer, excess heat and hot winds are damaging factors.
In the Danubian section, drought is the most damaging. Winter
freezing, rust, and scalding are common, especially in the eastern
coastal section.
In the interior comprising all the mountainous western sector and
the southwestern sector, drought and winter adversities cause the
most damage to the crop. In the neighborhood of Maritsa, drought
and excess heat are the outstanding adverse factors.
Through the cooperation of the department of plant breeding of the
University of Sofia at Sofia, Bulgaria, samples of seven of the most
important wheat varieties grown in Bulgaria were obtained for study.
Two of these varieties were durum wheats; three, soft red winter
wheats; one, a hard red winter wheat; and one, a white wheat. With
the exception of spring wheat, which occupies an acreage of minor
importance, the wheats of Bulgaria are of winter habit.
The durum variety Zagaria was grown in the Department of Stara
Zagora, in the south central part of Bulgaria. This variety is of winter
habit and is said to be representative of all the durum wheat grown in
Stara Zagora. The sample of the variety Red-awned Zagaria was
grown at the agricultural experiment station at Sad wo, in southern
104 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Bulgaria. It is representative of the durum wheat grown to a limited
extent in southern Bulgaria.
Two of the soft winter wheat varieties were not named. The
sample of the third, Tchervenoclassa Tchervenca No. 16, was grown
at the agricultural experiment station at Obrastzov, Tchifiik, near
Koustchouk, northern Bulgaria. The sample of the first of the un-
named varieties, which for identification purposes will be called rod
winter A, was grown near Plevan, in the central part of northern
Bulgaria. It is said to represent about 99 per cent of all the soft red
winter wheat of the imlgare species grown in northern Bulgaria. The
second unnamed variety of soft red winter wheat was called red
winter B. This variety was grown in the Province of Stara Zagora,
and is said to be representative of most of the soft red winter wheat
grown in southeastern Bulgaria.
The variety Beloclassa Tchervenca No. 84 is said to be representa-
tive of the hard red winter wheats grown in northern Bulgaria. The
particular variety tested was grown at Obrastzov, Tchifiik, near
Koustchouk, in northern Bulgaria.
The variety of spring wheat presented was also without a name.
However, it is said to be grown on only a small scale on the plains near
Pirdop, east of Sofia. It is the only spring wheat grown in Bulgaria.
Only a relatively small acreage is devoted to the production of white
wheat. The variety Pirdopska Belia is the most important. The
variety tested was grown at the agricultural experiment station at
Sadvvo, Bulgaria.
Data relating to the grading, milling, and baking qualities of these
varieties are found in Tables 40, 41, and 42. With the exception of
wheat of the durum variety Red-awned Zagaria, all these varieties
were of good milling quality, particularly the hard red winter wheat
variety Beloclassa Tchervenca No. 84.
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 105
•i.^S^nl
■giCOMOOrr
=.= 1
^
1 '^
S O Tf< CO t^ (N O Tt< t^
Ssl
« Sc^C
h.
^ .ir a>
V
1— I "^
Oh
:cs^
g ^ o 00 00 «o CO o c^
.5f2g
gcoioeceoMJcoeci?
« u C
«
^S.^
O
Test
weight
per
bushel
•«COOt^«5'^OC<lfO
a> X
SOWCDC^J
!o
:^ss?s^
is
MS
^
,
SNO'OOO'-^OO
P
bC
_C
Ix
a
CO
©
sas
® 3 3 5rl
O
fll|ll 1
^^^TJ^l^o-p ■
fea a s'S®'^^
P<t5<Wp^tf .H
(NC><COC^C^M !iM
^
"«
H
a
^
1
Is
1!
a
"Sp
o
"-'Co'^oddai 1
V.
T-S-O'C'-'S'O.^
1-^
«g
6
iz;
s
g
6
a
iz;
>
>>
.2
.s
>
1
>
b
C
1
2
it
si
t
II
rs«NBtf«E^aH 1
a
&
■M^MW^ ■ 1
1
Is
.2
|l«s««|l
illlllll
«
« £ k -5
gi^iiiSi
►3^2;^
5'
;2
S
■^
•f
Tp-^
1
106
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEF1\ OF AGRICULTURE
OB ■«
•<s> O
•<s> ito
«8 S
;S22??5!
ce 03 fl 3 rH
3
-is CD £ s ^„
,-0 03
S w d
5 XI
. . o .
O O a: O
t^O
;COC^eOO(Nt^C»t^
■gOO>OOI^O(M>-H<
SJOi-HOJc^iaio;— ;^
■goc30i^eo(NOi-it^
jooiododoJcJoJoJod
;0<COOt}<0'»'00
3 bco
3 ® o
O) o
0-"
o
-§.a^
o
•■5 13
fi
^ c>j c^i (H ci c>4 c^ e»4
'«;DtOT»<T»<M««0
jjco-'i'coeoc^c^eieo
<
i t--^ ode
C5 »C iC C^I t^ IN C^ (
«0 (N O '— t^ O •* <
iC «0 l^ "O <o o o ■
<c cc5 cc ccS (d 05 ;d <
oot^ «c— iict^
SJC^.-lC<|rtr-l.-Hi-l.
2JO
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
107
Table 42 — Wheats grown m Bulgaria: Baking properties of the variety samples
described in Tables J^O and 41
r
1
1
1
a
>
1
o
Si
M
'S
o
^B
o 3
O ^
o
o
03 U
u ^
o
o
O
11
an
1
o
o
8
pq
Is
-a o
£2
Min-
Min-
nies
vies
P.ct.
C.c.
Om.
Score
Score
Lbf,.
14196
112
61
53.4
1,870
487
78
84
Fair
Creamy ,
gray.
Light brown.
Fair...-
281
14193
140
59
61.8
1.860
514
m
92
Excellent..
Very creamy.
Brown
Poor...
296
14194
140| 65
62.011,880
509
82
87
do
.....do
Foxy brown.
Fair....
293
14198
1121 65
52.211,990
480
89
90
Good
Creamy
Light brown.
...do...
277
14197
113 71
52. 2| 1.980
484
86
90
do
do
do
...do...
279
14195
1261 65
49.711,780
478
75
89
Fair, crum-
Cr e amy,
Pale
...do...
275
bly.
gray.
14199
113
82
50.1
2,060
479
81
83
Fair..
Very creamy.
do
...do...
276
14200
129
76
49.4
2,340
477
88
92
Good
Creamy
Brown
Good..
275
From a baking standpoint the flour milled from all classes of
Bulgarian wheat was of greater baking strength than that milled from
many of the wheats grown in other parts of continental Europe.
Considering the low protein content of the flours milled from some of
the Bulgarian wheats, the resulting bread was remarkably good.
However, except the flours milled from the durum wheats and from the
variety of spring wheat, all of the Bulgarian wheat flours were lacking
in baking quality through their inability to produce a large quantity
of bread from a given unit of flour. It would appear, therefore, that
Bulgarian wheats are good filler wheats but could not be used as the
major portion in a wheat blend where wheat of strong character is
necessary to bolster up the quality of weaker wheats.
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
The production of wheat in Czechoslovakia is above the pre-war
level. In 1928 production amounted to approximately 51,499,000
bushels. The heaviest wheat-producing acreages are in the north-
western and south-central sections of the country. Large quantities
of wheat are imported annually. In 1927-28 imports exceeded
21,000,000 bushels. In Czechoslovakia the majority of the wheat
grown is winter wheat.
The outstanding conditions that influence wheat production and
quality are extreme winter temperatures and summer storms. Low
temperatures in the fall and spring are frequently detrimental.
Owing to slow development, the wheat crop is often caught in the
tillering stage by hot summer winds.
Important among the varieties of wheat grown in Czechoslovakia
are Dioseg bearded winter wheat No. 2, Dregr Bohemian red winter
wheat No. 12, Dregr winter B K2, and Sebek winter-spring wheat No.
1 1 . Dioseg bearded winter wheat is grown principally in southwestern
Slovakia. The Dregr wheats are grown mainly in eastern Bohemia,
whereas Sebek wheats are grown mainly throughout central Bohemia.
Through the courtesy of the Czechoslovakian minister to the
United States, samples of the four types of wheats mentioned were
sent from the agricultural experiment station at Prague. Unfortu-
nately, those of Dregr Bohemian red winter No. 12, and Dregr winter
B Y22, were lost in transit, so that the milling and baking quality of only
Dioseg bearded winter wheat No. 2 and Sebek winter-spring No. 11
could be tested. The milling and baking qualities of the latter two
varieties are given in Tables 43, 44, and 45,
108
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. UEFI'. OF AGHICULTURE
oo
a^-fll
fe
feS^'-S
a.
•o ^
ll
(^
i§|
lal
?5
rest
eight
per
ushel
ooOOrt<
|3^
S ^
°^
11
toed
MS
;^
1
■goo
§
Q
a.
be
a
a
OQ
<D
a
2
£S
O
O •""
1^
.i«JT3
ce c3
PW
(NrS
.s
^i
9 OT
II
S'^
'C'O
*§
2
'S^
p^
03 03
WW
>,
J-HCS
0)
o3
1^
>
M^
-^.2
cgp
a?
S
g
Ph
fl
o
1
£
g
^
a
^
i
Ah
1
1
3 O 1
.Hx 1
^
^
Labo-
rato-
ry
No.
1
S2
'
xepui X'jiiBnb uo^nio
suiaioid
U9:)ni3 lii uiu9}ni{^
jnog
ui uie^oad u9?nio
Jtion m UTpeiiO
■885
jnog UI nin9^nio
■SS8S§
jnog
u! ui9:}0Jd 9pru3
;B9qM
m ui9;oJd 9pnJ0
PIOB OI^DB-l
Hd
§5o
!}B9qM. UI qsy
jnon UT qsy
■8SS?
Q^o •
g
a
o
O
eniBA
9 U I t OS B O
§5§
-3
•3
.2
> ■
73 o
.5P I
m !
3 O
r
>-< 1
^ 1
3 ! '
Is
||1
ll
juog
JO i9JJBq a9d !)B9qAi
o^QOO
1
•a
I
1
:}B9qAi 99JJ
-93B2100P SISBg
^B9qM
p9anoos puB
P9UB9P SISBa
-s^.'^
Q^^^
3mJ9din9j gjojaq
;B9qAi JO 9an;sjoj\[
■«.cc»
p9A0ra9J S3UT
-anoos puB sSuiuagjog
laqsnq
a9d ^q3i9AV ;s9j, j
•<
3N i?Jo:jBJoqBi '
11
•<s>
-cls
«ig
« « g
s:
2-ca
1
«a»
•o
H
:i
i^
o 1
u'C 1
«
(S
g
o
^
fe
o
o
c'-°
U
is -
£!»
PQh^
Xi
g
S
o
>>
1
g
ft
>>>>
aa
ce 05
d
£2
CQ
oo
^
a
3
>.
"o
X2
2
3
a
M
h
8§
PhP^
0X5
.S^
•sa
fe
22
^
O"
OXi
«SS
il a
■si
i§i
|i
0«"
M
>o
Water
absorp-
tion of
flour
00
Is
1^5
fij*"
j§
ill
S«B
§
ii"i
11
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 109
Both varieties tested showed exceptional milHng properties. From
a baking standpoint, however, both varieties lacked strength. The
bread made from the flour milled from Sebek No. 11, although having
a fair volume of loaf, was very crumbly and coarse in texture. The
baking quality of the flour milled from the variety Dioseg No. 2 was
even less desirable than that milled from the variety Sebek No. 11.
The volume of loaf was noticeably low. The bread was poor in
color and exceptionally coarse in texture and grain.
The wheats of Czechoslovakia, as illustrated by these two varieties,
although of very good milling properties are noticeably lacking in
baking strength.
DENMARK
Wheat production in Denmark has increased about 50 per cent
since before the World War. In 1928 wheat production amounted
to 12,214,000 bushels. Imports of wheat run from 6,000,000 to
11,000,000 bushels annually. Up to 1928 there had been no in-
crease in imports since the war.
The wheat-producing sections are Seeland, comprising the Amts of
Copenhagen, Holbaek, Soro, and Praesto; and Fyn, comprising the
Amts of Odense, and Svendborg. In Jutland, Aarhus, Vejle, Skander-
borg, Randers, and Haderslev, are the wheat-producing areas. By
far the greatest wheat-producing area in Denmark is the Amt of
Maribo, located on the islands of Lolland and Falster.
Conditions for wheat growing are much more favorable in Denmark
than in Norway or Sweden. In spite of this, most of the native
wheat is used for livestock, and little is used for bread making.
According to L. P. M. Larsen, of the Danish Agricultural Society,
at Copenhagen, Tystofte Small Wheat 11 is the most commonly
grown variety. Tystofte 11 is a red winter wheat selected from
Squarehead Master and has been adapted and acclimated to Danish
conditions.
Pansar, a hybrid of Squarehead Master, is also grown. Its acreage
is reported to be increasing because of its high productivity and
quality. Trifolium, a selection from the Dutch white wheat Wilhel-
mina, is extensively grown because of its winter resistance. On the
other hand, the cultivation of the variety Wilhelmina is decreasing
on account of winterkilling.
The red winter variety Aben Dania is now being introduced.
Milling and baking tests of the varieties Tystofte 11, Trifolium,
and Abed Dania were made possible through the courtesy of L. P. M.
Larsen, of the Danish Agricultural Society. The results of these
tests are given in Tables 46, 47, and 48.
The milling quahty of the two white wheat varieties was slightly
below the average for wheat of this class, whereas that of the soft red
winter wheat variety was high. The protein content of the wheats,
as well as of the resulting flours, was low. With this factor as a handi-
cap, the resulting bread was small in volume, coarse in texture, and of
poor color. Blending with strong overseas vWieats would materially
strengthen the flours milled from Danish wheats.
110 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, tJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTTJKE
Foreign
material
other
than
dockage
.^ooo
■Smoo>c
Weight
per
100
kernels
^eofoeo
Test
weight
per
bushel
•3£
If
P
•gooo
1
O
1
(N
1
1
i
a
1
1
1
c
1
c
.2
1
I
d
o
1
§
1
I
Lab-
ora-
tory
No.
1
ii
sS
^3
^j
w
c
oo"^
u
<» l»
o
Is
CO ^
^
^^
n
.^^
1
It «>
«-<
;i ■«
o
.'^
S
:S^
S
*-•
OB =0
PI
a
a
Pi.S
o
? ^
Iz;
?^^
cs'::^
C3
ss ^
bc
^
•^
c
^
o
U
rie
1:
>>
e
0^
s
03
t)
g
■?i
g
ftl
5
^
s^
.a
C3J
^
■^
M
^
u
k
-o
1
hi
t^
'^
©
w
pj
J
^
pq
<
H
Gluten
quality
index
(Gort-
ner
angle
b)
SSSS
<N (N Ol
Glu-
tenin
in
gluten
pro-
teins
P.ct.
43.77
43.37
44.95
Glu-
ten
in
flour
Glia-
din
in
flour
P.ct.
2.67
4.27
3.27
Glu-
tenin
in
flour
P.ct.
2.43
3.27
2.67
Crude
pro-
tein
in
flour
P.ct.
7.47
8.85
7.14
Crude
pro-
tein
in
wheat
P.ct.
8.37
9.77
8.51
■Si
11
P.ct.
0.285
.311
.311
CodtD
Ash in
wheat
P.ct.
1.66
1.55
1.83
Ash in
flour
P.ct.
0.43
.47
.40
1
1
i ! !
>
^11
II
J o o
S11
ill
J d d
IT;
Wheat
per
barrel
of flour
Lbs.
276
281
278
i
Basis
dock-
age-free
wheat
P.ct.
70.8
69.4
71.1
Basis
cleaned
and
scoured
wheat
P.d.
71.4
70.1
71.5
Mois-
ture of
wheat
before
tem-
pering
P.ct.
13.1
13.1
14.1
Screen-
ings
and
scour-
ings re-
moved
P.ct.
0.9
1.0
.8
Test
weight
per
bushel
Lbs.
59.3
58.1
59.0
^&6
IsS
"C "3 3
^i
g
^1
? r »^ o
K
SEfec
« ^-3
'^
"C
^
"C
§
J4
£
fe'^.ii' 1
c
cs
P^
U,
3
o
o
o
o
0,
S >
PuBPh
X3
i
a
3
Ui
o
g
>» '
8
*?<
>.£>i
«
"S
i^i
.a
(^>U
X3
3
O
o
£
S
3
o
'"66 \
©
^rco 1
Eh
(2
Ox2
^£^??:?
.S£
Q] 3
^
•"
lOC^liO
-32
-§§s
S'^TTf^
e
& =
O
l1
1^
^•^^^
>°
Water
absorp-
tion of
flour
•goioo
II
£SgS
d.
s
£&„■
■^ rf -^
31^
lis
MILUNG AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 111
ENGLAND
Wheat growing in England is greatly affected by the climate. In
all Great Britain excessive rains and insufficient sunshine contribute
significantly to the quality of the grain. Excessive rains often delay
sowing in the autumn, and in the winter they cause water logging of
the soil. In the spring and especially in the summer, excess rain may
cause lodging of the grain with a resulting loss in quality. In the
northern counties alternate freezing and thawing at the close of the
winter is harmful.
Common w^heats of both spring and winter habits are grown; red
and white wheats of winter habit and red spring varieties predominate.
Very little white wheat of spring habit is grown, nor are the club or
durum species of commercial importance in England.
Eesistance to excess rainfall and to lodging, and the faculty of
ripening during the rainy and cloudly period, constitute the essential
characteristics of a good English wheat.
Through the courtesy of the National Institute of Agricultural
Botany at Cambridge, the Department of Agriculture of the University
of Leeds, and the Department of Agricultural Botany of the Uni-
versity of Reading, samples of most of the outstanding commercial
varieties of wheat now grown in England were obtained. Three of
the varieties studied were spring wheats, 10 were soft red winter
wheats, and 3 were white wheats of winter habit.
In submitting the samples the following general information was
supplied :
The red winter wheat Squareheads Master is the most widely grown
and the most generally suitable for the different types of soil in
England. Yeoman, also a red winter wheat, is unique among English
wheats as the only variety that produces a flour suitable for making
shapely and well-piled loaves of pleasant flavor without the addition
of strong wheats from abroad. It is particularly suitable for land in
good fertility and is most widely grown in the south and east portions
of England. The red winter variety Little Joss is more suitable to
the lighter land and is grown throughout England and Wales. Swedish
Iron, also a red winter variety, is a heavy-yielding wheat suitable for
heavy soils and is grown particularly in the northern part of England.
Other red winter varieties grown more or less are Standard Red,
Chevalier, Crown, Biffens Yeoman, and Percivals Fox.
White winter wheats are not so popular with the English farmer
as are the red wheats, although the white winter wheat Gartons
Victor is widely grown. The white winter variety Wilhemina is also
grown on heavy soils.
Of the red spring wheats. Red Marvel is the most important,
April Bearded is second in importance, and Red Nursery is least
important. The production of spring wheats is fairly well spread
throughout England south of a line drawn between the Mersey and
the Humber.
The grading, milling, and baking data resulting from the analyses
of these wheats are found in Tables 49, 50, and 51.
Il2 TECHNICAL teULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTtJRE
OOOOOC0OOOi-Hi-4OOOOO
Rc5
1
S IH C
§3
2gJS
•gooooooooooc^o^oo<N
V c5
02
b£
® ® ®
m o) o
►- o o p o
<; rt tf TO Ph « »i5 H^l M m m O >^ O P^ ^
SO ^ ©
© ; '©c8 "q>C!3©c3© 'c3
« 1 ijo ;h5oi-:;otf ;o
< t- IC C^ I© OS CO rH
>C0O5 OOt^-
I fC M CO -^ ■
0SC0rHT}<OOl0»0
t^OOOOOOOOCOCOOO
' ■^ CO CO TJ<
Milling and baking qualities of world wheats 113
(q 9i3nB aanijoo)
'^ rH (N (N* <N r^ (N (N (N' (H Csi e^ (N ci c^ c^ ci
SUI9^
-ojd U9)ni3 ill muei^nio
0-' ^ 52 S' 2 52 '^' "^ 00 '^ 00 -^ >-< oi -<■ M CO
JTiog m uia;ojd U9:jni£)
QOt^Ot^t^t^iOt^t^OiOiOI>»OOCO
jnog ui mpeiio
Jnog UI um9^nio
■c«3C><M(:occeoc^"c4eoc^'c<i<N(Nc<ic^(N
inog UI uia^ojd aptuo
:)B9qM UI ui9:)0Jd 9pnJ0
qJ rH oj GO c5 o cJ r^" o c> 05 1^ 00 05 oi 05 00
•si
si
<5^
piOB OpOBI
•ooooiotoCT>oOTj<a>oioOTt<oooo.-Hiro
gi-HrHOOi-icOCOOSOOS^OJQOOTjJOOC^l
, ^ CO CO ^ ^ Cn CO CO CO ^ CO ^ ^ Cn CO ^
Hd
) CQ CO CD CD CO CO CO CD CO CD CO CO CO CO
:jB9qAi UI qsy
anog ui qsy
■" «5 00 »0 ■
0,c5
aniBA 9UII0SBO
!SlOCO'-l033IN'-IOOi-IOOTt<COC5
a
>> >. I I i I ; i >» ;
OS 1^
;^^
o
.J G >.
^_ "^^^J '^^ o o o _
o o o
§1-
SO+jOOOOOO J2+^ L?-tJ o o o
gj "O "2 t3 no -O 'O "Cj XJ So S o'^''^'^
CQ IcQ 1 I I I I I>a!>CQ I I I
. 05 05 t^ 50 {
anog jo lajJBq J9d (^eeq^i
J <tt ■^ ooc<i ooo oo>oi
5B9qA\ 99JJ
-93BJIDOP SlSBa
^•iOO-^l^TfOO<Mt^^tOOCOCOt^»OiO
'"i -H rH (m' ci oi oi O O <m' t--' 05 1^ c^ ^' ^' oi
?B9qM
paanoos puB
p9nB9io SlSBg
^ >-i o o •>*< CO lo o>»< ^eoo»i^c>j^Tt<rH
'i IM' CO CO C5 CO O C^ C4 ■^' 05 C5 03 ■'l' CO (N c^
3niJ9dui8:} 9Joj
-9q iB9'qAi JO 9Jn:}Sioi^
;«ot^ooos^ooc^Ot^cooseooso>oo
,ooododi-^i-HC4^0doo^oooQOO*~^c^
peAoiuej s3ni
-jnoos puB sauiuaejog
;0»Ot^OC^O»0C<l«0>O00»0«0Ot^'O
lc5cv|^.H»-;.-;c<e»ic^oic^coc^(Ni-Hco
.ooeo»o»ocot>.c»r^t^'-HOcO'-icot^o
I9qsnq J9d }q3i9M %S9ji,
i^l
•ojvj Xao:}BioqBq
112424°— 30 8
r^ t^ 05 CO oi 00 I
114 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE
CIS
6q
W 08 o
o
X2
o
SI
on?
1§
fin
If a
!S^^i^SS^S^§SS§^i
o o {r o
§ i !5§
I i
O ' o
X! • iX!
^ O^ O O
1-3 Ph
bO
o o
O o
>Ph
bo
i^P^
. o o
o3 8
>>o3^>»cec3c3c3>.oeo3^x:fl3^^
>o ;>oooo>uu
"be;
O 03
a
a^-a
2§2
aga
ji « h
o
o ,
o LT o o .is o .a .a o
o®ooc3oeeo3oo<» ;cs
pH>P^PHp^PHp^pMPHO>• IPn
i0000I>l>t^l^00t^O500GO<
^0*JOiO^OOiOt^0505C50000005<
80000000000QOQOO
00lM(NiC00«0a>OO<CO'— OMTf<
■^ CO CO ^
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 115
With the exception of the varieties Biffens Yeoman and Standard
Red, all the English wheat varieties produced a high percentage of
flour which compared very favorably with the flour milled from
wheats of similar classification grown in any other country In the
world.
The majority of the English wheats did not produce flours that were
well suited to bread making. The loaves made in the test were small
in volume and very coarse in texture. The color of the crumb and
crust was inferior. The flours lacked that characteristic technically
described as strength. This is emphasized by the low protein content
of the flours, their low water absorption, and their short fermentation
time. The flour milled from the variety Yeoman. II was the only flour
regardless of class that was of acceptable baking quality.
An important factor that has been touched upon before, is the mois-
ture content of English wheats. In dryness English-grown wheat
can not often compare with imported wheat. English wheat, as
marketed, often contains more than 20 per cent of water, whereas
Indian wheat may have as little as 10 per cent, and the average for
imported wheat of all descriptions is about 14 per cent. Thus a miller
must pay less for Enghsh wheat with its high water content than for
the drier imported wheat.
The faults of English wheat varieties outweigh their good qualities
to such an extent that millers situated at the ports make use of the
English crop only when prices are very low. Under the present con-
ditions, with foreign wheat coming freely into the country (222,000,000
bushels into the United Kingdom in 1927-28), port millers are independ-
ent of the home crop and can almost ignore it. The inland miller,
however, has to utilize as far as possible the crop grown in the neigh-
borhood of his mills. When this consists of the ordinary English
varieties, large quantities of "strong" foreign wheat must be brought
in by rail to mix with it, otherwise the flour will not produce loaves of
sufficient volume to be saleable. Ordinarily the proportion of English
wheat used in the blend amoimts to only about 20 per cent on an
average.
ESTONIA
Production of wheat in Estonia has increased tremendously since
E re-war times. The average production from 1909-1913 was 364,000
ushels a year, as compared with 1,037,000 bushels in 1928.
Drought is one of the most striking climatic factors affecting the
Production of wheat in Estonia. Drought is generally accompanied
y late frosts which are harmful, in that they injure the wheat seed-
lings. Other harmful climatic factors are excessive rains in the
spring and summer, and sometimes excessive heat in July.
Both fall and spring sowings are made.
The variety Sangaste, a white winter wheat, comprises about 60
per cent of all the white winter wheat of the vulgare species grown in
Estonia. Bearded spring wheat of no variety name comprises about
70 to 80 per cent of all the red spring wheat sown. About 5 per cent
of the variety Eubin is also sown as spring wheat. The variety
Marquis is now being tested experimentally.
Samples of four varieties were obtained from R. Allman, of the
department of agriculture, at Tallin, Estonia. Milled and baked in
the usual manner, the samples yielded the data given in Tables 52,
53, and 54. '
116
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
^
o ooo
Foreign
material
othertha
dockage
•at- «coco
«l
lo ^^ •
^
PI
® '- fe
CS -tf »COS
r^§..S
o
a.> _<
»5CO C^t^O
rest
eigh
per
ushe
|§ SS3
^ X5
^
3 3
M2
^
a
•go ooo 1
§
,i^
i>i
p
(i.
bi 1 '<
a ! 1
k.1 1 1
a ' '
02 ; !
3 ' '
.3 1 1
1
"C bCbi
O 3 3
:z -c-s
o
attd
-^ coco.t^
03 fl G.3
Q fefe^
«) .3.3
O O 03
i :z::z;w |
a
^ecH
a
til ! !
3 ' 1
03
'E : 1
S-2
"u
1 \
?■
1 {
1^
'u.
1 i^
! bC
> 3
>.
.2 .
1 OT
U
.2t3 2
>
c
^11
p
III
3
C
g
g
o
•fl
®
S
^
«
§
-^
Ph
03 1 !
z
.^
M-o-ox
ft
^ ! !
<«5
Lab-
ora-
tory
No.
^
i^82
■^
III
-^s
if
Gluten
quality
(Gort-
ner
angle b)
1.97
1.98
2.02
1.88
Glu-
tenin
in
gluten
pro-
teins
Per
cent
36.75
42.95
40.23
34.99
Gluten
pro-
tein in
flour
Per
cent
10.34
8.80
7.39
10.49
Glia-
din
in
flour
Per
cent
6.54
5.02
4.41
6.82
Glu-
ten in
in
flour
Per
cent
3.80
3.78
2.98
3.67
Crude
pro-
tein in
flour
Per
cent
11.97
10.48
8.82
12.04
Crude
pro-
tein in
wheat
Per
cent
12. 45
10.99
9.68
12.50
11
Per
cent
0.349
. 332
.337
.277
a
6.60
6.56
6. 56
6.44
3+j
ll
Per
cent
1.85
1.78
1.74
1.70
|.sl
lissss
§
O
8 = =
1.24
1.42
1.49
1.17
"3
>
White...
...do
...do
...do
3 §
t<Q3
®<«
Eh O
Granular..
—do
...do
...do
III
Hard
do
do
Semihard..
Wheat
per
barrel
of flour
Pounds
284
258
266
261
1
Basis
dock-
age-
free
wheat
Per cent
66.4
73.2
70.9
72.0
Basis
cleaned
and
scoured
wheat
Per cent
68.2
74.0
72.0
73.3
Mois-
ture of
wheat
before
tem-
pering
Per cent
9.7
10.2
10.1
9.6
Screen-
ings
and
scour-
ings re-
moved
Per cent
2.6
1.1
1.5
1.8
Test
weight
per
bushel
Pounds
58.1
62.9
63.5
61.7
m
14021
14022
14020
14019
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
117
5a>
.SB
2S
C3«
O u
^O
2*-
a> £< o J-
ll.il
il
Ph
s-2a
fl c o o
bli
>>C3
g
a
05 00 00 CG
Tf Tt< 03 C^
.ooGCt^oo
guOiOiO"
8S2g
<a S lO »o lO
. /
118 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, IT. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
•
The white winter variety Sangaste was of excellent milhng quaUty,
it was superior in this respect to any of the spring-wheat varieties.
Among the spring wheats, the miUing quahty of the variety Rubin
was poor, whereas that of the variety Marquis, and Bearded spring
were much better than the average for this class of wheat.
Baking strength of the variety Sangaste was very poor in every
respect. Among the spring wheats, the order of merit as far as
baking strength is concerned, was Rubin, first; Marquis, second;
and Bearded spring, third.
The wheats of Estonia are similar to those of Latvia, Lithuania,
and Poland, in that they need extensive blending with stronger
wheats to improve their baking quality.
GERMANY
The production of wheat in Germany is still below the pre-war
average, but the trend is upward. In 1926 more than 95,000,000
bushels of wheat were raised, in 1927 the production was 120,522,000
bushels, and in 1928 the estimated production was 142,000,000
bushels. Production of wheat does not keep pace with home demands,
and it is necessary to import large quantities from overseas. Nearly
99,000,000 bushels were imported in 1927-28. Exports of wheat
from Germany are normally small, although in certain crop years
very large quantities are exported. The production of wheat is
confined largely to the common wheats, although some spelt is
grown.
In Germany, winter adversity, of more or less intensity, and
excessive rains during the summer are the outstanding factors con-
trolling the production of wheat.
According to acreages reported in 1926 and 1927, the important
wheat-producing States, in the order of importance, are Saxony,
Bavaria, Lower Silesia, Hannover, Brandenburg, Brunswick, Wtirt-
temberg, and Pommerania.
Wheat in Germany is largely faU sown. Through the selection of
winter-resistant types, the area of fall-sown wheat now extends to
the extreme north of the Prussian plain. If the cultivation of fall-
sown wheats becomes impossible, they are replaced by wheats of
spring habit.
The varieties of wheat grown in Germany are of four types — local
wheats, almost always modified by selection to withstand adverse
climatic conditions; such types as Squarehead (Dickkopf selected);
hybrids, obtained by crossing Dickkopf with local varieties; and
imported types of Swedish origin, such as the variety Pansar.
The distribution of any given variety is regulated almost entirely
by its resistance to adverse climatic conditions. Three important
fall-sown varieties are General von Stocken, Criewener, and Dick-
kopf, and their resistance to adverse climatic conditions is in the
order named. Among the spring wheats Strubes roter Schlanstedter
is the most extensively grown. This variety represents about 50
per cent of the spring wheat. Other spring varieties are Bethges
and Janetzkis. These two varieties are grown in the Baltic States.
Samples of varieties of wheat reported to be of commercial impor-
tance in Germany were obtained from two sources — the Wiirttem-
burg Landessaatzuchtanstalt Hohenheim of Hohenheim-Stuttgart
and Der von Arnim'sche Saatzuchtwirtschaft of Criewen. From the
r
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 119
first source samples of six varieties were received: Gabriel Muhl-
bachweizen I, Jagers Hohenheimer Albweizen, Strubes roter Schlan-
stedter Sommerweizen, Hohenheimer Sommerweizen 25 f, Hohen-
heimer Sommerweizen alte Zuchtung, and Steiners roter Tiroler
Dinkel (Triticum spelta). A sample of only one variety was received
from the latter source, namely, Criewener Winterweizen No. 104.
In Wiirttemberg, spelt is as important as fall-sown wheat and is
considered by the Swabin farmers, millers, and bakers as of better
quality than the fall-sown wheat, but no tests were made on this
variety.
The results of the tests made on the wheat varieties named are
given in Tables 55, 56, and 57. According to the manner of classify-
ing wheat in the tlnited States, the variety Hohenheimer Sommer-
weizen 25 f, and Hohenheimer Sommerweizen alte Zuchtung, were
considered as hard red spring wheats. All the other German varieties
were classified as soft red winter wheats.
The protein content of all the varieties, with the exception of that
of the variety Gabriel Muhlbachweizen 1, was excellent for the classes
of wheat in question.
The milling quality of the German wheaf varieties went hand in
hand with their test weight per bushel values. Three of the varieties,
one spring wheat and two soft winter wheats, demonstrated excellent
milling quality. The variety Hohenheim'er Sommerweizen alte
Zuchtung, largely on account of its bushel weight, was of only average
milling quality. The varieties Gabriel Muhlbachweizen 1 and Jagers
Hohenheimer Albweizen w^ere soft red winter varieties of inferior
milling quality.
The baking strength of the flour milled from all of the German
varieties, with the exception of that of the variety Hohenheimer
Sommerweizen alte Zuchtung, was not great. The volume of the
loaves of bread in each instance was somewhat small and the texture
and grain of the crumb were poor and in some instances crumbly. The
color of the crumb was also undesirable.
As far as baking performance is concerned, German wheats resemble
in a marked degree English-grown wheat.
GERMAN EXPORT WHEATS
German export wheats are very largely soft red winter wheats.
Characteristic of the German export wheats of the 1926 crop are those
described in Tables 58, 59, and 60. Wheat of somewhat low test
weight per bushel was the rule. On the other hand, the wheats were
clean and did not contain an excessive quantity of damaged kernels.
From a milling standpoint they produced a large quantity of flour of
medium protein content. The ash content of the flour was of the
same order as is obtained from straight-grade flour milled from North
American grown soft red winter wheats. The quality of the protein
in the flour, however, was not good. This fact is emphasized by the
data relative to the baking tests made on these flours. The water
absorption of the flours was distinctly low, the fermentation time of
the dough was very short, and the resulting loaf was small in size,
poor in color, and poor in texture of crumb.
120 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Foreign
material
other
than
dockage
OO OO OO
■g iC^ ^^ lOO
^cor^ ■<* ■«»<
^^
l!l
g -^ CO T»« TjJ CO ■<i5
53
i^a^
ia
■u 1— 1
,0^,-< »Tt< ^t^
Test
eigh
per
ushe
I^S 2§S :SS
^ Xi
^
11
t. ]
UiS
fti i
§.
•"(NO OO OO
§c5
a
Q
0.
r 1 .
; * : 1
^.s I
K^ !
mOJ ;
•§
a C3 '
o
5-e ®® « 1
go AH fl 1
^^ ?g ? i
J«!J*< _^L o
PQ «« tf i
c^-* c<ico -* 1
SP
.s
1; s
^ M
a ! fl
s^
^ i ^
o w
£ 1 '^
^ o go o o 1
£
'O'V ^xs TS-a
^
Si 1
i
^g SH g i
"N S ^ O N '
fl"S d^ ©
Sl Ife 1::
■ffe fl^S Sg
fei •§! ^-s
1 i| il
.2
oQ flflOT x:.^
>
S-^-gtls-gl
gg^|.s|2-g
WW uw h,0
: : .
a
i \^
£
£f : !
: §^
^
^ ; i
i S.S
§
i ; fl'
: flS
be
-2o ^>? .25
11 li III
^ 1 Ocg.l^"
Labo-
ra-
tory
No.
■ S
1 lO
f2
i3~
ii
OB e
•^ CO
1^ e
CIS
(q 9i3uB jgujjoo)
X9pu{ i«ji[Bnb u9inio
1.98
2.10
2.32
2.25
1.79
1.83
SUT9)
-Did u9;nia ui ujug^nio
P.d.
37.44
43.11
37.61
38.09
37.23
45.99
jnog m ui9;oJd u9inio
P. c*.
10.39
11.32
7.02
1.11
7.95
5.24
Jnog ui uipBiio
ft^' 0 0 ^ .^ .^ (N
jnog ui UTU9inio
ai eo 'flJ (N (N <N (N
inoB ui nra^oJd 9ptuo
Q^-^- CO 00 OS 00
;B9qAv m m9iojd optUQ
n ■ CO Tj< oj o' 0 1--^
ii
^1
piDB OTpeq:
. iO >0 rt< T*< .^ CO
Q.O
Hd
«dooooo
^B9qM ni qsy
jnog m qsy
p.d.
0.52
.58
.50
.51
.46
.56
13
O
0
1
anjBA 9unosBO
^ ^ ci ,4 ,-; ,-;
-3
>
White
do
Creamy
White
Slightly creamy...
■o
jl
Granular
do
Very soft
do
Soft
do-
1.1
do
Very soft
Soft
do
do
Jnog
JO piJBq J9d ;B9q^v4
Lbs.
267
275
265
267
281
280
1
2
"2
5B9qAV 99JJ
-93B3[0Op SISBg
t^05T*<C0O
§f:f:5s&
jBaqAv
p9jnoos puB
p9nB9p sis^a
,-iOCT.COO
t^^?:jg§
3uTa9dra9j ejcj
-aq iB9qAv jo 9in:jstoj^
•g^_
>0(NO'0 05
^ ^ ^ 0 0
paAoraaj s3m
-anoos puB s3uiu99J0g
•goor-oeo^
. • C<i ^' IN (N T)<' (N
pqsnq J9d ?q3i9M ?S9x
Lbs.
61.2
58.5
58.2
61.5
56.6
57.1
•(
)N iiaoi^BioqBq
15172
14583
15173
15174
15175
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
121
SB
03 3
O (m
S 03
I-
.2 3
lii^^li
a§
§0 u, O
X © O
'^>.
a
^TJ
PhPQ
s a
a <-^ o o o
0^-3>
t. 2 i-i
0) o a>
3
a
Is
CM>
-<»« (N ■<*< O CO O
, 00 03 t>- 00 00 GO
C^ 05 00 eO rt< (M
,00 001^00 00 00
_ ^ 05 tH CO rH lO
2 © >-i oj 05 cft 00
g iS lO ■^ Tf ■^ ■<*(
Psi
00 «D o> a>S S
rj t^ » O t^ 00 t^
•g ■»«< 00 C^ CO CO CO
^ im' >o e>j to ■^ >o
«j to to »0 >0 >0 "O
l^Jggs
»>. t^ ^ t^ t>. t>.
>/5 lO T)< lO lO »0
535
•.s>
reign
terial
rthan
kage
rt< -H QO CO CO (N
SCO
00
Fo
ma
othe
doc
t
"^ 1
giS
•g(N-J<C0OOO
»c
ll
(S
PI
e
1 1 1 1 1
!
^a^
^
05 C5 O 00 CO O ■<!<
(N
4j rg ®
|SS{5Sg58
^r^
Qi
-32
"S
[
a s
2j
j
U15
cii
1
•" CO •<*< T)1 Tf CO <N
CO
|i
go
1
a>
« 0) « OJ <U « 1 1
6
a a a G a a
^^^^^^
T3T3T3'a'aT3 1
0) a> 03 « oj 0)
«««««« 1
T}< (M CO Tf (N CO 1
03
«
bo
P
o3
c
-2 i i i i i i
a
a ! ! 1 1 ! !
o
^ , ; ! , ! !
t3
0)
T} !
ll
© o o o o o
Ph
•-"CO-COT) !
CO 1 1 1 1 1 i
be
CI
"a
>> 1 I 1 >>_' I
o
c d a'2
cc o 1 , ef fl 1
^2 : ;§| :
•o
©£ . ,»fl !
P
a-t, < ia a <
(^
2-r: c o 2 o
a-^TJ-oa-g !
wQ ; jmH-j I
bO
0
1 1 1 1 1
'3
9
w-
o
PL<
la^-^lH
WS 1 jKcc
Lab-
ora-
tory
No.
eo°®*co-*<
'
122 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTUKE
3
3
quality
index
(Goit-
ner
angle b)
^ ^ ^- _; ^ c^-
IS
Crude
protein
in
flour
0*
CO
OS
Crude
protein
in
wheat
|2S22^2
00
0
Ik
11
o
J1
|2«^-. :-
1
1 '
1
w
V. «D «: «D «o <D o
s
d
<u lo »o Tr< "0 TTi tij
r
lo
g
O
o
O
Mi
2^^gS8^
s?
1
i i i ^ ! i
I ! I >. i 1.
© o 0:3 © o
d
c 0 ' 1 ' '
> cr. 1 ; 1 1
J >»c J 0 d
d
IF
J 0 d 0 0 0
•« TJ -C -C -C -CI
d
Wheat
per
barrel
of
flour
ti 01 10 0 CO >c t^
1
1
1
o
S .-1 (N 05 0 ^ t-
CO
c3 « n g^
?; io TjH ^ ,-. t- ^
r-
g
Mois-
ture of
wheat
befoiG
tem-
pering
eO(NO-^a.(N
^ ^ d 0 oi d c-i
CO
d
a
2
c
CO
« (N c4 <N trj .-4 (N
Test
weight
per
bushel
d
>>
1.
1
cd~d id^uocs
d
>
<
"53
a
535
•<s>
05
C5
Bread
per bar
lelof
flour
Pounds
289
286
282
284
287
281
s
■c
i i i i i i
[
a
:i
"'ill'
:
§-s
; 0 0 0 0 d
0
tJ'O'O'CXJ'O
-o
pq
'INN
_ij
1 1 I 1 1 1
1
1
giiigi
!
0
6 . . 1 0 •
1
0
■^06^-^6
0
0
^■^y.^^-^,
TJ
'0
ti : ; otc ;
j
0
13 ; :k3 ;
I
I ! 1 I I >.^
j
I ! I 1 ; es
g
i i i : ;^
!
liiiii
>>
i ; iaii
s
0 0 0 c 0 fe
u
>>
j5
tH ' 0 L< tl
m
0
> 1 :o>>
>
^
; ; 1 1 ; ;
1
a
1 ! 1 1 1 !
!
! >> ! ! I I
j
g
iS ; ; ! :
i
"0
0
!S ; ; ;
1
:S !
.
p
;"oo ;o
0
tj ^"0 T3 J 73
•0
05
H
p-ciH ; ;ph !
0.0
,^^^^f2S
S
.ss
fe
^
O"
ox>
^ t^ t^ t^ !>• 00 t^
F:
;-, q
0 s
0 ^
11
5SS§§S;§B
S
& =
0
Eg
8gSSg2
0
S 0
"C"—
o'^'^'^'^'^'-"'
>°
>- A —
~ -^ 10 Ol t~ CO T-1
N
Vate
ion c
flour
«- 10 »0 S »C »0 »ri
1^
S
''^ a*'
0.
II
SSSS^^g
»o
55
^
<^
g«ggg-g
S
ill
|a=
"§
d
^
>>
0
03
1
>
J
0 «-, iC 2; "5 C5
"ooot^Si
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 123
GREECE
Production of wheat in Greece has decreased since pre-war days,
whereas imports have increased. Wheat growing in Greece is
markedly affected by the action of many weather factors, such as the
quantity and distribution of rainfall, high temperatures, and the
prevalence of warm dry winds known as siroccos or livas. More than
half of the wheat grown in Greece is produced on the plains of eastern
Greece, where the climate is the most uniform in the country. Wheat
is fall sown. Spring wheat is not cultivated extensively.
Durum varieties and some soft wheat (soft red winter and white
wheat) constitute the wheats of commerce. A small quantity of
poulard wheat is also grown. Samples from the 1926 harvest of the
most commonly grown commercial varieties were obtained from
M. I. Papadakis, director of the Station d' Amelioration des Plantes,
at Larissa, Greece. The names of the varieties represented are given
in Table 61.
Table 61. — Wheats grown in Greece: Description and characteristics of the variety
samples
a
P ■
5 §)
6
A
Region
Predom-
£
3
b£) S
8
M
b
where
Variety
inating
Grade
><
^
"c
%l
S
-o
^H
2
grown
class
1
03
S5
t
fi
I
•s
03
P. a.
P.rt.
Lbs.
Gm.
P.ct.
p.ct.
14495
Pharsala..
Camboura.
Durum .
2 Amber Durum
0.2
95.4
58.1
5.4
0.3
1.3
14494
...do
Deves
...do
do
.6
81.2
59.9
4.0
.0
.5
14493
Larissa
...do
...do
3 Durum..
.1
46.2
59.2
4.2
.6
.1
14496
Kajalar...
Katranitsa.
White...
3 Mixed (white, 80 per
cent; soft red winter,
16.2 per cent).
.8
57.1
3.7
4.0
.1
Information accompanying these samples stated that the crop year
represented was normal. The variety known as Deves, sample
No. 14493, was described as a hard wheat grown on the plains o'
Larissa, upon soils of ordinary fertility. This variety is cultivated
almost exclusively in the plains of Thessaly,. except on the very moist
soils, and is combined with a little soft wheat for growing in centra.
Macedonia. As far as quality is concerned, it represents the type o."
average production in Oriental Thessaly.
A second variety of Deves, sample No. 14494, is described as being
grown on fertile soils in the locality of Pharsala. It represents the
type of hard wheat grown in Thessaly upon fertile soil, especially in
Occidental Thessaly.
The variety Camboura is described as a hard wheat. It is said to
be grown in the locality of Pharsala, and on the fertile soils around
the Lake of Capais.
The variety Katranitsa is described as a soft wheat. Its area of
distribution is in Occidental Macedonia, in the locality of Kajalar.
Classified according to the United States standards for wheat, the
varieties Deves and Camboura are durum wheats, whereas the wheat
represented by the variety Katranitsa is a mixture of soft red winter
and soft white wheat.. Results of the grading, milling, and baking
tests made on these wheats are given in Tables 61, 62, and 63.
124 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. r)EPl\ OF AGRICULTURE
;^
(q 9i3u« jen^joo)
sum-)
-ojd n9;ni3 ui uiuo^nio
p.ct.
41.88
36.23
36.42
36.79
mog m uiojojd uoinio
P.ct.
11.51
8.06
7.68
9.65
jnog m nipBixo
•s§;2;22
D,' «3 td ic <o
jnog m niuojnio
Q,- ■*■ (N c<i CO
jnog UI nioiojd eptuQ
Q* M OS 00 O
VBQ\l/A m ute^ojd epruo
P.ct.
15.42
10.01
9.43
12.13
31
ptOB opoeq;
P.ct.
0.456
.330
.174
.328
Hd
CO <»• O CO
%'BQXIM. UT qSV
Jtiog UI qsy
P.d.
0.97
.78
.59
.47
o
1
eniBA 9UnOSB£)
1.45
1.94
2.00
.78
1
.2
>
>
i
o
1 >>
ii
d '"' a
11
o
3 O
Granular
do
do
Soft
Very hard
do
Hard
Soft
onog JO iftiJBq jed ^Beq^V
Lbs.
280
263
271
273
^•BgqM 99JJ
-93B:^oop sisBg:
•*j05«oec»o
- • t^ cs d OS
^jBeqM
p9jnoos puB
P9UB9P SISBg
P.ct.
12. b
74.1
71.6
72.7
3uu8dni9^ ejojeq
!)B9qAv JO 9jn:isioj^
P.ct.
10.8
11.1
11.1
10.6
p9Aora9J s3ut
-JIIOOS puB S3uiU99J0g
•«T*<OOSTt^
-• d e<3 (N "i*;
I9qsnq aed :jq3i9M ^S9j,
^^ 050CO
'Ojsl iJaO^BJOqBrj;
i!
•<s>
Bread
per
barrel
of flour
f
III
-o
^
w
-d
fl
!-•
03
2
1
tt c d 1
«
^
;ig
^
o
o
5
.Sfg :2
►-5P^ jpq
.Q
a
"o
>.
: !^
s
a
: ;fe
w
o
tt)
1
1 :s
'O
1 1 o .
ja
t^-coiS 1
M
<D
' '.Sf
>
i i^
XJ
a
P
>l
o
a
2
R
: >>
3
O
1^
la
^
1
1 o
>»>_
^ (h"
<D 03 O O
>fePL,PU
•S fl
f« o a
g^lf^SSS
^ o
^
^^•a
^SSgg
5°i
^
J3
'I "
^
Ol
a VH
oSS2|
3«" 03
O '5
(J^-^-„-^*
>
ater
sorp-
n of
our
^Tfc^iooTj.
^-s-^^
8^0
g^SS£o
£ -^
§
Fer-
men-
tion
time
gS^Sg
§
-ig-i •
SS5g§
^^3:^ 1
3^i3 1
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 125
Two of the three varieties of durum wheat were of average milling
quality; the third variety, Camboura, was below average quality.
The flour milled from the durum varieties was typical of durum wheat
flour, being granular in texture, high in ash content, and of a light-
yellow color.
The milling quality of the wheat labeled Katranitsa was only
average.
The bread-making qualities of the flour milled from the durum
varieties was not good. A small loaf of very coarse texture was
obtained from each baking. The bread baked from the flour milled
from the variety Deves, sample 14495, was decidedly poor in baking
strength, even though the flour contained a very high percentage of
protein.
As compared with the durum wheats produced in North America
or Russia, the durum wheats of Greece are most noticeably weak in
gluten quality.
HUNGARY
Wheat is the outstanding cereal in Hungary. The trend of wheat
acreage is upward and now stands slightly above the pre-war level.
The heaviest areas of production are in the west and southwest of
Hungary. In 1928 a production of 99,211,000 bushels exceeded the
pre-war average by approximately 28,000,000 bushels. Exports of
Hungarian wheat amount to about 20,000,000 bushels annually, large
quantities of it going to Austria and Czechoslovakia. The climate of
Hungary greatly influences the production and quality of the wheats,
as it is marked by extremes of temperature and rainfall. Drought is
harmful in the autumn, winter, and spring, being most severe in the
spring. In the autumn, drought delays seeding and leaves the plants
susceptible to winterkilling. Low temperatures in the autumn and
in the spring are also harmful. Summer storms frequentl}^ cause
lodging, and on the plains of Theiss, scalding is especially damaging,
as the May temperature frequently reaches 86° F.
The native wheats are relatively hardy but are not high yielding.
They have been improved by selection until the following varieties are
becoming acclimated: Eszterhaza, Hatvan, Bankut, Szekacs, and
Ozora. White winter, white spring, club, and durum wheats are
not grown in Hungary to any considerable extent.
Through the courtesy of John Suranyi, agronomist of the agricul-
tural experiment station for plant industry at Nagyarovar, Hungary,
samples of four varieties — Eszterhaza No. 18, Eszterhaza No. 163,
Bankut No. 5, and Hatvan No. 1153 — were obtained. Results of the
grading, milling, and baking tests are given in Tables 64, 65, and 66.
When the samples were examined upon arrival in the United States,
the varieties Eszterhaza No. 18 and Hatvan No. 1135 were classified
as soft red winter wheats, the variety Bankut was classified as a hard
red winter wheat; the variety Eszterhaza No. 163 was classified as a
hard red spring wheat.
As a result of the milling tests made on these four varieties, it was
evident that the milling quality of three — Bankut No. 5, Eszterhaza
No. 18, and Hatvan No. 1153 — was exceptionally good. The milling
quality of the variety Eszterhaza No. 163, the spring wheat variety,
was noticeably lower.
All the flours were deficient in baking quality, as evidenced by the
short fermentation time of the dough and the small size, poor color, and
coarseness of the loaf of bread baked from dough.
126 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
o
ooo
als^gl
^
8
^
mt
-o
^?oo
^§
gco
1-^
^^
PI
i3
p^S.^
to
?°
M
P
03
^ X5
0,4
?!>
11
H
CO
si
^
kI
^
O)
•go
ooo
?°
o
fe
•<*
q
a,
g
W
a
f^
•c
®
s
-2fe ;
W
>H
d
•Sfl '•
1
O
1
ili
^
^
w« :
•2
(N
(N(N 1
Pi,
•fe
1
'=y>
o
a
PI
'E
1
5^
S
-s
® TJ I
Cfc
o
(-1
s
'O
73
T3«-'0
s
£
«^ ;
!33
^
H
Mm j
K
•^
ss
CSS
S
00
>>
d
rig
00
>
^
"=:z;^.
1
i<
^
■S^ fl
1
5
III
1
W
mwa
"^
s
fl
W
O
)-)
•^
PQ
5
<
a
H
1
2
. 5
■1
^
(S
fs
5
3
Mi d d d 1
"^
a-O'O'O
&§
^
•^^s
CO
(N-'f' O
^i^
§255
r-l 1
^'<
■<s> -"
<W O
•&I
IS
00 S^
(q 9i8nt3 J9UVI0O)
sTiia^ojd
inoo
jnog ui uipei^o
jnog ui iini»jnio
jnog
ut ui9}0Jd epiuo
UI uie^ojd ©pnjo
"2©
PIOB 0\%013'J
Hd
5t!9i|M m qsy
jnog UI qsy
9npA 9UnOSB£)
jnon
JO pjjBq J9d }B9qAV
5B9qM 99JJ
«^ o-i i-i CN r^
ft,' OS 00 r>; t-^
ft^' «c •»»<■•»»' i«J
ft,' •*■ «■ CO oi
*i '-' r» (
0000<
tS c<»«OQ0<
(NOOOJ
<5 CN t^ CJ
ft;©-'
l(^^oo
o co' o o
•«■ ■* (X> c^ o
<J O »0 «D t>.
ft,' <N' 1-i <-<■ .-H
ti -- 0> C5 t~-
ftio • • •
i^ ® o ®
WcEccm
■g ■^ 00 t^eo
ft, o t^t^ t^
5B9qAV
pgjnoos puB
p9n«9p siSBg
^•-<
3nTJ9dra9^ 9J0j9q
;B9qAV JO 9jrnsioj^
p9A0ni9J SSUT
-jnoos pUB sSuiU99J0g
I9qsnq J9d ^q3i9M 5S9j,
•o|^ itJO^Bjoqeq
■« r-^ O >0 to
-•O<NC0(N
ft,t^t^«>t-.
•*jOoo t^«o
^- o o* oo" oi
; CO rH »Cl(3J
. csi ^' ci ,-('
0^10 00 0 05
g ci ^" Q -•
N to <o « CO
CO (M^ O
'- 05 O >— I
^^ Cj ^^ ^^
5si
CO 03
CO "^
pq
<
^°.
■ss
ill 1
•o"© a
c
ir
«
•o
s-g
•i^^
1 ! d
m
m^^
H^i^fiH 1
3
^
tu
c ! ; !
U
s^-:J
.2f -3
J ; jft.
X)
B
s
fe
«-i
>»;;>.
o
o
nil
"s
t>^>!. ; >^
ss^e
«
CQ
OU j!^
X5
a
^
^>; ! :
o
S-S : ;
0)
§§ '
3
b2 ; :
-g
-O O
"S c'^ *-
H
o-a 'o
op«H ;ph
o^
tOQOtO
12
1
o"
OX5
^00 00 00 r-
s|
^
^
o i-i '— 1 CO
S's
|SS§S
MC
•s-
to
^
ll
S2g?
-3^
^^^^^
>°
^Al-
so 3
Jk'-2 °
■gootoc^oo
^ CiC
S^o
(s:
bC
|S§§S
ii
e
§
lis
^&=
§i§a
-«i<co-«»<-^
^g^
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 127
IRELAND
IRISH FREE STATE
The acreage under wheat in Ireland has decUned rapidly and
continuously, from 1847, when the maximum acreage was 671,500
acres, to 1925, when the acreage was 22,000 acres — the lowest figure
yet recorded for this crop. Since 1925 there has been a small but
significant increase in production, and in 1927 the area devoted to
wheat production was 34,500 acres. In 1928 the acreage devoted to
wheat in the Irish Free State was 31,500 acres. The principal causes
for the decline are the ease of procuring grain in large quantities from
overseas countries; the relatively low price, better quality, and lower
moisture content of imported grain; and the changes in the agri-
cultural system in Ireland toward increased production of livestock
and livestock products.
Climatic conditions are less favorable to the production of wheat in
the Irish Free State than to oats and barley. The rainfall is high,
and difficulty is experienced in preparing the land and in sowing large
acreages of wheat. In former years this difficulty did not arise to the
same extent, as wheat was then widely grow^n in small plots, much of
the cultivation being done by manual labor.
According to M. Caffrey, acting head of the seed-propagation divis-
ion of the University of Dublin, the following varieties of wheat are of
commercial importance in the Irish Free State: White Stand-Up,
Queen Wilhelmina, Yeoman, Ked Chaff, White, Squareheads Master,
Red Fife, and April Red. The varieties White Stand-Up and Wil-
helmina probably constitute 70 per cent of all the wheat grown. Both
fall and spring plantings are made. Sowings to winter wheat take
place in October and November. In some of the southern areas
winter varieties are sown as late as the first week in February. Sow-
ings of spring wheat are made in March and in the beginning of April.
Harvesting extends from mid-August to mid-September.
The Department of Agriculture of the Irish Free State is giving con-
siderable attention to the propagation of improved varieties of wheat
for cultivation. Two of these — Red Stettin 13 and Cooney Island —
are said to produce flour of excellent baking strength. Neither, how-
ever, were grown in a commercial way in 1927.
Through the courtesy of the Department of Agriculture in Dublin,
samples of the varieties Yeoman, Red Stettin 13, and Cooney Island,
were obtained for milling and baking studies, from wheat grown at the
Albert Agricultural College Farm, Glasnevin, Leinster County, in
1926. It was stated that the crop year was very bad. Data resulting
from the tests made on these varieties of wheat are given in Tables 67,
68, and 69.
128 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEP1\ OF AGRICULTURE
a> >-■ M
n
U55
f<5 .-H .-I O O O O
; 00 O ■<»<?< »C N O
i r-H C< r-? -^ * C4 •«l5
eocO'OeC'-ioO'-i
g ■"US CO •^- ■«i' ■'j' ■'i' ■'i'
g
C3
I O "O CD 1-H t^ 00 t^
S- 00 05 t^ 05 C) i-<
»0 »C >0 >0 CO CO
; i-H O >0 O O O CO
a a
73 -dr
i-H(N iCOCS
as <c o o
5G o*--<S-+2
E, <£ O) <!> « O O)
o
s ^ s
^(NCOOCCOOt^
-I.
"as
s :§
(q 9i«u« iauiJO{))
8
2.16
2.43
2.43
2.30
2.45
jnou ui uia^ojd ua^nio
■esq ;5^S^Sfe
anoB ni ntpBi[o
a;co !coc4w^«
jnoB UI ume^nio
jnou UT ura^ojd eptuo
ui uia^ojd epruo
jVt-^t^^odcco&oocS
si
pioe oi^DBT
iiiii
n<i
OcdcdcDcd
;b8iIM. UT qsy
"^.^^.«
jnoi; UI qsy
^S??^^
D
o
ta
O
o
o
O
aniBA aujiosBf)
d
sssss
-*
aJ d c d d
.*^ XJ -a -c T3
Xh ! I i 1
^ : ; 1 1
2
>
Very soft.
Soft
Very soft
Soft
Very soft.
li
1
)"
1
d d o
mog
JO pjjBq J8d ;B9q^\i
a^
Mii^
-a
i-l
§
aB9qAV 99JJ
-93BilOOp SISBa
(Ncoeoost^
cocct^cci^
?B9qAi
pajnoos puB
p9nB9p SlSBg
21
(NrHCOt-Oi
1 1^ u:- c^- d N
1 CO ccr^coJ^
§UIJ9dUI9'J 9J0J
-aq '4B9qAi. JO ^Jn;sI0I^[
^:s
COiCiOOOOO
1 C-: oi J-' o j^
. p9A0ni9J sSni
-jnOOS pUB S3utU99J0g
5^
lOSCOt^OO
1 rp CO r-; r-; C^
laqsnq J9d ^qSwM jsgx
3g
60.8
58.0
59.9
62.1
62. 4
OjS[ XjO^BJOqBI
I
1?
''2
;ISS
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 129
«fcS
^1
i^Slsl
isi
s
"go
•^
•o
a
*'S
S
1 b d d d d
«
(2
i^
B
"5
I (3
dl
1
a
a
c
c
u
OJ
OS
fe.£f
pLi
Pi
>h:;
U2
• a
o
>. i
03 >
o
fe I
o
>.
►»,
>^ : >>
o
C3
03
III
<y
fee
&)
"o
>^
>.>.h ; >>
-o
a
aa^oa
^
££^1g
M
o
oq2 |u
X2
a
3
QJ
a
V4
>> 3 >>
o
Xi o^
i
a^a
SOS
1
.
o
«§.«
H
^j
iJ-t! t:>>tr
o
§ :§fc8
o
Ph
PM ;(i.>pL,
o^
2f°
f^ggggg^
c a
2H
{g
O"
OX5
^S3 ,
00 OC GO 00 00
S|
o
--i 3
O '
si
^
gS 1
lllll
.£P °
g -^
o
^5
^ 1
a-s
^ i
^28gg
||
o«^ j
t^i^r-tot^
"o ""
(j^-
>o
til
i^i
S3 b>»
\> '
|go
a. I
1^
S25SS3?
o S
S 1
P^
§ i
ill
p
S8S22
|s^
1
Lat)-
ora-
tory
No.
;2; S S ^' ^ ^ 21
112424°— 30 9
130 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, V. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The milling quality of the varieties Yeoman II and Red Stettin 13
was very good ; that of Cooney Island was well below the average for
this class of wheat.
The baking strength of all the wheats was weak, the weakness of
Cooney Island being more noticeable than that of Yeoman II and
Red Stettin. Yeoman II was the best variety in baking strength.
NORTHERN IRELAND
In Northern Ireland the trend of wheat production has been
markedly downward since 1860, when 78,000 acres were devoted to its
cultivation. In 1925 only 4,000 acres were devoted to wheat; in 1928,
5,000 acres were used.
Excessive rain in the autumn, winter, and spring is the chief
hindrance to wheat growing. Insufficient sunshine during the summer
likewise hinders the production of high-quality wheat.
Varieties of wheat similar to those grown in England and Scotland
are found in Northern Ireland. Squareheads Master represents about
45 per cent of the winter wheat. The variety Yeoman is gro^\^l both
as a winter and spring wheat and represents about 20 per cent of the
winter- wheat acreage. Benefactor represents about 20 per cent of
the winter- wheat acreage. There is a local variety known as Red
Chaff Red, the characteristics of which have not been described.
Through the courtesy of Ian W. Seaton, of the Ministry of Agri-
culture at Belfast, sufficient sample material of the four prominent
varieties mentioned was sent for milling and baking purposes. The
samples represented Benefactor, Squareheads Master, and Yeoman,
grown at Dromara, County Down, Northern Ireland and Red Chaff
Red, grown at Armagh, county of Ulster.
Unfortunately, because of loss in transit, not enough of the sample
of the variety Yeoman was received to make a milling and baking
test possible. Of the three other varieties, Squareheads Master had
the highest milling quality, followed in order by Red Chaff Red and
Benefactor.
From a baking standpoint, the flour milled from the local variety
appeared to be slightly greater in strength than the flour milled from
the other two varieties.
From a milling standpoint the quality of the wheat grown in the
Irish Free State is similar to that raised in England and Scotland. As
to baking strength, the flour milled from the wheats of either the Irish
Free State or Northern Ireland is somewhat superior to that of the
flour milled from wheats raised in England and Scotland. Flour from
wheat of similar classes grown in North America has much greater
baking strength.
ITALY
The trend in wheat acreage has been upward during recent years
and now stands above pre-war figures. ' Production in the five years
1924-1928, inclusive, averaged over 210,000,000 bushels annually.
About 43 per cent of the land in Italy is arable, and of this about 54
per cent is in cereals. Approximately 67 per cent of the cereal acreage
is sown to wheat.
Italy's imports of wheat make up over one-fourth of its requirements.
In 1927-28 the quantity imported was nearly 88,000,000 bushels.
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 131
Wheat is grown under a wide variety of conditions. The most
dense wheat areas are in the north of the peninsula in the compart-
ments of Emilia and The Marches and in the extreme south of the
island of Sicily. Approximately 20 to 25 per cent of the production
consists of durum wheat. This class of wheat is largely produced in
the southern half of the country, the heaviest acreages being in Com-
pania and on the island of Sicily. A small quantity of durum wheat is
produced along the northeastern Adriatic coast. Wheat yields are
higher in the northern sections than in the southern sections, but the
acreage trend is more strongly upward in the southern sections than
in the north. The wheat grown in Italy is predominantly of common
type {Triticum vulgar e). It is of winter habit, with some exceptions in
the north and at the higher altitudes.
Through the cooperation and courtesy of the Creal Culture Insti-
tute of Pisa and the Institute of Cereal Culture at Bologna, Italy,
samples were obtained of a number of the important wheat varieties
grown in Italy.
The varieties sent from Pisa with notes on their relative importance
and distribution were the following: (1) Dauno 8, a variety of durum
wheat cultivated in southern Italy, on the islands, and in some dis-
tricts of the Provinces of Latium and Maremma; (2) Campio 4, the
predominating soft red winter wheat variety grown in the Province of
Lucca, Tuscany, most suitable for lands of poor-to-medium fertility
and for locahties susceptible to rust; (3) Ardito, a bearded soft red
winter variety grown widely throughout Italy, particularly in the Po
Valley on very fertile land; (4) Carlotta Strampelli, a soft red winter
variety grown extensively some years ago in northern and central
Italy on soils of medium-to-good fertility, but now being replaced
by such varieties as Inallettabile and Ardito Gen til Kosso; (5) Cascola,
a soft red winter wheat adapted to lands of medium-to-poor fertility,
and most widely grown in Tuscan Maremma; (6) Gentil Kosso
Aristato 8, a soft red wheat suitable for land of poor-to-medium
fertility, grown on the Pisan plain; (7) Rieti 11, a soft red* winter
wheat cultivated in the central and northern sections of Italy on
medium-fertile land and in sections where rust is prevalent; (8)
Varrone, a soft red winter wheat growTi only in the fertile soils of the
plains of central and northern Itlay; (9) Gentil Rosso, the most promi-
nent soft red winter wheat grown in central and northern Italy,
especially suitable for hilly land of good fertility, and also used toward
the end of the winter as a spring wheat; (10) Gentil Rosso 46, a soft
red winter wheat of late-maturing habit, adapted to plain or hill
country in Tuscany and in Umbria and in other parts of northern and
central Italy; (11) Gentil Rosso Semiaristato 48, a soft red winter
wheat widely grown with good results in northern and central Italy;
(12) Inallettabile 96, a soft red winter wheat variety, widely grown in
the fertile sections of northern and central Italy on account of its high
productivity, early maturity, and disease resistance (this variety has
replaced Inallettabile 38, and Vilmorin Originario); (13) Vilmorin
Originario, a soft red wheat resistant to lodging, but late maturing and
susceptible to rust; (14) Rusciola, a soft red winter wheat grown
especially in The Marches and in Umbria; (15) Vittorio Veneto, a
soft winter wheat still in the introductory stage; (16) Inallettabile 3,
a soft wheat, with white kernels, grown widely on the fertile lands of
the Tuscan plain; (17) Inallettabile 8, a white wheat of good pro-
132 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
ductivity and rust resistance but only sparsely grown; (19) Mentana, a
white wheat of good productivity and early maturity, of increasing
popularity, grown extensively on fertile land in central and northern
Italy; (20) Duro di Randazzo, a Polish variety cultivated in some
districts of Sicily and Maremma; (21) Civitella 65, a poulard variety
most widely grown in Tuscan Marenama, suitable for firm and slightlj^
damp ground; and (22) Mazzocchio, a poulard variety largely culti-
vated m the hilly parts of Tuscany, particularly in the Province of
Florence.
The sample of the variety Cologna 31, a red winter wheat grown in
Venetia, Piedmont, and Emila, and to a lesser extent elsewhere, w^as
received from the Cereal Culture Institute at Bologna. Other varieties
represented by samples from this institute were Inallettabile 96,
previously described; Marzuola 87, a spring wheat coming into com-
mon cultivation; Ardito, previously described; and two varieties of
durum wheat, one of the variety Cencelli of Strampelli, and the other
of the variety name Saragolla.
The milling and baking data resulting from the study of the ItaUan
varieties are shown in Tables 70, 71, and 72.
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WOULD WHEATS 133
El'3
^a^ -6
1^
OOOOOOOOQOOOOOOOOOOOOOOONOOOOOOOO
So
PI
>oe^ooQO>«'^»-iooi-iosooc^t^ec>oc^c<i»ot>-<o«Oi-ic6Tt<io-«f50»oeo^>o
«o"2«D'0-^c*jicc<jic>oeoot^oc^oooot^o>o>oc<i'^-^o>0'*ooosi-iOeo
05 H
OOOJ-^OC^
•"«OOOOOOOOOOOOC^(N
OOOOOOOOOrHOOOOOOO
Qa.a.e
a'^a'g^^'^'o
<X) Oi o
O O O O O Q O O « O O
2
OS-*
as
o o
O O'
=i o
si's
'§'§°8§>'§
o
w a
08 a> rj
oS
X2 05
o S $
H © ©
£22
"^ « ©
can
.2'3-S
©X!X3
woo
c'S
oooooooo
© bC±i © bc^ 2^,3 bc^ ©J±±i^^±i bb^ <»^ M^ ©^^^^^±5±i^
O O I O O ' o
o
)S o> t^ I
134 TECHNICAL bULL'E'fm id?, tJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRlCtTLTtfRl!
*&•
(q ie3uB J91HJGO)
xepuj X^jiBnb ue^nio
e><e<3eoc^c<ii-HC^c><c«icsi<4ipiN-H.Ji4c^e^NC<c4f-4esic4<4f=Se<ic^Ne^e«5eo
SUT95
-ojd U8}n[a u} umi3:jn[0
jTiog iti uia^^ojd ue^nio
•8 5J55?JS?§^?SS8SS§SJ5;:;aS82S225S;S^§5gSrt^g5SR
jnog UT uipBno
jnou u{ ujue^nio
"^c^Tt<SKoQOooocoOi'Ot--c5ooo3Salo^eoaoc>OQO»S8ci-^Meci^t^'«<
jnog UT uia^ojd epruo
tOOiOO'— 'C^'^OOSOiOOi'— 'QOOiOOOOiOS*
> Oi O OS Oi 05 Oi •^ f^ t**
-jBaqAi ni uia-jojd apnjQ
^03t^ioo<»t^o»c?5coooo»o?5-»*ic<ic^t^c»50505CNcc^o«i--oot^co'0
j^^,_;o^■,_;(^i,^<^^Oo^oocr5oioojoioo^eo■ooes^oooo^■ccod
piDB oiioeq;
I M CO c^ -^ •^ ec
nd
COOCDcOCOO<0<O^CO^OCOCDOCDCOCOOCDCOCO<OCDCDCOOOcdcO<£50
If
§>
V3QJIM. ut qsy
«jQO-*-rfit^t^cOOO«OOCOTt<CT>ait^O«>l^O»Ot^<0»l:^t^<0<0»OtO?OOS»00
jnog ui qsy
0,0
an IB A 9ni[OST30
^^oslOGOcoo5aooo5lX>^-<J^a>'-^^5 05-*<N■^oo>oc<^lO(Noo■^•<l<c5loc2«<
OOOOi-HCOi-HOOOOOC5'OCCOO(Nt-'-i'-OTfi<C«*<CO'-iC^iOiOCOtOOOt005''
! ! >»
"^goajoooooooooooooooooooooooooflo©
fe 2 1-^ I I I ! I I 1 I 'i I I I ! ! I I ! I ! I ! ! 1 I I £ I"^
>o !^ 1 I ! ! 1 1 1 ! I I ; ! ; ! ! ! I ; ! ! ! : ; ! lo ;^
1m2 l>m
I I o I c , , ■
3 o M I <» ; O O
o m ; o
; CO o d o o'3 o d
1 > M I > C» 1 CO >
fe
h
K* I Icci lE-icc
O 1^ ■ I
15 !o . . -K.
jnog
JO pjjBq jad ;eaqjW
5-gr:i
IM CD
^OC0'-HOOQC30^OC;»O-<*<^tCl0(N^
Is
-aSe^ioop sisBg
Ci^<bto
01--Ot^fOOO(N'OiOt^eOC»50S050(NC»l^b-©0«OeOOO»«»-<«0 05eOTt<
coc^c»a6^»^-^■oc6or^oo5^^oooo>oc36oo6c5c)Ol0 05C<iod^cod^-;
tot^«D?occt^«ocot^toi^cosi;oi^t»co«pi-"tot^t^t^«o;ct^«;ctf550
i^BaqAi
pajnoos puB
pauBap sisbq:
lr^lOl-lo>^ofooOGO«^oco01tlo05Doeoo^^050ooo5^-'-l^^o»^^W5
i «;' G> cfl ci c» ci oJ
. «5 t^ t«. «0 CO I>- «3
§nTJ9draa:j ajoj
-aq ^BaqAv jo 9Jrnsioi^[
>iOOO«-H<C«OeOeOt^— KOWOOC0 05 00 0<N«5Cq ■>*<!« OC>'*'^QCM
>OC^C>c5o^'^005^'-<'-<0£4>-hOO^'oOO-h,-ht-hj-h^O-^^
paAomaj sSui
-jTioos puB saujtiaaaog
io^^«5t^rf<i-iojfO'-iT)<Tt<a>^c<5c<;oo3oooot^t^t>-co-^osiooot^O
laqsnq J9d ^qSia^ ^sax
QOCOCOC^CO'«4*^H'^0050<Ot-C<l'OOOt^CO'^OOl>-CS030'OC^'ti<0!
'0^ ^ao^BjoqBq:
i(M(N05pi^-^OTt<co<»co'C05iCfc«0'ooot^oot--a>:3;'-'0^--<'^oc
l(^^oo^c5^-.^^o01-l1-loccooot^^^K-■-|'-|^-.oO'-(^ogaoaOlr^05C5^;^-c
• ^OC'^r-lOCOOOO^t-lOOC»OCGOOOQO--l'-lOOOO>-H-HOeaOOOOOOCOOOOOO(
'^eoTt<«*'<rceoc-5-^M'cccocccccofO"*<'*icoeC'^Tf<eoccecc«5cOMcoc<5e
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
135
s
CO r-
.ooodooooooo
fl o c o
o
o
o
w3
1 ^ ^> a ^ s o o
< i~ s-i a '~ <u
) o 0) ;-. a:> ^
eg
c3 W)
§e
>5 o h t*.
Phh^I
2a
mpHpq
" Qi KT O) J-- Oi ' hTn S-i d> ;-
.a 0.3 o
03 X c3 O
Ph>
a
SBoSg
ce o o) o c3
o o
i.oo I •.:::
! O O '03
OX!
aS
,SSgs
.ooiCT)<t^oo<o-rt<t^co'ocoicc«5oo«oo5eo(Mioo5'-<OTj<oor^
I C^J C<2 »0 ■<*< CC t^ T}< C<1 I>CX> t^ ■<*< GO "5 «0 t^ so t^ O ■<}< «5 t^ t^ -^ (M
OXl
5"
Cq 05 lO «0 01 »0
i«ooo'oocx)«>oo
■«*<e<3-^oao.-iioM;c5cs<NQ-^
oooOoocX)QOoot^oooooooooooo
bo o
^iC.-i.-H(MC<li-n0050'-c^OC<l<»05^<
2CS|COC«3050QQa)OJCT>030505000005t
)0»050505QOOi050003COCiOC<?<
il
1°
pOOOOOQOOOOOQOOpOOOOOOOpQOOOOOOO
^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
^ CN.o >d CO ec lo o Tj* -H c^ fo ^ c^ cs -H M c>^ m {^i c^' e4 •^' •<i' ■^' 1-H rt' CO ^" c^ ■^' CO (»
W;C;00>0"0>OiO'OiO»0>OiOiO«OiOiO»0»C'0»0'OiOiO'OiOiOO'0'-'5CD>SiO
IIP
li
B-2a
2;2Sg^2S§8§=:SgS2S§SSSSSSS§Sg2g§fe?3g^
C^^C«C<»05ph-Tt<QTtiCO«QeO'Q05»'5?0«D'OQOt^QOI
CO ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ C^ C^ CO ^
136 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE
The durum varieties were of average milling quality. No out-
standing yield of flour was noted. Only one variety, Saragolla,
evidenced good baking strength. The other two varieties, Dauno 8
and Cencelli, revealed themselves as of poor baking strength, for the
resulting bread was exceptionally low in volume and coarse in texture.
On an average, the milling quaUty of the soft red winter varieties
was good. There were several exceptions, but good yields of flour
were obtained in the majority of instances.
Of the white varieties tested, one was of excellent milling quality
and two were of average milling quality. The flour milled from all
of the red winter wheats was lacking in baking strength; the texture
of the bread was never good and was seldom even fair. Volume of
loaf was also distinctly below the average for this class of flour in the
majority of the tests. That the defects in the resulting loaf were
the result of lack in baking strength is further emphasized by the
short fermentation tolerance of the doughs, by the low-water absorp-
tion of the flour, and by the break and shred of the finished loaf.
The baking qualities of the white wheat varieties were no better
than those of the red winter varieties.
As is usual with Polish and poulard wheats, most of the flour was
of an inferior baldng quahty.
LATVIA
Cultivation of wheat in Latvia has increased materially since the
pre-war period. According to the Minister of Agriculture, about
0.05 acre of wheat per capita was sown in 1923, whereas before the
World War 0.035 acre per capita was sown. There has also been an
increase in yield per acre since pre-war times, owing to better seed
and cultural methods. Even so, the need for imported wheat is
greater than ever. In 1924-25 there was nearly as much wheat
imported — 1,963,000 bushels — as was produced, indicating a con-
sumption of about 2 bushels per capita. Increased consumption is
also stimulated by the replacement of rye by wheat. Wheat pro-
duction in 1928 was 2,499,000 bushels.
Both spring and winter wheats are produced in Latvia, the winter
wheat giving the highest yields. Durum wheat has been tried, but
only for a short time.
Late spring frosts constitute the most harmful weather factor so
that May is the most critical month in the development of the crop.
Hot summers are comparatively rare. Spring wheat is more often
damaged by drought than by excessive heat. Excess rains during the
late stages of development of the crop as well as during harvest cause
losses. The autumn and winter are generally favorable to wheat
production.
Samples of five varieties of wheat of commercial importance in
Latvia were obtained from the seed-selection station at Stende,
through the courtesy of the Department of Agriculture of Latvia.
Two of these varieties (samples 15517 and 15519) were described as
local summer varieties of spring habit. Wheat represented by sample
15520 was described as a hard summer wheat, and wheats represented
by samples 15518 and 15521 were said to be of winter habit. The
varieties, fisted by selection number as well as their area of distribu-
tion are shown in Table 73 with the data on the grading of these
samples,
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 137
Sifegl
^ooccoo
go • • • •
£15^-3
»~
o 2 o*^ o
<l»
ft.a •§
Qi
1^3
•g CO «0 05 00 0)
»
PI
O) >- Vh
g NfOWCCCO
2
^K^
(5
J
-H
ajt-t^eOMt-
u
liigSSl^
s
<3
00
^ Xi
'^
^
"3 2
'r*
««^fO
i
Is
1
to
•rg
1
1
■«Oi-H(MOO
>
§0 ■ ' ■ ■
n
s:
's
eo
•?^
J^
■»
W
e
s^
bC
e
a
0
!i
1
>
e
*"§
IZitfQtf ;
c^T-ic<ieo 1
^
w
60
<s
to
^e
a
b)
a
-M i
«
'C
*S
0
D.
a 1
•M
M
o
a
73
& "
^-^
S
0
1
i!^
•«»
(u
fe
§^ '
ji
Q^ 1
o
5^
o,
•2
p^
d
rJS^i^
<4i
.2
1
03
>
06666
CO
l^ZZZ'^.
t>»
1 1 1
H
1 1 1
iJ
1 a) 1
m
1*0 1
<
a
i
■ ^
1 a 1
■ ® .
led j
03 (3 '
1
1
t
E
hH""'
^
08 a « S 1
a
>yoi ;
s
0
im
2^82?5
-
2
^
r-
u
1-1
138 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, IT. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE
1
CO
Q")
r.^
'^
R,C
s
S
«
S
>,
O
^
■l
^
'^
V-,
»«:
-^
-^
S
e
so
so
«>>
■?^
^
-<
a
5!
O
!^
a
C3s
g
•e O r^ ^
i-ss
^•5 5
O-^^:
11
jail
T1 "^^J
.f^S§8^
■2 ca bo
. T»< CO -^ «C 'ij'
■^osocooN
^•C^ CO coco CO
. ic ^ »ci oo^-
■QOooo50a>
■g Oi «5 CO "C ?o
• OS 05 C> T-t C>
. 00 CO CO O CO
• lOOeOr-H CO
•« tmo t- ■* ■<*<
^o • • • •
OCOOOOSCJ
05<N Oi 0> O
r-: r-i ,-; ■ <N
Or^Oc^
^ o CO iooi o
. Oi C^ 00 lO o
'^ o> o> CO T-; 00
. «5 coot- CO
.IMM< CD 00-*
^coooococo
OS ^ ^ OS OS
.ooo-*.-ico
2^S2?J
^
o
•<s>
^tH
«g
gg
i
i 1
CO oS 2
K
e-ca
;i
»|o
^
T)
a
OST)
ut
08 XJ
O O O O 1
(J-OTJ-CO 1
«
^i
■S
§
'
c
O
g I
t5 ■
(4
O '
O '
-3
bp , C b£ ,
h-; jB^ j
^
;
;
a
1
j
p
>. 1
>,
&\
1
o
a&a
r>>
S
£>:2>^2
ogogo
>.3 >>(S >>
^
feessfe
m
>u>u>
X>
a
o
o
2
:2
<»
"c%^
.
O
T3
e
^ p^ I
o^
^gS8g§
.9 a
o
2H
^
O"
CXJ
^oo*«t-
°i
"o B
^
QO
1?
ocqjooco
il
ot-
2.^-^-^^^'^-
>°
Water
absorp
tion of
flour
tc
Sfe:SSJ5S
i=l m
^a
£
Ji
•g*&o
S^SSS
^ssz
gississ
H 1-H I-
H 1-
-1 T-< •
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
139
The milling quality of all the wheats (Table 74) was very good.
The durum variety exhibited the best milling quality, followed in
order by the soft red winter wheats and the spring wheats.
The halving quality of the flour milled from the durum wheat
(Table 75) ranked first, whereas the baking quality of the flour
milled from the other four varieties was of the same order as their
milling quality.
UTHUANIA
Production of wheat in Lithuania has increased considerably over
the pre-war average. The 1909-1913 average production was 3,264,-
000 bushels, whereas in 1928 a production of 6,327,000 bushels was
estimated. Sowings of wheat in Lithuania are affected chiefly by
drought, frosts, and excessive rains. In the spring and summer,
frosts and drought on the one hand and frosts and excessive rains on
the other markedly influence the growing of wheat.
Common white wheats {Triticum vulgare) are the most prominent,
although some common red winter wheats are grown. Both classes of
wheat are fall sown, from August to mid-September.
For the milling and baking study, samples of fwe varieties of
Lithuanian wheats were obtained through the courtesy of L. Rud-
zinski, director of the plant-breeding experimental station, Dotnuva,
Lithuania. These wheats were not given variety names, and are
referred to by serial number. Two varieties were soft red winter
wheats, and three were white wheats. All the samples tested were
grown at the Moscow plant-breeding station in 1922. Data secured
from the analysis of these samples are given in Tables 76, 77, and 78.
Table 76. — Wheats grown in Lithuania:
Description
and
characteristics of
the
variety sa?nples
1
CO
II
"«
S
■«
8
o
a
|o
Labor-
atory
No.
Place where
grown
Variety-
Predominating
class
Grade
1
•SI
&
o
"i
'S
1
£^
Q
M
^
^
fi
(S°
P.
P.ct.
P.ct.
Lbs.
Om.
P.ct.
ct.
13677
Plant-breeding
station, Dot-
nuva.
No. A-2411-
Soft red winter.
1 Red Winter.
0
61.8
4.2
0.7
0
13675
do
No. 2524....
do
2 Red Winter.
0
59.7
4.3
2.6
0
13975
do
No. 2671...
White
1 Hard White.
0
'79." 2'
61.6
4.0
.6
0
13673
do
No. 2267.-.
.—-do...
2 Soft White—
0
59.5
59.5
3.7
2.4
0
1 13674
do
No. 1814. __
do
1 Sample too small for grading, milling, and baking.
140 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTTJRE
Is
1-1
I?-
X; e
Gluten
quality
index
(Gort-
ner
angle b)
1.62
1.90
2.15
1.95
Glu-
tenin
in
gluten
pro-
teins
P.d.
44.23
46.90
37.28
42.78
Gluten
pro-
tein
in
flour
P.ct.
9.18
8.39
9.12
8.93
Glia-
din
in-
flour
P.d.
5.12
4.46
5.72
5.11
Glu-
tenin
in
flour
P.d.
4.06
3.93
3.40
3.82
Crude
pro-
tein
in
flour
P.d.
10.82
9.98
10.57
11.25
Crude
pro-
tein
in
wheat
P.d.
11.67
11.07
10.74
11.66
Ik
P.d.
0.273
.252
. 366
.313
a
H
P.d.
1.65
1.63
1.69
1.63
Ash
in
flour
P.d.
0.40
.42
.54
.41
*.4
5
O
:^^f,^
>
White
—do
Creamy...
...do
iiii
OQ 1 j j
J d d o
Wheat
per
barrel
of
flour
Pounds
284
284
253
271
3
Basis
dock-
age-
free
wheat
Basis
cleaned
and
scoured
wheat
p.ct.
68.6
68.9
75.7
72.7
Mois-
ture of
wheat
before
tem-
pering
P.d.
11.5
12.0
10.0
12.4
Screen-
ings
and
scour-
ings re-
moved
.oo>o«>oo
a,'
Test
weight
per
bushel
Lbs.
62.3
61.0
62.0
60.7
Lab-
ora-
tory
No.
13677
13676
13975
13673
o
C3S
OX5
o p
II
I-
ill!
2£"°s
III
PoU
fflj
03 S >.'C
^ 3 -^ S
; 00 05 "C- (
f>; >o '^ ■<}■ «c
Sj iC »C iC iC
'>o050e<
t^ lO irsco
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 141
The soft red winter wheat varieties were below the average in milUng
quahty. On the other hand, the niilhng quahty of the white wheats
was very good. This is particularly true of the variety No. 2761.
The baking quality of one variety of soft red winter wheat, No.
A-2411, was noticeably weak. That of its mate, sample No. 2524^
was much better. Although the variety No. 2761 had an excellent
milling performance, its baking properties were very poor — poorer
than any of the other varieties. The second white wheat variety,
No. 2267 had shghtly weaker properties than did the red winter var-
iety No. 2524. Blending with stronger imported wheats would be
helpful in stabilizing the baking strength of Lithuanian wheats.
Otherwise they would be more useful if made into biscuits, crackers,
or pastry.
NETHERLANDS
Aimual production of wheat in the Netherlands averages about
6,000,000 bushels, of wliich only a small portion is used for
home consumption. Most of the home-grown wheat is used for mix-
ing with strong imported wheats, of which some 30,000,000 bushels
are used annually in order to regulate the baldng quality of the flour
milled from the wheat grown in the Netherlands. Some of the wheat
grown in the Netherlands is exported, largely to Belgium and Germany
for mixing purposes and for biscuit making.
The Provinces that produce wheat, in the order of their importance
in acreage according to the average figures for the crop years 1921-
1925, are Zeeland, Groningen, South Holland, North Holland, Lim-
burg, North Brabant, Gelderland, Friesland, Utrecht, and Overijssel.
More than half of the wheat crop is fall sown.
Wilhelmina, the chief winter variety, is a white wheat. Produc-
tion of this variety is on the increase because of its winter resistance,
high productivity, and good quahty. There are other winter wheat
varieties, but at least 75 per cent of them are derivatives of Wilhel-
mina, and their quahty is similar.
Red winter wheat is not popular with the farmers of the Netherlands
because the Dutch trade does not like red wheats. Consequently
little is grown, although small acreages are foiuid in the Provinces of
Limburg and Zeeland.
Spring wheat is little grown in the Netherlands. It is found prin-
cipally in the northern part of the country in sections where winter
wheat has been winterkilled or could not be sown on account of bad
weather. About 80 per cent of the spring wheat in the Netherlands is
grown in the Province of Groningen. A small acreage of spring wheat
is also found in North Holland. The most important spring variety
is Japhet.
On request, samples of several of the more important varieties of
wheat grown in the Netherlands were received from the Director
General of Agriculture, at S'Gravenhage, and were subjected to the
milling and baking tests previously described.
Samples of three winter varieties — Wilhelmina, Algebra, and
Witte Dikkop III — ^were sent from the Province of Groningen. All are
white wheats. The variety Wilhelmina represents 55 per cent of the
wheat acreage in Groningen. Twelve per cent of each of the varieties
Algebra and Witte Dikkop III was also grown in Groningen,
142 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, V. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
vSamples of three winter varieties and one spring variety were sent
from the Province of North Holland. These consisted of a second
sample of Wilhelmina, one sample each of the white varieties Imperial
II-A and Millioen III, and a sample of the spring-sown variety
Japhe t-Zomer t arwe .
Seventy-seven per cent of the wheat acreage in North Holland is
sown to Wilhelmina, 10 per cent to the variety Imperial II-A, 10 per
cent to the spring variety Japhe t-Zomertarwe, and 2 per cent to the
variety Millioen III.
From the Province of Zeeland, samples of three winter varieties were
sent — Wilhelmina, Millioen III, and Pantser III. '> In the Province of
Zeeland over 85 per cent of the acreage is sown to Wilhelmina, 5 per
cent to Millioen III, and 2.5 per cent to Pantser III. Pantser III
is a red winter wheat of Swedish origin. Data relative to the grad-
ing, milling, and baking tests are given in Tables 79, 80, and 81.
Whereas it was possible to mill out a large quantity of flour from
the wheats grown in the Netherlands, this flour lacked baking strength
to a very noticeable degree, as was true with the wheats grown in
Belgium, England, Ireland, and Scotland. Loaves of bread made
from such flour were small in size, coarse in texture, and of a very pale
external appearance. It is apparent that the flour milled from wheat
grown in the Netherlands is better adapted to the making of biscuits,
crackers, and such commodities in which gluten of good strength is
not essential. This weakness is apparently recognized by the millers
of the Netherlands as they import 30,000,000 bushels of wheat from
overseas for blending and mixing purposes.
Milling and baking qualities of world wheats 143
Pi,
^
t-S
^1
ooooooo
■« io eo ,
^ (30 a> <o ec c>^ 00 .
g r»< 00 CO TjJ TJH e«3 ■
S5000it^»0>-l«OCO
"2 05 t-; t^ 00 00 00 00
CO o N •<*< -"f
■gOOOOr-iOO
.2 C.C3
O) O) ^ ^
o o o o
'O *^ "^^ 'O 'O 'O T3
^ • -a
N*^c^QgS3
«c t^oo w.
CO CO CO fO CO CO CO
£ o
CCQ
II
22
^5
D.a
sa
o o
Pi. <»
5S5 5^
9-<
3 2'2rS »- ®
J§
0-- >
.sis
?fc
(N* (H (N* -h' (N C^' ci
Glu-
tenin
in glu-
ten
pro-
teins
P.ct.
41.43
47.42
41.79
42.03
45.44
42.71
47.33
Gluten
pro-
tein in
flour
Gli-
adin
in
flour
Qlu-
tenin
in
flour
n ■ CO M CO CO <N c<i CO
Crude
pro-
tein in
flour
0 • OS t^ O O t-; !>.* 00
Crude
pro-
tein in
wheat
«• o 00* ^' ^' 00 00 00
.ki-^-^oo-^co^co
Tt< Tfi Tt< CO CO eo CO
a.d
c<« CO ec »o -H lo oo
lO »0 Tfi »o ?o »o ■*
O O O CO ^ o o
.^joeooooootocc
wcot^oct^-t^^co
a;©
.-H Q O 00 CO -^ 00
O » >-H T-< O 1-H t>.
,-h' .-4 (N .-; .-<■ (N r-;
_ o o o o o o
"*^ 'O 'O 'O 'O 'O 'O
S I I ■
.a ©— ^ a
. t- "o Q CO r>. to oi
; OJ 00 »ci-i N c^ c^
' o o t^ -4 -4 •-< o
t- t^ 5C l^ t^ I^ t^
. »c 00 o e^ -Tf CO »c
^ c4 -H oi c>i evi c^j e4
; -^f »0 CO »0 t^ CO 0*
'dcJododcJ
r c« o t« o
TO a "= fl 9
||l|
. IN Tt< -H O t^ t^ -H
"S (N r-^ cvi r-; ,-; r-; (N
'w-««<oor^oo»c«ooj
CO h-O0C^^(
144 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
rt ^ o
OX3
^o
il^l^l^i
-2 <fl ^^"0
o
o
o
0^
J3 ® ^J2 w
^2
Bg
s E " a
)M < V Im (m <£ U>
>» ,' ! 1 ! >»
S : : I !2
a
^o= . .
t^T) 'O >. 1^ ui Wi
O ' I >-, o o o
o I ; © o o o
Ph , ,>pHPktI|
^„-^-^-^-^-^-^>
■g»oeoeooo^eo
>> XJ< -h' (N »C .-<■ -H -J
_^
•» 1^ tc r^ »o 05 Q op
§
^
t^ r^ t^ 00 00 r^ 36
O O^ Cd c^ O^ O^ O)
CO CO CO CO CO CO CO
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 145
NORWAY
K^Production of wheat has increased in Norway since the World War.
*Wheat now occupies 5 per cent of the total acreage devoted to cereals,
whereas in 1913 the acreage devoted to similar purposes was only 3
per cent.
The main wheat area lies south and west of Oslo (Christiania) and
comprises the Prefectures (Fylke) of Ostfold, Akershus, Buskerud,
Vestfold, and Telemark. These prefectures produce about 75 per cent
of the w^heat grown in Norway.
The chief factors adverse to the growing of wheat are excessive rain
in western Norway, low temperatures, and short summers.
About 98 per cent of the wheat grown in Norway is spring wheat.
Practically all the spring wheat varieties in use are native. They are
all early-maturing forms of common wheat, having long, lax, flattish,
red heads and hard red kernels.
There are two main types of Norwegian spring wheat : The Borsum
type, with awnless ears {Triticum vulgare variety milturum), and the
bearded Ostby type {Triticum vulgare YSLTiety Jerrugineum) . Varieties
of the first type are predominant throughout the entire spring-wheat
area. The second type is grown to some extent in the Prefecture of
Vestfold, and more sporadically in other districts.
Winter wheat is grown to a limited extent in the districts surround-
ing Oslof jord. The most commonly grown winter wheats are native
varieties.
In order to compare the milling and baking qualities of the more
important Norwegian wheat varieties, five samples were obtained from
the Norwegian Department of Agriculture. Three of these — Borsum
wheat, Ostby wheat, and Aas wheat — represented commercial types.
The two other varieties, J. 03 and Mo. 07, are pure varieties of spring
wheat being developed by Knut Vik, of the School of Agricultural
Science, University of Norway. The variety J. 03 is a development
from a native spring wheat; Mo. 07 originated from Montana wheat.
In the United States these wheats would be classified as spring wheats.
Datarelative to their milling and baking properties are given in Tables
82, 83, and 84.
The milling quality of the Norwegian wheat varieties was good, as
they all produced a high percentage of flour and wxre of high-test
weight per bushel. Their protein content was not high and was some-
what below that usually associated with spring-wheat varieties.
As to baking strength, the flour milled from all the varieties was
outstandingly weak. The loaves of bread made from these flours were
small in volume, poor in color, and very coarse in texture and grain
of crumb. The baking strength of the variety Aas was noticeably
poor. As compared with wheats of the same class grown in North
America and in Russia, the baking quality of the Norwegian wheats is
inferior.
112424°— 30 10
146 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. G. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
1 a
00-«t<C^r-(
ign
rial
tha
age
KC5 • • • •
Fore
mate
other
dock
fe
^
■g^ooooc*
^
m
g eo ec CO M cs
g
^K^
<3
1
JS
III
OO -f 00 t^ 0 03
Pouna
C2.
61.
Gl.
£9.
62.
^
<u
t M r^- id !C ^0
'-' C3 00 l^ Ci 0
0) M
l~
V
W^
(s:
§c
■gooooo
%>
M
UU
O
,5"
Q
a,
s
1 ; ! bi I
^J
! I ! H 1
53
1 1 I'C >
O
I 1 '02 1
^
! '>aa ;
«
C3
! 1 a.ci !
Si
TS
: :«^tibi
1
O
Hard Spring...
--do
Dark Northern
ample Dark No
Northern Sprin
^
^ i^CC^
Si
i
11!!'
■.
o
o
bJO
fcX) . 1 I .
>
Ct
13 ; ; ; '
03
Q. • < < <
s
a
-»
a
"^ 0 0 0 c
El
s
-a -co "CO
5
3 i : 1 i
^
f^
^
t>>
.2
3
>
Borsum.
Mo. 07..
Aas
5stby...
J. 03._..
:?
<
g
1 >> I I >1
o
1 cS 1 1 cS
^
2
j;? ;«;z;
,c
«^ 1^^
^
^<= i>;°
1
5b
§^ ;fe^
5"g J2£
Ph
SOrcos
Unive
do
Vestfo
Unive
Lab-
ora-
tory
No.
S^^^S J
OB 5
*^'^^ ^ ^ o
' B 3 „ , 2
0 = a
00-^
SS..SO
3 ? « 1^
O I
il
<^
03^
s-ss
28 §^'?5
£,"5'*
§S2
e<5 « •^
v^ u o
ciecc4
■CCS
G,'22
2Sg
06 —•06
Ol^O
(•^C« T-t,-i-l
"3 : ; ; ;
So 000
o ; ; ; ;
^S
-S^b.
iC •<*< CO
r-i Ci -H*
-H >rD O
OC t^ 00
IC iC »o
•^ Tf Tf
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 147
5-
05
l».
-gi
Illl 1
IP
s
-o
£
M
fl
i \
^
M
fto d ;
a,
e
b-^^s^ 1
PQ
^
■ o a>
„
P
a
c ;
a
5
^
^ '
^
"o
o
o
o
t-»
1^ '
Ul
o
'^fl^a''^
o
S^S^S
O
§2.Sf2.Sf
^^B^JJPQt^
XJ
1 1
a
I !
s
o
\i
. M
o
ii<J
1
i A
«1-1
>^ 2 >> >. >.
o
a^aaa
^
C3 >>08 (S C3
C8
2S222
u>oou
X5
a
>>
2
a
>.
3
o
1
g
ftcj 6 I
u
>>'0'0 ^
wT
H
o
-as
>
I ifed^
ox.
^t^t-OQOQO
.9 a
^
5 3
^
l-> 1^
o^
"oxj
<„?2g§g8
fea
^
'3 2
^
QO
ll
issisl
c
^o
is
§1
^lllll
3 o
Kj^^^^^
>o
•a r-H O Tf rH -i^
v c<i t>: t>^ t^ od
<J toxoid OiO
feP-OH
Wat
absoi
tion
flou
ll
ssssss
Si
£■■3
§
ggo
l^ssss
1^'^
§
Lab-
ora-
tory
No.
1
11^
1
148 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
POLAND
Acreage devoted to wheat production in Poland has showTi a
moderate upward trend since the World War, but has not yet attained
pre-war levels. Wheat occupies only about 5 to 6 per cent of the cul-
tivated area. Importations of wheat usually cover from 10 to 30 per
cent of the country's requirements. The most intensive wheat area
is in southeastern Poland, but the highest yields are obtained in north-
west Poland. The climate of Poland is characterized by dry falls and
cold springs and summers that are almost always too wet for wheat
culture. Winter wheats predominate, although durum and spring
wheats are grown. Sowing takes place in the central and southern
districts during early September, but in the eastern section it is con-
siderably earlier. White wheats predominate and are grown in all
sections, especially in the north and central portions, because of their
resistance to winter killing. Swedish red winter wheats are popular
as they are even more resistant to cold than are the white wheats.
Samples of four varieties of wheat, all of the 1926 crop, identified by
number, were received from the Government Institute of Agricultural
Research, located at Pulawy, Poland. Only three were large enough
to mill. Classified according to their kernel characteristics one
represented a spring-wheat variety, one a durum variety, and one a
white variety.
These samples were graded, milled, and baked as usual. The
resulting data are given in Tables 85, 86, and 87. Each variety was
of good milHng quality. The test weight per bushel was excellent and
the yield of flour a little better than average for the class of wheat in
question. From a baking standpoint, however, the flour from only
the white variety approached the qualifications of a good flour. The
loaf of bread baked from the spring-wheat flour, although of good
volume, showed that the flour lacked strength and stability, as the
texture and grain of the crumb were poor. The same facts are true
for the flour milled from the durum variety. From the meager data
at hand, it would appear that Polish wheats should be blended with
imported wheat to regulate their baking quality.
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
149
.llsgl
_^o OO
oj «x: 2.^
^■^*^-^o
k.
^B •§
Q.
¥"3
■ijo eooj
h^
^
PI
gee TjJeo
Sks
iS
-^S u, S
»9CO -HCO
|8 S8
s.Bfs'S
^ « &a
^ -Q
Q.
-32
c a
•go TfM
S{2 ss:S
» ><
W^
(S^
1
■«0 OO
w
§
Q
G,
bC
a
'a
CQ
©
s s
1
1 1.
o
1 ^-
r-^ CM ^
«
o
be
bc
fl
a
•i3
E
ce
a
M
1 e
n
1
1 l|
§ SC:^
T-^ a<N.-H
o d o o
^ Q^;^
^
a
C3
B
^
2?^
&
® 08
o
33
xip^
J3
l€
>>
ll
S'a d d
O-IS
O
|o5
QO 00 S)o
^2^
r
Tt
2
1
e 5..
CO jS
fe
I I
Qluten
quality-
index
(Gort-
ner
angle b)
Olute-
nin in
gluten
teins
P.d.
35.35
34.90
36.07
Gluten
pro-
tein
in
flour
P. ct.
11.09
8.51
7.68
Oli-
adin
in
flour
P. ct.
7.17
5.54
4.91
Olu-
tenin
in
flour
P. ct.
3.92
2. 97
2.77
Crude
pro-
tein
in
flour
P. ct.
12.93
10.13
9.01
Crude
pro-
tein
in
wheat
P.ct.
13.02
10.86
10.05
"S^a
o
P.ct.
0.442
.437
.328
S
6.43
6.50
6.50
P.ct.
1.17
1.43
1.82
n
P.ct.
0.56
.86
.41
J-
"o
o
O
III
1.19
2.37
1.51
3
.2
>
White
Creamy yel-
low.
Slightly
creamy.
"o
II
>0 a
lis
o« c
Wheat
per
barrel
of
flour
Lbs.
278
265
273
i
1
§
Basis
dock-
age
free
wheat
P.ct.
67.6
71.0
69.6
Basis
cleaned
and
scoured
wheat
P.ct.
68.9
72.6
71.0
Mois-
ture
of
wheat
before
tem-
pering
P.d.
9.7
10.0
10.0
Screen-
ings
and
scour-
ings
re-
moved
P.d.
1.8
2.2
1.9
Test
weight
per
bushel
Lbs.
61.8
62.9
62.3
150
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGKICULTTJKE
o
^2,
Ox,
o Z
^o
do
>o
ml
ila
►2 '3
O 03 O
ooo
Tt< lO Tt<
05 «5 00
:O00<O
iC iC 1ft
Si
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 151
RUSSIA (UNION OF SOCIALIST SOVIET REPUBLICS)
Before the World War, Russia led the world in both acreage and
production of wheat, but owing to the low yield per acre (average 10
bushels) Russia's lead in production was slight. During the early
post-war period, Russian wheat production suffered a catastrophic
decHne, but since 1925 it has reached, and in some years exceeded,
the pre-war level. During the period 1925-1928, Asiatic Russia ac-
counted for approximately 40 per cent of the Russian wheat produced.
Three prime factors luiite to enforce the location of the wheat belt
in the south and southeast of Russia. They are climate, soil, and
location with regard to shipping ports.
Severe winter temperatures in north and central Russia make winter
wheat production hazardous. As a result, the great winter wheat
region is in the south and southeast of European Russia and is com-
prised largely of the areas of the Ukraine and North Caucasus. In
Asiatic Russia, winter wheat is grown in Transcaucasia and Turkestan
(Russian central Asia.)
Spring wheat is an important crop in the south and southeast
areas, but the areas of production extend further northward both in
Europe and Asia. The most important parts are the middle and
lower Volga, in Bashkir-Orenburg, North Caucasus, Ukraine, and
Ural region, which lie partly in Europe and partly in Asia, and Siberia
and Kazak-Kirghiz, and to a lesser extent in Transcaucasia and
Turkestan.
RUSSIAN VARIETIES
Through the assistance of A. Kol, chief of the bureau of plant
introduction. Institute of Applied Botany, located at Leningrad,
Soviet Russia, samples of 40 varieties of wheat, representative of the
wheat now commercially important in Russia, were received. The
names of the varieties and the location at which they were grown
are given in Table 88.
All varieties except the durum were of the vulgare species of wheat.
Classified according to the United States standards for wheat 5 of
these varieties were hard red spring wheats, 11 were hard red winter
wheats, 9 were soft red winter wheats, 13 were durum wheats, and 2
were white wheats.
The protein content of the Russian varieties was outstanding. In
every instance the percentage of protein was very high.
All of these varieties were graded, milled, and baked in the same
manner as in the other tests. The results are given in Tables 88, 89,
and 90.
152
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTTTRE
.llsgl
opo—ioo
NO OOOOOO OOOO CIO
COQO«Oi-l«
■ ' ci CO .
>0 CO c>« o •«»< o
00 »0 ><»< <M Tji ,-1
■(Hcc ■
(9 »4 C
CO CO
« « o» 00 es •<•
CO CO eo M c«
o CD "^ ic OS eo cs lo
ein eic>Jc<csc>ieo
■*c><eoc^
-;c4
(NQOe*(NOiO "CCOWCJt^
CO «;oot^ o
ii^sg s?^
« H
Ms
t^ OJ-f oo
<D-*0«> -fOO
ec CO -^ »-( cc o eceOTfo-*
O oo OOOOOO OOOO oso
=0^
3"^ S-O
?i
q« Q
.Cod
sa
IS
fee
as
S§S2
E— -CO
C Oi ©
®'5 ©T.:^ 5 >= (={=©©
! *
b! ©
IC>1 7-t
MCCC*CO "^ 'HTP
c«co
«a
•i
.1
jj
fti
T3
e
&
P4
•- o c o
mW O
*- o w f" © ©
;« 0 05©«
00
^i^c^o
©O OJscS
rs ohs © 3
© C © fer3
> >"S"S J"S
2 2 c c = c
;7c30a3cSbi. iti
t)0 OCMM ;w
2 c
® .2
I 5
§ d-o a a^
•^.fi
.5 o
. . o o c c o
*^ 'O ^O '^ TS '^
>©
o §
CD.
*- ^ ,
^-3
^5
o S
OOOO OM c c ©
-O-o-o-o-o JS o £ S"^ g fe*^
:m S:z: :o
^2
OSOt^t^
I >0 « l^- £- CD
■ t^ t>. t^ cs t-- r^ t^ t--. t^ t^
to-^ ?D >o 00 t^ — I Tti >cec<N35 »C(
o OOOOOC5 or-r^fN c^ i
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 153
OOr-tOOOOi-* o o
OOOOio-^ooeo 1-t 00
e4»-i*c5 ' ' * *i-H ' ec
«0 t- 05 CO C^ 50 t^ rH 0» C><
c4 <N ci CO cc eo' CO CO eo ec
eS >0 00 O 00 >0 lO CO r-l -^
00 t^ t^ CO 03 o «o
<x qo n t^ ci ai -^
05 O! a> C5 o> <
OOOOOOWO N CI
C OS2
73-0 a
'<1
S-2
?Jt^ ^
coPh K
ooo-"oo«i®
: 08 c3
M
1 O
I"©
— ^ , , ^ -. (N -^
w »3 OT j:i O — 1 ^
js: .=
I
j=j= o S £ ® o " u;
ouQcQNcQp-i O Jz;
is
>-: >
W.2
M
-G.2
ooooc>ax5CC
— I CC •»♦< lO <
^» ^ ■^ CC CC CO ^ ^ ■^
154 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
I-
(q ejauB jau^joo)
sni9)
jnog nj m9:»ojd uejnio
Jtiog ut mpBiiO
jnog m mueijnio
jnop ui me^oJd epiuo
ujoe^ogooeor^fP^ootcw^tooiM'aiMO'-'T-'OOeC't'ooeoeowea
BS§SSgSS{sg5SS:::88^§gnsF:S2f?s?;S2;;?:?^.^;;?£
k^ ^ ^ ^ Qt^ ^ ^ ^ Qt^ gyj ^ ^ ^
^1 03 05 -^ r-* 55 -"r t-' 00 CO t-' Oi
r- -^ "r — < »c I
COCOC0050500QOOOQOO»— tOOCi^O^^CSi
'00000«00«CiC-
ieoQO«cot-i-iQOcoooi
tlJP55Sr:!'^2oo'^^?50<515?2'-''-'«^^e50oo«o«OQt^ooc>i^QC —
<^t^Ti<Ti«oO'<*"t-cfiOTft^ooco(©c2>Tt'<Neccofoe<3ccoo«c^eo^(Nco05«of5ct
Q^ lO "3 lO M ■«l< CC e«5 CO M •*' -^ ■^" -^ ■^' •^* •*' lO «0 »C >0 -v' tT iC ■«>»' ""J" '*' «C CO «C (>■' ur;
oooco'Or-ii^Tt<eo«^icoc^«t;«ccou:ii-^io«:uoS(M-^-^T-rt^cc»«t--cos"-2'
q" JO »0 »C ^' ^' O O C5 O" <N CC (N iH — ■ ^ -h' CC -^' CO 'T <N M <m' (N <m' ci — ■ oc c^' <x> t-' ■
:^B9qAi nj mei^ojd apruo
«0J
5B9qAV UT qsy
Jtioi; ni qsv
«j<MOCOO«2CCr-ieClMeClMOt£t^Ol-Or-.Ol-GOl~t-OOCS-^t-l-S-<J'S-.
- • CO CC to (N (N r4 r-I r4 .-4 CO* -*' iM* (N (M* c4 c<i >o «o •<»<'•*■ CO* ec eo" CO CO CO c^' «5 c^ oi r-' -^'
; lo t^ OS C2 c^ t- «c (
[•"T^I^COC^'^-^OOt^-Ht^TtiiOoOOCO'^O'^'^OiNr-
iweoc^cscscsi(N(Nc^<NC<W(N.-<NMeococoeceoeoci
r^c<»cooooocoi;ooO'-i0505^0iooN5CQeo»-icooc^iCiiC'^t^t^c^oo>oco j
■fc»io,-icooO'^-^^os550r-<Q-*oococ»oco<M-<r05co>co5oocoooc»coec.-iO
<^ooooo»o.-iCM(Mco-«*<io-<i<^eo'«rici-S5»oocoocct-«£;Trccec-<i-ooot^5C50
•»o_jCVC>05O0002CC(MO050SC005»0t^00OO-^O05
C^o
Ot^»0-*CC5C«01'*
iTt<«0»0«0«D'^t^t^t^
«5 0J.
.iO'-iO'-iooi00500r-i^O05c<jTt<-<jfT}<r-io^t^o-*'*<sc0"^5cec
ii:^c^(MOCMr^ooc^t^»c-<**eci-iC5cocD05oo(MiN^o-<r«ci^csoo>c>ot^
; rH c<i 1-; 1-4 (M r-i ■-<■ .-H f-; .-j r-; ^^ ,-i ,-; ,-; ,-; c-i (?4 c4 cs c^ ^ ^ .-; * ,-; tA ,-; ^ ^
i£
! >^
o « c g o
g©o«a>ogo 073 £72 o o <D S
-I
II
jnog JO lejaeq J9d ^Beq^V
E.SJ
jBaqAV
aajj aSujiDop siseg
!)B8qM pajnoos
puB pauB9p sisbq:
3mJ9draa5
ejojaq jBaq^i jo 9Jn:jsioj^
P9A0ra9J
sStnanoos puB s3aia99J0g
I9qstiq J9d 5q3i9i^ :js9j,
a3i*c3*iiiia3ii<iC3(OC3iii
:3 ,'d:3ocoo Jdocc I'S |'3odd
■^ 1X3*^0 100 "■' 1000 1 1
>i ' ■— W^ 'O "O "O >>i3 XJ XJ 'O I "O
; ;s
i
c o" E ® <^
1 r* S O ?^ IS 1 C/
:— ' I'o
CQ>-000
■ I *
. >^ y^ s-- r*^ I 'w r- '■ — • " I <^ •• — ■ "
c3 a) o3
o:eC05C005(MeOt^>OlMOC:iCtC(MO>— iTfOSt^r-iCt-CO-^tCOQcC-^COCOIN
■gOcc»o
t^oo-^csi--o-*»o»-i5Cc<««D^O'0»occccooo5'-ieo»c>o>ocot^c;c»
t^* CO CO c^" e4 1^' <N cs o c<) 00 r-^' r-' -^' o o a> ce t-' x ci -<r —<■ ■^' <d "* «c od ~'
Ot^t-t^t^cCt^t^t^l^;Ct^05Ct-t^<£:5C<CeCCCr^t^t^tC5C«i;C;C
l-*OC0O00CS-«t<C^Tj<iMOC0C0t^lM-^OO»0»CO0C05t~-O0i<CQ0eS
i oi 10 •^' CO co" oc CO -"T c4 ■^' o CO 00 "5 c^' oi -^ o cs o o «d <n >d oc irf go p ci
;co(NO
• CJ 05 05
•^•^eoc^05Tt<o>-ic<ir-Ht^05C^ooiCr-(ooocoot^-^t^c^tcoc<ic^co
o (N cs ci — ■ o IN (N <m' cj — ■ -H o o; o o 01" 05 C5 o; o o ci ci o o o o* o
i>C«OC^OO»000'^COOC^»0-^OOCCC05CC^«0»OCO'OOiC5wCJCOOCt^CO
; ci r-J rt" .-i .-i rH rt" ci ci ci ci ci ^* c<i ci ci eo ci ci ci ci i-! .-i .-h ci ec ci ci co
o^o-^ioooooco— c(co5eocc»-*t^^'<*<oco'^t^'*--it>oi^05coai05t>c«
o ^' *v3 "5 f^ '^' ^ ^ Q 5<i ci Q ^' '-< Q CJ Q tc -H 06 1-~* ci r-" oo* — <* — <" t^' o ci lo 06 oi ci
•ON ^JOi^BaoqBi
»o CC »o
10 ^H >C CC
■^f •*. Tf •>*<
t^ o t^ t^
; CI CC ic 0 -^ -o
C0-*C0-^i0-«futlC>C-^-^iCC0-^-*'*"OOOOO
t^t^t^t^oooocooocior^t^?5c^?5?5c^
MILLING AND BAKING QtJALltliES OF WORLD WHEATS 155
ec c^< (^5 im' c4 csi (r4 r^'
PSt^iouoe^oosTt*
ec o (N --< t^' !>•" ao tx3
00 ic o t--' ■*' ■^' •^" "5
I O «5 "O O CO
«C ^* T^J CO oc ci o" o
oooooo^oico-^
to c<i -^ CO 05 o o ^
^-^^Oii^i
05 lO iM t^ >0 CO (M I
Tti CO «5 tC ■* lO Tt< I
to* to' O CO co' CD* CO* '
lO 00O5 oo-
■^ 00 1^ t^ 00
CO CD CO Ci CO
t^ Tti lO ■* ■*
gg;
,-t .^ y-, C^ r-1 T-l C^ a
tS o o g o
"Co
d 6 6 6 <^
85^^;
ioO-<r^
ecoseco>cow*"»»<
eoa>'>*oo5oooec
05 C4 CO* M -^ 05 '-H c5
© t^ i>. f^ t^ CO r- 1^
o* o d d d d d d
oseo'^'oooco'^t^
c4 ^ _; rt' ^' cs (M c4
r^«CU5COt^»0<NC<5
®S5cDC0cC«0»0
sss
CO CO CO ^^ "^ ■^ ■■
I
156
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 107, tJ. S. DEPT. 01^ AGRlCULTtJEE
o
S
11
o g
C3
03 3
OJ2
^o
11
<c 5 ©
b-Bb
© ^ *^
I C>< 00 '-I .-H t^ t^ (
o o 3
OPHfe
O C 1
o ■
iX!
o o o o o o^
-O "O "O "O XJ "O (-
■©
;c «
03 >j03jS >je3 >i
£ © £: .Sf © 2i ©
© o
OS o ai_o
ooooo<
CO r-- c^ -31 CO c
; -H 1-1 o> o ^ c
(N(M^(NIM<M— i^M
;Q0 5Ct^^C<»iOOOO
■ CO oi aJ >-<' c> tc SO ic
I iO iC cc »o *C 1
•»>OQ'-ICOQt^5C'-lOO
>Oe«tp»Ct^QOOOO'^t--Qt--C><>OOOQ'*MC<lt^Ose«5M'»fOC^'-''^OO^r^
c3 a>
.5P2
a • o.a
' ■ o es
(Z4 iAHP^
a
es
^
CO ; c
•OX) J-o
o
o
03x008 |Xa30e80 ■
I ;^
c
>-<
■ 1X2
p o o^ o
tS'O'OS'C
o : :i '
■© c®
feoS
go
ctig etc
© © © Ui © u
Ui Ui bi © u. ©
o> ; ;doo>o> ; ; :o ;>
^ I-. ©
o o o
O O ><
OPhW
a
'•2'
! S
O O O o
o .5- ' C^.h 00 10 • ■ o .fa C o o .h
Oo3 '©cSXO 'O ' iO(33©OOc3
.a b
eS C
O O
^00
«g o
u <o ■
© »-.
B
03 O ® C
O O
(McocotsaOTf-rfcooor)'
t^C»<X0000"OCT>O00-
o<oQOe5C^Oooe<?t^oo>o>o(Noooot^oo-*<Nooooo5i^»OQO''t'r^Tt<(
oot^oooooooot^i^cjot^t-i^t^oooot^t^oooooot^ooi-t^oooot^oooot^i
_it^^^aoccoc»oo<»ot^oio<Meo(Mooo>oooocioot^coi^^ecaiccoo
^QCO— i05QOa>C^'-i(MOCiOC0OOO00a>— lOOCMOOQOJOOOS
000000000000000000000 ococccoooc;
--»CCT>OOOcy50CClOOCSlO-<(NO'-i>-'5 00l-OCCl^OO'-^'*COCSO;t--CC
TfOOOJO'-iOt^O^O'-^OCl^iCO 0(M-^'-'-^Tt<r-<cOC5Cit^'-^05CCt^
cs -H* ^' c^" es es' ^* cs" of es* c^r >-H rt c<r (^f r-^* es ci~ c^f CM cs e^r c>f c^
Olr^c0-*00O-«l<— leS'
icoict-coic-Hocooooiooec— iOao-<*'OCS
i'*;^t^-^CT>^-H^ooioioo>^t^oo3^e<5o6»ces-^e2050t--3"r:-r:-
>50t^«00»0»OOCOOiOiO»C>00»0«0»OS050'0»0«DOO»C«OtCtt'^'^
CCCSTjfiO
csTj<iO'^Tt<^csor^csoit~''^05co05tor5Mioor)o.— iOTj-escsesi^
■<*<»OTj<eseoofCMe«5ccoooo'*>/;-*Mfo-«*'eott<Tj-Tf«Tt< — — — 005
>oo050t^t^cs«OTticr5ioooi^-^Tt<u^c«5C»!C>r;es-^c«3 — M-^ioao«=a5fo
icoco'<*'co->*iiCTj<ioio«n'i<'^ioiro'Tt<'«s<'^ocT>ooooo5i350iOcO'^«o
.t^t^t^t^r^ooooooooesot-t^c^esescscsesoiC350icscsoo
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 157
It is apparent that the hard red winter wheats had the best miUing
quahty among the five classes of Russian wheats tested, as it required,
on an average, approximately 265 pounds of wheat to produce a barrel
of flour. Next in order of merit were the durum wheats, followed by
the soft red winter wheats and the hard red spring wheats. The
samples of white wheats were not sufficiently large to make it safe to
draw conclusions.
j Baldng strength of the flour milled from the durum wheats was,
I individually and collectively, excellent. This is evidenced by the
I high water absorption of the flour, the long fermentation time of the
i dough, the large size of the loaf, and the high scores for grain and
texture of the crumb of the loaf. High bread yields were also associ-
ated with the durum wheat flours.
The baking data associated with the hard red winter wheat flours
show that these flours were lacking in strength. Whereas volume
of loaf averaged fairly high, the other factors indicative of good
strength, such as a good grain and texture of the crumb, were,
in a number of instances, very poor. Six out of the eleven hard red
wheat varieties tested were noticeably deficient in baldng strength.
The poorest baking quality of all was associated with the soft red
winter wheat flours. Four of the nine varieties tested produced flour
that baked into bread of very poor quality. The fermentation time
of the soft wheat doughs averaged considerably shorter than is usual
with soft red winter wheat doughs.
The baldng strength of only two of the hard red spring wheat flours
was sufficiently high to call them of good quality. Of the other three
varieties, the baldng strength of two was very poor and that of the
third variety was somewhat below average.
The baking qualities of the two white wheat varieties were above
the average for this class of wheat.
If a comparison is made of the baking quality of these Russian
varieties and those of similar classes grown in North America, it is
apparent that only the Russian durum wheat varieties had as great
baking strength as those varieties grown in North America. The
Russian spring and winter wheats, in spite of their very high protein
content, displayed weakness in baldng strength too frequently to be
called the equals of North American wheats. The Russian white
wheats appeared to have very good baking quality.
RUSSIAN EXPORT WHEATS
No export shipments of Russian grain were available for this study.
However, a general suggestion regarding their quality is made by
Kent-Jones 0, jp. 37), who says:
Before the war, Russian wheats were plentifully used by English millers, but
since 1914 they have been scarce. A number of consignments have arrived this
year [1926], however, and they appear to maintain their pre-war features. They
are fairly glutinous, containing 10.5 to 13.5 per cent protein, although the gluten
is of a flowy nature. They lack stability. They usually weight 58 to 62 pounds
(imperial) to the bushel. Rye is the important impurity, and unless removed
before milling, tends to accentuate the lack of stability. The north Russian
wheats shipped from Baltic ports generally have a higher moisture content and
yield flour of less stability than south Russian wheats.
The results obtained from the tests here reported emphasize the
lack of stability in Russian wheats.
158 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, tJ. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE
SCOTLAND
. The annual production of wheat in Scotland is about 2,000,000
bushels. Common wheat {Triticum vulgare), of winter habit is
grown exclusively. Many of the varieties found in England and
Ireland are grown in Scotland. A comparison of the milling and
baking qualities of some of the principal commercial varieties growTi
in Scotland was made possible through the courtesy of Charles
Wetherill, Secretary of the Board of Agriculture for Scotland. Sam-
ples of three varieties of red winter wheat — Standard Red, Swedish
Iron, and Squareheads Master — and of three varieties of white
wheat — Yeoman, Victor, and Benefactor — were received. The
following information accompanied these samples.
Standard Red is the most important red winter wheat variety
grown in Scotland. It is cultivated chiefly in the counties of Fife,
Forfar, and Perth. It is well represented throughout the wheat-
growing areas, more especially in the districts where a large produc-
tion of straw is desired and where the climate is not entirely suitable
for wheat growing. It is high yielding and gives a relatively good
quality of grain for grinding. It is resistant to excessive rain and
does not lodge easily, which makes it adaptable to rich soils. It is,
however, sensitive to rust.
Swedish Iron is a red winter variety of very high-yielding proper-
ties for both grain and straw, and is likewise grown chiefly in the
counties of Fife, Forfar, and Perth. It has a tendency to ripen late
and is more or less confined to early districts. It is somewhat sensi-
tive to the adversities of winter; when the autumn is favorable to a
good start, so that the wheat becomes well rooted before winter, a
better result is obtained.
Squareheads Master is growTi extensively in the southwest of
Scotland, comprising about one-half of the acreage under wheat in
that district.
Yeoman is a w^hite winter variety of comparatively recent intro-
duction. It has a high reputation for milling purposes, but as a rule
it is a poor straw producer (poorer than most other varieties now
cultivated), and is not as universally grown as Standard Red. It is
produced chiefly in the counties of Westlothian, Midlothian, and
Eastlothian.
The white variety Victor is universaUy grown in wheat-producing
sections, chiefly in the Lothians, and may be said to be of first im-
portance in the class it represents. It gives good yield of both grain
and straw.
Benefactor, another white winter wheat, is not extensively grown
and is chiefly confined to the central district of Scotland.
The production of Standard Red, Swedish Iron, Squareheads
Master, and Victory, is steady, whereas the production of Yeomen is
increasing, and the production of Benefactor is decreasing.
Standard Red is used largely for mixing with other wheats for
milling purposes; the product from the other varieties is used exten-
sively for the making of pastry and biscuit flours, or poultry and
stock feeds.
The results of the milling and baking tests of the samples of the
six varieties of Scotch wheats are shown in Tables 91, 92, and 93.
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
159
o 2 o *- o
f^6
a> ti ki
oc^oooo
•«- lo oicq CO CO ■*
e
«j 1— I -^ '*' "o CO o
05 CO »0 05 •* CO
CO "^ ^ ^ ^ ^
ao (N 00 t^ .-I 1-1 — I
S
ico»oco
■^ CS CO r-l(M CO O
;x:x3
55 .goo
r-tCO ICOCIIO
' o o o _
< 73 -^ X! .tS t3
Oj CS Wj © _
O S i* ^ "tt C3
CO S
as
^^
<»
^
02
(q 9l3UB J9U
-?joo) xgpui i£iii«nb ug^nio
cs es (N cs csi (N
sui9;oJd U9^ni3 ui utiig^jnio
P.d.
47.00
46.51
48.00
46.69
42.35
38.18
jnog m uigjoad ug-jnio
D^ CO CO -r" CO «o t-^
jnotj UI nipBiiO
p.d.
3.44
3.22
2.47
3.22
3.20
4.42
anon ^I um9:jnio
Q;co(Nm-<n^(N
jTiog UI ui9^oad 9ptU3
p.d.
8.15
7.61
6.25
7.61
7.11
8.73
;B9qA\ UI ui9:}0Jd 9pnJo
(1^ OJ 00 t--^ Oi t^ Oi
.11
piOB oi^dbt;
flic5
Hd
•M 00 t^ Tf 00 UO (N
•J Tfi ■* »0 -* »0 ■<1<
0^" CO CO CO CO CO CO
!jB9qA\. ut qsy
jnog UI qsy
p.d.
0.55
.63
.52
.58
.58
.56
3
o
(.1
_o
o
O
gniUA 9UII0SBO
1.02
1.05
.90
1.00
1.24
1.36
>
Slightly creamy...
White
Very white
White
do
do
05
1
1
>
>
1
Ok®
•S'l
.a
o
1 d d d o o
jnog JO i9JJBq J9d ^BgqAV
Lbs.
257
270
282
277
266
257
t-, 1
E-2
99JJ 93BJ100P SlSea
** iC (M t^ CO CO CT>
■jBgqAv p9Jnoos
puB P9UB9P siseg
■tj iO iC t^ CO -^ ■*.
3UU9dUI9'J
9ioj9q '}B9qAi JO 9Jn'jsioj\[
•« CO --H t^ »0 ■<*< -<*<
P9A0UI9J
S3UUnO0S pUB S3UIU99J0g
■^iO(NOCC050
I9qsnq a9d ;q3i9M. :)S9X
Lbs.
61.3
59.5
58.7
61.6
60.5
61.7
•0^ iCJO^BJoqBq
g
160 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURH
-a f- P
^mii^
500000
q'0'T3 "O "C "O
>) u o *- ►*» t;
03 >>J3 >» c3 >>
03 ' ©'3
^S§§§gS:S
003
j,SSg5?2F2
C5
a „
c.c.
1,610
1,530
1,540
1,580
1,550
1,500
Water
absorp-
tion of
flour
Per cent
53.9
53.3
53.3
53.1
52.7
52.0
|S^S5^g5
in
1
Lab-
ora-
tory
No.
§s§sss
MILOLiING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 161
Under the United States standards for wheat the varieties Stand-
ard Red, Swedish Iron, and Squareheads Master would be classified
as soft red winter wheat, and the varieties Victor and Benefactor
would be classified as white wheat. A considerable percentage of
damaged wheat was present in all the varieties with the exception of
Yeoman, which accounts to a great extent for the numerical grades
assigned to each variety.
From a milling standpoint, all the varieties were of excellent quality,
producing high yields of flour typical in texture for the class of wheat
which they represent. According to the samples, none of the wheats
are of high protein content; consequently the protein in the resulting
flour is correspondingly low.
Judged as to baking strength, the quality of all the resulting Scotch
flours was weak. Fermentation time was very short, averaging less
than 100 minutes, whereas the usual time for soft red winter and
white wheat flour ranges from 115 to 130 minutes. The water ab-
sorption of the flour was similarly low. As was the experience with
the flours milled from English and Irish wheats, the resulting bread
was small in volume and coarse in texture, as well as of poor color.
The delicate brown crust usually associated with the bread from
strong flour was absent in every instance.
From a milling standpoint, that is, their ability to produce a large
quantity of flour, Scotch wheats compare very favorably with those
grown in other parts of the world. However, the flour lacks strength
and can not by itself be made into an acceptable loaf of bread. Mix-
ing with strong wheats imported from overseas would be very helpful
in improving the baking quality of Scotch wheats.
SPAIN AND PORTUGAL
Wheat production in Spain and Portugal is influenced to a large
extent by the climate and relief of the country. On the northern
coast and along much of the Atlantic coast excessive rains during the
growing period are detrimental. In the southern and eastern coastal
areas drought and hot winds frequently reduce yields, and frost and
limited rainfall are adverse factors in the interior plateau areas. To
the west and north, between the humid coastal area and the interior
plateau, there is an intermediate section where either drought or
excessive rains may be damaging factors.
Winter wheats of the vulgare species predominate in the humid and
intermediate areas, while wheats of the poulard and durum classes are
more commonly grown than the other classes in the warm dry Medi-
terranean territory of the south and east. Spring wheats form only a
smaU percentage of the total wheat acreage and are grown mostly in
the northern coastal area and in some mountainous interior sections.
The introduction of modern milling machinery has made it possible
to utilize much harder wheats for flour than was possible when stone
mills exclusively were used; consequently efforts are being made to
obtain wheats of stronger quality that can withstand the prevailing
climatic conditions of the different sections. The North American
wheat varieties Marquis, Kota, and Kanred, are now receiving
attention.
112424°— 30 U
162 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, V. S. DEFT. OF AGRIOULTURE
Production of wheat in Spain has averaged 137,000,000 bushels
annually for the last 20 years. Spain usually exports small quantities
of wheat, but difficulties of cultivation and transportation from the
interior prevent it from becoming a very important export country.
Production of wheat in Portugal is more variable, fluctuating
between 6,000,000 and 12,000,000 bushels annually since 1924.
The varieties of wheat of commercial importance in Spain, accord-
ing to Don Ricardo de Escauriaza, director, Granja Agricola de
Valladolid, Estacion de Ensayo de Semillas, who furnished samples,
are as follows :
Candeal de la Sagra is a variety of white wheat of winter habit. It
represents 96 per cent of the white wheat cultivated in the Provinces of
Madrid, Toledo, Guadalajara, Segovia, Avila, Soria, Salamanca, and
Caceres.
Candeal Fino is also a variety of white wheat of winter habit. It
represents 90 per cent of the white wheat grown in the Provinces of
Ciudad Real, Albacete, Cuenca, and Murcia.
Red Candeal is a red winter wheat representing 75 per cent of the
red winter wheat cultivated in the Provinces of Valladohd, Zamore,
Palencia, Soria, and Segovia.
Red wheat of Burgos, a red winter wheat, represents all the late
winter wheat cultivated in the Province of Burgos, and 25 per cent of
that grown in Palencia.
The variety Recio represents 90 per cent of the hard winter wher.t,
durum, cultivated in the Provinces of Granada, Malaga, Almeria, and
Jaen.
The Candeal varieties are used in bread making, and the Duro, or
hard wheats, are used in the manufacture of vermicelli and in mixtures.
From the Minister of Agriculture of Portugal, samples of three
varieties of wheat of commercial value were secured, namely Tem-
porao de Coruche, Nacional, and Mourisco.
Temporao de Coruche is of winter habit and is the type of milling
wheat most suitable to the northern areas of the country. However,
it is cultivated with success in almost any part of the country. It is a
rust-resistant variety.
The variety Nacional is of winter habit and is characteristic of the
wheat grown in the central parts of the country. It is a poulard
wheat.
The type of hard wheat characteristic of the central and southern
parts of the country is the durum variety Mourisco.
The results of milling and baking tests made upon the five varieties
of Spanish wheat are given in Tables 94, 95, and 96; and the results of
similar tests made upon the varieties obtained from Portugal are
shown in Tables 97, 98, and 99.
Milling and baking qualities of world wheats 163
i .llfecl
|o • • • •
Fore
mate
oth
tha
dock
ts
. l^
■gO-'CO «c»c
6§
i® ' '
03 ®
5-^
(5^
0) tl tM
^^5
o
OB»OMCO (NCT.
rest
eigh
per
ushe
|S^S 2S
!? ^
a,
•32
£5
1 00
: CO
h.
M2
(2^
■gooo oo
^
p
a.
h
a
1
CO
fecf
1^
tTf^
^«
«S
af
C t^
•^s<
03
'
TJ-^
O
3
£2
2S
^ui^S<si'2c
_(N„ r^rH
1
o
tuO
ij 1
a
<» '
03
S '
a
^ ;
^
Jtj ',
i
6 £ o ® d 1
ii
Sir ^
Ph
Peg : ^
>»
1
1
•g
^J ^o
^g «.9
>
x: ca OB CO
s^o ^«
S-o-o (3 fl
a> a> « 03 03
««« OO
£
o
J=
"O
1
r
2 3-3 0.2
Ort> ^o
Lab-
ora-
tory
No.
III 11
(q 9l3UB JQuyLOQ)
sm9ioad
m^nia xi] uiu9:;nio
inog ui upload u9inio
jnou u; utpejio
inog HI mae^mo
jnou m uja^oid 9pnj3
lB9qM UI uia^oid 8pnJ3
piOB oi:iobt:
Hd
^egq^i ui qsy
Jtiou UI qsy
9niBA 9unosBo
11
ft • o» t-; « •'J' pi
a, ec TT -^ Tt< <4<
■**cOOJ t-OO
'-I »>• «0 OJ CO t»
ftj 00 t>^ "5 as 00
(ij «o M eo « ■*■
•«" o e^ »c IN c^
*^ Tt" o t^ 00 00
IXi CO CO M <n' CO
«• O oi l>^ t^ O
..J O t^ iC o»o>
t. 00 X •«*< »o t^
«■ c5 05 00 00 c5
so 00 o 1— ' 00 00
0,0 • • • •
»o to «o ot>»
CO CO <0 CO CO
CO (N CO ^"5
00 00 ICO CO
t^ 05 t^* Oi O OS
cj a> io •>*< »c Tj<
qjo • • • •
So
^8
tcJS
JtioB
JO i9JJBq J9d ;B9qAi
IBOqM 99JJ
aaBJlOop SISBQ
« I o o o
►*o i i ;
;Sggj§8i
;89qAV
painoos puB
3uU9dm91 9J0J
-oq ?B9'qAv JO 9Jtnsioi^
■^ C^J 00 CO ■<#« c^
^ • O) 0& Od CQ O)
pOAora94 sau]
-jnoos pu« saujuaojos
laqsnq jed )q3i9M isej.
'oti AiO%'9ioqvj
■^ 00 «o e^r^«o
_• 00 « « O '^
;3s^!
164 " TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
"5 .^ ® 3
.a a
li
Mo
'Sri!
^|-2«
m
lllsi
. o o o
o§ ■ ■ ■
O bo
pq3
o o fl
6
og og o
Im m ii a> i-<
a> (^ o) t-i <£
aa^ja
5 3 o S
r 1-1 o »-c
o ca o © o
2 •^ o^ <
it^r^i^t^
« to «0 >0 lO lO
S
»0 O t^ <3S 00
00 OO QO 00 00
0> O) O 02 03
CO CO CO CO CO
.ilsgl
fe^|5§
V
f^a° -o
Oi
a 9
■gcot-O
0^
ft,
PI
III
g »oco-^
1
^ -
eo OOOO
rest
eigh
per
ushe
|SSI^
^ X5
f^
P 3
•^
•<l'
M5
^
a
•gooo
^
w
k.
n
Q^
®
a
1
gfe
o
fin
a^
ce
"o
fcC
fl
1
^-s
.a
c^
i
^§
r^i
p-i
|i^2
P^^
i^
•
>.
1 o
lO
^
1 <i>
>
1 o
•sag
III
fl
^
o
&
1
■^
1
III
tf
mIz^u
^^bd
S8S
_.^g5^
Tt< T*<^
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 165
(q d\Sa^ J8u;joo)
§S2
sma^jojd
P.d.
35.35
37.67
36.45
jnog UI ni9iojd aa^nio
P.d.
7.49
7.46
5.45
jnog ni uip^no
P.d.
4.76
4.65
3.19
jnog ni ujuo^nio
P.d.
2.73
2.81
2.26
jnog ni uia^ojd epruQ
P.d.
9.09
8.87
7.36
jeaqM ui uia^oid apnio
P.d.
9.68
9.86
8.44
1^
11
piDB oipBq
P.d.
0.356
.399
.366
Hd
:jBaqAv ui qsy
p.d.
1.93
1.91
1.93
jnog at qsy
P.d.
0.77
.57
.63
S-i
i
o
o
§
aniBA auqosBo ^ ^ ^
j>
>> i >
'
o
1
m
OcmO
Very hard
Semihard
do
jmog
JO piiBq iod ^eaqM
Lbs.
280
281
287
u 1
(jBaqAi aajj
-agBi^aop si^-By;
P.d.
66.7
66.1
65.1
■jBaqAi
pajtioas puB
pauBap sisBa
P.d.
69.5
69.0
68.1
aauadma^ ajoj
-aq :)BaqAi ;o airqsiojv
■w(N»(N
paAOuiaj sSui
-jnoos puB sauraaajos
p.d.
4.0
2.9
4.4
laqsnq aad :}q3iaM :)sax
i^iSS
•
oti i£ao:}BjoqBq
§22
o
fail
OX2
.a I
OX5
^o
11
I-
si
1^
a-2a
a+^ o
© o 5
>OPh
iSSi
a
8S<
166 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, V. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The wheats of Spain, those recognized as bread-making varieties,
although of excellent milUng quality are of decidedly inferior baking
quality as the flour lacks that highly desirable attribute known as
strength. This lack of strength is reflected in the low water absorp-
tion of the flour, in the fermentation tolerance of the dough, and in
the small size and coarse texture of the resulting loaf of bread. All
five bread-making varieties milled into flour that produced a small
loaf of bread of coarse texture and poor color.
The durum variety Recio w^as similarly of little account as a bread-
making wheat, as it also lacked strength. Flour milled from the
wheats of Spain should not be used for purposes that require a
large expansion of the gluten. They will find a more useful outlet in
such products as biscuits, cakes, or crackers, where gluten quality
is not so important.
Of the Portuguese varieties tested, the soft winter wheat variety
Temporao de Coruche, w^as the only variety that appeared to be a
fair bread wheat; flour milled from it baked into a passably good
loaf of bread. However, the milling qualities of this wheat are
somewhat lacking, as a low flour yield was experienced from a wheat
of somewhat above average test weight.
The durum variety Mourisco, in addition to being below average
in milling quality, was decidedly inferior in bread-making qualities.
This is also true of the milling and baking properties of the samples
of poulard wheat studied.
SWEDEN
Acreage devoted to wheat in Sweden has increased about 40 per
cent since the World War. This has resulted in an increase in pro-
duction of some 6,000,000 bushels of wheat annually. In 1924-25 the
importation of w^heat amounted to approximately 11,500,000 bushels.
In 1926-27 and 1927-28 the importation was 8,484,000 and 10,391,-
000 bushels, respectively. Sweden exports some wheat. In 1927-28
1,660,000 bushels were exported, as compared with 107,000 bushels
in 1924-25 and 639,000 bushels in 1925-26.
In Sweden only red wheats, of both winter and spring habit, of
the vulgare type are grown. Club wheats and durum w^heats are
not grown.
Among the prominent winter wheat varieties are Iron, Crown,
Earl, Standard, Sun II, Thule II, Swedish II, and Lant. All varieties
of Swedish winter wheats are soft wheats. It is claimed that the
varieties Thule and Lant are somewhat the stronger.
Extra-Kolben I and II, Ruby, Diamond, Aurora, and Fiskeby,
are representative varieties of spring wheat. All the spring varieties
are decidedly hard in texture, with the exception of Extra-Kolben I
and II, which are reported as being somewhat softer.
Samples of three of the Swedish red winter wheat varieties — Iron,
Sun II, and Thule II — and of three of the spring wheat varieties —
Kolben, Extra-Kolben II, and Ruby, — were obtained from A. Akerman,
of the department of wheat and oat breeding, at Svalof, Sweden. In
submitting these varieties Professor Akerman wrote that the variety
Thule had the best baking quality of the three red winter wheats
submitted. It is grown most extensively in the district of Lake
I
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 167
Malaren. Of the other two varieties, Sun II is claimed to be of
better baking quaUty than Iron. The variety Sun II is grown
more widely than any other variety in the Lans of Oster and Vaster-
go tland. Iron wheat is grown rather extensively in the Lan of Skane.
As a matter of interest the variety Trifolium 14, a white winter wheat,
was also sent. It is bred in Denmark from the Dutch variety Wilhel-
mina. It is not now cultivated in Sweden.
The spring variety Kolben is said to resemble the variety Red
Fife in its baking qualities. Sometime ago it was the earliest
maturing spring wheat variety in Sweden. It is gradually being
replaced by Extra-Kolben II, a cross between Kolben and the German
variety Emma. Extra-Kolben II produces considerably better
wheat than Kolben, and is the preferred variety of southern Sweden.
Even earlier in maturity than either Kolben or Extra-Kolben II
is the variety Ruby. It is grown further north than are the other
two varieties.
Samples of all of these seven varieties were graded, milled, and
baked in the same manner as were other world wheat varieties. The
results of these tests are given in Tables 100, 101, and 102.
168 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
I
I
o
oooooo
.
.llsgl
t
&a'"'S
tt^
rt 2
'^OOtOOWuO
^c^-^- '^A
qM
^
|3
■^iC>Ot^ t^o
CO CO ■'f CO CO ■«»<
^s^
=
Lf _
■«2
r
0> 0> -"l* CO t^ CO
Test
eigh
per
ushe
SSSI5S§
^ x>
ti.
II
a> >4
M^
(i:
S
fi°
IM(NOO(NO
V.
Q
u,
s
n
1
ra
^^^^^s
■C-C.B.S.S2
o
Itfrtf^^l
Iz;
'-I
rHC^(MCO >OC0
■
C3
o
be
b
1 1 > t 1
i i^ i i
.s
V
i T^ i ':
£
; I'o 1 1
o
o o £ o o ®
'S
1
Ph
t
i icg i i^
!_, 1 1 1 1
>»
>
p
i i M y 1
i
J lladii
c
5 xdSp^-n
u
p
f 1 ! i 1 1 !
c
3
0
^ i : i i : ;
0 1 1 1 1 1 1
a
1
-4-
c
3 1 I I I 1 1
3 i i i i i i
i
1
'^ I ! I ! I I
fl
^
<
t ;::!::
8
^
'•s i M i 1 i
3-3 6 6 6 6 6 6
3)ix! ; i' I I I 1
A ;;;;;;
Lab-
ora-
tory
No.
1
-( r-l T-l rH 1—1 1—1 i-H
^ 2
i
:S
■a
o--
^C
v
v^
?:
o"
c
eo
Co
-<
aj^
Ci
5^
a:S
tfi
?t
(q 8i3nB jan-jjoo)
-ojcl uo)n[3 ui uiua^nio
jnou HI nja^oid uajnio
jno0 UT utpBqo
fr< CO ^ CO -H c5 0»
ci (N csi c^i c^' csi (ri
jnoy UI UTUD:}nio
jnog UT ui9:)oj(I apaij
^noqM. m uia^jojd apruo
pioB onoBT
Hd
;T?3qAV UT qsv
jno[j ut qsv
on[iiA ouqosBo
^ lO ic t^ CO 00 CO lO
'^^CO^^CO'^CO
Q, 00 «o «d t* t>^a6 o
0^ •*■ Tf CO "*■ ■<*' ■*' CO
tt,' CO oi ci <N p< eo" CI
Q,' oi t^' t>: 00 00 OS <d
<j ?> t^ '-• «D t^ O CO
jV c5 00 oi ci oi o 00
^^r^lCOOOO— '2
Tt« Tt. -.»< -^ T»< CO -*
a,c>
«5 «o Ocoeo lO 00
ITS iC «o >fl «o >c «o
CO O CO CO CO CD CO
•«t^oo>oaococ^t
W05050t^t^OOO
Q^' ■-< r-; csi ^' 1-H ^ c>i
■vJC0050t^t^^-Oi
CJiOTfCO'^'^'O'Tf
Q.'o
(M OS 1^ 00 C5 CO 00
CO CO 1^ CO CO I- M
juon
JO pjJBq J9d :jt39qAi
E.2
:jT30qM 99IJ
-93BJioop siseg
S2. ; be ■-, £ £ x:
i OS (M ■<*< lO OS O IM
:)T39qAV
pajnoos puB
P9UB91D STS^a
3uTi9dui9j aaoj
-aq ;B9qAv jo 9jn:^sioi\[
p9A0ni9J s3ui
-anoDS puB s3mu99jDg
I9qsnq jad ;q§iaAi. !js9x
> lO O -^ 00 t^ OS lO
■giOOSCOOOt^iC*
^ • ^' (?? -H (N cm' (N Ci
tjOO'-l'COOCflCOOS
o^COOOOSt^t— o
:'? <N" CO -^ 00 00 o »^
•ON AjoijBJOqBT:
MILLING AND BAKING QtJALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
169
o
•<s>
O
PQ
^1.
.9 0
o^
o E
oj o 3
fc- G o
c3 is —
) _i ^H ra aO
© O I ®
o
H:5fL,i-^pH ',h:iPH
. ; i i>^2
^ -» d o o a '^
3>
',o>
S^d d d d
) t^ «» t^ t^
1 O 05 00 OD CK 00
, iO Tf ■^ ■^ •^ f
) t^ t^ t^ t^ »0 «D
§1
gf^S^S!
170 TECHNICAL BtJLLETIN 107, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The milling and baking tests of the three varieties of spring wheat
showed that this class of Swedish wheat is much superior in milhng
and baking qualities than that of the winter wheat varieties. Of the
three spring wheat varieties, the variety Kolben ranked first with
Extra-Kolben II and Ruby next in order.
From a milling standpoint, the variety Thule II ranked first among
the red winter wheats. Considered from a baking standpoint, how-
ever, Thule II ranked third because of lack of baking strength. Flour
from this variety baked into a very small loaf of poor color and texture.
The loaf volume of the bread made from the other two varieties of
red winter wheat — Sun II and Iron — was approximately the same as
that made from wheats of the same class grown in continental Europe.
The baking qualities of all Swedish varieties tested is much lower than
that of similar wheats grown in America or in southwestern Europe.
SWEDISH EXPORT WHEATS
Samples from two export cargoes shipped from Sweden to Bremen
were secured through the Superintendence Co. These samples were
milled and baked as usual.
Each cargo, the one of spring wheat and the other of soft red winter
wheat, was slightly below the average milling and baking quahty of
export wheats of similar classes shipped from Argentina, Canada, or
the United States. The loaves were small and coarse in texture,
most decidedly so in the case of the cargo of soft red winter wheat.
As a result of the analysis of the Swedish varieties and export wheat,
it is apparent that wheats grown in this country, although of good-
to-average milling quality, are somewhat weak so far as baking quality
is concerned and need to be supplemented with strong imported
wheats to enhance their baking qualities. •
SWITZERLAND
Switzerland raises between 3,500,000 and 4,000,000 bushels of
wheat annually. It imports about 75 per cent of its wheat require-
ment. In 1927-28 imports amounted to 18,427,000 bushels.
Relief, soil, and climate have had much to do with limiting the
wheat acreage of Switzerland. The plateau east of the Jura mountain
range is better adapted to wheat growing than are other sections
because it is not so subject to excess rain. In other sections the hea\^
rains of summer frequently result in lodging of the grain and epidemics
of rust and smut.
As regards climatic phenomena with relation to wheat production,
the country can be divided into two zones, a wet and a cold and wet
zone. The wet zone comprises a large part of the Cantons of Thur-
gau, Aargau, St. Gallen, and parts of Graubrunden (Orisons). Exces-
sive rains and diseases are the chief drawbacks to wheat growing in
this area. The cold and wet zone comprises the remainder of Switzer-
land. There the excessive rains and winter adversities are equally
harmful to wheat growing.
Freezes in winter and the prolonged cover of snow ,are detrimental
to wheat growing' in parts of the country. In other parts that are
httle protected by snow, alternate freezing and thawing in late winter
are harmful.
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 171
The most important wheat-producing Cantons are Vaud, followed
by Bern, Fritbourg, Zurich, Aargau, and Geneva, in the order of
their importance.
About 95 per cent of the wheat grown in Switzerland is winter
wheat. Spring wheat is not extensively grown. Some of the more
common Swiss varieties are Monte Calme 22, Plantahof, Venog6
Rouge, Vaumarcus, Wagenburger, Rheinauer, and Carr^ Vaudois.
The first four were submitted as red winter wheats, the fifth as a
spring wheat, and the last two as white winter wheats of the club
type. Monte Calme 22 is grown in western and northern Switzerland
and is said to be a good milling wheat. Plantahof is similar in natiure
to Monte Calme 22 and is grown extensively in central, northern, and
eastern Switzerland. Rheinauer is grown extensively in eastern
Switzerland, but its popularity is declining, as the general tendency is
to check the growth of white and club wheats. Although described
as a white winter wheat it was classed and graded by us as a red
wiriter wheat due to the color of the kernels. Upon examination of
the sample of the variety Carre Vaudois, it was classified as a red club
wheat and was, therefore, graded as western red wheat. It is exten-
sively cultivated in western Switzerland. The varieties Venoge
Rouge, Vaumarcus, and Wagenburger are still in the introductory
stage. Venoge Rouge is of winter habit, and is well adapted to the
conditions prevalent in northern and western Switzerland. Vau-
marcus is also of winter habit. Wagenburger, on the other hand, is
a spring wheat of Manitoba selection, and the acreage devoted to it
is small.
Samples of these seven varieties were obtained through the courtesy
of the Administration Federale des Bl^s at Berne, vSwitzerland, and
their relative milling and baking quaUties were determined. Results
of these tests are given in Tables 103, 104, and 105.
On an average, the milling quality of all the varieties tested was
good. Test weight per bushel was good to average and the yield of
flour was high. The protein content of the wheat was only average.
From a baldng standpoint all flours exhibited wealaiesses. This
was more pronounced in the winter-wheat varieties. Only one
variety of winter wheat evidenced an ability to make a large loaf of
bread of fair texture and grain. This was the variety Plantahof. Next
in baking strength was the flour milled from the spring-wheat variety
Wagenburger. All of the other varieties produced flour noticeably
weak in this respect.
Swiss wheats, therefore, are in line with most of the wheats culti-
vated in continental Europe. Although of good milling quality, the
majority are decidedly lacking in baking strength. Their baking
quality should be strengthened by blending with strong wheats from
overseas. Otherwise, they are more suited to the manufacture of
biscuits, crackers, etc., in which gluten strength is of less importance.
172 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE
1^5
OOrHOOO'-'OO
1°
^
gcoeoeOTjJTjieoeo-^'eo
"2 05 -H d >-J ^" 00 05 oJ c>
I
jOOOOOOOOO
p
O P
-»_, o o_o
1^
>- <u 6 d
-J o
*-• (^ tao
i'Stf o
, 03 C
ce 05 cJ 4' OS'S OS'S 03
2 g
C3s ^
II
|3
(q oi3u8 wuiaoo)
xapui X^iiBiib ua^nio
J£J5
:^?38feggS
c4 pi pj IN c>i —< oi
suio^ojd
jnog ni upload uajnio
ftjoJQOr>^odoiocoit^d
jnog u| uipujio
ftj <3 "d ■<*«■ -^r «o TjJ «■•.»<■ CO
anoi; ui uiuo^nio
jnog UT ma^ojd opnio
0* ^' c5 OS oi ^' OS ^ QO X
jBoqiii. UI nio^jojd apiUQ
P. d.
12.65
10.93
9.88
9.98
11. 05
11.22
11.82
10.01
8.70
•o 1
II
<5f
pwB opoBq;
a.d
nd
d 5iJ ^vitdtc d d d
^BaqAS. UI qsy
jnog UI qsy
■sg^sss^ss?:^
a;©
3
0
d
0
aniBA ouqosGo
0.91
1.11
1.32
1.65
1.55
2.21
1.33
2.00
1.95
>
White
do...
do.........
Slightly creamy
do
Creamy
White
Cieamy
do
: "3
li
r
Soft
...do..
...do
...do
.:.do
...do.
Granular..
Soft
...do
1^
I d d d d d
0 ! i i i i3
I d
"c !
m 1
Jtiog
JO pjiuq ic»d r^jaqAi
li
-93T3^oop sis^a Q,- § § 2 g f:: § ?: r: S
4BaqM
pajnoos pu«
pauT?ap STSUQ
■^CSOOOiCwICO"
auuadma; ajojaq
:}Baqj^ jo ajnjsiOK
-• OS 0 OS OS pi r-" c^ d OS
P9A0UI8J s3ui
-moos puB sSuiuaajos
•«0SiO<C^t^»O»OC^Cl
pqsnq aod ?q3iaAV ^sax
oj000se0r»<^t^05-*<0
1
j
^'c^?
iiil
S?
§ggg 1
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
173
-0 « 3
I -H O 05 OS ■^ '
_ o o o
SS c' S c'
«3
o c o o
B ■
. -^^^
3 S c s
C3 O C O
fe^l>pH
o w
.se
o2
^o
CO <M O O .-H r-( O •
^ CO <M O O .-H
I to *C ^ tP iO
ij 00 lO >o "•; i^ cc cc cc ic
•«cooeo(M«o<Ni.':>oo
«Jio>SiCioS>oS>OiO
ooccioQc^e'ii^Qoop
•is S
6b •
> cc t^ 00 •»>< ir: ^ O
I S3 Si S £3 £J 22 52
lOOOOOQQ
' Tt" Tj< Tt" Tt< T>< ^ ^
174 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, V. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WHEATS GROWN IN AFRICA
Morocco, Algeria, Tunis, and Egypt represent the countries pro-
ducing wheat in northern Africa. In 1928 the estimated production
was over 104,000,000 bushels. The character of the wheat grown in
these areas, with a discussion of their relative milling and baking
quality, is given in the following pages.
EGYPT
Cultivation of wheat in Egypt is concentrated in the delta zones
and along the banks of the Nile as far as the vicinity of Assouan. An
extended acreage of wheat has developed on the left of the river near
the marshes of Buket el Karum in the Province of Medinet el Fayum.
Cultivation of wheat is almost exclusively under irrigation, which
makes drought damage a small factor. The most harmful factor is
rust, which is favored under conditions in Egypt by damp weather in
contrast to the usual relation with a wet, warm climate.
Sowings take place as early as possible in the fall so that harvest
will be ready before the arrival of hot weather the next spring. The
date of sowings is dependent upon the flooding of the rivers which
carry to the desert the tropical rains and render possible the growth
of crops in the sections where rainfall is rare. In Egypt this is from
November to the first part of December and later.
The wheats of Egypt are reported as of two distinct types — the
native Egyptian varieties {Triticum pyramidale) and the common
wheat varieties (T. vulgar e).
Beladi is the most prominent native variety. The kernels of this
variety are either red or white in color. This variety, although rather
susceptible to rust, is a strong producer and is much preferred by
small farmers. Beladi 26 and 31 represent the red type of kernel.
Wheat of this type represents about 95 per cent of the red native
wheats grown in lower Egypt. Beladi 42, on the other hand, is a white-
kerneled variety. It represents 95 per cent of the white native wheats
grown in upper Egypt. Sinai 2 and Sinai 14, the former a red wheat
and the latter a white wheat, are two new and promising varieties of
native wheats.
Among the common-wheat varieties, Hindi wheats of Indian origin
are most common. Hindi D represents about 75 per cent of the whole
wheat acreage cultivated in Egypt. The kernels of this variety are
white in color and of opaque character. Indian VIII B and Hindi 39
are promising varieties of common wheats with translucent kernels.
According to the director of the botanical and plant-breeding sec-
tion of the Department of Agriculture located at El Giza, Egypt,
Egyptian wheats can not be grouped into winter and spring habits
because the temperature in Egypt is fairly high and because several
winter English wheats have been tried in Egypt without success.
Egyptian wheats, therefore, are to be considered as spring wheats
although they are sown in the autumn.
Samples of the Egyptian varieties just described were obtained from
the Department of Agriculture at El Giza, and were milled and baked
in the usual manner. Resulting data are given in Tables 106, 107,
and 108.
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 175
^oo
oooo
O —1
o
,
•Si' C S S c8
e
lis^-g
u
p a o-^o 1
'^
'^E -o !
a.
p
•^^o oooo
k.
0(M0
S-
«
§2|
g CO CC CO I"' CO CO
corj!-^
(O Ut ^
£
IK
?^a^
O
llfel
00 ■* t^ M O (M t^
OOOO
e
^■SaS
g^pji.. ao
^ ^
^
^^^yg
•S ?
■gOil^ OM i
c^
j^HU
1 is
^SiS i2f2 i
s
i «> X
V. 1
^1
1 MS
^ 1
1 &
■goo oooo
OOO
^^^^^^^^1
r a
V
^^^^^^^^
u
».
^^^m*i
^
f^m^
Q
a.
» "so
]
J
;
■~:>
i^
^
^J
]
e
s-
«
i
^
2
o
S
^
i i
13 1
1
'^
03 .
S
e
■go o o h,o
OOO
-o-c-c
W ' '■« '
O ■
1 1 1
5£
^ i
1 1 1
•S
1 1
■♦»>
1 iTl
PS.
m
1 1^
bC
Q
1
ill
1 3*^
•M
1 P<C8
PI.
0
3 :
5!5
o
®' O O O p. o
O © C
Cr,
T}
.ti X3 -0-0*^-0
-O.ti.ti
•<s>
2
Ii
g
g
O
s-
C3S
■!->
m
SO
J^
i
hea
) ^d^
^
d^'
1
|1 111!
"3 "3 S
1.
^W WWSpq
WRco
^ o
-o
1—1
E3
OS
et
<
0
5
1.2
o
t
fl
^
bCbc? tio
' bC
' bc
a aO fl
\a
c. [
1 =5
;'0
Sc..'«
;'5
S
££§!
li
;|
5x2 -X3
|oo5
• " oJT^ o o •
ac^ a'^'^c
S^^S
'-^
C ^
PhPh Ph
; ;oh
! :p-i
t .
1^
3 1
5 e
si
If
ii
1^
3Q
176
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGEICTJLTtTEE
CO tb
'^ ^
If
(q eiSuB jeu^joo)
SUI91
-ojd U9)ni3 ui uiu9:jni£)
jnog UI UT9;;ojd ugijnio
jnog UI uipeijo
i-Jeoeocieoeocoeo eo
anou ui uiu9:jnio
jnog ui ni9;oj(i epruQ
legqAi ui ui9:j0JC[ 9pruo
•s I
il
OX)
piye oi:jobt;
Hd
:}'B9qAv ui qsy
jnog ui qsy
9nt'BA 9III10SP£)
o <35 .-H o e<5 1-. «o 00 05 w
f> ■ 05 T-.' ■^' CO ec o "■ oo (6
U^ '^ Ui -^ -^ -^ i^ lO -^ CO
•fc* 05 --I W t^ O CJ CO t* ^
W .-H t^ Tf CO rl 00 oi o •^
Q, ■^' c^ e«5 CO »o M co' CO '^'
tJOilMCOCOOO-^OSt^. 05
ClI ■*■ (ri (N (N eo (H CO c4 c^
<yt^C>icio<t'Oeoa>oo 00
qJ O t-' t>^ l>^ O l^ t>^ t^ 00
^CO^^ (Nb->0<N .-I r-i
t>005?0«>COOO<»^ t-
n'rHiv^ooaor-Jododoi o
^'oooooooooor-ii^c^ (O
5J«OC00^005<©0 N
CS (N CO <N CO rH <N CO CO
Q.O
OiMoDOt^OCOr- c^
5D CO O t^ CO ?0 iC CO CD
CO CD CD CO CO CO CO CD CO
>>r-((NOt^.^t^OiO 00
'-'t^cOCD'OO-. -"^OOCO CO
•« lo -^ CO c* 00 rf o 00 00
^ CD CD CD CD 00 iC 00 CD t-
o.'o
lO T}< Ttl rj< TfO. CO -^ lO
CO Tt< 0> -^ CD uo -^ O 00
; ; i I i I I >» I
I I O 1 It) ''-' k1 I
^ l.bfx: g M 1 © fe «
So
anog jo i9JjBq J9d ;B9qA\.
?B9qAV
99JJ-93BJ100P SlSBg
?B9qAv pgjnoos
pUB p9aB9lO SlSBa
3uiJ9dUI9^ 9J0J
■9q )B9qAV JO 9an;siop^
1 :s ;i
_g ;jq Ix: ;^
§•5 fc'S fe^ fe^
i(N >o coeo<MO
•QCOOO
■* CO »o-»ti '
. (N T-I ■^' O 16 00 C> CS
ftt^r^t^t^cocot-t^
^ (N03 T
cJOCJ.
I o^ >ooc^
P9A0UI9J
SSUTjnOOS pUB S3UIU99J0S
igqsnq J9d :^q3i9M :)S9x
•ON ^JOI^BJOqBI
I CO c<i o CO ■"*<
i i-H w -^ ci ci
^COtJ<-«J<CD«D-<*<CDI^
K5cocDCOCOCD»OCD»0
?35
6q
c
OX5
°2
0x2
.a a
f:!a
o«
0*3
3^
11
) 00 05 ^ -H CO — I o
CO
o
J3 <i>J3 _
o
co:S
; ;I3
Bo
03
£
>,aa
2 , ,
o g "^ o o o o
>> S >> >> >.'o -o
Ui Q) ^ (m ki
o u. « e «
_ ts 0!
Oi ju Ci
'O o o o
.5 O C O C I ' ■ ■
05 O O O © 1 I
OOOOOOOQO
.Q0^»O'<*<^00CC5cD
•«coco>ceDO»0'-H«ood
«->coioco>oco>o25«cco
_^
?»t^.-iooco»o»oooci»o
^ioco«o«5ioio-*-*«o
s
§
I
cocoeoeocococococo
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 177
All the native wheats were found to be varieties of poulard wheat.
The varieties of common wheat, on the other hand, would classify
as white wheats in the United States.
From almost every standpoint the native wheats of Egypt were of
lesser milling and baking quahty than the common (vulgare) wheat
varieties. Good bread could not be made, as the flour milled from
native wheats was practically devoid of strength. The common
wheats, however, were of good milling quality, and although their
flours lacked strength the bread made from them was as good, in most
cases, as bread made from flours milled from wheat raised in conti-
nental Europe. On the other hand, the baking quaUties of the flours
milled from the common wheats was not nearly so good as that
mifled from wheats of similar classes grown in North America, India,
or Australia.
MOROCCC
Wheat production is expanding in Morocco. According to the
Yearbook of Agriculture of the United States Department of Agri-
culture, the estimated production in 1928 was 24,746,000 bushels.
Yields are higher than in Tunis and Algeria. The soil is especially
rich on the plains of Chacuia, and the water supply is more regular
than for the other countries in north Africa because of the favorable
Atlantic exposure. Hard wheats, mostly of the durum species, com-
prise about 90 per cent of the wheat grown in Morocco. The produc-
tion of soft wheats is expanding.
Of the varieties grown, the durum variety Dredria, and the soft
white variety Vilmorin are the most in demand.
M. Miege, director of the station for the selection and study of
seeds, Rabat, Morocco, kindly furnished samples of these varieties
for milling and baking tests. Results of these tests are given in Tables
109, 110, and 111.
112424°— 30 12
178 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, tJ. S. I)EP1\ OF AGRICtlLTURE
.i-C fc 2 rt
^OO
0) (Ui3 eg^
St^ltSg
feS 'O
ft.
II
ir
p-^
<i;
l§l
g
^s.^
C5
rest
eight
per
ushel
& ^
a.
11
■«(M
^S
^
©
•WOO
5
S
g
.-
Q
ft.
TJ
.^
o
•J-
fl
s
Ih
1
5S8
o
. I_l
^a
X1.-H
^00
l-ofe
S-- <=!
qS^
^^
be
fl
e3
^ CO
Sa
II
>.
»- o
>
2-
0>
eS
X2
^
tf
1
.2
fe
5
^
^
o
1
1
flH
1^
S^^
OSO
IP
5 C
5
:2s
>5 5^
CD Q
^
(q 0[anB aoajjoo)
si:i :iojd uo}ni3 ni uiuojnio
jtiou m up^ojcl na^nio
0^22
anou ui nipciio
anou ni uiuy^jnio
jnon ni nia^ojd opru3
5'aoqAi ui npi^ojd aptijo
11
pioe oi^oBq;
Hd
5^
(DO
'\^^JA m qsv
jTion ni qsv
-'338
Q,-o •
§
"o
o
'o
O
erquA anips^o
s?§
1
>
ol
II
1^
be
jmog JO pjjBq jad !»B8qA\.
iS§
Il
^■BaqAi
08jj-93t!Jioop sisbq;
q;8R
^eaqAV peirioos
puB panBap stseg;
3inj8din95
ajojaq :jB8qA\. jo ajn:js}Oj^
p8A0ni8J
sSuTjnoos pnB sSuiuaoaog
5-
pqsnq jad ^qgWAV ?s8 j, jo ^
•OJM yJjo^ijaoqtjq
II
•o -3^
Sfefc^
a
« ^-c
iS
05
■S
■»-«(
■»^
-s
ti
"O
S
e
M
§
i
M
>-H
w
«0
(U
rO
«
■*J
^
p
5S
«
•s>
o
'^
^
^
^c
rO
o
^TT
o
^
pQ ;
^
XI
CO
a
<li
?^
«^
s
c
o
1
00
8
>J
>,i^
<D
aa
5-
CQ
5i>
-<
"^
X2
a
so
<i>
*■«
i-
o
a.
2
o
3
«
^
Cft
^
•3 i
ff
piH ;
^
e
oq
o^
,8S
.5 a
..
2 2
^
^
o
g
. O"
OX3
^SS8
sa
"^
"o 2
^
?e
O"
1|
2^B
o
■sc
^
^o
C3
a^
^88
1
t5°
^^-^'
1-H
w
''^^
Qi
1-9
pa
bO
H
^a
s
£■■2
§
.
ase^t^
ill
S
l-'^
§
cb •
Xio°
g<p
^r
'S 1
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 179
The varieties demonstrated equally good milling properties, but
both were deficient in baking qualities. This is especially true of the
durum variety, in which the lack of gluten quality was marked.
Fair baking strength was shown by the soft wheat variety, but it
showed noticeable weakness, as evidenced by the coarse texture of the
loaf. The color of the crumb was below average in the bread made
from the soft wheat flour.
The milling and baking quality of the durum variety was character-
istic of that of the durum wheats of Greece and Tunis. The milling
and baking quality of the soft winter wheat compares very favorably
with similar wheats grown in Tunis, Egypt, and South Africa.
TUNIS
Cultivation of wheat in Tunis is determined partly by the nature of
the soil but chiefly by the distribution of rainfall. Wheat and
barley occupy about 90 per cent of the sown area. On the plains of
Tunis and GrombaUa, and on the high plateaus of Kef and Maktar,
the two cereals are cultivated in about equal areas. In southern
Tunis wheat is not extensively grown.
Drought and hot winds are undoubtedly the most harmful weather
factors. Drought in the spring is the most harmful in its effects.
Insufficiency of rains during the autumn can be overcome by sufficient
rains the following winter, and a drought during winter can be com-
pensated for by rains in autumn and spring. The wet years are always
the best. Rust is another damaging factor to wheat production in
Tunis.
For several years only the hard wheats (durums) were cultivated
but recently Europeans have introduced soft wheats, and the natives
are beginning to cultivate them.
The yield of white wheats is much greater than that of the hard
wheats. Acreage devoted to white wheats in 1927 was 143,000 acres.
Red winter wheats are not extensively cultivated nor are the club
varieties of the white wheats. On account of the period of vegeta-
tion some wheats are to be considered as of winter habit and others
of spring habit. Among the white wheat varieties that could be con-
sidered as winter grown are Ble de Mahon 124 and Barleta 53.
Prominent white wheats, which could be classified as of spring habit,
are Richelle native 110, Florence 135, and Irakie 231. The first
three white wheats are extensively grown. The last two are under
trial, but their use is increasing because of their high productivity.
Among the hard wheats (durums) the three varieties most com-
monly grown are Mahmoudi ap 4, Biskri ac 10, and Hamira ac 5.
These three varieties are the best known and the most appreciated,
and they form the basis of the mixture sown by the natives.
The native wheats are so mixed that it is not possible to give any
prominent variety name, and the history of an average sample would
be illusory.
In Tunis, at the Jardin Botanique, a breeding station is maintained
for the development of pure seed wheat. Through the courtesy of
M. F. Boeuf, chief of the botanical service, lots of seed wheat were
obtained, representing the seven varieties discussed above.
The usual milling and baking tests were made to determine baking
value. Results are given in Tables 112, 113, and 114,
180 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTTJKE
.2. I- oj 9 c3
S8-
I
OOOOO «>»oo
1°
^
•gOOt^-^ftrHONtO
^
«oeoooseoeoco-^
gTj5Ti5ioec«co-<*'eo
C3
"y • .
■«-«*<O>Oi:Dt-00«OO
^
■«000000<N'-I
I-
-2 OS Co
§0
fl
Q
0.fl
ca o
o"^.-,xi
CO CO a
^?SScs«
o « 3
=2*00 00 go;
Cv Cv CQ wQ C3 C
as
a
(q 9i3aB J8u:ijoo)
xapui j^jqcnb ua^nio
eoweo.-; (Nc^i-ie^i
row
-ojd uajnia ni uinoinio
41.37
46. 31
44.46
41.53
41.99
42.11
37.65
41.76
jnog ut UTa^ojd uajnio
OjooooaooodoJooi^
jnou ui uipsiio
jnou UT utua'jnio
Q^ro'coc6cO'^'«»"coco
mog HI ni9?ojd epnjo
■8 33?J'oS5SSS§
Q-oJoooc^-joioo
jcaqAj. UI UTS^oad eptuo
P. d.
10.66
10.98
10. 66
11.39
12. 96
12.45
10.32
9. 82
•ol
si
piDB OI^^OBI
P.ct.
0.387
.423
.347
.317
.231
.312
.328
.327
Hd
^BaqAV UI qsv
jnog UI qsv
o
eniBA auqosBO
-3
>
Slightly creamy...
Creamy
Slightly creamy...
White
do
do
o
li
Granular
do
.....do
Soft.
Granular
do
Soft
do
cs m
b£.2
Very hard...
do -
do—....
Semihard
Very hard...
Hnrd
Semihard
Soft
jnog
JO lajicq jod ^Baq^i
:iB8q.w 88JJ
-aSBitoop sisbq:
P.ct.
70.5
70.1
70.4
69. 4
72.1
72.0
70.5
69. 3
jBaq.tt.
pajnoos pue
pauBap sisbq:
•« CM cc « cc Tj« CO :s t^
. c<i -: r^ «• CO Tf ^^ d
Suijadraaj aaoj
-aq jeaqAV jo ainjsiOH
•« CO 00 CO o r- 00 o ao
poAoraaj s3ui
-jnOOS pUB S3UIU99J0S
•« CO ^ rH <C 00 (N Tj< O
-•(NC>ico<Hr-,'coc4c^
pqsnq jad ^qSia^i jsaj,
^•-^coesoooaoocs
•ON ^JO^BJoqei
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
181
ii
O /i^ o
o o o
o o
fePn
fl o o o
o 1 ■ ■
a
S o S o o o
0) ih >M a>
fc, ® CD «- , , ,^
la
oSoocoOos
PH>OpHO&HOf=H
« a
S^'^^gSSS
OX2
sa
;^°
_^
c
§
SCS ■* «C OO 05 t^ to
s g aj
a-2g
^fe2Z
182 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The milling value of all the varieties examined was good, and a high
yield of flour of ordinary protein content resulted from each milling.
The flour milled from all of the durum varieties, however, was very
weak as regards baking strength. Loaves of bread made from the
durum wheat flour had an average loaf volume of 1,393 cubic centi-
meters, as compared with over 2,000 cubic centimeters for the bread
baked from flours milled from North American or Russian durum
wheats. Crumb texture was noticeably poor.
Several of the white-wheat varieties, showed fairly good baking
strength. Outstanding is the variety Barleta 53, from which flour of
good baking strength was obtained, but the baking strength of its
companion wheat, as regards winter habit, Ble de Mahon 124, was not
nearly so good. The white wheats of spring habit — the varieties
Irakie 231, Richelle native 110, and Florence 135 — produced flour of
fair strength, in the order named.
It would appear, therefore, that there is good reason for the sub-
stitution of soft winter varieties for the hard (durum) varieties in
Tunis. Compared with the white wheats of continental Europe,
the white wheats of Tunis are above the average. Nevertheless,
milled by themselves they are more properly adapted to biscuit and
cracker manufacture than to the production of high-quality bread.
Blending with strong wheat would be beneficial to their baking per-
formance.
UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA
Wheat is grown in the most southern part of Africa, the Union of
South Africa.
According to the Yearbook of Agriculture of the United States
Department of Agriculture for 1928, the production of wheat in the
Union of South Africa is now above the pre-war average. In 1927
production amounted to 6,644,000 bushels. Production satisfies
about 60 to 70 per cent of the requirements of the Union. Usually,
large quantities of both wheat and flour are imported from Australia,
Argentina, and Canada. In 1927, 8,212,000 bushels of wheat were
imported, approximately 2,600,000 bushels less than the average im-
ported in 1924-25 to 1926-27.
Although wheat is grown more or less in every Province of the Union
the varied climatic conditions which prevail in the Union (dissimilar
even within the area of each Province) have a marked influence upon
the growth of wheat.
The Cape Province produces, on the average, about 75 to 80 per
cent of the wheat crop of the Union. This production is confined to
a comparatively small area in the southeastern portion of the Cape, for
it is only in this area that winter rains occur with degree of regularity
to warrant wheat production on a large scale. Part of the remainder
of the Union is largely semiarid; and in the summer-rainfall area
the cHmatic conditions, in general, are not suited to the production
of wheat.
In Transvaal, a small but stable quantity (75,000 bushels) of wheat
is produced annually under irrigation. In the Orange Free State
normal production is approximately 100,000 bushels but crop failures
sometimes occur in this Province.
As is the case in Australia and India, the wheats of the Union of
South Africa are to be classed as early, mid-season, and late. In the
Cape Province winter wheats are largely grown. Sowing takes place
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 183
from April to June and harvesting in November and December. In
the irrigated areas and in areas of summer rains a wheat of considerably
shorter maturity is desirable, so that the spring types of wheats are
preferred.
I^^The wheat trade in the Union of South Africa is usually based on a
Hp. a. q." (fair average quality) basis. The f. a. q. basis in use in South
"frica differs from the Australian f . a. q. in that it is not a fixed stand-
ard established by the Government or by any board, but is merely
what the trade considers to be a ''fair average quality '' of the season's
crop. Thus there is likely to be considerable fluctuation from year
to year in what constitutes f . a. q. ; it differs from Province to Province
and from district to district. There are usually 3 f. a. q. grades — 1
for the western Cape Province, which is the main producing area;
1 for the Orange Free State; and 1 for the Transvaal.
Thirteen samples of wheats from the Union of South Africa carrying
the trade designations just cited were obtained from the department
of agriculture at Pretoria, South Africa, through the courtesy of W. O.
Stahl, senior research officer. The grade of each sample, with the
notation as to whether the sample represented a variety or a mixture
of several varieties, and the area of production follows :
(1) Malmesbury f. a. q., mixed, ex Western Province area.
(2) Western Province f. a. q., mixed, ex Western Province area.
(3) Malmesbury f . a. q., white, ex Western Province area.
(4) Western Province f. a. q., white, ex Western Province area.
(5) Transvaal Red, variety Red Egyptian, ex Potchefstroom area, Transvaal
Province.
(6) Transvaal f. a. q., white, variety Gluyas Early, Potchefstroom area,
Transvaal Province.
(7) Transvaal f. a. q., red, variety Red Klein Koring^, Potchefstroom area,
Transvaal Province.
(8) Transvaal f. a. q., white, Lydenburg area, Transvaal Province.
(9) Transvaal f. a. q,. red, Lydenburg area, Transvaal Province.
(10) Transvaal f. a. q., mixed, Lydenburg area, Transvaal Province.
(11) Transvaal f. a. q., red, Middelburg area, Transvaal Province.
(12) Orangia f. a. q., white, Bethlehem area, Orange Free State Province.
(13) Orangia f. a. q., red.
As usual, these wheats were subjected to the grading, milling, and
baking tests previously described. Resulting data are shown in
Tables 115, 116, and 117.
184
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
c^ooooeoc^
O
rH
OCT>
OO
.Hsal
|o
© ®jQ 03^
«
fe«|5|
«-
f^a "S
0.
h
■gicc^^oooo>OT-i
(NO
Or-<
OrH
S^""'^'
'H
'
S n
k
fi-
«
i§|
g CO CO fo eo p4 cS CO
CT>a>
«OtO
OO
CCCC
'*'<l5
^^*
.25*7 a
CJ
® k '"
^S^
{5
.u ■— 1
fc -H eo 0> O <N (N <N
"S ^- ^- M iO ^- O rH-
oioo
l^(N
r^oo
rest
eigh
per
ushe
ss
sd
^ -Q
'^
25
COiOCSiCO [
o !
»ooo
<© iO (N t^ .-H 1
00 1^ QO «o 1© 1
00 !
t^ 1
§s
0) X
M5
(S;
1
•« O 'i* O >0 <N (N Oi
§0 • • • '^r-!
ooo
OOM
ceo
T-i 1-H
* '
^
u
§
fe
fi
G.
UlC^I
-l-T fe
1<N ^
i:.
i"E i
S.S
ia^
:«^ :b£
£^
^^
\^<D
O
1
c
is
•— OC
i
o
'"""'^ rr-l
-^
^^
(M.-t
^ : .1
i
i
"o
1
bO
1 be i
1
.a
fe ;.a :
J
fe !
-^ 1 n 1
-i-^ 1
"S
c i a 1
1
a 1
fl
■^ i^ i
I
S \
Id-dc
C
d
a
j
g J
«
d
_^.--'C-ct;'C
-o
^-o
i'O
.ti'O
t-i
■^ 1
ii 1
■c !
^
l^n 1
;
^ ;
8 :
^ i
;
„' 1
?^
^d*
M
I i
t i
d* 1
I'
Ij
-&
erg
*.a
>
03 03--; ;
cS
a \
it
%TP.~
1
1 i
Isf
Isl
bttx w o o o w
w O
Hi
ee ea 03 ; ' i o3
2 1
>-l l-H U ■
OOEh I
1^
e i
^^
S^
g
i i
s
d '
1 ;
8 I
<D
-2 '
1 j
.a I
&
CQ 1
1 1
> !
"1
iU
i 1
S !
s
t ii i
j j
iJ
!
.a
be d 55 o d d d
o o
d d 1
1
aT3 fl-cx
O !H :
-c-o
-o-o
I':
> 1
■c
1
-s^-^
llgggsg
S;§
S8S
"is
^o2^
t-t^
t^ t^
T»<Tf<
Tf r»<
Tji-gi
H i-l r-
< rH r-
Hr-l
■< I-(
^ i-<
r-< 1
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 185
(q 9i3nB jan^joo)
xapui Ajjienb ua^nio
jnog tn uia^ojd U9:)ni£)
Jtiog UT uipBiio
jtiog UI muajnio
anog ni uja^joad optuQ
UI UT8:}0id aptuo
=1
<^
ppe oipBi
Hd
i>B9qA^ UI qsy
JTiOB UI qsy
c>ic>ic^escscscic<ic<c>ic>ic4ei
•8"888i^2S??SS;£22:sS
A • o o' 00 00 oc3 1>-' oi oo' o t~ 00 00 1^
Q, CO ic »o «c »o TjS »o "i' CO ■^ fi "O ■^
<5oo5.-i?5coooo-<*<(Nai>oiMa>
d,'(NCCCCCCCCC«5C«5CO'^C^COC«5C><
wt^oooc>3o-«*'a>»cot^cooooo
«■ i--* o o o c5 oi c> OS c>i 00 C5 OS 00*
^" ■* «D C^ rJH 1
«JOS «0 «0 I-H 1
lOSiOOOCOOsC^O
I c4 OS •-< o CO OS c> C5 os'
lOsOOOO^i-iOC
■ o OS OS CO OS CO ic ^- <
> C^J CO CO C>» CO
QicS
I Tli Tt< lO '^ •* "* -
■cdcdocdtd^otdcdoo
■«■ o --H o >
^ t^ to lO 1
0,0 • •
eiqRA QuipsBO
S?§8S^35?5^8S§?55;
3®oooooocoooo
M^ 1 I ! 1 I 1 1 I 1 I 1
jnog
JO pjjBq J9d !jB9qAV
5BaqM aaj;
-93B2ioop siseg;
?B9qM
pajnoos puB
pauBap sisBg
SmiodxnQi 9J0J
-aq -jBaqAv jo eonjsioi^
p9A0Tn9J saui
-anoos puB saumgajog
laqsnq J9d ^q^iaM %sdjj
1 ta I m 3 [
1 g"^ J'^, >?J ^J bS-^
<0 iCQ i>cc>a2>Oai
■ 21 i'2 !'2 i'2
'CO ' ?i I 03 '03
I r1 !•« , r; in . ^ w ■ .
03 CC W P» CQ CO CC CQ CO i iWcQ
^•lOgOCOTfOOOiO'-^CO'^Jg^
^^^•,*tCO0000t^O»«O«O«Dc<5O>
^ • o c^i OS* oi OS «o Qo t-i c5 OS* OS es c>
Q^t-t^50i-«oo3t^t^sDvot^r^
■Q*00-«*'OSOJTt<cO»Hi-lt^.-it^;OQ0
. • c5 CO* OS* ci c5 00* o eo ^ .-i c5 CO rH
H^t^t-50t^t^<0i^t^i^t*t>-t>-t»
•^■OsO-*OOrt<n<CO'-i-<»<t^O>Ot-
Jot^r^'^oeooot^'^osoooos
.^^ "rH^cocooicociMci^
:o>0'0»ot»t>.coo«o<oooo'0
•ON ^JO^BJoqBq
186 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEFT. OP AGRICULTURE
»o'o
ti ' ' o ^ c
o « p
;a^i>Ph>
o
o , , ,
D.O o o
: PI
: ;^
H o' o o
O "^ ' '
!* :
t-l
o be o be o
OOQo
>>5
I
k< a> (£ <£ «
o t, %. t^ u
s
Hi.
O tH O
o © o
a
li
xj 1^
6 ;S
§S
ft"
fci .^ >-i o o
« e8 <» O C
©XJ
c a
O"
o n
.£fo
2 05 oi
2*-
OQQO
;0>fOO-*>0 0'-iO>-<*<t^e><CS-«*<
<50l^»O«0iC«D»;0
1S^J^SS§2?^??^^
05 Oi Oi 3; 3C' 05 05 ;
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WOULD WHEATS 187
On the basis of their kernel characteristics, the wheats grown in
the Orange Free State were classified as red and white winter wheats.
On the other hand, the wheats grown in Transvaal were, in the main,
typically hard red spring wheats. Western Province wheats were
large wliite wheats of winter characteristics.
The milling quality of the wheats from each Province was excellent,
as a large quantity of flour of medium ash content and good color
was obtained in almost every instance. Compared as to Province,
the wheats grown in the Western Province had slightly bette^r milling
quality than those grown in either Orange Free State or in Transvaal.
With regard to the milling quality of the several classes of wheat
produced in the Union, the wliite wheats were somewhat similar
to the spring wheats and the red winter wheats.
From a baking standpoint, the flour milled from the wheat grown
in each Province, as well as the flour milled from each class of wheat,
was not greatly different. On the basis of averages, the flour milled
from the hard red spring wheats was slightly stronger. Compared
with wheats of the same classes grown in North America and Russia,
the baking strength of all classes of South African wheats is noticeably
low. It would be decidedly helpful if they could be blended with
strong wheat from America to improve their baking qualities.
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF ASIATIC WHEATS
Studies were made of the milling and baking qualities of wheat
grown in the following Asiatic countries: India, Iraq, Japan, and
Palestine. Results of these tests are described in the following pages.
INDIA
Wheat ranks high among the cereal crops of India. It is exceeded
in importance only by rice and the grain sorghums. The area
devoted to wheat in India, 26,000,000 to 35,000,000 acres, has not
increased perceptibly during the last 20 years. Production has
fluctuated between 250,000,000 and 382,000,000 bushels annually.
In British India nearly 40 per cent of the wheat area is irrigated.
In the Punjab, about one-half of the wheat-sown area is irrigated.
Three-fourths of the total crop of India is produced in the North-
West Frontier Province and the Central Provinces. The importance
of wheat in northwestern India is the result of a combination of lower
rainfall and greater extremes of temperature than are found in the
more humid and tropical eastern and southern portions of India.
Climate is the most important factor regulating the production of
wheat in India. The best crops are obtained in years when the late
monsoon rains are ample and well distributed, and when good rains
occur during the first half of the ** cold- weather" season. Wet and
cloudy weather when the crop is in the head, and hot winds before
harvest, usually lower the yield. A heavy reduction in yield always
accompanies a deficiency in summer rainfall.
INDIAN VARIETIES
To compare the milling and baking properties of the wheats grown
in India with those grown in other parts of the world, samples of a
number of varieties, typical of Indian wheats found in commerce,
were obtained from various sources.
188 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
From the Central Provinces samples of six varieties were secured
through the kindness of W. Youngman, economic botanist to the
Government. These varieties were Bansi, Howrah, Kathia, Mundi,
Red Pissi, and White Pissi. All of these wheats were fall sown in
the ^' cold-weather" season.
Bansi is a hard wheat (durum) grown generally over the Central
Provinces. Howrah is a durum variety grown on the plains of the
Central Provinces. Kathia would be classified as a poulard wheat in
the United States. White Pissi is a white variety, and is the most
commonly grown wheat in the Central Provinces. Mundi is a white
wheat. Red Pissi classifies as a hard red winter wheat.
Samples of four varieties were obtained from the North- West
Frontier Province through the courtesy of W. Robertson Brown,
agricultural officer in charge: Federation, Marquis, Pusa No. 4, and
Pusa 80.5.^
The variety Federation originated in Australia and is grown as a
popular spring variety, occupying over 25,000 acres of the irrigated
wheat area of the North- West Frontier Province.
Pusa No. 4 is a very early spring wheat grown under irrigation,
occupying about 300,000 acres of irrigated land in the North- West
Frontier Province. This variety is held in high repute throughout
this Province.
Pusa 80.5 is as yet in the introductory stage and promises to be a
serious rival of Pusa No. 4. The North American variety Marquis is
also in the introductory stage. The tested lot of this variety came
from the first harvest after arrival in India in 1926.
Finally, through the courtesy of Ram Dhan Singh, cereaHst to the
Punjab Government, samples of a number of additional varieties were
received. Ten of these represented the variety Punjab No. 8, two
the variety Punjab No. 11, four the variety Punjab No. 14, and one
the variety Punjab No. 17. These wheats were gro^vn throughout
the Province of Punjab and with the exception of the varieties obtain-
ed from Gurdaspur (samples 15294, 15297, and 15311) and in the
Rawal Pindi district (samples 15293 and 15296) they were growTi in
dry places of deficient rainfall and having a deep water table, where,
for successful wheat growing, irrigation is essential.
All of the Punjab wheats are amber or white wheats except Pmijab
No. 14, which is red-kerneled. All the varieties w^ere developed
through selection by the agricultural department of Punjab. Pimjab
No. 11 occupied more than a million acres two or three years ago,
since that time its cultivation has been declining, and it is gradually
being replaced by Punjab No. 8 A. The variety Punjab No. 8 A
occupied more than a million acres in 1926, and the acreage is rapidly
increasing. Punjab No. 14 is a well-knowTi wheat in those sections
that depend on rain for growth, as contrasted with irrigated land.
No estimate of the acreage sown to varieties Punjab No. 14, Punjab
No. 8 B, or Punjab No. 17, is available. Punjab No. 8 B and Pimjab
No. 17 are reported as very good bread wheats, but they do not yield
as well as does Punjab 8 A.
Club and durum varieties are not very important in the Punjab.
The wheats of the Punjab are not divided into spring and winter
wheats as the wheat is invariably fall sown in the comparatively mild
temperature that prevails there.
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 189
The samples of the variety Punjab No. 8 A were collected from 10
different points in the Punjab with a view to ascertaining the limits of
variation within a variety and the bearing of environment on the
milling and baking properties. The points at which these samples
were grown are shown in Table 118 under the laboratory numbers
15296, 15297, 15300, 15301, 15302, 15305, 15306, 15307, 15308, and
15309.
The results of the milling and baking tests of these varieties are
given in Tables 119 and 120.
190
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
SI
O « o -w o
£-2-
g^l
MS
^ 052;
lOOOOOOOOOO>-ii-HOOOOO«-iOC^OOO--0— lOOO
•gC^Oi-ie0OC^O'^OOOO»-irHOO»-i»-iO00i-lOOO'-IOOOOC^
05— (•^J'.-HlOOMOJO'^OOit^.-liOOO'Ot^^O^OOCOCOr-lOrHr^t-CCO
;oocciMootoa>-*50-*T-t
^-rrHC(N>CO«0'C-*0005.-i->!j<O00.-i
cc 03 CO ^' — <■ Q »c oi '*<■ o go op »o oi -<i< t-*
;OOOt^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
la
(S £ d c3'
'-' H O (B O
f-1 h-i CC «} f>
-H COIMCOrH
^9<
_ a> o o g o
"^ ."^ n^ T^ " 'O
111 ■ '-^
„ o
■^'''
S°
"■jQ
■^t^OiOOOCO— ■C^CO^<MiC-3'CO00r-t^>O(MC5'" — OtCrO-*— 'C5O00
1.11
-3?. .5-
Cjf 0!
'EI-
i^^c
o E E
C3 s: (B S3
C C C fl
O-^
OOCOO
|x>E-gg|c:
•Billion
;«a2
^1^ litis
fc. c *- ,ir — i 3 n* r/-,
llllill
\-> St
oScScScSoJiicScS
^^^^^^^^
cccccccc
OOOOOOOO
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS
191
(q 8[3nB janiJoo)
CO -^ CO M (m' <N e4 CO CO c< C-OOOOOOOO wCOOC'C'OwC^ww
q" f-' r-' 00 1— ' t^' oi o* i-H t~-' to t^ »o t^' 00 03 1>-' t--' oo t-' od o* <o' »o lo o od c» «' t^* t-'
Q^ ■^' ■^' »d -"ii" ■*' lO to" «5 ■^' CO CO im' -^ Tf lo Tf< co' »c" co' ■^' CO CO CO e^' >o "?' »o eo' co ■^
'ti(Cccf£inixo>a>a^ur>t^inT^aonc^u:><^>C)00-^co^^aLt^fOcO'-t
.Trt--0'OOt-000^05i-iir5-»t"OQOOCOOcO'SeOOt^COO>?S'*00'^C^
^ CO IN CO CO CO CO* ■^' TjJ CO (M' CO* (M' CO co' CO CO co' CO* CO eo" im' (N* M (N »C co' CO in" CO CO
•t^(McooQ.-i0505c<i-»*<oe<»cc>c<>i^i:--oot^MC>icoo'^ooc^^»ot->»coo
ocot^t-55t-(M50co— i-*>«2oi->*'rHoo05t-ooa>2Koc5»oiMOco'«'coeo
n* OS 00 oi OS CO '^' im' CO 05 00 00 «o' oi O* r-^ oi 00 O oo' 05 O 00 t-^ «d CO O O* OO' Oi 05
•r^rHOOst^OOf^OOOO'^^'-'^QOcOiOQC^eOM^OI^MCOOOO
ca5«>->Ticoo-^05i-ii---^t--iO'^eoGoi^oio25o»ot^i-i'»»<oicso5^cSoo
Q* 03 o5 c> o o (m' CO -^ oi Oi 05 ^^' o "-H ^' OS 05 .-< oi o t^' 00 00 1^ CO '^' o a> oi OS
•■*(N(MrH(MTr.-<C0C0»O
.iM(Mr-i(MrHcocoiMco(M "^-^r^r c.~^r^''^r - r - CT^ _ ^
lO'^'itiOt^^QCOQO
■i^Oi-H00C0'*ii0C0C0lM05t^— <b-0'^^C30500eOOO«DCOt^O'^Q<Ci^«5
<.>t-Tj<iococoaoo0^oi--eo«c»o«5»C'<*<-»i<coooi~'^eooOi»cot^S-^eoTit
■»-;-<tiC0^IM-^O>OC0-^e-1Q^'0t^-^-^^r-Ht0C0"5C0OQO'«*<a5.-<QU3
'-'COt^05C303i»OiCcC;i^iOOiO>OOcC«OOOOcOOt^Oii;«DiOtD«C>C
fl^o
coQOiMr-(t^coo5aooot^o05-^i»t^a>-Hio»OQOO'Ococooo»o«ct^oo
oo?ic5o>-i<»oO'-icot^«'co»o»or— oot^o«o®t^t^CT>T»<o>oc^«ot>.
-oid n8:}n[i! ui uino^nio
JTiog m uiai^ojd ua^nto
jnog UT UTpT3T[{)
Jtiog m mn8:}n[£)
inog m md^oid 8pnJ3
'\^di\ss. UI nio;}ojcl 8ptU3
•Si
<J^
piOB ojpbt;
Hd
:iB8iiM. UI qsy
jnog UI qsy
eniBA enjiosBO
^2 [:
i >^ i ;
>T3 o o
cooooocooocoooo
■C'CO'CO'O'O'O'U'O.ti'O'O'O'O
I I ! I ! I I I ! !•« I ! I I
I'd
ca ® I
-CO
CO I
! I cs 1 I b _
O O"^ ' Or- O 1^ > O O O O O O^ ' X3 ' O O O O O
: !»5 ii ;5s^2 ; i i i i ;'s5®5 ; : i : i
1 I>3 IcQ iBcoH I I I I • itZjKcQfii III..
jnou JO pjJBq Jdd jBoq^vV
!iMCSCS(MiM!NCv«(M(MIMIMiMIN(MC^C^(M<NC>4CSC^C^(N(N(NIMC5<NC'lc5
•K.(M-*ii350eoc^t^r-Hi^M.-Hoo'OiOooor^osoe^eooao»c«coJoo<OQOeo
<j
-.T»<(NIMOOi
a, i^ i^ I- 1- r- '
paitioos pu«
paireoio siseg
--X'X)Tt3i«O.-HiO0500t^-*O00t^<D»-<Oe^
o •^' lo lo •^' r-J c^i c4 c4 «o «o CO «o V <>
■ t^ i^ t^ t^ t^ t^ i^ i^ i^ . - 1^ t^ r^
. ic ..'. .r, Tl 71 o TT
.^oioec-H— (Osioij<
Snuodnia^ ajoj
-oq :)BdqAi jo oan^sioj^;
•goooocr-«coco»o>c«c-^t^tot^-^0'^ooeo»oeO'*«ot^e>«iot^t^t^QO'*
. • O OS OS Oi O O -^' '-<' --h' ^' Oi Oi OS O 0» OS 05 o> o> o> oJ o> o» c> o> o> o> o» o> o»
poAoraaJ s3m
-inoos puB sauiiia^ojog
•j|j<oooooJt^ooo>csco«beo«oc^o-^co'*'C«»coJ>o<C'005t>-oot>»o«o
.• ^' CO CO CO c^ CO • r-i" f^ rt' .-<■ ^' ^* ^ .4 --; ^' ^' -i' ^' •^•.-;.-; •^•,-;_;^*^
I3qsnq aad iq3i3M "^sqj,
^co«ooot->.ot>.c>«'^'^e<<oc^t^c^t^eoo050'xf«0'^oi^o»c<-He^»-<«o>
•ON iDoijBaoqBi
ScocsceS:tOO>03diS6>9$0'wOO><
I lO O kO I
192 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, TJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
s
lis
.3 a
3 p
a"3
® 9 ©
r
o o 5 « cs
C fl fl
2 = 2
O Ih " ■ ■
O O
t
•3
oft
goo
oho
a laj
o o
o .§
o ft ' ft
O© 'OSO© ' ' '08O '©O©
:^pq
a
I.
' ' !s o Mh O ' ' ' ' '
© »- .Sr © I-
03 >*>
«ogaoo'^gwgg'«oog";^aodd
>.'^ 05 03 'O'^ >>q3 >>« « >>'^.'^. <SX3 ee'^'C'q
OU
3
a
ddft"
:^" :© "ooft^oQ ;
SoO Id 1 il7o 1 Id
Uh^O
•t; 5 .- o .is o 2 ~ o ~ ~ L' o
ceoo3oo3oo |o ■ •--
© O
1>^
! 5 o o 6 o
, pui CL, Ph Ph Oh
>da§i
ribi.i:-o
1 ' « >< 03 O
OOOOOOC!»CS-^'-H«CHD'Tj<a>«OOlO'«*iC<laOCSQ'Tt"OOOOOOt~-.(»CDC^Qe<
I lO Q »0 O t^ S
ooogopopsoosoQSpos^p
oooopoopooppoo<
oiop»oot^o5t^'^aco5»OTtiT}<r^<MiMr-ia>^Tt<(Nt^-<ticso5-»*'coo
nccoxjOi-Hooooot^r^t^cct^-^os-^ocociot^oioosc^ooooit^co
I ^ on — ; lo »o c>i ^' uo id c> cs> i-t »c M oJ ■*' ?d cd >o «d r-i ■»»; id o rt' «d' •^* «5 •-I cp
'COCOOCOiOOCDQD^CDiOCDCDCOCO^CO^OOCDCOCOcO^t^COCOOO^
ioNiOCOfC-^«O'*iC^C<)iO<M'*-^iOC<0-^'<#-^Tti-<tnO'^-^CO0O?»TJi
■<*;t^<oicooeo^c^cO'^c<iio-^e<Doot^t^ioe^c
•^•^■"^■^■^■^■^T*<TtlT*<»CiOlOiOiClOiOiCiOi
!S8;
;s=3§2^
) cc CO cs cc r«
: iC lO iC iC lO
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WOKLD WHEATS 193
The moisture content of the Indian wheats examined was rather
low, averaging about 10 per cent, the extremes being 9.3 and 11.5 per
cent. Since Indian wheats can absorb so much moisture their pur-
chase must be somewhat profitable.
Partly because of the low moisture content of Indian wheats,
and partly because of their plump condition, the test weight per
bushel was, with but one or two exceptions, rather high, and the flour
yields obtained therefrom averaged the highest of any of this class of
wheat tested from any source throughout the world. The flour was
soft to granular in character, creamy white in color, and of high ash
content, especially as compared with flour milled from white wheats
grown in Australia or North America.
Describing his experiences with Indian wheat, Kent-Jones {5, p. 36)
states that —
while not strong in the usually accepted sense, most Indian wheats are able to
impart to a blend that stability which is so often desired. * * * Tl^g Pgal
strength of Indian wheats can be seen when mixed with Russian wheats. * * *
To get the best out of Indian wheats * * * they should be conditioned, if
possible, so that the proteolytic enzymes are encouraged. * * * Their pro-
tein is too coagulated.
INDIAN EXPORT WHEATS
The quantity of wheat exported from India varies with the home
demand. In the five years before the World War the export trade
of India was considerable, averaging over 50,000,000 bushels an-
nually. Since the war this trade has become very erratic and is now
believed by many to be in a moribund condition. In 1926-27 total
exports were 11,088,000 bushels, and in 1927-28 they were 14,328,000
bushels. Most of the exported wheat goes to the United Kingdom
and is used to fill the gap between the Australian and North American
imports.
On an average the protein content of the majority of the Indian
wheats tested, as well as the protein content of the flour milled from
them, was low. Exceptions are found in the wheats received from
the North- West Frontier Province. Two of the varieties from this
Province were of exceptionally high protein content. The low aver-
age protein content would indicate limited baking strength. How-
ever, Indian wheats evidently have excellent milling properties.
As to baking qualities, it is apparent that the majority of the white
and soft red winter wheats of India lack baking strength. The vol-
ume of the loaf of bread was low, and the loaf was coarse in texture
and of undesirable color. The North American variety Marquis,
however, proved to be an excellent wheat from both the milling and
baking standpoints. Of the two durum varieties, Bansi and Howrah,
Howrah had by far the better baking quality. In no way do the
baking properties of the white wheats of India compare with the bak-
ing quality of the white wheats grown in Australia or North America;
they resemble rather those of the white wheats of continental Europe
as far as baking strength is concerned. In milling value, however,
they outrank all the other white wheats of the world.
As long as supplies of Indian wheat were regular, English millers
invariably used them in their mixtures and the trade was profitable
to all concerned. On account of the greatly increased consumption
of wheat by the people of India, now about 320,000,000 bushels a
112424°— 30 13
194 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUKE
year, due to a steady rise in the standard of living all over the country,
exports of Indian wheat have become very irregular. Naturally
buyers lose interest in irregular supplies, so that Indian export wheat
is not now as popular as it used to be.
Karachi wheat is one of the most common types of Indian export
wheat. Through the courtesy of the grain-sampling bureau, hereto-
fore mentioned, samples of three cargoes of Karachi wheat unloaded
in England were examined for milling and baking properties. The
samples of all three cargoes graded as mixed wheat because of admix-
tures of spring, durum, and winter classes in the white wheat. Test
weight per Winchester bushel varied from 60 to 60.4 pounds. This
was somewhat lower than was the case with the pure varieties.
(Tables 118, 119, and 120.) Nevertheless the export wheats gave a
good yield of flour, the three samples averaging 74 per cent. The
flour had the same characteristics as the flour milled from the pure
varieties of wheat and its baking characteristics were similar. Appar-
ently Indian wheats should be blended mth other wheats to obtain
the best results.
IRAQ
Production of wheat in Iraq, formerly a part of Turkey, lying be-
tween the Tigris and Euphrates Kivers (since the World War a British
Protectorate), amounted to an average of 4,000,000 bushels annually
in the years 1924-26.
According to F. K. Jackson, inspector general of agriculture at
Bagdad, Iraq, the local types of wheat are gradually dying out and
are being replaced by more promising varieties from other countries.
Samples of nine of these promising selections were forwarded for
milling and baldng tests. A description of the samples and the results
of the tests are given in Tables 121, 122, and 123.
Three of these selections were classified as durum wheats and
six as white wheats. From a milling standpoint the durum varieties
were below average because of low test weight per bushel, low yield
of flour, or both. On the other hand, with but one exception, the
test weight and flour yield of the white varieties was very good. As
is usual with white wheats, the protein present was low in the majority
of instances.
The baking quality of two of the durum varieties was very poor.
The third variety, Durum Leucomelan, exhibited fairly good baking
strength.
Half of the white varieties (Clarendon, Nyngan No. 3, and Come-
back) had good baking strength. The other three (Punjab No. 8 B,
Punjab No. 11, and Punjab No. 17) produced flour typical of the
white wheats of India, that is, of poor baking strength when used
alone. It is expected that the quality of the wheats grown in Iraq will
be improved through the selection program now in progress,
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 195
S-2 - c I
.Z^ (- © K (S
_ Ti -U J3 o
o 2 o -w o
1§
^ili
;NOOOOOOOC^
^ CO ^ CO CO ^ CO CO CO CO
aoC^OOOOCOOlOiOCOiO
"cOcOGOC^^'oi^O^
^^DiOiOCOO*OCO?D?D
•tit^MO«5T»<{N«OTf<00
■"OOOOOOOOO
xo
§00
:sE
PI ■ - • o o
eoc^'^osicr^toooo
•«»< Tf< -^ ■«*<■»»< Tt< Tf ^ ^ I
Co "^
c
eo "S
:?
Si
60
I
1 -^
(q aiSuB iamjoo)
cicoeoTfMcoeoeoco
suxajojd
jnou ni uio'jojcl ua^nio
mog m uipBno
jnog UT unig^nio
jnog m niojojd apiuo
"tSo5Tt<cooiS^uoSco
o't— "ocot^«dQCod«otd
Q^T»i«5C0-«»<-<*<<J«OC0C0
(1, CO co' c^' CO c4 CO CO (N (>i
0 • o> (m' i^ 03 00 05 c5 1--' r-'
ut maijojcl optuo
1^
PJOB OpOBI
Hd
?C8qAi UT qsy
jnog ui qsy
aniBA 9UTtOSB£)
11
n'ocqodooJcJcSt^^od
.eO-*coiM(NcO<N?5c5
a.c5 •• •
I C5 t-- lO •<*t Tti ^ lO (
0,0
^§82^§Sg§§§
a .'s
08 08
1 « ; «
! >>>»>> ,
<c^ £73 a? o o o o
3 o o
O I .
«> o o o o
'S
ML
jnog
jO pireq jad :)BoqA\.
I:i
jBaqM oajj
a3B}[aop sisB{£
}B9qM
pajnoos puB
paaBap sisBg
Suuadraaj ajojaq
:)BaqA ;o ajnisioj^
paAotuoj S3UT
-jnoos puB sSumaaidg
pqsnq jad )q3{aM )saj.
•ON AlO!)BJOqB'l
liil
^ O O i
> I IWm^W^M
•g'ese^ooojooojooto^
•QO»OQOt>.eO-*5Ct^O
St::f2gi
■yc^t^-<osociesc^eo
Q-^oJdoioooorf
•^■o^o»i-ic^ot^»oco
Qj n' TjJ c«i ^ es p4 CO 'H ,-;
*^coS>oS<oScococo
196 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE
o
^
OX5
5^
O b4
^"3
S-2|
Iggll
4 <s bo
o o
03 O
iJPhh:5Pui-:;p^
Bo
o o o ' o.a I
O X O ' O c5
«5O'-i00(MO-*00C0
!Tti050QOCt^(NO
ooooooooo
^ ^•■^-^-^-^-^-^-^'^-
■g0000«0»0OMO00«O
_^
osiooocooecr)<oo»0'5;
_l
_§
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WOKLD WHEATS 197
JAPAN
The trend of wheat production in Japan is upward. Production in
1928 was nearly 31,000,000 bushels. Imports are variable. In
1924-25 about 15,000,000 bushels were imported. The estimated
importation for 1925-26 was nearly 28,000,000 bushels. Exports of
wheat from Japan are chiefly in the form of flour sent to China and
Si am.
Common red and white wheats of spring and winter habit are promi-
nently grown. Durum and club wheats are also grown to a limited
extent. Among the wheat varieties of commercial importance
grown in Japan are Akobozu No. 1, Akakawa Aka, Daruma, Igachi-
kugo, Martin Amber, Shirobunbu, Soshu, Sapporo Harukomuki No. 9,
and Sapporo Harukomuki No. 10.
Requests were made to various agricultural authorities in Japan
for samples of all of these varieties for the purpose of testing their
milling and baking properties. Through the courtesy of Takatsugu
Abiko, agronomist of the Hokushu Agricultural Experiment Station
at Sapporo, Japan, samples of Martin Amber, Sapporo Harukomuki
No. 9, and Sapporo Harukomuki No. 10, were received. A sample of
Akakawa Aka (Red Chaff Red) was sent but was lost in transit.
The loss was very unfortunate because this variety is said to be repre-
sentative of about 34 per cent of the winter wheat grown in the
Prefecture of Hokushu. The variety Martin Amber is also said to be
of winter habit, and is representative of about 41 per cent of the
winter wheat grown in this Prefecture.
The varieties Sapporo Harukomuki No. 9 and No. 10 represent 76
per cent and 5 per cent, respectively, of the wheat of spring habit
grown in the Prefecture of Hokushu. No club or durum wheats are
grown there.
The director of the Kumamoto Agricultural Experiment Station,
S. Tanji, located at Kumamoto, Japan, sent samples of the varieties
Akobozu No. 1, and Shirobunbu. Both were said to be of winter
habit, and the samples were grown at the experiment station. Ako-
bozu No. 1, is representative of about 27.3 per cent of all the winter
wheat grown in Prefecture of Kumamoto. In 1926, 14,463 acres
were sown to this variety. Shirobunbu is representative of 10.1
per cent of the winter wheat grown in this Prefecture; in 1926, 5,369
acres of it were sown.
Director H. Ando, of the Imperial Agricultural Experiment Station,
located at Nishigahara, Tokyo, Japan, forwarded samples of the
varieties Soshu, Daruma, and Igachikugo. He stated that the
variety Soshu is of winter habit and is representative of the wheat
grown in northern Japan. Daruma is commercially important in
the Kan to district which surrounds Tokyo.
Igachikugo is the most important commercial variety that occurs
in the southern parts of Japan. It is produced chiefly in the districts
of Chugoku and Kyushu. The wheat sent was grown at the Saga
agricultural farm. Saga Prefecture, Kyushu.
In addition to the samples of the above varieties a sample of the
"native wheat" grown in Chosen (Korea), was received from S. Kato,
director of the agricultural experiment station located at Suigen,
Chosen, Japan. This is a soft red winter variety. Unfortunately
the sample was not large enough to make a milling and baking test.
Results of the milling and baking tests of Japanese wheats are
given in Tables 124, 125, and 126.
198 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, V. S. DEF1\ OF AGRICULTURE
O O O ON oo o o
Ilsgl
1=^ •
. .
•
KS55-S
^
£§ = "«
^
II
•geo C>< oo ««0 OU5 O OS
s=- • -
4 ^ ■ ^
■*
1
|8-i
r^ 05 o -^oj coto o» 1-1
|c^ TtJ CO eoc^ nci ec -rf
lil
'
« ^
^eo to 00 cot- i«(N 05 -H
rest
eigh
per
ushe
|g s :§ 55d gg ^ s
^ XJ
^
_
rs ®
•«oo o «c o
00 to
S ^
Ij5 g g -
fe 5B
3) M
h
mS
(^
1
■"O O O (NO OC
o o
i^
Q
«
bl
0
e
T
a>
Pi
c
' ^' fc]
a
1
CQ
a
IE
1 ^ 1
^
iz;
:z
«tf
t
5
'-'
CO
(NrH
'-
CO
i
o
t£
be
1
a
1
il
1
-o
i^
P
iT3
•- o c
^2 -§^
a
d
"O
-o -o x;
-!■
XJ
2
a
|4^
^
^
W
o
^
1 s
!S
1 :^
3
' g
1
' o
>>
1 1
ii
is
i
es
w
>
1 i^i
1 rl
!S >3
ill!
o2
m
g" a a
1 H
p
e
1
.2 .2 .2
'.2
o
.2
"-I^
III
■^
s
q
1
1 "2
w
^
'Sap
i-g
-w
S
Sea
' s
g
1
•rj "P "p
'C
c
'fc
P. S. 2
is.
§
2
o a> V
iS
S
s
S
^2^ .«
i-5
„
s
2§g3g
3 8 3-C =
d IL
3 I
•C 1
OT -" (S *J
3i^ii
goflSg-H
ds
5ci
.2 3 .2 c «
OTJ.£i 3 1.2
O-C
feWfeSfe
a I
<;<:<:
;<i u<
<J
"t: c? tj o
§J § ?2
?gs |§
2
g
^gg^
•O 00 «o
CO CO
«
S2 '"'^
CI
:o
■5
2
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 199
(q aiauB J8u:jJ0£))
(M* r-i rt' es (n' im" (n* (N*
n'c»odC5coo5odoo
ljOco>o>ot^cort<co
o" 00 OJ 05 !>; 00 o 00 00
^05CO«0<NC>1C50»0
II, Tf lO id T^J lo CO io" Tj<
•Mr^CO^COOiC<)rti>0
Q^cC"^cccococcco^
aTft^oosaioooTti
q" 05 1-H c5 00 OS t>-" c5 o
n ■ o im' im' c> ^H 00 o -J
^(NO<NiM<r>00t^<N
0-<*ir-lfOt^'^OOIMC»5
.C«5iO(MIMMeOCOTj<
a.c5
i-tcor^cc>OTtio5<N
CCTtt«O'^f0Tt*rJ<-.#
«t^Oi<OeOtOO'Ot>-
■«OO-*00(N0i<-iO
a.'o
jno0 m ni8:}oad U9:jn[£)
jnog UT mpBiio
jnog m UTna}ni£)
jtnog ni ma^oid epruo
?88qM m tna^oad apaio
o I
<^
pioB opoBq:
Hd
fBaqAV ui qsy
jnog UT qsy
aniBA anipsBo
! 1 >»
.ti "^ x: .1^ "^
2^
o ; •; o ;
w I o o w o
r3 «^
jnog JO laiiBq aad :jBaqA\.
■ N. CS CO QO CO
•^•«»<cooa5oor^coeo
aajj egBJioop sis^a
IBaqAv pajtnoos
puB pauBap sjsBg;
■«05— i.-iOJ«o«or>.«
• t^' ^' e6 1-^ cs « «rf •^
H^t0t>»50«0t>.0l^t^
3n|jaduia^
aaojaq ^eaqM jo ajtusioiv
•vjO«O«C00CS00»C(X)
paAomaj
sSnijnoos puB sSajuaaios
■Qt^-HOCOOCOOJiC
laqsnq J9d ^qSiaM ^sax
; o «o -< »c ■»»< o ■«»< •o
i rf e^ «5 c5' <M e^l esX
ON ^lo^woqe^
CO CQ CO Pv CD Cv ^ <
200 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEFT. OF AQRICUL/TUEB
«a
?i
.a a
J3 «
3,2
S-2 2
pLH^feO^
pMm
h5U
^ eS 03
a
« « O 03 o
(Qooooooo
■ C^ rH rH -H <?f
; ec O ■*■<*< 00
SSSI
S o g
O !0
o
-da
O I (m
O ' 0)
(u ;>
>« iC S
Sfefe
) CQ CO CO CO CO CO ^ CO ^
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 201
All the Japanese wheats milled easily. The greatest yield of flour
was obtained from the white-wheat varieties. Martin Amber and
Sapporo No. 10 had the best milling quality. Their performance
compared very favorably with the milling performance of wheats of
similar classification grown in India and Australia. The milling
quality of the varieties Sapporo No. 9 and Shirobunbu was also good.
All the other Japanese varieties tested below average in quality.
The baking quality of the flours milled from the Japanese wheats
was variable. Of outstanding importance is the baking quality of
Sapporo No. 9 and Sapporo No. 10, as both varieties showed excellent
milling quality, but the flour from these varieties was practically
devoid of strength, as the resulting loaves were very small in volume,
1,400 and 1,540 cubic centimeters, respectively. The texture of the
loaves was poor and crumbly, and the break and shred was indicative
of poor gluten strength. Akobozu No. 1 and Shirobunbu, on the
other hand, exhibited very much better baking properties. The
volume of the loaves was good, as was the color, grain, and texture of
the crumb. Crust color, however, was poor, indicating lack of diasta-
tic activity. The flour milled from the other varieties was variable in
strength. Although the volume of the resulting loaf, in many cases,
was fairly good, the size was attained by sacrificing quality of loaf for
size of loaf. The color, grain, and texture of the loaf was not good,
nor was the color of the crust nor the break and shred of the loaf.
Strong wheats from overseas, if blended with Japanese wheats,
should help to stabilize the baking qualities of the Japanese wheat
flours.
PALESTINE
Acreage devoted to wheat production in Palestine is not extensive.
The most important factor limiting production is the climate. The
usual delay in rains during December and January, insufficiency of
rain in April, and the absolute lack of rain in May, accompanied by
hot drying winds (sirocco) which blow for many days toward the end
of April or the first of June, are disastrous to the successful production
of cereals.
Durum and poulard wheats are chiefly grown. The most important
durum varieties are Kaf el Ruhamau, grown extensively in Judea and
Samaria; Katrani, a drought-resistant variety, extensively cultivated
in the coastal sections; Noorsi, cultivated on the plains of Sarona and
Gaza, and Jaljooli, grown extensively in the Haifa district. Sarim, a
very hard type, does well on the red clay soil of Hauran and in the
Valley of the Jordan, but does not thrive elsewhere.
Haiti is the most prominent variety of poulard wheat.
Samples of the two durum varieties, Noorsi and Jaljooli, and of the
poulard variety Haiti, were obtained from the Palestine Jewish
Colonization Association, through the courtesy of Amram KhazanofF,
and their milling and baking properties were determined. Data
resulting from this investigation are given in Tables 127, 128, and 129.
202
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTtTEE
Foreign
material
other
than
dockage
1
03 S
ill
Test
weight
per
bushel
oot-OOC<J
1
•532
^1
■gt^t^QO
1
!
■"OOO
o
2
G
1
e
<5
E
2
a
0
1
1
i
1
1
E
P
i
§
.2
>
1
^
'5
a
S
.2
P
'5
\^
Lab-
ora-
tory
No.
1?
5::
-s s
11
CO f~
(q9i8uBJ8n}J0o)
X9pn| iC^iienb u9jnio
e<3e<ieo
snp^ojd
U9:»ni3 di nma^nio
p. rt.
40.43
34.83
40.85
jnon
ui uw^oicf u9^nio
p.ct.
10.14
10.45
10.33
jnog ni nipviio
P.ct.
6.04
6.81
6.11
jnog ui aiu9?nio
P.ct.
4.10
3.64
4.12
jnog
UI uia^oad 9piuo
P.ct.
11.86
12.18
12.00
5B9qAi
m upload 9piuo
P. ct.
12.09
12.74
12.21
II
piOB OpOBI
P. ct.
0.479
.314
.401
Hd
(COO
%^^M. UI qsv
p.d.
1.53
1.68
1.75
jnog ui qsv
P.ct.
0.91
.82
.89
3
o
"o
o
o
9niBA auipsBo
1
.23
>
11
r
o 1 1
II
•s'l
1 : ;
•^6 6
® 1 I
> I 1
JTlOn JO
|9xiBq J9d ^eaq^vi
267
280
269
.2
^B9qM 99JJ
-93B:^oopsiSBa
P.ct.
69.8
66.6
69.4
IBaqM
p9jnoos puB
p9UB9p SISBg
P.ct.
71.9
68.8
71.1
SuiJtaduiej aaojaq
;B9qk JO 9Jn;sioi\[
P.ct.
9.1
9.1
9.2
p9Aoni9J s3ni
-JnOOSpUB S3UIU99J0S
P.ct.
3.2
3.0
2.4
igqsnq
J9d jq3l8AV ?S9X
L6s.
62.6
60.5
62.5
OM iiJojBaoqBT
14212
14213
14211
"^ «"S u.
■siii
1
1
i i
00
-M
[ 1
«v»
"S
" 1
•»-l
§
• •
1
•§•§
?>.
n
^ : : 1
^
■^
00
S
«
t)
E-.
0
s
fe
Cod
•^
0
^-o-o
-■Q
0
1
pq ; I
X!
en
P
«>
-^
^
«c
<»
0
a
g
>» : :
e ! i
2 0 d
8
00
0
o'O'O
»5
©
>> ' '
1
® : :
S>
^
.Q
'o'
g
00
•^
2
5-
3
^
S
b
^^
?
H
0 i i
a
pk 1 ;
C3»
ox.
G a
^gss
^
2S
^
OXi
^sss
1
53
•11
1
ti.
«
^c»t.oo
s
■s§
gS>cS§
m-^
1
1^
0
0
^
grt
•iii
1
d.2
1-
^^'^'^'
,^
1
llll
•«o»oo^
1
b£
ooj^C^..^
PQ
0 ®
.^ to COO
<
Ph
§
l^gg
III
CJCO-H
SSs
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 203
Of the two durum varieties, Noorsi was the poorer as far as miUing
properties were concerned, but it had a greater baking strength than
did the variety JaljooH.
The milling quality of the poulard variety was good, but its baking
strength was poor.
The milling and baking qualities of the Palestine varieties are in
line with milling and baking properties of wheats of similar classes
grown in Egypt, Tunis, Morocco, and Greece, but are greatly inferior
to the milling and baking properties of the durum wheats grown in
North America and continental Europe.
OTHER ASIATIC COUNTRIES
Because of the unsettled conditions in China and Manchuria at the
time this study was made, it was not possible to obtain samples of
wheats from these countries. However, information accumulated
by B. W. Whitlock, in charge of the Pacific coast headquarters of the
Grain Division of the Bureau of Agricultural Economics, who made
a survey of the wheat situation in the Orient in 1924, is as follows:
In China, soft red winter and white wheats predominate. The
wheat of the Yangtse Valley is largely soft red winter wheat. As a
rule it is dirty, weevily, and heat damaged, and sells for about two-
thirds of the price of imported wheat. The wheat of the Yellow Kiver
Valley and the Shantung Peninsula is largely white wheat of a vitreous
nature. It, too, is marketed in a dirty and damaged condition.
In Manchuria, spring wheats predominate. They are of moderate
strength, resembling wheat of the Pacific Northwest, but they are
extremely dirty wheats and are often smutty; they mill into a flour
of poor color and flavor. They often carry an earthy odor, and for
this reason it is dangerous to use too high a proportion of Manchurian
wheats in blending.
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WHEATS GROWN IN OCEANIA
Australia and New Zealand represent the wheat-growing countries
of Oceania. Kesults of the milhng and baking properties of the wheats
grown in these countries are described in the following pages.
AUSTRALIA
AustraUa ranks ninth among the countries in the production of
wheat. The wheat acreage in AustraUa has been increasing since
1860. Since 1895 an area equivalent to 300,000 acres has been added
annually. The acreage devoted to the production of wheat reached
a maximum in 1915-16 because of the influence of the World War.
After this date there was a decrease until 1920-21. Since 1921 there
has been a marked advance in acreage, particularly in Western Aus-
traUa. In 1928, the acreage planted was the greatest ever sown.
Wheat exceeds any other crop in importance, as it involves about 60
per cent of the acreage under cultivation.
New South Wales has the largest acreage, closely followed by the
States of Victoria, South AustraUa, and Western AustraUa. As
compared with the acreage in these States, the acreage under wheat in
Queensland and Tasmania is of relatively small importance.
204 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICTJLTTJKE
The highest average yields per acre for the period 1916-1926 were
those in Tasmania and Victoria, followed in order by those in Queens-
land, South Austraha, New South Wales, and Western Australia.
The Australian wheat belt forms a more or less crescent-shaped
area in the southern portion of the continent and a similar but much
smaller territory to the southwest. According to A. E. V. Richardson,
director of the Waite Agricultural Institute, the inner margin of the
Australian wheat belt is determined by aridity and the outer margin
by increased humidity and mountain relief. Lack of transportation
facilities in Riverina and in Western Australia limit the expansion of
the wheat acreage.
Lack of moisture is an important factor limiting wheat yields in
the important wheat areas. Other climatic factors influencing pro-
duction are excessive heat and frost. Heat has an important bearing
on production throughout Austraha, varying in intensity in various
wheat-producing sections. Frosts are of importance in Tasmania
and Queensland and in some districts in South Austraha.
The varieties of wheats grown commercially in Austraha are mainly
common white wheats of Avinter habit. No wheats of the strictly
winter type are grown. Although wheats are sown in the fall in
Austraha, because of the short growing period, it is impossible to
secure reasonably good results with wheats of the winter type that
are typical of countries that have long growing seasons. The w^heats
of Australia are, therefore, classified as early, midseason, and late.
In South Australia there are no late wheats. The early type of
wheat is better adapted for this section of Austraha, although the
midseason wheats return heavier yields in late season.
AUSTRALIAN VARIETIES
Varieties of commercial importance grown in South Australia are
Gluyas Early, Gluyas Late, Federation, Currawa, Major, Queen Fan,
and Caliph. Gluyas Early and Caliph are early varieties. Gluyas
Early is typical of the wheat grown in South Australia. It is more or
less rust resistant. Gluyas Late is a selection from Gluj^as Early,
ripening about a week later than Gluyas Early. Federation, Currawa,
Major, and Queen Fan may be described as midseason varieties.
In the State of Western Australia common w^hite wheats represent
the major portion of the crop. Red varieties have gone out of culti-
vation, as they reduced the market value of the grain. Durum and
club varieties are not grown commercially.
Statistics are not available regarding acreage and production of all
the varieties under cultivation in Western Australia. In 1926-27,
2,776,818 acres were sown to wheat. About 47 per cent is sown to the
variety Nabawa, an early maturing variety grown extensively through-
out the wheat belt, and 14 per cent to the variety Gluyas Early. Other
early maturing varieties are Merredin and Noongaar. Yandilla King
is a late variety. The varieties Carrabin, Cedar, Florence, and
Comeback, are also grown to a varying extent. Carrabin is a prom-
ising variety of hard texture and good acre yields. Comeback and
Florence are now only sparsely grown because, even though they are
two of the best milling wheats in Western Australia, acre yields are
rather low.
MILLING AND BAKING QtJALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 205
As is the case in Western Australia and South Australia, the white
wheats form the major portion of the commercial varieties sown in
the State of Victoria. Durum and club varieties are likewise not grown
commercially. Only one or two varieties of red wheats are grown
commercially, and their production is declining because of the desire
that all of the Australian wheat marketed overseas be of uniform type.
Among the white wheats grown in Victoria, the varieties Federation,
Major, and Currawa are most important. Federation comprises over
60 per cent of the wheat grown in Victoria. Of the red winter wheats,
Red Russian alone represents the bread wheats. Its area of produc-
tion is small. The variety Warden is used extensively for the produc-
I tion of hay in the hay districts near Melbourne.
H| In New South Wales only red and white spring wheats of the vulgare
^^ species are grown. Ninety-seven per cent of the wheat produced is
white spring wheat, and 3 per cent is red spring wheat. Red and white
winter wheats, durum wheats, and club wheats are not grown. Of
the white spring varieties, Federation, Hard Federation, Canberra,
Comeback, and Ghurka are important in the order named. Bomen
is the most important among the red spring varieties.
The most important wheat varieties cultivated in Tasmania are
Braemar Velvet, Federation, Purple Straw, and Farmer Friend.
Braemer Velvet is first in importance, especially in the dry zones of
north central Tasmania; in the northern and more himiid zones it
tends toward excessive vegetation and becomes more susceptible to
• the attacks of disease. This variety is of winter habit.
Federation, also of winter habit, is of secondary importance as com-
pared with Hard Federation. It is grown mostly in southern Tas-
mania. .
Purple Straw, of winter habit, is the principal variety grown in
southeast Tasmania.
Through the cooperation of the State Departments of Agriculture
in New South Wales, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, and
Western Australia, a number of samples of wheat representative of
the types grown commercially in these States were obtained. They
were subjected to milling and baking tests to determine their relative
bread-making possibilities. The varieties received from the various
States are listed in Table 130. The milling and baking properties of
each sample are described in Tables 131 and 132.
206
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGBICULTURE
11
— fc! "W 9 =3
O c3 c *^ 8
OOOOOOOONOOOOOrHO ooooooccoccooooo.
i w tt)
■«r-c,-4000«»-(000000000 ©©oowooooooo«o<
s=^
Ifal
CS00»C»Ot»<»Oi-iC^i
I ■"r cc 05 'C r~- 00
iocor^<cioocsoc>^o«c<<t<oOQO»o
e>^oocooc<co;o500'o»0'^ooTf<Tf<o50s
r-; r-: r^: 00 o cJ oi 03 «5 oi ci t; o 05 ^' o
00O500O50COJO5O;o5OiC5C;O3O5Oseo
•«oooooc<»oooooooooo
Pc5
OOOOOOOO— i-^J't^eOOOOO"
S.8
w «2 CT! S.-S
If
K^A
'-' O S <D _
,-h' '«- +^
C 03 cs
JS w <M S I" CB
5^ ?3 fe-e ^ r. 52 2
11
?2X =«
M 03
o , ,
CC o o
g-u-o
3isg
^ooo
. - - - ._ . i-Tfooo loiCTf
CO CO CO CO eo CO CO cc CO rt M ^ rt c? •>*> ■«*< cococococo
i05OC»C0-*»0t^t-iO
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WOBLD WHEATS 207
(q 9i3uB jau^joo)
-oad U9;ni3 m uina^nio
io505otO'^oooo-^t^ooe>^Oiooooe<io'o
«, • CO c4 o o 00 «D c<j o •-<■ 1-i p4 o" «o >d t^ es 1-J oJ c^
eoc>i<NC>ic>ieco<ecc<ii-H
i05.-Hfieot^o>eoo-
jnog nj ute^^ojd U9:)ni£)
;.-iO«£>MOO->tC5-<*<e«50005->»'Oi-i — I'CO CO t^ (
•o6os^^^^od>-^o6Q6o6«Dojod«o■o■«1<■»^^odo^^
e<iQdocodoiodo»H«oc>
onog uj uipeno
t^T}<'^-^«oioo<oeotD
jnog ui um9:}ni£)
'^looo— I
Q^ CO CO CO
03C0<
C<ieO'OCOCOCO(N-^CO<M'CSr-ilNCO'<rcO
(NCO
t-. OS "3 Tf< 05 t^ CO
idcococoeococO'«j'iN'-<j<
onog UI niaijoad apiUQ
tje^<Noo
rt • OS o 00
eo50cooc»oootot^'cooooot^'«ti«cco
^t^.-iiOt^Oi-lCOC^iO'-iCO'OOSO''**
odCT>"cooo5 05o6^"o5t>^«d>ooQ6c^iod
Qco.-H<Oi-ia>05QeO'^
C5t^NO00CNt^O»-<«D
■<^' Oi O O O O i-* CO t^ (N
:jB8qAi m maijojd eptuQ
• OOeO-^Ot^«Ct^OO-^t^-^05000<
iio<ttr^rtoo<Na>05oor-icoTt<<Moootc><
loso'cor-Hooodi-Ioodt^'edt^oc^oi*
r^t>«5 05i
C>^»OC<l00t^C<J«)'^O»«
Oi-H,-^,-;,-i(Ncoo6co
<1^
piOB OI^OB^
oocooo<cooo«ooot^iot^«poi0>0"5
rt(MCO(NeO(NC^COCOC^r-i.-HrtT-<C^>-i
i-I»O05'Oi-Ht^C>^-<*IO5'-IO5'
C^r-H?5lMC0?5i-l03lMS?5(
Hd
»Ci >o ■*
lO CC CO O^ >0
* ■■ "" iO 'O -^ CO t^ "O Tfi -^ e^
:)B9qM UI qsy
G,^,
iOOO.-i0500>C»OM05COC^'3*«5t*
'C0OC0CS«O(M(Ne^C<CNiC«'<*<»0»-(
i ^- ^- ^ ^- ^ ^ ^ ^- ^ ^* ^•
jnog UI qsy
■«0'-H05I
'J -^ iC rf. ■
I l^'d • •
iTf<0C00O00«OCT>00
llOTf<Tt<50»0>OTt<CO
>OOlOt^t^
t^Tj<'<^1^1JI'«J11^«00'^
aniBA 9niiosBo
?^^§S2§j;;Se::§
S o
1-^ !
© o
>>>> I ; ; ; ; >>
ST3a>ooocg©o
Is
loooooboooco''^ [w [oo6
1>CO>CO
Cw
-a .2
gC3
coMcoco
oooooooo ojq " i o o o
E'-'if
© o ; ; ; 1 i ; ! ! I S ^ o
,a2>-CC!
ccW
*-^ I O O O Or; ,
^' C J 'CO -o -o ^ > '
^ i o ; i ! ; § o
jnog
JO lajjBq jad :)BaqA\.
lOOiO^tCt^OOCOOi-Hi-HQtDCOOifS
iSiS
?BaqM 93 jj
-aSe^ioop sisBa
■«Ol^'*i'O<0i-i<O'^-^C0<
■ d 1^ OO 00 iri r-< csi c4 (N !
iOOC^«OOTt<0"500
D,t^t^o<
> t^ t^ t>. t^ t^ t^ I
it^OC^»-^COCOCO<DO
}BaqAi
pejnoos puB
P9UB91D SlSBg
•^'<t«ooco>c»o«cic^>oc<oo.
ITt<«it^O>t^00OSO«
Oi •^'
oo'r>«ot^eo»oc><t^QOt^
t-, t^to t^ t^l
2uu9dxn9% 9J0J
-eq ijBaqM jo ajnjsiojv
■^0'-<'-<t^l^-<»'«5CO-«r-^U5
Tt<oa>oio<o^oi
C>i N .-<* 05 -; <N C^ (N
OS 00
040
0Jl>.xfi00«000O05t^O
d d d d d d d d d »-<
paA0ui9J s3ni
-jtioos puB sauiuaejos
•gos'Oeo-^f-'fOsc^O'Ci-"''*"
e^cot^coo>o<»o<o
Ol CO l-< Ci r-; -H
■«t<0505— ^Or-HCeOTiTjt
c4>Crt'CMCii-;i-5i-ii-H.-H
laqsnq jad ^qSiaM jsax
»5'.-i«i»<eo.-HOOOt^<oooo
t^ O OS OS 00 M OJ '
U50
Tf<oooeo^>ct^":>Oi-<
8*cop4eO'-<p4^i-H^*co
cocococococococoo
•OJN[ ^lO^BJOqB'I
) CQ CQ CQ CO CO
COCOCO'^'^CCCOCOCO
CO S S iO S
CO -^ ^r ^ TT
10*0*01010*0*0*0
208
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, XJ. S. DEPT. 07 AGRICULTURE
^iiiliisisSiS^^SSi
IsliiSliSi
, o
r
o ! o o
C o! O 08 ; o
o
>
^ H o O
x o ■ •
•^5
°*j
a
.SS^ o i-i s iM
OJ2
05 S
ca o
&
C d ^ g d d d
2o
1 ^
>< ® I >- 1>> >. . .
u a ' (m ^ tH
o> ;uoo
. , . . o i .:3 ^ o . ^ o o "=
.S-o foo loooo loo.ia loo
jgO lOO lOOXO 'OOc3 'OO
c o
O H
.fa.tT
Si?
3 D O
g«a
o .!3 c c .t c .fc .fa o C?
Oteoocecesojo©
Sop
;oooot^
O O 3
ooooQOooooaoooxooi
^
SO©
Mc<5CT>oo-<*«oc<>^ioOTcco5(N5Ct^coago
'OC^I005C<«^HQQQQ0030505t^C5'-iOO
0»00OQOQSrt050»
i^»
OOQOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
'OCS0005<X)0030>0005'-IOOOO<C«DOOOO
O500 00 OS 00 00 05 CX3 00 00 CO «o
; e>f rH (^f (?f t-rt4'(N •"T.-Tc^f'-rei' i-Tt-Ti-T rH c^'i-h'cJ'
;»oc<«osco»ccoO'Ccct^05iMccoo->*<»ciroi
i-^oooo-^QOJO'O'^Tfcceo-^eoosc^t^t^q;
OOOSOOOJTfiOOOSOOQO
"OccoJ'-'oaJccaJectc
0»0»0«0«CiCiCCC>0«0
ccot^»o-<!t<OTt<QtOr-<oocot^-«»<eca>'^^C2
?OCOCCi«00»C050»'ti5D»CO»050«0»00»050
Sec® M§§8«
-S <3 Co
>OiO»O»ftiO5O(NIM(N(>J(N(NC»Tfi00OiO>CTj<rtTr«C«;«C«C
COCOCOCOCO.-OCClCCCCOOCOCOfOCC-^-^eOCOCOCOCC-"*!-'*'-^-*
io»c»c»c»oio»o«o
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 209
From a grading standpoint the wheats sent from New South
Wales and Western Australia were of better quality than the wheats of
South Australia, Tasmania, and Victoria.
From a milling standpoint, the order of merit was not the same:
The wheats grown in Western Australia ranked first, followed in order
by the wheats grown in New South Wales, South Australia, Tasmania,
and Victoria.
The protein content of the Australian wheats varied from 6.47
to 16.21 per cent, the majority containing between 10 and 12 per cent.
The wheats grown in Tasmania were noticeably low in protein.
As far as baking strength is concerned, all the Australian wheats,
with the exception of those grown in Tasmania, produced flour of
fairly good baking strength. A few exceptions are to be noted, namely,
the varieties Braemar Velvet and Purple Straw, grown in Tasmania,
and the varieties Clubhead and Yandilla King, grown in Western
Australia.
With these four varieties eliminated from the averages, the average
baking quality factors of the flour milled from the Australian wheats
were as follows: Fermentation time, 109 minutes; proofing time, 61
minutes; water absorption of flour, 58.1 per cent; loaf volume, 1,926
cubic centimeters; weight of loaf, 507 grams; color score of crumb,
87; score of texture of crumb, 88; texture of crumb, good; shade of
color of crumb, creamy; loaves of bread per barrel of flour, 293.
The milling quality of the Australian wheats appears to be a little
stronger than that of the white wheats grown in the United States
(Table 16) but not quite so good as that of the white wheats grown in
India. (Table 119.)
From a baking standpoint, the quality of the flour milled from the
Australian varieties is not quite equal to that of the white wheat
flours of the United States. (Table 17, col. 5.) The Australian
white wheat flours, however, are considerably stronger than the white
wheat flours of Indian origin. (Table 120.)
AUSTRALIAN EXPORT WHEATS
Australia ranks fourth among those countries that export wheat,
being outranked by Canada, the United States, and Argentina, in the
order named. About one-fourth of the Australian wheat shipments
are in the form of flour. Naturally, from the nature of the varieties
grown, the export varieties are exclusively white wheat. Twelve
cargoes of Australian export wheat were sampled through the courtesy
of the Superintendence Co., and milling and baking tests were made
upon the samples, in order to compare the quality of this export wheat
with that of similar classes of wheat exported from other countries.
From an examination of these samples, data for which are given in
Tables 133, 134, and 135, it is apparent that the milling quality of
Australian export wheat is of high quality. Weight per measured
bushel is excellent, as is the yield of flour obtainable. The quantity,
of protein in the wheat and that in the resulting flour was the same as
with the variety samples. Flour color, texture, and ash were typical
of those of the varieties tested. The baking quality of the flour milled
from the export cargt) samples was uniform in character and of good
quality.
112424°— 30 14
210 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE
.Sfu fe s S*
O « o -^^ o
(N rH d JC* r-t -,>< ,
lOOOcoMOOOeceooo
H g?
eBOC><-«*<OSO«DC^— if0»0»00
■^OOO'-i0500C<)-^C^t^'<l<Q0
«ooQ005t-oowooSoo*t-t^
"2 o o d c
o o o o'2.
© o o o o
^ " ■ ■
'bcH
WE
S o
- o o
5 PI ■
(SO 033 §'3 O
-5 <s bo
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WOULD WHEATS 211
■e s -rt o « M•;:^
S o-S o
j^OSOSOOOOOOsOiOOJOJOOt^
g "
g "^^
So5a>22"5(NooQOt^'-HO'^e«5
tjo
_Q;5
t^OCT>^OQOt^OOO-<**-<tiO
CO O CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO
S05C<»t^iOiOC<li-(Q'-IC0005
^T»<uo-^iOTt<«0»0>COCD-«ti-<*<
V.O
_^
OOCDr-CCO— lOlOOOIVrHOi
C0CMiOC0»OiOiMCT>»O'<*<»OC0
5o.9|
Oft ^
"o I
si
.9^
0--C 03
o >
1 >>
1 >»
® O O O C^j O) O O O OS
•^ 1 I I I Sf-^ I I I 1 '^^ -^
is
lOOOWlS looowC o
"^ ' ' I ®_t'S 1 I I <» I I
11
o o o 045 ; o o o o o
, Oi O
iCQCQ
g ftfe*=^
^g^^^S^J
I es e<i(M (M c^ (N
»OC>^CO-<*<'-HCOt^t^CS|.-H(M
CO M T-1 1-1 (>i c^i rt c<i csi o T-J
COt^t^t^t^t^l--t^t^t--.t>.t^
fj " — '- Of
SCO
lMC0.-(O00O<-iC000t^Tf<
«ow«5coeo«dTt<eoeor-5ci
CJO
cooooO"<*<wooosTj<eoeorH
(N O C> (N im" rH .-; rH* ,-H (N C^
£ ^ a g w t>
02 M s a
SCO
I
C0«0C<I'*«0C<Ii-iO0>0>'*
coc<eoecp4'»»'-<»'cvic4e<cJ
^^r' . a»
'a1
Sr-;
SCO
10r-l«t>-t^-»f<05i-ll-l0>0
Q <N r-; Q Q « «5 rrf Q -^^ Q
g 6
3
"bSoooSooocoicu?
I 7*3 '^r '^ tQ Cv Cv ^ ^ ^ ^
212
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, V. S. DEFr. OF AGRICULTTJUE
^M^mM'^mM
.a o
eS O
O '-SS
OX5
op
« e o o w g o
>u
>o
, I w o >- , _ I — O 1
.s o o •— o o o o o .is o
03 O O C3 O O O O O IS O
.3 a
OX5
cot— OQt^»OOOOQeOOQ5D»C
lOOooooooooosoooooooSoooo
^o
ioooooieo.-H
' 05 Oi 00 Oi Oi
lOOOO
1 COt}< --IO0
iOOOsOOJ
• r-r,--r(N i-T M cs of (N .-r,--rc<fr-r
oooooo<
. t- CO ^ Tf CO IC <
0> 00 O 00 T-H i-H <
03 O d
»h2 O
■gc^T}<«oe«50co«o»oa>oo»OT-i
la
s^
O CO -rt* !
o one I
CO CO -^ -^ CO CO CO •
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 213
A comparison of the relative milling and baking properties of the
Australian export wheats of the 1926 crop and of the white wheat
exported from the United States during the same crop year (average
of two series of samples described in Tables 19 and 24), yields the
following data: Under each item the value for the United States
export wheats is given first. Dockage, 0.9 per cent, as compared
with 0.7 per cent; test weight per bushel, 60.3 pounds, as compared
with 60.6 pounds; kernel texture, 81.6 per cent, as compared with
82.8 per cent; damaged kernels, 0.3 per cent, as compared with 0.1
per cent; foreign material other than dockage, 0.4 per cent, as com-
pared with 0.3 per cent; test weight per bushel of cleaned and scoured
wheat (conditioned for milling), 60.6 pounds, as compared with 60.8
pounds; screenings and scourings removed (preparatory to milling),
3.6 per cent, as compared with 3.1 per cent; moisture in wheat before
tempering, 10.7 per cent, as compared with 11.7 per cent; flour yields
(1) basis cleaned and scoured wheat, 70.3 per cent, as compared with
73.2 per cent, (2) basis dockage-free wheat, 68.7 per cent, as compared
with 71.5 per cent; wheat per barrel of flour (dockage-free wheat
basis), 276 pounds, as compared with 268 pounds; crude protein in
wheat, 10.96 per cent, as compared with 10.27 per cent; crude protein
in flour, 9.83 per cent, as compared with 9.32 per cent; ash in flour,
0.51 per cent, as compared with 0.50 per cent; gluten quality coeffi-
cient, 2.28, as compared with 2.41; fermentation time of dough, 115
minutes, as compared with 117 minutes; water absorption of the
flour, 54.7 per cent, as compared with 54.8 per cent; volume of loaf,
2,022 cubic centimeters, as compared with 1,983 cubic centimeters;
weight of loaf, 495 grams, as compared with 497 grams; color score of
crumb, 88, as compared with 87; texture score of crumb, 87, as com-
pared with 88 ; bread per barrel of flour, 286 pounds in each instance.
NEW ZEALAND
Wheat production in New Zealand is gradually declining. From
1870 to 1891 there was a heavy increase in production, but with the
inception of the more profitable frozen-meat and dairy industry, about
1890, wheat growing gradually declined, and during recent years the
quantity of wheat produced has fed only two-thirds to three-fourths
of the population. Heavy importations are now made from Australia
and Canada.
Ninety-nine per cent of New Zealand's 8,000,000 bushels of wheat
is grown in South Island. Of this, 90 per cent is grown on the east
coastal plain (230 by 40 miles) embracing portions of the Provinces
of Canterbury and Otago, and centering around the towns of Christ-
church, Ashburton, Timaru, and Oamaru. Isolated areas of produc-
tion, about 2,000 acres each, are found at Nelson and Blueheim in the
north of South Island, and at six or seven points in the southeast part
of Otago. One per cent of the total wheat crop is grown in North
Island in two small sections near Wellington in the southern part of
North Island. The coastal climatic and soil conditions are well suited
to the growing of wheat. The remaining acreage in New Zealand is
better adapted to grazing and the production of meats and dairy
products.
214
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUBE
PI
S t- t-
IP
■ •»}S -^jJ lO lO
■g»0000 05
JJ 00 O 5C (N
gc5 • • •
o . o o
CO 'COCQ
• ■ 2 «
CO 3 w
to -is 2
S o o_o
-*-' 'O 'O 'O
Oi 05 or c
553:
?
00 g
^'
s ^
(q aiauB jaaijoo)
SnT910JCl
U8}ni3 u'l uiaajnio
jnog
jnog ui nipBiio
Ti?35SS
Q* ic >c >d ui
jnog ui uina^nio
Jtion
[d
UI uT9:)0ja epruQ
Q^ c>i c4 c>i c>i
«X3
pidlB Oi;OB1
Hd
^BaijAv ni qsy
jnog UI qsy
aniBA aunosBo
^iS!
O CO o o
a;© • • •
^o ; ;
eSti
jnog
JO pxieq J9Cl a^aqM
5B8qM eaij
aSBJioop sisBg
5B9qAV
p9jnoos puB
P9UB910 SISBg
3tnj9(ira9a 9.T0j9q
;B9qA\ JO 9jnjsioi\:
p9A0ni9J sSuunoos
puB S3niU99J0g
t9qsnq
a9d ^q3i9M ;s9x
•ON iLiajBJoqBq:
Q"t^ t^ to t^
Q,-^.
15^^
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WOELD WHEATS
215
^ . I-
^sgg^
ills
s
a ^•g
'^
1
•o
Co c
o
s
^.-o-o-o 1
»
® 1 ' '
> 1
1
O
'^
l'5 1
1
a;
U
fe-s
Pi
>p4
Xi
B
«M
o
tH
>.
o
a
o
03
o
<D
o
Xi
a
3
«
^
o
CD
a
(!h
3
s
'—
"o66 1
«
^-T3 T3 T3 1
H
(2
oja
^SSJ^S
•sa
§
« 3
<^
OX5
^ 00 00 00 30
ss
^
"2 3
Ss
CQ
II
g r»< •* Tf. T}t
1=
^
ll
"c —
u '^''^'^'^
K O
>
Water
absorp-
tion of
flour
^
|SSSS
11
Si
o:"
§
ill
E«'^
^
fe*^
•^
^cb>?0
ssss
►joS^z;
^^^^
^
»-"
T-\ 1
216 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, tJ. S. DEFT. OF AGEICULTUKE
Among the wheat varieties grown in New Zealand are Dreadnaught,
Hunters, Major, Tuscan, Velvet, and Victor. The most widely grown
varieties are Tuscan, Hunters, and Velvet. About 83 per cent of the
total acreage is sown to Tuscan, 10 per cent to Hunters, and 5 per cent
to Velvet. The production of Tuscan is increasing, and the produc-
tion of Hunters and Velvet is decreasing.
Through the courtesy of C. J. Reakes, director general of the De-
partment of Agriculture, at Wellington, New Zealand, samples of the
varieties Hunters, Tuscan, and Velvet were obtained for milling and
baking tests. According to Mr. Reakes, Hunters is a red wheat of
winter habit and Velvet is a white wheat of winter habit. Solid straw
Tuscan and white straw Tuscan are white wheats that may be sown
in either the winter or the spring. Results of the milling and baking
tests are given in Tables 136, 137, and 138.
From a milling standpoint all four varieties were of excellent
quality, as they were of high test weight per bushel and yielded a
high percentage of flour. The flour, however, was not of good baking
quahty, as its protein content was very low and the quality or strength
of the gluten (protein), as indicated by the water absorption of the
flour and the fermentation time of the dough, was below the average
for the soft white class of wheat flours. Furthermore, the size and
character of the finished loaf of bread was decidedly below normal
in every instance except one. The size of the loaf was 25 per cent
below the normal for soft white wheat flours, the texture of the loaf
was coarse, and the color was creamy. The color of the crust indi-
cated lack of sufficient diastatic activity.
SUMMARY
Milling and baking tests were made on samples of 412 varieties of
wheat representative of the commercial types of w^heat grown in 38
of the wheat-producing countries of the world, for the purpose of
comparing their relative milling and baking qualities.
Similar tests were made upon samples of wheat representing 431
cargoes of export wheat, in order to determine the relative milling
and baking properties of the wheat entering into international trade.
The more important milling and baking characteristics of these
wheats are summarized in Table 139.
MILLING AND BAKING QtJALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 217
I »-l ■»»< CO lO IC »0 >0 CO 00 -^ O 00 «5 OS 00 a0«OOO Tft
_ . O Oi o o o o o
. O oA ' ' O 1 o ' ' ' '.3
1 o o c3 ; ; o I o ; ; \ as
O ' 03 O ®_0 08
T3 XJ CD
o . <y o u o .a
o I >«i o aj o 03
og
a, 00 "* 05 OS C<l Q C^ 00 «0 CO »C 00 ■^ >0 i-H 05 t+i t^ «; ^^
JJooob r- 00 "5 » t^ 00 1-- OS o t>- CO t>- 1>- o obi--ooo
«O0S 00O5'
^0000 lO t^ ->*i O (M <0 r-l ^ ?0 1^ (N t^ T)< Q
2:oot^ 00 00 CO t^ 00 00 00 OS 00 1^ t^ t^ t^ o5
o<N-^ co-<*<oooco o
oooooo oooot--t>-oo '^
§OOOCOOQOOOOOOOO
i-tOOOsr^QCscoiOTtfOSTt^O
i-HOOOt^OOOCCOOt^OOOSr-l
N (^f rH ,-h' ,-h' ^' l?cr C<r i-T tH r-T T-T l-T (N
OS 00 OS C<l OS o o
r- 1^ 00 00 (N r-( OS
OOO lOOCOiOO
QQ Tfl t^ 00 ■-< -^ t- o
o 00 00 OS o "b o lo
^■s
..-l-rJH tH OS CO (N «C rH 00 O 00 ■* "O lO CO lO
<JlOC0 0SC50S<?405-«*i|>^r-;c0'0T)<O*t-HO
.tec lO O "5 lO lO CO »0 i» »0 lO lO ?0 lO "O
r^ 1-1 00 »o 00 CO o
eoooos ■<ihtj4qco<n
IIS ^Sa^i^SsSS^SSI sSSs S;
■ OSO 000»0-<*<OS
I "O •'ti coco CO «o cs
<D O
i ; i
' 1 ^
>>
>j j 1
Nil
>^ 1 ;
1 1 '
1 ! 1 1
1 1 1
i i©
2 i i
; ; ; ;
£ i i
1 1 ^
o
O ! I
■ III
'-' 1 !
«> 1 1
1 : >.
>.
>> 1 1
1 1 1 1
>' 1 1
oo®cdq3a)q3a)';Da)d
o o o c
73 o ©
-0 13 .ti -O T^ ^ .t^ ^ .ti ^ .ti ■«
'OT3T3'0
^'O.-s
1 1-^
; ; M^ bcx: tux: ;
M ;^
I 1?^
i i^
1^
S^
m^ \
i i i i
Eo |£^
82
ce o
2>.>.
>iJ3 c3
»-i bXi <D
C000OOO»O>-H»CO00t^(Mc0t^ lOi-iOiO COO(
lO ■<*< O lO CO »0 CO "O rt< Tt< ■^ O >0 >0 lO •* CO lO »0 »0 ■
.2§
c>^coi
(Nc<j^osc>c<i.-;(M'oodosoJ(M'co
coo t^ CO
coioooe^
00 00 --Jo
coos »o
lO .-H o
lOsiO OCO'OCSCO b.
■^ I— I o OS OS
u o-
■go^
• IMOS-'ft-^OOO'O
CO CO c4 OS ^"cO (N CO .-i OS O C> CO r»<
OS O »o >o
COOCOO
Ot^CO
rt C^ lO
cde^-H'
<McOOOOOO>^0000<Mt^(NOO-
or---^'-Oc'5r^oocDoQi^cob-.t^(
t^io OS CO 00 r^o
CO M <
Ocd(N
i::^^^ ^
i^osos
a,c
coo
OscOCO00iM00-<*<l^cOCOOsi--cOOS
i-HOSCO'-HOOt^COCOOioOt^'cd
t^«Ot^t^t^t^COt--COCCt^t^COCO
(Nt^^OsOs
t^ CO CO CO
OS—iOO OC^INCO-.!*
CD •-< CO CO -^' O N lO
CO t^ CO t^ t^ t^ t>. CO
10CO
S ocO
oosoO'^»cco»cosoot^oot^co"<j<
cocococooiocooSSiococoio
OTt(r-ICO
M«5eo
irHOO •<*<O'-i00<
5 ^^
;2;^
•»tHOi-IC0C0CSr-li-C«*<C<)>-HlO'-l'O
rHi-HM NCOcoNeo o,
(N O
8fl
"^ g
2S3
"a
S3
w ■ 3 55 'yi
■•5 1: a '»
-^'3S;II«I
CO tip
•-H _ .rt rt (i a
218
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, tJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
lo ^ CO 3! "^ ^ S s<5 "o an ITS {
S
H^i^il^Si iM isiSs^s
05 -O
C«0o30o80><0 ,© a
o bo i o ; o ; o o _
' ea ® OB 9 O '
j;j»oSSoSt^ooecN Soow
§ScSfeS:5S
o o 5
ft (N ^ O --I iC t^ -^ OC 03 "5 f< t>.
^ O O lO « «D ■«*< 1-1 CO CO 050t^
Cj .-r(N ,-H ,-rr-r.-rcirH ,-r ,-r(N ,-r
. 00 t^ O ■* 00 t- t^ iC c^ o>t^o
tS — ; (^ .o lo 00 CO es 00 CO eoood
a.
^ rH ,-( es o o to o o <-! "5000
■g C^ lO -<*< CO -^ Ttl -itl CO M -^ CO "5
Co ODOO 009 w C
CO t>- 01 Q Q O O O Q CO t^ iC O
Or-li-l00505C05i^05 «^CS
Socpooot
05 O « 05 O >« <
llll
CO 00 c* eo e^ t- 00 «o »o t^ eoO'
«0 00 Cl t^ 00 ">«< o
06 id «o o <o ci CO
»C «0 "C »o «c «c »o
^S^J^SS^&SS^ ^^!
85SoS;^2§S
g o « Bss
(S"^ >>eg'r3'0'0'0'0
o ;>u
! i •**
1 J 0 j
1 !^ :
is
1^2 © o o o^ as c +3
.-S^.ti'O'O'OxJ.tJ'C^
^s^
IS^ Ic
»0 05 — I O '^ ec C^ C3 ■<*' -^ 00<NIN
■<*i ■^ »C •«*< ■^ »0 iC ■«»' W "O Tjl »o »c
■^ -^ »C 10 '^i -^ 10
6K
p.So
. o Oi "-^ <M o C5 -^ o o -^ .-1 es
t^ooocs'-i'CiC^ooecc^
>-^c5oocc5o6o503oi<N
cccio
O O QC 00 05 00 00
©g
IMCO
o e^ <m' o 05 "o o o »o c^' c<i
. ^ ■«j< 00 e>^ to QO 00 o t^ Tjfcjeo
•w Tj< cc CO ■>*< 00 o c* 00 1- coot-
COOfNOJOSiOOOC^It-O
tOOt-OTjt-^O'OOsO
csj^'^'oo-^OOOJeo
I 00 --I
lO'-H
O •— ' Oi OS O 9 ®
•Q i« 10 t- -<»< 10 o eo (M .-H O-"*"
S-t-iOt— t— tcoot-t— t— t— t-I
£; pq c^ c^ c^ CO es c^ cs cs c<ics(
0000C0C0C005O>Ogl0
C^C<«c5c^(r5cJN^iMC<l
t- t— 05
c><co ?i
to Tf CO t- O OC o
(M (N (N CS ^5 CO !N
o ®
.oooci-c<>ot-»oc^co o-
<^Q0coo3c
iaioo500»0'-iooc<ico
.-loco
po«2
COOOOCOOO'
T3 CO CO •* CO T-i to O "5 05 CO.
S T-H co" CO ^' c>i c5 o i-H —! o '
Si to to to to to to to to to to <
t-i-i'^.-(>C-^rJHt>.»-iiO
io to »d
■«*< 00 to ■<»< to I-" 10
§■ eo 06 1^ 05 X c5
O iC vC »C iC to
:z^^
ICO >Oi-ico
t— r-ltOi-Hi-Hi-li-li-li-Hi-H
•^ es ec CO >-i CO o
i«
a p
o
o
=8 05,^
3T3 boca
c-2 o .^
o
a
;|SJw
"S'G.
<5
c£.2
t< 3 ®
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WOULD WHEATS 219
Ililiilil^^Slil gli§ ^i
\^^^\
"^"^ ^V. tJ"^
; O O (3 I 03 <» o
; Ph O fti , Pt, > Ph
^3
o 3
t-TPCOOO
o
, o
■« IP. i o
OOCO I.S
O O © O I 03
oa>o !ph
o o ft
o o » o
iopli I ;>(!(
jf^
> «C t^ ^ 00 o o t
I oo t- 1^ to t^ e<5 1
oot^StSoSSoSooooSt-Sooow t^Sot^oo 0000
00 ocoooooo ooS 00 -"J. 00 « S 00 00 00 00 00 00 1- 1> S
i>. t^ t^ o r» t^ !
>OT lO 00 <
00<N0
«oooS
t^ 7-tr-i
) 00 C5 Tfl t^ I-H
) 05 lO CO t^ >-l
OOOOt^OO^I^Ot^OOi
oooir-coioicoot^t^t^t^r^t^i
50e^05»CTfiOOO00OC005Ort<00
t^ lo t^ eo
'(N-<»'<NT»*eCi'0>0'^-<»'^
lO ■^ ■«»' ^ O -^ CO CM CO •^ •<*< O »C I
ooOi-His* eooo
t^ Tt<* id oi rr id
lO lO lO T»t lO >o
t^ 05000-
l<N t^OOrl
!.-HMOO(N — 0'-'CT>'
00 oi^c^ioi 0-* lOooiocoTji^oTtiQoot^t^oo to
.-H O^CMCS OrH OlMC -hC5 ^ CO--I< oooooo g
o
ill
I >>
5T3®c:n+2<soooE
CG
, O-CQl
:p o c o
MX
) O O O O O" ® o
,' ; I I 1 I 'n-^
: : ; : I ;s^
S5
I aO CO OC O tC -^ — I CO -^ 05 1^ t^ CO O O <M <M lO 00
iiitiiCTfio-rriTtHTtiTj'ic-^ioioio loicioio ■*■<*<
O0(
odoJoJodoo'oaooJcSodt^oor-it^ocJ oot^oiod coci
t^ osoit^o oc .
t>.oot^oooDcsoo5ooioa>ooci
OCOOt^-*OOOC005t^OfOCDTt<(MeO iMO(M-»*< lO-^. O ^t-TjtiO OOO (M-Hr^COiOOCOt^lMCOiO<NOCO
CO<-<COt^C0^050COwOOO->*HOi-i OCOiOl:^ CMIM CO rti<NO>-H COr-i COOi0005iOr-i^cOCT>iMrtCS-«»<
oicsooJod^'oi-^— 'oioco5<Noda> ooo'cJoi T»<'c5 06 ooodci oJc^ odajodo5od(M'c<!ooi;o'o^^o
eo e«3 ^ ■<* 00 >o (N 05 -jj ic ic ^ t^ (N CO Oicoc^io 000
CM C< C^ C^ C^ (M c5 N c5 c5 C<l C^ CS ?< (M CSCSCSCS CS(N
05 05 05 .-I -^ "S '^ O CO 00 00 CO r-i CO t>- 00 lO i-H t— IM lO S
(N (nScm(M Sc5 <n cm cm m c^ (N cn ea c^ <m in cv» ^ c5 m
COCOiOlOCOCOOOOOCOCMOOr-(Tj<lOO 1-llOCOOO cooo
00 CO »o c^ r^ ■ oi CO 03 CO '-< c^oi o o CM >o CO o 00 o t^ Sj
.-H ^^cJt-^ ood ^o -^^cScMOJcocDcoocdcoci 2
t^ t^t^cocD t^ CO t^ CO t^ r- 1^ !>. CO t-- r- CO t^ t^ t-» CO 5
>
CMP*OeOO<MiC-«t< OOiOOOOCMOOO lOOC**© 005
I-: t>: C5 CM C> 00 Q 06 O 00 t-: ^ QC Oi OS odr-^QCM OJOJ
lO «C CO CO CO lO 2 10 CO iC 10 CO »C »0 «0 iC 10 © CO «c 10
CM OCOTt<CO coco OOCOOO1
■ 'oooj
ifj CD CO 10 >o
' »0 CO »c *
> CO 10 CO CO »o >
■*COCM-»»<COeOCOCMC^CO>
iTjtCM co.-Hooeo oco
rH t-CMCO.-! COCM Tfi-Hi-HTftCOl-HT-H^COl-HCCCMCMlO
J^-s
So
1 o3>iSjJc.sa> ~ ' 'c30
5 fiSls|ses2|~|
220 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, tJ. S. DEPT. OF AGEICULTUBE
1 s s«
liiggggigis m mig
ft ! d ; d a
.a o V- o ' o • u.a o
osomO 'O |®eBO
iSSg
o o 5
i^S(
11
- t^ S "5 00 '-no t^ «5 t^ OO --K
r- t^ Tji 2ft io
»-l t--. CO « «5
■S o c 3
.00»H»O«OTt<Tj<>Oi*HD00
.U5»C»C»0»C»0»C>rt»0»0
I ^ rt a>
^ t>. Q --I rjt o •^ lO 00 05 -^ CS iC , 0-H500SOS
a
. . 1 >>>^ 1 >> , . .
<D o 0:3 S O) fl © O O
• OOOO^OI^OOSOCC
O
©.s
-a ©
2s-
■«005t^00001000t
_.c<io6oo50ii>^oioo<
t--00
(NOi
»OlMiCO00
00 ^ i^ (N t>:
© fl
n.
.0-*co»c-<*ioo05C<<ose<3
;»ci05ooo«>«D<oeccoa>
■ CS OJ t^ O O 00 OJ 06 r-H c5
CO 00 ■<*< rH ■*
^^B'
S^^
fe>>
■ rHMOlOCOOOOC^t^O
t^lMOO-f rH
Eh © as
•«05<MOOOO«5COid-l
^0»000»0»0«DiC50<0
10 iC 'O CD »C
|2&
I 10 ■>*< ,-i(M (M <N rH 10 »0 i-l<
C-C-
o © ©-Q 3 g c.fe sea
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 221
Detailed figures regarding the commercial classification of these
wheats, their milling and baking properties, and statistics concerning
the production, distribution, and consumption of wheat have been
given in connection with each country.
As a result of the study it is apparent that the majority of the wheats
grown throughout the world are of the common type ( Triticum vulgar e).
Wheat similar to the spring wheats produced in the United States is
grown in Australia, Bulgaria, Canada, Czechoslovakia, England,
Estonia, Germany, Hungary, India, Japan, Latvia, Manchuria,
Norway, Russia, Sweden, Switzerland, the Netherlands, the Union of
South Africa, and Uruguay. By far the greatest production of hard
red spring w^heat occurs in Canada, with Russia and the United States
ranking next in order. Hard red spring wheats are grown in Australia,
England, India, Switzerland, the Netherlands, and Uruguay, but
their production is relatively unimportant.
Large acreages are devoted to the production of durum wheat in
Algeria, Bulgaria, Canada, Greece, Iraq, Italy, Morocco, Palestine,
Russia, and Tunis. Although durum wheat is raised in Argentina,
Australia, India, Latvia, and Uruguay, it is relatively unimportant.
Rumania and Yugoslavia also grow durum wheat, but no samples
were received from those countries for testing.
Only eight countries sent w^heat similar in appearance to the hard
red winter wheats grown in the United States. Of these Russia prob-
ably produces the greatest quantity, followed in order by the United
States and Argentina. Smaller quantities are grown in Canada,
Czechoslovakia, and Hungary. Although hard red winter wheats are
grown in Australia, Bulgaria, and India, the quantity is very small in
each instance, and there seems to be little likelihood of increase. ^
Soft red winter wheats were received from Argentina, Australia,
Belgium, Bulgaria, Chile, Denmark, England, Germany, Hungary,
India, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Lithuania, Mexico, Portugal,
Russia, Scotland, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the Netherlands, the
Union of South Africa, and the United States. They are outstandingly
important commercially in Belgium, the lower Danube countries of
Rumania, and Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Denmark, England, France,
Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Portugal, Russia,
Scotland, Spain, Switzerland, the Union of South Africa, and the
United States.
Twenty-nine of the thirty-eight countries that contributed wheat to
this study produce white wheat. The countries in which white wheat is
of large commercial importance are Australia, Belgium, China, Chile,
Egypt, England, Estonia, India, Iraq, Japan, Lithuania, Mexico,
Morocco, New Zealand, Poland, Scotland, Spain, the Netherlands, the
Union of South Africa, Tunis, and the United States. White wheat is
reported as being produced in small quantities in Algeria, Argentina,
Bulgaria, Canada, Greece, Ireland, and Italy. By far the greatest
production of white wheat takes place in India, with Australia second
and the United States third. With the exception of Spain and China
for which statistics on class production are not available, all the other
countries produce less than 25,000,000 bushels of white wheat annually.
It is concluded from a study of the milling and baking data result-
ing from the analysis oi the world's wheat that while milling quality,
that is, the abiUty to produce a large quantity of high-grade flour
from the mi^imum quantity of wheat, is a factor in determining the
222 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 197, TJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTTJKE
relative ^standing of quality of the wheats, it is the baking quality of
the flours milled from these wheats that sharply differentiates the
wheats.
As far as the hard red spring wheats are concerned, the higher
grades of Canadian wheat rank first in milling value. However, from
a baking standpoint the flours milled from the hard red spring wheats
grown in the United States are equally good. Russian spring wheats
appear to be somewhat deficient in baking strength when compared
with those grown in North America and South America.
The spring wheats grow^n in northern Europe — in Norway, Sweden,
Germany, Latvia, and Poland — although in most instances of good
milling value, are somewhat deficient in baking strength. This is also
true of the spring wheats grown in the Union of South Africa. Uru-
guay, on the other hand, produces spring wheat of very good baking
strength.
Russia, Canada, and the United States produce the best quality of
durum wheat. All the other countries producing durum wheat, with
but minor exceptions, have a product that is very noticeably deficient
in baking strength.
From both a milling and a baking standpoint, the best quality hard
red.winter wheat is produced in the United States. The hard red winter
wheat grown in Argentina appears to be of lesser milling value than
that grown in the United States. The baking quality of the flour
milled from Argentine wheat, although not the equal of that milled
from the hard red winter wheats of the United States, is of fair quality.
The flour milled from the Russian hard red winter wheats appears to
be lacking in baking strength. Those of Bulgaria and Hungarydo
not appear to be quite so strong as the Argentine wheats of similar
oiassification.
The soft red winter w^heats grown in the United States, although
failing to equal the milling quality of some w^heats of the same class
grown in other parts of the world, excelled in baking quality in every
instance. Those produced in the United Kingdom as well as those
produced in the greater part of continental Europe are of average, to
above-average milling quality, but are decidedly deficient in baking
quality. Only in European Russia, Hungary, and the lower Danube
countries are found soft red winter wheats that have fair-to-average
baking qualities as well as milling quality.
The white wheats grown in India, Australia, and the United States
rank in milling quality in the order in which the countries are named.
From a baking standpoint, the flours milled from the white wheats
produced in the United States and Australia are of approximately the
same strength; the baking strength of the flours milled from the white
wheats of India is noticeably less. Mexico, Russia, Poland, Chile,
Morocco, and the Union of South Africa also produce white wheat of
good baking strength. Those grown in all other parts of the world
ar^ much below average in this respect.
In the warm and dry areas of southern Europe and Asia, and
northern Africa, poulard wheat (Triticum. turgidvm) is popular. Mill-
ing and baking tests were made on this class of w^heat on samples
submitted from Egypt, Italy, Palestine, Portugal, and India, and the
results were always below the average of any of the other classes of
wheat studied.
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES OF WORLD WHEATS 223
It is recognized that, because of the changes in environmental con-
ditions which control the production of wheat from year to year,
observations as to the quality of any given crop should not be con-
sidered as final, and that fairer conclusions might be drawn if the
data were the result of the study of samples of the crops of several
years. ' Nevertheless, considering the difficulty encountered in obtain-
ing the samples for this testing, a continued study was deemed im-
practicable. One point in favor of the conclusions to be drawn from
this study is that, with one or two exceptions, the information that
accompanied the samples sent from the various countries was to the
effect that the wheats were grown in an average crop year. More-
,over, the baking properties of the wheats produced in the majority of
the countries were so widely different that the differences can hardly
be attributable in any significant degree to annual variation in the
sample characteristics. Therefore a study continued over a series of
years seems unlikely to prove more useful than this study of the
samples of one crop year.
LITERATURE CITED
(1) American Association of Cereal Chemists, Committee on Methods of
Analysis.
1928. methods for the analysis of cereals and cereal products.
176 p. Lancaster, Pa.
(2) Clark, J. A., Martin, J. H., and Ball, C. R.
1922. classification of American wheat varieties. U. S. Dept. Agr.
Bui. 1074, 238p., illus.
(3) Coleman, D. A., and Rothgeb, B. E.
1927. heat-damaged wheat. U. S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bui. 6, 32 p. illus.
(4) Johnson, A. H., and Whitcomb, W. O.
1927. A comparison of some properties of normal and frosted
wheats. Mont. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 204, 66 p., illus.
(5) Kent-Jones, D. W.
1927. modern cereal chemistry. Rev. and enl. ed., 446 p., illus. Liver-
pool, England.
(6) Miller, R. C.
1915. milling and baking tests of wheat containing admixtures of
RYE, CORN COCKLE, KINGHEAD, AND VETCH. U. S. Dept. Agr.
Bul. 328, 24 p., illus.
(7) Shollenberger, J. H., and Clark, J. A.
1924. MILLING AND BAKING EXPERIMENTS WITH AMERICAN WHEAT
VARIETIES. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 1183, 94 p., illus.
(8) and Coleman, D. A.
1926. RELATION OF KERNEL TEXTURE TO THE PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS,
MILLING AND BAKING QUALITIES, AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF
WHEAT. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 1420, 16 p., illus.
(9) United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Agricultural
Economics.
1928. handbook of official grain standards for wheat, shelled
corn, oats, feed oats, mixed feed oats, rye, grain sorghums
AND BARLEY. U. S. Dept. AgF., BuF. AgF. Econ., U. S. G. S. A.,
G. I. FoFin 90, 100 p., illus.
ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
WHEN THIS PUBLICATION WAS LAST PRINTED
September, 1930
Secretary of Agriculture Arthur M. Hyde.
Assistant Secretary R. W. Dunlap •
Director of Scientific Work A, F. Woods.
Director of Regulatory Work Walter G. Campbell.
Director of Extension Work C. W. Warburton.
Director of Personnel and Business Adminis- W. W. Stockberger.
tration.
Director of Information M. S. Eisenhower,
Solicitor E. L. Marshall.
Weather Bureau :_ Charles F. Marvin, Chief.
Bureau of Animal Industry John R. Mohler, Chief.
Bureau of Dairy Industry O. E. Reed, Chief.
Bureau of Plant Industry William A. Taylor, Chief.
Forest Service R. Y. Stuart, Chief.
Bureau of Chemistry and Soils , H. G. Knight, Chief.
Bureau of Entomology C. L. Marlatt, Chief.
Bureau of Biological Survey Paul G. Redington, Chief.
Bureau of Public Roads Thomas H. McDonald, Chief.
Bureau of Agricultural Economics Nils A. Olsen, Chief.
Bureau of Home Economics Louise Stanley, Chief. «
Plant Quarantine and Control Administration. Lee A. Strong, Chief.
Grain Futures Administration J. W. T. Duvel, Chief.
Food and Drug Administration Walter G. Campbell, Director of
Regulatory Work, in Charge.
Office of Experiment Stations , Chief.
Office of Cooperative Extension Work C. B. Smith, Chief.
Library Claribel R. Barnett, Librarian.
This bulletin is a contribution from
Bureau of Agricultural Economics Nils A. Olsen, Chief.
Grain Division H. J. Besley, Principal Marketing
Specialist, in Charge.
224
0. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1930
Technical Bulletin No. 196
October, 1930
THE CANNING QUALITY
OF CERTAIN
COMMERCIALLY IMPORTANT
EASTERN PEACHES
BY
CHARLES W. CULPEPPER
Physiologist
AND
JOSEPH S. CALDWELL
Senior Physiologist
Office of Horticultural Crops and Diseases
Bureau of Plant Industry
United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. -----._. Price 10 cents
Technical Bulletin No. 196
October, 1930
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
THE CANNING QUALITY OF CERTAIN
COMMERCIALLY IMPORTANT
EASTERN PEACHES
By Charles W. Culpepper, Physiologist, and Joseph S. Caldwell, Senior Physi-
ologist, Ofjfice of Horticultural Crops and Diseases, Buremi of Plant Industry
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction 1
Review of literature 3
Plan ofwork 5
Source of material 6
Chemical and physical studies 6
Methods of analysis 7
Results of analyses 8
Pressure tests 13
Changes occurring in storage 15
Canning tests 26
Methods employed in the canning exper-
iments 26
Points considered in comparing the
canned products 26
Relation ofmaturity to canning quality.. 27
Comparison of varieties 31
Canning after storage 33
Cold storage as an adjunct to canning 34
Page
Selection and nandling of material for canning 34
Stage of maturity for canning 35
Harvesting the fruit 36
Grading the fruit 38
Pitting the fruit 38
Lye peeling 38
Packing 39
Strength of sirup 39
Sirup ing and exhausting 39
Processing 40
Cooling the cans 40
Some factors determining the success of a
canning enterprise 41
Development of a southeaster n peach-canning
industry 42
Summary 43
Literature cited _ _ 45
INTRODUCTION
The acreage planted to commercial peach orchards in the South-
eastern States has increased very rapidly during the last 10 years,
not only in long-established producing districts but also in areas
which had not previously made material contributions to the com-
mercial crop. While the total yield has varied greatly from year
to year, there has been a tendency toward steadily increased produc-
tion. For the six years 1909 to 1914, inclusive, the average annual
production of peaches in the United States was 44,113,000 bushels,
the largest crop of the period being that of 1914, which was 54,109,-
000 bushels. For the period 1915 to 1920, inclusive, the average
annual production was 47,178,000 bushels, the largest crop being
that of 1915, 64,097,000 bushels. For the six years 1921 to 1926,
inclusive, the average annual production was 50,730,000 bushels, the
largest crop being 69,865,000 bushels in 1926 {25: 1925, Table 201;
1927, Tables 15^-155).^
■ — — ^ — . — . .
1 Italic numbers in parentheses refer to Literature Cited, p. 45.
112542°— 30 1 1
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The decline in the production of home orchards throughout most
of the Southeastern States has been more than offset by the increase
in commercial plantings concentrated in a few of these States, The
result is that a rapidly increasing proportion of the crop reaches
consumers through car-lot shipments, as is made apparent by in-
spection of the data upon total production and car-lot shipments for
the 10 years 1920 to 1929. (Table 1.) The seven States of Georgia,
North Carolina, South Carolina, Alabama, Arkansas, Texas, and
Tennessee supply approximately two-thirds of all carload shipments
of fresh peaches, exclusive of those from California, and the entire
crop must be marketed w^ithin a period of 10 or 11 weeks {11). The
marketing areas for these States are so largely identical and the
shipping seasons overlap so largely that any very considerable in-
crease in the crop of one State affects the market for all the others.
The area to which fresh peaches can be shipped has remained prac-
tically stationary while production has increased, and increased pro-
duction has, therefore, been attended by increased difficulty in finding
purchasers for the crop. Consequently, while more or less general
failure of the peach crop may occasionally result in scarcity and
high prices, years of normal yield in the larger producing areas
result in a large surplus which can not find purchasers within the
area to which it can be distributed, and considerable portions of the
crop are left upon the trees.
Table 1.-
-Total production and car-lot shipments of peaches in the United
States. 1920-1929 '
Year
Total pro-
duction
Car-lot
shipments
Year
Total pro-
duction
Car-lot
shipments
1920
Bushels
45, 620, 000
32, 602, 000
55, 852, 000
45,382,000
53, 848, 000
28,179
27,334
38, 405
33, 525
39,395
1925
Bushels
46, 562, 000
69,865,000
45, 463, 000
68, 369, 000
46,998,000
40,845
58,465
1921
1926
1922
1927
41,714
57,706
35,294
1923
1928...
1924
1929..
1 Figures are from the Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for 1927, Tables 154 and 155, pp. 853-
855; for 1928, Tables 153-155, pp. 778-780; and for 1930, Tables 202-204, pp. 735-737 (25).
The consequence of gluts in the principal markets is especially
disastrous to growers in districts far removed from the consuming
centers. For this reason there is in some producing districts a very
intense interest in possible methods of utilizing a portion of the
crop in other ways than by placing it upon the market as fresh
fruit.
A fairly comprehensive study of the more obvious possibilities
for the use of eastern peaches in the manufacture of various food
products was begun by the Office of Horticulture, Bureau of Plant
Industry, in 1924. Tliis bulletin reports the results with reference
to the canning of these peaches; a previous publication (14) recorded
the results of a study of methods of preserving crushed peaches for
use in the manufacture of commercial and homemade ice cream.
Commercial peach canning had its origin in the eastern peach-
growing territory and has had a rather long history, in the course of
which it has served as an outlet for varying quantities of material
of the various varieties which at one time or another have attained
CANNING QUALITY OF CERTAIN EASTERN PEACHES 3
popular favor. However, no detailed study of the comparative
suitability for canning purposes of the varieties which are now
commercially important has ever been made. It is impossible to gain
from the literature any clear conception of the nature of the problems
encountered in preserving the fruit or of the methods best adapted
to handling the material. The processes employed by individual
cannery operators are almost wdiolly empirical, and little attention
has been given to the development of canning methods designed to
yield a standardized product of high quality. Consequently, while
most of the older peach-growing districts of the Southeastern States
have witnessed repeated attempts to develop canning enterprises
w^th peaches as the chief material handled, a very large percentage
of such undertakings have failed, and there is little if any expansion
in the annual volume of canned peaches of the eastern types. It,
therefore, seemed worth while to make a rather detailed study of
the problems involved, in the hope that such modifications of the
technology of the canning process might be made as would permit
the production of a standardized product of acceptable character.
As a background for such work, it was necessary to study, in con-
siderable detail, the chemical and physical changes occurring in
ripening in each of the varieties.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Gould and Fletcher {17) and Deming (7) have described methods
of preparing and preserving peaches of the eastern varieties which
are applicable to home or small-scale commercial operations carried
on with a minimum of special equipment, and Powell (22) has
given directions for home canning of these peaches. The material
presented by these authors has been reproduced in substance in
various publications intended to serve as guides in home canning.
A. W. Bitting (4, ^5), in a general treatment of methods of canning
peaches, has included some discussion of the canning of eastern
peaches with some experimental data obtained with the Elberta
variety. The descriptions of the technic employed in canning
peaches which are given by Cruess {12)^ Knox (20), Zavalla (26)^
and A. W. Bitting (3) refer primarily to the methods employed in
handling firm-fleshed, clingstone peaches, and are not applicable
without modification to the soft-fleshed freestone varieties grown
in the Southeastern States.
The employment of a boiling lye solution for peeling the fruit
is mentioned by A. W. Bitting (5) and by Gould and Fletcher (17)
as being in more or less general use prior to 1910, and K. G. Bitting
(6) has reported the results of a detailed experimental study of the
effects of lye peeling upon the fruit and of the conditions making for
most effective removal of the peels. She describes a considerable
number of patented lye-peeling machines, stating that the first of
these mechanical devices was patented March 7, 1905. The use of
Ive for peeling peaches is also described by Newman and Freeman
(^i), who appear not to have been aware that the process had long
been in use.
The varieties of peaches most widely grown in the eastern peach-
growing districts have been little studied with respect to the chemical
changes occurring in growth and ripening.
Bigelow and Gore (^) made chemical analyses at four stages in
the development of the fruit, beginning just after the June drop
and extencling to market ripeness. Of the seven varieties studied —
Triumph, Rivers, Early Crawford, Stump, Orange Smock, Heath
Cling, and Elberta — only the last is commercially important at the
present time. Detailed studies of three varieties (Elberta, Orange
Smock, and Stump) showed that in passing from the market-ripe
to the full-ripe condition on the tree there was an increase of 12 per
cent in the total weight of the fruit ; also that total solids and total
sugars increased considerably, while the acidity and percentage of
insoluble solids decreased. On the water-free basis, the most im-
portant changes in passing from market ripeness to full ripeness
were a decrease in marc (total water-insoluble solids of the flesh,
including peel) from 18.3 to 14.2 per cent and an increase in sugar
from 53 to 60 per cent of the total dry matter. The flesh of the
peach was found to be practically starch free at all stages of develop-
ment. Bigelow and Gore also stored market-ripe fruit at three
different temperatures, 32°, 53° to 59°, and 77° to 86° F., and found
in all cases loss in total solids, total sugars, acid, and marc. All these
losses were much smaller per unit of time in the cold-stored fruit.
There was an increase in reducing sugar at the expense of sucrose
at both 32° and room temperature, but it was much smaller in amount
at the low temperature.
In subsequent work Gore {16) employed several varieties of
peaches, among other fruits, in a study of respiration. He found
that the respiratory rate increased as the fruit passed from the hard-
ripe to the full-ripe condition after removal from the tree, but that
there was no marked change in rate in fruit allowed to ripen on the
tree. There was no measurable increase in rate of respiration in
hard-ripe fruit as a result of picking, as measured by comparison
with determinations upon fruit still attached to the tree. In picked
fruit the rate of production of carbon dioxide was determined by
temperature, being nearly sixteen times as great at 29° as at 1.8° C.
The temperature increase required to double the rate of production
of carbon dioxide was 8° to 8.4° for Elberta, Connet, and ripe Car-
man, 7.5° for Hiley, 6.8° for Champion, and 6.5° for hard-green
Carman. There was a considerable falling off in the respiratory
rates at all temperatures on the second day of storage in the one
variety (Connet) upon which tests were continued for two days.
Hill {19) found that a decrease in respiratory rate occurred in
green peaches held in storage for considerable periods. The respira-
tory rate fell to less than half its normal rate in air when the fruit
was stored in hydrogen, nitrogen, or carbon dioxide, but the flesh
of the peaches turned brown and developed a flavor that made them
entirely inedible.
Appleman and Conrad {1) studied the change? occurring in the
pectins of Late Crawford peaches, employing the methods of Carre
and Haynes {10) and Carre (<?, 9), They found neither pectic acid
nor calcium pectate present at any stage of ripening. The pectic
materials present consisted of protopectin and pectin, their sum
being practically constant at all stages of ripening and showing a
slow decrease in fully soft ripe fruit. In green or hard ripe fruit
protopectin very greatly predominated, making up more than 80
CANNING QUALITY OF CERTAIN EASTERN PEACHES 5
per cent of the total. As ripening proceeded, protopectin was pro-
gressively converted into pectin, which made up 60 to 70 per cent
of the total pectic materials in the soft ripe fruit. The increase in
soluble pectin so closely paralleled the progress of softening during
ripening that Appleman and Conrad consider that the conversion
of protopectin into pectin is the chief process responsible for soften-
ing. Storage at low temperatures retarded the formation of pectin,
but those writers advise against prolonged storage because of de-
terioration in the flavor of the fruit. Removal from the tree at the
hard-ripe stage, followed by storage for three days at a temperature
approximating 72° F., resulted in very much greater formation of
soluble pectin and correspondingly greater softening than occurred
in the same period in fruit left on the tree. Consequently they rec-
ommend that hard-ripe fruit be left on the trees if it can not be dis-
posed of promptly after picking.
Little attention has been given to the study of the flavoring con-
stituents of the peach in so far as the relation of their development
to the ripening process is concerned. It is generally recognized that
the full characteristic flavor of the variety does not develop until the
fruit has become soft ripe. Culpepper, Caldwell, and Wright {H)
have emphasized the fact that such development occurs only in fruit
which remains attached to the tree and that it does not occur in fruit
picked green or hard ripe, no matter what the subsequent treatment
may be. Power and Chesnut {23) studied the odorous constituents
of one variety, Belle, and found that these consisted chiefly of esters
of linalool with formic, acetic, valeric, and caprylic acids, with con-
siderable acetaldehyde. The essential oil obtained from the con-
centrated distillate had a most intense peachlike odor and was
exceedingly unstable, completely losing its fragrance when exposed
to the air. No trace of benzaldehyde or hydrocyanic acid was de-
tected in the distillate from the pulp, whence these writers con-
cluded that amygdalin is restricted to the kernels. Culpepper, Cald-
well, and Wright {H) have reported that the odor of benzaldehyde
is constantly present in the pulp of some varieties and occasionally
present in others. The fruit employed by Power and Chesnut was
firm ripe when used, but had been picked at the hard-ripe stage and
shipped to Washington under refrigeration from Georgia.^ It is
practically certain that the amounts of odorous constituents found
would have been increased had the fruit used been full}^ ripened on
the trees.
Rabak {24.) studied the composition of the oil obtained from the
peach kernel and found that both the fixed and the volatile oils from
peach, prune, and apricot kernels are essentially identical in physical
and chemical properties with the oils of sweet and bitter almonds.
The kernels of the peach yielded 39.5 per cent of fixed and 1.17 per
cent of volatile oil, values only very slightly inferior to those obtained
in the case of almonds.
PLAN OF WORK
The work included two closely related lines of investigation, one
consisting of chemical and physical studies of each of the varieties
used and the other of practical canning experiments. The purpose
2 Personal communication from Victor K. Chesnut.
6 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
of the first line of work was to obtain information as to the nature
and rate of the physical and chemical changes occurring in the peach
during ripening and as to the differences among varieties in these
respects. The canning experiments consisted in the canning of
experimental packs of each of the varieties at certain selected stages
of maturity tor subsequent comparison as to the appearance and
dessert quality of the material and the relation of maturity to these
characters. The two lines of work were closely correlated through-
out in order to gain information in regard to the relation of physical
and chemical characters to palatability and dessert quality in the
canned product and to the changes occurring in the material during
the canning process. The work herein reported was continued over
the three years 1924, 1925, and 1926 in order to obtain some measure
of the effect of varying seasonal conditions upon the character and
quality of the pack.
SOURCE OF MATERIAL
. The fruit used in these experiments was obtained from commer-
cial orchards in the vicinity of Fort Valley, Ga. At the beginning
of the work blocks of 6 to 10 trees of each-of the principal varieties
to be studied were selected and the fruit used was taken from these
trees year after year. Consequently all lots of fruit were composite
samples from a number of normally loaded, healthy trees. (The few
trees which developed disease during the work w^ere discarded.) The
trees were 8 years old at the time the work was begun, except those
of the Early Rose variety, which were 4 years old in 1926. The
varieties used were Carman, Belle, Hiley, Yellow Hiley (a yellow-
fleshed freestone Belle seedling of local origin and restricted distri-
bution), and Elberta, all of which were used for three years. In
addition to these, packs were made in 1926 of Early Rose, a w'hite-
fleshed clingstone variety of local origin, designated as Early Rose
III by Hedrick {18^ p. 3S2), Arp (locally known as Queen of Dixie),
and the J. H. Hale. The annual yields per tree are given in Table 2.
Table 2.-
-Annual yield per tree of the peach trees whose fruit was used in the
experiment
Variety
1924
1925
1926
Variety
1924
1925
1926
Bushels
1.5
2.5
3
2
Bushels
3
3
2
2.5
Bushels
2.5
3.5
1.5
2
Yellow Hiley
Early Rose
Bushels
2.5
Bushels
3
Bushels
2.5
Belle
2
Hiley
Arp _.. . -. - . .
2
Elberta
J.H.Hale
2
CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL STUDIES
The purpose of the chemical and physical studies was to obtain
fairly complete inforniation as to the nature and extent of the changes
in composition and texture of the fruit during the ripening process.
The appearance and market quality of a canned peach depends in
very considerable measure upon the firmness of the fruit and the
extent to which it retains its form through processing and subsequent
handling. Its dessert quality or palatability is determined by its
chemical composition and particularly by the ratios existing between
CAl^NING QUALITY OF CEllTAIN EASTEfilsr iP^AOHES 7
its sugars, acidity, and tannin content, and by the nature and amount
of the specific flavoring constituents present. Both texture and chem-
ical composition are progressively changing throughout the ripening
process, and detailed studies of these changes were made in order to
ascertain to what degree they are correlated with the alteration in
quality of the canned product. Also, since more or less time must
elapse between the picking of the fruit and its packing in the can,
and canners desire to extend the packing season by holding fruit in
storage, it was considered advisable to study the changes occurring in
storage. The data obtained are presented in Table 3 (p. 18), in
conjunction with those upon the fresh samples; the results will be
discussed in a subsequent section after the results of the work upon
fresh material have been reviewed.
The samples for physical examination and chemical analysis were
taken at intervals of one to two days throughout the ripening period,
beginning about one week before the fruit had reached commercial
shipping stage and continuing as long as any fruit remained on the
trees. The series of samples of any one variety in a season usually
numbered six or seven, occasionally only five. The sample in many
cases was taken from the lot of fruit picked for canning; in other
cases it was taken specifically for the purpose; but in all cases it
was a composite sample made up of fruits from several trees of the
variety. The pickings were made in the early morning, and the
preparation and preservation of the samples were usually completed
within less than two hours after the fruit was taken from the trees.
The firmness of the fruit was determined by a pressure tester
similar to that employed by Culpepper and Magoon {15) for use in
testing the tenderness of sweet corn. The plunger employed was a
piece of stiff brass wire 0.032 inch in diameter (No. 20 American
gage), so held in the supporting clamp that it projected one-half inch
beyond the clamp. The apparatus was calibrated to read from 0 to
550 grams by 5-gram intervals. In making a test upon a sample of
fruit, 10 peaches which were as typical of the whole sample in size,
color, and stage of ripeness as could be chosen by inspection were used.
The peel was not removed. Ten punctures were made upon each
fruit, 8 of these being equally spaced around the circumference at
right angles to the suture line while the ninth and tenth were made
at the tip and near the stem end, respectively. The average of the
100 readings thus obtained was taken as the index of firmness of the
sample of fruit.
In sampling a lot of fruit for chemical analysis, 10 or more fruits
were used. Each was cut into quarters and thin slices were cut from
the faces of these pieces to make up duplicate samples of 100 grams
each. The samples were preserved by adding suflicient 95 per cent
alcohol to make the final alcohol content 70 to 75 per cent, and were
heated to boiling for a few minutes as soon as prepared. They were
then sealed, packed, and shipped to Washington, where the analytical
work was completed, usually in the winter or spring following the
taking of the samples.
METHODS OF ANALYSIS
The samples were prepared for analysis by decanting the alcohol
in which the sample had been preserved through a previously weighed
extraction thimble, filling the sample into the thimble, washing two
8 TECHNICAL BtJLLETIN 19 6, TJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
or three times with 95 per cent alcohol, transferrin*^ the thimble to
a Soxhlet apparatus, and extracting with 95 per cent alcohol for four
to five hours. The extract was combined with the alcohol used in
preservation, the washings were made up to definite volume, and
aliquot portions taken for the various determinations. The deter-
minations made upon the material included total solids, alcohol-sol-
uble and alcohol-insoluble materials, free-reducing and total sugars,
total acidity, and total astringency. The methods of analysis em-
ployed were for the most part the official methods of the Association
of Official Agricultural Chemists. Alcohol-soluble material was de-
termined by evaporating an aliquot portion of the alcohol extract on
a steam bath, followed by drying to constant weight in a vacuum oven
at 80° C. The alcohol-insoluble portion was determined by drying
the extraction thimble and contents to constant weight in the vacuum
oven.
RESULTS OF ANALYSES
The outstanding results of the studies of the chemical and physical
changes occurring in fruit ripening on the tree will be very briefly
summarized.
TOTAL SOLIDS
When compared with one another at a like stage of maturity, the
varieties studied show a relatively narrow range in solids content.
The extreme high and low values found in the course of the work,
16.5 and 11.5 per cent, occurred in the same variety, Carman, and in
successive years. The other varieties showed smaller variations from
year to year, and the differences between varieties were also smaller
m amount.
The chief factors responsible for producing variations in composi-
tion at a given stage of maturity in the crop of the same group of
healthv trees over a series of years are climatic conditions, nutritional
conditions, and load of fruit on the trees. In the present experi-
ment the first two factors did not play dominant parts in any differ-
ences observed. The three seasons were devoid of marked extremes
in precipitation, temperature, or sunshine and were characterized by
local growers as " good " peach years. The orchards in which the
trees used were located were treated in accordance with current cul-
tural and fertilizer practices for the locality, and no marked change
in treatment was made during the tests.
In the group of varieties as a whole, there was a general tendency
for solids to be slightly lower in 1925 and slightly higher in 1926,
at all stages of ripening, than in 1924. The differences between 1924
and 1926 are not very pronounced, while 1925 is consistently lower
than either. This result is associated with the fact that 1925 was a
year in which all the trees bore an exceptionally heavy load of fruit.
(Table 2.) That the amount of fruit upon the trees has an important
influence upon content of solids is especially clearly shown by the
results with Carman. The crop was thinned in 1924; in 1925 no
thinning was done, and the trees were very heavily loaded. The crop
of 1926 was intermediate in size between the others. The results of
the analyses show that the total solids of Carman were rather closely
similar at all stages of ripening in 1924 and 1926, but were consist-
ently markedly lower in 1925.
CANNING QUALITY OF CERTAIN EASTERN PEACHES 9
• With the progress of ripening there is a general' tendency toward
increase in total solids from the taking of the first sample onward
through shipping ripeness to four to six days after the shipping
stage, succeeded by a slight decline in the very soft ripe fruit. There
are some exceptions to this general rule which a detailed study would
probably show to be due to the climatic conditions prevailing during
the period of ripening of the particular varieties concerned. Detailed
consideration of seasonal climatic conditions in relation to their effect
upon the fruit is beyond the province of this bulletin.
ALCOHOLIC EXTBACT
The alcohol extract or total alcohol-soluble fraction consists of
total sugars, acids, and astringent substances, together with some
material not here determined, the sugars making up 90 per cent or
]nore of the total. As a result, the alterations in amount of the
alcohol-soluble material are determined by the changes occurring
in the sugars and need not be discussed in detail. The undetermined
material includes chlorophyll, waxes, alcohols, aldehydes, esters, and
soluble salts. It is largest in amount in the most immature fruit and
progressively decreases with the progress of ripening to a minimum
in fully soft ripe fruit. This decrease is due to a number of causes,
among which are certainly the decomposition of chlorophyll and
the conversion of waxes and alcohols into less complex volatile sub-
stances which escape in the determinations.
SUGARS
The sugars constitute by far the greater part of the total solids.
There is a general tendency for the total sugars to increase rather
steadily throughout the ripening period up to five or six days past
the shipping stage, after which they may become practically con-
stant or decrease slightly. In this respect total sugars closely paral-
lel total solids. The proportion of this increase varies greatly from
year to 3^ear, amounting to less than 1 per cent of the fresh weight
in some instances and to somewhat more than 4 per cent in one
case. In general, the difference between the soft ripe sample and
that taken six or seven days before the shipping stage averages
about 3 per cent of the fresh weight, or from 30 to 40 per cent if
expressed in sugar content of the immature sample. The gain in
sugars is due almost wholly to increase in sucrose. The ratio of
free reducing sugars to sucrose alters considerably during ripening
on the tree, due not only to increase in the sucrose present but also
to decrease in the reducin^y sugar. In very ripe fruit the free re-
ducing sugars may again mcrease slightlv, but this does not occur
until the fruit has become extremely so it and is on the verge of
breaking down.
There is considerable variation in the sugar content of each of the
varieties from year to year. In three — Carman, Belle, and Elberta —
the fruit had somewhat higher sugar content in 1926 than in the
other years. These same varieties had the minimum sugar content
for the period in 1925, the percentage for 1924 being intermediate.
Hiley had maximum sugar content m 1924, but minimum in 1926,
112542°— 30 2
10 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 196, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
while Yellow Hiley had the maximum in 1925 and the minimum
in 1926. This would indicate that a number of factors play a part
in determining the amount of sugar stored in the fruit. Among
these the load of fruit borne by the trees (Table 2) and the climatic
conditions during the period in which the variety was ripening its
fruit are most prominent.
ACIDITY
The degree of acidity possessed by a fruit plays a very important
part in determining its palatability and delicacy of flavor. Since
our cultivated varieties owe their existence in the first place to their
appeal to the sense of taste, selection has made them rather uniform
by eliminating those either very high or very low in acidity. Con-
sequently, no very marked differences in acidity among varieties
are found. There is a very considerable seasonal variation in
acidity ; all the varieties for which there are data for three years are
higher in acidity at all stages in the ripening process in 1925 than
in the other years. The differences between 1924 and 1926 are not
large, but in all varieties the acidity of the fruit was at all stages
of ripeness slightly lower in 1924 than in 1926. There would ap-
pear to be evident in 1925 the effect of some generally operative
factor which influences the acidity of the entire group of varieties
in the same manner. The unusually high temperatures which pre-
vailed during June, July, and August, combined with severe drought
in the latter half of July and all of August, may have considerable
significance in this connection.
There is in all cases a distinct decrease in acidity in all varieties
during ripening. The decrease is typically rather slow as the fruit
passes from the hard-green to the shipping stage, and in a few cases
there is a slight increase during this period. After the fruit passes
the shipping stage the decline becomes increasingly rapid with the
progress of softening.
ASTRINGENT MATERIALS
The determinations of the astringent materials in the first two
years of the work were limited to measurements of total astringency.
In 1926 a determination of the nontannin fraction was also made-
The substances which are included in these determinations are of
considerable interest from a practical point of view. They include
tannins and related substances, which give the fruits of some varieties
an unpleasant bitterness, especially when underripe, and which oxi-
dize in the air to give brown discolorations that are avoidable in
canning operations only by promptness in handling prepared fruit.
They also include the anthocyan pigments which give many varieties
red colorations in the skin and about the pit, and which may react
with the metal of the can to produce discoloration. Present methods
of determination of astringent materials do not permit of more
than a very crude separation of true tannins from the anthocyan
pigments, glucosides, and other compounds occurring with them in
the juices of fruits. The results do not justify extended discussion
in view of this fact.
The results of the 1926 determinations indicate that in all varieties
the total astringent materials consist mainly of nontannins, the true
CANNING QUALITY OF CERTAIN EASTERN PEACHES 11
tannins making up 16 to 40 per cent of the total. Fluctuations in
amount of the nontannin fraction, which contains the anthocyans,
will considerably affect the total. Such fluctuations will occur, since
the amount of red pigment in the skin and flesh of a given variety
varies widely with climatic conditions during its period of ripening.
Consequently, total astringency varies quite widely in most of the
varieties from year to year, and there is no general tendency of all
varieties toward maximum or minimum astringency in any one year.
Belle and Hiley were most astringent in 1926, Yellow Hiley and
Elberta in 1925, and Carman in 1924. On the basis of the available
data the varieties studied appear to fall into three groups in respect
to total astringency. Carman and Elberta are high, Hiley and Belle
medium, and Arp, Early Kose, and Yellow Hiley low in this re-
spect. That Carman ranks somewhat higher than Elberta in astrin-
gent content was an unexpected result, since to the taste Carman
has little of the astringency and nothing of the bitter quality char-
acteristic of Elberta, nor does it ordinarily develop as intense colora-
tion. That the analytical data give no indication of these differences
merely emphasizes the inadequacy of present methods of determining
these constituents.
There is in general a decrease in total astringency during ripening,
but it is rather irregular and highly variable in amount. In most
cases the nontannin fraction remains stationary or increases in
amount as a result of increase in the red coloration of the fruit,
so that the total increase in astringents takes place at the expense
of the true tannins. The ordinary determination of astringent sub-
stances gives no adequate idea of the differences between varieties,
as has just been noted in the discussion of Carman and Elberta.
Nor do the changes in total and nontannin astringency give any
adequate conception of the progressive disappearance of the acrid,
bitter taste of such a variety as Elberta during ripening. These
alterations in palatability are due in considerable part to chemical
alterations in the complex mixture of substances classed as astrin-
gents, but these alterations are not measurable by titration with
permanganate.
ALCOHOIi-INSOLUBlLB RESIDUE
The alcohol-insoluble residue consists of cellulose, proteins,
pentosans, pectins, and waxes. No attempt was made to determine
the amounts of these constituents separately. The amount of the
alcohol-insoluble residue is in all cases greatest in the least-mature
sample and decreases steadily with ripening on the tree to a minimum
in the very soft-ripe stage. The significance of this decrease will
be discussed later in connection with the results of the storage tests.
Some general results of the chemical studies which are of signifi-
cance in their relation to the changes in palatability undergone by
the ripening fruit may be pointed out.
Kipening on the trees is attended by an increase in total sugar.
There is usually if not always an absolute increase due to continued
transport of sugars from the trees into the fruit, and also a relative
increase due to the decrease in nonsugar solids present. This
increase in total sugar is due to increase in sucrose, and is accom-
12 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
panied by decrease in free reducing sugar, so that sucrose makes
up a proportionally larger part of the total sugar as ripening
proceeds. This alteration results in increased sweetness of the flesh
to the taste. At the same time titratable acidity is decreasing, at first
slowly, then more rapidly as the fruit begins to soften. Total
astringency is also usually decreasing somewhat, but the chief altera-
tion in astringent materials is a decrease in true tannins. This re-
sults in disappearance of the astringent, acrid taste characteristic of
the green fruit. The concurrent decrease in acidity and astringency
and increase in total sugar, and especially in sucrose, results in
marked increase in palatability, which is accentuated by an accom-
panying increase and enriching of the odor and flavor of the fruit.
This increase in odor and in palatability continues, in the case of
most of the varieties here under consideration, until incipient
fermentation and decay set in, although in some of the less acid
and astringent varieties the decrease of these constituents may
proceed so far that the fruit becomes insipidly, flatly sweet while
still sound.
The decrease in alcohol-insoluble residue, which proceeds steadily
during the ripening process, is due to the progressive solution of
cell-wall material. This change results in more complete breaking
down of cell walls and release of their contents when the flesh is
taken into the mouth, which permits quicker and more complete per-
ception of the flavor of the material. Most dessert varieties of
peaches are prized in accordance with the degree to which their flesh
possesses this characteristic melting quality.
The chemical analyses enable one to measure the progress of the
changes in sugars, acids, astringent materials, and alcohol-soluble
residue, and consequently to gain a fairly clear conception of the
progress of the fruit from the hard, astringent, unpalatable condi-
tion toward prime eating ripeness. Such analyses give no measure
of another factor in ripening which it is indispensable that the can-
ner should know. The canned product must not only be palatable ;
it must also, to a very considerable degree, retain its original form
without collapsing or disintegrating as a result of handling and the
application of heat in the canning process. In order to laiow
whether a given lot of fruit will or will not do this, it is highly de-
sirable to have some readily applicable measure of the softening
process. The rate of decrease in alcohol-insoluble residue furnishes
some indication of the extent to which solution of the skeletal frame-
work of the fruit and consequent softening of texture has proceeded,
but its determination is a time-consuming process incidental to fairly
complete chemical analysis. Moreover, the certain interpretation
of the results of determinations of these constituents necessitates
more complete knowledge of their amounts and behavior in the in-
dividual varieties than is possessed at present.
Consequently, if we are to have a readily applicable measure of
the ability of the fruit to withstand canning processes without be-
ing thereby broken down, it is necessary to seek some means of
directly determining the resistance offered by the flesh to forces
that tend to deform or disintegrate it. Such a measure appears to
be afforded by the use of pressure tests*
CANNING QUALITY OF CERTAIN EASTERN PEACHES 13
PRESSURE TESTS
Tests of the resistance of the flesh to puncture by a needle or a
plunger as a measure of the degree of maturity have been rather
extensively applied to fruits, and it has been shown by several in-
vestigators that the resistance to deformation or displacement of-
fered by the flesh is a dependable index of maturity in apples, pears,
and some other fruits. Culpepper and Magoon (IS) have shown
that the pressure test is a dependable criterion for comparing varie-
ties of sweet corn as regards their physical texture and suitability
for canning purposes, as well as for determining the stage of matur-
ity in the individual variety. The pressure tester employed in their
studies of sweet corn has been used without modification in this
work and has been found well adapted to the purpose.
Practically all the varieties of peaches now grown in the South-
eastern States for supplying the fresh-fruit market undergo a
characteristically rapid softening during ripening, finally becoming
so soft that the tissues can readily be disintegrated by slight pressure.
This character gives the fruit an appearance of juiciness which seems
to be generally preferred in fruit which is to be eaten raw. It is,
however, objectionable from the canner's point of view, since it
results in more or less softening and collapse of the fruit in the
course of processing. Since there is little definite information in the
literature as to the rate of softening in the eastern-market varieties
or as to the differences in this respect existing between them, it was
considered advisable to study the changes in firmness occurring
during ripening by the employment of pressure tests. The results
must be considered as preliminary in character. The instrument
used was chosen because it had been successfully used with a variety
of other materials, and no comparative study of the suitability of
various types of instruments or sizes of plunger was made. The
primary purpose in making the tests was to ascertain the extent to
which changes in texture and resistance to pressure were correlated
with changes in chemical composition and in th» color and appear-
ance of the fruit. The results, each of which is an average of 100
tests made upon 10 fruits, expressed in grams, are given in the last
column of Table 3.
The general results of the pressure tests show very good agreement
with the results of visual and manual examination of the fruit, in
that they indicate that there is a progressive softening of the tissues
during ripening and that this increases in rate after thj^ fruit passes
the shipping stage. The averages shown in Table 3, with very few
exceptions, show a decline in firmness with successive samples in
every variety and in every year. There are a number of reasons why
the averages obtained at the several stages of ripening should be con-
sidered as expressing a general tendency rather than absolute values.
The varieties of peaches here studied show very uniform resistance to
pressure over all parts of the fruit when tested 6 to 10 days prior to
reaching shipping stage, and the results obtained with a large number
of fruits will show very small differences in resistance. As ripening
proceeds the resistance to pressure at first decreases uniformly over
the whole surface, but by the time the shipping stage is reached the
rate of softening in different areas becomes unequal. In most fruits
14 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 6, U. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE
a rather narrow zone bordering on the suture line, and including the
" lip " when a lip is present, begins to soften much more rapidly than
the general surface. By the time the fruit is four or five days past
shipping stage it is girdled for one-half or three-fourths its diameter
by a beltlike soft area along the suture line, over the tip, and upward
over the dorsal surface of the fruit. In some cases the area of most
rapid softening first appears on the dorsal side of the fruit, opposite
the suture, and later extends down over the tip, but initial softening
along the suture is of much more frequent occurrence. In later
stages of ripening the softened zone extends progressively over the
cheeks and upward over the base of the fruit, with the result that
resistance to pressure again becomes fairly uniform over the whole
surface in very soft fruit.
As a consequence of this method of softening, the average values
obtained at different stages of maturity have different meanings. Up
to shipping stage the result of any individual test will show a resist-
ance very closely approximating the average of all tests on fruit
of that degree of maturity. After this stage is passed, any group
of individual tests will contain a larger number of rather uniform
values obtained by tests made on the general surfaces of the fruits
and a smaller number of lower, rather widely varying values result-
ing from tests falling on the softer areas along the sutures and about
the tips. The general average obtained by combining these two sets
of values gives a figure somewhat below the resistance of the general
surface and above that of the softer suture zone. By making a like
number of tests, equally distributed over the fruit, upon each fruit,
as has been done in this work, the ratio of values for the general sur-
face to those for the suture zone is kept constant, and the values
obtained by averaging have comparative value. A considerable
degree of familiarity with the individual peculiarities of the varie-
ties in hand is requisite in interpreting the results of pressure tests.
Of the varieties here studied, the tendency to unequal softening is
most pronounced in Carman, least marked in Elberta, and nearly
or quite absent in the J. H. Hale.
PRESSURE TESTS AS AN INDICATION OF CANNING QUALITY
Pressure tests have been found to be of very considerable value
in the study of the adaptability of the several varieties to canning
purposes. To make a canned product of satisfactory flavor the fruit
must have attained a certain degree of maturity. Resistance to pres-
sure is a very dependable index of the attainment of this condition.
From this point onward softening continues at a rate rather charac-
teristic of the variety, but in a considerable degree determined by
seasonal conditions, until the fruit reaches a stage in w^hich it can
no longer pass through the canning process with satisfactory reten-
tion of form and texture. The pressure test 'affords an indication
of the attainment of this condition and a measure of the rate at which
a given variety passes from one extreme to the other. Whether a
variety is suitable for canning depends to a very considerable extent
upon the length of time it remains in good condition for the purpose.
The pressure test supplies this information.
In one respect pressure tests require interpretation in the light of
more knowledge of the physiological behavior of individual varie-
CANNING QUALITY OP CERTAIN EASTERN PEACHES 15
ties on the one hand and of the chemical and physicochemical changes
occurring during the heating incidental to processing on the other.
Lots of material of two varieties having identical pressure
tests will soften and disintegrate to an unequal degree when sub-
jected to the same processing temperature. Of the varieties used
in this work, Carman showed the greatest and J. H. Hale the
least softening as a result of processing when fruits of a like
degree of firmness to pressure were given identical treatment. This
does not detract from the value of the pressure test; it indicates
that some knowledge of the characteristics of the different varieties
is necessary in interpreting its results as a guide in canning work.
The work of Appleman and Conrad (1) has shown that in the
case of Late Crawford the softening of the fruit proceeds concur-
rently with the conversion of protopectin into pectin, and these
authors consider that this is the chief cause of softening in that
variety. If this be generally true, the unequal rates of softening
observed in different varieties are due to the fact that conversion
of protopectin into pectin goes on at different rates in the several
varieties; the results upon alcohol-insoluble residue, presented in
Table 3, indicate that this is the case. Softening during heating is
in part due to solution of pectin, probably also to an acceleration
of the conversion of previously insoluble pectic substances into
water-soluble form; and the varietal differences under heating may
be tentatively interpreted as indicating that at a like stage of ripeness
the pectic substances of Carman are more readily soluble in water
than those of the J. H. Hale. The present study has not included any
attempt to ascertain the causes of the differences observed, and a
specific investigation of the question will be necessary in order to
discover them.
CHANGES OCCURRING IN STORAGE
In order to gain information in regard to the effect of picking and
holding in storage upon the nature and rate of chemical and physical
changes occurring in fruit, a number of storage tests were carried
out. In 1924 and 1925 pickings of Belle, Elberta, Hiley, Carman,
and Yellow Hiley were made at three or four intervals, ranging
from six to seven days prior to attainment of the shipping stage
to one or two days after it. These lots of fruit were stored in half-
bushel baskets in an open room in which the temperature ranged
from 65° to 90° F., fluctuating with the outside temperature but
remaining somewhat below it in the daytime. These lots of fruit
were held as long as any sound fruits remained, samples for testing
for firmness and preservation for analysis being taken at intervals
of two to four days.
In 1926 storage tests were conducted upon one variety only, the
Hiley. Large lots of fruit were picked at three stages — five to six
days before they were shipping ripe, when they were shipping ripe,
and two to three days after they were shipping ripe. Each lot was
divided into two portions, one of which was placed in cold storage
at 32° to 34° F., while the other was held in the open room as in pre-
vious seasons. In all cases sampling for pressure tests and analysis
was carried out on the stored material precisely as with the freshly
picked material.
16 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The analytical data obtained in the studies of effects of storage are
presented in Table 3 in conjunction with those obtained with freshly
picked fruit. The discussion of the results will be primarily con-
cerned with a comparison of the behavior of fruit ripening upon the
tree with that of fruit removed from the tree at various stages of
maturity and allowed to complete the ripening process at summer
room temperatures or in cold storage.
In the storage experiments conducted at summer room tempera-
tures, all samples picked at periods of one to seven days prior to
shipping ripeness, regardless of variety, showed a progressive in-
crease in total solids as storage continued, which ceased only when
the fruit had become extremely soft, with a pressure test below 100
grams. That this increase was due to loss of moisture from the fruit
was obvious, as is shown by the fact that there was an accompanying
increase in alcohol extract, alcoholic-insoluble residue, total sugars,'
astringent materials, and acids. Sucrose usually decreased, while
reducing sugars increased by a somewhat larger amount, possibly
as a result of hydrolysis of pentosans, since starch is absent from the
flesh of the peach. In samples held until softening had become
extreme, the total sugar content in some instances showed a slight
decline.
Fruit picked at shipping ripeness or at a later stage and stored
at room temperature behaved somewhat differently. Total solids
remained practically stationary, as did the alcohol-soluble fraction,
tannins, and total sugars. The alcohol-soluble residue increased
somewhat. Cane sugar decreased, and reducing sugars increased in
almost all cases, but the amounts of these changes were not so
large as in the less mature fruit. Acid content showed a considerable
decline in Carman, Hiley, and Yellow Hiley, but remained almost
stationary in Belle and Elberta. With the exception of the alteration
in relative amounts of reducing sugars and sucrose and the increase in
alcohol-soluble residue, the results of the storage tests on shipping
ripe or past-shipping-ripe fruit indicated only insignificant change
in chemical composition as softening proceeds. The differences in
results obtained with fruits of differing degrees of maturity would
appear to indicate that in the more mature fruit, picked at or
subsequent to shipping ripeness, the rate of loss of sugars and acids
as a result of respiration is more rapid than in fruit picked when less
mature, and nearly or quite balances the loss of water. In the
immature fruit respiration is less rapid, and there is an apparent
increase in solid constituents as a result of water loss. That this
conclusion is correct is rendered certain by comparison of the final
analyses made upon the various stored lots with the analyses of the
tree-ripened samples from the same trees. In every case the fruit
picked three to seven days prior to shipping ripeness and allowed to
soften in common storage had materially higher total solids but
somewhat lower total sugars than tree-ripened fruit of equal ripe-
ness. In fruit stored at or subsequent to the shipping stage, both
total solids and total sugars were lower when the fruit was soft ripe
than in equally ripe fruit taken directly from the tree. If there
were no acceleration of respiratory rate with increasing maturity, the
results would be expected to be opposite in character.
CANNING QUALITY OF CERTAIN. EASTERN PEACHES 17
Storage at 32° to 34° F. presented somewhat different results. All
the samples, regardless of degree of maturity, showed only slight
changes in total solids, alcohol-soluble constituents, total sugars,
acidity, and total astringency. Further, pressure tests showed only
very slight and insignificant decreases even after 24 to 30 days of
storage. It is clear that storage at 32° to 34° F. arrests the ripening
process rather completely and that such variations in chemical com-
position and resistance to puncture as were found in the results of
successive samplings of the cold-stored fruit may be considered as
due largely to experimental error.
Pressure tests were made at intervals of tw^o to four days upon
fruits removed from the trees at various stages of maturity and
stored at room temperature. When the results are compared with
those obtained upon fruit allowed to remain upon the trees for like
intervals, two types are found, depending upon the stage of maturity
that the fruit had reached when picked. In the case of fruit picked
prior to attainment of the shipping stage, the pressure tests were
consistently higher at all intervals than in fruit left on the trees for
like periods. On the contrary, in fruit picked at or after the ship-
ping stage, the pressure tests on the stored fruit were considerably
lower at all stages than in fruit left on the tree. The explanation
of the differing results would appear to be fairly clear when con-
sidered in connection with the results obtained upon fruit held at
32° to 34° F. after picking. In all cases the storage of fruit at
32° to 34° resulted in an increase in resistance to puncture, the
pressure tests after 10 to 30 days' storage equaling or exceeding
those at the time of picking, regardless of the stage of maturity of
the fruit when picked. At low temperature the pectic transfor-
mations which result in softening are greatly retarded, as Appleman
and Conrad {!) have shown, and loss of water by evaporation re-
sults in superficial wilting of the flesh, which increases resistance to
puncture. In very hard green fruit picked and held at room
temperature softening occurs, but its effect is partially offset by
the loss of water from the fruit, so that resistance to puncture de-
creased rather slowly. In fruit allowed to attain shipping ripeness,
then picked and held at a room temperature averaging very close to
that in the open, softening occurred more rapidly than in fruit left
on the tree, as Appleman and Conrad {1) found, and this difference
becomes larger with increasing maturity of the fruit when picked.
The acceleration of softening after picking appeared from the results
to occur only if the fruit had reached the stage at which Georgia
growers pick for shipment to distant markets. Appleman and Con-
rad described their fruit as "hard ripe"; it was, in all probability,
one to two days past the Georgia market shipping stage.
The data of the storage studies, as well as of the chemical analyses
and pressure tests, are presented in tabular form in Table 3.
112542°— 30 3
18 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
a
CO Q
S '»
•« ;35
<» H^
*- ?s
;s q5
CO t.
S^^
a^
O S.
■« o
<fi^
«i ^
00 ^
•j* O
H
<;^ 00
Hi
^ ^
hJ
't3
'^ g
s e
«^
«^
^o -S
•^■s
0-"
ag
g O
Ss
se
e
«j
Cft
^g
o
-<
CO
-S?
;s
bo
"o 03
3 bO
•a a
II
1-^S
-§3-^
<q
Q -^ +j '-' © 53
:iissisasgss§|8 ggssiisi ;i§SSS§2|SSSSR
SsrfOSOOOiOOt^J
it>-ooot^eo o
>C0T»<rtCTt<»0»Oi0i0>O;C>>OOt^00
'ic6e6c6c6c6c6e6c6c6c6ciccc6
COCO'^^CCCOCO'^^COCO'^^'^COCOCCCOC^^CQCO
sS^S
ut^t^oooocx>ooo30505050so50'H t^ooc»ooooa)ooc»o>oia>0505a>05QOffl>C3<»oa>
«Jc^i<NcccciH(NC^'(Nesc^cicsr-ic^ c^Mcccoc^<NC^cs(N(>i«^cscsc4c4c4c>ic>«c>ic4N
S CO (
oc5-
)00O 00 05 «0 O ■* O C<« C<J«0(NOO ■>*•-!}< 00 CO 00 ooooo
>00<N «3O00Tt<(Nt^T»<Tj<iOes|O'O»OO^Q006O00C5 o
lOOOO— i— I— lOO^^eO
t -^ cot-- C5 <
icoTfJeocoeococococococoeou:)
co'^-^'^'eOTjJTt'-^-^eocoeO'^Tj'edTiJ-^eoeoeoeo
liooieo ^C<l»COO m<N>0
^1
<s> o <o
a can
o o o o
^^T)<Q0-*gJ<M'O00(Ng5-<N«O00C>»a5CS»tOC»<j5gJgJ
§ "§ "§ § §§§
iz; ^ a; :z; ^;z;:2;
>o
O,
naa
y
t4
bfi
bcbflta
.9
nan
Cftft
Pi
p.aa
2
SH2
CO
<»
o o o
a
6*
III
bO
bObCt^
1
aad
^
XJ
en « en
(fl 03 03
c^
■^«ooo
9
ooo
CANNING QUALITY OF CERTAIN EASTERN PEACHES 19
eccoeOT-ir-i
ONOJOO
•^ec ot^t>.
7.50
8.27
9.80
10.47
11.05
C4 ci (N (?4 (N ci
!2;
<
<
10.60
11.20
11.96
12.84
13.28
14.44
u
rH lO ■>* b- »C •"*<
r»< «5 CO 00 Tt< "O
S <D 6 6 6 6
c a c c fl 1=1
o o o o o o
s
2 ®
.P O
p.D.a
"O T3 .9 "O TS "O
t^ec g'TjiiOOO
o o .2* o o o
«DcscQeo«o to
ioooo»co>oocoO'-ios<NC>5 >0'^iooot-.-ioo.-ion-»o.-i05.o»oi»ooo<
)(N»CO'-t^OOO»-ll>>OC»<NiO-«+ia>QOT}<
ioo-«*<oo5ooo30005oa>05-«robco-r>«o
l<NC-l.-(.-l^r-lC-J(M.-l(M,-l,-l>-(rt.-H^rH
»OOO»0'-Hl--t~-c0CCO5000<
•^cd«o«d«D<©5005dotdoi>i
Ttirt<cOTt<eou:)-*Trico>0'«*<Tj<-
I t^ to lO
i Tt< CO »o »o »o o to
cocococococococo-^cccococo
0Pt^e0-«ti00Ot000t-.I^t^05l:^QiO00t0O>O»O
<N00(NC)0r-lTt<a0lOO'<*<O<N-^CTi-lrHOC00C05
c>i c^' CO CO ■*' <N c4 CO -1^' <N CO CO CO M ■*" CO CO CO <N c4
ss:
OOOOOSOOOOOOOOO
• 00 l^ t^ t- 1
l-^ i^ 00 t^ 00 t^ OS 05 <
C0C^<N<MCOC^C<I(NCS(MC<I(Nt
C<lC^C^COCOiMe^(N(NC^<NC>4(NC^C^C«CSC»>-ii-l
iOOtO(NOtO
(M(M00(N00(MO00C____ _
.-HOiMr-lOt^OCSTft^COOOCO
rH r-I (N es <N (M' CO (N (M* (M* <N (N (N
oo^o^oo^ooo^c
I050505050OTOOO
C<100.-H'O-<jHO<M'-i00O0l<N0S
05»0005COC^OOO>-ICO-*OS'-I
l(Nr-lC5CO^--l,-H(N-
i(N'c<i(r4e4.-5coc^ic4
•(jjccot-aJc^iTftOgjaJa;^
a a a a a a a
o o o o o o o
:c>«-«i<b-05 flJCOOOO o^CCOOOOeO (n"3
iz; 5^)2;^
rH bo
.s
p.
p.
.1 s
o o
«o ,-1
, <» ® (vB
r* bobca
rr a O, CO
"^ t- ^- "
«-. « O) w
>»>»>. to
oS 0(3 ^ o
rHMCOlO
bti boto
BBS
ft ft'ft
ft Gft
S S2
00 en CO
(1> d; <»
20 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
C36
^
^ 6
•1:1 e
o ^
5§
5^ a
.« o
oor-)
oh a
I 3
2 «
3 60
T3 3
II
^■2 3
O O M
-^ to <»
C"! oa
fi-5-
5S|
1 .C 00 00 vO lO
wo
■« i£, o t^ o 05 go
So j<eoooooo
«-> <C » CD «o' t~^ t>^
■« 05 »2 C^ ■^ «= T)H
S l^ O r-H Oi t^ t^
%l
w c^ eo Tj( c* c<J CO
0 05 050000
WP5C^ WC^INi
<»
« r-H (M CCrH eC CO
SiMOiOC^l c^c
so © ai © o o ®
&.C fl C C fl fl
o c c o o o o
f^^;z;:z;;z;;z;;2i
tcwi
a a
p. p.
EC W
bc ac tic
O H fl
ftg.ft
^22
W CO w
I I-< ^ »4
I <» a; 4)
05 CS
o o
M ^ w ^
gcoicoo
.tro c c
§i!S8i§ssiB§ss§ nm
«o ;c cc «c "b »35 o "5 "i ^ lo CO rt CO ■^■^•^
o
CO '-I »0 OO t>- "5 O C<I t~ 1-1 C« 00 <M o ^t^n
"5 CO U3 O 00 O 1-1 »0 05 !>• •^ CO 00 00 CO t»< ;0
Tj;T»;-»j<>o-^idic»oio>o>o»d>dcD 5£;cd»o
C<l t^C^ T-iO^0005 ^Q—iC^l^O i-iOOO
CO Oi rH C^ 00 05 00 »0 00 05 O 00 C5 00 o — o
CO CO ■<*' CO CO CO CO CO CO CO -^ CO CO CO cococo
"5 00 t^ 05 00 CD 00 rH OO -< CO O Cl CO C<) t^ ^
00 »0 CO C^ 3 OS 05 --I t^ CO ■* (M t^ CO COiCt>.
t^odododo6oo'odo5o5 0J0505050 oioiod
O C<> O ■<** t^ (N CO 00 IM 1-1 O 00 ^ CO O-'f^
C rH i*H CO lO 00 05 il< CO •<*< ■* C5 (N O CON—I
CO CO CO <N (N (N <N (N <M (N (M* ci <M' C<i C^j c4 pi
CD <5 r-5 T-H ,4 rJ ,4 rH (N ^' .-; .-H ^ (N* c<i ci -5
§cq CO 00 1^ c^ o CO (N "3 e>« Tt< CO CO c-^i^.
t>-CDt^>OTf<,-(C<l00005000t~- 4-OCDOS
coco^coco'^^'^'^'^'^cococO'Tj^ ^^co
o o c
0^ a: ^ 01/ c o
CCS C c c
o o o o o o
aaa
Pi
p.
1
■ u
.11
P<N
2 o
ttttcbo
■ftpp,
2 J3 2 ® ' 43 • •
cc w CO p ® C::3
«««—■(: M «»
CO CO to >-s'^;a
o3 cS ae 05 p. _ fl
o o o g g
CANNING QUALITY OF CERTAIN EASTERN PEACHES 21
Tfcsc^ics lecec'-i s<i c^ i-i c^ i-i r-i c<« ^ i-i eo ec c<» c^ i-h i-i
•ocO'a<c^c<ii©0'-i«oooe<50:a<<Necig;-*o
e»seo-^eo'«"c<i5<5jeccscoc>icoiMC<<e^c>4C^
Tj<Ttt-^CQC0-^Tt<«-«*<'««<-*-^-*'«'0>0Ot^<
icoaiOieo-<»<t^c<»'<»<«D5C05^ec«50wa>
CO -* •«*<' -<i<' T»<' « ro CO -"f eo e<5 CO Tjl e<s eo e<5 CO ec ec
OOOOQOOOOOQOOOt-00000050050005000500
c^cocoeococ><c^:^c^c<ic<«c^c^c^csc^r-(.-(.
cJ^rH-^-^<
iOOOO<3J.-tOrHO^CSJ(N
eo''^Tj"«ou3e<«c^c^eoc<NC<icococococ^-^Tt<
;«O00'-irl< gj-(N»OX aJfN'OOl gjC^liO
I '"""' C O PI
P P a
o o o
«q
25.
a
Oi
IH
■-<
bo
bO
.S
.9
o.
p
p.
a
'
i
i
§
1
tO»OOCO>CC<J
cocoeoeoiMC*
OOCOr-lOO
05 O C5 ooi c5
05 C^ 00 «D 00 1-H
ooiccoc^Oioo
ci c<i c^' c^* rH .-i
Tf -^ •»*< to CO eo
a> 0> a> Q^ OJ 03
fl o a fl 0 fl
o o o o o o
li t-> Ui
a> <s «
-M 4^ -W
-0 73-0
o o o
ftO,
22
be be be
13 fl a
P.O.O.
M ui ta
Ih l4 »«
a> <u «
OT CO J-i M 05 CO
>> >> fjjQ t>» >% >>
C3 03 f-1 CO c3 o3
-O T3 .9 -o -o -o
t- CO g-co «o t^
e0010SCON05Q'^«0»005t^05i-iOQ
QOTH<Nooeo'<i<i!OTj<eoT}<(Ma>o^o
cj
ooeoosooocot>.»oocoa>-#cOTj<oo
ooco'Or-ioc^iMcooioasoooseoiot--
eo' Tt? T}< TjJ »0 »0 uo UO uo >0 >d >0 «0 O CD ?D
i-ir-H«o-^»oc^eooo<oo5>ooJcoi-ii-i
oo^»o>orHesot>-Mcot>.ooQO'-toa>
cs co' eo CO CO co' CO CO co' CO CO CO ci CO CO c4
05-<*kO-*'eO»OOr-4Q05000J»Ot^.-lr-*
0-<*<rHtOC^Tf05^^COl^<000'*»0?0
CO t-' 00* »>•■ 00* oo" 00 OS 00 00 cJ oi 00 oJ ai <3>
05C<10i"*l0S'<*<t^'-lrt00t^O00C0C>JrH
00OC0C<l<»C000Q0'O«0C0t~-C^rHt-tr-l
(H co" co' CO c^ c<i c^' c^ ci cJ <N c^i c4 c>< ci c4
-^INCOOCOlMOCDC^IC^JtNCOOejTitoQ
oooc^»oeoeoc><ooco.-t--ieoooOT-(co
05 0c5c5'-H^.-;c5^''-<cicooc<Jp<i-<
CO'*C<l'*"5CDCOt^COOaiCpOOQOOOJ
t^O<Ct^OOii-i<£!'-Ht^t^OO'-iC>*-^
C^COCOCC^CO^CO'^CO^OCO^^CO
g5'*ioo<N-5(N-*t^g5<N'<*<<r><i;g3a^aj'
a '^fl PI aa a a
o o o o o o o
^ 'Z 'Z ZZZZ
a
a
a
Ot
a
Ok
2
2
CO
£
£
o
Q
.2
^
bObCbObO
a a g a
ao,p.o.
2222
QJ^ ® tt)
ft "3'3'3*3
C m CO CO CO
.2 -O-O-OXJ
2" o o o o
■1^ -t^ 4^ -«->
CO i-HCOTfCO
22 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
«3C<Jcoooe«cO'-<t^OC^«i-i^H>co-^coc^eo
• QO ^ C> O 00 I
S,-HO5?»C0«O00t^'
^
I U5 -^ ■><*< -^ ■»*< lO lO <
eo«eoco(NTt<eocoeo-<«<'^
3 bb
«j(Ncoe<5rficoc<icoeo-<t»-<*<coeceofO-^iMC<ic<i<N
1 1^ t^ «C lO c
T:» (N -* 00 oo <N •
0«5t^ojf^t^i>-"t^o6o6o6o6obooQOo6o6obob03
«D <0 1-- t^ ® t^ t^ t^ 1
O O'co
<1 fl «-!
I CO t^ Oi<
«c^Wl^^coco(^^(N<NC^(^^i^^(^i<^^c^|?^c<^(^^(^^1--i
e«3p5C<»coMcocceceococ*
^2
O X!
Scot- iOt
«05 000000i
100000005000
iCsOOiOlOOOOOO
-2s
Sioooco-^eccDu-jccoo^oo-^r^^'-Hi-io-^
coc<ieoeceopo-^Tt<cocceo
<S o U) a o £
ss'c! d d d
*5S^
d d d d
o o o o
ft D- aft
"C 'C 'C "S
M to ra tn
ft
Id
c^-'4<»ooo
2222
02
r-.CO-*t^
•a
.9 n
CO
<s _
-o ft
^
>.
T)
■o
O
2
C/J
c*
CANNING QUALITY OF CEKTAIN EASTERN PEACHES 23
r-eOOtOiOC^ rTl<CCOOQO'OiOC>bcOO>OCOOi"5
(N(Nr-H M leOCOCM C<»COCCC^r-l
>oO'-itDc»i-iOi>.t^oo?ooQeco5N-^«ooo
(NCO(NCOC^I-<t<C^-*(NOr-iO-*geOO^gOg
eoicco'Tt'co'c»o-<f^»OTttM<'»*<io»oio-<*"c»ot>'
i(N<NeoeoiMcocopo(Mcccocoeoeoc<i
t^ooi-ooQot^oot^t^t^oooooooooooot^oDOiO
coNeoe«oecc^C'^cse^<MiM(N(NCvic<ic»c<»i-ic<ii
'<N«>iMOCOOC^(MOC30<NC^O(N(NtOOOOO-
lOOOO'-Hi-lrt—l-H— I.
I ^ O t-H T-i (M r-H
Tt<cv5ecooc«5co-^coTji(weOTj<eccv5cofoc6c»iTt<co
'2S!
cl fl cl
o o o
73 73
M CO
asa
b£bC be
.s.g.s
O.P.Q.
w ® QJ tt)
^ 03 ^ ^
CO in w w
C3 C5 CO rt
© otooo
^<^ ?r ^ r:? <3* ?? «2 ^ "* P CO •<i< op QO >
eococo eo<
'-H0000a>ioa>C0(M05i-<(N.-HOi-((NOIN
eo CO c<i !>. 00 ci oo rti r^ a> CO "O o CO t^ o a:j (M --I T-i
o * '
lOtOOl r-llOt^COC^IMO'^OO'OOOCO'OCOO'O'*
00505 >0 05 -^ •* CO >0 -"f CO IM "O ■<*< C<1 O 05 o o t^
lo id lo CO CO CO CO »d '^ Tti -^ id id Tj< CO o -^ CO CO CO
Tt<coo5 a> CO i-H lo Q o 5> o c>J CO M< o> CO CO 05 1- 00
oot-oo CO i-H ■>*< CO o t^ o 00 o* t^ a> i-H lo o ^ CO o
cic^c^i eOTj5Tt'-<^coco-^-^coc6->:t'coco-5<cocoeo
cdodt-^t^odododoJodcJoicJoiodoJaJos
Tt<COr-l
iiOTtiOCOOCOCOCO(
?qc^W*c6c»<So-«j<io66(
coeococoe>icococo'c4e^coCNC<i(Nc4(Ni
O0005 000.-H0^— iO'-i--<0^'-t
•^Tfico t^ 00 o> CD e^ Tt< o (N t-- o> -"^^ (N 00 Tt< fo ■* OS
M^oooi -^JH 00 o (N --H lO •<*< 00 CO r-( lo t-i eo 00 00 CO o
dc^'c^' eocoTj5cocococoTt'C"5-^-<^coTt'co(M"coco
<L> <s a
a a Q
o o o o
~ © <D ©
a p a
o o o o
bcbo
.a .a
p. p.
Q.O.
22
ftoa 08
.a-o-o
gcoio
.-o o
.a
bO
p.
p,
A
p«
-s
•s
©
e
^
^
M
tn
>»
>>
«
CC
-o
.a .a .a
aaa
aaa
© © © ©
^CDOO
O O O
CO«Ot~-
24
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
5- C35
•-s> o
. a
II
d 03
'3 08
^82
P-2
- ^ <B 03
QCCOJeooo
«oco!or-«o
2ecccN -^
8
wo ■ ■ * '
•« .-I O to '-' i-H
r
"JJ^OODC^O
C^O-^CO'
« C<5 "5 O •*■ «d
« CO e<5 c^' c^' (m'
"S 00 •<!*< CO l^ CO
S C5C0 CO 00 o
«J >» 00 00 1^ OS
ff- r-l 03 -^ o (
>u . . . .
«COiMiM(M ■
■JS OO •* CO CO
S Ttl Tf 00 05 t^
«ocJc5c5o
•" 03 O (M t^ 35
ii«ococoo5«;
«eocoeooi<N
2 ® a> ® » a>
^fl C fl (3 PI
^ o o o o o
bCbC
CI fl
aa
23
TJ ^3 .S -CtS
t^eo §<■* i»
0 0.^*00
<o cs CO CO >o
QO«coJeo :
•o CO 50 1 - «
coeoc^ — I
o * ■ • •
sss
o 2?oo
iiiii
t^ O t^ t^ OJ
50 00 Tt< -"i* c»
rJ<C<INC^<N
OS "C^ CO o
c-i (N <>i iri (n"
CO
g5§
^ ^ ® ^ ^
a G a a a
o o o o o
X! ac3 03 «
w "vi M CO m
>> {jC >> !>> >»
c3 f-1 ^ ^ ^
t3 .S -C 73 73
o g^c^ co»o
o -S* o o o
^j r^ -u -fcj -u
IsSSs*
o ■ * * *
d
)0«0'^C>»— <
«d «d »c »t^(
c>i c>i c^ oi c^ c4
7.56
7.99
7.98
9.46
9.39
11.09
CO CO >o •«*< >o CO
co-^cooit-'*
eocot^tooot^
OO CD 00 o »-H <o
C4 ci c^ eo CO CO
o o o o o o
S.S.S.
tsobObO
9 S.9
Hao.
aaa
^XJ.C P.05 (B
>. t>» >s so >> >>
T3T3'a.S'0'0
«ocoN §<eooo
o o oSo o
CANNING QUALITY OP CEBTAIN EASTERN PEACHES
25
coeoc
I to >o ■
;gS§
o ■ ■ * *
Tt< "O lO to o o
■^e^ toioo to
>C Oi cooo to
CO CO CO CO ^ CO {
oo<
00 oi 00 oj o" oi
00l^O<MIMrf<
Ot^rHOOO
(N m' e^ <m' c<i (H
o f-5 c5 <N CO —?
CO Tt< CO Tt< »C CO
qj ^ (IP ^ ® ^
fl fl fl fl a c
o o o o o o
^ .IS
3S
J3 J3
.KK
22 ®
n CO 'C m cQ OT
a! sS ^ oS oS oS
'O 'O -S 'O 'O 'O
lONCQcO-* to
26 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 196, TJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
CANNING TESTS
The canning experiments were carried out in the commercial can-
nery of W. L. Houser, to whom the writers are indebted for the use
of equipment and for cooperation which very materially aided in the
work.
METHODS EMPLOYED IN THE CANNING EXPERIMENTS
With some minor exceptions, the canning tests upon each variety
consisted of the packing of lots of material at six stages of maturity.
The first lot was taken when the fruit lacked one or two days of hav-
ing reached the stage at which it is picked for commercial shipment,
while the last consisted of fruit which was as soft ripe as it would
become without dropping from the trees. The various stages were
consequently separated by one or two days, the intervals varying
somewhat with the rate of softening characteristic of the variety
and also with the weather conditions during the ripening period.
The various lots of fruit were in all cases picked early in the day
and transferred at once to the laboratory. Except in the case of
material employed in the holding and storage experiments, all fruit
was canned on the day it was picked.
The fruit in all cases was split and pitted by hand. All fruit that
was sufficiently firm was lye peeled, the regular equipment of the
cannery being employed for the larger lots. The smaller lots were
also lye peeled in a small steam-heated retort filled with the alkali
solution and so arranged that the peeling was as efficient as in the
larger equipment.
After being peeled, the peaches were packed in No. 2% plain sani-
tary cans, and sufficient 60 per cent sirup was added to fill the cans
properly. They were given a 3-minute exhaust, processed 20 minutes
in a rotating cooker at 212° F., and cooled in running water. At the
close of each season's work the canned material was shipped to Wash-
ington, D. C, where it was stored at laboratory temperature. After
five or six months in storage the cans were cut open and detailed notes
made upon the appearance and dessert quality of the various lots of
each of the varieties. In the examination and grading of the material
the writers were assisted by members of the Bureau of Home Eco-
nomics, representatives of the National Canners' Association, and a
number of other persons interested in the work. The examinations
of the material involved two comparisons — the various samples of
each variety were compared with each other to determine the stages of
maturity at which the canned material had best appearance and flavor,
and the several varieties were then subjected to comparison as to
their possibilities as canning fruits.
POINTS CONSIDERED IN COMPARING THE CANNED PRODUCTS
In judging the canned material, flavor, size, color, and texture or
firmness were the factors considered, but no numerical values were
assigned to these several factors. Consideration w^as necessarily
comparative, each of the varieties being checked against all the others.
CANNING QUALITY OF CERTAIN EASTERN PEACHES 27
COLOR
In judging the color of the fruit, consideration was given to several points,
namely, the character of the color, as yellow, greenish yellow, brownish yellow,
etc. ; the intensity of the color, as faint, pronounced, or intense ; and the uniform-
ity of color, as to whether the whole sample was uniform or variable in color.
TEXTUEE AND FIRMNESS
The degree of firmness of a sample of canned peaches varies with variety, stage
of maturity, processing temperature employed, and length of storage after
canning. As the processing temperatures and period of storage were uniform
for all varieties, the differences in firmness in samples taken at like stages of
maturity may be attributed to varietal differences. Samples were classed as
hard (too firm to crush readily between the teeth), good (suflSciently firm to
retain form during canning and storage), and soft (showing some degree of
disintegration as a result of processing).
FLAVOR
Flavor could be stated only in a comparative way, as to the degree of appeal
which the sample made to the sense of taste. It must, of course, be recognized
that a group of individuals will show considerable differences in their selection
of the best from several products sampled by them. The results given in
Table 4 are based upon the decisions of a majority of those tasting the fruit.
SIZE
Statements as to size are comparative and refer to material that was fairly
typical of the several varieties.
GENERAL SUITABILITY FOR CANNING
The statements on general suitability for canning are expressions of the col-
lective judgment of the writers after studying the several varieties for three
years. The respects in which the variety is ill or well adapted to canning
purposes are indicated in Table 4, which summarizes the conclusions reached in
the study of the individual varieties.
RELATION OF MATURITY TO CANNING QUALITY
The results of the tests to determine the relation of maturity to
canning quality show very clearly that in any given variety the de-
gree of maturity of the fruit determines the market appearance and
dessert quality of the canned product. In each of the varieties used
the series of samples begins with material that is hard in texture, pale
in color, and lacking in flavor. Successive samples show progressive
improvement in all these respects up to a point at which the flesh
begins to soften considerably in processing. From this stage onward
the successive samples show continual improvement in flavor and in
most varieties in color also, but these changes are accompanied by
progressive breaking down, which becomes pronounced enough in
the final samples to render them unattractive. In consequence, there
is in everv variety a short, rather clearly defined period in which the
fruit is nrm enough to undergo processing without disintegrating
and has sufficient flavor to be palatable. This is the best
canning stage; before it is reached the product may be attractive
in appearance but will lack palatability ; after it is passed, the prod-
28 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
net may be highly flavored but will be unattractive. Obviously, the
production of the best possible product, considering both appearance
and palatability, depends upon selection of material at this stage.
The packing of fruit of varying degrees of maturity mixed together
inevitably reduces both the market appearance and the dessert qual-
ity of the entire pack, regardless of the variety employed or the mar-
ket grade of the raw material used. It is believed that this fact can
not be too strongly emphasized, for the reason that observation of the
practice of a number of canners leads to the belief that far too little
attention is paid to grading the fruit for uniform maturity. For
this reason, special effort was directed in its work to the securing
of a definite conception of the best canning stage in the life of the
fruit.
The data regarding the effect of stage of maturity on suitability
for canning are presented in Table 4.
CANNING QUALITY OF CERTAIN EASTERN PEACHES
29
m >
s
C C8 o
P4H
« O.S o c^ o a>'^ ® o o o
pqe ePM Puffl P4E-' E-i
§
^
g
« OJ
ta S
TJ o
-2a
fe O CD
its
gt
Sa "a
.MS
c-^
air; so
ingin
ood.
est can
00 soft
00 soft
00 im
flavor,
air.
1
^ Opq
ee-EH ^o
PQt^
C <1>
.a
a .
OH ® . o w.^
o o.h ® o-^ o
c o ca^ o a> o
a
oooo oS oo
:3t
a ""a
- S ® a
o o o 3jq 3
: :;^^
i^st
a?B
o o Pxa 3 o
a> B ®
oo OOO 0'___
["O
o I o w) o .
^ !>
a
O' o 3
o is
bco
iT3
■ O
. . o
O O t«
-^a
Kf^
if o
Or?
O
O vw
a
o
- CO
o.S+i o o b
b^-gobo '^
<»"S !* O « O
a
ob
C «)
5^
•t; o
•I ^
ig
bc>4
I ^
*3
o a;
>.^'
o
La-s
^ft-a
O! >,
S O ~ O
!>0Q 102 <
es P,bO ^ fl
+3 «
ca bc
>..S'
cs o
C «
O^
o bC-
o :3'
o o
•^'-^^
Ho'
.Sfo^
1^
O.^'S'aj
i « o
C O
bCbCbO
fl fl q
© aj aj
•O .2 -O 73 t3 .g.'O .5 73
o.2"ooo iio .2*0
*^X5*^+^*^ o*^ ;ci-«
ocbo oo
VB 2
03 oa ® 03
CO >o >H c<|
ooif o
§. as.
ta£bO
s a
■ftft
ttft
XJ &03 03 03
C*-
n
E
a
^ 2
OQ-i CO
ca ^ 03 © 03 (-< CS
-co -c ax) .5 -o
C^ CO >C 'tH C» S-IN
o o o e o .2* o
^C-\ -^ 02 7-1 OQ ri
eoic
o o
<V (A „
•n<Na
MrHM
bc bc bo
a 5 a
aaa
aaa
03 ce oa
CO CO OT
03 03 OS O
'O'O'O.gt
c^ CO o n
o o oe
■w*^*i o
o o
ooo; o oo ooi oo do dfeo ooco
30 TFCHNICAL BULLETIN 19 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
.1
0) o
"S o
=aB§Soa"|aoo"5a o ^
w o oi o o o eo--! (0
c o
o o
•5 w o
03 0)0
o o o o
■ ■ ■ 'S ■
;s^
1^1
O^
c o^3
is
lo-Og
'S
O >
u o
S j
o «
1^
;s o
WQ
■^ 1=3
t> ®
® >
3 .P-g-O -O
:; <» 3 *^ t.-
^T3.b o g
. cs o w
i-t-^'o'o'o
I QUO
bcbc
a a
M CO
1-1 t-l
>>>.
bO
•^ "CJ xJ .g-'O .S
•S' o o ii o .2*
^-tj+j o*»x:
CQ rH CO CZ2 ,-H CQ
>>!>>>.
03 « 03 a"
13 C-XJ .5
'C 'O 'O ^XJ
N CC »C C C<I
o o oi^ o
-U -tJ +J o +^
.-'CS-^CQrH
*C 'Jh '{h
bObCbO
g c d
&p.g.
2!c3
CO <a 03
«-r »-i 1-1
O gi <u
o o o
o o o oH o
w
o o o o2
o o o
Pfifi
CANNING QUALITY OF CERTAIN EASTERN PEACHES 31
COMPARISON OF VARIETIES
The qualities regarded as desirable in a canning peach are those
that are determined by the preferences of the purchasing public.
In forming these preferences purchasers are guided to a very large
extent by the appearance of the material. Consequently, the product
must be up to a certain standard in general appearance or it will
be rejected without very much consideration of its dessert quality.
Color plays a very considerable part in determining whether the
first impression shall be favorable. Yellow-fleshed varieties are
everywhere preferred to the white-fleshed ones. The presence of
red anthocyan pigment in the flesh or within the stone cavity is
objectionable by reason of the tendency of the pigment to react with
the tin of the container producing a purplish or violet discoloration
of the fruit and sirup (IS). A flesh of fine, firm texture with a mini-
mum of fiber is considered desirable, whereas a soft, ragged flesh
with prominent fibers is regarded as undesirable, no matter what
its other qualities may be. Other factors being equal, high, full
flavor is given preference, but this factor receives only secondary
consideration as compared with color, texture, and general appear-
ance. The fruit should be of uniform size and shape and free from
blemish or discoloration.
Of the varieties tested in this work, Arp, Yellow Hiley, Elberta,
and J. H. Hale are yellow fleshed; Carman, Early Rose, Belle, and
Hiley are white fleshed. Early Rose is a clingstone. Carman a semi-
cling, and all the others are freestones.
As possible material for canning purposes. Carman has proved
on the whole the least satisfactory. Although it is of fair size and
regular shape, the white flesh darkens very quickly on exposure to
the air, giving the canned product a brownish tint unless special
precautions are taken in the canning process. The fruit ripens
unevenly, softening on one side while still hard green on the other,
so that it is very difficult to make a product of uniform grade. The
soft fruit goes to pieces badly in handling and processing, giving the
sirup a milky appearance which is decidedly unattractive. The
flavor and dessert quality are rather poor.
During the canning process Early Rose retains its form very
much better than Carman and presents a better appeai'ance in the
can. It ranked second only to Belle or to Yellow Hiley in dessert
quality in these tests, but it is too small in size to offer possibilities
as a canning fruit.
Hiley has the disadvantages of white flesh, somewhat small size,
and rather irregular shape. Although when it is fully ripe its
flavor is excellent, flavor is not fully developed until the fruit is
too soft to be lye peeled, and the dessert quality is consequently
poor if the fruit is canned when still firm enough to retain shape.
It also contains considerable quantities of red pigment, and purplish
discoloration in the flesh and sirup was of more frequent occurrence
than in any other variety used in the course of this work.
Belle was decidedly superior to the other white-fleshed varieties
in point of appearance of the product, retaining its form much
better at the later stages of maturity. In two of the three years of
the tests it ranked first of all the varieties in point of flavor. By
reason of the high dessert quality of the product, it is quite generally
32 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 196, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
employed for home canning in peach-growing districts, and a few
commercial canners pack small quantities to supply a demand based
upon familiarity with the variety.
Yellow Hiley ranked first in point of flavor in one year and was
considered second to Belle and equal to Early Rose in the other years.
It has a bright-yellow flesh which deepens in color as it becomes fully
ripe, but, like nearly all the other varieties tested, it becomes so soft
by the time full flavor has developed that it does not retain its shape
satisfactorily in the can. It is also rather irregular in shape and
only medium in size, so that the pack suffers by comparison with that
made from' larger varieties, such as Elberta and J. H. Hale.
Arp (which is rather generally known as Queen of Dixie in the
vicinity of Fort Valley, apparently as a result of the renaming of
the variety by nurserymen) makes a light-yellow product which is
soft in texture and poor in flavor. It is too small in size to be con-
sidered a possibility for canning purposes.
Throughout the tests the J. H. Hale has been decidedly the most
satisfactory of the varieties studied. It is the largest in size and is
almost globular in shape, factors which contribute materially to the
uniformity of the pack. It develops a deep-yellow color several
days before it begins to soften, and it softens rather slowly with very
little tendency toward breaking down of the tissues along the suture
line or toward the tip. Although it is lacking somewhat in flavor
as compared w^ith other varieties at a like stage of ripeness, a canned
product of- good appearance and excellent flavor can be made by
allowing the fruit to become thoroughly tree ripened. The texture of
the fruit is such that it retains its form at a stage of ripeness in
which other varieties disintegrate badly. Consequently, it much
more nearly approaches the ideal firm-fleshed, spherical, deep-yellow,
canning- type jDeach than any other of the varieties grown in the
East for the fresh-fruit market. It is heavily pigmented in the
skin and about the stone, and purplish discoloration due to reaction
of the red pigment with the tin of the container may occasionally
occur. In these experiments such discoloration occurred in some de-
gree at one time or another in all the varieties employed, but was
much more pronounced in the others, especially in Hiley and Belle,
than in J. H. Hale.
By reason of its productiveness, Elberta is the variety most widely
grown, and therefore the variety most generally available for can-
ning. While J. H. Hale surpasses Elberta in all respects as material
for canning, the latter more nearly approaches that variety than
do any of the others tested in this study. It is generally slightly
smaller in size and less nearly spherical in shape than Hale, so that
it is more difficult to obtain a uniformly filled pack. The color is
a fairly deep yellow, which does not fully develop until the fruit
has become rather too soft to retain its shape well. The flesh is some-
what fibrous and coarse in texture, but the flavor is good, ranking
close to Belle in these tests. Like all the other varieties studied, it
attains its full characteristic flavor only after softening has pro-
ceeded so far that the tissues break down in lye peeling and process-
ing, resulting in cloudy sirup and a flattened, ragged appearance of
the pieces of fruit. Consequently it is necessary in commercial can-
ning to sacrifice flavor somewhat in order to obtain a better appear-
CANNING QUALITY OF CERTAIN EASTERN PEACHES 33
ance of the pack. The presence of considerable quantities of red
pigment is occasionally objectionable, especially when it extends
deeply into the flesh, because of the purplish discoloration which may
result.
CANNING AFTER STORAGE
The ripening period of any one variety is so short that the
cannery operator is able to procure fruit of a variety in proper
condition for use during only a few days, but during a part of this
period the available supply may be far in excess of the capacity of
his plant. It would be highly advantageous if the canner could
take supplies of fruit as offered, storing the surplus until needed for
use and thus extending his working period. Some experiments were
consequently carried out upon material picked at several stages of
maturity and stored for varying periods in an open room at tempera-
tures ranging from 5° to 10° below the outside temperatures and
varying between 65° and 90° F. These conditions were chosen as
approximating those which most cannery operators would neces-
sarily employ in storing any fruit not used on the day of receipt.
Th§ fruit was stored in half-bushel baskets and was sampled for
analysis and puncture tests at intervals of two to four days. Repre-
sentative portions were removed at the same time and canned by the
methods employed in the other canning tests. The data obtained in
the analyses and pressure tests are presented in Table 3.
In general, the ripening of the fruit in common storage, as meas- •
ured by softening to pressure, was somewhat less rapid in the case
of fruit picked prior to reaching shipping stage than in check lots
left to ripen on the tree. In that picked at or subsequent to shipping
stage the stored lots softened somewhat more rapidly than the check
lots left on the trees. This last finding is in agreement with the
work of Appleman and Conrad (7), as already noted. It is conse-
quently clear that the canner has nothing to gain in a practical way
by accepting fruit and placing it in common storage. On the con-
trary, there are several disadvantages. Fruit picked hard ripe and
stored for some time is not as easily peeled in the lye bath as fruit
alloAved to come to a like stage of ripeness on the tree. The pro-
gressive development of flavor characteristic of the ripening of fruit
left on the tree almost wholly fails to occur in fruit picked hard
ripe and ripened in common storage. The canned product made from
fruit so treated is notably lacking in flavor and in some cases has
a bitterness not perceptible in the tree-ripened fruit.
As already pointed out in discussing the physical and chemical
changes occurring in common storage, the less mature lots of fruit
gradually increased in total solids and in nearly all the individual
constituents making up the total solids, as a result of loss of water.
The more mature lots, picked at or a day or two subsequent to the
shipping stage, showed practically no change in total solids, indicat-
ing that the loss of water was balanced by the destruction of sugars
and acids in the respiratory processes. In both cases there is a pro-
gressive loss of weight in common storage which is not counterbal-
anced by any increase in flavor and palatability of the product.
Common storage may be employed in an emergency as a means
of carrying over a temporary oversupply of fruit to the next day,
34 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 6, V. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
but it offers no possibilities as a means of holding fruit for any con-
siderable period. It does not arrest the ripening process, but merely
deprives the fruit of any materials that might have been received
had it remained upon the tree. It is very clear that the best pro-
cedure is to can the fruit the same day it is picked.
COLD STORAGE AS AN ADJUNCT TO CANNING
Experiments upon the cold storage of peaches for canning pur-
poses were carried out in 1926, employing the Hiley variety. The
general plan of the cold-storage experiments has already been de-
scribed. (P. 15.) Portions of the various lots of fruit were removed
at intervals during the test and canned by the regular methods.
As shown by the results of the analyses and the pressure tests
(Table 3 and p. 17), storage at 32° to 34° F. permits fruit picked at
stages of maturity ranging from 5 to 6 days before shipping ripe-
ness to 2 to 3 days after to be held for periods of 24 to 30 days with
little or no change in chemical composition. In general, fruit so
treated showed slight increases in firmness of flesh as determined
by pressure test. When canned, it was indistinguishable in color,
firmness, and general appearance from check lots of like maturity
canned immediately after picking. Fruit picked at shipping ripe-
ness and also at 2 to 3 days after that stage was peeled perfectly
by the usual lye-bath method after 27 and 24 days in cold storage,
I respectively, showed no breaking down in processing, and had a
clear sirup and good appearance when opened. Such fruit seemed
to be slightly deficient in flavor, however, as compared with fruit
of like maturity canned without storage, and progressive decline in
flavor with increase in length of storage was evident when samples
canned after varying periods of storage were compared.
Where cold-storage facilities are available, their use by the canner
offers a means of prolonging the operating period by purchasing
fruit at the proper stage for canning, storing it as near 32° F. as
possible, and working it up after the supply of fruit from the
orchards is exhausted. This means of increasing the capacity of
the plant must be employed with caution, however. The flavor of
the peach ceases to develop when the fruit is placed in cold storage,
and fruit held for prolonged periods may become somewhat softened,
and decay may set in, with consequent loss of material.
SELECTION AND HANDLING OF MATERIAL FOR CANNING
The preceding sections have dealt with the ph3'^sical and chemical
changes occurring in the course of ripening in several commercially
important varieties of peaches and with the relation of these changes
to the character and quality of the canned product. An attempt
has been made to evaluate each of the varieties studied and to in-
dicate its suitability or unsuitability as material for canners' use.
In the course of the practical canning work a considerable degree of
attention has been given to the study of existing methods of handling
peaches in preparation for canning, in the hope of being able to
suggest modifications of procedure which will permit of the packing
of a more uniform product of better appearance and higher quality.
The results of this portion of the work are presented in the belief
CANNING QUALITY OF CERTAIN EASTERN PEACHES 35
that the general adoption of the suggestions made would aid in
increasing the demand for and 'consumption of eastern freestone
peaches in canned form.
In the canning of any product the aim of the canner should be to
produce a product of the highest table quality and most attractive
appearance possible. Increasing competition in the canned-goods
markets and greater attention to standardization of the pack on the
part of canners make it highly unwise to adopt any other policy.
To pack the best possible product requires scrupulous attention to
every detail of the selection and handling of the raw material, since
negligence in these matters inevitably lowers the market quality
and selling price of the product. Care in the selection of the raw
material is nowhere more necessary than in the packing of eastern
peaches, since both palatability and market appearance are pro-
foundly affected by the stage of maturity of the material. Also,
no fruit, with the exception of apricots and some of the berries,
remains in best condition for canning for so short a time as do
peaches.
For these reasons, effort has been directed in this work toward
the preparation of the best product that could be made from selected
material by scrupulous selection, grading, and care in the details of
packing operations. No attempt has been made to utilize packing-
house culls, blemished or undersized fruit, or material which for
any other reason was not up to market grade. It was realized that
any product that could be made from such material would be below
existing market standards in one or more respects and consequently
would be marketable only with difficulty and at prices yielding little
or no profit to the canner, the result being of no advantage to the
grower. It was believed that a potential demand exists for a rigidly
standardized product packed with scrupulous care in the selection
of the material, and it was recognized that there is a considerable
surplus of unmarketed high-grade fruit suitable for the prepara-
tion of such a product in every year of normal production. These
considerations determined the character and purpose of the work.
STAGE OF MATURITY FOR CANNING
One of the most important factors to be considered in canning
the types of peaches here discussed is the stage of maturity. The
results of the studies of relation of degree of maturity to appearance
and market grade of the pack are presented in Table 4. These tests
show that except in one or two varieties, softening occurs so rapidly
that any individual fruit remains in the best condition for canning
for only one or two days. Prior to the attainment of this condition
it is too hard and flavorless to be desirable, while later it is too soft
to make an attractive pack. The best stage for canning is a com-
promise between several opposing factors. Flavor and sugar con-
tent continue to increase throughout the ripening process as long as
the fruit remains upon the tree in sound condition. The greenish
tint characteristic of the unripe flesh is replaced in white-fieshed
varieties by a white or cream color; in yellow-fleshed varieties by a
progressively deepening yellow. These changes are desirable, since
they make the material more attractive both to the eye and to the
palate. But the fruit progressively softens as these changes are
36 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
occurring. This is not objectionable to the canner until the fruit
becomes too soft to be lye peeled. In most varieties the maximum
color and flavor are not developed until the fruit is nearly, if not
?uite, too soft for lye peeling. The general rule which must be
ollowed, therefore, is to leave the fruit upon the trees as long as
it can remain and still be successfully lye peeled. In the vicinity
of Fort Valley, Ga., the limit for lye peeling is usually reached
three to four days after the fruit has attained shipping ripeness.
It is not always easy to determine just how long the fruit may
safety remain upon the tree, since this will vary considerably in
different years as a result of seasonal conditions. If the season has
been dry and cool until a few days before the fruit becomes shipping
ripe, and hot rainy weather then sets in, the fruits become soft much
sooner than if moderately dry conditions prevail. While the color
of the fruit is normally a rather dependable guide in judging matur-
ity, a period of cool sunless weather with much rain during the ripen-
ing season may result in failure to develop normal color changes-.
Fruit under such conditions may become quite soft while retaining
much green color in skin and flesh. Good judgment is necessary and
experience is advantageous in getting fruit to the cannery at the
proper stage of maturity.
Pressure tests have shown themselves to be of very considerable
assistance in determining the proper time for harvesting. Fruit hav-
ing pressure tests ranging from 300 to 225 grams on the tester here
used is generally satisfactory. For most of the varieties here studied
a pressure test averaging below 225 indicates that the fruit is too
soft to be lye peeled without the pieces breaking down at the cut
edges.
HARVESTING THE FRUIT
The appearance and palatability of the canned product which can
be produced from any given lot of fruit is to a considerable degree
determined by the care taken in harvesting the fruit to pick only such
fruit as is in prime condition for canning. As a result of a number
of factors, the individual fruits upon a tree will vary considerably in
their time of ripening, and trees standing side by side in the orchard
may differ by two to four days in the date at which ripening of the
fruit begins or reaches its peak. In commercial practice for shipping
to the fresh-fruit market the harvesting period for any given orchard
of a particular variety extends over 7 to 10 days, and from four
to eight pickings may be necessary. There is considerable variation
in the length of the harvest period from year to year as a result of
varying climatic conditions.
In the course of this work counts were made of the number of
fruits reaching shipping-ripe conditions each day throughout the
ripening period for several of the varieties. A typical result is
presented in Table 5, which contains the record for six Carman trees
during the season of 1924. The trees stood near together, bore
approximately equal loads of fruit, and in all respects were typically
healthy; vigorous specimens of the variety. The fruit reached
shipping stage over a period of 11 to 14 days. Tree No. 2 was
materially in advance of the others, having ripened 87.9 per cent of
its fruit by June 29, on which date Nos. 3 to 6 had ripened 53 to 59
per cent of their crops. Tree No. 1 was considerably behind the
CANNING QUALITY OF CERTAIN EASTERN PEACHES
37
rest, having ripened only 22.5 per cent of its fruit by June 29. Trees
1 and 2 behaved alike in that the ripening of two-thirds of the crop
occurred within a period of four days, while in the other trees ripen-
ing w^as spread over a longer period with no very pronounced peak.
The record here given is typical of the results obtained with other
varieties.
Table 5. — Percentage of peaches reaching shipping stage dailj/ for six Carman
trees in 192 Jf
Date
Tree No.
Tree No.
Tree No.
Tree No.
Tree No.
1
2
3
4
5
0
0.6
0.8
0.5
0
.6
4.7
1.8
6.3
.3
5.0
23.8
11.0
10.4
7.2
3.0
16.6
13.2
12.1
12.6
5.0
24.4
16.8
15.6
14.9
8.9
17.8
14.0
14.0
19.0
22.1
6.3
13.5
14.6
13.5
17.2
2.4
11.1
12.0
9.0
14.0
1.8
9.2
9.0
8.2
10.8
1.1
5.8
3.6
7.1
7.9
.5
2.0
1.5
6.0
4.0
0
.8
0
.8
1.6
0
0
.4
.4
.5
0
0
0
0
Tree No.
6
June 24
June 25
June 26
June 27
June 28
June 29
June 30
July l._
July 2, .
July 3..
July 4..
July 5. _
July 6--
July 7..
0.4
1.0
8.2
13.0
15.0
15.4
12.6
9.8
8.2
6.6
5.4
3.6
.8
0
From a practical point of view these results mean that in order
to obtain fruit in the best condition for canning it will be necessary
to pick the trees over every other day and to have the pickers care-
fully trained to recognize the stage of ripeness desired. If the inter-
vals between pickings are made longer than two days, a 'consider-
able percentage of the fruit will become too soft to be lye peeled, and
must be sorted out if the appearance of the pack is to be maintained.
Needless to say, great difficulty will be encountered in attempting
to use varieties in w^hich the individual fruits soften unevenly, re-
maining hard and green on one side while softening on the other.
Such varieties have small or no possibilities as peaches for canning.
In order to make a pack of the highest quality, the canner must
have the cooperation of the pickers. They not only must be trained
to recognize the stage of ripeness desired, but also must be made to
realize the necessity for special care in handling the picked fruit.
It would seem superfluous to say that fruit intended for the cannery
should be picked and handled with at least as much care as that
intended for shipment, were it not for the fact that observations
indicate that far too little care is usually given this detail. By
reason of its greater maturity, such fruit is more easily bruised or cut
by rough handling than fruit at shipping stage. Such bruises dis-
color very rapidly and impair the appearance of the pack if not
trimmed out. Such practices as throwing the fruit, as it is picked,
into a basket placed several feet away, dumping one basket into
another, or loading baskets into a wagon or truck in such fashion
that the weight of one tier Fests upon the fruit below are entirely
too common, and the cannery operator who permits them suffers a
penalty in the reduced yield of packed cans and lower market grade
of his product. Consequently, efforts expended in training the pick-
ing and handling crews in gentle methods of handling the fruit will
yield substantial dividends in improved appearance of the pack.
38 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
GRADING THE FRUIT
If proper attention has been given to the maturity of the fruit in
picking, grading to pick out underripe and overripe' fruit should not
be necessary. I'he women who do the pitting may be instructed to
separate such fruits from the rest as they are pitted. If the fruit
varies greatly in size, the appearance of the pack will be improved if
the fruit is graded so that only fruits of approximately equal size
are packed together.
PITTING THE FRUIT
The pitting of the fruit is usually the first step in its preparation.
It is usually done by hand by women who are paid a flat rate per
basket of pitted halves. Each operator is equipped with a short,
round-pointed knife with which she opens the fruit by a continuous
cut along the suture line completely around the fruit. The halves
are then separated by a slight twisting motion and the stone lifted
out by the finger nail or the point of the knife. As most of the
varieties grown for the fresh-fruit market are freestones, pitting
offers little difficulty if the fruit is properly matured. If it is under-
mature the stones will cling rather firmly, and the use of pitting
spoons of the tj^pe employed in pitting clingstone peaches will be
necessary. Such spoons are, of course, indispensable wherever cling
or pronounced semicling varieties are to be handled. Supervision of
the pitting is necessary in order to make sure that the operators cut
the fruit cleanly in halves, without ragged or torn edges, that bits of
broken stone are not left in the fruit, and that all pieces showing
worm infestation are discarded.
LYE PEELING
The economical packing of peaches depends upon the possibility of
employing the lye-peeling process for removing the skins from the
fruit. The treatment consists in dipping the fruit into or submerging
it in an actively boiling 2 per cent solution of sodium hydroxide
(commercial concentrated \je) for 30 to 60 seconds and following
this treatment by washing with jets of cold water under considerable
pressure. The washing is usually done in a squirrel-cage washer,
a long cylinder of wire netting revolving in a tank partially filled
with water. The rubbing of the fruits one upon another and against
the meshes of the netting aids in loosening the skins, which are
washed off by the jets of water, pass through the netting, and are
carried away with the wash water. In varieties having considerable
pigment in the stone and in the stone cavity much of the colored
material is removed by the lye bath and subsequent treatment.
In order to be successfully handled through the lye-peeling process
the fruit must be fairly firm. Rather extensive tests with the pres-
sure tester have shown that if any area upon the fruit has a resistance
to puncture less than 225 grams it is likely to disintegrate badly
during lye peeling. On the other hand, fruit that shows an average
pressure test much above 300 grams is too green for canning and can
not be successfully peeled by the lye treatment. Consequently fruit
can be successfully handled only during the period in which the pres-
sure test ranges between 300 and 225 grams as average limits. As
CANNING QUALITY OF CERTAIN EASTERN PEACHES 39
the resistance to pressure decreases at the rate of 20 to 30 grams
per clay, and under certain conditions at an even higher rate, the
necessity for very prompt handling of the fruit is emphasized. For
the most satisfactory results it is an excellent rule to allow no more
fruit to be picked and delivered than can be handled during the
day's run.
Even with the greatest care the cannery operator will occasionally
have to deal with lots of fruit that have become too soft to be lye
jDceled without disintegrating. Two courses are then open. If the
major part of the fruit is satisfactorily firm, the pitters may be
instructed to throw out all fruits that seem too soft. The remainder
may be pitted and peeled, the women who fill the cans being cau-
tioned to discard pieces that have broken down in peeling. If too
much of the fruit is soft to make sorting practicable, the whole
lot must be packed unpeeled. Either course involves considerable
financial loss through the larger labor cost and lower yield in the
one case or the lower selling price in the other.
PACKING
The ease of grading and packing is very greatly influenced by
the care that has been exercised in harvesting and peeling the fruit.
If the fruit is uniform in size and degree of maturity, the output
of packed cans per operator on the filling line may be double that
obtained when the fruit varies greatly in size and contains some
oversoft fruit. Failure to grade the fruit prior to preparation is
false economy, as the apparent saving thus achieved is more than
offset by the loss of time in throwing out soft, ragged fruits and in
sorting over pieces of various sizes in order to pick out those of like
size for filling into a can. The number of packers must always be
sufficient to keep up with the pitting and peeling so that fruit does
not stand exposed to the air for considerable periods while awaiting
packing.
STRENGTH OF SIRUP
Most eastern packers employ sirups of 40 to 50 per cent, and a 60
per cent sirup is rarely used. It is the conviction of the writers
that the use of the lighter sirups is a mistake and that all fruit of
good quality should be packed in 60 per cent sirup. The types of
peaches being dealt with owe their popularity as fresh fruit to their
high flavor and melting quality. In order to find and hold a place
in popular favor, the canned product must possess outstanding
flavor. The experiments here described have very conclusively
shown that flavor is best preserved and brought out when a sirup of
55 to 60 per cent is employed, and is much less apparent when lighter
sirups are used. Consequently, it will be most advantageous to
employ a 55 or 60 per cent sirup in packing the fruit.
SIRUPING AND EXHAUSTING
The filled cans should pass to the siruping machine without
delay, as standing exposed to the air will result in browning of the
flesh. The sirup should be added hot, preferably at 160° to 190°
F., as the efficiency of the exhaust will be very greatly increased by
the hot sirup.
40 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The exhaust box should be of such a length that the cans spend
at least two minutes in passing through it. A thorough exhaust
lessens corrosion of the can by removing more of the oxygen present
in the tissues, improves the color of the fruit if browning has oc-
curred, and reduces the softening and breaking down in processing
by reducing the processing time.
PROCESSING
Both retorts and rotating cookers are successfully employed for
processing peaches, but the rotating cooker has many advantages.
All the cans enter it at the same temperature and hence receive uni-
form heating. The first cans loaded into the retort have been cool-
ing while the retort was being filled, and are therefore unequally
processed. Since the cans are not agitated during processing, the
time required for processing is longer, and greater softening and
breaking down of the fruit occurs. Also, facilities for cooling the
cans in any really adequate manner are rarely available in connec-
tion with retorts, and the fruit is frequently overprocessed through
failure to receive prompt cooling. Lastly, the necessarily larger
amount of hand labor involved in the use of retorts increases
production costs.
The proper processing time must be determined for the particular
set of conditions existing in the plant. The limits within which
that time may be varied are the point at which the fruit is incom-
pletely cooked and that at w^hich it begins to break down from pro-
longed cooking. In a rotating cooker 25 minutes is an approximate
time for No. 214 cans, in a retort, 30 minutes, if the cans enter the
process at 170° F. For very large fruit it may be necessary to
increase the processing time.
m
COOLING THE CANS
The necessity for prompt cooling of the cans after processing
is not fully appreciated by many canners. When cans are taken
from the processing chamber and stacked in air, those at the middle
of the stack remain near the processing temperature for many hours.
Such treatment continues the cooking process, with the result that
the fruit is softened and altered in flavor. Submerging the cans
for a few minutes in a tank of water, as is sometimes done, lowers
the surface temperature of the cans, but when the cans are stacked
the temperatures at centers and surfaces are equalized and are little
below that of the processing chamber.
The rotating cooler, which carries the cans slowly through a long
trough of cold running w^ater, rotating them slowly meanwhile, is
the most efficient cooling device. In the absence of such a device,
tanks of cold running water into which the cans can be lowered
as they come from the processing chamber and allowed to remain
until they are well cooled should be supplied. Any effective arrange-
ment which will quickly stop the cooking and reduce the temperature
to that of the surrounding air may be used. Whatever the cooling
process used, the cans should not be stacked until they have cooled
to a temperature little above that of the air.
CANirrN-Q QUALITY OF CEETAIN" EASTERN PEACHES 41
SOME FACTORS DETERMINING THE SUCCESS OF A CANNING
ENTERPRISE
Whether it is practical to utilize any considerably increased
quantities of eastern peaches through canning (assuming that the
product be made as uniform and as high in grade as the material
will permit) depends upon a number of factors not previously
mentioned. These factors are primarily economic in nature and are
related to the general operation of canning as a business rather than
to the technical details of the handling of the material. They are
here discussed for the reason that despite their great importance
they are not immediately obvious to the inexperienced and are often
left out of consideration.
Foremost in importance among these factors is the cost of raw
materials, and closely associated therewith is an assured supply.
If the canner is to render service to growers by diverting a portion
of the crop from the fresh market, he must be assured of supplies
of fruit year after year at prices that he can afford to pay. The
only method of obtaining such assurance is through making contracts
at a stipulated price for a year or a term of years in advance.
A contract between canner and grower obviously involves an element
of risk of loss for both parties, since the fruit may be worth more
or less than the contract price when the date of delivery arrives;
but such fluctuations tend to equalize themselves over a term of
years. Such contracts have decided advantages for the growers,
as delivery of a part of the crop to the cannery gives immediate
returns which are available for financing the packing and shipping
of the remainder. Such contracts are imperatively necessary for
the canner, who unless he has an assured supply of raw material
at a known price, is engaged in gambling rather than in business.
The history of the canning industry shows that it is quite impossible
to establish a stable, permanent enterprise upon any other than
a contract basis.
A large portion of the pack of any commodity is sold months
before the canning season opens and long before there is any possi-
bility of forecasting the size of the crop. To make such sales the
canner must know in advance the cost of his raw material. Most
canneries have permanent connections with wholesalers and distribu-
tors whom they supply year after year. The canner who is forced
to depend upon the open market for his raw material finds fruit
held at prohibitive prices in years of small crops. That it may
be had at practically the cost of picking in years of abundant crops
is of little advantage, since the occasional pack must be sold for
what it may bring at a time when wholesalers and distributors have
already supplied their needs. Furthermore, such operations must
be financed without the very substantial aid which competitors
derive from payments received as soon as goods can be packed
and delivered. This combination of factors makes it inevitable
that the cannery must either discontinue work or establish its
business upon a basis of future contracts both for the purchase
of raw materials and for the sale of its products.
Another factor which will play a large part in determining
the success of a peach cannery is the extent to which machines are
employed. Modern peach-canning machinery is highly efficient.
42 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
nearly completely automatic, has large capacity, and lowers the cost
of production to a point that can not be reached by the use of
hand labor. Present-day competition in the canning industry is
exceedingly keen, and only such producers as keep their manu-
facturing costs to a minimum can survive. Consequently, the plant
must be large enough at the outset to install a complete equipment
of modern machines, or suffer the handicap of high production
costs.
An abundant supply of cheap labor is an advantage if it is em-
'ployed only upon such work as pitting and filling cans, where strict
supervision is possible, but it is an economic mistake to use it where
a machine can replace it. Beginners in the canning industry,
particularly in districts having plentiful labor, are often inclined
to begin operations with a minimum of equipment, with the idea
that they will gradually replace hand labor as the business grows.
Such ventures very generally end in disappointment, the operators
finding that their production costs are higher than those of their
competitors, so that they must choose between increasing their
investment sufficiently to equip the plant completely with modern
machines oir going out of business, with more or less complete
loss of the investment already made. It is, consequently,, inviting
disaster to attempt an experiment which the experience of others
has shown to have little, if any, hope of success.
Finally, the success of any individual canning enterprise, if all
other conditions are as favorable as those enjoyed by its competitors,
will depend in very large degree upon the ability of its operators to
sell their product at remunerative prices upon a strongly competitive
market. The difficulty of this phase of the undertaking is very
greatly underestimated by many people who have the idea that if
one makes a meritorious product it will sell itself. This is far from
the truth in so far as the canner's sales of his product to wholesalers
and distributors are concerned. Any new canning enterprise needs
to devote as much care and attention to assuring itself that the man
selected to market its product has the requisite business ability as in
making certain that its cannery foreman is competent. Lack of wide
acquaintance with wholesalers and distributors, of industry and
perseverance, and of the real, indefinable " know how " of salesman-
ship is a defect which may lead to failure of the business despite the
fact that the product made is really superior to that offered by
competitors.
In a word, the canning of any commodity is a highly competitive
business in which the margin ot profit is narrow and the percentage
of failures rather high. Success demands an adequate knowledge of
the technology of canning as related to the products packed, an
efficient plant yielding maximum returns for the permanent invest-
ment represented, and a capable management with an adequate
background of experience in the marketing of canned materials.
DEVELOPMENT OF A SOUTHEASTERN PEACH-CANNING INDUSTRY
The development of a peach-canning industry of any considerable
magnitude based upon the use 'of the varieties at present most
generally grown for the fresh-fruit market in the Southeastern
States will be attended with some difficulties which should not be
CANNING QUALITY OF CERTAIN EASTEKN PEACHES 43
underestimated. It must be remembered that peach canning origi-
nally developed in Eastern States, employing the varieties generally
grown at the time, but that it has always been incidental to the
growing of fruit for supplying the fresh-fruit market. The selection
of varieties has been made with this as the primary purpose in view.
Little attention has been given, in the Southeastern States, to the
development of varieties of peaches possessing the firm texture of
flesh which makes the fruit especially suitable for canner's use. The
development and propagation of such peaches has been vigorously
carried on elsewhere, and the present production of canned product
of this character has reached such proportions as to make its profit-
able disposal in years of exceptionally heavy crops a real problem.
Material of this character has had practically undisputed monopoly
of the market for some years, and existing standards for canned
peaches are based upon its characteristic qualities. Consumers who
have learned to accept these standards are not likely to shift at once
or in any considerable numbers to the use of the canned product made
from eastern fresh-market varieties, by reason of its different appear-
ance, texture, and flavor. Wholesalers will probably be unwilling to
undertake the distribution of the new product, because no ready-made
demand exists, and few if any of them are willing or able to make
the heavy investment in advertising necessjiry to build up such a
demand.
Consequently, the best market outlets for southeastern canned
peaches are to be found in the cities and towns of the peach-produc-
ing States. The prevalence of home canning in the South and the
extensive use of the peach for the purpose has familiarized a large
part of the population of the Southern States with the product. To
many its characteristic flavor and dessert quality make it more de-
sirable than peaches of the firm-fleshed types, and they would pur-
chase it in preference to these if they could be assured of dependable
supplies of standardized high-grade material. It is believed that
a potential market demand for the product exists in the Southern
States and that the canner should seek an outlet for his product
in this territory.
SUMMARY
The experimental work described in this bulletin has been con-
cerned with determining the suitability for canning of the more
important commercial eastern varieties of peaches ancl of the condi-
tions necessary to produce therefrom a canned product of acceptable
appearance, flavor, and dessert quality. As the chemical and physi-
cal changes occurring in the course of the ripening process have
not heretofore been thoroughly studied in any of the varieties con-
cerned, such studies, accompanied by the making of experimental
packs by standard canning methods, were continued for three years.
The results of the physical and chemical studies aid greatly in the
interpretation of the results of the practical canning tests, since
the behavior of the material in canning is very definitely correlated
with the stage of maturity attained.
In all the varieties studied, the development of full characteristic
flavor is delayed until the fruit has become fully ripe and rather
soft. This increase in palatability is due in part to progressive in-
crease in total sugars and decrease in acidity and astringency, in
44 TECHIITICAL BULLETIN" 19 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGEICULTURE
part to progressive formation of the characteristic flavoring sub-
stances, and in part to solution of the middle lamellae of the cell
walls, permitting better contact of the cell contents with the organs
of taste. These changes continue through the whole period of ripen-
ing and as long as the fruit remains attached to the tree in sound
condition. When fruit is removed from the tree at any stage of
maturity prior to the full soft-ripe stage, the fruit never attains
the full rich flavor characteristic of the variety when ripened on the
tree.
In order to produce a canned product having an attractive appear-
ance with good flavor and dessert quality, the fruit used must have
developed as much as possible of the characteristic tree-ripe flavor,
but must be firm enough to withstand preparation and processing
without breaking down. The varieties here dealt with soften so
rapidly in ripening that any individual fruit remains in ideal con-
dition for canning for only 24 to 72 hours. If the peach is canned
prior to reaching this condition, the canned product will be hard,
deficient in flavor, and more or less unpalatable ; if it is canned after
passing the ideal condition it will be unattractive in appearance as
a result of disintegration in processing. The determination of the
upper and lower limits of the ideal canning condition and of means
of readily recognizing it have been given special attention in this
study.
The resistance offered by the unpeeled flesh to perforation by a
blunt needle 0.032 of an inch in diameter has been found to be a
dependable measure of the stage of maturity of the peach. The rate
at which softening of the flesh to the pressure test occurs is a de-
pendable index of the rate at which the other changes constituting
the ripening process are occurring. Consequently, the pressure test
as here employed is one very satisfactory guide in determining the
proper stage of ripeness for canning.
The greatest difficulty encountered in canning operations is in
connection with the lye-peeling process. In order to be lye peeled,
fruit must be firm or disintegration of the tissue occurs, with re-
sulting impairment of the appearance of the pack. In most of the
varieties here tested great care must be exercised to pick the fruit
at a stage of maturity in which color and flavor are sufficiently de-
veloped to be satisfactory and in which the fruit is sufficiently firm
to be lye peeled.
The varieties here studied can not be stored at ordinary tempera-
tures for any considerable periods without undergoing softening to
such an extent as to make impossible the packing of a product of
satisfactory appearance. Consequently, fruit should be canned on
the same day it is picked, unless cold storage is available. Fruit
picked at proper canning stage and held in storage at 32° F. for 15
to 30 days retains its firmness and can be made into a pack of good
appearance, but is somewhat deficient in flavor as compared with
fruit canned directly from the tree.
Of the varieties employed in these tests, the J. H. Hale is de-
cidedly superior to the others as material for canning in size, shape,
color and texture of flesh, rate of softening during ripening, and re-
tention of form during processing. Elberta ranks second, being
somewhat less satisfactory in most of these respects. Both varieties
CANNING QUALITY OF CERTAIN EASTERN PEACHES 45
are somewhat deficient in flavor. Yellow Hiley made a product of
distinctive flavor, but is rather too irregular in shape and soft in
texture. Arp combines small size, poor flavor, and soft texture in
flesh and has no possibilities as a canning peach. Early Rose made
a product of good dessert quality and very attractive appearance, but
is too small. Hiley is somewhat deficient in flavor and is small in
size and soft in texture. Carman was least satisfactory of all the
varieties tested, by reason of its habit of ripening unevenly on the
two sides and the excessive softening, which results in disintegration
during canning. Belle was generally superior to the other white-
fleshed varieties in flavor, but its tendency to soften in processing,
although not greater than in some others, makes necessary the exer-
cise of considerable care in packing it.
LITERATURE CITED
(1) Appleman, C. O., and Conrad, C. M.
1926. PECTIC CONSTITUENTS OF PEACHES AND THEIR RELATION TO THE
SOFTENING OF THE FRUIT. Md. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 283, 8 p.
(2) BiGELow, W. D., and Gore, H. C.
1905. STUDIES ON PEACHES. I. COMPILED ANALYSES OF PEACHES. II.
CHANGES IN CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE PEACH DURING GROWTH
AND RIPENING. IH. EFFECT OF STORAGE ON THE COMPOSITION
OF PEACHES. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Chem. Bul. 97, 32 p.
(3) Bitting, A. W.
1912. THE CANNING OF FOODS ; A DESCRIPTION OF THE METHODS FOLLOWED
IN COMMERCIAL CANNING. U. S. Dcpt. AgF., Bur. Cliem. Bul.
151, 77 p.
(4)
(5)
1915. METHODS FOLLOWED IN THE COMMERCIAL CANNING OF FOODS. U. S.
Dept. Agr. Bul. 196, 79 p., illus.
1915. PRELIMINARY BULLETIN ON CANNING. Natl. Cannei's' Assoc. Bul.
4, 65 p.
(6) BrmNG, K. G.
1917. LYE PEELING. Natl. Cannei's' Assoc. Bul. 10, 23 p., illus.
(7) Canning Trade.
[1914.] A COMPLETE COURSE IN CANNING ; BEING A THOROUGH EXPOSITION OF
THE BEST, PRACTICAL METHODS OF HERMETICALLY SEALING
CANNED FOODS, AND PRESERVING FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. Ed.
3, rev., 254 p., illus. [Baltimore.]
(8) CAERt, M. H.
1922. AN INVESTIGATION OF THB CHANGES WHICH OCCUR IN THE PECTIC
CONSTTTUENTS OF STORED FRUIT. Biochem. Jour. 16: [704]-712,
illus.
(9)
1925. CHEMICAL STUDIES IN THE PHYSIOLOGY OF APPLES. IV. INVESTI-
GATIONS ON THE PECTIC CONSTITUENTS OF APPLES. Ann. Bot.
[London] 39: [811]-839, illus.
(10) and Haynes, D.
1922. THE ESTIMATION OF PECTIN AS CALCIUM PBCTATB AND THE APPLICA-
TION OF THIS METHOD TO THE DETTERMINATION OF SOLUBLE PECTIN
IN APPLES. Biochem. Jour. 16: [60]-69.
(11) Cooper, M. R., and Park, J. W.
1927. THE PEACH SITUATION IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. U. S. Dept. Agr.
Circ. 420, 24 p., illus.
(12) Cruess, W. V.
1924. COMMERCIAL FRUIT AND VEGETABLE PRODUCTS ; A TEXTBOOK FOR STU-
DENT, INVESTIGATOR AND MANUFACTURER. 530 p., illUS. NCW
York.
(13) CuLPEa>PER, C. W., and Caldwell, J. S.
1927. THE BEHAVIOR OF THE ANTHOCYAN PIGMENTS IN CANNING. JoUr.
Agr. Research 35 : 107-132.
46 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
(14) CiTLPEPPER, C. W., Caldwell, J. S., and Wright, R. C.
1928. PBBSERVATION OF PEACHES FOR USE IN THE MANUFACTURE OF ICE
CREAM. U. S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bui. 84, 14 p.
(15) and Magoon, C. A.
1924. STUDIES upon THE RELATIVE MERITS OF SWEET CORN VARIETIES FOR
CANNING PURPOSES AND THE REL^VTION OF MATURITY OF CORN TO
THE QUAI.ITY OF THE CANNED PRODUCT. Jour. AgT. Research
28 : 403-443, illus.
(16) Gore, H. C.
1911. studies on fruit respiration. i. the effect of temperature
on the respiration of fruits. ii. the effect of picking on
the rate of evolution of carbon dioxid by peaches. iii. the
rate of accumulation of he^vt in the respiration of fruit
UNDER ADiABATic CONDITIONS. U. S. Dcpt. Agr., Bur. Chem. Bul.
142, 40 p., illus.
(17) Gould, H. P., and Fletcher, W. F.
1910. CANNING PEACHES ON THE FARM. U. S. Dcpt. AgT. Farmers' Bul.
426, 26, p., illus.
(18) Hedrick, U. p.
1917. THE PEACHES OF NEW Y^ORK. 541 p., illus. Albany, N. y. (N. Y.
State Agr. Expt. Sta. Rpt. 1916, pt. 2.)
(19) Hill, G. R., jr.
1913. respiration of fruits and growing plant tissues in cestain
gases with reference to ventilation and fruit storage.
N. Y. Cornell Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 330, p. 374-408.
(20) Knox, C.
1924. office and factory manual for fruit and vegetable canners.
719 p. San Francisco.
(21) Newman, C. C, and Freeman, B.
1918. A chemical process OF PEELING PEACHES. S. C Agr. Expt. Sta.
Bul. 196, [61 p., illus.
(22) Powell, O.
1917. successful canning and preserving; practical hand book for
SCHOOLS, CLUBS, AND HOME USE. 371 p., illus. Philadelphia and
London.
(23) Power, F. B., and Chesnut, V. K.
1921. the odorous constituents of peaches. Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc.
43: 1725-1739.
(24) Rabak, F.
1908. peach, apricot, and prune kernels as by-products of the fruit
INDUSTRY of THE UNITED STATES. U. S. Dept. Agr., BuT. Plant
Indus. Bul. 133, 34 p.
(25) United States Department of Agriculture.
1926-1930. agricultural statistics, statistics of fruits and vege>
tables. U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1925: 880; 1926: 913-916;
1927 : 853-855, 880-883 ; 1928 : 778-780 ; 1930 : 735-737.
(26) Zavalla, J. P.
''916. the canning of fruits and vegetables based on the methods
in use in CALIFORNIA, W^ITH NOTES ON THE CONTROL OF THE
microorganisms AFFECTING SPOILAGE. 214 p. New York and
London.
ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
WHEN THIS PUBLICATION WAS LAST PRINTED
Secretary of Agriculture Arthur M. Hyde.
Assistant Secretary R. W. Dunlap.
Director of Scientific Work A. F. W(X)ds.
Director of Regulatory Worh Walter G. Campbeix.
Director of Extension Work C. W. Warburton.
Director of Personnel and Business Adnrnv- W. W. Stockberger.
tration.
Director of Information M. S. Eisenhower.
Solicitor E. L. Marshall.
Weather Bureau Charles F. Marvin, Chief.
Bureau of Animal Industry John R. Mohler, Chief.
Bureau of Dairy Industry O. E. Reed, Chief.
Bureau of Plant Industry William A. Taylor, Chief.
Forest Service R. Y. Stuart, Chief.
Bureau of Chemistry and Soils H. G. Knight, Chief.
Bureau of Entomology C. L. Marlatt, Chief.
Bureau of Biological Survey Paul G. Redington, Chief.
Bureau of PuMic Roads Thomas H. MacDonald, Chief.
Bureani of Agricultural Economics Nils A. Olsen, Chief.
Bureau of Home Economics Louise Stanley, Chief.
Plant Quarantine and Control Administration- Lee A. Strong, Chief.
Grain Futures Administration J. W. T. Duvel, Chief.
Food and Drug Administration , Walter G. Campbell, Dfrecf or o/
Regulatory Work, in Charge.
0-ffice of Experiment Stations , Chief.
Office of Cooperative Extension Work C. B. Smith, Chief.
Library Clakebel R. Barnett, Librarian.
This bulletin is a contribution from
Bureau of Plant Industry William A. Taylor, Chief.
Office of Horticultural Crops and Diseases- E. C. Auchter, Principal Horti»
culturist, in Charge.
47
O. S. SOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1930
Technical Bulletin No. 195 v^'T^^V^Sffiy-^f'®*' J"'-'" '930
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
CONTROL OF THE MOUNTAIN PINE
BEETLE^ IN LODGEPOLE PINE
BY THE USE OF SOLAR HEAT
By J. E. Patterson
Assistant Entomologist, Division of Forest Injects, Bureau of Entomology
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction 1
Previous investigations 2
The method 4
How the insects are killed 4
Technic of application 4
Experimental procedure 5
Experimental data 5
Discussion of the data 11
Page
Practical application in the Crater
Lake Park project 16
Physical conditions on the proj-
ect area 16
Application of the method 16
Comparison of the solar-heat treat-
m*ent with the burning method- _ 18
Summary 19
INTRODUCTION
The artificial' control of bark beetles has received the consideration
of foresters for the last quarter century. During this period a
number of methods designed to effect control of these beetles have
been advocated, but only a few of these have prov^ed efficient in actual
practice.
Entomologists directly concerned with developing this phase of
forestry were not slow to avail themselves of suggestions and discov-
eries along this line. Early in the history of forest entomology in
North America, A. D. Hopkins ^ recommended the employment of
methods designed to kill the broods in the trees where they were
developing. At the same time he formulated principles of artificial
control which became a basis for experimentation that has resulted
in the most efficient methods practiced to-day.
Since that time such progress has been made in the development
of control methods that now certain of these may be confidently
relied upon to reduce infestations. However, no one method has,
without modifications, proved entirely satisfactory as a cure-all in
combating epidemics of the various species of bark beetles or even
of controlling epidemics of a given species in different host trees.
For this reason it has always been necessary to modify even the
1 Dendroctonus monticolae Hopk.
2 Hopkins, A, D. barkbeetles of the genus dendroctonus. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur.
Ent. Bui. 83 (pt. I), 169 pp., illus. 1909.
J
112608—30 1
2 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 5, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
most reliable of known methods to fit individual conditions. This
need of adaptation is emphasized in the artificial control of the
mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus inonticolae Hopk., since this
beetle attacks a number of different species of pine. For instance,
two methods have been successfully used in controlling infestations
of the mountain pine beetle in yellow pine and sugar pine. One
method consists of felling the attacked tree and burning the bark
of the infested part of the log; the other consists of removing the
bark from the felled tree, thus exposing the broods of beetles, which
results in their death.
Both of these methods have been practiced to some extent in the
control of infestations of the mountain pine beetle in lodgepole pine.
In such infestations, however, neither of them is entirely satisfactory.
Owing to the denseness of the stands of lodgepole pine, there is
much scorching of adjacent green trees when burning is resorted
to, unless the logs are hauled, before burning, to openings in the
forest. This precaution increases the cost of control, which makes
this method less desirable for extensive use. The .peeling method has
been used only in a limited way in infestations of lodgepole pine
because of the difficulty encountered in removing the bark from
these trees. These difficulties were encountered in all attempts to
apply the burning or peeling methods to the treatment of broods
of the mountain pme beetle in lodgepole pine and led to the develop-
ment of the solar-heat treatment and its application for the control
of these infestations.
The purpose of this bulletin is to describe the development of
the solar-heat method of control, to record the salient details of the
experimental field work, and to discuss the practical application of
the method on the Crater Lake Park control project.
PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS
The principle of the solar-heat method of bark-beetle control has
been known for a number of years. F. C. Craighead published the
first account of the method as a control factor.^ His first observa-
tions were made in 1917, w hen the death of broods of Cyllene caryae
Gahan in hickory logs was accounted for by the sun's heat. In 1918,
in Virginia, he experimented with various species of scolytid beetles
in pine and found them to be easily killed by the heat. Subsequent
observations confirmed the results of these first experiments and led
to further investigations into the possibility of utilizing direct sun-
light as a control agencj;.
Craighead's first experiments in 1918 in Virginia were followed by
others in the West. In the summer of 1920 detailed experiments were
carried out at North Fork, Calif., by J. M. Miller, and at Ashland,
Oreg., by J. E. Patterson.
The method developed by these experiments was first used as an
auxiliary measure in control operations against Dendroctonus hrevi-
comds Lee. in western yellow^ pine. At North Fork, in central
Calitornia, in 1920 and 1921, and on the Antelope project in northern
California, in 1921, it was used during the summer periods, when fire
hazard was great, instead of the burning method usually practiced.
» Craighead, F. C. direct sunlight as a factor ix forest insect control. Ent.
Soc. Wash. Proc. 22 : 106-108. 1920.
CONTROL OF MOUNTAIN PINE BEETLE BY USE OF SOLAR HEAT 6
It was first used as a major method of control on the Crater Lake
Park project in combating an epidemic infestation of the mountain
pine beetle, D. monti€ol<ie^ in lodgepole pine. In addition to being,
the first large-scale application of the method, this was the first time
it was employed in the control of infestations in lodgepole pine.
The method has, however, been tested, with varying degrees of
success, in other localities in the treatment of other pines infested
with different species of bark beetles.
The method, with modifications, was tried in the Kaibab Forest, in
Arizona, by F. P. Keen, who was in charge of control work on this
project in 1924 and 1'925. The beetle involved was D. ponderosae
Hopk., and the tree infested was yellow pine. Firms ponder osa.
Altogether 602 infested trees were treated in these tests. The appli-
cation of the method w^as varied in order to secure results on different
ways of exposure. The general results were unsatisfactory, since only
partial brood mortality resulted from even the best exposures ob-
tained. It appears from this experiment that the method is not
effective in the treatment of trees with thick bark.
Another test of the method was carried out in the Bitterroot
Forest, Mont., during June and July, 1926 and 1927. This experi-
ment, under the supervision of J. C. Evenden, was conducted in
lodgepole pine stands infested with the mountain pine beetle,
D. monticolae. About 200 infested trees were used in the tests, and
they were felled on as many different sites and exposures as the
experimental area afforded. Subcortical and air temperatures were
taken daily. Tests were made on trees cut the preceding fall, as
well as upon those felled during the spring months. It was found
that air temperatures of 87° F. or higher were essential to obtain
killing temperatures under the bark of logs exposed in direct sun-
light. In these tests killing temperatures were registered only four
times during the control period. . Chiefly because of this failure to
attain killing temperatures, the solar-heat method was not efficient
for practical control purposes in this latitude. Other adverse factors
were the slope of the site, which affected the incidence of the sun's
rays, particularly on north exposures; and shade, due to the density
of the timber stands.
Still another test of the solar-heat method was made under condi-
tions varying greatly from those of the preceding examples. This
experiment was made in the Prescott National Forest, Ariz., in May,
June, and July, 1928, by John C. McNelty. The trees used were
Firms pcmderosa, infested with mixed broods of Ips ponderosae Sw.,
/. lecontei Sw., and /. integer Eich. The trees were not infested
when felled but were subsequently attacked by all three species.
Temperature did not greatly affect their attack of these logs. On
logs in direct sunlight the attack was made on the undersides first,
though later it was extended to all surfaces. Kelatively high daily
air temperatures were recorded, the range being between 80° and 90°
F. Bark temperatures as high as 118° were registered, the average
maximum being about 112°. Mortality of the broods varied with
the size of log and thickness of bark. On thin-barked logs up to
10 inches in diameter, 50 per cent of the insects were killed under a
strip 4 inches wide on the tops of the logs. No mortality resulted
from the exposure of thick-barked logs about 10 inches in diameter.
4 TECHNICAL BULLETIlT 19 5, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The conclusions reached by McNelty are : " The maximum kill from
sun curing by turning the logs would be 50 per cent on material
• under 8 inches in diameter and 20 to 30 per cent on logs up to 10
inches in diameter."
The results of this experiment are consistent with those obtained
by the writer with the solar-heat method in the Crater Lake Park.
Broods of Ips infesting the same trees infested with the mountain pine
beetle survived the heat treatment when the latter species were killed
with short exposures.
THE METHOD
HOW THE INSECTS ARE KILLED
The principle underlying the solar-heat method is extremely
simple and well known, namely, that certain high temperatures are
fatal to living organisms. Primarily the method consists of utiliz-
ing the sun's rays to attain such temperatures as are fatal to the
broods of the beetle in or under the bark of infested logs. It has
been found that bark temperatures above 110° F. are necessary
to cause death. The moisture content of the inner bark seems to
be important only as a factor slightly conditioning the temperatures
in the bark. Beetle broods respond to this treatment only in thin-
barked trees. Lodgepole pine and western white pine are examples
of this type. Experiments have shown that the method is not appli-
cable to trees that have thick bark, such as yellow pine and sugar
pine, since the thickness of the bark of these trees acts as an insulator
preventing the surface heat from reaching the beetle broods, which
are either inside or under the bark.
TECHNIC OF APPLICATION
Since the death of the insects is contingent upon high bark tem-
peratures, it is necessary to expose the infested logs in such a way
that the desired temperatures will be attained. During the experi-
mental application of this method in the Crater Lake Park control
work, and in the tests made since, various ways of preparing and
exposing the logs were tried, and a technic of handling that gave
uniform and successful results was developed.
The infested trees are felled so that their trunks lie in a north-
and-south direction. It is necessary to have the logs in this position
in order to expose their tops and both sides to direct sunlight during
the course of the day. After they have been felled, the limbs along
the infested length are removed, in order to expose fully the infested
bark, and the uninfested tops are cut off. After this treatment the
logs are left exposed to the sun for a period of from two to five days.
They are then turned over in order to expose the opposite side. In
the case of the larger trees (above 20 inches in diameter) or trees
felled in low brush, on uneven ground, or in situations where it is
impossible to place them in a north-and-south direction, it is some-
times necessary, in order that the sun's rays may reach all the bark
surface, to turn the logs twice, one-third round, or about 120°,
each time. Intervals of at least two days of sunshine must elapse
between turnings in order to obtain satisfactory results. It is neces-
sary, of course, to so place the logs that unobstructed sunlight will
reach them.
CONTROL OF MOUNTAIN PINE BEETLE BY USE OF SOLAR HEAT 5
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The studies reported in this bulletin were conducted in areas
infested by the mountain pine beetle in the Crater Lake National
Park, Oreg., during the spring and summer seasons of 1925, 1926,
and 1927. They were carried out during the time that control
operations against this beetle were in progress. Since several thou-
sand infested lodgepole pines were treated by the solar-heat method
during this time, the amount of material available was more than
sufficient to determine the accuracy of the experimental data.
The primary objects of these studies were (1) to determine the
minimum bark temperatures required to kill the broods of the beetle,
and (2) to develop a practical and efficient way of handling the
infested material. The following were the principal points about
which the investigation centered: (1) The difference, in degrees,
between effective bark temperature and the temperature of the sur-
rounding air; (2) the length of exposure at different bark tempera-
tures necessary to cause death; (3) the period of the day when
killing temperatures occur ; (4) the relation of killing temperatures
to humidity; (5) the surface of the log, expressed in degrees of arc,
attaining killing temperature with exposures for various periods;
(6) the best position of the log relative to the angle of the sun's
rays; and (7) the season of the year during which the method is
effective.
Chemical thermometers were used to obtain the temperature data.
This type was found most satisfactory, as the bulb was easily inserted
between the bark and the wood and there was no metal to affect
the temperature readings. In each test three or more thermometers
were used. Two were inserted under the bark on the top or sides
of the log in such positions that one registered the inner-bark tem-
peratures in the part exposed to direct sunlight and the other gave
the temperatures in the shaded part of the log. Another ther-
mometer of the same type was hung at breast height on the north side
of a near-by standing tree to register the air temperature. A thermo-
graph was used in some of the tests made in 1927 to record the air
temperatures, although most of the data are plotted from readings
of the chemical thermometers.
The data on the other points investigated were obtained by ex-
posing the logs in different positions throughout the field seasons
and by variations in the length of exposures.
EXPERIMENTAL DATA
The bark temperatures and concurrent air temperatures recorded in
the separate tests of the experiments are shown in Tables 1 to 6 and in
Figures 1 to 6, the tables giving the data in tabulated form, and the
figures presenting the same data graphically.
6
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 5, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 1. — Hourly temperatures recorded under the hark of a log felled and
lying in a north-and-south direction, September W, 1926
[Elevation 6,100 feet. See flg. 1]
Hour
Air
tem-
pera-
ture in
shade
Temperature under bark
of log-
Hour
Air
tem-
pera-
ture in
shade
Temperature under bark
of log-
On east
side
On top
On west
side
On east
side
On top
On west
side
8 a. m
62
76
80
80
80
"F.
74
92
110
126
120
op
70
86
102
120
132
°F.
64
72
78
82
84
1 p. m
op
84
85
80
78
72
op
104
94
90
86
80
op
138
136
120
96
92
op
90
9 a. m
2 p. m
112
10 a. m
3 p. m
128
11 a. m
4 p. m . ,.
120
12 m
5 p. m - .
102
Table 2. — Hourly temperatures recorded under the ha/rk of a log felled and
lying in a north-and-south direction, July 10, 1927
[Elevation 5,500 feet. See flg. 2]
Hour
Air tem-
perature
in shade
Temperature under
bark on top of log-
Hour
Air tem-
perature
in shade
Temperature imder
bark on top of log-
in sun
In shade
in sun
In shade
8 a. m
"F.
60
78
80
81
.83
72
84
100
122
134
°F.
62
76
78
82
84
1 p. m
op
89
86
83
81
78
-F.
140
136
118
98
96
°F.
90
9 a. m
2 p. m -
90
10 a. m
3 p. m
88
11 a. m
4 p. m
80
12 m
5 p. m
76
Table 3. — Hourly temperatures recorded under the hark of a log felled and
lying in a north-and-south direction and percentage of hrood killed hy certain
critical temperatures, June 15, 1927
[Elevation 6,000 feet. See fig. 3]
Hour
Air
tem-
pera-
ture in
shade
Temperature
under bark on
top of log-
Brood
killed
Hour
Air
tem-
pera-
ture in
shade
Temperature
under bark on
top of log-
Brood
killed
in sun
In shade
in sun
In shade
8 a. m
op
58
63
68
74
80
op
60
72
79
104
110
°F.
58
61
65
69
76
Per cent
0
0
0
0
6
1
1 p. m
°F.
85
85
64
61
59
op
114
122
112
90
72
°F.
80
86
69
66
63
Per cent
28
9 a. m .
2 p. m
100
10 a. m
3 p. m
11a. m
4 p. m
12 m
5 p. m
CONTROL OF MOUNTAIN PINE BEETLE BY USE OF SOLAR HEAT
Table 4. — Hourly temperatures recorded under the hark of a log felled and
lying in a north-and-south direction, intermittent clouds partially ohscuring
sun, June 20, 1927
[Elevation 6,000 feet. See fig. 4]
Hour
Air tem-
perature
in shade
Temperature under
bark on top of log-
Hour
Air tem-
perature
in shade
Temperature under
bark on top of log-
in sun
In shade
in sun
In shade
8 a. m
60
76
79
84
78
°F.
70
82
98
118
113
60
76
78
92
88
1 p. m
°F.
80
88
76
??
Ill
134
110
115
94
°F.
88
9 a. m
2 p. m
96
10 a. m
3 p. m
87
11 a. m
87
12m
5 p. m
84
Table 5. — Hourly temperatures recorded on swface of hark and under hark
on top of log felled and lying in a north-and-south direction, June 21, 1927
.[Elevation 6,100 feet. See fig. 5]
Hour
Air tem-
perature
in shade
Bark temperatures
in sun —
Hour
Air tem-
perature
in shade
Bark temperatures
in sun-
On sur-
face
Under
bark
On sur-
face
Under
bark
8 a. m
op
60
76
80
86
90
78
84
120
128
134
cp
70
82
96
120
123
1 p. m
cp
86
92
84
80
78
op
130
140
126
108
90
op
121
9 a. m
2 p. m
136
10 a. m
3 p. ra
118
11a. m
4 p. m
115
12 m
5 p. m
94
Table 6. — Hourly temperatures recorded under the hark of a felled log lying
north and south and of a near-hy standing infested tree, June 14, 1927
[Elevation 6,000 feet. See fig. 6]
Air
tem-
pera-
ture
in
shade
Tem-
pera-
ture
under
bark
on top
of
pros-
trate
log
Temperatures under
bark of standing
tree on-
Hour
•
Air
tem-
pera-
ture
in
shade
Tem-
pera-
ture
imder
bark
on top
of
pros-
trate
log
Temperatures under
bark of standing
tree on-
Hour
South
side of
stump
South
side of
trunk
North
side of
trunk
South
side of
stump
South
side of
trunk
North
side of
trunk
8 a. m
9 a. m
10 a. m
11 a. m
12 m
op
58
63
68
69
76
op
60
72
79
104
110
op
53
55
58
68
74
op
62
64
67
73
78
50
52
56
60
60
1 p. m
2 p. m
3 p. m
4 p. m
5 p. m.
"F.
78
75
70
67
56
op
114
123
112
90
72
op
75
72
67
62
58
"F.
79
76
74
73
65
op
61
60
57
55
55
8 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 5, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
f40
2PM.
3PM.
■4rPM.
SP.M.
FiGUKB 1. — Curves showing air temperatures in shade and concurrent temperatures
recorded under the bark on the top and the east and west sides of a log felled
and lying in a north-and-south direction, September 10, 1926. Elevation 6.100
feet
/30
/20
//O
^
^ 90
70
60
/
"^
\
/yfT^A
TEAfP£P^
W/?£-S i
/
\
1 ' /
I J^y^Ae£ ofcr/t/cal /
r TEMPEffATORES /
\
\
/
TEMPERATURE OF
BARK IN SUM
TEMPERATURE OF
BARK /N SHADE
AIR TEMPERA TURE
1
\
/\
\
~~^
/
/
— ,^'
--'-C^-'
,.<==-'•
,*
""'--,
-^.^
'—-—-'
'<^-~.
./
//
f
8A.M. 9AM. /OAM. //AM. /2/^.
/P/i.
2F/^. 3P/i. -^P/i. SPAf.
Figure 2. — Curves showing air temperatures in shade and concurrent tem'peratures
recorded under bark in shade and under bark in direct sunlight on top of a log
felled and lying in a north-and-south direction, Julv 10, 1927. Elevation 5,500
feet
CONTKOL OF MOUNTAIN PINE BEETLE BY USE OF SOLAR HEAT
/30
/oo
so
30
70
50
SO
FATAL TEMPERATURES
^IOO% I^O«TALlTr
1
1 RANGE
r TEMf-
OF CJ?/T/C
->ERATURe^
AL
^^
^2a7oMORTALlTr ^
1
^
^6% MOSTALITK
1
y-
\
^^'
y
\
/ y<^'
\
::::
^^
TEMPERATURE OF
BARK IN SUN
TEMPERATURE OF
BARK /N SHADE
AIR TEMPERATURE
\
\
/2/^.
/PM
2PAf.
3PM.
^PM.
SPM.
SAM 3A.M. /DAM. //AH
Figure 3. — Curves showinir air temperatures in shade and concurrent temperatures
recorded under bark on top of a log, both in shade and in direct sunlight, and
percentage of brood of the mountain pine beetle killed in the portion exposed to the
sun by certain critical temperatures, June 15, 1927. Elevation 6,000 feet
/30
/20
//O
ao
1
3APK //VSUA/
TEMPEPATURE 0/='
BARK /A/ S//APE
A/R TEMPERATURE
1
\
/>
^T4L TEMPERATURES
1
1 RAA/&E
} TEAfPi
OF CR/TI
^RATURE.
CAL /
___^^^
1
\
^
^
\
/
y
\
/
/
^^.^
.._.
\
\
----^
//
**-'-'-^'
7
X
'""
\
^y""
"^^
/
/
/
4.M.
A
AM. /O.
4.M //a
IM.
/£
M.
//
Vf. ^/
'/v. 31
?M
•#/
9M. ^/
Figure 4. — Curves showing air temperatures in shade and concurrent temperatures
recorded under bark on top of a log, both in shade and In intermittent sunlight.
June 20, 1927. Elevation 6,000 feet
112608—30 2
10 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 5, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
/^fo
/30
/20
I
ao
70
eot.
•
/---//'\\
FAT,
TBMPEf?
4L
ATURE3
^
/
\
\rAN6E ofchit/cal !
r TEMPS/PATURe-S j
1
\
.
1
BARK /N SUN
TEMPEeATU/dE ON SURFACE
OF BARK IN SUN
AIR TEMPERATURE
1
i
1
^
V \
\\
/
1/
y^
\.
\\
'/
y'
,.-'"
-.
y
N
V/
^^^--
'^'
/
/
f
t
t
f
aA.M. SAM.
/OA^.
//AM.
/2M.
/PM.
2PM.
3PM.
'^PM. SPM.
Figure 5. — Curves showing air temperatures in sliade and concurrent temperatures
recorded on the surface of bark and under the bark on the top of a log felled and
lying in a north-and-south direction in direct sunlight, June 21, 1927. Elevation
6,100 feet
SA.M.
/OA.M. //A/i.
/2M.
/PM.
2PM.
3PM.
-fPM.
S/>M.
eA.n
Figure 6. — Curves showing air temperatures in shade and concurrent temperatures
under the bark on the top of a felled log lying north and south, on the south and
on the north sides of an infested standing tree, and on the south side of an infested
stump, June 14, 1927. Elevation 6,000 feet
CONTEOL OF MOUNTAIN" PINE BEETLE BY USE OF SOLAR HEAT H
DISCUSSION OF THE DATA
The results obtained in these experiments show that a bark temper-
ature of 120° F. is fatal to broods of the mountain pine beetle with
a minimum exposure of 20 minutes. (Figs. 7 and 8.) Longer
•^"^Wfefefc
^^^ #
-m4^,:^: "*-^^^^*
Figure 7. — Brood of the mountain pine beetle which had been protected from the sun's
rays by a covering of brush placed over the log at this point ; the larvae and pupae
in this part were uninjured
exposure at lower temperatures will also cause death, though the
broods of the beetle will safely endure bark temperatures of less
than 100°. The range of critical temperatures is between 110° and
120°. Bark temperatures at any point in this range resulted in
death after an exposure of sufficient length. Approximately 5 to 6
12 TECHXICAL BULLETIN 19 5, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
per cent of the brood was killed at 110° with short exposures, and
mortality increased as the temperature rose above this point, reaching
the maximum at 120°, which was found to be 100 per cent fatal.
(Fig. 3.)
FIGURE'S. — Brood of the mountain pine beetle under a section of the bark which had
been exposed to the direct rays of the sun for one day. The maximum temperature
registered under the bark of this section was 126° F, The larvae and pupae show as
shrunken bodies in the pupal cells
Bark temperatures of logs exposed to sunlight were from 30° to
50° higher than the surrounding air temperatures, the main differ-
ence being about 40°. Bark temperatures as high as 140° F. were
registered when the air temperature was 89°, a difference of 51°.
With an air temperature of 80° the concurrent temperature in the
CONTROL OF MOUNTAIN PINE BEETLE BY USE OF SOLAR HEAT 13
inner bark on prostrate logs in direct sunlight was often 120° or
higher. Temperatures of the inner bark in shaded positions did not
vary greatly from the air temperatures and were not fatal to the
broods.
There is a greater correlation between the angle of incidence^ of
the sun's rays and bark temperatures than between air temperatures
and bark temperatures. Thus it will be seen that the data in Table 1
and Figure 1 show a higher relative bark temperature on the east
side of an exposed log than on its top or west side during the hours
from 8 a. m. to 11 a. m., and, conversely, higher bark temperatures
are recorded on the top and west side of a log during the hours from
11 a. m. to 2 p. m., and from 2 p. m. to 5 p. m., respectively; wjiile
at any given time during the daily period of exposure the concurrent
air temperature is the same near all surfaces of the log. Air temper-
ature, however, is perhaps a better criterion for presupposing lethal
bark temperatures, since it can be ascertained by simple tests, and it
is therefore more convenient in practical application. Air temper-
atures of 80° to 85° F. and above insure lethal temperatures in bark
exposed to the sun's rays.
The length of exposure necessary to kill the broods in the upper
ranges of bark temperatures is surprisingly short. The minimum du-
ration of exposure required to effect mortality at 120° or higher was
from 20 to 30 minutes. Longer exposure was necessary at lower tem-
peratures, two to three hours being required with a bark temperature
of 110°. Anesthesia set in at 110° and this condition resulted in
death when prolonged.
The bark of the trees on which the tests were made varied in thick-
ness with the size of the trunk. At the base the thickness ranged
from one-fourth to three-fourths of an inch, with an average of one-
half inch. Thirty feet from the ground the range was from one-
eighth to three-fourths, with an average of three-eighths inch. At
the top, where the top was reduced to about 4 inches in diameter,
the bark averaged one-sixteenth of an inch thick.
Broods of D. monticolae under white pine bark up to 1% inches
thick die with an exposure of six hours at the critical temperature.
The susceptibility of the various developmental stages of the insect
was practically the same. The old adults and new adults succumbed
first, followed in order by the pupae and larvae. Individuals in aU
stages, however, became inactive at about 110° F., the slight differ-
ence in rate of mortality being correlated with duration of exposure
rather than with difference in temperature. Incubation of the eggs
was not prevented, though the newly hatched larvae were very
susceptible to high temperatures.
The experiments showed that killing temperatures were registered
in the inner bark from 10 a. m. to 4 p. m. (Fig. 1.) The duration
of this period varied slightly, however, with the season, and is rela-
tive to the angle of the sun's rays. The maximum duration of this
period occurs in June and July in the latitude in which these
experiments were made. (Fig. 9.)
The moisture content or humidity of the inner bark does not
play an important role in the death of the insects. Broods in logs
having a very moist inner bark died at the same temperatures as
other broods in logs on which the bark was very dry. Humidity
does, however, have a direct bearing on bark temperatures, since it
14 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 5, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
facilitates the penetration of heat, and therefore the killing point
is reached sooner in moist bark. Equally high temperatures are
registered in dry bark, though a slightly longer exposure is required.
Death of the broods results when killing temperatures are reached
regardless of humidity in the bark.
A study of the moisture content of the beetles themselves was not
attempted, although the fact that some beetles resisted cHtical tem-
peratures for a period, but eventually succumbed, indicates that it
is a factor of importance.
The arc of the circumference of the log on which killing tempera-
tures are registered during each exposure is dependent upon the
position of the log relative to the axis of the earth. A greater arc is
subjected to direct sunlight, and resultant lethal temperatures, when
Figure 9. — Diagram illustrating ranges of mortality from, solar heat under the bark
of the upper half of a log during the transit of the sun through the daily arc (June
and July) when the log is lying in a north-and-soutli direction. When the logs
are rolled for the second exposure the part that was not thus exposed takes exactly
the position occupied here by the exposed portion
the log is approximately parallel with the earth's axis and at right
angles to the apparent daily transit of the sun. (Fig. 9.) When
the log is in this position almost the entire upper half of the circum-
ference is exposed to the direct raj^s of the sun during the daily
period when killing temperatures are registered. Under these con-
ditions the range of mortality covers an arc of one-half the circum-
ference of the log. This range is not limited to the portion of the
circumference on which the sun's rays fall perpendicularly during
the period of killing temperatures, but extends down the sides of the
log beyond this arc, as shown in Figure 9, to where the sunlight
strikes at an angle several degrees from the perpendicular. The
heat reflected from the ground serves to carry this killing range
somewhat farther around the log, and its effect is an overlapping
of the ranges of mortality during the second exposure. Though
the secant of the mortality arc on the log is not parallel with the
CONTROL OF MOUNTAIN PINE BEETLE BY USE OF SOLAR HEAT 15
ground surface (fig. 9), this can be disregarded when the log is
turned for the second exposure, since the log is turned one-half
over, which brings the unexposed surface into the position formerl}
occupied by the exposed part.
To obtain the killing temperatures in the inner bark on the maxi-
mum log surface for each exposure it is necessary to place the log in
a position which will permit direct sunlight to reach the greatest
area of bark surface between 10 a. m. and 4 p. m. It has been found
by experimentation and in actual practice that the best position of
the felled logs is approximately north and south. In this position
the east side of the log is exposed to the direct rays of the sun during
the period before midday, the top during midday, and the west side
during the post-midday. The sun's rays also fall more nearly
perpendicular to the surface of the log when it is so placed. It is a
well-known fact that air temperatures are much higher very near
the ground than a foot or more above the ground surface. Because
the same conditions affect bark temperatures, the logs should be
dropped directly on the ground rather than left bedded on prostrate
logs or other debris, since more heat radiation from the earth reaches
the logs when they lie on the ground.
A modification of the above procedure would perhaps be necessary
in the treatment of trees on steep north slopes where the angle of
incidence of the sun's rays would be more oblique, owing to the
inclined position of the log. In these situations the placing of the
logs in an east-and-west direction would be better, though this would
entail turning them twice in order to secure complete exposure
to the direct rays of the sun. As there were no north exposures on
the experimental control area, this detail could not be studied.
Temperature tests made on infested standing trees gave some
interesting results. (Fig. 6.) The temperatures of the inner bark
on the south side and the north side of the trunk, and the south side
of the base or stump, of these trees were recorded. The bark tem-
peratures on the top of a neighboring felled log, and the air tem-
peratures were recorded at the same time. The bark temperatures
on the south side of the standing trees varied only a few degrees from
the air temperatures. The bark temperature on the north side w^as
considerably lower, the difference being 17° at the peak of the, curve.
The highest bark temperature of the stump was 4° lower than that of
the trunk (south side) at breastheight. While these temperatures
remained below 80° F., bark temperatures on the felled log reached
a peak of 123°. These tests show the difference between bark tem-
peratures of standing and of felled trees, and they explain why
mortality does not occur in broods developing in standing trees.
It has been determined, at least for the climate in which this work
was done, that an air temperature of 80° F. indicates lethal tem-
peratures in the inner bark of portions of felled logs exposed to
direct sunlight. Since this relation is fairly constant, air tempera-
ture becomes an indicator of the efficacy of the solar-heat method of
control at any given time. It can be safely assumed that the method
will be effective during any part of the year when air temperatures
are 80° or higher. It was employed with entire success during May,
June, July, September, and early October of 1925, 1926, and 1927, on
the Crater Lake Park control project. No control work was done in
August, as the beetles are flying at that time.
16 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 5, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
PRACTICAL APPLICATION IN THE CRATER LAKE PARK PROJECT
The crucial test of any method of insect control conies with its
practical application in the field where natural conditions prevail.
The solar-heat method was given a thorough trial on the Crater Lake
Park project during the years 1925, 1926, and 1927. Its effectiveness
was demonstrated in the successful treatment of over 9,000 lodgepole
pines infested with broods of the mountain pine beetle.
PHYSICAL CONDITIONS ON THE PROJECT AREA
The Crater Lake National Park is situated on the crest of the
Cascade Mountains in southern Oregon, in latitude 43° north. The
control area is located in the southern half of the park in elevations
ranging from 5,500 to 6,300 feet. The topography of this area
ranges from rugged canyon walls to flat plateaus or benches. The
slopes are mainly southern, with east and west exposures. The
infested areas occurred almost entirely in the pure lodgepole pine
type of stand.
The meteorological conditions are typical of the high mountainous
section of the North Pacific States. Daily temperatures during the
period of control operations ranged from 32° F. at night to a maxi-
mum of 90° at midday. Electrical storms, followed by rain, were
frequent throughout the seasons. These storm periods, however, did
not seriously interfere with the solar-heat treatment of the infested
logs, since the percentage of clear days was comparatively high. In
general, the conditions on this project were favorable for the effective
employment of the solar-heat method, and accordingly the method
should be equally successful on all other areas where the meteorolog-
ical conditions are similar.
APPLICATION OF THE METHOD
The use of the solar-heat method on the Crater Lake Park project
did not involve any material changes in artificial-control technic
prior to the actual treatment of the logs. The infested areas were
surveyed in the usual way, and the trees to be treated were marked by
established methods. However, from .this point on to the last detail
of the actual treatment of the logs an entirely new procedure was
followed.
The trees were felled so as to lie north and south, in order to
expose the greatest arc of their circumference to direct sunlight.
Care was exercised in felling the logs to get them in such position
that they were shaded as little as possible by adjacent standing trees.
Whenever feasible, the bole was placed in contact with the ground to
obtain for it the highest temperatures. The limbs along the infested
length of the log were then removed and the top cut off. (Fig.lO.)
The limbs and tops were either piled or scattered ; the former method
was used on camp sites, along roads, and in other places where a
thorough clean-up was desired, and the latter procedure was followed
in more remote situations. After the logs had been prepared in this
way, they were left to the action of direct sunlight from two to five
days. They were then turned half over to expose the other side.
(Fig. 11.) This completed the treatment.
CONTROL OF MOUNTAIN PINE BEETLE BY USE OF SOLAR HEAT 17
Figure 10. — Method of preparing lodgepole pines infested with, the mountain pine
beetle for treatment by solar heat. The trees are felled to lie in a north-and-south
direction in order to secure the maximum exposure on the surface of the bark during
the daily period of killing temperatures. The logs are then limbed and topped, and
the brush is piled, or scattered, well away from the logs to allow direct sunlight to
reach them
FIGURE 11. — A group of logs that have been treated by the solar-heat method. The
logs are shown in the final position after they have been rolled half over and
exposed for the second time. The photograph gives a general view of a treated
area showing the average spacing of infested trees and surrounding conditions
18 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 5, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUBE
Each treating crew consisted of three men. Two men felled and
topped the trees, while the third man cut off the limbs, and piled them
when necessary. Each crew felled and prepared an average of 40
trees per day. The same crew returned and rolled in one day all the
logs prepared in one week. Each log was cut so that the prepared
section contained the entire brood of the insect; consequently the
logs ranged in length from 20 to 60 feet, and in some cases included
the entire bole of the tree. Cant hooks and peaveys were used in
turning the logs. Three men experienced no difficulty in turning all
but the very largest and longest logs. When such were encountered,
they were cut into two or more sections. After each log was turned
for the final exposure, a distinguishing ax mark was made against the
kerf on the butt end to denote that the log had been turned. One man
of each turning crew checked off from the treating record the serial
number of each tree as it was turned, and thus all missed logs were
identified and located for subsequent turning.
COMPARISON OF THE SOLAR-HEAT TREATMENT WITH THE
BURNING METHOD
In the first control work on this project, early in 1925. the burning
method of treatment was employed. It was soon apparent that this
method was not at all suitable for use in this type of infested timber
because the stands were fairly dense and therefore much scorching
of green trees resulted. Enough trees were burned, however, to
establish a basis for comparing the effectiveness and cost of this
method with the solar-heat treatment which was subsequently em-
ployed. These data, secured on a project where both methods were
used, are of great value in comparing results and costs. In addition
to this basic information, similar data on the burning method are
available from other projects in lodgepole pine infested by the same
beetle.
These data show that the two methods were equally effective in
killing the beetle broods. The average cost of the burning treatment
was $2 per tree, and of the solar-heat treatment, $1.22 per tree, a
difference of 78 cents per tree in favor of the solar-heat treatment.
An analysis of these costs, however, reveals factors peculiar to each
method which account for this difference. For instance, it is almost
always necessary to buck the logs in piles to obtain thorough treat'
ment by burning. Also, when working in crowded stands, it is
necessary to haul the logs to openings for burning in order to avoid
scorching the adjacent green trees. This additional work results in
increased unit cost w'hen the burning method is used. On the other
hand, the cost of the solar-heat treatment is increased and approxi-
mates that of the burning method when it is necessary completely to
dispose of the slash.
The advantages and disadvantages of the solar-heat method, as
compared with the burning method, mav be summarized in the
following way:
A¥hen slash is scattered or piled, the cost is lower, the same super-
vision is required, and the effectiveness is equal.
When logs are decked after curing and slash is burned, the cost
IS higher, closer supervision is required, and the effectiveness is
equal.
CONTROL OF MOUNTAIN PINE BEETLE BY USE OF SOLAB HEAT 19
Other things being equal, the absence of scorching of green stock
leaves the forest in better condition.
When the weather is cloudy or the air temperatures are less than
80° F., the solar-heat treatment is not effective.
SUMMARY
The solar-heat method of bark-beetle control consists primarily
in utilizing direct sunlight to kill broods of beetles in the inner bark
of thin-bark trees, thus eliminating the necessity for peeling them.
It is particularly effective in treating broods of the mountain pine
beetle, Dendroctonus monticolae^ in lodgepole pine logs. It has also
been used, with modifications, in treating other pines infested with
other species of bark beetles.
Temperature is the major factor. Bark temperatures under 110^
P. are not effective. Bark temperatures of 120° or higher will kill
the insects with a minimum exposure of 20 minutes. The tempera-
tures between 110° and 120° are critical, and any temperature within
this range will kill the broods if maintained two or three hours.
Anesthesia occurs at about 110°.
Bark temperatures as high as 140° were registered when the air
temperature was 89°. The mean difference between air temperatures
and the concurrent bark temperatures is 40°.
Killing temperatures are registered in the bark of logs exposed to
direct sunlight and lying north and south, during the hours from
10 a. m. to 4 p. m., when the air temperature is 80° F. or higher.
The effectiveness of the method has been demonstrated by the
successful treatment of over 9,000 lodgepole pines infested with
broods of the mountain pine beetle in Crater Lake National Park,
Oreg. The meteorological data given apply specifically to elevations
ranging between 5,500 and 6,300 feet, at 43° north latitude.
The essential points in the application of the method are as fol-
lows : Logs should lie north and south and in contact with the ground.
They must be limbed and topped and the brush piled or scattered
away from the logs. The logs must be fully exposed to the direct
rays of the sun during midday for a period of from two to five
days. After the first exposure they must be turned one-half over
in order to expose the other side. On north slopes it may bo
necessary to place the logs east and west and turn them twice, 120^
each time.
As compared with the burning treatment, the solar-heat method
is cheaper, unless the slash is thoroughly cleaned up, when the cost
is the same or slightly higher. When the limbs only are burned
the two methods are on par as to cost.
The main advantages of the solar-heat treatment are that no
standing trees are scorched and no conditions attractive to Insects
are set up by the work, as is the case when the logs are burned. Its
principal disadvantage is that ordinarily more slash is left in the
forest, unless it is burned later at additional expense. Both methods
are effective in killing the beetle broods.
ORGANIZATION OF THE
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
July 17, 1930
Secretary of Agriculture Aethub M. Hyde.
Assistant Secretary R. W. Dunlap.
Director of Scientific Work A. F. Woods.
Director of Regulatory Work Walter G. Campbell.
Director of Extension Work C. W. Warburton.
Director of Personnel and Business Admins W. W. Stockberger.
istration.
Director of Information M. S. Eisenhower.
Solicitor E. L. Marshall.
Weather Bureau Chables F. Marvin, Chief.
Bureau of Animal Industry John R. Mohler, Chief.
Bureau, of Dairy Industry O. E. Reed, Chief.
Bureau of Plant Industry William A. Taylor, Chief.
Forest Service R. Y. Stuart, Chief.
Bureau of Chemistry and Soils H. G. Knight, Chief.
Bureau of Entomology C. L. Marlatt, Chief.
Bureau of Biological Survey Paul G. Redington, Chief.
Bureau of PuNic Roads Thomas H. MacDonald, Chief.
Bureau of Agricultural Economics Nils A. Olsen, Chief.
Bureau of Home Economics Louise Stanley, Chiel
Plant Quaram^tine and Control Administration— Lee A. Strong, Chief.
Grain Futures Administration J. W. T. Duvel, Chief.
Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration^ Walter G. Campbell, Ditector of
Regulatory Work, in Charge.
Office of Experiment Stations , Chief.
Office of Cooperative Extension Work C. B. Smith, Chief.
Library Claribel R. Barnett, Librarian.
This bulletin is a contribution from
Bureau of Entomology C. L. Marlatt, Chief.
Division of Forest Insects F. C. Craigskad. Principal Ento-
mologist, in Charge.
20
U. S GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1930
For sak> by the S mjo: i::tv!:(lr:it of Documents. Washington, D. C. Price 5 cents
Technical Bulletin No. 194
October, 1930
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
ECONOMIC STATUS OF DRAINAGE
DISTRICTS IN THE SOUTH IN 1926
By Roger D. Mabsden, Senior Drainage Engineer, Division of Agricultural
Engineering, Bureau of Public Roads, and R. P. Teele, Agricultural Econo-
mist,^ Division of Land Economics, Bureau of Agricultural Economics
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction 1
Purpose of the in vestigation 2
Drainage, soils, and agriculture in the districts. 4
St. Francis Basin, Missouri and Arkansas... 10
Black and Cache Rivers area, Missouri and
Arkansas 12
Southeastern Arkansas — 14
Yazoo Basin, Miss 15
Louisiana- .-. 17
Eastern North Carolina. 20
Southern North Carolina 21
South Carolina 22
St. Johns Basin, Fla 23
Central Florida 24
West coast area, Florida 25
Indian River area, Florida 26
Lower east coast area, Florida 27
Rate' and degree of land development 27
Page
Sale and settlement of the land 29
Missouri, Arkansas, and Mississippi 29
Louisiana 30
North Carolina and South Carolina 31
Florida 32
Conditions influencing land settlement 32
Location 33
Soils and crops 1 34
Community development 34
Land-sales policies. 35
Land prices 36
Cost of the drainage districts 36
Financial status of the districts 40
Indebtedness 40
Drainage and other taxes 42
Delinquent taxes 45
Means of increasing revenues 46
Conclusions 47
INTRODUCTION
It has been estimated ^ that in the United States there are about
75,000,000 acres of potential crop land, not now used for crops, that
are too wet for cultivation without artificial drainage. About
50,000,000 acres of this land are situated in the States bordering the
south Atlantic and Gulf coasts and lower Mississippi River. This
land is rather generally believed to offer an excellent opportunity for
profitable agriculture. Some of it is more than ordinarily fertile;
yet from the major portion the owners are receiving little or no re-
turns. Therefore those owners and the communities and States in
which those lands are situated have for many years advocated drain-
age and development for more productive use.
Drainage of those lands requires cooperation among the owners,
because generally construction of the works necessary to drain any
part of the area will benefit a large acreage and many owners, and
because the cost is great. Therefore most of the States have enacted
laws authorizing the establishment of drainage districts, each com-
1 This study was planned, the data were collected and tabulated, and the general scope
of the report was determined by the authors Jointly. The death of Mr. Teele prevented
his participation in the final organization of the material and discussion of the findings.
2 Gray, L. C, Baker, O. E., Marschneb, P. J., Weitz, B. C, Chapline, W. R., Shepabd,
W., and others, the utilization of our lands fob crops^ pasture, and forests. U. S.
Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1923 : 415-506, illus. 1924.
112607—30 1
2 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 194, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
prising the area that will be served by a proposed system of drainage
works. They are established by decree of a court or a board of
county commissioners, in accordance with the desire of a majority,
in number or in interest, of the owners of the lands to be included.
They are public corporations, with power to secure construction of
drainage improvements and to assess the costs against the lands that
will be benefited. Payment of drainage taxes is enforced in the same
manner as payment of general county taxes. In some States, many
of the districts have been established by special legislation. Sub-
districts comprise areas wholly or partly within existing drainage
districts. They are similar in purpose and in organization to the
drainage districts in which they are included.
In the South Atlantic and South Central States and the lowland
counties of southeastern Missouri, about 14,600,000 acres had been
organized into drainage districts prior to 1920.^ Fully 7,900,000
acres of this land were unimproved at that time. The cost of these
districts was approximately $107,000,000, including an estimated
$33,500,000 for completing works under construction at the beginning
of 1920. (The cost of a drainage district is the total cost of its
ditches and other drainage works, including the expenses of organiz-
ing the enterprise and administering construction of the works.)
The districts have been financed, in large part, by the sale of bonds
which are liens upon the lands in the districts. Utilization of these
lands requires, generally, further expense for clearing the land, for
farm buildings, and for roads and schools. Farmers to work the
land must be obtained, for the most part, from outside the communi-
ties; many from other States.
A great number of persons who have bought lands in these enter-
prises, with the purpose of settling upon and farming them, have
been forced to abandon their purchases and have lost their entire
investment. Many of the districts have had difficulty in meeting
their financial obligations, and some have been unable to make pay-
ments due; consequently, considerable losses have been suffered by
investors in the drainage securities. Effort has been made to procure
financial assistance from the Federal Government for refunding the
outstanding bonds.
PURPOSE OF THE INVESTIGATION
In estimating the actual availability of the swamp and overflowed
lands of the South for agriculture it is advisable to examine the
degree of success that has attended past efforts to bring those lands
into use. Knowledge of the progress that has been made in utilizing
the lands that have been drained, of the cost of draining and bring-
ing the lands into cultivation, of the types of farming practiced, and
of the conditions that have influenced the rate and cost of develop-
ment and the profitableness of farming will aid in preventing losses
to present landowners, to prospective purchasers of the land, and to
investors in drainage bonds. Owners can better reckon the value of
the undrained land ; intending settlers can better estimate the capital
required and the labor involved in acquiring a home upon the lands ;
investors can better judge the security of their loans. The experience
'United States Department op Commerce, Bureau of the Census, fourteenth
CENSUS of the united STATES. V. 7. Washington, [D. C.].
ECONOMIC STATUS OF DKAINAGE DISTRICTS IN THE SOUTH 6
of the existing drainage districts is important also to local, State,
and Federal agencies in determining proper reclamation policies.
Tlie investigation herein reported was purposely confined to drain-
age districts in which the major portion of the land was unimproved
at beginning of reclamation and of little value for agriculture with-
out drainage. Development of those lands after drainage has been
dependent upon obtaining settlers from other localities, either as
buyers or tenants. Such reclamation enterprises comprise much the
greater part of the area in the drainage districts of the lowland
regions discussed. In the Southern States there are a compara-
tively few large districts that were mostly cultivated prior to drain-
N O R T/ H
C A . R /O L I N
7 '^
\ CAROLINA
G E O R G 1 A V
Drainage cUsfricfs investlgafed mim
Boundary of /ow/andi i.j.jl j.
Figure 1. — Location of drainage dis-
tricts investigated in lower Mis-
sissippi Valley
Figure 2. — Location of drainage districts in-
vestigated in the coastal plain
age, and a great many small districts in which the unimproved
land was held in small tracts that readily could be added to the
owners' near-by farms. The agricultural and financial status of
those districts, more accurately described as farm-improvement
enterprises, undoubtedly is better than that of the reclamation drain-
age districts described in the following pages.
Thirty drainage districts were studied in the lowlands of the lower
Mississippi Valley, 9 in the coastal plain in the Carolinas, and 19 in
Florida, comprising altogether 4,000,000 acres. They were selected as
fairly representing the conditions in the drainage districts generally
in the regions visited, it being impracticable to study all the enter-
prises there. The locations of these districts are shown in Figures
1 and 2, which show also the boundaries of the lowland area in the
lower Mississippi Valley and of the coastal plain in the South At-
lantic States. Information was obtained by examining county and
4 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 4, U. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE
drainage-district records, by inspecting lands and drainage works in
the districts, and by interviewing county and district officials, drain-
age engineers, agricultural agents, and promoters and landowners in
the districts. The principal data were gathered in 1926, the investi-
gation in the Mississippi Valley being made from April to June and
that in the South Atlantic States in October and November.
DRAINAGE, SOILS, AND AGRICULTURE IN THE DISTRICTS
The drainage districts covered in this investigation are listed in
Table 1, with their locations by counties, the dates of organization and
of beginning construction, their areas, and the estimated acreages of
improved land at the beginning and in 1926. The figures for area are
not of equal accuracy, as some were taken from records and some
from statements of approximate acreage made by officers of the dis-
tricts. Data as to acreages improved are estimates by persons
thought best informed regarding each district, checked by cursory
inspections. No surveys to obtain this information had been made in
recent years, if at all, and tax-roll classifications were said to show
considerably less than the correct amount. The estimates usually
were given as percentages of the whole area, from which approximate
acreages have been computed for tabulation.
Table 1. — Total and improved areas in representative drainage districts in the
South
ST. FRANCIS BASIN, MISSOURI AND ARKANSAS
Location
Year
or-
gan-
ized
Year
con-
struc-
tion
started
Area of
district
Improved land
Drainage district
At be-
ginning
In 1926
Little River
Missouri; Cape Girardeau, Bol-
linger, Scott, Stoddard, New
Madrid, Dunklin, and Pemis-
cot Counties.
Missouri, New Madrid County.
do . .
1907
1906
1908
1912
1905
1910
1911
1917
1914
1907
1910
1915
1908
1910
1913
1920
Acres
631,672
138,100
1 32, 270
30,000
126, 734
J 56, 943
* 193, 000
170,000
Acres
22,000
800
Acres
265,000
No. 19
3.000
No. 23
13,000 i 3o!666
No. 29
do
18,000
19,000
15,000
52,000
57,000
20,000
St. Francis
Arkansas; Clay and Greene
Counties.
Arkansas, Mississippi County
do
.... do
95,000
No. 8
40,000
No. 9
No. 17
131,000
102,000
Total ,
3 1, 135, 000
3 194, 000 1 » 678. 000
BLACK AND CACHE RIVERS AREA, MISSOURI AND ARKANSAS
Inter-River ._ . _
Missouri; Butler County
Arkansas; Clay County
1913
1911
1909
1919
1911
1918
1914
1909
*1909
1912
117,000
90,000
85,000
37,000
89,500
25,000
9,000
17,000
9,000
16,000
40,000
Central Clay
22,000
Western Clay
55,000
Cache River No. 2
No. 1 .
Arkansas; Greene County
Arkansas; Greene and Lawrence
Counties.
24,000
33,000
Total
418,500
76,000
174,000
1 All of drainage district No. 19 and a small part of No. 23 are within Little River drainage district.
2 Drainage districts Nos. 8 and 9 overlap to a negligible amount.
s Omitting estimated duplication in overlapping districts. (See footnote 1.)
< Begun by Cache River drainage district, all included within Cache River drainage district No. 2.
ECONOMIC STATUS OF DRAINAGE DISTRICTS IN THE SOUTH 5
Table 1. — Total and improved areas in represemtative drainage districts in the
South — Continuea
SOUTHEASTERN ARKANSAS
Location
Year
or-
gan-
ized
Year
con-
struc-
tion
started
Area of
district
Improved land
Drainage district
At be-
ginning
In 1926
Cypress Creek
Desha and Chicot Counties
1911
1913
Acres
285,000
Acres
28,000
Acres
70,000
YAZOO BASIN, MISS.
Northern
Bogue Hasty.
Riverside
Black Bayou.
Bogue Phalia.
Murphy Bayou.
Belzoni
Atchafalaya
Total.
Bolivar County
do
Washington and Bolivar Coun-
ties.
Washington County
Washington and Sunflower
Counties.
Washington County
Humphreys County
Humphreys and Yazoo Coun-
ties.
1908
1910
1911
1911
1910
1912
1916
1913
1917
1914
1918
1911
1914
1918
1913
1916
98,000
74,000
95,000
95,000
152, 140
44, 280
91,000
92,000
741,420
30,000
25,000
30,000
19,000
45,000
11,000
20,000
22,000
202,000
75,000
55,000
70,000
40,000
100,000
16,000
44,000
28,000
428,000
LOUISIANA
Gravity districts:
Portage
Pointe Coupee Parish..
East Baton Rouge Parish
St. Bernard Parish .
1907
1903
1908
1912
1913
1916
1911
1912
1908
1905
1910
1916
«1907
S1910
1911
1912
76, 380
28,508
214,000
27,888
8 8,459
8 8,630
10, 774
37, 750
30,000
10,000
9,000
7,000
0
0
0
15,000
30,000
White and Cypress
Bayou.
Bayou Terre - Aux-
1,000
2,000
Boeufs.
No. 2
Lafourche Parish
22,000
Pumping districts:
No. 12._.
do
6,000
Delta Farms
Sunset ''.-
do
St. Charles Parish
3,600
2,500
Jeflferson-Plaque-
mines.
Jefferson, Plaquemines, and
Orleans Parishes.
10,000
Total
412, 389
71,000
77,000
EASTERN NORTH CAROLINA
Moyock
Currituck County
1910
1917
1913
1909
1910
1910
U916
1914
1909
1912
14,441
30, 753
9,600
8,000
100,000
4,100
0
0
2,000
25,000
4,500
Albemarle. _
Washington and Beaufort
Counties.
Washington and Hyde Counties.
Beaufort County
lOO
No. 4
2,000
Pantego
7,000
Mattamuskeet
Hyde County
25,000
Total.
162, 794
31,100
38,600
SOUTHERN NORTH CAROLINA
Flea Hill
Cumberland County..
1911
1912
1914
1912
23,710
33,600
9,000
7,000
14,000
Back Swamp and Jacob
Robeson County...!
10,000
Swamp.
Total
57, 310
16,000
24,000
• Construction begun as private enterprise.
8 PMgures given for subdistricts only. (See description, pp. 17-18.) ,
^ Data are for subdistricts Nos. 1, 3, and 4 of St. Charles municipal drainage district No. 1, reorganized
with new name about 1925.
6 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 194, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 1. — Total and improved m-eas in representative drainage districts in the
South — Continued
SOUTH CAROLINA
Location
Year
or-
gan-
ized
Year
con-
struc-
tion
started
Area of
district
Improved land
Drainage district
At be-
ginning
In 1926
Cowcastle
1918
1913
1919
1914
Acres
40,860
2,816
Acres
12,000
snn
Acres
12,000
800
Rum Neck
do
Total
43,676 12 snn
12 800
ST. JOHNS BASIN, FLORIDA
Baldwin
Duval and Nassau Counties
Putnam County
1915
1911
1921
1914
1918
81916
1917
1916
1923
1920
1920
81918
68, 251
16,000
5,000
22,445
56, 000
56, COO
3,500
700
1,200
8,000
2,000
0
3,500
1,000
Bostwick
East Palatka
do
3,000
Hastings
St. Johns, Putnam, and Flag-
ler Counties
10, 000
5,000
1,300
South Hastings
Flagler and Putnam Counties...
Volusia
New Srayrna-De Land-
Total
223, 696
15, 400
23,800
CENTRAL FLORIDA
Taft...
Orange County
1914
1913
1916
1915
54,000
42, 000
500
0
1 000
Peace Creek
Polk County
400
Total
96, 000
500
1,400
WEST COAST AREA, FLORIDA
Lake Largo - Cross
Pinellas County ._
1914
1914
1915
1916
1916
1915
1915
1918
1917
1919
13,100
14,000
25,000
17, 500
21,000
0
200
0
400
200
500
Bayou.
Pinellas Park .„
do
500
Sugar Bowl . .
Manatee and Sarasota Counties.
Hardee
0
Limestone
500
lona
Lee
1 500
Total
90,600
800
3,000
INDIAN RIVER ARE^
., FLORIDA
Fellsmere
Indian River County
1910
1919
1919
1917
1910
5 1912
«1913
1920
47,000
50,000
23,750
75,284
1,000
0
0
3,000
2,000
7,500
2,300
3,500
Indian River Farms
do
Fort Pierce Farms
St. Lucie County
North St. Lucie River..
do
Total.
196, 034
4,000
15,300
LOWER EAST COAST AREA, FLORIDA
Lake Worth
Palm Beach County
1915
1917
1917
1919
130, 000
142, 300
5.000
8,000
1,500
Southern
Dftdft County
Total....
272. 300
5, 000
9 500
Grand total.
4, 134, 719
656, eoo
1, 555, 400
* Construction begun as private enterprise.
* Dates for Lake Ashby drainage district, which was reorganized in 1925 with new name.
ECONOMIC STATUS OF DRAINAGE DISTRICTS IN THE SOUTH 7
The general drainage and development features of the districts are
stated in the following descriptions. The major soil types for each
group of districts are also described very briefly.* Data relative to
agriculture in the districts, except in Florida, are given in Table 2.
These data were taken from schedules collected in the census of 1925 ^
for farms owned by taxpayers in the districts. The statistics are not
complete for any group, but are believed to indicate with fair ac-
curacy the average size of farms, proportion of acreage harvested,
farm values, ratio of tenants to owners, acreage in principal crops,
and amount of livestock.
* Descriptions of soils in the various drainage districts were olitained from the field
operations of the Bureau of Soils, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
^ United States Depaetmbnt op Commerce, Bureau of thb Census, united states
CENSUS of agriculture 1925. 3 V., illus. Washington, D. C. 1927.
8
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 194, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
3 O
O «2
^dOOON >o
cocoes <N
3J2 OB
•ocooJt^or^
eoo>T»<Mi^»ooJcocosd'H'.j<^«Tj<t^eo5j-^io
O0»cc'i05go«o— leo^^eo^^'o*g•oo6oeo^-
^ QO 00 0> COCO
■*u5 -^oo ooco
1-IM •-<
O>00"5 00OJ»O
CT>coeoeoQeoo":no-*Ot-opT»<oO'Oeo.^
•oeocf cotocsTr-T^
lo CO
05 P.2
2«
co-HNoit^escst^QO-^oosi^ooocoojQo
«5i-«^es»»ot--ot>.55io®Tf»coo>-c»o^«ooco
eooO'cf «c 00 w t^ OS ■»»< cs
eo ef TjTirf'Tjr r-T
CSTj<CO oooo
s;s gS;
O o CO
cop«a>>c>oo
to<nQoo-»j<T}<ooT*<»oooeoTt<^c^'#oo>ot^-*
cseOOTOstopocoojCNicspoc^tocoooseo^cot-
cs i-Hi-c-^.^ oo(»eo-«j*'«j<co
oo c< o !§ o ■<*<
§2 ^2 -^^
6 -a
t4 CO
•^ t^ i-l CO N N
O rt «0 f":.!:^ O r-l C^ Oi TO -^ CC n
(N(N^ C<
>-Tt< os«o CICS
les coo> ooco
;co OS— I QOOO
C0«O (N ^
N t^ OS 05 Oi cs
^ t^t^ooeo
ososot^-Heot^c<ic5r-<coost^t^t>.eo»ooooo
iooot^»o— (■<l<cococ>^c^lO'-lOQr:^Os^r?5•^^
i-T rHeocrc<r c<r<N'.-r of
(NCft -^ !
CO 00 lO T)< M CO t^
OiO^O'-HOSiCi-St^COOS'-H'OiCiO^-OOTjS
i-<ooeot^->*<?»'Ooo-«»<coooeosO'3t!'-'ooe3co^
00 rH CD f-H —I o occ>o«oo->i<
coo i-<oo t^oo
OO ■<*<OS (N'^
t^ l~- CS ^H lO «o
•2-S-
.!§:§
CO ^ CO CD Ti^ eo
t-t^O— ii-HOOSOOOOt-t^OOtOiOiOCDtOtN
C3O0tj<— iCT)Cv<cor:<eocoOCScD(MTt!<5ioq500-«*<.
OOS^-*
0000 CO
00 t>-eooseo cs
C>l »0>0^ 1-1
eoooeo cs"
•^ OS CD >0 CO >o
OS-<*» O-H oco
OCO CS»0 CO c><
TJ a54J as
"^•S! OS®
CD •<»< CO O (M (M
osi^c<j2;oo5coosT»<t^oco»oio>ocoo-<*;cs-<«<
•«l<iOO5S00(N'O5»»O-*t^Tj<-*(MCOO5OscO00»O
00 t-^eOCS rH c!)1^0'0»0'0 --i
■^ es o^^ •«*< ■
-fS.
»oo O —I
O 5 03 S -3
C3 JS O O O
OSO»COt^-* t^
) »c CO ■<*<oso6c^eoo6e4'00>oioco»oc<«(?4'-i
t^ O •* t^ ■* CO -H
t^C>*COCN
— 1 00 ^ CO OOS
10 rt O CO t^ CO
t^ 00 eooo •«i<-^
>-<iiCOriiiiiiimiiiii
<s> I I o , ' , u , , , , ,
Xioo^sooooooo o * 00000
CO M „ C»3~
H ® a a
a.«:i3bifc:!3ot:Js^£b:<i.Hb(B£!2
ca q
u »
S E
I a
00
CO
^ ■ w I »
73 '-W 1 >
« IS ! ^- i
CO « > ® g p
cc i-"^ t- h »-
_C QJ CO OJ W o
Vh «
•^ asS'^;^^'^' S*^*^
•2 3^-
o *
as G
£ H "3
gOEH-oOEH 2o^ SOE-"
u, O ® «
OJ 03 > >
^ ^ < <i
2o
>
> ® s
33o^boO§,gS
"S^bo^nSSS ..
> >„ - « O "^ k- "^-i^
M m C3 a >-4J > C3 > O
g|§o o eg |f
_ a 05
1SE5S
i?3 eg
; §
1 n
i
c3 *3 -^ —
ECONOMIC STATUS OF DBAINAGB DISTRICTS IN THE SOUTH 9
S§
t-ioo i-ieo
■^0> OS t^ t^ it< MO
1^ 05
rn" oT
C<t>. o>o
(N .-H
I »0 CO OS
.-H -H 0000
«5 O I C^C^ CO'H
o j3 ^ o
« O CO O
112607—30 2
10 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 4, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Tabulation for drainage districts in Florida was not made because
identification of the census schedules was extremely uncertain, owing
to the great number of changes in ownership of lands in 1925.
ST. FRANCIS BASIN, MO. AND ARK.
Little River drainage district extends southward 90 miles from the
hills southwest of Cape Girardeau, Mo., to the extreme southern
limit of the State. It consists mainly of a flat valley about 4 to 12
miles wide along Little River, the upper part of which lies between
Benton Ridge in northern Scott County and Crowley s Ridge in
Stoddard County, and a narrow strip north of those ridges extend-
ing westward from the Mississippi for about 35 miles. It includes
all of drainage district No. 19 and the lower end of drainage district
No. 23 in New Madrid County, and parts of other districts. Sikes-
ton Ridge, a sandy elevation extending northward from New
Madrid, and the bank of the Mississippi below New Madrid, lie but
a few miles from the east edge of the district except at the lower
end. On the west. Sand Ridge borders the district through Dunklin
County. The bank of the Mississippi and the ridges on both sides of
the district have been cultivated since before the Civil War; Cape
Girardeau dates from the French regime, and New Madrid was
settled by the Spanish.
Little River received, prior to 1915, the run-off from 1,050 square
miles of hill land, brought down from the north by Whitewater and
Castor Rivers. Its course in Missouri was a broad swamp with a
small, tortuous, obstructed channel that in places was quite indis-
tinguishable. About 1894, Little River channel through New
Madrid County was enlarged b}^ dredging, for which the county
paid with a large grant of timbered swamp land.^ In 1907, drainage
district No. 19 of that county began the improvement of a con-
siderable portion of the same channel. Also in 1907, Little River
drainage district was established with 488,000 acres, but the labor of
devising the drainage plan, of determining the benefits to each tract,
and of harmonizing conflicting interests in so large an undertaking,
delayed actual construction until 1914. Only about 4 per cent was
improved land then, the remainder being timbered or cut-over and
too wet for cultivation. In 1921, about 43,600 acres in Stoddard and
Bollinger Counties, of which about 5 per cent was improved, were
added to this district. The drainage works of this district include
large channels and a floodway to divert Castor and Whitewater
Rivers along the ujDper edge of the district to Mississippi River near
Cape Girardeau. An extensive system of ditches collects the rain-
fall within the district and the run-off from the slopes at either
side, and discharges it into Big Lake at the Arkansas line.
Drainage district No. 23 of New Madrid County is an almost level
belt 3 to 4 miles wide between Little River drainage district and
the west slope of Sikeston Ridge. Its ditches discharge into Little
River in the eastern edge of drainage district No. 19. Organized
in 1908, it apparently comprises about the eastern two-thirds of
drainage district No. 1, organized in 1897, and includes all of drain-
age district No. 10, organized in 1901, and the eastern part of drain-
age district No. 12, organized in 1903. Drainage district No. 29 is
« Collins, A. B. Unpublished manuscript. 1904.
ECONOMIC STATUS OF DKAINAGE DISTRICTS IN THE SOUTH 11
in the southeast corner of New Madrid County, bounded on the east
by the Mississippi levee. The land slopes away from the Mississippi,
and the ditches discharge into Little River at the county line.
Drainage districts No. 8, No. 9, and No. 17 of Mississippi County,
Arkansas, comprise more than 80 per cent of the county area and
the greater part of the frontage on Mississippi River. The ground
is nearly flat, sloping westward from the Mississippi to elevations
about 30 feet lower in the western part of the county. The surface
is cut with many small and some large, high-bank, tortuous streams
and bayous, among which are Right Hand Chute and Left Hand
Chute of Little River, Pemiscot Bayou, and Tyronza River. Drain-
age from the north is intercepted by a levee along the State line
for 9 miles east from Big Lake, and is carried through Big Lake
and Right Hand Chute to St. Francis River in Poinsett County
by continuous levees on both sides. About 15,000 acres within the
original east meander line of Big Lake can not be drained by gravity,
and the installation of a pumping plant for this area was planned
by drainage district No. IT, in 1926. Drainage ditches 1 mile apart
have been provided for a large part of the land in those districts.
At the time of beginning drainage there were farms and planta-
tions on the higher lands along the Mississippi and the banks of
bayous and streams in the eastern part of the area, while the western
part was held mostly by timber companies, and lumbering operations
were in progress. The unimproved land was mostly swampy or
subject to overflow. District No. 17 includes the city of Blytheville.
St. Francis drainage district borders the west bank of St. Francis
River and St. Francis Lake for most of their length along Clay and
Greene Counties. On the west is Crowleys Ridge which, crossing
from Missouri into the northwest corner of Clay County, continues
southward through the central portions of Greene and succeeding
counties to the mouth of St. Francis River. The surface of the
district is flat, with a slight southwesterly slope somewhat away
from but generally parallel to the river. The district was created
by a special act of the legislature, and in accordance with that act
built a levee along the St. Francis, 40 miles in length and 9 feet
high, to prevent overflows, and a drainage ditch 35 miles long, which
empties into the St. Francis at the south end of the district. Numer-
ous breaks in the levee, evidently due to seepage under or through
the embankment, necessitated extensive reconstruction work during
the next 10 years. Within this area, supplementary ditch systems
have been constructed by several independent drainage districts
organized prior to 1911, and since that time by a number of sub-
districts of St. Francis drainage district. The unimproved land is
mostly or entirely cut-over.
The soils of the drainage districts in St. Francis Basin are alluvial
in origin, the clays and silty soils predominating. Prior to construc-
tion of the Government levees the districts on Little River and
Tyronza River were subject to frequent overflow from Mississippi
River. The soils of this section are, then, of very recent formation
and very fertile, though low and naturally in need of drainage to be
fitted for agriculture. Near the hills at the northern border, the
streams from the upland continued to spread sedimentary material
upon the bottom lands until as late as 1915. In the upper part of the
12 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 194, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Little Kiver drainage district the soils are principally black and
gray clays, clay loams, and silt loams with heavier clay or silt sub-
soils, classified as of the Wabash and Waverly series. In the lower
part of this district and in the districts below in Mississippi County,
r.he soil is very largely Sharkey clay, a drab silty clay on a sticky
subsoil of similar texture, locally termed " buckshot " because of its
characteristic tendency to break into small aggregates when drying,
rather than to bake into hard clods. The higher front lands along
Mississippi Kiver, ordinarily a rather narrow belt, are more loamy
and usually have distinctly sandy subsoils. Over considerable areas
in the southern portions of Dunklin and Pemiscot Counties and the
adjoining portion of Mississippi County " sand blows " occupy 15 to
60 per cent or more of the ground surface. These low mounds of
sand, 3 inches to 2 feet high and 8 to 15 feet in diameter, lower the
crop yields in those areas but not in proportion to the surface
occupied.
The lowlands along St. Francis Eiver are generally of much older
formation, though modification of the portions nearer the stream
channel by overflow deposits continued until levees along that
stream were constructed. In the lowlands of eastern Clay County
the principal soil type is the Calhoun silty clay loam, a light gray
soil with a tight clay subsoil, but there are considerable areas of the
Sharkey clay and small areas of other types.
Cotton and corn are the principal products of the lowlands in St.
Francis Basin. The statistics for 4,939 farms indicate that half of
the total acreage of crops harvested in 1924 was devoted to cotton,
and one-third to corn. In the northern part of Little River drain-
age district, corn was grown more extensively than cotton, while
wheat and other small grains and clover and timothy hay were of
considerable importance. Toward the south a greater portion of the
land was used for cotton and less for corn and other crops. The
farms are worked mostly by tenants, only 1 in 20 to 30 of the farmers
working their own land. A large number of the tenants are negroes,
especially in the southern part of the area. One-third of the tenants
reported no work stock, indicating that they were croppers to whom
the landowner furnished stock, implements, and usually cash or
store credit for the family living expenses during the crop-growing
season. Half the farms had beef or dairy cattle; very few
farmers reported both. Considerably less than half were keeping
hogs and only two-thirds had chickens. Livestock and livestock
products are not important in this section, except for home con-
sumption, and evidently a majority of the farming population buys
such provisions rather than raises them.
BLACK AND CACHE RIVERS AREA, MISSOURI AND ARKANSAS
Inter-River drainage district comprises virtually the entire area
between Black and St. Francis Rivers northward from the Arkansas
boundary to the hills northeast of Poplar Bluff. The land was sub-
ject to overflow by river floods and by run-off from the hills. The
surface has a general southerly slope, and is cut by numerous
sloughs. The works comprise levees for the entire length along St.
Francis River and most of the length along Black River, besides
ditches that average about 1 mile apart. Most of the drainage is
ECONOMIC STATUS OF DEAINAGE DISTRICTS IN THE SOUTH 13
discharged into Black River, but the lower end of the district is
drained into ditches of Central Clay drainage district. The un-
improved land is mostly cut over. Half of the district is owned by
one land company.
Central Clay drainage district stretches entirely across Clay
County from north to south. The eastern boundary of the district
is Crowleys Ridge ; the north part of the western ' boundary is
Black River. The land is a flat plain, sloping southwesterly at
about 1 foot per mile. Large portions were inundated by overflows
from Black River and surface run-off from the hills of Crowleys
Ridge, and nearly all needed drainage for local precipitation. The
drainage works comprise levees along Black River and an extensive
system of ditches. Cache River, flowing southwesterly through the
entire length of the district, collects the flow from these ditches, in-
cluding that from 75 square miles to the east and 60 square miles to
the north, and discharges it into Greene County. When the drainage
district was organized, the unimproved land was mostly virgin tim-
ber ; in 1926 a large part was cut over, and lumbering operations were
in progress. Both in 1912 and in 1926, 60 per cent of the land was in
one ownership.
Cache River drainage district No. 2 crosses the northwest part of
Greene County from the lower end of Central Clay drainage district
to the northeast corner of Lawrence County, between Crowleys
Ridge and the high land in the northwest corner of Greene County.
The district is nearly flat, its surface marked with a few natural
watercourses and some low ridges. Practically all of the land had
been included in earlier drainage districts, two-thirds being in the
Cache River drainage district that was organized in 1907 and began
construction in 1909. The drainage works by the various enterprises
include a new channel for Cache River to carry the flow from Clay
County through to Lawrence County, and a system of lateral ditches,
besides levees along the river ditch to prevent overflow in times of
flood.
Drainage district No. 1 of Greene and Lawrence Counties extends
from the lower end of Cache River drainage district No. 2 to the
southwest corner of Greene County, between Crowleys Ridge on the
east and Walnut Ridge on the west. Cache River, which forms the
county boundary^ flows southwesterly through the middle of the dis-
trict. The land is flat, with occasional rather sandy ridges standing-
a few feet above the general surface. Three-fourths of the area was
naturally subject to overflow by Cache River floods and hill run-off-
The district has enlarged and improved Cache River channel, and
constructed lateral ditches in both counties.
Western Clay drainage district comprises all of Clay County west
of Black River except that west of Current River. The land is
generally flat, cut by several old creeks with wide bottoms that Avere
naturally swampy. The surface of the large central portion is:
marked by numerous sandy hummocks 2 to 10 feet high. The east-
ern border comprises the low bottoms along Black River, some miles
in width, cut with old river channels and subject to frequent and
prolonged overflow. The drainage works consist of levees along
Black River and an extensive ditch system. They have been con-
structed by subdistricts, all administered by the directors of the
parent district. The unimproved land has been cut over.
14 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 4, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The soils of the districts in this area are principally old alluvium.
The most extensive types in Clay County are the light- gray silt loam
and silty clay loam of the Calhoun series with somewhat sticky silty
clay subsoils. Belts of the somewhat darker Waverly types, clays
and loams on subsoils rather lighter in texture than the Calhoun
soils, occupy the low bottoms of Black and Cache Kivers that have
been subject to recent overflow. Near Corning is a sandy terrace
with Waverly soils in the low places between the sandy islands.
Low knolls and ridges of very sandy soils, from 2 to 10 or 12 feet
high and of varying extent, are numerous in western Clay County
on the Calhoun and associated Pollard types. The soils in Butler
and Greene Counties are similar. In the Greene County districts,
low sandy ridges of appreciable extent occur occasionally.
The principal crop of the drainage districts tributary to Black and
Cache Rivers is cotton, according to data tabulated for 816 farms in
Clay and Greene Counties, although apparently it occupied less
than half the acreage harvested in 1924. Corn is second in impor-
tance, and hay third, while oats and other small grains are grown
to some extent. A small amount of rice was grown in Western Clay
drainage district, irrigated from wells, and observation in 1926 in-
dicated that the acreage of this crop was being increased. Nearly
one-fourth of these farms were operated by the owners. The cen-
sus shows only two colored farmers in both Clay and Greene Coun-
ties. More than four-fifths of the tenants had work stock. Most of
the farms had either beef or dairy cattle, and poultry, and the greater
portion had hogs. While very little if any livestock and its products
are shipped out of these districts, evidently the farms here produce
more of their own animal and vegetable foods than those in the St.
Francis Basin districts.
SOUTHEASTERN ARKANSAS
Cypress Creek drainage district is the only district studied in
southeastern Arkansas, but it includes half the acreage of all districts
in that section of the State. It comprises nearly all of Desha County
south and west of the levee alon^ Arkansas and Mississippi Rivers,
and a very small area in Chicot County. The land surface is nearly
flat, though the banks of numerous creeks and bayous are more or
less elevated. The ground slopes from the east, the west, and the
north to the level central portion of the district, which is but slightly
higher than the lower end. Before this district began operations,
the gap in the levee at Cypress Creek outlet admitted overflow from
the higher floods in the Mississippi, which inundated a large part
of the area. The act that created Cypress Creek drainage district
authorized the construction of three large ditches, which have di-
verted the flow of Cypress Creek into Bayou Macon and have pro-
Tided the main drainage outlets for the lands in the district. Fol-
lowing the diversion of Cypress Creek, the levee gap was closed by
the Mississippi River Commission. The district includes all of
drainage district No. 1, organized in 1907, comprising 68,000 acres
in the southeast part of Desha County, and all of district No. 2,
•organized in 1909, comprising 6,160 acres in the northwest part.
Supplemental ditches to further benefit certain parts of its area have
fceen dug by Cypress Creek drainage district ; by Kersh Lake drain-
ECONOMIC STATUS OF DRAINAGE DISTRICTS IN THE SOUTH 15
age district, organized in 1912, which lies mostly in Lincoln County;
and by drainage district No. 5, which is wholly within Cypress Creek
drainage district. The farm lands prior to drainage were confined
to the high banks of the rivers on the north and east sides of the
district, and the banks of the larger bayous. The unimproved land
was mostly cut-over. About 80 per cent of the area was generally
swampy or too wet for cultivation.
The soil of this section is the ordinary Mississippi River alluvium^
varying from sandy loam on the tops of ridges to clay in the depres-
sions. The topsoil is, as usual throughout the lowland region, modi-
fied by decayed vegetation.
The raising of cotton on small tenant farms is the dominant fea-
ture of agriculture in the drainage districts of southeastern Arkansas.
This crop, according to data from 1,159 farms in Cypress Creek
drainage district, occupied five-eighths of the acreage of all crops
harvested in 1924. One-fourth of the crop acreage was devoted to
corn, 8.5 per cent to hay, and 3 per cent to oats and other crops. Ten-
ants outnumbered the farmers who owned the land they worked, 12
to 1. The latter, however, harvested nearly three times as large an
acreage per farm. A large majority of the tenants are colored.
About half the tenant farms had neither horses nor mules, and
evidently were croppers. Only about 40 per cent reported either
beef or dairy cattle ; about the same portion reported poultry, and
still fewer had hogs. It appears that a large amount of foodstuffs
were purchased that might have been raised with very little outlay
of cash.
YAZOO BASIN, MISS.
Northern drainage district and Bogue Hasty drainage district oc-
cupy most of the eastern half of Bolivar County. The ground is
generally flat, nearly level in the northern part, but has a slight
fall to the south in the lower part. There are many small sloughs
and bayous, too small and obstructed in their natural condition to
drain the land. From 1915 to 1924, some 15 subdistricts and inde-
pendent districts were organized wholly or partly within this area,
to enlarge or improve the earlier ditches or to dig other ditches.
Four-fifths of the land in Northern and Bogue Hasty drainage dis-
tricts has been assessed in these lat^r enterprises. A very complete
system of outlet ditches has been provided for most, if not for all, the
lands included. The upper part of this area is drained easterly to
Sunflower River, or northerly to its tributary, the Hushpuckena, but
the greater part is drained southerly into Bogue Phalia which forms
the western boundary of the Bogue Hasty district.
The four districts in Washington County include practically all the
county area except the southwest corner. Riverside drainage dis-
trict fronts on the Mississippi River levee for more than 30 miles,
and includes the city of Greenville. Black Bayou drainage district
lies in the middle portion of the county, while the Bogue Phalia and
Murphy Bayou districts occupy the eastern portion. The land sur-
face is generally flat, with many winding sloughs and old overflow
channels. Most of the land in these districts has a general southward
slope, but the greater slope in the west part of the county is eastward
away from the river. Deer Creek, which separates the Riverside and
Black Bayou districts from the Bogue Phalia and Murphy Bayou
16 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 4, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
districts, has high banks and drains no land in Washington County*
Black Bayou heads beside the Mississippi River levee near the north
county line, and serves as the drainage outlet for the upper end of
Riverside drainage district and all of Black Bayou drainage district.
Bogue Phalia, the main drainage channel of Bogue Phalia drainage
district, enters the district at the north county line with drainage
from Bolivar County and follows a winding course to Sunflower
River near the southeast corner of the district. Murphy Bayou
drainage district also is drained into Sunflower River. All these dis-
tricts have dug rather complete systems of drainage ditches, and the
Black Bayou district has installed a pumping plant for a particularly
low area of about 4,400 acres. Prior to drainage, a large part of the
land in Riverside drainage district and considerable portions in other
districts were owned in large plantations, which included much un-
cleared land. The cultivated lands were on the elevated portions
along the Mississippi and along the streams and bayous in the
county. A large amount of land in these districts still is owned by
lumber companies, though most of the area had been cut over.
Belzoni drainage district is bordered by Sunflower River on the
west and Yazoo River on the east. It is typical Mississippi River
flood plain, generally flat and cut by meandering sloughs and bayous,
some of large size. The banks of the bordering rivers and the larger
bayous are higher than the general land surface. The average ground
slope is about 1 foot per mile to the southwest. Portions of the dis-
trict were subject to overflow by flood waters from Yazoo River,
which receives the run-off from some 6,000 square miles of hills in
the north central part of the State, and a depressed area in the south-
western part is overflowed when backwater from Mississippi River
floods raises the Sunflower to high stages. The district has improved
natural channels and constructed ditches, which drain most of the
area to Sunflower River, and has built levees to prevent overflow
from Yazoo River. When the drainage district was organized, much
of the land was owned in large plantations, which included consid-
erable timberland, and by lumber companies. Now, most of the mer-
chantable timber has been cut, and some of the plantations have been
subdivided into smaller farms.
Atchaf alaya drainage and levee district extends from Yazoo River
on the northeast to Sunflower River on the southwest, along Silver
and Panther Creeks. The physical conditions are. in general, similar
to those in the districts already described. The principal improve-
ment works constructed comprise dams and levees to prevent over-
flow from Yazoo River and a main drainage canal to Sunflower
River.
The soils of the drainage districts are the common soils of the
Yazoo Basin. Until the building of the Mississippi River levees, all
this area was subject to occasional overflow, and much of it to fre-
quent overflow. The soil is all new alluvium composed of sand, silt,
and clay from the basins of the Ohio, the Missouri, and the upper
Mississippi, which have been assorted by the varying currents of the
overflow water, mixed in the eastern part with the wash from the
adjoining uplands, and modified by organic matter from the vegeta-
tion that has grown upon the land. The predominating types are
clays over the broad level areas, grading through clay loams and silt
ECONOMIC STATUS OF DRAINAGE DISTRICTS IN THE SOUTH 17
loams to fine sandy loams in narrow strips on the tops of some of the
more elevated stream banks. The higher, lighter soils are better
drained and most largely in cultivation. Some of the clay lands are
difficult to cultivate, being heavy and tight when wet and breaking
into large hard clods when plowed dry; but probably a greater por-
tion have the " buckshot " characteristic of the Sharkey clay, which is
stiff and sticky when moderately wet but on drying breaks into small
granules. Surveys in Yazoo Basin above and below this group of
drainage districts suggest that these soils are probably of the
Sharkey, Sarpy, and Yazoo series.
In the drainage districts of the Yazoo Basin more than in any
other section, agriculture consists primarily of growing cotton.
This crop comprised more than three-fourths of the total harvested
acreage in 1924, in the farms for which data were compiled. Corn,
next in importance, occupied only one-sixth as large an acreage.
Hay and small grains are grown to a small extent, but a great many
of the farmers reported harvesting no crops but cotton. Owner-
operated farms numbered only 4 per cent of those identified as be-
longing to taxpayers in the drainage districts. Probably nine-tenths
of the tenants are colored. Rather more than three-fourths of the
tenants reported work stock. Less than 40 per cent of all farmers
reported either beef or dairy cattle; one-fourth reported hogs, and
two-thirds reported chickens. The purchase of foodstuffs that might
be raised with profit seems the common practice.
LOUISIANA
Portage drainage district, in the south central part of Pointe
Coupee Parish, comprises a timbered swamp, partly cut-over, and
the surrounding, slightly higher lands which are devoted mainly to
the production of sugarcane. Exhaustion of funds interrupted the
construction work for some years ; the limit of taxation for drainage
was 10 cents per acre a year. The swamp area was not drained
sufficiently for cultivation in 1926, and the ditches had become
obstructed with sediment and willow growth. About the same
acreage was in use for farming purposes then as when drainage
was begun, although it was said that just prior to 1920 half the land
was being cultivated.
White and Cypress Bayou drainage district, in the northwestern
part of East Baton Rouge Parish, is flat to gently rolling, and above
Mississippi River overflow except for a portion near the outlet of
the main ditch. Since the drainage ditches were constructed, a large
oil-refining plant was established in Baton Rouge, in which a great
many farmers and farm laborers of the parish secured employment,
resulting in the abandonment of a large acreage used for farming.
Drainage district No. 2 lies in the western part of Lafourche
Parish, along Bayou Lafourche. The land is flat, and prior to
drainage three-fourths of the area w^as swampy for lack of outlet.
Only gravity drainage has been provided. The unimproved land
is partly timbered and partly open prairie.
Drainage district No. 12 of Lafourche Parish embraces a rather
large area of wet prairie lands south of Raceland, but drainage
actually has been undertaken only by subdistricts Nos. 1, 2, 3, and
112607-^0 3
18 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 4, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
4. These lie west of Lockport, on the east, north, and west of Lake
Fields, and range from 800 to 4,500 acres in size. As in many other
drainage districts in southern Louisiana the general district is merely
a coordinating organization. Each subdistrict secures and pays for
the drainage of its own area. The land is low, flat, and almost
level, sloping from an elevation of about 3 feet above mean tide ^ to
below lake level — for portions of the lake bed are included and
drained. Construction in three of the subdistricts was begun as a
private development of the land for sale, before organization under
the drainage law. Each subdistrict is a separate drainage unit,
surrounded by levees over which all the drainage water is pumped,
the land being too low for gravity drainage. Each unit has a system
of open field and collecting ditches. Prior to drainage, none of the
land could be used for agriculture. Some v;as timbered, but the
major part was grass prairie.
Delta Farms drainage district lies southwest of Lake Salvador.
Reclamation of four units was begun as a private development of
the land for sale. It was open prairie swamp, low and level, drainable
only by building levees to prevent overflow from the surrounding
swamp and pumping all the water over the embankments. Each
reclamation unit was established as a subdistrict. The largest of
the subdistricts was completely in cultivation in 1926, but no part
of the others had been cultivated. One subdistrict, of about 2,700
acres, discontinued construction before the projected works were
completed.
Sunset drainage district comprises the land that, prior to 1925,
formed subdistrict Nos. 1, 3, and 4 of Municipal drainage district
No. 1, which was organized to drain the land for sale. The land
in this district originally was open swamp, so close to tide level
that it can be drained only by diking and pumping. Not more than
5 per cent of the land was timbered.
Jefferson-Plaquemines drainage district occupies all the large bend
in Mississippi River below New Orleans. The river front lands are
relatively high, and have been cultivated in large part for more than
a century. They are old sugarcane plantations, which sloped back
into the swamp that formed the central, western, and southwestern
portion of the district. The greater part of this swamp was tim-
bered. Protection against overflow from the Mississippi is given
by the Government levees. District levees prevent back flow from
the swamp on the west and south. Ditches have been dug in the
low part of the district, and a large pumping plant installed, biit
a considerable area is under water every year from rainfall within
the district. In 1926, a great deal of old sugar land had grown up
to weeds and brush, and in the central part of the district some of
the small farms that had been established subsequent to drainage
were unoccupied. About one-third of the district, including much
in the middle portion, is held in one ownership.
Bayou Terre-aux-Boeufs drainage district comprises a little more
than half of St. Bernard Parish, including the central and southern
portions. The district includes part of the low ridge that extends
from Mississippi River eastward through the middle of the parish ;
"^ OKEY, C. W. the wet lands of southern LOUISIANA AND THEIR DRAINAGE. U. S.
Dept. Agr. Bui. 71, 82 p., illus. 1914.
ECONOMIC STATUS OF DRAINAGE DISTRICTS IN THE SOUTH 19
fourth-fifths or more of the area is marsh, too level and low to be
drained by gravity. The ridge lands naturally are timbered, the
marshes mostlv open. The levee along Mississippi River ordinarily
prevents overflow from that source. Two drainage canals were dug
by the district. Half the area was owned by a land company that
expected to develop and sell it. A few subdistricts were organ-
ized, which constructed levees and ditches and installed pumping
plants, but were wrecked by storms and abandoned. It was esti-
mated that about 5 per cent of the Bayou Terre-aux-Boeufs drainage
district may have been improved at the time of beginning, but the
greater part of this has grown up with trees and heavy brush. The
State now holds 140,000 acres in the district for nonpayment of taxes.
The soils of the above-described drainage districts in Lousiana are
new alluvium, modified by varying amounts of decayed vegetation.
In Pointe Coupee Parish they vary from clay in the lowest portions
to fine sandy loam on the elevated stream banks, with heavier loams
between. In the wet prairie or coastal area, the soils comprise sandy
loam, loam, and clay of the Yazoo series, Sharkey clay, muck, and
Galveston clay. These Yazoo types are ridge soils, of very limited
extent, sufficiently elevated to be drained by gravity. The other
three types form the great bulk of the swampy soils in the coastal
parishes. The Sharkey clay is heavy, black in the top 5 or 6 inches
due to a large content of organic matter and with a brown or drab
waxy, impervious clay subsoil. It shrinks greatly on drying, leav-
ing large sun cracks ; it breaks up readily under the plow. . Most
of this type is forested with hardwoods on the better-drained por-
tions and cypress in the wetter portions. The muck type is an ac-
cumulation of decayed and decaying vegetable matter over the
Sharkey clay. Where this mass contains a considerable percentage
of clay or silt, the soil is classed as Galveston cl?ij. A part of the
muck is forested, but more is open grass-covered prairie, while the
Galveston clay bears only a growth of marsh grass.^
Corn was the principal crop grown in 1924 in Portage drainage
district and in drainage district No. 12 of Lafourche Parish. In the
former district corn occupied slightly more than half the acreage
harvested, and sugarcane was second in importance, being grown on
more than twice the acreage devoted to cotton. In the latter dis-
trict, farmed in considerable part by settlers from the North Central
States, the corn acreage probably is a greater percentage of all har-
vested than the average for even the wet prairie reclamation. The
percentages in cotton and in sugarcane appeared to be less than the
averages for similar districts in the same section of the State.
Vegetables for shipment to northern cities are of some importance in
this locality. In each of these districts tenant farms comprise a
smaller portion of the whole than in any other group studied in the
lower Mississippi Valley except that tributary to Black and Cache
Rivers in Arkansas. There are few if any colored farmers in the
drainage district in Lafourche Parish, but in Pointe Coupee Parish
a large portion are colored. Most of the farmers reported horses or
mules. Sixty per cent of the farmers reported cattle, two-thirds
reported hogs, and nearly all reported chickens. In the Lafourche
» OKEY, C. W. the wet lands of southern LOUISIANA AND THEIR DRAINAGE. U. S.
Dept. Agr. Bui. 652, 67 p., illns. 1918. (U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 71, rev.)
20 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 194, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Parish district every farm (as far as identified and tabulated) had
work stock, and as compared with the other district, a larger por-
tion had cattle but a smaller portion had hogs. .
EASTERN NORTH CAROLINA
Moyock drainage district lies on the edge of Dismal Swamp. It
includes cultivated land southwest of the town of Moyock, and a
larger acreage of timbered and cut-over swamp land. The surface
is nearly flat, with a gradual slope of about 1 foot per mile to the
northeast, so the farm land frequently was kept wet for considerable
periods by surface flow from the swamp. The drainage district dug^
ditches which protect from overflow and provide outlet drainage for
the greater part of the area, including the farm lands. At the time
of organization, one lumber company owned two-thirds of the dis-
trict, most of it cut over. A large part of the land that was cleared
at that time had been under cultivation for three-quarters of a.
century. In 1926 most of the unimproved land outside of the old
farms was held by one realty corporation.
Albemarle drainage district is adjoined by Washington County^
drainage district No. 4 on the east and by Pantego drainage district
on the south. The land is flat, with a southeasterly slope of about
1 foot per mile. The drainage outlet is Pungo Kiver. The Wash-
ington County No. 4 district is a subdistrict in Pungo River drain-
age district of Washington, Hyde, and Beaufort Counties, which
improved the channel of Pungo River about 1912. The only natu-
ral drainage ways within the area are shallow swales, quite inad-
equate to remove the rainfall upon the area and the surface flow
from certain lands on the west; therefore, most of the land was
swampy or wet for long periods. Each of these districts has con-
structed a system of drainage ditches. At the time of organization,,
the major portion of Pantego drainage district was included in
farms, though the greater part was uncleared. Some 6.500 acres
of cut-over land nearly surrounded by this district was owned by a
land-selling company which successfully opposed inclusion in the
district but cooperated in construction of the ditch system. (This
area is not included in Table 1. A large part of it was being farmed
in 1926.) Practically all of Washington County drainage district
No. 4, at the time of organization, was owned by one lumber com-
pany. In Albemarle drainage district, seven-eighths of the land
was held in 1925 by one land-settlement company. In 1926 some
unoccupied farms or clearings were seen in the No. 4 and the Al-
bemarle districts.
Mattamuskeet drainage district comprises 50,000 acres in the bed
of Lake Mattamuskeet and an equal area surrounding it. The low-
est part of the lake bed is about 3 feet below sea level, and the
surrounding ridge is 4 to 8 feet above sea level. The principal
promoters of the district were parties who had purchased the lake
bed to drain and sell it. About half the area outside of the lake
had been farmed for many years, having some degree of drainage
through ditches discharging into the lake or into the swamp on the
other side of the ridge^ The rest of the land outside of the lake
was cut-over. Ditches were dug in the lake, and pumps of 1,000,000
gallons per minute capacity were installed to empty the lake and
ECONOMIC STATUS OF DRAINAGE DISTRICTS IN THE SOUTH 21
handle all the drainage from the district. Financial difficulties have
delayed this enterprise. In 1926, the area of water in the lake had
been reduced to about 10,000 acres and its depth to a few inches,
and plans were made to clean out the ditches and complete the
drainage. There was no timber on the lake bed, and a large part
-of it was bare earth.
The soils of the drainage districts in eastern North Carolina range
from peat to sandy loam. The Dismal Swamp portion of Moyock
•drainage district is brown peat, more or less fibrous, on sand and
-clay subsoils, bordered by a well-decayed brown peaty muck. The
principal types in the other portion are the dark Hyde loam on
sandy clay to clay subsoil, and the gray Bladen silt loam with a
sticky clay subsoil. There are lesser acreages of fine sandy loam
of the Norfolk and Elkton series, having subsoils of friable sandy
clay to heavy clay. Most of the Albemarle and Pantego drainage
•districts is black or dark loamy muck, 30 inches to several feet deep,
generally on a gray fine sand underlain by a fine sandy clay, but
sometimes on a clay subsoil. There are lesser acreages of loam of
the Hyde and the Bladen series, black or grayish brown on subsoils
ranging from sandy loam to heavy plastic clay. The soils in Wash-
ington County drainage district No. 4 probably would be classified
similarly. The bed of Lake Mattamuskeet is principally a very fine
sandy loam more than 3 feet deep, but includes considerable acreages
of a lighter loam and fine sand. The surrounding soils grade from
very fine sandy loam to mucky loam, of the Hyde series, and to peat
3 to 8 feet deep. The subsoils of this district are sand, for the most
part.
Of the harvested acreage in these drainage districts, half or more
was devoted to corn and one-tenth to cotton, according to the data
secured for Moyock, Washington County No. 4, and Pantego drain-
age districts. Stock pea hay was grown to a considerable extent ; pea-
nuts, potatoes, sweetpotatoes, and vegetables are also of some
importance. A larger part of the farms are operated by owners
than in any group of drainage districts for which data have been
tabulated except the South Carolina district. A major part of the
farmers in these districts are white. About one-half of the tenants
had work stock. Half the farmers had cattle, two-thirds had hogs,
and three- fourths had chickens.
SOUTHERN NORTH CAROLINA
Flea Hill drainage district lies northeast of Fayetteville, bordered
on the north and west by Cape Fear River. The area is nearly
flat, with some low ridges and swales. It receives creek water and
seepage from high sandy lands on the east, and drainage directly
into Cape Fear River is prevented, except at one point, by a ridge
along the river bank. Ditches have been dug to intercept the flow
from adjoining lands, and to drain the swales. At the time of
beginning, probably two-thirds or more of the area was in farms.
The unimproved land, including much in the farms, was timbered
or cut-over.
Back Swamp and Jacob Swamp drainage district lies along the
south side of Lumber River for approximately 26 miles west and
south of Lumberton. The land is nearly flat, with an average fall
22 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 194, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
of about 2y2 feet per mile lengthwise of the district and a gradual
slope from the sides to the central portion. The natural waterways
are broad, shallow, meandering swamps overgrow^n with trees and
brush. The drainage works provided are ditches to drain the
swamps and give outlet for lateral drains to be con'structed later as
the land should be developed. When the district was organized, the
land was owned mostly in small farms and large plantations. The
unimproved land was timbered or cut over.
The soils of the Flea Hill drainage district are second-bottom or
terrace soils, of the Roanoke, Cape Fear, Wickham, and Altavista
series. The loam, silt loam, and sandy loam types prevail. The
heavier soils are generally black or gray, on plastic clay to silty clay
loam subsoils, while the lighter soils are reddish to vellowish, usually
on heavy but friable sandy clay to clay subsoils. The principal soil
types in Back Swamp and Jacob Sw^amp drainage district are sandy
loam of the Norfolk and Portsmouth series, and swamp. The loams
are grayish or black in color and medium to coarse in texture, under-
lain by sticky subsoils of sandy clay or, in some places, sandy loam.
The swampy area varies from heavy loam to coarse sand, and much
of it probably could be classed with the Portsmouth series when
drained.
Half the harvested acreage in Flea Hill drainage district was
devoted to cotton in 1924, according to the data tabulated, and un-
doubtedly a larger portion was used for this crop in Back Swamp
and Jacob Swamp drainage district. (Data for farms in the latter
enterprise were not compiled.) Corn probably comprised in acreage
a third or more of all crops harvested in both districts. Hay, con-
sisting principally of annual legumes, and small grains and tobacco
also are of appreciable importance. Apparently two-thirds of the
farms are operated by tenants, of whom the major part are colored.
Three- fourths of the tenants reported horses or mules. About three-
fourths had cattle, about four-fifths had hogs, and nearly all had
some poultry.
SOUTH CAROLINA
Cowcastle drainage district lies southeast of the city of Orange-
burg, about 18 miles long and 4 miles in greatest width. Length-
wise of the district, the ground slope averages fully 5 feet per mile,
but is much less in the lower part. Transversely, the upper portion
of the area is nearly flat, the lower part somewhat undulating and
broken. Water stood for long periods in the flat bays and ponds,
while the broad, shallow, winding course of Cowcastle Swamp is
quite inadequate as a drainage outlet. The district has provided a
main ditch through Cowcastle Swamp, and laterals in the wet bays.
The unimproved land was mostly cut over prior to drainage. The
improved acreage has not been extended since drainage.
Rum Neck drainage district is a small enterprise in eastern
Orangeburg County, generally similar to Cowcastle drainage district.
The soils in Cowcastle drainage district have been classified as
principally fine sandy loams of the Portsmouth and Norfolk series,
and swamp in the lowest, wettest portion. The fine sandy loam
types are described as usually having a sandy clay subsoil. The
swamp type is an unclassified mixture of sand, silt, and clay.
ik
ECONOMIC STATUS OF DRAINAGE DISTRICTS IN THE SOUTH 23
Cotton, the most important crop in Cowcastle drainage district,
occupied slightly less than half the total acreage of crops harvested,
according to the data secured. Nearly one-third of the crop acreage
was devoted to com. Oats, which are mostly fed unthreshed, legumes
for hay, velvetbeans, and peanuts are also grown. Forty per cent of
the farms tabulated were operated by the owners, the same as for the
farms in the drainage districts in eastern North Carolina. The major
portion of the tenants in Cowcastle drainage district are colored.
Three-fourths of the tenant farmers reported horses or mules, fwo-
thirds of all farms had cattle, and like portions had hogs and
chickens.
ST. JOHNS BASIN, FLA.
Baldwin drainage district lies 12 to 24 miles west of Jacksonville.
The land is flat to gently rolling, and almost level, on the divide be-
tween St. Marys and St. Johns Rivers. The drainage works consist
of open ditches that drain a part of the land to St. Marys River at
the northwest corner, but more to tributaries of the St. Johns. The
principal promoters were owners of large tracts which were to be
subdivided and sold as small farms. A considerable acreage appar-
ently had been cleared of trees and then, either before or after culti-
vation, abandoned to weeds and brush. The unimproved land is
mostly covered with a scattering growth of pine and oak.
Bostwick drainage district and East Palatka drainage district are
in the flatwoods section of eastern Putnam County, the one on the
west and the other on the east of St. Johns River. The land is nearly
flat, with faint knolls and depressions, and lacks natural drainage
channels. The unimproved area mostly bears a more or less scatter-
ing growth of pine, while cypress grows in the loAvest places, but
most of the merchantable timber has been cut out. The major part
of the Bostwick district was owned in the beginning by lumber and
land companies. The drainage works consist of open ditches dis-
charging into St. Johns River.
Hastings drainage district and South Hastings drainage district
are almost level flatwoods, with faint ridges and shallow depres-
sions of varying size, without adequate natural drainage courses.
The more elevated portions bear a growth of pine, interspersed with
grassy meadows, while the swampy portions have a heavy growth of
cypress, oaks, and gums. Much of the pine is boxed for turpen-
tine. Scrub saw palmetto is common. The drainage works consist
of open ditches. In South Hastings drainage district fully half
the land was held for sale by one firm in 1926, and most of the re-
mainder by nonresident owners.
In New Smyrna-De Land drainage district, conditions are gener-
ally somewhat similar to those in South Hastings drainage district.
About 43,000 acres of this area was organized in 1916 as Lake Ashby
drainage district. Financial difficulties interrupted work in 1919,
and construction was not resumed until 1925, when the district had
been reorganized and refinanced as New Smyrna-De Land drainage
district. About 13,000 acres were added the following year. The
older drainage ditches were being cleaned, and some additional
ditches were being dug in 1926.
24 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 194, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTITBE
The soils of tlie drainage districts in St. Joiins Basin are classi-
fied as fine sands of the Bladen. Portsmouth, Plummer, Norfolk,
Leon, and St. Johns series, with some Bladen fine sandy loam and
appreciable areas of muck, peaty muck, and unclassified swamp soils.
The Bladen types are most extensive. The subsoils range from sand
to tight clay hardpan, but generally are of heavy, plastic sandy clay
or clay.
Potatoes and early vegetables are the most important crops in the
St. Johns Basin district, the Hastings district being particularly
noted for potatoes. Some small patches of corn and sugarcane were
observed, and some small plantings of oranges and pecans of which
part were suffering from neglect. A few cattle ranches were noticed
in Soutli Hastings drainage district.
CENTRAL FLORmA
Taft drainage district, in the southern part of Orange County, is
generally flat and nearly level with shallow depressions and faint
ridges. The area is principally palmetto fiatwoods, bearing a scat-
tering growth of pine and scrub palmetto, from which the mer-
chantable timber has been cut. There are occasional open grassy
prairies, and many wet sloughs or swamps with a thick growth of
cypress. The drainage district has dug ditches to drain most of the
land into tributaries of Kissimmee Eiver. Some of the cypress ponds
are too low to be drained by the ditches, and in 1926 one development
company had begun drilling deep wells to drain certain of. these
lands. When drainage was undertaken, the area was owned prin-
cipally by a few land-selling companies, although there were several
hundred owners of 5-acre to lO-acre tracts.
Peace Creek drainage district extends south from Lake Hamilton
for about 15 miles. The land is low and flat, including flatwoods
and prairie, although a large portion is heavily timbered with cy-
press, tupelo gum, and other water-loving trees. The drainage dis-
trict dug ditches to drain the lands into Peace Creek. Additional
ditches needed for a part of the land have been planned. Most of
the land was held by development companies for resale in small
tracts.
The soils of the Taft drainage district have been classified as
principally fine sand of the Leon and Plummer series, which are
light-gray soils low in organic matter, on subsoils of similar texture.
The Leon type has a layer of impervious hardpan beneath the surface
soil which prevents the rise of water by capillarity in times of
drought. In this district there are also appreciable areas of muck,
peaty muck, and peat, which also constitute the major part of the
Peace Creek drainage district.
In Taft drainage district in 1926 were a very few settlers remain-
ing from a citrus and truck development attempted before drainage,
and evidences of more recent efforts to sell small farm lots. A few
small orange and banana groves were seen, also a very few chicken
farms and dairy or stock farms. In Peace Creek drainage district
was an abandoned banana plantation, which had been undertaken
as a speculative development and had failed. The only farming
being done in the district was by some tenants of one landowner, who
were growing peas, beans, corn, tomatoes, and other truck.
ECONOMIC STATUS OF DRAINAGE DISTRICTS IN THE SOUTH 25
WEST COAST AKEA, FLORIDA
Lake Largo-Cross Bayou drainage district and Pinellas Park
drainage district together occupy nearly the full width of the penin-
sula of Pinellas County at its middle part. The land is typical
flatwoods, level and covered with a scattering growth of pine and
•considerable saw palmetto. The ditches that have been dug appar-
-ently drain the land. The enterprises were initiated in order that
the owners of large tracts might subdivide and sell them in small
lots for growing citrus. All of Pinellas Park drainage district was
said to have been subdivided in 1925 for suburban residence lots.
Sugar Bowl drainage district is nearly all palmetto prairie, level
grassland with saw palmetto in most places, through which are
scattered occasional sloughs with swamp vegetation, some pine flats
of small extent, and some hammocks heavily covered with live oak,
•cabbage palmetto, and undergrowth. Ditches have been dug that
have drained most of the land, discharging into Myakka River,
The district was said to have been organized to drain the land for
growing sugarcane, but this purpose never was realized. Much of
the land is held in large tracts, and one of the large owners is con-
sidering the feasibility of developing the land for sale as dairy or
stock farms.
Limestone drainage district was organized when Hardee County
^vas a part of DeSoto County. About three-fourths of this area was
woodland, from Avhich the merchantable timber had been cut, and
about one-fourth was saw-grass prairie.
lona drainage district lies along the south bank of Caloosohatchie
River below Fort Myers. Of the 24,000 acres within the district,
3,000 acres are too low for drainage by gravity. The land is mostly
pine flatAvoods, Avith some saw palmetto. It slopes gradually from
an elevation of about 15 feet down to sea level. The works comprise
■ditches to intercept surface flow from adjoining land and to collect
the drainage of the district, and some small levees in the lower part
Avith sluice gates to prevent inflow of tidcAvater. The enterprise Avas
organized principally to enable owners of large acreages to deA^elop
and sell the land in small tracts for groAving citrus fruits. Artesian
Avells supply Avater for irrigation and for protection against light
frosts.
The soils of the drainage districts in Pinellas County are mainly
Portsmouth fine sand and Fellowship fine sandy loam. The former
is the more extensive. It commonly has a tight hardpan stratum at
about a depth of 24 inches, Avhile the other has characteristically an
impervious sandy clay subsoil. In the other districts, the soils have
not been classified. They are almost uniA'ersally sandy, the surface
soil darkened b}^ varying amounts of organic matter. The flatAvoods
A^egetation suggests a hardpan or other tight subsoil. In the loAver
portion of lona drainage district the soil may be only a foot or less
in thickness over the lime rock.
Agriculture in the Pinellas County drainage districts in 1926
apparently consisted of several small dairy farms, which used the
unoccupied lands for pasture, and some remnants of a citrus devel-
opment, for Avhich the land was said to be unsuited. In Sugar Bowl
drainage district a considerable number of natiA^e cattle Avere ranging
the prairie, and Brahman bulls introduced into the herds evidently
Avere developing a mixed breed that was larger and, the stockmen
26 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 4, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
hoped, would be more profitable. About two-thirds of the cultivated
land in lona drainage district was planted in citrus and the other
third to truck crops.
INDIAN RIVER AREA, FLORIDA
Fellsmere drainage district compri!^ed flatwoods in the eastern
part. About one-fiith was prairie, but probably the major part was
native grass or brush-covered swamp. The enterprise was organized
to drain lands for sale. Ditches were dug for a part of the area, and
levees to protect against overflow from adjoining marshlands; but
the development company failed, and a large number of the settlers
moved awav. A land-sales company owned fully half the land in
1926.
Indian River Farms drainage district was about half prairie and
half pine flatwoods, with occasional hammocks and muck ponds.
The drainage w^as begun as a private development of small farms for
sale. The drainage works provided by the company consisted of
ditches one-half to 1 mile apart, and levees along the western bound-
ary to protect against overflow from the adjoining swamp. The
drainage district, composed almost entirely of the lands that were
owned or had been sold by the development company, was organized
for the purpose of maintaining and improving the drainage system.
Fort Pierce Farms drainage district borders Indian River Farms
drainage district along the county line. About half the land is flat
pine woods, the other prairie ; all was swampy or wet before drainage.
Two-thirds of this area was owned by a company that began develop-
ment of this portion of their holdings in 1913, to make the land
salable as farms. The drainage district was organized in 1919 with
15,600 acres, to put in more ditches and maintain the works; it was
enlarged to 23,750 acres in 1923. Ditches were dug at ^-mile in-
tervals, and a low levee was built to prevent overflow from the
swamp adjoining the western portion.
North St. Lucie River drainage district adjoins the south boundary
of Fort Pierce drainage district. More than three-fourths of the
land was pine flatwoods, and the remainder largely prairie, with
very small portions of hammock lands and muck ponds. Ditches
have been dug at %-mile intervals, and a levee built on the north
and west sides to prevent overflow.
The soils of the drainage districts studied in the Indian River sec-
tion consist principally of fine sand over hardpan in the flatwoods
portions, fine sandy loam on fine sandy clay in the grassy prairies,
and muck in the low pockets and the brushy swamp areas. The sand
and sandy loam are colored with more or less organic matter in the
surface layer. The muck varies from 1 or 2 feet to 8 or 10 feet in
depth, the upper portion being often quite turfy in character.^
Citrus and truck are the important crops in the drainage districts
in the Indian River section. Grapefruit and orange groves occupy
the greater portion of the cultivated acreage. Tomatoes, beans, egg-
plant, cucumbers, potatoes, onions, sweetpotatoes, and strawberries
are among the products of the drained lands. There are many small
farms each worked by the owner and his family, but there are also
many large holdings, both citrus groves and truck farms, that are
worked with hired labor.
» Okey, C. W. Unpublished manuscript. 1914.
ECONOMIC STATUS OF DRAINAGE DISTRICTS IN THE SOUTH 27
LOWER EAST COAST AREA, FLORIDA
Everglades drainage district surrounds Lake Okeechobee and occu-
pies most of the peninsula east and south of the lake. Its eastern
border through Palm Beach, Broward, and northern Dade Counties
is generally 3 to 8 miles from the coast, but south of Miami follows
the shore of Biscayne Bay. It has constructed five large drainage
canals from the lake to the east coast and one to Caloosahatchee Kiver
toward the west, besides some lesser canals. These serve as main
outlets for subdistrict drainage systems, and for transportation. The
enterprises studied in this area are largely within Everglades drain-
age district.
Lake Worth drainage district stretches southward from West
Palm Beach 26 miles to the south line of Palm Beach County, with
a nearly uniform wddth of about 8 miles. The east boundary is the
ridge that lies approximately 1 mile from the coast. The west half
of the district is within Everglades drainage district. The area is
mostly flatwoods, with pine and saw palmetto ; brush and grass land
adjoining the lakes in the eastern portion and the saw-grass ponds
throughout the flatwoods were estimated to comprise about 15 per
cent of the surface. The drainage district has dug ditches to inter-
cept surface flow from adjacent swamp lands on the w^est and to re-
move the rainfall within the district. It was estimated that about
10,000 acres had been in use for farming at one time, but some of
the land had been abandoned later by the settlers.
Southern drainage district lies w^est and southwest of Miami, ex-
tending westward from the coast for an extreme distance of 27 miles.
The eastern end of the district is flatw^oods with scattering pine and
saw palmetto, but the great bulk of the area is saw-grass prairie.
About 70 miles of canals had been dug in the district, but more were
to be provided ; very little of the land had been drained in 1926.
The soils of these districts consist very largely of sand on a sandy
clay or hardpan subsoil, and muck. In Lake Worth drainage district
the muck reaches a maximum depth of 20 feet.^^ In central Southern
drainage district the muck was observed to be of shallow depth,
overlying soft lime rock into which the dredge had cut deeply in
excavating the canals. In the western part of this district the soil
w^as said to be muck and marl.
In Lake Worth drainage district the most important farm products
were winter vegetables, tomatoes being grown most extensively.
Citrus fruits were next in importance, and there were several dairies
in the district. A great deal of farm land had been subdivided for
residential development, including all but one-fourth mile of the
entire eastern border. Southern drainage district had been swept by
the hurricane just prior to the inspection, and all the farm land
apparently then was unoccupied. The eastern part of the district
was allotted for residential development.
RATE AND DEGREE OF LAND DEVELOPMENT
The drainage districts listed in Table 1 were organized between
1903 and 1921. Actual construction of the drainage works was
begun in most districts one to three years later, seven years in the
extreme instance. The period intervening between the establish-
" See footnote 9.
28
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 4, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
ment of the district and the beginning of construction usually was
necessary for completing the plan of reclamation and determining
the benefit assessment for apportioning the cost, but litigation
prosecuted by opponents of the projects caused some of the longest
delays, and difficulty in securing funds or construction materials
in 1915 to 1918 delayed some projects.
The ages of the districts for calculating the rate of development
are best measured from the dates of beginning construction. The
land was offered for sale at that time if not before. Clearing
and settlement of the land began much earlier than the time
of completing construction; in some of the districts, including the
largest, the works were not completed in 1926 but much land in
them already had been reclaimed and brought into cultivation. The
ages of the districts, calculated from the date of beginning construc-
tion, range from 3 to 21 j^ears, the average being about 12 years.
Most of the drainage districts listed show more land improved in
1926 than when construction of the drainage works was begun. There
was a net increase of improved land for the entire period in each group
of the districts except in those in South Carolina. Five districts
in Table 1, including those in South Carolina, had the same amount
at both times, and three in Louisiana had less in 1926 than at
the beginning. In East Baton Rouge Parish, La., a considerable
part of the one-time farming population is now employed in the
large oil-refining and shipping plant at Baton Rouge. In Jefferson,
Plaquemines, Orleans, and St. Bernard Parishes, considerable
acreages of sugarcane land have gone out of cultivation, as in
other parishes of the State. This means that many of the districts
have failed, from the standpoint of land development. The total
increase in improved acreage in each group of drainage districts,
and the average yearly rates of development, are shown in Table 3.
Table 3. — Development of lands in the drainage districts
District group
All land
in dis-
tricts
Unim-
proved
land at
beginning
Area improved
drainage
since
Age of
districts
(weighted)
Rateo
opmer
prove
yej
[ devel-
it Cim-
Before
1920
Total to 1926
d per
ar)
St. Francis Basin
Acres
1, 135, 000
418.500
285,000
741, 420
346. 776
65. 613
162. 794
57, 310
43, 676
223. 696
96,000
90.600
196, 034
272,300
Acres
941,000
342,500
257,000
539,400
290,800
50,600
131, 700
41.300
30,900
208,300
95.500
89,800
192,000
267,300
Acres
283.000
45.000
29.000
180,000
20,700
15,700
7,800
6,600
0
5,000
5,400
3.400
9,300
0
Acres
484,000
98,000
42.000
226.000
7,000
7.500
8.000
0
8,400
900
2,200
11,300
4,500
Per cent
151.4
28.6
16.3
4L9
'"'is.'s'
5.7
19.4
0
4.1
.9
2.4
5.9
L7
Years
12.2
12.8
13.0
12.3
16.4
15.1
13.4
13.2
7.3
7.2
9.6
9.1
11.3
8.0
Acres
39, 670
7.650
3,230
18,360
Percent
14.21
Black and Cache Rivers
area
2.23
Southeastern Arkansas
Yazoo Basin
L25
3.40
Louisiana:
By pumpting
460
560
610
0
1,170
90
240
1,000
560
.91
Eastern North Carolina...
Southern North Carolina.
South Carolina
.42
L47
0
St. Johns Basin
.57
Central Florida
.09
West Coast area, Florida.
Indian River area
.26
.52
Lower East Coast area,
Florida
.21
Total or averse
4, 134, 719
3,478,100
610,800
898,800
25.8
12.1
74,250
2.13
1 These percentages express the relation of acreage improved since drainage to acreage unimproved at
beginning.
2 In this group of drainage districts the improved acreage was estimated to be less by about 1,000 acres
in 1926 than when drainage was begun.
ECONOMIC STATUS OF DRAINAGE DISTRICTS IN THE SOUTH 29
The status of development in 1920, as nearly as could be deter-
mined, also is shown in Table 3. These figures indicate that more
than two-thirds of the increase in improved land occurred prior to
1920. From 1920 to 1926 there was a large decrease in the land in
use in the Louisiana districts, and slight decreases in three other
groups. This difference in the rates of development prior and sub-
sequent to 1920 is in considerable part due to the inflation in prices
of crops and land due to w^ar conditions and to the deflation that
followed, but there have been such other factors as decreasing profits
in producing sugarcane in Louisiana, the subdivision of farm lands
for residence lots in Florida, and failure of speculative farm-
development enterprises to complete their projects.
The total increase of practically 900,000 improved acres in these
drainage districts apparently has proceeded at a rate averaging
about 74,000 acres per year. In proportion to area, the rates for
St. Francis Basin and Yazoo Basin have been greater than the
average for all groups by 100 per cent and 50 per cent, respectively.
About 38 per cent of the land in these drainage districts is shown
by Table 1 as improved in 1926. This is essentially improved land
in farms. When the districts are fully developed, probablv 5 to
10 per cent of the areas will be used for highways, ditches, and other
nonf arming purposes. When all the land not required for other
purposes is devoted to agriculture, 5 to 10 per cent or more of the
land in farms probably will be used for w^ood lots and unimproved
pasture. Thus it is estimated that something like 85 per cent of the
area in the drainage districts may become improved land when the
localities are as intensively farmed as the most completely developed
sections of considerable extent now are utilized. The degree of
development for all the enterprises studied in 1926 then would appear
to be about 45 per cent rather than 38 per cent, and for St. Francis
and Yazoo Basins nearly TO per cent.
SALE AND SETTLEMENT OF THE LAND
MISSOURI, ARKANSAS, AND MISSISSIPPI
The major part of the unused land in the drainage districts of
Missouri, Arkansas, and Mississippi was owned by lumber companies,
to whom it w^as a sort of by-product after the saw timber had been
removed. These owners did not lack appreciation of the fertility of
the soil, but had no desire to undertake the business of farming on a
large scale. In Mississippi, a State law prohibits corporations from
holding agricultural land.
The lumber companies advertised their lands for sale very widely
over the country, but particularly in the North Central States, and
made most of the sales directly or through subsidiary land companies.
They secured the cooperation of commercial interests in the cities in
forming a regional advertising association. The land has been
offered in tracts of 40 acres or more, and advertised as exceptionally
fertile, Avith a long-growing season, suited for general and dairy
farming and for practically all the staple crops of the Corn Belt
States as well as for cotton. As sold by the lumber companies up
to 1920, the land had to be cleared of small trees, brush, and such old
logs and tree tops as the lumber crews had left, before a crop could
30 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 194, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
be planted. This usually was done by slashing and burning, corn
being drilled in among the stumps which would be mostly gone after
about five years of burning, rotting, and plowing. Local land
dealers bought tracts of cut-over land and developed them for tale
as improA^ed farms. In the last few years some of the lumber com-
panies have begun to clear and farm their cut-over land, partly that
they may compete for purchasers who demand improved land ready
to crop, and partly in order to produce the money required to pay
the drainage and other taxes.
Prices for some of the cut-over lands in these districts were below
$10 per acre in the beginning, but by 1920 some tracts were priced
at $75 to $90 per acre, uncleared. More recently the advertised prices
have been $50 to $65 per acre, depending much upon the terms of
payment as well as upon the location of the land. Improved farm
land in the drainage districts in southeastern Missouri was said to
have sold for $100 to $125 per acre before the World War, and subse-
quently at $200 and more, but in 1926 was generally held at $150 to
$175 per acre. Prior to 1920 the usual terms of payment were one-
fourth to one-third in cash, and the balance in two to four annual
installments bearing interest at about 6 per cent a year. In 1926 cash
payments of 10 per cent were commonly asked, with subsequent pay-
ments extending over 10 to 12 years. At the higher prices, and with
contract to clear a third of the land each year, 40-acre tracts of cut-
over land could be purchased with the entire cost amortized in 33
years, beginning three years after purchase.
A large amount of land was sold to northern purchasers, many of
w^hom settled upon their new property and made good farms of it,
although many others evidently held their purchases merely as spec-
ulations. Southeast Missouri, perhaps secured the largest portion of
settlers from the North. Considerable land was bought by farmers
and townspeople living in and near the districts. A large part of
the settlers on the drained land in these three States came from the
Ozark region of Missouri and Arkansas, and from the hills of Ken-
tucky, Tennessee, and Mississippi, regions long cultivated but now
generally less productive than the drained alluvial soils. From these
sources most of the settlers now are coming. Most of them come as
tenant farmers, many later becoming owners.
LOUISIANA
In Louisiana the purpose of the gravity drainage districts gener-
ally was the improvement of lands already cropped or to be cropped
by the owners who organized the districts, particularly for increas-
ing their production of sugarcane. Economic conditions have pre-
vented this expected development, and apparently no great effort has
been made to sell the land.
The districts that must be drained by pumping, in the coastal
section, have been mostly speculative developments by persons who
purchased large tracts for the purpose of draining, subdividing,
and selling them at a profit. Many of them were begun as private
corporations and later organized as drainage districts. The promo-
ters of such enterprises advertised widely and established or em-
ployed selling agencies in northern cities. Excursions of prospec-
tive purchasers were organized to visit the districts. A mild winter
ECONOMIC STATUS OF DRAINAGE DISTRICTS IN THE SOUTH 31
climate and two crops a year — vegetables in the early spring and
staple crops in the summer — seem to have been the principal selling
arguments. The prices ranged from about $50 to more than $100
per acre for unimproved land in 5 to 20 acre tracts, the average prob-
ably being near the latter figure. The terms of payment were varied
to suit the purchasers, from all cash to 2 per cent down and 2 per
cent a month and deed to be given when payment was completed.
At least one company contracted to plant and care for orange groves,
and after five years deliver to the purchaser a bearing grove at a
cost, including land, of some $650 per acre. Storms and frosts
caused the failure of this enterprise, which is not included in Table 1.
Sales contracts were made for the purchase of a large part of the
land in the drainage districts in southern Louisiana, mostly in small
farms, by northern people. Many of these contracts evidently
were made for speculation, the buyers expecting to resell in a short
time. Many did come to make homes upon the land, but most of
those who came from the North have resold or abandoned their
land and gone away. Most of the farmers now in these districts,
tenants and owners, are natives of southern Louisiana. However,
one of the subdistricts investigated has been settled and placed
completely in cultivation by immigrants from the North. In two
of the larger subdistricts studied in this section, which were financed
privately, reclamation is complete, and the promotors, although it
was not their intention and is not their desire to do so, are farming
their lands until purchasers can be found.
NORTH CAROLINA AND SOUTH CAROLINA
The owners of cut-over land in eastern North Carolina have
offered it for sale in units suitable for individual farms, directly and
through agents operating locally and in Northern States. Some
land was sold in large tracts to sales and development companies,
Avho undertook to resell it, either unimproved or after clearing. A
small colony of Amish has been placed in one of the districts named,
and one of Hollanders in another, but most of the latter have
abandoned the farms. Prices of $25 to $35 per acre were common for
unimproved land in 20 to 80 acre tracts for general farming. Ordi-
nary terms of payment were one-fourth in cash and one-fourth
annually during the next three years, with 6 per cent interest on
deferred payments. The cost of the drainage was not included in
these prices.
A great deal of land was sold to people in the North Central States.
Many settlers came from those States and began to clear and culti-
vate their land ; but most of them now have left the region, reselling
their farms or abandoning them without completing the purchase
contract. Apparently a great many of the purchases were made by
persons who were merely speculating rather than buying homes. The
conditions that caused the actual settlers to move away seem to have
been the lack of social relationships and community developments
to which they had been accustomed, and the more primitive manner
of living necessary in an undeveloped locality. The actual develop-
ment of the land in these drainage districts is being done mainly by
people native to this region, coming upon the reclaimed land either
as farm owners or as tenants.
32 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 194, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Concerning the districts studied in the southern counties of Xorth
Carolina and in South Carolina, apparently the landowners pro-
moting those enterprises expected that the drained lands would be
brought under plow by themselves or by local purchasers. No great
effort has been made to. sell the land, and economic conditions have
prevented the plantation ow^ners from extending their acreages in
crop. At least some of the landowners express satisfaction with the
work done on account of the benefits in eradication of malaria and
betterment of roads, as w^ell as in improving the condition and yield,
of the lands previously farmed.
FLORIDA
The drainage districts organized in Florida have been very largely
speculative in character — organized by individuals or corporations
who purchased the land in large tracts for resale in small lots. The
land companies advertised widely through the Northern States, and
some established sales agencies in many northern cities. Excursions
of prospective buyers were organized to visit the region. The land
was advertised in 5 and 10 acre tracts more wndely than in 40-acre
or larger farms, for winter vegetables and for oranges and grape-
fruit. The prices ranged from $50 to $300 per acre. The first
developments usually sold the land entirely unimproved except for
outlet drainage, but later ones offered land cleared and grubbed
ready for plowing. The more common terms were one-fourth cash
and one-fourth annually for three years, but an enormous number
of sales contracts were made for 10-acre tracts at $10 down and $10
per month. Not a few companies contracted to plant the land in
citrus and care for the grove for five years, on terms which made
the cost in the neighborhood of $1,000 per acre when the property
was released to the purchasers.
The amount of land sold in these enterprises can not well be
estimated. In some developments the total of sales contracted con-
siderably exceeded the entire acreage in the project, owing to aban-
donment of a large portion of the contracts and resale of the
property. A good many northern farmers bought Florida lands,
but the greatest number of sales contracts were made w4th mechanics,
clerks, and tradesmen. Of those who came to make homes upon
their land, not a few found it would not be drained for an indefinite
period. Many who came were without farm experience, and with-
out the funds necessary to establish a home and to live while a crop
was being planted and harvested. A considerable number built
houses and began to clear and farm the land, but later moved away
because of the primitive conditions of living, the isolation, and fail-
ure to acquire wealth quickly and easily. Too commonly, the devel-
opments expected were to be financed from the payments on the sales
contracts. As receipts decreased, drainage and other work slackened,
until many of the promoting companies became bankrupt and ceased
to function.
CONDITIONS INFLUENCING LAND SETTLEMENT
The drainage districts in Missouri, Arkansas, and Mississippi
comprise 62 per cent of the land in all districts studied. Though
they embrace only 60 per cent of the area that was unimproved
ECONOMIC STATUS OF DRAINAGE DISTRICTS IN THE SOUTH 33
when drainage was begun, they include about 95 per cent of all the
acreage that has been improved since drainage. (Table 3.) The
rate of development in those three States, in proportion to the
total area or to the unimproved area at the beginning, has averaged
seven to eight times the rate in the other four States. Exactly
why progress in bringing the drained land into use has been faster
m certain districts than in others is not shown by the data available,
but it will be helpful to consider the more evident differences in the
conditions affecting the different groups of districts.
LOCATION
The districts in Missouri and northeast Arkansas are at the south-
ern edge of the Corn Belt, the region from which, probably because
of its high land prices and its relatively severe w^inters and short
growing season, have come the largest portion of the agricultural
immigrants to the South. Adjacent to these districts on both the
east and the west, and to the other districts studied in Arkansas and
Mississippi, are regions of rolling land well settled for many decades
and, partly by reason of long cultivation and erosion, less productive
than most of the bottom lands that have been drained. South-
eastern Missouri and northeastern Arkansas have received the
greatest number of settlers from the Corn Belt, who came mostly
from the nearer parts — Illinois, northern Missouri, and Iowa. The
settlers in the districts in Mississippi have come more largely from
the uplands of that State. During the war, this region suffered
less than some others from the migration of laborers northward to
the industrial centers, for the places left by many who had gone
were taken by some of those coming from farther south.
The drainage districts in Louisiana are farther from the locations
whence the settlers have come to the districts in Arkansas, Missis-
sippi, and Missouri. One or two of the subdistricts in the marshland
reclamations have been successfully settled with people from the
North Central States, but most of the present population in the
other districts and subdistricts have come from near-by communities^
The drainage districts of eastern North Carolina are as far from
the Corn Belt as those in southern Louisiana, and to the prospective
settler the intervening mountains perhaps make the distance seem
greater. Moreover, migration to this section of the country is east-
ward, which is contrary to the general movement of the population
seeking farms in the past. Each of these conditions may have
increased the difficulty of drawing settlers from the Central States
to the Atlantic coast. Most of the actual settlers in these drainage
districts have come from this section of North Carolina. The dis-
tricts in southern North Carolina and in South Carolina are similarly
situated with regard to securing settlers, but no great effort has been
made to bring in farmers from distant regions.
The drainage districts in Florida are farthest from the usual
sources of farmer settlers, but the lack of potential farmers in the
State makes it necessary that settlers be obtained from other States
or development will continue to be exceedingly slow.
k
34 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 194, V. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
SOILS AND CROPS
The soil of the greater part of the Mississippi River lowlands is
more than ordinarily fertile. In the Missouri, Arkansas, and Missis-
sippi districts, soil and climate are well suited for nearly all crops
f:rown in the Corn Belt and on the hills, so the settlers have not been
orced to adjust themselves to a new kind of agriculture. The
settlers from the North have turned to cotton, the principal cash crop
of the region, as they have acquired experience in growing it. Those
from the nearer uplands had already had experience with this crop.
In the Louisiana districts, soil and climate are suited for growing
€orn and other grains and for legumes, but below the mouth of lied
Hiver sugarcane and cotton were the staple cash crops prior to 1920,
with potatoes and early vegetables next in importance. Farmers
coming from north of the Ohio and the Missouri Eivers thus needed
to acquire some experience with new crops.
The loamy and sandy soils in the drainage districts in eastern
North Carolina compare with similar soils in other parts of the
coastal plain in fertility and crop adaptation, on which are raised
corn, cotton, potatoes, and legumes. The muck or peaty lands pro-
duce good yields of corn in the first years of clearing by the usual
method, but for them no permanent type of farming has been
developed that would be satisfactory for the larger part of that area.
Cotton is the all-important crop in the districts of southern North
Carolina and South Carolina.
The principal crops so far grown successfully in the drainage
districts in Florida are winter vegetables, early potatoes, and citrus
fruits, according to the kind of soil, all with abundant use of
fertilizers. The market for these crops, however, can be amply
supplied by a small part of the available acreage. Forage for cattle,
of rather coarse quality, is available on much of the land. A very
small portion of the area is being cultivated intensively at the
present time, but it is doubtful if this type of farming is economi-
cally adapted to the remaining area. In short, types of farming
suitable for the entire area are yet to be developed.
' COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
There were cities and towns on the banks of the Mississippi and in
the uplands on either side long before drainage of the intervening
lowlands was begun. Construction of Government levees had given
considerable protection against Mississippi River floods, and encour-
aged the extension of existing plantations and the establishment of
new ones on the higher parts of the area. Many lines of railroad
crossed the bottom lands, as did highways that were passable at
least during dry seasons. The settlers in those drainage districts
between Ohio River and Red River came to a region of staple crops
with the channels for marketing already established.
The lower parishes of Louisiana were not well developed when
the lands were being widely advertised. They were not well pro-
vided with either railroads or highways, and towns that would
provide satisfactory trading cents^rs were rather widely separated.
The rural population of the parishes is largely of Canadian descent,
commonly speaking French rather than English, with whom settlers
ECONOMIC STATUS OF DRAINAGE DISTRICTS IN THE SOUTH 35
from other States do not easily establish social relations or
<;ommunity interests.
The districts in eastern North Carolina were off the main railroad
lines, and only recently has construction of an adequate highway
system been begun. Satisfactory trading centers, churches, and
schools have not been readily accessible to a large part of the lands
offered for sale.
When the lands in the districts in Florida first were offered for
sale, railroads and highways were few, cities and towns were widely
separated. Many of the developments were so situated that each
had to provide not only a road system as well as drainage, but also
highway connection to a railroad some distance away, besides plan-
ning and encouraging the establishment of stores, churches, schools,
and social activities to serve the new community. A large part of
the area in the drainage districts still is undeveloped and difficult
of access.
LAND-SALES POLICIES
The lands of the drainage districts in Missouri, Arkansas, and
Mississippi were sold, for the most part, by lumber companies and
local agents who wished real development of the territory. The
<3ut-over lands are a by-product of the lumbering industry, and the
companies desired to develop communities which in themselves might
create a demand for the lands that would become available as the
timber was cut. They tried to sell to people who would settle upon,
clear, and farm the lands. Prices asked were based upon the com-
panies' valuation of the land for general farming and staple crops.
Terms of payment were such, though perhaps not by design, as to
discourage most persons who were not in earnest or who were entirely
unqualified. All the cut-over lands were for sale, and the prospec-
tive settlers bought those near the towns and accessible to shipping
points, trading centers, churches, schools, and community social
activities. It has been found generally useless to try to secure either
buyers or tenants for farms not reached by a road that is passable
for light automobiles at all seasons of the year.
In southern Louisiana, however, the most profitable sale of the
land was the principal object of the persons promoting most of the
drainage districts. Sales methods were designed to secure early
return of the capital invested and a large profit thereon, rather than
permanent development of the area. So the lands were sold to all
persons who would buy. Large tracts were sold to other specula-
tors, who expected to resell promptly, and in small tracts not only
to farmers but also to many more city dwellers inexperienced as
farmers and not qualified to become settlers.
The lands in Florida were sold mostly in 5 to 40 acre units at
prices based on use of the land for high-value crops — vegetables and
citrus. The great majority of sales were of 5 and 10 acre tracts, on
monthly or quarterly payments, to persons who had had no farming
experience and who had no knowledge of the land except the state-
ments of salesmen, no realization of the labor and cost of bringing
the land into cultivation, and no thought of taxes or other expense
than the purchase payments in connection with buying and owning the
land. A large part of such purchasers could not or would not com-
plete their purchase contracts, and were of no help in developing
the land or the community.
36
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 194, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
LAND PRICES
The price of the land probably has had less effect upon the rate
of settlement than any other factor. Prices have changed with time^
increasin^^ greatly in 1915 to 1920, and subsequently declining. In
general, land prices have been lowest in the Carolina districts and
highest in Florida; the prices asked for land have been somewhat
higher in the southern Louisiana districts than in the districts studied
in Mississippi, Arkansas, and Missouri. It has been much easier to
obtain contracts for 5 and 10 acre tracts at $100 and $200 or more per
acre than for 40 to 80 acre tracts at $50 to $65 per acre. The former
offered as specially adapted for high-priced crops such as citrus
fruits and truck appeared much more attractive to the majority of
buyers than the larger units, offered for staple crops and general
farming. The region of greatest success in bringing the drained land
into use, however, is the region of staple crops and diversified farm-
ing— Missouri, Arkansas, and Mississippi.
COST OF THE DRAINAGE DISTRICTS
The total cost for the public drainage improvements in the drain-
age districts studied, as far as it was practicable to determine, is in
excess of $47,000,000. The average costs for the districts ranged
from 71 cents to $38 per acre, and for a large acreage in one district
the cost was nearly $50 per acre. Table 4 shows the total cost and
the average cost per acre for each district, and for some districts
the maximum and minimum charges against individual tracts. The
figures include the costs of organization as well as those of actual
construction of the drainage improvements.
Table 4. — Cost of the drainage districts
ST. FRANCIS BASIN
Drainage district
Area
Total cost
Cost per acre
Average
Maxi- I Mini-
mum 1 mum *
Little River
No. 19, New Madrid County.
No. 23, New Madrid County.
No. 29, New Madrid County.
St. Francis
No. 8, Mississippi County
No. 9. Mississippi County
No. 17, Mississippi County...
Total or average.
Acres
531, 672
38,100
32, 270
30, 000
126, 734
56, 943
193, 000
170, 000
Dollars
11, 100, 000
180, 000
151,904
330,000
3 1,208,550
3 988, 000
3 2,990,000
3, 982, 000
2 1, 135, 000
20, 930, 454
Dollars
20.88
M.73
2 4.70
11.00
9.53
17.33
15.50
23.42
Dollars Dollars
31. 60 : 3. m
49.50
7.75
18.45
BLACK AND CACHE RIVERS AREA
Inter River
117.000
90,000
85,000
37,000
89,500
418, 500
2,271,000
500,000
420,000
623, 921
268, 430
19.38
5.55
4.95
16.86
3.00
1
Central Clav
7.19 1
8.30 1
0.72
Western Clay
.83
Cache River No. 2 . .
No. 1, Greene and Lawrence Counties
1
Total or average
4, 083, 351
9.77
1
"1
1 Maximum and minimum costs per acre were ascertained only for the districts where stated.
» All of district No. 19 and a small part of No. 23 are within Little River drainage district, for which the
average cost in New Madrid County was about $19.50 per acre.
» Including costs of subdistricts.
ECONOMIC STATUS OF DRAINAGE DISTRICTS IN THE SOUTH 37
Table 4. — Cost of the drainage districts — Continued
SOUTHEASTERN ARKANSAS
Area
Total cost
Cost per acre
Drainage district
Average
Maxi-
mum
Mini-
mum
Cypress Creek
Acres
285,000
Dollars
1,885,000
Dollars
«6.62
Dollars
Dollars
YAZOO
BASIN
Northern
98,000
74,000
95,000
95,000
152, 140
44,280
91,000
92,000
» 726, 575
4 893,900
560, 179
900, 745
991, 465
337, 596
425, 294
150,000
7.42
12.07
5.90
9.48
6.52
7.62
4.67
1.63
Bogue Hasty
Riverside
7.31
2.92
Black Bayou... ..
Bogue Phalia.
9.88
10.09
1.48
Murphy Bavou
1.21
l^elzoni '.
Atchafalaya _
2.42
.69
Total or average _
741, 420
4,985,754
6.73
LOUISIANA
Gravity districts:
Portage...
White Und Cypress Bayou
Bayou Terre-aux-Boeufs...
No. 2, La Fourche Parish..
Pumping districts:
No. 12, La Fourche Parish.
Sunset
Jefferson-Plaquemines
Total Oi- average
76, 380
28,508
214,000
27,888
8,459
10, 774
37, 750
403, 759
75,000
20,000
885,000
171, 577
284, 500
371, 438
358,000
2, 165. 515
0.98
.71
4.13
6.15
33.63
34.50
9.50
42.00
18.50
EASTERN NORTH CAROLINA
Moyock _
14, 441
30, 753
9,600
8.000
100,000
48,000
400,000
45,000
35, 000
735, 374
3.32
laoo
8 4.69
4.38
7.35
Albemarle
No. 4, Washington County
4.97
2.98
Pantego . ...
Mattamuskeet .
Total or average
162,794
1, 263, 374
7.77
.....
SOUTHERN NORTH CAROLINA
Tlea Hill .
23, 710
33,600
63,847
150,000
2.69
4.47
IBack Swamp and Jacob Swamp
6.36
1.27
Total or average
57, 310
213, 847
3.73
SOUTH CAROLINA
Cowcastle . .. _.__....... ............
40,860
2,816
in, 123
4,001
4.19
1.42
Rum Neck ...
Total or average
43, 676
175, 124
4.02
* Districts Nos. 2 and 5 within this district, comprising 18,160 acres, cost about $5.60 per acre.
» Including costs of subdistricts and estimated amounts for included portions of independent districts.
« In addition, all this district was assessed in Pungo River drainage district, which cost $2.68 per acre.
38 TECHNICAL BULiLETIN 19 4, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 4. — Cost of the drainage districts — Continued
ST. JOHNS BASIN
Drainage district
Area
Total cost
Cost per acre
Average
Maxi-
mum
Mini-
mum
Dollars
Baldwin
Bostwick
EastPalatka
Hastings
South Hastings
New Smyrna-De Land.
Total or average..
ACTfS
68,251
16 000
5.000
22,445
66,000
56, 000
Dollart
654,846
31.000
62,600
214, 500
500,000
^ 710, 000
Dollars
9.52
1.94
12.60
9.55
8.93
12.67
Dollars
223, 696
2, 172, 846
CENTRAL FLORIDA
Taft
54,000
42,000
140, 164
456,000
2.60
10.86
!
96,000
596,164
6.22
!
i
WEST COAST AREA, FLORIDA
Lake Largo-Cross Bayou.
Pinellas Park
Sugar Bowl
Limestone
lona ._.
Total or average.
13, 100
14, 000
25.000
17, 500
21,000
120,000
100,000
114. 000
86. 000
800,000
90, 600 1, 220, 000
9.16
7.15
4. 56 (8)
4.91 44.70
38.10
13.47
INDIAN RIVER AREA
47,000
50,000
23,750
75,284
•700,000
9 600,000
550,000
1, 755, 906
14.89
12.00
23.12
23.33
Indian River Farms
15.65
North St Lucie River
1
1
196, 034
3, 605, 906
18.40
1
'
LOWER EAST COAST AREA, FLORIDA
Lake Worth -
130,000 10 3,100,000
142,300 10 1,000,000
23.85
7.02
Rnnthprn
Total or average
272, 300 4, 100, 000
15.63
' ■
Grand total or average .
4, 126, 089
47, 397, 335
11. 50 i 49. 50
0.69
7 Omitting indebtedness canceled in reorganization.
8 The average cost in Manatee County was about $7 and in Sarasota County about $3.50 per acre,
9 Omitting cost to private developers of work acquired without cost to district.
10 Omitting cost for Everglades drainage district. (See Table 5.)
The cost figures given for the greater number of the districts
are the total amounts of the bonds issued. For a few districts
more accurate figures were obtainable, and for those that did not
issue bonds the costs are given according to statements made by
officials of the districts. Many districts have done much work in
reconstructing and extending their drainage systems subsequent to
original construction, through the original or through subdistrict
organizations. Some maintenance and repair work was included
ECONOMIC STATUS OF DRAINAGE DISTRICTS IN THE SOUTH 39
in the contracts let for reconstruction and extension in certain dis-
tricts, and the cost of this work unavoidably has been included in
the figures given. On the other hand, bond issues made primarily
for maintenance have been omitted. The maximum and minimum
costs per acre shown for some districts were computed from data
on benefits assessed in Missouri, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Florida,
and on classification of the lands in North Carolina. Costs in the
enterprises in Louisiana are spread at a uniform rate per acre for
each district or subdistrict.
The district having the highest average cost per acre is in the
west-coast area of Florida. (See Table 4. The cost of Delta
Farms drainage district, in Louisiana, was not ascertained.) Its
cost per acre is more than four times that of any other district in
the same group, which may have been due to an unusual amount
of litigation in organization, to the proportion of rock encountered
in excavating the ditches, and to high cost of selling the bonds to
finance the enterprise. Also, contracts were let when prices for
labor and materials were very high. The individual districts of
next highest average cost are the relatively small wet-prairie recla-
mations in southern Louisiana. There the length of levees is large
in proportion to the area assessed, the soft foundations make the
cost large in proportion to the size of the embankment, and ex-
pensive pumping plants are necessary.
The groups of highest average cost are those of the Indian River
area and the St. Francis Basin. In the former section, the ditches
ordinarily are placed closer together than is common in most sec-
tions, in order to give outlet to farms of small size, and many times
the cost of grading the ditch banks to serve as roads has been
included. The high cost for many of the St. Francis Basin districts
has been due principally to the great quantity of water coming
from adjacent higher lands that must be carried through or around
the district, and to the great distances that the drainage originating
within the district must be carried by artificial channels because of
the low elevation of the general ground surface with respect to the
surrounding land.
A large variation in the cost of drainage districts is to be expected,
owing to large differences in the costs for promotion and organiza-
tion, including litigation with opposing interests and commissions
and other expenses in selling bonds for development projects; in the
prices paid for labor and materials of construction, which vary with
time and with location of the work; and in the amount of drainage
works constructed in proportion to area assessed. The length of
ditches varies from less than one-fourth mile in four districts to more
than 3 miles in two districts, per square mile of land. The great dif-
ferences in length are due to differences in topography and in the
degree of drainage provided. The ditches vary greatly in width
and depth, also, according to amount of water to be carried and to
the fall obtainable along the channel. The length and size of ditches
bear no definite relation to the size of the area benefited or included
within the district boundaries, and the same is true concerning levees.
40 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 4, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
FINANCIAL STATUS OF THE DISTRICTS
INDEBTEDNESS
Very few drainage districts have operated on the "pay as you
go " plan, the only one among those covered by this investigation
being one in Florida. The others studied, excepting four subdis-
tricts in Louisiana financed by private corporations, have been
financed by bond issues. Information was secured concerning the
bond issues of 54 of the districts, as summarized in Table 5. The total
of bonds issued by these districts, including subdistricts and portions
of overlapping districts, is shown to be approximately $44,567,000,
averaging about $11.60 per acre on all the land included. The bonds
were issued in 1917 to 1925, to mature in 1918 to 1959. The amount
■outstanding in 1926 is estimated as about $37,670,000. Apparently,
some $6,900,000 has been paid, and three of the districts in North
Carolina, comprising about 55,400 acres, have completed payment foi-
their drainage.
ECONOMIC STATUS OF DRAINAGE DISTRICTS IN THE SOUTH 41
ASS'S
o §
"ia
sa
^'i
<-^
II
fih
weo.-HOeo c<»Hi-4rt <N(Noooo «o
csoo8
~- e^' t--* 1 od
«coeo
g8§§^
rHrH^Tj^C*
C oooc^-*
iior^ed-^ c4-^«o 'eood'CMt^*
■JJ Tj< Ttl Tf CO
® uo CO r^ O
^ t-'fO'rH CO
I^OC5 00<
^ ., .., ^ ~
fc. lo 00 >o i-H
_y CO ^ GO Tf
■^ .-1 1<* CS> t^
ir^co o CD «o<
IrH lO— lb- 05<
I >OC0t^ CO CO<
•«ti e<« 05 05 OS CO
'00»O^00 CO CO <N —I CS CD C^ lO Tt< I
«
sli
|SS
05 0it^OaJ(MC^(M»CQ
t^»0 00-^OOCOO(Nr-iO
00 00 «0 (N .-H i-H CO.W CD --I
O'^rHrJ*
00t^-*OC0C0OOTt<O
CCii-l05>-lt^0500COQ
c^or^cococoocooo
00 (N"ea~t-rco CO CO cr«5"cr
,-H«oco>0'^eso30505co
CO <N r-ll-H
^OCOt-lOO eO CO ■* C^ (M CD C^ U5 •«*< i-H
es
ceo
o S.S
'X3 ^
^.9 o| o
^•c s:
2i
l«i^B^e5
* o o
WOJM
■C 03 O fl t.
o
»->
-o
o
a
^
a
"?
OS
f6
i^
CQ
§ ^
-o 12;
fl
c3 O
.. bo
-^ s
<N ^
1 ^
«- g;
s
s -g
i
^. &
^
1 S
lid
a
-a
•*-> (D S
«
2SS
fi
•^
III
^
CO
^^Q
•^ o
^
W O 05
h
■=;f.-'
fl
^•11
o iH ca
§
m
tJ
to
^SS.
herdi
only.
Cypr
hern,
idCy
oS
Ill
II
a "^
b c« 2
Is
11
§5
T3 .wg
o o
h-n
t^ « fl «
UJ V.
.2 fl O «
1?
SBo^S
11
.2 fe fl
^^5c8
P r
.i2 -o •- r*
-O^EstM
.9«-sS
mm
42 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 4, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The North Carolina drainage law requires that district bonds shall
be payable one-tenth each year, beginning three years after the date
of issue. Other States allow the districts more discretion in adjust-
ing the payments to make them least burdensome upon the land-
owners and to secure best prices for the bonds. Most commonly in
the other States the first bonds come due about 5 years and the last
about 20 years after date of issue. For a number , of issues in
Florida, and a few elsewhere, maturities begin 7 to 10 years from
•date; the last bonds of some issues are not due until 40 years after
issued. Ordinarily the maturities are arranged so that the annual
tax for both principal and interest will be approximately uniform
after the first bonds come due. In the case of a second issue, some-
times it has been arranged to make only small principal payments
until all the first issue has been paid.
The reduction of bonded indebtedness is, as determined, 15.5 per
•cent of the total incurred by these 54 districts. The bonds outstand-
ing in 1926 are 85.1 per cent of the total issued by the 51 districts
that owe them. The amount unpaid averages $9.93 per acre on all
the land in those districts; it varies from 26 cents per acre in one
district to $37.48 per acre in another; it exceeds $20 per acre in seven
districts comprising 435,000 acres, and $10 per acre in nine other
districts comprising 1,080,000 acres.
Table 5 shows that of the 34 districts reporting the status of pay-
ments on their outstanding bonds, 8 districts were in default at the
time of the investigation. At least three others in North Carolina
and Florida would be in default had they not in 1923 to 1925 secured
assistance from the bondholders themselves in order technically to
meet their obligations coming due. In one case, refunding bonds
were issued; in another case the dealers who had bought the bonds
were organized into a company that made further loans to the dis-
trict (which haye since been repaid) ; and in the third case the
district was reorganized and refinanced, in which process there was
forced a reduction in the accumulated indebtedness equivalent to
one-third the prior bond issue and eight years' interest on that issue.
The real-estate boom in Florida caused the owners of land there to
pay the delinquent taxes, with penalties and interest, and enabled the
drainage districts that had bought delinquent land to sell them at a
profit. Thus many districts in that State were able to pay their
overdue obligations.
DRAINAGE AND OTHER TAXES
In Missouri, Arkansas, and Mississippi the amount of benefit that
each tract of land will receive from construction of the drainage
works is determined according to the law, and the cost of the district
is assessed in proportion to those benefits. The same method is
followed in nearly all drainage districts in Florida. In North
Carolina and South Carolina the lands in each district are divided
into five classes, according to benefits, and each acre in the four
higher classes is assessed, according to its class, at two, three, four, or
five times the rate per acre of the lowest class. For most of the
drainage in Louisiana, the cost is levied at a uniform rate per acre
in each district or subdistrict ; a small part has been assessed in pro-
portion to the value of the property. Since 1921, districts in Louisi-
ECONOMIC STATUS OF DRAINAGE DISTRICTS IN THE SOUTH 43
ana constructing levees or pumping plants may apportion the cost
.according to benefits.
Before the drainage bonds are sold, taxes are assessed sufficient to
pay the bonds and interest as they come due, and ordinarily an addi-
tional amount to provide for incidental expenses such as collecting
and disbursing the moneys and to provide for a small percentage of
uncollectible taxes. This additional assessment is rather commonly
10 per cent of that needed for paying the bonds and interest. Further
annual levies are made by the districts, as deemed necessary or ex-
pedient, for maintenance and repair of the ditches and other drain-
age works and for operation of the pumping plants. There are
also other taxes against these lands, for general State and county
expenses, for improved highways and consolidated schools in most
districts, and for maintenance of State levees along the Mississippi
River.
The average amounts of annual taxes per acre in each district
for drainage and other purposes are shown in Table 6 as completely
as determined. The drainage taxes were computed from the total
annual tax or from the rates of taxation and the assessed benefits.
The other taxes are averages for a number of tracts in each district
selected as probably representing the total of such taxes outside the
cities and towns. The figures are mostly for 1925 or 1926, in some
instances for 1924, according to the latest information available.
The averages for the groups and for the entire area were deter-
mined by weighting the district averages according to the respective
acreages.
Table 6. — Average anmial taxes in the drainage districts
ST. FRANCIS BASIN
Area
Drainage taxes per acre
Other
taxes
per
acrei
All
taxes
per
acre
Drainage district
Aver-
age
Mail-
mum
Mini-
mum
Little River.
Acres
531, 672
38,100
32, 270
30,000
126, 734
56,943
193, 000
170, 000
Dollars
1.97
.61
.33
1.06
.58
8 1.28
»1.22
Dollars
2.80
Dollars
0.28
Dollars
Dollars
"No. 19, New Madrid County
0.90
»2.61
No. 23, New Madrid County
T^o. 29, New Madrid County
St. Francis
.73
2.28
.73
2.01
No. 9, Mississippi County..
3.50
No. 17, Mississippi County
2.27
4.80
.76
3.00
Total or average
U, 135, 000
1.66
i
1
BLACK AND CACHE RIVERS AREA
'Central Clay
90,000
86,000
37,000
89,500
0.70
.67
*1.96
.38
0.90
.95
0.09
.10
0.20
.90
.12
1.00
0.90
Western Clay
1.47
Cache River No 2
2.08
1.38
Total or average
301,500
.72
1 Determined in each district from several tracts selected as representative.
« Including taxes on these tracts in Little River and No. 12 drainage districts.
3 Including taxes of overlapping drainage districts and subdistricts.
•* All of drainage district No. 19 and a small part of No. 23 are within Little River drainage district.
44 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 4, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 6. — Average annual taxes in the drainage districts — Continued
SOUTHEASTERN ARKANSAS
Area
Drainage taxes per acre
Other
taxes
per
acre
AU
taxes
per
acre
Drainage district
Aver-
age
Maxi-
mum
Mini-
mum
Cypress Creek
Acres
285,000
Dollars
•0.58
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
1.18
Dollars
1.76-
YAZOO BASIN
Northern ._
98,000
74,000
95,000
95,000
152, 140
44,280
91,000
50,400
»0.66
U.15
.71
1.00
.71
1.05
.55
.30
2.45
2.79
1.55
1.14
3.11
Bogue Hasty...
3.94
Riverside „. _
0.87
0.35
2.26-
Black Bayou... ... .....
2.14
Bogue Phalia
1.03
1.36
.15
.16
Murphy Bayou
Belzoni
1.31
1.34
1.86
Atchafalaya, Hurnphreys County
1.64
Total or average
699,820
.76
LOUISIANA
Gravity districts:
Portage
76,380
27,888
214,000
8,459
10, 774
37, 750
0.10
.50
.25
3.50
3.50
2.50
No. 2, La Fourche Parish
Bayou Terre-aux-Boeufs
Pmnping districts:
No. 12, La Fourche Parish..
Sunset _
Jefferson-Plaquemines -_
Total or average
375, 251
.63
EASTERN NORTH CAROLINA
No. 4, Washington County.
9,600
0.58
75
SOUTH CAROLINA
Cowcastle .
40,860
2,816
0.43
0.16
0.59*
Rum Neck .....
.14 1
1
Total or average
43, 676
.41 1
ST. JOHNS BASIN
68,868
16,000
5,000
56,000
56,000
«0.49
.14
1.12
.82
6 1.00
0.09
.39
0.58-
Bostwick _ . -
.53
East Palatka
South Hastings
1.0&
Total or average
201,868
.69
i
1
1
CENTRAL FLORIDA
Taft
54,000
42,000
0.32
L41
0.18
.80
0.5O
Peace Creek
2.21
96,000
.80
» Including taxes of overlapping drainage districts and subdistrict s.
* Omitting $1.03 per acre assessed by drainage district No. 5, on 12,000
• Drainage taxes levied for interest only, prior to 1927.
ECONOMIC STATUS OF DRAINAGE DISTRICTS IN THE SOUTH 45
Table 6. — Average annual taxes in the drainage districts — Continued
WEST COAST AREA, FLORIDA
Area
Drainage taxes per acre
Other
taxes
per
acre
All
taxes
per
acre
Drainage district
Aver-
age
Maxi-
mum
Mini-
mum
Acres
13,100
14,000
17,000
17,500
21,000
Dollars
1.02
1.10
.72
.43
3.28
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Pinellas Park -
1.53
.15
.16
.83
2.63
Siiirar Rnwl TVfanatfifl Coiint.V
87
3.91
0.06
.59
lona -
4.11
T'ntal nr ftvArftcfi
82, 600
1.42
INDIAN RIVER AREA
Fellsmere ---
47,000
50,000
23, 750
75,284
L50
1.62
1.60
3.33
0.54
1.70
2.04
Indian River Farms ._ .
2.30
3.32
Wnrt Piprfp. Tfarm<?
North St Lucie River
1.61
4.94
196, 034
2.24
1
LOWER EAST COAST AREA, FLORIDA
Lake Worth -
130, 000
142, 300
3.16
1.00
0.87
1.35
M.53
Smithftrn
7 2.65
272, 300
2.03
For entire acreage
3, 698, 649
1.19
7 Including Everglades drainage district taxes.
Table 6 shows the average annual drainage taxes for the 48 dis-
tricts to range from 10 cents to $3.50 per acre, and to exceed $2.25 per
acre in 7 districts comprising more than 450,000 acres, 12 per cent of
all tabulated. Against some 15,000 acres of cut-over land in one
large district the drainage tax was $4.80 per acre. Taxes for other
purposes than drainage, according to the table, ranged from 9 cents to
$2.79 per acre per year, and the total of all taxes from 50 cents to
$4.94 per acre per year. In districts comprising 810,000 acres, the
total of all taxes averaged more than $3 per acre, including 226,000
acres at $4 and more. For these districts as a whole, the drainage
taxes are just about half the total taxes, but for most individual
districts this is not even approximately true.
DELINQUENT TAXES
The financial difficulties experienced by many of the drainage
districts have been caused by the failure to collect the drainage taxes
against considerable acreages, mostly cut-over lands owned by lumber
companies or unimproved lands in the hands of development com-
panies or speculative purchasers. The lands actually cultivated have
been able, probably without exception, to pay their own taxes, but the
unimproved lands have been an unexpected burden upon the owners.
It is important to bear in mind the difference in method of levying
drainage taxes and other taxes. The latter are assessed almost
always according to valuation of the property, which puts the highest
46 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 4, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
taxes upon the producing lands. On the other hand, drainage taxes^
generally are assessed in proportion to the benefits to be received
from the drainage, and thus are most often greatest on the unculti-
vated lands, which generally can not produce the taxes until there
has been further investment for buildings ^nd land clearing and
sometimes for roads to give access to the lands. Thus in a drainage
district where the average tax for drainage is approximately half the
total for all purposes, in proportion to area the greater part of the
drainage taxes usually will fall upon the nonproducing lands and the
greater part of the other taxes upon the cultivated lands.
Taxes of $2 to $2.50 per acre and more on good farm land growing^
staple crops are not a matter of small consequence. They are equiva-
lent to 8 per cent interest on a value $25 to $31 per acre. Table 1
shows 62 per cent of the land in these districts as unimproved. A
small portion of this land bears a virgin growth of saw timber, other
portions are yielding some ties and staves and naval stores, while yet
other portions are used part of the time as open range for cattle. In
one of the smaller districts, which cost less than $2 per acre, land-
owners stated that the benefit to the land for pasture and for the
production of timber and naval stores exceeded the cost of drainage.
The vast majority of the owners of unimproved lands in the drainage
districts, however, find that the taxes on these lands greatly exceed
the revenue from them. Most of this land is owned in large tracts by
people who have no desire to farm it, but who expected to sell most
of it years ago. While it is held unproductive the taxes and the in-
terest on its cost are rapidly increasing the investment. Limited
resources have made some owners unable to meet their tax bills, and
apparent lack of prospect for selling the land has persuaded others
to discontinue such payments.
Information secured from many of the districts concerning drain-
age-tax delinquencies indicate that the amounts uncollected for the
last year (1924 in the Mississippi Valley and 1925 in the Atlantic
States) ranged from practically nothing up to more than 60 per
cent of the amounts levied, and averaged more than 20 per cent for
those districts. For the 4-year or 5-year period beginning with
1921, the delinquencies reported ranged up to 27 per cent and aver-
aged about half this maximum. Two-thirds of the largest district in
Louisiana and smaller portions of other districts have reverted to the
State for nonpayment of taxes. An appreciable part of each year's
delinquency is collected within the next year or two in nearly all
cases, but district officials stated that the amount of land being sold
for taxes was increasing.
The amounts of delinquent taxes not only have made some dis-
tricts unable to pay their bonds and interest as the payments have
come due but also have embarrassed other districts in the mainte-
nance of the drainage works, and are causing no little uneasiness in
a great many as to their future operation and development.
MEANS OF INCREASING REVENUES
The only means of forcing payment of the assessments against
any tract is to have the land sold for the taxes. Statutory provisions
regarding redemption by the prior owner, however, and payment for
improvements to the property made during the redemption period,
are generally such as to prevent the sale of any considerable amount
ECONOMIC STATUS OP DRAINAGE DISTRICTS IN THE SOUTH 47
of unimproved land under such circumstances. Lands on which
State taxes are not paid in Louisiana revert to the State, to be sold
for not less than the assessed value when the delinquency occurred,
which was generally higher than its subsequent market value. This
condition, and the State's policy of withholding the mineral rights
when selling its lands, are said to have prevented such tracts from
passing into hands that would develop them and pay the taxes.
Some drainage laws require that the drainage districts shall buy the
lands offered at tax sales unless some other bidders purchase them
for the taxes due plus interest and penalties. But the districts have
no funds for paying either drainage or other taxes except by collect-
ing from the paying lands.
The executive boards of drainage districts have limited authority
to increase the drainage assessments. Where benefits are assessed^
the total tax against any tract for the installation costs of the district
can not exceed the benefits against thnt tract. The annual levies for
maintenance of the works likewise are limited by law. A reassess-
ment of benefits can be made only in the same manner as the original
assessment. Some districts in Missouri and Arkansas have already
incurred costs — and thereby have levied taxes — up to 80 and even 90
per cent of the assessed benefits. In Louisiana, the statutes limit the
annual acreage tax for drainage to $3.50 per acre in districts drained
by pumping, and to 50 cents per acre and TO mills per dollar of
assessed valuation in districts drained by gravity. (Since 1921,
pumping districts may organize or reorganize under the drainage
law of that year and assess benefits as the basis for levying drainage
taxes.)
The practical limit of drainage taxes, however, is the amount that
the landowners can and will pay. With their consent, increased
benefits can be assessed. But when the taxes rise above what the
owners are either able or willing to pay they are not paid, and further
increases in the tax rate result in increasing the delinquencies rather
than the district revenues. Many of the districts, both in the Missis-
sippi Valley and in the Atlantic States, have reached or have closely
approached the assessment rates that will yield the largest collections.
While the land boom of 1925 was temporarily helpful to drainage
district finances in Florida, the large percentage unpaid of the 1925
levies suggests that some of these districts may soon again be unable
to meet their obligations.
Because of the burden of drainage and other taxes and the unsatis*
factory rate at which the cut-over lands were being sold, a movement
was begun in southeastern Missouri prior to 1926 to seek Federal
funds for refunding the drainage district bonds, to be amortized over
a long period of years at a low rate of interest or without interest.
An organization with this purpose was formed early in 1927, national
in scope but seeking support particularly among the drainage districts
of the lower Mississippi Valley.
CONCLUSIONS
If conditions in the 58 drainage districts that were studied in 1926
fairly represent the general situation in all the districts in the regions
discussed, as it is believed they do, there are in these regions about
6,500,000 acres assessed for drainage but yielding practically no re-
48 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 4, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
turn therefor. Should all this land be brought into use at the average
rate that has obtained in the districts studied, complete utilization
would require about 26 years from 1926. Should development proceed
at the rate for 1920 to 1926, about 40 years would be required. For
the districts in the three States where most development has taken
place, it would appear that complete utilization would be reached in
about 12 years, at the average rate for that area, or in 16 years at
the rate for 1920 to 1926. In the other four States, past development
has been too erratic and slow to be considered indicative of the future
when a permanently profitable system of agriculture shall have been
developed for the lands now of uncertain utility and when an effec-
tive plan of settlement has been adopted generally.
The rate of development will not be uniform, as it has not been,
with respect to either time or locality. It will be greatest where and
when the profitableness of agriculture seems most assured. With
rsuch assurance in any section, there will be a tendency toward acceler-
ated development in each district in that section until most of the
unimproved land is included in farms and is reduced in amount to
such a point that the burden of carrying it as an investment or spec-
ulation is not unbearable. Also with the assurance of profits from
agriculture, undoubtedly new drainage districts will be organized
that will compete with the existing districts in the market for new
lands.
A profitable agriculture is the first essential to permanent develop-
ment in these districts. An agriculture more profitable than obtains
at present is necessary if relief is to be found for those districts that
are in financial difficulty. There must be at least the expectation of
a profitable agriculture if the owners of the nonproducing lands are
to be persuaded to continue or resume payment of the drainage taxes,
if investors are to be influenced to extend further credit in order
that the district may continue to function, or if settlers are to be
obtained to develop the land.
A further need in order to bring about utilization of the lands is
that they shall be sold to farmers rather than to persons who are
not qualified by experience, resources, and temperament to subdue
and farm them. Farm units must be large enough to provide a
reasonable standard of living for the farmer's family. In general,
land prices must not exceed the difference between a reasonable capi-
talization of the productive value and the costs for drainage, clear-
ing, buildings, and other necessary improvements, including public
improvements such as roads and schools. Easy terms of payment and
other extensions of credit permit settlers with little capital to take
up the lands, and also are more likely to bring in persons without
proper qualifications and who therefore are of no benefit to the
district.
The development of improved farms by the owners of the unim-
proved land seems to offer promise of hastening the rate of bringing
the new land into production. This requires a larger investment by
the landowners, but the purchaser of a going farm avoids certain
hardships and worries and usually is willing to pay for the advan-
tage. Pending sale, these farms may be rented to tenants or operated
with hired labor.
U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1930
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. Price 10 cents
Technicai. Bulletin No. 193 (^"T^V^^gy^TW September, 1930
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
EXPERIMENTS ON THE PROCESSING AND
STORING OF DEGLET NOOR DATES
IN CALIFORNIA
By A. F. SiEVERs, Senior Biochemist, Office of Drug and Related Plants, and
*W. R. Barger, Associate Physiologist, Office of Horticultural Crops and
Diseases, Bureau of Plant Industry ^
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction 1
The Deglet Noor date industry in
California 2
Methods of handling the crop 2
Characteristics of Deglet Noor dates- 3
Experimental work 4
Methods of sampling and analy-
sis 5
Examination of fresh dates 6
Page
Experimental work — Continued.
Effect of processing conditions- 8
Effect of slow processing on gen-
eral conditioning of fruit 11
Experiments on storage 15
Effect of pasteurization and
freezing on keeping quality-- 20
Summary 22
Literature cited 23
INTRODUCTION
The storage of California dates over considerable periods to permit
the orderly marketing of the fruit has received little attention until
recent years, and no extensive practical tests have been recorded on
the behavior of these dates under various conditions of storage. The
date industry in the Coachella Valley, Calif., is of comparatively re-
cent origin, and until the last few years much of the crop has been
marketed fresh as soon as harvested. However, with the rapid
increase in production of the Deglet Noor date, a choice cane-sugar
variety, it is desirable that some means be provided whereby the fruit
may be harvested, processed, and stored in order that it may be mar-
keted over a prolonged period without loss of its fine quality. This
will assure better returns to the growers than can logically be ex-
pected if the old practice of marketing the crop within the compara-
tively short harvest period is continued. It may also relieve the
demand for labor and space in the packing houses by extending the
work of grading, packing, and shipping over a much longer period.
As a basis for working out practical methods of handling and stor-
ing Deglet Noor dates with a minimum loss of their characteristic
^ The writers wish to make acknowledgment of the facilities provided for this work by
the growers of Deglet Noor dates in the Coachella Valley, Calif. Besides the United States
Experiment Date Garden at Indio, Calif., special mention is made of the Deglet Noor Date
(Growers' Association, Narbonne ranch, Cook ranch, and Cowgill-Conner Date Co., whose
cooperation has been of great value. Reports on the progress of the work have been made
from time to time to the growers at the annual meetings of the Date Growers' Institute.
111597°— 30 1
2 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 3, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
qualities, an investigation was undertaken to study the behavior of
this fruit under various conditions of storage. It was not the inten-
tion to make a thorough chemical study of the fruit, since this had
already been done or undertaken by other investigators {12, i)^^
but rather to obtain only such chemical data as would be useful in
interpreting physical observations and in serving as a criterion of
quality in the fruit. The moisture content and the percentage of
reducing and total sugars proved to be valuable guides in formulating
l^acking-house and Storage practices.
Methods of picking the dates and the packing-house routine were
studied in the field. Special attention was paid to the separation of
the fruit into various lots based on the degree of maturity, and ex-
periments were conducted on the processing of the fruit in these lots.
The storage tests included studies on the behavior of the various lots
under different storage conditions over periods ranging from 2 to
10 months.
THE DEGLET NOOR DATE INDUSTRY IN CALIFORNIA
The Deglet Noor date is produced in California largely in the Coa-
chella Valley. Numerous other varieties have been planted, many of
them mainly for experimental purposes. Of the 15 or 20 varieties
now grown in this valley from offshoots, only 4, namely, Zehedy,
Khadrawy, Saidy, and Deglet Noor, have been planted to the extent
of 1,000 trees or more. The Deglet Noor variety has been planted
more extensively than all the others, the total number of trees set
out in commercial gardens being estimated at more than 15,000. The
harvested crop of this variety was estimated at 42,000 pounds in
1921, 107,000 pounds in 1922, 190,000 pounds in 1923, 400,000 pounds
in 1924, 450,000 pounds in 1925 (when the crop was reduced by dam-
age from rain), 625,000 pounds in 1926. 800,000 pounds in 1927, about
1,200,000 pounds in 1928, and more than 1,600,000 pounds in 1929.
As new trees are coming into bearing every year, it is expected that
there will be a steady increase in the annual production of this date
for several years.
METHODS OF HANDLING THE CROP
The bearing Deglet Noor date palm has from 6 to 10 fruit clusters
growing from near the terminal bud. Some date growers consider
that from the standpoint of productiveness the ideal cluster consists,
after pruning, of about 30 threads, each bearing about 30 dates. All
growers, however, cut part of the Deglet Noor bunches off entirely or
else prune all of them considerably.
The fruit does not ripen uniformly throughout the clusters nor
upon a thread, and this necessitates picking over the entire garden at
intervals of a few days to two weeks, depending on the w^eather.
Fruit that is permitted to mature fully on the tree is lacking in uni-
formity, and a large proportion of it is of relatively poor keeping
quality. In general the dates are not picked until they are hazel in
color and have dried enough to show slight wrinkles of the skin.
They are transported from the field in shallow boxes holding about
20 pounds, and after being fumigated under vacuum to kill insects
- Italic numbers in parenthesis refer to Literature Cited, p. 23.
DEGLET NOOR DATES IN CALIFORNIA d
and insect eggs, the dust and sand are removed by towels or by
mechanical dry brushes, and the dates are sorted by hand into lots
of uniform maturity. They are then processed under heat until the
texture of the flesh, including the white portion, or " rag," ^ adjoining
the seed, becomes soft and amber in color. This treatment also re-
moves the astringency and causes the flesh to become somewhat trans-
lucent. After processing and further conditioning to reduce the
moisture content, the dates are again sorted into grades according to
texture, shape, and color, then packed and again fumigated under
vacuum. The fancy grades are packed in 10-ounce and 1-pound
boxes, and the standard grades in 3-pound, 5-pound, and 20-pound
cartons.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DEGLET NOOR DATES
The ripening of Deglet Noor dates is accompanied by a gradual
change of color of the skin from rose to amber, cinnamon, and
finally to hazel ; the flesh softens and the rag is gradually eliminated.
The astringency of the immature dates, due to the presence of tannin,
is gradually reduced, as the tannin is deposited in an insoluble, taste-
less form. This occurs rather rapidly in picked fruit of fair maturity.
It proceeds almost regardless of the temperature at which the fruit
is held and appears to be fairly independent of the other major
changes that take place during ripening. The ripening progresses
from the tip of the fruit to the stem, and more rapidly near the skin
than near the seed. The flesh at the shoulder (stem end) of the
fruit adjoining the seed is the last part to take on the character-
istics of the soft-ripe fruit, and the rose color of the skin around
the opening at the stem end is the last to fade into the cinnamon or
hazel color of the ripe skin. The amount of rag and the vividness
of the color ring are indicators of the relative maturity. Coinci-
dent with the changes in color and texture and the disappearance of
the astringency there take place a reduction in the moisture content
and a gradual inversion of cane sugar to reducing sugar through
the action of enzymes, but each reaction appears to be largely inde-
pendent of the others.
Under normal conditions the several changes which take place as
the fruit matures proceed fairly uniformly, but weather conditions
before it is picked and the treatment to which it is later subjected fre-
quently unbalance these processes, so that the several changes do not
take place in normal relationship to one another. The change in
the color of the skin may proceed faster than the softening of the
flesh; the tannin may change to an insoluble, tasteless form before
the fruit reaches the soft-ripe stage at which this usually takes
place; and the inversion of cane sugar in the flesh near the skin
and adjoining the seed may proceed far enough to cause sirup to
form before the remainder of the flesh has materially softened. Such
abnormal changes, however, do not generally occur in the regular
commercial processing of the fruit.
Deterioration of quality in the date manifests itself in a number
of ways. The skin may darken to an unattractive chestnut or
mahogany color; there may be an excessive inversion of cane sugar,
3 The white, unsof tened, fibrous flesh of the Deglet Noor date is called " rag." The
name is suggested by the stringy texture, particularly of that portion adjacent to the seed.
4 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 3, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
with the resultant formation of sirup; or the fruit may sour as a
result of excess moisture. Coincident with any of the foregoing
conditions there is usually complete loss of the characteristic flavor.
In order, therefore, to fulfill the requirements of the industry, the
commercial storage of Deglet Noor dates must be so conducted as to
prevent or reduce to a minimum the several types of deterioration
referred to. To accomplish this, the sorting of the fruit according
to its condition and stage of maturity and the processing of the
several lots in strict accordance with the requirements are of prime
importance. It is necessary, therefore, to understand thoroughly
the behavior of the fruit under various conditions of handling and
to study the relationship of its treatment in the packing house to
its storage qualities. It was for this purpose that the investigations
were undertaken.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
As a basis for storage experiments undertaken, the fruit was sorted
into a number of groups that appeared to represent definite changes
of maturity, as indicated by certain characteristics of color and tex-
ture. In some seasons the fruit sorted on the basis of physical
characteristics does not entirely represent the same stages of ma-
turity as fruit of similar lots in other seasons, but on the whole the
relative differences between lots are fairly consistent and are a
valuable aid in determining the characteristics that it must possess
for successful storage. The colored illustrations * of the dates shown
in Plate 1 are representative of the several groups into which the
fresh fruit was separated, and the characteristics of these groups are
described in Table 1.
Table 1. — Physical characteristics of Deglet Noor dates at various stages of
maturity
Tip half
Shoulder
Color of ring at
stem end
Approxi-
mate
Designation
of stage *
Color
Texture
Color
Texture
amount
of rag at
shoulder
(per cent)
A, full rose
Rose to amber
Amber
Amber to cin-
namon.
Cinnamon to
hazel.
Hazel
Hard to firm..
Firm
Yielding
Yielding to
pliable.
Pliable to
slightly soft;
translucent.
Pliable
Pliable to
leathery.
Rose
...do
Pale rose__
Amber to
cinna-
mon.
Cinnamon
to hazel.
Hazel
Russet
Hard
...do
Firm
Yielding..
Pliable....
...do
Pliable
to leath-
ery.
Rose _.
100.
B, half rose
C, rose shoulder.
D, turning
E, soft ripe
F-Q e soft wrin-
kled.
H, semidry
do__ -.
do
Pale rose to light
brownish pur-
ple.
No well-defined
color.
Some rose color,
others no well-
defined color.
do
100.
100.
50to75>
Hazel to rus-
set.
do
None to 76.
Do.
" As a matter of convenience these terms will be used" throughout this bulletin to designate fruit of the
several stages of maturity.
* Fruit in stages D to O has considerably more rag when picked in November than fruit of the same stages
picked in September and early October.
« In the stages F-G is included much fruit that dries on the tree before normal ripening takes place.
* The colors were determined according to the following publication : Ridgwat, R.
COLOR STANDARDS AND COLOR NOMENCLATURE. 43 p., illus. Washington, D. C. 1912.
Processing and Storing Deglet Noor Dates
Plate 1
fi^^ieadmoAi/
Litbo. A. Hoen ft Co., Inc.
California-grown Deglet Noor dates at various stages of maturity, (Natural size.)
For a description of the fruit at these stages see Table 1
DEGLET NOOE DATES IN CALIFORNIA O
METHODS OF SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS
Facilities for making the required chemical analyses of the dates
\eYe not available in the region where the dates were grown, and
the samples to be analyzed were too numerous for all to be taken care
of at the time the fruit was picked and processed. It was necessary,
therefore, to prepare the samples in such a way that the analytical
work could be done at the United States Horticultural Field Labora-
tory at Lamanda Park, Calif. During the harvest period of 1924 the
processing rooms at the United States Experiment Date Garden at
Indio were used for processing the fruit in the various experiments.
For the two subsequent seasons processing rooms were built and
equipped at the laboratory at Lamanda Park, which made it pos-
sible to bring the fruit directly from the field to the laboratory
where the experiments could be conducted.
In preparing samples from any one lot for moisture and sugar
determinations, approximately 1 pound of representative fruit was
picked from the lot and the seeds were removed. The dates were
then immediately passed twice through a common food chopper and
the *ground material was thoroughly mixed by means of a spatula or
a thiri-bladed knife. Thus prepared, it was used immediately for
the several analyses.
MOISTURE DETERMINATIONS
On account of the high sugar content of dates, the quantitative
removal of moisture from the ground material is rather difficult.
Facilities for using an electric vacuum oven were not available for
this work, therefore the moisture determinations during the first
year's work could not be made according to the most approved
method, but the samples were prepared in such a way that removal
of the moisture could be accomplished fairly readily. Ten grams
of the ground material was placed in a wide-mouthed bottle of 250
cubic centimeters capacity containing 175 cubic centimeters of 95 per
cent alcohol. The contents were brought to a gentle boil in a water
bath and maintained at that temperature for about 10 minutes.
After the mass was thoroughly broken up, the bottle was securely
closed with a rubber stopper. Later the alcoholic solution was care-
fully decanted into a weighed 250 cubic centimeter beaker, and the
solid residue was washed into a weighed 150 cubic centimeter beaker
with 95 per cent alcohol. The bottle was thoroughly rinsed several
times with 95 per cent alcohol, and the rinsings were added to the
first beaker. By this process most of the sugar is removed from the
other solids and the evaporation of the water facilitated. Both
beakers were placed on a w^ater bath until most of the liquids were
evaporated, and then they were kept overnight in an electric oven
at a temperature not exceeding 90° C.
After the first year's work the moisture determinations were made
by the Sterling-Bidwell method (1). By this method the moisture
can be determined with reasonable accuracy in about II/2 hours from
the time the fruit is ready to be sampled, which makes it well adapted
to rapid control work in the packing house.
SUGAR DETERMINATION
Samples for determining the direct reducing and total sugars were
prepared as follows: 40 grams of the ground dates were weighed
6 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 3, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
on a small piece of thin paper and thus transferred to a pint fruit
jar of the clamped-cover type containing 300 cubic centimeters of
80 per cent alcohol. About half a gram of calcium carbonate was
added, and the contents were heated in a water bath to near the
boiling point and maintained at that temperature for about 10
minutes. The mass of ground dates was then thoroughly broken up
w4th a glass rod and the jar sealed. In this condition the samples
were kept until the analyses could be undertaken. To proceed with
the analysis the contents of the jar were again heated in a water
bath to near the boiling point and the liquid was decanted into a
1,000 cubic centimeter volumetric flask. The solid matter remain-
ing was thoroughly broken up and transferred to a 400 cubic centi-
meter beaker v/ith about 200 cubic centimeters of 80 per cent alcohol
and warmed gently to 60° C. After settling, the supernatant liquid
was added to the contents of the flask and the solid residue thor-
oughly stirred and digested with about 150 cubic centimeters of
distilled water at 60° for several minutes, after which the entire
contents were transferred to the flask. The jar and the beaker were
thoroughly rinsed with 80 per cent alcohol and the rinsings added
to the flask. The contents of the latter were then made up to 1,000
cubic centimeters with 80 per cent alcohol, the whole w^as thoroughly
mixed, and the flask was set aside, with occasional shaking for at
least six days.
For the determination of the total and reducing sugars, 100 cubic
centimeters of the filtered solution from the flask w^as transferred
to a 250 cubic centimeter beaker, evaporated on a water bath to a
small volume, and then transferred with about 200 cubic centimeters
of hot water to a 250 cubic centimeter flask. The solution, after cool-
ing, was clarified with lead-acetate solution, made up to volume
with distilled water, filtered, the excess lead precipitated with dry-
sodium oxalate, and the solution again filtered. Fifty cubic centi-
meters of this filtrate was then transferred to a 250 cubic centimeter
volumetric flask and made up to volume with distilled water. For
the determination of direct reducing sugars, 25 cubic centimeters of
this solution was used for reduction. For the total sugar determi-
nation, 50 cubic centimeters was transferred to a 100 cubic centimeter
volumetric flask, 5 cubic centimeters of hydrochloric acid (specific
gravity 1.178) added, and the solution allowed to stand overnight.
The next morning the contents were made up to volume with dis-
tilled water, approximately neutralized with anhydrous sodium car-
bonate, and 25 cubic centimeters was used for reduction. The Mun-
son and Walker method of reduction was used in all cases, and the
copper was determined by Bertrand's permanganate method.
The direct reducing sugars in these dates resulted from the gradual
inversion of the cane sugar on the tree or after picking. The per-
centages of total sugar reported, therefore, represent the percentage
of reducing sugar plus the percentage of cane sugar present, calcu-
lated on the moisture-free basis.
EXAMINATION OF FRESH DATES
The first experiment undertaken was to determine the variation
in moisture, reducing sugar, and total sugar content of fresh Deglet
Noor dates produced in different localities in the valley. For this
purpose dates were obtained from a number of gardens at several
DEGLET NOOR DATES IN CALIFORNIA
periods during the harvest seasons of 1924, 1925, and 1926. The
locations of these gardens are as follows: Garden S at Indio; K, 8
miles west of Indio; L, 8 miles south of Indio; N, 12 miles south of
Indio near the foothills. Samples of fruit were also obtained from
two adjoining trees at the United States Experiment Date Garden at
Indio, which are designated G' and G".
From 60 to 80 pounds of fruit was picked for each lot whenever
it was available in such quantities. The fruit was thoroughly
cleaned and separated into lots representing the several stages of
maturity, according to the physical characteristics given in Table 1,
and illustrated in Plate 1, and the moisture and sugar determinations
were made, the results of which are given in Table 2. Some of this
fruit was processed with moderate heat to obtain the desired color
and texture and again examined with regard to moisture and sugar
content. The results of these examinations are given in Table 4
and are discussed in a later section.
Table 2. — Percentage of moisture, reducing sugar, and total sugars^ in freshly
idckcd Deglet Now dates from various sources and at various periods and
st&ges of maturity during 1924, 1925, and 1926
Year
and
source
Stage of
matur-
ity 2
Date of
picking
Mois-
ture
Reduc-
ing
sugar
Total
sugar
Year
and
source
Stage of
m?.tur-
ity2
Date of
picking
Mois-
ture
Reduc-
ing
sugar
Total '
sugar
1924
Per cent
Per cent
Per cent
1925
Per cent
Per cent
Per cent
B
Oct. 7
35.69
11.34
64.86
c, .. .
Oct. 2
35. 48
12.34
74.43
S
C
...do..._
42.01
15.50
78.78
K
D-E-.
—do
29.46
17.11
72.30
D-E..
...do....
39.98
20.09
84.89
F-G..
..-do
24.96
IS. 50
73.35
F-G-.
...do....
C
—do
36.22
14. 25
75.83
C
-.-do..._
35.49
11.04
71.72
N
D-E..
...do
31.09
17.52
76.67
K
{d-e..
-..do
34.54
13.91
76.68
F-G..
—do
25.77
19. 68
76. 55
F-G--
...do
26.99
16.52
71.49
A
—do.....
57.84
4.22
75.41
C
^D-E..
F-G..
...do
...do
...do
37.46
36.59
30.18
L
B
C
...do
do....
"37.'26'
31. 65
"i5."48'
19.77
G'
13.12
15.84
79.61
74.26
75. 35
D-E.-
...do.....
75.48
C
^D-E-.
...do
37.49
10.84
72.63
F-G..
..-do
29. -08
21.25
75.34
O"....
...do
32.20
12.75
71.47
C
Oct. 20
39.20
11.13
76.23
F-G.-
—do
27.07
16.22
71.74
S
D-E..
...do
34. 35
12.82
74.80
B
C
Got. 21
—do
F-G..
H
...do
...do
30.74
13.68
74.06
S
36.56
12.11
80.61
D-E..
-.-do
34.35
16.42
80.04
C
—do
38.49
11.93
72. 62
F-G-.
-..do
24.78
16.38
73.36
K
]d-e..
-.-do
33.30
18.33
75.83
C
..:do
37.60
12.54
78.13
F-G..
...do
29.51
18.88
73.83
K
D-E..
...do
37.14
18.93
85.92
C
...do
38. 44
11.66
72.93
F-G..
..-do
32.23
18.19
80.59
N
]d-e..
...do
34.95
16. 72
72. 59
C
..-do
36.75
12.16
80. 63
F-G..
—do
29.71
18.11
72.23
G'....
^D-E..
...do
33.39
15.02
74.23
C
Nov. 3
37.35
12.61
77.98
F-G..
...do
34.88
14.74
75.97
K
{D-E..
..-do
33.85
15.87
78.00
C
...do
32.64
12.02
68.60
F-G..
...do
29.85
17.88
76.40
G"....
-^D-E..
...do
29.70
16.70
79.77
C...
—do
37.37
9.23
77.83
F-G..
..-do
27.73
16.86
80.25
N
{D-E..
...do
34.47
12.79
78.27
B
Jc
1d-e..
Nov. 7
-.do
...do
[F-Q..
A
B
...do
...do
...do....-
29.17
48.55
42.60
15.12
5.64
6.79
78.39
S
32.84
30.54
76.43
12.91
77.03
76.04
F-G..
..-do
30.15
14.13
83.35
L
C
...do
38. 52
9.94
75.17
C
...do
34.52
12. 65
81. 59
D-E..
...do
33.45
12.11
76.63
K
\t>-e..
...do
30.15
13.75
71. 96
F-G..
...do
29.88
16.81
75.16
F-G..
...do
20.93
17.34
77.34
1926
C
—do
37.91
9.00
81.31
C
Sept. 24
37.77
15.33
76.82
G'....
■^d-e..
...do
25.22
12.98
75.55
D
...do
33.37
18.71
74.20
F-G..
-..do.....
21.91
13.93
73.99
N
D
Sept. 29
36.86
18.07
77.00
C
...do
28.12
9.85
75.94
E
..-do
32.27
22.06
73.38
G"....
^d-e..
...do
27.42
13.88
80.99
F
Sept. 24
31.76
20.09
75.47
F-G..
.--do
20.87
15. 35
77.43
(C
Oct. 15
37.71
12.13
76. 35
C
Nov. 14
30.29
8.92
75. 72
N
D
...do
31.98
12.69
75.74
K
|d-e..
...do
39.87
12.57
80.56
Ie
-.-do
30.44
16.12
7a 47
F-G..
...do
28.55
13.74
79.46
IC
Nov. 20
30.62
8.35
74.75
1925
N
D
...do.....
28.90
11.11
77.00
C
d-e..
Oct. 2
...do
37.28
31.01
11.79
14.72
75. 63
72.96
[e
...do
27.06
12.85
79. 27
S
F-Q..
...do
29.74
17.17
75.92
Ih
...do.
23.98
15.51
74.98
Sugar percentages calculated on moisture-free basis in all cases. ^» According to Table 1 and Plate 1.
8 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 3, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
A study of Table 2 shows that the moisture content declines from
over 40 per cent in the immature fruit to 30 per cent and less in fruit
sufficiently far advanced to make it suitable for processing, while
that which is partially dried and wrinkled on the tree contains less
than 20 per cent. There is some indication that fruit picked in
September contains more moisture than comparable fruit picked a
month or more later, although the higher atmospheric humidity dur-
ing the late harvest season might be expected to have a contrary
effect. This tendency is especially indicated by the data on fruit
in stage D-E. The less mature fruit (stages B and C), as well as
that which is riper (stage F-G), is less uniform within the lot, and
the data concerning them do not show any pronounced trend. That
rainfall will increase the moisture content of the fruit is plainly indi-
cated. In 1925 fruit that was picked on October 20 and November 3,
after a rainfall of several inches on October 4, contained consider-
ably more moisture than comparable fruit picked on October 2. The
amount of irrigation water used and the frequency with which it is
applied no doubt have a decided effect on the moisture of the fruit,
which probably accounts, to some extent at least, for the differences
in the moisture content of the dates of comparable stages of maturity
obtained from different gardens.
The Deglet Noor date acquires its maximum sugar content rela-
tively early (IS), Immature fruit, designated in Table 1 as full
rose, generally contains as high a percentage of sugar, calculated on
the dry weight exclusive of the seed, as more mature fruit, but the
actual weight of sugar in the individual dates naturally increases as
the percentage of dry matter increases with progressive ripeninsf.
The sugar in the early stages is mainly cane sugar, relatively small
percentages of reducing sugars being present; but as ripening pro-
ceeds the inversion of the cane sugar continues slowly but steadily.
The rate of this inversion on the tree is apparently accelerated by
hot weather, because it is observed that fruit picked in November
contained a larger proportion of reducing sugar than that of com-
parable maturity which ripened earlier in the season when higher
seasonal temperatures prevailed. On the whole, the inversion of cane
sugar proceeds quite definitely in accordance with distinct physical
changes in the fruit, and it is possible, therefore, if desired in pack-
ing-house procedure, to sort the fruit on the basis of its physical
characteristics and thus separate that which contains a relatively
high proportion of reducing sugar from fruit less advanced in this
respect.
From the data given in Table 2 and from general observations
made during three seasons it is evident that fruit from different
gardens and picked at different periods during the harvest varies
considerably in character. This fact makes it important that date-
packing houses be provided with the facilities necessary for handling
separately the various lots of fruit received so that the maximum
amount of fruit of good quality may be produced.
EFFECT OF PROCESSING CONDITIONS
The pronounced effect of the temperature in the processing room
on the physical changes in the Deglet Noor date, and especially on
the rate of inversion of cane sugar, has long been known. About 25
I
DEGLET NOOR DATES IN CALIFORNIA 9
years ago Forbes (S, p. Jf72) reported on the work of Slade, who
discovered that dates could be roughly classified into cane-sugar and
invert-sugar dates and that the Deglet Noor is a typical cane-sugar
date. Following the death of Slade in 1905 Vinson \12) continued
the work on artificial processing, but later laid aside the heat-treat-
ment method in favor of treatment with chemicals. Freeman (7),
investigating the possibilities of processing dates by incubation, used
temperatures as hi^h as 120° F., but found that this treatment re-
sulted in the inversion of most of the cane sugar. In his opinion the
use of lower temperatures to conserve the cane sugar required too
much time and thus increased the liability of the fruit to become
sour. In 1912 Swingle {10) first called attention to the changes,
due to the slow action of moderate heat, that take place in Deglet
Noor dates in the packing cases while in transit from the Sahara,
and pointed out the commercial possibilities of using similar condi-
tions in the artificial maturation of this variety in the United States.
Drummond (^), in 1924, reported the resufts of low-temperature
maturation, which indicated that partially ripe Deglet Noor dates
may be developed into good marketable fruit by subjecting them to
a temperature not exceeding 90° for about five days. The benefits
of such treatment are now readily evident, and much of the procedure
in Deglet Noor packing houses is based thereon. High-temperature
processing of Deglet Noor dates is now used almost exclusively for
salvaging fruit that contains too much moisture to permit its being
handled by any other method. However, Swingle {11) has pointed
out that such dates may perhaps be dried sufficiently at a temperature
not in excess of 90° by means of air dried by refrigeration, thus
reducing the necessity of using the higher temperatures for such
fruit.
The results obtained are largely in accord with those reported by
previous investigators. The temperatures to which the fruit is sub-
jected and the time of such exposure determine the final condition
of the fruit, and both of these factors must be properly controlled
in accordance with the requirements of the fruit under treatment in
order to derive the maximum benefit from artificial processing.
The progressive maturation of the dates under such conditions may
be observed by the following changes : (1) Darkening of the skin and
flesh; (2) elimination of the rag and deposition of the tannin; and
(3) increase in the amount of reducing sugars present. A tempera-
ture of 110° F. or even 90° for a sufficient length of time to com-
pletely eliminate the rag darkens the fruit too much and causes the
inversion of enough of the cane sugar to produce a sirupy condition.
If the fruit is not too far advanced, short exposure at 90° or longer
periods at 60° to 75° permits it to assume the proper color and elimi-
nates most of the rag before too much of the cane sugar is inverted.
Apparently the ratio of total sugars to dry matter is not affected by
the processing. Such differences as have been observed are not
greater than normal variations in the fruit and can not be ascribed
to any particular condition of treatment. The chief consideration,
therefore, is to maintain the conditions of processing within such
limits that the fruit will be brought as nearly as possible to its best
condition in all respects so that if necessary it may be stored for a
considerable time at a sufficiently low temperature to reduce further
111597"— 30 2
10
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 3, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
inversion of cane sugar to a minimum and without loss of the desired
color and texture. The normal progressive changes in the fruit when
induced and stimulated by proper processing conditions can not be
entirely checked after it has acquired its best qualit}^, but by prompt
removal from the processing rooms to proper conditions of tempera-
ture changes that tend to deteriorate the fruit may be considerably
retarded. This is more fully described in the section on the storage
of dates.
Table 3. — Effect of processing temperature oii the moisture and sugar content *
of Deylet Noor dates
Season and stage of
maturity ^
Determinations
before treatment
Sugars
Mois-
ture
November, 1925 P. ct
48.55
Re-
duc-
ing
B -.; 42.60
D-E.
38.52
33.45
October, 1926
D 31.98
D 31.98
E 30.44
P.d
5.64
6.79
9.94
.12. 11
16.81
12.69
12.69
16.12
Total
P. ct.
76.43
76.04
75.17
76.63
75.16
75.74
75.74
76.47
Tem-
pera-
ture
° F.
60-75
95
110
60-75
95
110
60-75
95
110
95
110
95
110
95
Time
Determinations
after initial treat-
ment
Mois-
ture
Sugars
Re-
duc-
ing
Days]
9
9
7
P.d.
42.99
27.85
31.09
38.63
24.53
31.98
37.63
30 85
18.32
33.32
30 43
28.22
29.72
28.85
P.d.
8.29
16.71
18.83
8.18
18.62
26.17
11.87
26.25
34.50
18.59
19.62
20.66
21.54
16.44
Total
Tem-
pera-
ture
used
P.d.
76.16
75.49
74. 70'
76. 82
76.72
76.19
75.64
76.98
78. 73:
75.711
76. 03'
75.72
76.28
76.79
■ 105
105
95
95
110
95
110
60-75
eo-75
60 75
Addi-
tional
time
Bayg
DeterminatioYis
after additional
treatment
Moi.s-
ture
P.d.
33.20
7
4 32.27
25.64
23.24
17.22
18.34
16.13
23.75
27.64
24.20
Sugars
Re-
duc-
ing
Total
18.85
17.88
16.83
19.27
P.ct.
74.34
75.44
75.63
75.20
75.05
74.86
77.30
77.69
76.32
1 Sugar percentages calculated on moisture-free basis in all cases. ' According to Table 1 and Plate 1.
The effect of processing conditions on fruit of various stages of
maturity is shown in Table 3. Immature fruit designated " full
rose " and " half rose " has not reached a sufficiently advanced stage
on the tree to permit successful processing. A temperature of 90°
to 95° F. will cause the skin to change to a cinnamon or hazel color
and the flesh to soften, but the time required to bring it to the
desired physical condition, readily acquired by riper fruit, is too long
to be practicable. In more mature " turning " fruit the rag can be
softened and greatly reduced at 90° to 95° before there is too much
inversion of cane sugar and before the skin darkens to an objection-
able degree. Soft ripe fruit comes from the tree with a considerable
proportion of reducing sugars. For that reason if it is processed
for more than a brief period it becomes sirupy on account of the
further inversion of cane sugar, and the skin turns dark. Such
fruit dries and conditions well at 70° to 80° and should not be sub-
jected to higher temperatures. Soft wrinkled and semidry fruits
vary greatly in the amount of rag and reducing sugars present,
depending on the stage of maturity at which they began to shrivel
on the tree. Three general classes of such fruit may be recognized :
DEGLET NOOR DATES IN CALIFORNIA 11
(1) Dark fruit, with a high ratio of reducing sugar, which causes
it to deteriorate rapidly in appearance and flavor when processed;
(2) hazel-colored fruit, which is ripened and conditioned on the
tree and which deteriorates when jDrocessed at 90° or above; (3) light-
colored fruit, with rose or light brownish purple stem end rings and
considerable rag. The last-mentioned type has dried prematurely
but is of good flavor and may be marketed as a dry date. It is too
dry, however, to be improved by the usual processing treatment used
for turning fruit.
EFFECT OF SLOW PROCESSING ON GENERAL CONDITIONING OF FRUIT
During three seasons Deglet Noor dates from different localities
and of several stages of maturity were processed at 90° to 95° F. over
a period of days, and the effect of the processing was noted by deter-
mining the moisture and reducing-sugar content at intervals while
the processing continued. The relationship of the moisture content
to the condition of the fruit was given special attention, in seeking a
practical way to so control the conditions of processing that the
conditioning of the fruit with respect to moisture content could pro-
ceed as far as possible coincident with the other changes that are
induced in the fruit during such treatment. Table 4 shows the
extent to which moisture may be reduced when the relative humidity
of the room is low. General observations have indicated that if a
relative humidity of 75 to 85 per cent is maintained in the processing
room by means of humidifiers, fruit which is in good condition to be
successfully processed but which contains considerably more moisture
than is permissible fpr packing or storing loses only a relatively
small proportion of such excess moisture. On the other hand, a
relative humidity as low as 25 or 35 per cent causes an appreciable
reduction in the moisture content but at the same time does not
interfere with the normal processing of the fruit. Although there
is some indication that if the humidity is too low the desired changes
in the color of the skin and texture of the flesh will be retarded,
it is evident that a temperature of 90° to 95° with a relative humidity
of 25 to 35 per cent will effect not only normal processing but a
beneficial conditioning in fruit that is suitable for such treatment.
If a procedure based on this fact is adopted it will to some extent
remove the necessity for subsequently holding the fruit in trays and
will thus simplify packing-house operations.
12 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 3, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
c
.2
1
1
<
3 bt oJ
Per cent
26."63
25.75
22.17
""III"!
Per cent
""25.'45"
26.45
24.27
::::"::::
CO
III
Per cent
""i7.*47'
22.93
c h
INiiMniMMMinNiNMiMi
^ i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i 1 i i : i i i ;
1
CO
<
in
Per cent
""27." 54'
26.42
23.32
19.05
|i
Per cent
""'25.' 92'
26. 85
. 26.55
25.72
""
1
■sag'
(^ ! : i i i i i i i i
1 1
is
0
^^ ; i i i i i i i \^u^ l^^t^^^U^^t^^^^^^
^ i i i i i i i i i i
>>
i
14
•k !;::! i :: Ml! :^ ; !gg ::;;:;::;:: !
H i i i i i i i i i i i i igj i 128 i i : i : i i i i 1 i 1
^ i i i i i i ii i i : i i i i •!:■;::::!:::
II
1 ; ! ! : : ! ; ! ! ; ! ; ;^ 1 ;^^ ; ; : : : ! : ; : 1 1 !
- ; ; ; I : ; : i i i M^ ; ;^^ i i ; ; i i i i i 1 i i
^ ' ! ; : ; M ; 1 i : ; ' ' : 1 1 ; : ; i ; ; i ! ! i
■1
1
6 u ! |S5S?^^§S2gSS?:?St^Bf38^gSSfeg?2-f2g2g?gSS5
5 fl S) ! ^ CO -^ »o e^' r-4 --H .-4 rH oi c<i »d c4 00 orj 05 1--- <c GO c^ ec c^" r^ ov t^ '*- cc 00 esi
«-^ i « "
II
Per cent
37.75
36.22
37.26
35.48
37.28
38.44
38.49
39.20
37.36
37.35
37.77
37.71
33.37
36.86
29.75
37.26
34.36
37.14
30.54
30.15
30.87
31.09
31.65
29.46
32.01
34.95
33.30
34.35
32.47
33.85
Relative
humid-
ity in
"oom
1 1 < 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 > 1 1
'^feddcddddcdccc'd'S.tedcdc'dc'dcc'ddo'd
^•-^ i i i i i i i i i i 1 i i'^^ 1 i i i i i i i i i i i 1
n
.5.2
Oct. 6. 1924
Oct. 2, 1925
do
do
do
Oct. 20,1926
do
do
Nov. 3,1925
do
Sept. 24, 1926
Oct. 14,1926
Sept. 24, 1925
Sept. 29, 1926
Nov. 20, 1926
Oct. 6, 1924
Oct. 20,1924
do
Nov. 7,1924
do -
Nov. 14, 1924
Oct. 2, 1925
do
do
do
Oct. 20,1925
do
do
Nov. 3,1925
do
03
So
o
1
^^jMj^Mai;z;W;z;;z::^:^^';^'SaiWr«'M^^'JWcB';z:Ma2:t^^
! 1 i
! I 1 •
! 1 - ^
Oft ft
DEGLET NOOR DATES IN CALIFORNIA
13
21.27
19.33
17.32
22. 56
28.68
21.89
19.07
'""16.' 13'
19.65
24.71
21.91
16.46
25. 21
17.95
23.96
24.39
22.57
""■26.'05'
25.17
27.97
! i i i i 1 isgg? i i i
i i i i i i i?5S2 i i i
""'24.'90'
24.48
25.71
18.19
17.34
13.74
19.68
21. 25
18.50
17.17
18.11
18.88
13.68
15.12
17.88
20.09
s5gsr:§g.'t^E^.t:-^s
^a§^"^s^s's?^^s?i;5
•B,66^666666666
Oct. 20.1924
Nov. 7,1924
Nov. 14, 1924
Oct. 2, 1925
do
do
do—
Oct. 20,1925
do
-.-do-
Nov. 3,1925
do
Sept. 24, 1926
MWW'^'JWai:z:Ma3'^W^
F-G
14 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 3, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Turning and soft ripe dates generally contain more than 30 per
cent of moisture when picked, and although this percentage is re-
duced by processing in relatively dry air, most of the fruit will re*
quire more drying after the desired color and texture have been ob-
tained in the processing room. In order to insure good keeping
qualities it appears that the fruit should contain not more than 25
per cent of moisture. This makes a reasonably soft, attractive date
that will not readily mold or turn sour. It follows, therefore, that
the longer the fruit is to be held the more important it is that the
moisture should be reduced to the percentage mentioned. Several
methods are used for drying dates by circulating air. In order to
minimize inversion, the drying should be done at a temperature not
in excess of 70° F. In the experiments here recorded shallow trays
with wire bottoms allowing a free circulation of air were used with
good results. By this method the moisture of the dates was reduced
to the extent desired in about a week without any material increase
in the proportion of reducing sugars.
Table 4 shows that under the conditions described the rate of
inversion of cane sugar is fairly constant in the fruit from the
several gardens and that the amount of reducing sugar present when
the fruit reaches a marketable condition depends primarily on the
extent to which inversion has progressed w^hen the fruit is picked.
Consequently, fruit that goes into the processing room with a rela-
tively high percentage of reducing sugar is very likely to become
sirupy by the time it has reached a satisfactory condition of color
and texture. It has been mentioned elsewhere that fruit picked early
in the harvest season contains proportionately more reducing sugar
than fruit of comparable appearance picked later. It follows, there-
fore, that late-season fruit may be brought to the desired color and
texture without too much inversion of cane sugar, but that early-
season fruit of approximately the same stage of maturity presents
more of a problem in this respect.
Fruit of comparable appearance picked at the same time from the
several gardens differed somewhat in the amount of moisture and
reducing sugar present, but on the whole comparable lots of such
fruit may be processed under the same conditions with reasonably
uniform results. A packing house receiving fruit from different
gardens must be equipped to handle many lots of fruit according to
their condition. There is evidence to show that three sets of condi-
tions with respect to processing and conditioning will adequately
handle the several lots of fruit usually received from the gardens
and produce a maximum proportion of good, marketable fruit.
There should be available: (1) Rooms at 95° F. for fairly rapid
processing; (2) rooms at 80° for slow processing and conditioning;
and (3) rooms at 60°, preferably with circulating air, for condition-
ing with a minimum inversion of cane sugar.
Daily sorting of the fruit that has progressed far enough in the
processing rooms, especially in those rooms where the higher tempera-
tures are maintained, will assure the production o'f the largest pro-
portion of choice fruit. This is practicable only on a small scale.
In no single lot of dates, no matter how carefully sorted on the
basis of physical character, will all the individual fruits process at
the same rate or in the same way. Unless sorted at intervals, some
of them will stay in the processing room too long. The best prac-
DEGLET l^OOR DATES IN CALIFORNIA 15
tical means to achieve the desired result is to sort the fruit carefully
before it goes into the processing rooms. Such grading is best
accomplished by separating the fruit into (1) dark-colored fruit,
(2) normal-colored fruit without regard to softness or wrinkles, and
(3) culls (immature, deformed, and dry fruit). The dark fruit
usually requires no treatment other than conditioning for moisture.
It contains considerable reducing sugar, and if the rag has not al-
ready been largely eliminated processing at 95° F. or above in order
to accomplish this will further darken the skin and may cause sirup
to form in the soft flesh. The normal-colored fruit represents a
rather wide range of maturity. It may all be satisfactorily processed,
but the time required will vary according to its softness and the
firmness of the shoulder and center. It should therefore be re-sorted
on that basis into several grades and each grade handled according
to its needs. The culls are too lacking in uniformity to permit the
recommendation of any definite procedure. Briefly stated, fairly
rapid processing at a moderately low temperature (90° to 95°) ap-
parently produces the best quality of fruit. Such treatment is pref-
erable to the use of a somewhat higher temperature for a shorter
period, because it is more likely to bring about elimination of the
rag before the color becomes too dark and the excessive inversion of
cane sugar causes a sirupy condition. The several changes mentioned
do not always progress uniformly with respect to one another. At
higher temperatures the change in color and inversion of cane sugar
proceed at times much more rapidly than the elimination of the rag.
Semimature fruit when subjected to such temperatures frequently
becomes sirupy at the tip and immediately under the skin some time
before the rag is eliminated.
EXPERIMENTS ON STORAGE
The possibility of storing dates at 34° to 36° F. was suggested as
early as 1917, when Forbes {6) reported that a number of experi-
ments were undertaken at the Arizona Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion. These experiments, however, did not include the Deglet Noor
variety. In recent years the use of cold storage in connection with
this variety has received serious consideration. According to Swingle
(P), who reported a number of preliminary tests made in 1924 and
1925, the method has practical possibilities.
General observation of the physical condition of commercially
packed fruit that had been stored for three or four months at 32° F.
in a preliminary test by the writers indicated that the fruit does not
come out of cold storage in a uniform condition. Some of it retained
the hazel color and characteristic flavor it possessed when packed and
w^as neither sirupy nor too dry. The remainder was chestnut in color,
distinctly sirupy, soft in texture, and was entirely lacking in the
Deglet Noor flavor. It also contained slightly more moisture than
the fruit of fetter quality. The total sugar content of the two
classes of fruit was about the same, but in the fruit of poor quality
the inversion of cane sugar had progressed further, as was indicated
by the percentage of reducing sugars present. This amounted to 30
to 33 per cent in the poorer fruit, whereas in the better fruit it was
only 20 to 25 per cent. In the fruit of good quality some of the rag
16 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 3, U.
S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
still remained, but in that of poor quality it had been entirely
eliminated.
In view of these observations, further storage tests were under-
taken to ascertain the relationship of the condition of the fruit when
placed in storage to its keeping qualities under various conditions of
storage. Most of these tests were conducted with processed fruit
stored in bulk and in paper boxes of 1-pound capacity with waxed-
paper lining. Such fruit was separated according to its physical con-
dition into fairly distinct grades ^ designated as A, B, C, and D. The
characteristics of these grades are shown in Plate 2 and are de-
scribed in Table 5. Some unprocessed fruit which had matured con-
siderably on the tree was also used but was stored in bulk only. This
fruit was separated into two lots corresponding in characteristics to
stages D and E shown in Plate 1 and described in Table 1. All the
fruit was placed in storage under the following temperature condi-
tions: 32° F., representing commercial cold storage; 50° to G0°,
representing cellar storage; and 60° to 70°, representing storage in
the laboratory. Table 6 shows the moisture content and the reducing
and total sugar content of the fruit when placed in storage, also
during and after storage. Table 7 shows the physical condition
during the same observation period.
Tart,e
5. — Physical characteristics of the several grades of processed! Deglet
Noor dates used in storage tests
Grade
Color
Texture
Proportion of rag
Skin j Stem end
A
Cinnamon
Light brownish
purple.
do
Hazel
Pliable
\bout tbree-fourths
B
C - -
Hazel with cinna-
mon shoulder.
Hazel
do
do
at shoulder.
About one-half at
shoulder. <=
About one-fourth at
D
Russet —
do
Slightly soft, with tendency
to become sirupy in seed
cavity.
shoulder.'
None.
e Late-season fruit graded as B and C according to external appearance is likely to have a somewhat
higher proportion of rag than here indicated.
2 The designation of the several grades of processed fruit by letters is used here for
convenience and should not be understood to indicate that standard commercial grades of
the fruit designated by such terms have been established by the Government.
Processing and Storing Deglet Noor Dates
Plate 2
Four grades of procesaed Deglet Noor dates used in storage tests. (Natural size.)
For a description of these grades of fruit see Table 5
DEGLET NOOR DATES IN CALIFORNIA
17
i
to
s
1
i
o
II
• I I ! I I I I I 1 I I I 1 I ! I 1 I ! ! ! 1 : 1 ! ' ' ' ' ' ' 'S • 'J2
2 i i i i i i ! i i 1 i i ! i i N i N N N N N M MS N^
ml
■8 ■: i ; i i : 1 i i : ; 1 : : ; ; ! i i : ! : : : : : : ^ i ;?s
^ : ! 1 ! i I : i i i i i ! ! i i : : ; i ! ! i ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Ms i i^
■H
^ ; i i ! i i i i i i : i i i i i i i i i i i i i i ; i i i i : :s : ;s
°^ i : ! ! ! i ; I ! I I : I 1 : ! 1 1 ! ! i I I ! i i 1 : ! : i i^ 1 i^
1
s
o
00
2a
^1
■c i is i ! i i !^ i i^ 1 ijss i i§ i i ! ! ifc : i 1 i is i i88 i is
G^ i ig i i i j ;?£ i is i i?° 1 jfs i i i i j^ ! 1 i i is i ijs i is
ml
■8 i i^ i i i i iis i it:; i is? i i^ i i i i is i i i i is i :8 i is
a; i iS5 i i i i is ! i^ : i?S i i^ i i i i i?5 ! i i i is^ i i^ i is
•s i is i is i is i is i is i is i i i i is i i i i is i is i i§
q; i i^ i is i ij;3 i is i ig5 i is i i i i ig^ i i i i i^ i i?5 i i?5
a
o
a
to
s
3^
•« iss i iS5 i is i is i i§ i i^SSS i is i ife i i§^ iss i§§
a; ;j:s i i{2 i ij:: i ij:: ! is i isjSf::^ i i^ i is i if:: i{:ff: igff:
•s iss i i§ i i^ i \^ i i^ i ig^S;^ i is i is i i^ iSf^ i§^
q; i^S i i§^ i i^ j i^ i i?3 i \n?^^^ i is i is i is ig;* is:2
■s ifeS i ig i is i is i is i is^sss i is i i^ i is? igg i{2S
a; ig^S5 i i^ i i^ i is i i?^ i is^^s i i^ i ig^ i i^ ig5?j i^^
1
3^
^1
•s§SSSSS^Sg^^S^^5feSS;fe^§:S§&SJS22fe§;gSSSS?5S
^|.s|
ill
CO
§1
11
t-l CO
■sSSSS§8^8S:S??gg
Q;{::Sf::S^S{::F::^Sf:^
a; ^ § S i^ ^ ^ ^* S 2 2 2 S
ll
§
(1h
^ I 1 ^ 1 1 1 I I 1 ^ I
fl loS looooogo
-^mi^miiiii^i
!
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1
<
<
1
6
s i i ; ;2: i j ; S5 ;
§ -w d d d • d d d > d
<? ; ; ; o ; ; : ;z; ;
m i P i pq ; Q ; « p
1 '1 • 1 ' « ! 1 "S
a ' a • 08 • OS 1 a ej
<j : o : -«5 : o ! <{ o
1 f 2 flflfll
O cQ O oqOoiOcoOO
1
18 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 3, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 6 shows that storage temperatures have a direct influence on
the inversion of cane sugar. At 32° F. the inversion was very slight,
but at the higher temperatures, especially those prevailing in labora-
tory storage, the inversion was sufficient in most of the several lots
of fruit to cause a sirupy condition. Fruit that entered storage with
a low percentage of reducing sugar as a rule came out with a lower
reducing-sugar content than that in which greater inversion oc-
curred prior to storage. In -other words, the several conditions of
storage used caused the inversion of cane sugar to proceed at a rather
definite rate, depending on the temperature. Fruit picked late in
the season went into storage with less reducing sugar and came out
with less than fruit picked earlier in the season.
Table 7 shows the effect of storage temperature on the color, tex-
ture, and flavor of the fruit. The color darkens gradually, some-
what in advance of sirup formation, and the characteristic flavor
appears to linger after the sirup starts to form. Experience has
shown that the fruit should be marketed and consumed before the
characteristics of the fresh dates have disappeared to a marked de-
gree. Fruit with a general chestnut color, or darker than russet
(pi. 2, D), with sirupy flesh and lacking characteristic flavor must
be considered as past the condition desirable for marketing. De-
terioration of the physical characteristics is shown to be consistently
associated with the diminishing of the rag and the increase in reduc-
ing-sugar content. This deterioration is most rapid when the stor-
age temperature is high. When placed in storage both the partly
matured, unprocessed fruit and the fruit not fully processed had
considerably more rag at the shoulder than the naturally matured
or fully processed fruit, and this difference was maintained through-
out the storage period. The first-mentioned fruit did not deteriorate
in storage and upon removal had still about half the rag at the
shoulder. It was observed that at all three temperatures the fruit
that had a light brownish purple ring at the stem end when placed
in storage retained its fresh color, nonsirupy texture, and charac-
teristic flavor longer than the more mature or fully processed fruit
from which this color ring had disappeared. The color ring fades in
storage but does not completely vanish for many months. It is
evident^ therefore^ that the stem-end color ring is of value as an in-
dicator of relative niMurity in selecting fruit for long storage.
Humidity conditions in the storage rooms appear to affect only
the moisture content of the fruit. The extent to which moderately
dry dates absorb moisture was shown by placing fruit containing^
only 15 per cent moisture in net bags in a bulk package of dates
having a moisture content of 24 per cent. After one month in cellar
storage at 50° to 60° F. the dry dates had become distinctly pliable^
because of the absorption of 5 per cent of moisture. Under cellar
storage with 85 per cent humidity the fruit does not change much
in moisture content, but if the humidity is somew^hat higher the fruit
will absorb moisture in the course of a few months and mold. Fruit
stored at 32° with high humidity absorbs some moisture but develops
no mold in 8 to 10 months. Since the air in commercial cold-storage
rooms usually has a relative humidity of about 85 per cent, it would
appear that fruit in such storage would suffer practically no loss of
moisture.
Table 7. — Effect of various conditions of stori
Grade and stage of
maturity »
Grades A and B.
Stage D.
Grades C and D
Stage E
Grades A and B
Stage D
Grades CandD...
Stage E
tirades A and B
Grades C and D
Time of
picking
1926
Sept. 2
.do.
...do.....
...do
Oct. 14
...do
...do.
.do.
Nov. 23
..do
Treatment
Processed.
Nonprocessed.
Processed.
Nonprocessed.
Processed
Nonprocessed.
Processed
•
Nonprocessed.
.do
Package
Determinations
Mois-
ture
.do.
do....
.do.
do
1-poimd box..
....do
Per cent
22.21
27.27
29.51
24.05
27.42
28.08
23.03
27.64
24.46
24.20
21.56
22.94
Reduc
ing
.sugar 2
Per cent
22.61
20.36
18.07
28.70
24.60
22.06
17.58
16.83
18.17
19.27
12.16
13.08
Total
sugar
Per cent
77.95
73.78
77.00
75.01
75.88
73. 38
77.06
77.69
77.54
76.32
77.29
74.09
Storage
tem-
pera-
ture
° F.
60-70
50-60
32
60-70
50-60
32
60-70
50-60
32
60-70
50-60
32
60-7C
50-60
32
60-7C
60-60
32
60-70
50-60
32
60-70
60-60
32
Color of skin
Cc
rini
Chestnut
Russet
Hazel
Russet
.do
Hazel
Chestnut
.do
Hazel
Chestnut
Russet
.do
Chestnut
.do
Russet
Chestnut
.do
Russet
Hazel
...do
...do
...do
..do
...do
6O-70iChestnut
50-601 do
32|Russet
6O-70| Chestnut
50-60,Russet
32;naz8l
60-70; Russet
50-80! do
32|Hazel
60-70,Chestnut
50-60'— .do
32Hazel
Pres«
.-'lO.
Ao.
--do.
.\bse
Trust
-Ao.
1 Grade refers to A, B, C, D of Plate 2; stages of maturity refer to A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H of Plate 1.
2 Sugar i)ercentages calculated on moisture-free basis in all cases.
> In all cases where this color ring was present in the stored fruit the color of the ring was pale in comparison with t!
111597"— 30 (To face p. 18)
^rage on the physical characteristics of processed and nonprocessed Deglet Noor dates
Determinations after storage for—
2 to 3 months
5 to 6 months
I^olor
ingat
imend
Texture and
general
condition
Rag at
shoul-
der
Charac-
teristic
flavor
Color of skin
Color
ring at
stem end
Texture and
general
condition
Rag at
shoul-
der
Charac-
teristic
flavor
Color of sWn
;sent K.
Leathery
Pliable
...do
Leathery
Sirupy
Pliable
Leathery
Sirupy
Pliable
Leathery
Sirupy
Pliable
Leathery
Sirupy
Leathery
Sirupy
Pliable
Leathery
Pliable
do
11
o-M
M
Slight.. -
lo.
Full
...do
Slight...
...do
Full
None
...do
Full
Slight ..
Rnsset
Hazel
Chestnut....
do
Russet
Chestnut
-—.do
Russet
Present 3.- 1 SiruDV— ..
H-H
SUght...
lo.
lo
...do
...do
Absent—
...do
...do
...do
...do
Pliable
Leathery
FuU
None- .
Hazel
]
sent
Moldy
?sent.,.
sent
Pliable
Leathery
H-H
Full
None
Chestnut
1
lo
Moldy
"
»sont
Pliable
o-H
Full
Chestnut....
1
0
...do
-..do
...do
...do
...do
None
...do
Full
...do
...do.....
...do
...do
Slight...
Full
Slight...
None
Slight...
...do
...do
-.do
Full....
Chestnut....
Russet
Absent
- do
Moldy
0
Sirupy
Leathery
o-H
Slight...
None-...
Russet
1
0
Chestnut....
do
Russet
Chestnut-...
do
Russet
do
do
Hazel
Chestnut....
do
Hazel
Chestnut
-.—do
Russet
Chestnut
do
Hazel
...do
...do
-..do
—do
—do..
—do
Present.. -
...do
—do
Absent
...do
Present...
Absent....
—do
...do
—do
—do
—do..
0
Moldy -.
0
0
Sirupy
Leathery
o-H
Slight...
None.
Chestnut
I
Moldy.
0
■sent
Sirupy
Leathery....
Pliable
do
Leathery
o-H
H
FuU
Slight...
Chestnut
I
0- ...
FuU
0
...do-..-
None...
0
Leathery —
Pliable
do
Leathery
Sirupy
Leathery
IS::;:;:
Leathery
Pliable
do
Leathery
Sirupy.
Pliable.
0
Moldy
...do
0
Pliable
Leathery
H
Fun
None—.
Russet
I
0
Moldv - -
<SuTipy.
Leathery
0-3^
Slight .
None...
Moldy
Pliable
H-h
FuU— ..
Chestnut....!
1
A
...do
...do
- do
Chestnut....
Hazel.......
Absent..-.
Present...
Sirupy
Pliable
fflight—
ent '
PuD
Russet. 1
A
...do
—do
Chestnut
Hazel
Absent
Sirupy
0
Slight...
1
—do
do
...do
Russet '
A
present on the fruit before storage.
JJIFOENIA
19
to 9 months
Texture and Hae at ' nh„
teristic
f dry atmosphere in the
he waxed-paper lining of
rapping of waxed paper,
f package on the loss of
shown by the experiments
ninary experiments on the
)wed that the ett'ect of such
comparable grades of this
3 when the fruit is picked.
apparently mature, picked
ed better than fruit of the
as probably because of the
Brcentage of reducing sugar
m has already been directed
1 the season there is, on the
agar than in otherwise com-
torage temperatures used on
may be briefly summarized.
are or fully processed (pi. 2,
^ Less mature or partially
is a fair color and flavor for
ure, but the excessive loss of
s from its appearance. The
;r at 50° to 60° than at the
the best results are obtained
ed or processed. The indica-
uccessfully stored at this tem-
ths, because it becomes moldy.
veil at 32° for S or 6 vionths^
'odes {A and B) w.ay he held
fruit comes out of such storage
lid with good color and flavor.
but not entirely uniform. The
lore nearly the color and flavor
1 color of the individual dates
I fruit when packed in boxes,
^ this lack of uniformity can
t that stores well always retains
!S not detract from its quality,
1 portion of the flesh. In fact,
iracteristic flavor of the Deglet
the rag.
Dnprocessed fruit, shallow open
1 order to insure some evapora-
le crushing of the fruit. Dates
re likely to sweat when removed,
jture in the air, but fruit stored
condition if the packages are al-
ened. Since dates absorb odors,
packages rather than in bulk,
n rooms that contain other goods
i.
18
TECHNICAL i
Total
sugar
Storage
tem-
pera-
ture
2 to 3 months
Color of skin
Color
ring at
stem end
Texture and Rag at
general shoul-
condition der
Per cent
77.95
73.78
77.00
75.01
r5.88
73. 38
r7.06
7.54
32
r.29
op
60-70
50-60
32
60-70
50-60
32
60-70
50-60
32
60-70
50-60
32
60-70
50-60
32
60-7C
50-60
32
60-70
50-60
32
60-70
60-60
32
Chestnut
Russet
Hazel-
Russet
do
Hazel
Chestnut
do
Hazel
Chestnut
Russet.
do
Chestnut
do
Russet
Chestnut
do
Russet
Hazel
do
do
do.
do
do
6O-70jChestnut
50-60i do
32!Russet
fiO-70j Chestnut
50-60 Russet
32 Hazel
60-70 Russet
50-50 do
32 Hazel...
60-70 Chestnut
50-60: do
32:Hazel
storage but does nc
evident^ therefore^ tl
dicator of relative r, -^ ^
Humidity conditic
the moisture content ■ '■ —
dry dates absorb m' ^' ^' ^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^•
only 15 per cent m(? was pale in comparison with
having a moisture cc
storage at 50° to 60^
because of the a;bsor
storage with 85 per
in moisture content, 1
will absorb moisture
stored at 32° with hi
no mold in 8 to 10 m
rooms usually has a
appear that fruit in
moisture.
Present ».
...do
...do
...do
Absent-
Present..
Absent...
...do
Present..
Absent
...do
...do
...do
...do
—do
...do
...do
...do
Present...
...do
...do
...do
..do
...do
Absent
...do
...do.
...do
—do
...do
Present...
.-do
..do
Absent
..do
-.do
Leathery..
Pliable..-.
...do
Leathery..
Sirupy
Pliable....
Leathery..
Sirupy
Pliable....
Leathery..
Sirupy
Pliable....
Leathery..
Sirupy
do.....
Leathery..
Sirupy
Pliable....
Leathery..
Pliable....
do.-...
Leathery..
Pliable ...
do
Leathery. -
Sinipy
do
Leathery..
Sirupy
Pliable.-.,
leathery..
Pliable....
do
Leathery..
Sirupy
Pliable....
Charac-
teristic
flavor
Col
Table 6 shows thi /
the inversion of can
but at the higher tei
tory storage, the in\
of fruit to cause a sii
a low percentage of
reducing-sugar cont
currea prior to stori^y various conditions of storage on the physical characteristics
storage used caused t
definite rate, depenc^^^^
the season went into^
with less than fruit jl
Table 7 shows the!
ture, and flavor of i
what in advance ofi
appears to linger a:
shown that the frui
characteristics of thj
gree. Fruit with al
(pi. 2, D), with sin
be considered as pa
terioration of the ph
associated with the d
ing-sugar content,
age temperature is 1
matured, unprocesse
considerably more r
or fully processed fr
out the storage perio
in storage and upoi
shoulder. It was ol
that had a light bro
in storage retained
teristic flavor longer
from which this colo
H-y2
VatYt.
VrM
YArVz
0-H
H
0-H
0-H
'A-H
0-H
o-H
0-H
0-H
0-H
0-H
0-H
0-H
0-H
Vt-H
Vz-H
H-l^
y^H
H-Vi
0-H
0-H
0-H
0-H
0-H
Vr-H
H-'A
H-y>.
H
H
H-yi
Slight.
Full...
...do-..
Slight,
—do...
FulL..
None.-
— do...
FulL-
Slight.
...do...
...do...
...do...
...do...
...do...
None..
...do...
FulL...
...do....
— do—
...do....
...do—.
Slight..
Full....
Slight..
None...
Slight-,
—do....
...do....
...do....
FulL...
...do....
...do....
...do....
...do....
...do
Ru
Ha
Ch(
.i'RU!
..! Ch<
jRui
Ch«
Ruj
Chi
Ruj
Chi
RuJ
Has
Cht
Haj
Ch€
Rus
Che
Haz
Che
Haz
Che
that present on the fruit before storage.
essed and nonprocessed Deglet Noor dates
Determinations after storage for-
5 to 6 months
1
8 to 9 months
Color
ring at
stem end
Texture and
general
condition
Rag at Charac-
shoul- teristic
der j flavor
Color of skin
Color
ring at
stem end
Texture and
general
condition
Rag at
shoul-
der
Charac-
teristic
flavor
i
Present »_.
Sirupy
Pliable-
Leathery
^1
2 Slight...
...do
2 Full
: None .
Hazel
Present 3..
Pliable
y4.-V2
Full.
. do
Absent.
Moldy - .
None.
None.
None.
...do
Pliable
I^eathery
M-)
2 Full
. None
Chestnut-...
j Absent
Sirupy
o-H
...do. ....
do
Moldy
...do
Pliable
0-y
i Full
Chestnut....
Absent-...
Sirupy...
^y.
Absent
Moldy
...do
Sirupy
Leathery
'^k
{ Slight...
None
Russet
Absent....
Sirupy
(h}4
...do
- do
Moldy
...do
...do
...do
Sirupy
Leathery
(H<
' slight...
None
Chestnut
Absent....
Sirupy
(y-H
None.
Moldv
...do
Sinipv
' Fufl
I Slight
Chestnut....
Absent... -
Sirupy.-
o-H
None.
Present...
...do
...do
Absent
—do
Present...
Absent
...do
...do
...do
...do
...do
Leathery —
Pliable
do
Leathery
FuU
i-.-do....
None
^loldy.
...do
Pliable
Leathery
H
Full
None
Russet
Present...
Sirupy
}4-}4
Slight.
Moldy
•Sirupy
Leathery
o-H
Slight...
" ]
None...
Moldy
Pliable
H-y2 Full
Chestnut
Absent
Sirupy..
O-H
Slight.
Absent
Present...
Sirupy
Pliable
M-Vf
Slight .-
Full
Russet
Absent... -
Pliable
H
Full.
Absent....
..do
1
Sirupy
0
Slight
1 !
...do
Russet
Absent... -j
Sirupy (slight)..
H
Slight.
^rcige on thi
glet Noor dates
2 to 3 mon
8 to 9 months
:olor
ingat
sraend
Textu
gent
cond-
Charac-
teristic
flavor
Color of skin
Color
ring at
stem end
Texture and
general
condition
Rag at Charac-
shoul- i teristic
der ! flavor
- Leath.
- Pliablt.
- — do._^
. Leather
. Sirupy.
Pliable.
Leather
Sirapy.
Pliable.
Leather
Sirupy.
Pliable.
Leather
Sirupy..
--. do
!
3sent 3_
lo.
lo
Slight
i
lo
Full
None .
Hazel
Present 3..
Pliable
FuU.
sent...
None.
None.
?sent.,.
sent
Full
None
Chestnut..-.
Absent
Sirupy
0-H
!o
?sent...
sent
Full
Chestnut
Absent....
Sirupy .
0-M
0..
0
::::::::
0..
Slight...
None
Russet Absent
Sirupy
o-H
None.
0
0...
0
Leather^
Sirupy..
Pliable
Slight...
None
Chestnut AbsRnt
Sirupy ....
O-M
None.
0
0
•sent
0
Leatheri
Pliable.^:
do..2
Leather^
Pliable,
—-do...
Leather^
Sirupy. _
FiJ'l
Slight
Chestnut
Absent....
Sirupy.. .i Q-H
None.
0
Full
0-
do
0-.
None
0
^ent....
—do
Full
None
Russet::::::
Present . . .
Sirupy..
'"li-li
"slight:"'
0
0
3
Leathery
Sirupy..
Pliable
Slight -
!
3
None
1
3—
1
sent...
Leathery^
Pliable
Full
Chestnut.-..! Absent... .
Sirupy
(hH
Slight.
)
)
—-do..:.
Leathery.
Sirupy
Slight
— 1
ent
Full
Russet. 1 Absent
Pliable
V.
Full.
)— .
)
Pliable.::
Slight
1
...do
Russet ' Absent..-.
Sirupy (slight).. H
Slight.
present on the frui
DEGLET XOOR DATES II!^ CALIFORNIA 19
Packed fruit that was held in a fairly dry atmosphere in the
laboratory dried excessively, in spite of the waxed-paper lining of
the cartons and the additional outside wrapping of waxed paper.
The pronounced influence of the type of package on the loss of
moisture in dates has also been definitely shown by the experiments
of Christie (2).
Swingle (P), in a report on some preliminary experiments on the
storage of Deglet Noor dates at 33° F., showed that the effect of such
temperature on the keeping quality of comparable grades of this
fruit is the same, irrespective of the time when the fruit is picked.
The writers found, however, that fruit, apparently mature, picked
during the latter part of the season stored better than fruit of the
same appearance picked earlier. This was probably because of the
larger proportion of rag and the lower percentage of reducing sugar
present in the late-season fruit. Attention has already been directed
to the fact that in fruit maturing late in the season there is, on the
whole, relatively less inversion of cane sugar than in otherwise com-
parable fruit that matures earlier.
In general, the effect of the several storage temperatures used on
the Deglet Noor dates was definite and may be briefly summarized.
At 60° to 70° F. fruit that is quite mature or fully processed (pi. 2,
C and D) darkens and becomes sirupy. Less mature or partially
processed fruit (pi. 2, A and B) retains a fair color and flavor for
two or three months at room temperature, but the excessive loss of
moisture under such conditions detracts from its appearance. The
several types of fruit used store better at 50° to 60° than at the
higher temperatures, but on the whole the best results are obtained
with fruit that is only partially matured or processed. The indica-
tions are that none of the fruit can be successfully stored at this tem-
perature longer than two or three months, because it becomes moldy.
Both types of fruit referred to store well at 32° for 5 or 6 'riionths^
and the rn.ore moderately processed grades {A and B) may he held
successfully for 9 or 10 months. The fruit comes out of such storage
pliable rather than dry or leathery, and with good color and flavor.
All the fruit is of marketable quality but not entirely uniform. The
less mature fruit (A and B) retains more nearly the color and flavor
of the fresh dates. The difference in color of the individual dates
detracts from the appearance of the fruit when packed in boxes,
but with reasonable care in packing this lack of uniformity can
largely be avoided. The type of fruit that stores well always retains
some rag at the shoulder. This does not detract from its quality,
as the amount of rag is only a small portion of the flesh. In fact,
there is some indication that the characteristic flavor of the Deglet
Noor date is largely concentrated in the rag.
For bulk storage, especially of nonprocessed fruit, shallow open
containers are probably necessary in order to insure some evapora-
tion of moisture and to minimize the crushing of the fruit. Dates
stored in bulk at low temperatures are likely to sweat when removed,
because of the condensation of moisture in the air, but fruit stored
in packages is protected from this condition if the packages are al-
lowed to warm up before being opened. Since dates absorb odors,
it is preferable to store them in packages rather than in bulk,
especially if they are to be placed in rooms that contain other goods
the odor of which might be absorbed.
20 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 3, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
EFFECT OF PASTEURIZATION AND FREEZING ON KEEPING QUALITY
The foregoing experiments show quite definitely that certain
grades of Deglet Noor dates can be successfully stored at 32° F. for
about six months. They also show that only fruit not fully matured
on the tree or not fully processed can be held for a longer period
without serious deterioration. There is much interest therefore in
finding other ways to hold in storage successfully the large propor-
tion of fruit that reaches an advanced stage of maturity on the tree
before it is picked or that is fully processed in the packing house.
Pasteurization to destroy the enzymes in the fruit with a view to
checking the natural physiological changes that gradually cause
its deterioration and to prevent souring has been in commercial use,
particularly with other varieties than the Deglet Noor, as reported
by Postlethwaite (8). The use of freezing temperatures to main-
tain the dates in a frozen condition until they are to be marketed has
also been suggested. Swingle (9) states that in connection with some
preliminary tests on the effect or cold storage on Deglet Noor dates
made by the Deglet Noor Date Growers' Association in 1924 and
1925 it was found that a temperature of 10° F. caused the deposi-
tion of the tannin in unripe fruit, which fact was suggested as a
possible explanation of the ripening effect of low temperatures on
relatively green dates.
In this investigation some experiments were made on the effect
of both pasteurizing and freezing, but the results were by no means
conclusive, and further work is necessary to demonstrate whether
these treatments have a more practical value for storage purposes
than the less extreme temperatures. Dates containing about 13 per
cent of reducing sugar were placed in fruit jars in a pasteurizing
chamber for one and three-fourths hours. The temperature of the
fruit when placed in the chamber was 65° F., and during the last
half hour of the treatment the temperature was 137°. A slight
caramel taste was developed, but the color and texture were not
markedly affected. The fruit was then stored in the jars at 60°
to 70°, and unheated fruit of the same lot was stored in similar con-
tainers for comparison. After eight months the heated fruit had
26.41 per cent of reducing sugar, whereas the unheated had 35 per
cent. Similar fruit, unheated, but held in cold storage (32°) for
the same period, contained 20 per cent. All three lots of fruit
darkened during the period of the experiment, but retained to a
slight extent the characteristic flavor. The heated fruit had a
grainy texture, and the skin was leathery, owing to loss of moisture
when it was heated. The unheated fruit held at 60° to 70° was
moldy and sirupy, while the heated fruit held at that temperature
and also the untreated fruit stored at 32° was not. The fruit in
the lot last mentioned was the best of the three. It had a pliable
texture and was on the whole attractive in appearance. Although
more extensive experiments are necessary to demonstrate the effect
of high-temperature treatment, the indications are that the quality
of the fruit is better maintained by cold storage, but the beneficial
action of heat in controlling mold and destroying invertase is
recognized.
To observe the effect of freezing, experiments were made with
processed fruit picked in October and November and graded into
three lots corresponding to B, C, and D, as described in Table 5 and
DEGLET NOOR DATES IN CALIFORNIA
21
illustrated in Plate 2. Average temperatures of 40°, 32^, 27°, and
10° F. were used, but not for all three lots. An inspection of the
fruit was made after four months, and again one month after it had
been removed to a room having a temperature of 60° to 70°. At
10° the fruit froze solid, but not at 27°. Table 8 shows the physical
condition of the fruit at the two inspection periods and also the
moisture and the reducing-sugar content. The amount of reducing
sugar in the fruit after processing and before storing was not deter-
mined, and therefore definite information on the amount of inver-
sion of cane sugar during the storage at low temperatures is not
available from this test. The indications are that the amount was
near the maximum percentage permissible in dates intended for
storage. The proportion of rag present when the fruit is placed in
storage is evidently important, since it appears that the character-
istic flavor is most likely to be retained if about half the rag is still
present at the shoulder, which is in accordance with results obtained
in the other storage tests. At the temperature at which the fruit
froze solid (10°) the flavor was preserved longer than at the higher
temperatures, but this was true only in the case of fruit in which
the rag was present to the extent mentioned and in which deteriorat-
ing changes had not yet definitely set in when it was placed in
storage. This seems to indicate that in the more mature fruit such
changes, already under way, are not effectively retarded even at the
lowest temperatures at which the fruit was stored. The color was
also best at the lowest temperature. It was observed, furthermore,
that grade C fruit, practically fully processed and with a very
small proportion of rag at the sjjoulder, held at 10°, remained in
better condition after thawing than the same grade of fruit after
storing at temperatures of 27° to 40°. Much work remains to be
done to demonstrate that there is any material advantage, so far as
practical packing-house management is concerned, in holding fruit in
a frozen condition rather than in commercial storage at about 32°.
Table 8. — Effect of loio-temperature storage on the quality of Deglet Noor dates
Before
storage
After 4 months' storage
After holding 1 additional
at 60°-70° F.
month
bfl
c
to
.,,
bc
c3
03
U
03
2
Grade 1
1
a
g
33
3
Ha
O
1
1
P
1
1
■i
3
■HS
P
1
>
£
B
.52
o
1
0
1927
P.ct.
°F.
P.ct.
P.ct.
P.d.
P.ct.
Oct. n
19.65
H
f 40
1 32
19.52
24.23
Vr-V^
Russet...
Full...
18.57
28.91
Vi
Rus.set.-.
Full.
B
19.97
25.92
^
--do
...do..
19.83
28.67
H
...do
Do.
32
20.50
26.31
0-H
...do
Slight.
17.78
27.40
0-K
Chestnut
Slight.
C
...do_...
19.41
O-H
1 27
19.40
28.88
0-14
...do
Full...
17,23
29.15
0-14
--.do
Do.
10
19.93
27.40
o-H
...do
...do..
18.81
27.98
Va
Russet ...
Full.
...do....
21.46
23.98
0
32
10
/ 40
0
0
Chestnut
...do
Russet...
None..
D
...do..
Full...
i9"64
27." 43
-i^
'chestnut*
■D
22.00
24.84
Full.
B......
Nov. 10
32
22.92
25. 39
V,
- -do
...do..
22.69
29.50
Vi
Russet..-.
Do.
32
21.93 22.18
Chestnut.
...do._
21.29
30.86
Chestnut.
Slight.
C
...do....
23.30
K-M^ 27
23.90126.53
Vi
...do
...do..
17.66
28.57
k
...do
Do.
10
23. 18i22. 8C
H
Russet.. -
...do..
18.78
27.13
H
Russet...
Full.
...do....
23.33
0
/ 32
UO
0
0
Chestnut.
Russet...
None..
Slight.
.--do
Do.
D
^According to Table 5 and Plate 2. « Sugar percentages calculated on moisture'free basis in all cases.
22 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 3, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
SUMMARY
The Deglet Noor date is a choice variety grown extensively in
the Coachella Valley, Calif. The rapid annual increase in its pro-
duction makes it desirable that a portion of the crop be placed in
storage during harvest and marketed later. This will assure better
returns to the grower and relieve the demand for labor and space
in the packing houses which results when the entire crop is packed
and marketed during the comparatively short harvest period.
The experiments here recorded were undertaken to observe and
study some of the physical and chemical changes that occur in this
date as it ripens on the tree and to observe certain conditions of arti-
ficial maturation or processing while the fruit is held in storage at
different temperatures.
The Deglet Noor is a cane-sugar date, and only small quantities
of reducing sugar resulting from the inversion of cane sugar are
present as the fruit matures. This inversion, however, continues
steadily, as the fruit remains on the tree and is accelerated or
retarded according to seasonal conditions. Fruit maturing late in
the season contains relatively less reducing sugar than fruit matur-
ing earlier, before the high temperature prevailing during the sum-
mer has moderated. The moisture content of the dates is influenced
by rain and by irrigation and on the whole appears to be lower in
the late-maturing than in the early-maturing fruit.
The normal changes that take place in the Deglet Noor date as it
ripens on the tree include: (1) A change in the skin color from rose
or deep pink to cinnamon or hazel; (2) a gradual softening of the
flesh, starting at the tip and progressing from the skin toward the
seed; (3) elimination of the astringency by the deposition of the
tannin in an insoluble, tasteless form; (4) inversion of cane sugar
in the softened flesh. These changes, in a general way, are hastened
by heat and retarded by cold. If the temperature is sufficiently
high they continue rapidly until the fruit loses its flavor, acquires a
mahogany color, and becomes sirupy through excessive inversion of
cane sugar.
Fairly immature fruit may be successfully ripened by artificial
processing, but the conditions required depend definitely on the
relative stage of maturity of the fruit. Careful grading of the fruit
on this basis before processing is a practicable packing-house pro-
cedure. Processing at temperatures above 100° F. result in rapid
deterioration of the fruit, but a considerable proportion of the fruit
taken from the tree according to the picking methods now in use
may be processed and conditioned at 95° or less to produce the
desired color and texture without loss of flavor and excessive inver-
sion of cane sugar. If the reducing-sugar content is kept below 25
per cent and the moisture is reduced to about 25 per cent, the fruit
is attractive in appearance, of normal flavor, and will not sour nor
become sirupy.
The effect of storing processed dates of various grades and un-
processed dates of varying stages of maturity at 32°, 50° to 60°, and
60° to 70° F., in bulk and in packages, was studied. Under these
storage conditions the inversion of cane sugar progresses accordmg
to the temperature. At 32° it is very slight, but at the higher tem-
peratures it is sufficient to make the fruit sirupy in a few months.
DEGLET NOOR DATES IN CALIFORNIA 23
Partially mature fruit and that partially processed may be success-
fully stored at 32° for 9 or 10 months, whereas the more mature or
more full}^ processed fruit will remain in good condition for only
5 or 6 months. At the higher temperatures none of the fruit retains
its quality for more than a short period. The presence of a light
brownish purple colored ring at the stem end is an aid in determin-
ing the long-storage quality of the fruit.
The experiments on the effect of pasteurizing the fruit were
inconclusive. Storage at temperatures sufficiently low to freeze the
dates solid appears to have practical possibilities, especially in con-
nection with the more mature grades of fruit. It seems doubtful,
however, whether such a procedure has any decided advantage in
handling slightly immature fruit which can be successfully stored
at 32° F.
LITERATURE CITED
(1) BiDWELL, G. L., and Sterling, W. F.
1925. PBELIMINARY NOTES ON THE DIRECT DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE.
Jour. Indus, and Engin. Chem. 17: 147-149, illus.
(2) Christie, A. W.
1925. VALUE OF WAX WRAPPERS FOR CARTON PACKED DATES. Date GrOWers'
Inst., Coachella Valley, Calif., Ann. Rpt. 2:11-12.
(3) Drummond, B.
1924. artificial maturation of dates and utilization of cull dates
BY METHODS OF SEMI-MATURATION. Date Growers' Inst.,
Coachella Valley, Calif., Ann. Rpt. 1 : 27-28.
(4) Fattah, M. T., and Cruess, W. V.
1927. Factors affecting the composition of dates. Plant Physiol. 2:
349-355.
(5) Forbes, R. H.
1904. ad:ministrative. Ariz. Agr. Expt. Sta. Ann. Rpt. 15: 472-478.
(6)
1917. THE DATE ORCHARDS. Ariz. Agr. Expt. sta. Ann. Rpt. 28: 442-A51.
(7) Freeman, G. F.
1911. RIPENING DATES BY INCUBATION. Ariz. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 66:
[436] -456, illus.
(8) POSTLETHWAITE, R. H.
1927, TREATMENT OF DATES TO PREVENT SOURING AND FERMENTATION. Date
Growers' Inst., Coachella Valley, Calif., Ann. Rpt. 4: 5-7.
(9) Swingle, L.
1926. COLD STORAGE OF DATES. Date Growcrs' Inst., Coachella Valley,
Calif., Ann. Rpt. 3: 3-6.
(10) Swingle, W. T.
1912. maturation artificielle lente de la datte deglet-noub. compt.
» Rend. Acad. Sci. [Paris] 155: 549-552.
(11)
1924. low TEMPERATURE DEHYDRATION OF CANE SUGAR DATES. Date
Growers' Inst., Coachella Valley, Calif., Ann. Rpt. 1 : 31-32.
(12) Vinson, A. E.
1911. CHEMISTRY AND RIPENING OF THE DATE. ArlZ. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul.
66: [403]-435, illus.
(13)
1924. THE CHEMISTRY OF THE DATE. Date Growers' Inst., Coachella
Valley, Calif., Ann. Rpt. 1 : 11-12.
ORGANIZATION OF THE
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
August 27, 1930
Secretary of Agriculture Arthur M. Hyde.
Assistant Secretary R. W. Dunlvp.
Director of Scientific Work A. F. Woods.
Director of Regulatory Work Walter G. Campbell.
Director of Extension Work C. W. Warburton.
Director of Personnel und Business Adminis- W. W. Stockberger.
tration.
Director of Information M. S. Eisenhower.
Solicitor B. L. INIarshall.
Weather Bureau Charles F. Marvin, Chief.
Bureau of Animal Industry John R. Mohler, Chief.
Bureau of Dairy Industry O. E. Reed, Chief.
Bureau of Plant Industry^ William A. Taylor, Chief.
Forest Service R, Y. Stuart, Chief.
Bureau of Chemistry and Soils H. G. Knight, Chief.
Bivreau of Entomology C. L. Marlatt, Chief.
Bureau of Biological Survey , Paul G. Redington, Chief.
Bureau of Public Roads Thomas H, MaoDonald, Chief.
Bureau of Agricultural Economics Nils A. Olsen, Chief.
Bureau of Home Economics Louise Stanley, Chief.
Plant Quarantine and Control Adm^inistration.. Lee A. Strong, Chief.
Grain Futures Administration J. W. T, Duvel, Chief.
Food and Drug Administration Walter G. Campbell, Director of
Regulatory Work, in Charge.
Office of Experiment Stations , Chief.
Ofjflce of Cooperative Extension Work C. B. Smith, Chief.
Library . , Clartbel R. Barnett, Librarian.
This bulletin is a contribution from
Bureau of Plant Industry William A. Taylor, Chief.
Office of Drug and Related Plants W. W. Stookberger, Principal
Physiologist, in Charge.
Office of Horticultural Crops and Dis-
eases E. C. Auchter, Prvnripal Horti'
culturist, in Charge.
24
U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1930
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. Price 15 cents
Technical Bulletin No. 192 l^^?^V^S£^>^^r®/ August, 1930
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
WINTERING STEERS IN THE NORTH
CENTRAL GREAT PLAINS SECTION
By W. H. Black, Senior Animal Husbandman, Animal Hushandrp Division,
Bureau of Animal Industry, and O. R. Mathews, Associate Affronom>ist and
Superintendent, Ardmore Field Station, Office of Dry-Land Agriculture,
Bureau of Plant Industry}
CONTENTS
Page
The section and its problems 1
Objects of the experiments 2
Plan of work and steers used 2
Feeds used 3
Summer pastures 5
Weather conditions during the experi-
ments 5
Page
Experiment 1, 1923-24 6
Experiment 2, 1924-25 7
Experiment 3, 1925-26 8
Experiment 4, 1926-27 9
Experiment 5, 1927-28 10
Averages of the five experiments 11
Summary and conclusions 12
THE SECTION AND ITS PROBLEMS
The section to which the results of these experiments are most
applicable is composed of western South Dakota, eastern Wyoming,
and northwestern Nebraska. In this territory livestock production
is still the major industry. Farming on a large scale is practiced
on the better types of soil, particularly close to railroads, but immense
areas remote from railroads are still in native grass utilized prin-
cipally as feed for grazing animals and will probably continue to
be so used for years to come. Where farming is practiced, livestock
growing is almost always a part of the farm operations.
It is a well-known fact among ranchers that winter feed must be
provided if stock are to be carried through the winter without
danger of loss from starvation. At the same time it is commonly
recognized that the gains made by the animals when grazing are
the cheapest. Therefore, the chief problem is to carry the steers
economically through the winter in condition to make large gains
during the grazing season. In other words, the largest possible
gains for the winter and summer combined at the least possible
cost per pound are most likely to result in the greatest profit. Stint-
ing the winter feed to cheapen the gains may be carried too far,
with the result that the cattle do not make sufficient growth or do
not carry flesh enough to command the most favorable returns when
marketed. Consequently there is a wide divergence of opinion about
the amount of feeding that is necessary, and as to the value of
different home-grown feeds for wintering purposes.
1 V. I. Clark, scientific aide at the Ardmore Field Station, assisted In the preparation of
this bulletin and directly supervised most of the details of the experiments.
111413° — 30
U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
OBJECTS OF THE EXPERIMENTS
Comparison of four home-grown feeds during a period of five
consecutive years was made to determine their value as winter feeds
for steers. The experiments were conducted cooperatively by the
Bureau of Animal Industry and the Bureau of Plant Industry
of the United States Department of Agriculture, at the United
States Dry-land Station, Ardmore, S. Dak.
The experiments were planned for the purpose of comparing the
relative values of alfalfa hay, western wheatgrass (Agropyron
smithii) hay, corn silage, and oat straw as roughage for wintering
steers. Western wheatgrass has been the standard hay of the region
since the country was settled, but of late years the acreage of alfalfa
has been considerably increased. The respective merits of the two
hay crops have been a subject of much controversy. The prevailing
attitude has been a strong prejudice in favor of wheatgrass over
alfalfa. Oat straw was brought into the comparison for the purpose
of determining whether this by-product of farming operations could
be used economically to supplement or replace part of the hay
as a winter feed for cattle. The corn silage was introduced to
determine whether a feed could be grown that would be more
economical than hay.
The quantity of feed received by all the lots of steers was deemed
sufficient to produce a gain during the winter period, and to permit
the steers to come through the winter in condition to make good
gains during the grazing season. The effect of the different winter
feeds on the gains made during the summer grazing season was also
determined. The effect of overgrazing summer pastures also re-
ceived incidental study to the extent that one lot of 10 cattle was
permitted to overgraze an 80-acre pasture.
PLAN OF WORK AND STEERS USED
Grade Hereford yearling steers, as uniform in size and quality
as could be obtained, were used during all the experiments. (Fig. 1.)
During the first four years the steers were obtained locally, but in
the fifth year they were obtained on the Denver market. As the
steers were acquired through exchange in all years, it is impossible
to determine their cost accurately.
The steers were branded with individual numbers and were weighed
on three consecutive days at the beginning of each experiment. They
were then divided into four lots that were as nearly equal in size
and quality as could be selected. The animals were weighed at 28-day
intervals during the progress of each experiment and on three con-
secutive days at the end of the experiment. The averages of the three
initial and final weighings were taken as the initial and final weights.
All weighings began at 1.30 p. m. The feeding period was 168 days
during two years, and 196 days in the other three years. The winter
feeding period in these experiments ended with the morning feed.
The closing date of a period and the beginning of the subsequent
period were thus on the same day. Each year at the beginning of the
experiment the steers were dipped twice, to kill lice. In all but one
year it was necessary to repeat the dipping in the early spring.
The daily rations given the different lots of steers were as follows :
Lot 1, 10 pounds oat straw, 5 pounds alfalfa hay; lot 2, 15 pounds
WINTERING STEERS ON THE NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS 6
alfalfa ha}^ ; lot 3, 30 pounds corn silage, 5 pounds alfalfa hay ; lot 4,
15 pounds wheatgrass hay. In the last experiment, the quantity of
silage fed to lot 3 was reduced to 20 pounds a head daily.
No charge against the steers was made for labor, and no credit was
given for the manure produced.
An open shed 24 feet in depth and 96 feet long provided shelter
for the steers. (Fig. 2.) Water was available at all times, tank
heaters being used to keep it from freezing. Salt was kept before
FiGUBE 1. — Some of the experimental steers on grass, luly, 1926. These steers are
representative of those used throughout the experiments
the steers at all times. Bedding was used in quantities sufficient
to prevent the pens from becoming sloppy.
The steers were fed once a day, feeding beginning at 9 a. m.
The feed to be given to a lot was carefully weighed and was then
distributed as evenly as possible along the manger. The lots were
fed in the same order each day, beginning with lot 1 and ending with
lot!
FEEDS USED
The oat straw used in the tests was produced at the station. All
fields of oats grown were of the Sixty-Day variety, the straw of
which is short and fine.
Alfalfa hay was generally purchased, though in some years part
or all of it was grown on the farm. None of the alfalfa used would
have graded better than No. 2, and in some years the grade would
have been lower. Discoloration was generally the principal cause for
the alfalfa grading so low. However, the feeding value of the
alfalfa was good in all years.
The wheatgrass hay was purchased from neighboring, ranchers
each year except in 1927, when the grass was purchased standing and
was cut, stacked, and baled by station labor. In all years the wheat-
grass hay was of fair quality, although in some it was more mature
than desired.
4 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 2, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The corn silage was grown at the station. In all but one year
it was of good quality and contained a relatively high percentage
of grain. The kinds of corn used for silage were early maturing
dent varieties. During two years sorgo silage was used to supple-
ment the corn silage.
A more detailed description of each year's feed is given in the
discussion of each year's test.
The prices of the feeds are not directly comparable, because part
was grown at the station and part was purchased. The cost of the
purchased feeds depended to a considerable extent on how long a
haul was necessary to get them to the feed lot. All straw and hay
were baled for convenience in handling, and the baling was an
expense not ordinarily experienced by ranchers. For all purchased
feed the delivered price was naturally much higher than farm prices.
Figure 2. — Feeding shed and arrangement of pens for wintering experiments
To make the results of the experiments applicable to farm conditions
it was thought best to ascertain as nearly as possible the farm prices
of feeds during the five experiments, and to v^e the average of them
as a basis for determining the costs of wintering steers.
During the period covered by the experiments both alfalfa and
wheatgrass sold for an average of nearly $10 a ton in the stack.
This is above rather than below the average farm price for a longer
period.
A price of $6 a ton was put on the corn in silage. This price was
based on an estimate of the cost of producing corn and converting
it into silage at the station.
A price of $3 a ton was placed on the unbaled oat straw. This
was probably higher than farm prices warrant, as the straw was a
by-product of farming and was not grown as a cash crop.
WINTERING STEERS ON THE NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS 5
SUMMER PASTURES
It was desirable to use as large a number of steers for wintering as
the available equipment and feed would accommodate rather than
limit the number to those that could be handled on the experimental
pastures. The experimental pastures contained 150, 80, and 160
acres, respectfully. Ten steers each were used in the 150 and 80 acre
pastures. While it was known that 80 acres would not carry 10
head of cattle satisfactorily, it was advisable to use this number of
cattle in order to make a study of the effects of overgrazing. The
160-acre pasture was subdivided into two equal areas, 16 steers being
kept on one area for half the grazing season and then transferred
to the remaining area. The results of the grazing studies are to be
combined with other data and published later.
WEATHER CONDITIONS DURING THE EXPERIMENTS
Table 1 shows the maximum, minimum, and average daily tem-
peratures by months during the experiments. When the experiment
covered only part of a month the temperatures given are for that
fraction only. Table 2 shows the precipitation during the time
covered by the experiments. It is to be noted that the first, second,
and fourth experiments were begun later in the year than the others ;
hence, in some cases, there are no data for the months of November
and December.
Table 1. — Temperatwre conditions at Ardmore, S. Dak., during the periods of
icinter feeding
Year
Novem-
ber
Diecem-
ber
January
February
March
AprU
May
Maximum temperatures:
1923-24
^ F.
° F.
56
64
63
op
48
50
43
56
60
-31
-13
-13
-28
-11
14
16
22
19
25
59
55
62
62
57
-5
-8
10
-10
-5
27
31
33
29
27
op
57
75
73
70
78
-11
-8
5
4
3
23
38
35
34
37
op
80
77
86
85
80
20
20
19
6
8
43
50
47
42
43
° F.
68
1924-35
88
1925-26
63
90
1926-27
86
1927-28
67
45
-32
-22
-12
89
IVflnimum temperatures:
1923-24- -.
24
1924-25
28
1925-26
11
28
1926-27.
29
1927-28
8
-22
21
12
26
30
Mean temperatures:
192^-24-.
49
1924-25. .-
53
1925-26
35
56
1926-27
51
1927-28.
40
14
56
Table 2. — Precipitation at Ardmore, S. Dak., during the periods of tvinter feeding
Year
Novem-
ber
Decem-
ber
January
February
March
April
May
Total
1923-24
Inch
Inch
0.25
.44
.65
Inch
0.02
.29
.69
.22
.28
Inch
0.76
.45
.12
.34
.28
Inches
0.70
.42
.40
1.14
.49
Inches
0.69
1.34
.49
4.06
.27
Inches
0.02
1.62
1.70
2.01
1.26
Inches
2 43
1924-25
4.56
1925-26
0.01
4.06
1926-27
7 77
1927-28
.29
.27
3 14
6 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 2, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
EXPERIMENT 1, 1923-24
The oat straw fed. during this winter was of poor quality because
of a heavy rust infection of the oats in 1923. The alfalfa was excep-
tionall}?; good. Silage was of good quality. The quantity fed was
approximately 55 per cent sorgo silage, 40 per cent corn silage, and 5
per cent Sudan grass and sunflower silage. Most of the corn silage
was fed during the first, second, and sixth periods. The wheatgrass
was of good quality.
All rations were palatable and readily consumed, though the oat
straw and the wheatgrass were consumed much more slowly than the
alfalfa and the silage.
Table 3 summarizes the principal results of the experiment, show-
ing for each of the four lots the gains during the winter and follow-
ing sumnier, the cost of the feeds used, and the feed cost per 100
pounds of gain.
Table 3. — Sumnvary of Experiment 1, winter period 168 days, December 5,
1923, to May 21, 1924; summer period 130 days. May 21, to September 28,
1924
Lot 1 fed
Lot 3 fed
oat straw,
Lot 2 fed
silage, 30
Lot 4 fed
Item
10 pounds;
alfalfa, 15
pounds;
wheatgrass.
alfalfa, 5
pounds
alfalfa, 5
15 pounds
pounds
pounds
Winter:
Steers per lot
15
15
15
15
Average initial weight per steer
.pounds..
663.3
658.5
657.3
655.9
Average gain per steer
....do....
32.9
81.5
187.2
65.7
Winter and summer: i
Steers per lot
9
9
12
12
Average winter gain per steer
.pounds..
34.8
68.3
195.0
69.2
Average summer gain per steer
..-.do....
77.9
83.2
41.2
96.3
Average total gain per steer
..-.do-.-.
112.7
151.5
236.2
165.5
Average cost of feed and pasture per steer 2
Average feed cost per 100 pounds of%ain.
.-dollars..
13.22
19.10
25.82
19.10
...-do-...
11.73
12.61
10.93
11.54
1 On account of the limited capacity of the experimental pasture, some of the steers were taken but of the
experiment at the end of the wintering period, and the remainder were divided as equally as possible for
the grazing experiments. The winter, summer, and total gains are given for those steers carried throughout
the wintering and summer-grazing experiments.
2 Pasture was charged at the rate of 5 cents per head per day. The winter feed cost may be determined
by subtracting from the total feed cost the product resulting from multiplying the number of days on grass
by 5 cents.
The steers fed on silage and alfalfa, lot 3, made much the highest
gain for the winter. The alfalfa-fed lot made slightly greater gains
than the wheatgrass- fed lot. The lot fed oat straw and alfalfa
produced a gain of only 32.9 pounds a head during the winter period.
The silage-fed lot, which made the heavy winter gain, made the
lowest gain on pasture. The straw-fed lot, with a low winter gain,
made the next to the lowest summer gain. The steers fed wheatgrass
made a slightly higher summer gain than those fed alfalfa, and the
total gain for the year was also a little larger. In this connection it
should be stated that the gains during the summer are smaller than
those obtained by ranchers, because some of the steers were kept on
closely grazed pasture. Approximately the same number of steers
from each lot was kept on the different pastures, and the results afford
a true comparison of the relative gains of the different lots under
the same conditions.
WINTERING STEERS ON THE NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS 7
The ration of the steers wintered on straw was much cheaper than
any of the others. The cost of wintering steers on alfalfa or wheat-
grass was approximately double that of the straw-fed lot, and the
cost of the silage-fed lot was nearly triple that of the lot wintered on
straw. The real economy of a winter ration, however, would appear
to be the feed cost per pound of gain made during the entire year.
The lot fed silage had the lowest feed cost per 100 pounds gain,
while the lots fed straw and wheatgrass were about equal in cost, but
somewhat higher than the silage-fed lot. The gains made by the
alfalfa-fed lot were the most expensive.
The small gains made in the summer of 1924 were a result of the
low rainfall and shortage of grass for that season. The total precipi-
tation for the year was 11.74 inches which is 5.12 inches less than the
12-year period 1912-1923. The precipitation during the early spring
months was considerably more deficient than it was for the year.
EXPERIMENT 2, 1924-25
The steers used during the 1924-25 test were the lightest in any
year. They were obtained from the Pine Ridge in Nebraska about
two weeks before the experiment began. The change in water and
feed was not to their liking, and they lost approximately 50 pounds
a head from the time they were received at the station until they were
put on experiment. This may partly account for the high winter
gain made by the steers.
The straw produced in 1924 was bright and fine stemmed, but
during a portion of the feeding period straw left over from the
previous year was used in the test. The alfalfa and the wheatgrass
hay were of good quality. The corn silage contained very little
grain, and its feeding value was far below that of the corn silage
used in other years. Approximately 10 per cent of the silage used
during the feeding period was sorgo silage. The results of this
experiment are given in Table 4.
Table 4. — Summary of Experlmeyn^t 2, winter period 196 days, November 6,
192Jf, to May 21, 1925; summer period 130 days, May 21, 1925, to September
28, 1925
Lot 1 fed
Lot 3 fed
oat straw,
Lot 2 fed
silage, 30
Lot 4 fed
Item
10 pounds;
alfalfa, 15
pounds;
wheatgrass,
alfalfa, 5
pounds
alfalfa. 5
15 pounds
pounds
pounds
Winter:
Steers per lot •_..
15
589.7
15
601.0
15
596.9
13
Average initial weight per steer
.pounds—
610.3
Average gain per steer
....do....
112.1
137.3
177.0
126.6
Winter and summer: i
Steers per lot
8
123.5
8
144.9
10
196.7
10
Average winter gain per steer..
.pounds..
145.1
Average summer gain per steer..
-.-.do-.-.
170.6
152.5
130.0
165.4
Average total gain per steer
— .do...-
294.1
297.4
326.7
310.5
Average cost of feed and ptisture per steer 2
-doUars..
14.34
21.20
29.04
21.20
Average feed cost per 100 pounds of gain.
— -do— -
4.88
7.13
8.89
6.83
See note 1, Table 3.
2 See note 2, Table 3.
The lot fed silage produced the highest average total gain, but the
increase over the other lots was smaller than in any other year.
The lower winter gain of the silage -fed lot as compared to the
8
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 2, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
previous year was no doubt largely because of the poor quality of
the silage. The lowest total gain was made by the lot fed on straw
and alfalfa hay, but this was only slightly lower than the gains made
by the steers fed alfalfa and wheatgrass.
The lot fed silage made the lowest gains during the grazing period.
This is in conformity with the results of the previous year. In
direct contrast with the results of the previous year, the lot fed
straw produced higher gains during the grazing period than either
the alfalfa-fed or the wheatgrass-fed lot. Its total gain was nearly
equal to that of the lot fed alfalfa. The gain of the wheatgrass-fed
lot during the grazing period was higher than that of the alfalfa-
fed lot, which was true also of the total gain for the year.
The feed cost of gains during the year was very much lower for
the lot fed straw than for any other. The costs for the alfalfa-fed
and wheatgrass-fed steers differed very little, and were about midway
between the straw-fed and silage-fed lots. The relation of the total
feed costs of the different lots to one another was the same as in the
previous year, but the cost of each lot was somewhat higher, because
of a longer feeding period.
EXPERIMENT 3, 1925-26
The steers used in the third year's test were obtained locally.
They were of exceptionally good quality and were somewhat heavier
than those used in the other years of the tests.
The alfalfa hay used in the third year's test was bright and leafy.
It contained about 10 per cent of bluegrass, but it is not believed
that the bluegrass materially influenced the results. The straw was
bright, fine stemmed, and of very good quality. The wheatgrass
and silage were likewise good.
One of the steers in the silage-fed lot was killed while being dipped
for lice during the winter, and the results for this lot are for the
14 steers that were on hand during the entire test. A summary
of the experiment is given in Table 5.
Table 5. — Summary of Experiment 3, icinter period' 196 days, November 6,
1925, to May 21, 1926; summer period 150 days, May 21 to October 18, 1926
Item
Lot 1 fed
Lot 3 fed
oat straw,
Lot 2 fed
silage, 30
10 pounds;
alfalfa, 15
pounds;
alfalfa, 5
pounds
alfalfa, 5
pounds
pounds
15
15
14
672.3
G73.5
679.0
84.5
82.3
220.4
8
8
10
93.2
80.4
23L4
61.0
73.0
19.0
154.2
153.4
250.4
15.34
22.20
30.04
9.95
14.47
12.00
Lot 4 fed
wheatgrass,
15 pounds
Winter:
Steers per lot
Average initial weight jjer steer pounds-
Average gain per steer _ do
Winter and summer: i
Steers per lot _
Average winter gain per steer. ..pounds..
Average summer gain per steer do
Average total gain per steer do
Average cost of feed and pasture per steer 2.. dollars. .
Average feed cost per 100 pounds of gain do
15
672.7
80.2
10
84.7
93.7
178.4
22.20
12.44
1 See note 1, Table 3.
2 See note 2, Table 3.
The most marked deviation from results in other years is the fact
that the average winter gain of the straw-fed lot was slightly more
than the alfalfa-fed and the wheatgrass-fed lots. The relatively
WINTERING STEERS ON THE NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS 9
better showing of the straw-fed lot was no doubt attributable
largely to the exceptionally good quality of the straw. The gain
of the silage-fed lot was exceptionally high, being nearly 140 pounds
a head higher than that of the other lots.
The summer gains in this year's test were all low because of
dry weather and short pastures. The silage-fed lot gained only
19 pounds a head during the 150-day pasture period. The straw-
fed lot made lower summer gains than either the alfalfa-fed or
wheatgrass-fed lot. The steers fed wheatgrass made a summer gain
sufficiently high to make their combined winter and summer gains
consideralDly above those of the oat-straw-fed and alfalfa-fed steers.
The feed cost per pound of gain was again lowest for the lot
fed straw, being followed by the steers fed silage and wheatgrass,
which were nearly the same.
EXPERIMENT 4, 1926-27
The steers used in the fourth year's test were obtained locally
and were nearly all of good breeding and quality. Difficulty in
getting the steers delayed the experiment, and the length of the
winter feeding period was only 168 days.
The alfalfa used in this feeding test was brown. The straw was
clean and fine stemmed, but a small portion of it had been discolored
by rain. The silage contained a relatively high percentage of grain
and was of uniformly good quality. The wheatgrass was clean
and bright but contained sufficient ergot to be injurious to some
of the steers. The presence of ergot could not be detected by the
appearance of the hay. In consequence, three of the steers became
poisoned during the course of the experiment and were removed from
the lot. Ergot poisoning is not uncommon in this section.
The results of the experiment are given in Table 6, the three
poisoned steers not being included.
Table 6. — Summary of Experiment Jf, vnnter period 168 days, December 4,
1926, to May 21, 1921 ; summer period 150 days. May 21, 1927, to October
18, 1927
Item
Lot 1 fed
Lot 3 fed
oat straw,
Lot 2 fed
silage, 30
10 pounds;
alfalfa, 15
pounds;
alfalfa, 5
pounds
alfalfa, 5
pounds
pounds
15
15
15
629.5
629.7
629.4
86.3
89.1
188.6
8
8
10
89.7
90.9
194.4
164.9
220.7
152.3
254.6
311.6
346.7
14.22
20.10
26.82
5.59
6.45
7.74
Lot 4 fed
wheatgrass,
15 pounds
Winter:
Steers per lot
Average initial weight per steer. .pounds-
Average gain per steer ..do
Winter and summer: »
Steers per lot
Average winter gain per steer.. pounds..
Average summer gain per steer do
Average total gain per steer do
Average cost of feeci and pasture per steer 2. dollars..
Average feed cost per 100 poumds of gain do
12
646.9
86.5
10
93.0
216.5
309.5
20.10
6.49
» See note 1, Table 3.
> See note 2, Table 3.
As in the previous year's experiment, the winter gains of the straw-
fed lot were practically the same as those of the alfalfa-fed and
wheatgrass-fed lots. The silage-fed steers gained approximately
100 pounds more per head during the winter period than any of the
other lots.
10
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 2, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The silage- fed lot made the smallest gain during the grazing
season, though the difference was not so great as in some other years.
The straw-fed lot made the next to the lowest gain. The gains of
the alfalfa-fed and wheatgrass-fed lots were nearly equal, with a
slight difference in favor of the alfalfa- fed lot. This is the only
year during the experiments in which the alfalfa-fed steers gained
more during the summer than steers wintered on wheatgrass hay.
The feed cost per pound of gain for the year was low^est for the
straw-fed lot and highest for the silage-fed lot.
EXPERIMENT 5, 1927-28
One material change in the experiment was made in the fifth year.
It was recognized from the gains made during previous years that
the quantity of silage fed was too great for a wintering ration. A
reduction from 30 to 20 pounds per head daily in the silage w^as
therefore made for the purpose of determining whether a smaller
winter gain for the silage- fed steers might not be compensated for
by a greater gain on pasture.
The straw produced in 1927 was coarse and the oats were heavily
infected with rust, so that the quality of the straw was probably the
low^est in any year of the experiment. The wheatgrass hay was
bright and leafy and was at least equal to any other used in the tests^
but the alfalfa hay was badly discolored. The corn silage contained
a high percentage of grain.
The steers used were obtained on the Denver market and were
received at the station about tw^o weeks before the experiment began.
The steers were of good breeding and quality but were the wildest
used in any year. The results of the experiment are shown in
Table T.
Table 7. — Suiwmary of Experiment 5. winter period, 196 days, November 7,
1927, to Map 21, 1928; summer period 150 days. May 21, 1928, to October
18, 1928
Item
Winter:
Steers per lot
A\erage initial weight per steer pounds..
Average gain per steer do
Winter and summer: i
Steers per lot
Average winter gain per steer ...pounds.-
Average summer gain per steer do.,-.
Average total gain per steer do
Average cost of feed and pasture per steer 2. dollars..
Average feed cost per 100 pounds of gain do
Lot 1 fed
oat straw,
10 pounds;
alfalfa, 5
pounds
10
654.8
4&9
8
49.6
168.4
218.0
15.34
7.04
Lot 2 fed
alfalfa. 15
pounds
10
655.9
71.1
74.9
149.0
223.9
22.20
9.92
Lot 3 fed
silage, 20
pounds;
alfalfa, 5
pounds
10
654.61
171.9
10
17L9
126.2
298.1
24.16
8.10
Lot 4 fed
wheatgrass,
15 pounds
10
656.1
71.1
10
71.1
178 1
249.2
22.20
8.91
1 See note 1, Table 3.
2 See note 2, Table 3.
The straw-fed lot, owing partly at least to the poor quality of the
straw, produced the lowest winter gain. The gains of the alfalfa-
fed and wheatgrass-fed lots were the same and were materially
higher than those of the straw-fed lot. In spite of the reduction in
the quantity of silage fed, the silage-fed lot produced 100 pounds
per head more gain than the alfalfa-fed and wheatgrass-fed lots.
WINTERING STEERS ON THE NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS
11
The gain of the silage-fed steers on pasture approached the gains
of the other lots more nearly than in other years, though it was
still the lowest. The wheatgrass-fed lot made the highest summer
gain.
The feed cost of gains in the straw-fed lot was again the lowest.
The reduction of the silage in the ration of lot 3 reduced the cost of
the gains for that lot and made it less than for either of the lots
wintered entirely on hay. Wheatgrass was slightly more economi-
cal than alfalfa, largely because of the greater summer gains made
by the first-named lot.
AVERAGES OF THE FIVE EXPERIMENTS
The series of experiments here reported is regarded as a com-
pleted piece of w^ork.^ Although differences in feed have caused
the results to vary greatly from year to year, the average results
should be a valuable indication of what may be expected on most
ranches of the northern Great Plains. The proportion of wet and
dry years, with the consequent effect on the character of the feed
produced, has been about average. The average results of all
the experiments, namely, the gains during both the winter and
summer grazing periods, the total gains, the winter feed cost, and
the feed cost per 100 pounds gain during the year, are shown in
Table 8.
Table 8. — Summary of icinter, summer, and total gains, and cost of 100 pounds
of total gain, for the five experiments, 1923 to 1928
Item
Lot 1 fed
oat straw,
10 pounds;
alfalfa, 5
pounds
Lot 2 fed
alfalfa, 15
pounds
Lot 3 fed
silage, 28
pounds;
alfalfa, 5
pounds
Lot 4 fed
wheatgrass,
15 pounds
Average winter gain per steer (all steers) pounds-.
Average winter gain per steer (steers carried through
summer) .pounds..
Average summer gain per steer do
Average winter and summer gain per steer i
74.7
77.1
127.3
204.4
14.46
7.07
93.8
91.3
134.4
225.7
20.93
9.27
189.8
197.8
9L7
289.5
27.12
9.37
85.9
91.7
147.9
239.6
Average cost of feed and pasture per steer 2 dollars-
Average feed cost per 100 pounds of gain do
20.89
8.72
See note 1, Table 3.
2 See note 2, Table 3.
The average gain of the silage-fed lot during the winter was 189.8
pounds a head, which was very much higher than that of any other
lot. On the other hand, the summer gain of the silage-fed steers
was lower than that of any other lot, but because of the extremely
high winter gain, the yearly gain of the silage-fed lot was higher
than that of any of the others. The average winter gains of the
alfalfa- fed and wheatgrass-fed steers carried through the experiment
were about the same, but the steers wintered on wheatgrass produced
13.5 pounds a head more gain during the grazing period. The steers
fed on straw produced the lowest winter gain, and the next to the
lowest summer gain. Their gain for the year was from 21 to 85
pounds a head less than for the other lots.
1 A series of experiments is now under way at this station to compare three rations
for wintering steers, namely, silage and oat straw, alfalfa and oat straw, and Dakota
amber sorgo. The cattle are being so fed that they make little or no winter gains, which
Is in keeping with the practice on most ranches.
12 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 2, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The feed cost per pound of gain during the year was slightly-
higher for the silage-fed lot than for any of the other lots. The
feed cost of gain in the alfalfa-fed lot was appreciably higher than
in wheatgrass-fed lot. The low cost of straw made the feed cost
per pound of yearly gain for the straw-fed lot much lower than for
any other.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The results of the five years' work show that oat straw i^ a valuable
supplement to the winter's feed. In years when the quality of the
straw was good, the winter gain of the steers fed on straw was
satisfactory. However, in years of heavy rust infection the gain of
the steers fed on straw was much lower than that of steers fed hay.
Oat straw was the most economical of all the feeds under study, but
it must be remembered that oat straw is purely a by-product of
producing a crop of oats for grain. The amount of oats grown for
grain seldom exceeds the needs of the individual farm, as other
grain crops have a higher market value per acre than oats. Cer-
tainly no recommendation that oats be grown for the purpose of
obtaining straw for feeding purposes can be made. Therefore the
quantity of oat straw available is seldom large enough to form more
than a part of the winter ration. The experiment has definitely
proved, however, that a limited quantity of good-quality oat straw
can be fed with alfalfa hay to steers without materially reducing
the gain. Wlien used in this way, it materially reduces the winter-
ing cost of the steers.
Alfalfa and wheatgrass have proved to be of about equal value
as winter rations. The slightly greater winter gain of the alfalfa-
fed steers is more than compensated for by the greater summer
gain of the wheatgrass-fed steers. The difference between the two
is small, however, and one can safely say that these two crops
are so nearly equal that cost rather than feeding value should
determine which should be used.
Wheatgrass has been generally accepted as being better than
alfalfa, because a specified quantity will last longer. In these
experiments the alfalfa-fed steers generally consumed their rations
in less than half the time required by the wheatgrass-fed steers.
There is no doubt that steers will consume much more alfalfa than
wheatgrass if given the opportunity. It is this greater consumption
of alfalfa that has given rise to the opinion that wheatgrass is
" stronger " than alfalfa, and that less is required for feeding pur-
poses. The experiments indicate that no more alfalfa than wheat-
grass is needed for a winter ration.
The gain of the silage- fed steers was always high during the
winter period, and that resulted in a low gain during the grazing
period. The results in these experiments are in keeping with those
obtained in studies of the effect of winter rations upon the subse-
quent summer gains of steers on pasture, such as the study reported
in Department Bulletin 1251, Effect of Winter Eations on Pasture
Gains of 2-Year-Old Steers. The general conclusion of such studies
is that the steers which make the greatest winter gains make the small-
est summer gains, but the greatest total gains for winter and summer
combined. The silage ration in the beginning was calculated to con-
tain the same quantity of dry matter as the other lots, the quantity
WINTERING STEERS ON THE NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS 13
fed being based on a 25.3 per cent dry-matter content. Drying tests
made during the experiment, however, showed that the silage gen-
erally contained from 35 to 40 per cent dry matter, so that the
(Quantity of digestible nutrients fed was greater than originally
intended. In the last year of the test the reduction in the silage
fed made the digestible nutrient in the ration less than in the hay
rations. In spite of this the silage-fed steers continued to make
good gains, and the feed cost per pound of gain for the year was
less than for the hay-fed lots. It is believed, and the results of the
last year's test substantiate that belief, that when the quantity of
silage fed is small enought to keep the winter gain from being too
high, silage is as economical a winter ration as hay. Even under
the . conditions of the experiment the difference is probably less
than shown by the cost figures. The silage- fed steers were usually
in better condition than the other lots at the end of the grazing
season and would probably have sold on the market for enough more
to take care of at least part of the higher wintering cost. This can
not be definitely proved, however, as the steers were sold as feeders
and as one drove of cattle.
The gains made during the wintering experiments show that the
feed for all lots was sufficient to bring the steers through the winter
in a satisfactory condition. It is probable that had less feed been
used during the winter the steers in all lots would have made
slightly higher gains during the grazing period.
The cost and quantities of feed consumed were greater than
under ranch conditions because the steers were confined in pens and
had no feed whatever except their rations. On most ranches winter
pasture is available, and steers are able to get a portion of their
feed from dried grasses, except during storm periods. This de-
creases the actual cost of the winter rations but should not materially
change the relative value of the different rations.
ORGANIZATION OF THE
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
July 22, 1930
Secretary of Agriculture Abthub M. Hyde.
Assistant Secretary R. W. Dunlap.
Director of Scientific Work A. F. Woods.
Director of Regulatory Work Walter G. Campbell.
Director of Extension Work C. W. Wabburton.
Director of Personyiel and Business Admin- W. W. Stockbergeb.
istration.
Director of Information M. S. Eisenhoweb.
Solicitor , E. L. Marshall.
Weather Bureau Charles F. Marvin, Chief.
Bureau of Animal Industry John R. Mohleb, Chief.
Bureau of Dairy Industry , O. E. Reed, Chief.
Bureau of Plant Industry Whjlla-m A. Taylob, Chief,
Forest Service R. Y. Stuart, Chief.
Bureau of Chemistry and Soils H. G. Knight, Chief.
Bureau of Entomology C. L. Marlatt, Chief.
Bureau of Biological Survey Paul G. Redington, Chief.
Bureau of Public Roads Thomas H. MacDonald, Chief.
Bureau of Agricultural Econormcs Nils A. Olsen, Chief.
Bureau of Home Economics Louise Stanley, Chief.
Plant Quarantine and Control Administration- Lee A. Strong, Chief.
Grain Futures Administration J. W. T, Duvel, Chief.
Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration— Walter G. Campbell, Director of
Regulatory Work, m Charge.
Office of Experiment Stations , Chief.
Office of Cooperative Extension Work C. B. Smith, Chief.
Library Claribel R. Babnett, Librarian.
This bulletin is a joint contribution from
Bureau of Animal Industry John R. Mohleb, Chief.
Animal Husbandry Division E. W. Sheets, Chief.
Bureau of Plant Industry William A. Taylor, Chief.
Office of Dry-Land Agriculture E. C. Chilcott, Principal Agri-
culturist, in charge.
14
U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1930
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. - - Price, 5 cents
Technical Bulletin No. 191
July, 1930
THE
PRODUCTION. EXTRACTION.
AND GERMINATION
OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED
BY
C. G. BATES
Senior Silviculturist, Lake States Forest Experiment Station
Branch of Research^ Forest Service
United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C*
Price 20 cents
Technical Bulletin No. 191
July, 1930
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
THE PRODUCTION, EXTRACTION, AND GERMINATION
OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED
Senior Sil/moultunst,
By C. G. Bates
Lake States Forest Experiment Station, Branch of
Research, Forest Service
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction 1
Character of lodgepole pine cones and seeds. . 3
Relation of fire to lodgepole pine distribu-
tion .-. 3
Soil preferences 4
The cones . 5
The seeds 6
Seed production of lodgepole pine 7
Description of the experiment 7
Comparison of the Medicine Bow and
Gunnison stands 8
Amount of seed produced 9
Seed collecting and extracting 20
Cone collecting 20
Cone storage 21
Seed extracting 21
The loss of water by cones 26
The relative importance of temperatures
in opening cones 31
Pago
Seed collecting and extracting— Contd.
Effect of various treatments on quantity
and quality of seed 33
The economy of storage and air drying . . 50
Germination of lodgepole pine seed 57
The method of germination tests 57
Characteristics of greenhouse germina-
tion 70
Studies of field and nursery germination. 73
Summary 79
Production 79
Extraction. 80
Germination 83
Appendix... 85
A model seed-«xtracting plant for lodge-
pole pine cones 85
A mechanical kiln 89
Cone-drying sheds 89
Literature cited 91
INTRODUCTION
The investigations into the qualities of lodgepole pine (Pmus
contorta) seed reported in this bulletin were begun in 1910, at a
time when the Forest Service contemplated very extensive refor-
estation in the West by the " direct-seeding " method. They were
undertaken because of economic and technical difficulties encoun-
tered in obtaining the seed of this species in sufficient quantities and
at such cost as to make the reforestation program feasible.
Although at the outset no great difficulty was met with in obtain-
ing adequate supplies of cones, anticipation of future needs led in
1911 to a systematic study of the quantities of cones produced per
unit area and of the intervals at which large crops may be expected.
As is well known, the cones of lodgepole pine do not open imme-
diately upon ripening, and, like those of jack pine and the European
Scotch pine (Firms sylvestris), offer considerable resistance to arti-
ficial treatment. The first attempts to extract seed from the cones
of this species were rewarded by many disappointments and by
yields of seed so small as to make the price prohibitive. Forest
110505"— 30 1 1
2 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
officers reported that cones dried for as much as 24 to 48 hours at
150° to 200° F. for the most part failed to open or to yield seed of
consistently acceptable quality.
The first conclusion was, naturally, that an extremely high tem-
perature must be used to open all the cones; the second, that the
temperature which would be effective would in all probability de-
stroy the viability of the seed.
Fortunately, the Forest Service had European experience with
Scotch pine seed extraction to fall back upon, of which Wiebecke's
account {HY is an example. As soon as reforestation on a large
scale made the seed problem an important one, efforts were made to
apply European methods to the extraction of lodgepole pine seed.
From 1910 to 1913 a number of experiments conducted at seed plants
then in operation yielded much valuable information which, in a
large measure, solved the practical problems. However, in these
large plants, when every effort was being made to obtain seed at a
low cost, it was often impossible to control the conditions of extrac-
tion so as to produce clear-cut results of scientific value. Small ex-
perimental kilns employed since 1912 have given results that have
added considerable refinement to the general conclusions already
formed and have made more clear the principles involved. The
early, rougher tests will be referred to in this bulletin only in so far
as may be necessary to round out the data and conclusions from the
later tests.
The practical results of seed extraction will always be found in the
number of germinable seeds obtained. Besides attem.pting to reduce
the cost of seed to a reasonable point, all of the tests since 1910 have
kept well to the fore the necessity for producing seed of high quality.
Consideration of the probable deleterious effect on the seed of over-
heating the cones has always been paramount, and every test of
practical importance has been checked by a determination of its effect
on seed quality.
The large number of germination tests thus called for, as well as
those desired for seed lots to be used in the major reforestation work,
soon directed a great deal of attention to the technic of seed testing.
It was obvious that scientific conclusions should be drawn from ger-
mination percentages per se only after the most careful analysis
and with the assurance that the various seed lots have received as
nearly as possible the same mechanical treatment. For this reason
the effort Avas made to adopt standard methods which would insure
the most valid comparisons between different seed lots representing
different cone treatments and between the same seed lots at different
periods.
Although the principal aim of this bulletin is to record the studies
directed toward the problem of lodgepole pine seed extraction at rea-
sonable cost, it is desirable that the fundamental principles involved
at all stages in the collection of cones, their storage and extraction,
the testing and storage of seeds, and the final sowing and results to
be expected should be made clear, in order that unexpected practical
problems may in a large measure be solved in advance. Considera-
tion will therefore be given at some length to a threefold concept of
the problem. This will include, in logical order: (1) The natural
1 Italic numbers in parentheses refer to Literature Cited, p. 91.
PRODUCTION OF LODaEPOLE PINE SEED 3
rate of production of lodgepole pine cones and seed, and variations
from year to year, as these may affect both plans for seed collection
and plans for securing natural reproduction after cutting; (2) the
collection and storage of lodgepole pine cones and extraction of seed
therefrom, both the practical features and physical principles in-
volved; and (3) the characteristics of lodgepole pine seed germina-
tion, in the greenhouse and field, as influenced by the gemiinating
conditions, by the seed source and quality, and finally by field
conditions.
CHARACTER OF LODGEPOLE PINE CONES AND SEEDS
Lodgepole pine has for a long time been a tree of such unusual
interest to botanists and foresters that it seems appropriate to
review all of the available facts regarding it that may have a con-
nection with the present study.
In so doing the general tendency to consider the lodgepole pine
of the Rocky Mountains and of the Sierras as one botanical species ^
will be avoided. Discussion will be confined to the Rocky Mountain
form, without attempting to depict the character of the Pacific
form in any respect.
In his Life History of Lodgepole Burn Forests Clements (5) has
considered in detail all the factors affecting the reproduction of
this species, including the seed production and seed qualities, but
this latter phase of his work is based on very meager information
which will serve mainly as an introduction to the present study.
Mason (JO) has considered the development of lodgepofe pine
in its economic aspects as influenced by growth, stocking, and yield,
but also reviews much of Clements's information on seed, light
requirements, etc. Both of these studies were confined to the Rocky
Mountain form of lodgepole pine.
RELATION OF FIRE TO LODGEPOLE PINE DISTRIBUTION
In the central Rocky Mountains lodgepole pine occupies a zone
or belt which may be described in a general way as extending from
middle to high elevations. A better conception of the position of
the species is given by thinking of it as having migrated along the
line (generally at about 9,500 feet elevation), which represents the
division between the middle forest zone of Douglas fir {Pseudo-
tsuga taxifolia) and the higher zone of Engelmann spruce {Picea
sngelmannii). From this line it has spread both upward and
downward, sometimes reaching quite or almost to the lower limits
of Douglas fir and again, as on the Holy Cross National Forest in
Colorado, occasionally going to timber line with the spruce.
On the whole, lodgepole pine has encroached on the fir zone
much more than on the spruce. The reason for this is fairly appar-
ent. In almost every spot where now are pure stands of lodgepole
pine evidences may be found of a devastating fire, which evidently
gave rise to these stands. Such a fire is dependent on two main
conditions — sufficient dryness to start a conflagration and sufficient
2 The two forms are frequently differentiated by the names Pinus murrayana and P.
contorta, respectively, but the Forest Service has adopted the latter name for both forms.
density of stand to induce a crown fire. Where the latter condition
does not exist and the fire is confined to the ground in whole or in
part, many trees of the predominant species may be killed, but at
least a few will survive to reseed the area. The two conditions fa-
voring lodgepole pine succession, a dense stand and dangerous dry-
ness, are more likely to be combined in the middle forest zone than
in the spruce zone — hence the almost complete destruction of the
Douglas fir forests and their supplanting by the more fecund, if
short-lived, lodgepole pine.
It is the opinion oi the writer, expressed in 1917 as a result of
a study of seed behavior (^), and corroborated later by studies of
the peculiar physiological functioning of trees of this species (5),
that lodgepole pine is properly an " invader " of the central Rocky
Mountain forests, and moreover that the invasion has been extremely
recent, so that over large areas the mature lodgepole pine stands
which we now possess represent the first generation of the species as a
forest dominant in this region.
Without doubt, however, the vigor of lodgepole pine as an invader
of areas denuded by fire results very largely from the character of
its seed supply, which is such as to withstand fire to some extent,
and so to be available for the immediate revegetation of denuded
land.
Since so much speculation has been entered into as to the function
of fire in reproducing lodgepole pine and favoring this species rather
than the more permanent spruce and Douglas fir, it is desirable to
make clear that only two relationships of fire to lodgepole pine
forests»have been satisfactorily established. Fire may dr}^ and open
the old cones on lodgepole pine trees, even while killing the trees
themselves and all other seeds of forest trees. Seeds from such
cones falling on the completely denuded ground are without im-
mediate competition, and thus have the ample moisture supply which
their frail character and slow-rooting habit require. Other effects
of fire are practically equally balanced. Charcoal and ashes may
possibly furnish temperatures favorable to lodgepole pine germina-
tion; contact with the mineral soil, which at times is much more
moist than the duff and litter, possibly helps also; but chemical
changes in the soil from burning are rather unfavorable to the vigor
of lodgepole pine seedlings, since these appear to prefer soil with a
moderately acid reaction.
SOIL PREFERENCES
A fact of considerable importance in the natural distribution of
lodgepole pine, as well as in the possibility of further invasions and
the management of existing stands, is the predilection of the species
for siliceous soils. The growth of the tree is by no means inhibited
by such soils as those derived from limestone and fine-grained ig-
neous rocks, and yet in some cases the natural migration of the
species appears to have been definitely determined by soil charac-
ter. There is scarcely any doubt that this indicates some degree of
fastidiousness on the part of lodgepole pine as to the mineral nutri-
ents of the soil.
PRODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED 5
More important, however, is the inability of the species to contend
with any severe degree of drought. Light sandy soils in general
hold most of their moisture at considerable depth and thereby stimu-
late deep rooting of lodgepole pine seedlings ; but it is perhaps more
significant that these light soils do not, after denudation, encourage
a heavy growth of herbaceous vegetation to compete with lodgepole
pine seedlings for the moisture supply. Lodgepole pine prefers a
light, and especially a well-drained soil, but the successful establish-
ment of seedlings is more dependent on their having the field largely
to themselves.
The seedlings of lodgepole pine, according to Clements's analysis
and to present general ideas, are light-demanding; and they are not
as well equipped by growth habit as those of spruce or Douglas fir to
contend with severe competition. In short, lodgepole pine is rather
an invader of freshly denuded or young soils than a climax forest
contender and, in the language of the forester, has all the earmarks
of a forest " weed."
An interesting illustration of distribution according to soil is
found on the western slope of the Bighorn Mountains, Wyo., where
a number of glacial flows have cut deep grooves in the native lime-
stone formations of middle and low elevations, and have left these
grooves filled with loose deposits of granitic material from the
higher mountains. Almost without exception these moraines are
occupied by lodgepole pine, whereas the parallel limestone ridges
are as exclusively occupied by Douglas fir.
THE CONES
Cones of lodgepole pine vary greatly in size, according to the con-
ditions of growth. The length varies from 1 to 3 inches and the
diameter from three-fourths to II/2 inches. Cones of smaller size
than this are often produced but are usually unfertilized and bear
no seed. (PI. 1, A.) Normal cones usually run from 1,500 to 2,000
to the bushel.
The normal shape of the lodgepole pine cone is ovate-acute, but
this is frequently varied by a tendency to a one-sided development
which results in a flattening or even a concavity of the undeveloped
side. This arrested development usually occurs where the cone is
closely appressed to a stem or branch " leader." Lack of develop-
ment probablv results both from failure of the pollen to reach the
concealed surface and from the lack of light to keep active the tissues
while they are still in a growing state. Zederbauer (IS) in the study
of the widely distributed mountain pine {Pinus Tnontana) of Europe,
which shows such great variation in cone form as to lead to the
naming of numberless varieties, concluded that the form of the cone
was very largely controlled by light and that the different varieties
might result from differences in climate, altitude, and density of the
stand.
The scales of the cone nearest the tip, with the exception of the
first half dozen, are those most certain to bear viable seeds; the
extreme basal scales never do. Undeveloped scales also are very
likely to be barren. Of the average cone it would probably be
correct to say that the seeds are entirely in the upper half. It is
almost impossible, and wholly futile to bring about the spreading
of the lower scales,
S. DEPT. OF AGBICULTUKE
The weight of fresh, green lodgepole pine cones at the time of
maturing is 38 to 50 pounds to the bushel. An average figure for
cones as commonly collected is 42 pounds to the bushel. Since the
excess moisture contained in green cones is very quickly lost, it is
never equitable to purchase cones on a weight basis. Cones thor-
oughly dried at the temperature of boiling water weigh about 25
pounds to the bushel, original volume. In opening the cone scales
spread widely, increasing the volume 100 to 150 per cent, according
to the rate of drying and temperature of the treatment. With a
110° F. treatment very few of the cones open widely and many do
not spread the scales far enough to permit the seed to fall out.
With the more rapid drying at 170° or 200° even small, abnormal
cones are forced to spread their scales wide.
The specific heat of cones dried at 150° F. has been determined
to be approximately 0.43. The fuel value of cones, as very roughly
determined, is approximately that of wood or about 8,000 British
thermal units per pound of dry weight.
THE SEEDS
The seeds of lodgepole pine vary in length from 2 to 3 millimeters.
They are typically somewhat flattened throughout and obtusely
pointed at the small end. The normal color of the seed is black,
with numerous excrescences of resin, which give it a slightly grayish
tone. (PL 1, B.) Although brownish seeds are sometimes fertile,
off color denotes lack of vitality in lodgepole pine perhaps more
than in any other conifer. Hollow seeds are often nearly white, or
black with large blotches of white.
Seeds of lodgepole pine as they come from the cone are enveloped
in a thin membrane to which is attached the so-called " wing," resem-
bling the samaras of ash and maple, but more thinly membranous.
The wing acts as a slightly turned rudder, causing the seed to spiral
in its descent, and in treating the seed, this wing, brittle and easily
broken by rubbing, is always removed to reduce the volume and
facilitate handling.
The number of fully developed seeds in each cone varies widely.
An approximate maximum number is 50, the average for large lots
of normal cones is about 40, and the minimum goes down to 1 or 2
in extreme cases.
The yield of seeds, with effective extraction methods, usually falls
between one-third and one-half of a pound to the bushel of cones.
The normal number of seeds per pound in thoroughly cleaned
lots, from which light seeds have been removed to a moderate degree,
is 100,000. The size of the seed compares rather closely with that of
jack pine {Pinus Banksiana)^ a close counterpart of lodgepole that
in the Lake States yields an average of 129,000 seeds per pound.
Engelmann spruce of the Eocky Mountains has smaller seed than
lodgepole pine, whereas Douglas fir and Western yellow pine are
2.5 to 10 times as large. The extreme variations in number are from
85,000 to 160,000 seeds per pound, depending both upon size and
dryness.
Tech. Bui. 191. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 1
F 174646 21925A 10885A
A, Lodgepole pine cones of the 1923 crop, showing typical shapes and variations in size; B, lodge-
pole pine seeds extracted from 1 bushel of cones; C, greenhouse at the Fremont Laboratory,
where most of the germination tests were conducted
PRODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED 7
SEED PRODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE
While many scattering observations on the seed production of
lodgepole pine are to be found in the literature of American forestry,
notably in the discussion by Clements (J), so far as known the
only serious attempt to measure the fecundity of the species sys-
tematically over a period of years has been made by the Forest
Service on the Medicine Bow National Forest in southern Wyoming
and on the Gunnison National Forest in western Colorado. These
two localities were chosen to represent different climatic regions
likely to show very different results. (Table 1.) The Medicine Bow
area, on a flat plateau at 9,000 feet elevation, is subject to low winter
temperatures and heavy snow accumulations, is seldom free from
killing frosts ^ in any month of the year, and suffers increasing dry-
ness as the summer advances, although there is a slight increase in
precipitation in July and August. The Gunnison area, at an eleva-
tion of about 9,2f00 feet on a steep northwest slope, is in a region
subject to even lower winter temperatures and heavy snowfall, but
by reason of its more southerly latitude appreciably warmer during
the summer months. All of this portion of Colorado receives fairly
abundant rains during July and August, which more nearly counter-
balance the high evaporation rate.
Table 1. — Normal temperatwe and predpitatiari of Medteine Bow area m
southern Wyoming and Gunnison area of western Colorado ^
Normal
temperature
Normal pre-
cipitation
Month
Medi-
cine
Bow
Gun-
nison
Medi-
cine
Bow
Gun-
nison
January
14.7
16.0
21.8
2fi.l
37.3
46.3
52.4
51.0
°F.
12.5
15.2
23.4
30.5
40.9
49.7
53.9
52.2
Inches
1.35
1.53
1.13
1.86
1.19
1.23
1.42
1.57
Inches
1.38
1.37
1.50
1.40
1.42
1.41
2.38
1.96
February
March
AprU.
May....
June.
July..
August.-
Month
September
October
November
December
Average or total
Year
Summer
Normal
temperature
Medi-
cine
Bow
42.5
34.4
25.1
14.2
32.0
49.9
Gun-
nison
°F.
44.6
34.9
24.7
12.3
32.9
51.9
Normal pre-
cipitation
Medi-
cine
Bow
Inches
1.32
1.01
1.02
1.37
16.00
4.22
Gun-
nison
Inches
1.48
1.32
.84
1.32
17.78
5.75
1 Southern Wyoming represented by Foxpark Station, 11-year record; Gunnison represented by Pitkin
for precipitation and Crested Butte for temperature 13 years and 12 years, respectively. All records read
from Climatological Data of the U. S. Weather Bureau.
DESCRIPTION OF THE EXPERIMENT
The two projects were started simultaneously in 1912, on a 10-year
plan, both being completed with the collection of the seed crop for
1921.
In each project 10 contiguous plots were laid out, one of these to
be cut each year for the collection of cones, since with this species
it is impracticable to collect the cones except after felling the trees.
The size of the plots was arranged to include about 100 trees in
each, and in each plot the trees were classified at the outset into 15
3 Killing as applied to ordinary vegetation. Of course, the native vegetation has become
extremely hardy and is not afEected by temperatures near 30" F.
8 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
groups, the numbers 1 to 5 representing relative heights as usually
expressed by the words dominant, codominant, intermediate, op-
pressed, and suppressed. Within each of these five groups the treec
were further differentiated as to crown fullness by the letters a, b,
and c, trees with the fullest and most vigorous crowns being desig-
nated a. For a given height class the trees with widest crowns
commonly have the largest diameters.
After this classification of the trees had been completed about 15
trees of representative development for their respective groups were
selected on each plot, and from these the actual cone collections were
to be made. Very few trees were allocated to the oppressed or sup-
pressed groups, especially on the Gunnison area, and in consequence
many oi these groups are not represented. This is as it should
be, since it will be noted that the lower grades, when cut, yielded
little or no seed.
The cones having been collected from the sample trees and the
seed extracted, weighed, counted, and tested, the method of com-
puting the total yield was to increase the yield for each group in
proportion to the ratio of total trees to sample trees in that group
and then to reduce the yield to an acre basis.
In the collection of the cones those just maturing were separated
from the unopened cones produced in previous years. The former
will hereafter be called " new " and the latter " old " cones. The
cones from two or more sample trees of a given class w^ere usually
combined into one lot, although in some instances individual trees
have been followed through. There is no uniformity, or even
similarity, in the productivity of individuals of a given class, so
the entire set of sample trees gives only a fair stand average for each
year, and the tree classes may be roughly compared only on the
basis of 10-year averages.
All of the seed extracting was done in the experimental kiln at the
Fremont laboratory of the Kocky Mountain Forest Experiment Sta-
tion as soon as possible after the collection of the cones. The larger
proportion of the seeds was extracted at moderate temperatures.
When moderate temperatures w^ere not effective, higher temperatures
were employed to obtain maximum yields. There is no evidence that
the germinability of the seeds was ever appreciably lowered by the
drying treatment given.
Extraction of seeds from the 1918 and 1920 crops was delayed
nearly a year. Since the conditions for cone storage in the interval
were not ideal, it is possible that the relatively low germinative
capacities of these two crops may be ascribed in part to this factor.
Five hundred seeds were used for each test, where that number was
available. In a few instances, where the total number of seeds
available was very small, the germination was estimated at 50 per
cent without making any test.
COMPARISON OF THE MEDICINE BOW AND GUNNISON STANDS
A summary of the Medicine Bow plot tallies gives the average
number of trees on that area as 443 per acre, whereas on the Gun-
nison area the number was 528. In mean age, the trees were prac-
PRODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED
9
tically the same in the two places, about 185 years, but the trees on
the Medicine Bow area had a much larger average diameter. (Table
2.) This difference in growth is no doubt due in part to the less dense
stand on the Medicine Bow, but it is probable also that the soil at
Medicine Bow is more favorable to growth. The gneiss soil from
the Medicine Bow locality has been shown by greenhouse tests to be
peculiarly suited to the vigorous growth of lodgepole pine and, on
the basis of these tests, must be rated at least 50 per cent higher than
the soil from the Gunnison plots.
Table 2. — Age and diameter of the sample lodgepole pine trees ^
Tree class
Average age
Average diameter
breast high
Basis, trees
Medicine
Bow
Gunnison
Medicine
Bow a
Gunnison ^
Medicine
Bow
Gunnison
1-a..
Years
197
201
195
200
199
186
196
187
172
194
171
170
189
154
151
Years
203
193
191
185
199
169
168
172
163
80
140
Inches
14.1
11.9
10.2
11.1
10.0
9.1
9.1
7.9
7.6
6.7
6.3
5.8
5.2
4.0
3.9
Inches
8.3
7.6
6.7
6.8
6.0
6.4
5.4
5.0
4.8
4.6
4.1
Number
5
6
4
8
9
6
8
12
8
5
4
5
3
3
6
Number
18
1-b -
10
1-c
5
2-a
11
2-b..
2-C—
3-a
3-b ..
3-c
4-a
4-b
4-C-..
5-a - .
100
140
3.5
3.7
5-b- ...
5-c
«
Total or average
186
184
8.9
6.8
92
76
i Medicine Bow plots for the years 1915 and 1917-1920 ; Gunnison plots for the years 1917-1921.
' Averages determined by the usual algebraic method of basal areas.
» These are the average diameters for the groups represented, the sample-tree diameters in this case not
having been recorded.
There is, then, on the Medicine Bow area a somewhat more open
stand of larger, more limby trees, and more mature in the sense of
having attained the stature of maturity. Some of these trees were
infected with mistletoe, and recent observation in the same locality
indicates that such trees are usually poor seed bearers. Pearson
{11) found that some western yellow pines {Pinus ponderosa) in-
fected by mistletoe yielded seed of lower vitality than the seed from
healthy trees, although the quantities were not greatly reduced by
anything less than very heavy infection. It is questionable whether
these facts have any material bearing on the seed production of the
two areas, since it will be shown in the later analysis that this is
probably most directly controlled by local climatic conditions.
AMOUNT OF SEED PRODUCED
In Table 3 the weight and quality of the seed collected each year
are given, together with the computed number of good seeds as meas-
ured by the total or final germination percentages. This final figure
is shown graphically in Figure 1.
10 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 3. — Surmnary of lodgepole pine seed production per acre of forest
Medicine Bow
Tear
Current crop
Old cones
Weight
Germina-
tion
capacity
Good
seeds
Weight
Germina-
tion
capacity
Good
seeds
1912 -
Pounds
1. 1805
.6702
.2312
.7637
1.1046
1. 7977
.8668
0
1.6242
.8809
Per cent
56.4
172.0
178.0
135.9
65.6
58.9
161.8
0
58.5
81.6
Number
96,078
73, 898
2 19, 610
40, 125
108, 254
135, 582
56,359
0
102, 398
97, 711
Pounds
1.9207
1. 7C79
.0790
4. 2196
0
3.1648
6. 7316
4. 6293
.7719
.9621
Percent
37.3
56.0
78.0
41.4
0
56.7
61.5
65.9
56.8
68.2
Number
145, 531
140, 519
2 6,666
226,004
0
1913 --
1914 .-
1915
1916
1917 . ...
270, 340
481,500
382,930
53,590
99,987
1918.
1919 -.
1920
1921....
Arithmetical mean
.9120
63.2
72,992
2.4187
58.0
180, 707
Gunnison
. Year
Current crop
Old cones
Weight
Germina-
tion
capacity
Good
seeds
Weight
Germina-
tion
capacity
Good
seeds
1912 .-
Pounds
2. 5337
2.1425
.6674
.9189
.4511
3.4242
7. 4853
7.0984
7. 3279
.2784
Per cent
67.9
167.3
75.8
74.7
77.1
67.0
65.6
83.4
173.3
87.5
Nimber
226, 121
196, 079
68,074
96,905
54,668
319, 074
682, 726
827, 074
699,384
30, 421
Pounds
16. 6384
23.6280
23. 7042
12.7684
ia6968
5,6447
2.6416
5. 6895
4.4947
5.2542
Per cent
72.5
74.5
62.7
68.3
73.8
52.8
45.9
79.6
63.3
80.2
Number
1, 527, 079
2, 326, 168
1 781 263
1913
1914
1915
1, 143, 195
2, 086, 495
424 710
1916
1917
1918
183,826
656, 974
401 726
1919
1920 .
1921
508,316
Arithmetical mean
3. 2328
74.0
320, 053
11.9160
67.4
1, 103, 960
1 The germination period has been for 62 days where noted. In 1912 the Medicine Bow crop was tested
for 66 days; 1916, 66 to 89 days, with 75 days as the average; 1917, 88 days; 1919, 65 to 102 days, with 94 davs
prevailing; 1920, 66 days; 1921, 73 days. The 1912 Gunnison crop was tested for 66 days; the 1914 only for
50 to 52 days; the 1915 crop for 82 days; 1916, 89 days; 1917, 88 to 89 days; 1918, 62 to 109 days; 1919, 100 davs;
1921, 84 days.
2 Crop so small that all lots of new and old cones were lumped together. The proportion assigned to old
and new is obtained from the cone weights.
The salient points brought out by Table 3 are as follows :
The Medicine Bow sample area has produced, as a 10-year average
crop, 0.912 pound of clean seed, or 72,992 good seeds per acre, the
term " good " being used throughout this discussion to denote seeds
germinable within the period allowed and under the soil, moisture,
and temperature conditions provided. These figures, while in every
sense conservative as to actual seed production, may give an unduly
optimistic impression of the number of seeds likely to germinate
under field conditions, even with the complete elimination of de-
structive agents such as rodents, which undoubtedly destroy a large
proportion of the crop each year.
The Gunnison area, on the same basis, has produced 3.2328 pounds
of clean seed per year, equivalent to 320,053 good seeds to the acre.
These figures compare well with the estimate made by Cox (6) in
1911, which showed a full crop for lodgepole pine to be about 4
pounds of seed per acre.
PRODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED
11
The value of old cones, as measured by the number of germinable
seeds, is in the average year 2.48 times the value of the new cones for
the Medicine Bow area and 3.45 times for the Gunnison area; or,
in other words, in the one locality cones are retained for an average
of two and one-half years, and in the other area for three and one-
half years after the normal time of maturing. This ratio, or the
tendency of trees to retain their cones without opening, is extremely
variable as between individual trees under similar growing condi-
tions and has never been adequately explained, but it is believed the
HUNDREID
THOUSANDS
SEEIDS
2
MEDICINE BOW AREA
10
GUNNISON AREA
■
1 . . .
■
1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921
VEARS
FiGUEE 1. — Lodgepole pine seed production by years, all tree classes, new cones only
above data are suiSiciently well grounded to indicate a distinct dif-
ference in this respect between the trees of the two localities.
For both localities the new seeds show higher germinative capacity
than those from old cones, and the germination of Gunnison seed is
distinctly better than that of the Medicine Bow seed. Individual
germination percentages have no precise value in biological com-
parisons, but it may safely be said that the present data do show
definite tendencies, and this will be substantiated later by a considera-
tion of the germination rates. The average germination period was
somewhat longer for the Gunnison seeds than for the Medicine Bow
seeds, namely 77 days as against 71 days, but if the 6 additional days
were given the Medicine Bow seeds their germination could hardly
be increased more than 1 per cent.
12 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
PERIODICITY OF SEED PRODUCTION
The literature of forestry has frequently given expression to
rather ill-founded beliefs in the periodicity of seed crops of the
various forest trees and the reasons therefor. " Produces abundant
crops of seed every three or four years " is a good sample of the
expressions used, and where any explanation is offered for such
periodic production the impression is usually conveyed that the
production of a good crop so exhausts the vitality of the tree that it
must rest for two or three seasons. From what is known of the
irregularity of fruit crops and their dependence in large measure on
weather conditions at the time of flowering, this prevailing idea
appears illogical, and it is doubtful if it would be supported by any
careful analysis of comparable and reliable data on the seed crops
of different localities over a period of years, such as is offered inci-
dentally by the present study. The degree of variation in successive
crops of seed from the Gunnison and Medicine Bow areas, shown in
Figure 1, furnishes no evidence that one good crop, or even two in
succession, exhaust the ability of the trees to produce seed or lower
their vitality in the slightest degree.
It will be noted for the Gunnison area that fairly good crops,
better than the maximum Medicine Bow crop, were produced in
1912 and 1913. These were followed by three lean years, and the
latter in turn by four successive years better than average. The
poorest year for the Gunnison was 1921. The Medicine Bow produc-
tion shows similar but less marked surges, including one year of
complete failure.
While it is true that the successive crops on either area were not
gathered from the same sets of trees, the several sets were in each
locality subjected to the same climatic conditions. Crop failures,
and likewise especially abundant seed crops, are usually widely
effective, and crops may generally be described as uniformly good or
bad over whole townships or larger areas. Although the two areas
of this study should not be expected to fall within the same set of
influences, it seems probable that the year-to-year variations shown
by the plots used in each area may be thought of at least as char-
acteristic of the areas involved.
May forest-tree seed crops then be said to be dependent on local
and perhaps temporary weather conditions and may they be fore-
cast? With so many possibilities of weather conditions affecting a
crop that requires two growing seasons to mature, a close correlation
is hardly to be expected without a more exhaustive study than the
available weather records will permit. It is believed, however, that
a very simple explanation of the failures of these lodgepole pine seed
crops is possible. This explanation was suggested by observation at
the Fremont station of the repeated destruction of Douglas fir seed
crops after the female flowers had appeared in abundance. This
destruction appeared to be accomplished by freezing weather and
late snows, and although rarely complete indicated that the pistillate
flowers are sensitive to cold in the same sense as the flowers of our
common fruit trees or that cold weather occurring at the critical time
might prevent normal pollination.
A statement of minimum summer temperatures as presented in
Table 4 should permit a surmise as to their effect on the young pis-
tillate flowers on which cone crops are dependent. The record of
PEODTTCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED
13
temperatures for Foxpark very closely approximates that at Medi-
cine Bow, less than a mile away; that for Crested Butte, some 30
miles distant from the Gunnison seed-producing area, is not so
closely an approximation, but as it is in the same basin and at about
the same elevation the two points would probably be subject to
the same general influences. Thus the relative seasonal values are
sufficiently indicative. It should be understood that in these forest
types there is practically no vegetative activity before June.
Table 4. — Minimum air temperatures for ecK-h m/)nth of groicing season, at
Foxpark and Crested Butte, Wyo., 1911-1920
Date of minima
Year
1911.
1912.
1913.
1914.
1915.
1916.
Month
June...
July....
August
June...
July...
August
June...
July...
August
Jime...
July..-.
August
June...
July...
August
June...
July...
August
Day
23
9
31
3
25
17
18
18
9
22
8
13
1
31
{ a
/ 24-25
I 27
3
11
19
13
25
7
13
7
7
4
7
4
5
26
28
Minimum tem-
peratures at —
Fox-
park
(Medi-
cine
Bow)
Crested
Butte
(Gunni-
son)
o p_
26
22
23
30
24
19
20
20
(0
32
29
24
25
25
28
24
27
32
26
25
31
30
31
26
28
16
20
(0
27
(0
27
20
14
23
29
23
28
Date of minima
Year
1917.
1918.
1919.
1920.
Month
[June.
July.
[August.
[June
I July.- -
I August.
{June...
July....
August.
fJune...
July.
[August.
Average minima:
June
July
August
Normal mean:
June
July
August
Day
Minimum tem-
peratures at —
Fox-
park
(Medi-
cine
Bow)
19.6
24.6
23.6
46.3
52.4
51.0
Crested
Butte
(Gun-
nison)
30
34
17
23.4
29.0
26.9
49.7
53.9
52.2
1 No record for this month.
The general air temperatures for the summer as shown in Table 4
are 2° higher in the Gunnison region. This fact alone would go
far toward explaining the much greater productivity of the trees.
However, the 3° difference between the mean temperatures for June
and the corresponding difference in mean minima are especially to
be noted as affecting the development of pistillate flowers in the
two regions.
The most certain evidence of a correlative variation in crops in
individual years is obtained from consideration of the very unusual
conditions prevailing at Foxpark on the 30th of June and 1st of
July, 1918, when temperatures of 19° and 18° F., respectively, wero
14 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
recorded, the latter being much the latest minimum of similar severity
at this station and the lowest July temperature during the 10-year
period. This depression certainly explains the failure of the 1919
Medicine Bow crop, especially when it is known that the month of
June, as a whole, had been several degrees warmer than normal.
Likewise, the poorest crop on the Gunnison, that for 1921, is very
certainly connected with the low minima for 1920, which were record
breakers not only in June but also in July and August.
In contrast to these extremes, the four phenomenally large crops
on the Gunnison appear to be connected with favorable temperatures
in preceding years, which culminated in 1918, when there was no
frost in either June or July. It is regrettable that there is no 1919
record to substantiate further this conclusion.
The other correlations are not so clear, and there is no desire to
overstress this point by offering far-fetched explasiations. Too
little is known of the weight that should be given to different fac-
tors, such as time and severity of freezing temperatures. It does
seem evident, however, that lodgepole pine seed crops, like fruit
crops, are subject to injury by severe freezing, and that for this
reason periodicity can be no more regular than the succession of
favorable weather conditions, which has no regularity whatever
except as limited by the laws of chance.* Forecasting seed crops for
the pines, it is believed, can be leased only on the evidence of cones
that have successfully weathered their first growing season and
which are therefore almost certain to mature.
Although lodgepole pine in the middle and higher mountain eleva-
tions has, no doubt, become inured to low temperatures during the
flowering period, still there is reason, from the evidence here pre-
sented, for believing that at high altitudes and latitudes it may reach
the limit of effective seed production, just as seed production of the
aspen ceases toward but well within the upper edge of its vegetative
zone.^
No claim is made that these data completely explain the sizes of
the crops produced, for it is self-evident that there are many factors
which might affect productivity after the flowers were past the frost-
sensitive stage. But since with favorable climatic conditions lodge-
pole pine begins to produce cones at an early age, and trees of all
sizes and nearly all degrees of vigor show ability to produce some
seeds, it is probable that temperature has a more direct bearing on
productivity for a given forest area than any other factor or group
of factors.
COMPARATIVE FECUNDITY OF LODGEPOLE PINE
While this bulletin does not attempt to treat the seed problems of
other species, it is important for a thorough consideration of the prac-
tical problems of lodgepole pine management to know how this
species compares in seed-producing capacity with its neighbors of
the mountain forest. For such a comparison, records for the other
species are available from observations conducted in the same manner
as those for lodgepole pine, and for almost the same period.
.^'^^^^^^^P\f^^ the chances are only 3 in 100 that four successive seasons will have
temperatures above the normal.
5 This statement is based on limited observation, and may not represent a valid com-
parison because seed production in aspen is at best a weak and nearly disused function.
PRODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED 15
These observations, when tentatively assembled, show that the
numbers of good seeds produced by western yellow pine, Dougla?
fir, and Engelmann spruce are of the same order of magnitude a?
the numbers for lodgepole pine, although only one area, occupied br
Engelmann spruce on the Uncompahgre Plateau, in Colorado, has
shown as high an average production as the Gunnison lodgepole pine
area. The more important difference seems to be that all of the other
species are a little more liable than lodgepole pine to complete crop
failures, which may in some years be traced to unfavorable weather
conditions.
This seems to be especially true of Douglas fir, whose pistillate
flowers appear so early that there is an unusual risk of encountering
damaging temperatures. The single area studied for this species
shows five complete failures and two almost complete failures in a
period of 10 years, with good crops in 1914, 1917, and 1920, and an
average yearly production of 49,000 good seeds.
Engelmann spruce on the Uncompahgre Plateau, in the eight
years from 1914 to 1921, inclusive, produced large crops in 1914,
1917, 1918, and 1920, and had three complete failures, the average
production being 550,000 good seeds per acre. On the White River
^N'ational Forest the production per acre has been only one-ninth as
great, and four of the eight years have yielded failures or near
failures. The three best years correspond to those for the Uncompah-
gre area, a circumstance which suggests the influence of rather gen-
eral climatic conditions.
Western yellow pine on the Harney National Forest (Black Hills
region of South Dakota) has produced 50,000 good seeds per acre
as an average for the 11 years through 1922, but only 6,000 seeds per
acre were produced on the Cochetopa area in Colorado. A low-
lying area in the Colorado National Forest frequently resorted to for
seed collecting has yielded an average of 61,000 seeds per acre in the
eight years since 1915, but this average is obtained entirely from the
crops of 1917 and 1920. In " periodicity " the relationship is close
between the yield in the Black Hills and that in northern Colorado,
but the seed yield from the Cochetopa Forest, considerably farther
south, does not correspond to that in the other areas at all. This
is perhaps due to the fact that the Cochetopa area is at a high eleva-
tion for western yellow pine.
AMOUNT AND QUALITY PRODUCED BY DIFFERENT CROWN CLASSES ['_[
The necessity for having large, full-crowned trees in order tbs
obtain good seed crops is apparently less with lodgepole pine thans
with most other forest trees. Although the largest and most vigq^^
ous trees are the best seed producers, as is almost inevitable, the belt''
of productivity is wide, and good seed trees are to be found iiL:tli)^
codominant and intermediate classes. The whole situation is ^stnt^
in intelligible terms when it is said that lodgepole pine is a "proliffc^
weed." The data on (his subject, as presented in Table 5 andrFigure
2, have an evident bearing on marking policy under either Br shelter-
wood or selection system of cutting lodgepole pine. -^t '
16 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
r
0)0
<0
MEDICINE BOW (wBw)
ll..
■ ^ ^
. ■ . _.
MEDICINE BOW (old)
. 1
1
11.
^JL
HEIGHT AND CROWM CUASS
GUNNISON (new)
1
ll.
1 ■ ^
GUNNISON (PLO)
•
1
1
1
ll
ll
1.
1
_b c^ .a b c. ^a b_
HEIGHT AND CROWN. CLASS
Figure 2. — Average tree production of good seeds for
lodgepole pine trees of various classes. Under each
numbered heiglit class (representing dominants, co-
dominants, intermediates, oppressed, and suppressed)
crown classes are differentiated by letter — o ^gnifying
the fullest crowns
Table 5. — Tenrj/ear average seed and cone prodtiction per lodgepole pine tree, hy
tree classes
Average weight of cones
per tree
Average weight of seed per tree
Basis, trees
Tree class
Medicine
Bow
Gunnison
Medicine Bow
Gimnison
Medicine
Bowl
Gun-
New
,cones
Old
cones
New
cones
Old
cones
New
cones
Old
cones
New
cones
Old
cones
New
Old
nison*
1-a
Lbs.
1.745
.859
.429
.751
.602
.166
.293
.320
.041
.319
.042
.020
.036
.007
.000
Lbs.
10. 743
2.504
6.481
4.884
7.824
1.731
1.318
1.210
.187
1.622
.061
.163
.132
.024
.000
Lbs.
1.562
.973
.696
.740
.703
.293
.234
.194
.002
.050
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
Lbs.
6.298
3.183
1.084
6.119
2.301
2.090
1.119
.913
.018
32.100
"'."126'
.012
.000
0.001 lb.
1.010
.565
.158
.509
.273
.165
.205
.239
.029
.318
.026
.016
.023
.006
.000
0.001 lb.
3.335
.774
2.407
1.410
2.246
.243
.215
.229
.029
.052
.023
.031
.080
.000
.000
0.001 lb.
1.262
.838
.543
.632
.537
.214
.145
.214
.003
.039
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
0.001 lb.
4.449
1.777
.877
3.940
1.497
.875
.889
.804
.010
3 1.891
""."130'
.030
No.
9
9
7
10
17
10
11
17
12
9
8
6
5
6
8
No.
9
9
11
17
9
12
18
12
9
7
7
5
6
8
No.
37
1-b.
15
l-C--_
7
2-a
26
2-b
15
2-c - -
11
3-a
14
3-b
9
3-C--
6
4-a-.
4
4-b
2
4-0
0
6-a
1
5-b
4
5-C-.
0
Total or average *...
.407
2.922
.765
3.560
.254
.814
.623
2.381
144
145
151
1 Total only for years in which some seed of the given group (old or new) was produced and excluding
1914 for both classes of Medicine Bow seed when the tree classes were lumped together.
' Same for old and new cones,
3 Unusually high average, due almost wholly to product of one tree of 1914 crop.
* Total amounts divided by total number of sample trees.
PRODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED 17
The following points in regard to Table 5 may be emphasized :
Before attempting to discuss the tree averages it should be pointed
out that even these 10-year averages are not to be depended upon for
precise comparisons. A rough approximation from the original data
indicates that within any group the average variation of individual
trees from the mean for all trees of that class is from 75 to 125
per cent of the mean production. The probable error in the average
figure where the largest number of trees is involved is about 11 per
cent, and where there are only a few trees this may be as much as
45 per cent. Part of this variation may be connected with variations
in the whole crop. These data, then, are only sufficient to indicate
the tendencies of the several tree classes.
In the production of new cones on the Medicine Bow area there
is a distinct tendency toward the highest production in the tallest
trees, and in the largest-crowned trees of each height class, even
those of the suppressed group showing some capacity for seed pro-
duction. The apparent exception to this rule is in the superiority of
class 3-b trees over those of class 3-a.
No consistent relation appears between the actual productivity
of the groups and their retention of cones as shown by the size of
the old crops. Rather is there a tendency toward larger crops of re-
tained cones on trees of medium or small crown development.
This fact appears to support the supposition that at the end of the
second season lodgepole pine cones in a large measure are not ripe.
That this should be more markedly true with small-crowned, under-
nourished trees seems strictly logical.
The same tendencies are even more clearly and regularly shown
in the Gunnison crops, except that here the oppressed, suppressed,
and intermediate small-crowned trees fail much more markedly to
enter into seed production. A closer connection between productivity
and retention of cones by the more important classes is apparent, and
this, coupled with the fact that the Gunnison stands are in every
sense more poorly developed than those on the Medicine Bow, be-
speak the soundness of the idea that retention is due to immaturity.
The Gunnison stands contained more trees to the acre than the
Medicine Bow stands ; yet in the classification of the trees 74 per cent
of those on the Gunnison are shown as dominant or codominant,
whereas in the Medicine Bow tallies only 43 per cent of the trees are
placed in these groups. This accounts in some measure for the
greater production per acre of the Gunnison lodgepole pine. Being
much more nearly even-aged, it presents an even, crowded canopy
and equality of opportunity for a large number of trees. But
although the acre production on the Gunnison is 4.4 times as great
as on the Medicine Bow, a comparison of individual trees — class 1-a
for example — ^yields a ratio of only 1.7 to 1; or for class 2-a,
1.9 to 1.
It is not amiss to point out, from the data in Table 5 and Figure 2,
the strong contrast between the productivity of the cones from the
two areas. Reduced to a bushel basis :
One pound of Medicine Bow new cones produces 492 good seeds.
One pound of Medicine Bow old cones produces 205 good seeds.
One pound of Gunnison new cones produces 806 good seeds.
One i)Ound of Gunnison old cones produces 617 good seeds.
110505°— 30 2
18
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Part of the difference indicated above may be due to the fact that
Medicine Bow cones are considerably larger, while probably having
(1
MEDICINE BOW
A
1
\
NEW CONES. 6I.0%1 FINAL
OLD CONES, 58.0%JGERMINATI0N
f\
: \
v..
/
■ ^
- -
---.^
f
MEDICINE BOW
B
l-a NEW CONES 53.4%1 HNAL.
>GERMI-
NATION
!
GUNNISON
D
ft
l-a NEW CONES. 7I.4-%1 FINAL
l-a OLD C0NES.6I.6%[> GERM I -
— --2-b OLD C0NES,7a4%J NATION
1
1 '
1
/
l^
1
V.
==:i=i£
-.-.r-
=^
— ziiii.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 SO
DAYS FROM SOWING
Figure 3. — Daily germination rates of lodgepole pine in percentage of seeds sown
from, new and old cones: A and C, average of all lots; B and D, average of
selected lots
no greater number of seed-bearing scales. Vegetative development
on the Medicine Bow, at least, is not hindered, and it is thought a
5"°
kl
K 20
I"
ME
.DICIN
E BOV
V
r^.
_^
^
-""
/
.''''
/
/
/ '
- NEV
- OLD
^ CONE
CONE
:s 6I.C
S 59.6
%
7.
/ /
//
"
-=d
/
GUNN
ISON
^
^
.....
'*
/
y
,»''''
f
/ i
1
!
I
It
— NEV
— OLD
V CON
CONE
IS 73.
.3 65.
37,
2%
1
J
1
30 AQ 50
DAYS
70 80 0
ZQ 30 -40 50 60
DAVS
Figure 4. — Total germination of new and old lodgepole pine seed in percentage of
seed sown, Medicine Bow and Gunnison
great part of the difference must, then, be due to failure of pollina-
tion of the cones.
The superior vigor of the Gunnison seed has already been pointed
out. Data on the germination of the seed of each tree class are given
in Table 6, while in Figures 3 and 4 are shown the daily germination
rates of a few lots selected for high or low vigor.
PRODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PIKE SEED
19
Table 6. — Summary of germitmtion tests of lodgepole pine seed dy tree classes
for 10 years tvithout reference to sizes of crops represented
Medicine Bow seed from—
Gunnison seed from—
Tree class
New cones
Old cones
New cones
Old cones
Tested
Germinated
Tested
Germinated
Tested
Germinated
Tested
Germinated
l-a
No.
4,217
3,085
1,237
3,504
2,898
1,779
1,771
3,069
489
1,702
252
131
142
38
No.
2,252
1,756
798
2,203
1.594
1,164
953
2,092
335
1,354
158
84
66
23
P.ct.
53.4
56.9
64.5
62.9
55.0
65.4
53.8
68.2
68.5
79.6
62.7
64.1
46.5
60.5
No.
2,711
1,573
1,604
2,825
3,368
500
1,500
2,190
391
571
273
36."^
455
No-.
1,281
916
1,027
1,714
2,122
260
727
1,333
303
346
148
118
330
P.ct.
47.3
58.2
64.0
60.7
63.0
52.0
48.5
60.9
77.5
60.6
54.2
32.3
72.5
No.
4,535
2,925
2,000
3,964
3,592
1,074
1,553
1,314
No'
3,237
1,960
1,538
3,045
2,577
849
1,112
967
P.ct.
71.4
67.0
76.9
76.8
71.7
79.1
71.6
73.6
No.
5,000
4,303
2,731
4, 561
4,681
2,457
3,493
1,724
17
847
No.
3,079
2,857
1,807
3,171
3,294
1,566
2,379
751
11
471
P.ct.
61.6
1-b
66.4
1-c
66.2
2-a.
69.5
2-b
70.4
2-c
63.7
3-a
68.1
3-b
43.6
3-c
64,7
4r-a - . .
178
138
77.5
55.6
4-b
4-c
5-a
281
183
199
142
70.8
5-b
77.6
6-c
Total or average-
24, 314
14, 832
61.0
18, 326
10, 625
58.0
21, 135
15,423
73.0
30, 278
19, 727
65.2
Table 6 indicates some tendency toward low germination in the
tree classes which produce the largest quantities of seed, and vice
versa. There is no doubt that some of the differences between the
tree classes represent real differences in quality, but in view of their
irregular distribution it seems futile to attempt an explanation.
Part of the irregularity in values may without doubt be ascribed to
the inevitable differences in handling large and small lots of cones.
In Figure 3, in which rates of germination of a good and poor lot
of Medicine Bow seed are compared, no essential difference appears
in the character of the two germination curves. The good seed is
better at all stages.
On the other hand, for both areas, the new seed not only has
appreciably higher final germination value but also is ahead of
that from old cones in the early part of the germinating period and
has fewer stragglers coming on later.
This superiority of new seed both in vigor and final germination
will appear inconsistent with the theory that the cones and seeds
are not wholly mature at the end of their second year of growth. If
this theory were correct, the seeds should show better vigor a year
or two after their theoretical maturity. But it should be borne in
mind that the average retention period of the old cones is about
three years and that the lots as treated include cones from 1 to pos-
sibly 20 years old, of which the oldest are on the point of decay. As
brought out by Clements (5), the very old cones sometimes contain
only one or two seeds which have not decayed, so it is reasonable to
suppose that those remaining are far past their prime of vigor.
In Figures 3 and 4 the great contrast in germinative vigor be-
tween the Medicine Bow and Gunnison seeds is readily apparent,
and this is important because of its possible bearing on the adapta-
bility of seeds grown in one region for use in another locality where
different climatic conditions call for a different, kind of response.
20 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUEE
SEED COLLECTING AND EXTRACTING
CONE COLLECTING
Seed collecting should be concentrated in the years when the best
crops are produced. Fortunately, as with all the pines, the evidence
necessary to predict the approximate size of the crop is available a
year in advance, and preparations may be made accordingly. How-
ever, none of the facts at present available argue for the concentra-
tion of seed-collecting and extracting operations in any one locality.
The tendency of all plants to adapt themselves to the requirements
of a given locality is ample evidence of the desirability of collecting
seed as near as possible to the point w^here it will be used. When
the Forest Service first faced the problems of lodgepole pine seed
collecting, two arguments — the probability of a very large demand
for seed and the apparent mechanical difficulties involved in extrac-
tion— led to the concentration of the work in two kilns of larjre
capacity at Fraser and Foxpark. To-day it is clear that neither of
these arguments has weight. In spite of the fact that it is entirely
feasible to keep lodgepole pine seed in good condition for several
years, a number of facts argue against the plan of large collecting
and extracting operations.
Since a good seed year in one locality may coincide with failure
in others, small plants in the various localities will prove more
adaptable to seed supply. The number of settlers who can be
depended upon as cone pickers is usually quite limited in the moun-
tain localities, and the difficulty of securing cones increases with the
number demanded ; therefore a small quantity can probably be gath-
ered at a lower cost per bushel than a large quantity. The proved
simplicity of the extracting operation presents an argument for
simple, inexpensive equipment and relatively small-scale operations
such as can be conducted locally by a permanent, nontechnical force.
As has been stated in describing the seed-production experiments,
picking cones from standing lodgepole pine trees is not feasible.
The other methods are to pick cones from trees felled for timber and
to take cones from squirrel hoards. The feasibility of picking the
cones from felled trees depends entirely on cutting operations prop-
erly located and timed and the rate at which cutting proceeds, since
the period when the cones may be gathered advantageously usually
lasts only a few weeks.
The pine squirrel, common in nearly all lodgepole pine forests,
begins cutting the current season's cones by September 1, or even
slightly earlier. One of the great advantages in collecting cones
which the squirrels have cut and hoarded arises from the infallible
judgment of the squirrels in selecting the cones with the most and
best seeds in them. It is worthy of note that sound, old cones are
always collected to some extent with the new cones. Some of these
cones are buried, singly, beneath or near the parent tree, and are
lightly covered with dry-needle litter. This appears to be done
mainly at the beginning of the season, and may be a provision for
causing the cones to ripen. In hollow logs and other shelters, and
also in spots where large piles of cone fragments have accumulated,
caches of considerable size are made. Possibly the average volume
placed in one spot is as much as a peck. Caches yielding a bushel
or more are frequently reported by collectors.
PRODUCTION" OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED 21
Although the number and sizes of such hoards are variable, good
collecting conditions will permit the experienced individual to col-
lect from 5 to 10 bushels per day, and since whole families may
carry on the work, under such conditions, the work yields very
good wages. The price paid by the Forest Service in the past has
probably averaged at least 75 cents a bushel, and no doubt to get the
same results to-day it would be necessary to pay a dollar. Since the
average yield is only about one-third of a pound of seed per bushel
of cones, the cost of the seed is necessarily high, even if the extract-
ing is done inexpensively.
CONE STORAGE
Squirrels often store the cones where they will remain moist or
wet and yet cool enough to tend to discourage molding and decay.
The purpose of the squirrels is plainly to keep the cones from drying
and opening before the seeds are needed as food. For the forester's
purpose the cones should be stored where as many cones as possible
can be opened by sun and air drying, thus simplifying the work that
must be done by artificial heat. It is important, since a portion of
the cones open promptly and fully, that the bin or crib used for
their temporary storage should have a smooth, tight floor. If
storage continues well into the winter, a considerable part of the
seed crop may be collected from the floor of the bin. On the whole,
a tight bin seems preferable to an open one of the corncrib type,
provided only that it is well ventilated by screened openings above
the cone piles. The cones dry very little within the large pile,
under any circumstances, and m the open crib the loss due to mice
and other rodents may more than balance the gain through drying.
If the cones are no more than ordinarily moist in the caches, little
danger of molding or heating in the bins need be apprehended.
SEED EXTRACTING
As a result of the early experiments in the extraction of lodgepole
pine seed, the difficulty of opening the cones quickly and cheaply
seemed almost insurmountable. Following the suggestions of
Clements's small-scale experiments (5), many different treatments
of cones were attempted, two of which seem worthy of mention,
namely, roasting over a flame and superficial leaching with hot lye
water to remove the resinous coat. The former proved not wholly
impracticable in opening the cones promptly, but too dangerous to
be employed where less drastic measures were possible. The lye
treatment was found to have no accelerating effect in ordinary prac-
tice, any water treatment merely requiring additional drying to be
done, but gave promise of effectiveness with badly casehardened
cones.
The detailed description to follow is confined to those tests which
have given the most fundamental facts and at the same time have
pointed out the reasons for earlier failures. The two most important
tests in drying cones and extracting seed were made at the Fremont
field station, beginning in 1912 and 1914, respectively. In addition,
numerous poorly controlled experiments in conjunction with, and
as processes in, the development of the Fraser and Foxpark seed
plants will be referred to incidentally.
22 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUEE
THE EXPERIMENTAL KILNS
Although the kilns used for the artificial drying of cones at the
Fremont station were exceedingly simple in plan, the principle in-
volved is of such importance with respect to both present results
and future operations along this line that a close study of the details
is desirable.
The earliest experience with lod^epole pine cones dried on
shelves placed around the walls of a tight room with a stove in the
center indicated that more was required to open the cones than
merely a warm atmosphere.
In the large, mechanically operated extracting plant built at Fox-
park, Wyo., in 1911, it had been found that to make high tempera-
tures effective for large masses of cones, even when these were being
constantly churned and exposed in a revolving drum, rapid air
circulation was necessary. However, in treating a large mass of
cones with forced circulation of the air, the difficulty lies in the fact
that the first cones to be reached by the hot-air blast extract so much
heat from it that cones farther away receive only a tempered and
moistened air current. In short, the drying process requires not
merely temperature, but a supply of dry air brought rapidly to the
surface of each cone where evaporation is taking place.
The experimental kiln first constructed Avas built almost entirely
of matched flooring. A hollow column about 18 inches square and
4 feet high, with a smaller column topping it, was designed to serve
as a flue to conduct the hot air upward, without artificial aid in
circulation.
' The air, which had been heated in a horizontal iron duct placed
over a gasoline stove, was introduced through the side wall at the
bottom of the column. In rising through the space within the walls
the hot air encountered only the resistance of thin layers of cones
placed on four trays of the same dimensions as the interior of the
kiln. These consisted of frames 2 inches high, with bottoms of
one-fourth-inch hardware cloth, placed one above the other.
About one-third of a bushel of cones could be placed on these four
trays without having more than one full layer on each, so that the
circulating air would inevitably come in contact with the surface of
each cone. The amount of air which could pass through the first
tray of cones would pass through the second, third, and fourth lay-
ers with little additional friction, whereas if the entire mass of cones
were placed on one tray the openings between cones of the first
layer would be almost completely closed by other cones which would
wedge themselves in. Likewise, the small flue above the cones of-
fered no undue friction, having a capacity fully as great as the
aggregate of openings between the cones.
In this flue a small anemometer was placed, to indicate the rate
and volume of air movement. To aid in controlling the tempera-
tures in the kiln, two thermometers were inserted through its walls
below the cones, giving the temperature of the incoming air. Two
additional thermometers were similarly inserted in the space above
the trays, to indicate the temperature of the air after passing
through the four layers of cones. With the data thus obtained and
the known specific heat of air, it was possible to compute the quan-
tity of heat consumed in the process of drying the cones.
PRODUCTION" OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED 23
The first really quick and effective drying was attained with this
kiln, and was evidently obtained solely by the circulation through
the cones of an enormous volume of air in comparison with the vol-
ume of the cones themselves. During an effective drying process
some 10,000 to 15,000 cubic feet of air passed through the kiln to
dry one-third of a bushel of cones.
In this first kiln radiation was found to comprise such a large
part of the total heat loss and its value depended so much on outside
temperatures and other variables that it seemed questionable whether
the calorimetric computations for drying in this kiln could have
much value.
Accordingly, and with enlarged capacity as a distinct need, a
second kiln was constructed in 1914 of galvanized iron throughout,
entirely covered with one layer of i/4-inch sheet asbestos. (PL 2, A.)
This kiln was 2 feet square, about 100 inches in total height, and
accommodated six trays resting loosely on cleats, on which a bushel
of cones could readily be placed. Four thermometers were placed
below the cones and four above, w^hile three were hung in the room
as a basis for computing the radiation factor. A perforated metal
diaphragm below the trays assisted in an even distribution of the
entering hot air, and a similar diaphragm above the trays prevented
the formation of especially strong currents in anjr sector. Although
much more air and heat were used, the radiation loss was little
greater than in the first kiln, and hence a smaller factor in the total
heat loss.
In the first kiln the trays were usually removed and shaken at the
end of each hour to extract the seeds as rapidly as they loosened.
This allowed considerable cooling. In the later metal kiln the trays
were shaken without being removed, the seeds falling to the bottom,
which was built in the form of a funnel below the level of the enter-
ing air current. The seeds might be removed from the bottom of the
funnel at any time ; but as the space remained fairly cool, this was
seldom done until the extraction was completed.
The essentials of the experimental kiln, which experience indicates
as the essentials of any extracting kiln, are therefore as follows (see
also appendix) :
A steady supply of hot air.
Natural circulation of the hot air, which will rise readily through
successive layers of cones if the kiln has the characteristics of a flue.
The cones in a single layer on each tray. The several trays should
be frequently changed in position, since the lowest one always receives
the most heat. In a continuous operation the loaded trays should
be constantly moved downward, receiving the most severe treatment
only after most of the moisture is extracted.
ifrequent shaking of the trays, the loose seeds falling to an un-
heated floor or receptacle.
Adequate insulation, so that the heat is available for evaporation
and is not wasted in radiation. This is hardly more important where
calorimetric measurements are being made than where large opera-
tions demand strict economy.
24 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUEE
THE 1912 OR ARAPAHO TESTS
The Fraser River Basin from which the Arapaho cones came is
almost wholly granitic in its soil and rock. Hence, it is safe to say
that the cones have to some extent the qualities of the siliceous-soil
form of lodgepole pine. However, the granitic soil is by no means
a poor soil. It has great depth, excellent moisture-holding prop-
erties, and undoubted fertilitv. Its chemical reaction is strongly
acid (pH 4.5 to 5.2). The region is well watered, and the conditions
favoring growth are not excelled anywhere in the lodgepole pine
zone of Colorado and Wyoming. The stands are usually dense and
well developed.
The 1912 tests involved air drying as well as kiln drying of the
cones. Fifteen bushels of cones, probably very largely from squirrel
hoards, gathered in the fall of 1912 for the Fraser seed plant, were
shipped in December of that year to the experiment station. The
lot included about 10 per cent of old cones, the usual proportion
found in collections from squirrel hoards. As the cones had been
stored in bins at Fraser from 6 to 12 weeks and were shipped in
ordinary sacks, considerable slow drying preceded their first weigh-
ing. However, this had not proceeded to a point to permit any
seed loss.
At Fremont the cones were first thoroughly mixed and then di-
vided into 15 equal lots of 35 pounds, or approximately a bushel,
each. The 15 lots in ordinary burlap sacks were placed in a large,
loosely constructed and loosely covered but mouse-proof box, which
was set on posts in such a manner as to permit free air circulation
on all sides. Until October, 1913, no provision was made to exclude
rain and snow completely, and thus, after a few months of consistent
moisture loss, the cones during the rainy period gained in weight.
The weight of each sack was obtained at monthly intervals, and
each month a sack weighing very close to the average weight for all
was taken for the kiln extracting test. The bushel of cones treated
in each of the 15 tests from December 19, 1912, to April 18, 1914,
known as tests 1 to 15, was divided into three lots of equal volume.
One of these lots (A) was treated at approximately 110° F., a second
(B) at 140°, and the third (C) at 170°. The seed was thoroughly
shaken from all open cones before the division was made and was
cleaned and germinated as lot D for the current test.
Although these 15 extracting operations, made at various stages
in the air drying of the cones, are not of the greatest value, they
point the way to certain rather definite conclusions, and for this
reason the data will be presented in part as corroborative evidence.
THE 1914 TESTS
With the expectation of eliminating all factors which had ma-
terially detracted from the results of the earlier tests, a new set of
experiments was begun with the crop of 1914. Cones were obtained
from two widely separated localities representing different soil, cli-
matic, and growth types. These localities, Gunnison and Medicine
Bow, are the same as those represented in the seed-production study,
save that for the Gunnison locality a limestone soil type was chosen
in order to test certain theories regarding the relative quality of
lodgepole pine grown on a neutral or alkaline soil.
Tech. Bui. 191. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
Plate 2
'^pr"— -
Tech. Bui. 191. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
Plate 3
F722A 2191 lA 11923A
A, A desirable form of a cone-storage and drying shed, with ventilation between the 4-foot bins,
Foxpark, Wyo.; B, beds in which field tests of lodgepole seeds were made at the source, in
1914, Leadville National Forest; C, the set of beds in which spring and summer field tests were
made at Fremont in 1912. In the left foreground the wire cover has been removed
PRODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED 25
The Medicine Bow cones were from a siliceous soil of gneiss origin,
composed of particles of all sizes from large pebbles to the finest
clay, and chemically slightly acid (pH 5.8 to 6.3). The cones were
obtained from squirrel caches in a stand about 200 years old, were
uniformly of good size and normal development, and were almost
entirely of the 1914 crop.
The Gunnison cones were from a limestone site. Limestone sites
on the Gunnison, in general, bear much lighter stands of lodgepole
pine than the granitic sites. As a consequence, the trees are larger
crowned and would ordinarily be considered good seed bearers. On
account of the physiological dryness of a limestone soil, however, it
appears probable that seed production is limited in these trees just
as it is limited by the competition for moisture in denser stands.
The limestone conditions, perhaps because conducive to occasional
excessive droughts, are more likely to produce a quantity of sub-
normal or underdeveloped cones.
The 20 bushels of cones from each of the two localities just
described were collected and shipped in oiled sacks designed to pro-
tect them from drying and were weighed at the Fremont laboratory
with a minimum of delay. The Medicine Bow cones were unques-
tionably almost as fresh as when picked. The Gunnison cones,
although received only nine days later, had been collected during a
much longer period and had dried considerably. The difference in
weights, amounting to 5 pounds per bushel, is partly due to the
delay in shipping, but may also be partly a result of growth on a
limestone soil and of other factors peculiar to growing conditions
on the Gunnison.
Each of these cone collections was divided into five equal parts for
tests at 3-month intervals. The 4-bushel lots to be extracted im-
mediately were divided each into four parts and kept in the oiled
sacks until the extractions were made. The other 4-bushel lots were
placed in trays for storage. Each tray measured 2 by 5 feet and
was 8 inches deep, the sides being of boards, the bottom of hardware
cloth and muslin, and the top open. Four bushels of cones filled one
such tray to a depth of about 6 inches. The trays were placed in
tiers in a small shed, with a space of 4 inches between. The south
side of the shed was closed by a screen, so that there was at all times
opportunity for moderate air circulation. (PI. 2, B.) A canvas
hanging several inches outside the screen cut off direct insolation and
excluded rain and snow. The conditions of storage were largely
such as might be duplicated in a drying shed of any capacity.
Of the Medicine Bow cones there were, unfortunately, not quite
16 bushels available for storage. The lots extracted at quarterly
intervals, therefore, were only 0.9062 bushel each, and to make all
tests comparable it was necessary to correct the actual data of extrac-
tion in this proportion.
The Medicine Bow cones were weighed a second time when the
Gunnison cones were placed in storage. The third complete weigh-
ing and second extraction occurred 55 days after storage ; the fourth,
161 days (March) ; the fifth, 252 days (June) ; and the last, 425
days, or one year after the second extraction.
26 TECHNIOALr BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
THE LOSS OF WATER BY CONES
Since the opening of cones and yielding up of the seed is now
thought of as a process dependent upon drying, it is well to consider
first just what happens in drying and what quantities are involved.
LOSS IN AIR DRYING
The monthly weighings of the 1912 crop of Arapaho cones should
give a veiy good idea of the rate of drying at different stages and
different times of the year were it not for the fact, as already stated,
that these cones w^ere not wholly protected from wetting by storms.
Hence it is found that for the iDeriod from March to October, 1913,
there was no general loss of weight, and the drying which occurred
after the latter date is simply a delayed process which should have
occurred during the spring and summer months. In addition it
0"
50
100
150
200 250
300
350
AOO
450
e:pt29
NOV 16
JAN 7
FfLQ 26
APR n JUNt 6
JULY 26
SEIPT 14
NOV 3
DEC. 23
1914
1915
STORAGE DAYS
Figure 5. — Moisture content of air-dried lod2;epole pine cones after being stored a
specified number of days. Some drying occurred of Gunnison cones before first
weighing and considerable drying of Arapaho cones
should be recalled that the cones had dried considerably before the
first weighing.
The weighmgs of the two crops of 1914, while not so numerous,
give clear and concrete results. The Gunnison cones were already
partly dried and the Medicine Boav cones had lost a large amount
of water before the Gunnison cones were placed in storage. It
therefore seems best to consider both collections as having started
drying at the same time.
The amount and rate of air drying of the three cone crops are
shown in Figure 5. In computing moisture losses it is necessary
to assume that different lots of the same cone crop started with equal
amounts of moisture and to compute from that a basic weight for
PRODUCTION- OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED 27
each lot of cones. As none of these have been desiccated to absolute
dryness, a weight slightly below that reached by drying at 170° F.
is taken, namely, about 24 pounds for Medicine Bow cones and 25
pounds for Gunnison cones. Since these weights do not include the
seed extracted, equal allowance is made for the weight of this seed
At all stages.
It is seen that Medicine Bow cones, starting from a very green
state, lost about 63 per cent of moisture in a period of 14 months.
One-third of this amount, or 21 per cent, was lost in the first 9 days
and 30 per cent, or almost one-half in the first month, despite the
fact that this initial drying occurred in rather cool fall weather.
Drying continues at a gradually decreasing but still important rate
to the end of the 14-month period.
With the Gunnison cones from a limestone soil the initial drying
was also rapid but not so long continued. From March to June the
drying was very slow, but during the summer months increased
slightly. The shape of the curve indicates that in a perfectly fresh
state these cones may have held almost as much moisture as the
Medicine Bow lot. The fact that drying ceases sooner, however,
indicates that the limestone cones have a stronger attraction for
water, which is held within the cells and imbibed in the ligneous
material.
Of the drying of the Arapaho cones little need be said except that
under similar conditions they would obviously have dried as rapidly,
and to as low a final point, as the cones from Medicine Bow.
No record was made of the amount of opening of cones at each
weighing. The different behavior of the Medicine Bow cones from
siliceous soil and the Gunnison cones from limestone soil was, how-
ever, noted from the outset, and is clearly shown by Plate 2, C. At
252 days, when the photograph w^as taken, the siliceous cones had
lost 56 per cent out of a total moisture content of 72 per cent, had
expanded 44 per cent of their original volume, and had released 27
per cent of their seed. The limestone cones had experienced a total
water loss of about 36 per cent of an assumed content of about 51
per cent when green, had expanded 6 per cent, and released 13 per
cent of their seed.
The siliceous cones began opening on the tops of the trays within
24 hours of the time when air drying began. The limestone cones
did not open to any appreciable extent for several weeks, and then
not completely. In both lots there was wide variation between indi-
viduals.
In contrast to the rate of air drying in this experiment, it will
be well to note the results obtained in two large-scale tests conducted
almost simultaneously with the 1912 tests at the Fremont field
station.
At the Idlewild seed-extracting plant on the Arapaho National
Forest 75 bushels of cones collected between September 15 and No-
vember 15, 1912, were placed in a special bin beneath the main ex-
tracting plant on February 14, 1913, their weight at that time being
32.78 pounds per bushel. At the end of one year about 5 per cent
of the cones, occupying the top layer or contiguous to the walls, had
opened fully, and others less completely. The volume of the entire
cone mass had decreased slightly. The cones weighed 27.62 pounds
per bushel. They required 6 to 6.5 hours to open as completely as
28 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
green cones do in 8 hours and yielded about 10 per cent less seed. It
is evident that these cones had lost considerable moisture before being
stored. Their weight may be roughly estimated to have been the
same as that of the cones of the same crop stored at the Fremont
station in December, 1912, namely, 35 pounds per bushel. They had,
then, in 14 months, lost about 7.4 pounds, or 21 per cent of their
green weight, or 31 per cent of their probable dry weight. The same
result was obtained two or three months sooner at Fremont.
At the Foxpark seed-extracting plant, Medicine Bow National
Forest, 60 bushels of cones placed in a drying bin of the corncrib
type increased in volume about 5 per cent during a year, and about 45
per cent of them opened partially or completely. Their moisture loss
was slightly in excess of 30 per cent of their bone-dry weight, but it
is probable that a small item in this loss was the removal of cones
by squirrels.
These results are cited mainly to show that air drying on a large
scale can be effective, though necessarily slower than in the ideal
drying trays used at Fremont. Such being the case, it would seem
that large-scale extracting operations might well be postponed until
the warmest weather of the summer, though this has never been tried.
LOSS IN KILN DRYING
If these same cone lots are considered in their action under artificial
drying treatments, it may be expected that the characteristics shown
during air drying will be still more clearly demonstrated.
In Table 7 the important data of the kiln-drying process are
given. Figure 6, which shows the amount of drying and the time
required to accomplish complete opening of the cones, is, of course,
purely diagrammatic inasmuch as the drying rate must be shown by
straight lines, rather than curves. Since intermediate weight deter-
minations can not be made without seriously disturbing the operation
of the experimental kiln and the calorimetric observations, these
have not been made in any of the more important tests.
From Table 7 and Figure 6 the following facts are evident :
Starting with the same moisture content, cones treated at a high
temperature yield slightly more moisture at a much higher hourly
rate than cones treated at a low temperature. They also open more
completely.
The rate of kiln drying decreases consistently with older cones;
or, in other words, the lower the initial moisture content the slower
the loss at a given temperature, in spite of the fact that with less
moisture to evaporate each cone has a greater supply of heat.
The final degree of dryness is lower in cones with lower initial
moisture. Thus the moisture content of fully opened fresh Medicine
Bow cones, about 12 per cent as the average for all temperatures, is
greater than the moisture content after 14 months of air drying and
before any artificial treatment is given. This is also indicated in a
general way by the Gunnison cones, although the final moisture con-
tent in these cones did not decrease appreciably beyond that occur-
ring after 55 days of storage.
The rate of drying of the Gunnison (limestone) cones is much less
rapid than that of Medicine Bow (siliceous) cones, even when cones
of the same initial moisture content are compared.
PRODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED
29
Table 7. — Degree and rate of drying of lodgepole pine cones under different
degrees of artifieial heat after various periods of air drying, in terms of per-
centages of the dry weights of the cones
MEDICINE BOW CONES, 1914 i
Period
of air
Water
con-
tent
before
kiln
dry-
ing*
Water content after drying
at different kiln temper-
atures
Moisture loss at different
temperatures
Hourly rate of drying at
different temperatures »
drying
(days)
110°
F.
140°
F.
170°
F.
200"
F.
110°
F.
140°
F.
170°
F.
200°
F.
110°
F.
140°
F.
170°
F.
200°
F.
0_-
65
161
252
425
P. a.
71.6
32.6
20.4
15.5
9.0
P.d.
14.4
11.0
8.4
7.0
3.6
P.ct.
13.1
9.2
6.7
6.5
2.9
P.ct.
10.9
7.7
7.3
5.6
1.7
P.ct.
9.5
6.4
4.6
4.3
.6
P.ct.
57.2
21.6
12.0
8.5
6.4
P.ct.
58.5
23.4
13.7
9.0
6.1
P.ct.
60.7
24.9
13.1
9.9
7.3
P.ct.
62.1
26.2
15.8
14.2
8.4
P.ct.
3.0
2.2
1.7
1.4
.8
P.ct.
4.5
3.9
3.4
3.0
2.0
P.ct.
6.7
6.2
6.6
5.0
3.6
P.ct.
7.8
8.7
7.9
7.5
5.6
Av...
8.88
7.68
6.64
5.08
20.94
22.14
23.18
24.74
1.8
3.4
5.6
7.5
GUNNISON CONES, 1914 *
9
65
161
252
425
43.0
24.5
16.4
15.2
12.0
7.8
7.0
6.6
6.8
6.4
7.0
8.5
5.7
5.5
6.1
4.6
5.8
4.4
4.5
4.8
6.0
4.2
3.5
4.0
5.0
35.2
17.5
9.8
8.4
5.6
36.0
16.0
10.7
9.7
5.9
38.4
18.7
12.0
10.7
7.2
37.0
20.3
12.9
11.2
7.0
1.8
1.2
.6
.7
.4
4.0
3.2
2.1
1.9
1.5
6.4
4.7
4.0
3.4
2.9
9.2
6.8
6.4
4.5
4.7
Av...
6.92
6.56
4.82
4.54
15.30
15.66
17. 40
17.68
1.0
2.5
4.3
6.3
ARAPAHO CONES, 1912*
80
43.2
9.1
10.3
9.5
34.1
32.9
33.7
1.7
4.7
8.4
111
24.5
7.6
7.6
8.5
16.9
16.9
16.0
1.0
3.4
5.3
144
20.3
6.0
4.9
6.1
14.3
15.4
15.2
.7
2.6
3.8
182
18.5
3.7
4.7
.0
14.8
13.8
18.5
1.4
2.0
6.2
262
18.1
2.5
2.8
.9
15.6
15.3
17.2
1.3
3.8
4.3
414
16.2
5.3
6.8
0
10 9
10 4
16.2
1.0
2.1
8.1
472
11.3
3.4
1.2
.0
7.9
10.1
10.4
.7
3.4
3.5
Av...
5.37
5.33
3.56
16.36
16.40
18.17
1.1
3.1
5.7
» Units of 0.9062 bushel, except first test.
2 Actual water content of cones kiln dried at each period. For average of all cone lots remaining in the
bins at each period, see Figure 5.
3 For record of number of hours required in extracting processes for Medicine Bow and Gunnison cones
Bee Fig;ure 6 or Tables 12 and 13.
* Units of 1 bushel.
» Units of one-fhird bushel.
The absolute moisture of dry limestone cones is greater than that
of the siliceous. The exact amount of this final moisture is not
determinable because the dry weight has not been absolutely deter-
mined. It ishould be noted, however, that the above statement holds
when the limestone cones have been assigned a dry weight of 25
pounds per bushel as against 24 pounds for the siliceous.
The siliceous cones, on the average, yield their water four times
as fast at 200° F. as at 110°, while the limestone cones show a ratio
of more than 6 to 1.
Under the 110° F. treatment siliceous cones and limestone cones
both respond at a uniformly decreasing rate for the different periods
of air drying; but siliceous cones always show quick drying at 200°,
while for limestone cones even this temperature becomes much less
effective with low moisture content.
30
TECHNICAL liULLETIX 191, U. S. DEPT. OE AGRICULTUEE
12
64
56
Q 40
MEDICINE BOW CONES
32
24
16 -\
v;
"V^^
1
\
1
1
1
I
1
1
1
1
\
-
-
\\
s
\
\
\
-
-
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
-
-
\ \
\ \
\ \
\ \
\
\
\
N
-
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
-
\
-\^^
\
\
\
\
ij5>c
\
>-'^.:
o.
'^"To.
\
"• 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
8 10 12 14
GUNNISON CONES
18
20
-4 , 6 8 10 12 14
HOURS REQUIRED. TO OPEN CONES
20
Figure 6. — Rate of drying in kiln at 110°, 140°, 170°, and 200° F., comparing
fresh, cones and cones air-dried for 55, 161, and 425 days
PRODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED 31
These facts seem to justify the following deductions :
The opening of cones is not wholly a matter of the absolute dry-
ness attained, but involves a certain change in moisture content and,
as indicated l3y the results of air drying, to be effective this change
must be brought about in a brief period.
Under similar circumstances limestone cones retain their moisture
more tenaciously than those from a siliceous soil, and high tempera-
tures are proportionately more effective with them. From this it
may naturally be expected that the limestone cones will use more
heat for a given amount of drying.
THE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF TEMPERATURES IN OPENING
CONES
A popular misconception as to the importance of temperatures
per se in opening cones is well illustrated by the early attempts to
open lodgepole pine cones in hot rooms lacking ventilation. Even
though present tests have not been so conducted as to differentiate
clearly between the effects of temperature and of dry air, some very
obvious facts go a long way toward showing that heat alone is
insufficient.
It should be understood that when the temperature of the air in
the kiln is raised the relative dryness of the air, and therefore its
drying power, is greatly increased. Thus, if air with a relative
humidity of 50 per cent at 50° F. is warmed to 110° its relative
humidity becomes only 7 per cent, and if warmed to 200°, only 0.8
per cent. Air at 200° has nearly ten times the capacity for moisture
of air at 110°. This ratio is suggestive of the much more rapid dry-
ing which occurs at 200°.
Some tests have been made which seem to show considerable
acceleration of the drying process when the air circulation is in-
creased without raising the temperature, but not all the conditions
of these tests are comparable.
A bushel of cones spread in the sun could absorb heat rapidly
enough to open in four hours, if their rate of heat used were the
same as that in a kiln process ; yet it is a known fact that they would
not open in any such time in the sun, because the air around them
at ordinary temperature has relatively small capacity for carrying
off the moisture.
Finally, the action of heat alone does not .tend to cause the open-
ing of cones. Too much heat causes a certain degree of flexibility of
the cone scales and retards rather than aids the opening process.
The important consideration, therefore, is to bring dry air into
contact with the cones, the heating process being only one of the
means by which the air can be made dry, and being wnolly ineffec-
tive if, while warming, the air is allowed to accumulate large quan-
tities of vapor.
32 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUBE
Table 8. — Total and genmnahle seeds obtained hv Tciln dryi/ng Arapaho lodge-
pole pine cones after various periods of air drying ^
Test No. »
Seed released by air
drying
Seed extracted at
110° F.
Seed extracted at
140" F.
Ex-
tracted
Germinable
seeds
Ex-
tracted
Germinable
seed
Ex-
tracted
Germinable
seed
1
Number
0
1,560
3,273
5,103
2,756
Number
0
785
2,042
2,909
1,648
Per cent
0
50
62
57
60
Number
16, 124
14,424
14,508
13,935
13, 103
Number
8,223
7,674
7,762
7,553
7,325
Per cent
51
53
54
54
56
Number
17, 612
17,808
16, 452
15,270
16,134
Number
11,870
7,693
8,654
8,215
9,325
Per cent
67
2
43
3
53
4
64
6
58
Average
2,538
1,477
58
14, 419
7,707
53
16,655
9,151
65
6
6,240
10, 551
11,388
14,847
13, 712
3,563
3,841
5,671
5,582
5,567
57
36
50
38
41
12,243
11, 895
6,698
8,915
9, £39
6,685
5,341
3,831
4,119
4,661
55
45
57
46
47
14, 916
13,585
11,485
10, 145
11,339
8,189
6,303
5,145
4,230
5,998
66
7
46
8
46
9
42
10 ■-
63
Average
11,348
4,845
43
9,938
4,927
50
12,294
5,973
49
11
22,028
13. 746
19,884
15, 981
20,367
10,882
6,103
9,982
7,128
9,267
49
44
50
45
46
8,362
10,303
6,423
8,340
7,098
4,047
5,100
3,218
5,504
3,592
48
50
50
66
51
8,429
11,268
8,334
9,646
9,092
4,130
6,242
3,867
6,077
4,201
49
12
65
13
46
14
63
15
46
Average
18,401
8,672
47
8,105
4,292
53
9,354
4,903
^o
Average all tests
10, 762
4,998
46
10, 821
5,642
52
12,768
6,676
62
Seed extracted at
170° F.
Total yield per bushel
of cones
Test No. »
Ex-
tracted
Germinable
seed
Weight
of clean
seed
Germinable
seed
1
Number
17,508
17,291
16, 704
16,005
15,924
Number
10, 610
7,850
8,419
8,835
8,663
Per cent
61
45
50
55
54
Qms.
197. 82
207,28
201.10
198. 23
191. 97
Number
30,703
24,002
26,877
27, 512
26,961
Per cent
60
2
47
3
63
4 .
55
5 •
56
Average - -
16,686
8,875
53
199.28
27, 211
54
6
15, 326
14, 107
10, 895
11,730
11,734
8,521
6,122
5, 393
5,114
5,662
66
43
49
44
47
197. 47
207.41
171. 38
187. 16
188. 19
26,958
21,607
20,040
19,045
21.788
66
7 . . .
43
8
60
9
42
10
47
Averse.
12,758
6,142
48
190. 32 I 21, 888
47
11
9,684
10,807
9,603
8,533
8,175
4,834
5,295
4,427
5,598
4,856
50
49
46
66
59
194.67
189. 49
185.23
168.70
186.64
23,893
22,740
21,494
24,307
21, 916
49
12 - . -
49
13. .. . -
49
14._ -
{>7
15
49
Average
9,360
5,002
53
184. 95
22,870
51
Average all tests
12,935
6,673
52
191. 52
23,990
51
1 Kiln-dried tests represent one-third bushel for each temperature,
the whole bushel.
2 Tests at approximately monthly intervals after December, 1912.
8 Computed from mean final germination.
Seed released by air drying come from
PRODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED 33
EFFECT OF VARIOUS TREATMENTS ON QUANTITY AND QUALITY
OF SEED
The practical and technical value of preliminary drying and of
extractions made at successive periods and at various temperatures
may now be considered in the light of the seed yields obtained.
I
ARAPAHO CONES OF THE CROP OF 1912
The extractions of 1-bushel lots were accomplished at approxi-
mately monthly intervals from December, 1912, to April, 1914, each
bushel lot being divided into three equal parts, as already described.
Table 8 shows these yields, and Figure 7 the germination of the vari-
ous seed lots.
Examination of the data in Table 8 reveals a slightly greater
number of seeds obtained from the first treatment than from any
subsequent treatment, and a considerably greater number of good
seeds. The deficits in the latter half of the series would at first
thought seem to indicate that considerable numbers of seeds were lost.
It is practically certain that there was no destruction of seeds in the
storage bin ; in the frequent handling of the sacks a few seeds may
have worked out through the burlap. The probability is that, both
in this series and in the 1914 series, the apparent loss of seeds after
long periods of storage means little more than that the opening of
the cones can not be carried far enough to obtain a full yield. If
there has been any avoidable loss, it may be safely disregarded, for it
may be taken as a certainty that the loss has been less than would
occur in any large-scale storage operation.
After each of the 15 extractions in this series, a sample of each of
the three or four lots was sown as soon as possible to determine the
viability of the seed. Along with each such current test, after the
first one, samples of the three lots of test 1 were also sown, in order
that there might be a check or control upon any variations in the
apparent germinability of the seed currently extracted due to the
time or space factor. These so-called check tests, of which 11
were made after the initial test of test 1, and 2 more in August, 1914,
are, of course, subject to the sampling and space error, as will be
pointed out in discussing them in connection with the general errors
of all seed tests. The space errors of the checks should, however,
be the same as those of the current lots, as the two groups were always
sown very close together.
In Figure 7 are shown the repeated germinations of the three lots
of test 1, the germination of the lots extracted in each succeeding
monthly test, and finally the germination of the 15 tests when sown
simultaneously in August, 1914. In each instance the arithmetic
mean of the three or four lots of a test is used in plotting, since the
object of the chart is solely to bring out time variations. The results
synchronous with tests 7 and 9 are very poor; for test 10, germina-
tion of the check lots was extraordinarily high. As the current ex-
tractions of tests 7 and 9 also germinated very poorly, the natural
inclination is to state that here the check tests have shown their
worth — that tests 7 and 9 germinated 8 to 9 per cent below the aver-
age of all tests because of some variation in the germinating condi-
tions. However, when it is noted that in the August, 1914, retests
110505°— 30 3
34 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
of all lots, tests 7 and 9 duplicated their previous performance, the
conclusion must be that something was inherently wrong with the
seed itself and that the parallelism between the original tests and
ihe check tests was in the nature of a coincidence.
Other observations have shown the possible importance of mold on
the cones, the spores of which would readily be transmitted to the
80
75
70
I
65
60
55
SO
GERMINATION OF CURRENT
EXTRACTIONS
GERMINATION OF SEEDS FROM
FIRST EXTRACTION SOWN
CURRENTLY WITH ABOVE
GERMINATION OF SEEDS FROM
EACH EXTRACTION SOWN ALL
TOGETHER IN AUGUST 1914
1 — r
45
4-0
O
0 1 2 3 4- 5 6 7 8 9 10 n 12 13 14. IS
^<^^' S^^° ^OTS EXTRACTED AT APPROXIMATELY MONTHLY INTERVALS f^^^-
Figure 7. — Germination tests of seeds from Arapaho lodgepole pine cones compared
as to effects of cone storage and seed storage
seeds, and from one lot of seeds to another, unless complete steriliza-
tion occurred in the kiln. That this was the factor influencing tests
7 and 9 and other synchronous germination tests it can not be
definitely proved but is deduced from the fact that at the time of
these tests, during the warmest months of the year, the cones in
storage had absorbed rain water.
PRODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED 35
It must be admitted that implicit faith can not be placed in any
single germination test, nor in the results of the various extractions
so far as they depend upon these tests. However, with the excep-
tion of tests 5 and 14, the immediate germination and that in
August, 1914, when two samples of each lot were taken, are suffi-
ciently similar so that general tendencies at various periods can
hardly be denied.
The germination data given in Figure 7 should be compared with
Table 8, with the fact in mind that the indicated quality of the seed
may be influenced bv the completeness of the extraction. In test 8,
for example, the relatively high quality of the seed is fully offset
by the small number extracted, these facts suggesting that only the
best of the seed was obtained. Although no conclusive test has
ever been conducted to prove the point, results at the Foxpark seed-
extracting plant, where the seed was taken off in six successive
j)eriods, indicate that the best seed is obtained fairly early in the
process, possibly being from the cones which because of better devel-
opment open more readily. The last 15 per cent of the entire seed
yield showed a germinative value 15 to 20 per cent below that of the
best seed. It is, of course, impossible in such a test to eliminate
possible effects on the last seed of longer exposure to heat.
It is plainly evident that the first extraction from this collection
of cones yielded the best seed and also the greatest amount. The
average figures for the 12 periodic germinations of this seed of test 1
indicate a slight superiority of ,the seed extracted at 110° F., but
this is scarcely better than that taken at 170°, and, considering the
probable error of the average in any case, it is hardly reasonable to
state that any lot was appreciably affected by the extracting
conditions.
The low average percentage of germination noted in tests 6-10
is to be accounted for by the wetting of the cones in the storage bin
during the summer of 1913, a condition which probably reached its
culmination about October, as shown by the high moisture content
of the seeds released by air drying. In fact, it is evident that the
loose seeds suffered more from this condition than those still in
the cones.
In the first group of five tests the 140° F. treatment is slightly
superior in germination percentage to the other artificial extrac-
tions. In the second group seed extracted at 110° leads by a slight
margin, while in the third period seed extracted at the highest tem-
perature is better than that extracted at 110° by less than 1 per cent.
It may be concluded that a temperature as high as 170° certainly
does not harm the seed in either fresh or partly dried cones.
As the wide variations between lots similarly treated seriously
detract from the reliability of the averages and leave no significant
differences in the average germination after various treatments, it
is not safe to state from these results that high temperatures used
in extracting the seed are positively beneficial. It is, however,
desired to point out possibilities along this line which are substan-
tiated by the later and more complete data.
If now a return is made to Table 8 it will be seen that the prac-
tical results of these tests are reasonably clear. The yield of seed
obtained prior to the artificial drying of the cones increases more or
36 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUBE
less regularly with continued air drying, 5.4 per cent of the total
germinable seeds being obtained without the use of artificial heat in
tests 1-5, 22.1 per cent in tests 6-10, and 37.9 per cent in tests 11-15.
There is, however, a slight decrease in the total weight of seed ob-
tained from the bushel units. Both on account of poor yields and
poor germination the tests in the middle period show the lowest
number of good seeds obtained. In the third period, despite slightly
lower yields, a better showing is made as a result of higher germina-
tion value.
As between the various temperature treatments there is no marked
difference except that 110° F. is seen to be about one-sixth less
effective than the other temperatures at all stages.
MEDICINE BOW AND GUNNISON CONES OF THE CROP OF 1914
About 20 bushels of 1914 cones from the Medicine Bow and a like
quantity from the Gunnison area were each divided into five tests,
numbered 21-25 and 31-35, and these in turn, at the time of extrac-
tion, each into four lots, A. B, C, and D, to be treated at 110°, 140°,
170°, and 200° F., respectively. Tests 22 and 32 were air-dried 55
days, tests 23 and 33 for 161 days, tests 24 and 34 for 252 days, and
tests 25 and 35 for 425 days. Tests 21 and 31 were made with the
fresh cones. Seed lot E of each test was made up of the seed obtained
from the 4-bushel sample after air drying only.
Germination tests on the various lots of seed were made in greater
numbers than previously, in the hope of eliminating the variations
inevitable in single tests, and also were made at different periods, to
show more definitely the relations between the immediate or fresh
quality of each lot of seed and its keeping quality or vigor after a
certain period in storage. It is almost invariably true that seed is
not used immediately after extraction. The seeds not sown immedi-
ately were stored in bottles, sealed as tightly as possible, and kept in
a room whose yearly range of temperatures is from about 30° to 50°
F. The periods of storage were 21 months, 24 months, 7 years, and
11 years. In some instances the wax seal applied to screwcap bottles
was not adequate to prevent the absorption of moisture by the seeds,
while in others the seeds appeared to have kept perfectly dry.
Hence, at the end of the long storage periods only scattered tests
could be made, all lots which were either sticky or moldy being
eliminated. In general, the few results obtained after 7 years of
storage were about 10 per cent higher than those obtained after a
storage period of 11 years.
Duplicate and triplicate tests made at any one time show very little
variation and indicate that more than usual reliance can be placed on
these tests as a whole.
The test at 24 months, virtually an extension of the 21-month
germination of duplicate tests, the two involving 2,500 seeds of each
lot extracted, is given separately in Table 9 in order to demonstrate
the progressive tendency of either seed deterioration or seed improve-
ment with aging. There is, however, a factor which enters into the
comparison of germination results at 21 and 24 months which should
be explained. The five samples of each lot needed for both tests were
counted out simultaneously just prior to the test at 21 months, and
PRODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED
37
the three samples which were not used until the 24-month test were
stored, not in their respective jars, but in envelopes, under ordinary
room conditions. Thus it may be assumed that the Medicine Bow
seeds, which in the extracting process were not subjected to such
severe drying, might in moderately warm air give off some moisture,
while the Gunnison seeds, because of more severe treatment previously
and a greater affinity for water, might be in a condition to absorb
moisture from the atmosphere. This may not be the correct ex-
planation, but it is evident that only some such opposed actions in
the two groups can account for the improved vigor of the Medicine
Bow seeds between the 21-month and 24-month tests, despite the
slight change in vigor of the Gunnison seeds.
Table 9. — Oermination from the 1914 extractions of Medicme Bow and Gunni-
son cones at different periods and at four different temperatures
MEDICINE BOW CONES
Final germination of stored seed sown at
stated periods after extraction
Extract-
Mois-
Mois-
ture in
seed at 11
years '
Period of storage (days)
ing tem-
perature
ture left
in seed i
Imme-
21
21
months
24
7 and 11
diate 2
months 3
1 (extra
drying <)
months «
years «
op
Percent
Per cent
Per cent
Per cent
Per cent
Per cent
Percent
110
7.67
42.3
48.6
(')
57.5
56. 8 (2)
12.43
140
7.11
60.5
54.5
(»)
65.3
54. 0 (1)
8.96
None
170
4.05
65.1
63.5
(»)
69.4
49. 6 (1)
8.77
200
5.56
61.9
55.1
(«)
61.6
49. 6 (1)
8.52
All.
6.10
57.4
55.4
(8)
63.4
53. 3 (5)
9.67
110
4.82
75.8
72.7
77.0
76.4
60. 6 (4)
11.00
140
4.08
78.2
76.0
83.4
83.0
75. 8 (3)
9.01
Average of 55, 161, 252, and 425.
170
3.20
74.5
70.3
73.8
76.0
75. 2 (S)
7.54
200
2.84
67.2
60.8
63.4
68.0
48. 0 (5)
7.67
»0
4.47
64.4
68.0
67.4
76.8
54. 1 (4)
9.83
55
AU.
All.
All.
3.72
4.28
4.37
72.0
74.6
70.8
62.9
72.0
73,2
70.5
80.2
71.5
70.1
78.6
79.6
62. 8 00)
65. 1 (4)
69. 3 (3)
9.50
161.
9.33
252
8.70
425
All.
3.16
70.7
70.1
69.8
75.8
GUNNISON CONES
110
5..1
83.6
82.1
(8)
84.3
71. 2 (2)
9.51
140
4.55
77.3
83.1
(8)
83.6
74. 3 (2)
6.37
None
170
3.50
57.8
62.5
(«)
57.4
59. 8 (2)
6.70
200
3.87
46.1
50.7
44.4
41. 4 (2)
6.68
All.
4.28
66.2
69.6
(8)
67.4
61. 7 (S)
7.32
110
3.97
69.5
78.1
75.6
78.7
72. 8 (/)
48. 6 (1)
8.85
140
3.86
74.1
75.4
78.4
74.1
4.56
Average of 55, 161, 252, and 425.
170
3.12
66.3
73.0
80.2
72.6
53. 0 i2)
10.71
200
2.97
70.4
72.2
72.6
73.8
53. 3 (2)
8.57
I »0
All.
5.24
3.49
70.6
67.5
75.2
73.3
77.4
78.9
75.5
72.9
63.4 (/)
61. 2 («)
55
7.82
161
All.
3.63
71.7
72.5
76.8
73.2
52. 9 U)
9.08
252
All.
All.
3.99
4.22
76.7
64.9
78.6
74.6
74.9
76.8
76.5
77.1
63. 4 (1)
425
""
1 On basis of dryness attained in 4 hours at 170°, which gives merely indication of condition of seed after
extracting process. See footnote 4.
2 Duplicate tests, except for lot E extracted without storage, which were in triplicate.
3 In duplicate; time computed from date of collecting cones.
* Seeds referred to in footnote 1, dried after being thoroughly cleaned.
» In triplicate.
« In 1921 only 12 lots were tested (500 seeds of each), while in 1925, 27 valid tests were made, Italic numbers
in parentheses indicate number of tests entering into averages.
' By drying thoroughly at temperature of boiling water.
* Samples of seed not retained.
» Lot E, made up of seed obtained from air-drying cones only.
38 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICTJLTUBE
In addition to the tests of normally extracted seed at 21 months,
single samples were sown at the same time comprising seed of all the
lots (except tests 21 and 31, the dried samples of which were inad-
vertently discarded) which had been used to determine the moisture
content of the seeds immediately after the extracting processes.
These samples had been dried for four hours in the hot-air current
of the kiln, at about 170° F., without any protection whatever, to
determine how severe a treatment could be tolerated without serious
injury to the seed.
Only one other fact need be mentioned in considering the compara-
bility of the various germination results. The tests made on each
lot immediately after extraction were obviously subjected to different
time factors in the germinating process. It is believed, however,
that tests 24 and 34, germinated in July, 1915, were the only ones
materially affected by variable greenhouse conditions. The early
germination of these groups was undoubtedly retarded by heavier
watering of the testing tills than is customary, but this probably had
very little effect on the final germination.
The immediate germination of the eight lots of tests 21 and 31 was
carried on for only 52 days. Germination of the Gunnison seed
was practically complete in this period. Estimates made from the
current rates at the end of the period indicate that the Medicine Bow
seed had not completed germination by about 7 per cent in lot 21 A,
6 per cent in 21 B, and 1 per cent each in lots C and D. The actual
germination results are shown in Table 9, but in computing a bal-
anced average for each lot the above allowances are made with the
Medicine Bow seed.
In Table 9 the germination from the first extraction of both lots
of cones is given in detail, because with the green cones the effects
of different temperatures were quite marked. For later extractions
the differences were neither marked nor consistent, and it therefore
seems best to rely on the averages for different periods and different
extracting temperatures.
QTTALITY OF SEED AFTER VARIOUS PERIODS OF STORAGE
An examination of Table 9 brings out the following points :
Even with an average allowance of about 4 per cent, as noted just
above, the seed extracted from the fresh Medicine Bow cones is
decidedly inferior to all extracted later. The inferiority of fresh
Gunnison seed is much less marked, the first extraction being in fact
a little better than the last. Here, however, the higher temperatures
seem to have had a very deleterious effect. This difference is due,
no doubt, to the greater dryness of the Gunnison cones at the time
of the first extraction; the fact that the first extraction of the still
drier Arapaho cones treated in 1912-1914 gave the best and the most
seed seems to indicate that only an extremely moist, green condition
need be avoided.
In the later germination tests that were made this inferiority of
the first extraction of Medicine Bow seed is maintained. There can
be, therefore, little doubt but that the kiln drying of very fresh
cones is unsatisfactory. That it is rather a question of deficient
treatment with low temperatures than of positive injury, however,
seems to be indicated by the fact that the 55-day, 110° F. extraction
PRODUCTIOISr OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED 39
(lot 22 A), made a strong showing after additional kiln drying of
the seeds. The definite improvement of germination after 24 months,
after the probable opportunity for air drying of the Medicine Bow
seed, lends weight to the idea of insufficient drying at the outset. In
this connection Hiley (8) has recently found that a 4-hour exposure
of freshly gathered spruce seed at 122° raised the germination
percentage from 21 to 96, and that seed kept over until the follow-
ing summer gave 90 per cent germination as a result of natural
after-ripening.
The highest immediate germination of Medicine Bow seed from
stored cones, as a group and regardless of kiln temperature, is
obtained in the third extraction, 161 days after collection of the
cones, when, as will be seen by reference to Figure 5, the greater
part of the moisture of the cones had been lost. However, the lead-
ing position of the third extraction is not maintained when germina-
tion is delayed, for the fourth extraction shows up better after a
period of a year or more. This change is well illustrated in Figure 8.
With Gunnison cones the best results were obtained in the fourth
extraction.
It may then be stated definitely, considering the average results
with all temperatures, that there is greatest danger in the treatment
of fresh cones and least after the greater part of the possible air
drying has been accomplished.
QUALITY OF SKED OBTAINED AT DIFFEBENT EXTEACTING TEMPERATURES
In Figures 8 to 12 similar extracting operations have been
grouped and all of the results of germination tests are shown.
These figures will help to make clear the quality of seed obtained
under treatment of the cones at different temperatures.
From the average showing for each temperature as summarized
in Table 9, and excluding the first extractions of both classes of
cones from such averages because of rather obvious disadvantages
which the fresh cones suffered, it may be concluded that for the
Medicine Bow cones, after 2 to 14 months of air drying, the best seed
was produced by extractions at 140° F. The seed was only slightly
injured by treatment at 170°, but appreciably so at 200°. The rela-
tively poor showing of the 110° treatments is probably due to failure
to dry the seed sufficiently, as is the poor showing of the seed en-
tirely air-dried. The former, however, is properly treated so that
it does not greatly deteriorate with age, at least for several years,
while the air-dried seed is liable to deterioration after two or three
years.
For the drier Gunnison cones from a limestone soil the extracting
temperature of 110° F. appears to be best at nearly every period
and in the averages. A fairly steady decline for each increase in
temperature becomes very marked after long storage of the seed.
The air-dried seed is nearly as good as that obtained at 110°. It
appears that the better maturing of these cones before picking and
before the first extraction eliminates the need for artificial ripening.
To sum up, then, it may be said that air drying the cones for a
few months is definitely beneficial to the seed and eliminates much
of the danger in the use of the more effective higher temperatures in
the extracting process. Kiln drying after a reasonable amount of
40 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
air drying is not only necessary to obtain all of the seeds from cones
not fully ripened at the end of their second growing season but is
also desirable to improve the moisture condition and probably the
MEDICINE BOW CONES
80
1
1
1
1
^
J
c
— ^ /
^
70
22 _^
^^
d
V
<
60
_ 2^^-—
^___^
. ■
1
<
^ 50
^^-^^^
^"23
1
1
1
1
O o 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24-
5 GUNNISON CONES
0:
130
9 12 15 18 21 24- QS
LENGTH OF SEED STORAGE, MONTHS
30
Figure 8. — Germination of seed which fell from lodgepole pine cones durinjr different
periods of air drying and were stored for various periods before being sown
chemical condition of the seeds. A kiln temperature of about 140° F.
is usually best, or even higher, but in no case should the tempera-
ture be higher than is necessary to open the cones effectively. Cones
from a limestone soil appear to ripen more thoroughly than the
PRODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED
41
usual run of lodgepole pine cones, and the seed are not, therefore,
stimulated by the application of artificial heat. In any case, as
clearly shown in Figure 8, the danger in the use of high tempera -
90
80
MEDICINE BOW CONES
60
^ 50
Ui
O
1
1
1
1 1 1
23
-=a^
"^
„_ ■ — '
t\
_^
t — ^^
N^
-^
-
y
[^
r^^
21,-——
. d
\
\
1
1
1
1
90
80
70
60
50
40
O
12 15 IS 21 24-
GUNNISON CONES
—
1
1
31
1
1
[n
3j^^^
"^
?^
^
r^
jt^
'
-
-
1
1
1
1
1
9 12 15 IB 21 2A. 85
LENGTH OF SEED STORAGE, MONTHS
130
/
1
^
/
1
/
130
FiGURB 9. — Successive germination of seed extracted at 110° F., after different
periods of cone storage
tures is relatively less as air drying of the cones advances, indicating
that injury is caused by the combined effect of heat and moisture,
or steaming of the seed, rather than by temperature alone.
42 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
MEDICINE BOW CONES
12 15 18 21 24
GUNNISON CONES
65
9 12 15 Id 21 24 85
LENGTH OF SEED STORAGE, MONTHS
130
130
Figure 10. — Successive germinations of seed extracted at 140° F. after different
periods of cone storage
EFFECT OF ADDITIONAL DRYING OP THE SEED
As has been stated, a lO-gram sample of tlie seed of each lot ex-
tracted in this experiment (excepting tests 21 and 31) was dried in
the kiln for four hours at about 170° F. Since the object was as
much to determine the physiological effect of this treatment as to
attain a standard of dryness, this temperature w^as used in preference
to a higher one, which might have destroyed the life of the seed.
PEODUCTION OP LODGEPOLE PINE SEED
43
The moisture contents of the seed lots were computed on the basis
of the weights attained after these exposures.
No tests were made on any of the samples until the end of a 21-
month storage period, and then space in the greenhouse permitted
but a single sowing. These single tests are, therefore, compared only
with the simultaneous tests on the samples of normal seed.
If the average differences in the Medicine Bow group are first
examined, it is seen that germination of all of the kiln-extracted seed
90
80
70
60
^50
O
t<i 40
MEDICINE BOW CONES
1
1
■ 1
^>^
"s /
-
t>^
24.
^
n
■Z B^
_N
k
p^
::^*— J
P3
//
21
^/
N
\#/
T
-
^
L -
'
/
1
1
1
1
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 2! 24 85
LENGTH OF SEED STORAGE, MONTH S
Figure 11. — Successive germination of seed extracted at 170° P., after different
periods of cone storage
44 TECHNICAL, BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
was stimulated, while that of the air-dried seed was not. The greatest
stimulation due to this additional and direct drying was to the lots
kiln-dried at 140° F., which as a group gave the best account of
themselves at this time.
MEDICINE BOW CONES
O
^ 90
i
CD
^ 80
70
60
50
40
1
-
""^""^
^
-
R
J
-
\
h.
^
39.5%^
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
GUNNISON CONES
85-
130
1
■ 1
1
1
^>/
k
>l-33___^
35
-^
\
I
32
^^
'.
•
Q
"Z
^31^
1
»
\
s .
O 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 85 130
LENGTH OF SEED STORAGE, MONTHS
Figure 12. — Successive germinations of seed extracted at 200° F., after different
periods of cone storage
In the Gunnison group it is found that the 110° F. extractions were
not stimulated, and it will be noted that at 21 months these gave
higher germination than any of the other lots. The inference might
PRODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED 45
be drawn that these seed lots dried at 110° had been dried at lust
about the proper rate to have the best effect on germination. The
other differences are so erratic that it is unsafe to attempt to draw
conclusions from them.
Stimulation from this kiln-drying of the seed from Medicine Bow
cones considered by storage periods is evident in the 55-day and
161-day periods, whereas in the last two periods there was a slightly
injurious effect, the only marked exception being one lot (25 B), the
normal seed of which at 21 months germinated poorly for an un-
accountable reason. The same generalization may be made of the
Gunnison seed, one lot (35 C) having a positive effect on the last
group which can not be accounted for and should be given no weight.
To justify the use of the word "stimulating" in discussing this
effect of the additional seed drying, it is only necessary to refer to the
germination rates in specific tests as shown by the proportionate
amounts of the whole occurring in the early periods. For example,
with one lot (22 A), where the greatest influence on the final ger-
mination was shown, a slightly more rapid rate was maintained from
the start. With another lot (22 B), which was only moderately
affected in its final germination, a most unusual and surprising per-
formance resulted from the kiln-drying of the seed, more than
eight-tenths of all the germination occurring before the expiration
of 10 days, a status reached by the normal seed of this lot in 20 days.
On the other hand, most of the lots of kiln-dried seed whose total ger-
mination is curtailed at the same time show stimulation in the early
rate, as is illustrated by the group of averages given in Figure 10.
This suggests that drying at 170° F. may have a stimulating effect on
some of the seeds while killing outright others of the same lot. The
E lots as a whole show the highest degree of stimulation, although
their final germination is not increased.
The Gunnison seeds display quite as marked a stimulation of early
germination as do the Medicine Bow seeds although final germina-
tion was not increased as much. In the 170° F. and air-dried lots
there is a very decided stimulating effect, while only the 200° lots,
on the average, show a suppressing effect from the kiln drying of the
seed. The arbitrary groups in Figure 13 show no appreciable differ-
ence in effect as between the two sources.
Although the individual variations are large, owing in part to
the single test of kiln-dried seed, it may be said with considerable
certainty that kiln drying improves the quality of the seed, which
the ordinary extracting operation has not been adequate to ripen
thoroughly. As has already been pointed out, normal seeds from
Medicine Bow cones, germinated at 21 months, gave comparatively
low values and evidence of reduced energy, owing almost certainly
to their having had too much moisture during storage. With such
seed the kiln-dried lots on the whole compare favorably, whereas the
better ripened and less moist Gunnison seeds gained less by the
additional drying. That kiln drying of the seeds, like the higher
extracting temperatures, tends to produce a slight disintegration
after long periods is indicated by the fact that in both the 7-year
and 11-year tests a single composite sample of the kiln-dried seeds
germinated about 2 per cent less than the average of all normal lots.
The above discussion is not intended to suggest that the extra
kiln drying of seeds should be a common practice. It merely serves
46 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
to emphasize the point that for prompt germination of comparatively-
fresh lodgepole pine seeds something in the nature of artificial ripen-
ing is needed. The regular extracting process should be designed
to accomplish this, but if after a short period of. storage the seeds
show a tendency to sweat or become sticky or moldy, a treatment,
perhaps at a temperature somewhat lower than 170° F., could doubt-
less be given with much benefit.
MEDICINE BOW CONES
LQTS WHOSL PINAL GERMINATION LOTS WHOSE FINAL GERMINATION
WAS INCREASED BY EXTRA DRYING WAS DECREASED BY EXTRA DRYING
80
60
40
20
1
1
1
■ 1
■ I
1
T"
1
r
1
1 .
1 1
/
14 LOTS
- /
6 LOTS
-
1 1
/
-
1 1
1 1
1
1
If 1
1
1
1
\\
. ill.
1
1
1
20
40 60 80 O 20 40
DAYS FROM SOWING OF SELED
60
80
GUNNISON CONES
LOTS WHOSE FINAL GERMINATION LOTS WHOSE FINAL GERMINATfON
WAS INCREASED BY EXTRA DRYING WAS DECREASED BY EXTRA DRYING
80
60
40
20
1
\^^-
1
■ T-
■ 1
1 ■
■'T'-- ■
/
_
_ -^ "* ~
~
/
/ ^^.-^
/ y
/ /
— H
f
/
"
/ /
/ /
/ /
II LOTS
/
*
9 LOTS
/
( /
//
-
■1
1
1
1
1
I
1
1
20
40
60 80 O 20
DAYS FROM SOWING OF SEED
40
60
80
NORMALLY EXTRACTED SEEDS
SEEDS ADDITIONALLY DRIED
FiGDEH 13. — Stimulation of rate of germination by kiln drying of lodgeiwle pine
seed at 170° F. in addition to normal extracting treatment
EFFECT OF LONG STORAGE OF THE SEEID
^ There can be little doubt that lodgepole pine seeds properly
ripened and properly stored have an almost limitless life. The frag-
mentary results obtained with the Medicine Bow and Gunnison
seed, of the 1914 crop, when tested 85 months after collection, show
merely the possibilities in this line, but they seem to prove that there
is no need for the rapid deterioration oi tree seed that so often
occurs when they are carelessly stored. The conditions of storage
PRODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED 47
in this experiment were those of a cool moist cellar, with an approxi-
mate temperature range from 30° to 50° F. annually. Under these
conditions seed lots adequately sealed to prevent absorption of
moisture showed, for the most part, no loss of germinative capacity
at the end of seven years, though there was a general falling off of
about 10 per cent in the succeeding four years. Both Zederbauer
{17) and Wiebecke {H) have said that European experience points
to conditions for seed storage approximately equivalent to those
under which vegetable products as a whole are preserved ; that is, a
constant temperature close to the freezing point. The seed must, of
course, be shielded from a damp atmosphere.
It goes almost without saying that the first requirement is that
the seed to be stored should not have been injured, since the deteriora-
tion of injured seed is almost certain to be progressive.
NET VALUE OF THE YIELDS AT VARIOUS TIMES AND TEMPERATURES
If the value of the seed yields previously described is to be computed
from the gross values and the germinative qualities, it is necessary
first to decide what shall be considered the average germination of a
given lot.
It has been pointed out that the first germination test on the
various lots is very slightly questionable because all such tests were
not made synchronously. A more important consideration is that
seed slightly injured — by overheating, for example — ^may perhaps
germinate if sown at once, but not if retained for what may be con-
sidered an average period of storage. It is believed, therefore, that
in a balanced average this first test should not be given a weight of
more than one-fourth. In computing values for test 21, allowances
are made, as previously mentioned, because of the fact that the ger-
mination tests were cut off 10 days before the usual time.
Although the germination at 21 months was determined for only
1,000 seeds of each lot, the two distinct tests on 500 seeds each were
generally very consistent, and it is believed best to give the results
at this period a weight of one-half, because the seeds had been in
storage for a good many months, under moisture conditions controlled
by their respective initial moisture contents, and this should bring
out most clearly the influence of each extracting method. The tests
in triplicate at 24 months supply the final fourth of the balanced
averages.
Table 10 and Figure 14 show the yields and computed values of
each lot separately for the Medicine Bow and Gunnison crops.
The first extraction of Medicine Bow cones yielded the largest
number of seed; and so it was with the Arapaho cones two years
earlier. The germination percentages of the second and third ex-
tractions were, however, so much higher that these proved to be much
better in net yield. One noteworthy point is the lightness and com-
paratively low value, at the second and third extractions, of the seed
which was air-dried only, whereas, after this seed reaches the point
of representing nearly a third of the yield, its quality is above the
average of the kiln-extracted seeds.
The Gunnison extractions show essentially the same tendencies,
although the second and third extractions were apparently somewhat
48 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT.' OF AGRICULTURE
•
more effective than the first, producing more and better seeds and
consequently higher net yields, culminating in the third extraction.
It is here noteworthy that the lots subjected to air drying only were
above the average quality in the third, fourth, and fifth extractions,
although the volume of this air-dried seed did not become large until
the last. This fact seems to indicate rather an improvement in such
50
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 2^0 270 300 330 3eO 390 4-20 450
time: ot extraction, days, from collelction of cones
Figure 14. — Net yields of good seed per bushel of lodgepole pine cones stored for
different periods, extracted at different temperatures, Including also seed obtained
through air drying. All values computed from balanced germination in tests up
to end of 24 months
seed with continued drying than a proof that the first seed given
up is of inferior quality.
The most striking point in Table 10 is the large seed yield of the
Medicine Bow as compared with the Gunnison cones, the Gunnison
cones yielding about the same number of good seeds as the Arapaho
cones of 1912. The size of the Medicine Bow seed, as shown by the
number of seeds per pound, is 10 to 20 per cent greater and the total
PRODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED
49
number of seeds extracted nearly twice as great. As the germination
percentages are very similar, the net yield of germinable seeds is
76 per cent greater per bushel of Medicine Bow cones than of Gunni-
son limestone cones. In the section on seed production, where Gun-
nison cones from a granitic soil were considered, it was shown that
Gunnison cones produced a good many more seeds than Medicine
Bow cones. When the data are reduced to a comparable basis it is
found that the Medicine Bow cones in this experiment yield nearly
twice as many seed as in the seed -production study (considering the
10-year average) and that the Gunnison limestone cones are fully
as fruitful sls Gunnison granitic cones. This difference, then, must
be due to obtaining very superior cones on the Medicine Bow for
these extraction experiments.
Table 10. — Yields of Medicine Bow and Chtnnison lodgepole pine cones m total
and germinable seeds after varied air-drying and kiln-drying treatment
[Lots of 1 bushel treated at each temperature; untreated seeds represent yields of 4 bushels from air
drying only]
Period of air drying
Kiln
temper-
ature
Seeds per pound
extracted
Total quantity
extracted
Balanced average of final
germination
(days)
Medi-
cine Bow
Gunni-
son
Medi-
cine Bow
Gunni-
son
Medicine Bow
Gunnison
None
op
{ no
140
170
200
No.
102, 150
91,713
103, 708
101, 105
No.
104, 550
111,050
118, 190
113, 740
No.
61, 975
68, 745
67, 512
56,787
No.
24, 312
27, 691
33, 385
29,510
P.d.
1 61. 05
60.20
65.62
68.68
No.
31,638
35,364
44,301
33,323
P.d.
83.01
81.78
60.06
47.98
No.
20,182
22,646
20,048
14, 159
Total or average. _
2 99,634
ni2,096
245, 019
114,898
69.03
144, 626
67.05
77,035
65
f 110
. 140
170
200
None.
100,574
100, 798
96,509
101, 022
112, 833
129, 943
117,816
110, 362
109,299
128, 496
62,417
55, 677
52, 829
64, 092
28,000
28,917
28,656
27, 533
26, 798
7,731
61.08
75.98
70.38
69.36
68.06
32,016
42,303
37, 181
32,104
19,054
73.08
78.38
76.32
68.12
63.92
21, 133
22,382
20,738
18,255
4,942
Total or average. .
101,067
117, 191
243, 016
119, 535
66.93
162,658
73.16
87,450
161
r 110
140
170
200
None.
97, 128
94, 893
95,694
97,968
125, 648
125, 648
116,305
137,451
119,681
108, 255
46, 012
48,629
45,008
45,909
38, 715
26, 731
28, 138
33, 342
28,950
12, 162
83.58
82.00
74.26
68.58
63.10
38, 457
39, 876
33,418
31,484
24,429
74.28
71.88
67.98
72.78
75.51
19,856
20,226
22,666-
21,070
9,184
Total or average..
100,427
122, 954
224, 273
129,323
74.76
167,663
71.91
93,002
252
110
140
170
200
None.
91,634
92, 381
93,150
93, 331
109, 552
110, 902
113,967
113,833
116,305
103, 755
35,297
33, 691
35, 419
35,432
61, 119
20,186
25, 168
27,258
27,844
13,383
81.75
80.95
76.02
60.30
72.08
28,866
27, 273
26,926
21, 365
44,056
80.85
73.85
79.02
74.00
80.21
16,320
18,586
21 539
20,605
10, 735
Total or average
97,194
113,003
200,958
113,839
73.88
148,473
77.11
87, 785
425
110
140
170
200
None.
98,607
101, 022
101,022
103, 323
94,498
119,997
122, 262
138,290
120,316
116,604
16,183
17, 408
17, 953
18, 572
120, 071
18, 159
23, 391
27,460
24, 101
27,054
71.22
74.18
70.42
68.62
74.00
10, 813
12,913
12,643
12, 744
88,862
76.12
74.80
62.48
73.60
76.92
13,823
17,496
17, 167
17, 738
20,810
Total or average
96,586
123,420
189, 187
120, 165
72.93
137,965
72.42
87, 024
All
r 110
140
\ 170
200
iNone.
» 98, 586
95,394
98,882
99,236
103,864
ni8,0S7
115,997
123,021
115,637
113,338
210,884
214, 150
218, 721
210, 792
247,905
118,305
132,944
148,978
137,203
60,330
«67.23
73.66
70.62
62.16
71.16
141, 779
167, 728
154,468
131,020
176, 390
» 77. 19
76.22
68.57
66.93
75.70
91,314
101, 336
102, 148
91,827
45, 671
> Allowances are made as described in the text for the short germinating period in the first test.
' Algebraic means.
110505°— 30 4
60 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, IT. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE
From a comparison of the results at different temperatures, it is
seen that the best net yield of Medicine Bow cones was obtained by-
using temperatures of about 140° F., owing both to high gross yields
and the superior quality of the seed. The net, however, at 140°
is considerably exceeded by that at 170° in the first extraction, as it
appears that with green cones the higher temperature improved the
quantity and quality of the seed.
For the Gunnison cones, it is evident, somewhat higher tempera-
tures are necessary for the best results. A temperature of 170° F.
here produces considerably more than 140°, after the second extrac-
tion, and in spite of generally poor germination the 170° extraction
makes a slightly better showing in the average.
I
\
)
\
\
\
\
\
N
\
^
0 bOO 1000 1500 POOD 2500 3000 3500 4000
0 T U SUPPLIED PLR POUND OF WATCR CVAPORATtO
Figure 15. — Heat required for drying lodgepole pine
cones at different moisture contents
As was indicated in the study of the germination results alone,
Figure 11 shows that the longer air drying is continued the greater
is the need and justification for the use of high temperatures. For
the Gunnison cones even a temperature of 200° F. may in extreme
circumstances be justified. The highest temperatures did not bring
the late extractions of the Medicine Bow cones up to the status of
earlier ones.
THE ECONOMY OF STORAGE AND AIR DRYING
It has been clearly indicated by both the 1912 and 1914 tests that
the highest yields of germinable seeds may be expected after several
months of storage and air drying of the cones. After possibly six
months, however, the cones become casehardened and do not yield
readily to artificial drying because of the relatively small amount
of moisture available for removal, and as a result seed yields steadily
decrease as the air drying is prolonged.
PRODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED 51
Since the evaporation of water by artificial heat necessarily in-
volves expense, even though the necessary fuel be available in the
opened cones, it follows that air drj^ing of the cones may mean a
considerable economy in the extracting process. It is conceivable
that since at least temporary storage facilities must be provided
air drying may be continued as long as desired without any material
increase in cost on account of such facilities.
In the present study the unit of drying cost must be the heat
actually utilized, with a small allowance for the fact that in cold
weather a little more heat iriust be generated than in warm weather
to produce the same kiln conditions. That the heat actually utilized
is a fair basis, even though in these tests the percentage of utiliza-
tion drops steadily as drier cones are treated, will be indicated by
considering that in a practical operation this decrease might readily
be balanced by treating larger masses of the dry cones. The limita-
tion in efficiency of a hot air current is really decided by the amount
of moisture which it accumulates. The heat actually utilized has
been most carefully measured in these tests, which is an additional
reason for adopting this measure.
The kiln-drying process is ordinarily thought of merely as a
process of extracting water from the cones. This is undoubtedly
the main consideration. But an examination of Table 11 will readily
show that the amount of heat required in various extractions is not
proportionate to the amount of drying done but rather increases
markedly for each unit of water evaporated as the number of such
units become less. (Fig. 15.) It is also greater in the 110° F.
extractions of Gunnison cones than elsewhere. These phenomena
are so striking and have given rise to so much speculation on the
part of the writer and so great an effort to find an explanation that
it would be desirable to discuss the matter thoroughly from a theo-
retical standpoint in order that the reader might have more confi-
dence in the practical bearing of the results. This, however, is pre-
cluded by lack of space, and there will be mentioned, therefore, but
three points which in the writer's opinion can have any material
bearing on the results presented.
52
TECHNICAL BULLETIN
DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
^^^2
<5o
•5 35
o
^iiis
• .-Too if of
© CO ^ "^ ^
• o o o <o
K( . . . .
iSoo
od^0> od 00
»8 «oS«D
Socoo
oooo
OJoico;^
CC ■V •^ •'P
icc—ii^
S ?S?5?5?^
Si§i
csic«3C»ec
OOiOOO
S5?585?J
iC ^ Oi «
SSeooS
!SS
go <c t^ t-
c5o.-<o
ooSfc^eo
isli
?5c^?iS
'♦'OJh-OO
eocfc4^N
co^««o
O«C00O
ci t-: uj -^^
»0 •«»< ■V "O
82SS
(3)
3
tH2^
3aS
Ki^NCDoo
CO t^ooo — I
t-CS«30
00 — 00 05
O 5D rH M
00 t^wt^o
T-( CO o »o «o
i§s2
srr^jsfc
00 1^ Tf i-i
Tfl CO t^ t^
|2|§
CSIOOOOtO
--I03005
oooot^
"*t -if o oTo
CC 00 cc -^ cc
O 05CD(MC«5
t^r-lCC-l
«« oT ocTrf
05 00 Oi OS
iiSi
gaag
<» O rt S
r^ »- OJ «S
Sol's
g X S <33
g i
, O ■* ^
ooooep
OOOJO-
;ss?^
gj <-! OS ic
05(NCCO
C<5 C^ Oi-*
00 O — CO
0«50>0
!S=2?^
■>OC0 05i-H
.u ^ 2J CO cq ■* <N
"2 ^S >nido6?D
S ^ S O CD t- 00
feoscoosoo
5 fl ^5 >
00 «oooooo
CO — 'qOOb-'
2§S
ic 00 00 00
oi O Oi — ■
8SgS
!Sg8
CO — 00 CO
osoc^co
2§JBg
t^coc>»eo
t^eoOi-H
2§i
PRODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED
53
OOOO'C
S lO (M t~-
ec TiH Tj! c<i
lO lO lO >c
I CD »0 <
<N(NC^IM
CO CO CO CO
^ Tf M CO
t^ r-< lO 00
•>*< O <>) -^
coTtrc<rco'
«DO'-(CO
»0 CO T(H O
OOOSIMOO
OiOr-HO
c»c>c<ico
Oi "^ CO "^
O 05 00 CO
i-IQ0CO-<i<
>ot^coco
05c5 -a*
TfTftOSO
CsTr-Tr-Tc^"
r>-r<N
O«OQ0O
OJGOOSCO
rH t^ Tt< lO
COOCOO
TjJ Tji T}5 Iti
COt-<N-
CO.-l.-l (
Sc5Sc5
COCDt^C^
N^coco
<£|(N.-I05
r-ooco
IM»0 05tH
Sooo«
O 00 c
I^S
^cooos
»OCD(N>C
t}1»Ot}<CO
.-icoco<
cotocoi
Sg52?^
"tf CO CO -^
••fCOOiN
c4c4p<co
lOOCO
xMcoeo
t^.-iCDO
^n^n
Tf*eo.-ioo
CO e^ o OS
CO O "OCO
.-I OOCO
lO CO CO 00
C0-r}<c0-*
CO iC Oi IM
t^ t>.eo CO
O5t^(N00
lOcOIMTt*
»o Tfi coco
O>cO(N00
oi .-<■ co' r-!
ooo^c^
!?22S
COt)<00
ci'.-rc<fc>f
ISSi
«OTj<»Ct>.
PC0(MC0
?5 00 eo^-
coo6.-lco
OCOCOQO
C^ 00 CO c
fo 8&§^
c4" CO coco CO
'H CO >o <
t^ lOOO^Q
T-l 00-H M©
(N OSIN-* »0
05 eoiot^t^
ic CO 05 ■>*i <
(N t^ 00 CO <
CO t^(N(Mi
sys!
00 00r-(COC^
oJ t^oJ^"o6
I CO CO -^
iMOCO
CO CO CO-.*;
lo o 00 CO
C^COrH »C
oco 00 CO
T}< ■*! o t^
.-icOt^lM
iCIMODO
OrH.-ieO
g^SSS
COCOiCiM
.-I eO(N
CO COO.-I IM
O — I05C0O
CO 05C0 COOO
CO CDI^CO-Tli"
COCOt^t^
) lO CO .
. oi »o
00 00 lO CO
s^^s
04 CO Ol ^
CO CS CO IN
c>»(M05eo
COCOrH^
■«»<05iCO
CO 05 lO C
IrHlNC^
OrH00(M
coTf t-:»o
tH C^(McO
^^^{
>«■* IMCO
COCO(M<N
0(NTt<cO
1§?J
i^oooot^
o«or>.co
"O iC CO cs
-5.3
.£3 O
13 C
13 CO
2 o S
■^ C8 O
•sag
*^ to l-i
5.ti^
co5-
2 13
8.So
54 ll-ECHNIOALr BULLETm 191, tJ. S. DEP^P. OF AGMCULTUBE
(1) The water to be extracted from the cones is not entirely free
water. After a certain degree of dryness is reached — say, at about
15 per cent moisture content — the remaining water is held in a very
strong bondage and behaves unlike liquid water, just as does the
residue of soil water when the soil approaches complete dryness.
If the drying process is reversed, very dry cone material being im-
mersed in water, it is found that considerable heat is generated,
which may be called " heat of imbibition or absorption." The
amount so generated, in rough tests made without a calorimeter, ig
perhaps 15 B. t. u. per pound of dry cone material wet, and this is
only a small fraction of the amount needed to explain the high heat
use in some of the extractions. Nevertheless, the existence of such
a factor is an important item in explaining why there is much
greater heat use when cones are dried to a low moisture content.
(2) The second point concerns the allowance for radiation from
the walls of the kiln between the points where the temperatures of
the hot-air current and of the exhaust-air current are recorded.
Every effort has been made to determine precisely what loss of heat
occurs with the current of air passing through the kiln, but with no
drying being done. The main difficulty is to duplicate the conditions
which exist when there are cones in the kiln. Therefore, while it is
believed that a radiation table has been prepared which is well bal-
anced for different temperature conditions, still is must be recog-
nized that the radiation is a large factor in the entire heat loss and
that very slight changes in the allowances for radiation would
greatly affect the apparent use of heat in the drying process.
(3) It may be assumed that some of the heat is used in obscure
chemical changes in the cone cells and in the seeds. The facts
deduced from germination data, indicating ripening changes in
the seeds, both when the cones are air-dried, and occasionally when
they are kiln dried, point strongly in this direction. The various
lots of test 21 showed original germination almost directly propor-
tionate to the excess heat used in extracting the seed, and in test 31,
although the higher temperature treatments did not show the greater
excesses, the same relation of heat use to germinative vigor is evi-
dent. While this relation can not be followed into subsequent tests
without involving other factors, it is quite evident that there is a
close relation between heat use and seed quality in green cones.
What quantities of heat may be involved in these possible chemi-
cal changes is entirely problematical, though it does not seem that
they could be consequential unless the entire cone mass were affected.'
PRACTICAL RESULTS OF THE DRYING PROCESSES
The calorimetric results obtained with the first kiln and the
Arapaho cones of 1912 are not considered sufficiently reliable to war-
rant their presentation in tabular form, although the values obtained
fall mainly within the range of values established later by more
careful methods. A brief resume will suffice to show the situation
existing when the tests of 1914 were begun.
The quantity of heat required to open the cones, as determined by
the cooling of the air in passing through the cone trays, with an
allowance for the radiation loss from the kiln walls, was 6,651
B. t. u. in the first extraction at 110° F., and 18,289 for the entire
PRODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED 55
bushel treated at three different temperatures. This total value
decreased promptly but irregularly in later tests to less than 10,000
B. t. u. per bushel of cones and reached a low point of 5,500 B. t. u.
in test 13 made January 15, 1914, 13 months after the first extrac-
tion. Considered by groups of five tests each, the first group had
an average requirement of 11,993 B. t. u. per bushel, the second 8,206,
and the last extractions 7,193 B. t. u. It is thus seen that after air
drying the cones are opened with a much smaller utilization of heat,
and this, in a practical operation, would mean that a greater volume
of cones could be treated at one time.
Individual extractions vary widely in the amount of water evapo-
rated in the artificial drying processes. Considering groups of re-
sults large enough to ol3scure individual variations,* the first five
tests required on the average ^ 2,655 ±107 B. t. u. per pound of water
evaporated, the next five, 2,230 ±94, and the last, 2,516 ±89. One
explanation of this low heat use in the second group is the fact that
from the time of test 5 to that of test 10 the cones were at times
being wet by rains, and in so far as this moisture remained in the
superficial layers it is conceivable that it would be evaporated more
readily than that deep within the tissues.
The practical results obtained in the various extractions of Medi-
cine Bow and Gunnison cones may now be considered.
In Table 11 the conditions and heat computations for the numerous
extractions in the 1914 tests have been given. Table 12 sums up the
heat use in relation to seed yields.
It is to be expected that there will be a gradual diminution in the
heat required to open cones as they become more and more affected by
air-drying. Eeferring to Table 7, which shows the moisture condi-
tion of the cones as treated at different periods, it is seen that for
Medicine Bow cones between tests 21' and 23 there was a loss of
moisture by air-drying from 71.6 t*o 20.4 per cent ; this is accompanied
by a decrease of more than one-half in heat utilization. Beyond the
third extraction, however, the decrease in heat use is far less than
the decrease in the amount of water to be evaporated, and is just
about equal to the decrease in total seed yield, including that obtained
by air-drying.
Table 12 clearly shows that the 110° F. extractions of Medicine Bow
cones are most saving of heat ; but in view of the much higher yields
of good seeds at 140°, it is felt that 140° is actually the more eco-
nomical, if the original cost of the cones be properly weighed.
Extractions of Gunnison cones at 110° F. utilized a greater amount
of heat than any except those at 200° and produced the highest
quality seed; but as nearly one-fifth of the limestone cones do not
open at this temperature, the net yield is low, and the heat required
to produce 1,000 seeds is 20 per cent greater than at 140°, where prac-
tically the highest yields are obtained.
The most economical period for extracting both types of seed is
that which produces the greatest seed yield, or, as represented by tests
23 and 33, in March, about 160 days after the end of September,
when cones may be considered ripe. This is not marked enough,
« Arithmetic moans of tho results of nil of tho extractions in these tests after eliminat-
ing from first and second groups one; Ijij-h figure whos*^ deviation exceeds three times the
probable error. In the second group results in test 9 are not included.
56 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
however, to warrant undertaking extracting operations in March if
that month should happen to be very cold and undue expense would
be involved in generating the total amount of heat required. It
must also be kept in mind that the low heat use at this period in the
tests has not been clearly explained.
Table 12. — Heat required to open lodgepole pine cones in 1914 testa in relation
to net seed fields at various times and temperatures
Medicine Bow cones
Gunnison cones
Test No.
Kiln
tem-
pera-
ture
Heat
units
used!
Good
seeds ob-
tained »
Heat
units
perM
good
seeds
Test No.
Kiln
tem-
pera-
ture
Heat
units
used
Good
seeds ob-
tained i
Heat
units
perM
good
seeds
21
[ 110
140
1 170
I 200
B. t. u.
12,467
15, 116
23,579
19,956
Number
31, 638
35,364
44,301
33,323
B. t. u.
394
427
532
599
31
f 110
J 140
1 170
I 200
B. t. u.
21,180
19,780
18,109
17, 165
Number
20,182
22,646
20,048
14, 159
B. t. u.
1,049
873
Total or av-
903
1,212
Total or av-
erage
71, 118
144,626
S492
76,234
77,035
*990
32
22
r 110
1 140
1 170
( 200
10,270
11, 115
10,546
11, 774
36, 779
47,067
41,944
36,868
279
236
251
199
f 110
1 140
1 170
200
11, 618
7,225
10, 172
11,909
22,369
23,617
21, 974
19,490
519
306
Total or av-
erase
463
611
Total or av-
erage
43,705
162, 658
3 269
40,924
87,450
*468
33-
23
f 110
140
170
200
5,412
7,762
6,185
6,772
44,565
45, 982
39, 525
37, 591
121
169
156
180
f 110
140
170
I 200
5,133
6,502
6,050
8,339
22, 152
22,522
24,962
23,366
232
289
Total or av-
erage
242
357
Total or av-
erage -
26,131
167, 663
. 3 156
26,024
93,002
3 280
34
24
f 110
1 140
1 170
200
4,580
6,973
5,811
6,734
39,868
38,287
37,939
32, 379
115
182
153
208
f 110
J 140
1 170
200
6,069
5,026
7,103
9,334
19,004
21,270
24,222
23,289
319
236
Total or av-
erase
293
401
Total or av-
erage.
24,098
148, 473
3 162
27,532
87,785
3 314
35
25
f 110
J 140
1 170
I 200
4,653
5,324
5,300
7,304
33,026
35,126
34,856
34, 957
141
152
152
209
f 110
1 140
1 170
200
5,084
5,631
6,479
7,515
19,025
22,699
22, 359
22,941
267
248
Total or av-
erage
290
328
Total or av-
erage.
22,581
137, 965
3 164
24,709
87,024
3284
All
All
f 110
140
1 170
I 200
37, 382
46,290
61, 421
52,540
185, 876
201,826
198, 565
175, 118
3 201
3229
3 259
3300
{ 110
I 140
1 170
I 200
49,084
44,164
47, 913
54,262
102, 732
112, 754
113, 565
103, 245
—J- -
3 478
3 392
3 422
3 526
1 For tests 22 to 25, figures from Table 11 were increased to a whole-bushel basis by dividing by 0.9062.
' Including seeds released by air-drying only.
» Algebraic means.
It is noteworthy that although test 23 represents the lowest aver-
age heat utilization by the Medicine Bow cones, extractions at 140°
and 170° F. produced slightly better utilization in test 25. This is
in line with the fact previously pointed out that the higher tem-
peratures become increasingly effective as the cones become drier.
Extractions of Gunnison cones at 140° took the least heat in test
34; at 170° the low level was reached in test 33. Test 33, at 170°,
produced the highest individual seed yield for the Gunnison cones.
PRODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED 57
The practical results of these tests may, then, be summed up as
follows :
Air drying under ideal storage conditions may in the course of
six months reduce the moisture content of the choicest fresh cones by
about 70 per cent of the original amount and thereby reduce by fully
one-half the heat required to complete their opening. A maximum
temperature in the kiln of about 140° F. is all that is required while
the cones contain good " life." Beyond this period drying of fresh
cones goes on much more slowly. The cones become hardened and
soon do not contain enough moisture to show a sharp reaction when
the moisture is removed, so that higher temperatures have to be used.
It may well be said that the best temperature is the lowest that will
open the cones effectively, time being a consideration. Medicine
Bow and Gunnison cones were very different in this respect, in that
the former never failed to respond quite well to the low temperatures.
Everything considered, storage for six to nine months produces
the largest yields of seed, of the best quality, and at the least ex-
pense of artificial heat. The amount of artificial heat required may
be taken as an index of the speed of operation as well as of the total
expense.
Cones that are for any reason more poorly developed, like those
grown on limestone soil on the Gunnison Forest, differ mainly in
requiring higher temperatures for their effective opening, except
possibly while fairly fresh.
GERMINATION OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED
THE METHOD OF GERMINATION TESTS
SOIL, TEMPERATURE. AND WATER
Since a test of the viability of the seed is necessary for any conclu-
sion as to the real value of a seed crop or method of treatment of the
crop, germination tests must be frequent in such a study as this, and
the manner in which they are made is of no small importance. The
subject is extremely large and complex, and various seed-testing
methods have been widely discussed. In defense of the method ap-
plied in this work it may be said that it has the justification of
being natural and practical; natural in the sense that the medium,
sand, is the natural habitat ^ for seed, and that the daily range of
temperatures and the absolute temperatures are similar to those oc-
curring in lodgepole pine sites; practical, in that the manipulation
of the tests is much simpler in sand flats than under more artificial
conditions, and also because the results are perhaps indicative of
the seed values for nursery or field use. By this method germina-
tion is more than a mere showing of life in the seed — the seedling
must at least have vigor enough to push to the surface.
The main features of the method chiefly used in connection with
this study were described by the writer in 1913 (i) , but since then some
refinements and additional data make it desirable to describe anew
the entire process so far as it relates to tests with lodgepole pine.
' In considering the difference between sand and blotting paper, for example, the chemi-
cal roactlonb of the two mediums may be of some small moment. The sand medium will
usually show an acid reaction, to which the pines are partial, at least in their later
growth, while it is to be expected that blotting paper will be alkaline or nearly neutral.
No doubt the reaction of the water (or splUtion) will have appreciable effect on its rate
of absorption by the seed,
58 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
As the small greenhouse designed for these tests was not equipped
with artificial heat until November, 1911, the preliminary work for
the first year was done under a natural or practically uncontrolled
range of temperatures. It was not difficult to keep the minimum
temperatures above freezing, although at times they went below 40°
F., but there was less control of the maximum air temperatures,
which in August averaged 100°. A daily range of air temperatures
from 50° to 85° was soon decided upon, to be controlled as needed
by means of artificial heat at night and curtains in the daytime.
After a period of observations in which the extremes of air tem-
perature, 60° and 85° F., had been compared with the maxima and
minima in the soil, the temperature range ]^vas controlled according
to the soil temperatures, beginning in November, 1913. It was found
that at a depth of 1 inch in the sand the daily range was about 15°
less than that of the air in the greenhouse. Consequently, the new
standard adopted permitted a maximum each day of 77.5°, and a
minimum, usually occurring in the early morning, of 57.5°. It was
thought that in this manner the actual temperatures experienced by
the germinating seed would be made more closely comparable for
days when sunlight supplied the heat, and days in which the entire
Avarming process must be through warming of the air, and thence
the soil, by artificial heat. However, because of the more sustained
effect of artificial heat, it is more equable that when sunlight is not
available the maximum should fall somewhat short of 77.5°, and
this not infrequently happens because of physical limitations of the
greenhouse equipment.
Later observation over a period of 80 days showed that when a
maximum temperature of 77.5° F. is attained at a depth of 1 inch,
the corresponding temperature 0.25 inch below the surface, where
the seeds lie, is 5.7° higher on the average. The minimum at 0.25
inch depth, however, is only 0.5° lower than that of the deeper soil.
The actual range of temperatures experienced by the seed under the
standard air temperatures is, therefore, 57° to 83.2°.
Most of the space in the greenhouse was occupied until 1918 by a
bench partitioned into tills, each approximately 1 foot square and
4 inches deep. (PI. 1, C.) This gave fairly uniform conditions for
conducting 165 synchronous tests, with some variations, which will
be mentioned later. A movable bench of 25 square feet capacity was
then constructed, separate tills instead of built-in sections being used
thereon.
The material used in all recent soil tests has been a granitic sand
fairly free of both humus and clay, obtained by passing the native
granitic gravel of the region through I/4 -inch-mesh hardware cloth.
The sand was taken from a deep excavation, where it was thought
few spores or mycelia of parasitic fungi would have penetrated.
That this idea was sound is shown by the fact that in 10 years there
have been not over half a dozen outbreaks of damping-off in the
testing tills, and these were confined to single seed lots, the spores
probably having been brought in with the seed. Probably because of
this factor the sand medium was found generally to induce higher
germination than a loamy soil. The slightly acid reaction of the
granitic and (pH about 6.0) probably has a stimulating effect on
lodgepole pine germination, as it does later on growth.
PRODUCTION" OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED 59
At first one-half of an inch covering of sand was used for all seeds,
but this was quickly changed on evidence that it materially retarded
germination, especially of the small seeds of spruce and lodgepole
pine. The standard covering of one-fourth of an inch was adopted,
wath this provision — that where the thickness of the seed is itself a
large proportion of this depth the seed will be pressed in flush with
the surface before the covering soil is applied.
The exact control of watering has never been considered either
feasible or necessary. It has seemed best to compensate for varia-
tions in weather conditions merely by varying the morning watering
according to the prospective weather, and if this fails to keep the
soil surface apjDreciably moist to supplement it by a watering later in
the day. Considerable faith is pinned to this method because of
the loose character of the soil, the freedom of drainage both through
the soil and the bench floor, and the lack of any tendency toward
sourness or moldiness. Only in 1915 was there discovered any evi-
dence of bad effects from overwatering.
During a temperature test, described later, samples of the sand
in the tills were taken daily to determine moisture content. Moisture
was found to vary by slow changes from 6 to 12 per cent. The higher
figure is possibly a little too much moisture for the best results. Any
value between 6 and 10 per cent would probably insure highly avail-
able moisture and complete aeration. Variations within this range
would only have a negligible influence.
PREPARATION AND TESTING OF THE SAMPLE
The lots of seed obtained in experiments such as those described
rarely exceed 0.5 to 1 pound in weight. These lots are first freed
of long needles, seed wings, or other foreign matter which would
tend to bind the seeds together. In this condition the total roughly
cleaned weight is determined.
A small sample of 500 seed is counted and accurately weighed, all
foreign matter being carefully removed, as well as broken and hollow
seeds when it appears certain that these can not germinate. From
the weights thus taken it is possible to determine the number of
clean seed per pound, as well as the purity percentage of the seed
lot, and the total number of seeds therein.
The 500 seeds are then ready to be sown. A section or till is
somewhat loosely but evenly filled with slightly moist sand, which is
pressed down one-fourth of an inch below the top of the till with a
specially constructed block, leaving the soil surface smooth and
slightly compacted. The 500 seeds are distributed evenly over this
surface or, if they are large (more than about 2 millimeters thick),
embedded with the pressing block. Loose, dry sand is then placed
over them,, level with the top of the till. By this means, unless
erosion of the surface occurs, a uniform covering of the seeds is
assured even though the sand in the till should settle somewhat
unevenly from repeated watering.
The tills are immediately watered. Thereafter they are observed
and watered each morning. When seedlings begin to appear, after
7 to 15 days, the sand is watered and eruptions on the surface are
" melted down " before the seedlings are counted and removed. The
tally of each till is made from day to day.
60 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
This method is designed to give the total number and germinable
number of seeds in the entire sample or per pound. Because of the
difficulty of obtaining a perfectly true sample either for weight or
germinability, and because these two things usually vary in the same
direction, a short-^3ut method is possible which promises less variable
results. Instead of a fixed number of cleaned seed, a known weight
of uncleaned seed may be sown, the result being stated as so many
germinable seeds per gram. This figure will probably be found less
variable in successive samples than any other measure of germina-
bility. At least the method guarantees numerous samplings for
weight as well as for germinability, and is recommended for use in
investigations in which it is possible to get away from the stereo-
typed expressions of "germination percentage." When there is a
time element, with opportunity for the entire seed lot to gain or lose
weight through moisture changes, it is, of course, necessary to keep
track of such changes.
THE GERMINATION PERIOD
For practical purposes seed which germinates promptly has much
greater value than that which responds slowly to favorable heat and
moisture. Nature being quite relentless in such matters, especially
in a region with a dry atmosphere which quickly desiccates the soil
surface, it follows that seeds whose vigor permits them to ger-
minate on the moisture of a single rain have a much greater chance
of success and a much greater value in reproduction than those which
perhaps have only begun to swell when their seed bed becomes dry.
It is recognized that the seed of each species has its characteristic
germinating time and rate, and the differences between climatic
varieties of the same species are equally marked. Therefore, there
is a tendency in seed testing to set aside a limited period for a show-
ing of energetic germination and to consider the germination occur-
ring after that period as of little or no practical value.
Wiebecke {iX) writing in 1910 of experience with Scotch pine
(Firms sylvestris) in Europe, and referring to germination upon
strips of moist flannel or blotting paper, which is, of course, more
rapid than in soil, says :
The practical working out of several thousand germination experiments at
Eberswalde has confirmed the opinion of Haacli that in the case of fresh seed
from good cones all the really useful seeds have germinated in seven days.
The relative " germinative energy " of any particular lot of seed, or
the period required for the germination of the more vigorous and
prompt portion, may be expressed in several ways with reference to
other seeds. Perhaps the commonest and least arbitrary method is
to give the number of days required by the seed to produce one-half
of its possible germination. This number is called the " rapidity
factor." The objectionable feature in the use of this term is that the
rapidity factor can not be given until a very long period has elapsed
to bring out the complete germination.
Other means of expressing the energy or real value of the seed
require that the percentage of germination in some limited period
shall itself delimit the quality of the seed, or that this amount in a
limited period, expressed as a ratio to the germinative capacity, shall
show the proportion of vigorous seeds. The period of energetic
PRODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED 61
germination must then be decided upon. In the present study an
analytical method of determining this period was used with lodge-
pole pine, as with other species, with a certain arbitrary basis. The
records of a number of tests were analyzed on the premise that the
energetic germination should be considered to have ceased when, in
the test of 500 seeds, the number of seedlings appearing was less
than 4 in two consecutive days, or less than an average of 0.4 per cent
per day for two consecutive days.
From 40 tests of lodgepole pine which were available for analysis
in 1913, it was found that the period in which the germination rate
exceeded 0.4 per cent per day varied from 20 to 45 days, with an
average of about 31 days. This period was therefore adopted at that
time as the standard period for testing seed lots which had no re-
search value and as a basis for comparing seed lots of an experi-
mental nature. At the same time it was recognized that to approach
a measure of germinative capacity at least twice the energy period
should be allowed, or 62 days.
More complete information shows that the germinating rate has
not commonly dropped to 0.4 per cent per day until 40 to 50 days
after sowing; that the germination of lodgepole pine may some-
times continue for 100 days or more under the greenhouse conditions
and may be spread over two growing seasons in the field.
From the data to be presented in the following pages it will be
seen that the actual value of seed for sowing depends as much upon
the field conditions as upon the quality of the seed, so that any
attempt to define seed quality except in the simplest terms is futile.
For contrasting the energy of lodgepole pine seed from different
localities, or for investigating the effect of a treatment upon the en-
ergy of the seed, the germination occurring in a period of 31 days
will serve as well as any other criterion, but for most other pur-
poses at present the final germination is best used.
CRITICAL STUDY OF THE TEMPERATURE FACTOR
In the present study, since relative germination rates and amounts
have such an important bearing on the conclusions, it is desirable
to know whether the standard temperature conditions described in
earlier paragraphs are natural for lodgepole pine in the sense of
being nearly optimum and capable of bringing out a large proportion
of the possibly viable seed within the time allowed. The question
arises naturally from the fact that throughout the tests final ger-
mination values of about 70 per cent are the rule. If other ger-
mination conditions might have produced markedly higher germina-
tion, then it may be questioned whether even the comparative values
for different seed lots are to be relied upon.
The first test of the arbitrarily selected greenhouse temperatures was
made in the spring of 1917, while the large area of tills was still in
use, and included Douglas fir and western yellow pine, as well as
lodgepole pine. Each test covered an entire cross section of the
bench, or five tills, 500 seeds being sown, as usual, in each of these.
The entire space used, comprising 75 tills, was centrally located in
the greenhouse, so that local temperature variations should not have
had any appreciable influence on the results.
62 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 13. — Summary of tcmperature-penmnation tests of tree seeds in 1917,
the daily range of tem^peratures heing stepped up 10° F. each 10 days wlien
«, neto test was started ^
10-day
average
temper-
ature range
at start of
test
Mean
relative
growth
value of
tem-
pera-
tures 2
Germination of lodgepole pine
Germination of
Douglas fir
Germination of
western yellow pine
Test No.
Start-
ing
time
Total
Total,
35 days
Value
ofa:»
Start-
ing
time
Total ger-
mination
Start-
ing
time
Total ger-
mination
1 — -
2..-,
op
37. 1-49. 7
42. 1-63. 4
52. 6-72. 8
62. 0-82. 8
71. 9-92. 8
1.17
1.77
2.58
3.80
5.53
Days
23
17
10
6
6
P.ct.
74.84
79.32
80.64
78.72
75.40
P.ct.
69.8
71.9
75.8
72.5
67.0
P.ct.
9.41
6.59
5.17
4.11
3.46
16
8
6
5
P.ct.
84.32
83. 08
77.88
79.44
73.12
Days
53
43
3 33
39
32
Days
24
18
10
6
5
P.ct.
34.04
37.12
34.04
36.40
38.16
Days
47
36
3
35
4
37
< 37
1 A total of 2,500 seeds were used in each test.
2 See reference in text to Van't HolT-Arrhenius principle. The growth value of 40° F. is considered unity.
8 Between 27 and 32 days no germination, followed by 2 stragglers.
« 1 additional seed germinated on the fifty -third day.
The plan followed was to sow five lots of each species simulta-
neously, maintaining a given range of temperatures for 10 days, a
period in which, at the ordinary temperatures, germination of lodge-
pole pine is almost invariably begun. Following this, another set
of samples for each siDCcies was sown, with the daily maximum and
minimum temperatures of the greenhouse each increased by 10° F.
•pN
\
=S
,y^
^,^^
^.^— •
.--- —
'^^
.^
.^■'
,
/...--■
/ /
/
1 ^^
STARTED AT
32° TO 52"
ir
r
3
32'"T072
' /
72- TO
92'
AZ
TO 62"
/ i
1 /
1 ^^
A
' TO 82'
I
/
1 /
/
1 /
1 •■
1 i
/
11
1' ;
/
;
1/ 1
■ /
/
30 AQ 50 60 70
DAYS TROM Bt:6INNIN6 Of TE.57
FiGUEB 16. — Germination of lodgepole pine seed in 1917
from successive sowings with temperatures increasing
first 40 days
In all, ?iYQ sets of samples for each species were sown successively
at 10-day intervals, and the temperatures changed from an initial
daily range of 32° to 52° up to 72° to 92°. The first seed sown thus
experienced total temperature ranges of 60° or more within 40 days
of sowing; the second lot 50°; the third, 40°; and the last only
slightly more than 20°. The actual mean maxima and minima are
shown in Table 13. These were not quite as planned; the tempera-
PRODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED
63
ture of 32° was attained only once in the first 10 days, and the
maxima were accordingly reduced to give a mean of about 43°.
To determine an optimum temperature for germination, one would
naturally carry through individual tests at fixed temperatures or at
temperatures within a given, narrow range, but this plan was not
practicable in 1917, if even partially synclironous tests were to be
made. Nevertheless, the 1917 tests brought out facts of value. In
Table 13 is presented a brief summary of these tests and in Figure
16 the progress of germination for lodgepole pine may be seen in
detail. The results will be considered in connection with those ob-
tained later in 1922, when an incubator and a cool cellar made it
possible to conduct tests at fairly even temperatures of 50°, 60°, 70°,
100
90
80
^70
1
P60
^50
r
Iso
20
10
0
rt
UCTUATING
57 31
TEMPERA!
■■-78 I4T
rURES^
^"sT^'A
--^
y-
^
n,
FOR BOTH
RATURES
B.8%
/
'^
/
total
TEMPE
S
f
A
■y.,.
%
/
cor
JSTANT TEN
7971
^PERATURE
j
/
I f
1
1 /
1
/
1 J
CONSTANT TEMPERATURE 797IT
"* AFTER AO DAYS
1 1
f/
CONSTANT
1
temperature:
TE
CONSTANT
.MPERATUR
69.96°F
/
-^14.0 %
/
-i>
_^,a
0%
I
?A
'^
^CONS
tant temp
52.67- F
ERATURE
Figure 17. — Cumulative gernrination of lodgepole pine
Beed at various temperatures based upon 500 seeds
sown in each test
and 80° F., or at least with only minor fluctuations from these
standards.
Each of the four 1922 tests was made with 500 carefully selected
seeds of each species, in small iron pans filled with sand and brought
daily to a 10 per cent moisture content, or about the average main-
tained in the greenhouse. At the same time a test was made in the
greenhouse under the standard conditions. In Table 14 is given a
summary of these even-temperature and regular greenhouse tests.
Figure 17 shows the cumulative germination, departing from the
usual practice of showing current daily amounts because of the
importance of the final totals. In both series of tests it seems
desirable to compare lodgepole with other species in the tabular
data.
64 TECHNICAL BULLETIN" 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 14. — Summary of temperature-germindtion tests of tree seeds in 1922
under varied temperature conditions
Test
No.
Temperature conditions
Lodgepole pine
Western yellow pine
Start
Total germi-
nation
Energy
Start
Total germi-
nation
Energy
1
Daily range 57.2° to 78.1°, 1 inch in
soil ._ .
Days
7
8
11
17
34
Days
152
111
151
111
115
Per cent
93.4
<69.4
<86.8
22.6
18.0
Per cent
69.3
6.8
8.8
4.6
0.0
Days
6
5
8
14
25
Days
131
100
40
111
115
Per cent
99.0
98.4
99.4
50.8
61.4
Per cent
84.6
?
79. 7° steady temperature. Dropped
few minutes each day
92.1
3
70°, increased to 80° after 40 days »...
58.8°. Steady rise from 53.6° to 63.2°.
52.7°. Steady rise from 43.2° to 55.8°.
97.4
4.
6.
19.6
0.2
Test
No.
Temperature conditions
Douglas fir
Engelmann spruce
Start
Total germi-
nation
Energy
Start
Total germi-
nation
Energy
1
Daily range 57.2° to 78.1°, 1 inch in
soil
Days
6
9
13
29
Days
28
28
33
106
114
Per cent
75.6
63.0
73.0
69.4
36.8
Per cent
74.2
62.8
72.4
47.0
0.0
Days
6
6
7
11
27
Days
28
30
40
95
112
Per cent
56.8
54.2
51.4
43.2
26.2
Per cent
56.6
?
79. 7° steady temperature. Dropped
few minutes each day
54.0
3
70°, increased to 80° after 40 days ^
58.8°. Steady rise from 53.6° to 63.2°.
52.7°. Steady rise from 43.2° to 55.8°.
51.2
4.
5-
36.4
0.0
' A total of 500 seeds were used in each test; moisture standardized.
2 Amount in usual period for species.
3 Only lodgepole pine was carried past 40 days, the other species having completed germination.
* The germination in 40 days was 14.2 per cent in test 2 and 14 per cent in test 3.
In 1917 the lodgepole seed germinated best, considering both
promptness and final germination, in test 3 starting at temperatures
52° to 72° F., increasing in 10 days to 62°-82° and at 20 days to
72 — 92°. Vigorous germination started just at the time of the first
increase in temperature, showing as in tests 1 and 2 that the tem-
perature 52°-72° causes a good deal of activity.
Tests 1 and 2, starting at lower temperatures, show hardly less
spontaneity once germination was started, but the lower final figures
suggest the loss of a small percentage during the period of low tem-
peratures. Test 4, starting at 62°-82° F., is also vigorous at the out-
set, but appears to be somewhat depressed by the highest tempera-
tures attained. Test 5 started at 72°-92°, and experiencing only
slight variations from this standard, is sluggish, the more rapid
germination being spread over a period of nearly 30 days. Evi-
dently this temperature scale is a little too high.
Since it is fairly evident that lodgepole pine germination is bene-
fited by a wide range of temperatures, the thought might occur that
a part of the seeds find one temperature just right, another quota
prefer a higher temperature, and so on, in much the same way that
some of the cones are opened at air temperatures, others at 120° F.,
and still others only at 160° or 200°. This may be true to some ex-
tent, but hardly describes the situation fully, although in the tests
of 1922 the aggregate germination at the two constant temperatures
of 58.8° and 79.7° was just about equal to that of seeds which expe-
rienced the daily range from 57.2° to 78.1°. It may better be said,
however, that lodgepole pine seeds in general demand more or less
heating and cooling for the rapid absorption of moisture and the
PEODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED 65
chemical changes which precede germination, and this apparent
requirement is no doubt linked up with the habit of the species of
reproducing in the open places, and at high altitudes where the daily
range of temperature is extremely great.
In order further to show the importance of specific temperatures
in the germinating process of lodgepole pine as contrasted with the
effect of rapidly fluctuating temperatures, it is desirable to examine
the germination records in a statistical manner. The Van't Hoff-
Arrhenius principle, as described by Livingston and Livingston (9),
which refers to chemical reactions and is sometimes applied to the
reactions which control vegetative growth, suggests that the vegeta-
tive activity of plants should double in rate for each increase of
10° C, or 18° F., above a starting point of 40° F. If in the present
instance the unit rate of growth, a?, is considered to be the percentage
of germination which might result from 10 days' exposure in a
moist soil at 40° F., then for a similar period at 58° a germination
amounting to 2co may be expected, at 76°, 4a?, etc. By means of a
graph the expected rates corresponding to any of the maximum and
minimum temperatures in these tests may be found, and without too
great an error the rate of germination may be assumed to be the
mean of the maximum and minimum possible rates for each 10-day
period. Although in the 1917 tests no germination appeared above
ground until the twenty-third day, when the temperatures had risen
to 52°-72°, it must be assumed that the lower temperatures preced-
ing had had an influence on the vigorous germination appearing
after the twentj^-third day. The sum of the influences affecting the
germination of the first test, for the first 35 days, may be expressed
by the equation —
1.17a? + 1.77a?+2.58a^+^^=69.8 per cent
a? =9.41 per cent
In other words, if the principle of doubled activity for each 18°
increase is properly applied to this form of vegetative growth, then
in 10 days at a temperature of 40° F. there have really been accom-
plished changes equivalent to the germination of over 9 per cent of
the seed. The value of x should also be found the same by consider-
ing the conditions and results of each of the tests. The important
thing is not the absolute value of x but the fact that as computed
for Table 13, using for each test the germination occurring in 35
days, the value of x is highest in the test started at a low tempera-
ture and steadily decreases as the low temperatures are departed
from. This does not in itself give proof of the point on which
information is desired, since, considering only the first 35 days of
the tests, Nos. 1 and 2 each experienced a total temperature range of
about 50°, while the later tests went through smaller and smaller
total ranges. Only the comparison of the first and second tests is
valid, therefore, as to the relative values of different temperatures,
but this comparison seems to prove that, at least relative to the
assumptions of the Van't Hoff-Arrhenius principle, the response of
lodgepole pine seed is more vigorous to the lower scale of tempera-
tures. There is scarcely any doubt, both from this and the direct
110505°— 30 5
66 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
consideration of the curves of Figure 16, that maximum temperatures
beyond 82° are somewhat inhibitory.
For further clarification of this subject the data obtained in 1922
with fluctuating temperatures and several constant temperatures may
now be considered.
Although the tests were made in 1917 with lodgepole pine seeds
from a Wyoming forest, and those in 1922 with seeds obtained near
Gunnison, Colo., the germination quantities are evidently of about
the same magnitude in the two periods. Under the regular seed-
testing conditions, in 1922, with a mean daily range from 57.2° to
78.1° F., as in test 1, the value of x for lodgepole pine was 6.44 for
the first 35 days. This, it will be seen, corresponds closely to that
in test 2 in 1917, in which the range of temperatures in 35 days was
from 42.1° to 92.8°. The mean temperature of the latter was about
2° lower than the temperature of the test in 1922, but the range in
1917 was much greater.
To compare all of the tests in 1922, a period of 35 days is quite
inadequate, because in the low-temperature tests germination is just
getting well started in this time and the total effect of the 35-day
exposure is in no sense expressed. (Fig. 16.) While the period of
100 days goes well beyond the crest of germination in the fluctuating-
temperature test, it is designed to bring out about the highest average
rates in the others.
The values of x given in Table 15, on the same basis as in Table
13, are thus obtained :
Table 15. — Value of x in five tests of lodgepole pine seed
Test No.
Type of test
Temper-
ature
Germina-
tion
Value of
X
1
Fluctuating
op
57. 2-78. 1
79.7
r » 70. 0
[ 2 79. 7
68.8
52.7
Per cent
87.2
66.2
} 6.7
20.8
16.0
2.79
2
1.44
3
do
1.70
4_
do -
1.01
6
do —
.98
1 For 40 days.
2 For 60 days.
The above values for the 70° F. test are somewhat clouded by the
effect of the change in temperatures at the end of 40 days. If this
test is compared with the 80° test for the 40-day period alone, a
higher value of x for the lower temperature is indicated. At 70°
the value is 1.11 and at 79.7°, 0.77.
It is thus quite evident that none of the approximately constant
temperatures have the value of regularly fluctuating temperatures
in stimulating lodgepole pine germination, and that a constant tem-
perature in the vicinity of 70° F. is more effective than temperatures
higher or lower. Furthermore, the possible conclusion from the 1917
tests that the low temperatures are relatively important is not borne
out when low temperatures are considered alone, and this places the
emphasis on the inhibitory effects of very high temperatures. A
daily range of temperatures is the important thing, and, apparently,
a range centering around 65° or 70° represents the optimum.
This result does not fully agree with the results of laboratory tests
in Washington (IS), where it was found that the fullest and most
PRODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED 67
prompt germination of one lot of lodgepole pine seed was obtained
with temperatures ranging between 68° and 95°, or even as high as
77°-95°. With another lot of seed 59° to 86° gave the best results.
The results there shown were somewhat erratic, however, and as the
temperatures reported were probably those of the air rather than of
the soil it is difficult to make comparisons.
Boerker's findings (4) may be considered as corroborating the
above conclusions. He shows that with fairly optimum greenhouse
temperatures lodgepole pine seed germinated 22f per cent in half
light, 7.5 per cent in light of 16 per cent intensity, and 3.5 per cent
in light of 2 per cent intensity. It is believed that these results
reflect to some extent the effect of a greater range of temperatures
in the stronger light.
Harrington (7) has recently shown that some kinds of seed ger-
minate best with alternating and some with constant temperatures,
and that of the latter varieties some lots are favorably affected by
alternating temperatures, which he thinks may be due to incomplete
after ripening. He discards most of the theories as to the effects
produced by alternating temperatures, being convinced that these are
due to changing conditions rather than to the specific temperatures
reached.
From the facts which have been stated it is readily concluded that
the standard daily temperature range from 57.5° to 77.5°, with such
fluctuations from this as commonly occur, forms almost ideal condi-
tions for lodgepole pine germination. It is no doubt because of
fluctuations which occur in the greenhouse at infrequent intervals
that even after 60 or 70 days the ungerminated lodgepole pine seed
sometimes receive stimulation.
Douglas fir seeds in the 1917 tests (Table 13), with only one excep-
tion, gave decreasingly poor results as the temperatures were raised.
The first lot, started at 32°-52° F., had practically completed its
vigorous germination before the stage of 52°-72° was passed. The
next three tests germinated rapidly, but with some evident curtail-
ment as a result of the higher temperatures. This leaves little doubt
that heat injury of Douglas fir seeds may occur somewhat sooner
than with lodgepole pine. In 1922 (Table 14) a steady temperature
of 70° gave results practically equal to those attained in the green-
house at 57°-78°. Even the 58.8° steady temperature was effective,
if slow; whereas the 80° test was prompt, but the total germination
was evidently curtailed. Probably 70° may be taken as nearly an
optimum temperature for Douglas fir, and wide fluctuations as not
necessary. These facts are in agreement with the habit of the species
of germmating in shaded places.
The western yellow pine test (Table 13) that started at the highest
temperature must be taken as the best, both from the standpoint of
promptness and completeness of germination. Although there was
irregularity in the successive tests, in 1922 (Table 14) there is scarcely
any difference between the results for 70°, 80°, and 57°-78° F. The
total germinations occurring at 50° and 60°,® though accruing slowly,
are much higher than was expected with this heat-demanding species.
8 The poor and irregular performance at 60° F. Is due to depredations of mice about
18 days after a promising start. It was not thouglit at the time that an appreciable
number of seeds had been taken, but only a considerable loss of germinable seeds from this
cause can account for the sudden falling ofiC in germination.
68 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
It is, therefore, evident, that while western yellow pine does not re-
quire large temperature variations it is also not injured by high tem-
peratures, which may be counted on to produce prompt germination.
Probably its optimum temperature is nearer 80° than 70°.
Engelmann spruce was not considered in 1917. Seeds of this
species from the Uncompahgre National Forest, Colo., were used
in the tests of 1922. (Table 14.) Spruce seeds may be counted upon
more than those of any other Rocky Mountain species except Pinus
aristata^ a companion of spruce at high elevations, to complete ger-
mination in a very short period. In this test, although they did not
make a good showing at a temperature of about 50° F., at 60° ger-
mination was nearly completed in a short time. The surprising fact
is that spruce germination shows no signs of curtailment by tem-
peratures as high as 80° or by the extremes which may be experi-
enced in the greenhouse with an average range from 57° to 77° F.
In a broad comparison with the other species mentioned, the
striking thing about lodgepole pine is the impossibility of bringing
out spontaneous germination of a large part of the seeds by any
means so far tried. Fluctuating and reasonably high temperatures
seem to be the necessary means for approaching even remotely this
desideratum.
PROBABLE ERRORS IN SEED TESTS
In considering the germination data reported in this bulletin it
is well to keep m mind the fact that the mathematical accuracy of
seed tests is not very high. Under the methods which have been de-
scribed, the sources of error may be roughly grouped into three
classes, as follows: (1) The sampling error, (2) the time error due
to variations from the standard heat and moisture conditions, and
(3) the space error due to differences between various parts of the
greenhouse. It is not a simple matter to segregate these factors,
nor is it particularly important to do so. A single term which will
show the probable compensated error from all causes is of greatest
interest in the present study.
The sampling error may best be approximated by considering the
weights of samples of seeds, each of which is supposed to be repre-
sentative of the same large lot. While variations in weight are not
necessarily followed by corresponding variations in germination,
still the weights show clearly how difficult a matter is true sampling.
Thus 14 samples of 500 lodgepole pine seeds each, counted out with
ordinary care, showed a standard deviation ^ of 3.45 per cent from
the mean weight, 7 samples showed a standard deviation of 2.95 per
cent, and another group of 7 samples, a standard deviation of 3.82
per cent. The extreme individual variation among the 28 samples
was 8.2 per cent. On the basis of the 3.32 per cent deviation of the
last group, the probable error of any single sample of the lot is 2.2
per cent. This means that the individual sample is just as likely to
exceed this error as to show a smaller error. The mean of 3 samples
»The formulas used {15) are, respectively —
Standard deviation, s=-xl^^
V n—l
Standard or probable
error of the individual, e = 0.6745 s
Probable error of mean, E=~7=^
y n
PRODUCTIOIT OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED 69
of this lot should not be in error by more than 1.29 per cent; that of
5 samples, by more than 1 per cent ; and that of 8 samples, by more
than 0.79 per cent.
The time factor is that which may result from inability to main-
tain constant conditions of moisture and heat in the greenhouse.
Without doubt, the variation in the latter is particularly influenced
by the occasional need for using artificial heat.
A test made with three related lots of seed, each sown repeatedly
at intervals of about five weeks, from January, 1913, to August,
1914 — in all, 14 times — gives some basis for estimating the time
factor. The space factor also enters into this result, however, owing
to lack of care in selecting the greenhouse space, for 4 of the tests
in the east end of the greenhouse averaged 62.25 per cent, 2 in the
center 68.95 per cent, and 8 in the west half 58.98 per cent, with a
high of 63.6 per cent and a low of 53.1 per cent. Considering only
the last group, and taking the average of the three lots tested at
each period, the standard deviation for each period is 3.83 per cent
absolute, or 6.5 per cent of the mean germinative capacity, giving a
probable error of about 4.4 per cent in any single test. This error is
due mainly to the time factor, though the sampling error and the
space error are only in part compensated.
The space factor is due both to unequal lighting of the different
parts of the greenhouse, creating a maximum variation of possibly
10 per cent, and to unequal heating of the tills on the north and
south edges of the bench, as compared with those in the center.
Possibly this latitudinal difference is not so much a matter of excess
heat as of greater diurnal fluctuations on the edges of the bench,
these being likely, as has been shown, to stimulate the germination
of lodgepole pine. It will be recalled that the bench space is five
tills wide. The following average germination was obtained in the
temperature tests of 1917, which have already been described. Two
thousand five hundred lodgepole pine seed were used in each posi-
tion. The figures represent percentage of final germination.
Location : Per cent
North-edge till 79. 72
Intermediate till — 75. 24
Center till 76. 80
Intermediate till 75. 52
South-edge till 81. 68
Average 77. 79
Standard deviation due to position (absolute) 2.81
Percentage of average variation 3. 61
Probable error due to position 2. 43
By eliminating a single test affecting the second row from the
north, and thus making the average for that row 79.4 per cent, these
percentages are reduced about one-seventh.
The variables affecting any individual seed test are likely to be
in part compensating. In the above-described attempts to define
these three factors separately the intention has been to eliminate
others in part by considering only group averages.
Fourteen lots of seed from different sources were sampled eight
times each and sown three of them on April 17, 1914, and the re-
maining five, because of lack of space, 42 days later. The earlier
70 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, XT. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
sowing was in the easterly part of the greenhouse, while the later
sowing was more generally distributed. In neither period was any
systematic effort made to obtain compensating distribution for the
samples representing each lot. There were at work, then, the sam-
pling factor, the space factor, and a small time factor. In Table 16
the variations are shown for 5 of the 14 lots, namely the 2 of high-
est germination, 1 as near average as possible, and the 2 of lowest
final germination. ^
Table 16. — Variations in final germination percentage, single tests of 500 lodge-
pole pine seeds each, 192^
Tests of eight samplings
High germina-
tion
Inter-
mediate
Low germina-
tion
Aver-
Lot 247
Lot 240
nation,
lot 237
Lot 238
Lot 246
ratio
Sown Apr. 17:
Test A
Per cent
11. Q
81.8
86.0
80.8
89.0
82.6
79.4
77.6
Per cent
68.2
71.0
75.0
78.8
75.8
73.8
69.8
65.2
Per cent
63.4
62.6
66.2
61.8
62.8
59.8
59.6
54.6
Per cent
39.2
43.8
38.0
40.6
36.6
39.8
36.2
35.4
Per cent
115.0
39.2
41.0
42.0
36.0
37.2
41.4
35.0
Per cent
Test B . . - -
Test C _ --
Sown May 29:
Test D _
Test E
Test F
Test G - ----
TestH
Average
81.85
72.20
61.35
38.70
38.83
Sum of deviations
24.10
4.00
4.89
3.30
29.20
4.46
6.18
4.17
20.10
3.44
5.61
3.78
17.20
2.75
7.11
4.78
16.57
2.79
7.19
4.84
Standard deviation ..
6.20
Ratio of probable error to the average
4.18
1 This test eliminated from final calculations since its deviation is more than three times the probable
error computed before its exclusion.
There is some indication from the data presented that the probable
error in any single germination test is a larger percentage of the
total germination for seed of poor quality than for seed of good qual-
ity, and it might well be assumed that seed of poor quality is more
difficult to sample correctly. However, examination of the entire 14
tests from which these 5 have been selected does not give much
evidence of such a difference.
Considering, then, the average probable error, it may be said that
the chances are even that in a single test of 500 seeds the final ger-
mination at 62 days will be influenced more than 4.2 per cent of its
own correct value by variable factors such as have commonly oc-
curred in this work. An average obtained by testing 3 samples should
not be in error more than 2.41 per cent ; one of 5 samples, not more
than 1.87 per cent; and one of 8 samples, not more than 1.48 per cent.
It should be pointed out, however, that the time element in these
errors represents the sum of compensating errors over a period of 62
days, so that even larger errors are to be expected if shorter periods
are considered, such, for example, as the germination in 31 days or
the time of the first or the most rapid germination.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GREENHOUSE GERMINATION
THE AVERAGE OR NORMAL RATE OF GERMINATION
As has been pointed out in the discussion of the effect of various
temperatures, the germination of lodgepole pine is comparatively-
sluggish. The first germination occurs almost as promptly as with
tEODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED
71
other species ; that is, within 9 to 10 days of the time of sowing, and
frequently as early as the seventh day. The peak of the germination,
also, comes within a few days after the beginning. The striking
difference between lodgepole pine and its associates lies in the fact
that with lodgepole pine a small residue of the germinable seeds
spreads its activity over many weeks.
However, for any practical purpose it will certainly be safe to
consider as final or capacity germination that which has occurred
up to the end of a 62-day period. The great majority of the experi-
mental tests have been carried for this period. In considering what
may be the full potentialities of germination, Figure IT should be
referred to, the test there represented being comparable with others
that have been run for long periods.
There are found to be 413 tests from which the characteristic be-
havior of lodgepole pine seed may be derived, not considering the
late tests in the seed-extraction experiments, of which the results
have already been given, and which it is preferable to omit because
they are not needed here and might introduce the factor of age of
the seed.
These 413 germination tests are taken mainly from the extraction
experiments with Medicine Bow, Arapaho, and Gunnison cones, but
also from a number of ordinar}^ extractions on scattered forests, as
brought together for the field tests of 1914. It is safe to say that as
a whole they present a good average of seed conditions as affected
by extracting processes.
The general average germination in Table IT shows 205,2T0 seeds
tested and 130,040 germinated in 62 days, or 63.4 per cent average
germination. Of this total germination, T6.6 per cent occurred in
the first 20 days and 90.1 per cent in the first 30 days, and about 10
per cent were scattered over the last 32 days, with a very gradual
decrease in rate.
Table 17. — Characteristics of lodgepole pine seed ffermination as shoivn ty tests
in the greenhouse from 1912 to 1914
Quality group
Tests
Seeds
tested
Seeds
germi-
nated
Mean
germi-
native
capac-
ity
Aver-
age
time
of
start
Peak
Rate
at
peaki
Total
at
peaki
March of germina-
tioni—
In 20
days
In 30
days
In 40
days
Final germination, 75 per
cent and over
Num-
ber
89
179
91
54
Number
43, 953
89,500
44, 817
27,000
Number
35, 275
60,213
24, 410
■ 10, 142
Per
cent
80.3
67.3
54.5
37.6
Days
8.87
9.37
9.81
10.30
Day
11
12
12
12
Per
cent
11.33
9.57
8.29
7.23
Per
cent
25.4
30.0
24.7
16.8
Per
cent
84.8
77.9
68.9
58.7
Per
cent
94.2
90.8
86.6
80.8
Per
cent
97.4
Final germination, 60-75 per
cent
95.2
Final germination, 45-60 per
cent
94.3
Final germination, under 45
percent-
91.6
Total or average
413
205, 270
130, 040
63.4
9.48
12
9.56
30,2
76.6
90.1
95.3
1 For more ready comparison of the different grades the percentages of the whole germination are given
rather than the absolute percentages based on number of seed sown.
EFFECT OF QUALITY OF THE SEED ON THE GERMINATION RATE
If it is true that the amount of germination occurring in a limited
period is a better index of practical values than the capacity germi-
nation, then it will be worth while to observe whether the amount of
72 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUEE
germination in a period of 30 days, for example, bears any constant
ratio to the final germination. It is obvious that for individual tests
this ratio might be considerably affected by germination conditions,
since these can not be kept absolutely uniform from day to day.
Hence the need for considering group averages.
The 413 tests which have just been considered for a general average
have been divided into four groups showing final germination per-
centages of over 75, of 60 to 75, of 45 to 60, and of less than 45,
respectively. (Table 17.) By expressing the periodic germination
as a proportion of the whole or final germination, comparison is
greatly facilitated. These comparisons are brought out also in
Figure 18.
The relations between different grades of seed, it will be seen, are
very simple and fairly regular. The lower the percentage of final
germination, the slower the beginning, the later the peak of germi-
nation reached, the lower the peak, and the greater the residue to be
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
DAYS FROM SOWING
Figure 18. — Characteristic germination of different grades of lodgepole pine seed
distributed over the remainder of the period. The last-named fact
suggests that if the total period were greatly extended the differ-
ences between grades might be reduced ; but if the current rates of
germination at 50 or 60 days are considered it will be seen that a
longer period would probably add nearly equal numbers of germi-
nable seeds to each group, and hence would not materially alter the
relations of the groups.
Another suggestion from these parallel relations of the groups
is that possibly certain greenhouse conditions may tend to delay the
beginning of germination and thereby cause a low final germination.
AYhile this may occasionally be the cause of a poor showing, com-
parison of identical seed lots shows that a delay of several days in the
starting does not necessarily lead to poor final results, and that, gen-
erally speaking, by the end of the 62-day period each seed lot will
have experienced nearly average conditions.
From the relations shown to exist between final germination per-
centage and intermediate rates, it must be fairly apparent that a low
PRODUCTION" OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED 73
final germination percentage not only means that some of the seeds
have completely lost their vitality and viability but that nearly all of
the seeds have had their vitality reduced. Hence, if absolute vigor
of the individual seeds is an important element in their success under
natural conditions, it may be said that the value of a seed lot decreases
geometrically as the final germination decreases. However, it will
be seen that under certain circumstances, at least, this suggested valu-
ation does not work out.
EFFECT OF SEED SOURCE ON THE GERMINATION RATE
Early experience in the testing of Douglas fir seeds brought out a
sharp contrast in behavior between seeds from Wyoming and seeds
from Colorado. Wyoming seedlings when planted in the field
proved to be so poorly adapted to existing local climatic conditions
as to lead to the presumption that the Wyoming form represented a
fairly distinct climatic variety of Douglas fir and that such adapta-
tions as it had developed were reflected in its seed behavior.
It was expected that similar differences would be found wdth lodge-
pole pine seed, although it was early noted and reported by the writer
(2) that apparently the Wyoming and Colorado seed of lodge-
pole pine differed little in initial vigor of germination.
The most careful study of this subject that it has been possible to
make brings out no significant differences between lodgepole pine
seeds from Medicine Bow, Arapaho, and Gunnison National Forests
that can be considered characteristic regional differences. It is,
therefore, necessary to leave conclusions on this point to be derived
indirectly from the study, in the following section, of the compara-
tive field and greenhouse JDehavior of an assortment of seeds studied
in 1914.
STUDIES OF FIELD AND NURSERY GERMINATION
Before attempting to determine finally what characteristic of ger-
mination may give the best indication of the practical value of a lot
of seed it will be desirable to observe the results of parallel tests of
seed in the greenhouse, nursery, and field.
In the spring of 1912, 10 lots of seed of various sources and grades,
which had previously been tested for other purposes, were selected
for field tests. All of the seed lots were from cones of 1911 collec-
tion, and most of them had received kiln treatments of about aver-
age character. Because of the lack of a sufiicient number of green-
house tests to establish fully the germination characters of these seed
lots, it is impossible to interpret the results of nursery and field
sowings except in a very broad way, and it is, therefore, useless to
report any of the original data. These tests may be said to show
merely that under adverse field conditions seed of low germinative
capacity is almost worthless, while under more moderate conditions,
such as may obtain in a nursery, the best seed gives results only
slightly better in proportion. More satisfactory tests were made
two years later.
FIELD AND NURSERY TESTS IN 1914-15
NURSEBY TESTS AT FREMONT
Nursery tests conducted at Fremont, beginning with a sowing in
May, 1914, involved 14 lots of seed, 1,000 seeds of each lot being
74 TECHJnCAI/ BtnULETOf 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AOBICXTLTTTBE
sown, the germination being carefoUj recorded throng both the
current and foUowing growing seasons.
The seed was tested eight times In the greenhouse, three of these
tests being made in one groap and five about a month later. There
is, therefore, assurance of very good average germination figures.
While the seed for greenhouse tests was being obtained, the seed for
the nursery sowing, as well as that for the field tests described later,
was counted out at intermediate stages, thereby greatly reducing the
probability of material differences between the seed used in the
field and tnat tested in the greenhouse.
There seems to be no basis for questioning the results of the work
during 1914-15, except for the discovery, after the work was weU
started, that seed lot No. 241 contained a considerable portion of
Engelmann spruce seed. This was probably responsible for the
rapid rate of germination of this lot in the greenhouse, but it is not
seen that the presence of the spruce seed should otherwise affect the
results appreciably.
The second section of Table 18 shows the germination of the seed
in the nursery by major stages. Any further analysis of the prog-
ress of germination would probably be useless. The table also brings
out the important comparisons between nursery and greenhouse
germination.
Table 18. — Comparative studp of greenhouse, nursery, and field germination of
lodgepole pine seed, 1914-15^
GREENHOUSE OERMINATION
Lot No.
Source of seed
Average
capacity
CG2 days)
Average
energy
(31 days)
Ratio of
energy to
capacity
Average
energy
first
15 days
233
Northern Wyoming:
Brldger.-
Percent
69.4
66.6
72.2
Percent
59.2
61.3
68.2
Percent
0.853
.920
.945
Percent
42.0
239
Washakie
37.6
240
wa^havle
50.1
Average „
69.4
62.9
.906
43.2
Southern Wyoming:
Hayden _
234
70.8
M.0
61.4
38.7
65.4
49.6
57.8
.32.9
.924
.919
.941
.850
46.4
235
Hayden
36.8
237
Medicine Bow
38.3
238
Medicine Bow ... _ .
15.3
Average
56.2
51.4
.915
34.2
Northern Colorado:
Colorado *
241
65.8
62.4
61.5
62.5
58.2
57.8
.950
.933
.940
47.5
246
Arapaho
37.5
244...
Arapaho
41.2
Average _
63.2
59.5
.941
42.0
Central Colorado:
Leadville... _ „
242
56.2
63.7
38.8
81.8
53.2
61.6
35.7
78.6
.W7
.967
.920
.961
33.2
243
LeadvUle
42.2
246.—
Qunnison
2a9
247
flwnnipnn
58.2
Average
60.1
57.3
.953
38.6
All Wyoming
61.9
61.5
56.3
58.2
.916
.916
38.1
All Colorado
40.1
Average
61.7
57.3
.929
39.1
1 1,000 seeds sown in each nursery and field test.
2 Partly Engelmann spruce seed.
PRODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED
75
Table 18. — Comparative study of greenhouse, nursery, and field germinatiwi of
lodgepole pine seed, 1913-15 — Continued
NURSERY GERMINATION
Germinat ion of Srst
60 days
First season's ger-
mination
Two
years'
total
germi-
nation
Ratio of total ger-
mination—
Lot No.
To
capacity
To
energy
233
Number
81
91
102
Per cent
21.3
25.1
24.5
Number
141
168
175
Percent
37.1
46.3
4Z0
Number
380
363
417
Percent
0.548
.545
.578
Percent
0.642
.592
.612
239
240 - -
Average
91
23.6
161
41.8
387
•557 ; .615
234
94
70
84
45
22.0
26.7
24.0
21.8
139
133
161
130
32.6
50.8
46.0
63.1
427
262
349
206
.603
.485
.568
.532
.653
.528
.605
.626
235 —
237
238.-
Average
73
23.6
141
48.1
311
.553 1 605
241 »
128
84
119
35.6
28.8
35.0
209
159
205
58.1
54.5
60.3
360
292
340
.547
.468
.553
.576
502
245 . - .
244-. _ - —
587
Average
110
33.1
191
57.6
331
.523
555
242
135
140
131
275
38.8
40 8
50.8
50.3
231
236
202
416
66.4
68.8
78.3
7a 1
348
343
258
547
. 618 1 .654
538 557
243
246 -
664 722
247 . .
668 696
Average.. ..
170
45.2
271
72.4
374
.622 657
All Wvoming
81
145
3 23.5
3 40.7
150
237
'43.6
3 66.6
343
355
. 555 i 3 gio
All Colorado
580 i 3 Ain
'
FIELD GERMINATION AT SOURCE
Germination of seed sown—
Ratio of total germination to ca-
pacity germination-
Lot No.
First
60 days
First
season
Two
years'
total
First
60 days
First
season
Two years-
total
233
Per cent
57.2
0.2
2.1
Percent
59.7
0.3
2.2
Percent
62.2
25.2
«2.2
0.824
.003
.029
0.860
.005
.030
0.896
239 .-
.378
240- .
030
Average
234.
235 .
237
19. 8 20. 7
29.9
.285
.298
.431
18.9
4.5
0.1
20.0
4.5
0.2
0.0
35.8
9.2
37.2
19.9
.267
.083
.002
.000
.282
.083
.003
.000
.506
.170
.606
238
0.0
.514
Average
5.9
6.2
25.5
.105
.110
.454
241 »
49.0
7.6
9.9
53.8
11.0
13.7
55.8
32.3
3a3
.745
.122
.161
.818
.176
.223
.848
245
.516
244
.541
Average
22.2
2a2
40.5
.351
.414
.640
242
10.1
20.5
0.2
3.9
10.4
20.8
4.3
4.5
13.0
27.5
4.6
20.7
.180
.322
.005
.185
.327
.111
.055
.231
243
.432
216
.118
247..
.253
Average -
8.7
10.0
16.4
.145
.166
.273
All Wyoming
11.9
14.5
12.4
16.9
27.4
26.7
.192^.077
.235dr.064
.201=b.081
. 275it. 060
. 443±. 073
All Colorado
. 435d=. 063
' Partly Engelmann spruce seed.
3 The percentages here given are not the arithmetical means of the percentages given above, but are com-
puted from the whole numbers representing averages.
* Data not properly obtained. Casual observation showed no ^rmination early in 1915, hence same fig-
ure is used as at end of first year.
76 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The ratios of total nursery germination to greenhouse average
capacity, shown in the second section of Table 18, exhibit so little
variation between the quality groups that where a mixture of Colo-
rado and Wyoming lots is involved the ratio for any group might
safely be placed at about 0.575. However, the ratio for Wyoming
seed alone can not be placed quite so high, and it is apparent that
on the whole the Wyoming seed is not quite so well adapted to
field germination, at least under the conditions provided in these
tests.
The ratios of nursery germination to the greenhouse energy or
germination in 31 days show about the same degree of variation, but
it is a little more difficult to reconcile the quality groups. (Fig. 19.)
It must be remembered that in this comparison there is greater
opportunity for unexplainable variations in greenhouse germination.
SEED LOT SOURCE
AND NUMBER
MEDICINE BOW
(238)
GUNNISON
(2A6}
HAYDEN
(235)
LEADVILLE
(2^2)
MEDICINE BOW
(237j
ARAPAHO
(2A4)
ARAPAHO
(245)
LEADVILLE
(243j
COLORADO
(241)
WASHAKIE
(239)
BRIDGER
(233)
HAYDEN
(234.)
WASHAKIE
(240)
GUNNISON
(2A7)
\
. Vl
', ^*====^
^
yv
1
\\
TOTAL NURSERY T
GERMINATION ^N, J,
1
\^ GREENHOU
^ "ENFRGY"
MATIO^
[\
~^\3I DAY GERMI
V
\ \ GREENHOUSE
\ V ^-"CAPACITY"
V
W
/\
V
^-V
\
\. \
7
\ ^ 1
^ -^
^ ^I^Sw
PERCENTAGE OF GERMiNATION
FiGDBE 19. — Relation of nursery to greenhouse germination of lodgepole pine seed,
1914-15
But the probable reason for the high ratio of nursery to greenhouse
energy germination in the poorest group of seed lots lies in the fact,
already demonstrated for lodgepole pine seed in a broad way, that
the poorer seed lots do not adequately express their potentialities in
a short period. In other words, these data make it fairly clear
that where favorable conditions for germination can be maintained
for a long time (in the present tests two years) the nursery germina-
tion to be expected will be more nearly proportionate to the total
capacity of the seed than to any other criterion.
While, in general, the total germination occurring in the two years
is closely proportionate to the capacity of the seed, the percentage
of this germination occurring at any stage is very variable with the
different lots and does not seem to decrease or increase regularly with
change in the quality of the seed. The striking similarity between
the percentages at different stages of the 2 lots of Gunnison seed,
representing the best and poorest seed of the 14 lots, leads at once
PRODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PIKE SEED 77
to the presumption that the source of the seed may have more bear-
ing on its rate of germination in the nursery than does quality.
This similarity is apparent, though not so consistent, in other groups
of seed from common sources. (See lots 242 and 243, 239 and 240,
244 and 245.)
Thus all of the seed lots from Colorado forests produced more than
50 per cent of their nursery germination during the first season,
averaging 66.6 per cent, the 4 lots from central Colorado especially
showing high proportions. The 7 Wyoming lots produced on the
average only 43.6 per cent of their whole germination the first
season. Only 2 of the 7 lots of Wyoming seed produced more than
50 per cent. Since these exceptions were from the southern part
of Wyoming and represented poor grades of seed, it may readily be
assumed that the high percentage is due to deterioration of the seed
and low second-year germination.
If a period is considered in which roughly the same amount of
germination occurred in the greenhouse, say 15 days, it is found that
in this period the Colorado seed attains a considerable lead, amount-
ing to 4 per cent of the whole germination — a lead well maintained
until after the middle of the greenhouse period.
When this short-period germination is compared with that oc-
curring in the nursery in the first year, wide variations in the ratios
appear, as might be expected in view of the much greater time ele-
ment in the one set of data than in the other. There is an unmis-
takable tendency toward higher nursery germination of the poorer
seed lots because of this time factor. Lot 238, for example, shows a
very high ratio for a Wyoming seed lot, but on examining its record,
in Table 18, it is seen that lot 238 did not accomplish the better half
of its germination until the second half of the first season, while all
of the other lots accomplished more in the first half.
The important item, however, is that the consideration of a shorter
period brings out clearly the contrast between Wyoming and Colo-
rado seeds, the Wyoming seed showing a slight sluggishness under
the very favorable greenhouse conditions and a more marked slug-
gishness in the nursery, leading to the supposition that under less
favorable field conditions they might suffer a considerable net loss
through delay.
FIELD TESTS AT THE SOURCES OF SEED LOTS
The behavior of these seeds lots when sown at a common point
makes it possible to interpret more intelligently their behavior when
sown at their respective points of origin.
The sowings in the field were executed with the greatest uni-
formity possible, in a manner very similar to that of the 1912 field
sowings at Fremont, and were all made at approximately the same
time climatologically. (PL 3, C.) Even if absolute uniformity of
sowing were possible at a number of points great variations might
be expected in germination due to the time of occurrence of precipi-
tation, variations in soil, etc., so that only the final germination can
be of much interest. In the third section of Table 18 these data are
divided by stages as far as seems justified by an examination of the
detailed records, which, with one exception, were posted approxi-
mately once each week through both the first and second seasons.
78 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Examination of these figures in Table 18 shows that even at the
end of the second season correlation between the actual capacity of
the seed and its performance in the field seems to be lacking. For
example, seed lots of practically the same greenhouse value, sown in
two contiguous northern Wyoming forests, germinated 62, 25, and
2 per cent, respectively. A point worthy of note in the early germi-
nation is that where two seed lots were sown side by side (the
Arapaho, Medicine Bow, and Leadville (pi. 3, B) sowings being of
this kind), the behavior of the two lots is somewhat similar. Where
two seed lots were sown very close together, but in different soil condi-
tions, as on the Washakie, Hayden, and Gunnison National Forests,
there is much less similarity within the pairs. This naturally leads to
the supposition that soil must play a very important part in germina-
tion. On this point all attempts have failed to correlate the germi-
nation of the individual lots with soil qualities, except to establish a
very broad relation between poor germination and heavy soil, as
measured by the soil's capillarity or moisture equivalent. The two
Gunnison sowings are striking exceptions and serve to show the
extent to which climatic, as well as soil factors, must influence the
results.
Because of the large number of factors which must have affected
the field germination, the use of group averages must be resorted to
or the possibility of correlation entirely abandoned. Considering
first, in Table 18, the broad comparison in field germination between
all Wyoming and all Colorado seed lots, it is to be noted that the
former show considerably less germination throughout the first sea-
son, although at the end of the second season the Wyoming sowings
are slightly in the lead. Irregular as are the individual results, this
broad relationship can not be overlooked because it signifies the same
quality that was exhibited in the nursery, namely, a tendency of the
more sluggish Wyoming seed as defined by early greenhouse germi-
nation, to delay germination to a much greater extent in the field.
The result is not, however, what was expected, in that the total ger-
mination of the Wyoming seed is not decreased by reason of this
sluggish quality.
Two rather obvious conclusions may be drawn.
It must be admitted that the Wyoming field conditions are in
some sense more favorable for the lying over of the seed without
deterioration or destruction in the lying-over period. This ad-
vantage may possibly arise from somewhat more equable tempera-
tures, which, while failing to stimulate germination, at the same time
result in more equable moisture conditions over long periods. Be
that as it may, the conclusion can now hardly be avoided that the
four regions represented in Table 18 are differentiated, and that
their climatic conditions have differentiated the lodgepole pine seeds
which are produced within their confines. On the basis of the final
results in field germination, no line can be drawn between northern
and southern Wyoming, but it can be quite confidently said that
northern Colorado presents the best field conditions and central
Colorado the least favorable conditions. The seed from central
Colorado shows a tendency in the greenhouse to respond quickly to
favorable conditions, but since it is probable that this adaptation has
not fully developed to meet the unfavorable field conditions it is
PRODUCTION OP LODGEPOLE PINE SEED 79
readily seen that this, the southernmost extension of lodgepole pine
in the Kocky Mountains, presents the most difficult situation for
natural reproduction.
On the other hand, if all of the Colorado field tests are compared
with all of the Wyoming tests, the results are essentially the same,
about 44 per cent of the possible germination. This leads to the
second important conclusion, namely, that for rating the value of the
seed for use within the region of its source the germinative capacity
in the greenhouse is the best criterion, unless prompt germination
in the field can be shown to be very necessary to success, as, for
example, where rodents are very numerous. It is not, however, be-
lieved to be feasible to make allowance for such factors except on the
ground when the seed is sown.
SUMMARY
This bulletin deals with the general qualities of lodgepole pine
cones and seed ; with two studies of the mass production of seed over
a period of 10 years; with characteristics affecting the opening of
cones by air drying and artificial heat; with the quality, quantity,
and comparative costs of seed obtained by different methods; and,
finally, with the germination behavior of lodgepole pine seed under
both greenhouse and field conditions.
PRODUCTION
Lodgepole pine seeds average about 100,000 to the pound, but vary
in size, dryness, and weight between 85,000 and 160,000. Seeds of
good quality are denoted by a black or slightly grayish color, brown
being an indication of low vitality due to incomplete development.
The size of the seed does not seem to be important.
The seed production of lodgepole pine in two localities from 1912
to 1921, inclusive, averaged 320,000 germinable seed per acre-year
for the central Colorado area and 73,000 for the southern Wyoming
area, although the Wyoming stand is larger, more open, and better
adapted tu seed production. The difference is probably due to cli-
matic factors which destroy more young cone flowers in the Wyo-
ming area, and particularly to freezing in the early summer.
The production of seed by lodgepole pine is apparently greater
than the production of seed by western yellow pine and Douglas fir
in the Rocky Mountain region, and complete crop failures are fewer,
but the numbers are of the same order of magnitude for all species.
One area of Engelmann spruce has exceeded the better figure for
lodgepole pine.
One of the greatest aids to the natural reproduction of lodgepole
pine is the retention on the tree of unopened cones equivalent to
three or four average yearly crops, which, in the event of fire, re-
lease an accumulated supply of seeds to fall on ground cleared of
other vegetation. Old cones should, however, never be gathered
unless in prime condition, for they are difficult to open and give
very low yields of seeds in various stages of deterioration. The re-
tention of cones by trees apparently results in part from crowding in
the stand and to some extent from the poorer quality of the soil.
80 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
When trees growing in the open show a decided tendency to retain
their cones it may in all probability be ascribed to an unfavorable
soil. {12.)
The production of seeds by lodgepole pine in a given locality is
not periodic in the sense that a good crop weakens the tree and is
therefore followed by one or more poor creps. The production in
any year appears to depend largely on the occurrence or absence of
low temperatures in the previous year when the cone flowers
emerged. Also, other climatic factors may affect the crop in its later
development. In general the species may be expected to decrease in
fecundity at high elevations where freezes occur throughout the
year, but there is yet no direct evidence on this.
As is common in the forest, dominant large-crowned trees produce
the largest seed crops, but not necessarily any better seed than that
from smaller trees. In a comparatively open stand like that on the
Medicine Bow National Forest there are usually fairly full-crov/ned
trees which rank only as intermediate or oppressed in height but
which are capable of bearing some seed and probably of improving
materially after the stand is opened up by cutting. These are the
trees which may be left, both from the standpoint of seed production
and growth potentialities.
The application of these facts is more important in seed collecting
for reforestation purposes than in forest management. In the cut-
ting of lodgepole pine by any system the aim must be not to encour-
age too much reproduction, as this would give stagnated stands at
an early age. It is difficult to conceive of conditions in which there
will not be ample seed for the necessary reproduction, if both old
cones and possible future crops are intelligently utilized.
EXTRACTION
Experiments in seed extracting started in 1912 and in 1914 employed
kilns in the form of a hollow column. The cones were placed in
single layers on trays within the kiln, through which a steady cur-
rent of hot air rose by natural forces. The rapid opening of cones
by this treatment showed that the essential requirement of extract-
ing is to bring a supply of dry air steadily to each cone through free
movement of the air current. High temperature without sufficient
air circulation for effective drying represents an entirely erroneous
conception of the objectives of artificial treatment.
Every consideration points to the desirability of small and simple
extracting plants rather than large ones complicated by much
machinery.
In air drying a large part of the moisture in the cones is lost in
the first few months, but slow drying may continue for 15 months.
When permitted to air dry under moderate conditions many well-
developed cones begin to open almost immediately. The failure of
cones to open under such conditions must be taken as evidence of
incomplete development.
Cones from a siliceous soil (Medicine Bow) dried more quickly,
to a lower point, and with much wider opening of the scales than
cones from a limestone soil which were less perfectly developed.
Analysis of volume expansion of the cones indicates that opening
under artificial treatment is the direct result of loss of water. The
PRODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED 81
amount of water lost is the important thing; the rate is of less
importance. Cones which have air-dried for a long time without
opening must, because of their low water content, be brought to a
very dry condition to produce the necessary change; and it is in
creating this dry condition, through low relative humidity of the
surrounding atmosphere, that high temperatures are effective and
necessary.
In the successive extractions of 1912-13 the best yields of seed
were obtained from the freshest cones, and there is reason for believ-
ing that the cone opening is most complete at this stage. These
cones, however, had had considerable opportunity for air drying
before the first artificial treatment. Judged both by the quantity and
quality of seed obtained, an extracting temperature not exceeding
140° F. is indicated for fresh cones, whereas, w^hen the cones become
decidedly dry, a temperature of 170° may be used safely and more
effectively. In these tests about 40 per cent of the seed became avail-
able by air drying alone after about 19 months, but, except in the
early stages, the seed so obtained were not superior in germinative
capacity to the seed obtained after kiln drying the cones. Later,
the free seed were probably affected slightly by molding.
In the successive extractions of 1914-15 the Medicine Bow cones,
which were very green at the outset, yielded the poorest seed from
the first extraction, and the Gunnison cones, although somewhat
drier, also yielded poor seed at this stage, showing, with the quali-
fied results for Arapaho cones, that extraction from very green cones
is not at all desirable. When all the results are considered it is seen
that four to six months of moderate air drying gives the best yields
and quality.
On the basis of the averages of germination tests made imme-
diately after extractions and up to two years after the cone col-
lections, the seed from moderately air-dried Arapaho cones showed
little difference in germination as a result of different extracting
temperatures. Starting with very green cones from the Medicine
Bow, in the first extraction a temperature of 170° F. was most effec-
tive and beneficial, apparently because the seeds needed to be dried,
but, as a whole, the 140° extractions gave the best results. With
drier cones from the Gunnison, which apparently give up their
water less readily, a temperature of 170° gave by far the highest
yields, slightly inferior germination, and slightly the best yields of
germinable seeds. After prolonged air drying a temperature even of
200° gave very satisfactory results.
Much indirect and direct evidence points to the fact that lodge-
pole pine seeds are not mature at the end of their second season's
growth, and hence are benefited by artificial heat and to some extent
at least by the removal of moisture. The most direct evidence was
obtained by drying seed for four hours at 170° F. after they had
been removed from the cones by the regular treatments. The most
marked benefit was noted with the seed from the extractions of
green Medicine Bow cones, which without this drying apparently
contained too much moisture to keep in the best of condition. With
most seed, however, the heat required for ordinarily efficient extrac-
tion has an immediate effect in high germinative vigor; in only a
110505°— ^0 ^
82 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 3 U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
few instances is any deterioration of the seed plainly traceable to
the effects of high temperatures.
All of the evidence points to the conclusion that the best tempera-
ture for cone treatment, from the standpoint of net yields of ger-
minable seed, is that temperature which, with free air circulation
and after the seed has had four to six months of preliminary drying,
will produce a complete opening of the cones in not more than six
to eight hours. The drier the cones become before this treatment
the higher must the temperature be. The two objectives in any
treatment of lodgepole pine cones must be, first, to accomplish the
drying and ripening of the seed, which apparently proceeds either
in a naturally warm building through a period of several months or
in an artificially heated kiln in a much shorter period; secondly, to
apply such artificial treatment as will cause the reasonably rapid
drying of the scales of those cones which are least perfectly devel-
oped and lack " life."
Theoretically, the process of opening cones by artificial heat is,
first, one of evaporating the freer moisture and perhaps some vola-
tile oils contained in them; then a process of extracting the unfreo
moisture which is held by the cell walls and cell contents ; finally, the
energy of artificial heat is almost certainly consumed in producing
chemical changes in the seeds and probably also in the cones, corre-
sponding to ripening processes which occur in fruits, twigs, etc., in
sunlight. There is no direct basis for measuring the last item of
consumption, but it appears to be a large one.
Because of the secondary uses described, the amount of heat re-
quired to open cones does not decrease in proportion to the duration
of preliminary air drying. Nevertheless, air drying for several
months, with a loss of perhaps one-half the original moisture of the
cones, effects a very considerable saving in heat use. Beyond this
point air drying does not have much effect, but should possibly be
continued under certain circumstances because of other economies
incident to conducting the extracting operations in warmer weather.
By partially drying the cones before artificial treatment the effective
capacity of any drying kilns should be increased, since the dry cones
will less readily cool and saturate the air current. In addition, the
fact that some of the cones are partially opened makes it possible to
force an air current through larger masses of them.
A fact which is not easily comprehended by persons unfamiliar
with physical principles is that the drying process really uses up
the heat and by cooling the air decreases its capacity to take up
moisture. It is for this reason that to produce prompt opening a
fresh current of warm air must constantly come in contact with the
cones. A bushel of fresh green cones m.ay utilize about 20,000 B. t. u.
of heat; after a year's air drying this requirement will be reduced
to about 6,000 B. t. u., this unit being the amount of heat required
to raise a pound of water 1° F. The larger amount will be repre-
sented by the heat given off in cooling about 28.000 cubic feet of air '^^
by a change of 50°, or, if this is represented by an 8-hour process,
about 60 cubic feet of air should be supplied each minute for each
bushel of cones. In addition to the heat actually utilized, it may be
expected that in any ordinary kiln as much or more will be lost by
w Computed for mountain conditions, barometer 22 inches.
PRODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED 83
radiation from the walls, so that the current of air will emerge from
the kiln about 100° cooler than when it entered.
GERMINATION
The method of germination tests is considered to have an impor-
tant bearing on the germination values of seed and on the statistical
value of the information obtained for seed production, extracting
methods, and comparative germination in the field. The essentials
of the standard method attained are as follows : A medium of sand
having a desirable acid reaction ; seed covered with one-fourth of an
inch of sand; moisture not closely controlled, but ranging between
6 and 10 per cent; temperatures controlled in an attempt to attain
each day a minimum of 57° F. and a maximum of 83° at the depth
of the seed.
Fluctuating temperatures are shown to be highly stimulating to
lodgepole pine and to bring out the greatest germination. The opti-
mum basic temperature is about 70° F. Other species considered
also benefit by the fluctuating temperature, but are not so markedly
dependent on it.
The relatively sluggish character of lodgepole pine germination is
shown by the fact that under the best conditions obtained in a series
of temperature tests 41 days were required to produce 80 per cent
of the total germination of lodgepole pine seed, as compared with 11
days for western yellow pine seed, 11 days for Douglas fir seed, 10
days for Engelmann spruce seed, and 8 days for bristlecone pine
seed, all from Colorado sources. This, however, is considerably
slower than the usual germination of lodgepole pine seed.
It has not been possible to eliminate errors or variations to the
extent that a single germination test can be relied upon for great
accuracy. The sampling error alone is probably 2.2 per cent for
any single sample, and factors which aifect the final germination
make the probable error of the result about 4 per cent of the true
germination value. These errors are greatly reduced by using the
average of a number of tests.
Considering the final or capacity germination, or that occurring
in a period of 62 days, the averages of 413 greenhouse tests show
that the various grades of seed may be distinguished not only by
their total germinations but by their relative behavior at earlier
periods. The better seed germinates more quickly, reaches a higher
and earlier crest, and leaves a smaller proportional residue to be
scattered over the later period. These qualities give the theoretical
basis for differentiating the grades even more sharply by their ger-
mination in a limited period, on the theory that if germination in
the field does not occur promptly it will not occur at all. But the
field tests do not indicate that high germinative energy is particu-
larly important except under decidedly adverse conditions. Else-
where field germination is about proportionate to total capacity,
except for seeds which have possibly been decisively injured and
have a germinative capacity of less than 50 per cent. It is probable
that sound lodgepole pine seed can lie on the ground or in the soil
for long periods without serious deterioration, retaining the ability
to germinate when it receives the proper stimulus. Scarcely more
84 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUEE
than 75 per cent of the capacity germination of lodgepole pine can
be expected even under ideal nursery conditions.
Although in various other comparisons there have been indications
that Gunnison seed germinates a little more vigorously in the early
stages than seed of more northerly origin, a selected group from each
of three regions whose extraction histories were well known and simi-
lar brings out no clear differences between any one group and the
average or normal for seed of the same quality.
Nevertheless, preliminary to the field tests of 1914, each seed lot
was so fully tested in the greenhouse as to bring out clearly its char-
acteristics, and it was shown that Wyoming seed lots, which at 15 or
20 days in the greenhouse were 4 per cent behind an equal number of
Colorado lots, at the end of the first season in the nursery showed a
corresponding retardation. Wyoming lots completed but 44 per
cent of their total germination the first year, while Colorado seed
completed 67 per cent. This performance appears to be more defi-
nitely related to sources than to seed qualities, as indicated by total
greenhouse germination.
Wyoming seed, when sown in its native habitat, made quite as good
a showing after two years as Colorado seed sown at its source, indi-
cating that lodgepole pine seed are to a slight extent adapted to cer-
tain conditions under which they have grown. Conditions pre-
vailing in southern Wyoming in 1914 seem to have been especially
conducive to lying over of the seed, yet the eventual germination was
better than the average for all localities. Northern Colorado, best
represented by the Arapaho National Forest, seems to have very
favorable conditions for seed germination, while west-central Colo-
rado, approaching the southern limit of lodgepole pine in the Rockies,
has the least favorable field conditions, and the seed from this source
shows the most spontaneous germination when conditions for ger-
mination are favorable.
The lesson to be taken from this study of germination is that no
arbitrary basis for rating seed values is needed, for in any field work
a great deal of judgment will be required to rate the conditions which
will affect germination and seed loss, and precise measures will be
useless. The most important item in seed use is to have seed fully
adapted to local conditions in so far as nature has developed any
adaptations. The seed should be taken from the locality in which
it is expected the seeding will be done or the nursery stock planted.
APPENDIX
A MODEL SEED-EXTRACTING PLANT FOR LODGEPOLE PINE CONES
The ideal seed-extracting plant for most purposes is one of relatively small
capacity, of very simple design, involving no mechanisms which can not be kept
in order by the average worliman, and embodying the principle of rapid drying
by a current of hot air rising by natural draft through a fluelike kiln.
From experience with lodgepole pine seed extraction and the evidence from
innumerable germination tests, it appears that certain principles should be
followed in the construction of any seed-extracting plant using artificial heat.
With proper adjustment of temperatures, these principles should apply equally
well to cones of all species. They have already been applied successfully in
the treatment of western yellow, Norway, and jack pine cones.
The basic principle of seed extraction by artificial heat is to dry the cones,
rather than merely to heat them. This cau only be accomplished where warm,
dry air moves freely about each cone and is supplied in sutficient volume to
carry off and replace the air so cooled or moisture laden as to be no longer
effective for drying. Hence, the heating capacity of any given plant must be
adjusted carefully to the volume of cones to be treated in any one charge.
For lodgepole pine cones the most efficient temperature is undoubtedly be-
tween 140° and 170° F. This is not a temperature which the cones willordi-
narily attain to, but the temperature of the air where it is introduced into the
kiln and first strikes the cones. The higher temperature — 170° — is very effec-
tive; it causes no immediate injury, and only slight deterioration of the seed
is perceptible through a period of several years' storage, except possibly when
very green cones are treated. For other species, however, until more is known
of them, somewhat lower maxima should be adhered to, forcing the drying
rather by good ventilation than by excessive temperatures.
The process of removing water from the cones must be accomplished in a
reasonably short time if the cones are to be opened satisfactorily. If more
than eight hours are required for kiln drying the process is ineflScient. Lodge-
pole pine cones may be dried so slowly that when they are later subjected to
a high temperature they do not contain sufiicient moisture to show any " life."
Hence, preliminary air drying should not go too far. It is possible, however,
that such cones as those of white pine, of which both the cones and seed appear
to contain much water, must be dried more slowly than lodgepole pine. Little
is known of the effect of artificial heat on the germination of seed of that
class.
Since fresh green cones kiln dry more readily than cones already partly
dried, they can be exposed first to air which has been partly cooled and
moistened by passing over other, drier cones, and may later be moved toward
the current coming directly from the furnace. This requirement calls for
arrangements for moving the cones usually from the top toward the bottom of
the kiln by regular stages.
Since degree of drying is the important thing in attaining the mechanical
effect on the cone scales, the greatest efficiency will be attained only with a
reasonably high temperature which causes a low relative humidity, but this
must be combined with free and rapid movement of the air.
As drying proceeds and cone temperatures approach that of the air, there is
increasing tendency for the seeds to become heated and to be dried. In order
to avert excessive heating with species which are not benefitted by it" the
seed should be shaken from the cones at frequent intervals as the cones open
and removed to a cool container. If the larger part of the seed is removed
from the kiln as soon as released, then one may with less hesitancy use a
higher temperature on the rest of the cones.
ESSENTIALS OF THE KILN
The kiln walls should be well insulated so that the heat of the air current
ma.v be used up in evaporating water, not in radiating into the room.
^ Seeds from fresh lodgepole pine cones are apparently benefited by considerable drying
but after air seasoning of the cones this becomes unnecessary.
85
86 TECHN-JCAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUKE
The air current must be compelled to move over and around each cone, not
merely over a mass of cones, and must be given no opportunity to escape
vs^ithout coming into contact with them. At the same time the air current
must not be too severely choked back by having little space between the cones,
else it will move too slowly and become too moist to dry them effectively. All
of these conditions are most simply and naturally met in a vertical kiln, in
which the trays, covered on the bottom with coarse wire cloth, fit close inside
the walls of the kiln. In each tray should be spread a single layer of cones.
To remove the seed from the cones frequently enough to avoid any possible
injury from the heat some form of agitation must be used.
A MANUALLY OPERATED KILN
The following specifications are for a simple, manual, 1-man equipment, very
similar to that of the experimental kiln previously described. Such a kiln has
a capacity of 15 bushels or more each 8-hour day, and may be built without any
considerable initial outlay or operating expense.
The trays for the proposed kiln are 30 in number, set up in two stacks of 15
each, which are reached by opening the doors on the two opposite sides of the
kiln. (Fig. 17.) As the stacks extend only 7 feet above the floor, the highest
trays may be reached from a movable step 1 or 2 feet high.
Each tray is 4 feet long and 2 feet wide (these dimensions facilitating han-
dling by one man), and is expected to hold approximately one-half bushel of
cones. The sides and back end of the tray are 2 inches high, the front face
4 inches. The trays rest on cleats 2 inches high running through the kiln from
side to side. The height or depth of these cleats may be diminished in order to
permit thin strips to be nailed on the bottoms of the trays after the hardware
cloth has been tacked on. The faces of the trays should fit together snugly,
and a cleat should close the gap between the lowest tray and the doors. The
outer doors will, of course, prevent the complete escape of such air as leaks
out between the trays.
In operation, the fresher cones are placed on the top trays of the stack. Even
if all trays are filled with fresh cones, those on the bottom trays will be
opened first, and, after several hours, one or two of these trays may be removed,
and the cones dumped on a screen. But first, working from the top down, each
tray should be shaken moderately, the cones spread evenly again if they have
bunched, and the tray pushed back in place. This process brings all the loose
seed to the bottom of the kiln, where they will fall on the fioor. As trays are
removed from the bottom, each of those above may then be moved down ac-
cordingly. Finally, the empty trays should be replaced at the top and quickly
filled with fresh cones.
After this, the process of shaking the trays to liberate the seeds, removing
the bottom trays on which the cones are opened, and moving all the others
down, becomes an intermittent one to be repeated at least once each hour. It
goes without saying that at the initiation of one of these continuous kiln runs,
before the cones on the lowest trays are ready to be removed, all of the trays
should be shaken several times.
The two stacks of drawers in the kiln should be operated Independently
since they may not proceed evenly, particularly if, as in so many furnace-
heated houses, there is a tendency for the air current to cling to one side or
the other of the kiln.
Further details of construction and operation are not so much matters of
principles as of practicability and convenience.
HEIGHT, DRAFT, AND GENERAL EFFICIENCY OF THE KILN
Leaving the top of the kiln wide open is a great convenience in filling the
empty trays moved up from the bottom and in itself interferes in no way with
the drying of the cones. Unless, however, the furnace has been arranged to
draw cold air directly from out of doors, ventilation in the roof above the
kiln should be provided to prevent the warm, moist air from reentering the
kiln and to promote working comfort in the room.
Too small an air current passing upward through the kiln is apt to result
in the ineffective use of the heating capacity of the furnace and a dangerous
temperature in the bottom of the kin. In the light of principles here estab-
lished it may confidently be said that it is safer and better to draw much air
through the kiln at a moderate temperature than little at a high temperature.
PEODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED
87
In this situation the full capacity of the furnace may best be utilized by increas-
ing the height of the kiln suflaciently or capping it with a suflSciently large flue
so that it will draw the hot air away from the furnace more powerfully, increase
the current, and thus lower the temperature at the point of entrance. This is an
important point in the efficiency of the plant.
The question as to whether the capacity of the kiln may be increased by
adding more trays at the top need not be answered arbitrarily. In the initial
construction of a kiln according to this plan it would seem the part of wisdom
d
?
9
lil
«
<n
<
o
OJ
EC4
to so build the walls that their height could be readily increased. Assuming
that the kiln itself has been built high enough so that the air comes from the
furnace with a strong draft and at a safe temperature, the air at the top of
the kiln may be examined to determine whether its heat has been utilized
to a reasonable degree. This, as has been pointed out, is not to be gauged by
the temperature of the air so much as its. moisture content or relative humidity.
A wet-and-dry-bulb psychrometer held in the current of air above the cones
(not in contact with them) for about five minutes should show a wet-bulb
temperature at least 8°-10° F. below that of the dry bulb to indicate any
88 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
further effectiveness. If there is not this much difference, it means that the
air is already so nearly saturated with moisture that it can not be of much use
for further drying.
If occasionally the draft from the furnace is unusually strong, so that the
air is leaving the kiln still quite warm, the trays should be loaded more
heavily ; the additional cones will not only use more of the heat but will also
choke down the draft. Thus it is seen that with the idea of full utilization of
the heat always in mind the operator may to a considerable extent adjust the
process to circumstances.
HOT-AIR INTAKE AND SEED SPACE
The kiln is shown in figure 17 as resting on the floor immediately above the
furnace, with the hot air coming through the floor directly below the stack of
trays. A metal flue rises 6 to 8 inches above the floor, and this is capped by a
cone or hemisphere of fly screen, so that seeds dropping from the trays can
not fall through to the furnace. There will, of course, be a strong tendency for
the current of air to carry setds and chaff away from the screen.
This arrangement directly over the furnace is obviously ideal in heating
efficiency, but perhaps increases the fire danger and may overheat the seed
chamber. If the floor over the furnace becomes very hot it must be well
insulated from contact with the top of the furnace. Even then, frequent re-
moval of the seeds may be necessary to prevent overheating. On the other hand,
were the kiln farther removed from the furnace and the hot air brought to it
in a duct which opened into the side wall of the kiln above the floor, the floor
itself would be relatively cool and the seed would need be removed less fre-
quently. Such a flue should have at least one-third of the cross section of the
kiln itself, as should any flue placed at the top to carry off the moist air. The
disadvantage of this arrangement may be that it sometimes makes one side of
the kiln much hotter than the other.
GENERAL NEED OF INSULATION
Under ordinary conditions a kiln constructed of wood is far preferable to
one of iron because less skill is required to do reasonably good fitting in the
original construction, and repairs and changes are more readily made. The
plan described is intended for a wooden kiln, but yet is entirely susceptible to
adaptation to metal construction.
Wood is a fairly good nonconductor of heat, but for economy additional
lining should be provided. No difficulty would be experienced, under the pro-
posed plan, in lining the wood kiln with heavy sheet asbestos, which would be
slightly effective against fire and would also prevent excessive drying of the
wood. The tray cleats should be nailed on over the asbestos, and the latter
should be protected from wear by the trays, by placing tin flashing in the
angles formed by the upper surfaces of the cleats and the walls. This would
also be worth while to reduce friction.
However, the most inflammable thing about the kiln is its content of dry
cones, and no amount of care in construction can prevent a flre if the furnace
becomes so seriously defective as to allow flame or sparks to enter the hot-air
current of the furnace. The precautions to be taken are mainly those against
fire in the furnace room. The fuel supply should be in a room separated from
the furnace by a fireproof door which is always closed except when there is an
attendant at the furnace. The ceiling above the furnace should, of course, be
completely insulated with heavy sheet asbestos. If the furnace room is kept
free of inflammable material and concrete construction is used in the floors
and walls, ordinary care at all times sliould prevent flre.
FINAL TREATMENT OF CONES
Under a system in which the cones are agitated rather frequently while
opening, there will be very little seed left in them v»^hen the drying process is
completed, or at any rate not enough to require any long, or very thorough
shaking of the cones. In Figure 20 is shown a wide, screened trough of sloping
steps down which the cones may be brushed and beaten with any convenient
tool. Probably the hand beating rather than the steps in the screen should be
depended upon most to loosen the seed. Gradually, however, the cones should
be worked down the screen to drop into a convenient receptacle or if possible
\
PRODUCTION OF LODGEPOLE PINE SEED
89
directly into the fuel room. The need for additional shaking or beating could
easily be determined after noting the amount of seed coming out of the cones in
the fuel room.
A MECHANICAL KILN
The very simple mechanical plan suggested in Figure 21 is in every principle
the same as the manual plan, but provides for moving screens to hold the
cones, instead of trays to be shaken and lifted up and down. Once the cones
have rolled or been shoveled onto the top screen, they are moved first in one
direction and then tumbled to the next screen below and moved in the oppo-
site direction, by means of a windlass-driven chain connected with gears on
one roller of each pair. The rate of movement is determined by the complete
opening of the cones on the lowest screen.
GEARS ON EXTERIOR ENDS
OF ROLLERS SO THAT ALL
ROLLERS AND SCREENS
MAY BE MOVED AT ONCE
BY WINDLASS DRIVEN
CHAIN
HINGED BAFFLE TO DIVERT
BOTH CONES AND AIR
FLY-SCREEN CAP
WMmmmm^^mz^^^m:^^
Figure 21. — Vertical section of a meciianically operated seed kiln
The screens should be of copper, since iron-hardware cloih will not stand con-
tinuous bending, and should be coarse enough to permit seeds to fall through.
The rollers should be at least 4 inches in diameter. Probably the dropping
from one tray to the next will provide sufficient beating to release most of the
seed as the cones open.
CONE-DRYING SHEDS
The data reported in this bulletin indicate that with species which ordinarily
open in the ^'•un, and even with selected cones of lodgepole pine, the use of
artificial heat is unnecessary, and by proper arrangements for air drying the
need for extracting plants could largely be obviated. At least this should be
the case where the fall and wanter weather is characterized by dry atmosphere
and a high i)ercentage of sunshine.
Large cribs or bins such as that shown in Plate 3, A, although desirable for
storage or preliminary drying, are not conducive to the opening of the cones
90 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
except those in the topmost layer. The cone-drying shed should be built like
an open cowshed, high at the south side, and with a comparatively low north
wall. The question whether the south side should be closed by screen or left
entirely open, as well as other features of the construction, should be decided
by the prevalence of rodents and an estimate of the amount of damage they
may do.
Within the shed the essential feature is tier after tier of trays. These may
be constructed of 1 by 6 or 1 by 8 boards, with bottoms of hardware cloth
for strength and coarse muslin to retain the seeds, or hardware cloth may be
used alone and the seed allowed to drop through all the trays to a special tray
near the floor. The advantage of the latter plan is that it permits the best
possible ventilation through the cones. For large-seeded species fly screen sup-
ported by one or two longitudinal ribs would be preferable.
The trays will hold 1 bushel to each 3 square feet if spread 5 inches deep,
which would permit nearly 100 per cent expansion without overflowing an
8-inch wall. Therefore a tray 3 by 6 feet will hold 6 bushels, and if six trays
are placed one above another at intervals of a foot, leaving 4-inch spaces
between them for ventilation, a floor space 3.2 by 6 feet will accommodate 36
bushels. The roof should project at the front 2 or 3 feet beyond the trays, so
that they will not usually be wet during storms. A lateral space of 2 or 4
inches between trays should be allowed for the uprights, to which supporting
cleats will be attached, and for ventilation around the trays.
On this basis a shed of 6 by 90 feet floor space and 10 by 90 feet roof
should accommodate 1,000 bushels of cones. The simple construction possible,
the elimination of a great deal of labor in repeated handling of the cones, and
the possibility of leaving the threshing of the cones to the most convenient
season should recommend drying sheds, where practicable, in preference to heat-
ing plants of greater initial cost and complexity, which also are all too fre-
quently destroyed by fire.
LITERATURE CITED
(1) Bates, C. G.
1913. THE TECHNIQUE OF SEED TESTING. Soc. Amer. Foresters Proc.
8: 127-138.
(2)
(3)
1917. THE BIOLOGY OF LODGEPOLE PINE AS REA^EALED BY THE BEHAVIOR OP
ITS SEED. Jour. Forestry 15: 410-416. *
1923. PHYSIOLOGICAL REQUIREMENTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN TREES. JOUr.
Agr. Research 24: 97-164, illus.
(4) BOERKER, R. H.
1916. ECOLOGICAL INVESTiaATIONS; UPON THE GERMINATION AND EARLY
GROWTH OF FOREST TREES. Nebr. Univ. Studies 16 (1, 2) : 1-89,
illus.
(5) Clements, F. E.
1910. THE LIFE HISTORY OF LODGEPOLE BURN FORESTS. U. S. Dept. Agr.,
Forest Sery. Bui. 79, 56 p., illus.
(6) Cox, W. T.
1911. REFORESTATION ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. PART I. COLLECXnON OF
SEED. PART II. — DIRECT SEEDING. U. S. Dept. Agr., Forest Sery.
Bui. 98, 57 p., illus.
7) Harrington, G. T.
1923. USE of alternating temperatures in the germination of seeds.
Jour. Agr. Research 23: 295-332, illus.
8) Hiley, W. E.
1921. recent investigations on the germination and culture of forest
SEEDS. Quart. Jour. Forestry 15: 150-168.
9) Livingston, B. E., and Livingston, G. J.
1913. TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT IN PLANT GEOGRAPHY AND COMATOLOGY.
Bot. Gaz. 56: 349-375, illus.
0) Mason, D. T.
1915. the life history op lodgepole pine in the rocky mountains.
U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 154, 35 p., illus.
) Pearson, G. A.
1923. natural REPRODUCTION OF V7ESTERN YELLOW PINE IN THE SOUTH-
WEST. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 1105, 144 p., illas.
) Tower, G. E.
1909. a study of the reproducti\^ characteristics of lodgepole pine.
Soc. Amer. Foresters Proc. 4: [84]-106.
3) United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service.
1907. germination of pine seeds. U. S. Dept. Agr., Forest Serv.
[Leaflet], 12 p.
(14) WiEBECKE.
1910. DIE ANWENDUNG NEUEN ERKENNENS UND KONNENS AUF DIE KIEFERN-
samendarre. Ztschr. Forst u. Jagdw. 42: 342-360. [Transla-
tion by S. L. Moore, The equipment and operation of a German
seed-extracting establishment. Forestry Quart. 9: [26]-44.
1911.]
(15) Wright, W. G.
1925. statistical methods in forest-investigatton work. Canada
Dept. Int., Forestry Branch Bui. 77, 36 p., illus.
(16) Zederbauer, E.
1911. EiNiGE versuche MIT DEB bergpohre. Ccntbl. Gcsam. Forstw.
37: [2971-310.
(17)
1910. [experiments on the storage of SEEDS OF forest trees.] Mitt.
Forstl. Versuchsw. Osterr. [Translation under above title in
Roy Scot. Arbor. Sco. Trans. 35: 137-143, 1921.]
91
ORGANIZATION OF THE
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
June 26, 1930
Secretary of Agriculture Abthub M. Hyde.
Assistant Secretary R. W. Dunlap.
Director of Scientific Work A. F. Woods.
Director of Regulatory Work Walteii G. Campbell.
Director of Extension Work C. W. "Wabbubton.
Director of Personnel and Business Adminis- W. W. Stockbeegeb^
tration.
Director of Information M. S. Eises^howeb,.
Solicitor ^ E. L. Marshall,
Weather Bureau Charles F. Marvin, Chief.
Bureau of Animal Industry John R. Mohler, Chief.
Bureau of Dairy Industry O. E. Reed, Chief.
Bureau of Plant Industry Willla^m A. Taylor^ Chief.
Forest Service R, Y. Stuart, Chief.
Bureau of Chemistry and Soils H. G. Knight, Chief.
Bureau of Entomology C. L. Marlatt, Chief.
Bureau of Biological Survey Paul G. Redington, Chief.
Bureau of Public Roads Thomas H. MacDonald, Chief.
Bureau of Agricultural Economics ^ Xn^ A. Olsen, Chief.
Bureau of Home Economics Louise Stanley, Chief.
Plant Qua/rantine and Control Admlnistrati^i- Lee A. Strong, Chief.
Grain Futures Administration J. W. T. Duvel, Chief.
Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration^. Walter G. Campbell, Director of
Regulatory Work, in Charge.
Office of Experiment Stations , Chief.
Office of Cooperative Extension Work . C. B. Smith, Chief.
Library Claribel R. Babnett, Librarian.
This bulletin is a contribution from
Forest Service R. Y. Stuart, Chief.
Branch of Research Eable H. Clapp, Assistant For-
ester, in Charge.
Office of Silvics E. N. Munns, SUvioulturisi, in
Charge.
92
O. S. SOVERHHENT PRIHTING OFFICE: 1930
Technical Bulletin No. 190. ^'^ ^^^"^xN^^^^^""'^ ^^ July, 1930
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
A STUDY OF THE LESSER MIGRATORY
GRASSHOPPER'
By R. L. Shotwell, Assistant Entomologmt, Bureai/^ of Entomoloffy, Ufdted
States Department of Agriculture
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction 1
History and synonjony 1
Geographical range. 3
Variation 3
Habitat 5
Economic importance 6
Life history 8
The egg 8
The nymphal stages 10
Theadult 21
Reproduction 21
history 23
Migratory habits 23
Nymphal migrations 23
Migrations of adults . 26
Feeding 26
Enemies 27
Economic bearing of the information obtained. 29
Control measures 30
Summary 31
Literature cited 32
INTRODUCTION
A survey of the publications relating to grasshoppers has shown
the need of a more detailed study of the life histories and habits
of these insects. Most of the existing literature deals with the sub-
jects of taxonomy and control. The matter on life history contained
m it is in character general and pertains mostly to the group as a
whole. This is probably due to the fact that all species of grass-
hoppers have many things in common relative to their development
and habits. It is true, however, that enough differences exist to
warrant the making of separate studies of each species. The mate-
rial for this bulletin was obtained from observations made in the
field and laboratory, supplemented by excerpts from the literature.
The field observations recorded herein were made in Montana in
the period extending from November, 1923, to November, 1927.
HISTORY AND SYNONYMY .
Melanoplv atlanis^ or the lesser migratory locust, as it is known
in the literature, was first described by Saussure in 1861 {25Y as
Pezottetix mexicana (male and female, temperate Mexico). It was
' Melanoplus atlanis (Riley) [= Melanoptm mexicarms (Saussure)]; order Orthoptera, family Acrididae,
subtamily Cyrtacanthacrinae.
^ Reference is made by italic numbers in parentheses to Literature Cited, p. 32.
109765° — 30 1 1
2 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 0, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
described as Caloptenus atlanis by Riley in 1875 {22, p. 169) (male
and female, New Hampshire). In 1897 Scudder {27) replaced
Caloptenus of Burmeister with Melanoplus of Stal, basing his action
on the fact that:
The foundation for our present knowledge of the structural features of the
Melanopli was laid by Stai (Recensio Orthopterorum I, 1873), and enlarged
in his Systema Acrideodeorum (1878) and his Observations Orthopt6rologiques
III (1878).
In 1917 Hebard (5, p. 271) stated :
Careful study of the literature and the extensive series at hand gives con-
clusive evidence that the widespread and abundant species, known universally
as M. atlanis, must be called mexicanus, atlcmis having been described in
1875. The name atlanis accordingly is alone retained for the race of mexi-
canus widely distributed throughout the eastern United States and vicinity.
The species clearly divides into several geographic races. * * *
More recently Hebard {6, p. 112) has said :
Detailed study is needed to determine the number and distribution of the
races of mexicanus. Until then many of the numerous names which have
been proposed can not be assigned to synonymy, or given racial status, with
any degree of assurance. Another difficult problem is that of the migratory
grasshopper, known as M. spretus (Walsh), which may prove to be only a
migratory phase of this same insect.
Owing to the fact that the name Melanoplus atlanis is almost
universally known, it is retained in this bulletin.
In 1873 Cyrus Thomas {29, p. 165) described Caloptenus spy^etu^,
but did not mention atlanis, and said of the former :
I have traced this species from Texas northward to the north shore of
Lake Winnipeg, in British America, and from the Mississippi River westward
to the Sierra Nevada range. It does not appear to be found in California,
and but a short distance southward in Arizona.
Melanoplus atlanis first came into prominence in Riley's work on
the Rocky Mountain locust, M. spretus, in 1877 {23, 21^). Previous
to this atlanis had probably been confused with spretus and femur-
imhrum, and in this work Riley compares the three species. He
places atlanis as structurally nearer sp^'etus than femur-ruhrum, dif-
fering mainly in size and color, atlanis being much smaller and
more distinctly marked than spretus. Riley also states that spretus
can not live in the Atlantic States or east of the ninety-fourth
meridian, and calls atlanis the Atlantic migratory locust. Further-
more, Riley attributes to atlanis about the same flying ability as to
spretus, and states that the variety of the former occurring in the
Mississippi Valley is larger than the typical or Atlantic form.
Owing to the immense amount of interest aroused by the terrible
ravages of the Rocky Mountain locust during the decade 1870 to 1880,
some outstanding work on life histories and habits of grasshoppers
in general was done by C. V. Riley, A. S. Packard, and others. In
1883 Packard {11) worked out the embryological development of
atlanis. Since that time this species has been mentioned in much
of the literature pertaining to control methods and to the grasshopper
fauna of the United States,
THE LESSER MIGRATORY GRASSHOPPER 6
GEOGRAPHICAL . RANGE
Melanoplus dtlanis is indigenous to the North American Conti-
nent and has a greater geographic range than any other species of
this large genus. According to Hebard {6^ p, -^-^^)? the species
* * * is generally distributed over all but the tropical lowlands of Mexico,
reaching northward over all the United States except peninsular f'lorida
and California west of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, to southern Canada,
having also been reported from the Yukon River, Alaska [this latter record, we
believe, requires verification]. On the Pacific Coast, however, in British
Columbia as far north as the Chilcotin District, it is very abundant and widely
distributed.
In the New England States, according to Scudder {28) :
It is found everywhere from the seashore to the tops of the highest moun-
tains of New Hampshire, being tolerably common on the summit of Mt. Wash-
ington, whence it has been brought by numerous persons.
Fernald {i) states that this is a common species throughout New
England. It has been found in the Southeastern States breeding
from sea level to the summit of Roan Mountain, N. C. (6,300 feet)
(P), and in the Boreal, Transition, Upper Austral, Lower Austral,
and part Sabalian, in Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South
Carolina, Georgia, and northwestern Florida (i^, 19^ 21). It is a
very common species in all of the Southern States and often locally
abundant. Blatchley (i, p. iH) , says " This is a very common locust
throughout Indiana." In the Southwest it has been taken in central
Mexico (i^), in the Sacramento Mountains, New Mexico, at 6,500
feet elevation (i^), and in Arizona (74, 15^ 18). In the Middle
Western States and Canada {17, 20, SO, 31) and Pacific States, it is
frequently abundant over large sections. In 1877 Scudder {28) took
it in the American Fork Canyon, Utah, at 9,500 feet. He also says
{26) that it has been collected at Glen Brook, Nev., Wallula, Wash.,
Portland, Oreg., and Victoria, Vancouver Island. On July 20, 1901,
a specimen was taken by Caudell {2) and Dyar on the snow fields on
the summit of Pike's Peak, Colo. Several specimens were taken
in August, 1925, in Pingree Park, Colo., at an altitude of about
9,000 feet. All this indicates the immense range of this one species.
According to Hubbel {8), this species is probably the most abundant
grasshopper occurring in North Dakota and surpasses all other
species in destructiveness in that State.
VARIATION
Melanoplus atlanis is one of the most variable of the Melanopli,
so much so as often to be quite indistinguishable from its immediate
allies. The New England form of the species is distinctly smaller
than the western or southwestern form {18), According to Scudder
{27, p. 183) :
Specimens from the dry plains of the West (especially noted in those from
Utah) are decidedly paler and more cinereous in aspect than those from
relatively fertile country, and they have often a flavous stripe bordering the
eye and continued along the position of the lateral carinae; a similar but not
so striking a cinereous hue attaches to those that occur in sandy localities in
the Eastern States, as along the sea margin. The exact contrary is shown In
4 TECHNICAL. BULLETIN 190, U. S. DEPT. OF AGEICULTITTIE
Canada just east of the Rocky Mountains, where the specimens are exceedingly
dark in color, almost blackish fuscous, with heavy fasciation of the hind
femora [specimens from Sudbury, Ontario, are similarly dark] ; but here
again a difference of another sort occurs as one passes eastward, specimens
from Laggan and Banff almost invariably having relatively long and slender
male cerci, while at Calgary all that have been seen (with a very few from the
former localities) have male cerci hardly more than half as long again as
broad. Specimens from Mexico, however, agree very closely with those from
New England.
Scudder continues :
Specimens with green hind tibiae have been seen by me from the White
Mountains, New Hampshire, but not from the summits (except Kearsage,
3,251 feet), from the vicinity of Boston, at Provincetown, and on the island
of Nantucket, Massachusetts, from Laggan, Alberta, the Yellowstone Region,
Montana, Wyoming, Nebraska, Missouri, Colorado, from the Salt Lake Valley
and American Fork Canyon (9,500 feet), Utah, Texas, and Chihuahua, Mexico.
Specimens with dark blue hind tibiae have been seen from Iowa, Colorado,
American Fork Canyon, Utah, and Texas. In nearly or quite all these places
specimens with red hind tibiae predominated in the same district.
In the typical material of Saussure from Mexico for M. mexi-
canus mexicanus, Hebard (5) found that the " individuals show
both red and glaucous caudal tibiae, the glaucous type being much
more frequently encountered in Mexico than in the United States."
In South Dakota, Hebard {6, p. 112) noticed that " in the more
humid sections of the State the great majority have the caudal
tibiae pink, very few having these members pale glaucous. In the
more arid sections, the reverse is true."
All of Walker's {30) specimens from Ontario " have the typical
red hind tibiae " nor has he " ever noticed a specimen with tibiae
glaucous or otherwise differently colored." The following color
variations are also found among those individuals collected in north-
ern Montana: The general color varies from a blackish fuscous to
a greenish gray ; a heavy fasciation of the hind femora to a whitish
green; caudal tibiae from blue to red; epicranium from a dark red-
dish brown to pale blue green; prothoracic shield along median
carina from a yellowish hue to dark gray, almost black ; black mark-
ings along the lateral carina from well marked to rather faintly
marked.
Specimens from identical localities in northern Montana show
considerable individual variation in size and tegminal length, while
the coloration shows the usual variation of this species. As an illus-
tration of the difference in size found among representatives from
this part of the State, measurements of one of the smallest and one
of the largest specimens are given. Of the smallest, the length of
the hind femora is 11 mm., length of tegmina 16 mm., and body
length over all to tip of tegmina 21.5 mm. Of the largest, the
length of the hind femora is 15 mm., length of tegmina 22 mm., and
body length 29 mm. Even though specimens of all sizes can be
found, individuals collected from the same locality for a period of
years indicate that the mean size has varied from year to year.
Furthermore, it has been observed that during the years when the
worst outbreaks and damage from grasshoppers occurred, the mem-
bers of this species were larger than they were during the years
when few or no outbreaks took place.
THE LESSER MIGRATORY GRASSHOPPER 5
HABITAT
While this species extends over a wide territory, in the main it is
partial to light sandy soil containing very little humus. In New
York State it breeds most abundantly in localities having light,
sandy soils, often characterized by sandy knolls and ridges and thin
bare pastures (7). These localities are most suitable for the growing
of rye and oats. It is frequently found in dry grassy fields, aban-
doned farms, and fields of the Southern and Southeastern States
{10^ 21). In the Northwestern States and Canada this species is
common on the sandy prairies, dry fields of grass and sagebrush,
and grainfields.
In parts of Montana the preference for light, sandy soils, evi-
denced by this grasshopper, is very well illustrated. In Judith
FiGUKE 1. — Wbeat-stubble field, ideal breeding ground for Mvlanoplus atlanis
Basin County the soil varies from a heavy clay or gumbo to a light
sandy loam within short distances. Invariably Melanoplus atlanis
is scarce on the gumbo, but numerous and dominant on the sandy
soil. In these sandy loam districts, when numerous, it is especially
abundant along fence rows and in the wheat-stubble fields (fig. 1)
where there is a thick growth of Kussian thistles. In stubble land
it is very abundant in low, weedy places where the Russian thistles
or wild rosebushes grow thickly. Other plants common to these
places are curled dock {Rvrniex crisjms L.), plantain {Plantago
major L.), and sagebrush (Artemisia). In mountain country it
is most abundant on low, grassy hills and parks covered with grama,
western needle (Aristida), bluejoint (Calamagrostis), and spear
grasses (Stipa). On rolling prairie land it is most numerous where
the grass is tall or in coulee bottoms. (Fig. 2.)
6
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 0, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
Though this species is found in nearly all of the States, its great-
est damage has been done west of the Mississippi River, and espe-
cially in the northern, hard spring wheat area, including the Prov-
inces of Canada from Manitoba westward.
It is quite probable I hat this species was responsible for the out-
breaks of grasshoppers tliat have been mentioned as occurring in
various parts of New England periodically for over 170 years, or
since 1743. Severe outbreaks occurred in New York State in 1914
and 1915 (7). The grasshopper outbreaks in Michigan have been
s^
Figure 2. — Rolling prairie land where spear grass (Stipa) is the dominant plant anj
Melanophis atlanis the dominant grasshopper
caused largely by this grasshopper. For many years in Minnesota
this species has been one of the chief species concerned in the out-
breaks. Other States in which it has occurred in great numbers at
various times are Nebraska, Colorado, Kansas, and Oklahoma.
Unusually severe outbreaks have also occurred in many of the Prov-
inces of Canada. .
In North Dakota and Montana its outbreaks have at times been
unusually widespread and destructive. It was the principal species
present during the outbreak of 1919 in North Dakota, when the
State spent $604,000 to combat this and other grasshoppers. In
Montana, in 1923, the outbreaks reached the peak as regards extent
and damage (-5), and the severe losses from the hordes of M. atlanis
recalled the earlier ravages of the Rockv Mountain locust in 1875
THE LESSER MIGRATORY GRASSHOPPER
Figure 3. — Wheat defoliated by Melanoplus atlanis
FiuuKE 4. — Inroads made by Melanoplus atlanis iu a tteld of tiax
8 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 190, tJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUKE
and 1876. Fields of wheat, oats, flax, and alfalfa were wholly de-
stroyed. In northern Montana the crops in most places were a
total loss. The grain plants over entire fields have been eaten to the
ground, defoliated, or beheaded (fig. 3) ; fields of flax have been
eaten bare (fig. 4) ; alfalfa stands totally destroyed or kept gnawed
to a height of about 4 inches ; and shade and fruit trees defoliated.
Upon good authority it has been reported that during the worst
grasshopper years, on the streets of the towns in northern Montana,
women experienced much difficulty in that the grasshoppers flew
under their rather long and voluminous skirts, which were com-
monly worn at that time, causing them much discomfort and forcing
them to disrobe upon their return home in order to dislodge the
more venturesome of these migratory pests. Many are the stories
that have been told concerning grasshopper outbreaks until a sort
of tradition has grown up about them.
LIFE HISTORY
THE EGG
The egg of Melanoplios atlanis is whitish yellow or cream colored,
elongate oval, slightly curved, the posterior end pointed and with
a distinct cap, while the anterior end is bluntly rounded. The cho-
rion is densely hexagonally punctate, the cap being more densely
punctate than the rest of the chorion except at the tip, where it is
smooth. The length of the egg ranges from 4 to a little over 5 mm.
with an average of 4.5 mm. The width ranges from 1 to 1.5 mm.
at the widest part. These figures are based on measurements of 100
eggs selected at random. The chorion becomes dry and brittle and
splits longitudinally. The number of eggs in a pod is from 8 to
20, and possibly more.
In Montana the eggs of this species are usually found about 1 to 2
inches below the surface in light sandy loam, along fence rows pro-
tected by Russian thistles, around the base of wheat stubble or alfalfa,
and seldom in adobe or heavy sod. Where the soil is a sandy loam
another favorite place is around the edges of straw stacks protected
by Russian thistles or a thin matting of rotted straw. (Fig. 5.)
In the neighborhood of these stacks there often occur half buried
flat stones around the edge of which the egg pods are found deposited.
Other favorite places are near grain or alfalfa stacks and in the
crowns of wheat, alfalfa, or grass plants. As a rule egg pods of
M, atlmiis are found in scattered colonies and are not bunched, but in
the case of heavy infestations as many as 18 pods have been found at
the base of a single wheat plant.
Eggs of this species collected in Montana during the fall of 1925
showed a very advanced degree of embryological development. The
eyes, mouth parts, legs, antennae, segments of the abdomen, etc., were
plainly visible through the embryo sac after the chorion had been
removed. They hatched within three days after incubating at a
constant temperature of 85° F. Packard (ii, p. 273) made the fol-
lowing observation on material received from C. V. Riley, consisting
of " eggs of C, atlanis, laid 10 days " :
These eggs were laid in the autumn, and the embryos, as seen by the following
account, were already far advanced, the body-segments and appendages having
THE LESSER MIGRATORY GRASSHOPPER \)
appeared, the eyes being indicated, the brain and nervous cord being well
formed and the oesophagus and crop (stomodseum) and hind gut (proctodseum)
being indicated ♦ * *
This shows that the development in the eggs of those locusts which deposit
their eggs in the autumn goes on rapidly, and that the embryo is nearly perfectly
formed and about ready to hatch in the early autumn * * *. At all events,
it is proved by finding the embryos so far advanced ten days after oviposition,
that development begins as soon as the eggs are deposited, and that the embryo
is nearly perfected and about ready to hatch, until the approach of winter
arrests the final stages of development of the embryo, a few warm days in
spring enabling it to complete its growth and to hatch.
Heat and moisture are absolute necessities for the development of
the embryo. In order to incubate eggs in the laboratory, it was found
that the sand in which the eggs were placed must be kept moist. If
it became dry, they shrivelled, and the embryos were destroyed. In
Figure 5. — Old straw stack. The soil around the edges of such stacks is a favorite
place for deposition of eggs by adult females of Melunoplus atlanis
rearing grasshoppers in the laboratory, it was found that incubating
eggs of Melanoplvs atlanis at temperatures of from 80° to 85° F.
produced the best results because the greater percentage of the eggs
hatched in a relatively short time and the resulting nymphs were
more vigorous. One observation in the field during a general hatch-
ing period covering about two weeks showed that the maximum soil
temperature at egg depth ranged from 70° to 91°. During this
period the soil temperature remained from 6 to 20 hours per day above
70° and averaged not more than four hours per day below 60°, the
point below which the progress of hatching was arrested.
Unhatched eggs were observed remaining in the soil that was
shaded by growths of Russian thistles in stubble fields or by a thin
matting of straw around straw stacks for periods of from two to
three weeks after general hatching had taken place. Temperatures
of the shaded and imshaded soil, taken at the same time for several
109765°— 30 2
10 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 0, V. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
days, showed a difference of about 10°, the temperature of the former
ranging from 60° to 68° F., and the latter from 70° to 80°. In-
variably the eggs in the bare or exposed soil had hatched, while
those in the shaded soil were still unhatched. This explains, in part
at least, the fact that the hatching of eggs of M. atlanis extends over
a period of several weeks. The observations indicate that the mini-
mum hatching temperature is between 60° and 65° and the optimum
from 80° to 85°.
THE NYMPHAL STAGES
The number of instars occurring in the specimens of Melanoplus
atlanis reared through to maturity in the laboratory ranged from
five to six. This variation in the number of instars has also been
observed in the field.
METHOD OF STUDY
In the study of the development of this species in the laboratory,
a general method was developed which is being used in working out
the life histories of all the other grasshoppers which are being studied
by the writer. The eggs of this species were gathered in the field
during the fall and kept in cold storage until needed. They were
then placed in moist sterilized sand in suitable receptacles and kept
at a constant temperature in an incubator. For this species this
temperature was about 85° F. .
As the nymphs hatched out they were placed separately in li/2-inch
glass tubes 8 inches long and fed from day to day on a varying diet
of lettuce, alfalfa, and wheat sprouts. Each glass tube was covered
at one end with a piece of scrim, and the other end was plugged
with a cork having a hole bored through it and covered with copper
screening. The nymphs were kept at a room temperature which
ranged from 75° to 85° F. during their whole development. Each
day the tubes were examined for cast skins of the nymphs, and when
these were found a record of the date was written on the tube with
a china pencil. Specimens, both male and female, of each instar
were photographed, and drawings were made of the lateral view
of the thoracic segments and the dorsal and lateral views of the
posterior end of the abdomen. In each instar, measurements were
made of the length and width (widest part) of the hind femora and
the length and number of the segments of the antennae.
The results given in this bulletin are based on the rearing of some
250 individuals of this species in the laboratory at various times in
conjunction with field observations over a period of four years.
KEY TO THE INSTARS
This key includes only the most conspicuous characteristics of the
various instars in the development of M. atlanis up to and including
the adult stage. It is applicable to specimens having either five or
six instars, as the sixth or extra instar occurs after the third molt
and in the key is inserted between the third and fourth instars of
the 5-instar grasshoppers. The fifth and sixth instars of the 6-instar
grasshoppers are structurally the same as the fourth and fifth instars,
respectively, of the 5-instar specimens.
THE LESSER MIGRATORY GRASSHOPPER 11
a. Wings not fully developed but in the foim of wing pads.
Immature forms or nymphs.
b. Wing pads not turned up but pointing down.
c. Wing pads not externally distinct ; mesothoracic and meta-
thoracic segments bluntly rounded at apex.
d. Length of hind femur 2.3-2.5 mm. Number of segments of
antenna 11 to 12. Median carina of prothorax knifelike,
giving the prothorax a ridgelike appearance; supraanal
plate bluntly rounded at apex; cerci very prominent;
podical plates less conspicuous dorsally (fig. 6).
First in stab.
dd. Length of hind femur 3.2-3.5 mm. Number of segments of
antenna 14 to 16. Median carina not so knifelike, pro-
thorax fuller and more rounded, not ridgelike; supra-
anal plate more pointed; cerci not very prominent;
podical plates more conspicuous dorsally (fig. 7).
Second instab.
cc. Wing pads externally distinct, showing some venation; meso-
thoracic and metathoracic segments acutely rounded at apex.
d. Length of hind femur 4.8-5 mm. Number of segments of
antenna 17 to 18. Small; wing pads pointing almost
straight down, broader and not so pointed at apex,
showing a slight venation. Molted three times (fig. 8).
Third instar.
dd. Length of hind ;femur averaging 5.92 mm. Number of
segments of antenna 19. Large; wing pads pointing
more obliquely backward, narrower and rather pointed
at apex' with venation well defined. Molted four times
(fig. 11) Extra instar.
6&. Wing pads turned up.
c. Length of hind femur 5.7-7.1 mm: Number of segments of
antenna 19 to 20. Wing pads short, extending only beyond
the middle of the first adominal segment (fig. 9).
Fourth instar.
CO. Length of hind femur 7.8-9.7 mm. Number of segments of
antenna 21 to 22. Wing pads elongate, extending beyond the
second or third abdominal segment (fig. 10) Fifth instar.
aa. Wings fully developed and tegmina extending to or beyond tip of abdomen;
genitalia fully developed (fig. 12) Adiilt sta&b
DESCRIPTION OF INSTARS
The following is a description of each instar of Melanoplus atlanis^
based on studies of individuals reared in the laboratory. The tem-
perature ranged from 75° to 85° F., and the relative humidity was
approximately 20 per cent. A separate study of the individuals
that developed six instars was made and is treated as a special sub-
ject in the description of the extra instar.
first instar
Immediately after hatching the nymphs are pale in color, but soon become
generally a mottled blackish. (Fig. 6.) A light stripe begins below the eye
and curves upward along and just below the lateral carinse, and a faint stripe
follows along the median carina. The hind femora are fasciated dorsaUy.
The total length of the newly hatched nymph is about 4 mm., but the abdomen
becomes more and more elongated as the instar progresses. The length of the
antenna averages 1.5 mm., and the number of antennal segments ranges from
11 to 12. The length of the hind femur averages 2.4 mm. The wing pads
borne by the mesothoracic and metathoracic segments are indistinct and
rounded at the apex, and seem to be a part of the segmentation of the thorax.
A pinched appearance is given to the prothoracic shield by the knifelike aspect
of the median carina. At the posterior end of the abdomen the cerci extend
to and a little bey(md the apex of the supraanal plate, being large and con-
spicuous in proportion to the rest of the parts ; the supraanal plate is bluntly
12 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 0, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
rounded at the apex. A difference in sex can be distinguished only with a
lens. The rudimentary subgenltal plate of the male and the dorsal valves
of the ovipositor of the female look very much alike and are easily confused,
owing to the deeply notched subgenltal plate. However, there can be seen two
small buds or rudimentary ventral valves of the ovipositor issuing from the
eighth abdominal segment. (Fig. 6, G.)
The number of days included in this instar ranged from 4 to 15,
with an average of about 8.
'^•t
B
Figure 6.. — The lesser migratory grasshopper, first instar. A, Female. X 5.4 ; B, male,
X 5.4 ; C and D, dorsal and lateral tip of abdomen of male, X 23.9 ; E, lateral of
thoracic segments, X 15.3 ; F and G, dorsal and lateral of tip of abdomen of
female, X23,9
THE LESSER MIGRATORY GRASSHOPPER
SECOND IN STAR
13
In general the second-instar njniph is about half again as . large as that
of the first instar and is paler and not so strongly mottled, but the body mark-
ings are more definite. (Fig. 7.) The prothorax is more rounded laterally
w
Figure 7. — The lessor migratory grasshopper, second instar. A, female, X5.15; B,
male, XS.la; C and D, dorsal and lateral of tip of abdomen of male, X3a.6; B,
lateral thoracic segments, X14.1; F and G, dorsal and lateral of tip of abdomen
of female, X30.6
14 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 0, U. S. DEPT, OF AGRICULTURE
and loses its pinched appearance us tlie median carina becomes less knifelike.
The mesothoracic and metathoracic segments remain rounded at the bottom,
but the wing pads begin to bulge in such a manner as to be slightly visible
externally. In proportion to the other parts of the tip of the abdomen, the
cerci of both males and females have become less elongated and are not very
prominent. The supraanal plate is more pointed at its apex. The sex is easily
distinguished, the subgenital plate of the male and the valves of the ovipositor
of the female being readily perceived. The length of the hind femur aver-
ages 3.3 mm., the length of the antenna averages 1.8 mm., and there are from
14 to 16 antennal segments.
The number of days required for this instar ranged from 3 to 12,
the usual number being 6.
THIRD INSTAR
The average size of the third-instar nymph is about twice that of the first
Instar. (Fig. 8.) Wing pads for the first time are plainly visible, rx)inting
downward and showing a slight venation. Body markings are more definite
and remain about the same during the rest of the nymphal development. The
subgenital plate of the male and the valves of the ovipositor in the female
extend well up toward the apex of the supraanal plate. The length of the
hind femur averages 4.7 mm. and that of the antenna 2.4 mm., and the latter
have 17 to 18 segments.
The number of days required in this instar ranged from 3 to 30,
the most frequent number being 6.
FOUBTH INSTAR
Normally, in the fourth instar, the wing pads are turned upward for the first
time and extend well back beyond the middle of the first abdominal segment,
and there is a well-defined venation. (Fig. 9.) Individuals whose wing pads
are turned upward in the fourth instar undergo five instars in their nymphal
development. Very often, however, the wing pads of some specimens are
not turned upward after the third molt, but remain pointing downward, as
in the female individual shown at the left in the photograph of the fourth
instar. (Fig. 9, A.) Such individuals undergo six instars. A careful study
of these has been made and recorded in the paragraph describing this phe-
nomenon. The total length of the normal individuals which undergo five instars
is about 11 mm. at this stage of development. There are either 19 or 20 anten-
nal segments, and the antenna averages about 3.1 mm. in length. The hind
femur is about 5.7 mm. long. For the first time in the male the furculae are
visible, and the subgenital plate extends beyond the apex of the supraanal
plate. In the female the valves of the ovipositor extend farther toward the
apex of the supraanal plate. A dorsal view of the posterior end of the abdo-
men of both sexes shows the podical plates extending beyond the tip of the
supraanal plate and broadly triangular.
The number of days for this instar ranged from 3 to 11, with an
average of about 7 days.
FUTH INSTAR
This description applies to the fifth instar in individuals undergoing only five
instars. The wing pads are more elongated than in the fourth, and extend
backward beyond the third or fourth abdominal segment. (Fig. 10.) The total
length of the grasshopper in this instar is about 14 mm. There are from 21
to 22 segments in the antenna, the length of which averages 5.8 mm. The
length of the hind femur averages approximately 8.9 mm. In the male the
subgenital plate extends well beyond the supraanal and podical plates, the
furculse are well developed, and the cerci are much more fiattened and each
is shaped more or less like a boot. In the female the valves of the ovipositor
extend beyond the supraanal and podical plates, but the cerci are more rudi-
mentary.
THE LESSEE MIGRATOKY GRASSHOPPER
15
Figure 8. — The lesser migratory prrasshopper, third instar, A. Female. X 2.55 ; B,
male, X2.55; C and D, dorsal and lateral of tip of abdomen of male, X31.0; E,
lateral of thoracic segments, x 13.6 ; F and G, dorsal and lateral of tip of abdomen
of female^ X31.0
16 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 0, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
B
Figure 9. — The lesser migratory grasshopper, fourth instar. A, female. X2.2, wing
pads still pointing down, therefore a 6-instar individual ; B, male, X 2.2, showing
regular development ; C, lateral of thoracic segments of male. X 15.9 ; D and E,
lateral and dorsal of tip of abdomen of female, X 15.5 ; F and G, lateral and dorsal
of tip of abdomen of male, X15.5
THE LESSER MIGRATORY GRASSHOPPER 17
The number of days required for this instar is from 6 to 10, with
an average of about 8 days.
Exceptions to the foregoing description are found in those indi-
viduals which go through six instars. These particular specimens,
except for size, show a regular fourth-instar development upon ar-
riving at the fifth instar. In size they are about as large as speci-
mens in the fifth instar at this stage. The female at the left in the
photograph of the fifth instar has molted four times, but shows only
fourth-instar development, though it is nearly the same size as the
regular fifth-instar male shown on the right. (Fig. 10, A.)
EXTKA INSTAR
An effort was made to determine at what point in the nymphal
development of this species the extra instar occurs. Twenty-five
newly-hatched nymphs were placed separately in glass tubes as
previously described, and fed from day to day. After each in-
dividual had entered each successive instar, it was carefully ex-
amined under a binocular microscope in order to ascertain whether
it showed any marked difference in size or characteristics from
others of the same instar.
It was already known that all individuals of this species invari-
ably have their wing pads turned upward in the last two instars
before reaching maturity. This applies to all species of grass-
hoppers so far as is known. No structural differences are shown
during these last two instars whether five or six instars occur. There-
fore, when the extra instar does occur, it must appear before what
w^ould be the fourth instar, if there are only five instars in all, or
before the fifth instar, if there are six. In view of this fact, it was
necessary to make a careful study of only the first three instars.
At this point a verification of the use of this method would con-
firm the results of the experiment. In planning the work for this
particular experiment, there were certain things that could reason-
ably be expected at the outset, and these were as follows: Of the
25 specimens to be reared for study it was believed that some would
undergo five instars and some would develop the sixth or extra
instar, before reaching maturity. Furthermore, those that under-
went five instars should show the same structural development
among themselves throughout the whole nymphal period. This
similarity could also be expected among those that underwent six
instars. Finally, the extra instar must occur between the hatching of
the egg and the regular fourth instar for reasons set forth in the
preceding paragraph.
With these facts upon which to base the rest of the procedure, the
reasons for using this method are as follows: Should the extra
instar occur before the first molt, then, of the 25 newly hatched
nymphs, those that were undergoing this extra instar must show
some difference in structure and size from those that were under-
going the normal or 5-instar development. Otherwise it could not
be called the extra instar. Should this extra instar occur between
the first and second molts, then after the first molt those that were
experiencing this extra stage would show some differences from
those regularly in the second instar and undergoing five instars.
109766—30 3
18 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 0, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
FiGDREJ 10. — Tlie lesser migratory grasshopper, fifth instar. A, female. X 2.3 ; sixth-
instar individual, showing fourth-instar development after molting four times ; B,
male, X 2.3, showing regular development : C, lateral of thoracic segments, X 7.3 ;
D and E, lateral and dorsal of tip of abdomen of female, X15.1 ; F and G, lateral
and dorsal of tip of abdomen of male, X 15.1
THE LESSER MIGRATORY GRASSHOPPER 19
This same reasoning holds true throughout the rest of the develop-
ment. Therefore, if any individual, or group of individuals, after
hatching or after any given molt, shows for the first time a common
difference from the remaining specimens that have molted the same
number of times, and the individual or group showing this differ-
ence undergoes six instars and the other group undergoes five, then
it can be said that the extra instar occurs at this point in the
nymphal development of the species.
There are three arguments that could be used against such rea-
soning. One is that the extra instar may have occurred after molts
previous to the one after it was first noticed, and may have escaped
observation because the differences were so slight. Or perhaps there
is no definite extra instar, but rather a modification of all the instars.
The third argument is that this extra instar is fortuitous in that it
may occur at any point of the development and that the proof of
the conclusions reached in this study should be strengthened with
more material and more data. However, the results were so out-
standing as practically to preclude all these arguments.
The following method of reasoning and procedure was used in the
study of the development of the 25 specimens: It was found that
structural differences and a difference in size were first noticeable
after the third molt. Up to this point the development had been
practically the same in all cases. The normal 5-instar grasshoppers
had their wing pads turned upward after the third molt, whereas
the rest of the specimens did not. After the third molt the wing
pads of these latter nymphs still pointed downward and differed
from any of those still in the third instar in that the wing pads were
more elongated, were pointed, and showed a more distinct venation.
(Fig. 11, C.) These individuals also were much larger than the
xhird-instar nymphs, being nearly of the same size as those whose
wing pads were turned upward and who were in the normal fourth
instar. Invariably they underwent six instars, the fifth and sixth
of these being structurally the same as the fourth and fifth instars,
lespectively, of the 5-instar nymphs. The extra instar, therefore,
occurs after the third molt or between the regular third and fourth
instars.
These facts are well illustrated by the photograph and drawings
depicting this phenomenon. In Figure 11, from left to right, the
three specimens are as follows : A is a normal second-instar nymph ;
B is a normal third-instar nymph ; C is a nymph whose wing pads
did not turn up after molting three times and which does not show
any of the fourth-instar characteristics except for general size, and
is in the extra instar. The drawings show the development of the
wing pads in the second, third, extra, and fourth instars, indicating
the difference between the third and the extra instar.
Measurements of specimens in the extra instar indicate that they
are intermediate in size between the regular third-instar and regular
fourth-instar representatives. There are 19 segments in the antenna,
which is about 3.25 mm. long. The length of the hind femur aver-
ages about 5.92 mm.
Measurements of extra-instar nymphs indicate that in the fifth
and sixth instars they are larger than the normal fourth-instar and
20 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 0, IT. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
fifth-instar nymiDhs, though structurally the same. These points are
brought out in the summary of measurements given in Table 1.
The extra instar averaged about 6.4 days in length, and individuals
that undergo six instars have a greater average number of days in
their nymphal development than do those undergoing five, the aver-
age time being 44.4 and 36 days, respectively.
B
Figure 11. — The lesser migratoi-y grasshopper, extra instar. A, Second-instar nymph,
X3, molted once; B. third-instar nymph, X3, molted twice; C, extra-instar
nymph, X3, molted three times; D, E, F', and G, laterals of thoracic segnnents
of second, extra, third, an-d fourth instar nymphs, respectively, X13.0
THE LESSER MIGItATORY GRASSHOPPER
21
Table 1. — Summarp of mcdsurements' during nymphal development for, ffrass-
hoppers of Melanoplus atlanis having the nornuil number of instars and for
those having the extra instar
Instar
Segments of
antenna
Length of
antenna
Length of
hind femur
Width of
hind femur
Average dura-
tion of instar
For
normal
For
extra
For
normal
For
extra
For
normal
For
extra
For
normal
For
extra
For
normal
For
extra
1
Num-
ber
12
15
18
20
22
Num-
ber
12
15
18
19
22
23
Mm.
1.51
1.90
2.80
4.20
5.83
Mm.
1.51
1.90
2.80
3.25
5.22
6.81
Mm.
2.39
3.30
4.71
6.58
8.95
Mm.
2.39
3.30
4.71
5.92
7.62
9.31
Mm.
0.75
1.00
1.42
1.93
2.51
Mm.
0.75
1.00
1.42
1.80
2.23
2.68
^^2
6.4
6.2
6.5
8.7
Days
10.5
2
6.2
3
5.9
4
6.4
5. -
6.5
6
8.9
THE ADULT
The last or adult stage (fig. 12) is reached after the fifth molt
in grasshoppers undergoing five instars and after the sixth in those
developing six instars. Molting usually takes place during the
warmer hours of the morning. As soon as the adult has become de-
tached from the old skin, according to Riley {^^-y V- ^<5^)j iii his
description of the last molt of M, spretv^s^
The front wings are at first rolled longitudinally to a point, and as they
expand and unroll, the hind wings, which are tucked and gathered along the
veins, at first curl over them. In ten or fifteen minutes from the time of ex-
trication these wings are fully expanded and hang down like dampened rags.
From this point on the broad hind wings begin to fold up like fans beneath the
narrower front ones, and in another ten minutes they have assumed the normal
attitude of rest.
The pale color soon gives way to the final tints.
The median carina of the prothorax is crossed transversely by the principal
sulcus, which forms a deep groove. In the male the subgenital plate is notched
and extends far beyond the apex of the supraanal plate, and forms the tip of the
abdomen. During the earlier stages of development the subgenital plate, from
the standpoint of relative size, is dwarfed by the other parts, cerci and supra-
anal and podical plates, which compose the tip of the abdomen. In each
successive instar the subgenital plate becomes larger in proportion to the other
parts, until at maturity it is by far tlie largest part. The pallium is now
plainly visible in the form of a ridgelike structure, covered with a soft integu-
ment, lying within the cavity of the subgenital plate just beyond the apex of the
supraanal plate. The cerci of the male have developed from conical appendages
into broad flattened claspers, bluntly rounded, inbent apically. The furculae
are more or less divergent, forming slight, slender, acuminate spines. In the
female the valves of the ovipositor, similarly to the subgenital plate of the
male, have increased in relative size until they now extend well beyond the
tip of the supraanal plate as short, curved, movable, hooklike plates, the dorsal
valves curving upward, the ventral valves downward. The cerci of the female
have decreased proportionately in size from prominence to inconspicuousness.
REPRODUCTION
Copulation first takes place about two weeks after the adult stage
is reached. In the case of a male and a female of this species reaching
maturity on the same day, the period from the last molt to the first
copulation was 17 days, under laboratory conditions. These same
individuals copulated fourteen times over a period of 38 days, being
22 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 0, tJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
in coition seven times over a period of 15 days after the female had
deposited the first egg pod. Twenty days after these individuals
were first seen in coition the female laid her first pod. She then
oviposited ten times over a period of 35 days, the total number of
Figure 12. — The lesser migratory grasshopper, adult, A, female, X 1 ; B, male, X 1 ;
C, lateral tip of abdomen of female, X 6.7 ; D, dorsal tip of abdomen of female.
X 13.3 ; E, lateral of prothoracic shield of male, X 7.6 ; F and G, lateral and dorsal
of tip of abdomen of male, X 6.7
eggs being 197, or an average of about 20 eggs a pod. The female
died 4 days after the last pod was laid, and the male lived 36 days
after the last copulation. Altogether, the male lived 91 days and the
female 76.
THE LESSER MIGRATORY GlRASSHOPPER 23
Oviposition usually takes place in firm soil of sandy loam under
a covering of Kussian thistles, or straw at the base of grain stubble,
or in the crowns of alfalfa or native grasses. According to one
observation made by Stewart Lockwood, at Billings, Mont., the time
occupied in depositing one pod was 54 minutes, and in this pod were
19 eggs. In a discussion of the possibilities of increase of M. spretus
{2Jf) it was recalled that in one female oi spretus there were 50 ovarian
tubes in each ovary, making 100 in all, each containing 10 rudimen-
tary eggs, besides the nearly ripe ones. The females of the grass-
hopper now known as atlanis ^re no doubt just about as prolific, and
under favorable conditions they can multiply very rapidly.
SEASONAL HISTORY
It is impossible to give exact dates or periods for the various events
or stages that make up the seasonal history of M. atlanis in Montana,
for these are governed each year by the weather conditions then
prevailing.
In one locality in northern Montana in 1923 the peak of hatching
was reached about May 1. In 1924 this occurred around June 1, in
1925 nearer the middle of June, in 1926 in the last week of April, and
in 1927 in the latter part of June. The eggs are so far advanced in
their embryological development in the fall that it requires only a
week or 10 days of hatching temperatures to cause a general hatch.
The term "hatching temperatures" means that during this period
of a week or 10 days the soil temperature at the depth of the eggs
must range above 70° F. for from 11 to 20 hours each day, reaching
maximums of 74° to 90°, and averaging not more than 4 hours a day
below 60°. However, in any particular year the hatching period may
extend over a month or even six weeks, and may be expected to
commence at any time from April 15 to June 15, depending upon the
occurrence of such conditions as have just been described.
The length of the nymphal development also depends upon the
weather conditions. In 1926, in northern Montana, fifth-instar
nymphs were first observed June 3, but the majority of the grass-
hoppers were in the third instar. Collections made again on June
22 showed the majority still in the third and fourth instars, and no
adults appeared until about July 5. The season was very late in 1927,
and no adults appeared until about August 1. Ordinarily egg
laying begins about the middle of August and extends oh through
September and October and into November, providing the weather
permits.
Heat seems to be the important factor in all these activities.
Hatching, nymphal development, copulation, and oviposition are
all affected by the temperature in such a way that in no two years
is the seasonal history the same.
MIGRATORY HABITS
NYMPHAL MIGRATIONS
When the young nymphs first emerge from the eggs they feed
upon the nearest available plants, which in most cases in Montana
are the native grasses or young tender Russian thistles. During
24 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 190, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
their early nymphal stages they seek shelter in the cracks in the
ground or in weed patches, congregating at night or during in-
clement weather, and are active only during the warmer hours of the
day when conditions are right.
At some time during the nymphal development they usually
migrate in swarms into cultivated crops adjoining or near by. This
migratory propensity, however, is seldom manifested during the
first and second instars; all the observations of such movements made
in Montana have shown the migrating nymphs to be in the third,
fourth, or fifth instars. The migrations take place during the
warmer hours of the day and do not last over six hours in any one
day. The nymphs travel about 3 yards a minute (^5, ^^), and
during this period of development they have never been known
to disperse more than 10 miles from the i)lace of hatching, and more
often this distance is under 5 miles. The individual movement is
first a run, then a hop, and then a rest. When a person walks into
a swarm of migrating nymphs the young grasshoppers all jump
in the same direction, which is the direction of the migration. When
not migrating, however, they scatter in all directions when disturbed.
This habit may be used to determine whether or not a migration
is in progress and also to indicate its general direction.
As to the causes of migration, the only factor which seems to
bear directly upon it is food. Practically all observations made in
Montana have shown that the direction of the migrations has been
toward more succulent and abundant food and usually has been
from the hatching grounds toward the nearest available crop, re-
gardless of direction of wind, sun, or points of the compass. This
does not mean, however, that there are no external limitations on
certain phases of these collective movements. Observations on
nymphal migrations which occurred in northern Montana during
June, 1926, indicated that there were external physical factors that
limited the time in which this event took place. Of these limiting
influences atmospheric temperature seemed to be of most importance.
This is indicated by the results of the observations recorded in the
paragraphs which follow. The atmospheric temperatures given
were taken at an elevation of 3 feet, while the soil temperatures were
taken at the surface of the ground with the bulb of the thermometer
lightly but completely covered with dirt.
On June 3, 1926, a southward movement of nymphs, mostly in
the third instar, began in a wheat-stubble field at 12 o'clock noon.
At this time the air temperature was 73° F., and the temperature on
the exposed surface of the soil was 85°. This migration ceased
at 4 p. m. of the same day, at which time the air temperature was
74° and the soil temperature 90°.
The next observations were made of nymphs moving out of a 160-
acre field into a neighboring wheat field across the road. At this
time the wheat was about 6 or 8 inches high. This movement oc-
curred during the warmer hours of the day, over a period of three
days, June 7 to 9, inclusive. The general direction of the migration
was toward the northwest corner of the stubble field, then north
across the road into the adjacent southeast corner of the wheat
field, the grasshoppers spreading out after entering the wheat.
Most of the nymphs were in the fourth and fifth instars. On June
THE LESSER MIGRATORY GRASSHOPPER
25
7 the beginning of the migration was not observed, but the movement
ceased at 4 p. m., when the air temperature was 76° F. and the
temperature on the exposed surface of the soil was 90° ; the sky was
clear and a stiff east wind was blowing. The nymphs congregated
for the night in the heavy growth of Kussian thistles in the road
and along the fences. The next day the migration began at 10.30
a. m., when the air temperature was 82° and the soil temperature on
the exposed surface was 90°, the sky being clear and a moderate
southwest wind blowing. The cessation of this day's movement
was not observed. On June 9 there occurred a variable migration
due to fluctuating temperatures caused by alternate clear and cloudy
skies. There was very little wind, just a slight breeze now and then.
The nymphs were first noticed moving across the road at 10 a. m.
About an hour later this movement had ceased altogether, even
though conditions seemed not to have changed. Some explanation
was sought for the cessation of this migration, and close observation
for an hour showed a fluctuation of a few degrees in temperature
with corresponding changes in the migratory movements of the
grasshoiDpers. In order to facilitate the recording of exact temper-
atures at which any change in the progress of the migration took
place, the observer sat at the edge of the road across which the
grasshoppers were moving, with thermometers in easy reach. As
before, air and soil temperatures were recorded and conditions of
sky and wind were noted. The results are given in Table 2.
Table 2. — Fluctuatinff temperatures and miffratory movements of nym4)hs of
Melanoplus atlanis, June 9, 1926
Time
Event
Tempera-
ture of air
3 feet
above
ground
Soil temperature
at surface
Un-
shaded
Shaded
a.m.
10.00
11.00
11.10
11.15
11.17
11.20
11.25
11.28
11.32
1 11. 40
General migration began
68
68
65
66
68
66
68
72
68
72
93
93
88
88
88
88
90
93
93
104
OF.
77
81
81
81
81
81
82
83
83
88
General migration ceased
No movement .. .
Movement increased
General migration began
Migration retarded temporarily
1 At 11.40 a. m. the sun came out good and strong and stayed out, and there was no wind except a slight
breeze now and then, and from this time on the temperature rose steadily.
The fluctuation in temperature, and especially in air temperature,
was due to alternate sunshine and cloudiness. While the sun was
shining the air would be warmed and the grasshoppers would start
moving. This would last a few minutes, and then a cloud would
obscure the sun or a cool breeze would spring up. The nymphs
would then cease moving. These observations and data indicate
that the atmospheric temperature was the regulating factor of these
movements. When this went below 68° F. migration ceased, but it
was resumed when the temperature again attained this level. How-
ever, no general movement took place until the air temperaturQ
26 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 0, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
reached 72°. This temperature checks very closely with the air tem-
peratures observed at the beginning and end of the general migration
of June 3, 1926, which occurred about 2 miles west of the scene of
that just described.
MIGRATIONS OF ADULTS
The adults of this species migrate on the wing in large swarms
over great distances. These migrations, or flights, as they are gen-
erally called, usually occur in the latter part of July or in August,
but sometimes in September. Many theories have been advanced to
account for these flights. Their cause really is unknown, although
there are a few facts that might throw some light on the subject.
These flights occur only when the species is abundant. This grass-
hopper is a very strong flyer and when disturbed in the field it
often rises and flies 50 or 100 yards. During the heat of the day,
on very hot days, these grasshoi)pers become very restless and will
fly straight up in the air, several at a time, and circle around at
elevations of 100 feet or more above the ground, gradually gathering
until quite a swarm of them is flying around overhead. Perhaps
they are trying to escape from the heat by seeking the lower tempera-
ture of the upper air. An abundance of sarcophagid or tachinid
flies, their worst enemies, will also cause them to fly up into the
air. When circling around in this manner they may be caught by
currents in the upper air and carried off in the direction of the
wind. Being strong flyers and being thus aided by the wind, they
can travel great distances. During the summer of 1923 the flights
observed in northern Montana were all toward the west. The fol-
lowing summer they were in the opposite direction. No major
flights of this species have been reported in Montana since 1924.
A flight was reported in western Kansas in September, 1927.
FEEDING
Members of this species do most of their feeding between 8 and
11 a. m. This is illustrated by the histogram for the average daily
feeding, shown, in Figure 13. The curve is derived from data
obtained from observations made of grasshoppers, mostly atlanis,
/^o
I
is:
i
/2C
€3
//S
€^
SS
€/
£0
3S
Sff
39
7 a
/O /f 12 / 2
TfME OF l?^Y
3 '^ S S
P.M.
Fkjurb 13. — Histogram of the average daily feeding of
Melmwplus atlanis
THE LESSER MIGRATOEY GRASSHOPPER 27
feeding on samples of poisoned-bran mash used in experimental
work with bait^ in northern Montana in the summer of 1924. In
this work there were 22 days of observations, made in two different
localities, viz, Havre and Cut Bank. This curve shows that after
11 a. m. the feeding declines until between 3 and 4 p. m., when it
rises for a short time, declining again after 4 p. m. The confor-
mation of this curve is probably due to the fact that the grass-
hoppers, after an all-night fast, move to satisfy their hunger, their
feeding increasing as the morning advances and the air becomes
warmer. After hunger has been satisfied feeding naturally declines
and becomes more desultory during the rest of the day.
Other factors, however, also influence the feeding. Most of the
feeding is done between the limits of 65° and 85° F. air temper-
ature taken at an elevation of 4 feet, with optimum feeding tem-
peratures between 70° and 80°. Little or no feeding takes place
when atmospheric temperatures are above 90° or below 60°. This
grasshopper can abstain from eating for several days and does so
during periods of cold, cloudy, or rainy weather. One observation
made at Havre, Mont., in June, 1924, showed the feeding to be four
times as heavy on the day after a 4-day rainy period as on any day
previous to it. More feeding is done when the sky is clear. During
a moderate or stiff wind the feeding falls off or ceases entirely and
is not resumed until the wind dies down.
The optimum feeding time, therefore, is from 8 to 11 a. m., when
the sky is clear, when there is little or no wind, and when the air
temperatures range from 70° to 80° F.
This species may be said to be almost omnivorous in its food
habits, the diet depending of course upon the abundance of food.
When famished, it will feed on fabrics, both cotton and w^oolen,
dry and seasoned wood products, etc. It will also feed on its own
species when individuals are weakened, as during the process of
molting or when they are disabled in any way. However, they
much prefer the more succulent plants such as growing wheat and
alfalfa. They much prefer the green pods to the foliage of
leguminous plants. They sometimes ruin an entire seed crop of
alfalfa by biting into the seed curls and destroying the pod before it
can develop. The}^ also attack the wheat kernel while still in the
milk or dough stage. Moist bran is very attractive to them on dry
unirrigated farm lands, and this moisture is the only real attractant
in the poisoned-bran formulas used to combat this pest.
ENEMIES
The most important predatory enemies of this insect in Montana
are the lark bunting {C cdcmbosyiza melanocorys)^ western meadow
lark {StuTTbella neglecta)^ sparrow hawk (Falco sparverlws)^ sage
hen {G entrocercus wi'ophmicmus) ^ sharp-tailed grouse {Pedioecetes
phasianelliis) ^ and domestic turkeys and chickens. Of these the
most important is the lark bunting, which is very abundant on the
prairie lands. Swarms of grasshoppers can often be located by the
presence of large numbers of these buntings. The Bureau of Bio-
logical Survey has found specimens of this locust in the stomachs of
24 species of birds.
28 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 190, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUBE
Ground squirrels also prey upon these insects, and especially on
the nymphs, and can be observed running, jumping, and snapping
after the young grasshoppers. Grasshopper mice also undoubtedly
prey upon this as well as other species of grasshoppers.
Of the insect enemies, the digger wasps (Specidae) and robber
flies (Asilidae) prey upon the nymphs. Many of the ground beetles
(Carabidae) in both the larval and adult stages are predacious on
the eggs. Others that feed upon the eggs are the larvae of the blister
beetles (Meloidae) and of the bee flies (Bombyliidae). The impor-
tant parasitic insect enemies are the tachinid and sarcophagid flies,
parasitic on nymphs and adults, and the hymenopterous egg para-
site Scelio calapteni Riley.
In his account of the action of tachinid flies in parasitizing grass-
hoppers Riley (^^, p, 319-320) gives a description which can very
well be applied to the methods of larviposition of the sarcophagid
flies that are parasitic on grasshoppers.
These Tachina-flies firmly fasten their eggs — which are oval, white, and
opaque, and quite tough — to those parts of the body not easily reached by the
jaws and legs of their victim, and thus prevent the Qgg from being detached.
The slow-flying locusts are attacked while flying, and it is quite amusing to
watch the frantic efforts which one of them, haunted by a Tachina-fly, will
make to evade its enemy. The fly buzzes around, waiting her opportunity, and
when the locust jumps or flies, darts at it and attempts to attach her eg^ under
the wing or on the neck. The attempt frequently fails, but she usually per-
severes until she accomplishes her object. With those locusts which fly readily,
she has even greater difficulty ; but though the locust tacks suddenly in all direc-
tions in its effort to avoid her, she circles close around it and generally succeeds
in accomplishing her purpose, either while the locust is yet on the wing, or, more
often, just as it alights from a flight or a hop. The young maggots hatching
from these eggs eat into the body of the locust, and after riotfng on the fatty
parts of the body — leaving the more vital parts untouched — they issue and bur-
row in the ground, where they contract to brown, egglike puparia, from which
the fly issues either the same season or not until the following spring. A locust
infested with this parasite is more languid than it otherwise would be ; yet it
seldom dies until the maggots have left. Often in pulling off the wings of such
as were hopping about, the bodies have presented the appearance of a mere
shell filled with maggots; and so efficient is this parasite that the ground in
parts of the Western States is often covered with the Rocky Mountain locust
dead and dying from this cause.
The sarcophagid fly Sarcaphaffa hellyi Aldrich, commonly called
a flesh fly, lays living maggots on the grasshopper, which burrow
into the body of the host and feed on the fatty parts. The maggots
finally leave the body of the host and go into the ground to pupate.
In northern Montana in the fall of 1924 the grasshoppers remaining
after the control campaign ceased were very heavily parasitized by
sarcophagid flies. As many as seven maggots were found in the
body of one host. In the fields where the grasshoppers were numer-
ous, but heavily parasitized, no grasshopper eggs were found.
In the fall of 1925 a small percentage of the eggs of M. atlanis in
Hill County, Mont., were parasitized by Scelio ccdopteni. The first
week in June of the following year the adults of this parasite were
observed emerging from eggs of atlanis.
Other important enemies of M. atlanis are the haifrworms, a
species of the genus Gordius. They are found curled up within the
body of the host, nearly filling it.
THE LESSER MIGRATORY GRASSHOPPER 29
Two diseases are very destructive to this grasshopper at times;
one of these is caused by a fungus, Empiisa grylli^ and the other is a
bacterial disease.
All of the enemies here mentioned are common to most of the
species of grasshoppers and are not peculiar to M. atlamis.
ECONOMIC BEARING OF THE INFORMATION OBTAINED
Aside from a purely academic standpoint, to what use can the
information obtained in this study be put? A study of the geo-
graphical distribution of Melanoplus atlanis indicates its adaptabil-
ity to a rather wide range of climate. This, coupled with its
prolificacy under favorable conditions, places this species foremost
among grasshopper pests. The migratory habits of both adults and
young make any local outbreak a serious menace to the whole country-
side. Owing to the fact that this species is a general feeder, very few,
if any, crops are immune. These considerations make determined
cooperative control measures on the part of the individuals in the
community of utmost importance.
One of the main points brought out in this study is the important
role that temperature plays in the development of this insect. The
time of hatching in the spring and the subsequent seasonal develop-
ment are based on this factor. From year to year the abundance
of this grasshopper can be more or less reliably foretold if a
careful record of weather conditions during egg-laying and hatching
periods has been kept. Early spring hatches, caused by unusually
high temperatures before May 1, when followed, as is often the case,
by periods of cold, inclement weather, are unfavorable to this pest.
The period of the first iristar is the critical time, as the grasshopper
in its subsequent instars is more hardy. Delayed hatching, due to
late springs, often causes late damage by grasshoppers in sections
where least expected. This was the case in eastern Montana during
the summer of 1927. Here it was believed that there would be no
damage from grasshoppers that summer, as few or none were to be
seen during June. Little or no attention was therefore paid to the
situation. The season, however, was late, and the eggs did not hatch
until a month or so after the usual time. The farmers were not
aware of the fact that a rather serious outbreak was in progress until
considerable damage had been done. Their idea was that, since no
grasshoppers had hatched by June 1, there would be no damage. It
cost one farmer 60 acres of good certified seed alfalfa because he was
not aware of the situation and did not maintain his usual vigilance.
A knowledge of what to expect and where to look is more than half
the battle in grasshopper control. The necessary advance informa-
tion can be obtained through careful surveys to determine the
abundance and location of the eggs in the fall, close attention being
Eaid to the weather conditions during the periods of Qgg laying and
atching. With this information at hand, early, concerted, defen-
sive action produces the best results.
A knowledge of the numerous enemies of this insect increases one's
faith in the ability of nature to establish an equilibrium in the
scheme of life so often upset by the doings of mankind. It also
shows the necessity for preserving our bird life, for strict game laws
30 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 0, TJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
for the protection and preservation of game birds in grasshopper
districts, and for the inclusion of poultry raising as a part of the
program in diversified farming.
CONTROL MEASURES
Much has been written on grasshopper control, and most of this is
a repetition of previous recommendations as to cultural methods and
the use of poisoned-bran mash as a bait. The only thing that need
be stressed here is the necessity for the exercise of a little more fore-
sight than hindsight on the part of the farmer in applying control
measures. A better knowledge of the vulnerable points in the life
history and habits of this insect should help to this end. From the
standpoint of economy and efficiency this pest should be combated
during the egg or earlier nymphal stages.
Fall or spring plowing of egg-infested fence rows and stubble
land and the ground around old straw stacks is practically 100 per
cent efficient. A 40-acre field of rye in Hill County, Mont., was
totally destroyed by adults of M, atlanis in August, 1925, and was
heavily infested with eggs that year. Acting upon the advice of the
county agricultural agent, the owner plowed and disked this field
late in the fall. The next spring only a very few nymphs were
hatched in this piece of ground. Another field, of wheat stubble,
was heavily infested with eggs of atlfinis in that same year, the
number of egg pods running as high as 18 around the base of one
wheat stub. This field was plowed and thoroughly worked early
in the spring of 1926, before the eggs hatched, and was planted to
corn. Here, too, only a few hatched out, and these starved to death
before the corn came up. Newly hatched nymphs need food imme-
diately and soon starve if none is within easy reach. Good summer-
fallow of grasshopper -infested land in stubble, or grasshopper-
infested land grown up to Russian thistles, greatly reduces the grass-
hopper hazard.
Plowing as a control measure need not stop when the eggs have
hatched. It can sometimes be used against the nymphs in con-
nection with poisoning operations. The nymphs can be congregated
in a very small area by commencing to plow on the outside of an
infested field and working toward the center. This continually
forces the nymphs toward the middle of the field, where a maximum
kill by poisoning can be obtained with a minimum expenditure of
labor and material. A strip of plowed ground 50 to 100 feet wide
acts as a barrier against nymphs moving in from adjacent breeding
grounds.
The migrating habits of the nymphs make any breeding ground
a menace to all neighboring cultivated fields. A careful watch of
these heavily infested areas should be kept, because sooner or later,
usually after the second instar, the nymphs start moving into the
cultivated crops. Effective barriers should then be placed across
the line of migration. This can often be done by the use of the
poisoned-bran mash or, as in one instance in northern Montana, by
the use of a spray of l-to-64 solution of sodium arsenite or of
sodium-arsenite dust. A study of the feeding curve indicates that
to insure the best results the poisoned-bran mash should be scattered
THE LESSER MIGRATORY GRASSHOPPER 31
before 9 a. m. Very good results have been obtained on dry unirri-
gated lands in Montana by the use of a mixture of bran, arsenic,
and water in the usual proportions. The preference of this insect
for succulent food is no doubt the explanation.
It is much more difficult to combat grasshoppers when they are
in the adult stage than while they are nymphs and, if it is at all
possible, they should be prevented from reaching this stage. The
adult grasshoppers may not only damage crops in one locality but
may fly to other fields miles away. A period of from 30 to 50 days
is usually required for their nymphal development, and this period
should afford ample opportunity to combat them.
SUMMARY
The lesser migratory grasshopper, Melanoflus atlanis Riley, is
indigenous to the North American Continent, having a greater geo-
graphical range than any other species of its genus. It is found in
23ractically all parts of the United States, from the Atlantic to the
Pacific and from sea level to altitudes of 9,000 to 14,000 feet. It
occurs over practically all but the tropical lowlands of Mexico, and
extends north into Canada.
Its habitat in general is in localities having light, sandy soil. In
the Northwest, wheat-stubble fields containing thick growths of
Russian thistle form ideal breeding grounds for this insect.
As an insect pest, its greatest damage has been done west of the
Mississippi River, and especially in the northern, hard spring wheat
area, including the Provinces of Canada from Manitoba westward.
Of all the species of grasshoppers in the United States, this one is
probably of greatest economic importance.
It is one of the most variable of the Melanopli. Specimens from
identical localities show considerable individual variation in size and
coloration.
The Qgg of this insect is whitish yellow or cream colored and is
between 4 and 5 millimeters long. The number of eggs to a pod
ranges from 8 to 20. The eggs are usually found in light, sandy
soil, along fence rows protected by Russian thistles, around the base
of wheat stubble or alfalfa,, and seldom in adobe or heavy sod. In
northern Montana the eggs are laid during the latter part of August
and on into the fall. These eggs usually show an advanced degree
of embryological development before winter sets in. In the spring
only a few days of hatching temperatures are necessary to cause them
to hatch. Minimum hatching temperatures are between 60° and 65°
F., and the optimum from 80° to 85°. The hatching period may
extend over a month or even six weeks, and may be expected to
begin at any time from April 15 to June 15, when the soil tempera-
tures range above 70° for from 6 to 20 hours each day over a period
of a week or 10 days.
Melanoplus atlanis passes through five, and sometimes six, instars
in its nymphal development, five being the normal number. The
extra instar occurs between the regular third and fourth instars.
The length of the nymphal development depends upon weather
conditions, and may extend over a period of from 30 to 50 days.
Copulation first takes place about two weeks after the adult stage
is reached ; then follows a period of two to three weeks, more or less.
32 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 0, IT. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUEE
before the first egg is laid; during this time the males and females
are often in coition. After the female has deposited her first egg
pod she may again be seen in coition with a male. In laboratory-
experiments the greatest number of eggs laid by a single female was
197.
At some time during the nymphal stage a migration usually takes
place from the breeding grounds toward more succulent food. This
nymphal migration, so far as it has been observed, usually occurs
during the third, fourth, and fifth instars. It commences sometime
in the morning when the air temperature is about 75° F., and ceases
at about 4 p. m. The minimum temperature of the air for the migra-
tion of nymphs is about 68° F. at the height of 3 feet above the
ground.
Migration of the adult on the wing occurs only in years when
this species is abundant. This grasshopper is a very strong flier
and migrates in large swarms over great distances. These migra-
tions usually occur in the latter part of July and in the months of
August and September. There has been no satisfactory explanation
regarding their causes.
This species is almost omnivorous in its food habits and shows
a preference for succulent plants. The optimum feeding time is
from 8 to 11 a. m., when the sky is clear, when there is little or no
wind, and when the air temperature ranges from 70° to 80° F.
The enemies of this grasshopper are numerous. Domesticated
fowl, gophers, wasps (Sphecidae), and robber flies (Asilidae) are
predatory upon the nymphs and adults. The larvae of blister
beetles (Meloidae), bee flies (Bombyliidae), and ground beetles
(Carabidae) are predatory upon the eggs. One of the greatest
enemies is a flesh fly (family Sarcophagidae) which lays living
maggots on the grasshopper.
One point emphasized in the present study is the importance of
temperature in the occurrence of this insect. Weather conditions
regulate the seasonal history and abundance.
An effective control measure is the poisoned bran mash, used during
the nymphal stage and applied in order that the grasshoppers may
get the poison during the optimum feeding time. Control measures
must be based on a study of the life history, habits, and ecology of
this insect.
LITERATURE CITED
(1) Blatchley, W. S.
1920. okthoptera of northeastern america with especial reference
TO THE FAUNAS OF INDIANA AND FLORIDA. 784 p., illUS. Indian-
apolis.
(2) Caudell, a. N.
1903. notes on orthoptera from colorado, new mexico, arizona, and
texas, with descriptions of new species. u. s. natl. mus.
Proc. 26; 775-809, illus.
(3) COOLEY, R. A.
1925. MONTANA INSECT PESTS FOR 1923 AND 1924, BEING THE TWENTIETH
REPORT OF THE STATE ENTOMOLOGIST OF MONTANA. Mont. Agr.
Expt. Sta. Bui. 170, 30 p., illus.
(4) Fernald, C. H.
18S8. THE ORTHOPTERA OF NEW ENGLAND. 61 p., iHuS. [Boston].
(5) Hebard, M.
1917. NOTES ON MEXICAN MELANOPLI (ORTHOPTERA; ACRIDIDJE) . Acad. Nat.
Sci. Phila. Proc. 69: 251-275, illus.
THE LESSER MIGRATOEY GRASSHOPPER 33
(6) Hebard, M.
1925. THE ORTHOPTERA OF SOUTH DAKOTA. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. Proc.
77: 33-155, illus.
(7) Herrick, G. W., and Hadley, C. H., Jb.
191G. the lesser migratory locust. N. Y. Cornell Agr. Expt. Sta.
Bui. 378, 45 p., illus.
(8) HUBBELL, T. H.
1922. notes on the orthoptera of north Dakota. Mich. Univ., Mus.
Zool. Occas. Papers No. 113, 56 p.
(9) Morse, A. P.
1904. researches on north American acridiid^. 55 p., illus. Wash-
ington, D. C. (Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 18.)
(10)
1907. further researches on north American acridiid^. 54 p., illus.
Washington, D. C. (Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 68.)
(11) Packard, A. S.. Jr.
1883. THE EMBRYOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE LOCUST. U. S. Ent. Comn.
Rpt. 3: 263-285, illus.
(12) Rehn, J. A. G.
1903. NOTES ON THE ORTHOPTERA OF NEW MEXICO AND WESTERN TEXAS.
Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. Proc. 54: 717-727.
(13)
(14)
(15)
1904. NOTES ON ORTHOPTERA FROM NORTHERN AND CENTRAL MEXICO. Acad.
Nat. Sci. Phila. Proc. 56: 513-549.
1904. NOTES ON ORTHOPTERA FROM ARIZONA, NEW MEXICO, AND COLORADO.
Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. Proc. 56 : 562-575.
1907. NOTES ON ORTHOPTERA FROM SOUTHERN ARIZONA, WITH DESCRIPTIONS
OF NEW SPECIES. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. Proc 59: 24-81, illus.
(16) and Hebard, M.
1905. THE ORTHOPTERA OF THOMAS COUNTY, GEORGIA, AND LEON COUNTY,
FLORIDA. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. Proc. 56 : 774r-802.
(17) and Hebard, M.
1906. A CONTRIBUTION TO THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE ORTHOPTERA OF MONTANA,
YELLOWSTONE PARK, UTAH, AND COLORADO. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila.
Proc. 58: 358^18, illus.
(18) and Hebard, M.
1918. AN OBTHOPTEROLOGICAL RECONNOISSANCE of THE SOUTHWESTERN
UNITED STATES. PART I, ARIZONA. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. Proc.
60: 365^02, illus.
(19) and Hebard, M.
1911. PRELIMINARY STUDIES OF NORTH CAROLINA ORTHOPTERA. Acad. Nat.
Sci. Phila. Proc. 62: 615-650.
(20) and Hebard, M.
1911. ORTHOPTERA FOUND ABOUT AWEME, MANITOBA. Ent. NcwS 22 : 5-10.
(21) and Hebard, M.
1916. STUDIES IN THE DERMAPTBRA AND ORTHOPTERA OF THE COASTAL
PLAIN AND PIEDMONT REGION OF THE SOUTHBASTEKN" UNITED STATES.
Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. Proc. 68 : 87-314, illus.
(22) RiLEiY, C. V.
1875. SEVENTH ANNUAL REPORT ON THE NOXIOUS, BENEFICIAL, AND OTHER
INSECTS OF THE STATE OF MISSOURI. Missouri State Ent. Ann.
Rpt. 7, 196 p., illus.
(23)
1877. THE LOCUST PLAGUE IN THE UNITED STATES. . . . 236 p., illUS.
Chicago.
(24) Packard, A. S., Jr., and Thomas, C.
1878. FIRST ANNUAL BE3»ORT OF THE UNITED STATES BNT0MOLOGICAI> COM-
MISSION FOR THE YEAR 1877, RELATING TO THE BOCKY MOUNTAIN
LOCUST AND THE BEST METTHODS OF PREVENTING ITS INJURIES AND
OF GUARDING AGAINST ITS INVASIONS. 477 !>., illus. Washington,
D. C. [With 27 Appendices, 295 p., separately paged.]
34 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 19 0, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
(25) Saussure, H. de
1861. oethoptera nova americana (diagnoses pr^liminabes ) . rev. et
Magasin de Zool. (2) 13: 156-164.
(26) SCUDDEE, S. H.
1880. LIST OF THE OETHOPTEBu\ COLLECTED BY DR. A. S. PACKARD IN THE
WESTERN UNITED STATES IN THE SUMMER OF 1877. U. S. Ent.
Comm. Rpt. (1878/79) 2, 322 p., illus. (Appendix II, p. [23]-
[28], separately paged.)
(27)
1897. REVISION OF THE OKTHOPTERAN GROUP MELANOPOLI ( ACRIDIIDAE) ,
WITH SPECIAL RElPEaiENCE TO NORTH AMEatlCAN FORMS. U. S.
Natl. Mus. Proc. 20 : 1-421, illus.
(28)
1898. THE ALPINE ORTHOPTERA OF NORTH AMERICA. Appalachia 8:299-
319, illus.
(29) Thomas, C.
1873. synopsis of the acridid^ of north america. u. s. geol. sutvey
Ter., V. 5, 262 p., illus.
(30) Walker, E. M.
1899. NOTES ON SOME ONTARIO ACRiDiiD^. PART III. Caiiad. Ent. 31 :
29-36.
(31)
1902. A PRELIMINARY LIST OF ACRIDIID^ OF ONTARIO. Canad. Eut. 34 1
251-258.
ORGANIZATION OF THE
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
July 11, 1930
Secretary of Affriculture Arthur M. Hyde.
Assistant Secretary R. W. Dunlap.
Director of Scientific Wo^'k A. F. Woods.
Director of Regulatory Work Walter G. Campbell.
Director of Extension Work C. W. Warburton.
Director Off Personnel a/nd Business Admin- W. W. Stockbe2W3er.
istration.
Director of Information . M. S. Eisenhower.
Solicitor E. L. Marshall.
Weather Bureau Charles F. Marvin, Chief.
Bureau of Animal Industry John R. Mohler, Chief.
Bureau of Dair^ Industry O. E. Reed, Chief.
Bureau of Plamt Industry William A. Taylor, Chi^f.
Forest Service R. Y. Stuart, Chief.
Bureau of Chemistry and Soils H. G. Knight, Chief.
Bureau of Entomology C. L. Marlatt, Chief.
Bureau of Biological Survey Paul G. Redington, Chief.
Bureau of Public Roads Thomas H. MacDonald, Chief.
Bureau of Agricultural Economics Nils A. Olsen, Chief.
Bureau of Home Economics Louise Stanley, Chief.
Plant Quarantine and Control Adm>inistration.C. L. Marlatt, Chief.
Grain Futures Administration J. W. T. Duvel, Chief.
Food and Drug Administration Walter G. Campbell, Director of
Regulatory Work, in Charge.
Office of Ea^periment Stations , Chief.
Office of Cooperative Extension Work C. B. Smith, Chief.
Library Claribel R. Barnett, Librarian.
This bulletin is a contribution from
Bureau of Entomology C. L. Marlatt, Chief.
Division of Cereal and Forage Insects W. H. Larrimex, Principal Ento-
mologiM, in Charge.
35
U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1930
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. Price 10 cents
Technical Bulletin No. 189
July, 1930
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
WASHINGTON, D. C*
EXPERIMENTS ON THE CONTROL OF
TOMATO YELLOWS
By Michael Shapovalov, Senior Pathologist, and F. Sidney Beecher, Scientific
Aid, Office of Horticultural Crops and Diseases, Bureau of Plant Industry *
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction 1
Alteration of the environment 2
Reduced sunlight 3
Shading with tall-growing plants 4
Shading with muslin tents 6
Shading with low and densely growing
plants 7
Spraymg and dusting 9
Soil management- 10
Irrigation and fertilization 11
Page
Soil management— Continued.
Soil dryness and preirrigation 13
Green manuring 13
Green manure with lime and fertilizers. . 14
Time of planting 16
Methods of handling seedlings 17
Development of resistant varieties 19
Summary and conclusions 20
Literature cited 21
INTRODUCTION
In 1926 McKay and Dykstra {23)^ reported certain experiments
which indicated that tomato yellows (western yellow blight)^ is a
virus disease etiologically identical with curly top of sugar beets
and that, like the latter, it is transmitted by viruliferous beet leaf
hoppers {Eutettix tenellus Baker) . Subsequent work by Shapovalov
{36) and Severin (^i) confirmed the results of McKay and Dykstra.
(PI. 1.) Kepeated plantings of seeds from the diseased and healthy
plants, made by various workers, gave no proof that tomato yellows
is transmitted with the seed. Prior to the discovery of the cause of
the disease, much of the work with control measures was of a hap-
hazard nature. Yet some more or less positive results were ob-
tained, which may be of interest from the practical as well as the
theoretical viewpoint. In particular, efforts were made to alter the
environment in such a way as to create conditions favorable to the
host and unfavorable to the disease. Among other measures tried
were the application of sprays and dusts, variations in soil manage-
ment and in the time of planting, care in handling seedlings, and
the development of resistant varieties.
1 Eubanks Carsner, of the OflRce of Sugar Plants, Bureau of Plant Industry, and J. W. Lesley, of the
University of California, read the manuscript and offered a number of suggestions which greatly improved
the text. Acknowledgment is also made of the cooperation of the University of California in providing,
at the citrus experiment station at Riverside, the facilities for some of the work herein reported.
2 Italic numbers in parentheses refer to Literature Cited, p. 21.
8 The name " tomato yellows " is now being more generally used in place of western
yellow blight and various other synonyms (57).
110521—30 1
2 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 9, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The greater part of the field work described in this bulletin was
conducted at two places — the citrus experiment station of the Uni-
versity of California, at Kiverside, and the United States Cotton
Field Station at Shafter, Calif.
ALTERATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT
Although in the past workers were at variance regarding the
etiology of the disease, many of them agreed that environmental
conditions have a decided effect on the development and the severity
of yellows. Close observers could not fail to note that the most
severe attacks of yellows are accompaniied by intense sunlight and
high temperature, and that any factor which tends to moderate these
adverse conditions also brings about a reduction in the percentage
of plants diseased.
Henderson {IS) as long ago as 1906 observed that while in un-
protected fields yellows developed on 80 per cent or more of the
plants, not more than 25 per cent of the plants among large apple
trees were infected; and in one field where the plants were, in addi-
tion, protected from west winds, no yellows occurred. He tried
artificial shading, using corn plants, open-top boxes, and V-shaped
board protectors. When small V-shaped protectors were used, the
disease was still abundant, affecting in some instances as many as
64 per cent of the plants, but the use of large ones reduced the
infection to 23 per cent; the use of open-top boxes reduced it to 29
per cent; and the use of corn reduced it to 33 per cent. Where no
protection was given yellows occurred on 80 to 90 per cent of the
plants. Plants grown from seeds directly in the field (not trans-
planted) showed about 25 per cent infection.
Humphrey (i5), while considering it as probable that the disease
was induced primarily by one or more root-destroying fungi, believed
that its effects are augmented by such external factors as tem-
perature, rapid loss of water from the leaves, and excessive in-
tensity of sunlight. In his experiments with individual glass-
covered boxes placed over each tomato hill, the reduction of the
disease obtained by this method was probably due to the exclusion
of insects and to shading. The boxes measured 12 inches on each
side and had wooden sides and glass tops. The glass covers were
removed when the plants were 6 inches high or more, but the sides
Avere left in position for the entire season. With this arrangement
an experimental plot at Clarkston, Wash., showed only 3 per cent
of the disease, whereas in the neighborhood it ranged from 4 to
93 per cent. In another plot at Pullman, Wash., all protected plants
were healthy, while neighboring fields were affected to the extent
of 45 per cent.
McKay {22) reported that some growers had considerable success
in holding the disease in check by the use of natural or artificial
windbreaks, such as hedges or brush fences.
Shapovalov (^4, 35) showed that a striking correlation exists be-
tween the regional as well as the seasonal prevalence of yellows
on the one hand and such climatic factors as tend to increase the
evaporating power of the air on the other. He shaded a certain
EXPERIMENTS ON THE CONTROL OF TOMATO YELLOWS 6
number of plants by means of muslin tents constructed over por-
tions of rows in his plots at Riverside, Calif., with the result that
during a severe infection in 1924 the disease was reduced to less than
12 per cent, as compared with 41 per cent in unshaded rows.
Shapovalov and Beecher {S8) noticed on several occasions that
tomato fields or portions of the fields located in orchards were, as
a rule, less affected by yellows than those exposed to the full sun-
light. Severin (SI) also observed in 1926 that " tomatoes grown
along a fence in the shade of eucalyptus trees were, with few excep-
tions, healthy, while every plant exposed to sunshine was diseased."
Eosa (26) believed that shading protected tomato plants from
yellows.
Similar beneficial effects of reducing the intensity of sunlight
were noted also in connection with the work on curly top of sugar
beets (1,2,7,8,4^).
REDUCED SUNLIGHT
Shaded tomato plants show a smaller percentage of yellows than
do unshaded plants for two reasons. In the first place, they are
protected to a certain degree from the invasion of the insects. As
pointed out by Severin (31, p. 268) , " the leaf hopper is a sunshine-
loving insect and usually will not enter the shade if its food and
breeding plants are favorable." However, the writers' experiments
show {39) that when plants are artificially inoculated with the
curly-top virus by means of viruliferous beet leaf hoppers and then
distributed among chambers differing with respect to the light con-
ditions, the amount of yellows is reduced in proportion to shading.
In an experiment with such different habitats, where the total daily
light intensity was determined by means of the uranyl acetate-oxalic
acid method (5), the results shown in Table 1 were obtained.
Tab(lb 1. — Effect of ligM on development of tomato yellows
Type of chamber covering
■
Percent-
age of
direct
sunlight
Number
of inocu-
lated
plants
Number
of affected
plants
Heavy muslin..,
8
47
60
71
87
12
12
12
12
12
3
Light cheesecloth
4
2 layers of window glass
5
1 layer of window glass
6
Frame as above (no glass)
9
It appears, therefore, that shading not only protects tomato plants
from the insect virus carriers, but also is unfavorable to the sub-
sequent development of the disease.
It is well known that ordinary glass transmits only a part of the
ultra-violet rays of sunlight. However, the data given in Table 1
indicate that the reduction in the number of cases of yellows in
this trial was due to the reduced intensity of light rather than to
its changed quality. This conclusion is further corroborated by the
results of another experiment conducted in the open field at Shafter,
Calif., in 1926. In order to reduce or cut off entirely a portion of
the ultra-violet rays of sunlight, 22 tomato plants were roofed
4 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 189, U. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTUEE
over with the thin glass (mentioned in Table 1) set in a continuous
framework built over this section of the row, allowing free access
of air on sides and ends, but protecting the plants from direct
sunlight except in the early morning and toward sunset. In a near-
by row 22 other plants were provided with a similar frame but
without glass. At the end of the season only 3 plants remained
healthy in each of these two groups of plants. The shorter wave
ultra-violet of sunlight apparently was not a factor in hastening
the diseased condition.
During the same summer a number of pruned tomato vines were
observed in a small lath house at Shafter. They showed no infec-
tion at first, but during June they developed several cases of yellows.
Since a good deal of disease had appeared in the field by this time
(92 per cent of the total number of plants being diseased by June
15) , it is evident that the lath house exerted some influence in delay-
ing either the infection or the onset of the disease, or both.
SHADING WITH TALL-GROWING PLANTS
In view of the unquestionably beneficial results derived from
shading in controlling tomato yellows, further trials seemed desir-
able in order to establish definitely its practical value to the grower
and to develop the most efficient and economical methods of supply-
ing the necessary shade to the plants. Experiments with this object
in view were conducted by the writers at Shafter, Calif., where
natural infection is very severe almost every year. It seemed espe-
cially desirable to learn whether any of the tall-growing economic
crop plants could be profitably substituted for artificial shading
materials when planted in alternate rows.
Four such crops were tried in 1926 — cotton, sesbania, milo maize,
and sunflower. Rows were laid out north and south, and the tomato
and the shade-crop seeds were planted on the same day (April 1),
the shade crop being only 12 inches west of each of the tomato
rows. Only the sunflower plants showed a rapid rate of growth,
and in five weeks from the time of planting they were throwing
shade on the young tomato plants after 2 p. m. The other crops
grew rather slowly, and the tomatoes in adjoining rows developed a
large percentage of the disease before they obtained any benefit
from shading. Sunflowers gave a satisfactory protection from the
disease and reduced it to less than one-half of that in the check-
rows, but because of their proximity to the tomatoes the growth of
the latter was checked very strikingly. However, the sunflowers died
prematurely about July 1 (probably from an insufficient water sup-
ply). As a result of there no longer being any competition for food
by the sunflowers, the tomatoes developed very rapidly and pro-
duced a large crop late in the season. (PI. 2, A.) A little over 7
per cent of additional cases of yellows were noted after July 1.
The experiment with sunflowers was repeated in 1927, and a sweet-
corn plot was added, but other shade crops were omitted because of
previous unsatisfactory results. The benefit from shading in this
experiment was, in the main, the same as in 1926. A much better
growth of tomatoes was obtained by planting the shade crop 36 inches
away from the tomato rows on their west side. In order to get the
Tech, Bui, 189. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
Plate 1
A diseased and n IumIi li> loinato plant in the same hill. The darker plant on the right is healthy,
and the lighter one on the left is affected with yellows. The disease was transmitted by means
of viruliferoiis Eutettix tenellua previously fed on beets affected with curly top
Tech. Bui. No. 189. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
Plate 2
A, The sunflower plot at Shatter, Calif., in 1926. The photograph shows this plot after the sun-
flowers had died and the stalks were removed; B, the sunflower plot at Shafter, Calif., in 1927, The
part in the foreground shows a section of the checkrows; immediately following it is a portion pro-
tected by the sunflowers until July 1, and beyond it and to the left is another portion with the sun-
flowers still standing
EXPERIMENTS ON THE CONTROL OF TOMATO YELLOWS 5
best results from shading the young tomato plants, sunflower seeds
were planted the last of February, or 38 days in advance of tomato
seeds (planted April 6). Five weeks after the tomato seeds were
planted the plants were shaded by the sunflowers after 2 p. m. On
the same date the corn shade did not reach the tomato plants until
after 3.45 p. m. About July 1, sunflowers were removed from one-
half of each row. Nearly 7 per cent of additional yellows developed
in these half rows thereafter. (PI. 2, B.)
The shading experiment with sunflowers was again repeated at
Shafter in 1928. Of the shade crops only the sunflower was retained.
This time the sunflower seeds were planted on February 2 in rows
running in the same direction as before, but 9 feet apart instead of
7 as in 1926 or 8 as in 1927. Tomato seeds were planted on March 15
and 16 in rows 4 feet east and 5 feet west of each of the sunflower
rows. The shade reached the tomato plants at about 2 p. m. on
March 16, six weeks after the seed was planted. The infection with
yellows in 1928 was very slight at Shafter and throughout Cali-
fornia. Most of the disease in the Shafter plots developed before
any benefit from shading with sunflowers was secured. The results
of the 3-year experiments with shading by means of tall crops are
given in Table 2.
Table 2. — Effect of shading ivith crops on the amount of tomato yellows, Shafter^
Calif.
Shade crop and duration of shading
Percentage of plants infected
with yellows
1926
1927
1928
Sunflower:
Up to July 1 only
26.0
33.3
35.2
41.«
37.9
12.7
The entire season-
In portions where sunflowers were removed on July 1
In portions where sunflowers remained the entire season
12.7
Sesbania, during the entire season
98.1
97.4
82.1
Cotton, during tiie entire season
Milo, during the entire season
Sweet corn, during the entire season ,
78.0
80.7
Unshaded rows, during the entire season
99.7
14.2
DUBATION OF SHADING
The results given in Table 2 indicate very clearly that shading
materials may be dispensed with about July 1. The writers' obser-
vations at Shafter show that as a rule tomato yellows in that section
reaches three-fourths of its seasonal total during the second week
of June and that nearly all of the remaining fourth develops prior to
July 1.
Table 3 gives a summary of seasonal developments for three suc-
cessive years. This abatement in the spread of the disease is thought
to be due in part to the cessation of flights of the beet leaf hoppers
and in part probably to the age of the plants. These points are
discussed more in detail elsewhere in this bulletin under Time of
Planting.
6 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 9, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 3. — Seasonal progress of tomato yellows at Shafter, Calif.
Items of comparison
1926
1927
1928
Total number of plants under observation
1,417
May 14
139
10.9
May 28
688
63.9
June 4
928
72.7
June 28
1,254
98.2
Aug. 24
1,277
100
800
May 13
37
6.4
May 29
242
42.0
June 13
429
74.5
June 28
549
95.3
July 29
576
100
675
Number at the beginning of the season:
Date -
May 16
Number of cases to date , .... ...
15
Percentage of season's total to date .^ ..
17.6
Number at the end of May:
Date ,
Number of cases to date - _ .
Percentage of season's total to date . . . . . . .
Number in early or middle June:
Date
June 6
Number of cases to date .,
62
Percentage of season's tptal to date
72L9
Number at the end of June:
Date ...
June 22
Number of cases to date ,.-.. .
81
Percentage of season's total to date...
95.3
Number at the end of the season:
Date ,.. -
Aug. 8
Number of cases to date
85
Percentage of season's total to date . . .
100
SHADING WITH MUSLIN TENTS
Besides the shade crops, one row in 1926 was shaded by a heavy
muslin wall, 3 feet high, placed immediately on the west side of the
row. Three of the 33 plants in this row survived throughout the
season; thus 90.9 per cent were infected with yellows, as compared
FiGUEE 1. — A knockdown frame for shading rows of tomatoes
with 99.7 in the checkrows. A more efficient method of cloth shad-
ing consists in building low tents over the entire rows. In the 1924
experiment at Eiverside the frames for such tents were built of
laths and were very satisfactory for one season, but it did not seem
practicable to save many of the used laths for another season. At
Shafter in 1927 the frames previously used for the test with glass
covers were adapted for the construction of muslin cages. The
results were satisfactory. (PI. 3, A.)
Finally a rather simple frame that can be used a number of years
was evolved. It may be built of inverted V's from strips of lumber
about 4 feet long, three-fourths of an inch thick, and 3 inches wide,
sharpened at one end for inserting into the soil, and with a bolt
hole near the other end for bolting the pieces at the top. (Fig. 1.)
One of the inverted V's is set ovei" each plant, and a ridgepole of
1-inch strip is run along the top. Two widths of cloth may be sewed
together lengthwise and then spread over the framework and fas-
EXPERIMENTS OInT THE CONTROL OF TOMATO YELLOWS 7
tened here and there to the outer sides with tacks. The cloth and the
frame may be removed at the end of June and saved for another
year. Muslin of 50 meshes to the inch is satisfactory, but a heavier
material may be used if durability is desired.
On the basis of the writers' trials, it would seem that this method
may be satisfactory under certain conditions, particularly for small-
sized patches in areas of severe infestation. The results obtained
with this form of shading in 1927 and 1928 were as follows :
1927 1928
Percentage of plants infected with yellows, in rows
shaded by tents 10.8 3.0
Percentage of plants infected with yellows in un-
shaded rows 80.7 14.2
If these tents are made insect proof, a still better control may be
obtained. One such closed cage was used over 20 plants in 1927.
Only one plant contracted the disease, which probably came through
the cloth when the plant became so large that it pressed tightly on
the muslin. No additional cases of the disease developed after the
cage was removed on July 1. (PL 3, B.) A serious disadvantage
of this closed cage is that the setting of the fruit is somewhat de-
layed. This unfavorable effect may possibly be overcome by the use
of more loosely woven textiles, such as tobacco cloths, which would
permit more air movement through the inclosure. In experiments
with control of aster yellows transmitted by Cicadula sexnotata
Fall., which is only slightly larger than Eutettix tenelhis^ Jones and
Eiker {19) reported satisfactory results from a cloth having 22
threads to the inch, while Kunkel (20) obtained a reduction of yel-
lows from 80 per cent to 20 per cent by shielding plants with fences
built of wire screen having only 18 meshes to the inch.
The question may be raised as to whether the economic gain se-
cured through this means of protection justifies the expense con-
nected with it. As the trials at Shafter show, the tent shading may
save about three-fourths of the stand. The cost of the tents prepared
for these experiments naturally was higher than it would have been
for a large grower, because in this case the materials were bought in
small quantities. The quantities of lumber and muslin necessary to
cover 1 acre will depend somewhat on the spacing used, especially
between the rows. If tomatoes are planted 6 feet apart each way,
1,200 plants will cover 1 acre. To build the tents illustrated in
Figure 1 to cover this number of plants will require 3,000 board
feet of lumber and 4,800 yards of muslin. Assuming that the price
of lumber is 4 cents a foot and the price of muslin 10 cents a yard,
the total cost of these materials per acre will be $600. To this should
be added the cost of bolts, about $25 or $30 per acre. Although the
material may serve for a number of years, it is evident that for the
majority of sections where yellows does not occur with regular
severity, the mean annual expenditure for tents may still be too
great to be profitable, unless tomatoes bring unusually high prices.
The protection afforded by sunflowers or a similar tall-growing crop
is more nearly within the re^ch of the average grower.
SHADING WITH LOW AND DENSELY GROWING PLANTS
The effect of a dense growth of weeds on the development of
yellows is also of interest in connection with shadino^. Several ob-
8
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 9, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
servers (i, ^, 39) noticed that very weedy beet fields showed a much
smaller amount of curly top and produced a fair crop, whereas clean-
cultivated fields suffered severe loss. As the leaf hoppers apparently
prefer a warm, open, sunny location to close heavy vegetation cov-
ering the ground, it may be possible that the dense vegetation is less
frequently invaded by the insects, and a smaller amount of disease
would naturally result. The dense foliage may, of course, exert
other influences, as on soil moisture and soil temperature.
To test the effect of low, dense vegetation, buckwheat was planted
in 1928 in drills about 1 foot apart in a small tomato plot at the
time of setting the plants (April 16 and May 20). A second plot
had cowpeas broadcast March 20, and the tomatoes set on the same
dates as in the buckwheat plot. The seasonal progress of yellows
is given in Table 4.
Table 4. — Prevalence of yellows in tomato plants in dense growth of 'buckwheat
and cowpeas
April planting
May planting
Plantings, both plots
Intercrop
Total
number
of plants
Number
of dis-
eased
plants
Total
number
of plants
Number
of dis-
eased
plants
Total
number
of plants
Number
of dis-
eased
plants
Percent-
age of
diseased
plants
Checks (tomatoes only)
67
54
56
10
6
2
59
55
51
17
9
1
116
109
107
27
14
3
23.3
Buckwheat
12.8
Cowpeas _
2.8
As the buckwheat in the late plot was small until the latter part
of May (during the period of greatest infection), this may help to
explain the nearly double infection as compared with that in the
earlier planting where the buckwheat was in full bloom and from
12 to 15 inches high by June 1. In both early and late plantings
the buckwheat was able to reduce the infection by about 50 per cent.
However, the tomatoes were rather pale and not very vigorous as
a result of the intercrop of buckwheat. Among the cowpeas the
tomato vines were almost completely submerged and smothered, in
spite of the cowpeas having been thinned out, and the resulting
tomato vines were very weak and spindling, with almost no fruit.
Apparently the cowpeas prevented the infection. As the 1928 sea-
son was marked by an unusually small percentage of yellows, it is
doubtful whether this protection would be as effective in a season
of severe infestation.
It is a well-laiown fact that seedlings left in the seed bed are
seldom seriously affected by j^ellows. Dense growth in this case
again appears to be the main factor. However, if continuous rows
of seedlings are grown in the field, with a wide spacing between the
rows (6 feet or more), they may be no less affected in years of
severe outbreaks than are plants set out individually in the regular
way. An experiment conducted at Shafter in 1926 indicates this.
Two such continuous rows were planted, each containing several
hundred plants. At the end of the summer only seven plants re-
mained unaffected, while all the others had died from yellows.
In the Northwest, among sotne growers, there is a practice of set-
ting more than one plant in each hill in order to have as nearly a
EXPERIMENTS ON THE CONTROL OF TOMATO YELLOWS 9
normal stand as possible in spite of the loss from the disease. It is
obvious that this measure can be of no assistance during seasons
when the amount of yellows approaches 100 per cent, but it might
bring the desired results with a smaller infection. A double num-
ber of plants set two plants to a hill with only 50 per cent of the
disease may be expected to give a much-improved stand. However,
even better results, with respect to the vigor of plants and yield,
might possibly be obtained by setting the same number of plants
individually with half the usual spacing in the row.
SPRAYING AND DUSTING
The purpose of spraying or dusting in the case of tomato yellows
may be threefold. It may be done to destroy the leaf hoppers, to
repel them, or to enable the plant to resist the infection. It is doubt-
ful whether the use of insecticides on tomatoes for the first of these
purposes will ever be practicable, since there are so many natural
hosts of Eutettix tenellus^ both wild and cultivated (4, 7, ^7, 30^
32). More tangible results may be expected from repellents and
protective sprays and dusts, although thus far there has been but
little encouragement along this line.
Severin {28^ 33) tried nicotine-sulphate dust, but the results were
unsatisfactory. However, Schwing, as reported by Haring {10)^
found that a heavy application of nicodust destroyed hoppers on
beets where the hoppers were actually hit. Carsner and Stahl (7)
used several insecticides as well as repellents in both liquid and dust
form, but no benefit worthy of consideration resulted. More re-
cently Carter {8) conducted experiments with a view to enabling
sugar-beet plants to resist the effect of the curly-top virus after it
has been introduced into the plants. He had plants sprayed with
lampblack, zinc oxide, and lime, as well as unsprayed plants for
checks. Plants spraj^ed with lampblack, a light-absorbing pigment
which screens off a considerable portion of the sun's spectrum, suf-
fered more than unsprayed beets. Plants sprayed with zinc oxide,
a light-reflecting pigment but one with severe reduction in the
shorter end of the spectrum, were slightly worse off than unsprayed
beets. Only the plants sprayed with lime, a light-reflecting pigment
which does not interfere to any considerable extent with the shorter
waves, showed an increased resistance to curly top.
Similar tests were made also with tomatoes in the plots at Shafter
during the summer of 1926. Various sprays were tried in studying
two possible effects on the plants — the chemical effect and the shacP
ing effect due to absorption or reflection of incident light. All spray
applications were made with a knapsack sprayer during the last
week in May, when infection is usually very severe and general and
the progress of the disease rapid. The sprays were repeated in 6 to 10
days, and plants in all stages of yellows were used.
As iron salts have proved beneficial in certain types of chlorosis,
ferrous sulphate was applied in solutions varying from 2 to 6 per
cent, alone and in conjunction with ammonium sulphate, to form a
less readily oxidized iron compound. There appeared to be no bene-
ficial effect either in improving the color of the plants or in retard-
ing the advance of the disease, and the 4 and 6 per cent solutions
burned the foliage considerably. This negative result was not sur-
110521—30 2
10 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 9, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
prising, as the yellowing of the foliage may have been due to other
causes, such as an excessive accumulation of sucrose and reducing
sugars, which Kosa (25) found to occur in the diseased plants,
rather than to a deficiency of iron in the leaves. This excess of car-
bohydrates may have been responsible for the upsetting of the
chlorophyll mechanism. In this case iron sprays could be of no
benefit.
With a view to changing both the quantity and the quality of the
light received by the tomato leaves, otner sprays were tried. Certain
sulphides having a metallic luster are known to have a high reflecting
power for ultra-violet light (9). In an attempt to cut down the
ultra-violet rays of the sunlight reaching the leaves, finely ground
iron pyrites was applied as a spray. At first the leaves showed a
deep-green color following the application, but the progress of the
disease was neither stopped nor retarded.
In the dry air of the San Joaquin Valley of California the heat
and sunlight are intense in June. As the heat rays are known to
penetrate moist air much less readily than dry air, and as the orange
and red portions of the spectrum are thought to have great influence
in the process of photosynthesis, it seemed desirable to reduce the
intensity of light penetrating the leaves and at the same time to cut
off a large portion of the orange, red, and infra-red rays by placing
some reflecting or absorbing substance on the foliage. Heavy coat-
ings of calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate, and hydrated lime,
in the proportion of I/2 to 1 pound of powder to a gallon of water,
were applied in spray form. Although these applications were with-
out effect in checking the disease, the green of the foliage seemed to
disappear less rapidly than in the unsprayed diseased plants.
The only spray that gave any indication of retarding the disease
was a solution of 2 per cent ferrous sulphate with enough hydrated
lime to make the solution alkaline ; that is, a sort of " iron Bor-
deaux." This gave an orange-colored deposit on the leaves. How-
ever, only a slowing down of the disease was apparent, and this was
not great enough to be of any value where the infection was severe.
In May, 1927, 4-4-50 Bordeaux was tried, to see if it would show
some repellent action on the insects, as in the case of the potato
leaf hopper, or possibly show a screening action on the light. The
results were negative. Eleven cases of yellows developed among the
52 sprayed plants (21 per cent), as compared with 15 cases among
65 unsprayed ones (23 per cent).
SOIL MANAGEMENT
At the time when yellows was thought to be caused by certain
soil fungi, crop rotation and the disinfection of seed beds were con-
sidered advisable by some (22). Others observed that there is no
apparent correlation between the amount of the disease and the
supposed contamination of the soil, and that even on new sage-
brush land the infection may run as high as 100 per cent (ii, 15).
While thus the crop-rotation idea failed to find much support among
the students of tomato yellows, soil conditions were regarded as
of by no means slight significance. The fact that the disease is
more severe in hot and dry regions, or where the loss of moisture is
higher, forced upon many the thought that the losses may be re-
EXPERIMENTS ON THE CONTROL OF TOMATO YELLOWS 11
diiced by increasing the supply of water to the plants. Some trials
and observations seemed to confirm this belief. Also, indications
were found that an abundant supply of humus in the soil, or well-
fertilized soils, helped to check the development of the disease.
This was first pointed out by Huntley {16)^ although he stated that
lack of manure and humus in the soil had not proved to be the
cause of the trouble.
Henderson {13) concluded that —
plants set in good soil, well watered and cultivated, and protected from too hot
sun by close planting and shading, and from severe winds by orchards, corn,
or other means, will give very little blight.
The disease became very general by July 1 in the field where he
had his trials in 1904, with the exception of the part "which had
been submerged by the rise of the river " soon after setting. In
two rows of another patch, which were " cleared of weeds, heavily
limed and manured, and finally spaded up and put in prime condi-
tion, only one plant was blighted " out of 48, while the remainder
of the plot showed many diseased plants. He also tried commercial
fertilizers, but no definite beneficial results were derived {12).
McKay {22) advocated an abundant supply of moisture, a liberal
use of barnyard manure, and good cultivation as important factors
that tend to reduce the losses from yellows.
Thornber {1^1) reported a distinct gain from the application of
manure. In his experiments at Clarkston, Wash., manure was ap-
plied in the trenches, covered with several inches of soil, and the
tomatoes set over the manure. None of the 400 plants so treated
developed yellows, whereas about 90 per cent of the 400 or so plants
in an adjacent unmanured plot showed symptoms of the disease.
Smith {JfO) found no benefit from the application of sulphur or
lime.
Sulphur tests were conducted by the writers for two years on a
small scale at Shafter. In 1927 sulphur was applied at the rate of
400 pounds per acre in shallow furrows and harrowed in. No reduc-
tion in the disease was obtained from this application. In 1928
a second application at the rate of 800 pounds per acre was made
to the same plot by broadcasting and was harrowed in before the
tomatoes were planted. On this plot in 1928, 16 out of 116 plants,
or 13.8 per cent, developed yellows, while on the untreated adjoining
area 27 oiit of 116 plants, or 23.3 per cent, became diseased.
IRRIGATION AND FERTILIZATION
Experiments with irrigation, cultivation, and fertilizers were con-
ducted by Shapovalov {SJf) . In his irrigation experiment in 1922
during a serious outbreak of yellows, the disease practically ceased
to develop after four weekly applications of water in a portion of a
commercial field at Wineville, Calif. At the same time, in another
portion of the field which had been irrigated only once the disease
continued to develop for four additional weeks, with the result that
about 10 per cent more of the plants became affected during the
period of the experiment in this plot than in the wetter plot. During
the next two years his experiments were repeated more carefully at
another place in conjunction with different frequencies of cultivation,
and the available soil moisture was measured by the porous porcelain
12 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 9, U. S. DEPT. OF AGKICULTURE
soil points of Livingston and Koketsu. In 1923, when the attack
of yellows was very slight, it seemed as if the disease had a tendency
to be more prevalent on drier plots, thus corroborating the results of
the 1922 experiment; but in 1924, with a very severe outbreak of
yellows, no correlation could be seen between the amount of tlie
disease and the available soil moisture as measured by the soil
points. Only the plot fertilized with ammonium sulphate at the
rate of 200 pounds to the acre showed a slight reduction in the per-
centage, of yellows. It should be noted, however, that the results
obtained with frequent irrigation in 1922 are not quite comparable
with those secured in the next two seasons, since they were conducted
in different localities and on different types of soil.
The writers tried various fertilizers and lime in 1925, when yel-
lows was as severe as in 1924, and again in 1926, when there was a
moderate attack of the disease. The plot treated with lime showed
considerably less yellows than the check in 1925, but there was no
significant difference in 1926. Other treatments, as Table 5 shows,
did not seem to have any effect on the disease. All plots were
adjacent.
Table 5. — Tomato yellows on differently fertilised plots at Riverside, Calif., in
1925 and 1926
1925
1926
Treatment
Total
number
of plants
Number
of plants
affected
Percent-
age of
plants
affected
Total
number
of plants
Number
of plants
affected
Percent-
age of
plants
affected
Check
125
88
85
79
78
81
54
21
36
35
30
33
43.2
23.9
42.4
44.3
177
214
223
25
24
47
14. 1
Air-slaked lime, 3,000 pounds to the acre
Ammonium sulphate, 400 pounds to the acre
Superphosphate 428 pounds to the acre
11.2
21.1
Potassium sulphate, 160 pounds to the acre
Complete fertilizer, 8-6-8
38.5
40.7
212
39
18.4
Irrigation water was supplied as needed; that is, once in three
or four weeks. It is possible that with a more abundant supply of
water the effect of the fertilizers might have been more pronounced.
Shapovalov's unpublished notes on his 1924 fertilizer trials show
that the percentage of yellows was smaller on wetter fertilized plots
than on drier fertilized plots. (Table 6.)
Table 6. — Tomato yellows on plots fertilized with ammonium sulphate at the
rate of 200 pounds per acre, Riverside, Calif., 1924
Treatment
Irrigation once in 4 weeks:
Fertilized plants
Plants in unfertilized ends of same rows
Irrigation once in 2 weeks:
Fertilized plants
Plants in unfertilized ends of same rows
Irrigation every week:
Fertilized plants
Plants in unfertihzed ends of same rows
Total number of fertilized plants
Total number of plants in unfertilized ends of rows
Total
Number
number
of plants
of plants
affected
99
39
135
63
98
35
153
67
113
37
161
57
310
111
449
187
Percent-
age of
plants
affected
39.4
46.7
35.7
43.8
32.7
35.4
35.8
41.6
Tech. Bui. No. 189. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
Plate 3
A, Tomatoes grown under a loosely covered muslin tent until July 1 at Shafter, Calif., in 1927. The
cloth is removed to show the general vigor of the shaded plants as compared with those unshaded,
mostly diseased, and of smaller size; photographed about July 1; B, tomatoes grown in a closed
muslin cage until July 1, 1927. The plants completely filled the frame. A part of the unprotected
row to the left, planted at the same time as the shaded plants, shows the general condition of the
checkrows
Tech. Bui. No. 189. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
Plate 4
A, Sui — ;.^ , d bed at Riverside, Calif. They were planted in ]March and April and
never irrigated. No jellows developed in this plot of seedlings; B, a Riverside (Calif.), plot of 1925,
showing the relative size and vigor of untransplanted seedlings grown directly in the field (larger
plants in the background) and the same seedlings transplanted (smaller plants in the foreground)
26 days after transplanting
EXPEEIMENTS ON THE CONTROL OF TOMATO YELLOWS 13
The ammonium-sulphate plot which was irrigated once in four
weeks (Table 6) may be compared with the ammonium-sulphate
plot (Table 5) which was not irrigated. A decrease of 7 per cent in
the amount of yellows is to be noted in 1924, as compared with the
respective check plants, but practically no decrease is seen in 1925,
while in the 1926 plot there was an even greater amount of the
disease than in the check. The plot irrigated every week showed a
decrease of nearly 3 per cent compared with the respective check.
It is to be noted that the unfertilized ends of the rows also show
progressively less disease in the more frequently irrigated plots.
SOIL DRYNESS AND PREIRRIGATION
There are indications that if the soil is kept very dry, practically
at the point at which plants wilt, the development of yellows may
be retarded.
At Riverside, in 1924, a seed plot was planted on a virgin desert
soil adjacent to a tomato field, prior to the cessation of spring rains,
and was not irrigated thereafter. A number of plants died from
dryness, but none showed symptoms of yellows. A few even sur-
vived the unfavorable conditions and showed recovery in the fall.
(PI. 4, A.) During the same season the adjacent tomato field
showed 35 to 45 per cent of the disease.
Additional tests along similar lines were made with regularly
planted tomato plots at Shafter in 1927 and 1928. The plot
which was to be kept dry was flooded before it was planted. Seeds
were planted directly in the field about the middle of March, and
the ground was irrigated a few times, until the young plants became
established, or about the middle of May. Then the dry plot was
not irrigated again until the plants showed wilting, which was 9 to
10 weeks after the previous irrigation. In the meantime the check
rows were irrigated every 7 to 10 days. After about the middle of
July both the dry and the regular plots were irrigated at necessary
intervals. As is shown in Table 7, the 1927 dry plot had consider-
ably less yellows than the check plots. In 1928, when the disease was
very much less severe, no benefit from either form of irrigation was
evident.
Table 7. — Effect of extreme soil dr^/ness on the development of tomato yellows
Location
Percentage of plants
infected with yel-
lows
1927
1928
Dry plot at Shafter..
61.7
84.6
91.0
15.9
Check on the west side.
13 6
Check on the east side
17 4
GREEN MANURING
To determine the effect of introducing organic matter into the
soil and producing more vigorous plants, experiments with green
manuring were conducted by the writers at Shafter. Melilotm indica
was used as a green-manure crop on the same plots for two seasons.
14
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 9, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
being planted about October 10 each year. The first crop was
plowed under about April 1, 1927, well after full bloom, when the
frowth was very heavy. The second crop was turned under about
'ebruary 10, 1928, at a much earlier stage of growth and before
blossoming. The tomato vines of 1927 were greatly stimulated in
growth on the cover-cropped areas, but the effect was less striking in
1928. As regards yellows, the results, considering only the manured
and unmanured areas, are shown in Table 8. These figures do not
point to cover crops as a means of producing plants vigorous enough
to withstand the infection to any marked degree.
Table 8. — Effect of green manuring on to^mato yellows
Plot
Plants in cover crop area Plants in bare area
Year
Total
number
Number
infected
aleTn-'l Total
"tfcteS 1 """""er
1
Number
infected
Percent-
age in-
fected
1927
A
B
A
B
182
141
153
158
37
45
14
7
20.3
31.9
9.1
180
139
139
40
50
11
10
22.2
1927- -
' 36.0
1928
7.9
1928
4.4 ! 157
6.4
GREEN MANURE WITH LIME AND FERTILIZERS
Tests by Rosa {2Jf) and by Hepler and Kraybill {lit) have shown
phosphate fertilizers to be very effectual in stimulating the early
growth of tomato plants. As it was known that plants in the more
advanced stage of growth are less susceptible to yellows, it was
thought desirable to test the effect of readily available phosphates.
Superphosphate (18 per cent), at the rate of 600 pounds per acre,
and steamed bone meal, superphosphate with hydrated lime (1,000
pounds per acre), and a complete 4-10-11/2 fertilizer were used so as
to give quantities of phosphoric acid equal to that in the superphos-
phate. These applications were made to certain rows in plot A
(referred to in Table 8) in October, 1926, before seeding the cover
crop of melilotus. The subsequent plowing of the land in April,
1927, naturally redistributed the fertilizers, so that the results in
3927 were neither very reliable nor clean-cut. The great variation
in amount of disease even in the checkrows (6 to 40 per cent) made
the results very indefinite. The cover-crop area showed an average
of 20.3 per cent of yellows where phosphates had been applied and
26 per cent in the checks. The area without cover crop showed an
average of 22.2 per cent of disease where phosphates had been ap-
plied, as compared with 18.7 per cent in the checks.
An additional fall application to a portion of plot A of 1,200
pounds per acre of 18 per cent superphosphate for the 1928 crop
was of no benefit in the reduction of yelloAvs, either directly or in-
directly, through the cover crop.
The effect of the hydrated lime applied in the late summer of 1926
at the rate of 1,000 pounds per acre to half of plot B, referred to in
Table 8, could be more readily determined than in the case of the
phosphate fertilizers of plot A, where the quantities were small and
distribution was upset by subsequent plowing.
EXPERIMENTS ON THE CONTROL OF TOMATO YELLOWS
15
While the larger amount of yellows in plot B in 1927 may be ac-
counted for in part by the plants being about seven weeks younger
than those in plot A, and hence more susceptible to the disease (see
Table 10), there still appears to have been some benefit from lime,
but only in conjunction with the green manure, as Table 9 indicates.
Table 9. — Effect of green manure and lime on tomato yellows
Plants in cover-crop area
Plants in bare area
•
Year and treatment of plot B
Total
number
Number
infected
Percent-
age in-
fected
Total
number
Number
infected
Percent-
age in-
fected
1927:
Limed
69
72
78
80
18
27
1
6
26.1
37.5
1.3
7.5
73
66
77
80
27
23
2
8
37.0
Unlimed
34.8
1928:
Limed
2.6
Unlimed-
10.0
In 1928, while the number of diseased plants was small, the limed
area again showed less yellows, the influence apparently extending
through the unmanurecl area as well, which was not the case in
1927. The above figures are more or less in line with those previ-
ously obtained at Riverside (Table 5), although they can not be
regarded as conclusive.
In other experiments diseased plants were subjected to different
soil treatments, to study the possibility of recovery. In 1926 at
Shafter plants in various stages of yellows were transferred (with
roots) from the field to 5-gallon cans. The soil in these cans received
applications of NaCl, KCl, CaCl^, FeCls, FeSO^, KH.PO^,
NH4H2PO4, Ca(N03)2, or NaNOg. Although three weeks later the
plants were nearly dead from lack of water, the green color of the
stems in some cases where a chloride had been used, especially KCl,
suggested some improvement. Other cans received manure or
manure with CaCOg and NaNOs- The plants in the soil receiving
CaCOs and NaNOs survived somewhat longer than the others.
In other somewhat similar tests made at Riverside in the summer
of 1926, diseased plants from the field were transplanted to 10-inch
pots, the soil receiving the following treatments: Gypsum, gypsum
with compost, hydrated lime (about one-half per cent), lime with
compost, and chopped alfalfa top mulch. While the healthy plants
continued to grow in most cases, none of the diseased plants showed
any sign of recovery.
Other tests with diseased and healthy rooted plants and cuttings
grown in various very dilute solutions gave little information. In
solutions of FeSOi, iron pyrophosphate, MnS04, and NaCl the
plants promptly died. Diseased cuttings in solutions of Ca(N03)2,
CaCls, MgSO^, K2SO4, KNO3, K2HPO4, NH4H2PO4, and a complete
nutrient solution developed no rootlets, except in tap-water checks,
but even there they were short lived. The greenhouse was very hot,
and all cuttings decayed rapidly. Only the Ca(N03)2 and CaCl2
solutions suggested any trace of beneficial effect on the cuttings.
16 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 9, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
TIME OF PLANTING
It appears to be a definitely established fact, as far as sugar beets
are concerned, that a crop planted early, between December 1 and
March 1, under California conditions except in the fog belt, will
not suffer from curly top as much as a later-planted crop (^, 7, 29,
32) . The main point emphasized in this connection is that the beets
should attain a vigorous growth before the leaf hoppers move into
the cultivated areas. Similar but less definite observations have been
made by the previous workers with respect to the time of trans-
planting tomatoes. The growing season in this case, of course, is
different, but the principle involved appears to be the same.
As in the case of sugar beets, it is essential, from the viewpoint
of minimizing the yellows infection, not to have young plants
exposed to the leaf hoppers during their migration. Yaw (^-4)
noted that when new plants are planted in June in place of those
affected with yellows they almost never show the disease. In this
case the transplanting is done after the main flight of the hoppers.
In the writers' own w^ork at Shafter in 1927, of the 117 seedlings
set out on May 27 and 28, 26 or 22.2 per cent developed into plants
having yellows, while of the 267 transplanted on June 13 only
19 or 7.1 per cent were affected. As explained by Severin {31, f.
267) , " After a large flight occurs the adults are generally distrib-
uted on all green vegetation," and "the insects are often found on
unsuitable food plants," such as tomatoes, but later on *' the hoppers
congregate on their most favorable food and breeding plants."
Only the late-shipping crop of tomatoes can be planted in J'une and
July. The canning crop and especially the early shipping crop
require a much earlier planting. However, there are but few local-
ities in the west (the Coachella and the Imperial Valleys) where
tomato plants are set out early enough to develop into large and
vigorous plants before the onslaught of the insects and thus be less
susceptible to the disease.
Ball {2) and Carsner and Stahl (7) found that beets become less
easily infected as they grow older. The writers' inoculation experi-
ments show that the same is true also in regard to tomatoes. Plants
of different ages were inoculated in different years and in different
localities, and in each case younger plants appeared to be more
susceptible and developed symptoms in a shorter time than did
older plants, as may be seen from Table 10. In these experiments
seeds were sown directly in the field, and later the seedlings were
thinned out to one or two plants in the hill. Only one plant in each
hill was inoculated. When more than one series of inoculations was
made during the season each time an equal number of plants in
each age group w^as used-
Table 10. — Relation of dffe of tomato plants to susceptibility to yellows
Location
Time of seed-
ing
Number
of inocu-
lated
plants
Number
of plants
infected
Percent-
age of
plants
infected
Riverside, Calif .-
Mar. 15,1927
Apr. 16,1927
Mar. 2,1928
May lo, 1928
54
54
36
36
24
23
36
52
10
15
66.7
Do
96.3
Do
27.7
Do
72.2
El Centro, Calif..
Do
Jan. 11,1928
Feb. 14,1928
37.5
65.2
EXPEEIMENTS ON THE CONTROL OF TOMATO YELLOWS
17
Another test was made in regard to the relation between different
limes of transplanting and natural infection in a year when yellows
was very serious. The results are in line with those obtained with
artificial inoculations, as reported in Table 10. Five transplantings
were made showing that plantings before and after the month of
May were less affected than plantings made about the time of the
flight of the leaf hoppers. (Table 11.) This trial was conducted
at Riverside, Calif.
Table 11. — Relation of time of trwnsplanting tomato plants to susceptiMUti; to
yellows at Riverside, Calif., in 1925
Date of transplanting
Totfll
number
of plants
Number
of plants
infected
Percent-
age of
planes
infected
Apr. 27. ^
108
125
89
82
74
33
54
20
26
3
30.6
May 20
43.2
June 15 - —
22.5
Julys
31.7
Aug. 6— ...
4.0
From this data it appears possible to avoid some of the losses
from tomato yellows by manipulating the time of planting whenever
practicable. Late-shipping crops in California as a rule are only very
slightly affected by this disease. They are not planted much before
July 1. It is the early crop that needs special attention. By plant-
ing it as early as the frost permits, under certain conditions some
of the infection may be avoided. The best results are obtained,
however, when the crop is planted early and some form of shading
provided, as is shown by the results obtained at Shafter and dis-
cussed in connection with shading.
Since the relative prevalence of beet leaf hoppers in an area in a
given season depends on the number of insects going into hiberna-
tion, the quantity of winter-food plants, and the climatic condi-
tions, the study of these factors has made it possible to predict the
severity of the hopper infestation prior to planting time. When
such forecasts are available, growers may be able to avoid planting
susceptible crops in years expected to have serious outbreaks of the
disease. Forecasts issued by Walter Carter, of the Bureau of Ento-
mology, United States Department of Agriculture, during the last
few years for an area in southern Idaho were used extensively in
connection with beet plantings. No application of such data has yet
been made for the purpose of avoiding tomato yellows.
Although certain natural enemies of Eutettix tenellus are known
to exist, the beet leaf hoppers do not appear to be seriously affected
by their presence. Therefore forecasts are not likely to be sub-
stantially offset by this factor. Also, as yet, there is no strong evi-
dence that a biological method of control of this insect is practicable.
METHODS OF HANDLING SEEDLINGS
Before the discovery of the true nature of yellows many scientific
workers as well as practical men were strongly of the opinion that
the extent and the severity of the disease depended to a large degree
18 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 9, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
on root injuries. Such injuries as those resulting from unfavorable
physical soil conditions, the use of implements, or carelessness in
transplanting were held to be accountable. Often infected plants
were removed with their roots from a shallow soil with underlying
hardpan or " plowsole," and the twisted and deformed roots were
shown as an indisputable proof of the cause of the diseased condi-
tions. Never were sufficient numbers of healthy plants in the same
field examined to show whether these had normal roots or not. The
injury inflicted in transplanting was considered to be especially
serious. It was thought in this connection that plants grown from
seeds directly in the field would not suffer as much from yellows as
the transplanted ones. Henderson {12^ 13) conducted tests in Idaho
(near Lewiston) in 1905 and 1906 to prove this. In 1905 only 6 per
cent of his seedlings (planted May 12 and later) were affected,
while 60 per cent of the transplanted plants (set June 9 to 11) were
diseased. In 1906 the respective percentages were 25 and over 80.
This time the seedlings were planted about May 7 and the trans-
plants set out May 20 and 21. Henderson also found that repotting
and careful transplanting with little damage to the roots was with-
out effect. It is quite possible that the type of roots formed was
of much greater importance than the presence or absence of injuries.
Untransplanted tomatoes, as a rule, " develop a deep tap root, which
gives them an advantage under dry-farming conditions " {26^ p, 16) .
At Riverside, in 1925, transplants remained for several weeks dis-
tinctly behind the corresponding untransplanted seedlings in vigor
and amount of growth (PI. 4, B), but this difference became grad-
ually obliterated toward the end of the season. Indications are that
the benefit from seeding directly in the field mav depend somewhat
upon the time of seeding and transplanting. An experiment con-
ducted by the writers suggests this possibility. This experiment
comprised a total of 520 untransplanted seedlings and 478 trans-
plants. The untransplanted February and April seedlings showed
slightly more yellows than did transplants from the same lots, while
the untransplanted March seedlings showed less than half the disease
found in the corresponding transplants, but May and June seedlings
had again more yellows than the transplants made from them.
(Table 12.)
Table 12
— Comparative effect of direct seeding and transplanting on amount of
yellows in tomatoes at Riverside, Calif., 1925
Date of seeding
Percentage
of seedlings
having
yellows
Date of transplanting
Percentage
of trans-
plants hav-
ing yellows
Feb. 5
31.9
20.0
24.2
36.3
7.8
Apr. 27
30.6
Mar. 2
Mav 20
43.2
Apr. 3
June 15 -
22.5
May 1
July 3
31.7
Junes
Aug. 6 --- —
4.0
Unless tomato plants are raised in individual pots there is bound
to be some root injury in transplanting. Differences in the degree
of these injuries can hardly be a factor determining the percentage
of yellows. Henderson's tests in 1905 seem to support this. The
experime:n^ts on the conteol of tomato yellows
19
tomato plant forms adventitious roots very readily and immediately
after setting, even when practically no original roots are left. On
May 20, 1925, the writers planted 72 plants at Riverside with roots
entirely trimmed off, and these developed into fine and vigorous
plants with 25 per cent having yellows, whereas 125 plants set out in
the usual way with roots attached had 43.2 per cent of the plants
which showed the disease. It is not to be thought necessarily that
this difference was due to the trimming of roots, as there may have
been other factors at work ; but the results of the experiment at least
fail to support the idea that plants deprived of roots are more
subject to yellows.
It had often been stated that deep planting can avert a great deal
of loss from yellows, but there have been no clear-cut experimental
data proving this contention. The writers tried both deep and shal-
low planting at Riverside in 1924 and 1925, with no significant
benefit from deep planting. Large plants were used in these experi-
ments, and those intended to be set deep were planted in holes 12
inches deep, while in shallow planting they were set only slightly
deeper than they stood in the seed bed. There was also an inter-
mediate planting in 1924 about 6 inches in depth. The results are
given in Table 13.
Table 13. — Effect of depth of plantinff on susceptibility of tomatoes to yelloios
at Riverside, CaUf.
Plants in shallow planting
Plants in medium-deep
planting
Plants in deep planting
Year
Total
number
Number
infected
Percent-
age in-
fected
Total
number
Number
infected
Percent-
age in-
fected
Total
number
Number
infected
Percent-
age in-
fected
1924
62
66
8
17
12.9
25.8
62
12
19.4
48
64
6
20
12.5
1925
31 2
DEVELOPMENT OF RESISTANT VARIETIES
Vavilov {4S) pointed out that the chance of finding resistant
varieties is smaller when the specialization of a parasite on genera
and species of hosts is feeble. This might discourage the efforts to
seek resistance to the curly-top virus, which has so many hosts, both
wild and cultivated, belonging to different genera and families.
Nevertheless, a very definite and marked resistance has been found
in beans (6, 32) and sugar beets (7), particularly in the latter, as
demonstrated by the recent work of Carsner {5). The work with
tomatoes has so far been less successful, though it is clearly estab-
lished that certain varieties are far less susceptible than others. The
results of earlier trials were either negative or indefinite (ii, i^, 17^
The Idaho Agricultural Experiment Station was the first to give
an encouraging report along this line of work up to 1924 {18). In
all, 73 varieties and selections were tried. It was found that Dwarf
Champion and some selections from the John Baer tomato possess
a definite resistance. Only one strain of Dwarf Champion showed
74 per cent of yellows, the remainder being affected within the limits
20 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 9, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
of 38 to 58 pel" cent, while in commercial strains the disease ranged
between 58 and 100 per cent.
A painstaking and elaborate study of resistance to yellows in
various tomato varieties was made by Lesley (21) and is being
continued. He has made a great number of selections from, and
crosses of, the most promising varieties. He finds that not only
Dwarf Champion but other dwarf -type varieties show a certain
degree of resistance to yellows. It is pointed out in this connection
that —
the resistant character of the dwarfs behaves as a recessive and appears to
depend upon the gene for dwarf or possibly on a gene or genes more or less
closely linked with it (21).
However, Bed Pear, which is not a dwarf variety, is likewise resist-
ant in about the same degree. This may indicate that the resistance
is genetically of more than one kind and that it is possible by
crossing to breed a variety with increased resistance to the disease.
The results of Lesley's more recent (unpublished) studies seem to
justify this expectation. So far, however, it has been possible to
notice the difference in the resistance only under the conditions of
a moderate attack of yellows when checks showed not over 50 or
60 per cent of the disease. Under much more severe conditions,
when 90 to 100 per cent of check plants are infected, this difference
is practically obliterated. As shown by the tests under a moderate
attack in the field, the resistant strains and varieties were at least
25 per cent less susceptible to yellows. Later on, artificial inocula-
tions were made by means of viruliferous Eutettix tenellus^ and
similar results were obtained.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Tomato yellows is a virus disease, is not seed borne, and its spread
in the field is due exclusively to an insect carrier, the beet leaf
hopper, Eutettix tenellus Baker.
Highly effective and economical control measures for the disease
have not yet been found.
No sprays or dusts that were tried with the object of destroying or
repelling the insect proved to be of sufficient value to deserve recom-
mendation.
Measures intended to increase the vigor of the plant are of but
slight benefit. However, in localities where the menace of the
epidemic is great, these measures should not be neglected. Deep
root formation should be encouraged ; planting seeds directly in the
field may be found preferable in some sections. The plants should
not be overwatered during the vegetative growth. The soil should
contain considerable quantities of organic matter derived either
from cover cropping or from stable manure.
The time of planting may be varied in certain localities to ad-
vantage, and the occurrence of yellows may be slightly decreased
if planting is done earlier or later. The purpose of the variation of
planting time may be either to have plants as large as possible before
the flight of the beet leaf hoppers begins or to dodge this flight.
The greatest benefit so far has been obtained with temporary
muslin tents which protect the plants from the insect invasion and
create conditions less favorable for the development of the disease.
EXPERIMENTS ON THE CONTROL OF TOMATO YELLOWS 21
With the summer crop this protection is of primary value during
the first period of growth, or until about the end of June. This
measure can not be generally recommended because of its relatively
high cost. It may be resorted to where outbreaks of yellows as a
rule are severe and the prices of tomatoes are high.
The use of a tall-growing plant for shading in place of the muslin
tents also is of considerable benefit, though not as great as that of the
tents. It may be adopted in those sections where conditions do not
warrant quite as high an expenditure as the erection of tents entails.
The development of highly resistant varieties may be the ultimate
solution of the problem. There appears to be a definite though not
very strong resistance in certain varieties. This resistance seems
to be insufficient to enable the plants to survive under the conditions
most favorable to yellows.
While the work of breeding new varieties is being continued, the
growing of now-available moderately resistant varieties with the
aid of tents or shade crops suggests itself as the best temporary safe-
guard for the sections subject to regular severe outbreaks of yellows.
LITERATURE CITED
(1) Ball, E. D.
1909. the leafhoppers of the sugar beet and their relation to the
" CURLY-LEAF " CONDITION. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent. Bui. 66 :
33-52, illus.
(2)
1917. THE BEET LEAFHOPPER AND THE CURLY-LEAF DISEASE THAT IT TRANS-
MITS. Utah Agr. Expt. Sta. BuL 155, 56 p., illus.
(3) Beecher, F. S. ,
1928. measurements of total daily sunlight intensity with reference
TO THE ECOLOGY OF PLANT DISEASES. (Abstract) Phytopathology
18 : 951.
(4) Carsner, E.
1919. susceptibility of various plants to curly-top op sugar beets.
Phytopathology 9: [413]-421, illus.
(5)
1926. RESISTANCE IN SUGAR BEETS TO CURLY-TOP. U. S. Dept. Agr. Circ.
388, 8 p., illus.
(6)
1926. SUSCEPTIBILITY OF THE BEAN TO THE VIRUS OF SUGAR-BEET CURLY
TOP. Jour. Agr. Research 33 : 345-348, illus.
(7) and Stahl, C. F.
1924. STUDIES ON CURLY-TOP DISEASE OF THE SUGAR BEET. JOUT. Agr.
Research 28 : 297-320, illus.
(8) Carter, W.
1929. ECOLOGICAL STUDIES OF CURLY-TOP OP SUGAR BEETS. PhytopatholOgy
19 : 467-477, illus.
(9) CoBLENTz, W. W., and Hughes, C. W.
1924. REFLECTING POWER OF SOME METALS AND SULPHIDES. U. S. Dept.
Com., Bur. Standards Sci. Paper 19: [576]-585, illus. (Sci. Paper
493).
(10) Habing, C. M.
1922. THE BEET LEAFHOPPER, EUTETTIX TENELLA BAKER. Calif. Agr. Expt.
Sta. Ann. Rpt. 1920-21: 41-42.
(11) Henderson, L. F.
1905. DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY. TOMATO BLIGHT. IdahO Agr. Expt. Sta.
Rpt. 1904: [271-32.
(12)
1906. INCOMPLETE EXPERIMENTS FOR 1005. TOMATO BLIGHT. Idaho Agr.
Expt. Sta. Ann. Rpt. 1905: [141-22.
(13)
1907. EXPERIMENTS FOR WESTERN BLIGHT CONTINUED. IdahO Agr. Bxpt.
Sta. Ann. Rpt. 1906 : 25-28.
22 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 189, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUBE
(14) Hepler, J. R., and Keaybill, H. R.
1925. EFFECT OF PHOSPHORUS UPON THE YIELD AND TIME OF MATURITY OP
THE TOMATO. N. H. Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bui. 28, 43 p., illus.
(15) Humphrey, H. B.
1914. studies on the res^ation of certain species of fusarium to the
TOMATO BLIGHT OF THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST. Wash. Agr. Expt
Sta. Bui. 115, 22 p., illus.
(16) Huntley, F. A.
1902. TOMATO CULTURE. Idaho Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 34, p. [1081-117,
illus.
(17) Iddings, E. J.
1921. WORK AND PROGRESS OF THE AGRICULTU'RAL EXPERIMENT STATION FOR
THE YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31, 1920. IdahO Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul.
122, 64 p., illus.
(18)
1925. WORK AND PROGRESS OF THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION FOR
THE YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31, 1924. IdahO Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul.
135, 53 p.
(19) Jones, L. R., and Riker, R. S.
1929. PROGRESS WITH THE CONTROL OF ASTER WILT AND YELLOWS. (Ab-
stract) Phytopathology 19: 101.
(20) KUNKEL, L. O.
1929. WIRE-SCREEN FENCES FOR THE CONTROL OF ASTER YELLOWS. (Ab-
stract) Phytopathology 19: 100.
(21) Lesley, J. W.
1926. A STUDY OF RESISTANCE TO WESTERN YELLOW BLIGHT OF TOMATO VA-
RIETIES. Hilgardia 2 : [47]-66, illus.
(22) McKay, M. B.
1921. WESTERN YELLOW TOMATO BLIGHT. Oreg. AgT. Expt. Sta. Crop
Pest and Hort. Rpt. (1915-20)3: [174]-178, illus.
(23) and Dykstra, T. P.
1927. sugar BEET CURLY-TOP VIRUS, THE CAUSE OF WESTERN YELLOW TO-
MATO BLIGHT. (Abstract) Phytopathology 17: 39.
(24) Rosa, J. T., jr.
1920. PROFITABLE TOMATO FERTILIZERS. Missouri Agr. Bxpt. Sta. Bul. 169,
12 p., illus.
(25)
1927. CHEMICAL CHANGES ACCOMPANYING THE WESTERN YELLOW BLIGHT
OF TOMATO. Plant Physiol. 2 : 163-169.
(26)
1928. TOMATO PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA. Calif. Agr. Expt. sta. Circ.
263, 40 p., illus.
(27) Severin, H. H. p.
1919. THE BEET LEAFHOPPER. A REPORT ON INVESTIGATIONS INTO ITS OC-
CURRENCE IN CALIFORNIA. Facts About Sugar 8: 130-131, 150-
151, 170-171, 190-191, 210-211, 230-231, iUus.
(28)
(29)
(30)
(31)
1922. CONTROL OF THE LEAFHOPPER. IS IT ECONOMICALLY A HOPELESS
PROBLEM IN CALIFORNIA? Facts About Sugar 14: 312-313, 332-
333.
1923. INVESTIGATIONS OF BEET LEAFHOPPER (EUTETTIX TENELLA BAKER) IN
SAUNAS VALLEY OF CALIFORNIA. Jour. EcoD. Ent. 16: 479-485.
1927. CROPS NATURALLY INFECTED WITH SUGAR BEET CURLY-TOP. ScieUCe
(n. s.) 66: 137-138.
1928. TRANSMISSION OF TOMATO YELLOWS, OR CURLY-TOP OF THE SUGAR
BEET, BY EUTETTIX TENELLUS (BAKER). Hilgardia 3: [251]-274,
illus.
(32) and Henderson, C. F.
1928. some HOST PLANTS OF CURLY-TOP. Hilgardia 3 : [339]-392, illus.
(33) Hartung, W. J., ScHwiNG, E. A., and Thomas, W. W.
1921. experiments with a dusting machine to control the beet LEAF-
HOPPER (EUTETTIX TENELLA BAKER) WITH NICOTINE DUST. JOUT.
Econ. Ent. 14: 405-410, illus.
EXPERIMENTS ON THE CONTROL OF TOMATO YELLOWS 23
(34) Shapovalov, M.
1925. ecological aspects of a pathological problem (western yel-
LOW BLIGHT OF TOMATOES). Ecology 6: 241-259, illus.
(35)
<36)
1925. HIGH EVAPORATION : A PRECURSOR AND A CONCOMITANT OF WESTERN
YELLOW TOMATO BLIGHT. Phytopathology 15 1 [470]-478, illus.
1927. INOCUI.ATION EXPERIMENTS WITH WESTERN YEU^LOW TOMATO BLIGHT
IN RELATION TO ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS. (Abstract) Phy-
topathology 17: 746.
(37)
1928. YELLOWS, A SERIOUS DISEASE OF TOMATOES. U. S. Dept. AgT. MiSC.
Pub. 13, 4 p.
(38)' and Beecher, F. S.
1926. MENACE OF WESTERN YELLOW TOMATO BLIGHT. Paciflc Rural Press
111: 365, 371.
<39) and Beecher, F. S.
1928. THE DEVELOPMENT OP TOMATO YBTXOWS UNDER DIFFERENT LIGHT
CONDITIONS. (Abstract) Phytopathology 18: 950.
<40) Smith, R. E.
1906. TOMATO DISEASES IN CALiFOBNiA. Calif. AgT. Expt. Stu. Bul. 175,
16 p., illus.
<41) Thornber, W. S.
1912. wESTEaiN tomato BLIGHT. Better Fruit 6 (11) : 14.
(42) Townsend, C. O.
1908. curly-top, a disease of the sugar beet. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur.
Plant Indus. Bul. 122, 37 p., illus.
<43) Vavilov, N.
1919. IMMUNITY of plants TO INFECTIOUS DISEASES. IzV. PetrOVSk.
Selsk. Khoz. Akad. (Ann. Acad. Agron. Petrovsk.) 1918, 239 p.,
illus. [In Russian. English resum6 p. [221]-239.]
<44) Yaw, F. L.
1924. report on survey of the canning tomato industry with sug-
GESTIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT. Calif. Agr. Expt. Sta. Circ. 280,
30 p., illus.
ORGANIZATION OF THE
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
JUNE 24, 1930
Secretary of Agriculture ; Arthur M. Hyde.
Assistant Secretary R. W. Dunlap.
Director of Scientific Work A. F. Woods.
Director of Regulatory Work Walter G. CAMPBEax.
Director of Extension Work C. W. Waeburton.
Director of Personnel and Business Admin- W. W. Stockberger.
istration.
Director of Information M. S. Eisenhower.
Solicitor E. L. Marsh at.t..
Weather BureoAi Charles F. Marvin, Chief.
Bureau of Ani/mal Industry John R. Mohler, Chief.
Bureau of Dairy Industry O. E. Reed, Chief.
Bureau of Plant Industry William A. Taylor, Chief.
Forest Service R. Y. Stuart, Chief.
Bureau of CJiemistry and Soils H. G. Knight, Chief.
Bureau of Entomology C. L. Marlatt, Chief.
Bureau of Biological Survey Paul G. Redington, Chief.
Bureau of PuMvc Roads Thomas H. MacDonald, CMef.
Bureau of Agricultural Economics Nils A. Olsen, Chief.
Bureau of Hom/e Economics Louise Stanley, Chief.
Plant Quarantine und Control Administration ^ Lee A. Strong, Chief.
Grain Futures Administration J. W. T. Duvel, Chief.
Food, Drug, and Insecticide Ad/nvinistration_^ Walter G. Campbell, Director of
Regulatory Work, m Charge.
Office of Experiment Stations , Chief.
Office of Cooperative Extension Work C. B. Smith, Chief.
Library Claribe2. R. Barnett, Librarian.
This bulletin is a contribution from
Bureau of Plant Industry William A. Taylor, Chief.
Office of Horticultural Crops and E. C. Auchter, Principal Eor-
Diseases. ticulturist, in Charge.
24
U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1930
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, "Washington, D. C. Price 10 cents
Technical Bulletin No. 188
September, 1930
LIFE HISTORY AND HABITS
OF THE PLUM CURCULIO IN
THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT
BY
OLIVER L SNAPP
Entomologist, Division of Deciduous Fruit Insects
Bureau of Entomology
United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
For lale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C.
Price 25 centt
Technical Bulletin No. 188
September, 1930
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
LIFE HISTORY AND HABITS OF THE
PLUM CURCULIO^ IN THE GEORGIA
PEACH BELT
By Oliver I. Snapp
Entomologist, Division of Deciduous Fruit Insects, Bureau of Entomology
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction 1
The Georgia peach belt and its climate 2
Methods and equipment 3
Studies of oviposition 3
Studies of incubation 3
Studies of the larval period 3
Larvae from peach drops 3
Studies of pupation 4
Emergence of adults 4
Studies of parasites 4
Studies of hibernation 4
Results of jarring 5
Studies of longevity 5
Feeding tests 5
The insectary 6
Weather records 6
Life history and habits of the plum curculio, as
observed from 1921 to 1924, inclusive 6
Life history and habits of the plum curculio, as
observed from 1921 to 1924, inclusive— Con.
The egg 7
The larva 27
The larva, pupa, and adult in the soil 37
The adult 45
Time required for transformation from egg
to adult 58
Occurrence of beetles in orchards through-
out the seasons of 1921 to 1924, inclusive.- 60
Relation of temperature to appearance of
plum curculios from hibernation 70
The relation of moisture and temperature
to the development of the curculio 73
Parasites of the plum curculio in Georgia 77
Feeding tests with lead arsenate 80
Conotrachelus anaglypticus as a peach pest 88
Summary 90
INTRODUCTION
The plum curculio, Conotrachelus nenuphar Herbst, is the most
important insect pest attacking the peach fruit in Georgia and presents
one of the chief problems with which the peach growers of that State
have to contend. Growers experienced an outbreak of this insect in
uncontrollable numbers during the season of 1920, when it took a
toll to the value of several million dollars. Only a small proportion
of the peaches of the late varieties, which make up more than one-
half of the acreage of peaches, could be marketed that year, the
larvae of the curculio rendering the remainder unmerchantable.
Much of the fruit that was shipped was unsalable w^hen it arrived on
the markets, because tiny larvae, hatched during harvest and too
small to be detected when the fruit was packed, had become sizable
in transit. This outbreak, unprecedented in the history of the insect,
was largely due to carelessness and inadequate attempts at control in
preceding years. The progeny of a number of ineffectively controlled
generations of the curculio had been multiplying for several years, the
result being the serious outbreak of 1920, when weather and other
conditions were particularly favorable for the development of the
insect. The seridusness of the situation led the Bureau of En-
1 Conotrachelus nenuphar Herbst; order Coleoptera, family Curculionida^,
110?96— 30 1
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
tomology, at the urgent request of peach growers in Georgia, to
undertake a thoroughgoing study of the life history of the plum curculio
in the Georgia peach belt. These studies were conducted during the
years 1921-1924 at Fort Valley, Ga., where a field laboratory had
been established.^
THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT AND ITS CLIMATE
One of the largest peach-growing districts in the United States is in
central Georgia. This district surrounds Fort Valley, where the
studies reported in this bulletin were conducted Within a radius of
100 miles of this town there are between 10,000,000 and 12,000,000
bearing and nonbearing peach trees in commercial orchards. The relief
of the district varies from generally level, in the immediate vicinity
of Fort Valley and to the southward, to rolling and hilly in the more
northerly portions. The elevation ranges from 230 to 975 feet above
sea level. The elevation where these studies were conducted is 526 feet.
The climate of this district is characterized by long, hot summers,
during which the changes in temperature from day to day are very
small, and by mild, brief winters. The normal annual mean tempera-
ture is about 66° F. High temperatures continue during June, July,
and August, and occasionally September is the hottest month of the
year. The average annual rainfall in the district is 48 inches.^
Climatic conditions greatly influence the development and severity
of the curculio in the Southeast. Table 1, presenting for the four years
of the study the mean temperature and the precipitation at Fort
Valley for the period from February to October, inclusive, the season
of activity of the curculio in Georgia, is therefore included to show a
comparison of the weather conditions that prevailed each year, and
for correlation with the development of the curculio.^
Table 1. — Mean temperatures and precipitation, Fort Valley, Ga., February to
October, 1921-19'24
1921
1922
1923
1924
Month
Mean
tempera-
ture
Precipi-
tation
Mean
tempera-
ture
Precipi-
tation
Mean
tempera-
ture
Precipi-
tation
Mean
tempera-
ture
Precipi-
tation
February
51.4
64.9
64.4
71.0
81.2
80.0
79.8
82.4
64.8
Inches
2.77
1.10
3.10
3.80
2.91
°F.
56.9
58.0
68.0
72.5
sn n
Inches
4.67
9.73
2.63
5.90
3.74
5.95
4.28
2.63
2.91
°F.
49.4
57.8
64.4
69.5
76.3
79.7
80.8
77.0
6.'>-3
Inches
3.87
7.51
3.27
9.71
5.99
264
5.00
2.83
.46
°F.
47.3
52.6
63.5
69.8
80.4
80.0
8Z6
71.7
63.4
Inches
5 15
March
3 37
April
4 79
May .
3 94
June.
4 93
July
8. 24 sn fi
6 18
August
4.31
1.80
2.21
7a 8
77.2
66.5
1 39
September
11 25
October .
.81
Total precipita-
tion for season.
30.24
42.44
41.28
41 81
Mean tempera-
ture for sea-
son
71.1
70.9
68.9
67.9
' The writer has been in charge of investigations of peach insects at the Fort Valley field laboratory since
Its establishment in November, 1920. The life-history records for 1921 were taken by E. R. Selkregg, as-
sisted by C. H. Brannon. The writer was assisted in taking the records for the other vears by H. J. Harris
and J. A. Dodd in 1922, by H. S. Adair in 1923, and by B. S. Brown, jr., in 1924. In addition, the writer is
greatly indebted to A. L. Quaintance, in charge of deciduous-fruit insect investigations of the Bureau of
Entomology, for valuable suggestions and advice given throughout the investigations, and to C. H. Alden,
of the field laboratory at Fort Valley, for much assistance.
' United States Department of Agriculture, Weather Bureau, summary of the cumatologi-
CAL DATA FOR THE UNITED STATES BY SECTIONS. CENTRAL AND EASTERN GEORGIA, U. S. Dcpt. AgT.,
Weather Bur. Bui. W, ed. 2, v. 3, illus. (Reprint Sec. 86.) 1926.
* United States Department of Agriculture, Weather Bureau, climatological data, Georgia
SECTION . . . February to October, 1921, 1922, 1923, and 1924. Atlanta, Qa. 1921-24.
PLUM CtTRCtJLIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT 6
METHODS AND EQUIPMENT
The procedure in these studies of the plum curculio in Georgia was
very similar to that followed by Quaintance and Jenne ^ more than 15
years ago in their studies of this insect in several sections of the
country. Much of the information resulting from the writer's studies
is presented herewith in tables patterned after those of the investi-
gators named.
STUDIES OF OVIPOSITION
Upon copulation, individual pairs of the insect were isolated and
confined in separate jelly jars. These jars were supplied with egg-
free peaches, which were renewed each day, the peaches removed
being examined (pi. 1, A) with a binocular microscope to determine
the number of eggs deposited by each female during the previous
24-hour period. The eggs can be located readily w4th the aid of a
dissecting needle, used to throw up the excavation made in the peach
by the female when the egg is deposited. Several inches of sand, which
was kept damp, were placed in the bottom of each jar, and the jars
were supplied daily with fresh peach-tree foliage for food and pro-
tection.
STUDIES OF INCUBATION
All of the peaches containing eggs deposited by a paired female
during each 24-hour period were placed together in incubation jars.
These peaches were then examined under the binocular each day or
twice a day to determine the incubation period of each egg.
STUDIES OF THE LARVAL PERIOD
The peaches containing eggs, for which incubation records had been
taken, w^ere placed in wire trays, fitted within glass battery jars 6 by 8
inches in size for observation on the larval feeding period. As the
larvae became full-grown and left the fruit, the}^ fell through the wire
tray to the bbttom of the battery jar where they were collected daily,
and records were made on the length of time spent in the larval stage.
LARVAE FROM PEACH DROPS
In order to obtain additional material for the life-history studies,
peach ''drops" were collected each year from under trees in the com-
mercial orchards, for curculio larvae. These drops were placed in
frames with wire bottoms, under which were slides consisting of cloth
fastened to wooden frames. As the larvae reached maturity and left
the fruit they fell through the wire bottom to the cloth slide below.
The slides were pulled out each morning and the larvae counted and
removed. These frames were also used in studies to determine the
curculio infectation of peach drops from various orchards, and from
the same orchard, from year to year, for purposes of comparison.
Plate 1, B, shows one of the stands of frames used in the work de-
described. This stand has four trays with wire bottoms. Under
each tray is the shallow cloth slide from which the larvae are collected.
The slides are 34 by 36 inches in size, and each section is 15)2 inches
high.
» Quaintance, A. L., and Jenne, E. L. the plum curcuuo. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent, Bui. 103,
250 p., illus. 1912.
4 TECHNICAL BULIJETIN 188, V. S. DEFf. OF AGRICULTURE
STUDIES OF PUPATION
As an aid in studies of pupation special boxes were made (pi. 2, A),
8 by 10 inches in size and 3 inches deep, with wooden sides, removable
glass bottoms sliding in grooves, and a hinged top of wire screen
fastened by a hook. An inch or two of soil, placed in each box before
the larvae were confined, was moistened each day. After the larvae
were placed on top of the soil they would work their way down until
the glass bottom was reached, and there make pupation cells. The
boxes were lifted up and examined each day, the glass bottoms per-
mitting observations on the development of the insect in the soil, and
records were made of the time spent in the soil as larva, pupa, and
adult. Marks were made on the glass for each larva under observa-
tion, so that individual records could be obtained. The adults would
work their way up through the soil, but because of the w^ire screen
they could not escape from the box. As the adults appeared above
the soil in the boxes they were removed and recorded. Cloth pads
were placed between the sides and the tops of the boxes to make the
escape of adults impossible. Cotton was stuffed in the grooves which
held the glass bottoms to prevent the escape of curculio larvae, and
also to prevent the entrance of ants, which greatly interfere with
studies of larval development and pupation in the soil by killing the
larvae and pupae if they can get to them. Mice also will interfere
with such studies if they can get to the trays into which larvae fall
from the peach drops. The larvae will not go to the glass bottoms
for pupation unless light is absolutely shut out by soil piled around
the sides.
Studies were also made of the pupation of individual specimens
kept in separate glass vials.
EMERGENCE OF ADULTS
The boxes that were used in studying emergence of adults are shown
in Plate 2, B. Each box was 12 by 15 inches in size and 9K inches
high and was nearl}^ filled with soil, which was moistened from time
to time. The tops of the boxes were of wire screen, and padding was
used to make escape of adults impossible. Each box was of sufficient
size for recording the emergence of adults from 1,000 larvae.
STUDIES OF PARASITES
Studies of parasites were conducted each year in which these life-
history studies were under way. Plate 3, A, shows a number of boxes
that were found very satisfactory for this work, and Plate 3, B,
shows one of the boxes in more detail. Records of parasites emerging
from 1,000 curculio larvae could be taken from each box. The boxes
were 12 by 15 inches in size and 9)2 inches deep; their tops were cov-
ered with both wire screen and black cloth, and were padded so that
curculio emergence records could be obtained as well as the data on
parasites. A satisfactory shelter for the work of rearing parasites
is also shown in Plate 3,' A. The roof is canvas sheeting and can be
rolled up from either side, as may be desired, to provide approxi-
mately natural weather conditions.
STUDIES OF HIBERNATION
For the four years records were taken on the mortality of adult
curculios during the winter, when supplied with different kinds of
Tech. Bui. 188. U S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 1
A, Equipment used for making oviposition records of individual pairs of the plum curculio, Fort
Valley, Qa.; B, stand of four trays with bottoms of wire mesh, and the cloth slides used with
them, for determining the infestation of peach drops
Tech. Bui. 188, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
Plate 2
A^^ Box with glass bottom and wire-screen cover, used in studies of pupation of the plum
curculio; B, boxes used m studies of emergence of adults of the plum curculio, Fort Valley, Ga.
Tech. Bui. 188. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 3
Boxes for Rearing Parasites of the plum Curculio
A, Boxes in position in a special shelter under which the parasites were studied, Fort Valley, Ga.;
B, parasite boxes shown in greater detail.
Tech. Bui. 188, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
Plate 4
A Cages used in studies of hibernation of the plum curculio, Fort Valley, Ga.; B, block of soil
used in studies of hibernation
Tech. Bui. 188, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 5
A, Jarring frames used in collecting adult plum curculios from peach trees for purposes of study;
B, the insectary at Fort Valley, Qa.
Tech. Bui. 188. U. S. Dcpt. of Agriculture
PLATE 6
A, Instrument shelttr containing some of the instruments used in making tlimatological record
at tort \ alley, Ga.; B, picking up peach drops in a commercial orchard
Tech. Bui. 188. U. S. I>ept. of Agriculture
PLATE 7
Stages of the plum Curc — z.
A, Eggs, X 7; B, larva, X 7; C, pupa, X 7; D, adult, X 8.
PLUM CURCULIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT O
quarters for hibernation. The cages used for these studies were built
in pairs, each cage bein^ 3 feet square and 5 feet high. (PI. 4, A.)
A convenient door opened into each cage from the front. The cages
were covered with wire screen and were constructed on a foundation,
the boards of which went into the ground some 8 inches to prevent the
escape of the beetles. The several kinds of hibernation quarters were
placed on the ground, and the beetles were confined in them in the
fall. As the beetles appeared on the screen in the spring they were
collected and counted, and statistics were computed on the mortality
of the beetles in hibernation for the four years. In the spring peach
twigs containing open blossoms were placed in the cages to entice the
beetles from hibernation. To ascertain if the beetles would go into
the ground to hibernate, blocks of soil containing turf were cut
(pi. 4, B), over which were placed boxes 12 by 5 by 9^ inches in size.
Beetles were confined in the boxes, and in the winter sections of the
soil blocks were examined for hibernating beetles.
RESULTS OF JARRING
During the four years that these studies were under way a number of
peach trees were jarred regularly every few days for the collection of
adult beetles. By counting these beetles data were acquired, to be
correlated with data on the development of the insect in the insectary.
Since the beetles, when jarred from the trees, feign death and fold
their wings and fall, they were caught on '' jarring frames," consisting
of pieces of cotton sheeting 6 by 12 feet in size, fastened to wooden
frames, some of which were provided with handles for convenience
in carrying. Two frames, one having in its edge a notch 10 by 10
inches in size, to receive the trunk of the tree, were brought together
under the tree preliminary to the jarring. The jarring was done by
means of a pole which had on one end a wooden block padded with a
piece of old automobile tire. The frames and poles are illustrated in
Plate 5, A. The jarring was begun at sunrise, that it might be
finished before the air became too warm, because in the warmer part
of the day the beetles are more active when disturbed, and when
jarred some fly away before reaching the sheets on the frames or
crawl off the sheets before they can be collected. At intervals the
beetles were collected from the sheets.
STUDIES OF LONGEVITY
In the course of these studies many records were taken on the
longevity of adult beetles. Glass battery jars, 6 by 8 inches in size,
were used. The bottoms of the jars were covered with sand, which
was never allowed to become entirely dry, and their tops were covered
with pieces of cloth, held in place by rubber bands. Peach foliage
and fruit were supplied for food as needed, and conditions were made
as natural as possible for the beetles confined in the jars. Adult
beetles which had been reared in the insectary the previous year and
had hibernated, and beetles captured during the year by jarring, were
used in these longevity studies. Records of longevity were also made
on the individual pairs of beetles confined in jelly glasses for studies of
oviposition.
FEEDING TESTS
A number of tests of the effectiveness of insecticides were made with
lead arsenate (as spray and as dust), nicotine dusts, etc., in the orchard
6 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
and in the insectary. In the orchard, twigs containing fruit and
foliage were treated with the insecticides by^neans of a hand sprayer
or duster, and over each twig was placed a paper bag in which were
confined a number of adult curculios. Daily examinations were then
made for records of mortality. In the laboratory, peach twigs bearing
foliage and fruit were sprayed or dusted with the insecticides to be
tested and then placed in the battery jars in which adult curculios
were confined, and records of mortality were made daily. In one
series of tests paper bags containing adult beetles were placed over
peach twigs bearing fruit and foliage on trees in an orchard sprayed
and dusted by means of power outfits. In this series of tests the
effectiveness of the insecticides in combating the curculio was tested
when they were applied commercially under usual orchard conditions.
THE INSECTARY
The insectary (pi. 5, B), in which most of the studies of life history
were conducted, was located on the laboratory grounds at Fort Valley,
Ga. It measured 12 by 24 feet on the ground, 10 feet high at the
eaves, and 12 feet at its highest point at the gable roof. The con-
struction permitted excellent circulation of air. The insectary was
shaded by a large tree and was somewhat protected from the wind by
near-by buildings, and by canvas curtains which could be lowered in
case of storms. Wire screening rendered the structure insect-proof,
and the equipment included convenient shelves, tables, and inclosure
for handling parasites. Pupation boxes were arranged on the floor
around the sides of the insectary. Near the insectary was the special
structure for rearing parasites, shown in Plate 3, A.
WEATHER RECORDS
As meteorological observer at Fort Valley for the Weather Bureau,
the writer has available a complete record for the years 1921 to 1925,
inclusive, of weather conditions at the place where the investigations
discussed were made. The influence of weather conditions on the life
history and development of the plum curculio will be briefly touched
upon in this bulletin. Maximum and minimum thermometers, a
sling psychrometer, and hygrothermographs, kept in an instrument
shelter (pi. 6, A) near the insectary, were regularly observed for data
on temperature and humidity. The precipitation was measured by
means of a standard Weather Bureau rain gage located near by.
Records were also made of wind direction, character of day, and mis-
cellaneous phenomena. All of these meteorological records are
applicable to the conditions that existed both in the insectary and in
the orchards at Fort Valley.
LIFE HISTORY AND HABITS OF THE PLUM CURCULIO, AS OBSERVED
FROM 1921 TO 1924, INCLUSIVE
The life-history studies of the plum curculio were begun early in
1921, after preliminary^ arrangements had been made. A suitable
laboratory had been established at Fort Valley in the fall of 1920.
The work was started by jarring a block of peach trees every second
morning to collect adult beetles as they appeared from winter hiber-
nation. The records of these collections gave an insight into the
activity^ of the insect in the orchards and were correlated with the
PLUM CURCULIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT
developments taking place in the insectary. The beetles captured
each time the trees were jarred were confined in a single cage. As
pairs were seen in coition they were withdrawn and isolated in jelly
tumblers to be observed for records of oviposition, as explained in the
discussion of methods and equipment.
THE EGG
OVIPOSITION IN 1921
i
The records of oviposition in 1921 were based on the egg-laying
performance of the females of 19 overwintered pairs, each pair being
isolated in a separate jelly tumbler when they were noticed in coition
in the cages containing massed beetles captured by jarring, and from
9 pairs of the first generation of adults hatched in 1921, which were
also isolated when observed in coition. Each tumbler was supplied
every day with peaches to be used both for oviposition and for food.
Daily examinations of the fruit placed in the tumblers the day before
were made for the discovery of eggs, the eggs being counted with the
aid of a binocular microscope. Before depositing the egg the female
excavates a suitable cavity with the jaw^s at the end of the snout,
then she turns around and deposits the egg in the opening of the
cavity, afterwards forcing it to the end of the cavity, and sometimes
packing it with pulp. A slit is usually cut in front of the egg to
protect it during the growth of the fruit. Sometimes the eggs are
deposited around the edges of feeding punctures or places cut in the
fruit. Some eggs, highly magnified, are shown in Plate 7, A.
Table 2 summarizes the record of the deposition of eggs during
the season of 1921 by the females of 19 pairs of adult curculios that
had overwintered.
Table 2. — First-generation eggs laid in 1921 at Fort Valley, Ga., by the females
of 19 pairs of overwintered plum curculios
Date of
isolation
Number of eggs laid week of—
Pair No.
o
2
S
<
s
<
3
08
<
o
3
o
00
CO
o
i
3
«
a
3
o
00
o
i
3
a
3
k
3
3
3
To-
tal
1
Apr. 5
.. do
2
1
2
4
2
7
8
1
2
1
•
9
3
..
10
4
5
30
25
10
5
14
13
5
2
6
20
5
6
1
4
38
12
12
26
26
12
12
2
34
12
24
24
9
12
30
22
3
12
35
6
56
47
39
(0
1
20
6
55
27
18
16
2
19
23
18
7
13
214
5
Apr. 12
Apr. 22
Apr. 27
...do
do
45
6
'" 3
7
8
5
162
7
2
4
10
2
1
1
189
8
g
....
....
....
149
25
10
Apr. 30
do
27
11
4
3
12
12
do ..
11
20
20
12
37
21
80
13
May 3
...do
13
18
2
21
89
14.
6
— -
7
— -
123
16
May 6
May 7
May 10
May 14
May 23
1
16
24
8
12
6
10
40
17
28
15
24
321
26.75
31
16
8
97
18..
25
19...
24
15
7.6
4
1.33
8
2.67
62
7.75
116
8.92
242
18.62
191
14.69
188
23.5
27
5.4
23
11.5
10
3.33
1
1
Total
117
14.63
1, 325
Average per fe-
male
69.74
Adult lost,
8 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, V. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE
These overwintered adults began to deposit first-generation eggs
on April 11, reached maximum oviposition during the week of May
25 to 31, and ceased to oviposit by July 11. Oviposition during the
stone hardening of the fruit was heavy that year. The heaviest
oviposition of first-generation eggs during the season occurred
between May 4 and June 14, the time during which the stones of the
late varieties were hardening. These records prove that oviposition
is not always diminished during the period of stone hardening and
that there is no sudden cessation of egg laying at the beginning of
this period. In all probability very few larvae hatching from eggs
deposited during this period ever reach maturity. The large secretion
of gum during the hardening of the pit, which drowns the larvae in
their burrows, and the rapid growth of tissue in the fruit, which
crushes them, are the chief causes of this mortality.
The absence of larvae in peaches during the time of stone hardening
has sometimes been erroneously attributed to a cessation of ovi-
position. It is not believed that the beetles possess any inherent
instinct to cease ovipositing at this time. Oviposition may be less
then, in some seasons, when the females appear from hibernation
earlier than usual as a result of abnormal weather, and their fecundity
has largely ended. In such seasons the increased oviposition in
ripening Hiley, Belle, and Elberta peaches is almost entirely caused
by the new generation of adults. This was especially the case in 1922.
The average number of eggs deposited by hibernated females
studied in 1921 was 69.74. The largest number deposited by a single
ovipositing female was 214 and the smallest number was 1. The
maximum number of eggs deposited by a single female in one day
was 12. One female oviposited on 57 days during the season. The
average number of first-generation eggs per female per day was 2.94.
The hibernated pairs which were used for oviposition studies were
also observed for longevity. The average time between mating and
the death of the males was 29.26 days and the females lived an
average of 42 days after mating. ,
The record of the deposition of eggs of the second brood in the
season of 1921 is summarized in Table 3. These eggs were deposited
by the females of nine pairs of adult curculios, already mentioned, of
the first generation hatched in that year, which began to deposit
eggs on June 22, reached maximum oviposition in the week of July
13 to 19, and ceased oviposition for the season by August 16. During
the three weeks from June 22 to July 12, eggs of both the first and
second generations were being deposited in the insect ary, the first by
females which had hibernated, and the other by the nine females
mentioned. The first-recorded egg of the second generation in 1921
was laid on June 14, when it was observed in a jar containing assembled
adults of the first generation that had emerged between May 29 and
June 2. The young larvae hatching from second-generation eggs
first began to appear in the orchards during the harvest of Hiley
peaches. The larvae in the fruit were then either very small or
nearly full grown, a fact indicating that the last of the first-generation
larvae were still in the peaches, and that larvae of the second genera-
tion were beginning to hatch. As the harvest advanced these small
larvae increased in number. There was a distinct demarcation
between the two generations of larvae in the orchards.
PLUM CURCULIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT
9
Table 3. — Second-generation eggs laid in 1921 at Fort Valley, Ga., by the females
of nine pairs of adult plum curculios of the first generation
Date of
isolation
Number of eggs laid week of— •
Pair No.
June
22 to 28
June
29 to
Julys
July
6 to 12
July
13 to 19
July
20 to 26
July
27 to
Aug. 2
Aug.
3 to 9
Aug.
10 to 16
Total
1
June 2
June 18
June 21
June 24
July 1
• do
1
1
2 -
8
4
1
6
3
15
14
2
5
2
13
3 -
5
1
1
2
14
4
12
12
26
5
6
6
7
17
11
3
27
7
July 7
July 8
July 14
•
•
26
8
8
2
7
7
39
9
4
Total
13
6.50
19
9.50
37
7.40
53
6.63
17
4.25
8
4.00
9
4.50
156
Average per female
17.33
The female curculios of the first generation in 1921 were slow to
begin ovipositing in the insectary. Some difficulty was experienced
in getting peaches for oviposition during August and September.
Methods for the studies of life history were being developed, and con-
ditions for ovipositing by first-generation adults during the hot mid-
summer days were perhaps not the best. Had it been possible to
get late fruit in 1921, and had more natural conditions for oviposition
been supplied for the first-generation adults, the number of second-
generation eggs deposited would undoubtedly have been greater and
the period of oviposition longer. Although the new generation of
beetles were slow to begin ovipositing in the insectary, the occurrence
of young larvae of the second generation in the orchards was timed
normally in relation to the appearance of the new beetles.
The average number of second-generation eggs deposited during
the season of 1921 by females of the first generation was 17.33, but
because of the conditions mentioned it does not represent the normal
average. The maximum number of eggs deposited by a single
female in one day was 7. The average number of second-generation
eggs laid per female per day was 2.07. Observations of the individual
pairs used for studies of oviposition showed that the males of the
first generation lived an average of 18.25 days and the females an
average of 27.43 days. Had the beetles lived under more natural
conditions, the longevity of both males and females would have been
greater and undoubtedly a number would have gone into hibernation
at the end of the season.
OVIPOSITION IN 1922
The records of oviposition in 1922 were based on the performance
of the females of 50 pairs which had hibernated during the winter of
1921-22, 11 pairs of the first generation of adults which were reared in
the insectary in 1922, and those of 15 pairs collected by jarring in
May and June. These pairs were isolated when they were observed
in copulation and confined in jelly tumblers with sand, kept moist,
in the bottom. Peaches were supplied daily for food and to oviposit
in. The eggs from each pair were counted daily with the aid of a
binocular microscope. Table 4 summarizes the record of the deposi-
tion of eggs.
10
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
These adults began to deposit eggs on April 7, reached maximum
oviposition during the week of April 13 to 19, and completed ovi-
position by May 31. The first egg was noticed in the orchards on
April 3. Oviposition was not heavy during the stone-hardening
period. The heaviest oviposition occurred during April, and the
fecundity of the overwintered females was becoming exhausted by
the time the peach stones were hardening.
Table 4. — First-generation eggs laid in 1922 at Fort Valley, Ga., by the females
of 60 pairs of overwintered plum curculios
Date of
isolation
Number of eggs laid week of—
Pair No.
Apr.
6 to
12
Apr.
13 to
19
Apr.
20 to
26
Apr.
27 to
May 3
May
4ta
10
May
11 to
17
May
18 to
24
May
25 to
31
Total
1
Mar. 16
...do....
0
2 .
5
5
3
Mar. 17
...do
0
4
5
2
1
7
5
...do....
...do
1
6
0
7....
Mar. 21
11
8
1
1
2
13
6
42
8
...do 1
0
9
Mar. 24
. do
0
10
0
11
...do
...do
...do
8
8
6
4
9
6
12
2
3
2
1
23
12
10
13
9
14
Mar. 25
...do
...do
...do
4
15...
9
7
18
16
2
15
17
0
18
.do . .
3
21
6
2
3
2
29
19
...do . .
8
20 :
...do
...do
2
3
2
21
3
22
Mar. 27
3
1
1
1
1
2
1
3
13
23...
Mar. 28 fi
8
24
...do
7
8
25
Mar. 29
0
26
...do ....
4
3
1
5
3
4
12
27
...do
8
28...
...do
0
29
Mar. 30
...do
3
3
5
1
2
2
1
4
7
4
24
30
7
31
...do . .
1
32
...do
0
33 ..
Mar. 31
...do
11
5
2
2
5
5
4
34
34
0
35
-..do
5
7
2
1
9
3
4
4
--
5
--
5
36
Apr. 1
Apr. 4
...do
19
15
2
7
10
5
4
2
2
2
56
37
22
38
1
39...
...do
13
2
7
17
1
8
1
i'
4
34
40...
...do
6
41
do
9
20
42.
do
22
43
Apr. 5
Apr. 8
Apr. 9
Apr. 8
...do
1
44
1
45
12
5
2
3
1
1
19
46
5
47
6
48
Apr. 11
...do ■
3
49
0
60
Apr. 12
0
Total
152
5.07
192
6.4
29
2.07
39
3
17
4.25
31
6.2
24
4
8
2.67
492
Average per female...
13.3
PLUM CURCULIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT
11
I
The average number of first-generation eggs deposited in the
season by hibernated laying females was 13.30. The observations
in this series were made every second or third day, and therefore the
actual number of days on which eggs were laid, the maximum num-
ber of eggs in one day, and the average number of eggs per day can
not be given. Undoubtedly during this series the sand in the tumblers
was kept too moist for maximum oviposition. Fungus was often
found growing in the jars. In all probability these unnatural condi-
tions affected the oviposition of the hibernated females in 1922,
causing the number of eggs recorded to be much smaller than normal.
Observations on the hibernated pairs used for oviposition studies in
1922 showed that the average number of days between mating and
the death of males was 27.35, whereas the females lived an average
of 38.08 days after mating.
Table 5 summarizes the record of the deposition of eggs of the
second generation during the season of 1922 by the females of 11 pairs
of first-generation curculios reared in the insectary. These females
began to deposit eggs on June 23, reached maximum oviposition
during the week of July 20 to 26, and completed oviposition for the
season on September 15. On September 27 the pairs or individuals
remaining alive were placed in hibernation. The first egg of the
second generation recorded in 1922 was observed on June 14 in a
jar containing assembled first-generation adults that were reared in
the insectary. In all probability oviposition of second-generation
eggs in the field occurred at about that time. There was perhaps
very little overlapping of depositions of eggs of the first and second
generations during the season of 1922.
Table 5. — Second-generation eggs laid in 1922 at Fort Valley, Ga., by the females
of 11 pairs of adidt plum curculios of the first generation reared in the insectary
Number of eggs ' laid week of—
Pair No.
June
22 to
28
June
29 to
Julys
July 6
to 12
July
13 to
19
July
20 to
26
July
27 to
Aug.
2
Aug.
3 to 9
Aug.
10 to
16
Aug.
17 to
23
Aug.
24 to
30
Aug.
31 to
Sept.
6
Sept.
7 to
13
Sept.
14 to
20
Total
1
0
0
13
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
'I
4
0
0
a
0
0
27
0
35
0
36
0
12
0
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
115
2
0
3
13
4 - .
0
21
0
11
8
21
1
12
0
0
0
12
8
22
0
7
0
0
0
22
0
32
0
24
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
30
6
0
7
24
0
7
0
10
36
0
0
0
2
18
0
0
1
0
3
0
0
38
0
0
0
0
12
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
11
0
0
0
3
141
8
22
9
86
10.-..
67
11.... .:
55
Total
Average per
female
14
7
33
8.25
74
12.33
49
12.25
105
26.25
76
19
74
24.67
31
10.33
46
15.33
12
12
1
1
11
11
3
3
629
66.12
1 The ciphers in this table (and in subsequent tables) signify that observations were made but no eggs
were laid; the blanks indicate that no observations were made.
12 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The average number of eggs of the second generation deposited by
each laying first-generation fernale in 1922 was 66.12, considerably
more than in 1921, when conditions for oviposition in captivity were
poor. The maximum number of second-generation eggs deposited
by a single female in one day was 8. One second-generation female
deposited eggs on 40 days during the season. The average number
of second-generation eggs per laying female per day was 3.09. The
males that did not enter hibernation lived an average of 60.67 days,
and the females an average of 60.25 days.
In 1922 similar records were made for the females of 15 pairs of
curculios that were collected by jarring between May 25 and June 17.
These beetles, therefore, either hibernated during the winter of
* 021-22 or were adults of the first generation of 1922, in all prob-
ability the latter. Although it can not be definitely stated whether
the eggs deposited were of the first or second generation, the records
would indicate that they were eggs of the second generation. Table 6
summarizes the record of the deposition of these eggs.
Table 6. — Eggs laid at Fort Valley, Ga., by the females of 15 -pairs of adult plum
curculios collected by jarring between May 25 and June 17, 1922
Date of
collection
Date of
isolation
Number of eggs laid week of—
Pair No.
June
8 to
14
June
15 to
21
June
22 to
28
June
29 to
July 5
July
6 to
12
July
13 to
19
July
20 to
26
July
27 to
Aug.
2
Augi
3 to
9
Aug.
10 to
16
Total
1
May 30
June 13
—do---.
June 3
June 15
.--do
June 9
June 13
...dO.---
June 15
--do
June 16
June 17
June 19
June 20
June 21
June 22
—do-.-
4
6
2
1
2
3
0
14
1
2
1
1
2
9
4
21
2
0
15
6
0
2
4
0
0
2
9
13
2
0
9
8
1
0
2
3
8
6
12
18
2
25
24
0
23
10
0
0
74
2
15
3-
4
3
0
0
65
4
5 --
11
7
11
1
0
9
13
1
0
23
16
0
0
0
64
6._-
20
7.
June 3
June 8
June 9
May 25
June 6
June 3
...do
5
1
0
6
10
0
0
4
0
2
9
29
1
0
12
0
0
5
13
0
1
3
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
1
0
83
8-
7
9-. -
2
10 - -
57
11
79
12
3
13
June 28
—do
June 30
0
0
1
14
June 17
June 3
- -
2
15 .
19
22
17
1
62
Total ---
4
4
29
4.14
63
6.3
55
5
98
8.91
112
12. 44*
125
13.89
45
6.43
6
3
1
1
538
Average
per fe-
male
35.87
These beetles began to oviposit on June 12, reached maximum
oviposition during the wxek of July 20 to 26, and completed oviposi-
tion by August 15. The average number of eggs deposited by each
female was 35.87. The maximum number of eggs deposited by a
single female in one day w^as 10. One female deposited eggs on each
of 36 days. The average number of eggs per female per day was 2.
Records of longevity showed that the males lived an average of 60.46
days after the date of collection in the field and the females lived an
average of 64.46 days.
OVIPOSITION IN 1923
In 1923 records were made from 63 individual pairs which had been
reared in the insect ary in 1922 and which had passed the winter.
These were isolated in separate jelly tumblers when they were noticed
PLUM CURCULIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT 13
in copulation. There were no records of eggs of the second genera-
tion, laid by adults in 1923, as this was the one year of the four com-
prising the period of these studies in which only one full generation
occurred. Climatic conditions prevented a full second generation in
1923, both in the orchards and in the insectary. A number of first-
generation adults copulated in the summer of 1923 and were isolated
as usual in jelly tumblers, but none of them attempted to oviposit.
Table 7 summarizes the record of the deposition of first-generation
eggs during the season of 1923 by the females of 47 pairs of plum
curculios that had passed through the winter. These beetles were
reared in the insectary and were of the first generation of 1922. On
account of the large number of individual pairs that were carried for
oviposition records in 1923, the eggs deposited by the 47 females
were counted at the end of every three days instead of daily.
14 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
"oo
^1
1
|2«"§52^^^"^S|^S|§S5SS^|
ag(N-.
^SSS
t~ic
^*SSB^
t
o
1
a
t^
r.-
Ir^
I 1 jeo I 1
•M
11
1 1 1 ! 'eo 1 ! 1 1 • > ! 1 •
■ »H JOM I
ia»
I ! !■« luj 1 I ! 1 I I I I •'HMO I»^ I
leo
-^-s
58^
1 leow lo'-i I I I I Iw I«coc<i-i It^-H !
• w-* I joo j
I I-^*"—! IcCt^ I I 1 I I|^ Ir-lOOlO l^^ I
• to« • '<o*n
I jOio jeot^ ;!!!!'* ■•o«>e«^ -gio •
Io»iO 1 <oo«o
5g =
t^ 1
1 jeoio iec<N ; ; ; ; ; ^ i-i cc t»« cs <n It>.«c j
jt^^ I Iior^m 1
>C '
[00«.-i j^-* 1 I 1 • I-^eOTfOO-* j«0 I
jb-WC* ji^t^O j
§2^
eo '
Ic^cirt Ieo»o I 1 I«o 1 1^ o 1-1 o» '-"»j« I-^fft* 1
■ •ot^o ;J2'^o j
11
^00
I
Ij^-H-.*- !t».^ 1 jr-HOO i J5J J-H as « O UO IjHCJ 1
IS
t-9,-1
O 1
I®ccoo j<Nc>j I io>c ;222<^*'^J2 ;;*«= ;
iCC<
• o«ao jwgjt^ ;
O 1
■OS^O j?C05 j IiCiC loOOttOClt-jCOC^i^'CS
s^
joor;^OJ jooQoeoN
1=^
CO j
isSS '>^ S5i:: i2?3S"*S°^«"°®
QOt^
;°>5SSS;^SS?J
00 '
looTf Ii-Hio I Iiooc loioo^ ooooogj too
tOt^»M
:J::^?5S522?5'«
>.2
1^ i
losooN lo-^ ' '«OJ !oot^«ot^eor^O!T»<o
^'-^
'•tnc^w^aoc<t-^>rit^
2"^
'osicco ioto 1 Ic^t^ 1 — t -<- eo »c cc 00 cc -^ 1-1 0
Oi'i'cO
-^SgJS2»;:22
i^
rHt^
fo 'J' t^ 00 ^ ^ r- 1 l^eo Ii<eo«coo (N t^Tj< ^o
•*eo«o«oO«or^e<3t^rf<icoC'-<
is-
050
oeoiOT*<«rOT*.co^ior^(NOeCrHO^ooeooo^Mt^eo-^ooiNecocoo->co
§1
«OCOMOOOCO^OOOO.-l^ ! 1 1 I
li
...do
...do
Mar. 14
Mar. 15
...do
Mar. 16
.-do
Mar. 17
...do-...-
...do— -
--do
Mar. 18
Mar. 19
Mar. 22
Mar. 23
i^ i
d fcj d c
ik
-i
> d c
"Ox:
c
t:
?5§
Mar. 27
Mar. 31
...do
—do
<
d
•s
c«e<5-«
•JJoJJs22i-i««^f^^l^?i?
weopijrt
4i^
•*
4%
5
ii^
iiiin
i»
PLUM CURCTJLIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BEL'I
15
§8?2
§S
cor^QO
(N
«e*
O
©o
'^
«0(M
NO
^w
CO
,
CS.O
t^ .
!t^^4
Ot^
38 S5
;;^o^
l-^-H
N
1 t^ O (N r^ ■«»< "3
ss
""^
C*
1 t^ Tf ■»*" N »0 O
§25
O
' 1-H O C>< O r-l >C
CO
! ■<»< c<j o o ■«*< •*
§-
^'^^^g*^®??
«o CC
00 (N ^ ^ 00 ■>»• es ^H
s^
1^ o t^ eo eq .
JO N ^H 00 2 ■* t^ «
cst^O!-^t^»oc;jjo
»0 0» QO ■* OS ^ -* t^
^00
«c«o«>oo«c»oc^;o
rtWOOCCCOON
<NCQ
oo->*<ooooo
i^'
8S
est-
00^
o
-§
o
1
i
1
1
si
^
-t>
i^^
:?
i?
:SSS
16
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, TJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTTJBE
The females of the first generation of 1922 began to deposit eggs
of the first generation of 1923 on April 9, reached maximum ovi-
position during the week of May 18 to 24, and ceased to oviposit by
August 28. Individuals, or pairs, remaining alive on August 30
were placed in hibernation. Oviposition during May and early in
June, 1923, when the peach stones were hardening, was heavy, as
shown in the table. However, as explained in the discussion of the
oviposition records for 1921, very few of the larvae that hatch from
eggs deposited during this period ever reach maturity.
The average number of first-generation eggs deposited during the
season of 1923 by females of the first generation of 1922 was 80.77.
As the observations for oviposition were made on every third day, it
is not possible to give the actual number of days on which eggs were
laid by these females, or the maximum number deposited in any
one day, or the average number per female per day.
The first curculio egg to be found in the field in 1923 was observed
on April 5 in a wild plum. No eggs were found in peaches in the
field until April 12, although some few were probably deposited
before that date, as deposition in peaches began in the insectary on
April 8.
Table 8 summarizes the record of eggs laid by the females of 8
pairs of plum curculios that had passed through the winter of 1922-23.
These beetles were of the first generation of 1922 and were reared in
the insectary. Their eggs wxre counted daily.
Table 8. — First-generation eggs laid in 1923 at Fort Valley, Ga., by the females
of eight pairs of plum curculios of the first generation of 1922, reared in the insec-
tary and overwintered
Number of eggs laid week of—
Pair No.
Date of
isolation
Apr.
6 to 12
Apr.
13 to 19
Apr.
20 to 26
Apr. '
27 to
May 3
May
4 to 10
May May
11 to 17 18 to 24
1
May
25 to 31
June
lto7
June
8 to 14
61
Mar. 24
...do.-.-
...do
...do
...do
do
0
0
4
1
0
0
2
4
10
7
15
6
0
0
11
16
19
14
35
14
0
1
14
19
28
31
36
28
1
15
24
36
20
0
26 i 29
19 i 31
54 39
25
25
9
23
22
13
53
54
22
55
56
0 4
58
59
...do..
--
20
3
14
23 26
18
19
18
60
do
Total
11
2.75
65
10.83
116
16.57
147
21
109
21.8
122
30.5
129
25.8
77
19.25
64
21.33
53
Average per
17.67
Date of
isolation
Number of eggs laid week of—
Pair No.
June
15 to 21
June
22 to 28
June
29 to
Julys
July
6 to 12
July
13 to 19
July
20 to 26
July
27 to
Aug. 2
Aug.
3 to 9
Total
51 ...
Mar. 24
3
19
191
53
.do
.do
14
10
15
13
8
10
2
286
54
228
55
...do
69
56
...do
5
58
...do.._.
59..-
-do-.-,
-do--
20
25
18
21
15
6
0
2
271
60
42
Total
42
14
39
19.5
28
14
36
18
28
14
13
6.6
10
10
4
2
1,093
136 63
Average per f
finale
PLTJM CUKCtTLIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT
17
These females began to deposit eggs on April 12, 1923, and reached
maximum oviposition during the week of April 27 to May 3, although
oviposition was heavy through May and early in June. They
ceased to oviposit by August 5. The average number of first-
generation eggs deposited by them was 136.63. The maximum
number deposited in one day by one individual was 14 One female
deposited eggs on each of 99 days. The average number of eggs
per female per day was 3.03.
Table 9 summarizes the record of the deposition of first-generation
eggs during the season of 1923 by the females of eight pairs of adults
of the second generation of 1922, reared in the insectary and over-
wintered. The eggs were counted daily.
Table 9. — Eggs of the first generation, laid in 1923 by the females of eight 'pairs
of plum curculios of the second generation of 1922, reared in the insectary and
overwintered
Number of eggs laid week of—
Pair No.
Date of
isolation
Apr.
6 to 12
Apr.
13 to 19
Apr.
20 to 26
Apr.
27 to
May 3
May
4 to 10
May
11 to 17
May
18 to 24
May
25 to 31
June
lto7
June
8 to 14
1
Mar. 16
Mar. 24
--do
Mar. 29
Apr. 10
Apr. 17
Apr. 19
Apr. 25
1
7
10
0
0
7
18
8
0
4
0
35
9
27
0
29
6
1
0
40
■ 8
48
0
36
10
19
8
33
13
25
0
16
5
13
6
57
7
39
1
46
29
21
18
33
7
43
25
1
38
21
0
43
15
2
3
4
38
9
21
16
13
25
10 .
11.
19
15
21
18
24
12
3
Total
18
6
37
9.25
107
1/83
169
24.14
110
15.71
218
27.25
158
22.57
98
19.6
103
25.75
87
Average per
female - -
17 4
Date of
isolation
Mar. 16
Mar. 24
do .
Number of eggs laid week of—
Pair No.
June
15 to 21
June
22 to 28
June
29 to
July 5
July
6 to 12
July
13 to 19
July
20 to 26
July
27 to
Aug. 2
Aug.
3 to 9
Total
1
17
5
43
12
4
42
3
1
40
12
1
27
5
2
8
316
2
4
1
0
23
1
13
95
3
516
4..
Mar. 29
Apr. 10
Apr. 17
Apr. 19
Apr. 25
1
9
152
10
66
11
31
38
27
31
35
25
33
25
34
20
16
24
11
40
.......
318
12.. .
307
Total
134
26.8
116
23.2
104
20.8
98
19.6
69
13.8
45
11.25
74
24.67
26
8.67
1,771
221. 38
Average per female.. .
The second-generation females of 1922 began to deposit first-
generation eggs in 1923 on April 8, reached maximum oviposition
during the week of May 11 to 17, the same week as did the first-
generation females of 1922, and ceased to oviposit by August 8.
Oviposition was heavy during the period of stone hardening, as was
the case with oviposition by females of the first generation of 1922.
The average number of egg^ deposited per female was 221.38. The
largest number deposited by a single female was 516, which inciden-
tally was the highest oviposition recorded for any individual during
110296—30 2
18 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTtTRE
the four years. This female deposited a maximum number of 14 eggs
in one day, and she oviposited on 101 days during the season. The
average number of eggs per female per day was 3.34. Oviposition
during the season of 1923 by females of the second generation of the
preceding year was heavier than that by females of the first genera-
tion, owmg to the oviposition begun by first-generation females in
the year in which they were reared.
In 1923 an attempt was made to record the oviposition of females
for which oviposition records had been made in 1922. Only two pairs
and one female of a third pair survived the winter of 1922-23. The
female of one of these pairs failed to deposit any eggs in 1923, and the
female of the other pair and the individual female deposited only one
egg each. The single individual died on May 29, and the two pairs
died in hibernation in the winter of 1923-24.
As has been remarked, there was no second generation of any con-
sequence of the plum curculio in Georgia in 1923. Fifty -one pairs of
adults of the first generation copulated and were isolated in separate
jelly tumblers, but none of them deposited eggs or showed signs of
oviposition. They fed considerably and were normal in every other
respect. A single egg was found on August 2 in a peach in one of the
tumblers, but in all probability this egg was deposited in the field
before the peach was brought in, by a female which had overwintered,
and was overlooked when the eggs were being cut from the peaches
to be placed in the tumblers.
A few eggs of the second generation were found in a large cage in
which were kept together 149 adults of the first generation of 1923
that were reared in the insectary. Of these, 75 emerged on June 12
and 74 on June 13. By females of the earlier lot 5 eggs were laid on
August 3, 1 on August 5, 4 on August 22, and 3 on August 27, a total
of 13. By females of the later lot 45 eggs were laid in all, 10 on August
4, and the others on 13 later dates, ending with the deposition of 1
egg on August 30. The maximum number of eggs laid on any one
day after August 4 was 7.
OVIPOSITION IN 1924
The records of oviposition in 1924 were based on the performance
of the females of 27 pairs of adults which had hibernated during the
winter of 1923-24 and laid eggs of the first generation in 1924, and 7
pairs of the first generation of adults in 1924, which laid eggs of the
second generation of that year. All of the beetles used for oviposition
in 1924 were reared in the insectary. They were isolated in jelly
tumblers when they were noticed in coition. All eggs laid in 1924
were counted daily.
Table 10 summarizes the record of the deposition of first-generation
eggs during the season of 1924 by the females of 27 pairs of adult
curculios of the first generation of 1923. These began to deposit eggs
on April 10, reached maximum oviposition during the week of April
27 to May 3, and completed oviposition by July 15. On April 9
the first curculio egg was found in the orchard in 1924. A study of
the table shows that considerable oviposition took place in 1924
during the stone-hardening period.
PLUM CtJRCULIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT
19
Table 10. — Eggs of the first generation, laid in 1924 by ^h^ females of 27 pairs of
plum curculios of the first generation of 1923, which were reared in the insectary
and overwintered
Pair No.
Date of
isolation
Number of eggs laid week of—
3
CD
<
2
0
1
2
<
CO
s
0
3
3
2
00
>>
1
CO
a
0
i
5
3
00
§
>-r>
0
i
s
0
1-9
0
i
§
2
0
S
2
3
1
52
Mar. 28
...do_....
Apr. 16
Mar. 31
...do...-.
...do
2
1
' "2
1
0
""0
0
1
0
0
0
s
0
0
0
5
2
1
3
1
5
3
1
0
0
6
3
3
1
1
2
3
2
0
7
9
2
10
14
13
9
5
4
5
3
2
1
53
53
Hj-. 54
0
2
34
>>
g
Wgk ^" "
25
20
5
12
5
12
7 11
112
mm 66
^ 57
2
8
12
13
58
Apr. 16
Apr. 2
_ do
14
7
7
24
16
6
26i 15
9
12
3
1
156
59 . .
1
60
7
11
14
19
15
73
63
Apr. 4
do
6
64
8
13
1
0
1
36
65
Apr. 7
Apr. 10
...do
...do
...do
...do
...do
3
67 . - .
»»
17
17
0
li
9
18
3
7
21
9
18
8
.!
1
8
82
68
69
70
7i
72
6
0
3
4
18
' 103
4
13
19
10
0
1
0
1
2
1
....
70
7
0
78
80
82.
84
85
86
Apr. 19
Apr. 22
..do
6
2
2
1
7
5
7
3
3
2
3
5
0
i
19
5
1
14
12
Apr. 23
Apr. 28
Apr. 29
May 10
...do
. do . -.
...
.
4
-
1
1?
5
88
14
4
3
22 26
17
27
10
il6
89
90
....
....
....
....
4
3
Total
44
8.8
7
1.4
42
2.63
112
6.22
148
9.25
131
8.73
111
7.93
132 J«
67
11,17
54
13.5
10
5
i4
7
4
2
1
1
960
Average per
female
12
9.22
35.56
The average number of first-generation eggs deposited per female
during the season of 1924 was 35.56. The maximum number of eggs
deposited by a single female in one day was 9. One female oviposited
on each of 60 days of the season. The average number of eggs per
female per day was 1.99. The hibernated beetles did not oviposit
as heavily in 1924 as they did in 1923, perhaps because plums were
used in getting some of the oviposition records in 1923. The curculio
prefers a smooth-skinned stone fruit for oviposition.
Table 1 1 summarizes the record of the deposition of second-genera-
tion eggs during the season of 1924 by the females of seven pairs of
beetles of the first generation of that year. The females began to
lay these eggs on July 7, reached maximum oviposition in the week of
August 3 to 9, and ceased oviposition for the season on October 16.
Of course oviposition did not take place at that late date in the com-
mercial orchards, as the peach harvest had long been over. The
average number of eggs deposited per female was 40. The individual
ovipositing pairs in the insectary were supplied with late peaches
from a small home orchard.
20 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 11. — Eggs of the second generation, laid in 1924 by the females of seven
pairs of plum curculios of the first generation of that year, reared in the insectary
Pair No.
Date of
isolation
Number of eggs laid week of—
2
o
9
2
S
i
s
>>
<
s
>>
3
<->
2
eo
<
2
2
o
<
2
60
3
<
«5
o.
2
eo
2
2
8
2
2
ei
eo
1
o
2
1
2
i
2
2
June 20
July 5
July 11
July 19
July 24
Aug. 2
Aug. 30
1
0
0
1
11
0
3
14
4
16
0
6
38
38
26
1??
18
7
25
7
1
15
6
44
28
1
34
18
15
4
0
27
28
14
38
41 - -
10
10
10
12
12
12
4
4
4
3
3
3
5
5
5
6
6
6
67
Total
" ■
1
1
3
3
14
4.67
71
23.67
30
15
0
0
34
11.33
59
19.67
mo
Average per
female
40
As shown in Tables 10 and 11, there was practically no overlapping
in the deposition of first-generation and second-generation eggs in
1924, as the first generation of adults did not begin to oviposit until
the deposition by beetles that had passed through the winter of 1923-
24 had practically ended. Deposition of second-generation eggs in
jars containing massed beetles of the first generation of 1924 began
between July 8 and July 12, and the oviposition in these jars was
heavy by July 16.
Apples were tried for oviposition at one time in 1924, when peaches
were scarce, but the curculios did not oviposit in them as readily as
they did in plums and peaches. Apples were also used at times in
other years. Peaches w^ere used almost entirely for oviposition in
1924. Plums were used for oviposition, especially early in the season.
The plum curculio apparently prefers plums to other fruit for ovi-
position, probably because of the smooth skin and the texture of the
meat of the plum.
The average number of second-generation eggs deposited during
the 1924 season by females of the first generation was 40. The
maximum number of eggs deposited by one female in one day was 7.
These females did not deposit eggs over a very long period, the greatest
number of days upon which any of them oviposited being 28. The
average number of eggs per female per day was 2.53.
OVIPOSITION DURING THE FOUR YEARS
In Table 12 are brought together the combined weekly egg-laying
records of all beetles of the plum curculio for each of the four years,
during which oviposition records of 10,940 eggs were made.
PLUM CURCULIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT
21
^'•S "^
sills
<x> B ® "''o
rf< ec O C^ t^ t^ M (
t^ CO « -^ 30 I- «0 <
ai t^ CO <c " '
(;C 'H F^ 5C !
1 iOO
CO C>1 C<3 rr
S^
111!^
Hs-
& 5 by
tn r-1,-1
I Tf C»
lOOINOSOO
IS'= § ??<
« p« ^ t^ ■* 00 ^o
(O T*! (M rH CC »0
IS S ^i
-H 50 CO -"j- Tt< (M C050 (NCO->**
no t-- CO r^ o CO
rH OOt-- (M CO-*
s?^;
COOCOiOCC t-. «ot-
■^cO'-Hiooo «o ose<5
O "C CO C<1 rt< 1-H 00 ■*
03 CO CO iO IC CO CO
^ CO ^
00 "O CO i^t^
^J a
228
•-■ «
friOQ
?J c^
2 85
I i
22
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE
The maximum number of eggs deposited by a single individual
during the four years were laid in 1923, when one female of the second
generation of 1922 that had lived through the winter of 1922-23
deposited 516 eggs. The maximum number of eggs by an individual
of the first generation were also laid in 1923, when one individual of the
first generation of 1922 deposited 286 eggs. The average number of
eggs deposited per individual by the various groups ranged from 13.3
to 221.38. The average number of first-generation eggs deposited
per individual per season during the four years was 64.64, the average
number of second-generation eggs was 40.21, and the average per
individual per season for all eggs was 59.14.
The percentages of eggs deposited by the end of the second, fourth,
sixth, and eighth weeks after isolation of the parents, and during
the ninth and all later weeks are given in Table 13 for all of the eggs
of the first generation, those of the second, and those laid in 1923 and
classed as of either the first or second, but which in all probability
are of the second.
Table 13. — Percentage of eggs of the plum curculio deposited in given periods of the
egg-laying season, Fort Valley, Ga., 1921-1924
Percentage of eggs deposited—
Generation
By
end of
second
week
By
end of
fourth
week
By
end of
sixth
week
By
end of
eighth
week
During
ninth
and later
weeks
First -
6.3
31.4
25.5
22.6
56.5
55.2
43.4
82.0
89.6
61.0
97.9
100.0
39.0
2 1
Second
First or second
The period over which first-generation eggs are deposited is more
extended than the period of deposition of second-generation eggs.
Only 6.3 per cent of the total first-generation eggs were deposited
during the first tw^o weeks after copulation, whereas 31.4 per cent of
the total second-generation eggs were deposited during a like period.
Over half of the total second-generation eggs had been deposited by
the end of the fourth week, whereas not quite one-fourth of the total
first-generation eggs had been deposited at the end of that period.
At the end of the eighth week, 97.9 per cent of the total second-gener-
ation eggs had been deposited, whereas at the end of the eighth week
in the case of overwintered adults only 61 per cent of the eggs of the
first generation had been laid.
Although the generation of the eggs referred to in Table 12 as either
first or second can not be definitely determined, it is highly probable
that they are second-generation eggs, as the records of oviposition
seem to indicate, and they were deposited by bright, new^-looking
adults that were collected by jarring peach trees at the time first-
generation beetles were emerging from the soil in 1922.
INCUBATION IN 1921
The fruit containing eggs that were deposited on any one day was
placed in a single incubation jar. On the second or third dav after
deposition, depending on the temperature, and on each day thereafter,
PLUM CURCULIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT
23
each egg was examined to determine the date of hatching. In exam-
ining eggs for incubation records the slit in the fruit above the egg was
raised with a dissecting needle under a binocular microscope. Table
14 gives the incubation periods for 270 eggs of the first generation
during the season of 1921.
Table 14. — Length of incubation period of 270 first-generation eggs of the plum
curculio, Fort Valley, Ga., 1921
Time of deposition
Eggs
Egg days
Average
incubation
period
May -
Number
115
100
55
Number
654
333
183
Days
5.69
June - .
3.33
July 2 to 12
3.33
Total or average.
270
1,170
4.33
No incubation records are available for April, 1921; however, the
period would have been at least as long as if not longer than for May.
On account of higher temperatures the incubation period of plum
curculio eggs in Georgia is much shorter from June to August than it is
before or after that time. The average time for first-generation eggs
to hatch was 5.69 days in May and 3.33 days in June and July. The
average period for the season was 4.33 days.
INCUBATION IN 1922
During the season of 1922 the eggs were examined twice in each 24
hours to obtain the hatching dates. However, hatchings were re-
corded at only one examination in each 24-hour period, therefore the
incubation periods represented by fractions of days are omitted from
the tables. Incubation records were made during the season on 53
eggs of the first generation (Table 15) and 89 eggs of the second
generation.
Table 15.
-Length of incubation period of 58 first-generation eggs of the plum
curculio, Fort Valley, Ga.
Number
of eggs
Number of eggs hatching in specified number of days
Date of deposition
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Number
of egg
days
Apr. 11
9
11
6
1
4
3
1
li
4
1
2
1
53
Apr. 15
44
Apr. 19
1
3
2
45
Apr. 22
1
6
Apr. 26 -
3
1
11
Apr. 29
.
2
1
20
Total...
34
179
May 3
4
3
2
1
2
3
4
......
2
1
1
1
1
15
May 6
12
May 10
7
May 13
1
4
May 17
1
1
14
May 20..
2
......
1
8
May 25 -. . , -.
2
18
Total-
19
78
24 TECHNICAL BtJLLETIN 188, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The average length of the egg stage for May, 1922, is less than that
for May, 1921, because the mean temperature was higher during the
spring of 1922 than during the same period of 1921, as will be noted in
Table 1. In 1922 the average time for first-generation eggs to hatch
in April was 5.26 days, and in May 4.11 days. The average incubation
period for the two months was 4.85 days. Small larvae were found in
peaches in the field on April 7 and 8, so hatching in the field in 1922
probably started a few days earJier than the first record given in
Table 15, which was obtained in the insectary.
Incubation records on second-generation eggs were obtained during
June, July, and August of 1922. (Table 16.)
Table 16.-
-Length of incubation period of 89 second-generation eggs of the plum
curculio, Fort Valley, Ga.
Date of deposition
Number
of eggs
Number of eggs hatching in
specified number of days
Number
of egg
2
3
4
5
days
June 16
3
i'
3
1
1
5
4
3
June 17 .—
3
June 20 _ - -
1
19
June 18
12
June 21
1
7
June 24
1
9
June 28
'. i-
2 1
12
June 29
-1 3
1 !
14
June 30
10
Total
28
j
89
1
July 4
2
3
2
1
8
1
5
111
2
3
8
Julys.
12
July 7
2
1
2
1
5
11
6
Julys
3
July 11 -
"
30
July 12...
3
July 21
15
July 25
33
Total
33
i.. . ! . . -
110
Aug. 3...
117
15
16
8
9
43
Aug. 15
5
3
20
Aug. 19
3
21
Total
28
84
" ■
1 Apples as host. Peaches as host for all others.
The average incubation period of second-generation eggs during the
season of 1922 was 3.18 days. The average period in June was 3.18
days, in July 3.33 days, and in August 3 days. The incubation
period of second-generation eggs w^hich w^ere hatching during the
summer months is much shorter than the incubation period of first-
generation eggs.
INCUBATION IN 1923
Incubation observations were made daily during the 1923 season.
Records were made of 769 eggs of the first generation (Table 17) and
14 eggs of the second generation. The overwintered females ovipos-
ited over an unusually long period, extending from April to August.
There was practically no second generation in 1923. Only 14 second-
generation eggs w^ere obtained from many first-generation adults
during the season, and these were all deposited during August, when
a number of first-generation beetles were confined together in a jar.
PLUM CTJHCTJLIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT
25
Table 17. — Length of incubation period of 769 first- generation eggs of the plum
curculio, Fort Valley, Ga., 1923
Time of deposition
Eggs
Egg days
Average
incubation
period
Apr. 12 to 30 -
Number
125
303
215
116
10
Number
696
1,679
720
360
32
Days
6.57
May
5.54
June .
3.35
July
3.10
Aug. 1 to 3
3.20
Total or average , .
769
3,487
4.53
First-generation eggs, deposited on April 12, 1923, started to hatch
on April 18. On the same date larvae 3 to 5 days old were found in
peaches in the orchards, so hatching must have started several days
earlier in the field than it did in the insectary. First-generation eggs
hatched in an average of 5.57 days in April, 5.54 in May, 3.35 in
June, 3.1 in July, and 3.2 in August. The average incubation period
of first-generation eggs during the season was 4.53 days. Table 18
gives the incubation records on the 14 second-generation eggs. All
of these eggs were deposited during August. The average incubation
period was 3.04 days.
Table 18. — Length of incubation period of llf. second-generation eggs of the plum
curculio, Fort Valley, Ga., 1923
Date of deposition
Number
of eggs
■
Number of eggs hatch-
ing in specified number
of days
Number
of egg
days
2H
3
3H
Aug. 2 ...
1
2
1
4
3
2
1
1
3
Aug, 7
7
Aug. 17
Aug. 21
Aug. 22
-.
i
3
3
2
3
IIH
9
Aug. 26
Aug. 28...
6
3
Total
14
42V^
INCUBATION IN 1924
In 1924 all of the eggs used for incubation studies were examined
twice in each 24-hour period to obtain the hatching dates. Records
are available of 936 eggs of the first generation (Table 19) and 283
eggs of the second generation.
Table 19. — Length of incubation period of 936 first-generation eggs of the plum
curculio, Fort Valley, Ga., 1924
Time of deposition
Eggs
Egg days
Average
incubation
period
Apr. 10 to 30
Number
197
551
180
8
Number
1,197
2,99L5
546
22.5
Days
6.08
May .....
5.43
June
3.03
July 1 to 15
2.81
Total or average.
936
4,757
5.08
26 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE
The average length of the egg stage for April, 1924, 6.08 days, is the
highest average for any month recorded during the four years.
Undoubtedly this was due to the low temperatures prevailing during
that month. Table 1 shows that the mean temperature during April,
1924, was lower than the mean temperature for April of the other three
years of these studies. The average incubation period of the eggs
during May was 5.43 days, which is high. A period of cool weather
occurring between May 8 and 12 delayed incubation about two days.
The average incubation period of first-generation eggs during June
and July was 3.03 and 2.81 days, respectively. The average incuba-
tion period of first-generation eggs during the season was 5.08 days.
The eggs began to hatch on April 17.
During 1924 records on the incubation of second-generation eggs
were obtained during July, August, September, and October. (Table
20.) This is the only year that incubation records are available for
September and October. A number of second-generation eggs were
deposited during September, and one female continued ovipositing
until October 16.
Table 20. — Length of incubation period of 28S second-generation eggs of the plum
curculio, Fort Valley, Ga., 1924
Time of deposition
Eggs
Egg days
Average
incubation
period
July 15 to 31
August
September
Oct. 13 to 16
Total or average
Number
65
164
48
Number
158
435.5
204
33.5
283
831
Days
2.43
2.66
4.25
5.58
2.94
The average incubation period during July and August of 2.43
and 2.66 days, respectively, is lower than the average incubation
period during the same months of the other years. Undoubtedly
this was on account of the very hot weather during those months in
1924. Some of the eggs hatched in 2 days during July, which is the
shortest incubation period of plum-curculio eggs on record. The
average period of incubation for September was 4.25 days, and for
October 5.58 days. On account of the cooler weather of late Septem-
ber and October, the length of the incubation period during those
months approached that of the spring months. The average length
of the second-generation egg stage for the season was 2.94 days. This
is a little lower than the average incubation period of second-genera-
tion eggs during the other years, even though September and October
records are included, and is undoubtedly due to the short period of
incubation during July and August, when very high temperatures
occurred.
INCUBATION DURING THE FOUR YEARS
Table 21 presents a summary of the incubation records taken in
the four years. During this period 2,414 eggs were under observation
for incubation records.
PiiUM CURCULIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT
27
Table 21. — Length of incubation period of eggs of the plum curculio, Fort Valley,
Ga., seasons of 1921-1924
_^ Year
First-generation eggs
Second-generation eggs
Number
Maxi-
mum in-
cubation
period
Mini-
mum in-
cubation
period
Average
incuba-
tion
period
Number
Maxi-
mum in-
cubation
period
Mini-
mum in-
cubation
period
Average
incuba-
tion
period
^Biooi
270
53
769
936
Days
12
9
11
8
Days
2.0
2.0
3.0
2.5
Days
4.33
14.85
Days
Days
Days
■W*1922
89 5. 0
2.0
2.5
2.0
3.18
1923
4.53 ! 14 3.5
5. 08 283 7. 0
3.04
1924
2.94
> Record for April and May only; too high for season's average.
The incubation periods of first-generation eggs during the four
years ranged from 2 to 12 days, with averages ranging from 4.33 to
5.08 days. The period of incubation of second-generation eggs
ranged from 2 to 7 days, with averages ranging from 2.94 to 3.18
days. The average period for the incubation of first-generation eggs
in 1922 should be lower for the season, as the figure given is for April
and May only. The 1921 average does not include an average for
April. As the mean temperatures during the spring of 1921 were
lower than those in 1922, the incubation period for the season of 1921
would be longer than that for 1922, if records for each month from
April to July were available for each year. There was very little
difference in the average period of incubation of second-generation
eggs during the three years reported. The average was a little lower
in 1924 on account of the very hot July and August. The maximum
period of seven days for the incubation of second-generation eggs
occurred in October, 1924. There were no October records available
for the other years.
THE LARVA
EMERGENCE OF LARVAE FROM PEACH DROPS
Most of the peaches in which curculio eggs are deposited before the
stone starts to harden fall to the ground. Each season quantities of
these drops were collected from under trees in commercial orchards
and placed in frames (pi. 1, B) to obtain data on the maturity of
larvae (pi. 7, B) and the comparative infestations of drops from differ-
ent collections and from different orchards, and to supply material
for insect ary work. Conditions for the development of larvae are
much more favorable in drops than they are in the green peaches that
remain on the trees. There is a very heavy mortality of the larvae
in the fruit on trees during the stone-hardening period, as explained
on page 8. After the stone-hardening stage has passed, and the fruit
enters the ripening stage, conditions in the fruit on the trees again
become more favorable for the growth of larvae that hatch a few
weeks before peach harvest. A large part of the curculio infesta-
tion of the season, however, takes place from the beginning of the
oviposition season in the spring until the stone of the peach begins to
harden. As most of the peaches containing eggs or larvae during
this period fall to the ground, the emergence of mature larvae from
drops gives an excellent insight into the degree of infestation for the
28 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, XJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
season, probable size of the second generation, progress of curculio
development, etc.
During each of the four years that the life-history studies were
under way 2K bushels of drops were collected to obtain information
on the comparative curcuho infestation for these years and to deter-
mine the period that the larvae from early deposited eggs were leaving
the fruit. These drops were collected each year when they began to
fall in sufficient numbers to warrant a collection. They were placed
in trays, and each morning the larvae that had reached maturity
and left the fruit during the previous 24 hours were removed from the
cloth-covered slides and recorded. These records, which are sum-
marized in Table 22, present a comparison of the extent of the curcuho
infestation during the four years and show the period of heaviest
larval emergence under orchard conditions.
Table 22. — Emergence of first-generation larvae of the plum curculio from peach
drops at Fort Valley, Ga., 1921-1924
Approxi-
mate
date of
full blos-
som of
peach
trees
Time of
collection
of drops
Emergence of larvae during—
Year
April
May
June
Total
larvae
emerging
1921
Mar. 9
Mar. 16
Mar. 27
Mar. 29
Apr. 8
Apr. 19
Apr. 30
Apr. 29
Number
12, 229
2,508
Per cent
98.5
91.1
Number
189
220
9,322
3,142
Per cent
1.5
8.0
99.4
99.1
Number
Per cent
Number
12, 418
1922
1923
25
57
0.9
.6
2,753
9,379
1924
28
.9
3,170
Table 22 shows that 12,418 larvae of the plum curculio emerged
from the 2^ bushels of drops in 1921. This represents a tremendous
infestation, which was expected, because in 1920 the heaviest plum-
curculio infestation ever experienced occurred in the Georgia peach
belt. The records for 1922 indicate that the intensive curculio sup-
pression campaign which was w^aged during 1921 had been very effec-
tive. A total of 2,753 larvae emerged from the 2)2 bushels in 1922.
The records for 1923 are not reliable for comparison. It was neces-
sary to collect the 1^23 drops from another orchard, and late in the
season it was learned that the control measiu"es advocated in the
curculio-suppression campaign had not been enforced during previous
seasons in this orchard. The 2K bushels of drops yielded 9,379 larvae
in 1923. Even though the curculio infestation of drops in this
orchard may have been greater than in most of the other orchards,
the general infestation in the peach belt probably was somewhat higher
than in 1922, and had it not been that only one generation occurred
that year, considerable curculio damage to the fruit crop might have
been experienced. In 1924 the 2^ bushels of drops gave 3,170 larvae.
There was more merchantable fruit in Georgia in 1924 than in any
of the preceding years. Each year after 1920 the curculio damage to
ripe fruit became less, in a large measure as a result of the various
control measures that were enforced.
As may be noted from the approximate dates of full bloom of peach
trees, given for each year in Table 22, the season of 1921 was early.
PLTJM CURCULIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT
29
Peach trees were in full bloom by March 9, and matured larvae
began to leave peach drops on April 9. From drops collected April
8, 98.5 per cent of the larvae emerged during April and 1.5 per cent
during May. Two full generations occurred in 1921.
The blooming season of 1922 was about a week later than that of
1921. Larvae started to emerge on April 21; 91.1 per cent emerged
during April, 8 per cent during May, and 0.9 per cent during June.
Two full generations occurred in 1922.
The 1923 season was very late. Full bloom did not occur until
March 27, and larvae did not start to reach maturity until May 1.
There was only one generation in the field in 1923. From drops
collected April 30, 99.4 per cent of the larvae emerged in May and
0.6 per cent in June.
The 1924 season was also late. However, a small second curculio
generation occurred that year. Favorable conditions during the
pupation season may have been responsible for the second brood.
The first-generation larvae may have matured a little more rapidly
in 1924 than in 1923, or eggs may have been deposited a little earlier,
as matured larvae began to leave drops on April 29 in 1924. Full
bloom did not occur until March 29 that year. From the 2K bushels
'of drops collected on April 29, 0.9 per cent of the larvae emerged
during April and 99.1 per cent during May.
During each of the four years, peach drops were collected at differ-
ent times during the dropping season to determine for each collection
the percentage of the total emergence from drops for the season, the
period of emergence of larvae of the first generation in orchards, and
the seasonal history of the insect in the larval stage as it occurred
in the field.
Table 23 gives a summary of the emergence of larvae from drops
collected at 10 different times during: the season of 1921.
Table 23. — Emergence of plum-cur culio larvae from peach drops collected at differ-
ent times during the season of 1921, Fort Valley, Ga.
Dale of collection
Period of emergence
Number
of larvae
Percent-
ate of
total
Apr. 1
Apr. 8 to 24
267
218
1,535
389
378
36
79
135
189
48
8. 1
Apr. 5 -.
Apr. 10 to May 1 . ..
6.7
Apr. 12
Apr. 13 to May 22
46 9
Apr. 19
Apr. 20 to May 2^
11 9
Apr. 25...-
Apr. 2fi to May 31
11.5
May 2
May 4 to June 1 ....
1.1
May 10 -
May 12 to June 2
2 4
May 19
May 20 to June 8
4 1
May 27
Mav 28 to June 20 - -
5.8
June4... 1
June 5 to 13 . .
1.5
Total.
3,274
100 0
The first matured larvae to emerge during the 1921 season were three
that issued on April 8 from drops collected on April 1. The table
shows that 46.9 per cent of all the larvae emerging from drops during
the season came from the third collection made on April 12. The
first five collections in 1921 gave 85.1 per cent of the larvae. The
first and second collections were made too soon in 1921. If they had
been delayed until about April 9, three collections, timed about April
9, 17, and 25, would have sufficed for commercial purposes and would
30 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, TJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICtlLTtrRfi
have netted around 85 per cent of the larvae. The data collected
on this subject during the four years revealed the fact that the first
collection of drops should be made about one month after full bloom.
In 1921 full bloom occurred on March 9.
Table 24 gives a summary of the emergence of plum-curculio
larvae from drops from 96 Belle peach trees, collected at different
times during the season of 1922.
Table 24. — Emergence of plum-curculio larvae from drops from 96 Belle peach
trees y Fort Valley, Ga., 1922
Date of collection
Apr. 19.
Apr. 21.
May 1-.
May 8-.
May 15-
June 5--
Total.
Quantity
of peach
drops
Bushels
H
m
Period of emergence
Apr. 21 to Junes..
Apr. 25 to May 29.
May 2tol8
May 10 to 23
May 17 to June 6.
June 6 to 10
Number
of larvae
397
106
57
12
57
5
634
Percent-
age of
total
62.6
16.7
9.0
1.9
9.0
.8
100.0
The first collection of drops was made on April 19, about one month
after full bloom, which occurred on March 16 in 1922. This collec-
tion gave 62.6 per cent of the larvae emerging from all drops. The
first three collections gave 88.3 per cent of the total larvae. The
first matured larvae to leave peach drops in the insectary in 1922 came
out on April 21. Two larvae in peaches collected in the field had
reached maturity and left the fruit on April 19.
Table 25 gives a summary of the emergence of plum-curculio
larvae from drops collected at different times during 1923 from under
trees in five rows of Belle peach trees.
Table 25. — Emergence of plum-curculio larvae from drops collected under five rows
of Belle peach trees, Fort Valley, Ga., 1923
Date of collection
Quantity
of peach
drops
Period of emergence
Number
of larvae
Percent-
age of
total
May 2
Bushel
H
H
May 3 to June 3
1,498
711
226
155
118
5
55.2
May 7
May 8 to June 5
26.2
May 14
May 16 to June 4
8.3
May 21.. ..
May 22 to June 7 .
5.7
May 28
May 29 to June 12
4.4
June 9.
June 10 to 12 .- .-.-.
.2
Total
2,713
100.0
The first collection of drops made on May 2, just a little over one
month after full bloom, which occurred on March 27, gave 55.2 per
cent of the larvae that emerged from all drops. The first three col-
lections gave 89.7 per cent of the total larvae that emerged from all
drops during the season. The first larva to mature in peach drops
under field conditions in 1923 came out on April 30 from peach drops
brought to the insectary April 27.
PLUM CUECULIO IN THE GEOEGIA PEACH BELT
31
Table 26 gives a summary of the emergence of plum-curculio larvae
from peach drops collected weekly during the dropping season in
1924 from Hiley peach trees.
Table 26.-
■ Emergence of plum-curculio larvae from drops {1 peck per collection)
from Hiley peach trees, Fort Valley, Ga.
m
Date of collection
Period of emergence
Number
of larvae
Percent-
age of
total
Mayl
May 2 to 14
3
35
52
4
4
3 0
Mays .-
May 9 to 17 .
35.7
May 15
May 15 to 18
53.1
May 22
May 25 to 27
4 1
May 29 -
June 2 to 4
4 1
Total-.
98
100.0
Full bloom occurred on March 29, and the first collection of drops
was made on May 1. The first three collections gave 91.8 per cent
of the larvae that emerged from drops during the season. The first
larva to reach maturity in drops under field conditions in 1924 emerged
on April 29.
PICKING UP PEACH DROPS
The data presented in Tables 22 to 26, inclusive, show that the
Uttle peaches that begin to drop to the ground about a month after full
bloom are usually very heavily infested with first-generation curculio
larvae. The collection and destruction of these drops by burying
them in a trench, at least 24 inches below the surface of the soil, and
covering with a layer of quickhme before filling in with soil, or by
boiling the drops, will materially reduce the number of first-generation
adults that deposit eggs in the fruit just before and during the harvest-
ing season, when two generations occur, or during the following season,
when there is but one generation. This supplementary control meas-
ure has been strongly recommended in the Georgia peach belt and has
been adopted by a majority of the growers. The data show that three
collections of drops will get around 90 per cent of the larvae that fall
to the ground in the small peaches during the season. The first col-
lection should be made about one month after full bloom or when there
are enough drops down to warrant a collection. The other two col-
lections should be made at intervals of five or six days.
An orchard of 1,394 Belle peach trees was divided into two equal
plats, and care exercised in the division to avoid subjecting one side
to a greater area of possible curculio hibernating quarters than the
other. The drops were collected six times from plat 1, although the
last two collections were unnecessary, and on plat 2 they were al-
lowed to remain on the ground throughout the season. Both plats
were otherwise treated exactly alike. They received the spray
applications consisting of the same materials on the same days, and
the cultivation in each was always done on the same days.
At harvest the fruit from 8 record trees in the center of each block
was cut open to obtain data on the curculio infestation. The 4,832
ripe peaches from 8 trees in plat 1 contained 58 infested peaches, or
1.2 per cent, whereas the 6,182 peaches from 8 trees in plat 2 had 139
infested peaches or 2.2 per cent. An average of three crates of peaches
32
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
per tree were harvested from this orchard in 1922. The picking up
of drops reduced the curculio damage nearly one-half, and 33 crates
of merchantable fruit per thousand trees were saved. This fruit, at
$2.25 per crate, was worth $74.25. After deducting the cost of
gathering the drops during the season ($28.80), there was a net saving
of $45.45 per thousand trees. This would be a net saving of around
$4.50 per acre. The chief benefit from the operation, however, is
that of preventing the development of myriads of adults, and thereby
reducing the infestation in subsequent peach drops, which can not
be computed definitely in dollars and cents.
The cost of picking up drops is surprisingly low in Georgia, where
cheap negro labor is used. (PI. 6, B.) Much of the early opposition
to this control measure was based on the fear that the expense would
be too heavy. Table 27 shows that six collections of drops were
made in one Georgia orchard for 2.88 cents per tree. Data on drops
show that three collections will get most of the larvae that fall during
the season. The last three collections shown were not really neces-
sary. The cost of the first three collections was 2.14 cents per tree.
Table 27. — Cost of picking up peach drops, Fort Valley, Ga., 1922
Date of collection
Size of peaches
Quantity
of drops
from 96
trees
Larvae
in drops
Propor-
tion of
total
larvae
emerging
from
drops
Cost of
gathering
drops
(per 100
trees)
Apr. 19 - Small
Apr. 24 ' do
May 1 ; Mostly large.
Mays I Large
May 15 ! do.
June 5 ! do
Baskets i
8
6H
19
16
Number
397
106
57
12
57
5
Per cent
62.6
16.7
9.0
1.9
9.0
.8
Total.
505/^
634
100.0 I
2.88
1 Each basket held five-eighths of a bushel.
The very small peaches that fall first contain most of the larvae,
and the percentage of infested drops decreases as the larger fruits fall.
When negro children are employed to pick up drops, they will
gather all the large ones, especially if they are paid by the basket, which
is not a good practice, but frequently leave on the ground the small
ones that are very likely to be infested. Care should be exercised to
see that the laborers gather all the drops. In one case 36 matured
plum-curculio larvae emerged from small peach drops which were
collected from under trees just after a commercial gathering had been
made by negro laborers.
Some growers have tried to destroy the larvae in drops by submerg-
ing them in water, or by throwing them into rivers, ponds, or other
bodies of water. It is surprising how long curculio larvae will remain
alive in drops submerged in water. Undoubtedly, many would
escape from drops floating to the river or pond banks.
In 1921 the writer observed that unprotected larvae apparently
could live for some time in water before being drowned. Sometimes
rain or water from decaj^ing peaches would collect at the bottom of
emergence cages, and larvae that had been on top of this water for
some time would revive when removed and placed on soil. One larva
and one pupa were placed in water in a small jar in 1921 and left for
24 hours; when removed, both revived in a short time.
PLUM CURCtJLIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT 33
Some special tests were conducted in 1922 to determine how long
larvae were able to live in peaches and apples submerged in water.
Three lots of peaches and four lots of apples containing curculio
larvae were placed in water on August 9 and kept submerged for
periods of 18K, 24, 48, and 72 hours. The results may be summarized
as follows:
In peaches submerged 18^ hours: Four larvae were removed; all appeared dead
at first, but became active in 30 minutes; when placed on soil, all entered.
In apples submerged lS}i hours: Two larvae were removed; they revived and
entered the soil, but were not as active as those from peaches.
In peaches submerged 24 hours: Three larvae were removed; all were inactive
at first; 2 became active in 30 minutes and later entered the soil; 1 did not recover.
In apples submerged 24 hours: Three larvae were removed, 1 being active and
2 inactive; all were active in 30 minutes; 1 larva entered the soil; 2 immature
larvae did not enter the soil.
In peaches submerged 48 hours: Two larvae were removed; both revived in
about two hours; they were placed on soil, wherg they remained alive about two
hours but never entered.
In apples submerged 48 hours: Three larvae were removed; all recovered but
did not enter soil.
In apples submerged 72 hours: Three dead larvae were removed.
Tests were also conducted in August, 1922, to determine how long
unprotected larvae and pupae would remain alive in water. The
results were as follows:
Two larvae, in water 2}^ hours: Both appeared dead, but one became active in
8 minutes and the other in 10 minutes; they were placed on soil, but did not enter.
Two larvae, in water 18^2 hours: One was dead and one alive.
Two larvae, in water 20 hours: One was dead and one alive.
Three pupae, in water 2}^ hours: One was dead and two were alive. The live
ones were again placed in the water and 16 hours later they were found dead.
Four pupae allowed to float on surface of water. After 24 hours all were alive;
after 48 hours 1 was dead and 3 were alive; after 72 hours 3 were alive; after 114}^
hours 2 were dead and 1 was alive; after 210}^ hours the last one was dead.
In 1923 some observations were made on the length of time the
adults could remain alive in water. One adult curculio was noted to be
alive on March 19 after having been in water for 52 hours. On
March 19 four other curculio beetles were placed in a jar of water.
At the end of 26 hours, during 6 hours of which the water was covered
by ice, 3 of the 4 beetles were alive, and after 144 hours these 3 were
still alive.
EXPOSING PEACH DROPS TO THE SUN
Some peach growers have expressed the opinion that if peach drops
could be exposed to the direct sun rays many of the curculio larvae
therein would not be able to mature, and a few growers have made
efforts to pull the drops out from under the trees for exposure to the
sun, instead of picking them up for destruction. This opinion was
apparently well founded, as Crandall,^ of Illinois, showed some years
ago that many curculio larvae in apples were prevented from maturing
by exposing the fruit to the sun. In 1924 the writer conducted an
experiment to determine the effect of direct rays of the sun on curcuho
larvae in peach drops. On May 1, 50 peach drops were placed in each
of 8 boxes, partly filled with soil, and exposed to the direct rays of the
sun. The drops in four boxes were placed on top of the soil, whereas
the drops in the other four boxes were placed about 2 inches below the
soil surface.
« Ceandall. C. S. The curcuuo and the apple. 111. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 98, p. 467-560, illus. 1906.
110296—30 3
34 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Periodical examinations of the glass-bottomed boxes between May 1
and July 27, and sifting of the soil on July 27, did not reveal a single
larva from the boxes in which the drops were placed on top of the soil .
Examinations of the boxes in which the drops had been buried 2 inches
below the soil surface showed that some larvae had left the drops, and
soil cells could be seen against the glass bottoms. When the soil was
sifted on July 27 four dead larvae were found in these boxes. There
was no adult emergence from any of the eight boxes. The drops for
this experiment were taken from a lot which was known to have about
20 per cent curculio infestation.
The results of this test show rather definitely that the direct sun rays
have a decided action on the curculio larvae in peach drops. Hot
and dry weather during the dropping season, especially if the drops
are brought out from under the trees, perhaps brings about the
mortality of many larvae in the little peaches on the ground. Of
course, growers should not*dependonthe possibility that larvae will
be killed in drops exposed to the direct sun rays. . Collecting and
destroying them is the sure method of reducing the number of adult
curculios in peach orchards.
UNDERSIZED LARVAE
During each of the four years undersized larvae were noted to leave
drops and when placed on soil they would work their way into it as
if for pupation. No adults were reared from these larvae. Quaint-
ance and Jenne * are of the opinion that undersized larvae leave the
fruit on account of an unfavorable condition of the fruit, or on account
of an unhealthy condition of the larva itself. In 1924 a careful record
was kept of the normal and undersized larvae that emerged from peach
drops during the season. A total of 4,745 larvae left the fruit between
April 29 and June 4; 973, or 20.5 per cent, of these larvae were under-
sized. The percentage of undersized larvae is perhaps higher during
the beginning of the dropping season than later on.
TIME OCCUPIID BY LARVA IN ENTERING SOIL
When the larvae become full grown they leave the host, and imme-
diately upon reaching the soil they prepare to enter it for pupation.
It is during these few minutes on the soil, before entering it, that
many larvae are killed by predacious enemies. Ants ^ are very
numerous in Georgia peach orchards, and without doubt they kill
many curculio larvae as they leave the fruit to enter the soil. Ants
have often been noticed carrying curculio larvae. Many times
they have killed hundreds of larvae that were placed in pupation or
parasite boxes for life-history records. The time required for the
larvae to enter the soil depends, of course, on the kind of soil, its
moisture content, state of cultivation, etc. Thirty observations
were made on this point in 1922. Sandy loam, gently packed or fairly
wet, was used for these observations, which showed that the time
occupied in entering the soil ranged from 1 to 7 minutes, with an
average of 3.12 minutes from the time that each larva began to enter
the soil until it was out of sight.
* QuAiNTANCE, A. L., and Jenne, E. L. Op. cit.
> Formica rufa var., Prenolepis imparls Say., Lasim sp., Pheidole sp.
PLUM CTJRCULIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT 35
EMERGENCE OF SECOND-GENERATION LARVAE
During 1921 a record was taken on the emergence of second-genera-
tion larvae from peaches in which first-generation adults had ovi-
posited. A total of 355 second-generation larvae emerged from the
peaches during the period from July 2 to September 10 of that year.
Of these, 52.4 per cent emerged in July, 45.9 per cent in August, and
1.7 per cent in September. The Elberta peaches were moving during
the first 15 days of July.
The first full-grown second-generation larvae emerged in 1921 on
July 2, and in 1922 on June 30, whereas the first full-grown second-
generation larva to leave the fruit in 1924 was not recorded until
August 4. There was no second generation in the field in 1923, and
records were obtained on only ^ye second-generation larvae in the
insectary. The first one left the fruit on August 13, and the others
on August 21 and 22 and September 7 and 11. When a second
generation of the plum curculio occurs under normal conditions in
Georgia, the emergence of second-brood larvae from the fruit is much
earlier than indicated by the records obtained in the insectary in 1923.
TIME SPENT IN THE FRUIT
No records are available for the length of time spent by larvae in
the fruit in 1921. However, during the seasons of 1922, 1923, and
1924 many records were made on the length of time required by
plum-cure ulio larvae to reach maturity in the fruit, and the length of
the egg and larval stages combined, for both generations.
The average time for the first-generation larvae hatching in April,
1922, to reach maturity in peaches was 21.5 days, and for those hatch-
ing in May, 13.3 days. The average time spent in the fruit as egg and
larva by individuals from eggs laid in April was 24.5 days, and from
eggs laid in May, 17.8 days. The average time for the larvae to ma-
ture during the season, based on 10 records, was 14.9 days, and the
average time spent in the fruit as both egg and larva was 20.5 days.
The average time for second-generation larvae to mature in June,
July, and August of 1922 was 12.7 days, based on six records, and
the average time spent in the fruit as egg and larva during the same
period was 15.5 days.
Records are available for the combined second-generation egg and
larval stages in peaches and apples, in 1922, for 709 individuals.
Apparently more time is required for curculio larvae to reach maturity
in apples than in peaches. The average time spent in peaches as
egg and larva by individuals from eggs laid in June was 15.5 days and
from eggs laid in July, 16.7 days, whereas the average time spent in
apples by individuals starting in July was 27 days and by those start-
ing in August and September 27.1 and 28.1 days, respectively. The
average time spent in both peaches and apples by the egg and larval
stages of the second generation during 1922 was 20.3 days. The
average period for the season in peaches alone is much lower, as shown
in the preceding paragraph.
The average time spent in the fruit by the first-generation larvae
hatching in May, 1923, was 15.7 days, and for those hatching in June,
July, and August, 13.5, 12.4, and 12.8 days, respectively. This shows
that the time spent in the fruit as larva decreases as the season
progresses. First-generation larvae became full grown in the fruit
in an average period of 14 days in 1923, based on 157 records.
36 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, V. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The average time spent in peaches by the egg and larval stages
combined of 130 individuals of the first generation in 1923, from eggs
deposited in May, June, and July, was 19.1, 17.5, and 13.5 days,
respectively. The average time for the season was 17.8 days.
There was no second generation of the curculio in the field in 1923;
however, records of six individuals of the second generation were
obtained in the insectary. The average time spent in the fruit by 3
larvae was 14.3 days and the average time as egg and larva by 3
other individuals was 14 days. The three larvae were hatched on
August 11 and 24, whereas the three individuals observed for egg and
larval stages combined were from eggs deposited August 4 and 5.
This may account for the difference in the length of the larval stage
of the several individuals. These records are too few to warrant
serious consideration of this difference.
In 1924 the average time spent in the fruit as egg and larva by
individuals of the first generation starting in May was 17.2 days and
by those starting in June, 13.1 days. The average time during the
season was 16 days, based on 109 records.
For individuals of the second generation starting in August, 1924,
15.2 days were required for the egg and larval stages in the fruit,
and for those starting in September, 26.4 days. The average time
spent as egg and larva in the fruit during the season was 17 days,
based on 57 records.
Table 28 gives a summary of the records taken during 1922, 1923, and
1924, on the time required for plum-curculio larvae to reach maturity
in the fruit and the time spent in the fruit as egg and larva. The ta-
ble shows that curculio larvae reach maturity in the fruit more rapidly
during the summer months than during the spring and fall months.
Table 28. — Summary of time required for plum-curculio larvae to reach maturity
in fruit and time spent in fruit hy egg and larval stages combined, Fort Valley,
Ga., 1922-1924
Time of hatching or of egg deposition i
Larval period
Egg and larval periods
combined
First gen-
eration
Second
generation
First gen-
eration
Second
generation
1922
April
Days
21.5
13.3
Days
Days
24.5
17.8
Days
May .
June-August - ..
12.7
"'""""15.5
June .. .
15.5
July
16.7
Do
2 27.0
August
2 27.1
September .
2 28.1
Average ..
14.9
12.7
20.5
3 20.3
1923
May
15.7
13.5
12.4
12.8
19.1
17.5
13.5
June
July
August
<14.3
4 14.0
Average
14.0
<14.3
17.8
* 14.0
1924
May
17.2
13.1
June ...
August
15.2
September
26.4
Average
16.0
17.0
1 Time of hatching for those observed for larval period; time of egg deposition for those observed for egg
and larval periods combined.
2 In apples.
3 In both apples and peaches; the average for individuals in peaches in June and July was about 16 days.
♦ Records on only a few individuals.
PLUM CUECtJLIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT 37
THE LARVA, PUPA, AND ADULT IN THE SOIL
During the four years 1921 to 1924, inclusive, many records were
taken of the time spent in the soil by the curculio as larva, pupa
(pi. 7, C), and beetle, or from the time that the larva entered the soil
for pupation until the resulting beetle emerged. Data on both gen-
erations were taken. The records on individual specimens were
obtained by rearing the insect in vials. Pupation boxes (pi. 2, A)
were used for records on a number of individuals in the same box.
Plum-curculio larvae will not make a soil cell for pupation in the
presence of light. In order to make conditions favorable for pupation,
the vials were pushed down into sand, and soil was placed around the
sides of the pupation boxes, to prevent any light from reaching the
glass bottoms. If any light was admitted the soil cells would not be
constructed on the glass bottoms, where the development of the insect
could be observed. Moist sand or moist sandy loam was the best
medium for pupation. Moist sawdust, shavings, and clay have been
used for pupation, and while the larvae made soil cells in these mate-
rials against the glass bottoms of the pupation boxes, they apparently
preferred moist sand or sandy loam for pupation. The larvae seem
to contract within the larval skin just before pupating, causing the
anal end to be transparent. The pupae apparently abhor light, as
they always wiggle violently when the vials or pupation boxes are
lifted out of the soil to the light. The pupae gradually turn yellowish
brown and finally shed the pupal skin. The eyes of the pupa turn
black, and then the mandibles darken a few days before the skin
begins to darken. The adults just after transformation are yellowish
brown, })ut with age they darken to dark brown varied with gray.
TIME SPENT IN SOIL IN 1921
The weather was exceedingly changeable during the pupation season
of the first generation in 1921, and pupation and adult emergence were
somewhat delayed. Some of the larvae examined during the spring
of 1921, after they had been in the soil 21 days, showed no signs of
pupation. When these larvae were replaced on top of the soil they
readily reentered it. The first pupa found in the field in 1921 was
noted on May 9. On May 11a careful examination was made of the
condition of the larvae in the soil under trees in orchards. This
examination showed that about one-half the larvae in the soil on that
date had pupated. The first pupa in the insectary in 1921 was re-
corded on May 14. This pupa was found in an indoor box in which
curculio larvae had been placed on April 15 and 17.
Records on the length of the pupal stage of the first generation of the
plum curculio in 1921, and the time spent in the soil as larva, were
taken on 339 individuals. The average time spent in the pupal stage
by first-generation individuals entering the soil in April and May was
10.6 days. The average time spent in the soil before pupation by the
first-generation larvae entering in April was 29.9 days, in May, 18.5
days, and in June 12.2 days, with an average of 25.8 days for the
season. The time spent in the soil as larva and pupa by those enter-
ing in April was 38.7 days, as compared with 29.6 days for those
entering in May, the average for the season being 34.9 days.
Records taken during 1921, on the total length of time spent in the
soil by 672 individuals of the first generation of the plum curculio in
38 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, U. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE
the larval, pupal, and adult stages combined, show that the curculios
which entered the soil as larvae in April spent 51 days in the soil, those
entering in May, 36.5 days, and those entering in June, 31.4 days,
with an average of 48.6 days for the season.
The records of another lot of 993 curculios of the first generation
which entered the soil as larvae during April, 1921, show that the
average time spent in the ground by these individuals was 57.7 days.
Records of 41 individuals show that the average time spent in the
pupal stage by the second generation entering the soil during July,
1921, was 8.5 days, and for those entering during August, 8.9 days,
with an average of 8.7 days for the season. Ten days were spent in
the larval stage in the soil before pupation by second-generation in-
dividuals entering during July and August. The average time spent
in the soil as larva and pupa by second-generation individuals entering
the soil during July and August was 18.1 and 18.9 days, respectively,
with an average of 18.5 days for the season.
The length of time spent in the soil during the 1921 season by 74
individuals of the second generation in all stages combined was 27.2
days for those entering in July, and 27 days for those entering im
August, with an average of 27.1 days for the season.
TIME SPENT IN THE SOIL IN 1922
The first pupa in 1922 from a field larva was recorded on May 17.
On May 19 two pupae were recorded from larvae reared in the in-
sectary. Eleven records were taken of the first generation of 1922,
for the time spent in the soil as larva, pupa, and adult. The larvae
used in this study were hatched in the in sectary from eggs deposited
by beetles after hibernation. The records were made from individuals
in vials. The number of records is small, because many of the larvae
which were to be used in this study were killed by ants, spiders, and
fungus, and some were undersized.
The average length of the pupal stage of the first generation in 1922
was 9.2 days for those entering the soil in May and 6.5 days for those,
entering in June, 7.6 days being the average for the period. The;
average time spent in the soil as larva before pupation was 14.2 days,
for those entering in May and 13 days for those entering in June,,
with an average of 13.6 days for the season. One record was made;
of an individual remaining in the soil as a larva for 38 days before,
pupating. The average time spent in the soil as a beetle after pupa-
tion was 15.8 days for those entering the soil in May and 6.7 days-
for those entering in June, with an average of 11.9 days for the season..
The average total time spent in the soil by the first generation ini
1922 during its development was 38.8 days for those entering in May,,
and 26,7 days for those entering in June, the average for the season
being 33.6 days.
Records were taken of the time spent in the soil during the develop-
ment of another series of 84 first-generation individuals, also fromi
eggs deposited in 1922 by hibernated adults. The records were made
from pupation boxes. Many of the larvae of this series also were
killed by ants, spiders, and fungus, and some were undersized. In
this series, 29.2 days were spent in the soil by individuals entering in
May, and 30.1 days by those entering in June; the average was 29.3
days for the season.
I
PLUM CURCULIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT 39
Data on the length of the pupal stage and the time spent in the soil
as larva and as adult were recorded for 114 first-generation individuals
that were reared in vials containing from 1 to 1}^ inches of sandy loam
soil, very lightly packed and kept normally moist. The larvae for
this series were obtained from peach drops collected in a commercial
orchard. These records show that the average length of the pupal
stage was 10.8 days for individuals entering the soil in May and 6.3
days for those entering in June, with a seasonal average of 10.4 days.
An average period of 14.6 days was spent in the soil as larva before
pupation by those entering in May and 11.2 days by those entering
in June, or an average of 14.3 days for the season. The beetles from
larvae entering in May remained in the soil 7.1 days after pupation,
and those entering in June, 11.4 days, with a seasonal average of
7.4 days. The average total time spent in the soil during the develop-
ment was 32.6 days for individuals entering in May and 28.3 days
for those entering in June; the average for the season was 32.3 days.
Records were also made of the time spent in the soil by 186 first-
generation individuals that were reared in pupation boxes. The
adult emergence from some of the boxes was very low, probably
because many larvae were undersized, and ants killed a number of
larvae in several boxes. In some of the boxes about one-half inch
of sand was placed in the bottoms, then the larvae allowed to enter,
after which from 1 to IK inches of sandy loam was placed on top of
the sand. In other boxes sandy loam was used for both layers of soil.
Best results were obtained from using sandy loam. The sand may
account for the low emergence in certain boxes. Larvae for this series
were also obtained from peach drops collected in a commercial
orchard. These records show that individuals of the first generation
which entered as larvae in April spent an average of 40.4 days in the
soil and those entering in May spent 36.6 days, or an average of 38.3
days for the season.
Table 29 gives the length of time spent in the soil by 1,408 first-
generation curculios. These larvae were confined in parasite boxes,
primarily for records on curculio parasites.
40 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, U. S. DEFF. OF AGRICULTURE
'^^
<»
-<
00
o
^0
^^
Sggg^g
^
h-cc
1
1
-
^k
§
; 1 ■ 1 |N
M
c<
^
I I I 1 Irt
^
: :
CO
1 : ;
8S
; ; ; \-^ \
-
i i
-
!;;
T \ \ ' \
--
!(N
M
CO
1
1
S
!!!!''
i ! : : i i
•-ic^
Ico
1
CO
S
!(N
c^
N
1
>
:S
I 1 ! I ,"^
M
: ;
1 N
S
T»« 1 1 I ' Tt<
QO
(N I
IN
O
f?
lo I I 1 leo
00
1^
^
OS
ja
IrH 1 1 leo
■«*<
ICO
CO
t^
a
o
lO— 1 ' If-H o
CO
1-^
^
t--.
a
O)
rH I 1 1 !u5
«o
o>
a
^
2?
T-i 1 I'rH IlO
l>
Ico
CO
o
t-
rH , ,,H^t^
o
i«0
1
: ;
^
■^ IrHW-lOO
^
'(N
c^
s
lO
<-i <-< Ci to CC y-^
CO
cso
r,\
iO
■*
^1
rt-
to
Tf*
CO IM Tt< lO lO •<*<
CO
-H O
^
o
^
CO
l^ OOliOCOOO
(N
t-co
^
(M
fl
_r^
1
S"
C<l
(N
O-H
•-^
i
0)
5
-S?5^J2S
^?5
.
i
o
=^g^s:3fe
(M
«oco
rm
S
OT
•*
C^
3
•s
o:
=^2^§5^:S
on
coo
CO
^
^
03
2S
rH^lOkOOO
(N
INSM
CO
•^
^
rH
§,
M
«o
S§
1 Tj< 05 Cq 1-1 -^J*
S
[OS
05
s
S
CO 00 •* rH ,-4 T}<
«)
;^
^
;
^
1 j(N IrHCM
^
[CO
CO
00
?S
r r I"
CO
-
■«*<
- 1 §
sSiiSi
ro
00-1
^
c5cS
00
?^
s*o>:
^
(N
<N
3 a
'z, -
1 1 1
m
<D
JS
T3
a
1
S
a
>
'•
t3
03,
-2
OS
^ss^g^^^
H,
'r-l(M
e
o
Q
^£?
J
^^
J
PLUM CURCtJLlO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT 41
In this series an average period of 41.27 days was spent in the soil
by individuals entering in April and 41.37 days by those entering in
May, the average being 41.29 days for the season.
The first pupa of the second generation in 1922 was observed in the
insectary on July 7. This individual was reared from an egg deposited
in the insectary by a first-generation female. Observations and
records show that the first-generation females do not start to deposit
eggs until 10 or 12 days after emergence, during seasons when there are
two generations. -
Records were taken of the length of the pupal stage of the second
generation in 1922 and of the time spent in the soil as larva and adult.
The 10 larvae for this study were reared from eggs deposited by beetles
captured in the field. The average pupal stage was 9.8 days. The
average time spent in the soil as larva before pupation was 15.2 days,
and as adult after pupation, 7.3 days. The average total time spent
in the soil by the second generation in 1922 was 32 days.
^ The records of the length of time spent in the soil by 96 individuals
of the second generation, in all stages combined, during 1922, show
that the average time for individuals entering the soil during July was
31.3 days. These individuals were reared in pupation boxes, and the
adult emergence was low, on account of the presence of undersized
larvae and mortality of larvae caused by ants, spiders, and fungus.
Data on the length of the pupal stage of the second generation of
1922 and the time spent in the soil as larva and as adult were recorded
for 207 individuals reared in individual vials. The larvae for this
study were from eggs deposited by first-generation adults that were
reared in the insectary. The average time spent in the pupal stage
by individuals entering as larvae in July, August, and September was
8, 8.2, and 9.4 days, respectively, and the average for the season was
8.2 days. The time spent in the soil as larva before pupation was
11.6 days for those entering in July, 9.4 days for those entering in
August, and 9.2 days for those entering in September, with an average
of 10.7 days for the season. The time spent in the soil as a beetle
before emergence was 6.7 days for those entering in July, 6.8 days for
those entering in August, and 12.2 days for those entering in Septem-
ber, and the average for the season was 7.2 days. The total time
spent in the soil by the second generation in 19^2 was 26*3 days for
individuals entering in July, 23.7 days for those entering in August,
and 29.8 days for those entering in September, the average for the
season being 26.1 days.
Records were taken on the total length of time spent in the soil by
82 other individuals of the second generation in 1922. These larvae
were reared in pupation boxes, and were from eggs deposited by first-
generation adults that were reared in the insectary. The average
time spent in the ground by the curculios of this series was 28.8 days
for those entering in July, 29.8 days for those entering in August, and
29.3 days for the season.
Several larvae of a third generation were reared in the insectary
during 1922 from eggs deposited by second-generation insectary-reared
adults. These all died after entering the soil, except one individual,
which entered the soil as a larva on September 11 and emerged as a
beetle 25 days later.
42 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
TIME SPENT IN THE SOIL IN 1923
The first pupa of the 1923 season was formed on May 19. This
individual left the fruit on May 2 and had been reared in a peach drop
collected in a commercial peach orchard. Records were taken on
120 individuals of the first generation relative to the time spent in the
soil as larva, pupa, and adult during 1923. The larvae for this study
were taken from peach drops and confined in individual vials. The
average length of the pupal period was 9.2 days for individuals enter-
ing in May, 9.9 days for those entering in June, and 10.9 days for those
entering in August, with an average of 9.7 days for the season. The
average time spent in the larval stage in the soil before pupation was
16.9 days for those entering in May, 11.5 days for those eittering in
June, and 15.4 days for those entering in August, with an average
of 14.4 days for the season. The average time spent in the soil as
first-generation beetles after pupation was 15.8 days for those entering
in May, 15.3 days for those entering in June, 5.1 days for those enter-
ing in August, and 13.3 days for the season. The average total time
spent in the soil during the development of first-generation individuals
entering in May, June, July, and August was 43.4, 35.8, 31.8, and 31.4
days, respectively, the average for the season being 37.5 days.
The average total length of time spent in the soil during the develop-
ment of the first generation in 1923, by 1,471 individuals which were
reared in pupation boxes containing massed larvae and entered the
soil in May, was 37.8 days.
If there was a second generation of the curculio in the field in 1923,
it was so small that it was of no importance. The fruit was all har-
vested before the first-generation beetles left the soil in numbers.
Field observations indicated that only one generation occurred in the
field. No oviposition was recorded in the insectary from individual
pairs of the first generation, but a few eggs were taken from jars in
which were massed a number of first-generation adults. These eggs
made available several records on the pupal stage of the second gen-
eration and the time spent in the soil as larva and adult. One indi-
vidual left the fruit on August 22, spent 24 days in the soil as larva, 9
days as pupa, and 8 days as beetle, or a total of 41 days. One
individual entered on August 13 and spent a total period of 25 days in
the soil. Another entered on September 11 and was in the soil 31
days.
TIME SPENT IN THE SOIL IN 1924
The first pupa of the season of 1924 was formed on May 28 by an
individual that left the fruit on May 1 and had been reared from a
peach drop collected in a commercial peach orchard. The length of
the pupal stage of the first generation and the time spent in the soil
as larva and as adult were recorded in 1924. The 149 larvae used
for this study were taken from peach drops and confined in individual
vials. The average length of the pupat period of individuals entering
in May, June, and July was 9.5, 7.9, and 8.3 days, respectively, and
for the season it was 8.8 days. The average time spent in the larval
stage in the soil before pupation was 19.9, 9.1, and 13.5 days, for those
entering in May, June, and July, and 15.7 days for the season. The
average time spent in the soil as beetles after pupation was 7.3, 8.3, and
7.3 days for those entering in May, June, and July, and for the season
it was 7.7. The average total time spent in the soil during the develop-
PLUM CURCULIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT 43
ment of first-generation adults was 35.2 days for May entrants, 26.6
days for June entrants, 31.9 days for July entrants, and 31.4 days
for the season.
The total length of time spent in the soil during the development of
the first generation was recorded for 1,076 individuals which were
reared in pupation boxes containing massed larvae. These records
can not be absolutely correct for the number of days from the time
the larvae entered the soil until the beetles emerged, as the larvae
were placed in each pupation box on several days. These records
show that about 42 days were spent in the ground during the develop-
ment of these first-generation individuals which entered the soil in
May, 1924.
The first pupa of the second generation in 1924 was observed in
the insectary on August 15. This individual was reared from an
egg deposited in the insectary by a first-generation female.
Forty records were taken of the length of the pupal stage of the
second generation of the plum curculio in 1924, and of the time spent
in the soil as larva and adult. The larvae for these studies were
reared from eggs deposited by insect ary-reared first-generation adults.
The observations were made in individual vials. The average time
spent in the pupal stage was as follows: Those entering in August,
9 days; in September, 7 days; for the season, 8.7 days. The time
spent in the soil as larva before pupation was 10.1 days for those
entering in August, 16.5 days for those entering in September, and 16
days for one entering in October, with an average of 11.3 days for the
season. The time spent in the soil as a beetle before emergence was
20.5 days for those entering in August and 15 days for those entering
in September, the average being 20 days for the season. The total
time spent in the soil by the second generation in 1924 was 32.5 days
for August entrants and 35.8 days for September entrants, with an
average of 32.9 days for the season.
EFFECT OF MOISTURE ON THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE CURCULIO IN THE SOIL
In order to maintain normal conditions in the insectary for pupation
the individual pupation vials and pupation boxes had to be moistened
every few days. This was apparently necessary for pupation and
facilitated the escape of the adults from the soil. It was found that
when the soil was allowed to dry out very few adults emerged. They
died either during pupation or as adults trying to escape from the
hard dry soil. Hence droughts and dry periods will prolong the
period spent in the soil during development in the orchards or bring
about mortality of the insects during pupation or before the escape
of the adults. Even though the adults appear from hibernation at
the normal time, a drought or dry period during the pupation season
of the first generation may delay the emergence of the adults to such
an extent that the fruit will be off in Georgia before a second generation
can be produced. This condition is probably sometimes responsible
for an occasional single brood of the plum curculio per season in
Georgia.
DISKING FOR THE DESTRUCTION OF PUPAE
Pupation takes place within the top 2 inches of soil, although an
individual may occasionally go to a depth of 3 inches to pupate.
The writer's observations indicate that perhaps three-fourths of the
larvae pupate within the top inch of soil. Upon entering the soil
44 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, TJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
the larvae prepare a soil cell in which the pupal period is passed.
(PL 8.) The pupa of the curculio is extremely delicate and tender.
If the soil cell is broken while the insect is in the pupal stage, the
pressure and heat of the soil will soon kill it. If the soil cell is broken
while the insect is still in the larval stage, invariably another cell
will be constructed; however, if the insect is in the pupal stage, the
construction of a second cell is impossible.
Disking during the pupation season of the first generation is there-
fore recommended. Pupae not killed directly by the pressure and
heat of the soil are perhaps frequently killed by exposure to light and
sun or to predacious insects. This disking, which is a part of good*
orchard management, should lessen the size of the second brood of
''worms," when two generations occur, and materially reduce the
number of hibernating adults to attack the next season's peach crop.
In Georgia the disking for destruction of pupae should begin about
May 10 and continue throughout June. This cultivation should be
given weekly, if possible, and to a depth of several inches. Special
attention should be given to the disking under the spread of the trees,
where most of the pupation takes place.
An experiment was conducted in 1924 to determine the value of
disking to prevent the emergence of adult curculios from the soil.
Table 30 gives the results of this experiment.
Table 30. — Results of experiments in disking to prevent the transformation of
curculio larvae to adults in the soil, Fort Valley , Ga., 1924
Beetles emerging
Percent-
Sou
Number
Date lar-
age of
larvae
trans-
forming
box
of larvae
vae were
SoU treatment
No.
confined
confined
Date
Number
to beetles
f June 18
1
1
100
May 16
Disked i at 3-day intervals from May 19 to
J June 24
3
6
July 9.
June 25
1
^
June 27
1
June 19
1
June 20
2
2
100
...do
Disked • at 6-day intervals from May 22 to
June 21
3
July 9. j
i
June 23
June 24
June 25
June 26
June 19
June 20
2
7
1
2
1
4
18
3
100
...do.-_.
Disked i at 9-day intervals from May 25 to
June 21
3
.
. July 9.
June 22
June 23
June 24
June 25
June 19
June 20
June 21
2
1
8
•
1
22
4
100
—do....
Disked i at 12-day intervals from May 28 to i
June 22
2
24
July 15.
June 23
2
June 24
1
i
June 26
1
Uune 27
3
June 19
2
June 20
June 23
June 24
2
7
4
5
J 100
...do Not disturbed Ccheck'l I
U8
July 1
2
July 2
X
July 5
(»)
1 Each disking was in a different direction from the previous one.
» By mistake a number of undersized larvae were used for this box, hence the low percentage of larvae
transforming to adults. ^ -
I One parasite, Triaspis curctUionh.
Tech. Bui. 188. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 8
•» , *'
t ._. "-a ._
>
Soil Cells of the plum curculio
\ Puna of the plum curculio within a soil cell; B, empty soil cell made bj' a larva
' ' before pupation, Fort Valley, Ga.
Tech. Bui. 188. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
Plate 9
Peach foliage Showing feeding Marks of the plum Curculios.
Fort valley. Ga.
PLUM CURCULIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT 45
Table 30 shows that the percentage of larvae transforming to
beetles decreased with the frequency of the disking. Unfortunately
a number of undersized larvae which never transform to adults were
used by mistake in the check box. Therefore the percentage trans-
forming in disked soil should not be compared with the percentage of
larvae transforming to beetles in the check box.
In 1921 a number of pupae were taken from their soil cells and
placed in loose dry soil; all of these died before transforming to adults.
This experiment was duplicated at a later date. In this case the
pupae were taken from their cells and placed on soil in a jar, and very
dry, loose soil was then sprinkled over them. An examination a week
later showed that all had died.
The adult curculios just after emerging are very soft. They are
readily mashed when pressed between the fingers, whereas the old
beetles break with a crackle when crushed. Ants have been observed
attacking and killing adults that have just emerged from pupation
boxes, both in the insect ary and out of doors. Some of the beetles
are darker than others upon emergence, showing that the period spent
in the soil cell as an adult after pupation varies. Some of the newly
emerged adults are very light brown.
THE ADULT
EMERGENCE OF BEETLES DURING THE FOUR YEARS
The first beetle to leave the soil in the insectary in 1921 emerged
on May 29. Several pupae, which were found in the soil in an orchard
on May 11, transformed to adults (pi. 7, D) on May 18, but they did
not leave the soil until the latter part of the month. The new beetles
fed very freely on peach foliage and fruit and on plums immediately
after emergence and for some time before they started to oviposit.
Copulation sometimes took place a few hours after emergence. For
the purpose of obtaining longevity, oviposition, and other records,
the beetles were placed in battery jars, the bottoms of which were
covered with sand for several inches, and supplied with food. Moisture
was supplied periodically. Care was taken not to keep these jars too
moist, as fungous growth will soon kill the beetles if the jars are tco
wet. First-generation beetles emerged from the soil in large numbers
during the period June 6 to 15 in 1921.
The first adult of the second generation in 1921 emerged on August
12 from a larva that reached maturity in a peach on July 14. The
peach crop had been harvested before the second-generation adults
started to emerge. They were supplied with apple fruit for food and
fed readily upon it. Apples were also used to some excent for obtain-
ing second-generation oviposition and larval records. The larvae
developed in apples appeared as normal and as well matured as those
developed in peaches; however, a longer time is required for a larva
to reach maturity in an apple than in a peach. When foliage and fruit
are placed in the jars the adults feed on both. They appear to use the
foliage to rest under and upon as much as for food. The feeding on
peach fohage is usually between the midrib and the margin, where
irregular, usually circular-shaped holes are eaten out. (PL 9.) Fruit
feeding is usually around where the fruit comes in contact with the
resting surface, or on the upper side. The sides are seldom eaten,
especially if apples are used for food, The smooth skin affords inad-
46 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE
equate footing for side feeding. Much apple feeding is done on top
of the fruit at the calyx or stem end.
None of the second-generation beetles oviposited in 1921, nor was
any copulation of these beetles noted.
A few notes were made on stridulation of the curculio in 1921. A
beetle that was audibly and violently stridulating was placed under
the binocular microscope on its back. The beetle was in a typical
sullen position, but the stridulation continued. The abdomen was
observed to contract and expand very rapidly, while the rest of the
body remained motionless. This was noted with several individuals.
Beetles on their backs frequently move the tarsi up and down con-
tinually, but apparently this has no relation to stridulation.
The first adult of the first generation to leave the soil in 1922
emerged on May 29. On May 25 some fresh, reddish, new-looking
adults were captured in the orchards. In all probabihty these were
first-generation adults. The first pupa to transform to an adult in
the insectary was noted on May 27.
For several days after emergence the newly emerged beetles appar-
ently prefer fresh green peach foliage to fruit for food, as the foliage
was usually riddled with feeding holes during that period, whereas
there was not much feeding on the fruit. On June 15, 18 days after
the first-generation beetles started to emerge, no copulation had taken
place. The insects were observed for copulation at 10.30 p. m., but
at that time they were all inactive. On the next night another exam-
ination was made when one pair was observed in copulation, the first
to be recorded. At 3.30 a. m. on June 17 another examination was
made, and all of the beetles were found to be inactive at that time of
the morning.
An interesting note was made in 1922 on the development of a
curculio. For four days a larva from a peach drop existed without
soil in which to form a cell. As it finally transformed to the adult
stage, there was full development of the head and legs, but the
abdomen and wing covers never fully developed.
The first adult of the second generation to emerge from the soil in
1922 issued on July 27. This individual transformed to an adult in
the pupal cell on July 22. The second-generation adults deposited a
few third-generation eggs in 1922.
The only adult of the third generation to emerge from the soil in
1922 issued on October 7. This individual w^as reared from an egg
deposited on August 18 and hatched on x^ugust 22, when it entered
a peach. It reached maturity in the peach on September 11, when
it left the fruit and entered the soil. It had transformed to a beetle
in the soil by October 6 and emerged the following day.
Adult curculios were scarce in well-sprayed orchards at the close
of the 1922 season. It was necessary to jar for 16 mornings during
the latter part of September, in orchards that had been sprayed, in
order to capture 2,400 beetles for hibernation studies. Of course,
some of the beetles may have gone into hibernation by that time, but
the thorough spraying was largely responsible for their scarcity.
The first-generation adults were late emerging from the soil in
1923. The first emergence was not recorded until June 7. The
first transformation to the adult in the soil was noted on June 4.
Fresh, clean, bright-colored adults of the first generation were
captured in the field on June 8.
PLUM CURCULIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT 47
Only three adults of the second generation were reared in the
insectary in 1923. These emerged on September 7, October 2 and
12. On account of the lateness of the emergence of first-generation
adults in 1923, few, if any, second-generation adults occurred in the
field.
On June 8 the first adult of the 1924 season emerged from the
soil. On June 10 many adults of the first generation were taken in
the field. They could be readily distinguished from the overwintered
beetles by their bright color and their clean fresh appearance. The
number of adults captured in the orchard jarred on June 10 was 76,
as compared with 19 the week before. On June 19 the first pair of
first-generation adults was taken in copulation.
Notes were taken in 1924 on the effect of the sun on recently
emerged adults, and on the effect of dry soil on the escape of the
adults from the soil after pupation. All of the beetles in three bat-
tery jars, supplied with a little foliage for food and shade, were
dead after the battery jars had stood in the direct sun rays for a week.
A number of adults died in the soil after transformation, unable to
escape on account of the hard, dry soil. No water was added to the
soil after these individuals pupated.
Even though the first-generation adults were as late leaving the
soil in 1924 as in 1923, a sizable second generation occurred in 1924.
In all probability this was due to the lateness of the peach-harvesting
season, which was about two weeks later than in 1923. The first
adult of the second generation emerged from the soil on August 24
in 1924. The heaviest emergence was during September and October,
which was later than the heaviest emergence during 1921 and 1922,
the other years when two generations occurred.
The hibernated beetles appeared in the orchards earher in 1923
than in 1924 on account of the earlier season; and the first-generation
adults would have emerged correspondingly earlier in 1923, if con-
ditions had been more favorable during tjfie transformation period
in the soil. In all probability two broods of larvae would have then
occurred before the close of the 1923 peach-harvesting season. As
the fruit crop developed and matured more normally after full bloom
in 1923 than did the crop of first-generation curculio adults, the
fruit was off before a second brood was produced.
Table 31 gives a record of the emergence from the soil of first-
generation adults during the years 1921 to 1924, inclusive.
48 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 31. — Emergence from the soil of first-generation plum-curculio beetles at
Fort Valley, Ga., 1921-1924
Date of
Beetles emerging during—
Date of
emergence
Beetles emerging during—
emergence
1921
1922
1923
1924
1921
1922
1923
1924
May 29
^
July 13
2
13
2
1
May 30
2
4
July 14
1
j^aySl
13
July 15
1
1
July 16
Total
6
17
July 17
Jiilv 18
1
June 1
11
16
41
59
60
106
106
151
167
137
169
214
127
90
72
46
19
7
5
12
14
26
21
8
5
1
4
5
10
12
10
24
32
37
89
130
165
239
178
160
159
126
89
42
43
37
20
15
28
18
17
12
8
9
9
7
6
10
6
3
July 20.
June 2
July 21
1
Junes
July 22
■ ' ■
1
July23
2
2
2
1
6
July 24
5
July 25
5
June 7
3
6
69
90
161
152
201
140
131
58
84
43
22
14
20
86
29
11
6
20
10
2
5
1
2
3
4
7
9
25
62
75
77
105
93
47
35
103
174
141
62
40
10
18
12
July 26
June 8
July 27
1
June 9
July 28
2
1
June 10
July 29 .-
1
July 30
2
July 31
1
Tii-nn 11
Total
Aug. 2
June 14
21
19
174
72
Tiina 1 K
June 16
3
June 17
Aug. 3
1
June 18
Aug. 4
3
June 19
Aug. 5 ..
1
June 20 - --
Aug. 7
4
June 21
Aug. 8.-.
1
1
Aug. 10
June 23
Aug. 11
1
June 24
Aug 17
1
June 25
Aug, 18
1
June 26
Aug. 19
2
June 27
Aug. 21
10
June 28
Aug. 23
2
June 29
Aug. 25 -
1
1
June 30
Aug. 27
2
Ane 28
1
Total .-
1,721
1,728
1,364
1,103
Aug. 29
3
Aug 30
1
4
4
4
5
3
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
31'
3
9
8
3
10
g'
3
37
11
10
10
6
2
6
3
6
4
2
2
2
Total
July 2
3
5
32
Tnlxr 0
Sept.l
July 4
1
1
4
2
7
1
2
July 5 . -.-
Sept. 2
1
Ji)lv6
2
2
Sept. 3-
July7
Sept. 5
July8
Sept, 8
July 9
Sept 26
TnlA7 in
1
Total
July 11
16
3
July 12
Beetles emerging during—
Period of emergence
1921
1922
1923
1924
Number
Percent-
age
Number
Percent-
age
Number
Percent-
age
Number
Percent-
age
May
6
1,721
21
0.3
98.5
1.2
17
1,728
19
3
0.9
97.8
1.1
.2
June - - . -
1,364
174
5
16
87.5
11.2
.3
1.0
1,103
72
32
3
91.2
July
6.0
August
2.6
September
.2
100.0
Total
1,748
1,767
100.0
. 1, 559
100.0
1,210
100.0
PLUM CURCULIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT
49
June is the month of heaviest emergence of first-generation adults.
In 1921 and 1922, when two large second generations occurred, 98.5
per cent of the first-generation beetles emerged during the month of
June. In 1923, when the insect was single-brooded, 87.5 per cent
emerged during Jime, and 11 per cent emerged during July. In 1924,
91 per cent emerged during June. The peach season was late in 1924,
and two generations of the curculio occurred.
Table 32 gives a record of the emergence from the soil of second-
generation adults during the years 1921 to 1924, inclusive.
Table 32. — Emergence from the soil of second-generation plum-cur culio beetles at
Fort Valley, Ga., 1921-1924
Date of emer-
Beetles emerging during—
Date of (
jmer-
Beetles emerging during—
gence
1921
1922
1923
1924
gence
1921
1922
1923
1924
July 27
1
1
5
1
8
Sept. 2
2
4
4
4
3
4
3
1
3
6
July 28
Sept. 3 -
July 29
Sept, 4 --
1
3
1
1
5
6
5
3
1
1
\
4
2
2
1
July 30 -.--.-
Sept. 5
July 31
Sept. 6
3
Rpnf 7
1
Total
16
Sept. 8
Sept. 9
Aug. 1
14
12
6
8
9
1
2
15
4
18
13
20
17
18
7
1
6
4
3
11
9
6
6
7
9
4
4
9
10
2
Sept. 10 -
Aug. 2
Sept. 11. _
Aug. 3
Sept. 12
4
1
Aug. 4
Sept. 13-
Aug. 5
Sept. 14
Aug. 6—
Sept. 15
Aug. 7
Sept. 16
Aug. 8
Sept. 17
5
Aug. 9.
Sept. 18
3
Aug. 10
Sept. 19
2
Aug. 11
Sept. 20.- - .
2
3
3
1
4
3
3
3
1
Aug. 12
1
Sept. 21
Aug. 14
Sept, 22
2
Aug. 15
1
1
2
7
5
2
2
5
1
3
Sept 23
Aug, 16
Sept 25
Aug. 17
Sept. 27
Aug. 18
Sept, 28
Aug. 19
Sept. 29
3
Aug 20
Total
Oct 2
Aug. 21
33
71
1
21
-
Aug. 23
1
8
2
1
1
Aug. 24 . .
1
Oct, 4
1
Aug, 25
Oct. 5
Aug. 26
3
2
1
3
1
Oct. 7
1
Aug. 27
Oct.8-
10
Aug. 28
1
Oct 9
1
Aug, 29
Oct 11
1
1
Aug. 30 _-
Oct, 12
1
Aug. 31
Oct, 20
3
3
Oct 24
Total
40
255
2
Tot
al
12
2
15
Sept. 1
1
6
Beetles emerging during—
Period of emergence
1921
1922
1923
1924
Number
Percent-
age
Number
Percent-
age
Number
Percent-
age
Number
Percent-
age
July
16
255
71
12
4.5
72.0
20.1
3,4
August
40
33
54.8
45.2
21
15
5.2
September
1
2
33.3
66.7
55.3
October
38.5
Total
73
100.0
354
100.0
3
100.0
38
100.0
110296—30-
50 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, U. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE
In 1921, when two full generations occurred, 55 per cent of the
second-generation adults emerged in August and 45 per cent in Sep-
tember. In 1922, when two full generations and several individuals
of a third generation occurred, 72 per cent of the second-generation
adults emerged in August and 20 per cent in September. A few
emerged in July and October. Three individuals of a second genera-
tion were reared in the insectary in 1923, when the insect was single-
brooded in the field; one of them emerged in September and two in
October. In 1924, when the peach season was late, and when two
generations of the curculio occurred, only 5 per cent of the second-
generation adults emerged in August, 55 per cent in September, and
40 per cent in October.
LONGEVITY OF ADULT CURCULIOS
Many records were made during the four years on the longevity of
the beetles captured in the field and of the first and second generation
beetles reared in the insectary. The longest longevity record ob-
tained was that of an individual of the second generation of 1922,
which lived through two winters. It copulated with an individual
of the second 1922 generation on March 16, 1923, and deposited eggs
during 1923. The male of this pair died on August 30, 1923, whereas
the female lived to June 16, 1924.
Table 33 gives a summarized record of the longevity of the adult
beetles captured in the orchard by jarring during the 1921 season.
Table 33. — Summary of longevity records of plum curculios captured in orchard
by jarring during 1921 at Fort Valley, Ga.
II
Number of beetles alive on—
Percentage of beetles dying during—
Percentage of
beetles en-
tering hiber-
nation
Time of capture
<
CO
>>
(A
a
1
1
"3
3
<
r
1
1
O
March
100
468
195
885
300
14
39
176
29
88
153
23
58
75
724
20
37
46
501
260
15
13
34
371
2131
13
12
5
10
197
84
7
11
4
9
160
81
7
61.0
62.4
10.0
18.8
21.5
6.0
6.4
40.0
18.2
3.0
4.5
14.9
25.2
13.3
5.0
5.1
6.2
14.7
243.0
7.1
3.0
L7
12.3
19.6
15.7
42.9
LO
.2
.5
4.2
1.0
11.0
April
.9
May
4.6
June
18.1
July
27.0
August
50.0
1 All live beetles placed in hibernation on Oct. 6.
» A number died as a result of fungus in jar.
Table 33 shows that most of the beetles captured in the orchard
during March, April, and May died before fall. Very few, if any, of
the beetles that entered hibernation from the collections of these three
months survived the following winter. By June, first-generation
beetles of the current season were being captured in the orchards and
18.1 per cent of the beetles taken in June, 27 per cent of those cap-
tured in July, and 50 per cent of those captured in August went into
hibernation in the fall. The few beetles that were ahve in July from
the collection of March 21 appeared to be as active as the first-genera-
tion beetles.
- An experiment was conducted in 1921 to ascertain how long adult
curculios could survive without food. This experiment was con-
ducted with 30 beetles, 15 of which were confined without food on
August 10 and 15 without food on August 26. Table 34 gives the
results of this experiment.
PLUM CUBCTJLIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT
51
Table 34. — Longevity of plum-curculio beetles confined without food, Fort Valley^
Ga., 1921
15
15
15
15
Number of beetles alive on—
Date collected and
confined
<
5
to
5
§3
3
<
5
bi)
3
<
bc
3
<
C4
i
i
00
eo
i
i-H
1
A nor in
15
8
6
4
3
2
1
15
0
10
4
4
3
2
1
J
Percentage of beetles dying in specified number of days from confinement
3
6
7
9
11
12
13
14
16
18 i 19
20
22
23
Aug. 10
0.0
0.0
46.6
"33.'3'
13.3
'40."o'
13.3
"o.'o'
6.7
6.7
' 6.7
6.7
6 7
Aug. 26
6.7
6.7
In 1922 longevity records were taken on beetles captured in the
orchard by jarring during the season and on both first and second
generation beetles reared in the insect ary. (Table 35.)
Table 35, — Summary of longevity records of plum curculios captured in orchard
by jarring during 1922 at Fort Valley, Ga.
Num-
ber
of
bee-
tles
cap-
tured
Number of beetles alive on—
Percentage of beetles dying during—
Per
cent-
Time of
capture
Apr.
30
May
31
June
30
July
31
Aug.
31
Sept.
14 1
April
May
June
July
Au-
gust
Sep-
tem-
ber
age of
beetles
enter-
ing
hiber-
nation
March
100
514
457
1,112
55
380
1
33
334
0
0
54
631
45.0
26.1
54.0
67.5
26.9
LO
6.4
61.3
43.3
April
May
June
14
»223
2
47
2
46
8.8
2 36.7
2.6
15.8
"o."i"
0.4
4.1
» All live beetles placed in hibernation on Sept. 14.
2 A number killed by fungus in jar.
The beetles taken in the orchards during March and April died
before July; these were all beetles that had hibernated. Only
0.4 per cent of those captured during May entered hibernation in
the fall; most of these, if not all, were also hibernated beetles. Of
the beetles captured during June, 4.1 per cent entered hibernation;
some of these may have been of the first generation of 1922.
The longevity records of 1,530 first-generation adult curculios that
were reared in the insectary during 1922 may be summarized as
follows: Of the 13 beetles that emerged late in May, 6 beetles (46.2
per cent) died during June, and 7 beetles (53.8 per cent), alive on
September 27, were placed in hibernation. Of the 1,517 beetles
that emerged in June, 1,461 were alive on June 30, 1,418 on July 31,
1,151 on August 31, and 1,045, alive on September 27, were placed
in hibernation. The percentages that died during June, July,
August, and September were 3.7, 2.8, 17.6, and 7, respectively, and
68.9 per cent entered hibernation.
Table 36 gives the records of longevity of second-generation adult
curcuhos that were reared in the insectary during 1922.
52 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, TJ. S. DEFP. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 36. — Longevity of second-generation plum curculios reared in the insectary
during 1922 at Fort Valley, Ga.
Time of emergence
Number
of beetles
Number of beetles
alive on—
Percentage of bee-
tles dying during—
Percent-
age of bee-
tles enter-
ing hiber-
nation
Aug. 31
Sept. 27 J
August
Septem-
July 27 to Aug. 3
16
31
45
28
36
15
29
45
27
36
13
28
43
26
34
6.2
6.5
0.0
3.6
0.0
12.5
3.2
4.4
3.6
6.6
813
Aug. 4 to 11
90 3
Aug. 12 to 19..
95 6
Aug. 20 to 25 -
92.8
Aug. 26 to 31—
04.4
Total
156
152
144
2.6
5.1
92 3
Sept. 1 to 10
28
16
10
25
16
10
10.7
0.0
0.0
89 3
Sept. 11 to 20
100 0
Sept. 21 to 27
100 0
Total ....
54
61
5.6
94 4
* All live beetles placed in hibernation on Sept. 27.
In 1923 longevity records were taken on the beetles captured in the
orchard by jarring during the season, on those reared in the insectary,
and on the first and second generation beetles of 1922 that emerged
from hibernation. As there was no second generation in 1923, no
longevity records are available for that generation.
Table 37 gives a summary of the longevity records of adult beetles
captured in the orchard by jarring. All of the beetles captured dur-
ing March, April, and May had overwintered. The majority of
those taken during June, July, and August entered hibernation.
Table 37. — Summary of longevity records of plum curculios captured in orchard
by jarring during 1923 at Fort Valley, Ga.
Num-
ber of
bee-
tles
Number of beetles alive on —
Percentage of beetles dying during —
Percent-
age of
Time of
capture
Mar.
31
Apr.
30
May
31
June
30
July
31
Aug.
301
March
April
May
June
July
Au-
gust
beetles
entering
hiberna-
tion
in
85
476
61
261
168
13
82
66
>369
63
3 164
33
21
97
7
241
0
14
0
196
147
......
3.5
18.9
»22.5
3.5
343.1
45.^9
49.4
14,1
42.6
7.7
24.7
17.4
11.5
17.2
12.5
"o.'e"
"3.8
13.1
0.0
2.3
0 0
June
186
125
13
71 3
July
74 4
August
100 0
' All live beetles placed in hibernation on Aug. 30.
^ Some beetles had been feeding in orchard that was sprayed on Apr. 3.
3 Some beetles had been feeding in orchard that was sprayed for the second time on Apr. 21.
Table 38 gives a summary of the longevity records of first-genera-
tion adults that were reared in the insectary during 1923. Most of
these entered hibernation.
Table 38. — Summary of longevity records of first-generation plum curculios reared
in the insectary during 1923 at Fort Valley, Ga.
Time of emergence
Number
of beetles
Number of beetles alive on—
Percentage of beetles dying
during—
Percent-
age of
beetles
June 30
1
July 31 Aug. 30 i
June
July
August
entering
hiberna-
tion
June
1,036
133
1.007
860 783
100 90
2.8
14.2
24.8
7.4
7.5
75.6
67,7
July
1 All live beetles placed in hibernation on Aug. 30.
Table 39 gives a summary of the longevity records during 1923 of
curculios reared in the insectary in 1922,
PLUM CTTECTJLIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT
53
Table 39
. — Longevity of plum curculios of 1922 that appeared from hibernation in
1923 at Fort Valley, Ga.
Time of
appearance
i
o
1
Number of beetles alive
on —
Percentage of beetles dying
during—
of boo-
ing hi-
the
nter
Generation
of 1922
CO
U
K
<
CO
1
CO
CO
<
1
<
i
•->
>>
1
Percentage
ties enter
bernation
second w
First
Do
Second
March
April
March and
April.
118
84
21
116
99
77
21
58
59
16
20
30
12
10
4
9
9
2
7
1.7
14.4
8.3
34.7
21.4
23.8
32,2
34.5
19.1
8.5
31.0
14.3
0.9
2.4
9.5
7.6
2.4
33 3
» All live beetles placed in hibernation on Aug. 31.
These records show that some of the first-generation beetles of
1922 entered hibernation the second winter. However, none of these
individuals survived the second winter.
Of the second-generation beetles of 1922 that appeared from
hibernation during March and April, 1923, 33.3 per cent entered
hibernation the second winter. One female survived the second
winter and lived nearly two years. This individual deposited eggs
during 1923, but no eggs were recorded from it in 1922 or 1924.
Longevity records are available for 1924 on the first-generation
adults reared in the insectary that year, and on the first-generation
beetles of 1923 that emerged from hibernation in 1924.
Table 40 gives a summary of the longevity records of the first-
generation adults that were reared in the insectary during 1924.
Most of them entered hibernation.
Table 40. — Summary of longevity records of first-generation plum curculios reared
in the insectary during 1924 (^^ Fort Valley, Ga.
Time of emergence
Num-
ber of
beetles
Number of beetles alive on—
Percentage of beetles dying
during—
Percent-
age of
beetles
June 30
July 31
Aug. 31
Se^pt.
June
July
August
Sep-
tember
entering
hiberna-
tion
June
939
73
897
786
63
737
60
706
55
4.5
n.8
13.7
5.2
4.1
3.3
6.9
75.2
July
75.3
1 All live beetles placed in hibernation on Sept. 15.
Table 41 gives a summary of the longevity records during 1924 of
first-generation adults that were reared in the insectary in 1923.
Table 41
— Longevity of first-generation plum curculios of 1923 that appeared from
hibernation in 1924 o,l Port Valley, Ga.
1
z
Number of beetles alive on—
Percentage of beetles dying during—
m
Time of
appearance
CO
i
<
CO
3
J3
<
i
1
1
<
t-»
3
<
1
1
Percentage of
ties enterin
bernation se
winter
March
30
95
20
29
14
78
4
n
3.3
60.0
17.9
33.4
25.3
25.0
13.3
5L6
25.0
i
0 0
April
May
54 6
15 10
1
5
1
0
1
4.2
25.0
0.0 6.0
25.0 '
1.0
0.0
.
I All live beetles placed in hibernation on Sept. 30.
54 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTUKE
HIBERNATION
Many observations on the hibernating habits of the plum curculio
in Georgia were made during the four years that this insect was
studied. Their favorite hibernating quarters are leaves, sticks, trash,
etc., along the edges of woodlands adjoining or near the peach orchard.
Bermuda and other grasses also furnish very favorable protection,
and undoubtedly many beetles hibernate in it under trees, along fence
rows, and on terrace rows in and near the orchard. Records were
made in 1921 on the time the beetles entered hibernation, the depth
of hibernation, and mortality during hibernation in the fall. In 1923,
1924, and 1925 records were taken on the mortahty of beetles during
the previous winters in the different kinds of hibernating materials
that are usually found in and near peach orchards.
Table 42 gives a number of records on the time of the year that
the adult curculios entered hibernation in 1921.
Table 42.
■Time beetles entered hibernation in the fall of 1921, in cages containing
rubbish, Fort Valley, Ga.
Test
No.
Beetles
or food
placed
in cage
Beetles
Food supplied
Date
cage was
examined
Beetles
recov-
ered
Beetles in
hibernation
(Aug. 16
Aug. 21
Number
49
Peach foliage .
Aug. 21
Aug. 23
Aug. 25
Aug. 26
Sept. 2
Sept. 6
Sept. 15
Sept. 22
Aug. 21
Aug. 23
Sept. 15
..-.do.-..
Aug. 21
Aug. 30
Sept. 2
Sept. 15
Aug. 30
Sept. 3
Sept. 6
Number
35
10
3
0
33
0
4
17
32
11
14
0
39
5
0
29
36
6
1
Number
1
27
■ 36
6
14
7
5
16
16
Per cent
do
1
2.0
Aug. 26
Sept. 6
Sept. 15
44
33
4
Peach foliage .
Peach foliage and apples
2
Peach foliage
61.4
1
\
Aug. 16
Aug. 21
Sept. 6
Sept. 15
Aug. 16
Aug. 21
50
43'
50'
Peach foliage
3 f
do
do
72.0
do
do
4
— . do-
12.0
5
Sept. 6
[Aug. 16
Aug. 30
43
50
Peach foliage and apples
32.6
do
6
do
14.0
Sept. 6
Sept. 8
Sept. 20
39
Peach foliage and apples -
7
do
Peach foliage -
Sept. 15
Sept. 21
Sept. 22
Sept. 9
Sept. 10
Sept. 12
Sept. 15
Sept. 20
Sept. 12
Sept. 13
Sept. 14
Sept. 15
26
7
1
173
46
9
5
1
158
61
10
5
12.8
Sept. 4
Sept. 7
Sept. 9
250
Peach foliage. -- .
do
8
do
6.4
Sept. 7
250
Peach foliage
9
6.4
In the second test the 44 beetles were placed in the cage on August
26, and 33 were recovered on September 2. After another examina-
tion on September 6 the 33 beetles were put back in the cage. On
September 15, 4 were recovered and returned to the cage. On Sep-
tember 22, when the cage was examined, 17 beetles were recovered on
top of the rubbish and 27 (or 61.4 per cent) were found in hibernation.
In the third test the 50 beetles were placed in the cage on August
16 and the 43 that were recovered were put back in the cage on Sep-
tember 6.
PLUM CURCULIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT
55
The data in Table 42 would lead one to believe that in 1921 the
beetles were entering hibernation in numbers between September
15 and 22.
Table 43 gives data on the mortality of the curculio in hibernation
during the fall months and the depth of hibernation. The data on
depth of hibernation were taken by carefully examining sections of
the soil blocks in the hibernating cages. (PL 4, B.)
Table 43. — Mortality of adult plum curculios during hibernation, and depth of
hibernation, Fort Valley, Ga., 1921
Date beetles were
placed in hiberna-
tion
Number
of beetles
Number of beetles in hiberna-
tion Nov. 28, 1921, located i—
Percentage of hibernating
beetles found-
Perceiit-
ageof
mortal-
ity dur-
ing fall
In foliage
on soil
On soil
surface
Within
first inch
of soil
In dried
foliage
On soil
surface
under
foliage
Within
first inch
of soil
Oct. 12
102
46
41
U4
23
10
13
10
53.2
41.2
29.9
29.4
16.9
29.4
24.5
Do
26.1
1 No beetles found in second, third, or fourth inch under surface.
» Noted on Dec. 2.
In these two tests the average mortality of the beetles between
October 1 2 and December 2 was 25 per cent. Of the beetles in hiberna-
tion on November 28, an average of 49.6 per cent were in the dried
foliage, 29.7 per cent on the soil surface under the foliage, and 20.7
per cent within the first inch of soil.
Table 44 gives some data on the depth of hibernation of the curculio
during the winter of 1921-22. The observations were made on March
4, 1922.
Table 44. — Depth of hibernation of plum curculios, winter of 1921-22, Fort
Valley, Ga.
Placed in hiberna-
tion cages
Date of
removal of
beetles
Number of beetles removed
from 1 —
Percentage of beetles
hibernating—
Cage
No.
Foliage Soil
on surface surface
Within
first inch
of soil
In dried
foliage
On soil
surface
under
foliage
Within
first inch
of soil
1
Fall, 1921
Mar. 4,1922
do
106 6
292 35
0
10
94.6
86.6
5.4
10.4
0.0
2
do
3.0
> No beetles found in second, third, or fourth inch under surface.
An average of 88.7 per cent of the beetles placed in hibernation in
the fall of 1921 were in the dried foliage in the cages on March 4, 1922,
an average of 9.1 per cent were on the soil surface under the foliage,
and an average of 2.2 per cent were within the first inch of soil.
IfcfciiOn September 19, 1922, 400 curculios were placed in each of six
large hibernating cages (pi. 4, A), containing the different kinds of
hibernating materials commonty fourd near and in Georgia peach
orchards. Notes were taken on the emergence of the beetles during
the spring of 1923, and from this the percentage of the beetles sur-
viving the winter was calculated for the several cages. (Table 45.)
56 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, V. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTTJTlE
Table 45. — Mortality of plum curculios during winter of 1922-23 in different
kinds of hibernating material at Fort Valley, Ga.
Hibernating material ^
Beetles placed
in hibernation
Number of beetles
appearing during
1923 in—
Percentage of emerg-
ing beetles appear-
ing in—
Percent-
age of
beetles
Date
Num-
ber
March
AprU
May
March
AprU
May
surviving
winte
Bare ground . .
Sept. 19
'.'.'Ao'.'.W.
400
400
400
400
400
400
J 21
137
116
85
186
207
8
61
39
11
68
78
0
1
1
0
3
10
72.4
68.8
74.4
88.5
72.4
70.2
27.6
30.7
25.0
11.5
26.4
26.4
0.0
0.5
0.6
0.0
1.2
3.4
7 25
Spanish moss
Pine needles
49.75
39.00
Trash (sticks, bark, pine cones,
etc.) —
Leaves
Bermuda grass
...do-....
...do
—do
24.00
64.25
73.75
Average
72.9
25.7
1.4
43.00
» All hibernating materials were exposed to the weather.
» Many dead beetles found on top of ground.
Bermuda grass furnished the best protection during the winter
of 1922-23, followed by leaves, Spanish moss, pine needles, trash,
and bare ground.
Most of the beetles die during the winter if no hibernating material
is available. Probably some few get under loose particles of soil.
The data given in Tables 43 and 44 support this opinion, as does
also the survival during the winter of 1922-23 in the cage containing
bare ground. (Table 45.)
Of the beetles from all the cages used in the above experiment,
72.9 per cent appeared from hibernation during March, 25.7 per
cent appeared during April, and 1.4 per cent during May.
It will be noted from Table 45 that the highest March emergence
was from the cage containing trash, such as sticks, bark, pine cones,
etc. The proportion that emerged in this cage during March as
compared with later months was much greater than in the other
cages. This is probably due to the fact that these materials dry
out and warm up earlier than the other materials, thereby causing
the beetles to leave hibernation in this cage in greater numbers
early in the season.
While the beetles in the above experiment were placed in the hiber-
nation cages on September 19, there was considerable activity on
the part of the curculios in some of the cages after that date, on
account of abnormally high temperatures. The maximum tempera-
ture on November 14, 1922, was 76° F. On that date a number of
beetles were observed crawling on the screen sides of several cages.
These were counted, and the numbers found crawling around inside
of the several cages were as follows: Bare-ground cage, 52; Spanish-
moss cage, 0; pine-needle cage, 3; trash cage, 8; leaves cage, 8;
Bermuda-grass cage, 0.
During the winter of 1922-23 an experiment was conducted to
determine the winter survival of adult beetles in Spanish moss under
shelter in the insectary. Most of the beetles were placed in the cages
on September 27, 1922, and emergence records were taken during
the following March and April. Table 46 gives the results.
PLtIM CURCTJLIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT
57
Table 46. — Mortality of plum curculios during winter of 1922-23 in Spanish
moss under shelter at Fort Valley, Ga.
Beetles placed in hibernation
Number of beetles
appearing during
1923 in—
Percentage of emerg-
ing beetles appear-
ing in—
Percent-
age of
beetles
Date
Number
Generation
March
April 1
March
April >
winter
Sept. 27....
100
100
108
10
125
125
125
125
125
125
100
103
1
First .....
9
} ^
25
34
62
35
4
1
11
1
20
23
22
69.2
80.0
84.1
96.2
63.0
72.9
61.4
67.0
81.8
61.2
100.0
30.8
20.0
15.9
3.8
37.0
27.1
38.6
33.0
18.2
38.8
0.0
13.0
Do
do
5 0
Do
-----do
Second
Sept. 29 to Oct. 20---
58.4
Sept. 27
First.-.. .
20.8
Do
do
43.2
Do
do
68 0
Do
do
45 6
Do
do
.... do
63 ! 31
63 14
75.2
Do
61.6
Do
Second
30
} »
19
0
49 0
Sept. 27 to Oct. 24----
Oct. 7
do
Third
2.9
Average
72.6
27.4
41.8
I All cages opened on Apr. 21 and remaining beetles removed.
The average percentage of beetles surviving the winter of 1922-23
in Spanish moss under shelter was 41.8; in Spanish moss in the open,
exposed to rains, etc., 49.75 per cent.
On August 30, 1923, beetles were placed in large cages containing
Bermuda grass, leaves, and bare ground for data on the mortality
during the winter of 1923-24. Records on the emergence from these
cages were taken during March and April, 1924. The mortality in
hibernation was higher than during the other winters that the studies
were under way. This was probably due to the abnormally low tem-
peratures that prevailed, which undoubtedly affect the abundance
of the insect each spring. A minimum temperature of 7° F. was
recorded at Fort Valley at one time during the winter of 1923-24.
Table 47 gives the percentage of the beetles that survived.
Table 47. — Mortality of plum curculios during winter of 1923-24 in cages contain-
ing different kinds of hibernating materials at Fort Valley, Ga.
Hibernating material i
Beetles placed in hibernation
Number of
beetles appear-
ing during 1924
in—
Percentage of
emerging beetles
appearing in—
Percent-
age of
beetles
surviving
Date
Number
March
April
March
April
winter
Bare ground
Aug. 30
335
400
421
1
19
\ 81
0
27
171
100.0
41.3
32.1
0.0
58.7
67.9
0.3
Leaves. _
do-__
11.5
Bermuda grass _
/....do
ISept. 2 to Oct. 6
69 J
Average
33.8
66.2
24.4
1
All hibernating materials were exposed to the weather.
58 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Again Bermuda grass furnished the best protection. The winter
survival in Bermuda grass was 51.4 per cent, as compared with 11.5
per cent for leaves and 0.3 per cent for bare ground. Only 1 beetle
of the 335 in the cage with no hibernating material survived the
severe winter. The beetles were late leaving hibernation in numbers
during the spring of 1924, as only 33.8 per cent appeared during March
whereas 66.2 per cent appeared during April. The cold winter may
have influenced the lateness of emergence also.
The winter of 1923-24 was the second winter that one individual
curculio survived, as already mentioned. All of the other beetles
of the first and second generations of 1922 that were placed in hiber-
nation in the fall of 1923 died during the winter.
On September 15, 1924, a number of adult curculios were placed in
large cages containing Bermuda grass, pine needles, oak leaves, and
bare ground to obtain data on the mortality during the winter of 1924-
25. Emergence from hibernation records were taken on each cage
during March and April, 1925. Peach blossoms were placed in the
cages on March 2, and the first appearance from hibernation was
recorded on March 4. Table 48 gives the percentage of the beetles
that survived the winter in the several kinds of hibernating materials.
Bermuda grass again gave the best protection.
Table 48. — Mortality of plum curculios during the winter of 1924-25 in different
kinds of hibernating materials at Fort Valley, Ga.
Hibernating material i
Beetles placed in
hibernation
Number of beetles
appearing dur-
ing 1925 in—
Percentage of
emerging beetles
appearing in—
Per cent-
age of
beetles
Date
Number
March
April
March
April
winter
Oak leaves
Sept. 15
78
283
283
284
28
33
142
181
0
2
50
33
100.0
0.0
35.9
Bare ground
94.3
5.7
12.4
Pine needles
...do
74. 0 1 26. 0
84.6 15.4
67.8
Bermuda grass
...do
75.4
Average
81.9
18.1
50.5
All hibernating materials were exposed to the weather.
The average percentage of emerging beetles appearing from hiber-
nation during March was 81.9 as compared with 18.1 for April. This
would indicate that the beetles left hiberation in numbers early during
the spring of 1925.
TIME REQUIRED FOR TRANSFORMATION FROM EGG TO ADULT
During the 1922 season four individuals of the first generation and
two of the second generation were under careful observation from the
time the eggs were deposited until the adults emerged, in order to
determine the length of time required for the different stages by the
same individual in passing through the entire life cycle. Table 49
gives the results of these observations.
PLUM CURCULIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT
59
"Table 49. — Time spent by four first-generation and two second-generation plum
curculios in passing through their entire life cycle at Fort Valley, Ga.y 1922
Generation
1
1
">
Egg de-
posited
Egg
hatched
Larva
left
fruit
Larva
pupated
Trans-
formed
to beetle
Adult
left soil
"3
is
.S «
s
1
•2
■A
o ®
o
First
1
2
I
May 20
May 17
May 25
May 24
May 23
May 28
May 31
June 5
...do....
June 10
June 14
June 16
June 21
...do...
June 30
June 25
June 30
...do-.
July 4
June 30
July 7
July 5
July 11
Days
4
6
3
6
4.75
3
4
3.5
Days
12
13
13
14
13
10
11
10.5
Days
11
16
11
16
13.6
13
Days
9
9
9
4
7.75
8
Days
5
7
5
7
6
3
Days
41
Do
Do
Do
Average.
51
41
47
45
Second
Do
1
2
June 16
...do....
June 19
June 20
June 29
July 1
Juiy 12
July 20
July 23
Aug. 1
37
46
Average.
41 h
__
.- . ,^
The weather conditions, time of year, and number of individuals
materially affect the average time spent in the fruit and in the soil
during the life cycle of the curculio. Table 50 gives the average time
required for the complete transformations of the plum curculio, as
shown separately in preceding pages. This table should not be used
to correlate the number of generations during the several years with
the length of time spent in the several stages or to compare the time
required to complete the life cycle with climatic conditions, as it does
not give the monthly averages, but only the averages for the entire
season. It should serve, however, to give an idea of the time required
for the curculio to pass through its life cycle.
Table 50. — Time required for the complete transformation of the plum curculio at
Fort Valley, Ga., 1922-1924
Season
Average time spent
in fruit (egg and
larval stages com-
bined)
Average time spent
in soil as larva,
pupa, and adult
Average time re-
quired for com-
plete transforma-
tion
First
genera-
tion
Second
genera-
tion
First
genera-
tion
Second
genera-
tion
First
genera-
tion
Second
genera-
tion
1922
Days
20.50
17.80
2 16. 00
Days
20.30
U4.00
3 17.00
Days
33.57
37.48
3L42
Days
26.11
1 32. 33
3 32.85
Days
54.07
55.28
2 47. 42
Days
46 41
1923 -.
' 46 33
1924
3 49.85
Average
18.10
3 17. 10
34.16
3 30.43
52.26
3 47 53
> Records on only a few individuals.
2 No April records included.
3 A number of September records included.
The first generation passed through its hfe cycle in an average of
about 52 days and the second generation probably requires an aver-
age of about 48 days to complete its life cycle. The first generation
spends about 18 days in the fruit as eg^ and larva and about 34 days
in the ground as larva, pupa, and adult. The second generation
spends about 17 days in the fruit as egg and larva and about 30 days
in the ground as larva, pupa, and adult. The data for the second
generation in 1924 include a number of September records. The
time required for each stage of the second generation during September
is much greater than that required during midsummer. On this
account the average time required for the second generation to
60 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, tJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICtJLTUKE
complete its transformation during the entire season of 1924 is much
longer than the averages for the other second generations. This also
raised the average time for complete transformation for the three
seasons.
The average time spent in the fruit as egg and larva by the first
generation in 1924 does not include any records for April. April
records would undoubtedly raise the average time required for the
complete transformation of the first generation in 1924.
Table 50 shows that the average time required for the first genera-
tion to complete its transformation in 1923, when there was only one
generation, was only 1.21 days more than in 1922, when two and
part of a third gener-
*► ^ ation occurred. It
/>sj9c// t-j^^^s-
£-X-^ f, must be remembered,
'S^2S^2222^S^ rs^r^r. ^ \ however, that these
^OOOOOOOOOOOO OOOO 5 averacres are for the
-OO OOO OOOOOOO OOO § season The a^^^^^^
^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO J ^?ason. ine average
•^OOOOO OOOOOOOOO OOOO ^ time spent m the soil
^O OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO OO as larva, pupa, and
^OO OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO adult combined, by
^*0 OOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOO individuals entering
^•'OOOOO OOOOOOOO OOOOO the soil during May,
-^OOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOOO 1923, was 43.4 davs,
//OOO O OOOOOOO O OOOOO- as compared with 37 5
-OO OO OOOOOOOOOOOOOO I davHor tL se^^^^
/^OO OO OOOO OOOOO OOO 5 ^ays tor tne season.
/^OOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOO § The averages for June,
/^O OOOO OOOOOO O OOOO J July, and August en-
^OOOOOO OOOO OOOOO OO ^ trants materially
/=>4ej9C^ T^^^S
lowered the average
for the season. The
Figure 1.— Location of trees in a bearing orchard used for jarring IrtT^rv+V* i-\f +iTvin o-nonf
throughout the season of 1921 ICUgm 01 nme SpeUL
in the soil by those
entering in May, 1923, may have been responsible for the single
brood in 1923, as the emergence of first-generation adults that year
was probably delayed until after the harvest of the fruit.
OCCURRENCE OF BEETLES IN ORCHARDS THROUGHOUT THE SEASONS OF 1921 TO 1924.
INCLUSIVE
In order to obtain some data on the abundance of the curculio in
the orchards throughout the seasons that these life-history studies
were under way, on the first appearance of the beetles in the orchard,
on the distribution of the beetles in the orchard early in the season,
on the appearance and abundance of the beetles with reference to the
condition of the trees, and on the last occurrence of beetles in the
orchard, a number of trees were jarred regularly during the four years,
as described on page 5 and illustrated in Plate 5, A. These records
were also used for correlation with the development in the insectary.
JARRING RECORDS OF 1921
The block in a bearing orchard used for jarring throughout the
season of 1921 was bounded on one side by a strip of woods and on
three sides by a continuation of the peach orchard. (Fig. 1.) Six-
teen rows in which were 270 trees were jarred from March 4 to March
PLUM COECULIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT
61
21, and from then until October 15 only the first eight rows in which
were 132 trees were jarred.
Table 51 summarizes the results of the jarring of trees in the first
eight rows of block 1 in this orchard from March 4 to October 15, 1921.
Table 51. — Number of plum curculios collected by jarring the trees in eight rows
of block 1 in a peach orchard^ Fort Valley, Ua., 1921
Date of
jarring i
Number
of curculios
Date of
jarring i
Number
of curculios
Date of
jarring i
Number
of curculios
Date of
jarring i
Number
of curcu-
lios
Mar. 4
Mar. 7.
Mar. 9
Mar. 11
Mar. 14 »
Mar. 15
Mar. 17
Mar. 19
Mar. 21
Mar. 24.
Mar. 26
Mar. 28
Mar. 30
Apr. 2
Apr. 4
Apr. 6-
Apr. 8
Apr. 113
Apr. 13
Apr. 16
Apr. 19 <
Apr. 21
Apr. 26
1
36
174
83
662
521
712
981
1.040
270
432
442
65
83
119
101
109
2
3
34
6
13
30
Apr. 28
Apr. 30
May 3 -
May 6
May 9
May 11.
May 14
May 18
May 21
May 23
May 26
May 28.
May 31
June 2
June 4
June 6..
June8
June 10
June 13
June 15
June 17..
June 20
June 22
30
28
9
16
18
15
21
21
13
18
60
53
81
116
153
167
138
173
195
161
168
184
186
June 24
June 27
June 29
July 2 -
July 5 -
July 7- „
July 9.
July 12
July 15.
July 18
July 20
July 25
July 27
July 29
Aug. 1
Aug. 3
Aug. 5
Aug. 8
Aug. 10
Aug. 12
Aug. 15.
Aug. 19
.\ug. 22
217
302
425
270
180
164
164
117
79
113
103
39
44
55
45
i8
10
14
21
13
10
3
9
Aug. 24
Aug. 26
Aug. 29
Aug. 31 -
Sept. 3
Sept. 7
Sept. 9-
Sept. 13
Sept. 15
Sept. 17
Sept. i9
Sept. 21
Sept. 23
Sept. 26
Sept. 28
Oct. 1
Oct. 4
Oct. 7
Total..
8
11
3
3
2
5
2
11
6
8
• 6
2
4
3
1
10, 436
CURCULIOS CAUGHT IN EACH ROW
Row No.
Number of Percentage
curculios of total
Row No.
Number of
curculios
Percentage
of total
1
1,059
2,133
1,015
1,314
1,105
10.26
20.67
15. 65
12.74
10.71
6
1,099
1,067
925
10.65
2
7
10.34
3
8
8.98
4
Total
5
« 10. 317 100.00
Note.— Jarring the trees in rows 9 to 16, inclusive, yielded the following numbers of beetles: Mar. 4, 0;
Mar. 7, 7; Mar. 9, 49; Mar. 11, 28; Mar. 15, 740; Mar. 17, 861; Mar. 19, 718; Mar. 21, 1,352. On Mar. 24 the
trees in rows 9 and 10 yielded 56 beetles.
1 The trees were jarred on Sept. 5 and on Oct. 10, 13, and 15, but no beetles were collected,
2 Rain. Only 6 rows jarred.
3 Very windy and cold.
< Cold and frost.
* On Apr. 4 the rows were jarred crosswise and the exact number of beetles for each row was not obtained;
hence the 119 beetles collected on that date are omitted from this total.
The first beetle captured in the orchard in 1921 was taken on
March 4. No beetles occurred in this orchard after October 7. The
peak of appearance from hibernation occurred on March 21. The
peak of emergence of first-generation beetles was probably on June
29. There was an abrupt increase in the numbers captured around
June 1, which was probably the time that the first-generation adults
started to emerge. There was not a great deal of difference in the
total number collected from each row; it ranged from 925 for row 8
to 2,133 for row 2.
In order to see if an asparagus bed would affect the abundance of
the beetles on trees near it early in the season, and thereby determine
whether it would furnish satisfactory conditions for hibernation, 16
62 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, XT. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE
rows of peach trees were jarred in another portion of this same
orchard. These 16 rows were away from any wooded area. On
three sides this block was bounded by a continuation of the peach
orchard; on the west side, running along the entire side of row 1,
was an asparagus bed. The jarring was started in this block on
March 7 and concluded on March 24. This period of jarring would
show whether the asparagus bed was used for hibernation by the
beetles. Table 52 gives a summary of the results of jarring in this
block.
Table 52. — Number of plum curculios collected by jarring the trees in block 2 in a
peach orchard, Fort Valley, Ga., March 7 to 24, 1921
Row No.
Number of
curculios
Percentage
of total
Row No.
Number of
curculios
Percentage
of total
1
941
849
475
481
394
325
355
275
325
14.4
13
7.2
. r
5
5.4
4.2
5
10._
301
268
284
354
315
302
308
4.6
2
11.
4. 1
3
12
4.3
4
13
5 4
5...
14
4.8
6
15
4.6
7-.: -
16
4.7
g
Total
9
6,552
100
A total of 6,552 beetles were captured on the 16 rows from March 7
to 24. The numbers captured on rows 1 and 2, those nearest the
asparagus bed, were nearly twice as great as the numbers captured on
any of the other rows. The numbers collected from rows 1 and 2
were 941 and 849, respectively, whereas the highest number collected
from any other row was 481 on row 4. Of the total number of beetles
collected from the 16 rows during the period, 27.4 per cent were taken
from the first two rows. These records indicate that the asparagus
bed alongside of row 1 harbored many adult curculios during the win-
ter of 1920-21.
JARRING RECORDS OF 1922
The first beetles captured in an orchard by jarring in 1922 were
captured on March 1 from the block of trees (fig. 1) used for jarring
records throughout the previous season. These 16 rows, containing
270 trees, were jarred at intervals from March 1 to April 3, 1922, to
compare the infestation of 1921 with that of 1922, and to obtain notes
on the extent of emergence from hibernation during the month.
(Table 53.)
Table 53. — Number of plum curculios collected by jarring the trees in 16 rows in a
peach orchard. Fort Valley, Ga., 1922
Date of jarring
Number of
curculios
Date of jarring
Number of
curculios
Mar. 1
47
10
14
30
29
87
23
Mar. 22-- .
23
Mar. 6
Mar 24
65
Mar. 9
Mar 29
174
Mar. 11
Mar. 31
136
Mar. 13
Apr. 3
39
Mar 15
Total
Mar. 17
687
PLTJM CUECULIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT
63
Table 53. — Number of plum curculios collected by jarring the trees in 16 rows in a
peach orchard. Fort Valley, Ga., 1922 — Cfontinued
CURCULIOS CAUGHT IN EACH ROW
Row No.
Number of
curculios
Percentage
of total
Row No.
Number of
curculios
Percentage
of total
1
90
184
118
fi4
44
53
26
15
13.1
26.8
17.2
9.4
6.4
7.7
3.8
2.2
9
18
11
14
5
18
14
5
8
2.6
2
10 _
1 6
3 :
11
2
4
12
.7
5
13
2 6
6 ..
14
2
7
15
.7
8
16
1.2
Only 648 beetles were captured in this block during March, 1922,
as compared with 9,230 from the same block during March, 1921.
This shows a tremendous reduction in the infestation, indicating the
effectiveness of the curculio suppression campaign of 1921. In
addition to the hibernation quarters afforded by the wooded area at
the end of each of the 16 tree rows, there must have been favorable
hibernating quarters somewhere to the south of the block, as there
were more beetles captured on the first three rows than on the others
during the month. From the data in Table 53 the indications are that
the peak of appearance from hibernation occurred about March 29.
The first 10 rows from the asparagus bed of the same portion
(block 2) of an orchard jarred in 1921 were jarred again in 1922 to
obtain information on the comparative infestations, and to again
determine if the asparagus bed afforded hibernation quarters for the
insects during the winter months. Forty-seven trees, 30, 35, and 36
rows away from the asparagus bed, were also jarred to determine the
infestation on those rows as compared with those near the bed. The
first 10 rows that were jarred contained 138 trees. Table 54 gives a
summary of the results.
Table 54. — Number of plum curculios collected by jarring the trees in 13 rows in
a peach orchard, Fort Valley, Ga., March 6 to April 8, 1922
Row No.
Number of
curculios
Percentage
of total
Row No.
Number of
curculios
Percentage
of total
J
34
43
29
25
17
22
15
13
15
19
12.8
11
7.5
9.7
6.6
5.7
9
12
12
3
1
5.3
2
10
5.3
3.
30
.4
4
35
1.3
5
36
.4
g
Total
7
227
100
8
This record again shows that the asparagus bed probably offered
favorable hibernating quarters for the curculio, as more were captured
during March on the rows nearest the bed. The asparagus bed
adjoined row 1 along its entire length. Only five beetles were cap-
tured during the month on rows 30, 35, and 36 away from the bed.
The records indicate that there was a large reduction in the curculio
infestation in this orchard in 1922 as compared with 1921, which
64
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, V. S. DEPT. OF AGRICtJLTTJKE
further supports the effectiveness of the curculio suppression cam-
paign of 1921.
The block of trees used for jarring throughout the season of 1922
was some distance from the orchard used for jarring throughout the
previous season. The block used in 1922 consisted of 107 bearing
trees of the Hiley variety. Jarring was started in this orchard on
March 16 and continued until August 22. The block was bounded
on the north by a piece of woodland. There was also a woodland some
/^d7^^Z>^/VZ>
/f^OO^A^A/^
^-f^
/OOO O OOOOOOOOOOO ^-\-£
^oooooo oooooooo
,<^oooooooo oo oooo
^^ OOOOOOOOOOO o
^^oooooooooooo o o
^ oooooo ooo oo
^ooooooooo o ooo
•OOOOOOOOOOO
oo oo
Figure 2.— Location of trees in a bearing Hiley peach orchard used for jarring throughout the
seasons of 1922, 1923, and 1924
distance to the west of the block. A continuation of the peach orchard
bounded the block on the east and south. (Fig. 2.)
Table 55 gives a summary of the results of the jarring in this orchard
from March 16 to August 22.
Table 55. — Number of plum curculios collected by jarring the trees in eight rows
in a Hiley peach orchard, Fort Valley, Ga., 1922
Date of
. jarring
Number
of cur-
culios
Date of
jarring
Number
of cur-
culios
Date of
jarring
Number
of cur-
culios
Date of
jarring
Number
of cur-
culios
Mar. 16-
Mar. 18 -
Mar. 21
Mar. 23-
Mar. 25.
Mar. 28
Mar. 30
Apr. 11
Apr. 4--
Apr. 6--....
Apr. 8
Apr. 112
Apr. 13
Apr. 15 3
Apr. 18
Apr. 201
Apr. 221
208
227
157
88
465
331
534
117
456
369
252
89
110
57
117
25
18
Apr. 251
Apr. 27_
May 2
May4<
May 6-
May 9 5 -
May 11
May 13 -
May 18
May 20
May23
May 25-
May 30
June 3
June 6
Junes -
June 10
5
46
15
4
12
27
64
45
20
32
30
74
199
522
226
173
110
June 13
June 15
June 17
June 20
June 22
June 24
June 27
1 June 29
Julyl
July 4-
July 6
July 8-
July 11
July 13-
July 15.-
July 18-
July 22
74
29
44
14
18
7
9
13
21
12
16
■ 7
28
15
16
12
16
July 25-
July 27
July 29
Aug. 1
Aug. 3
Aug. 5
Aug. 8-
Aug. 10-
Aug. 15
Aug, 17
Aug. 19
Aug. 22
Total-
11
13
8
2
7
15
20
8
22
12
13
22
5,728
CURCULIOS CAUGHT IN EACH ROW
Row No.
Number of
curculios
Percentage
of total
Row No.
Number of
curculios
Percentage
of total
1
1,229
1,086
917
551
21.5
19
16
9.6
5
585
474
575
311
10.2
2
6
8.3
3 —
7.. .
10
4 -
8.. . ., .
5.4
1 Cool.
2 Rain.
3 Damp and cloudy.
* Damp.
•» Hot. Four trees jarred in row next to woods gave 15 beetles.
PLUM CURCULIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT 65
The peak of appearance from hibernation probably occurred on
March 30. The peak of emergence of first-generation adults was
about June 3, although first-generation adults were probably emerg-
ing before that date, since there was an abrupt increase in the num-
ber of beetles captured around May 25. The emergence of first-
generation adults was early in 1922. There was a second generation
and a few individuals of a third generation in the insectary that year.
A total of 5,728 beetles were captured from the eight rows in this
orchard by jarring throughout the season of 1922. The percentage
captured in the first three rows was much higher than on the other
rows, showing that many adult curculios hibernated in the woods
along the side of row 1.
In order to determine the extent of the infestation in other commer-
cial peach orchards in the Fort Valley district early in the 1922
season, jarrings were made in several orchards that were not being
used for experimental purposes. On April 5 50 trees near a woods
were jarred in the McArthur & Strother commercial orchard. These
trees were in four rows and the number of curculios collected was as
follows: Row 1, 83; row 2, 138; row 3, 74; row 4, 76; total, 371. In
an orchard on an adjoining plantation 100 trees in five rows were
jarred the same morning to determine the comparative infestation.
The number of curculios captured in this orchard was as follows:
Row 1, 64; row 2, 20; row 3, 34; row 4, 30; row 5, 55; total, 203.
Some commercial jarring was done by growers in 1922. On April
4 Walter Pearson, of Fort Valley, jarred one-half day with one set
of frames and captured 1,000 curculios. John Pearson jarred two
and one-half days with three sets of frames and captured 3,400 cur-
culios. On April 4 the writer captured 456 beetles in the experi-
mental orchard. The larger number collected in the Pearson orchards
was probably due to the accumulation of beetles in the orchards for
some time. In the experimental orchards jarrings had been made
every other daj^ previous to April 4, the date that the Pearson orchards
were jarred.
These jarrings all indicate a much lighter curculio infestation in
1922 than in 1921.
Copulation and feeding take place early in the season. A pair was
observed in coitus in the orchard on March 16. By April 3 the adults
from hibernation had done considerable feeding on the calyxes of the
peach flower.
On the morning of July 3 some special observations were made on
a pair of adult beetles in coitus. The operations began at 8.35 a. m.
For 33 minutes the male tapped before response. They were placed
aside in coitus at 9.30 a. m. At 7.30 p. m. an examination revealed
them in the same position as at 9.30 a. m. There was a little feeding
on a peach during the day, indicating that the female had fed during
the period of coitus, or that they had separated and fed between
observations. They had separated by the morning of July 4.
JARRING RECORDS OF 1923
In connection with the jarring records taken in 1923, notes were
made on the appearance and abundance of the beetles in the orchard
v/ith reference to blooming, ripening of the fruit, weather, and spray-
ing. The same block of 107 bearing Hiley trees was used for the jar-
110296—30 5
66 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
ring throughout the season of 1923 as was used during the previous
year. (Fig. 2.) Table 56 gives a summary of the results of the jar-
ring in this orchard every third day from March 5 to August 23.
Table 56. — Number of plum curculios collected by jarring the trees in eight rows in
a Hiley peach orchard, Fort Valley, Ga., 1923
Num-
Num-
Date of
jarring
ber of
curcu-
Remarks
Date of
jarring
ber of
curcu-
Remarks
lios
lios
Mar. 5
1
No blossoms yet.
May 24
13
Mar. 8
1
No blossoms yet. Cool.
June 2
13
Orchard sprayed fourth time on
Mar. 12
5
One tree in first row shows blos-
June 1 and 2.
soms. Windy.
June 5
6
Rows 5, 6, 7, and 8 not jarred.
Mar. 15
3
One tree in first row shows blo.s-
Frames broke.
soms. Cool and windy.
June 8
40
First-generation adults being col-
Mar. 19
No jarring done, as it was raining
lected.
and cold.
June 11
49
Mar. 22
9
Trees show 90 per cent of bloom.
June 14
83
Cool heavy fog and dew.
June 18
41
Mar. 27
138 1 Trees now in full bloom. Warm.
June 21
34
Mar. 30
No jarring done, as it was raining
and cold.
June 29
31
T.,ast two rows were being har-
vested before they were jaiied.
Apr. 2
37
Cold and windy. Temperature
Julv 2
28
low for two days before.
July 5
28
Apr. 5
98
Windy. Plat was dusted on Apr.
July 10
27
Trees stripped of fruit on this date .
3.
July 13
24
Apr. 9
51
Cool.
July 16
18
Apr. 12
129 ! 80 per cent of petals off.
July 19
16
Cool.
Apr. 17
74
1 July 23
22
Apr. 19
13
Cool.
July 26
8
Apr. 23
81
Warm. Orchard sprayed second
Julv 30
10
time on Apr. 21.
Aug. 2
5
Apr. 26
68
Aug. 6
5
Apr. 30
37
Aug. 9
4
May 3
Raining. Could not jar.
Aug. 13
0
May 7
30
Aug. 16
1
May 10
1
Orchard sprayed third time on
Aug. 20
0
1-inch rain Aug. 19.
May 9.
Aug. 23
1
May 14
18 1
May 17
10 1
Total.
1, 315
May 21
4 Jarred just after heavy rain.
CURCULIOS CAUGHT IN EACH ROW
Row No.
Number of
curculios
Percentage
of total
Row No.
Number of
curculios
Percentage
of total
1
412
226
152
116
118
i
31.3
17.2
11.6
8.8
9
6
103
101
87
7.8
2
7 .
7.7
3 . -
8
6.6
Total
5 .
1,315
100
The first curculio captured in the orchard in 1923 was taken on
March 5. There was practically no appearance from hibernation
until the trees started to bloom, and the peak of appearance occurred
on March 27, when the trees were in full bloom. Only one beetle was
captured on May 10, the day after this orchard was sprayed for the
third time. First-generation adults probably started to emerge
around June 8, and the peak of emergence was probably around
June 14. There was no second generation that year. A total of
1,315 beetles were captured from this block of trees during the season
of 1923, as compared wdth 5,728 from the same trees in 1922. This
shows f great reduction in the infestation since 1922, and a tremendous
reduction since 1921. The curculio-suppression campaign, waged
since 1921, was largely responsible for this marked reduction in the
PLUM CURCTJLIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT 67
curculio infestation. The percentage captured on the first row, the
one nearest the woods, was again higher than the percentage captured
on the other rows. Of the beetles captured during the season, 31.3
per cent were taken from the first row and 17.2 per cent from the
second row. The percentage of beetles captured on the other six
rows varied from 6.6 to 11.6.
On March 13 five pairs were noticed in coitus 24 hours after they
had appeared from hibernation boxes in the insectary, again indicating
that copulation takes place soon after the beetles appear from hiberna-
tion. Feeding also takes place soon after appearance from hiberna-
tion. On March 16 peach blossoms were placed in the jars containing
adult beetles that had just appeared from hibernation; by the next
day considerable feeding on the calyxes had taken pJace.
The length of the period of copulation was recorded for four pairs
on March 17, 1923, as follows: Pair No. 1, 10 minutes; pair No. 2,
35 minutes; pair No. 3, 1 hour; pair No. 4, 1 hour and 10 niir\utes. On
March 23 some records were made as to how soon copulation takes
place after appearance from hibernation. The time between appear-
ance from hibernation and copulation for five pairs was as follows:
Pair No. 1, 30 minutes; pair No. 2, 3 hours; pair No. 3, 6 hours; pair
No. 4, 6 hours; pair No. 5, o minutes. On March 31 one pair was
observed in copulation under the binocular for 1 hour and 30 minutes.
Adult beetles first appeared from hibernation in large numbers in
1923 on March 27, when there was a material increase in the number of
beetles captured by jarring. Most of these beetles were taken from
the rows near hibernating places, showing that they had just left
hibernation. Low temperatures and abnormal weather conditions
were perhaps responsible for holding the beetles in hibernation until
late. The peach trees were practically in full bloom on March 27, and
this condition of the trees brings out the beetles in numbers from
hibernation.
JARRING RECORDS OP 192?
The block of bearing Hiley trees that was used for jarring records in
1922 and 1923 (fig. 2) was also used for jarring throughout the season
of 1924. One more row of seven trees was added in 1924 to replace
those that had died during the previous je&r. Notes were again made
as to the correlation of the condition of the trees and the appearance of
curculios in the orchard. The jarrings were made only about once
each week in 1924, and on that account the record of the peaks of
appearance from hibernation and of the emergence from the soil of
adult curculios may not be so accurate as that of other years. Table
57 gives the weekly jarring record for this orchard from March 18 to
September 16.
68
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, tJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 57. — Number of plum curculios collected by jarring the trees in nine rows in
a Hiley peach orchard, Fort Valley, Ga.^ 1924
Pate of jarring
Number
of cur-
culios
Remarks
Mar. 18
0
0
51
25
67
175
111
33
69
30
22
14
19
76
63
89
lOS
105
98
22
14
10
5
6
0
108
21
2
It wa3 so cold ami rainy during the first two weeks in March that jarring
wa^ delayed. Traa^ now ab mt 50 p3r cent full bloom.
Cool anl windy. Trees 75 per cent full bloom. Minimum during preced-
ing week wan5° F.
Warm since Mar. 23. Maximum Mar. 21 78° F. Trees in full bloom.
Mar. 26
Mar. 29
Apr. 1 . - .
Beetles appearing rapidly.
La^t night cool, minimum 42'' F. Petals beginning to shed.
Warm. Blossoms 75 per cent off. Some calyxes bursting.
Calyxes about 80 oer cent off. Trees dusted on the l-3th
Apr. 8 ...
Apr. 17
Apr. 22 .-
Fruit sixe of a quarter. Six Conotrachelusanaglynticus taken this morning.
Beating rain April 29. Cloudy and windy. Captured seven Conotrachelus
anaglypticus.
Warm. Captured eight Conotrachelus anaglypticus.
Apr. 30
May 6
May 13
Cool last four days. One Conotrachelus anaglypticus taken this morning.
Warm. Caotured three Conotrachelus anaglypticus.
May 20
May 27
Warm. Captured two Conotrachelus anaglypticus.
June 3 -'
Warm. Captured three Conotrachelus anaglypticus.
Hot. Many evidently new beetles.
June 10
June IS
June 25
July 1
Captured one Conotrachelus anaglypticus.
July 8 . .
Peaches beginning to ripen.
July 15
59 per cent of fruit harvested.
July 23 .—
Fruit all harvested. Elbertas in orchard near by now ripening.
Warm. Captured one new Conotrachelus anaglypticus.
July 29
Au?. 5
Captured one Conotrachleus anaglypticus.
Aug 12
Rows 6, 7, 8, and 9 not jarred. Frames broken.
Aug. 19
Clear and hot.
Aug. 2S
Clear and cooler, although past week was very hot. Captured one Cono-
Sept. 4
trachelus anaglypticus.
Most all of them second-generation adults. Rain during week brought
Sept. 11
them out.
Very cool during past week. Some beetles probably hunting hibernation.
Sept. 16
Very cool during past week. Rows 8 and 9 not jarred. Frames broken.
Total
1,346
CURCULIOS CAUGHT IN EACH ROW
Row No.
Numbefof
curculios
Percentage
ot total
Row No.
Number of
curculios
Percentage
of total
1
324
263
163
24.1
19.5
12 1
7
119
67
50
1,346
8.8
2
8
5
s
9
3.7
4
5..
126 9.4
108 8
126 9. 4
Total
100
6
The first beetles to appear in this orchard in 1924 were taken on
March 29. The first beetle to appear during 1924, however, wsis noted
on March 18, when an individual left Bermuda grass in a cage on
the laboratory grounds. The cold and damp weather kept the
beetles from appearing in the orchards during early March in 1924.
Two to three inches of snow fell in the Georgia peach belt on the night
of March 13. A peach grower reported having seen several adult
curculios on Hiley blooms on March 11. There were only a few
blooms out on that date. A minimum temperature of 25.5° F. w^as
recorded on the morning of March 11, and this perhaps killed some
of the beetles that had appeared from hibernation. It w^as so cold
and rainy during the first tw^o weeks of March that the jarring opera-
tions were not started until March 18. The first week in March
was very rainy, and during the second week unusually low tempera-
PLUM CtTRCtTLIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT
69
tures occurred as follows: March 11, 25.5°; March 12, 34°; March
13, 32°; March 14, 32°; March 15, 29°. Only about 50 per cent of
the Hiley peaches were in full bloom by March 15. In all proba-
bility very few beetles were present in the orchards in 1924 until the
third and fourth weeks in March.
Hiley s were in full bloom on March 29. On this date a peach petal
was found in the field showing curculio-feeding marks. Beetles were
feeding vigorously in captivity on that date. One record showed
that an individual started to feed on peach calyxes in 2 hours and
40 minutes after appearing from hibernation.
A stray male curculio was found near the insectary'on March 26.
Beetles were appearing from hibernation cages in limited numbers at
the laboratory between March 18 and 25. The first copulation record
was made on March 28 on a pair that emerged from hibernation
cages sometime between March 18 and 25.
Fifty-one beetles were recorded from jarring on March 29. On
account of a high wind that prevailed at the time of jarring, perhaps
many beetles were lost during the operation. Beetles were appearing
in numbers by April 5. On this date there were a few very small
peaches in the orchards, '^ shucks" were rapidly falling from the
Hiley s, and Uneedas were in full bloom. By April 9, 10 per cent of
the shucks had shed from Elbertas and 25 per cent from Hileys.
The peak of appearance from hibernation in the orchard used for
jarring in 1924 probably occurred about the middle of April. The
peak of emergence of first-generation adults from the soil probably
occurred during the latter part of June. The beetles probably started
to emerge about June 10. The peak of emergence of second-genera-
tion adults from the soil probably took place about September 1.
A total of 1,346 beetles were captured from the 107 trees during the
1924 season, which is only 31 beetles more than were captured during
the previous season. The general curculio infestation was light in
Georgia in both 1923 and 1924. The percentage captured on the first
row, the one ne'arest the woods, was again higher than the percentage
captured on other rows. Of the beetles captured during the season,
24.1 per cent were taken from the first row and 19.5 per cent from the
second row. The percentage of beetles captured on the other rows
varied from 3.7 to 12.1.
Table 58 brings together the monthly totals and percentages of
curculios jarred from peach trees at Fort Valley, Ga., during the
four years.
Table 58. — Monthly total and percentage of plum curculios jarred from peach ireesy
Fort Valley, Ga., 1921-1924
1921
I Number of
I beetles
March
April
May.-
June
July
August
September.
October
Total
5,419
558
325
2,585
1,328
166
47
10, 436
Percentage
of total
51.9
5.3
3.1
24.8
12.7
1.6
.5
.1
100
1922
March
April
May
June
July.
Augu.st
Total
Number of
beetles
2,010
1, 661
622
1,239
175
121
5,728
Percentage
of total
35.1
29.0
9.1
21.6
3.1
2.1
100
70 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 58. — Monthly total and percentage of plum curculios jarred from peach trees,
Fort Valley, Ga., 19S 1-1 92 4— Continued
1923
March
April
May
June
July
August
Total
Number of
Percentage
beetles
of total
157
11.9
588
44.7
7f)
5.8
297
22.6
181
13.7
16
1.2
1,315
100
1924
Iv
Number of
beetles
March .
51
April
411
May
135
June
250
July..
347
August
September
Total..
21
131
1,346
Percentage
of total
3.8
30.5
10.0
18.6
25.8
1.6
9.7
100
Table 56 shows that during March the percentages of curcuUos
captured by jarring were 51.9 and 35.1 for 1921 and 1922, respectively.
The beetles came out of hibernation in numbers early during 1921
and 1922, and there were two full generations in the orchards those
years. The emergence of first-generation adults was heavy in June
of those years. The beetles were late leaving hibernation in numbers
during 1923. Only 12 per cent of the beetles were captured by jarring
during March, whereas 44.7 per cent were captured during April.
The peach season was not delayed in 1923 and the crop was off before
many first-generation adults emerged. These were emerging during
June and July. The beetles were late leaving hibernation during 1924,
but as the peach season was also late that year, two generations of
the insect were produced. The beetles did not appear from hiberna-
tion in numbers until April. First-generation adults were emerging
during June and July, and second-generation adults were emerging
during September. The numbers of adults captured by jarring during
each of the four years indicate the effectiveness of the curculio-sup-
pression campaign that was waged during those years.
Figure 3 gives a graphic comparison of the emergence of plum cur-
culios in a commercial peach orchard as shown by jarring at Fort
Valley, Ga., during the four years.
There were distinct peaks of appearance from hibernation and of
emergence of first-generation adults for each of the four years. There
was a distinct peak of emergence of second-generation adults for 1924.
The jarring was stopped too early in 1922 to show the peak of emergence
of second-generation adults. A slight rise in the number captured
on September 20, 1921, may indicate a peak of emergence of second-
generation adults for that year.
RELATION OF TEMPERATURE TO APPEARANCE OF PLUM CURCULIOS FROM
HIBERNATION
Table 59 gives the jarring records for the four years and shows the
relation between temperature and the appearance of the plum cur-
culios from hibernation.
PLUM CURCULIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT
71
^^I^^Si^,^^ ^ ^ S ^ ^ ^ F^ S ^ ^ i*^ ^ i^ ^^-^
72 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICXJLTUEE
TABbE 59. — Jarring records showing relation of temperature to appearance of plum
curculios from hibernation, Fort Valley, Ga., 1921-1924
Aver-
Arer-
Aver-
Aver-
age
age
age
age
mean
mean
mean
mean
Date of
temper-
ature
Bee-
tles
caught
Date of
temper-
ature
Bee-
tles
caught
Date of
temper-
ature
Bee-
tles
caught
Date of
temper-
ature
Bee-
tles
caught
jarring
for 24
hours
jarring
for 24
hours
jarring
for 24
hours
jarring
for 24
hours
previ-
previ-
previ-
previ-
ous to
ous to
ous to
ous to
jarring i
jarring »
jarring >
jarring >
Num-
Num-
Num-
Num-
1921
op
ber
1922
°F.
ber
1923
^F.
ber
1924
op
ber
Mar. 4
65. 63
1
Mar. 16
57.38
208
Mar. 5
67.3
1
Mar. 18
55.5
0
Mar. 7
64. 54
36
Mar. 18
61.58
227
Mar. 8
45.9
1
Mar. 26
58.1
0
Mar. 9
71.00
174
Mar. 21
47.71
157
Mar. 12
70.3
5
Mar. 29
69.3
51
Mar. 11
59.42
83
Mar. 23
50.79
88
Mar. 15
63.3
3
Apr. 1
66.6
25
Mar. 14
65. 13
662
Mar. 25
eo. 63
465
Mar. 22
61.2
9
Apr. 8
64.3
67
Mar. l.s
65.88
521
Mar. 28
f;9. 48
331
Mar. 27
63.9
138
Apr. 17
66.5
175
Mar. 17
68.75
712
Mar. 30
70.58
534
Apr. 2
44.1
37
Apr. 22
71.9
111
Mar. 19
71.92
981
Apr. 1
56. 58
117
Apr. 5
64.0
98
Apr. 30
70.0
33
Mar. 21
71.92
1040
Apr. 4
67.71
456
Apr. 9
59.1
51
May 6
73.5
69
Mar. 24
52. 58
270
Apr. 6
69. 00
369
Apr. 12
65.6
129
May 13
65.6
30
Mar. 26
68.96
432
Apr. 8
69.71
252
Apr. 17
64.1
74
May 20
78.6
22
Mar. 28
74. 25
442
! ADr. 11
76.29
89
Apr. 19
54.2
13
May 27
74.0
14
Mar. 30
51.67
65
Apr. 13
70.71
110
Apr. 23
74.8
81
June 3
63.5
19
Apr. 2
54. 17
83
Apr. 15
78.79
57
Apr. 20
66.8
68
June 10
81.0
75
Apr. 4
60.22
119
Apr. IS
77.92
117
Apr. 30
65.6
37
June 18
86.5
66
Apr. 6
66.96
101
Apr. 20
61.63
25
May 7
66.9
30
June 25
73.6
89
Apr. 8
70.63
109
Apr. 22
62.88
18
May 10
53.8
1
July 1
74.5
108
Apr. 11
49.04
2
1 Apr. 25
63.13
5
May 14
71.0
18
July 8
75.5
105
Apr. 13
68.46
3
Apr. 27
73.60
46
May 17
66.7
10
July 15
81.5
98
Apr. 16
70.13
34
May 2
64.25
15
May 21
70.2
4
July 23
85.8
22
Apr. 19
47.54
6
May 4
71.79
4
May 24
75.2
13
July 29
80.3
14
Apr. 21
64.50
13
May 6
68.42
12
June 2
69.9
13
Aug. 5
82.7
10
Apr. 25
75. 54
30
May 9
78.08
27
June 6
73.9
6
Aug. 12
86.3
5
Apr. 28
68.83
30
May 11
76.83
64
June 8
77.7
40
Aug. 19
86.1
6
Apr. 30
64.75
28
May 13
78.04
45
June 11
75.0
49
Aug. 26
85.1
0
May 3
CO. 25
9
i May 18
63.38
20
June 14
72.5
83
Sept. 4
71.8
108
May 6
f 2. 46
16
May 20
68.71
32
June 18
77.1
41
Sept. 11
65.5
21
May 9
73.33
19
'■ May 23
73.63
30
June 21
79.5
34
Sept. 16
67.2
2
May 11
74.42
15
' May 25
77.17
74
June 29
72.5
31
May 14
68.39
21
May 30
65.24
199
July 2
75.3
28
1 Average mean temperature detsrmined from hy grothc rmograph records.
These data substantiate the conchision of Quaintance and Jenne ^
that a mean temperature of from 55° to 60° F. is required to cause the
beetles in hibernation to become active. The beetles apparently
come out of hibernation in numbers when the mean temperature has
been above 60° for several successive days. In several cases beetles
were jarred in numbers on days following 24-hour periods when the
mean temperature was below 55°, but these beetles were probably
brought out of hibernation by earlier periods of warm weather and
remained on the trees. The number caught by jarring is usually
greatly reduced by periods of cold weather. There are other con-
ditions which probably influence the appearance of beetles from hiber-
nation and the numbers caught by jarring. The odor from the bloom-
ing peach trees, and perhaps rain and wind, influence the appearance
of the beetles from hibernation to some extent. Undoubtedly wind,
rain, location of hibernating quarters, and the number of beetles
captured by previous jarrings affect the number of beetles caught in
the orchard by jarring on a given date.
» Quaintance, A. L., and Jenne, E. L. Op. Cit.
PLUM CUECTJLIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT
73
THE RELATION OF MOISTURE AND TEMPERATURE TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
CURCULIO
Moisture, as well as temperature, greatly influences the develop-
ment of the curculio. Continuous rains will cause the curculio in the
several stages to remain in the soil longer than normally, and this is
undoubtedly responsible for only one brood in some years, on account
of delay in the emergence of first-generation adults until after the
peaches are harvested. The development of the adult during the
pupal stage is prolonged by a drought. Very dry soil, especially if
there is a crust on the surface, will delay the escape of newly emerged
adults, from the soil. Some of the tender, newly transformed adults
may be killed while trying to escape from dry and hard soil. A
as-
/ 2 J ^ ^67 a 9 /O //
FiGUUE 4.— Comparison of normal monthly precipitation and temperature at Marshallville, Ga.,
for 29 years, with precipitation and mean temperature by months for the year 1921. Points
indicating normal data are connected by a solid line; those indicating data for 1921 by a broken
line
drought during the pupation period would therefore tend to delay the
emergence of new adults from the soil.
Low temperatures and cold spring rains will retard the appearance
of overwintered adults from hibernation in the spring. This will
cause the deposition of first-generation eggs later than normal and
consequently the emergence of first-generation adults later than
usual. This condition would influence the number of broods, in that
the first-generation beetles might not escape from the soil until after
peach harvest, leaving no host for the deposition of second-generation
The four climographs in Figures 4, 5, 6, and 7, showing the rainfall
and temperature for 1921, 1922, 1923, and 1924, as compared with a
29-year average at Marshallville, Ga., 7 miles from Fort Valley, are
given to show the influence of these climatic factors on the develop-
ment of the curculio during the four years that the life-history studies
were under way.
74 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, V. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
From the 1921 climograph it will be noted that the temperature
was considerably higher than normal during March and the rainfall
^ ,5^ 6 7 a 9
riGL'RE 5.— Comparison of normal monthly precipitation and temperature at Marshallville, Oa.,
for 29 years, with precipitation and mean temperature by months for the year 1922. Points
indicating normal data are connected by a solid line; those indicating data for 1922 by a broken
line
was much below normal. The temperature was also higher and the
rainfall less than normal during February. These conditions caused
the adult curculios to leave hibernation early. They appeared in
—O / Z .S ^ ^ e zr ^ J? /<? // /^ A^
/0>e^C;//^/7>/7-/0/V /jV /A^O//^i5^
Figure 6.— Comparison of normal monthly precipitation and temperature at ISTarshallville, Ga , for 29
years, with precipitation and mean temperature by months for the year 1923. Points indicating normal
data are connected by a solid line; those indicating data for 1923 by a broken line
the orchards in numbers during the early part of March and the peak
of appearance was reached that year by March 21. Weather con-
ditions were normal during the period when the insect was in the
soil passing through the stages of development, and the first-generation
PLUM CUECtJLIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT
75
adults were emerging in numbers before any of the late varieties of
peaches were harvested. Second-generation eggs were deposited in
the fruit on the trees and a complete second generation of the curculio
occurred that year. The rainfall during July wa.s much above
normal, but this had very little influence on the number of broods
that year, as it occurred after the emergence of the first-generation
adults. It may have caused the earliest larvae of the second genera-
tion to remain as larvae in the soil for a longer time than normal
and thereby delayed the emergence of second-generation adults from
the soil. Second-generation adults were emerging from August 12
to September 4. There was no oviposition by these adults in 1921.
In 1922 the beetles again appeared early from hibernation. They
started to appear in the orchards on March 1 and could be collected in
3 -^ ^ 6 -7
FiouRK 7.— Comparison of normal monthly precipitation and temperature at
JMarshaliville, Ga., for 29 years, with precipitation and mean temperature by
months for the year 1924. Points indicating normal data are connected by a
solid line; those indicating data for 1924 by a broken line
numbers during March. The peak of appearance from hibernation
was reached on March 30. As shown by the 1922 climograph, the
mean temperature for February was 9 ° above normal . This is perhaps
responsible for the early appearance of the beetles from hibernation,
even though the rainfall in March was much above normal. The
mean temperature for March, however, was normal. First-generation
adults started to emerge from the soil on May 29. They emerged in
numbers before any of the late varieties of peaches were harvested
and deposited second-generation eggs in them. There was a complete
second generation in 1922, and one adult of a third generation was
reared in the insectary. Second-generation adults therefore mated,
and some third-generation eggs were deposited in 1922, the only year
in the four when this occurred. Second-generation adults started to
emerge on July 27, the earliest date of second-generation emergence
during the four years, and continued to emerge until October 24.
While the May precipitation was above normal, the temperature was
76 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
normal, and as there was a precipitation deficiency with above-normal
temperature in April when most of the first-generation larvae were in
the soil passing through the stages of transformation, the emergence
of first-generation adults was not delayed, and they were appearing
in numbers before the late peaches were off the trees. The temperature
and rainfall during July, August, September, and October were about
normal, and the second generation developed under optimum condi-
tions, the adults emerging over a long period from July 27 to October 24.
The beetles were late leaving hibernation in 1923. Even though the
jarring record shows that one curculio appeared in the orchard on
March 5, the beetles did not start to leave hibernation in numbers
until March 22. The peak of appearance from hibernation was
reached on March 27. The climograph for 1923 shows that the early
spring was wet and cool. The mean temperature for both January
and February was above normal, and while the March mean tempera-
ture was a little above normal there was an excess of rainfall. These
weather conditions kept the beetles in hibernation later than normal.
First-generation adults did not start to emerge from the soil until
June 7. They continued to emerge until September 26. Some of the
first-generation eggs were therefore deposited very late. The rainfall
during May was more than 9 inches above normal, and the tempera-
ture was a little under normal. There was also an excess of rainfall
and a mean temperature below normal in June. These conditions
were very unfavorable for the development of the curculio in the soil.
The peach crop was harvested in Georgia before the majority of the
first-generation adults were fertilized and ready to deposit eggs.
Consequently only one generation of the curculio occurred in Georgia
peach orchards in 1923. This was the only year during the course of
these life-history investigations that two generations did not occur.
The beetles were again late in leaving hibernation in 1924. They
did not start leaving in numbers until March 29, although the first
beetle was noted oj^ March 18. The peak of appearance from hiberna-
tion did not occur until about the middle of April. As shown by the
1924 climograph, the spring was very cold. The mean temperature
for March, when most of the beetles are usually appearing from
hibernation, was much below normal. January and February
temperatures were also below normal. Rains were frequent in March,
and 2 to 3 inches of snow fell on March 13. These conditions pre-
vented the beetles from appearing from hibernation at the normal
time and also were responsible for a late blooming season. Weather
conditions were normal during April, May, and June, except that the
June precipitation was a little above normal. As a result, the first
generation developed in normal time in the soil, and first-generation
adults started to emerge on June 8. They were emerging in numbers
by the middle of the month. As the peach season was late, first-gener-
ation adults were emerging in numbers before the crop was harvested.
Second-generation eggs were deposited under fairly normal conditions,
and a second generation of adults occurred. They started to emerge
en August 24 and continued to emerge until October 11.
Even though the hibernated adults were as late appearing in the
orchards in 1924 as in 1923, two generations of the insect occurred in
Georgia in 1924, whereas only one generation occurred in 1923. The
1923 peach season was about two weeks earfier than the 1924 season,
and as unfavorable conditions occurred during the pupation season
of the first generation in 1923, the adults did not emerge in time to
Tech. Bui. 188. U. S. Dcpt. of Agriculture
PLATE 10
A and B Adults of Triaspis curculionis: A, male; B, female. X 5. C and D, Adults of two
species' of curculio: C, cambium curculio {Conotrachelus anaglypticus); D, plum curcuUo
(C nenuphar). X 8
PLUM CUKCULIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT
77
deposit second-generation eggs before the fruit was harvested. Normal
conditions occurred during the 1924 pupation, and first-generation
adults emerged well in advance of the harvest of the late varieties of
peaches. Second-generation eggs were deposited in the fruit, and a
second generation of adults was produced. The number of beetles
appearing from hibernation and in the orchard throughout the 1924
season was, however, just a very few more than in 1923. The control
measures enforced in 1924 were very effective in preventing an increase
from the two generations.
PARASITES OF THE PLUM CURCULIO IN GEORGIA
The most important and most common parasite of the plum curculio
in Georgia is the hymenopterous parasite of the larva (Sigalphus)
Triaspis curculionis Fitch. (PL 10, A. B.) This insect was reared in
large numbers during each of the four years that the curculio studies
were under way. (S.) T. curculionis var. rujus Riley was also reared
in numbers each year. Two important dipterous parasites of the
curculio larva that were reared at Fort Valley are Myiophasia globosa
Townsend and Cholomyia longipes Fab. The only egg parasite which
was reared was the hymenopterous parasite {Anaphes) Anaphoidea
conotracheli Girault.
During the season of 1921 a record was kept of the emergence of
Triaspis curculionis from 15 parasite boxes in which 11,116 curculio
larvae were placed from April 10 to 28. Table 60 shows that 0.7 per
cent of these curculio larvae were parsitized by T. curculionis. This
percentage is unusually low and may be due to the number of larvae
unaccounted for, many of which were probably destroyed by ants.
Only 991 of the 11,116 larvae, or 8.9 per cent, transformed to adults
and were recorded as such as they emerged from the soil. The first
T. curculionis issued on May 3, and the last was recorded on June 9.
The heaviest emergence was between May 15 and 25. Of the T.
curculionis issuing from the curculio larvae that reached maturity
between April 10 and 28, 28.4 per cent were males and 71.6 per cent
were females.
Table 60. — Emergence of Triaspis curculionis from plum-curculio larvae during
season of 1921 at Fort Valley, Ga.
Cage No.
Date
larvae
were
placed in
sou
Larvae
placed
in soil
Triaspis curculionis
emerging i
Larvae
parasit-
ized by
Triaspis
curcu-
lionis
" Beetles
emerging
Larvae
trans-
forming
to beetles
Male
Female
1
Apr. 10
Apr. 11
Apr. 12
Apr. 13
Apr. 14
Apr. 15
Apr. 16
Apr. 17
Apr. 18
Apr. 19
Apr. 20
Apr. 21
Apr. 22
Apr. 27
Apr. 28
Number
980
1,260
889
1,352
1,312
1,101
1,156
1,245
725
315
214
249
155
94
69
Number
7
5
5
1
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
Number
20
9
10
7
2
0
0
2
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
Per cent
2.8
1.1
L7
.6
:l
.0
.2
.8
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
Number
205
120
77
136
209
39
27
69
79
10
13
1
2
3
1
Per cent
20.9
2
9.5
3 -
8.7
4.. .
10.1
5
15.9
6
3.5
7 . .
2.3
8...
5.5
9
10.9
10
3.2
11 . .
6.1
12
0.4
13
1.3
14..
3.2
15
L4
Total or average.
11, 116
21
53
.7
991
8.9
1 Triaspis curculionis emerged, from May 13 to June 7; males, 28.4 per cent; females, 71.6 per cent..
78
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 61. — Emergence of Triaspis curculionis from plum-curculio larvae during
season of 1922 at Fort Valley, Ga.
Cage No.
Date
larvae
were
placed in
soil
Larvae
placed
in soil
Triaspis curculionis
emerging i
Larvae
parasit-
ized by
Triaspis
curcu-
lionis
Beetles
emerging
Larvae
trans-
Male
Female
forming
to beetles
1
Apr. 24
Apr. 26
Apr. 27
Apr. 28
Apr. 29
Apr. 30
May 1
May 2
Number
154
118
243
359
147
1,052
218
661
Number
1
2
2
3
1
1
1
1
Number
0
1
2
2
3
1
0
1
Per cent
0.6
2.5
L6
1.4
2.7
.2
.5
.3
Number
62
99
166
190
86
522
37
246
Percent
40.3
2
83 9
3
68.3
4
52.9
5
58.5
6
49.6
7
17.0
8
37.2
Total or average..
2,952
12
10
0.7
1, 408 1 47. 7
1 Triaspis curculonis emerged from May 17 to June 15; males, 54.5 per cent; females, 45.5 per cent.
In 1922 a record was kept of the emergence of T. curculionis from
eight parasite boxes in which 2,952 curcuHo larvae were placed from
April 24 to May 2, and of these 0.7 per cent were parasitized by
T. curculionis. This is the same degree of parasitism as recorded in
1921. Of the 2,952 larvae, 47.7 per cent transformed to adult
curculios. The first T. curculionis issued on May 17 and the last
on June 15. The heaviest emergence was during the latter part of
May. Of the T. curculionis issuing from the curculio larvae that
reached maturity between April 24 and May 2, 1922, 54.5 per cent
were males and 45.5 per cent females.
Table 62 gives a record of T. curculionis issuing from curculio larvae
that were placed in individual vials from May 8 to 12. These para-
sites, all females, issued from June 5 to 17.
Table 62. — Emergence of Triaspis curculionis from plum-cuculio larvae placed in
individual vials during season of 1922, Fort Valley, Ga.
Date larvae were placed in soil in vials
Larvae
placed in
soil in
vials
Triaspis
curculi-
onis
emerging 1
Larvae
parasit-
ized by
Triaspis
curculi-
onis
Beetles
emerging
Larvae
trans-
forming
to beetles
Mays
Number
12
8
5
7
Number
Per cent
8.3
12.5
20.0
14.3
Number
7
5
3
4
Per cent
58.3
May 10
62.5
May 11 . .
60.0
May 12.
57.1
Total or average .
32
4
12.5 1 19
59.4
Triaspis curculionis emerged from June 5 to 17; all females.
PLUM CURCULIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT
79
Table 63. — Emergence of Triaspis curculionis and other parasites from plum-
cur culio larvae during season of 1923, at Fort Valley, Ga.
Cage No.
Date lar-
vae were
placed in
soil
May 2
2 May 4
3. .J May 5
4 do-.-
5 do-.-
6 May 6
7 do-..
8 I May 7
9 i May 8
10 .-..do...
11 -I May 9
12 May 17
13 Aug. 2
Total or average 6,703
Larvae
placed
in soil
Number
5
607
553
586
589
575
625
647
500
747
874
390
5
Parasites emerging
Triaspis curcu-
lionis >
Male Female
Number
0
4
33
9
11
20
14
4
16
41
15
176
Number
0
0
46
6
27
13
6
22
31
37
15
0
Triaspis curcu'
lionis var. rufus *
Male Female
205
Number
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
Number
0
0
1
Myio-
phasia
globosa
Number
1
0
0
2
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
Cholo-
myia
lon-
gipes
Number
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
Larvae
para-
sitized
by-
Tri-
aspis
curcii-
lionis
Per cent
0."6
14.3
1.9
2.9
8.2
4.3
1.5
7.6
9.6
5.9
6.2
5.7
Cage No.
1 -.
May 2
May 4
May 5
...do
2
3
4
5 .-
6- ..
-..do--..
May 6
...do
May 7
May 8
-.do
7...
8 ..
9
10
11--
May 9
May 17
Aug. 2
12 -
13
Total or average 6, 703
Date lar-
vae were
placed in
soil
Larvae
placed
in soil
Number
5
607
553
586
589
575
625
647
500
747
874
390
5
Larvae parasitized by-
Tri-
aspis
curcu'
lionis !
var. j
rufus I
Myio-
phasia
globosa
Cholo-
myia
lon-
gipes
1 ,
Per cent Per cent Per cent
20.0
0.4
.2
.2
.2
.2
.2
.2
.3
.2
.5
20.00
,01
Larvae
parasit-
ised by
all para-
sites
Per cent
20.0
.6
14.6
2.4
3.1
8.3
4.5
L9
7.8
9.9
6.3
6.9
20.0
6.0
Beetles
emerg-
ing
Number
0
74
64
34
114
119
128
122
103
162
196
158
1
Larvae
trans-
form-
ing to
beetles
Per cent
12.2
11.6
5.8
19.4
20.7
20.5
18.9
20.6
2L7
22.4
40.5
20.0
Larvae
not ac-
counted
for
Per cent
80.0
87.2
73.8
91.8
77.6
71.0
75.0
79.3
71.6
68.4
71.3
52.6
60.0
1,275
19.0
75.0
1 Triaspis curculionis emerged from May 23 to July 16; males, 46.2 per cent; females, 53.8 per cent.
J Triaspis curculionis var. rufus emerged from May 28 to June 8; males, 21.4 per cent; females, 78.6 per cent.
A record was kept of the emergence of T. curculionis, T. curculionis
var. rufus, Myiophasia globosa, and Cholomyia longipes during the
1923 season from 13 parasite boxes, in which 6,703 curcuUo larvae
were placed from May 2 to 17 and on August 2. Only 1,275 beetles
emerged from the 6,703 larvae, leaving 75 per cent of the larvae
unaccounted for, after allowing for those that were parasitized.
The 6 per cent parasitism of larvae in 1923 was undoubtedly a factor
that contributed to the control of the curculio that year.
The first T. curculionis issued in 1923 on May 23, and the last on
July 16. The first T. curculionis var. rufus issued in 1923 on May 28,
and the last on June 8. One specimen of Cholomyia longipes issued
from these curculio larvae during the 1923 season.
Table 64 gives the record of emergence of Triaspis curculionis,
T. curculionis var. rufus, and Myiophasia globosa during the 1924
season from 11 parasite boxes, in which 3,997 curculio larvae were
placed from April 29 to May 24.
80 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 64. — Emergence of Triaspis curculionis and other parasites from plum-
curculio larvae during season of 1924, l^ort Valley, Ga.
Date
larvae
placed in
soil
1
o
a
t
Para.'Jites emerging
Larvae parasitized
by-
h
Q.O,
bo
1
s
1
ll
§
>
1
Cage No.
Triaspis cur-
culionis 1
1 <"
d 3
ll
6
11
O
11
ll
6
"ei
a
ll
.2
>>
1
^
S
1
i
1
1
Apr. 29
Apr. 30
May 1
May 1, 2, 3 .
May 4,5
May 5, 6
May 6, 7, S.-
May 8,9....
Mav9. 10,11-
Mayl2,13,14
May 15 to 24.
Num-
ber
6
10
10
400
453
400
400
927
525
543
323
Num-
ber
2
2
2
85
77
44
41
55
64
35
11
Num-
ber
0
2
1
49
52
53
35
90
67
55
17
Num-
ber
0
0
0
0
0
2
1
0
1
1
1
Num-
ber
0
?
0
1
0
0
3
0
1
1
Per
cent
33.3
40.0
30.0
33.5
28.5
24.3
19.0
15.6
25.0
16.6
8.7
Per
cent
Per
cent
Per
cent
33.3
40.0
30.0
33.5
28.7
24.8
No.
0
0
5
40
58
OS
Per
cent
'lo'o
10.0
12.8
23.2
27.7
19.0
31.2
33.0
51.7
Per
cent
66 7
2 ^-.
60 0
3
20.0
4
56 5
5
"b'h'
.3
......
.2
.3
0.2
— ...
.3
58 5
6._
52 0
7
19.3 1 111
16.0 j 176
25.1 164
16.9 1 179
9. 3 j 167
53.0
8
65.0
9
43 6
10
50 1
11
39 0
Total or average
3,997
418
421
6
6
2(m
.2
.2
21.3
993
24.8
53.9
1 Triaspis curculionis emerged from May 26 to July 15; males, 49.8 per cent; females, 50.2 per cent.
2 Triaspis curculionis var. rufus emerged from June 6 to 18; all were females.
This table shows that 20.9 per cent of the larvae were parasitized
by T. curculionis, 0.2 per cent by T. curculionis var. rufus, and 0.2
per cent by M. globosa. From the 3,997 larvae, 993 adult curculios
emerged, leaving 53.9 per cent of the larvae unaccounted for, after
allowing for those that were parasitized. The parasitism was un-
usually heavy in 1924 and in all probability was a very important
factor in the control of the curculio that season.
The first T. curculionis oi 1924 issued on May 26 and the last on
July 15. The first T. curculionis var. rujus issued on June 6 and the
last on June 18. The first female T. curculionis did not appear until
two days after the appearance of the first male. The males of T.
curculionis were the first to appear in numbers, and the females did
not appear in numbers until five days after the males started to issue ^
FEEDING TESTS WITH LEAD ARSENATE
A number of experiments were conducted during each of the four
years to test the toxicity of different forms of lead arsenate and other
materials for curculio control. The most important phase of this
work consisted of the tests dealing with the comparative toxicity of
the acid lead arsenate (PbHAs04) when applied as a liquid spray
and as a dust. Basic lead arsenate, a reduced dosage of acid lead
arsenate, the addition of calcium caseinate to the lead-arsenate spray,
and nicotine sulphate were also used in these tests.
In 1921 these feeding tests were conducted by spraying or dusting a
peach limb containing small peaches, and then tying over one of the
twigs a paper bag in which a number of adult curculios were confined.
Observations for mortality of the insects were made every day or two
thereafter. Table 65 gives the results of the tests of 1921.
PLUM CUBCULIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT
81
Table 65. — Tests of the killing effect on the plum curculio of sprays and dusts on
twigs on trees containing peaches and foliage. Fort Valley,, Ga., 1921
Insecticide used and date beetles were con-
fined
Number of beetles
dying on —
6
I
CO
'I
•
1
2
i
Remarks
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
20 beetles confined Mar. 12 in bag over twig
containing peaches and foliage sprayed with
basic lead-arsenat€ paste at rate of 2 lbs. to
50 gals, water, with lime.
Same as test No. 1, only acid lead-arsenate
powder used at rate of 1 lb. to 50 gals, of
spray.
Same as test No. 1, only twig dusted with 80
per cent sulphur, 5 per cent acid-lead arse-
nate, and 15 per cent hydrated lime.
Same as test No. 3, only 80 per cent sulphur,
10 per cent acid lead arsenate, and 10 per
cent hydrated lime dust used.
16 beetles confined iVIar. 10 in bag over twig
containing peaches and foliage sprayed with
acid lead-arsenate powder at rate of 1 lb. to
50 gals, water, with lime.
Duplicate of test No. 5; only 18 beetles used..
19 beetles confined Mar. 10 in bag over twig
containing peaches and foliage sprayed with
basic lead-arsenate paste at rate of 2 lbs. to
50 gals, water, with lime.
Duplicate of test No. 7, only 13 beetles used..
19 beetles confined Mar. 10 in bag over twig
containing peaches and foliage dusted with
80 per cent sulphur, 5 per cent acid lead
arsenate, and 15 per cent hydrated lime.
Duplicate of test No. 9, only 16 beetles used..
18 beetles confined Mar. 10 in bag over twig
containing peaches and foliage dusted with
80 per cent sulphur, 10 per cent acid lead
arsenate, and 10 per cent hydrated lime.
Duplicate of test No. 11, only 19 beetles were
used.
20 beetles confined Mar. 10 in bag over twig
containing peaches and foliage that had
received no treatment (check).
Duplicate of test No. 13 _
0
0
1
1
1
2
0
0
10
33
0
0
0
0
<0
10
0
1
2
2
2
23
1
0
33
n
4
14
0
1
0
0
\
1
22
2
0
21
22
6
8
0
0
2
4
2
3
3
2
0
0
25
3
24
3
0
1
._-
3
4
3
1
6
6
4
3
0
0
10
7
12
11
65 per cent mortality in 23
days, when test was closed.
70 per cent mortality in 23
days, when test was closed.
90 per cent mortality in 23
days, when test was closed.
Do.
62 per cent mortality in 13
days, when test was closed.
78 per cent mortality in 13
days, when test was closed.
21 per cent mortality in 13
days, when test was closed.
8 per cent mortality in 13
day", \v ou test was closed.
V9 ^:)Gr cent i^iortality in 13
days.
75 per cent mortality in 13
days.
100 per cent mortality in 13
days, when test was closed.
95 per cent mortality in 13
days.
All beetles alive and active
at end of 13 days, when
test was closed. (There
was about as much feeding
on the treated foliage as on
the checks.)
10 per cent mortality in 13
days. Others all alive and
active when test was closed.
1 Three sick.
2 One sick.
3 Two sick.
* Four sick.
Basic (or triplumbic) lead arsenate, in both feeding tests and or-
chard spraying experiments, has been found to be slower in killing
curculios than the acid or diplumbic from. It will be noted in the
above tests that the diplumbic was quicker and killed more of the
insects than the triplumbic. In test 1 the triplumbic as a spray
killed 65 per cent of the beetles within 23 days, whereas the diplumbic
as a spray killed 70 per cent and as a dust killed 90 per cent in the
same time. The curculio mortality was the same in test 4, where
10 per cent acid lead arsenate was used, as in test 3, where only 5 per
cent was used.
In the other series the triplumbic gave very poor results. In tests
7 and 8 this form of lead arsenate killed only 21 and 8 per cent of the
beetles within 13 days. The diplumbic form applied as a spray killed
62 and 78 per cent within 13 days, as reported in tests 5 and 6. Five
per cent of acid lead arsenate in a dust mixture gave a curculio
110296—30 0
82 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
mortality within 13 days of 79 and 75 per cent in tests 9 and 10.
The 10 per cent used in tests 11 and 12 gave a curculio mortality
within 13 days of 100 and 95 per cent.
The acid lead arsenate was not only more toxic and a quicker
killer of the curculio than the basic lead arsenate, but it frequently
caused severe sickness of the curculios the day following the feeding.
Even though there was not much mortality of the curculios from the
acid lead arsenate until several days after the application, there was
sufficient sickness from it the day following to stop oviposition.
The feeding tests of 1922 were conducted in a manner similar to
those of 1921. The beetles were placed in paper bags, which were
tied over a sprayed or dusted peach twig containing fruit and foliage.
Observations for curculio mortality were made daily. As the feed-
ing tests and orchard spraying experiments of 1921 had shown that
the basic lead arsenate was much slower in killing the beetles and was
not so toxic as the diplumbic form, it was not included in the tests
of 1922, the results of which are given in Table 66.
Table 66. — Tests of the killing effect on the plum curculio of sprays and dusts on
twigs on trees containing peaches and foliage , Fort Valley, Ga., 1922
^ Insecticide used and date beetles were confined
Number of beetles
dying on—
1
>>
OJ
CO
Remarks
1
2
6 beetles confined May \) in bag over twi^ contain-
ing peaches and foliage sprayed with lead arse-
nate 1 lb. to 50 gals, water and lime water.
Duplicate of test No. 1 .
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
4
6
6
6
6
1
0
1
0
100 per cent mortality in 6
days. No mortality until
sixth day.
100 per cent mortality in 6
days. No mortality until
fourth day.
100 per cent mortality in 4
days. No mortality until
fourth day.
Do
3
4
6 beetles confined May 11 in bag over twig contain-
ing peaches and foliage dusted with 80 per cent
sulphur, 10 per cent lead arsenate, and 10 per
cent lime.
Duplicate of test No. 3
5
6
C beetles confined May 11 in bag over twig contain-
ing peaches and foliage dusted with 80 per cent
sulphur, 5 per cent lead arsenate, and 15 per cent
lime.
Duplicate of test No. 5. ..
Do.
Do
7
8
C) beetles confined May 9 in bag over twig contain-
ing peaches and foliage which had received no
treatment. (Check.)
Duplicate of test No. 7, except beetles confined
May]].
•
5 beetles confined May 20 in bag over twig contain-
ing peaches and foliage sprayed with lead arse-
nate 1 lb. to 50 gals, water and limewatnr.
5 beetles confined May 20 in bag over twig contain-
ing peaches and foliage dusted with 80 per cent
. sulphur. 10 per cent lead arsenate, and 10 per
cent lime.
Duplicate of test No. 10
0
0
No mortality until sixth 'day;
100 per cent mortality at
the end of 11 days.
No mortality until fifth day;
100 per cent mortality at
end of 13 days.
9
10
?5
0
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
0
03
1
0
>>
eS
0
>>
03
2
100 per cent mortality in S
days. No mortality until
fourth day.
100 per cent mortality in 4
n
days. No mortality until
third day.
Do
12
5 beetles confined May 20 in bag over twig con-
Do.
13
taining peaches and foliage dusted with 80 per
cent sulphur, 5 per cent lead arsenate, and 15
per cent lime.
Duplicate of test No. 12
1
2
0
100 per cent mort-ality in 5
days. No mortality until
third day.
No mortality at the end of
sixth day, when bag burst
and beetles escaped.
14
5 beetles confined May 20 in bag over twig con-
taining peaches and foliage which had received
no treatment. (Check.)
0
0
—
—
PLUM CURCTJLIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT 83
In the first series of tests (1 to 8) there was no mortality until 4
days after the application of the poison, although sickness, which
stopped oviposition, occurred soon after the feeding. The acid lead
arsenate, applied as a spray, gave a 100 per cent mortality of the
curculio in 6 days. The 5 per cent and 10 per cent acid lead arsenate
applied in a dust mixture gave a 100 per cent mortality in 4 days.
In the second series of tests (9 to 14) the lead-arsenate spray gave a
100 per cent mortality in 8 days. The 5 per cent lead-arsenate dust
gave a 100 per cent mortality in 4 and 5 da3^s, and the 10 per cent
lead-arsenate dust gave 100 per cent mortality in 4 days. There was
no mortality until the third day after the applications of the poison.
The 1923 feeding tests were conducted on poisoned twigs in a peach
orchard, and also in jars in the insectary, in which were placed poisoned
peach foliage and fruit. Table 67 gives the results of the tests of 1923.
84 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, V. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
T3ca
^Z
— o
« is
o w)
o is o is
0,35
eg
O '-r.
^ ? '^ ■- if "^ >- is
O >i
j- JS w g ® C3
If
2 <
o
; ® 08
SO- - ^^
g w- c g .„ c o
. 0*0 • ©13 t, •
o « ss c © :s o o
g g i^
.S .3 Ig
2 2 >«
*j *j == -^ n-;
a> a> e '^
; «r rr-: S "5 «
OS 00 *j r-
OT30-OS 08 ?
.3
>>
1
S3
e
i^
0
0
-^
cs
0
i.
0
0
0
0
0
1-
0
e^
0
r-1 0
0
¥
<N
CO
0
0 CO
0
¥
^
-^
cs
rH 0
0
;d.
rt<
-^
0
^ ^
0
1-
-^
0
a
-^
C
c
(M
-^
0
0 0
0
B.2
<
0
a
c
(N
c
c
0
0
(N
^ 0
0
S.2
0
0
c
(M
^
c
0
0
-'
0 0
0
0
c:
0
c
c
0
-^
^
-, ^
0
D,2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 ■
-^
^ ^
0
^2
0
^
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
^ M
0
^3
0
C^4
0
0
c
0
0
0
(M
<n 0
0
^2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
c
^5
b go
-H a>^ •"
S<M
O) ®
C C3 !-, Cjw^
O -^ <D ~ O
Oi O "O
MJ
'ca^.
Qj c3 "C *■ aj c3 0<
.S _, ® C3 2, c . .
^< S?03 "^o c «<^ > o
PLXJM CURCTJLIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT
85
■ 00 • CO ^ — « *^ *^
.si -a .s| l:
CO
ality
wasc
tality
:ality
wasc
ad act
, whe:
^
cent mort
when test
cent mor
cent mort
when test
les alive ai
f 18 days,
losed.
1
80 per >
days,
100 per
days.
80 per
days.
Do.
All beet
end 0
was cl
b
C< 1 N o o
s-
^
-1 rH M ^ O
i^
,-( O rH rH O
c_.
o o o o o
1
5^
tJ -_
eo «o o r-i o
o^
^
l«
Ii* .
O rH O rH O
'e;
5«
»H _
O O rH (N O
■4^
1
5^
o
c
O O O (M O
1
^^
v< ..
o ^ o o o
^^
ij
O i-H o o o
ftS5
-<
».^„
o o o o o
5^
*■>
o o ^ o o
-s
k<
-H .-H O O O
^^
fl s 2 ^ .s-oi.a'S
'S^ a "s 5"SS5.^
er twig contai
merciaily with
lime.
nate added to E
Le used at rate
peach twig con
comriiercially '
mt hydrated ii:
peach twig con
d that had rece
i
1
ag o\
I com
with
case!
senai
over
per c(
over
rchar
2
•^ « uTc >-S t*-S«. "•°
1
. c, ^.^^>' 2 c « x: " .ii!
s
infined Apr
oliageontie(
lb. to 50 gal:
No. 13,onlj
ioz. to 50 ga
t Xo. 13, oni
als. spray,
nfined Apr.
ind foliage o
lead arsenat
nlineJ Apr.
nd foliare on
ent. (Chec
«
-o
1
a
10 beetles c(
fruit and f
arsenate 1
Same as test
at rate of (
Same as tes:
lb. to 50 g
10 beetles CO
ing fruit a
5 per cent
10 beetles co
ing fruit a
no treatm
!i
CO Tt< »o « r^
E
86 tech;nical bxjlletin 188, u. s. dept. of agriculture
The 5 per cent lead arsenate used in the dust mixture on peach
twigs in an orchard, as reported for tests 1 and 2, gave a mortaUty
of only 10 per cent and 30 per cent of the curculios within 9 days.
The three-fourths of a pound of lead arsenate to 50 gallons of water
gave only 10 per cent mortaUty within 9 days in test 3, whereas the
1 pound to 50 gallons of water gave a mortality of 50 per cent in the
same time. The addition of calcium caseinate to the spray, as
reported for test 5, did not increase the effectiveness of the lead
arsenate.
In cage tests in the insectary the dust containing 5 per cent lead
arsenate with lime, and with lime and sulphur, gave a 90 per cent
curculio mortality within 11 and 12 days, respectively. The three-
fourths of a pound of lead arsenate to 50 gallons of water gave a 100
per cent mortaUty within 14 days, whereas the 1-pound strength
gave the same mortaUty within 12 days. The addition of calcium
caseinate in test 11 did not increase the effectiveness of the lead
arsenate, as it took 14 days in this test to give a 100 per cent mortality.
The last series of feeding tests (13 to 17) in Table 67 are particularly
interesting in that they were conducted on trees in an orchard that
had been sprayed or dusted commercially by the usual power outfits.
There was a mortality of 80 per cent of the curculios within 18 days
in the plat that had received lead arsenate at the rate of 1 pound to
50 gallons of water, with the addition of 3 pounds of unslaked lime.
There was a 100 per cent mortality within 13 days in the plat that
received lead arsenate at the rate of 1 pound to 50 gallons of water,
with lime, and the addition of calcium caseinate at the rate of 6
ounces to 50 gallons. There was an 80 per cent curculio mortality
within 18 days in the plat that had received lead arsenate at the rate
of three-fourths of a pound to 50 gallons of water, with lime. There
was an 80 per cent mortality of the curculios within 18 days in the
plat that was dusted with 5 per cent lead arsenate and 95 per cent
hydrated lime. There was no curculio mortality within 18 days in
the plat that had received no treatment. In these tests, where the
trees were treated commercially, as by a grower, the 5 per cent lead-
arsenate dust gave as good curculio mortality as the liquid spray
where the lead arsenate was used at the rate of three-fourths or 1
pound to 50 gallons of w^ater. The test where calcium caseinate was
added to the spray gave a somewhat higher curculio mortaUty than
where it was omitted, although other tests show that this material
did not increase the effectiveness of the lead arsenate.
In practically all of the feeding tests of 1923 the curculios were sick
on the day following the application of the poison. In two tests mor-
tality started on the day following the treatment.
Reports of the use of nicotine sulphate with some degree of success
against the cotton boll weevil were received during the fall of 1923.
It then occurred to the writer that this insecticide should be tested
against the plum curculio. Consequently, in 1924 a number of feeding
tests were made with this material, the results of which are given in
Table 68.
PLUM CURCULIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT
87
"o
1
lO
■+a
<«
§
*o
o
^ <D
C3
a
Is
ass
©
i3
^j
-S
©
b
o.
!l
m
>
3
^
<
6
d 6
6
d
d d
•en
«^5
6 6 6 6
1
d d d >-; M
1
Q
Q Q
Q
Q
fi Q
II
(-© "
OflQP
H
<1
<5 H
Mv.
~ o
o
o o
o
o
o o
u.
o o
oooo
oooo
§
C^l
M
«>.■
CO >-l
CO CO 00
^-2
25
|a
«
1 IfJ 1
; :^
••i«
-o
<N !
11^1
S
!-^ 1
?^
^sj ;
M
a
^ i
(M
cs 1
s
^
c
CO
CO J
S^
cs
toco lo" 1
Q
1
B.
1
K
a aaa ! 1
<
<i
<
<« j
^o
^
o o
^
(M
<N O
o
o o
COOOt-h
CO CO GO O
I'd
«g
s
©"O
JS
^
II
la
^-0
o
o o
o
O
o o
o
o o
oooc
oooo
CO
g'^
a
^
^.
1 t-l
kJ
: ^
c
"O
a
; 0
a
I a
(M
' ' ' 1
<J
1 '^
tr\
1 <
C
o
o
1 °
o
1 <="
*"
-w
' -w
-(->
1 JJ
g
S
1 02
1 <N
^.
; ^
""
<£)
t^
^H*
I (-4
S, ; 1 ; ; i
©
c3
1 s
03
. C3
1 1 1 1
^
S
i ^
;^^
: §
1 ! 1 !
5H
. I - .
>. ; ; ; ; i
,2
>"
p 1 >
"oj
>^ ® ; >> ©
*
Ill,
c3
> 1 OJ
>
03
^ . 03 P-
§
3 , ^
3
i i 3b
^©111,
^
i
§'
§S 1
^1 I
IS
§'
^ ::
o d o ©3 o o d^
1
C3
».
!'
-c
"C
-c
o.S . . 1 a
a
n
a.
;
« 1
' c
1 ' 1 1
©
©
[
C3 1
1 a
1 ; ; '.
"S
C
C 1
j 0
t3
^
5
;
S ':
1 -C
Ill;
^
3
3
a
1
© © 1
^ 1
i i i^
1
•a
1
c
1
1
.9 S 1
IS ;
1 1
I
a
c
8;
a !
— o
c
e
I.
d 1
3^ '
III
S 1
I 1
S c
c
c
c
1 ; I fl
o o o ©
(i
o-o
£ ..
O'O'O'qx
TS'O'O J3
C^ 1
^
,a ;
1 1
^
1 1 '■ 1 o
: i : i^
be
!
[
1 j
j j
g
M id
.a
•
I
1 !
; j
23
122" i
1
;
;
; ;
; [
"rt
»o »c»o
»c »o »o [
*^
•s
i
;
[
\ \
; ;
H
r-T^^"-
.-Tr-r^" '
s
o
o c
5 C
> o
o o
"O
-O 'Z
1 X
-o
-O TJ
cs
i
1 1.
IM tJ U t
',
,
1 1
1 1
:. aaac
:, aaa •
s
;
',
; I
; ;
! <
^<5<!<
5 «< j
■»-» .
C4
CO *<
1* X
3 CO
t« 00
o» c
> ;52«;J
3 ISSJii^S
K o
e:?
88 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, tJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICtTLTtJRl:
In the first series (tests 1 to 8), dosages of 1.5 and 2 per cent nicotine
sulphate, in kaoHn and in hydrated lime, were used. Examinations
for curculio mortality were made daily. After 13 days, 92.5 per cent
of the beetles were alive in the cages containing the peach foliage and
blossoms that had been dusted with nicotine sulphate. There was
more feeding on the foliage and blossoms that had been dusted with
the 1.5 per cent nicotine sulphate than on those that had been dusted
with the 2 per cent strength. This may account for the greater mor-
tality from the 1.5 per cent strength, the stronger nicotine dust prob-
ably having the greater repellent action.
In the other series (tests 10 to 17) 2 per cent nicotine sulphate in
kaolin was dusted on peach foliage and fruit 1, 2, 3, and 4 times.
Examinations for curculio mortality were made daily. The first dust
was appHed on April 11. All cages were closed April 26. The percent-
ages of curculios that died from the treatments were as follows : Dusted
once, 0; dusted twice, 30; dusted three times, 15; dusted four times,
40. The proportion of beetles that died in all cages was 22.5 per cent.
There was strong odor of nicotine in the cages immediately after
dusting. On the following day the odor was still noticeable. A
beetle was noted to be stupefied by the odor on this day but revived
after being removed for several hours. On the second day after
dusting there was a mild odor of nicotine in the cages, but on the
third day it had entirely disappeared.
From these feeding tests one would conclude that nicotine sulphate
is not an effective insecticide against the plum curculio.
CONOTRACHELUS ANAGLYPTICUS AS A PEACH PEST
Conotrachelus anaglypticus Say (pi. 10, C), a species of Curcuhonidae
closely related to C. nenuphar Herbs t (pi. 10, D), and referred to by
Brooks and Cotton as the cambium curculio,^" has been found to be a
pest of the peach of some economic importance in Georgia. This
curcuho is much more active than the plum curculio and is somewhat
smaller. It is reddish brown, whereas the plum curculio is grayish
brown. When one becomes familiar with both species, no difficulty is
experienced in distinguishing them.
On the morning of April 17, 1922, while jarring for the plum cur-
cuho in a peach orchard near Fort Valley, several adults of C. ana-
glypticus were taken from the jarring frames. Adults of tliis species
were taken later several times during that season while jarring for
C. nenuphar. The jarring for C nenuphar was undertaken every
other morning between 4.30 and 8.30 a. m. from the latter part of
February until fall. C. nenuphar started to appear in the orchards
during the middle of March, but the first C. anaglypticus did not
appear until April 17. During May and early June, 1 anaglypticus
to 100 or 150 nenuphar was collected from the frames, or an average
of about 1 each morning.
When it was estabhshed that a few of the curcuhos appearing in the
orchards from hibernation were C. anaglypticus, a number of curculio-
infested peaches were collected in an orchard four weeks after the falling
of the petals to determine if this species would attack sound peaches.
From these peaches between 600 and 800 larvae em.erged. These
larvae were placed in pupation boxes, and of the adults that issued
from the boxes 10 were C. anaglypticus.
10 Brooks, F. E., and Cotton, R. T. the cambium cueculio, conotrachelus anaglypticus say.
Jour. Agr. Research 28: 377-386, illus. 1924.
PLXJM CURCULIO IN THE GEORGIA PEACH BELT 89
These 10 anaglypticus were confined in a battery jar and supplied
with egg-free peaches every 48 hours. Pressure of the Hfe-history
work on C. nenuphar prevented the taking of many hfe-history
records on C. anaglypticus. No copulation or incubation records were
taken ; however, a number of eggs were deposited and second-genera-
tion adults reared. Upon reaching maturity in the peach, each larva
entered the soil and constructed a cell for pupation similar to the
work of C. nenuphar. C. anaglypticus pupae resemble those of C.
nenuphar, only they are a little smaller. The eggs are usually
deposited singly in the peach and resemble those of C. nenuphar,
being a little more yellowish. The larva, though a trifle smaller,
resembles the larva of C. nenuphar. Definite information on the
length of the life-history periods of one C. anaglypticus individual of
the second generation in 1922 follows: Time spent in fruit as egg and
larva, 17 days, left fruit on June 30, pupated July 7, transformed to
adult July 14, and left the soil as an adult on July 19, 1922. This
individual was the first beetle of the second generation of either ana-
glypticus or nenuphar to leave the soil in 1922. The second-generation
adults of C. anaglypticus were placed together in a battery jar with
peaches. They did a considerable amount of feeding, but deposited no
third-generation eggs before they went into hibernation October 1.
On May 7, 1923, three C. anaglypticus adults were captured on
jarring frames in an orchard while jarring for C. nenuphar. This
was the first record of the appearance of this species in 1923. Other
dates on which C. anaglypticus adults were captured in Georgia peach
orchards in 1923 were May 10, 1; June 2, 1; June 5, 2; June 11, 5;
June 14, 4.
These beetles were all placed in battery jars, and fresh egg-free
peaches supplied at intervals of three to five days. Seven C. anaglyp-
ticus larvae emerged on June 10 from the peaches exposed to the
adults from May 20 to 23; 7 emerged from these same peaches on
June 25; 1 emerged on June 25 from the peaches exposed from May 23
to 28; and 1 on June 25 from the peaches exposed from June 5 to 10.
The first record in 1924 of the appearance of C. anaglypticus adults
in the orchards was on April 22, when 6 beetles were captured in an
orchard near Fort Valley where 1 1 1 C. nenuphar adults were captured
during the jarring, so that 5.1 per cent of the adult curculios in that
orchard on April 22, 1924, were C. anaglypticus. Other dates on
which C. anaglypticus adults were captured during the 1924 season
while jarring for C. nenuphar were as follows: April 30, 7; May 6, 8;
May 13, 1; May 20, 3; May 27, 2; June 3, 3; June 18, 1; July 1, 1;
July 15, 1; July 29, 1; August 5, 1.
The adults captured on July 29 and August 5 were probably
second-generation adults, as they were clean and fresh and had the
appearance of new beetles.
One incubation record on C. anaglypticus eggs shows that the eggs
that were deposited on May 18, 1924, hatched in five days, the same
incubation period as C. nenuphar eggs on the corresponding date.
The first C. anaglypticus egg deposited by a beetle captured by
jarring was laid on May 17. Other eggs were deposited by these
adults as follows: May 18, 1; June 4, 1; July 10, 2.
Longevity records were taken on the C. anaglypticus adults that
were captured by jarring in the orchard in 1924. Mortality observa-
tions were made daily, and the longevity period was found to be
aboutthe same as that of C. nenuphar. All of the adults that were
90 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 188, XJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
captured in the orchard during April, May, and June died before
the hibernation season. The three that were captured during July
were alive on August 5. They were in all probability adults of the
first or second generation of 1924, and probably entered hibernation
during the fall. The adult captured on August 5 was a new beetle
and in all probabihty an individual of the second 1924 generation.
Peaches that are infested with C. anaglypticus larvae fall to the
ground during the April drop, as do those infested with C. nenuphar.
First-generation C. anaglypticus adults were reared from peach drops
collected in the orchards in April.
From the foregoing records and observations, it is obvious that the
life history of anaglypticus in Georgia is very similar to that of
nenuphar. Two generations of both species have been reared in a
single season. Undoubtedly a small proportion of the ''wormy"
peaches each season in Georgia is due to anaglypticus. Formerly all
the wormy fruit in Georgia had been attributed to the work of
nenuphar. These observations also definitely establish the fact that
C. anaglypticus injures sound peaches. The peaches which were ex-
posed to the first-generation adults of C. anaglypticus for the 2-day
periods in 1922 and in which eggs were deposited were all sound and
properly matured to that period in their development and were free
from signs of any egg-laying or feeding punctures.
SUMMARY
Investigation of the life history and habits of the plum curculio in
the Georgia peach belt were conducted during the seasons of 1921 to
1924, inclusive.
The maximum number of eggs deposited by a single female plum
curculio was 516. The average number of first-generation eggs de-
posited per individual per season was 64.64 and the average number of
second-generation eggs deposited per individual per season was 40.21.
The incubation period of first-generation eggs during the four years
ranged from 2 to 12 days, with averages ranging from 4.33 to 5.08
days. The period of incubation of second-generation eggs ranged
from 2 to 7 days, wath averages ranging from 2.94 to 3.18 days.
The time spent in the fruit by first-generation larvae ranged from
21.5 days for those entering in April to 12.4 days for those entering in
July. Second-generation larvae reached maturity in 12.7 days during
the period of June, July, and August.
The average time spent in the soil as larva, pupa, and adult was
34.16 days for the first generation and 30.43 days for the second
generation.
The average time required for the first generation to complete its
entire life cycle was 52.26 days, and the second generation required
an average of 47.53 days to pass through its entire life cycle.
Weather conditions influence the rate of winter survival and the
time of emergence of hibernating curculios.
The most important parasite of the plum curculio is Triaspis cur-
culionis Fitch.
The abundance of curculios maybe reduced by jarring the trees and
destroying the beetles caught, gathering the peach drops and burjdng
them with quicklime, and disking the soil during the pupation period.
Acid lead arsenate was found to be the most effective insecticide for
the plum curculio.
ORGANIZATION OF THE
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
August 16, 1930
Secretary of Agriculture Arthur M.Hyde,
Assistant Secretary R. W. Dunlap.
Director of Scientific Work A. F. Woods.
Director of Regulatory Work Walter G. Campbell.
Director of Extension Work C. W. Warburton.
Director of Personnel and Business Adminis- W. W. Stockberger.
tration .
Director of Information M. S. Eisenhower.
Solicitor E. L. Marshall.
Weather Bureau Charles F. Marvin, C/iic/.
Bureau of Animal Industry John R. Mohler, Chief.
Bureau of Dairy Industry O. E. Reed, Chief.
Bureau of Plant Industry William A. Taylor, Chief.
Forest Service R,. Y. Stuart, Chief.
Bureau of Chemistry and Soils H. G. Knight, Chief.
Bureau of Entomology C. L. Marlatt, Chief.
Bureau of Biological Survey Paul G. Redington, Chief.
Bureau of Public Roads Thomas H. MacDonald, Chief.
Bureau of Agricultural Economics Nils A. Olsen, Chief.
B ureau of Home Economics Louise Stanley, Chief.
Plant Quarantine and Control Administration - Lee A. Strong, Chief.
Grain Futures Administration J. W. T. Duvel, Chief.
Food and Drug Administration Walter G. Campbell, Director of
Regulatory Work, in Charge.
Office of Experiment Stations , Chief.
Office of Cooperative Extension Work C. B. Smith, Chief.
Library Claribel R. Barnett, Librarian.
This bulletin is a contribution from
Bureau of Entomology C. L. Marlatt, Chief.
Division of Deciduous- Fruit Insects A. L. Quaintance, Associate Chief
of Bureau, in Charge.
91
U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1930
Technical Bulletin No. 187
June, 1930
VENTILATION
OF FARM BARNS
BY
M. A. R. KELLEY
Associate Agricultural Engineer
Division of Agricultural Engineering
Bureau of Public Roads
United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C.
Price 25 ceoU
Technical Bulletin No. 187
June, 1930
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
VENTILATION OF FARM BARNS
By M. A. R. Kelley, Associate Agrwiiltural Engineer, Division of Agricultural
Engineering, Bureau of Public Roads
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction 1
Character of tests 2
Description of instruments 3
Explanation of terms 3
Correlation of variable factors 4
Summary 5
Animal heat a primary factory in ventilation . 6
Food, the source of animal heat 7
Heat losses 7
Effect of thermal environment 8
Comparison of heat production of horses
and cows 9
Carbon dioxide in ventilation 12
Composition of pure air 13
Weight of air.- 14
Composition of expired air 14
Production of carbon dioxide in the stable. 14
Composition of barn air 15
Moisture in ventilation 17
Production of moisture 17
Moisture content of air 17
Causes of damp walls 18
Effect on animal life 18
Effect on structures 19
Climatic conditions affecting construction _ _ 20
Length of stabling season 21
Volume of air space per head of stock 22
Wall construction and insulation 26
Function of insulation 27
Selection of materials 27
Air tightness 29
Page
Wall construction and insulation — Contd.
Amount of insulation * 29
Storm sash and vestibules 31
Representative test 32
Description of physical conditions 32
Description of test 33
Comparison of ceiling and floor outlets. . . 37
Drip and condensation 39
Wind effects 40
Heat balance 41
Factors affecting operation of ventilation
system 42
Maintenance of stable temperature 42
Effect of changes in intakes and outtakes. 44
Ceiling and floor outtakes 46
Effects of outside temperatures 48
Stable humidity 50
Factors affecting efficiency of system 53
He ight and construction of flue 53
Effect of open ventilator base 56
Windows as intakes 56
Back drafting 59
Effect of wind on flue velocity 60
Furnace registers 61
Automatic intakes 61
Hay chutes 62
Determination of flue sizes 63
Consideration of basic factors 63
Development of formula 64
Literature cited.. 72
INTRODUCTION
The ventilation of barns is an important consideration in the
maintenance of the health of stock and in the preservation of hay,
grain, and barn timbers. In the ventilation of dairy barns it is
highly desirable to maintain a comfortable stable temperature with
a proportionately low relative humidity. The limits of temperature
and humidity should always be compatible with good ventilation.
Good circulation with consequent dilution of the impurities in the
air is the aim of all systems of ventilation, but the comfort of the
animals must be considered as well as the purity of the air. How-
ever, it is better to have good ventilation than to attempt to maintain
a high stable temperature without ventilation.
107343°^30 1 1
The success of a ventilation system depends upon its effectiveness
in producing a movement of air which will be sufficient to supply
the proper amount of oxygen to the stock, remove objectionable
odors, afford satisfactory dilution of air and, at the same time, main-
tain a satisfactory degree of humidity and a comfortable temperature
in the stable. The determination of the relationship of the factors
affecting the ventilation of barns and havin^^ an important bearing
upon the economic and efficient design of farm buildings was the
object of investigations conducted by the Division of Agricultural
Engineering in cooperation with the committee on farm building
ventilation of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers and
several State agricultural experiment stations.^
Altogether 27 tests were made, 3 in horse barns, 1 in a hog house,
5 in barns with mixed stock, and 18 in dairy barns. Five tests were
made in North Dakota, 6 in Minnesota, 1 in South Dakota, 3 in the
Upper Peninsula and 2 in the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, 2 in
Massachusetts, 1 in Maine, and T in New York State. The tests
were made in the localities indicated for the reason that the ventila-
tion problem is of greater importance in cold sections than where
winters are comparatively mild, both because of the atmospheric
conditions and because the greater portion of the dairy cows of the
country are located in the northern and northeastern States. The
distribution of dairy cows is shown in Figure 4.
CHARACTER OF TESTS
The first 19 tests were conducted for the purpose of making a
general survey of the problem. In the later tests, studies of the fac-
tors affecting ventilation were made. The tests in the various barns
were continuous, varying from 24 to 300 hours in duration. Regu-
lar readings were taken at intervals of 3 hours. Thus from 8 to 100
sets of readings were obtained in a single test. Observations taken
from recording instruments show that this interval is satisfactory
and affords readings representative of normal conditions. Addi-
tional readings, indicated in tables and text by the suffix a, were
made for' the purpose of noting the immediate effect of changed
conditions. Two men assisted in taking the readings and the data
were checked as recorded. The barns were kept closed as much as
possible, and the same number of stock was retained in each barn
throughout the test.
Most of the tests were made in barns where the principles of the
King system of ventilation were employed. Three tests were made
in barns in which windows are used for intakes, that is, the Sher-
ingham valve principle, 4 tests in barns equipped with a modified
King system, and 1 test in a barn in which a fan system of ventila-
lAcknowledgment is made of the assistance rendered by W. B. Clarkson, Owatonna,
Minn,, chairman of the committee on farm building ventilation, in preparing for the work
and in conducting some of the tests ; C, S. Whitnah, Owatonna, Minn. : R. L. Patty,
professor of agricultural engineering. South Dakota State College of Agriculture, Brook-
ings, S. Dak. ; and J. L. Strahan, assistant professor of rural engineering, Massachusetts
Agricultural College, Amherst. Mass., members of the committee on ventilation, in con-
ducting some of the tests ; F, E. Fogle, assistant professor of agricultural engineering,
and Walter Van Haitsna, of the Michigan State College of Agriculture, East Lansing,
Mich. ; F. L. Fairbanks, assistant professor of rural engineering, and A. M. Goodman,
professor of extension, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., in conducting tests made in
their respective States,
Tech. Bui. 187. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
Plate \
b
A, Indicating anemometer, mounted on sled; and buzzer box. B, a, 5-inch anemometer or air
meter, equipped with a spring release, used to measure the velocity of air through ventOattng
flues; b, jointed holder for anemometer which facilitated the taking of readings at high openings;
c, psychrometer; d, special clamp; e, sectional gun cleaning rod; /, gear from small chum; parts
c, d, and /, assembled, form a convenient means of taking humidity readings; g, ordinary sling
psychrometer shown for comparison
VENTILATION OF FARM BARNS 3
tiori was installed {25)."^ Most of the barns were of frame construc-
tion with varying degrees of insulation. Concrete blocks were used
in the construction of the walls in three barns.
DESCRIPTION OF INSTRUMENTS
An indicating anemometer of the Weather Bureau type measuring
one-sixtieth of a mile per hour was used to measure wind velocities.
Plate 1, A, shows the details of the anemometer sled which, drawn
upon the roof by means of a rope, was of great convenience in plac-
ing the instrument in position on the ridge. (PI. 3, A.) Other in-
struments employed in the tests are illustrated in Plate 1, B.
In measuring outside temperature four thermometers are desir-
able, one on each side of the barn. Not less than four pairs of ther-
mometers should be used within the barn. From 12 to 30 ther-
mometers were used in these tests. The average of the floor and
the ceiling readings was taken as the stable temperature.
In determining relative humidities it is desirable to use one or
more hygrographs inside and one outside in order that variations
between readings may be observed, but the best results are obtained
with a sling psychrometer by means of which readings may be taken
at different points in the barn. With the apparatus shown in Plate
1, B, it is possible quickly and evenly to obtain a large number of
readings close to ceiling or floor. As the instrument is held firmly
in position while being rotated there is less liability of its being
broken than when held in the usual manner.
(EXPLANATION OF TERMS
Dilution of air per hour : The relation of the volume of air passed
per hour through a room to the volume of the room. This term is
preferred to " number of changes of air per hour," commonly em-
ployed, since the ajr in the stable is not completely replaced by fresh
air. Part of the foul air is forced out and the incoming air, with
a lower percentage of carbon dioxide (CO2), is mixed with the stable
air thus decreasing by dilution the carbon dioxide and other im-
purities.
Leakage : The difference between the volume of the measured air
going out and that of the measured incoming air is considered as
leakage. In order to maintain a balance of air pressure the amount
of air passing out must be equivalent to that of the air entering by
whatever means.
Estimated weight of stock: The weight of each animal in a barn
was estimated, and these estimates were added to obtain the total
weight.
Equivalent number of head of stock: The estimated heat produc-
tion of the individual animals, determined by the application of
Eameaux's law (p. 9), was added and the sum divided by the esti-
mated heat production of an animal of average condition and weight.
The average weight of cows was assumed as 1,000 pounds and that
of farm horses as 1,350 pounds, the heat produced per hour being
3,000 B. t. u. (British thermal units) for the average cow and 2,200
• Numbers in parentheses refer to " Literature cited," p. 72.
4 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
B. t. u. for the average horse. For example, in one bam there were
20 cows, 10 head of young stock, 1 bull, and 12 calves. The heat
produced by these animals was found to be equivalent to that pro-
duced by 31.5 cows of average size.
Absolute humidity: The quantity of moisture in a given unit of
atmosphere. It is usually expressed as " grains of water per pound
of dry air " or in terms of " grains of moisture per cubic foot of
dry air."
Kelative humidity : The relation, expressed in percentage, between
the actual amount of moisture in the air and the amount the air could
hold, at the same temperature and pressure, without condensation.
This relation is not a measure of the actual amount of moisture in
the atmosphere, as the capacity of the air for water vapor is almost
wholly a function of the temperature. It is the ratio of the absolute
humidity of air of given condition to its absolute humidity at
saturation.
The weight of the aqueous vapor per cubic foot of air at a tempera-
ture of 48° F. and saturated (100 per cent relative humidity) would
be 3.800 grains; at 50 per cent relative humidity it would be one-
half of this, or 1.900 grains; and for other percentages the weight
would be proportionate. The drying or absorbing capacity of the
air is therefore dependent upon its absolute humidity. Air having
a relative humidity of 80 per cent is considered moist and that with
a relative humidity of 30 per cent very dry. In the ventilation of
structures for animals, where the comfort of the animals is essential,
the relative humidity of the stable air is of greater importance than
the absolute humidity ; in the ventilation of structures for crop stor-
age, where the removal of moisture is the prominent factor, absolute
humidity must be considered also.
Dew point : The temperature at which air having a given weight
of aqueous vapor becomes saturated. Unsaturated air becomes satu-
rated when the temperature is lowered to the dew point or when
sufficient moisture is added.
Heat used in ventilation: That portion of the heat given off by
the stock that is used in producing ventilation. The heat produced
was determined by the use of Rameaux's law {IfS). The heat loss
from walls was estimated, coefficients secured from various sources
being used. There is considerable variation in the coefficients of heat
transmission given by different authorities for the same material, and
those coefficients were selected which it was thought would give the
most comparable data. No allowance was made for infiltration heat
losses, as these depend chiefly upon how well the building is con-
structed, and allowance for such losses must be largely a matter of
judgment.
CORRELATION OF VARIABLE FACTORS
The analysis of some of the test data was made difficult by the
number of factors that varied separately or collectively and were
beyond control.
The best method of correlating such data appeared to be an appli-
cation of the theory of correlation {26) . By the use of this method
it was possible to pick out the most dominant factors and those least
important. In the case of some factors sufficient data were available
VENTILATION OF FARM BARNS 5
to afford a quantitative measure. One of the most important results
of the correlation studies is the establishment of the fact that low
outside temperature has a greater effect in the ventilation of dairy
barns than a high outside temperature with the same temperature
difference (p. 48).
SUMMARY
The following conclusions are based on data obtained in these
tests and upon findings in related investigations, and should be of
value in the designing and proper operation of ventilating systems.
The animal is the sole source of heat that is utilized in producing
ventilation. Since the amount of heat given off and the ventila-
tion requirements vary, the animal unit must be considered in the
design of a ventilation system.
Carbon dioxide as ordinarily encountered in stable air does not
settle. The evil effects of bad ventilation are not caused by carbon
dioxide as found in the average stable.
There must be a constant removal of moisture from the occupied
stable or the amount of moisture in the air will increase. Damp walls
may be due to improper ventilation, poor construction, or insufficient
production of heat or lack of conservation of heat;
A large volume of air space per head is not a substitute for ven-
tilation, as purity of air is not dependent upon volume of air space.
However, the volume allowance per head is important with regard
to maintenance of stable temperature and varies according to cli-
matic conditions.
Insulation requirements vary according to the temperatures to
be expected in the different sections, amount of air space which the
animal must heat, the amount of ventilation desired, and the method
of securing it. The amount and choice of insulating material
required will depend upon the relative efficiency and cost of the
various materials available. Tight constniction to prevent exces-
sive leakage of air is essential to effective insulation.
Whenever barn walls are tightly built to save heat, ventilation
becomes necessary. Storm sash, storm doors, vestibules, and feed
rooms may be used as effective forms of protection against cold.
It is possible to maintain a comfortable temperature in a well-
built barn and yet have an appreciable circulation of air. The tem-
perature in a stable filled with stock can be controlled by temporarily
or partly closing the ventilation system. Stable temperatures within
certain limits appear to affect both the quantity and quality of milk.
Wind velocity and direction have an effect upon the amount of
ventilation.
Back drafting may be due to poor design or poor position of ven-
tilator or intake.
Outtakes near the floor are more favorable to the maintenance of
desirable stable temperature than ceiling openings.
Under average conditions outside temperature is usually the domi-
nant factor in barn ventilation.
The moisture-content of the air in a well-built stable is usually
controlled by the amount of ventilation.
Horizontal runs and abrupt turns in outtake flues should be
avoided. An air-tight flue with proper insulation is necessary to
6 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
greatest efficiency. Lack of insulation may cause excessive drip from
flues. This factor should be given consideration especially in the
northern zone.
The bases of ventilator heads should be equipped with suitable
doors, which may be opened or closed as required. The efficiency of
an outtake flue is affected by an open base.
Windows as intakes require frequent adjustment and prevent uni-
form regulation of the ventilation. Their use for such purpose is
undesirable in cold sections. However, during mild weather they are
an advantage as they provide a large area of opening.
Warm-air furnace registers are unsuitable for use as intake valves
in barn ventilation.
Open hay chutes interfere with ventilation, and should not be
used as foul-air shafts.
Flue sizes proportioned to local temperatures may be obtained by
a formula that has been developed as a result of these tests. (See
" Development of formula," p. 54.)
ANIMAL HEAT A PRIMARY FACTOR IN VENTILATION
The heat given off by animals must be employed in maintaining
stable temperature and also as motive power in producing circula-
tion of air. While good circulation of pure air is the chief aim in
ventilation systems, the comfort of the animals must also be consid-
ered. A barn can not be kept warm if the allowance of air space
per animal is too great or if the barn is but partially filled with
stock. Furthermore, it is evident that a design suited to one section
of the country may be only partly successful in another, since the
loss of heat varies according to the construction of the barn and
climatic conditions.^
In order that he may understand and properly employ animal
heat in the ventilation of stock shelters, it is not necessary that the
agricultural engineer study all the intricacies of animal nutrition,
but it is desirable that he recognize those factors related to nutrition
w^hich have important bearing upon the proper ventilation of stables.
It is important that provision be made so that the dairy cow may
be kept comfortable at all times as her condition affects milk pro-
duction. Comfort of the body is dependent upon the cooling power
of the air which, in turn, is dependent upon temperature, humidity
and air movement — all factors affected by ventilation. These factors
affect the cutaneous nerve endings which control the production of
heat and maintain the balance between the temperature of the skin
surface and that of the blood in the deeper tissues. For each degree
of increase, within certain limits, in the cooling power of the sur-
rounding atmosphere there is a definite increase in the loss of body
heat which must be replaced by the heat regulating mechanism of
the body (1,3,10,37,45.)
The animal is most efficient when not subjected to strains which
tend to weaken the body resistance and make them more susceptible
to disease germs. Continual breathing of damp stale air in ill-venti-
3 See Climatic Conditions Affecting Construction, p. 20.
VENTILATION OF FAEM BARNS 7
lated stables lowers the vitality of the animal. In a stable without
ventilation the air becomes stagnant, heat and moisture given off by
the animals are not removed, and there is a consequent increase of
temperature and humidity — a condition which interferes with the
normal heat regulation of the body. Habitual exposure to such
conditions leads to a lowered tone of the whole heat-regulating
mechanism and an inability to respond to the demands which may
be put on it, and in this w^ay exerts a profound and important
influence upon susceptibility to respiratory infection (^i, 31^ 45.)
The dairyman tries to induce his cows to eat as much feed as can
be economically converted into milk; hence it seems desirable that
the temperature should be low in order to maintain the appetite
of the cow and yet not so low as to cause wasteful oxidation for
simple heat production. Cows housed in cold barns utilize more
food energy in maintaining normal body temperature but this may
be at the expense of energy which might be used in milk production
if the barn were comfortably warm. On the other hand, too warm
a barn may induce loss of appetite and a consequent decrease in the
amount of food energy available for milk production. Tests (^^,
41) have shown that milk yields are affected by sudden changes of
temperature which may be avoided in a well-ventilated barn, since
in such a barn a comfortable temperature may be maintained with
an appreciable circulation of air.
There is an important relation between the amount of ventilation
needed and the heat given off by the animal. Stable temperatures
are dependent upon the amount of heat produced and that con-
served. As it is not practical to determine either the heat produc-
tion or the losses within the barn it is necessary to know how much
heat is given off by each of the various farm animals and the most
economical means of conserving this heat.
FOOD, THE SOURCE OF ANIMAL HEAT
Alfalfa, when consumed by the dairy cow has a heat increment
value of about 1,900 B. t. u. per pound of dry matter (12). In the
conversion of fuel into steam for mechanical work about 6 per cent
of the fuel energy is utilized ; the rest is lost as heat. The dairy cow
utilizes about 70 per cent (^, IS) of the combustible food energy sup-
plied. Thus the dairy cow is a very efficient converter of energy.
The generation of heat and production of work in the body follow
the same laws that govern these forces in motors such as steam and
gas engines.
HEAT LOSSES
Rubner, Armsby, and others (i, 24, 37, 38, 4^) have proved that
the body daily emits a quantity of heat equal to that which the
oxidation of its reserves of fat and carbohydrates produces if the
body is fasting, or the potential heat contained in the same elements
supplied by the food. Hence it is possible to estimate the heat pro-
duction of the animal if the calorific value of the food eaten is known
{43). The calorific value of the food must equal the heat lost from
the body in whatever manner plus the loss in manure, plus that used
in body gain (flesh and fat) , or in milk production.
8 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Vierordt as quoted by Howell (24) , estimates the loss of heat from
the body as follows :
Urine and feces per cent 1. S
Expired air (warming of air 3.5 per cent; vaporization of water from
lungs, 7.2 per cent) per cent— 10.7
Evaporation from skin do 14. 5
Radiation and convection from skin do 73.0
The animal heat radiated from the skin is far greater in amount
than that given off in other ways (p. 52). x\ll the above factors, with
the possible exception of the first, are affected by the environmental
conditions which in turn may be modified by ventilation.
Rubner (SS) concluded that basal metabolism is proportional to
the surface of the skin and is approximately the same for our warm
blooded animals per unit of surface. The maintenance requirement
is the nutriment necessary for sustenance alone, under the living
conditions of production. It is the basic food requirement to which
must be added the food requirements for production. Under these
conditions the food eaten produces no gain or loss in body weight
and forms the basis for the determination of basal metabolism or
heat production of the animal.
The food requirement of farm animals varies with the individual
and as between species. Age, weight, temperament, sex, physical
condition, digestive and physical activity, thermal surroundings, an-
noyances caused by insects, etc., all, theoretically at least, have a
bearing on maintenance requirements. Weight and physical activity
particularly are important factors in estimating heat production (ii,
14') Thermal environment has a definite influence upon heat emis-
sion and so on food requirements especially when below the critical
temperature for the animal. The thermal environment may be modi-
fied by proper buildings and arrangements.
EFFECT OF THERMAL ENVIRONMENT
Critical temperatures must not be confused with optimum stable
temperatures as they are not coincident except under certain condi-
tions. That point at which physical regulation of body temperature
gives way to chemical regulation is not fixed and unvarying but is
affected by the amount of food eaten. When the stable temperature
falls below the critical temperature there must be an oxidation of
more food or body tissue in order to maintain the body temperature.
Hence the economic importance of maintaining desirable thermal
conditions. It is apparent that the critical temperature for cows on
heavy feed for maximum milk production would be less than for
cows on a maintenance ration, since in the first case there would be
more food energy available and oxidation of body tissues would not
be necessary until a lower temperature was reached.
The best information available at present, places the critical
temperature of the dairy cow on maintenance at approximately
50° F. (^, 46). For cows that produce large yields of milk and
consequently consume large quantities of food, this critical thermal
point must be lower and may be 40° or even less. There does not
appear to be any direct data on the lower limits of critical tempera-
ture for dairy cows.
That the animal should produce more heat while standing than
while lying is readily understandable because of the greater muscu-
VENTILATION OF FARM BARNS 9
lar activity in the standing position {IJf). In calorimeter or labora-
tory tests a correction factor of 29 calories per hour (approximately
7 B. t. u.) is added when the animal is standing. In the field
tests it was observed that the increased heat production was sufficient
to raise the stable temperature 1 to 2 degrees under average condi-
tions. This was most noticeable when the cows stood up in the
morning. The higher stable temperatures were reached in about
one-half hour and continued until affected by other conditions.
Rameaux's Law (4^), which states that in animals of the same
kind the calorification is proportional to the cutaneous surface and
to the cube root of the square of the weight of the body, together
with the use of a suitable coefficient, provides a simple means of
estimating the heat production of the various farm animals under
average conditions.
It has been demonstrated by the tests in New York State that
it is possible to maintain a temperature of 40° F. within a well-
built barn, when the outside temperature is —30°. Armsby and Kriss
{2) state that, when King's standard of air flow is taken as a mini-
mum, the heat supplied by cows appears to become deficient for the
maintenance of a stable temperature of 50° when the temperature
outside is 15°. They base this statement upon the assumption of
no heat loss through the walls, but it is obvious that such an assump-
tion can not be made in actual practice.
In the test referred to there was a difference of 70° F. between
the inside and the exceptionally low outside temperature with a
good circulation of stable air, whereas the theoretical deduction
would permit only 35° difference at a much higher outside tem-
perature. This comparison makes apparent the need of finding the
coefficient that will reconcile the theoretical with the practical. In
order that more winter dairying may be successfully conducted in
some sections of this country, and the greater part of the dairying is
in those sections where some shelter is necessary during the winter,
it is highly important that further study be given to heat produc-
tion and losses.
The architect, in designing most types of structures, provides
suitable space for the purposes for which the building is to be used
and then calculates the size of the furnace or heater necessary to
keep the occupants comfortable during cold weather. When he
designs a dairy barn for a cold climate, however, he must first con-
sider his furnace (the animals) and then provide a space that can
be heated by the animals and still leave heat sufficient to produce
good ventilation.
COMPARISON OF HEAT PRODUCTION OF HORSES AND COWS
The application of Rameaux's law to available data appears to
be satisfactory in estimating the heat production of cows, but the
values obtained for horses seem to be too low. Evidence supporting
this possibility was obtained in tests made in this investigation and
is presented in the following pages.
The heat given off per square meter of surface is substantially the
same in small and large animals and the extent of the surface ap-
pears as the determining factor in the amount of metabolism. The
heat production of the hog, man, dog, and mouse per square meter of
10 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
skin surface per 24 hours has been given by Kubner and reported by
Grandeau (16) as 1,078, 1,042, 1,039, and 1,188 calories, respectively.
The relation between the first three is remarkable and it would not
seem unreasonable to suppose that a similar relation exists between
the heat production of the horse and cow which are more comparable
with respect to weight, food, and environment than are the animals
mentioned above. Then may it not be assumed that, within the
limits of their respective weights and surface areas, the heat given
off by horses is more nearly that given off by cows than is suggested
by Armsby and Kriss (2) especially as Armsby believed that the
data upon which his conclusion * was based was of uncertain value
and that his unit is too low.
The data secured in tests of two widely separated barns of differ-
ent types of construction made under different atmospheric condi-
tions appear to substantiate their belief. The evidence is based
upon field tests, whereas the deductions by Armsby were based
upon thermal energy. It is not possible, at this time, to place a defi-
nite value on the heat production of horses, but from all these data
there may be drawn certain general conclusions which may be ac-
cepted, at least tentatively, and which may be considered as connect-
ing links between the known facts.
The two barns are referred to as A-B and C-D. Both are gen-
eral barns in which A and C were the respective dairy sections and
B and D the horse stables. In these tests the weight of the average
farm horse was taken as 1,350 pounds and that of the cow as 1,000
pounds.
Tables 1 and 2 have been prepared for convenient reference to the
essential data of these tests. The tables should be studied together
with Figures 1, 2, and 3, and Plate 2, A and B.
Table 1. — Comparison of condAtioms in
stahles A, B
, C, and D
Equiv-
alent
num-
ber of
stock »
Esti-
mated
weight
Volume
of
stable
Air space
Air circulation
Stable
temper-
ature
Stable
Per
equiv-
alent
head
Per
1,000
pounds
live
weight
Total
per
minute
Per
equiv-
alent
head
per
hour
Per
1,000
pounds
weight
per
hour
Aver-
age
esti-
mated
animal
heatk
31.5
21.0
Pounds
30, 075
28,550
Cubic
feet
20, 690
18, 137
Cubic
feet
657
864
Cubic
feet
688
635
Cubic
feet
1,866
1,755
Cubic
feet
3,554
6,014
Cubic
feet
3,722
3,688
44.6
42.8
B. t. u.
per hour
94,500
B (horses)
46,300
Difference
1,525
5.1
2,553
12.3
111
5.9
1.8
4.0
48,200
51.0
Per cent difference '
C (cows)
13.3
12.0
12, 380
14,100
11, 468
11,081
864
923
926
786
1,206
833
5,441
4,165
5,845
3,545
42.6
43.4
40,160
D (horses)
26,460
1,720
13.99
387
3.4
373
30.9
0.8
1.8
]3,700
34.1
» Equivalent number of head of stock is based on the heat production from maximum number of stock In
respective barns during test.
* The last three digits are of questionable value, since the figures are based on estimated weight, average
conditions of feed and care of the animals being assumed.
« Data for A used as base.
<» Data for C used as base.
* No calorimeter experiments for direct determination of beat production of horses have
been made. The unit is the result of an indirect method of computation which involved
many estimates and calculations.
Tech. Bui. 187. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 2
A, View of test barn A-B from the southwest; B, view of test barn C-D from south;
C, bam windows with and without storm sash. The window on the right is equipped
with storm sash
VENTILATION OF FARM BARNS
11
Table 2. — Approximate percentage of various esti/mated heat losses and balances
for stables A, B, C, and D
stable
A (cows)-.
B (horses)
C. (cows)-.
D (horses)
Loss by
ventila-
tion
Per cent
53.5
97.3
74.7
94.1
Loss by-
radiation
Per cent
15.3
22.4
21.3
67.7
Total
loss
Per cent
68.8
119.7
96.0
161.8
Balance
available
Per cent
31.2
-19.7
4.0
-61.8
Table 1 presents the conditions recorded in the four stables. From
this table it may be seen that, although the estimated heat produced
in stable B was 51 per cent less than in stable A, there was an aver-
age difference of only 1.8° in the temperature of the two stables
FIGURE 1. — Plan of test bam A-B
during the entire test. A somewhat similar condition is found
when stables C and D are compared. Stable B had 12 per cent less
volume than stable A. The differ-
ence between the amounts of venti- inlets ^ :.n
lation in A and B was small and outlets A
much less than that in C and D. Thermometers at Celling O
It also happened that the differences ^. . ^ ^, r\
,1 • 1 i. i! T i. 1 • XI X Thermometers at Floor. .W
in the weight oi livestock m the two /-s
stables of each barn were small. Thermometers at 5 Feet ._W
Other factors, such as construction Hygro -thermograph |HI|
and atmospheric conditions, were es- Humidity Readings with Psychrometer.....H
Sentially the same in the two stables. Letter R indicates Recording Instrument^RH
Stable B was in the north end o j. . ♦ r.i- - l^
P ,1 1 T ,1 Reading at Ceiling _ it
01 the barn and was partly pro- u
tected by a grove and buildings, but R^d-g-*'^'^- ■ -g
it is not thought that this shelter Reading 5 feet above Floor. -4n
caused a material difference in this figure 2. — Symbols used on floor plans
case; if so, it would be in favor of L'ent'Sings^' ^''''''"' '' '"''""
stable B.
If this be true it follow^s that the actual amount of heat given off
in each barn was approximately the same, since there was very little
difference in the temperature of the two stables under similar con-
ditions, and that the estimated amount of heat given off in stable B
12 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 187, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
must have been too low. With the same amount of heat generated
in the two portions of the barn, one would expect stable B to be
cooler than stable A, because of a somewhat greater exposure and
larger amount of ventilation per equivalent head. Hence, there
must be a constant error in the estimate of heat generated in the two
barns as this same condition is found when the temperatures of
stables C and D are compared. It is believed that the estimated
amount of heat produced by the horses is too low. The estimated
heat production of the cows is probably more accurate since the
calculation is based upon a larger amount of experimental data.
As shown in Table 1 the volume of space to be heated by farm
animals of average size is almost the same in stables C and D. This
again indicates that the heat given off by the average farm horse
and by the average cow are more nearly alike.
The average estimated heat losses in stables B and D (Table 2)
were greater than the estimated heat generated. Since the amount
of heat lost can not
be greater than the
amount produced
there must be some ex-
planation of this con-
dition. It is obvious
that the difference
which can be main-
tained between the in-
side and outside tem-
perature depends upon
the heat supplied and
the heat lost. Unfor-
tunately, there is no
--— 3BX70 'X Jt ^ ^
\ means ot accurately
(^ estimating the amount
Figure 3.— Plan of test barn C-D of heat lost by leakage.
r-
-^^—^
9 Cow
5 andj Ye|arl|ng[s
®2;
4' c'
and Yearlini
CARBON DIOXIDE IN VENTILATION
The part played by CO2 in barn ventilation is of comparatively
little importance because so little is known regarding its relation
to the metabolism of animals. It is known, however, that bacilli of
tuberculosis, pneumonia, abortion, meningitis, and other diseases
grow more rapidly when large amounts of this gas are present. It
is also known that CO2 in quantity stimulates respiration with a
consequent strain on the animal. For these reasons an undue quan-
tity 01 CO2 in the cow stable is not desirable.
For many years the presence of CO2 has been used as an index
of the contamination of air and because of this use misconceptions
regarding it have arisen. Some of these are: (1) The evil effects
of vitiated air are due to its toxic properties; (2) the symptoms
experienced in a badly ventilated room are caused by a deficiency
of oxygen and an excess of carbon dioxide; (3) the presence of
more than 1 per cent of CO2 in stable air is fatal to animals; (4)
expired air is heavier than fresh air because of the increased CO2
content.
VENTILATION OF FARM BARNS 13
Professor Lee as quoted by Winslow {4S) states "the problem of
ventilation is physical, not chemical, cutaneous not respiratory," that
is, the vitiation of stable air is of little importance so long as the
animals are kept in good physical condition which necessitates the
removal of excess heat and moisture given off through the skin.
Hill (£1) after many experiments and careful weighing of previous
evidence states that the
Carbon dioxide content up to 1 per cent or even higher produces no deleterious
effects or stresses on the human system — there is no evidence of organic toxins
in the exhaled air.
Fliigge, as reported by Winslow {4o) after a number of years of
careful search failed to find the obnoxious and injurious substance
said to be in respired air. Priestly first discovered oxygen in 1774
and three years later Lavoisier {4S) showed by animal experiments
that the symptoms experienced in a badly ventilated room could not
be attributed to oxygen deficiency. Eecent experiments by Hill
with eight students shut up inside a glass cage substantiate this
assertion. It was found that when the oxygen had fallen to 10
per cent and the carbon dioxide risen to 4 per cent and the wet bulb
read 85° F., the students began to suffer extreme discomfort and
were astonished to find that they could not light their cigarettes.
When the air within the cage was circulated by means of electric
fans, the discomfort rapidly diminished.
The generally accepted view is that of Billings and his coworkers
(6) and Haldane (17). Carbon dioxide and possibly other fatigue
products are the normal stimulants of the respiratory centers. Thus
a rise of 0.2 per cent in carbon dioxide in the alveolar air doubles
the pulmonary ventilation, whereas oxygen deficiency does not in-
crease the respiratory rate until the atmospheric oxygen falls below
13 per cent. Lumsden (31) further shows that very large amounts
(20 to 30 per cent) of carbon dioxide can be breathed for several
hours without danger to life. No further evidence is necessary to
disprove the statement that " the presence of more than 1 per cent
of CO2 in stable air is fatal to animals." One per cent is rarely
exceeded, even in poorly ventilated barns, and the injurious effects
of poorly ventilated stables can be traced neither to reduced oxygen
and increased carbon dioxide nor to hypothetical organic poisons.
Thus three of the general beliefs concerning CO2 in stable air
are shown to be erroneous. The relative weights of expired and
fresh air have a bearing on the use of CO2 analysis as an index of
contamination and circulation. The impression regarding their rel-
ative weights is shown to be erroneous in later paragraphs (p. 15).
COMPOSITION OF PURE AIR
^ Reliable sources of information (40) give the average composi-
tion of the air at 75° north latitude, 0° C. and 760 millimeters pres-
sure as 77.87 per cent nitrogen, 20.94 per cent oxygen, 0.94 per cent
argon, 0.03 per cent carbon dioxide, and 0.22 per cent water vapor.
Water vapor is variable, depending upon the temperature, and is
usually omitted. Gases such as krypton and helium occur in small
amounts, but since they are not known to have any physiological
significance they may be included with the nitrogen.
14 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 187, U. S. DEPT. OF AGEIOULTURE
The normal amount of carbon dioxide in free air commonly has
been assumed to be 0.04 per cent, or 4 parts in 10,000, although recent
observations show an average content not exceeding 0.0317 and a
general mean of 0.0308 per cent. Benedict (5) states that this holds
true irrespective of weather conditions, temperature, or season, and
that the chemical composition of outdoor air is very constant over
practically the whole surface of the earth. Since countrv air is apt
to be free from contamination the smaller percentage of CO2 (0.03
per cent) should be used.
WEIGHT OF AIR
The weight of 1 cubic meter of normal air, of the above composi-
tion, at 0° C. is 1,290.5 grams. The weight of a cubic meter of dry
air at 0° C. and at 760 millimeters pressure is 1,293.3 grams or 2.8
grams heavier than moist air. This is explained by the fact that if
the water vapor of the air is extracted, the other gases will com-
pletely fill the space previously occupied by the water vapor. Since
the density of water vapor is much less than that of the other gases it
is obvious that the weight of the air must necessarily be increased.
COMPOSITION OF EXPIRED AIR
The composition of expired air varies with the conditions of res-
piration and nutrition. According to experiments by Paechtner
(S4) with a steer in a respiration chamber, and under varied condi-
tions of nutrition expired air contains 5.53 per cent carbon dioxide
and 14.29 per cent oxygen, there being an oxygen deficiency of 6.65
per cent. On this basis dry, expired air contains 5.53 per cent CO2
14.29 per cent O2 and 80.18 per cent of ^"2 and other gases with a
temperature slightly less than body temperature of cows or 38° C.
(100.4° F.). Expired air is practically saturated. The tension or
pressure of the water vapor at 38° C. and saturation is 49.75 milli-
meters of mercury. Standard atmospheric pressure is equivalent to
760 millimeters of mercury. Hence the volume of water vapor in a
49 75
saturated gas at this temperature, is -' X 100=6.55 per cent, and
the volume of all the other gases together is 93.45 per cent. The
density of expired air at 38° C. and of the above composition is
found to be 1,126.0 grams per cubic meter. Since stable air is much
cooler than the expired air it will be heavier by amounts proportional
to the respective absolute temperatures and differences in compo-
sition.
PRODUCTION OF CARBON DIOXIDE IN THE STABLE
There is no simple test for air conditions and the determination of
CO2 is of value as indicating the rate of diffusion or replacement of
the air in the stable and of estimating the amount of air leakage.
Meissl (33) found that of the total daily CO2 production of hogs
56 per cent was given off by day and 44 per cent by night. Closely
agreeing are the findings of Henneberg (32) with sheep, namely, 54
per cent by day and 46 per cent by night. In the Vienna experi-
ments (33) with horses similar data were obtained. Existing data
relating to CO2 production (7) by the dairy cow has not yet been
summarized but, since neither assimilation of food nor generation
VENTILATION OF FARM BARNS 16
of energy can take place without the consumption of a proportional
amount of air, it is obvious that nutritional requirements may cause
a wide variation in the oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide
production.
Analysis of stable air affords a means of determining the amount
of air leakage. The sampling of air must be very carefully done
in order to obtain representative conditions, since chance contamina-
tion may result by reason of the too close proximity of stock. When
this method is employed it is necessary to assume a standard pro-
duction of carbon dioxide, which may or may not be within 10 to
25 per cent of the actual production.
COMPOSITION OF BARN AIR
Numerous analyses of stable air have been made and a summary
of the data shows that variation in CO2 content may be expected
under different conditions : Pettenkofer {20) found a range of 0.105
to 0.21 per cent of CO2. Two hundred analyses made by Schultze
{32) showed an average of 0.435 per cent of CO2 with a maximum
of 0.594 per cent. Miircker {32) concluded that in a ventilated
stable the CO2 should not exceed 0.25 to 0.30 per cent. Hendry and
Johnson {20) found a variation of 0.089 to 0.228 per cent in a
modern barn. Clarkson {9) found as high as 1.231 per cent in a
poorly ventilated barn. Lipp {36) under experimental conditions
obtained a percentage of 2.7 per cent of CO2. Hendrick {19)
concluded that the CO2 content of the air had no relation to the
amount of air space per animal and that a large air space gives no
assurance of pure air.
The weight of pure carbon dioxide gas is approximately one and
one-half times that of oxygen. This fact has led many to believe
that respired air is more dense than fresh air because part of the
oxygen is replaced by carbon dioxide in the lungs; consequently it
has been assumed that since respired air contains a greatly increased
amount of carbon dioxide, it is heavier than fresh air and tends to
fall, accumulating at the stable floor.
This reasoning is at fault in that some of the oxygen in the
lungs is replaced by water vapor which is much lighter than oxygen.
Also, as expired air is usually of a higher temperature than inspired
air it is, on this account, less dense than the stable air. Expired air
is actually lighter per unit than fresh air under ordinary conditions
of ventilation and therefore tends to rise. This holds true at all
stable temperatures below 80° F. and may under certain conditions
be true at higher temperatures. In Table 3 amounts of carbon
dioxide and average humidities, similar to those found in practice,
have been used in calculating the densities of stable air of different
composition at 50°.
It is obvious from Table 3 that expired air, being lighter, will rise.
It is also evident that the change in weight per unit of volume due
to the increase in carbon dioxide is largely offset by the increase in
the moisture content up to the saturation point. Since in most
cases the expired air will be warmer than the stable air it will rise
and generally, although not always, the air at the ceiling will have
a higher content of carbon dioxide.
16 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 7, U. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE
Table 3. — Comparison of air conditions in stable
COa parts in 10,000
Assumed
relative
humidity
Air conditions at 50° Y.
Weight per
thousand
cubic meters
6 or less
Per cent
60-70
C5-75
75-85
90-100
100
100
70
100
0
100
Very good
Oram$ i
1 239 27
16 or less
Fair '..
1, 239. 52
20 or more
Little close
1, 239. 19
1 239 25
40 or more.
Rather close
100 or more. _
Foul .
1 242.27
250 or more
Very bad
1,250.08
3 or more . -
Normal .
1, 238. 84
3 or more. . . - . .
Saturated
1, 237. 19
3ormore -. . ...
Dry
1,242.83
617 or more - - - . _-. .. -
Expired air 100.4°
1, 126. 04
1 Argon and other inert gases are disregarded but the weights given are sufficiently accurate for the
purpose of comparison.
A high CO2 content of the stable air is usually associated with
high temperatures and high humidities, but it is often an unreliable
guide to the hygienic conditions although frequently so used. The
data in Table 4 obtained at three stations during one of the tests
made in this investigation show the condition that existed in one
barn.
Table 4. — Analyses of air in one l)arn
station
Feed alley, ceiling..
Feed alley, floor....
Litter alley, ceiling
Litter alley, floor...
Feed alley, ceiling-
Feed alley, floor....
CO2
Temper-
ature
Per cent
0.0031
.0015
.0020
.0022
.0016
.0018
F.
Relative
humidity
Per cent
81
93
87
86
93
Weight per
thousand
cubic
meters
Grams 1
1, 234. 42
1, 246. 10
1. 241. 42
1, 254. 49
1, 232. 98
1. 254. 23
1 Calculated.
The first two analyses show that the amount of carbon dioxide at
the ceiling was more than double that at the floor. By comparing
the fourth and sixth it is found that the air in the latter case is
slightly lighter owing to a decrease in the carbon dioxide content,
the temperature and humidity being the same. In the last two
the carbon dioxide content is higher at the floor. The third and
fourth analyses indicate that the temperature pla^^s an important
part in the weight of the air. The evidence leads to the conclusion
that carbon dioxide, as ordinarily encountered, does not settle.
Numerous samples taken by the author and data of other writers
involving more than 3,000 samples show that the CO2 content of
stable air is higher at the ceiling than at the floor.
The manifestations of the evil effects of bad ventilation may be
slow and are often difficult to measure. Although life may be sus-
tained in a poorly ventilated barn {30^ 36) the products of respira-
tion, excess heat, and moisture and odors should be removed in the
interest of animal health. It is not a question of how little ventila-
tion is required but the maintenance of air conditions most conducive
to the health and maximum production of the animal.
VENTILATION OF FARM BARNS
17
MOISTURE IN VENTILATION
Moisture is present in the air as a gas and is perhaps the most
important factor to be considered in barn ventilation. It diffuses
into the air almost twice as rapidly as carbon dioxide {Jfi). The
moisture content is not uniform throughout stable air, but the degree
of variation is less than that of carbon dioxide diffusion. Air con-
tains varying amounts of moisture, and the amount present depends
upon the temperature, pressure, and composition of the air, but
mainly upon the temperature. There must be a constant removal of
moisture from the occupied stable or the amount of moisture in the
air will increase. The efficiency of a ventilation system is often
judged by the amount of visible moisture on the walls and ceiling,
but this may not always be a true test of the effectiveness of the
system. The presence of moisture may be due to improper opera-
tion or faulty construction.
PRODUCTION OF MOISTURE
A milk cow of average weight gives off 12 to 18 pounds of mois-
ture per day, or an average of 4,375 grains per hour {2). One
ordinary breath of a cow is sufficient to cover with dew the entire
glass area usually allotted to her — approximately 4 square feet. If
the daily production of vapor were condensed and placed on her
stall floor it would cover the surface to an approximate depth of
three-sixteenths of an inch. The daily production of moisture is
affected by the amount and condition of feed, size of animal, envi-
ronmental conditions, etc.
MOISTURE CONTENT OF AIR
Table 5 gives the number of degrees temperature drop before the
dew point or saturation is reached under different conditions of
stable air. It illustrates the importance of the warm stable tem-
peratures in the prevention of condensation on the wall.
Table 5.
-Number of degrees drop in temperature before the dew point is
reached under different conditions of stable air
Relative humidity
(per cent)
100
90.
80-,
70.
GO.
50.
40.
Degrees temperature drop to dew point at
stable temperature of—
32° F.
45° F.
50° F.
60° F.
Degrees
Degrees
Degrees
Degrees
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
2.4
2.8
2.9
2.9
4.9
5.8
5.9
6.3
7.9
9.2
9.4
9.9
11.0
13.0
13.3
13.9
14.9
17.0
17.9
18.7
19.4
22.0
22.7
24.3
At a stable temperature of 60° F. and a relative humidity of 70
per cent the temperature drop to the dew point is almost 10°,
while at a temperature of 32° and the same relative humidity the
drop is but 8°. If the humidity be increased to 80 per cent at this
107343°— 30 2
18 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
temperature a drop of but 5° would be necessary to reach the dew
point. In order that the temperatures of inner surfaces of outside
walls may be maintained above the dew point of the stable air it is
necessary that the walls be sufficiently insulated.
It will be seen from Table 5 that the capacity of air for holding
vapor in suspension, i. e., the number of decrees drop in temperature
before saturation is reached, increases as the stable temperature in-
creases. As cold air enters the barn it may be saturated, yet contain
but a small amount of moisture per unit. Air entering at — 20° F.
and satiirated contains 0.1G6 grain of water per cubic foot. Each
cubic foot that enters displaces 1 cubic foot of the air within the
barn, but the air leaving at a stable temperature of 45°, if saturated,
is capable of carrying off 3.414 grains of water per cubic foot, i. e.,
its moisture-holding capacity has increased more than 20 times. If
the air enters at 0° it holds 0.418 grain of water when saturated, and
at a stable temperature of 45° its moisture-holding capacity would
be increased more than 8 times. This illustrates the importance of
maintaining circulation within the barn, even if it is very slow.
That outtake flues actually do remove moisture may be shown by
lowering the temperature of the air within the flue and condensing
the water in the air column. In a trial an outtake was opened and
the warm saturated air permitted to rise into the cold flue. The
air was chilled to a temperature below the dew point, and 3 pounds
of water were obtained in 6 minutes. The flue walls became warm
in a short time, five minutes in one instance, and the drip from the
flue decreased and finally stopped.
CAUSES OF DAMP WALLS
Dampness in a barn may result from any one of four conditions,
namely, lack of ventilation, lack of heat production, failure to con-
serve heat, and poor construction, or from a combination of two or
more of these conditions. Condensation may be prevented (1) By
lowering the moisture content of the stable air by ventilation, thus
permitting a greater temperature drop before condensation takes
place ; (2) by increasing the temperature of the stable air by keep-
ing the barn well filled or by substituting larger animals, thus in-
creasing the capacity of the air for holding moisture without
condensation; (3) by providing insulation so that the wall resistance
to the transmission of heat is increased to a point where the inside
surface temperature will not fall below the dew point of the stable
air; (4) by avoiding any construction which will retard the circula-
tion of air currents over the wall surfaces; (5) by any combination
of the above methods.
•EFFECT ON ANIMAL LIFE
The effect of humidity upon human health has been studied and
the present conception is that temperature, humidity, and motion
of the air have a decided influence upon personal comfort (7, 21^
Jfl^ Jf.6). Information with respect to the effect on animals is very
meager, but such data as are available indicate that farm animals
are similarly affected (^, 6, 13). Data on page 8 show that of
the total heat lost from the body 7.2 per cent is lost through vapori-
zation of water from the lungs and 14.5 per cent by evaporation
VENTILATION OF FARM BARNS 19
from the skin. The latter, upon which the comfort of the animal
depends, is greatly affected by the relative humidity of the stable
air. It is obvious that evaporation takes place more readily when
the atmosphere is dry than when it is damp or saturated. Hence,
when the air is very moist, the heat ordinarily lost by evaporation
must find some other channel of dissipation, possibly causing dis-
comfort to the animal.
EFFECT ON STRUCTURES
The proper ventilation of a stable is not a simple matter, with
the weather changing from hot to cold, calm to stormy, and with a
varying amount of stock in the stalls. It is more difficult to control
humidity than temperature. It is possible to specify the tempera-
ture and humidity essential to a desirable air condition, but to ob-
tain the amount of circulation required to produce and maintain
them is not so easy.
The effects of too much moisture on the barn and contents are
more readily apparent and are evidenced by rotted timbers, rafters,
ceiling boards, sills, etc., and by spoilage of hay and feed. Indirect
losses are due to illness caused by decomposed or mouldy feed and
by the softening and destruction of plaster and paint. These are
economic losses which can be measured. In many barns, rotting due
to moisture within is much more rapid than outside deterioration
caused by the elements.
Moisture in the air will be deposited on a surface whenever the
temperature of that surface falls to the dew point of the air. The
walls of the barn when colder than the air may act as a condensing
surface which, by removing moisture from the air as it circulates,
lowers the moisture content of the stable air. If the temperature of
the wall surface is below freezing frost is formed.
Heat is transmitted to the wall surface both by radiation and con-
vection or air movement. The temperatures of the wall surface
and of the air in contact with it are not the same, and the lowering
of air temperature, which may cause deposition of moisture, occurs
within a thin film of air very close to the surface and can not be
measured with the ordinary thermometer. However, the desired
stable temperature being known and the minimum expected outside
temperature being obtainable from the Weather Bureau records, the
amount of insulation required may be determined as described later.
Condensation on a wall surface may be due to a leakage of air
through joints or cracks in the insulation, as well as to the lack of
insulation. But regardless of how well the wall may be insulated
there will always be some heat loss. In providing against con-
densation the greatest thickness of insulation is required under con-
ditions of highest humidity, lowest air circulation, and low temper-
ature.
Wind on the outside of a warm wall increases heat losses and con-
densation. Deposition of moisture on the wall surface is also af-
fected by the air currents within the stable. The rate of circula-
tion of these currents is in turn greatly affected by the amount of
ventilation, and the higher the velocity the less the chance for depo-
20 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
sition. Moisture may gather on ceiling surfaces where girders,
beams, or other obstructions sometimes interfere with these currents
and form pockets of uncirculated air. The paths of convection cur-
rents are often indicated on the walls, around corners and at venti-
lating flues by the pattern formed by frost or deposition of mois-
ture where there is insufficient air movement. These slow-moving
air currents prevent the deposition of moisture and emphasize the
need of maintaining a circulation of air even if it is at a slow rate.
The absence of air stoppings" at the ribbon where joists and
studs meet is a common cause of moisture on the ceiling. This omis-
sion permits cold-air currents to circulate between the joists, chilling
the ceiling boards and causing the temperature of warm, moist
stable air in contact with this cold surface to drop to or below the
dew point.
DISTRIBUTION OF DAIRY C0WS;JAN.I925
Wi^h Respect fo Length of Stablin« Period
(Total milked dunns 1924^20.900, 000)
I W;l I V- .
■•- -..Lr-
Building Zones — — .
Barn Days j-240'"'
Dairy Area ••••••••
Figure 4. — Map showing zoning of the United States with respect to temperature
and barn days and the principal dairy area, the location of which makes evident
the need of comfortable shelter for dairy cows
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS AFFECTING CONSTRUCTION
Variations in climatic conditions in different localities affect the
requirements of a ventilation system. The probability of low tem-
peratures and the range of the expected temperatures determine the
need and amount of insulation necessary to the maintenance of de-
sirable stable temperatures under given local conditions. The ac-
companying map, Figure 4, and Tables 6 and 7 are of value in
choosing the construction best adapted to a particular locality. The
average temperatures for the months of January and February over
a period of 30 years at 100 selected stations were used in determining
the boundaries of the several zones shown on the map.
VENTILATION OF FARM BARNS 21
Table 6. — Temperatures for January and February at selected stations
Item
Temperature ia zone—
1 2
'
4
Daily mean at 8 a. m . __ ...
° F.
5
11
° F.
17
22
° F.
27
30
° F.
36
Mean monthly
Above 32
Table 7. — Number of days annually when temperature at 8 a. m. toas below 50° ,
32°, and 20° F., respectively
Temperature
Below 50
Below 32
Below 20
Item
Range
Average
Per cent of annual
Range
Average
Range
Average
Days in which temperature was
below the point stated in zone—
225-350
266
72.9
130-175
154
37-153
117-290
225
61.6
45 -140
107
0-80
24
160-240
193
52.9
30-90
64
0
0
According to Table 7 the temperature at 8 a. m. was below 50° F.
during 72.9 per cent of the year in the first zone, 61.6 per cent in the
second zone and 52.9 per cent in the third zone. This makes clear the
relative importance of the temperature factor in barn ventilation in
the various zones and the number of days that the full capacity of
the ventilation system will be required. It also shows that about 58
per cent of the average number of days, on which the temperature
was below 50°, were below freezing during the night in the first zone,
48 per cent in the second zone and 33 per cent in the third zone, and
that of the number of days below freezing in the first zone 52 per
cent were below 20°. These average temperatures should be consid-
ered in determining the amount of insulation required in a given
locality and the capacity of the ventilation system best suited to the
conditions.
LENGTH OF STABLING SEASON
The map also shows the length of the stabling season in the north-
ern zones. Because of the variable conditions this factor is omitted
in the southern zones. Tables 6 and 7 may be used to supplement the
map. The number of days that cows are kept in the barn varies
widely in different sections of the country because of differences in
practice. In most parts of Maine the cows are kept in the barn nearly
every night, whereas in the semiarid regions, where the same tem-
perature prevails, cows are permitted to run out.
Available information indicates that milk yields are affected by
temperatures below 50° F. Turner, as quoted by Hays {IS) con-
cludes that temperature is a major factor in the seasonal variation
of the percentage of fat in cow's milk. In most sections it is desir-
able to house the cows at night when temperatures below 50° are ex-
pected. This temperature may then be used as a basis for the
determination of the number of days during which ventilation will
22 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
be required. When the outside temperature is above freezing the
windows and doors may be kept open a greater part of the time. At
such times the amount of ventilation obtained is not solely dependent
upon the flues. When the temperature drops below freezing the
doors and windows should be closed and the ventilation system op-
erated at full capacity. It is seldom necessary, under average con-
ditions, to restrict the ventilation until the outside temperature drops
below 20°. With good construction this point may be lowered con-
siderably. Windows, as aids to ventilation, may be used in sections
where the temperature is above 32° on a large percentage of the days
on which ventilation is necessary. In sections where the temperature
on a large number of days is below 20°, greater attention must be
given to insulation and to the design of the ventilation system in
order that the maximum use may be made of the system.
Although it is recognized that there are many factors which may
affect the annual number of days that the stock is housed in a par-
ticular locality, nevertheless these data, which are based upon the
best information available, are thought to be representative of
average conditions for dairy cattle and are valuable in coordinating
the several factors affecting the design of a ventilation system.
VOLUME OF AIR SPACE PER HEAD OF STOCK
RELATION OF VOLUME TO PURITY OF AIR
Purity of stable air is not dependent upon a large volume of air
space. The air within a barn is vitiated by emanations from the
stock, particularly the products of respiration. Expired air does
not necessarily mix with the whole air of the room even with mod-
erate circulation. If the ventilation is bad because of either poor
circulation or distribution, diffusion will not be uniform and theo-
retically there is no limit, except that of saturation, to the extent
of contamination that may exist at a given point within the stable,
however large the air space.
Repeated analyses {35, 39) have shown that bacteria in the stable
air have relatively small effect upon the bacteria count in the milk.
Milk readily absorbs odors from the stable air, and if certain of
the common feeds are present at milking time the milk may become
unfit for sale or use as food. The flavor and odor of such plants
as garlic, cabbage, turnips, green cowpeas, and silage, if fed before
milking, may be detected in the milk. Garlic may be detected in
milk 1 minute after feeding or in 2 minutes after the milk is drawn
when the cow has been permitted to inhale the garlic odor for 10
minutes {Jf), Contamination can best be avoided by removal of the
source of odor and by providing for adequate ventilation and the
removal of milk from the stable as soon as drawn. If feeds having
odors that affect the milk are given after milking, the effects of
their ingestion and the odor-laden stable air will have been removed
by the time of the next milking.
In a stable having the largest practical unit of volume per head
and with no ventilation, the air is contaminated (assuming com-
plete diffusion) beyond the point of desirable purity within a
few minutes. The standard developed by King {29) requires that
the degree of purity of air in the stable should not be lower than
VENTILATION OF FARM BARNS 23
96.7 per cent, i. e., that the air in the stable shall not contain more
than 3.3 per cent of air once breathed. On this basis 3,542 cubic feet
of air per hour is required for the average cow. The amount of air
space is of great importance in controlling stable temperatures and
in economy of construction, but as previously stated a large volume
per head gives no assurance of pure stable air. In the ventilation
of barns the degree of contamination of the, air is dependent upon
the rate of production and the rate of removal of the units of con-
tamination and not upon the unit volume of air space. Hence ven-
tilation must be a continuous process when the animals are in the
barn.
That the statement regarding the relation of volume to air purity
holds true in practice as well as theory is shown by analyses of air
in stables wherein the volume of air space per head differed widely.
Hendrick {19) after more than 200 analyses of stable air found
that there was no relation of air space to carbon dioxide content
and that high CO2 content was usually associated with the higher
stable temperatures and humidities. Comparing the samples taken
at approximately the same stable temperatures, he found 4 to 41
parts of CO2 in 10,000 in a stable having 510 cubic feet of air space
per head. In a stable with 1,145 cubic feet per head he found 14
to 49 parts and in another, having 2,578 cubic feet per head, 14 to 16
parts.
Kegulations of a number of cities specify a certain amount of air
space for each animal. The successful laws or regulations of one
section are often adopted verbatim in others without consideration
of the climatic conditions and this often leads to the adoption of
rules which are not applicable, and which are frequently impractical.
DETERMINATION OF VOLUME PER HEAD
In designing a barn for a given locality the three factors which
have the greatest bearing on the determination of the air space to
be provided are (1), the desirability of controlling stable tempera-
ture; (2), economy of construction; and (3), convenience and
economy in caring for the stock.
The volume of air space generally may be approximated as the
product of the length, width, and height — usually at the platform —
divided by the number of head. But this method should not be used
in a ventilation test where greater accuracy is necessary. Heat pro-
duction and losses are often of more importance than circulation
of air, and in an investigation involving a large nuuiber of tests
these factors can not be compared unless the space per head has
been accurately determined. It is advisable that deductions be made
for large columns, girders, and joists where the stable is not ceiled.
The height of the ceiling as measured at the feed and litter alleys
must sometimes be considered separately and not averaged as is often
done.
The physical comfort of confined animals is dependent upon the
three factors of temperature, humidity, and air circulation. Lipp
{30) in discussing experiments states that —
It was observed that after the stall temperature had reached 80° F. there
was an unmistakable evidence of discomfort. When the temperature had
climbed to 85" F. the discomfort had increased to actual distress and at 90° F.
24 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
there was danger of collapse and death. When the air of the unventilated
stall was suddenly cooled and its moisture content lowered, after having
reached 90° F., and full saturation respectively, all symptoms of collapse and
distress disappeared in a very short time.
Since excessive stable temperature and humidity interfere with
elimination of heat from the body and water from the respiratory
organs, the importance of temperature control is obvious. Theoreti-
cally it is possible to provide sufficient insulation to save all the heat,
but practically the cost would not be warranted. Hence, in deter-
mining the proper volume of air space per head, the comfort of the
animal at least cost must be sought.
In a warm barn there is more heat available for inducing ventila-
tion and circulation of air with the resultant elimination or reduc-
tion of odors and excess moisture. Many farmers provide warm
barns to prevent freezing of drinking cups, but fail to ventilate
properly. Comfortable stable temperatures and ventilation are
inseparable and the one must follow the other.
If the temperature of a stable is to be kept comfortable a suf-
ficient number of cows must be provided to heat the air space. An
800-pound cow has approximately 48 square feet of radiating surface
and one weighing 1,200 pounds, 61 square feet (5, 44)- Since their
body temperatures are the same and their capacity of heat produc-
tion varies according to their weight, it is obvious that the smaller
cow can not heat or maintain the temperature of as large a volume
of air space as the larger cow. Hence the size of the cows must be
considered in determining the proper volume of space per head.
The amount of heat produced bears a definite relation to the
weight of the stock and in turn to the amount of ventilation required.
This relationship permits of tests being compared on a basis of heat
production of the actual stock in terms of an equivalent number of
average size as described on page 3. In this manner the several
factors are made proportional to the size of the individual equiva-
lent animal, and proper credit may be given to each according to its
capacity. This method also permits of the comparison of barns full
of stock with those that are but partly filled. Many ventilation
installations have been unjustly criticized because of lack of con-
sideration of this factor. Stable temperature depends upon the
amount of animal heat produced and that saved. If a barn is
designed for 20 head, ^allowing a space of 600 cubic feet per head,
and if there are but 15 head in the barn, the actual volume per head
is 800 cubic feet. In the northern zones this may be the limit of the
heating capacity of the animal.
Yapp (^7) has found that the volume of air space occupied by
cattle is approximately 29 cubic inches per pound of live weight.
On this basis a cow w^eighing 1,200 pounds and allotted 1,000 cubic
feet of space occupies approximately 20 cubic feet, or 2 per cent,
of the space. On the same basis an 800-pound cow would need but
about 670 cubic feet in order that she might occupy proportionately
the same amount of space as the larger cow. But the heating capac-
ities of cows vary as the two-thirds power of their weights, and hence
the smaller cow may be allowed a somewhat larger space than that
given above. This relationship is given consideration in the formula
found on page 26.
VENTILATION OF FARM BARNS
25
The volume of air space in well-designed barns is seldom less than
500 or more than 1,000 cubic feet per head. The average cow re-
quires a stall 3.5 feet wide and in addition an allowance must be made
for cross alleys. The necessary clearance for litter carriers fixes the
minimum height of ceiling at a little less than 8 feet, and to secure
1,000 cubic feet per head in a 2-story barn would require an unnec-
essary expenditure of money in the colder sections.^ ^
COMPARISON WITH TEST DATA
A study of available data shows that under average conditions
the volume per head is not important when the outside temperature
is above 32° F. At 20° conservation of heat is important, and vol-
ume per head is a factor to be considered. As the temperature de-
creases the importance of volume per head increases. Hence the
proper allowance of volume per head will be relatively greater in
the first and second zones than in the third. The data from tests in
Table 8 show what may be accomplished under average working
conditions. The table affords a comparison of the stable tempera-
tures, with a given volume per head, with outside temperatures of
0°, 10°, 20°, 32°; also the minimum outside temperatures at which
stable temperatures above 32° were maintained. The table also
serves as a valuable check on the practicability of the formula given
subsequently, page 26.
Table S. — Comparison of volume per head and observed stable and outside
temperatures
Num-
ber of
barns
5
2
5
6
Actual
volume
per head
Outside temperature
Stable
32° F. or
above at
outside
tempera-
ture of—
0° r.
10° F.
20° F.
32° F.
Stable temperature maintained at —
Cubic feet
600-690
700-790
800-890
900-960
° F.
40-46
37
32-38
34
° F.
42-52
37-39
36-46
34-44
°F.
41-54
39-47
37-47
41-46
° F.
47-58
51
40-48
44-52
o p
-32-0
-7
-10-4
-5
It has been shown how the several factors affect the selection of the
volume of air space per head. Cost of construction, available heat,
expected temperatures, and convenience in handling the stock are
factors which must be considered in choosing the proper volume of
air space for each cow. The following empirical formula, which
serves as a check in determining the desirable air space per cow in
various localities, takes into consideration the two most important
factors affecting the design of a barn for cold sections, namely, heat
production and its relation to expected temperatures.
From Figure 4 the average annual number of days that the cow
may be kept in the barn in a given locality is obtained {27). This
' 5 A barn housing 20 cows in two rows of 3.5-foot stalls with one 5-foot cross alley would
be 40 feet Ions. If the barn is 36 feet wide, which is recommended practice, it would
require a height of approximately 14 feet to provide 1,000 cubic feet per head. This is
unneces-sarily costly and impractical in a 2-story barn. It might be practical in a ] -story
barn, or a 2-story pen barn, or one but partly filled with stock.
26 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
bears a direct relation to the expected temperatures for the locality
and makes it possible, as shown in the following paragraph, to intro-
duce the temperature factor into the formula indirctly. In the
formula, V= — ^ — , ZT represents the heat in British thermal units
per hour produced by an animal equal in size to the average of those
within the barn. The constant k has a value of 60 for the dairy cow
kept under average conditions in a well-built barn. Where it
is certain that the barn will always be filled with mature stock dur-
ing cold weather, which is seldom the case, a constant of 70 may be
used. D represents the average annual number of days that the cows
are kept in the barn. V is the desirable allowance of cubic feet of air
space per head. If more space than that obtained from this formula
is allowed greater consideration must be given to insulation.
There are many stations within a zone which have mean tem-
peratures above or below the average for the zone. It has been
found that the factor D may be expressed in terms of approximate
outside temperature by the quantity (300 — 57") in which T represents
the mean temperature for the month of January. Eesults which are
compatible with good practice are obtained when the proper values
for this expression are substituted in the above formula. When air-
space volumes obtained by use of the formula are used, the heat
available is sufficient to permit an average of 3.5 dilutions of air per
hour when the outside temperature is at zero or above. Hence the
formula provides a practical rule for the determination of the desir-
able volume per head in a dairy barn, either by reference to the mean
temperature for January or to the number of ibarn days.
WALL CONSTRUCTION AND INSULATION
The comfortable housing of stock is of interest to all stockmen but
especially to dairymen since the majority of the milk cows of the
United States are found in the colder sections. (Fig. 4.) The
farmer desires a comfortable barn for four reasons: (1) Comfort of
the stock with consequent saving of feed ; (2) comfort of the work-
men; (3) prevention of the freezing of water pipes; and (4) preven-
tion of dampness in the barn.
Experience has shown that it pays to keep cows comfortable.
There is little information with regard to the physiological reaction
of cows to low environmental temperatures and the consequent sav-
ing of feed. However, the Institute of Animal Nutrition of Pennsyl-
vania (IS) found that under the usual conditions of intensive cattle
feeding, for each degree that the temperature falls below the point at
which the animal begins to feel cold, the cost of maintenance increases
1.4 per cent.
Feeding, milking, and other routine operations are more efficiently
accomplished in a barn of comfortable temperature than under con-
ditions that arouse an instinctive desire on the part of the workmen
to slight the work in order to get it done quickly.
Water systems with individual drinldng cups have been installed*
in many barns in order to save labor as well as to provide the stock
with ready access to water. Warm structures are necessary to pre-
vent the freezing of water pipes and the consequent inconvenience in
caring for the stock.
VENTILATION OF FARM BABNS 27
FUNCTION OF INSULATION
The function of insulation in barn walls is to retard the flow of
heat. Heat is transmitted in three ways: (1) By radiation from
a warm to a colder body, (2) by conduction from one molecule to
another, or (3) by convection currents passing over a warm surface.
The effect of wind is to increase both conduction and convection
losses.
Insulation provided to insure warm structures lessens the likeli-
hood of condensation of moisture and consequent damp walls. As
stated elsewhere a damp barn may be the result of lack of ventila-
tion, lack of production of heat, or lack of conservation of heat.
The last is generally the result of insufficient use of insulation ma-
terials. Whenever barn walls are tightly built to save heat, ventila-
tion becomes necessary as the leakage through walls and windows is
not sufficient for the air requirements of the animals.
The maintenance of a comfortable temperature within the stable,
when the outside temperature is low, depends upon the amount of
heat given off by the animals and the total heat lost. It is evident
that after the temperature in the barn has reached the desired point,
the amount of heat added per unit of time must equal the amount
of heat lost in order to maintain that temperature. Until the de-
sired temperature is reached, there must be generated sufficient heat
not only to raise the temperature of the air within the barn but to
replace the heat lost by radiation, conduction, and convection to the
walls and contents of the stable. The amount of heat absorbed
depends upon the specific heat of the building materials and the
contents of the building. Since the heat produced by the animal
can be controlled only to a limited extent, it is evident that more
insulation is required in the cold sections than in warmer regions in
order to conserve the heat produced. The amount of insulation
required for a given locality must be proportioned to the expected
temperature.
In a structure heated by coal it is possible, within a limit, to
raise the room temperature by heavier firing of the furnace, and
to measure the saving of fuel effected by the application of differ-
ent amounts of insulation. In a barn more heat can be obtained to a
limited extent from the animals by heavier feeding, but it is more
difficult to estimate the saving in feed due to added insulation since
little is known about the physiological reaction of the cow to low
temperature, a factor which has a bearing on the economics of insula-
tion. Increasing the stable temperature by means of expensive feeds
is uneconomical if the extra annual feed cost exceeds the investment
charges incident to the added insulation.
SELECTION OF MATERIALS
In selecting an insulating material suitable for barn construction
consideration must be given* to the following points : Its efficiency
as an insulator, whether or not it will retain its efficiency indefinitely,
its structural strength, the effect of moisture on the material, harbor-
age afforded rodents and vermin, whether it is fire retardent, the cost
of the material, and the cost of installation and upkeep.
Next to a perfect vacuum the most effective insulation against the
flow of heat is air confined in minute spaces. Because of this prop-
28 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 7, IT. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
erty of air, there is a common misconception with respect to the in-
sulating value of so-called dead-air space, and its practical value is
often exaggerated. Dead air is almost unknown in structures except
in porous materials where the air cells or spaces are microscopic.
It is this entrapped air which adds insulating value to porous ma-
terials.
The air space between studs does not possess the insulating prop-
erties commonly attributed to it. The air currents rise on the warm
side and descend on the cold side, thus transmitting heat from one
surface to the other. It is not until the space is broken at short
intervals by headers that it becomes at all effective. Stud spaces are
sometimes filled w4th commercial insulating materials, packed mill
shavings, sawdust, gravel, or even straw, all of which are effective if
kept dry. Sawdust and straw are apt to deteriorate and settle down
in the wall. Gravel, in itself a fair conductor of heat, would be
effective because of its value in breaking up the convection circulation
within the w^all but is not desirable because of its weight.
Metal conducts heat quite rapidly, even more rapidly than the sur-
rounding air can absorb it, provided the air is still. Hence any air
current or wind blowing against the surface will increase the rate
of heat loss. Farm structures in w^hich the walls and roof are built
of metal will be cold in winter and warm in summer, unless the metal
is combined with other materials having insulating properties.
Masonry walls are sometimes preferred for barn construction be-
cause of their qualities of fire resistance, durability, low cost of
upkeep, and structural strength, but their use in northern sections
has been objected to as they lack insulating value. There is greater
loss of heat and more frost and dampness in masonry barns than in
comparable frame structures. One-half inch of good insulating
material added to a masonry wall may decrease the heat loss by as
much as 50 per cent. Although costing considerably less, this amount
of insulation may be equivalent in insulating value to 8 or 10 inches
of concrete or brick. A combination of masonry and insulating ma-
terials, which are now available in most sections at reasonable cose,
will often produce a more economical, stronger, more durable and
warmer structure than if a single material were used. One barn
tested (pi. 6, B) had a double wall constructed of air-cell concrete
blocks, 4 and 8 inches thick with a 2-inch air space between. This
construction did not afford insulation sufficient to prevent deposition
of moisture on the wall at temperatures near zero. Another barn
wall (pi. 3, A) constructed of 8-inch blocks of the same kind with
one-half inch of good insulating material showed no moisture at
subzero temperatures. The two walls are of similar outward appear-
ance but under like conditions of construction the latter and better
wall probably could be erected at less cost.
Next in importance to the selection of materials is the way they
are assembled in the wall. Each new, surf ace that is placed in the
path of heat flow offers considerable resistance not only because it
breaks the continuity of heat flow but also because it holds confined
a thin film of air. Two %-inch layers of a material therefore have
greater heat resistance than a 1-inch layer of the same material.
Insulation placed on the inner or warm side of the barn wall is more
efficient than if placed on the outer side. The object in the use of
VENTILATION OF FAEM BARNS 29
insulation is to stop the flow of heat outward, as heat flows from the
warmer to the colder object or surface, and the sooner the heat flow
is stopped the greater the conservation. Since heated air tends to
rise and barn ceilings generally offer less resistance to heat flow
than do the walls, insulation placed on the ceiling is more effective
in maintaining stable temperature than is the same amount placed
in the walls. This is especially true in a 1-story barn, since in a
2-story structure the hay in the mow above affords very good insula-
tion. When part of the mow is empty the floor should not be
allowed to become bare as frost and moisture may collect on the
ceiling below. Less heat will be lost through the ceiling if 6 to 8
inches of hay or chaff are left on the mow floor during the cold
months. Moisture on the stable ceiling is sometimes caused by the
circulation of cold air between the joists. Precautions should be
taken to prevent this.
AIR-TIGHTNESS
Air-tightness in construction helps to cut down heat losses. There
is always some leakage of air through the walls themselves, through
cracks, mortar joints, etc., the amount varying with the permeability
of material and quality of workmanship. Whenever a strong wind
blows against the surface this leakage is increased. Building paper,
plaster, and even paint are of value in reducing air leakage through
walls. Recent tests {23) of a brick wall 8^/^ inches thick show that
infiltration of more than 9 cubic feet per hour per square foot of
surface may be obtained with a pressure against the wall equivalent
to a 15-mile wind. Other tests show that infiltration losses account
for as much as 25 per cent of the heat supplied in dwellings of
average construction. It is therefore evident that air tightness of
construction is essential to the conservation of heat in barns.
A study of the relationship of back drafting in outtakes to wind
direction and velocity shows that infiltration was probably a con-
tributine: cause of back draf tino^ in the flues of one barn.
AMOUNT OF INSULATION
The heat coefficients of insulating materials are expressed in
various ways, but most commonly in British thermal units per square
foot per inch of thickness per hour per degree difference in tempera-
ture. It is sometimes expressed in daily loss instead of hourly.
Tables of coefficients of heat losses for different materials are found
in standard handbooks. Most of the data available are from labora-
tory tests, very few tests having been made of the common types
of construction under field conditions. In making use of tables of
coefficients consideration should be given to the conditions under
which the data were obtained.
Insulation is employed for the conservation of heat given off by
the stock and the prevention of damp walls and ceiling. The limita-
tion of its use for the first purpose is the economic relation between
the cost of construction and the amount of heat saving necessary to
the maintenance of the temperature desired. The extent of its use
for the second purpose is determined by the temperature and relative
humidity that it is desired to maintain since these factors determine
the number of degrees drop in temperature that must take place
30 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 7, U. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE
before the dew point is reached (p. 4). The latter is the more im-
portant consideration in the determination of insulation require-
ments for barns. Although at times it may not be sufficient to insure
as high a temperature as desired, the insulation necessary to prevent
condensation under normal conditions will usually be economically
justified and will serve as a measure of the minimum requirements
for local conditions.
The curve in Figure 5 suggests the minimum insulation for different
localities. The coefficients of heat transmission are used as ordinates
and indirectly represent the amount of insulation required to prevent
damp walls under average conditions of weather and good ventila-
tion. The abscissas are the mean temperatures for the month of
January. This curve is a great convenience in determining the
amount of insulation required in a given locality when the mean
y
.400
^
/^
^
.300
i\o2,
CO5
^
^
.1
.o
\n^
^ .200
—
^
.100
0
2 ^
\
B <
5 i
0 1
2 1
4 I
6 1
8 2
0 2
2 2
4 2
6 2
8 30
Outside mean temperature for January ^"F". )
Figure 5. — Insulation curve. Coefficient fc equals British thermal units loss per
square foot per degree difference in temperature per hour
January temperature is known. Kliiowing the amount required, one
is able .to choose from a number of available materials the most
desirable construction.
The heat saving effected by an insulating material is in proportion
to the difference between the heat transfer coefficients of the insulated
and uninsulated construction. The saving of heat by good insula-
tion is continuous and is reflected in decreased annual cost of feed
and in the comfort of the animal with the consequent greater pro-
duction.
The selection of an insulating material will depend upon consid-
eration of the characteristics previously mentioned and to a large
extent upon the cost and availability. It may be more economical
to use twice the amount of a material locally available but of low
insulating value, than a more efficient insulating material shipped
from a distance. The amount of insulation required will vary with
the normal temperature expected. The coldest months of the year
Tech. Bui. 187, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
Plate 3
I I IJ I.I I . I l.f %,M I
A, View of barn showing wall construction, frost covered windows, and position of inlets. Note
anemometer on roof; B, view of barn with vestibules; C, view of test barn T from the west
VENTILATION OF FAEM BARNS 31
are January and February, and temperatures for these months may
be used in determining insulation requirements for a given locality.
Average conditions may be obtained by referring to the zone map,
Figure 4 or Tables 6 and 7, or for more detailed information, to
Weather Bureau data.
STORM SASH AND VESTIBULES
Infiltration of cold air through cracks around doors and windows
is an important consideration especially in windy sections. Tests
have shown that there may be a leakage of air around a window, as
ordinarily fitted, amounting to as much as 2 cubic feet per hour for
each lineal foot of crack for each mile per hour of wind velocity.
The use of storm windows and storm doors helps to reduce such heat
losses.
The disadvantages and limitations of windows for ventilation
purposes are explained elsewhere. Their relation to heat loss is
also of importance. Glass surfaces radiate heat rapidly. A single
thickness of glass offers little resistance to the transmission of heat
and, since it is desirable that there be approximately 4 square feet
of glass for each cow, the total heat loss through the glass alone
may be very great in some barns. The use of double or triple sash,
or even double-glazed sash, decreases the heat loss through windows.
If frost collects on the windows, the light is retarded, and any con-
densed moisture running down the sash hastens deterioration of
the sash, sills, and other woodwork. Sunlight on the stable floor
is a sanitation requisite, and it also adds many heat units to the
stable air. An illustration of the value of storm sash in preventing
frost formation is presented in Plate 2, C. Plate 3, A, is a view
of windows without storm sashes. During zero weather frost formed
on these windows to a depth of 1 inch.
Separate storm sash outside of the regular sash are preferable
to single, double-glazed sash. The loss by breakage is usually less,
and the glass can be more easily cleaned. When the putty of a
double-glazed sash becomes loose, dirt sifts in between the panes
and the glass can not be cleaned without removal. Air leakage
around a stationary storm sash can be more effectively stopped than
that around a sliding or hinged sash that is used the year around.
Observations have shown that there is less tendency to frost forma-
tion where separate storm sashes are used than where single, double-
glazed sashes are installed.
Sliding barn doors are a great convenience, but it is difficult to
keep them tight enough to prevent leakage of air. If provided with
hooks they may be drawn close to the frame. Hinged doors can be
closed more tightly. Because the leakage around barn doors is apt to
be very large, storm doors are often desirable. They may be in-
stalled in one of several ways, but most commonly they are placed
on the inside and hinged. The presence of a litter-carrier track
often determines the type of door construction. A vestibule entrance
decreases heat losses through and around barn doors. Such a vesti-
bule is illustrated in Plate 3, B.
Vestibules are no doubt an advantage in regions where deep snow
is frequent, but it is believed that greater warmth can be provided
32
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
and more economically by a judicious use of storm doors and storm
sash. The vestibule shown in Plate 3, B, covered almost one-half
the end of the first story of the barn. During the test made in
this barn, the vestibule temperatures were found to be from 2° to
4° higher than the outside temperatures.
In one of the barns tested, a feed room across the north end
reduced the exposure of the stable wall from 5 to 10 degrees. Table 9
of selected readings is interesting, as it shows the protection afforded
by a feed room to prevent rapid fluctuations of temperature. These
data show that the feed room provided a very effective protection
to the stable on the north. The variation in stable temperature was
small, whereas, that in the outside temperature was very marked.
The temperature in the feed room was slow to respond to the increase
or decrease of outside temperature.
Table 9. — Comparison of outside, feed room, and stable temperatures
Reading No.
Outside
temper-
ature
Feed-
room
temper-
ature
Average
stable
temper-
ature
Reading No.
Outside
temper-
ature
Feed-
room
temper-
ature
Average
stable
temper-
ature
1
° F.
5.0
15.0
16.5
12.0
8.5
20.0
23.5
op
18.0
18.0
20.0
20.0
18.0
22.0
23.0
0 p
41.7
43.0
41.9
41.5
44.2
45.5
47.2
15
22.0
22.0
29.0
32.5
42.0
29.0
24.0
° F.
23.0
24.0
26.0
28.0
32.0
32.0
29.0
° F.
47.5
6
16
46.7
6
19
47.1
g
21
43.3
12
22
45.6
13
26
44.7
14
29
43.2
Windbreaks and tight board fences around the barn lot afford
protection to the barn and help to decrease the heat losses incident
to strong winds.
REPRESENTATIVE TEST
DESCRIPTION OF PHYSICAL CONDITIONS
The limited space precludes the presentation in this bulletin of
all the data of the many tests made. A single representative test
is reported with such data as is necessary to the discussion, in
order that the nature of the studies and the method employed may
be better understood. This test, continuous for almost 200 hours,
was selected because of its length, and because it was made under
a wide range of weather conditions. It is of particular value in
studying the effects of weather on the ventilation of barns. It
shows the effect of some factors that were not evident in other
tests and afforded opportunity for studying some that could not
be analyzed to the same extent in shorter tests.
The barn in which the test was made in located in Piscataquis
County, Me., and is one of the few modern barns in that section.
It is an example of what may be accomplished in designing barns
suited to local climatic conditions. Plate 3, C, is an exterior view
of the structure, the arrangement being shown in Figure 6.
Thirty-six head of stock were housed in the stable, which was not
filled to capacity as will be seen by reference to the floor plan.
VENTILATION OF FARM BARNS
33
The stock consisted of 1 bull, 4 calves, 10 heifers, and 21 cows
which, upon the basis of the aggregate heat production of the
individuals, were equivalent to 34.6 average-size animals. The vol-
ume of air space per animal was 838 cubic feet. Had the barn
been filled there would have been approximately 600 cubic feet
per head.
"i i (^ ^(£m [4]
Figure
aexior
-Floor plan of test barn T
The mow floor was double-boarded and was well covered with hay.
The stable was ceiled with matched lumber. The walls were of
beveled siding and sheathing, with paper between, on the outside
of 2 by 6 studs and paper with 6-inch flooring on the inside. The
hay chutes were closed with doors of 1-inch boards which were too
thin to prevent frost from collecting on
them at times.
The windows were tightly fitted and pro-
vided with storm sashes. The doors to the
pens were provided with storm doors and
were never opened during the test.
The ridge of the roof was 33 feet above
the stable floor. There were six metal out-
take flues insulated with one-half inch of
commercial insulation. A pair of flues
entered each ventilator at the ridge.
The ventilators were closed at the base.
The flues were fitted with a metal collar
which closed one half of the base, while
the other half was closed by means of two
hinged doors operated by means of ropes
and pulleys. (Fig. 7.)
DESCRIPTION OF TEST
PLAN
Figure 7. — Diagram showing
the operation of doors in
ventilator base
Trials were made with the ventilation
system wide open, partly open, and closed;
with cealing openings and floor openings; and with the ventilator
base open and closed. Altogether 11 different combinations of intake
and outtake adjustments were used during the test with seven
changes in the setting of the outtakes. It was planned to make as
few adjustments as possible in order that the effects of climatic
changes upon the ventilation might be studied,
107343**— 30 3
34 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
ADJUSTMENT OF OUTTAKES
At the first reading all outtakes except B were open and the damper
in D was half closed. (Figs. 6, 7, and 8.) Outtakes B and D were
opened after the first reading and remained open until reading 11a,
Reading Periods
2c^
I , ,
> . ."O. . . .'5. . . ,2.0. . . .2.5. . . .30. . , .3,5. . . .40. , , 45 50. . . ,
55 60
P.M.
A.M.
P.M. A.M. P.M.j A.M.
P.M.
A.M. p.'m. a.m'. P.m.
AJM.
P.M. A.M. PML Ajmj
I-
^
1
H —
- i
i
1
^._..
1
OuHakes
i
1
— j —
I-
K
f.
r"
— J —
Dilutions
-
Lj —
1
\
1
u
<
1
i
1
"I
intakes
1—
1
1
1
i
AREA OF FLUE OPENING
1
3600
3200
2600^
L
-
n
Out
2400 1
2000 b
.600|
1200'
_r"
-2
"
-:
■1
'-
1
" 1
1
Wind
j —
800
400
0
1
"j
-
-~1
J
L
lJ 1
r "
c
:
L_
fa
1
L
. !
'3
:
30
25,
CIRCULATION OF AIR and WIND VELOCITY
? «•
-20*
1
In
r
— •
II ■■ r
r
1
L
J—
u
u
r
"]
1
2- _
._Out_
.^1
1
;-
1
1
.J
f
in
J
TEMPERATURES (F'}, ROOM and OUTSIDE
1..-0
v&Ris
^70
II
^^
b — Lj-J I
RELATIVE HUMIDITY OF ROOM
Figure 8. — Summarization of averaged ventilation data obtained with different set-
tings of intalies and outtakes in test b-irn T
when they were closed and remained so until reading 31a. After
reading 32 the doors in the ventilator base were opened and remained
open until reading 50a. After reading 42 the dampers in the out-
take flues were closed, and the heat doors at the ceiling were opened,
VENTILATION OF FARM BARNS
35
remaining so until reading 53a. The entire ventilation system was
closed at 3.30 a. m., after reading 54 and remained closed until 7.45
a. m. at reading 55a during which time the stable air developed con-
siderable odor and seemed stuffy. Flue A was closed at reading 56
and remained closed to the end of the test.
ADJUSTMENT OF INTAKES
The intake openings at the first reading varied from 1 to 4%
inches. After the first or preliminary reading all the intakes were
adjusted to a 3-inch opening, this setting being maintained until
after reading 9 when all the intakes were changed to 2 inches. After
reading 11, intakes Nos. 3, 8, and 12 were closed and all others re-
duced to li/j-inch openings. This setting was used until after read-
1
,
s
0
\
Read
5 20 25 3
ing Periods
^. . . .^?. . . ■*,°. .■*.^. . . .5,0, , , ,55, . . .60. . . .
P.M.
A.M.
A.M.
P.M.
A.M. P.M. A.M. P.M.
A.M.
P.M. A.M. P.M. AJm!
240^00
220000
I
a
Tota
1 Heat L
OSS
'■\
2oaooo
\BQPOO
^ ItOfiOO
<
O4A000
Radiation-
■"■■-'
:^U..
y
1
iJ 120^00
:■•.■•.:■:-■.',
Animal
Heat
:^•':'•'^
k;
,^ lOflJDOO
BOPOO
•1
~
•l\i]:ci
.'•.•Radia
w
L:i:>J:i
103830
3.T.U. —
fehf-
J
-
il!:l-iv--
•;.':V.v?T
60000
4Q00O
ZQPOO
0
!.'•'.':•'
Ventila
»ion Loa
S
:'•'.•.:'•'.'•'.'•'-
■l^:--^-^
l'
•1
... u
•1
•i
.1
lii ,
Figure 9. — Average estimated amounts of heat produced and heat lost in
barn T
test
ing 31, when all the intakes were closed and remained so until after
leading 35. After reading 35 all the intakes were opened II/2 inches
except Nos. 3, 8, and 12 and no further change was made until after
reading 54 when all intakes were closed. After reading 55a all the
intakes were opened to 1 inch with the exception of No. 3. Intake
No. 12 was closed after reading 57. After reading 62 all the intakes
except Nos. 3 and 12 were opened to 2 inches and remained in this
position.
AMOUNT OF VENTILATION
During most of the time the ventilation in this barn was very
satisfactory. There was an average of 5.5 dilutions per hour for
The entire test although at reading 64 there were 12.1 dilutions per
hour. Table 10 compares the amounts of ventilation obtained with
different settings of intakes and outtakes. The readings for the
same settings of intakes and outtakes are averaged and arranged ac-
cording to sequence of decreasing amounts of ventilation. In Fig-
36 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 7, U. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE
ures 8 and 9 the averaged results are shown graphically in the se-
quence of the test.
Table 10. — Average amount of ventilation obtained with different settings of
intakes and outtakes in test barn T^
No.
Readings
Areas of flues
Dilutions
Temperature
In
Out
per hour
Stable
Outside
Differ-
ence
Square
Square
feet
feet
Number
op.
° F.
0 p
2.647
9.972
8.6
37.1
-0.5
37.6
1.764
9.972
8.0
33.2
.7
32.5
1.469
8.333
7.6
44.3
30.2
14.1
.809
9.152
7.1
36.0
-8.1
44.1
.987
9.972
7.0
32.4
-20.1
52.5
2.167
8.333
5.8
44.5
18.8
25.7
.987
6.694
5.7
39.6
11.5
28.1
.748
8.333
5.6
40.4
19.2
21.2
.987
9.972
4.8
46.0
18.9
27.1
Q)
9.972
4.6
44.9
18.0
26.9
(2)
9.972
4.2
43.0
13.7
29.3
.987
9.972
3.5
47.7
25.4
22.3
.987
3 5.244
3.4
39.4
-9.7
49.1
.987
3 5.244
2.6
46.3
15.6
30.7
(2)
(2)
41.1
-14.1
55.2
Wind
velocity
2to9— _
9a to 11-.
62a to 64
55a to 56
53a to 54
1
llatoSl
57 to 62..
35a to 39
33a to 35
31a to 33
40 to 42..
52a to 53
42a to 50
54a to 55
Milex per
hour
6.8
14.2
22.0
1.0
.4
14.6
10.3
9.3
5.3
11.4
6.1
4.0
4.4
5.6
1.2
1 Data for readings indicated are averaged.
2 Closed.
Dampers closed, heat doors open.
At reading 54 when the outside temperature was —22.2° F. with
7.2 dilutions per hour, the stable temperature was 31°. This is
more than twice as great a circulation of air as was necessary for
good ventilation, and had it been desired to keep the stable warmer
it could easily have been accomplished by restricting the ventilation.
This was not done as the object was to study the effect of low out-
side temperatures on the ventilation and to determine how much
it would lower the stable temperature. The data show that it is
possible to keep the ventilation system open even at low temperatures
if the barn is properly insulated. While the system was closed be-
tween readings 54 and 55, the temperature rose from 31° to 41.6°,
indicating that there was sufficient heat available for warming the
stable although it was but partly filled.
When the doors at the base of the ventilators were open the suc-
tion on the flues was decreased, a smaller amount of air being with-
drawn from the stable while air was withdrawn from the mow also.
When they were closed after reading 50 air was removed from the
stable only. A comparison of individual readings shows that clos-
ing the mow opening at the bottom of the ventilator apparently in-
creased the amount of air leaving the stable about 10 per cent.
At reading 32 the air movement through flue A was neutral and
from reading 32 to 38, inclusive, back drafting was observed. Flue
A probably would have back drafted after reading 56 had it re-
mained open as this flue was located in an empty pen (Fig. 6), and
the reversed action in the outtake w^as undoubtedly caused by the
lack of heat.
The effect that the various changes in the ventilation system had
on the amount of ventilation can be readily seen by reference to
Figure 8 which shows the average conditions resulting from the
different adjustments.
VENTILATION OF FARM BARNS 37
One of the important developments of this test is the relation-
ship of the outside temperature to the amount of ventilation obtained
(p. 48). It is important in its relation to the design of the ventila-
tion system. From data presented herein (Fig. 4j one may learn
what the expected outside temperature may be in the locality under
consideration and, knowing the relation of the outside temperature
to the ventilation which may be obtained, he may design the sys-
tem accordingly. Heretofore designs have been based on an as-
sumed difference between the inside and outside temperatures be-
cause definite information as to the difference that might be main-
tained under ordinary conditions has not been available (p. 64).
The relationship of ventilation to the temperature difference is
closer in this test than in others because for the most part no attempt
was made to keep the stable temperature high, it being permitted to
fluctuate with the atmospheric conditions. However, the stable
temperature was satisfactory except at a few periods.
The greatest amount of ventilation at any individual reading
(12.1 dilutions per hour) occurred at the sixty-fourth, when there
was almost the least temperature difference of the test (15.1°) and
the least temperature difference (9.1°) occurred at the sixtieth
reading, when the ventilation was almost 5 dilutions per hour.
With wide variations in temperature difference almost the same
amount of ventilation was obtained. This with the results of other
tests is evidence that low outside temjoerature is more effective
than high outside temperature with the same temperature difference.
In the past, temperature difference only has been considered whereas
the amount of ventilation produced is dependent upon the weights of
the warm and cold columns of air (p. 48).
COMPARISON OF CEILING AND FLOOR OUTLETS
The effect of the use of ceiling outlets is shown by data given
in Table 10. By comparing No. 12 with No. 13 it is seen that the
stable temperature in the former is higher than in the latter, yet
the ventilation is about the same and the wind velocity is practically
the same. The intake flue areas were the same in each case. The
outtake area in No. 13 is that of the heat doors at the ceiling and
was approximately 50 per cent of the cross-sectional area of the
flue when the floor openings were used in No. 12. If the outside
temperature in No. 13 had been the same as in No. 12 the stable
temperature in the former possibly would have been equal to that
in No. 12, but the ventilation would have been less.
If these were the only data available to show the advantage
of floor outlets in securing higher stable temperatures with equal
ventilation, the evidence would not be conclusive. The readings
of No. 5 and No. 14 may also be compared. In the first the outside
temperature is much lower and the stable temperature is also lower,
but there was almost three times as much ventilation as in No. 14.
By restricting the ventilation, the stable temperature in No. 5 could
easily have been raised to a point more comparable with that of
No. 14 and with a lower outside temperature. Again, No. 14 shows
lower stable temperature and with less ventilation than does No. 12.
38 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 7, V. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The latter comparison is more typical of conditions fomid in other
tests.
In these comparisons the area of the intakes was the same in each
case while the area of the outtakes in the one was 9.97 and in
the other (ceiling openings) 5.24 square feet. There was very little
change in the wind velocity. The velocity of the incoming air
decreased immediately when the heat doors were opened and in-
creased after they were closed. Because the total area of intake
openings in square feet was small (Table 10) the change in volume
of incoming air was not great. When the heat doors were opened
there was a reduction of almost one-half in the outtake area and
a proportionate reduction in the volume of outgoing air. From the
results of this test it does not appear that ceiling openings are more
effective in producing ventilation than floor openings of equal area.
The control of the stable temperature is important, and it is
interesting to note what occurred in this barn when ceiling openings
were used as compared with floor openings.
Table 11.
-Comparison of stable temperatures, humidities, and ventUation
in test barn T
Reading
Temperature
Relative humidity
Dilu-
tions
per
hour
Wind
veloc-
ity
Ceiling
Floor
Stable
Outside
Ceiling
Floor
Stable
Outside
35a to 39
op
48.7
50.1
60.9
51.2
50.9
60.3
49.1
47.3
46.8
46.0
46.2
47.1
44.8
41.2
36.1
34.6
32.9
44.5
° F.
42.9
44.6
44.9
45.4
46.7
46.2
44.1
42.7
42.2
41.3
41.2
42.1
40.6
38.2
34.1
33.1
31.9
40.4
op
46.0
47.7
48.1
49.0
48.9
48.2
46.7
45.0
44.7
44.3
44.5
45.4
43.3
39.8
35.1
33.9
32.4
42.8
op
18.9
25.4
24.4
19.2
15.5
17.8
16.6
12.1
6.4
12.6
22.6
17.6
-1.0
-10.2
-18.0
-18.0
-20.1
2.9
Per cent
70.2
66.6
56.3
70.9
78.9
79.1
79.6
84.2
75.8
80.3
76.8
76.7
66.8
91.2
86.2
Per cent
70.7
67.2
56.4
73.8
78.9
79.6
79.9
84.3
76.1
80.3
77.4
76.2
67.6
92.7
90.0
Per cent
70.4
66.9
55.8
72.4
78.9
79.4
79.8
84.2
76.0
80.3
77.1
75.4
67.2
92.0
88.1
Per cent
---
57
53
50
69
51
40
36
58
68
66
4.8
3.5
6.1
2.0
2.1
2.7
2.8
2.7
2.8
2.5
3.4
2.7
3.4
3.6
3.4
6.9
7.0
3.0
Miles
per hour
5.3
40to42
4.0
421
5.4
42a
1. 1
43
.8
44- - - -
6.5
45
5.7
46
9.6
47.-
4.2
48
2.8
49-
13.9
60 2.
5.5
51
5.9
52
5.0
53 s
2.4
53a
0.0
63a to 54
80.0
80.3
.4
42a to 63.
79.6
80.9
5.0
1 Heat doors at ceiling opened after reading.
2 Doors in base of ventilator closed after reading.
3 Heat doors closed after reading.
Table 11 shows temperature, humidity, number of dilutions, and
wind velocity. Reading 42 was taken just before, and 42a immedi-
ately after, the change from floor to ceiling outlets. The table shows
that between the two readings, that is, within one-half hour, the
temperature rose a little less than 1° — the increase was uniform at
all stations — and the stable humidity increased IT per cent and at the
same time the amount of ventilation was reduced more than one-half.
The heat doors were closed and the dampers opened after reading
53, the effect being a slightly lowered temperature with doubled
ventilation. Similar effects have been observed in other barns.
After the heat doors were opened the air became noticeably warm
and oppressively stagnant, a condition attributable to increased
relative humidity and slight increase in temperature, because of
VENTILATION OF FARM BARNS 39
restricted ventilation and slowing up of circulation incident to
change in direction of air currents. This condition prevailed for
approximately one-half hour, after which the effect passed off. The
slight increase of temperature must be attributed to the decrease in
the amount of ventilation as the outside temperature fell at this
time.
The difference between the relative humidity at the ceiling and
at the floor remained practically the same regardless of whether
the floor outlets or ceiling outlets were used. The relative humidity
subsequent to the opening of the heat doors was not excessively
high although the lower humidity would be preferable as the stable
temperature could then drop about 3° more before the dew point
would be reached.
It is desirable to secure the greatest amount of ventilation com-
patible with the maintenance of a high stable temperature and a low
relative humidity. This test (Table 11) shows that approximately
50 per cent more ventilation may be maintained with floor outlets
than with ceiling outlets with approximately the same stable tem-
perature. These results agree with those of other tests and show that
floor outlets are a decided advantage in the colder sections.
DRIP AND CONDENSATION
The objectionable drip from outtake flues appears to have some
relationship to the amount of ventilation, outside temperatures, the
sun, and the wind, or to a combination of any of these factors, but
the main cause is not made sufficiently clear by the data obtained to
warrant a definite conclusion.
No practical means of preventing the formation of frost in flues is
known. Small outtake flues have been frozen solid with ice. The
probability of this happening may be lessened by the use of outtake
flues more than 12 inches in diameter.
Advocates of wood flues contend that where they are used there is
less drip, but there is no comparative data available. Plate 4, B,
shows evidence that wood flues are not free from condensation. Al-
ternate wetting and drying causes the wood to rot quickly. This
condition is more prevalent in cold sections, particularly where the
roof sheathing and shingles are permitted to form one side of the
flue. Flues should be w^ell insulated in order to minimize condensa-
tion. Flues other than of wood should be of rust-resisting metal or
waterproof material. Black iron rusts out quickly when exposed to
moisture.
Condensation of moisture on the ceiling of the stable was observed
at several periods. The mow floor was double and the joists were
ceiled on the underside, but there were no headers or air stoppings
betw^een the joists at the studding line. This omission permitted
leakage of cold air between the joists which chilled the ceiling surface
and caused the deposition of moisture. When strong wind aug-
mented this leakage there was an appreciable difference in the amount
of moisture deposited on the ceiling.
It is common practice to make the girders under the mow contin-
uous from one end of the barn to the other and to support the joists
above them. Structurally this method has advantages, but in this
40 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGEICULTURE
barn an air pocket was formed between the girders where moisture
appeared to gather more readily than it would have gathered had
the air circulation been free to sweep the entire ceiling. This condi-
tion could have been improved by making the ceiling flush with the
bottom of the girders or providing coved corners between ceiling and
girder.
WIND EFFECTS
The wind velocities varied during this test from a calm to more
than 26 miles per hour, the highest wind occurring near the end of
the test.
This and other tests made under field conditions show that the
wind has little effect on the amount of ventilation at velocities below
4 miles per hour and that
$ it is not often a dominant
factor until it exceeds 10
miles. At velocities greater
than this the effect is no-
ticeable, but its full effect
^,. ^ ^ is seldom obtained in field
WMt .""j -""Jk"- ^ ^«^— . tests during cold weather,
as the ventilation is then
generally restricted as the
velocity of the wind in-
creases. The maintenance
of ventilation during pe-
riods of calm is of greater
importance.
The weather conditions were so variable that opportunity was
afforded for a study of the effect of the direction of the wind on
flue velocities, especially with respect to the velocity of incoming
air. A study of the effect of wind direction is valuable because of its
relationship to flue velocities and its influence on the location of
intakes with respect to corners and adjacent buildings. It is diffi-
cult to trace the effect of wind direction on the passage of air
through outtakes, but that there is an appreciable effect is evident
from the data.
Table 12 and the chart (fig. 10) show the influence of wind
direction on the velocity of air passing through the intakes as
observed over a continuous period of eight days.
Table 12. — Influence of ivind direction on intake velocities in test ham T
Figure 10. — Influence of wind direction on the
velocity of air passing througli intakes. The
figures are velocities in feet per minute
Intake velocities
Wind direction
Wind velocity
Wind-
ward
Leeward
East-northeast
Miles per
hour
12.2
14.3
7.0
10.6
.13.1
0
Feet per
minute
1,074
1,258
616
933
1,153
0
Feet per
minute
664
460
295
380
398
296
Feet per
minute
253
Northeast -
260
North
260
North-northwest . . ..-
296
Northwest
231
Calm - -- - -
296
VENTILATION- OF FARM BARNS 41
Table 12 shows that the velocity of the incoming air was the same
on both sides of the barn when not influenced by wind. The in-
take velocity at the first reading (G64) is high as compared with
the other readings, since the ventilation system was wide open
at the time. The wind was almost directly against the side of the
barn at the first and second readings, hence high intake readings
on the windward side were to be expected. It will be observed that
there was not much variation in the readings on the leeward side.
The circular dotted line in Figure 10 represents the average intake
velocities for the entire test.
HEAT BALANCE
The amount of heat produced must balance the amount of heat
lost through walls, etc., plus the amount used in producing ventila-
tion. There is no direct measure of the heat produced within the
barn so that the amount produced and the amount lost can only
be estimated. The total estimated heat produced by the 36 head
of stock in this barn was 103,830 B. t. u. per hour which is equiva-
lent to that given off by 34.6 average-size animals. It should be
remembered that the barn was not filled with stock. In Figure 9
the estimated amount of heat produced and the estimated total heat
lost are shown, the stable temperatures being shown in Figure 8.
When the estimated heat lost was greater than the estimated heat
produced the stable temperature decreased and vice versa. Since
the heat lost can not exceed that produced, it is evident that the
estimates of production and losses are at fault or that the stock
responded to the lowering of the stable temperature by giving off
more than the average amount of heat. In other tests the tendency
of the cows to do this was observed (p. 43). There is need
of research in the methods of estimating or determining heat pro-
duction and loss.
The cows in this barn were large producers and were fed in
proportion to their milking capacity. The stable temperature was
slightly higher in those sections of the barn where the cows were
on the heaviest feed. This, to a certain extent, offsets the lack of
heat in unoccupied sections. Consideration of this factor should be
made in planning the arrangement of the barn.
An outside temperature of approximately 20° appears to be the
point below which the conservation of heat becomes necessary. The
possibility of raising the stable temperature by closing the system
for a short time is clearly shown by Table 10, Nos. 5 (open) and
15 (closed), and Figures 8 and 9.
During this test there appeared to be sufficient heat given off by
the animals to maintain a stable temperature of approximately 40°
under normal conditions with good ventilation. During the in-
terval between readings 2 to 9 (Table 10, No. 1), the ventilation
appeared to be a little too liberal for the maintenance of a warm
stable with the low temperature outside. The ventilation could
have been restricted by partly closing the intakes, resulting in a
higher stable temperature with ample ventilation.
This test also afforded evidence that the milk production varies
with the stable temperature, but the length of the test was too
42 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
short to warrant a quantitative analysis. The eight cows which
were milked gave about 400 pounds of milk daily, seven of them
being milked four times and one twice a day. The variations in
milk yield followed fluctuations in the night temperatures more
closely than those of the day. Variations in the morning tempera-
tures appeared to have the least effect. This emphasizes the im-
portance of controlling stable temperatures at night. The results
of this test are in accord with data of other investigators (22^ 18^
28,1,1),
FACTORS AFFECTING OPERATION OF VENTILATION SYSTEM
Progress has been made in the development of partly automatic
systems, but no mechanical devices yet offered can entirely replace
personal attention and the exercise of common sense and good
judgment.
MAINTENANCE OF STABLE TEMPERATURE
Briefly, the maintenance of the desired temperature involves con-
sideration of the insulation, the amount of which will vary accord-
ing to the temperatures to be expected in different sections of the
country; the efficiency of the materials available; the amount of
air space that the animals must heat ; the amount of ventilation de-
sired; and the method of securing it. Tightness of construction
is necessary to prevent excessive leakage of air. The actual amount
and choice of insulating material will depend upon the relative
efficiency and cost of the various kinds available.
High temperature is not necessary for comfort. It is sug-
gested that a temperature between 40° and 45° F. is satisfactory
for the average dairy barn in the northern sections of the country,
while from 45° to 50° may be easily obtained in the central sections.
In barns where the hind quarters of the cows are washed before
milking a temperature of from 55° to 60° may be desirable.
The desirability of maintaining a relatively high stable tempera-
ture is shown by comparison of the moisture-holding capacity of
air at two ordinary stable temperatures, 48° and 44° F. If air satur-
ated at 44° be raised to 48° it would have a relative humidity of
86.7 per cent. If 800 cubic feet of air, a common volume of air
space per cow, at 48° and a relative humidity of 100 per cent is re-
duced to a temperature of 44°, it would require 923 cubic feet of air
to hold the same amount of moisture without deposition. If it is
desired to obtain a relative humidity of 86.7 per cent, with the same
amount of moisture and at a temperature of 44°, 1.064 cubic feet
would be required. As the volume can not be changed the mainte-
nance of the higher temperature is desirable as it permits of a greater
drop in temperature before the dew point is reached.
The tests under discussion were made under a range of outside
temperatures of from 45° to —40° F. The greatest difference be-
tween inside and outside temperature was 71°. It was found that
even with extreme variations a satisfactory temperature may be
maintained in a well-built stable if the ventilation system is intelli-
gently operated.
The teraperature in a stable filled with stock or where the volunie
per head is not excessive can be controlled by temporarily or parti-
VENTILATION OF FARM BARNS
43
ally closing the ventilation system. Tightness of construction per-
mits of the control of stable temperature by proper operation, but
ventilation is necessary in barns so constructed. The curves from
two tests shown in Figure 11 illustrate the possibility of control
in a well-constructed barn and lack of control where there was ex-
cessive leakage.
Figure 11, A, represents stable and outside temperatures in a well-
built barn where the ventilation system was operated so as to main-
tain a uniform stable temperature. This barn was not entirely
filled, there being 832 cubic feet of air space per head. The stable
temperature was a little subnormal, but the ventilation was more
than was necessary to secure good air condition, being slightly more
than six dilutions per hour.
In the second stable, Figure 11, B, there were approximately eight
dilutions of air per hour. Although there were only 713 cubic
feet per head it was impossible to control the stable temperature.
"ij 50°
t 40°
30°
20°
10°
Reading Periods
3 4 5 6 7
8 9
I-
>?! -20°
D_ '
■— -~^
■ ■
.....
1 1
r^
^_
.o,
y
^X^7
.
y
ffc/e
"•*s.
''
^ 20°^;==
1^-10°
iPoom-
•^■^o^g
'^L^A—A/-
y^
50"
D 40
1 .0
^-10'
i5; -20°
5^ ,..
^ 50
Jj 40'
<$ 30'
^ 20
^ 10'
1 "•
Reading Periods
7 8 9 10 II
-^.^^
^oom
_ -
— 1
-^•J
2Mti
"^^'^^
^
■**._
^.^^
1
Barn
3 4
•10
1
oom
.^ —
_^
-*
• Ja
^^''
Ou^s
y":: —
"-..^..^
"
Barn U
Figure 11. — Controlled (A) versus uncon-
trolled (B) ventilation
Figure 12. — Stimulating influence
of low temperatures on heat
production
Because of excessive leakage the stable temperature dropped below
freezing w^hen the outside temperature was about — 12° F. In an-
other barn (fig. 6) it was possible to keep the stable temperature
above freezing with an outside temperature of —20° and with seven
dilutions of air per hour.
Since the ventilation of dairy barns during cold w^eather is of
major importance, heat losses should be reduced to a minimum in
order that as much as possible of the heat generated may be avail-
able for producing the maximum amount of ventilation. This is
best accomplished by tightness of construction and the use of the
maximum amount of insulation that can be economically provided.
That low temperature stimulates metabolism of cows is apparent in
the data from two tests. It appears that the stock resisted the tend-
ency of the stable temperature to drop below freezing by increased
metabolism. But food energy which is used in keeping the body
warm and in warming the stable is not available for milk production.
Figure 12 illustrates instances in which the maintenance of a fairly
even stable temperature was obviously caused by increased heat
production, since no change was made in the ventilating system
44 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 7, XJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
although there was a wide variation in outside temperature. In bam
G an expected drop in stable temperature was apparently counter-
acted by an increase in the heat production of the animals. In barn
U the same effect was observed, it being evident that as the outside
temperature rose the production of heat returned to normal.
In barn G, although the stable temperature approached freezing,
the decrease in stable temperature was not proportional to the de-
crease in the outside temperature which fell to —15° F. Had the
heat production remained constant there would have been a closer
relationship between the inside and outside temperature drop.
In barn U there appeared to be an increase of almost 28 per cent
in the heat production of the stock above that occurring under aver-
age conditions. The volume of air space per head, 944 cubic feet, was
so large that a comfortable stable temperature was not to be ex-
pected. Yet it is apparent that more than the average amount of
heat was generated, or the stable temperature would have dropped
when the temperature outside was as much as — 5° F.
Stable temperatures, within certain limits, appear to affect milk
production in both quantity and quality {IS^ 15^ 18, 22, ^1),
Investigations ^ tend to show that increased milk production in the
spring is not caused by pasture feed but by optimum environmental
temperatures ranging from 50° to 80° F. When the temperature
exceeds the upper limit milk yields tend to decrease. In these tests
stable temperatures of approximately 32° appeared to stimulate the
metabolism of the animal.
The area of intake openings has an important bearing upon the
maintenance of stable temperature. It was found possible to con-
trol the temperature by varying the amount of intake area, a reduc-
tion in area resulting in a decrease of the amount of outgoing air
but not always in the same proportion.
In these tests, with a few exceptions in which conditions were
unusual, the amount of measured outgoing air was greater than that
of the incoming air, the difference being due to leakage. In one
barn, w^hen the outside temperature was —11° F., the intakes and
the dampers in the outtakes were closed, yet there was a measured
leakage around the dampers sufficient to produce 1.4 dilutions of air
per hour. In another test, with the system wide open, there was less
than 1 measured dilution per hour. In these tests the number of
dilutions of air ranged from 0 to 13 per hour, and in several barns
the full capacity of the system was not used.
The outtake area has usually a greater influence on the amount of
ventilation secured than the intake area, and floor outtakes are more
favorable to the maintenance of stable temperature than ceiling
openings. This was found to be especially true during cold weather.
Reduction of the outtake area appeared to produce a proportional
decrease in the amount of ventilation. In one test, by temporarily
closing the system it was possible to raise the stable temperature 10°
during a period of unusually low outside temperature.
EFFECT OF CHANGES IN INTAKES AND OUTTAKES
There are many factors which affect the amount of ventilation
obtained by varying the effective area of intakes and outtakes. It is
« Unpublished data of department of animal industry, University of Maine.
VENTILATION OF FARM BARNS 45
impossible under practical working conditions to isolate these factors
so that their individual effects may be determined. However, the
experience afforded by a large number of tests and the method of
analysis employed makes it possible to partly determine the effects
and the natural tendencies of many of these factors.
In the test of one barn the largest amount of ventilation was
obtained during the first two groups of readings (Table 10, and fig. 8)
when the intakes were open approximately 3 inches (readings 2 to 9)
and 2 inches (readings 9a to 11). The data show that with an out-
side temperature of approximately 0° F. it was possible to keep the
temperature in the stable above freezing and still have a very large
circulation of air (eight dilutions per hour) within the barn. This
is much greater than necessary for maintaining the standard mini-
mum purity of air.
The data also show that a reduction of approximately one-third
in the intake area offset the effect on ventilation that would be ex-
pected of a more than doubled wind velocity. The effect on the
amount of ventilation of closing the intakes is uncertain because of
the leakage, but the possibility of compensating for the effect of
wind by decreasing the intake openings is evident. The velocity of
the incoming air increased but that of the outgoing air decreased
which would indicate that the reducton in intake area did have an
appreciable effect. It is interesting to note what happened when
the intakes were closed. (Table 10, Nos. 10 and 11.) The data
show that ample ventilation was secured with the intakes closed and
with an effective wind velocity. In No. 4, with small intake area,
low outside temperature, and no effective wind more than ample
ventilation was obtained.
No. 15 of Table 10 presents data obtained with the ventilation
system closed and shows the effect and the value of insulation in
obtaining a stable temperature above 41° with an outside temperature
of —14°, a difference of more than 55°. The data in Nos. 1 to 5
inclusive, taken during low outside temperatures, show the possibility
of maintaining the stable temperature above freezing in a well-insu-
lated barn together with an abundance of ventilation. It is believed
that ventilating systems are often closed down more than is necessary
when low outside temperatures are anticipated. In this connection
the temperature existing prior to an anticipated drop must be taken
into consideration. If, during a prolonged period of low tempera-
ture, it is found that the stable temperature drops too low, the system
can be closed temporarily and reopened when the temperature has
been raised. In one test, with an outside temperature of —22°, the
stable temperature was raised more than 10° in less than three hours
by closing the system. In another test the temperature of the barn
was raised from 40° to 50° with an outside temperature of from
-12° to -15°.
In reducing the amount of ventilation in order to raise the tempera-
ture, it is better to entirely close one or more of the outtakes rather
than to partly close all. Partial closing reduces the velocity of the
outgoing air which may become chilled, thus increasing the tendency
to condensation and drip.
46 TECHNICAL BULLETIN" 18 7, TJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
CEILING AND FLOOR OUTTAKES
Ventilation may be obtained with either the ceiling or floor type
of outtake. Each has its advantages and limitations which vary ac-
cording to local conditions and results desired.
The following comparison is based upon data obtained in a number
of tests made under widely varying conditions. In some cases the
comparison was made between permanent heat doors and floor out-
lets and in others between existing ceiling outlets and temporary
floor flues that were built for the purpose. This method was used
so as to limit the number of variables that would be encountered in
comparing two different barns. Some of these tests were continuous
for 300 hours ; hence it is impractical to present much of the test data.
Representative data are included, and the discussion is based on the
summation of all data available.
In these tests the difference between floor and ceiling temperatures
ranged from less than 1° to 10°. In the barn used in the tests the
average ceiling temperature was 46° dry bulb and 41° F. wet bulb,
and the floor temperature was 41° dry bulb and 36° wet bulb, a condi-
tion which is common. The ceiling air contained 15.8 B. »t. u. per
pound of dry air and the floor 13.5 B. t. u., or a difference of 2.3
B. t. u. Hence the ceiling air in cooling to the floor temperature
gave up 2.3 B. t. u. per pound of air which were available for warm-
ing 123 cubic feet of air 1° at stable temperature. It is obvious that
air withdrawn at the floor will remove less heat from the stable,
other conditions being equal.
In all localities there are a number of warm days during the
stabling season. Hence all floor flues should be provided with heat
doors of approximately the same effective area as that of the flue —
auxiliary or secondary ceiling openings are sometimes used. The
heat doors should be placed near the ceiling and operated in accord-
ance with the temperature conditions. When the outside tempera-
ture is 32° F. or more it is advantageous to open the heat doors for
the ready removal of heat from the stable. Practical experience
and results obtained from the tests show that under ordinary con-
ditions it is desirable to close these doors when the outside tem-
perature drops to approximately 20°. This point will be somewhat
affected by the velocity and direction of the ^ind. Hence the
extent of the use of heat doors in a given locality will vary according
to the frequency of warm days. In sections having a large number
of warm days ceiling openings only may be used.
Other conditions being comparable, a larger circulation of air may
be maintained with floor outlets than with ceiling outlets with equal
resultant stable temperatures. In Table 13, which gives data from one
of these tests, the stable temperatures are practically the same in both
cases, but there is a much larger amount of ventilation with the floor
outlets.
VENTILATION OF FARM BARNS 47
Table 13. — Comparison of floor and ceiling outlets in a dairy stable
Dilu-
tions
per
hour
Humidity
Temperature
Vents open at—
nelative at—
Water per
cubic foot of
air-
Ceil-
ing
Floor
Stable 1
Out-
side
Ceil-
ing
Floor
Stable
In
stable
Out-
side
Floor
4.1
2.6
Per cent
68.6
77.9
Per cent
69.2
78.4
Per cent
68.9
78.2
Grains
2.491
2.797
Grains
.783
.520
° F.
49.2
48.3
° F.
43.5
43.3
° F.
46.6
46.3
° F.
21 3
Ceiling
15.6
1 stable temperature is the average of the stable temperatures for the period involved and not the average
of Hoor and ceiling temperatures.
At the same outside temperature the stable temperature will be
lower when the heat doors or ceiling outlets are open. Figure 13
represents a hygrometer chart obtained during one of the tests. It
is of particular interest in that it shows the drop in stable tempera-
ture after the heat doors were opened. This change was made at
2.45 a. m., as shown on the chart at point A. It will also be noticed
that the difference between the wet-bulb and dry-bulb temperatures
was less, indicating a
higher percentage of rel-
ative humidity.
The difference in the
relative humidities at the
ceiling and floor was
practically the same w^hen
the floor outlets were used
as when the ceiling outlets
were open. (Table 13.)
The readings at the dif-
ferent stations in this barn
reveal no significant dif-
ference at any point for
the two conditions. At the
same stable temperature
the relative humidity of
the stable was almost 10
per cent higher when the
ceiling outlets were used.
In neither case was the
relative humidity harm-
fully high. However, the
lower relative humidity was to be preferred as the stable tempera-
ture could have dropped about 3° lower before the dew point would
have been reached.
A comparison of the actual amounts of moisture in the stable and
in the outside air under the two conditions given in Table 13 shows
that the air removed at the ceiling contained 2.797 grains of moisture
per cubic foot, while that removed at the floor contained 2.491 grains.
However, more moisture was removed from the stable through the
Figure 13. — Hygrometer chart showing effect of the
opening of heat doors upon stable temperature
and humidity
48 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
floor openings because of the larger circulation of air, notwithstand-
ing the fact that the entering air was of a higher moisture content.
The stable temperature being practically the same in both cases, the
higher stable humidity was largely due to decreased air circulation.
With equal amounts of ventilation, other conditions being com-
parable, a higher stable temperature may be obtained with floor out-
lets than with ceiling outlets, and the floor outlets may be kept open
at a lower outside temperature without unduly lowering the stable
temperature. Reference to Table 10 shows that the floor outlets were
open when the average outside temperature was —20.1° F. (No. 5),
and the stable temperature approached freezing, and that the heat
doors were open at —9.7° (No. 13) with an average stable tempera-
ture of 39.4° but with less than half as much air circulation as in the
former case. Had the amount of ventilation been decreased in the
iirst case, a higher stable temperature would have resulted.
On the basis of approximately equal stable temperature, the venti-
lation was approximately 50 per cent less and the humidity was
higher when ceiling outlets were used, the latter being the natural
consequence of restricted ventilation. It is then apparent that in
order to maintain the same stable temperature with ceiling outlets as
may be had with floor outlets there must be less ventilation. In order
to obtain with open ceiling outlets stable temperatures comparable
with those obtained with open floor outlets, the ceiling flues would
need to be reduced in size, but while smaller flues may provide suffi-
cient ventilation during cold weather, in warm periods when abun-
dant ventilation is desired, the small flues would not have the desired
capacity.
EFFECTS OF OUTSroE TEMPERATURES
Temperatures have an important bearing on the adjustment of
the ventilation system. The outside temperature is usually the most
dominant of the factors producing variations in outtake flue veloci-
ties at all temperatures below 20° F. Under average conditions of
barn ventilation low outside temperature has a greater influence on
flue velocities than has the difference between the stable and outside
temperatures. When the outside temperature falls or rises the sys-
tem is adjusted to control the amount of ventilation. The adjustment
of the ventilation system causes a variation in flue velocities propor-
tionate to the increase or decrease in resistance of air circulation
but not necessarily to the change in the area of the intake openings
because of the leaka,ge that usually exists. Without regard to the
wind, the passage of air through the flue is dependent on the differ-
ence in weights of the column of air in the flue and the outside air.
The weight of air is determined by the amount of moisture it con-
tains as well as by the temperature and pressure. The lower the
outside temperature, the drier and heavier the air. The rate of
change in the weight of air is more rapid at low temperatures than
at high temperatures, as will be seen by reference to Table 14.
Under average conditions of barn ventilation, the effect of a given
difference between inside and outside air temperatures on flue veloci-
ties will vary with the outside temperature — the lower the tempera-
ture, the greater the influence.
VENTILATION" OP FARM BARNS 49
Table 14. — Weight of dry air in grams per thousand cubic meters
Tempera-
ture
Weight
Decrease
Tempera-
ture
Weight
Decrease
Tempera-
ture
Weight
Decrease
op
—20
-16
—12
—8
—4
0
Orams
1,446.4
1,433.3
1,420.5
1, 407. 9
1, 395. 5
1.383.3
Orams
op
4
8
12
16
20
24
Grams
1,371.3
1,359.6
1,348.0
1,336.7
1, 325. 5
1,314.5
Orams
12.0
11.7
11.6
11.3
11.2
11.0
op
28
32
36
40
44
48
Orams
1, 303. 7
1,293.1
1, 282. 6
1,272.3
1,2G2.2
1, 252. 2
Orams
10.8
10.6
10.5
10.3
10.1
10.0
13.1
12.8
12.6
12.4
12.2
A study of available data shows that there is a close relationship
between temperature difference and flue velocities when the venti-
lation is unrestricted and unaffected b}^ the wind, but when the
ventilation is restricted and other variable factors are introduced
there may be wide variance in this relationship. Test data, taken
at random and presented in Xable 15, illustrate this relationship.
Table 15. — Effect of temperature on flue* velocity
Temperature
Flue
velocity
Wind
velocity
Stable
Outside
Differ-
ence
op
66
37
49
45
° F.
27
8
8
-13
29
29
41
58
Feet per
minute
234
373
288
392
Miles per
hour
16.3
16.7
0.8
7.0
The meager data do not represent average conditions, but they
do indicate variations that are common. The first two readings
were taken when the ventilation was free, the last two when the
ventilation system was partly closed. The temperature difference
in the first two readings is the same, yet there is an appreciable dif-
ference between the flue velocities and there is a considerable dif-
ference in the outside temperatures. The lower outside temperature
is coincident with the higher flue velocity which is in accord with
the tendency shown by existing data. In the second and third read-
ings the outside temperatures are the same, the temperature differ-
ence is greater in the third reading and the flue velocity is greater
in the second reading. The greater flue velocity of the second
reading is but partly accounted for by the higher wind velocity.
The higher stable temperature of the third reading was because of
the restricted ventilation. Had the system been fully open a
smaller temperature difference and a greater flue velocity would
have been expected. This again shows that temperature difference
alone has less effect on flue velocities than low outside temperatures
have.
Flue velocities vary with the difference between the weights of the
air within and without the flue. These weights are affected princi-
pally by change in temperature, the low temperatures being mo^
effective as will be seen by reference to Table 14. A decrease of 4°
107343°— 30 4
50 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
in air temperature produces a change in weight of 10, 11, 12, and 13
grams per cubic meter, respectively, at temperatures of 48°, 24°, 4°,
and — 16° F. With these outside temperatures and an assumed sta-
ble temperature of 48°, the respective differences in weight of the air
in the stable and outside would be 0, 62, 119, and 181 grams per
cubic meter. With a constant difference between inside and outside
temperature of 20°, a difference commonly assumed in ventilation
design, there would be a difference in weight of 52 grams at 48°
stable temperature, 53 grams at 40°, 58 grams at 20° and 63 grams
at 0°.
The two curves shown in Figure 14 represent the average results
of test data relating to flue heights that are commonly used in bam
ventilation. The straight line is the result of the assumption of a
uniform rate of increase or decrease in the variables throughout the
range ; this is more nearly true when the flue velocities are compared
-4
500
^^
*^
"^
^^
t^'O,
^ 400
^^A
ii!s^
3
^300
t?^
e/
^^
^^^-
1.
^200
2:
^<;
^
•^-
>^^
"^^
"v,^
100
•
^*«s
8
28
FiGDKE 14.
12 16 20 24
Outside Temperature ('"^
-Effect of outside temperature upon flue velocity
32
36
on the basis of outside temperature than when compared with tem-
perature difference. The assumption introduces no error of conse-
quence and may be used within the range of temperatures herein
considered.
STABLE HUMroiTY
The temperature of, and percentage of moisture in, the outside
air have a great influence upon the percentage of moisture in the
stable air, greater perhaps, in the average farm barn that is not
well insulated than that due to restriction of the ventilating system.
The optimum percentage of humidity in stable air has not been
determined. There are so many variable factors that must be taken
into consideration that it is difficult to set a standard, but it is
suggested that at a stable temperature of 45° F. an average relative
humidity of 80 per cent is satisfactory. The tests show that it is
not difficult to obtain this degree of moisture when other conditions
are favorable. In the majority of the tests the relative humidity
VENTILATION OF FAEM BAKNS
51
at the ceiling was less than that near the floor. In one stable a
relative humidity as low as 61 per cent was recorded.
Theoretically the actual amount of moisture, or the absolute
humidity, of the stable air should vary in proportion to the amount
of ventilation and jDroduction of moisture. In a tightly constructed
barn this relationship can be obtained by intelligent operation of
the ventilation system as will be shown by reference to Figure 15.
Reading Periods
15 10 15 20 2S 30 35 40 4S 50 55 60
PM.
A.M.
P.M. A.
m'. ' 'p.L| ■ 'aV.
P.M.
a'.m.' '41' 'a'.m
P.M.
AJM.
P.M. A
M. PJM
A.M
-f
--""— -1
n
! 1
n
...r
!
..-.PiLu
tion8___
I-.
— ■■ \
J
AMOUNT OF VELNTILATION
■^.5
'2.0
1.5
1.0
1
1
Roor
n
J~L_
HrJ
1
d
— tF
iJ
0
jtside.
r--^""
#
1
1 —
r-
.J
->.u- A.
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY
90
.11
1^50
40
r
1
R
u
■^
j
}
^
— .
( — ^
L
_J
-u
— 1
r—
L
Ol
jtsjde_
J
1
u
J
L-
SO-
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
1
In
,
r
40'
?!20-
L
J
u
li
r
— 1
1
1
Out
.A'
!
1
5 10-
1'
-10-
-20*
(-
~r
-J
1
i
-—
f*
.
J
TEMPERATURES (F'), ROOM and OUTSIDE
Figure 15. — Relation of absolute humidity to ventilation In test barn T
The chart shows the amount of ventilation as measured in dilutions
per hour, the absolute and relative humidity of stable and outside
air, and the temperature of stable air. That there was considerable
variation in the temperature of outside air may be seen by referring
to Figure 8 or Table 10. In actual practice there will not always
be a close relationship between the moisture in the stable air and
52 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 187, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
the amount of measured ventilation because of the varying and
unaccountable leakage in most barns.
Figure 15 shows that with but few exceptions, mainly at read-
ings 9 to 11 and 62 to 64, an increase in the ventilation produced a
decrease in the amount of moisture in the stable air. In the first
instance the condition may have been because of some temperature
effect as the stable temperature was but little above freezing. There
may have been more moisture condensed on the stable walls and
also a change in the moisture production owing to environmental
influence on the metabolism of the animals. The moisture content
of the outside air was never very high. It was very low after the
fiftieth reading, when the temperature ranged from —1° to —20°
F., and remained exceptionally low until the last of the test. Not-
withstanding this condition the moisture in the stable air increased
unaccountably.
Further, it is evident that a high relative humidity outside does
not necessarily mean a high relative humidity in the stable or vice
versa. The data show that, although the air outside is saturated,
it may be possible to use it in removing moisture from the stable if
its temperature is lower than the stable temperature.
Table 16. — Influence of temperature on the manner of daily heat loss from two
steers
Test
No.
Tem-
perature
of
chamber
Heat lost—
Percentage of total
heat lost—
Hair of animal
By radia-
tion and
conduc-
tion
By evap-
oration of
water
Total
By radia-
tion and
conduc-
tion
As latent
heat of
water
vapor
Sheared. .. . .
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
op
56.7
60.3
64.9
71.7
59.9
65.3
70.7
57.5
i
Calories 1 Calories
6,764 1 1.411
Calories
8,174
7,784
7,496
6,709
6,185
6,268
6,322
6,012
Per ceTit
82.7
81.0
79.3
73.5
74.4
65.1
55.8
74.3
Per cent
17.3
Do -
6,309
5,945
4,933
4,604
4,081
3,531
4,468
1,475
1,551
1,776
1,581
2,186
2,791
1,544
19.0
Do
20.7
Do — -.
26.5
FiiU coat
25.6
Do - - - -
34.9
Do --
44.2
Do --
25.7
Variations in air temperature affect the amount of moisture pro-
duced by the average cow kept under ordinary stable conditions.
Table 16 which presents data obtained by calorimeter test on two
steers (13) affords evidence of this and indicates the need for
data obtained under temperatures more comparable to those of a
stable and for much lower temperatures. The higher the tempera-
ture the greater the loss of heat by evaporation, and the smaller the
loss by radiation and conduction. With both steers a decrease in
the heat lost by radiation and conduction was accompanied by an
increase in the heat lost by evaporation of water and vice versa.
A pronounced difference is noticeable in the response of the two
steers to similar temperatures. The steer having a full coat gave
off 25.6 per cent to 44.2 per cent of the heat production as latent
heat of water vapor, whereas the shorn steer eliminated but 17.3
per cent to 26.5 per cent of the heat in this manner.
t
Tech. Bui. 187. U. S. Dept. of AgrJculture
Plate 4
A, View of test barn O from southwest; B, view of flue C above mow floor in test bam O
VENTILATION OF FARM BARNS 53
The production of heat and of carbon dioxide are directly re-
lated under all conditions of production, but this is not necessarily
true with respect to moisture, which varies according to environ-
mental conditions. The loss of heat by evaporation is also influenced
by the relative humidity of the air. Hence animal comfort is de-
pendent upon a combination of temperature, relative humidity, and
air circulation as evaporation increases with an increase in movement
of air currents. Thus ventilation may not only affect the rate of
removal of moisture from the air but also its rate of production.
FACTORS AFFECTING EFFICIENCY OF SYSTEM
HEIGHT AND CONSTRUCTION OF FLUE
Much of the foregoing discussion has been based on the assump-
tion that the ventilation system has been properly designed for
the local conditions and that it has been properly installed. It
has been shown that a change in the air conditions or setting of
the outtakes or intakes may vary the amount of ventilation obtained.
These factors have but a temporary effect on the amount of venti-
lation secured. There are many construction features that may per-
manently affect the efficiency of the ventilation system.
The design and position of flues affect their efficiency. Intake
and outtake flues should be so placed as to provide for the best distri-
bution and circulation of air Avithin the stable. In order that a
desired amount of ventilation may be obtained it is necessary that
those factors that affect the amount of outgoing air be known so that
flue areas may be m?ide sufficient to permit the passage of the required
amount of air. Flue area will vary with the temperatures expected
and with the height of the flue, as explained later. Under the
same conditions of temperature and vertical height one flue may be
less efficient than another. Horizontal or inclined runs add resistance
without increasing vertical height; crooked flues and abrupt turns
also add to the frictional air resistance. Abrupt turns may decrease
the efficiency of the flue by more than 50 per cent.
Figure 16 presents the floor plan of the barn shown in Plate 4, A, in
which there is a rather unusual and inefficient arrangement of flues.
The ventilator shown by dotted lines on the floor plan, in the cross-
drive alley, is on the higher part of the barn. By tracing the path
of the air through this ventilator, it will be seen that the air left the
stable through ceiling openings A and B, passed to the right and left
between the joists, turned at right angles for another horizontal run
of about 4 feet, then up through the risers A and B following the
roof line to the ventilator. The risers A and B were separated so as
to give clear floor space in the mow and not interfere with hay
storage. These flues would have been more efficient had the openings
been directly below the risers, and the cost of construction would
have been less. These flues were found to be less efficient than those
in another barn in which the conditions were comparable.
There are also horizontal runs in flues C and D with connecting
flues from floor openings. The latter are offset (pi. 4, B) in order
to avoid the windows. The dark streaks on the flue show incipient
rot caused by condensation of moisture inside the flue.
54 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
S-!h
An instance of unnecessarily
long, inclined flues with high f fic-
tional resistance is shown in Fig-
ure 17 which represents the floor
plan of a 1-story barn 136 feet in
length with but two ventilators.
Three could have been used to ad-
vantage and would have decreased
the length of the connecting flues.
Efficiency was sacrificed in this
case for the sake of appearance.
Ventilating flues and ducts, in
the conventional arrangement, are
placed so that the fresh air enters
in front of the cows and is removed
at the rear. With cows facing
in, the outtakes would be placed
next to the outer wall and the in-
take openings at the center feed
alley. When the cows face out the
position of outtakes and intakes
are usually reversed. However, it
is sometimes difficult and incon-
venient, especially in long barns
with the cows facing out, to obtain
this arrangement. In such cases
the arrangemeht commonly used
when the cows face in may be em-
ployed. Tests in several barns
showed that such an arrangement
was satisfactory with respect to
the ventilation secured.
For best results intakes and out-
takes should not both be placed on
the outer wall. Plate 5, A, illus-
trates one example wherein the in-
takes and outtakes were adjacent
and, during the time that the heat
door was open as shown in the cut,
the air came in through the intake
and passed out through the out-
take, mixing but little with the
stable air.
When it is possible without the
sacrifice of too much space in the
alleys, outtakes should be kept
away from the outer wall, that is,
they should not be built between
the studs. If they are built be-
tween the studs, without proper
insulation of the outward side, the
paint is apt to peel off the barn
siding next to the flue because of
Tech. Bui. 187, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 5
A, Improper relation of intake and outtake; B, view of outtake flue built between rafters
Tech. Bui. 187. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
Plate 6
A, Outtake flue beveled at the bottom; B, concrete block intakes and outtake; C, section
of ventilator screen closed with ice
VENTILATION OF FARM BARNS
55
the condensation of moisture. When flues are placed between the
studs or rafters, as shown in Plate 5, B, the exposure is greater and
there is more heat loss. The flues shown in this picture were built
between the studs down to the mow floor then, in order to avoid the
stone wall in the stable below, they were offset horizontally 1 foot.
These flues were much less efficient than the two neighboring flues
which were straight at this point. The two right-angle turns could
easily have been avoided.
Plate 6, A, shows the construction of an outtake flue opening into
the feed alley of a hog house. It was found that beveling the
bottom of the flue added to its efficiency and provided more room in
the pen with less need for protection against injury than would be
required had the flue been extended squarely to the floor.
Insulation and air-tightness are requisites of greatest flue effi-
ciency. The drop in temperature of the gases during their passage
from the bottom to the top may be but 1° or 2° in a properly in-
I '°h°KN-:. I Mill I j-i::f -T' I MlcokH I I '\%\ hi ci.sl--:Pl I I I
Figure 17. — Floor plan of test barn R
sulated flue, whereas in one lacking in insulation this may be more
than five or six times as much. This factor has an important bear-
ing on the amount of moisture that will be removed from the
stable. (Table 5 and p. 18.) One installation was found where
the -leakage of air was so great that it was impossible to detect
any circulation of air through the flue except at high wind velocities.
Lack of insulation may cause a large amount of troublesome
drip. There does not at this time appear to be any means of alto-
gether overcoming this condition in the colder sections. All flues
should be air-tight, and insulation is necessary particularly on
metal flues. This is of greater relative importance in the colder
sections. In one test it was evident that, while there were several
contributing factors which must be considered in the prevention of
drip, proper insulation of the flues was most important.
Consideration should be given to the probability of drip in locat-
ing the outtake flues. Installations were found where the flue open-
ing was directly over a cow stall and the drip fell on the cow's
back. In the better installations of metal flues a small trough with
a drainage pipe is provided.
56 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 7, tJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The chimney flue shown in Plate 6, B, was made of 4-inch concrete
block, which did not afford sufficient insulation to prevent a rapid
cooling of the outgoing air. The blocks were made by the dry-mix
method and were more or less porous. The pore leakage through
these blocks was considerable, especially under high wind pressure.
The ventilator shown on the top of the flue w^as homemade and very
inefficient. A wire screen of l^-inch mesh was used to prevent
entrance of birds through the ventilator — a useless precaution, as
they usually find other entrances. Small-mesh wire should not be
used in a ventilator as the openings soon become stopped b^ ice or
trash as in the case of the one illustrated. Plate 6, C, is a view of a
section of this ventilator and shows how the ice formed on the screen
and greatly reduced the air circulation.
EFFECT OF OPEN VENTILATOR BASE
It is generally considered best to place the ventilator at the highest
point, usually the ridge of the roof, but there has been some question
as to whether the base of the ventilator should be closed at the ridge
as shown in Figure 7 and Plate 7, A, or left open as shown in Plate
7, B. Both methods have been used for a number of years.
When the base of the ventilator is open at the ridge, part of the air
passing through the ventilator head is withdrawn from the mow
and part from the stable. When the base is closed the entire pressure
head is utilized in removing air from the stable. Results of tests
show that the opening of the ventilator base may reduce the amount
withdrawn from the stable by from 10 to 30 per cent.
If the question is considered solely with respect to the ventilation
of the stable, the ventilator base should be closed. However, ventila-
tion of the hay mow during the warm summer months and just after
the crop is stored is desirable and if the ventilator is open to the mow
it provides a ready exit for the mow gases. During the winter
months ventilation of the mow is not necessary and, if the ventilator
base is left open during cold weather, eddy currents, formed by the
Avarm air coming through the stable outtake and the colder air from
the mow, may cause formation of frost on the roof timbers around
the base of the ventilator and shorten the life of the roof timbers.
(PI. 7, C.) It is believed that the open base tends to produce greater
condensation in the flues since the cold air from the mow meets the
warm air coming through the flue and chills it. It was also noted
during the tests that strong winds had less effect on the amount of
stable ventilation when the ventilator base was open. If doors with
convenient means of operation were provided it w^ould be possible,
without closing the outtakes at the lower end, to counteract the
effects of high wind velocities which otherwise would cause too
much ventilation and a consequent lowering of stable temperature.
One attempt to provide this convenience is illustrated in Figure 7.
There is opporunity for improvement in the construction and opera-
tion of such a device.
WINDOWS AS INTAKES
The amount of incoming air is affected by several factors which
vary according to the type of intake used. The three principal
types of intakes are windows, wall ducts, and automatic intakes. The
Tech. Bui. 187. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
Plate 7
A, Ventilator with a closed base; B, ventilator with an open base; C, rotting of roof boards and
rafters due to condensation
VENTILATION OF FARM BARNS
57
Reading
2 3 4
limitations of window intakes are clearly shown by tests made in
this investigation, but that they are not widely known is evident
from the frequent use of windows in unsuitable places. It is not
the intention to imply that ventilation through window openings is
impossible, nor to advise against their use in mild weather or in
southern zones. Windows may be used when the outside temperature
is above freezing and when the circulation of a large quantity of
air does not cause harmful drafts on the animals; but their use
should be restricted during cold weather, since it is obviously im-
possible to supply sufficient fresh air to remote sections of the barn
without chilling the animals near the windows. Although windows,
when provided with side shields, direct the incoming air toward the
ceiling, the currents of air drop almost immediately and under
most temperature conditions reach the floor within 6 feet of the wall.
These currents are also affected by the wind pressure.
If windows are used as intakes the formation of frost can not
be avoided during cold weather, and if the temperature is not quite
low enough to form frost the mois-
ture that condenses on the panes runs
down the sash, rusts bottom hinges,
and rots the sills and frames. Under
such conditions the sash itself swells
and sticks in the frame, and often
panes are broken in attempting to
open the windows. In one barn the
sash swelled to such an extent that the
muntins were broken out.
The most serious objection to the use
of windows as intakes is that it is
difficult to control the temperature
and the amount of ventilation because
of the variation in the direction of the
wind, which makes frequent adjust-
ment of the windows necessary.
Particularly during periods of high
wind velocity, the volume of air pass-
ing outward through the windows was more than twice that through
the regular outlets, the air taking the path of least resistance.
At such times the air is apt to come in at high velocity on the wind-
ward side and, practically unchecked, pass out on the leeward side.
The motive power furnished by the difference in the temperatures
of the inside and outside air in a Avell -designed system is sufficient
in cool weather to induce ample circulation without the aid of a
strong wind. Although undesirable as intakes in cold sections win-
dows are an advantage during mild weather, as they provide a large
area of opening.
Figures 18 and 19 represent data taken from two tests during
parts of which windows were used. Floor plans of these two barns
are shown in Figures 16 and 17, the windoAvs being numbered for
convenience in reference. The data, presented graphically, show the
total area of window openings, those portions of the windows that
were used for entering air and the portions used as outlets. There
is considerable variation in the effectiveness of the openings at the
different periods. During the tests both stable and outside tempera-
Figure 18. — Effect of window in-
takes in test barn O. Arrows
show direction of wind
60 TECHNICAL BtTLLETiN 187, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
the velocity of the air through intakes on the windward side was
four times that on the leeward side. As the wind increases the
velocity of* the air entering on the leeward side gradually decreases
and, if the wind is high enough, back drafting may occur. In one
barn back drafting occurred in a wall intake at the center of the
leeward side with a wind blowing from the opposite side at a velocity
of 16 miles an hour. Back drafting is common at corners (pi. 8, A),
and where milk houses, silos, or other near-by buildings deflect the
currents of air. When whirls are formed the air sometimes goes in
and sometimes out, and this reversal may take place very quickly.
The tendency to back
drafting and the ve-
locity at which it oc-
curs depend mainly
upon the design and
the position of the
intakes. The lowest
wind velocity that
produced back draft-
ing in wall intakes,
5 feet or more in
length, was 6 miles per
hour, but back draft-
ing in window intakes
occurred several times
at a wind velocity of
3 miles per hour and
once, as previously
recorded, at a veloc-
ity of less than 1
mile per hour.
i...'
2 Z
Reading Periods
A 5 6^ 7 8 9 10 1
1 12 13
JOU
1 1 1
200
^
"^^
s^Averagg VelocMy
190
-
'^-
— __.
■"■"""
^
-_
/\
SiJM-
^-".^
/
100
n
OUTTAKE D
700
600
500 -
b300
iSaoo
100
1
-
c
D
D
D
A
[
B
I
r
J
\^
N
■if
\a
sW
\f
v^^
f
\«.
M
H ■
\
\^
J
\.
^1
\
/
■srr:
.^JAver. _
plocW \_
/255
^^'--'
^
^^
^
/
s,
s.
V
/
^ — .
^ \
^-^
/
/
\
^,
l/^
1
y
'^.
/
>^
\
\
1
-*-
r
\
OUTTAKE. CWIND VELOCITY AND DIRECTION
OUTTAKE B
200
EFFECT OF WIND ON
FLUE VELOCITY
100
Figure 20.
■"^
y
^
Average VelocWy 59j _^
—
■**i:.
z:^j^_i:^:^^^^^^^:js^
OUTTAKE. A
-Effect of wind velocity and direction ujHDn' flue
velocity
One test with win-
dows as intakes and
cupola ventilators
showed an interesting
relation between flue
velocities and the
wind. Plate 8, B, shows an exterior view from the southwest. The
openings in the two cupolas are filled with slats spaced 2^/4 inches apart.
The influence of wind velocity and direction upon the flue velocities,
and in turn upon the ventilation secured, is shown graphically in Fig-
ure 20. The velocity of the air through outtakes A and B on the lee-
ward side of the barn was very low, and the velocity in the windward
flues was more than four times as great. At the period of greatest
wind velocity the wind pressure had the greatest decremental in-
fluence on the flues which was contrary to the efl^ect produced with
other ventilators. The wind appeared more effective when blowing
parallel to the ridge than when at right angles to it, which is charac-
teristic of slatted cupolas. During periods of highest wind the veloc-
Tech. Bui. 187, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
Plate 8
A, KtTect of wind currents at corner of Imrn; H, view m i.<iin S with slatted cupola; C, barn with
outside hay chute
VENTILATIOlsr OF FARM BARNS 61
ity of air through the outtakes was lower than the average for the
test, and the velocity of the air through flues A, C, and D was lowest
at this time. The velocity of the air through flues C and D was
high, when there was a large difference between the inside and out-
side temperatures. This would indicate that temperature was the
principal factor producing ventilation and that the wind impeded
rather than assisted the movement of air through these flues.
FURNACE REGISTERS
In a few of the barns tested warm-air furnace registers were used
in the intakes and in some cases as heat doors in the outtakes.
They are entirely unsuited to these purposes as the slats rust, become
broken, collect dirt and cobwebs, and, during cold weather, collect
frost, sometimes to the extent of complete closure. The grates and
shutters retard the free passage of air. If no better means is avail-
able, a board, hinged or sliding in a slot, is superior to the furnace
register. It is necessary to screen the outer opening in the inlet
ducts to prevent entrance of trash and vermin, but the passage of
air through the inner opening should be unobstructed except as it
becomes necessary to restrict the amount of ventilation by partial
closing of the opening. Wire screen of less than %-inch mesh
should not be used in a ventilator as it is easily closed by ice or
trash.
AUTOMATIC INTAKES
Wall intake ducts, having a vertical flue 5 feet or more in length
may be installed readily in a frame structure, but when the walls
are of masonry it is more difficult. Plate 2, A, illustrates a type of
flue in a barn having a combination frame and masonry wall. Plate
6, B, shows intake ducts built on the outside of the barn wall. They
are also sometimes built on the inside of the wall. In remodelling
old barns having masonry walls the matter of intakes is often sim-
plified by the use of intake valves (pi. 3, A), which automatically
prevent back drafting and obviate the use of a flue with a vertical leg.
Since the intakes open at the ceiling in most barns, it is obvious
that they would act as outtakes much of the time if provision were
not made to prevent it. The vertical leg of an intake duct does not
always overcome the tendency, in which case one of the automatic
devices now on the market may be used. Automatic intakes were
used in three of the barns tested.
These devices are provided with control dampers, which permit
regulation of the amount of air entering the stable, as well as auto-
matic valves, which prevent the escape of the warm air at the ceil-
ings; in some the two are combined, in others they are separate.
Such intakes should be set level and plumb to insure balanced move-
ment of the valves, which are operated by the air currents only.
The inclosing boxes should be well insulated to prevent condensation
of moisture. These automatic valves operate either on a vertical or
horizontal axis as illustrated in Figures 21, 22, and 23. There are
a number of styles available, the exact construction being varied
in accordance with the need of the individual installation.
62 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
HAY CHUTES
Open hay chutes interfere with ventilation and should not be used
as foul-air shafts. Plate 7, C, shows how roof boards and rafters
were rotted and broken when moisture-laden air from the stable was
permitted to rise through the hay opening and to condense on the roof
Figure 21. — Automatic intake witb vertical-axle type of valve
Figure 23. — Automatic intake with
horizontal-axle type of valve
Figure 22. — Automatic intake with horizontal-
axle type of valve
timbers. There were no ventilators in this barn. Metal cupolas
were installed on the roofs of a number of barns visited, but no special
ventilation flues were provided. The roof sheathing boards were
found to be dripping with moisture, and the hay around the opening
was damp and unfit for food.
It is obvious that the bottom of hay chutes can not be left open if
the foul-air flues are to function properly. Air will seek the easiest
VENTILATIOlSr OF FARM BARNS 63
passage, and a large opening in the mow floor provides a means of
quick exit for the warm stable air. These openings should be closed
by means of easily operated hinged or sliding doors.
Two of the barns tested had hay chutes built on the outside wall,
as shown in Plate 8, C, a very convenient arrangement, saving labor
and providing storage for the daily supply of hay. Covered passage-
ways or doors over stairways should be well insulated to minimize
condensation. The temperature in most mows is usually not more
than 1° or 2° above the outside temperature.
DETERMINATION OF FLUE SIZES
CONSroERATION OF BASIC FACTORS
The capacity of the ventilation system is determined by the amount
of heat generated, the average mean outside temperature, and the size
of outtakes and intakes. The total area of the intakes is usually the
same as that of the outtakes, but they are of smaller size and greater
number. It is important to so distribute the intakes as to insure a
good circulation of air in all parts of the stable. The full capacity
of the intakes will not be needed during cold weather. In cold
climates therefore the total intake area may be made 10 per cent or
more less than the total outtake area by reducing the size of each
intake or the number of intakes. There is little economy with respect
to cost in reducing the size of the intakes, and on the other hand it
is often difficult to obtain good distribution if the spacing is in excess
of 12 feet. There are many days when the larger area would be
desirable.
The direction of the wind has an influence upon the amount of
ventilation. Sloping roofs, projecting walls and adjacent buildings
cause deflected air currents, which affect the functioning of the venti-
lators depending upon their design.
In only nine (approximately one-third) of the tests made did the
average wind velocity exceed 8.5 miles per hour, but in some sections
of the country the wind attains at times such high velocities that
some provision must be made to offset its effect, especially during
cold weather. In such sections the wdnd is likely to be extremely
variable ; this, and the fact that ventilation is particularly necessary
during periods of calm are reasons for placing no dependence upon
the wind in designing a ventilation sj^stem for a barn. In one of the
tests the wind velocity varied in 48 hours from practically^ no move-
ment at all to 40 miles per hour. Fortunately such variations are
infrequent.
The outside temperature is usually the most dominant of the
factors affecting outtake flue velocities at all temperatures below 20°
(p. 48). There are but few localities in the United States where the
mean monthly temperature for January is below 0° F. When the
weather is above freezing doors and windows may be used as auxil-
iaries to the ventilation system. Hence 0° and 32° would appear
to be the practical temperature limits to be considered in the deter-
mination of the capacity requirement of the system. It is desirable
to maintain a stable temperature of not less than 45° when the out-
side temperature is 0°. In design, this stable temperature may be
taken as the lower limit and 53° as the upper limit with an outside
64 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
temperature of 32°, assuming a variation of 1° in stable temperature
for each 4° variation outside. Such control can be readily obtained
in good practice of ventilation and construction.
The number of days annually when ventilation normally will be
required may be obtained from Table 7. It is obvious that greater
consideration must be given to the temperature factor in the first
zone, where ventilation is required about three-fourths of the year,
than in the third zone where ventilation by means of flues is required
but one-half the year.
DEVELOPMENT OF FORMULA
Economy in construction demands that design be for neither the
maximum nor minimum temperatures but that the capacity of the
system meet the requirements during the greater part of the stabling
period. In warm weather large flue area is required, whereas during
cold weather small flues suffice. Thus the size of flues will vary
from small to large according to the difference in climatic condi-
tions in the several zones, the smallest flues being used in the first
zone.
The quantity of air passing through the outtakes is determined
by the size of the flue and the velocity of air movement. It has been
common practice to assume the actual velocity of air passing through
a flue as 50 per cent of the theoretical velocity. In these tests,
made under a wide variety of conditions, it was found that this
assumption gives higher values than will be obtained in ordinary
practice.
The velocity of air passing through a flue is dependent upon the j
pressure inducing flow. Air has w^eight and exerts pressure as «
do liquids. The velocity with which a liquid will escape through
an opening in the side of a vessel, when acted upon by the weight
of the liquid alone, is expressed b}^ the formula F=V2^/^ in which
V is the velocity of escaping liquid in feet per second, g the accelera-
tion of gravity (32.2 feet per second) and h, the height in feet of
the free surface of the liquid above the opening, or the pressure head.
This relation holds true for the flow of gases. Substituting the
value of g and expressing V in terms of feet per minute the equation
becomes
7= 60 X V2 X 32.2 X ^= 60 X 8.02 V^
V in feet per minute = 481 .2 V^ (1)
Also Q = V A where Q is the volume in cubic feet of air per min-
ute, V velocity of flow in feet per minute and A the area of the flue
in square feet. Where the volume is expressed in cubic feet per
hour, Q^ the area ^i, in square inches and F in feet per minute
^. = 2l^ (2)
It is known that when the temperature of a given weight of gas
is maintained constant the volume and pressure vary inversely,
and that when the pressure of a given weight of gas is maintained
constant the volume increases in proportion to its change in absolute
VENTILATION OF FARM BAENS 65
temperature. The absolute temperature, 7", corresponding to any
Fahrenheit temperature, t^ is found by adding 460 to the latter, i. e.,
In two flues of equal cross-sectional area the weights of the air
columns within vary in proportion to the difference in heights if the
temperatures are equal, or if the temperatures differ and the air col-
umns are of equal weight, the heights of the flues will vary in pro-
portion to the absolute temperatures. In a flue of any height, H
containing stable air of the same composition as the outside air there
will be no movement when the flue temperature and the outside tem-
perature, #0, are equal as the air will have the same weight.
If the air in the flues is warmed to a given temperature, #s, it will
expand and an additional height of flue, Ai, will be required to balance
the outside air column, assuming that the outside temperature, to^
remains the same. The expansion of air is in proportion to the rise
in absolute temperature. Since the height of the flue is fixed, this
expansion must produce unbalanced air columns forcing air out of
the flue and thus inducing movement in the flue in proportion to the
change in temperature. This relationship may be expressed thus:
con^bining, A.-^g^ (^>
substituting this value of h^ in equation (1)
This expression gives the theoretical flue velocity in a flue H feet in
height with a difference in temperature of (^s~"^o)- But, due to
friction and unaccountable losses, the actual velocity obtained in
practice will be less.
The coefficient of velocity is a number by which the theoretical
velocity of flow is to be multiplied in order to obtain the actual
velocity. Thus if k be the coefficient of velocity, V the theoretical
velocity and Fi the actual velocity in the flue then
V^ = Vk. (5)
The values for k must be determined experimentally. A number
of tests were made under widely varying conditions and with com-
mon types of construction. The average flue velocities obtained in
these tests are given in Table 18 for various outside temperatures
and at stable temperatures which may be obtained readily.
By substituting these temperature values in equation (4), theo-
retical velocities, as in Table 18, are obtained for the given range of
temperatures. By comparing the theoretical velocities with the ac-
tual velocities obtained in tests it is found that the average coefficient
of velocity is slightly less than 0.4. This figure may be used in de-
termining the area of flues of heights commonly found in farm
barns. Data permitting the determination of a coefficient for use in
the design of shorter flues are not available.
107343*
66 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 18. — Coefficients of flite velocities
Air velocity in flue heights of—
42 to 48 feet (average 45 feet)
28 to 34 feet (average 31 feet)
Outside
Stable
Differ-
ence
Theo-
retical
Test
Coef-
ficient
Theo-
retical
Test
Coef.
ficient
Feet per
Feet per
Feet per
Feet per
"> F.
° F.
o jr
minute
minute
minute
minute
0
45
45
1,011
430
0.425
834
340
0.408
4
46
42
972
400
.412
807
325
.403
8
47
39
933
365
.391
775
310
.400
12
48
36
891
335
.376
740
295
.399
16
49
33
849
300
.353
705
280
.397
20
50
30
807
270
.335
670
265
.396
24
61
27
762
235
.308
633
2.50
.395
28
52
24
717
200
.279
595
235
.395
32
53
21
667
170
.255
555
220
.396
Substituting this value of k in equation (5) and combining with
^1 = 0.4X481.2^/^?^*^^= 192.5^/
V 460 + ^0 \
H(ts-to)
460 + ^0
(6)
It has been found that the temperature factor ^ ~ — -^— may be
expressed in simpler form by substituting the value of ts and ^o, as
given in Table 18, and plotting the values of the temperature factor,
under the radical, on the y axis and values of to on the x axis. The
curve obtained in this manner is so nearly a straight line that the
standard intercept form of expression may be used without introduc-
ing an appreciable error.
The general expression of the intercept form is as follows :
y-y^<^>-^^^
(7)
By substituting the intercept values in equation (7) and simplifying,
the temperature factor may be expressed as (.313 — .0033^^0 ) and by
substituting this value in (6) the equation becomes
1^1= V^(60.2- 0.64 g
(8)
in which Fi is the velocity in the outtake flue in feet per minute, H
the height of flue in feet, and to the mean temperature of January
for the locality. Thus is developed an expression of velocities that
reasonably may be expected under practical working conditions in
a given locality. Before substituting the value Fi in equation (2),
it is necessary to determine Q^, the volume of air which will be re-
quired per hour per head, in order that the size of flue necessary to
meet these requirements may be calculated.
The air circulation required to give the desired conditions may bo.
determined upon the basis of air purity (COo production), moisture
removal, heat production, or a combination of these. In determining
the size of flue necessary to meet the King standard (p. 22) a velocity
VENTILATION OF FABM BARNS 67
equal to 50 per cent of the theoretical flue velocity and a temperature
difference of 20° between the stable air at 50° F. and the outside
air at 30° was assumed, no consideration being given the average
temperature variations in the various zones. In assuming actual
velocities to be 50 per cent of the theoretical, the values obtained are
higher than those secured in practice. The use of this standard with
its narrow limitations fails to give satisfactory results under many
conditions.
Investigations by Armsby and Kriss {£) showed that King's
assumption of CO2 production is high, and they suggested that a
flow of 3,452 cubic feet of air per hour per head was sufficient to
maintain the desired purity of air within the stable. In both of these
standards the ventilation requirements are based upon the CO2 pro-
duction, and little consideration is given to the temperature and
moisture, factors which can not be disregarded.
The moisture content of the air varies according to its temperature
and relative degree of saturation, hence the air required for the
removal of the average production of moisture will vary under dif-
ferent stable conditions. The average rate of moisture production
by a cow giving 20 pounds of milk daily is 15 pounds per day or
4,375 grains per hour (^). This amount must be removed hourly by
ventilation to prevent an increase in the degree of saturation within
the stable. Weather Bureau data (11) gives the relative humidity,
under average weather conditions during January, as 85 per cent of
saturation. At a stable temperature of 45° F. the stable humidity
should not exceed 85 per cent and this percentage, or less, may be
maintained with good ventilation. At a stable temperature of 53°
a relative humidity of 75 per cent is obtainable in ordinary good
practice. These limiting values are used in comparing the several
standards with proportional values for the intermediate points.
By basing calculations upon these limits, it is found that to remove
4,375 grains per hour there would be required approximately 1,800
cubic feet of air per hour with the air entering at 0° F. temperature
and normal degree of saturation, whereas at 32° outside temperature
a little more than 2,700 cubic feet would be required.^ These data,
which are conservative, serve for the determination of flue sizes on
the basis of moisture removal.
Another common method that has been used in estimating the ca-
pacity of the ventilation system is based upon obtaining a definite
number of dilutions of air per hour, commonly three. It is readily
seen that flue sizes determined upon this basis will vary widely since
the volume of air space per head varies greatly according to the con-
struction. However, it has been found that good stable temperatures
with 3.5 dilutions per hour may be maintained in a well-constructed
barn if the allowance of cubic air space per head is in accordance
with the formula given on page 26.
No one size of flue will meet the requirements of all temperatures.
Figure 14 shows that flue velocities vary inversely with the outside
temperature. The maximum flue size need not exceed that required
■^ Air at 32° F. and 85 per cent relative humidity contains 1.796 grains of moisture per
cubic foot of dry air (8) : at 53° and 75 per cent relative humidity it holds 3.394 grains
and it would require about 2.700 [4375-^ (3.394-1.796) =2,738] cubic feet of air per
cow per hour to remove the average production of moisture.
68 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
at an outside temperature of 32° F. as the barn will seldom be closed
tightly at higher temperatures. A proportionately smaller flue will
be required in the colder localities in order to supply a given amount
of air.
It is obvious that in localities having a mean January temperature
of 32° F. or higher there will be a large proportion of warm days.
Hence the maximum flue size would be required in such localities,
and the total area of the flues would be needed during most of the
time. In every locality there are a number of days, varying with the
location, during which the full capacity of the system is needed. It
is obvious that to provide for the maximum requirements would be
uneconomical and that the size of flue should be determined upon the
basis of the local weather conditions. This hypothesis is the basis for
a new standard for the determination of flue sizes.
Figure 24 affords a means of comparing flue sizes based on the
requirements of these different standards. A flue height of 31' feet,
the average of the most common dimensions (28 to 34 feet) is
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Outside mean tempera+ure for January ("F.^
FiGDBB 24. — Comparison of flue sizes, for dairy barns, as determined by various stand-
ards, witti flue heights ranging from 28 to 34 feet
used for the purpose of illustration and the comparison is niade
upon the basis of identical outside temperatures, other conditions
being equal. The ordinates represent the flue area in square inches
per head of average-size cow while the abscissas represent the
mean monthly temperature for January. The chart shows the flue
area required as determined by the various methods for given out-
side temperatures.
Curve A represents the flue size used in common practice for the
stated flue height and is based upon King's standard of 20° dif-
ference in temperature (p. 66).^ In this method no consideration
is given to variation in requirements owing to local conditions. At
low temperatures the sizes are larger than necessary while at warm
temperatures they are too small.
8 The calculations necessary in the determination of flue sizes according to this standard
may be simplified by the use of the formula suggested by J. L. Strahan (42).
VENTILATION OF FAEM BARNS 69
Curve B is based on velocities obtained in tests (fig. 14) and
the quantity of air (3,542 cubic feet per hour) required to remove
the average production of CO2, these values being substituted in
equation (2). If 50 per cent of the theoretical velocities, as obtained
by equation (4), and the above quantity of air as recommended by
King are used curve D will be obtained.
Curve C is obtained as is curve B except that the air require-
ment suggested by Armsby, namely, 3,452 cubic feet, is used.
Curve E represents the flue sizes necessary if the velocities re-
corded in tests are used and 3.5 dilutions of air per hour are
desired, the volume per head being based upon the formula
= —jy- on page 26.
Curve F represents the flue sizes necessary to remove the average
moisture production. The quantity of air required will vary be-
tween the limits given on page 67 in accordance with the variation
of temperature and humidity.
Again referring to Figure 24 it will be noted that the largest flue
areas are required at 32° F. At this temperature the full capacity of
the system will be needed to remove the CO2 and moisture as well as
the heat produced by the animal. A flue area of 38 square inches
will be required to remove the CO2 (curve B) and 29 inches to remove
the moisture (curve F). The larger size will meet all the require-
ments since, if the barn becomes too warm, the doors and windows
may be opened. In a locality having a mean January temperature
of 32° or more the entire flue area would be required frequently,
whereas in colder sections warm days would be less frequent and a
lesser flue area, proportioned to the lower temperatures, would be
sufficient, thus making for economy of construction and convenience
in regulating the system. To base the flue size upon a standard re-
quirement per head irrespective of locality is uneconomical and un-
wise since too much restriction of unnecessarily large flues would
result in inefficient operation during cold weather.
The sizes shown in curve A satisfy the CO2 requirements (curve B)
at all temperatures below 19° F., but are too small at higher tem-
peratures. The size of flue required to remove the moisture at a tem-
perature of 32° (curve F) is 29 square inches. Curve B gives sizes
less than 29 inches at temperatures below 13°. Since periods of this
temperature occur in all localities, it would appear that the flues
should be made of sufficient size to remove at least the average amount
of moisture produced, one of the important functions of the ven-
tilation system. The dotted line at 29 inches shows the temperature
below which the size of flues, determined by the several methods, will
not satisfy the moisture-removal requirements. However, this size
is too small at temperatures above 13° to remove CO2 produced and
keep the air of desired purity. In the warm sections the flue should
be of sufficient area to remove the CO2, and in the cold localities the
flue should not be made so small as to prevent the removal of mois-
ture during the warm days. It appears reasonable that the flue sizes
should vary between the limits of 29 and 38 inches per head accord-
ing to the intermediate temperatures, and these flue sizes would sat-
isfy the requirements of CO2 and moisture removal at all times.
70 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
These sizes are represented by curve G and make for greater economy
in construction than the sizes obtained by curve A, present practice,
in all localities having a mean January temperature of 9° or less. In
the warmer sections their use would result in better ventilation.
It was found by trial, using Weather Bureau temperature data for
several stations selected at random, that the sizes obtained from curve
G conform to the average of the flue areas which would be used most
frequently in a given locality. The daily outside temperatures were
studied and the flue area for these days obtained by curve G. When
the total of the areas for each day was divided by the total number of
days on which the temperature was below 32° F. it was found that
the average area was nearly the same as that obtained by the use of
curve G with the average January temperature of that locality.
Hence the use of the average January temperature as a basis for the
determination of flue sizes appears to be justified. It is obvious that
the flue sizes obtained by this method w^ould be in agreement with
average climatic conditions and would be most efficient as they would
be proportioned to the length of ventilating season. When these sizes
are compared with the amount of ventilation obtained during tests
made under various weather conditions and in accordance with com-
mon practice in operation, they are shown to be practical. They may
be varied according to the size of the animal by basing the calcula-
tions upon the requirements of the equivalent amount of stock of
average size.
The graphic comparison shown in Figure 24 is of value in com-
paring the different standards, and from it may be obtained flue
sizes determined by any of the methods just described. The flue sizes
may also be determined by means of an easily remembered formula
that for curve G in terms of outside temperature and flue heights, has
been developed as follows:
The minimum flue size (Aq) obtained by the new method, curve G,
is based upon the quantity of air required to remove the average
amount of moisture, or 2,700 cubic feet per hour, at 32° F. while the
maximum flue size (^32), is based on the King standard for the
removal of CO2 produced or 3,542 cubic feet of air per hour. By sub-
stituting these values in equations (2) and (5)
_QiX2.4_2,700X2.4_6,480 ..
^0- y^ - y^ y^ W
. _ Qi X 2.4 _ 3,542 X 2.4 _ 8,500 , .
^32- Vi ~ Vi ~ Vi ^^"^
The values of Fi at a temperature of 32° F. may now be substi-
tuted in equation (8) and combined with (9) and (10), then
. 6,480 _^ _ 6,480 _ 6,480 _ 163 ,^^.
' 73^(60.2 - .64^0) V^(60.2- .64X32) 39.7V^ V^
8,500 ^ 8,500 _ 8,500^ _ 214 .^^.
'' ■^'H{Q0.2 - .Mto) VS(60.2-. 64X32) 39.7 V^ V^
VENTILATION OF FARM BARNS 71
According to the original hypothesis a flue in a locality in which
the mean January temperature is 0° F. must be of sufficient area to
permit removal of the moisture when the temperature warms to 32°.
By using the values Ao=-i:^- and Asg^-y— as the minimum and
maximum flue areas and substituting in (7) the expression for curve
G may be obtained.
Then the area, A, for any outside temperature, ^o, may be obtained
as follows:
iPQ /^214_163\
^^ 32-0 ~
Simplifying
163 + 1.6aj
or
This general expression may be used in determining flue sizes for
a locality where the mean January temperature is known. If the
mean January temperature is not available its approximate value
may be obtained from the zone map (fig. 4) and the formula on
page 26.
Flue sizes obtained by this method are conservative and are in
accord with the average climatic conditions and length of ventilat-
ing season in any locality. By comparing them with sizes tested in
practical operation under various weather conditions, they are found
to be satisfactory. Flue sizes, based upon present practice in design,
as represented in curve A, are too small in the warmer sections and
larger than necessary in cold sections. Since it is obviously unwise
and uneconomical to provide for extreme conditions flue design
should be based on local conditions so that the farmer may obtain
the maximum circulation of air and at the same time maintain
comfortable conditions within the stable.
LITERATURE CITED
(1) Akmsby, H. p.
1908. principles of animal nutbition. with spejcial befebence to
THE NUTBITION OF FABM ANIMALS. Ed. 3 rev., 614 p., illus., New
York and London.
(2) and Kriss, M.
1921. SOME FUNDAMENTALS OF STABLE VENTILATION. Jour. Agr. Research
21 : 343-368. [Also published in Agr. Engin. 2 : 151-156, 174-177.]
(3) and Moulton, C. H.
1925. THE animal AS A CONVEBTEac OF MATTEB AND ENERGY. A STUDY OF
THE BOLE OF LIVESTOCK IN FOOD PRODUCTION. 236 p., iUuS. NeW
York.
(4) Babcock, C. J.
1925. EFFECT OF GARLIC ON THE FLAVOE AND ODOB OF MILK. U. S. Dept.
Agr. Bui. 1326, 11 p., illus.
(5) Benedict, F. G.
1912. the COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE WITH SPECIAL BEFEBENCE TO
ITS OXYGEN CONTENT. 115 p., illus. Washington, D. C. (Car-
negie Inst. Wash. Pub. 166.)
(6) Billings, J. S., Mitchell, S. W., and Bebgey, D. H.
1895. THE COMPOSITION OF EXPIBED AIB AND ITS EFFECT ON ANIMAL LIFE.
Smithsn. Contrib. Knowl. v. 29, no. 989, 81 p., illus.
(7) Bbaman, W. W.
1924. the ratio of carbon dioxide to heat production in cattle.
Jour. Biol. Chem. 60: 79-88, illus.
(8) BULKELEY, C. A.
1926. A NEW PSYCHROMETRIC OR HUMIDITY CHART. Jour. AlUer. SoC.
Heating and Ventilating Engin. 32: 237-244, illus.
(9) Clarkson, W. B., Smith, L. J., and Ives, F. W.
1918. [REPORT of] committee ON FARM BUILDING VENTILATION. Amer.
Soc. Agr. Engin. Trans. 12: 282-306, illus.
(10) Cluver, E. H.
1922. the influence of the cooling power of the atmosphere on the
RATE OF GROWTH OF YOUNG ANIMALS. So. African Jour. Sci. 19:
236-240.
(11) Day, p. C.
1917. relative humidities and vapor pressure over the united states,
including a discussion of data from recording hair hy-
GROMETERS. U. S. Mo. Weather Rev. Sup. 6, 34 p., illus.
(12) Forbes, E. B., Fries, J. A., and Braman, W. W.
1925. net-energy values of alfalfa hay and alfalfa meat.. Jour.
Agr. Research 31: 987-995.
(13) Braman, W. W., Kriss, M., with the cooperation of Fries, J. A.,
Cochrane, D. C, Jefferies, C. D., and others.
1926. the influence of the environmental temperature on the
heat of production in cattle. Jour. Agr. Research 33: 579-
589.
(14) Fries, J. A., and Kriss, M.
1924. METABOLISM OF CATTLE DURING STANDING AND LYING, AmCr. JOUr.
Phys. 71: 60-83.
(15) Braman, W. W., and Cochrane, D. C.
1924. RELATIVE UTILIZATION OF ENERGY IN MILK PRODUCTION AND BODY
INCREASE OF DAIRY COWS. U. S. Dcpt. AgT. Bul. 1281, 36 p.
(16) Grandeau, L.
1904. expeiriences calorim^triques db max rubner (influence de la
taille des animaux sur la production de la. chaleub ani-
male). Jour. Agr. Prat. (n. s.) 7:801.
(17) Haldane, J. S.
1922. RESPIRATION. 427 p., illus. New Haven and London.
72
VENTILATION OF FARM BARNS 73
(18) Hays, W. P.
1926. The effect of environmental teaipeeatube on the percentage
OF FAT IN cow's MILK. Jour. Dairy Sci. 9 : 219-235.
(19) Hendrick, J.
1913. The pollution op the aib in commercial dairy byres. High-
land and Agr. Soc. Scot. Trans. (5) 25:79-96.
(20) Hendry, M. F., and Johnson, A.
1920. CARBON-DioxiD CONTENT OF BARN AIR. Jour. Agrl. Research 20:
•405-408.
(21) Hill, L. E.
1919. the science of ventilation and open-air treatment. pt. 1. med.
Research Comn. London Spec. Rpt. Ser. 32, 249 p., illus.
(22) Hills, J. L., Beach, C. L., Borland, A. A., Washburn, R. M., Story,
G. F. E., and Jones, C. H.
1922. THE PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS OF DAIRY COW^S. Vt. Agr. Expt. Sta.
Bul. 225, 199 p.
(23) HouGHTEN, F. C and Ingels, M.
1927. INFILTRATION THROUGH PLASTERED AND UNPLASTERED BRICK WALLS.
Jour. Amer. Soc. Heating and Ventilating Engin. 33 : 249-258,
illus.
(24) Howell, W. H.
1906. A text-book of physiology for medical STUDENTS AND PHYSICIANS.
905 p., illus. Philadelphia and London.
(25) Kelley, M. a. R.
1921. TEST OF A FAN SYSTEM OF VENTILATION FOR DAIRY BARNS. Agr.
Engin. 2 : 203-206, illus.
(26)
(27)
(28)
1925. A METHOD OF ANALYSIS OF VENTILATION TEST DATA. Agr. Engin.
6 : 209-211, illus.
1927. LENGTH OF STABLING SEASON. Amer. Soc. Auim. Prod. Proc.
1925/26: 270-273, illus.
1928. EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENT ON DAIRY COWS AND ITS RELATION TO
HOUSING. Agr. Engin. 9: 186-188, illus.
(29) King, F. H.
1908. ventilation for dwellings, rural schools and stables. 128 p.,
illus. Madison, Wis.
(30) Lipp, C. C.
1913. SOME EFFECTS OF POOR VENTILATION. U. S. Livcstock Sauit. Assoc.
Rpt. 17: 97-101.
(31) LUMSDEN, T.
1923-24. THE REGULATION OF RESPIRATION. PART II. NORMAL TYPE.
Jour. Physiol. 58 : [lllJ-126, illus.
(32) Marcker, M.
1869. ueber den kohlensaure-gehalt der stalluft und den luft-
WECHSEL IN STALLUNGEN. JouF. Laudw. Jahrg. 17 (F. 2, Bd. 4) :
224-275.
(33) Meissl, E.
1886. untersuchungen ubee den stoffwechsel des schweines.
Ztschr. Biol. (n. F. 4) 22: 63-160, illus.
(34) Paechtner, J.
1909. RESPIRATORISCHB STOFFWECHSELFORSCHUNG UND IHRE BEn)EnjTUNG
FUR DIE NUTZIERHALTUNG UND TIERHEILKUNDE MIT EINEM BEITRAG
ZUR KENNTNIS VOM LUNGETNGASWECHSEL DES RINDES. (RECHERCHES
SUR LES :6change:s bespiratoires, et leur importance zootechnie
ET EN M^DECINE V^T^RINAIRE, AVEC UNE CONTRIBUTION A LA
CONNAISSANCE DES ^CHANGES PULMONAIRE8 CHEZ LES BOVINES.)
(Revue by M. Kaufmann.) Rec. MM. V6t. 86:849-850.
(35) Prucha, M. J., and Weeter, H. M.
1917. germ CONTENT OF MILK. I. AS INFUENCED BY THE FACTORS AT THE
BARN. 111. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 199, 51 p., illus.
(36) Reynolds, M. H., and Lipp, C. C.
1906. STABLE ventilation, PURPOSE, SCOPE, AND NEED FOB SUCH WORK.
Minn. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 98, 120 p., illus.
74 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 187, U. S. DEPT. OF AGKICULTUKE
(37) RUBNEB, M.
1883. UEBEB DEN EINFLUSS DEB KOEPERGEOSSE AUP STOFF-UND KBAFTWECH-
SEL. Ztschr. Biol. 19: [535]-562.
(38)
1924. UEBEB DIE BILDUNG KOEPEEMASSE IM TIEBBEICH UND DIB BEZIEHUNQ
DEB MASSE ZUM ENERGiEVEBBBAUCH. Sitzber. Preuss. Akad. Wiss.
1924: 217-234, illus.
(39) RuEHLE, G. L. A., and Kulp, W. L.
1915. GEBM CONTENT OF STABLE AIB AND ITS EFFECT ON GEBM CONTENT OF
MILK. I. METHODS OF BACTERIAL ANALYSIS OF AIB. II. STABLE
AIB AS A SOURCE OF BACTERIA IN MILK. N. Y. State AgF. Expt.
Sta. Bui. 409, p. 419-474, illus.
(40) Smithsonian Institution.
1923. SMITHSONIAN PHYSICAL TABLES. Prepared by F. E. Fowle. Ed. 7,
rev., 458 p. City of Washington.
(41) Speie, J.
1909. influence of temperature on milk yield, experiments in the
production of milk in winter under free versus restricted
VENTILATION. Highland and Agr, See. Scot. Trans. (5) 21 : 255-
306.
(42) Strahan, J. L.
1921. THE DESIGN OF OUTTAKE FLUES FOR STABLE VENTILATION. AgT. EngiU.
2: 207-209, illus.
(43) TOLKOWSKY, M. S.
1908. LA CHALEUR ANIMALS. Ann. Gembloux 18: 638-652.
(44) Trowbridge, P. F., Moulton, C. R., and Haigh, L. D.
1915. THE maintenance requirements of cattle AS INFLUENCED BY CON-
DITION, plane OF NUTRITION, AGE, SEASON, TIME ON MAINTENANCE,
TYPE, AND SIZE OF ANIMAL. Missouri Agr. Expt. Sta. Research
Bui. 18, 62 p., illus.
(45) WiNSLOw, C. E. A.
1925. THE ATMOSPHERE AND ITS RELATION TO HUMAN HEALTH AND COMFORT.
Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin. Proc. 51: 794-810.
(46) Wood, T. B.
1924. ANIMAL NUTRITION. 226 p., iHus. London.
(47) Yapp, W. W.
1924. A DIMENSION-WEIGHT INDEX FOR CATTLE. Amcr. Soc. Auim. Prod.
Proc. 1923 : 50-56, illus.
ORGANIZATION OF THE
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
June 5. 1930
Secretary of Agriculture Abthur M. Hyde.
Assistant Secretary R. W. Dunlap.
Director of Scientific Work A. F. Woods.
Director of Regulatory Work Walter G. Campbell.
Director of Extension Work C. W. Warbubton.
Director of Personnel and Business Admin- W. W. Stockbeegeb.
istration.
Director of Information M. S. Eisenhower.
Solicitor E. L. Mabshall.
Weather Bureau Charles F. Maevin, Chief.
Bureau of Animal Industry John R. Mohleb, Chief.
Bureau of Dairy Industry O. E. Reed, Chief.
Bureau of Plant Industry William A. Taylob, Chief,
Forest Service R. Y. Stuart, Chief.
Bureau of Chemistry and Soils H. G. Knight, Chief.
Bureau of Entomology C. L. Mablatt, Chief.
Bureau of Biological Survey Paul G. Redington, Chief.
Bureau of PuMic Roads Thomas H. MacDonald, Chief,
Bureau of Agricultural Economics Nils A. Olsen, Chief.
Bureau of Home Economics Louise Stanley, Chief,
Plant Quarantine and Control Administration- Lee A. Strong, Chief.
Grain Futures Administration J. W. T. Duvel, Chief.
Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration— Walter G. Campbell, Director of
Regulatory Work, in Charge.
Office of Experiment Stations , Chief.
Office of Cooperative Extension Work C. B. Smith, Chief.
Lihrary Claeibel R. Barnett, Librarian.
This bulletin is a contribution from
Bureau of Public Roads Thomas H. MacDonald, Chief.
Division of Agricultural Engineering S. H. McCroby, Chief.
75
0. 5. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1930
Technical Bulletin No. 186
July, 1930
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
THE BACTERIAL BLIGHT OF BEANS
CAUSED BY BACTERIUM PHASEOLP
By W. J. Zaumeyer*
Assistant Pathologist, Office of Horticultural Crops and Diseases, Bureau of
Plant Industry
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction ._. 1
History of the disease 2
Host plants 3
Distribution and economic importance 4
Symptoms 5
Moisture as a factor influencing infection... 6
Transmission of bacterial blight 9
Seed transmission 9
O verwintering on bean straw 10
Insect transmission 11
Dew as a factor in dissemination 11
Other environmental factors affecting
dissemination 11
The presoaking of seed as a factor in
dissemination 13
Page
Relation of parasite to host. 13
Materials and methods 13
Relation of parasite to leaf tissue.. 14
Relation of parasite to stem tissue 16
Cell-wall disintegration through bacterial
action 21
Relation of the parasite to pods and seeds. 23
Penetration of bacteria into the cotyledon. . . 27
Varietal resistance 30
Methods 30
Varietal tests 32
Summary ...■. 33
Literature cited 34
INTRODUCTION
Since the intensive culture of any crop results in the introduction
and increase of infectious diseases, a general survey of the occur-
rence of bean maladies was undertaken in Wisconsin. From ob-
servations made it was evident that the principal diseases which oc-
cur in that State are the bacterial blights, caused by the widespread
Bacteriumn phaseoli EFS. and Bad. medicaginis var. yhaseolicola
Burk. and the relatively unimportant Bad. -flaccumfaciens Hedges.
Anthracnose caused by C olletotrichum lindemuthianum (Sacc. et
Magn.) B. et C. and a fungous root rot caused by Fusariwrn martii
phaseoli Burk. are of little consequence except in certain years when
conditions are extremely favorable for their development. Mosaic
is of common occurrence and often causes severe damage, particu-
larly to the Refugee varieties.
1 Presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of doctor of philosophy at the Univer-
sity of Wisconsin.
» The writer is indebted to L. R. Jones, at whose suggestion the problem was undertaken, for the advice
and encouragement he gave throughout the course of the investigation; to J. C. Walker for many helpful
suggestions and criticisms offered during the progress of the work; and to L. L. Harter and Florence Hedges,
for careful reading of the manuscript.
106267—30 1
2 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
BQcaui»Q ol' Jls almosi universal presence and the great loss it
ocf^asions, a study of Bacteriuiiv phaseoli was initiated. This or-
ganism and the disease it produces were described more than 30 years
ago. It was not until recently, however, that bean blight was
separated into three distinct bacterial diseases, as noted above.
Since they now occur more or less intermingled and produce symp-
toms that overlap in their chnracteristics, it is probable that in the
past they were all grouped w itli the common bean blight caused by
Bad. phaseoli. Previous investigators in working w^th Bact.
■phaseoli have given chief attention to the bacteriological characters
of the pathogene. It is the purpose of this bulletin to review briefly
the known features of the disease and to give a detailed account of
the writer's investigations dealing with the environmental factors
that influence dissemination, infection, and varietal resistance, and
especially with the relationship of the parasite to the host.
HISTORY OF THE DISEASE
The disease of beans caused by Bacteriwrn phaseoli is probably
of American origin. It was reported by Halsted (i5),^ who stated
that the disease was first brought to his attention by a large seed
company in New Jersey. Later, Smith {32) isolated, named, and
described the organism. Delacroix {9) recorded a disease of beans
near Paris that may have been the same as that described by Smith.
A further account of the cultural characters of the organism was
published in a second paper by. Smith in 1901 {33). In the same
year Halsted {16) described the field symptoms and experimented
with possible preventive measures such as irrigation, shading, sprin-
kling, and crop rotation. Sackett {30) and Whetzel {39) each pub-
lished a brief account of the disease. Fulton {13) described the
field characteristics of the disease and discussed measures of control.
He experimented with the hot-wat>er seed treatment and spraying,
and tested the comparative resistance and susceptibility of a num-
ber of varieties. Edgerton and Moreland {11) published an account
o,f bacterial blight from the standpoint of the resistance of the or-
ganism to drymg. They experimented with seed treatment and
concluded that benetol and corrosive sublimate had given good re-
sults. They suggested also the use of home-grown seed.
That the organism can live over winter in diseased bean trash
and may also be carried to clean fields in manure was shown by
Muncie {25). His seed treatments with chemical solutions and with
moist and dry heat failed to give results. He recommended the use
of clean seed obtained by pod selection. In a general survey of
the disease Kapp {28) reported that seed 2 to 3 years old produced
blight-free plants. Seed treatments with chemicals and hot water
he found to be impracticable.
The vascular nature of the disease was first reported by Barss (^),
who found by internal microscopic examination that the xylem
vessels of the affected plants were filled with bacteria not only toward
the base but usually throughout the entire stem and even out into
the branches, petioles, and veins. He likewise traced the bacteria
2 Italic numbers in parentheses refer to Literature Cited, p. 34.
BACTERIAL BLIGHT OF BEANS 6
in many instances from the xylem vessels of the main stem to the
suture of the pod. He showed that the bacteria entered through
the vascular system of the seed without producing any outward symp-
toms. He stated that the death of seedlings can be accounted for by
invasion into the vascular system from infected cotyledons.
Coincidently with Barss, Burkholder (5) likewise reported the
blight of beans as a systemic disease and showed that the organism
produced wilt symptoms by plugging the vessels. He also stated
that since the disease is of a systemic nature, the seeds may become
infected without producing lesions on the pods, a fact which is of
considerable importance from the standpoint of control.
A comparison of the cause of soybean pustule, Bactemvmi phaseoli
sojense Hedges, with Bact. phaseoli was made by Hedges {18)^
who worked principally w4th the cultural characteristics of both
organisms.
Rands and Brotherton {27) experimented with several of the
common bean diseases and made tests for disease resistance with
170 varieties of beans from the United States and 493 varieties ob-
tained from 23 foreign countries.
A new bacterial disease of beans caused by Bdcterium flaccmm-
faciens was reported by Hedges {19)^ who named and described the
organism and m.ade a thorough study of the cultural characteristics in
comparison with Bact. phaseoli.
Burkholder (7) described a new bean disease caused by Bacterium
medicaginis var. pha^eolicola as being widespread in New York. He
named and described the organism and gave the general characters
of the disease in comparison with those caused by Bact. phaseoli and
Bact. flaccuinfaciens.
A report on the serological differentiation of Bacterium cmnpestre
EFS., Bact. -flaccumfacieiis^ Bact. phaseoli^ and Bact. phaseoli sojense
was published by Link and Sharp (22). They showed that these
four pathogenes could be differentiated by agglutination tests and
that serologically Bact. campestre.^ although distinct from Bact.
phaseoli and Bact. phaseoli sojense^ was closely related to them and
more remotely related to Bact. -fiaccumfcuiiens. Sharp (SI) reported
on morphological, physiological, and serological studies together with
virulence and acid agglutination studies of Bact. fla^cumfaciens^
Bact. phaseoli^ and Bact. phaseoli sojense and concluded that these
three species all differ and can be differentiated by the use of the
agglutination test. Bact. flaccumfaciens serologically stands apart
from Bact. phaseoli and Bact. phaseoli sojense^ which are very
closely related.
HOST PLANTS
It is generally recognized that practically all the commercial va-
rieties of the common bean, Phaseolus vulgaris L., are susceptible to
the bacterial blight caused by Bacteriv/m phaseoli. The studies
of other workers have shown that the following are also hosts of
the organism: The Scarlet Runner, P. coccineics L. ; the civet bean,
P. Iu7mtus L. ; the Lima bean, P. Iwnatus var. macrocarpus Benth. ;
the pinto bean, a variety of P. vulgaris; the white tepary bean, P,
acutifolius latif alius Gray; the moth bean, P. aconitifolius Jacq.;
the adzuki bean, P. angularis (Willd.) W. F. Wight; the urd bean,
4 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
P. rmingo L. ; and the black-eyed cowpea, Vigrna sinensis (L.) Endl.
Gardner (H) has reported that the trailing wild bean, Strophostyles
helvola (L.) Britton, is a wild host. In the writer's inoculation
work it was observed that the hyacinth-bean, Dolichos lablah L., is
also susceptible.
i DISTRIBUTION AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
The geographical distribution of bacterial blight is not completely
known. It probably occurs in every State in the Union, but little is
known about its occurrence in other parts of the world. Delacroix
(9) reported what appears to have been the same disease from
France, and Ideta (20) reported it from Japan in 1903. It was also
reported from the Philippine Islands by Keinking (29) in 1919,
and from South Africa in the same year by Doidge {10). Skoric,
formerly of the laboratory of plant pathology. University of Wis-
consin, in conversation with the writer, stated that the same disease
is widespread in Yugoslavia.
Next to anthracnose, bacterial blight is the most important disease
of beans. According to the Plant Disease Keporter,* it was reported
from New York in 1918 that the blight was prevalent in 75 per cent
of the bean fields and caused very serious damage. In 1919 the
disease caused an extremely high loss throughout the bean-growing
districts. In that year Colorado suffered a loss of from 40 to 60 per
'Cent of the crop, with a decrease in yield of about 35 per cent. In
^ew York, which produced about 1,660,000 bushels of dry beans in
1918, or nearly one-eleventh of the total yield in the United States,
it was estimated that from 5 to 10 per cent, with a possible average
of 7 per cent, or about 125,000 bushels, was lost through the disease.
In 1921 this disease continued to be a very serious menace to the
bean industry. It was prevalent over the entire eastern United
States except in Vermont and New Hampshire. The most severe
loss was in Michigan, estimated to be 25 per cent of the crop. In
1922 the total loss throughout the United States was about 10 pei
cent, and the same was true in 1923. In 1924 New York reported
serious losses, even greater than in the previous year, and a reduction
in yield estimated at 10 per cent. In 1925 the largest losses were
reported from NTew York, Louisiana, Indiana, and Iowa. Keduc-
tion in yield averaged about 15 per cent. The damage in 1926,
caused by the bacterial blight, was about the same as in the pre-
vious year, New York reporting the largest loss (10 to 15 per cent
damage), while New Jersey, Ohio, Colorado, and Arizona all re-
ported losses ranging from 5 per cent and lower.
In 1927 reports again showed serious losses from the blight,
Indiana and Louisiana reporting losses of 4 per cent of the crop;
Michigan and Montana, 3 per cent ; Connecticut, Maryland, Virginia,
Wisconsin, Minnesota, Mississippi, and Texas, 1 to 1.5 per cent.
Linford, reporting from Utah, estimated a killing of from 5 to 95
per cent of the plants in numerous fields. The average loss through-
* United States Department of Ageicdltdrb, Bureau op Plant Industry, plant
DISEASE SURVEY BULLETIN. V. 2, 1918 ; V. 3, 1919 ; V. 4, 1920 ; v. 5, 1921 ; v. 6, 1922 ;
y 7, 1923; V. 8, 1924; v. 9, 1925; v. 10, 1926; v. 11, 1927; v. 12, 1928. 1918-1928.
[ Mimeographed. ]
BACTEEIAL BLIGHT OF BEANS O
out the United States was estimated at 1.4 per cent, or a total of
approximately 226,000 bushels of beans. '^
SYMPTOMS
Although the symptoms of bacterial blight have been accurately
described by several investigators, there is included here a descrip-
tion of its appearance as observed on different parts of the bean plant
at various stages of maturity.
Probably the most striking evidence of the disease is on the leaves.
Here the lesions first appear on the lower side as small, water-soaked
spots in the center of which, as they develop, a slight incrustation
of bacterial exudate is found. The lesion is surrounded by a yel-
lowish halolike zone. These lesions gradually enlarge and may
coalesce with others, producing a brown scaldedlike area which in
time causes a defoliation of the plant.
Bacteria from diseased seeds often produce very peculiar lesions
on the first primary leaves. Here large angular water-soaked areas
appear on the opposite leaves at similar positions, indicating that
the initial infection took place while the leaves were still folded
between the cotyledons. These differ from the small water-soaked
circular secondary lesions in that they are larger and decidedly
angular. On the young trifoliolate leaves a very unusual symptom
appears in many cases when infection is severe, the bacteria entering
the small veinlets, causing a slight discoloration of the adjacent tis-
sues and a retardation of development in this region. With a rapid
growth in the uninfected areas, a puckered appearance, very similar
to mosaic symptoms, is produced.
When the bacteria are found in the vascular tissues of the leaf,
another characteristic symptom can be seen. (PI. 1, C.) The
infection usually begins in the small veinlets, subsequently involving
the larger veins and finally the midrib. In the case of severe infec-
tion the bacteria produce a reddish discoloration with a water-soaking
of the tissues immediately surrounding the veins. When the leaf
infection starts from the petiole, the main vein and its branches
first appear water-soaked, later taking on a brick-red discoloration.
When diseased seeds are planted they may produce seedlings that
exhibit a characteristic wilting in the case of severe infection. The
first macroscopic appearance is a slight flagging or drooping of the
leaves at the region of the pulvinus. (PI. 1, B.) From isolation
and microscopic observation of such tissues bacteria are generally
found in large masses. During the night such leaves appear quite
normal and turgid, but during the heat of the day they again become
flaccid. In more advanced stages this drooping is followed by a
wilting that in some cases may involve the entire seedling, whereas
in others only a portion of the plant may be affected.
On the stem the pathogene may cause various types of lesions.
The young seedling lesion begins as a small water-soaked spot which
gradually enlarges, appearing somewhat similar to pod lesions.
The necrotic areas are sometimes sunken and later appear as red-
dish dashes, extending longitudinally along the stem. (PL 1, E.)
5 United Spates Department op Aobiculturb, Buread op Plant Industry. Op. dt.
6 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The surface of these spots is often split (pi. 1, B), and bacterial
exudate can sometimes be seen oozing from the lesions (pi. 1, A).
When the plants are in the initial stages of pod formation, a
lesion known as stem girdle or joint rot appears (pi. 1, D), which is
first manifest as a small water-soaked spot either at the cotyledonary
node or at other nodes along the stem. Upon enlargement, the lesion
finally encircles the stem. The girdling is usually completed at the
time when the pods are half mature, and the affected plant is so
weakened by the increasing weight of the top that the stem breaks
at the diseased node.
Bacterial blight causes much damage to the pods. The initial
lesions first appear as minute water-soaked areas which gradually
enlarge, accompanied by a discoloration and distinct zoning. Later
the spot becomes dry and sunken and takes on a brick-red color.
Often a yellowish-white incrustation of bacterial exudate can be
seen covering the lesion. (PI. 1, F.)
The bacteria may also infect the pod by way of the vascular ele-
ments. Following the dorsal suture, they cause a discoloration of
this region and a water-soaking of the surrounding tissue. (PL 1, 1.)
In a like manner the organism may attack the seeds, producing sev-
eral types of lesions. When infection occurs while the pods are
young the seeds may rot entirely, or they may become so severely
infected that only the shriveled seed coat remains. On the other
hand, the bacteria entering by way of the funiculus may cause a dis-
coloration at the hilum. (PI. 1, G and H.) On dark-seeded varie-
ties these discolorations are often difficult to detect, but on light-
seeded varieties they are very noticeable. (PL 1, G.) On light-
colored seeds when the infection is severe the lesions cover. a con-
siderable area and have a varnishlike appearance.
MOISTURE AS A FACTOR INFLUENCING INFECTION
It is generally agreed by various 'investigators that the chief ex-
ternal factors influencing stomatal movement are light and tempera-
ture. Some believe that humidity greatly affects the degree of stom-
atal openings, whereas others consider it of only minor importance.
Wilson and Greenman {JfO) found that the stomata on plants of
Melilotus alha L. that were left in a saturated atmosphere were well
open, but the stomata of the plants that remained in the drier open
air exposed to approximately the same light were nearly all closed.
Darwin {8) showed that stomata were very sensitive to changes in
humidity, closing when taken from a high to a low humidity and
opening under the opposite conditions. Lloyd {23) believes that
there is but little evidence to show that a high relative humidity
favors the wide opening of the stomata in the ocotillo, and in
Mentha piperita L., also a desert plant. Poole and McKay {26)^ on
the other hand, believe that while light may be considered a funda-
mental factor in the movement of the stomata of the beet, yet stoma-
tal closure is affected by low relative humidity even though the light
is active.
Difficulty has often been experienced in obtaining stomatal pene-
tration in the greenhouse with bacterial plant pathogenes when the
inoculated plants were not placed under conditions of high humidity.
BACTERIAL BLIGHT OP BEANS 7
The necessity of such conditions for infection with Bacterium
phaseoli has been known for some time. Smith {35) in working with
this and other bacterial plant pathogenes always subjected the host
plants used to a moisture treatment previous to inoculation, in order
to be insured of good infection. With this in mind, inoculation ex-
periments were performed by the writer to determine, if possible, the
relationship of moisture to stomatal movement in bean leaves. The
principal varieties used for this work were Wardwell Kidney Wax
and Wells Ked Kidney, both of which are very susceptible to the
blight.
The cultures of BacteriuTn phmeoli used for inoculation were re-
ceived from a number of sources. Two came from the United States
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C; one from J. H.
Muncie, Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station; one was iso-
lated by the writer from beans gathered at Racine, Wis. ; and one was
isolated from material collected at Madison, Wis. These cultures all
gave similar results and will therefore not be considered separately in
the following discussion. A culture of Bact. raedicaginis var.
yhaseolicola isolated from beans collected at Columbus, Wis., was
also used. The bacteria wxre allowed to grow on potato-dextrose
agar slants (pH 7) for a period of about a week at a temperature
of 28° C. They were then removed by washing them into sterile
atomizers containing sterile distilled water, and this suspension was
used as the inoculum.
Since the pathogenicity of Bactermm phaseoli has been demon-
strated by other investigators, results on this phase of the problem
will not be recorded here.
The plants for inoculation purposes were grown in 4-inch pots
until they reached a height of about 8 inches. These seedlings were
grouped into three lots. The first lot was covered completely with
a glass container in order to produce a saturated atmosphere about
the plant and was allowed to remain in place for a period of 24 hours,
after which the plants were sprayed with a suspension of the bean-
blight organism and again covered for 24 hours. The second series
of plants was not given a premoist treatment as was the first lot,
but was otherwise treated the same. The plants were covered
after inoculation. The third set was inoculated without a premoist
treatment or a covering after inoculation. All the plants in the
three series were then placed under similar conditions in a green-
house. The plants were examined daily for water-soaked lesions.
Both of the organisms used in these tests. Bacterium phaseoli and
Bact. 7nedicaginis var. phaseolicola^ produced numerous water-soaked
lesions, and in each series platings were made in order to be positive
that the lesions were being caused by the respective pathogenes used.
The results of these experiments are given in Table 1.
8
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 186, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 1. — Degree of infection caused by Bacterium phaseoli and Bad. medica-
ginis var. phaseolicola on bean plants subjected to moisture treatments of
various duration
[The letters a, b, and c each represents a single Inoculation experiment]
Degree of infection
Treatment
Bact. phaseoli
Bact. medicaginis
var. phaseolicola
a, Heavy
a. Heavy,
1 . Covered for 24 hours, inoculated, and covered for 24
b. Heavy
b, Heavy.
hours.
c. Severe
c, Heavy.
a, Medium
2. Inoculated and covered for 24 hours
b, Heavy
>Not performed.
c, Heavy
1 ^
a, Very little
a, Very little.
3 Inoculated and not covered
b. Very little
b, Very little
c, Very little
c, Very little.
Little difficulty was experienced in obtaining stomatal penetration
with Bacterium TJiedioaginis var. phaseolicola. Numerous water-
soaked lesions were obtained in one case without placing the inocu-
lated plants in a moist chamber; however, the greenhouse in which
the plants were kept was maintained at a high temperature and
humidity. When inoculations were made under controlled moisture
conditions for 24 hours numerous infections were always in evidence.
Burkholder (7) was unable to obtain stomatal penetration, even
though his plants were placed in a moist chamber for 12 hours after
they were inoculated. He stated, however, that the disease was wide-
spread in the field, showing particularly after moist weather, which
seems to indicate that stomatal penetration took place. It is difficult
to explain such a widespread occurrence of the disease if the organ-
ism enters only through wounds.
It is evident from Table 1 that in those instances where plants re-
ceived a great amount of moisture before and after inoculation a
high percentage of infection resulted, whereas a decidedly lower
amount was observed when the plants were not given the moist treat-
ment. Since covering produced a saturated humidity about the
plant, a film of moisture formed on the exterior of the leaves and
the substomatal cavities probably became well supplied with water.
It seems reasonable to suppose that if moisture is a factor in influ-
encing the movement of the stomata, there may have been set up
a continuous passage of water from the exterior to the interior of
the leaf; e. g., to the substomatal cavity. Thus, since the plants had
received a previous moist treatment by being covered 24 hours before
inoculation, the bacteria may have had a free swimming channel
from the droplets of moisture that collected on the surface to the
interior of the leaf and thus produced infection.
These experiments indicate that moisture is an important factor
in favoring the production of disease. In Group 1, in which a high
amount of moisture was present both before and after inoculation,
the amount of infection ranged from very heavy to severe, whereas
in Group 2, where abundant moisture was supplied only after inocu-
lation, the amount of infection was somewhat reduced. In Group 3,
where little moisture was present — that is, only that which was pres-
ent in the greenhouse — very little infection was noted. These experi-
BACTERIAL BLIGHT OF BEANS 9
ments were repeated several times with a variety of plants and bac-
terial pathogenes, with similar results, indicating that moisture seems
to be an important factor in producing infection by first influencing
the movement of the stomata, which in turn allows a channel for the
bacteria to make their way into the interior of the leaf. These
experiments were performed at 10 a. m. and 5 p. m., with comparable
results.
TRANSMISSION OF BACTERIAL BLIGHT
Considerable attention has been given to the problem of dissemina-
tion of bacterial blight because of the possible bearing it might have
on control measures. Most of the evidence presented is observa-
tional, having been gathered for the last three years from experi-
mental plots at Madison, Wis., from bean fields throughout that
State, and from certain of the bean-producing areas of the western
United States.
SEED TRANSMISSION
It has been known for a long time that bacterial blight is carried
over from year to year in and on the seed. In this manner the dis-
ease spreads into districts that had previously been free from the
malady. Beach (3) reported that probably the disease wintered over
in the seed. Halsted (16) also inferred that infected seed trans-
mitted the disease from one year to the next.
Both in the laboratory and in the field, little difficulty has been
experienced in proving the existence of bacteria in the seed. The
bacteria are harbored in the seed coats and also about and between
the cotyledons, and when germination takes place they may either
cause the death of the young hypocotyl before emergence or enter
the cotyledons, causing vascular invasion of the plant. Cotyledonary
lesions and the large water-soaked areas that appear on the first
simple leaves and stems may serve as the initial sources of the
secondary spread of the disease in the field.
During the summer of 1927 a study was conducted on the develop-
ment of the disease under field conditions. For this purpose diseased
seeds, alternated with healthy ones, were planted in several rows.
When the bean plants were still small it was not a difficult matter to
distinguish plants that were grown from diseased seed. Usually the
plants were more spindling than normal ones, the cotyledons dried
and dropped off before those of the healthy plants, and in many in-
stances large angular water-soaked spots were to be seen on the first
simple leaves. After a short period, certain of the plants surround-
ing such an infected seedling showed secondary lesions on their
leaves. In the early part of the growing period only plants in the
same drill row manifested these lesions, but later as the leaves en-
larged the infection passed from row to row. It is evident that from
the single infected plants serving as sources of inoculum the blight
pathogene may spread very easily and cause severe destruction of a
crop.
Most of the severely infected seeds are gleaned out by hand after
threshing. It is difficult, however, to detect the slightly infected
ones, since little shriveling or discoloration of the seed can be seen.
These seeds when planted produce seedlings that serve as the initial
sources for much of the secondary spread of the disease in the field.
106267—30 2
10 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGKICULTURE
Exudate is often seen oozing from stem or leaf lesions when condi-
tions of high humidity prevail, as often exist during the early part
of the growing season. From such sources rapid and widespread
blight dissemination may take place.
OVERWINTERING ON BEAN STRAW
It was suggested by early workers that the disease may live over
from year to year on infected vines and pods. Harrison and Barlow
(17) stated that the bacteria can live over at least one winter in
stems and leaves allowed to remain on the ground. McCready (2^),
without producing conclusive proof, stated that "the disease is
carried over from year to year in the seed from a diseased crop, in
the soil on which a diseased crop has been grown, or in straw from
infected fields, in bedding or manure." Muncie's (i25) observations
are that the disease overwinters on diseased straw, and his experi-
inents tend to prove this point, for the organism was isolated from
diseased bean stubble which had remained in the field over winter.
The writer has gathered data from field studies which tend to
lend evidence that the organism may live over the winter in this
manner. There are, however, no experimental data to substantiate
these observations. In one of the large bean-growing districts of
Wisconsin serious outbreaks of the bacterial blight were in evidence
during the summer of 1926. Wardwell Kidney Wax, one of the
most susceptible of the commercial canning varieties, was being
grown to a large extent that year. In a single field of about 8 acres
practically 100 per cent of blight was estimated. After the bacteria
had killed these plants cattle were allowed to feed on the diseased
vines and the remaining stubble was plowed under. The following
year the Improved Kidney Wax, a variety slightly less susceptible
to bacterial blight than Wardwell Kidney Wax, was planted in this
field about May 25, and on August 4 considerable blight infection
began to appear. This circumstance would not have stimulated any
thought of the overwintering of the organism if the other bean fields
in the vicinity had shown any blight symptoms. It would naturally
have been concluded that the infection was caused from diseased
seed. Since, however, none of the other fields of this variety showed
signs of the blight, although the seed was obtained from the same
source, it was suspected that the bacteria might have overwintered
on the diseased stubble and were then transmitted to beans planted
in the same field the following year.
Similar observations were recorded in a number of the western
bean-growing sections during the summer of 1928. During the sum-
mer of 1927 a large field of Full Measure beans was entirely de-
stroyed by the bacterial blight, and about September 1 the diseased
refuse was plowed under. In the spring of 1928 a large planting
of beans was made in this same field and practically every variety
grown was severely infected by August 1, and by the end of the
month very few individuals could be found free from blight. High
winds accompanied by rain and hail possibly may have accounted
for some of the infection. But, since there were no bean fields in the
immediate vicinity of the trials, and since the seed was grown in a
section free from blight in 1927, it was suspected that much of the
infection came from the diseased refuse that had been plowed under
the previous fall.
BACTERL^L BLIGHT OF BEANS 11
INSECT TRANSMISSION
Whether or not insects transmit bacterial blight from plant to
plant is unknown, but undoubtedly they play some part in the dis-
semination of the disease. Insects as spreaders of the blight have
been reported by a number of workers. Sackett {30^ p. 212) stated
that " insects play an important part in disseminating the trouble,
consequently any measures which tend to check these pests Avill aid
in controlling bacteriosis." There is, however, no experimental evi-
dence to substantiate these statements. In the present work the leaf
hoppers {Emppcisca mail Le B.), the 12-spotted cucumber beetle
{Diabrotica duoclecimpunctata Oliv.), and a ladybird beetle (species
not identified) have been particularly noticeable feeding on the
foliage of bean leaves.
It is possible that insects may carry the bacteria on their legs,
bodies, and mouth parts and so become factors in disseminating the
disease. At best they can not be considered as playing a major role
in the dissemination of the disease, since its natural spread during
favorable weather conditions is of primary importance.
DEW AS A FACTOR IN DISSEMINATION
Dew as a possible factor in the dissemination of bacterial blight
was reported as early as 1901 by Halsted {16^ p. 15), who stated that
" it is not unlikely that the germs were carried from the diseased
leaves to the pods by the dripping dews." Sackett (30) stated that
" rain and dew are doubtless agents in spreading the germs from one
part of the plant to another by washing them from old lesions onto
unaffected parts." That moisture is essential for widespread infec-
tion became evident in both greenhouse and field studies. Heavy
dews dripping from leaf to leaf may easily carry the pathogene and
cause secondary spread of the blight. Many of the pod lesions found
along the dorsal suture may be caused in this same manner. Dew
which collects in droplets may run down the petiole, thence along
the dorsal suture, carrying with it the bacteria that produce in many
cases the characteristic vascular pod lesions. If the infection be-
comes established along the suture of the young pod, developmental
growth often ceases and the pod shrivels and dies. When infection
takes place after the beans have formed, they may easily become in-
fected through the vascular connection of the seeds to the pod. and
the pathogene can be carried over until the following year in this
manner.
While the leaves are wet with dcAv the pathogene may spread from
leaf to leaf if a thin film of water connects portions of the tw^o
leaves. It is for this reason that beans should not be picked or culti-
vated early in the morning or directly after a rain while they are
still covered with moisture. If this is done, infection can be spread
from plant to plant in the same row and even from roAV to row, in
some cases causing destruction of the crop.
OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING DISSEMINATION
That rain might be a possible factor in the dissemination of the
blight was reported by many investigators. Rapp (28) states that
following a rain accompanied by wind, bacterial blight spreads from
12 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
the center of primary infection to the greatest extent in a southeast-
erly direction. This, he says, is accounted for by the fact that wind-
driven rain is blown in that direction and undoubtedly carries the
pathogene from row to row, and in some cases across a number of
rows. Observations made by the writer also indicate that splashing
rains accompanied by winds are responsible for a great deal of the
infection found in bean fields.
Hail is also very important in disseminating the disease from plant
to plant. This was well demonstrated in many bean fields of the
western bean-growing States. In the vicinity of the Greeley, Colo.,
project, much hail injury to crops was reported. Certain bean fields
that were struck by hail showed almost complete destruction, much
of the injury being caused by bacterial-blight infection. The dis-
semination apparently began from seedling-infected plants that sup-
plied the source of inoculum. Because of the whipping of the leaves
and the injury of the plants from the hail, the spread of the organ-
isms was very rapid. A short time thereafter practically all the
plants in the field were infected. Since comparable bean seed lots,
planted in regions of hail injury and also in hail-free sections,
showed a very decided difference in the amount of disease, it indi-
cated that the hail and wind were the limiting factors in the dissemi-
nation of the disease. Fields well protected by trees, preventing to a
great extent the whipping of leaves, also showed less disease than
bean fields that were subject to high winds.
Some observational evidence has been accumulated regarding sur-
face Avater as a means of spreading the bean-blight pathogene from
diseased to healthy plants. These data w^ere collected in 1928 at
the bean trial grounds at Madison, Wis., where a portion of the field
is sloping. During the early part of the groAving season seedling
infection near the upper portion of the field was recorded. After a
series of heavy rains the plots were again visited, and the disease was
more Avidespread, the direction of the spread being in many cases
from old diseased centers. There was a tendency for the spread to
be in the dowuAvard direction of the slope, either along the row or
across the rows. In tracing these new infections it was observed that
the pathogene had been washed from the diseased seedlings and car-
ried down the small rivulets. Where this water laden with the bac-
teria came in contact with the plants, new infections took place. At
least nine such instances were recorded, indicating that surface-
drainage water A^ery likely was responsible for carrying the organ-
isms from diseased seedlings to healthy plants.
That irrigation water, which is used almost exclusively in the
western bean-growing sections, may disseminate bacterial infection,
came to the writer's attention on several occasions in a survey of
many of those sections. It seems highly probable that the organisms
may be carried doAvn the small irrigation ditches and cause infection
to other plants in the same row. Where infected seed had been
planted, young lesions often extend to the ground level, and in many
instances bacterial ooze has been seen exuding from such necrotic
areas. Irrigation water in such cases may carry the pathogene from
lesions to healthy plants in close proximity to the center of initial
infection. Diseased leaves that had dropped from infected bean
plants were often seen in these ditches. In this manner the organisms
BACTERIAL BLIGHT OF BEANS 13
could also be carried down an irrigation ditch, causing plants along
the row to become infected.
THE PRESOAKING OF SEED AS A FACTOR IN DISSEMINATION
That water applied to seed in the inoculation with Bacillus radici-
cola Beij. spreads bacterial blight is very evident. Barss (2) remarks
that beans should not be soaked in a liquid culture of B. radiclcola
for nodule inoculation, since the soaking method results in a general
contamination of the entire seed lot, even if only very few seeds
are infected. Leonard {21) has reported that a slight application
of moisture will cause a stimulation of the bean-wilt disease, Bac-
tei^ium -fiaccuinfacien^. This aa as also noted by the writer in 1925
and 1927. Whiting, of the department of bacteriology at the Uni-
versity of Wisconsin, applied the wet-nodule seed treatment to a
number of samples of Wardwell Kidney Wax variety. Apparently
only a small portion of the original seeds was diseased, since few
blighted plants were produced in the check plots. The treated seeds,
however, produced plants manifesting approximately 100 per cent
blight,^ which were all killed before pod maturity. Since the checks
produced few blighted plants as compared with the complete blight-
ing of the treated seed, it was concluded that the dissemination was
brought about by the wet-seed treatment.
In 1928 at Berlin, Wis., where the Full Measure variety was
planted, a similar observation was made by the writer. Seed por-
tions of this variety were treated with a liquid culture, whereas
the remaining portion was planted without the treatment. A high
percentage of the plants grown from the treated seeds were severely
affected with typical cotyledonary symptoms, shoAving that the
disease must have come from the seed. The untreated seeds pro-
duced plants showing a slight amount of infection, proving that
the wet treatment accounted for the widespread occurrence of the
disease.
RELATION OF PARASITE TO HOST
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The material for the investigation of the parasitic relationship
of Bacterium phaseoli to the bean consisted principally of the Ward-
well Kidney Wax variety. The material was collected both in the
greenhouse and in the field. Before killing, portions of the diseased
areas were plated out, in order to be positive that only Bad, phaseoli
was present. Formal-acetic alcohol was used throughout as a fixing
fluid. The sections were stained either with Giemsa stain (orange
G as a counterstain) or with safranin (licht grun in absolute alcohol
as the counterstain). These stains were used in a 2 per cent solution,
and the sections were allowed to remain in them for a period of 6
to 12 hours, after which they were destained in absolute alcohol
and then counterstained. These stains in the above dilutions were
found to be very effective, because the host tissue took the stain
faintly, and the differentiation between the bacteria and the sur-
rounding tissues was very clear and distinct.
« Unpublished data from A. L. Whiting.
14 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 186, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
RELATION OF PARASITE TO LEAF TISSUE
Microscopic examinations, as previously reported bv Smith (S6)^
revealed that the organism gains its entrance through the stomata.
Since stomata are more numerous on the under side of the leaves,
it is here that the greatest degree of infection takes place. (Fig. 1,
A and C.) Entrj might also be made through wounds in the tissues.
After the bacteria enter the stomata they pass into the substomatal
cavity, multiply rapidly, and when in sufficient numbers penetrate
into the intercellular spaces of the spongy parenchyma.
The bacteria appear to produce an enzyme which softens or pos-
sibly dissolves the pectic materials in advance of the pathogene.
The middle lamella stains deep blue with the Giemsa stain and can
be clearly differentiated from the primary walls of the adjacent
cells. The cells in the vicinity of the infected area usually show
abnormal characteristics. The lamellae of those cells take the stain
more faintly than healthy ones, and in many cases it appears that
portions are dissolved out, since there is no regularity in the in-
tensity of the stain. Farther away from this region the cells are
normal, and the lamellae take the stain very uniformly. In the
region of severe infection the bacteria fill the intercellular spaces.
This bacterial mass later becomes embedded in the slimy matrix,
which causes an enlargement of the intercellular spaces owing to the
absorptive powers of the slime. The epidermis remains intact, but
the underlying parenchyma tissues collapse, often forming large
bacterial pockets. When severe infection has taken place a large
brown scaldlike area, due to the death of the cells below, appears
on the leaf surface.
There appear to be two views as to how bacterial plant pathogenes
cause the death of the host cells. Bachmann (1) believes that the
cells are killed by the extraction of liquids from the protoplast fol-
lowed by plasmolysis owing to the high osmotic pressure set up in
the intercellular spaces incident to bacterial invasion. Another view
by Steward (37) assumes that toxic products are secreted which dif-
fuse into and kill the cells. The writer's histological studies seem
to favor the theory of Bachmann. Staining reactions indicated that
when the bacteria occur in large numbers they are always embedded
in a slimy mass. The osmotic concentration of this material appears
to be greater than that of the cell sap itself, and apparently an
exosmosis takes place, causing the intercellular spaces to enlarge,
and, as they become filled with a fluid, producing small water-soaked
lesions on the leaf surface, characteristic of initial blight symptoms.
Surrounding these small water-soaked spots there develops a
yellowish halo. Upon microscopic examination few bacteria are
found in this discolored zone. In her study on the halo blight of
oats, Elliott (12) found a similar condition. She stated that it is
probable that the organism produces ammonia, which is responsible
for the destruction of the chlorophyll about the lesions produced in
oat plants. The cause of this discoloration in bean blight has not yet
been determined, but it is believed that a toxic substance secreted by
the organism diffuses into the surrounding tissue, causing the light-
yellow zone.
Microscopic examinations have shown that the bacteria are com-
monly present in the xylem vessels of the leaf. (Fig. 2.) The
BACTERIAL BLIGHT OF BEANS
15
FiG.DRB 1. — Stomatal penetration by Bacterium phaseoli: Most of the pene-
tratioa of the leaves, pods, and stems by this organism in nature Is
stomatal. A and C, Bacteria penetrating the stomata of the leaf. In
each case the substomatal cavity is filled with a bacterial mass.. In C the
bacteria are following the intercellular spaces leading from the cavity.
B and D, Bacteria invading stomata of the stem. E, Bacteria invading a
stoma of the pod. X 1,250
16 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
organisms probably enter the large xylem vessels by first invading
the small veinlets, which in their initial stages of development consist
of undifferentiated tissue similar to that of the surrounding paren-
chyma. These tissues appear to be easily attacked, and after the
organism once gains entry it passes into the large veinlets, which in
turn lead into the main veins of the leaf. After gaining access into
this tissue the bacteria multiply rapidly and when in sufficient num-
bers cause a browning of the veins and veinlets (pi. 1, C) with a
gradual killing of the surrounding tissue. The pathogene might
also enter the vessels of the leaf by passing from infected petioles
Figure 2. — Vascular invasion of a bean leaf. Cross section of a midrib showing
bacteria embedded in a slimy matrix in the xylem vessels. X 1,250
through the pulvinus and into the main vein. The bacteria seem to
become localized in the pulvinus, possibly because of the succulence
of this tissue. A severe invasion of these structures results in a
drooping of the leaves, a very characteristic symptom of primary
seed infection.
RELATION OF PARASITE TO STEM TISSUE
Burkholder (5) and Barss (2) observed that the disease was
systemic in nature. Microscopic study revealed that the vascular
system of the stalks was invaded by the bacteria, although no external
lesions appeared on the leaves or pods.
Tech. Bui. 186. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
Plate 1
A, Bacterial exudate (a) on bean stem, 10 days after inoculation, X %; B, infected bean seedling
showing drooping of leaves at pulvinus (a) and stem cracking (6) owing to bacterial infection,
X 14', C, darkened veins and veinlets (a) following invasion of the vessels by the bacteria. Small
water-soaked lesions (6) result from stomatal infection and may result in further vascular inva-
sion when in contact with veinlets, X 1; D, bacteria have encircled the epicotyl and produced a
girdle (a) which caused the stem to weaken. Natural infection, X H; E, infected bean stem
showing longitudinal red-colored lesions caused by bacterial infection. Natural infection, X 1;
F, pod lesions resulting from stomatal infection. An incrustation of dried bacterial slime is
seen in the center of many spots. Natural infection. X H; G, diseased seed of the Bountiful
variety showing shriveling and di-scolorations caused by bacterial invasion of the seed coats.
Natural infection, X K; H, seeds from pod shown in I. The three shriveled seeds at the left
were removed from the extreme right portion of the pod, X H; I, pod of the Bountiful variety
showing discoloration along the dorsal suture due to bacterial invasion, X H
Tech. Bui. 186. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
Plate 2
Photomicrographs Showing bacterial Invasion of the Hypocotyl
AND Cotyledon
A, Bacteria in the xylem vessels of,';thefhypoeotyl. In some cases they have broken out from the
vessels and are causing a disintegration of the adjacent tissue, forming bacterial pockets, X 1,034;
B, bacteria entering an epidermal rift of the cotyledon caused by a stretching of the cells during
germination. The pathogene can be seen following the intercellular spaces, causing them to
enlarge and the cells to be pushed apart. The adjacent cells are in a distorted condition from a
pressure exerted by the bacterial slime in the intercellular spaces, X 1,034
BACTERIAL BLIGHT OF BEANS
17
Artificial inoculations were performed by the writer by cutting off
the young cotyledons before the abscission layer had formed and
inserting a drop or two of bacterial inoculum into the cut. This
allow^ed the bacteria to enter the vascular system, and within a period
of 10 days the inoculated plants manifested slight symptoms of wilt-
ing. The check plants appeared normal in all respects. Isolations
from such material and also from wilted seedlings grown from dis-
eased seed demonstrated the presence of the bacteria in the tissues.
The pathogene w^as found through microscopic examination to be
present in great numbers in many of the xylem vessels (figs. 3 and 4)
and to extend up and down the stem from the cotyledonary nodes.
In severe cases of infection the bacteria appear to break through the
walls of the invaded vessels and to spread into the near-by paren-
FiGURE 3. — Cross section of a bean stem showing invasion of metaxylem vessels by
bacteria embedded in slime. X 1,250
chyma cells. (PI. 2, A.) As stated before, in the growth of these
organisms much slime having the property of absorbing a large
amount of fluid is always produced. With this absorption a natural
internal pressure may be set up, but whether this pressure is great
enough to cause a rupture of the cells is still undetermined. When
the bacteria break through the cell walls they enter the intercellular
spaces of the adjacent tissue (fig. 5, A, B, and C), slowly dissolve
the middle lamella of these cells, and finally push them apart with
a gradual disintegration of the tissues. (PI. 2, A.) Bacterial cavi-
ties are not uncommon in such regions. That thei pathogene may
enter the stem from infected leaves appears to be very probable.
In many cases where local infection begins through stomata in the
vicinity of small veinlets which are found throughout the leaf, the
readily attacked xylem elements of these veinlets are occupied by
106267—30 3
18
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
bacteria. After the bacteria enter the small veinlets they make their
way into the larger veins and thence into the midrib, traveling down
the petiole and into the stem of the plant. The bacteria may also
enter the xylem vessels of the stem by way of the cauline stomata.
(Fig. 1, B and D.) The bacteria entering these openings multiply
in the substomatal cavities and later penetrate the intercellular spaces
of the cortical cells. Within a comparatively short time the patho-
gene may have invaded much of the surrounding tissue, producing
a water-soaked lesion which manifests itself on the exterior of the
Figure 4. — Bacteria in xjiem vessels of a bean stem : A and B, Bacteria embedfled in
a slimy matrix invading ringed metaxylem vessels. X 1,250
stem. When in sufficient numbers the bacteria begin to cause disin-
tegration of the invaded cortical tissue, forming in many cases large
lysigenous cavities.
In numerous sections in which penetration has begun from the
exterior of the stem the cortical tissues are severely invaded by the
pathogene, but wdthin the endodermis few bacteria are in evidence.
The layer of cortical cells contiguous to and including the endodermis
appears to act as a barrier in partly preventing the bacteria from
penetrating into the vascular tissue. (Fig. 6.) These cells do not
completely surround the stele of the stem, and it is through the
BACTERIAL BLIGHT OF BEANS
19
breaks that the bacteria make their way into the xj^lem vessels. Such
penetration takes place only when the plants are young — that is,
before secondary thickening has taken place — since the cells of the
secondary xylem appear to be little affected by the bacteria. The
cells of the endodermis are very thick walled, with small intercellular
spaces. It is possible that because of this adaptive structure the
organisms are unable to penetrate this tissue.
Bacteria are seldom if ever found in the phloem region; most of
them invade the protoxylem and metaxylem cells (fig. 3) ; only occa-
sionally are they found in the secondary xylem. It is probable that
in the formation of the cell walls of the primary tissue the wall
materials are built up gradually, which means that lignification is the
Figure 5. — Intercellular penetration of parenchyma cells by bacteria : A and C,
Enlarged intercellular spaces due to invasion by bacteria embedded in a slimy
matrix ; B, portion of a cell wall disintegrated through bacterial action, allow,
ing bacteria to enter adjacent cells. ><: 1,250
last process. The cells in the early stages of growth contain large
amounts of cellulose or of hemicelluloses. These substances most
likely are attacked by bacterial action, and entrance may be gained
into the young protoxylem and metaxylem cells. However, in the
forrnation of secondary xylem, which is laid down rapidly, the w^alls
possibly remain in the cellulose state for a very short period, becom-
ing lignified very rapidly. It is probable that the principal reason
that little penetration occurs in this tissue is because of the wall
composition of the cells.
That the bacteria together with slime resulting from rapid mul-
tiplication of the organisms plug the vessels and cause a wilt of the
plant is not an established fact. Burkholder (4) believes that under
20
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
certain conditions the bacteria may enter the vascular tissue without
causing a permanent wilting, but may persist, causing dwarfing, and
on days of high evaporation may produce a slight flagging of the
plant. According to the writer's investigations, little of the wilting
of mature plants caused by Bacterium phaseoli appears to be due
to plugging, but more likely it may be accounted for by a disinte-
gration of the invaded tissue or the effect of toxic substances pro-
duced by the parasite. Microscopic examinations have never re-
vealed that infected xylem vessels were so completely filled with
bacterial masses that death may have resulted from a plugging of
Figure 6. — Bacterial invasion of the cortex of the hypocotyl. Cross section of the
hypocotyl, showing bacteria invading the cortex where a layer of cells (a) adja-
cent to the endodermis appears to act as a barrier to invasion of the vascular
tissue. X 1,250
these cells. Since secondary xylem is formed rapidly in the stems
of older plants, the passage of water would not be sufficiently ham-
pered to cause wilting, even though the protoxylem and metaxylem
cells were filled with bacterial masses.
The bacteria may enter the xylem vessels of the hypocotyl and
epicotyl from the infected cotyledons in the case of diseased seed.
Under favorable conditions the pathogene may increase with such
rapidity that the vessels become filled before much secondary thick-
ening has taken place. In this case a plugging of the vessels may
bring about a w^ilting of the young plant.
BACTERIAL BLIGHT OF BEANS
21
CELL-WALL DISINTEGRATION THROUGH BACTERIAL ACTION
Smith {SJf), working with Bacterium campestre on turnip, stated
that the infected cells are crowded apart by the growth of the bac-
teria, and the middle lamella first disappears, but the cell walls
proper also become vague in outline and finally disappear. Micro-
scopic examinations have shown that in the case of severe infection
of the hypocotyl, epicotyl, and funiculus with Bad. phaseoli^ dis-
integration of wall material becomes apparent. Careful observation
with serial sections indicated that the microtome knife was not the
cause of the disappearance of the wall or parts of it. (PI. 2, A, and
figs. 7 and 8.) It appeared that the cellulose walls became disin-
tegrated, leaving only the lignified portions behind.
The protoxylem and metaxylem cells of the hypocotyl and epicotyl
in which most of the infection occurs differ markedly from the
secondary xylem cells of the same tissue in cell size and in wall
structure. Since the protoxylem cells are formed very early in the
^ab^.
Figure 7. — Cross section of a bean stem, showing bacteria invading metaxylem cells
and passing from cell to cell through broken wall. X 1,250
ontogeny of the tissue in which they lie, they are subject to tissue
stresses from increase in length and diameter. These protoxylem cells
mature rapidly and are not subject to growth changes. The stresses
brought about by elongation tend to stretch the already mature cells,
and in many cases a rifting results. These cells are long and slender,
with thin cellulose walls, reinforced by bands of lignified secondary
walls to prevent the collapse of the thin plastic walls. If bacteria
are present in such cells, it is probable that natural rifting of the
tissue would give the appearance of disintegration; but since this
occurs only in the protoxylem, it does not explain the partial disap-
pearance of the walls in many of the severely infected metaxylem
cells.
The water-conducting cells of the metaxylem are the characteristic
cells of this tissue because of the peculiar adaptation of their walls
to the stretching that they normally undergo. The thin plastic
primary walls of these empty cells are also strengthened by the addi-
22 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 6, V. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
tion of a lignified secondary wall. The metaxvlem cells first formed
have small amounts of secondary wall in the form of rings, whereas
cells formed a little later possess spiral bands. The proportionate
amount of secondary wall increases in the successively formed cells.
The fact that the greatest amount of infection occurs in the pri-
mary xylem may possibly be explained by the chemical composition
of these tissues. Since the walls of the protoxylem and metaxylem
cells are composed mostly of cellulose, with only small amounts of
lignin in the form of spirals or rings, bacteria when in large masses
probably have the ability to produce an enzyme (cellulase) with the
property of slowly dissolving the materials between the pits of the
vessels and finally other portions of the cellulose walls, thus making
Figure 8. — Cross section of a bean funiculus, showing bac-
terial disintegration of tissue. The bacteria have invaded
the xylem elements of the funiculus and disintegrated the
tissue with the formation of a large lysigenous cavity
in the lower part of which portions of the disintegrated
walls may be seen. X 1,250
it possible for the pathogene to gain access directly into the xylem
elements or pass from one vessel to another. Little infection takes
place in the secondary xylem cells, probably because the walls are
composed mostly of lignin, which the pathogene apparently is unable
to attack.
In the funicular region of infected pods other instances of cell-
wall disintegration were in evidence. Microscopic examinations of
invaded funiculi many times revealed large lysigenous cavities show-
ing many stages of cell- wall disappearance. (Fig. 8.) The walls
of many of the invaded cells were thinner than the normal walls;
others were slightly visible, whereas many of them had disappeared
altogether. Scattered throughout these large bacterial cavities were
strands of lignified wall material not attacked by bacterial action.
BACTERIAL BLIGHT OF BEANS 23
RELATION OF THE PARASITE TO PODS AND SEEDS
It is a well-established fact that Bactermm phaseoli is seed borne.
One of the most important points in the behavior of the organism
is its ability to enter the pods through the vascular system and
infect the seeds without causing lesions on the surface of the pods.
In entering the seed through the vascular system the pathogene
frequently causes only a small yellow discoloration at the hilum.
(PI. 1, G.) This sign of the disease is not readily detected in col-
ored seeds, as is also the case in white seeds, where normally there is
a slight yellow marking about the hilum. Seeds that possess only a
small amount of infection without outward symptoms may cause
much damage when planted the following year. From the stand-
point of control vascular seed infection is extremely important. It
becomes apparent that the selection of pods is not an adequate means
of control as in the case of bean anthracnose, where the infection
is localized. To be positive that only disease-free seeds are ob-
tained, only pods from healthy plants should be selected, and even
then, if vascular infection is slight, apparently healthy plants may
produce seeds that harbor the pathogene.
In causing this type of vascular infection, the bacteria travel up
the xylem vessels of the stem, through the vascular elements of the
pedicel, whence they pass into the two sutures of the pod. The
lesions on the sutures of severely infected pods are easily detected,
since they cause a discoloration of the vascular tissue, and in many
cases water-soaked lesions extend along these sutures, particularly
the dorsal. (PL 1, I.) The bacteria then travel from the xylem
vessels of this suture to those that pass into the funiculus and are
then carried into the seed coats by way of the raphe. The raphe
extends only a short distance into the integuments and becomes un-
differentiated tissue, similar to that making up the third and fourth
nutritive cell layers of the seed coat. After the bacteria enter the
coats they make their way into the intercellular spaces, which are
extremely large and afford an easy passage for the spread of the
organism throughout the tissue. (Fig. 9, A.) When in sufficient
numbers the organisms may destroy this tissue without the produc-
tion of any outward symptoms on the seed.
The first layer of the seed coat is composed of large palisadelike
cells, thick walled and upwards of 60/x in length. On both sides
of the hilum slit, which is found in the center of the hilum, two
layers of palisade cells are present, while immediately beneath the
slit is a group of sclerenchyma cells with reticulated' walls which,
according to Tschirch and Oesterle {38)^ probably serve to prevent
the entrance of fungi into the seed. Below this palisadelike epider-
mal layer is found a layer of cells known as the " I " layer, being
made up of hourglass-shaped cells 18/x to 22/x in height, containing
calcium-oxalate crystals and possessing no intercellular spaces. Be-
low these two layers are found the nutritive spongy tissue with large
intercellular spaces into which the raphe enters. Bacteria passing
into the seed coats by means of the raphe traverse this region exten-
sively, as previously mentioned, but they seldom invade the first two
layers of the seed coat.
The old conception that direct penetration occurs through the
outer layers of the seed coat is difficult to explain, since in the first
24 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 186, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Figure 9.— Intercellular penetration of bacteria in bean-seed tissues :
A, Bacteria are shown in the large intercellular spaces of the third
layer of the seed coat; B, bacteria embedded in slime in the cotyle-
donary intercellular spaces, causing the cells to be pushed apart
X 1,250
BACTERIAL BLIGHT OF BEANS 25
place the epidermal cells are covered with a layer of cutin or suberin ;
and secondly, their cell walls are extremely thick and without inter-
cellular spaces so that penetration would be difficult. The symptoms
on mature seeds infected other than at the hilum, which are so often
illustrated, may be caused by some other parasite, possibly Colleto-
tHchwn ImdeviutManvmi. Much of the discoloration seen on mature
bacterial-blight infected seeds is probably due to the disintegration
of the cells below the palisadelike epidermal cells. This is especially
apparent in white-seeded varieties. In severely infected seeds, be-
sides this discoloration, a shriveling occurs, because of the collapse
of the third, fourth, and fifth layers of the first integument. In
cases where bacterial penetration is slight, no discoloration is in
evidence at the hilar region, and it is often impossible to demonstrate
macroscopically the presence of the organism, although if severe
infection takes place a yellow or water-soaked discoloration is
evident.
When bacteria are found in large masses in the vascular elements
of the dorsal suture of the pod, they often cause disintegration of
the tissue and enter the surrounding parenchyma cells and thence pass
into the pod cavity where the young ovules are beginning to develop.
When funicular infection is severe, this tissue is destroyed, and the
seeds fail to undergo further development. It is a common occur-
rence to find one or two ovules of a pod decidedly shrunken, with the
remaining seeds developed to maturity.
When the pathogene enters the seed while in the milk stage the
bacteria in the seed coats may pass into the regions of the cotyledons
and under certain conditions entirely surround these structures. The
bacteria appear to remain in this region as well as in the seed coats in
a dormant condition and do not cause the embryonic plant to become
infected until the time of germination.
This type of infection has been reported by both Barss (^) and
Burkholder (5) as being of a serious nature, since no external lesions
are noticeable on the pod. The writer's researches have shown that
a considerable amount of infection takes place in this manner ; how-
ever, bacterial penetration through the micropyle of the seed is
equally as important as vascular penetration and possibly more
widespread.
The bacteria may enter the pod cavity, as stated above, by breaking
out from the vascular tissue of the dorsal suture or the funiculus, or
by making their way into the pod stomata. From here, as in the
leaf and stem, the pathogene fills the substomatal cavity (fig. 1, E),
passes into the intercellular spaces, gradually becomes intracellular,
and later causes a disintegration of this tissue. The organisms have
likewise been found in the xylem vessels, which may distribute them
to all portions of the pod. In some cases they break out from the
vessels and when in large masses cause disintegration of the sur-
rounding cells. They may then pass into the pod cavity, where they
increase rapidly because of the favorable conditions for their develop-
ment. Numerous pods have been cut open, and in many instances
where only a slight amount of infection was in evidence on the
exterior of the pod the inner cavities contained large masses of
bacteria embedded in a slime, surrounding, in many cases, each
individual seed. In such cases micropylar invasion is a simple
matter.
26 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 186, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The microp}^le is a natural opening in the palisade epidermis of
the seed coat, and the bacteria may enter here and reach the seed
coats with little difficulty. Below this point of entry a cavity is
found, and the surrounding cells, which are decidedly thick walled,
appear to be little affected by bacterial action. However, when the
organisms once make their way into the underlying tissues, little
opposition seems to be encountered. The bacteria pass readily
through the large intercellular spaces of the seed coat (fig. 9, A)
and later break down this tissue, causing in severe cases a shriveling
of the developing ovule.
It is in the immediate vicinity of the micropylar opening that the
young developing embryo is found. As the seed begins to germinate,
the young hypocotyl elongates and may push its way through this
diseased region as it emerges through the seed coat. Since the young
epidermal cells are very compact, with small intercellular spaces,
penetration into this tissue appears to be somewhat difficult.
In examining diseased germinated seeds it is not uncommon to
find the embryonic tip of the hypocotyl of many young embryos
killed before emergence. It seems likely that the pathogene present
in the seed coats in close proximity to this structure may cause the
death of these tissues, but the entrance of the bacteria into these
cells while they are still in the embryonic condition has not as yet
been actually observed. If the bacteria are later found to enter
these cells, then much of the seedling wilt can be explained.
Stomata have been found on the hypocotyl above and below ground
after cell elongation has taken place. As this structure grows
through the diseased seed coat, it appears to be possible for the
pathogene to be carried along the surface of the cells, and as the
stomata are formed the adhering bacteria under favorable condi-
tions might enter these openings, causing infection in this region.
It has likewise been observed that often in the case of diseased
seed the embryonic folds of the epicotyl, while still lying between
the cotyledons, are surrounded by bacteria. This fact may account
for the occurrence of the common initial water-soaked lesions often
found on the primary leaves of young diseased plants. These lesions
usually appear on the opposite simple leaves in exactly the same posi-
tion, making it appear that the bacteria enter these embryonic struc-
tures at the time when the primary leaves are still folded together.
The bacteria that pass into the micropyle and invade the large
intercellular spaces of the seed coat may remain there in a dormant
condition until they penetrate into the cotyledonary tissue at germ-
ination time. On the other hand, if they enter the seed through the
vascular system they become well established in the seed coat also,
since they multiply therein and pass throughout by way of the inter-
cellular spaces. (Fig. 9, A.) In this way they may migrate into
the region of the micropyle, at which point they may pass out of it
and enter the cavity of the pod, where they multiply rapidly because
of the extremely high moisture conditions and abundant food supply.
The organisms spread readily throughout this cavity and may infect
other young seeds by entering their micropyles. In this manner it
can be seen that from a single infected seed all the seeds of a pod
may become infected without the presence of a lesion on the exterior
of the pod.
BACTERIAL BLIGHT OF BEANS 27
PENETRATION OF BACTERIA INTO THE COTYLEDON
The most important phase of seed infection is the penetration of
the organism into the cotyledonary tissues. For the study of this
phase of the problem, diseased seeds were surface sterilized in a solu-
tion of mercuric chloride 1-1,000 for 35 to 45 seconds, washed in
three changes of sterile water, and placed in sterile Petri dishes
between moistened sterilized filter paper. The seeds were allowed
to germinate, and after the young hypocotyl had emerged through
the micropyle the seed coats were removed and one of the cotyledons
of each seed was killed in formal-acetic acid fixative, the other being
used for the isolation of the organism. The killed cotyledons were
embedded in paraffin, sectioned, and stained in the usual manner.
Since cotyledonary penetration occurred only in germinated seeds,
it was suspected that the reason for the lack of infection in ungermi-
nated ones was because of some protective covering, either cutin or
suberin, over the cotyledonary epidermal cells of ungerminated seeds.
Microchemical tests were made for the presence of these substances
by treating freshly cut sections of cotyledons with a solution of
Sudan III. The sections were allowed to remain in this solution for
15 minutes, after which they were washed in 50 per cent alcohol,
placed in glycerin, and examined. The tests demonstrated that the
amount of suberin or cutin was extremely small and that there was
no difference in the amounts in the cotyledons at various stages of
development.
Microscopic examination of the embedded material revealed that
as the cotyledon absorbed water at the time of germination the sud-
den enlargement of the epidermal cells resulted in numerous in-
stances in the pulling apart of their' adjoining outer walls. After
observing these small rifts, and in many cases large tears, in the
cotyledonary tissues, measurements of epidermal cells were made
before and after germination. These cells are distinctly of two sizes,
those adjacent to the hilum being considerably longer than the cells
on the opposite side of the cotyledon. Measurements of 50 cells of
both types were made before and after germination. It was noted
that the average length of the former cells before germination was
46/>i, whereas these same cells after germination had enlarged to ap-
proximately 82.8/x in length. The other type of cells before germi-
nation averaged 8.64/x, whereas after germination they increased to
14.25/t;i in length. As for increase in width before and after germi-
nation, little difference in size was noted.
It becomes apparent that with the imbibition of water the seed
swells enormously. The mature cell walls apparently do not allow
for much expansion, and because of the enormous increase in length
a natural pulling apart of the cells results. (PI. 2, B, and fig. 10, B,
E, and F.) Some of these tissue tears are extremely small and are
often in the form of a small V (fig. 10, B), while others have been
found to measure as much as 9.8/*.
With the pulling apart of the epidermal cells there is likewise a
stretching of the intercellular spaces. The bacteria on the outside
of the cotyledon may enter these rifts, pass into the intercellular
spaces, and in some cases cause them to swell to enormous size with
the distortion of the adjacent cells. (PI. 2, B, and fig. 9, B.) Dis-
integration then takes place, and the bacteria rapidly traverse the
28 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 186, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
'*;-; '' - - ^^ v^' A v'.-..-: '
<-^^v^''0''^;:^r^
Figure 10. — Cross sections of bean-seed material showing normal and bacteria-
infected tissues : A. — Normal cotyledonary epidermal cells which show dark-
stained areas where the cells are pulled apart at germination time. X 1,250.
B. — ^A natural rift in the epidermis caused by a stretching of the epidermal
cells. X 1,250. C. — Bacteria embedded in a slime in the Intercellular space
of cotyledonary cells. X 1,250. D, — Bacteria invading the cells of the
funiculus. X 850. E. and F. — Bacteria entering the natural epidermal rifts
of the cotyledon and infecting the cells below the epidermis. X 1,250
BACTERIAL BLIGHT OF BEANS 29
cotyledonary tissue, often forming cavities. It appears that the bac-
teria may then pass into the vascular elements and thence enter the
xylem cells of the hypocotyl and epicotyl at the cotyledonary node.
In connection withj epidermal penetration, microchemical tests
were made to determine the possible composition of the cell walls at
various stages of development. Fresh sections of seeds in the milk,
mature, and germinating stages were made and placed in small vials
of ether for the extraction of existing oils and fats. The material
was then treated with a 0.05 per cent solution of ammonium oxalate
and placed on a sand bath at 90° C. for a few hours. The vials were
allowed to stand for a short period at ordinary temperatures, and
upon examination it was observed that the cells of the germinated
cotyledons were not well intact and apparently had their middle
lamellae somewhat dissolved by the ammonium oxalate. The epi-
dermal cells were likewise in a disintegrated condition, demonstrat-
ing that the walls were probably composed of a soluble substance,
pectinlike in nature. The walls of the cotyledons in the milk stage
and also those in the mature condition remained intact, demonstrat-
ing the presence of an insoluble substance.
From this it can be assumed that penetration into the germinated
cotyledon might be explained by a dissolution of the soluble mate-
rial in the walls of the cotyledonary cells. At the time of germina-
tion the food materials in the seed are being changed . to soluble
substances for the nourishment of the young developing embryo. If
the composition of the epidermal cells is likewise changed, as the
foregoing experiment indicated, it appears that the bacteria, after
once gaining entrance into the epidermis through small ruptures that
are formed during germination, make rapid progress into the inner
tissues of the seed.
Further to substantiate the above results, similar material was
stained with the Giemsa stain, which, as stated before, has an afiinity
for middle-lamella material, staining these substances deeply. Cer-
tain regions of the epidermal walls of uninfected cotyledons took this
stain very readily. (Fig. 10, A.) These regions were found be-
tween the cells and extended a short distance to both sides of these
cells where bacterial penetration in the case of diseased cotyledons
took place. It seems reasonable to suppose that these dark-stained
areas are composed of a soluble pectinlike substance, as the results
indicated. If, as is believed, the bacteria secrete an enzyme, pec-
tinase, these darkly stained areas can be broken down, especially after
the bacteria have made their way into the small epidermal rifts
caused by an enlargement of the cells. (Fig. 10, F.)
Briefly, the cycle of development of the disease in the light of the
pathological histology may be traced as follows : The bacteria in the
seed coats make their way into the region between and about the
cotyledons, and with the ge^rmination of the seed the pathogene en-
ters the cotyledonary tissue, follows the intercellular spaces (fig.
10, C), and finally may gain access to the vascular elements. From
here it passes into the young seedling, traveling up the vessels of the
epicotyl and part way down the hypocotyl. Burkholder (5) states
that the bacteria extend into the root system. He remarks that in
the xylem vessels of the tap and lateral roots great masses of bacteria
are found similar to those observed in that part of the plant above
30 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
ground. Similar results have not been observed by the writer;
however, bacteria have been demonstrated in the vessels of the tran-
sition stage of the hypocotyl, that portion in which the xylem de-
velopment changes from the exarch to the endarch condition.
After the bacteria enter the vascular system the seedling often
wilts. The cause of this wilting has not been definitely established
as yet. It might be owing to a plugging of the vessels by the bac-
teria and retarding the transpiration stream of the plant by causing
the invaded tissues to become disintegrated or as a result of toxic
effects of the metabolic by-products of the organism. The bacteria
in the surviving plants multiply rapidly and with this increase pro-
duce considerable slime possessing high absorptive properties. They
break through the vessels and spread into the near-by parenchyma
cells, with a gradual disintegration of this tissue resulting in the
production of large bacterial pockets.
The bacteria travel up the stem, enter the vessels of the petiole,
and mass to a great extent in the xylem elements of the pulvinus, this
tissue being more succulent than the tissues of the hypocotyl, epicotyl,
or petiole. From here the pathogene passes into the main vein of
the leaf and thence into the smaller veins and veinlets. On the other
hand, the bacteria may enter the stomata of the leaf, pass into the
intercellular spaces of the parenchyma, enter the vessels, and thence
pass into the vascular elements of the petiole and epicotyl.
From the xylem vessels of the stem the bacteria pass into those of
the pedicel and peduncle and enter the sutures of the pod. From
the dorsal suture they enter the funiculus (fig. 10, D), either dis-
integrating this structure to such an extent that the seeds fail to
develop, or traveling through the raphe which leads into the seed
coats, where the organism overwinters. The bacteria entering the
pod cavity either from the funicular region or directly from the
stomata of the pod make their way thence into the seed coats.
The young plants may become infected at the time of germination,
and the cycle is then repeated.
VARIETAL RESISTANCE
For a number of years past considerable progress has been made
in the development of varieties of beans resistant to some of the
common maladies. Most of this development, however, has dealt
with bean anthracnose caused by C oUetotrichum lindemuthianum^
root rot caused by Fusarium martii phaseoli^ and mosaic. Little
has been accomplished in the breeding of varieties resistant to the
common blight caused by Bacterium phaseoli.
The works of Burkholder {6) and Rands and Brotherton {27) on
varietal resistance to bacterial blight are well known and need no
review. Since these tests were carried on in New York and Michi-
gan, respectively, where climatic conditions are somewhat different
from those in Wisconsin, it was deemed advisable to duplicate these
studies. The problem was carried on for a period of three summers,
practically all of the commercial canning-bean varieties being used.
METHODS
Bacterial cultures for all inoculation experiments were grown in
large quantities, which necessitated large surfaces upon which to
BACTERIAL BLIGHT OF BEANS 31
grow the organism. For this purpose liter flasks were at first em-
ployed, but it was later found that 500-c. c. culture bottles were
more advantageous. About 1 inch of potato-dextrose agar was
placed in the flask,- sterilized, and then tipped upon its side to pro-
vide a larger surface. An ordinary test-tube culture of Bacteriwrn
phaseoU was washed off with sterile water, and the suspension poured
into the flask containing the agar. These transfers were made under
a hooded chamber, previously sterilized, to prevent contamination.
The flasks containing the bacteria were allow^ed to incubate at 28°
C. from three to five days, after which they were washed off with
sterile water, and the suspension was placed in a hand spray pump.
The beans inoculated in the preliminary tests to establish a suit-
able method were grown in rows about 3 feet apart. Boxes were
placed over the plants after they had been sprayed with the bac-
terial suspension, and a slight spray of water was directed over
them for a period of 48 hours. The boxes were then removed and
the plants examined daily for symptoms. Check plants were run
in the sanie manner, but instead of the bacterial suspension distilled
water was used. At the end of 12 days characteristic blight lesions
were noticed on the inoculated plants, whereas the checks were free
from blight.
The success of this method of inoculation led to a large-scale ex-
periment in which 40 different varieties of beans were used, each
variet}^ consisting of one 40-foot row and the varietal rows 8 feet
apart. A similar plot was planted as a check. With the use of a
3-gallon compressed-air sprayer the under side of the leaves could
be covered easily with the inoculum. The plants were inoculated
at various times of the day, and the amount of infection was noted
in each case. Some were inoculated early in the morning, others in
the late afternoon^ just before sunset, and still others early in the
evening. The best results w^ere noted on the plants that were in-
oculated in the late afternoon. The possible explanation for this is
that the leaf stomata were open wider at that period than at other
times of the day. Even though the sun was shining, it was not
intense enough to cause any appreciable drying of the bacteria.
Under these conditions a high percentage of infection resulted.
When the plants were inoculated at night there was, without doubt,
considerable moisture in the form of dew on the plants. The sto-
mata, however, were not as wide open as during the day, as shown
by greenhouse studies, and this probably accounted for the small
amount of infection. The bacteria sprayed on the plants early in
the morning probably dried to a large degree because of sunlight,
and hence comparatively little infection resulted.
In order to produce a maximum amount of infection, the plants
were inoculated at various stages of development, viz, before blos-
soming, during the blossoming period, and at the time of pod for-
mation. Checkrows similar to those inoculated were allowed to
grow normally. Observations on varietal resistance and suscepti-
bility were made from time to time. A small amount of infection
was noted in the check plots, having come about through natural
spread from the inoculated plots.
During the summer of 1927 a third type of inoculation was carried
on with fairly good results. The two varieties used for this experi-
ment were the Refugee Wax, a fairly resistant variety, and Full
32 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 186, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Measure, one quite susceptible. A very thick water suspension of
the organism was made, and seeds of the two varieties mentioned
were soaked in this suspension for about five minutes, after which
they were planted. The suspension was then poured over the Kefu-
gee Wax seeds after being placed in the furrow, while the Full
Measure seeds were covered with soil without the last treatment.
The planting was made July 1. On July 27 these two varieties
were examined for symptoms. The Eefugee Wax showed very little
infection, whereas the Full Measure was heavily infected. Besides
having many leaf lesions, much infection was noted at the cotyledon-
ar}^ node, indicating that the bacteria, after the seed coats had been
ruptured, had possibly made their way into the cotyledonary tissue
and thence passed into the vascular elements of the epicotyl and hypo-
cotyl, producing lesions at the point of entry into the seedlings. Even
though both of these varieties were given the same soaking treatment,
many more of the seed coats of the Refugee Wax variety than of the
Full Measure were ruptured. This apparently had little effect on the
amount of infection, since the Refugee Wax had fewer lesions as
compared with the Full Measure, which showed a high degree of
susceptibility. Since this type of inoculation is far more satisfactory
than the ordinary type mentioned previously, because of the fact
that weather conditions do not have to be taken into consideration
for abundant infection, it is entirely possible that it would be feasi-
ble for use in varietal-resistance work.
VARIETAL TESTS
Table 2 shows the results of three summers' work on the problem
of varietal resistance. All of the varieties listed were grown either
in 1925, 1926, 1927, or in each of the three years. The amount of
infection recorded as " very light " corresponds to any infection up
to 5 per cent of the crop ; " light " indicates approximately 25 per
cent of the crop infected, " medium " about 50 per cent, " heavy "
65 per cent, " severe " about 80 per cent, and " very severe " that all
of the plants were infected.
Table 2. — Amount of infection on a numl)er of oommercial canning 'beans
inoculated, with Bacterium phaseoU in 1925, 1926, and 1927, under field
conditions
[it, Very light infection; +, light infection; ++, medium infection; +++, heavy infection; ++++f
severe infection; +++++, very severe infection]
Average degree of
infection
Type of
bean
Variety
1925
1926
1927
ery light.
Light
Green,
-do...
Do.
Wax.
Medium.
Green.
Rogers Stringless Green Refugee
Refugee 1,000-1..
Extra Early Refugee
Keeney Stringless Green Refugee
Full Measure
Low Champion
Burpee Fordhook Favorite bush bean.
Burpee New Kidney Wax
Rogers Improved Kidney Wax
Round Pod Kidney Wax...
Pencil Pod Wax
Webber Wax
Rust proof Golden Wax...
Giant Stringless Green Pod
Burpee Stringless Green Pod
Dwarf Horticultural
Longfellow.
Improved Round Pod Valentine
+
±
±
±
=fc
±
±
±
+
db
+
+
+
++
+
+
+
+
++
+
+
++
++
+++
++
+
++
+
++
+++
+++
BACTERIAL BLIGHT OF BEANS
Table 2. — Amount of infection, etc. — Continued
33
Average degree of
infection
Type of
bean
Variety
1926
1926
1927
Wax
...do
Green
Wax
Green
Wax
Sure Crop Wax. .
+
db
++
++
++++
++++
++++
++++
++++
++++
++++
+++++
+++++
++
Olds Late Stringless Wax
+
Medium.. V
Olds Early Stringless Wax
+++
Refugee Wax
++
++
Hodson Wax
4-
[Improved Golden Wax
+++++
+++
Currie Rustproof Wax*.
+++
Davis White Wax
-f-f-f
Burpee Black Wax
Bountiful
++++
++++
Severe...
Black Valentine
4.4.
Wells Red Kidney
++++
Tk^r^
/Old Style Wax
+++++
++++
+++++
+++
IWardwell Wax
+-h++
Very severe
Tennessee Green Pod
T*;^
/Crystal White Wax..
\Keeney White-seeded Wax
+++++
From these results it can readily be seen that the different varie-
ties of beans show considerable variation in their susceptibility to
bacterial blight. There are no known varieties that show absolute
resistance to the pathogene, but there are a few that exhibit a high
degree of resistance. The Refugee types, comprising Extra Early
Green Refugee, Refugee 1000-1, the Stringless Refugee, and Refugee
Wax show little evidence of infection. Fortunately, most of these
varieties are of an excellent type and quality and are used to a great
extent by many of the Wisconsin canners. With the exception of
the Refugee Wax, they are later than other varieties, and it has been
suggested that possibly they owe their resistance to their lateness
of maturity. Other varieties that show a medium degree of resist-
ance coupled with good canning qualities are Giant Stringless Green
Pod, Burpee Stringless Green Pod, Full Measure, Burpee New Kid-
ney Wax, Round Pod Eadney Wax, and Rogers Improved Kidney
Wax. Extremely susceptible varieties are Bountiful, Dwarf Horti-
cultural, Tennessee Green Pod, Improved Golden Wax, Old Style
Wax, Wardwell Wax, Currie Rustproof Wax, Crystal White Wax,
Keeney White-seeded Wax, and Wells Red Kidney.
Table 2 shows that the results in each case over the 3-year period
are not at all comparable. This can be explained because similar
weather conditions did not prevail in the respective years which
gave some variation in the degree of infection.
SUMMARY
Bacterial blight of beans caused by' Bacteriimi phaseoli is seed
borne and may cause characteristic lesions on stems, leaves, pods,
and seeds. In cases of severe infection the seedling may often
manifest a wilting, resulting from disintegration, toxic effects of
the bacterial by-products, or plugging of the xylem vessels of the
stem.
Infection is markedly influenced by moisture. Plants placed in
a saturated humidity with the proper temperature and light show
a high percentage of infection.
The bean-blight organism is widely distributed with infected seed.
Local dissemination of the parasite may be brought about by dew.
34 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
rain, hail, wind, bean straw, insects, surface drainage, and irrigation
waters. The importance of seed transmission is increased when the
practice of inoculating the seed with a water suspension of the root-
nodule organism. Bacillus radidcola^ is employed, owing to the fact
that this method of moistening the seed spreads the blight parasite
from a few infected seeds over the entire lot.
Leaf infections are stomatal. Bacteria then invade the intercel-
lular spaces, causing a gradual dissolution of the middle lamella.
Later cell disintegration takes place, with the formation of bacterial
pockets. Stem infection occurs through the stomata of the hypo-
cotyl and epicotyl, through the vascular elements leading from the
leaf to the stem, or from infected cotyledons. Bacteria in the xylem
vessels may cause a wilting of the plant either by plugging of the
vessels or by disintegration of the cell walls. Little infection is
found in the secondary xylem because of the composition of the wall
material.
Experimental evidence shows that the pathogene is harbored below
the seed coats. The organisms pass into the sutures of the pods from
the vascular system of the pedicel and make their way into the
funiculus and thence through the raphe leading into the seed coats.
Another method of entry into the seed is through the micropyle. No
case of direct penetration through the seed coat has ever been
observed.
The bacteria in the seed coats either remain there or pass into the
region of the cotyledons and enter these structures when the seed
germinates. Rifts in the epidermis of the cotyledon are formed after
germination because of the increased size of the cells. Bacteria make
their way through these tears, pass into the intercellular spaces of
the cells below, and finally invade the entire cotyledon. Entrance
might be made into the vascular elements whence infection of the
young plant takes place.
Microchemical tests have shown that after germination much of
the cotyledonary tissue becomes soluble, and bacterial action is prob-
ably influenced to a great extent through the solubility of material.
The data on varietal susceptibility to bacterial blight were col-
lected under field conditions for three successive summers. No
variety showed complete resistance; however, 4 varieties of the
Refugee type showed a high degree of resistance, 19 showed medium
resistance, and 12 showed little or no resistance.
LITERATURE CITED
(1) Bachmann, F.
1913. the migration of bacillus amylovobus in the host tissues.
Phytopathology 3: [3]-13, illus.
(2) Barss, H. p.
1921. BEAN BLIGHT AND BEAN MOSAIC. Oreg. Agr. Expt Sta. Crop Pest
and Hort, Rpt. (1915-20) 3: 192-194, illus.
(3) Beach, S. A.
1892. SOME BEAN DiSEjASES. N. Y. State Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. (n. s.)
48, p. [3081-333, illus.
(4) BUBKHOLDEOEl, W. H.
1918. THE PRODUCTION OF AN ANTHRACNOSE-RESISTANT WHITE MABBOW
BEAN. Phytopathology 8 : [353]-359, illus.
(5) •
1921. THE BACTERIAL BLIGHT OF THE BEAN I A SYSTEMIC DISEASE. Phyto-
pathology 11: [61]-69.
BACTERIAL BLIGHT OF BEANS 35
(6) BURKHOLDER, W. H.
1924. VARIETAL SUSCEPTIBILITY AMONG BEANS TO THE BACTERIAL BLIGHT.
Phytopathology 14: [l]-7, illus.
(7)
1926. A NE^V BACTERIAL DISEL\SE OF THE BEAN. PhytopathOlOgV 16 1
915-927, illus.
(8) Darwin, F.
1898. OBSERVATIONS ON STOMATA. Roy. Soc. [London] Phil. Trans. (B)
190 : 531-621.
(9) Delacroix, [G.]
1899. LA GRAISSB, MALADIE BACT^RIENNE DES HARICOTS. Compt. Rend.
Acad. Sci. [ParisJ 129 : 656-659.
(10) DOIDGE, E. M.
1918-19. THE BACTERIAL BLIGHT OF BEANS : BACTERIUM PHASEOLI ERW. 8M.
So. African Jour. Sci. 15 : 503-505.
(11) Edgerton, C. W., and Moreland, C. C.
1913. THE BEAN BLIGHT AND PRESERVATION AND TREATMENT OF BEAN SEED.
La. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 139, 43 p., illus.
(12) Elliott, C.
1920. HALO-BLIGHT OF OATS. Jour. Agr. Research 19: 139-172, illus.
(13) Fulton, H. R.
1908. DISEASES OF PEPPER AND BEANS. La. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 101, 21 p.,
illus.
(14) Gardner, M. W.
1924. A NATIVE WEED HOST FOR BACTERIAL BLIGHT OF BEAN. Phytopathol-
ogy 14: 341.
(15) Halsted, B. D.
1893. A BACTERIUM OF PHASEOLUS. N. J. Agr. Expt. Sta. Ann. Rpt. (1892)
13 : 283-285, illus.
(16) •
1901. BEAN DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES. N. J. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul.
151, 28 p., illus.
(17) Harrison, F. C, and Barlow, B.
1904, SOME BACTERIAL DISEASES OF PLANTS PREVALENT IN ONTARIO. On-
tario Agr. Col. Bul. 136, 20 p., illus.
(18) Hedges, F.
1924. a study of bacterial pustule of soybean, and a comparison of
bact. phaseoli sojense hedges with bact. phaseoli efs. jour.
Agr. Research 29 : 229-252, illus.
(19)
1926. BACTERIAL WILT OF BEANS (BACTERIUM FLACCUMFAOIENS HEDGES),
INCLUDING COMPARISON WITH BACTERIUM PHASEOLI. PhvtO-
pathology 16 : [1]-21, illus.
(20) IDETTA, A.
1909-11. NIPPON SHOKUBUTSU BYORIGAKA. [HANDBUCH DER PFLANZEN-
KRANKHEITEN JAPANS.] Tokio Shokwabo. Ed. 4, 936 p., illus.
(In Japanese, title-pages in Japanese, English, and French. A
second Japanese title-page states this is Ed. 6. 1914.)
(21) Leonard, L. T.
1923. an INFLUENCE OF MOISTURE ON BEAN WILT. Jour. Agr. Research
24 : 749-752, illus.
(22) Link, G. K. K., and Sharp, C. G.
1927. CORRELATION OF HOST AND SEROLOGICAL SPECIFICITY OF BACTERIUM
CAMPESTRE, BACT. FLACCU^rFACIENS, BACT. PHASEOLI, AND BACT.
PHASEOLI SOJENSE. Bot. Gaz. 83: 146-160.
(23) Lloyd, F. E.
1908. THE physiology of STOMATA. 142 p., lllus. Washington, D. C.
(Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 82.)
(24) McCready, S. B.
1911. BACTERIAL BLIGHT. Ontario Agr. Col. and Expt. Farm Ann. Rpt.
(1910) 36:46.
(25) MuNCiE, J. H.
1914. TWO MICHIGAN BEAN DISEASES. Mich. Agr. Expt. Sta. Spec. Bul.
08, 12 p., illus.
(26) Pool, V. W., and McKay, M. B.
1916. RELATION OF STOMATAL MOVEMENT TO INFECTION BY CERCOSPORA
BETicoLA. Jour. Agr.Rescarch 5: 1011-1038, illus.
36 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
(27) Rands, R. D., and Beotherton, W., Jr.
1925. BEiAN VARIETAL TESTS FOR DISEASE RESISTANCE. Jour. AgF. Re-
search 31 : 101-154, illus.
(28) Rapp, C. W.
1920. BACTERIAL BLIGHT OF BEANS. Okla. AgF. Expt. Sta. Bul. 131, 39 p.,
illus.
(29) Reinking, O.
1919. PHILIPPINE PLANT DISEASES. Phytopathology 9: [114]-140.
(30) Sackett, W. G.
1905. some bacterial diseases of plants prevalent in michigan. ii.
BACTERiosis OF BEANS. Mlch. AgT. Expt. Sta. Bul. 230: 211-212,
illus.
(31) Sharp, C. G.
1927. virulence, serological, and other physiological studies of bac-
terium flaccumfaciens, bact. phaseoli, and bact. phaseoli
SOJENSE. Bot. Gaz. 83: 113-114, illus.
(32) Smith, E. F.
1901. the CULTURAL CHARACTERS OF PSEUDOMONAS HYACINTHI, PS. CAMPES-
related species. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Proc. (1897) 46: 288-
290.
(33)
(34)
(35)
(36)
1901. the CULTimAL CHARACTERS OF PSEUDOMONAS HYACINTHI, PS. CAMPES-
TRIS, PS. PHASEOLI, AND PS. STEWARTI — FOUR ONE-FLAGELLATE
YELLOW BACTERIA PARASITIC ON PLANTS. U. S. Dept. Agr., DiV.
Veg. Physiol, and Path. Bul. 28, 153 p., illus.
1902. THE DESTRUCTION OF CELL WALLS BY BACTERIA. ScicnCG (U. S. )
15 : 405.
1905. BACTERIA IN RELATION TO PLANT DISEASES. V. 1. METHODS OF WORK
AND GENERAL LITERATURE OF BACTERIOLOGY EXCLUSIVE OF PLANT
DISEASES. 285 p., illus. Washington, D. C. (Carnegie Inst.
Wash. Pub. 27.)
1911. BACTERIA IN RELATION TO PLANT DISEASES. V. 2. HISTORY, GENERAL
CONSIDERATIONS, VASCULAR DISEASES. 368 p., illus. Washing-
ton, D. C. (Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 27.)
(37) Stewart, V. B.
1913. THE FIRE BLIGHT DISEASE IN NURSERY STOCK. N. Y. Cornell AgT.
Expt. sta. Bul. 329, p. 314-371, illus.
(38) TscHiRCH, A., and Oesterle, O.
1900. ANATOMISCHER ATLAS DER PHARMAKOGNOSIB UND NAHRUNGSMITTEL-
KUNDE. 80 p., illus. Leipzig.
(39) Whetzel, H. H.
1906. SOME diseases of BEANS. N. Y. Cornell Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 239,
p. [1941-214, illus.
(40) Wilson, W. P., and Greenman, J. M.
1892. preliminary observations on the movements of the leaves of
melilotus alba, l. and other plants. Penn. Univ., Bot. Lab.
Contrib. 1: [661-72, illus.
U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1930
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. Price 10 cents
Technical Bulletin No. 185
June, 1930
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS
OF THE
ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS
OF THE SOUTHWEST
BY
SAMUEL FORTIER
Principal Irrigation Engineer
AND
ARTHUR A. YOUNG
Assistant Irrigation Engineer
Division of Agricultural Engineering
Bureau of Public Roads
United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
For tale by the Superintendent of Document*. Washington, D.C.
Price 15 cent*
Technical Bulletin No. 185
June, 1930
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF THE
ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS OF
THE SOUTHWEST
By Samuel Fortier, Principal Irrigation Engineer, and Arthur A. Young,
Assistant Irrigation Engineer, Division of Agricultural Engineering, Bureau
of Public Roads
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction . 1
The Southwest 2
Soils of the larger irrigated areas 3
Climatic conditions 5
Water resourees • 11
Agricultural resources. 15
Irrigation practice..- 17
Crops grown under irrigation 19
Relation of water applied to crop yield 20
Water requirement of crops 22
Sorghums 22
Cotton 25
Alfalfa 26
Rhodes grass 26
Corn 27
Vegetables 28
Summary of water requirements of lead-
ing crops 28
Page
Conditions influencing the quantity of water
required for irrigation 29
Physical conditions 29
Character of equipment, etc 30
Conditions relating to farm manage-
ment 30
Economic phases 30
Duty of water as afTected by State, commu-
nity, and corporate regulations 31
Statutes and court decisions 31
Community regulations and contracts. . . 32
Arid-land reclamation and monthly and
seasonal irrigation requirements 34
Appendix 37
Use of water on crops in the Southwest,
irrigation water applied, rainfall, and
crop yields in Colorado, California,
Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and
Oklahoma 37
INTRODUCTION
The expressions ''irrigation requirement" and ''water requirement"
as used in this bulletin are defined below to avoid confusion resulting
from the frequent but mistaken assumption that they are synonymous.
The irrigation requirement of arable land is the quantity of irriga-
tion water required for profitable crop production under normal cli-
matic and physical conditions. The water requirement of crops is
the total quantity of water, regardless of its source, required by crops
for their normal grow^th under field conditions.
The water requirement is applicable to individual crops grown on
relatively small tracts and includes soil moisture and rainfall besides
the irrigation requirement. The expression of both requirements is
in acre-feet of water per acre.
The design and construction of irrigation systems usually involve
consideration of either of two sets of conditions. In one the area to
be irrigated has been determined and the water supply is ample; in
the other the known water supply is limited, while the area which
may be irrigated is restricted only by the available water. In both
10646f*— 30- 1
A^
2 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 185. M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
cases the basic quantity of water to be considered by the engineer is
the irrigation requirement combined with transmission and other
losses in canals.
This report is the third of a series on the irrigation requirements of
the arid and semiarid lands of the Western States. In the first of the
series, which dealt with the Great Basin (5)/ the conclusion was
reached that the seasonal quantity of delivered irrigation water for
agricultural purposes would vary from 1.5 acre-feet per acre to 2.2
acre-feet per acre, depending on the locality, and that eventually an
area of 5,000,000 acres — nearly double the area irrigated in 1920 —
might be irrigated with the available water supply, provided that
measures be adopted to control and conserve the flood waters and
use all diverted water economically.
In the second of the series, dealing with the Missouri River and
Arkansas River Basins (9), it was concluded that the seasonal net
irrigation requirement for the arid and semiarid lands considered
would vary from 1.25 acre-feet per acre to 2.3 acre-feet per acre,
depending on the locality, and that on this basis the available water
supply if properly controlled and used would irrigate about 17,000,000
acres. Deducting the 5,000,000 acres irrigated in 1919 leaves a bal-
ance of about 12,000,000 acres still susceptible of irrigation.
In this bulletin, which deals with the Southwest, data are presented
in support of the conclusion that the area irrigated in 1919, amount-
ing to 3,771,000 acres, may be increased to 13,000,000 acres, provided
the available water supply is efficiently controlled and utilized and
the seasonal net irrigation requirements do not exceed the average
quantity of irrigation water allotted in Table 5 to each of the 30 sub-
divisions into which the territory is separated.
The greater part of the investigational work summarized in this
bulletin was carried on in cooperation with State agencies. In Texas
the board of water engineers contributed funds, labor, and equipment
to determine the proper use of water in irrigation in western Texas,
the experiments being conducted under the direction of the Division
of Agricultural Engineering of the United States Department of
Agriculture,^ W. L. Rockwell initiating them. Like contributions for
similar purposes in adjoining States were received from the State
engineer and the University of Arizona, the Agricultural Experiment
Station of New Mexico, and the Imperial Irrigation District of
California.
THE SOUTHWEST
In this bulletin the Southwest includes all of Arizona and New
Mexico, the western half of Oldahoma, three-fourths of Texas, a
portion of southeastern California, a small part of southern Nevada;
also the basins of the Colorado River, the upper part of which extends
into Utah, Colorado, and Wyoming, and of the Rio Grande, which
extends into south-central Colorado. The region described is shown
on Figure 1.
The pertinent characteristics of the territory are (1) its sparse
population, (2) low annual rainfall and resultant aridity, (3) large
1 Reference is made by italic nu^nbers in parentheses to "Literature cited," p. 37.
» The irrigation work of the U. S. Department of Agriculture was originally conducted under the
supervision of the Oflace of Experiment Stations and designated as irrigation investigations. Later,
under a reorganization of the department, this and other agricultural engineering activities were grouped
in a division of agricultural engineering and made a part of the Bureau of Public Roads.
ns (bounded by ddtted lines), with the net irrigation requirement of each
the occurrence oi winter storms at the higher elevations, it is often
necessary to supplement range feed. This accounts for the prepon-
derance of forage crops in the total of all harvested crops reported by
the 1925 census (28), which varied from 96 per cent in southwestern
Wyoming to 32 per cent in New Mexico.
In formulating a policy for stock grazing on the public domain or
within national forests the interests of the farmer and those who
combine farming and stock raising must be considered of first impor-
tance. To adopt a policy favorable to the large stockman and detri-
mental to the farmer owning a small herd of stock would result
eventually in a marked reduction in the agricultural wealth of the
Southwest. In order to derive the largest possible returns from agri-
culture, every farmer whose stock can graze on Government lands,
and who demonstrates his ability to feed it from home-grown or
purchased fodder when there is not enough native grass, should be
given access to the range.
Future agricultural development will depend chiefly on the use made
of the main resources — the native grasses, arable soils, and the water
supply available for irrigation farming. Public grazing lands should
be so controlled as to produce the largest possible quantity of fodder
consistent with the needs and profits of the owners of stock. The
extent of dry farming will be governed largely by the rainfall and the
time and manner of its occurrence, whereas future development under
irrigation will depend on how fully and skillfully the surface waters
are controlled by storage, the use of underground water, and the
economy with which water is applied to crops.
SOILS OF THE LARGER IRRIGATED AREAS
In the large area of the Southwest, with its drainage basins and
topography ranging from the high mountains of the headwaters of the
Colorado and the Kio Grande systems to the low coastal plains of the
Gulf of Mexico and the basin of the Imperial Valley of California,
soils of several varieties have been formed. Of the many sections of
this area which have been mapped by the United States Bureau of
Soils, only those which are now irrigated or are susceptible of irriga-
tion will be described.
Much of the soil of Imperial Valley is sediment transported by the
Colorado River and many short watercourses draining the surround-
ing mountains. This valley was once the northern end of the Gulf of
California, from which it was later cut off by the formation of the
Colorado delta. The water north of this barrier evaporated, leaving
a great area. Imperial Valley, lying partly below sea level. Salton
N
rGpeen River
DENVER
*-7
D 0%
«?
1.60 feet
, AmariUo
tiJc^ ^./'r~^ 1^"'''^==^ / /WAIbuquerqlie. ^
ocorpo
ucumcani
3
?oswell *! 19
•j 1.65 feet
10 tl
\l.35feet
2.40 feet
Dougl^f j^^^^jj
.1^1
£^
arstov
•^ 13
• _2.25 feej
Ft. Stockton
IjASprii
y\
^^c
, 1.60 feet
7^r
hj^
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID
i-iT'
OKUAHC
percentage of nontillable land, (4) small p
and (5) high productivity of fertile arable ]
Its area is about one-fifth of the Unit
population averaged only 3.3 persons to t
Approximately 85 per cent of the South^
ing because of inferior soil, rough and
insufficient rainfall to mature crops, and 1
There is no known means of utilizing thes
turally except by grazing.
Grazing and farming are closely related,
the climate, the prevalence of long-continui
the occurrence of winter storms at the hi
necessary to supplement range feed. Thi
derance of forage crops in the total of all h
the 1925 census (23), which varied from 9
Wyoming to 32 per cent in New Mexico.
In formulating a policy for stock grazin
within national forests the interests of t
combine farming and stock raising must b
tance. To adopt a policy favorable to the
mental to the farmer owning a small h
eventually in a marked reduction in the
Southwest. In order to derive the largest
culture, every farmer whose stock can gr
and who demonstrates his ability to fee
purchased fodder when there is not enou
given access to the range.
Future agricultural development will dep
of the main resources — the native grasses,
supply available for irrigation farming. I
be so controlled as to produce the largest
consistent with the needs and profits of
extent of dry farming will be governed lar^
time and manner of its occurrence, whereas
irrigation will depend on how fully and sj
are controlled by storage, the use of un
economy with which water is applied to cr
i^
\fort^
/ofih
SOILS ^OF THE LARGER IRRI
In the large area of the Southwest, wii
topography ranging from the high mountaii
Colorado and the Rio Grande systems to t^
Gulf of Mexico and the basin of the Imj
soils of several varieties have been formed
this area which have been mapped by ihi
Soils, only those which are now irrigated c
tion will be described.
Much of the soil of Imperial Valley is se
Colorado River and many short watercoui
ing mountains. This valley was once the i
California, from which it was later cut oi
Colorado delta. The water north of this I
a great area, Imperial Valley, lying parti;
r\N
ILAKE"
;iTY»
^.
-7
^
1.75 feet
ADA
V •:
T :
LeDal^ ^^brcen fiTvetv
• • •
Figure l.-The Southwest, showing the various duty of water divisions (bounded by dotted lines), v
^' E V
,raSALT)LAKE<
iM
0 A I
106469-30. (Face p. 3.)
Figure 1.- The Southwest, showing the various duty of water divi
-7
^.oCJJ
idian
^AmaHUo
ucumcari
1 rv
^
OKJ^"^
^
%.T^
P-J' L
^ A/
A
A'
<
^
V V
\/l.00feet^
iLawton
<7 ^
•I
ioswell •! 19
•• 1.65 feot
10 j
'lalnview
.35 feet
i^ichitA Falls
110 fi^
t^
12.40 feet
2
^>
Jarstov
13
'^ .2.25 fee)/
• Ft. Stockton
12
2,40 feet
<2^
IjfeSprii
an Angelo^
14
1.60 feet
t* -X
iOfe^
fear^Antpnio
Hondo
^Sif
[Laredo
15
1.75 fee*
j(bh.ied by dotted lines), with the net irrigation requirement of each
^1 E V A D
r
u
1.75 feel
.A A,
C^
slleDalfi Vffireen RVvenj
fra";
)^'
'eit i;?J-To^«^»>
M
N Z V
\
\
unUA
■,;i^KV-K,r'4:'%,.
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS 3
percentage of nontillable land, (4) small percentage of irrigable land,
and (5) high productivity of fertile arable land which can be irrigated.
Its area is about one-fifth of the United States, but in 1920 its
population averaged only 3.3 persons to the square mile.
Approximately 85 per cent of the Southwest is unsuitable for farm-
ing because of inferior soil, rough and mountainous topography,
insufficient rainfall to mature crops, and lack of water for irrigation.
There is no known means of utilizing these nontillable lands agricul-
turally except by grazing.
Grazing and farming are closely related. Because of the aridity of
the climate, the prevalence of long-continued and severe droughts, and
the occurrence of winter storms at the higher elevations, it is often
necessary to supplement range feed. This accounts for the prepon-
derance of forage crops in the total of all harvested crops reported by
the 1925 census (23), which varied from 96 per cent in southwestern
Wyoming to 32 per cent in New Mexico.
In formulating a policy for stock grazing on the public domain or
within national forests the interests of the farmer and those who
combine farming and stock raising must be considered of first impor-
tance. To adopt a policy favorable to the large stockman and detri-
mental to the farmer owning a small herd of stock would result
eventually in a marked reduction in the agricultural wealth of the
Southwest. In order to derive the largest possible returns from agri-
culture, every farmer whose stock can graze on Government lands,
and who demonstrates his ability to feed it from home-grown or
purchased fodder when there is not enough native grass, should be
given access to the range.
Future agricultural development will depend chiefly on the use made
of the main resources — the native grasses, arable soils, and the water
supply available for irrigation farming. Public grazing lands should
be so controlled as to produce the largest possible quantity of fodder
consistent with the needs and profits of the owners of stock. The
extent of dry farming will be governed largely by the rainfall and the
time and manner of its occurrence, whereas future development under
irrigation will depend on how fully and skillfully the surface waters
are controlled by storage, the use of underground water, and the
economy with which water is applied to crops.
SOILS OF THE LARGER IRRIGATED AREAS
In the large area of the Southwest, with its drainage basins and
topography ranging from the high mountains of the headwaters of the
Colorado and the Kio Grande systems to the low coastal plains of the
Gulf of Mexico and the basin of the Imperial Valley of California,
soils of several varieties have been formed. Of the many sections of
this area which have been mapped by the United States Bureau of
Soils, only those which are now irrigated or are susceptible of irriga-
tion will be described.
Much of the soil of Imperial Valley is sediment transported by the
Colorado River and many short watercourses draining the surround-
ing mountains. This valley was once the northern end of the Gulf of
California, from which it was later cut off by the formation of the
Colorado delta. The water north of this barrier evaporated, leaving
a great area. Imperial Valley, lying partly below sea level. Salton
4 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 185, M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Sea, since formed, now occupies a portion of the valley. Below the
ancient beach line the soils are mainly brown, compact, and of heavy
text we. Above it they are lighter in color, being generally gravelly
materials and wind-blown sands. The valley is level, sloping slightly
toward Salton Sea, is easily cultivated, and very productive when
irrigated. Certain areas near Salton Sea and in the eastern portion
of the irrigated district are heavily charged with salts. Drainage
ditches are being dug to relieve this condition.
The Yuma district, in southwestern Arizona, is part of the older
delta of the Colorado. Sediment collected and transported from
many sources within its drainage area now forms a portion of the
Yuma project. The soils are loam, fine sandy loam, sandy loam,
sand, and silt loam, the acreage of each decreasing in the order named.
They are very fertile and under irrigation produce good yields of
cotton, hay, and other crops.
The Salt River Valley of Arizona, one of the Nation's most pro-
ductive irrigated sections, has been built up from a deep valley to a
broad sloping plain by water-deposited materials transported from
the surrounding mountains. The valley's irrigable soils are the old
transported soils and the recently transported alluvial soils. The
former have the denser subsoils, containing amounts of clay and lime
carbonate deposited from solution, forming layers of caliche. These
soils are found on the upper slopes of alluvial fans and the older sur-
faces of the valley plain. The recent alluvial soils, which occup}'
much of the valley, are somewhat more friable ; they are found in the
stream bottom lands and in areas of alluvial fans lately built up with
sediments. They contain considerable amounts of lime, more or less
evenly distributed below the first few inches of top soil from which it
has been leached. Both classes are irrigable, producing excellent
cotton, alfalfa, barley, fruit, and truck and other crops. Alkali
occurs in small parts of the area under irrigation, sometimes in exces-
sive amounts. Drainage and leaching of alkali are being facilitated
by a lowering of the grt)und-water plane, which is effected by the
operation of deep-well pumps electrically operated.
Soils of the valley of the upper Colorado River, formerly known as
the Grand, range from comparatively recent alluvial deposits in the
lower areas to residual soils in the higher portions and from fine sandy
loams to clay, the two types which constitute most of the valley. The
sandy loams are easily cultivated, but some of the heavier soils tend
to bake when dry. Alkali is present in limited areas. The clays
are heavy, often shallow, hard to cultivate, and bake as the surface
moisture evaporates, but are productive, when of sufiicient depth,
under proper cultural treatment. A limited area of land has become
wet and difiicult to drain, because the shallow underlying shale in
some places forces ground water to the surface and because of seepage
from higher irrigated areas.
The San Luis Valley, Colo., an extensively irrigated district about
7,500 feet above sea level, was filled with sand, gravel, and clay in
alternate strata, and these form the source of an ample supply of
artesian water. Over much of the valley more recent accumulations
of sandy loams, loams, or clay loams have been deposited over gravelly
subsoils. In the northern part soils are heavier and drainage deficient,
causing accumulations of alkali. Streams entering the valley have
built up coalescing alluvial fans, which are sometimes gravelly and
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS O
well drained. In portions of the district crop production depends
upon subirrigation, effected by introducing excessive quantities of
water into the subsoil, which in time causes the soils to be strongly
alkalized. Much land thus affected, however, is being reclaimed at
reasonable cost by drainage.
One of the most productive sections of New Mexico is the Mesilla
Valley, which extends through the south-central portion of the State
along the Rio Grande. The soils of the adjacent mesas are sandy
and gravelly and in general are above gravity systems of irrigation.
Most of the alluvial valley soils have been transported long distances
by the Rio Grande. The t3^pes ranging from fine sand to clay are
naturally very productive, and sediment deposited by irrigation
water tends to maintain their fertility. Alkali brought to the surface
by rising ground water has been overcome by the construction of
deep drainage canals.
A survey in 1909 by the Bureau of Soils (6) of 10,759,680 acres in
southern Texas divided the area into three geographic divisions —
the rolling to hilly country, the level coast country, and the Rio
Grande Valley and delta. The dark soils of the hilly country have a
large proportion of humus; the light-colored soils contain little humus.
Likewise the soils of the level coast country are divided according to
their dark or light color, and both are further subdivided into numer-
ous series and types. In the alluvial deposits of the river and its
delta are soils of the Laredo series, together with the Cameron clay
and Rio Grande silty clay. This area, except parts of the hilly coun-
try, is excellent agricultural land. Much of it is irrigated.
The predominating soils of the Wichita Falls and other districts
in north-central Texas are derived from the Permian Red Beds forma-
tion, being residual in origin. They are classed as fine sandy loam,
sandy loam, and clay. These soils are well drained, retentive of
moisture, fertile, and productive under irrigation. The principal
crops grown are cotton, fodders, and oats.
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS
It will be shown later that the net seasonal irrigation requirements
of crops grown in the Southwest vary from 1 to more than 3 acre-feet
an acre. This wide variation is caused mainly by climate, which also
varies widely. Data for 24 typical stations, pertaining to precipita-
tion, temperature, and the duration of the frost-free period, compiled
from records of the Weather Bureau, are summarized graphically in
Figures 2 to 5.
The mean annual rainfall of the valleys of the lower Colorado
Basin varies from about 3 inches in Imperial Valley to a little more
than 7 inches at Phoenix, x\riz. It is so distributed and usually in
such small amounts as to be of little or no benefit to growing crops.
In this territory precipitation increases normally with altitude, being
about 5 inches or less for elevations under 1,000 feet, 9 inches between
1,000 and 2,000 feet, 12 inches between 2,000 and 4,000 feet, 14 inches
between 4,000 and 6,000 feet, and 16 inches or more above 6,000 feet.
Almost continuous sunshine, a long frost-free period, and long periods
of intense heat also characterize the region. The highest recorded
temperature at Phoenix is 117° F.; that at Indio, Calif., 125° F. On
account of the low humidity and high temperature, evaporation is
rapid, varying from 5 to 8 feet a year.
6
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 185, M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
i
1
1
1
1
1 1§>
<
o
II
1
^
c
1
ffl
June
July
n
■v!
o
O
1
1
CASTLE DALE. UTAH, el.ssoo
-I r
Average, frost-free period
I I I I II I I I I
Precipitation
ME.AN MAXIMUM
MEAN MINIMUM
MEAN
Temperature
100 , .100
1.5 1.5
0 ^.0
Oi5 §0.5
GREEN RIVER. WYOMING. EL.60B3
T — I — I — p — ■ — ■ — ' r
Average frost-free period
Precipitation
CI
Temperature:
CALEXICO. CALIF. EL. o
Average frost-free period
I I I I I I I I I !k.
Precipitation
Temperature
iiSi
liflliliiiiiii
1.5 1.5
1.0 ^ 1.0
O
0.5.^0.5
100 100
50SJ50
«>
LAS VEGAS. NEVADA, el.2033
Average frost- free reriod
1 I I ! I I ! I I I
Precipitation
Hi
Ei
xU
Temperature
liiiil
gtliiiiiiiiiigi
ia^iaiiiii!aiiiiii[iji^iii]iaitttjt#ttf^
SAN LUIS, COLORADO. EL.7794
— i — i — i — i — i — i — i — \ — i — (—
Average frost-free period
Precipitation
GARNET, COLORADO, el.7576
Average frost-free period
I I I l-#-^-^ I I 1
Precipitation
Figure 2.— Condensed climatology of typical stations, showing average frost-free period; mean
monthly precipitation and mean minimum temperatures (double shaded bars), mean tem-
peratures (solid bars), and mean maximum temperatures (lightly shaded bars)
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS
1
II
If
}
?
Nov.
Dec.
PHOENIX, ARIZONA, eljiob
Average Frost-free Period
I I I I I
Precipitation
EMPE,RATURE
^■
1.5 g,. 5
1.0 o I
100. .lOOf
50 Si 50
CD
YUMA, ARIZONA. EL.I4I
Average Frost- free: Period
1 I I I I I I I I I
Precipitation
PEjRAT.UR^
ii33
^
p=,r,..«y;iiiiHiEiii!ily!.o.r«
TUCSON. ARIZONA, el.2423
Average Frost-free Period
I I I I I I I I I I
Precipitation
Temperature
MtM
tiwwm »■ sir mi \\\i nn. vwt *m itwn
riiiiEiiiiiiii
ia3iaiiiiji^i^iifiiiaiiaiiaiittiii^i»i
2.5 24
2.0 2.
I.5g!.5^
1.0 ol.o^
0.5^05
100 ,100
Co
Ui
50 i,j50
q:
THATCHER. ARIZONA. EL.aeoo
Average Frost-free Period
Precipitation
Temperature
M
i
i
i
wsi'iiiiiiiiii'irii
HOLBROOK, ARIZONA. el.5069
Average Frost-free Period
I I I I I I I I I
Precipitation
Temperature
i
3.0 3.0
2.5 2.5
2.0 2.0
1.5 »4j 1.5
1.0 g 1.0
OS 0.5
DOUGLAS. ARIZONA. EL.3930
Average Frost-free Period
I I I I I IJ I I I I
Precipitation
illll
Temperature
Figure 3.— Condensed climatology of typical stations, showing average frost-free period; mean
monthly precipitation and mean minimum temperatures (double shaded bars), mean tem-
peratures (solid bars), and mean maximum temi)eratures (lightly shaded bars)
8 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 185, M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
^
<5
1
c:
>.
■5 -Ix
1
1
1
<
1
1
1
im
o
o
1
FRUITLAND, NEW MEX. el.48oo
Average: Frost-free: Period
I I i I I M I I I
Precipitation
1.5 2 1.5
MEAN MAXIMUMKZZa
MEAN M INIMUMESSS
MEAN
Temperature:
105 ^asf
SOCORRO. NEW MEX.el.46oo
Average Frost-free Period
I I I I i ■ M ! I
Precipitatioi
Temperature
SANTA FE,NEW MEX.el.70!3
Average Fpost-free Period
I I I I I
Precipitation
Temperature
i
^
1.5 gl.5
1.0 oi.o
0.5 ^0.5
100 100
soy 50
Q:
AGRI. COLLEGE. NEW MEX.elj863
Average Frost-free Period
I I I I i I I I I I
Precipitation
IMPERATURE
iiiHi
fflS
1 iiiiiiii
CARLSBAD, NEW MEX.el.3120 |
Average Frost-free Period
Precipitation
■
1
1
■
1
1
T
Temperature |
1
i f
m
p
i J I
P
J'
t. 3. 13.13
— P
^
1'
n
i
^
riw
{{'1:1
-A-
4
tX'
PV
llA.il.m^
rW/
1 ^isf an HiHHS fill Si iRHsniiniiniini
2.5 2.5
,0 2.0
e,>.
1.0^1.
look* 100
<9
50 l«J50
DEMING, NEW MEX.el.4325
Average Frost- free PebioB
1_*
I I I I
Precipitation
Temperature
I
iMMh
mmwMMMmmi
Figure 4.— Condensed climatology of typical stations, showing average frost-free period ; mean
monthly precipitation and mean minimum temperatures (double shaded bars), mean tem-
peratures (solid bars), and mean maximum temperatures (lightly shaded bars)
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS 9
^llll
l?ll
<
s
II
II
1
1
^
■^
1
i
MERCEDES, TEXAS.el.63
Average: trost-freie: period
I III, g!!L
Precipitation
MEAN MAXIMUM eZZZa
MfANMINIMUMBZa
Temperature
MEAN.
hI jI J
■^■fijrgr ^ir ^ir ^ir ; ^'
sir !ii;< sii: in' sii;< >ii> !
iii;!iiiii!U!!iiiiniini!uiiui!ni!U!
11
35 3.5
IJO 3i)
i.O ^2.0
1.5 ^1.5
.0' 1.0
105 05
lOO^IOOf
50^50
PLAINVIEW. TEXAS, el.3370
Average frost-free perioi
Precipitation
Temperature
nl Jl Jl Jl.
-&
ri!^s!!iiiH!ini!n!!;i!iniin!in!inir^!
\i %ii:! ;ii; it ; »!:• $ii: (ii> ill! nu ;iir. »i; sii- ;i
FORT MCINTOSH, TEXAS. EL.460
Average frost-free period
I I I I I I I I I L
Precipitation
Temperature
J bI Jl Jl Jl a]
.iiiiiiiiyii
3J) 3.0
25 25
12.0 2 2.0
15 OI5
1.0*^1.0
)5 05
ioo'<i
50(t 5C
AMARILLO. TEXAS. EL.3676
Average frost- free period
Precipitation
Temperature
J
#3^
3
I; ;ii; sii;; sip sia^si
ii: ^11: ^ii: »ii» sii! ^11! ^ni ap iir
li> iiii:- ;ii> sii: <ii> }ii:: uv ni:- sir
=5
DELRIO,TEXAS.EL.952
Average frost-free period
,1111111 g-L
Precipitation
Temperature
,1 Jl Jl Jl
a-asa^iiii III! 3-H
125 25
2.0 «.! 2.0
15^15
1.0 1.0
*)5 05
^ir^sHB^iiiHiiHiiniiuiifiii^^iyirj!
100 (oioo
uj
«>:
so 12
FORT STOCKTON. TEXAS, el joso
Average frost-free PERiop
_J I I I I I I I I
Precipitation
Temperature
liSliii
S=i
! ^1? nr ^ HiiHSSHSiHisnsiusinir ^ir^s
Figure 5 —Condensed climatology of typical stations, showing average frost-free period; mean
monthly precipitation and mean minimum temperatures (double shaded bars), mean tem-
peratures (solid bars), and mean maximum temperatures (lightly shaded bars)
106469—30 2
10 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 185, M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The mountainous parts of Arizona, New Mexico, and western Texas,
with the intervening valleys, have a wider range of climatic conditions
than the lower valleys of the Colorado Basin. The climate of the
higher elevations is relatively moderate, but the valleys of Gila, Rio
Grande, and Pecos Rivers have summer temperatures frequently
ranging from 100° to 115° F. In the extreme western part of Texas,
the lower Rio Grande Valley in New Mexico, and in northern and
western Arizona, mean annual precipitation is less than 10 inches a
year, increasing to more than 20 inches in the higher areas. Without
additional moisture, little can be accomplished agriculturally beyond
the utilization of native pasture, except in a few high valleys which
have enough rain for small crops of hay. The frost-free period
shortens rapidly with increasing altitude, extending generally from
March or April to October or November in the irrigated valleys of
Rio Grande and the Pecos and decreasing from May to September or
October at the higher elevations.
In western Texas the mean annual precipitation increases more or
less uniformly from less than 10 inches at El Paso to 33 inches at
Austin, the lines of equal rainfall running nearly parallel north and
south. In the northern portion the rainfall is favorably distributed
for agricultural needs, with about two-thirds of the total amount
occurring between April and September, the principal crop-growing
season. This gives mean rainfalls of 2 to 3 inches a month, with a
probability of rain falling once a week or oftener. In some districts
this amount of rainfall is sufficient to produce medium crop yields.
Irrigation in addition to rainfall, however, generally increases the
yield. In other districts with less regular rainfall, supplementary
irrigation saves the crops in dry years and permits a wider variety
than could be raised by dry farming.
Over so large an area as western Texas a wide range in temperature
is to be expected. The maximums are high, and the hot season
extends from April or May to October. Records {21) show 115° F.
at Eagle Pass and 117° at Big Spring. Temperatures of over 100°
are common. Mean minimum temperatures range from 20° to 40°,
with an occasional short period of subzero weather; the recorded
minimum for the State is —23° at Tulia. Southern Texas and the
Rio Grande Valley have a 12-month growing season, being normally
free from frosts from February to December, while in the western
and northern counties the frost-free period is somewhat shorter.
Light falls of snow are apt to occur in winter, but most of the precipi-
tation is rain.
Warm, moist southern winds account for the summer rains, the
dryness of the winter being a result of the prevailing northerly dry
winds. Tropical storms sometimes strike the coast region, and
occasionally cyclones occur over widely scattered areas.
In contrast with the arid plains of the extreme Southw^est are the
high valleys and mountain ranges of the upper Colorado Basin in
Colorado, Wyoming, and Utah and the upper Rio Grande Basin in
Colorado. This section lies between the Continental Divide on the
east and the Wasatch and Bear River Ranges on the west, and
contains the highest mountain peaks and valleys in the Southwest.
Consequently its mountain snows are heavier and the growing season
of its valleys is shorter than those found elsewhere. Records for the
mountains of southwestern Wyoming show an annual snowfall of
IRKIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS 1 1
12 to 15 feet. In the vallej^ of the Green River, although the
elevation is over 6,000 feet, the precipitation amounts to only 7 inches
annually. The crop-growing season is shorter than at lower eleva-
tions. A frost-free period from June to August or even to September
may be expected in southwestern Wyoming, while in eastern Utah or
western Colorado it may run from May or June to September or
October. Although the summer season is relatively short, tempera-
tures sometimes exceed 100° F., the Colorado maximum being 109°,
the Wyoming 114°, and the Utah 116°. Winter extremes occasion-
ally reach —40°.
To sum up, except in central Texas, the agricultural districts of
the Southwest are mostly arid and must be irrigated, summer tem-
peratures are high, and the crop-growing season is long. Annual
precipitation, except in central Texas and in the high mountains, is
less than 15 inches and falls in such small quantities as to be of little
or no agricultural benefit. Heavy rainstorms of short duration,
resulting in high run-off and a small amount of absorption, occur in
many districts, and light rains quickly evaporate; consequently
neither heavy nor light rains are of great value to the growing crops.
Snow seldom falls except in the mountains, and then only in small
quantities. Evaporation is rapid and the total amount large, causing
high irrigation requirements. Because of the rapid evaporation and
low humidity, extreme heat is not prostrating and seldom uncom-
fortable.
WATER RESOURCES
In close relation to the climatic conditions of the Southwest are its
natural water resources. These depend upon the amount of summer
rainfall and winter snows. Part of the rainfall forms streams, to
which mountain snow, melting slowly as the season advances, con-
tributes to form the maximum spring and summer flow.
There is an abundance of fertile, arable land, but a scarcity of water
for irrigation. Furthermore, the natural flow of the streams, although
high in late spring or early summer, is insufficient later in the season.
This handicap to agriculture can be remedied only by the construction
of reservoirs to store water now wasted.
Structures such as the Elephant Butte Dam on the Rio Grande in
New Mexico and the Roosevelt Dam on the Salt River in Arizona are
now impounding large quantities of w^ater. Many others, including
small farm reservoirs, exist, the 1920 census (22) showing over 800
reservoirs in the Southwest with a total capacity of over 5,000,000
acre-feet. Others are under construction or are being planned. As
most of the natural low flow of streams is now appropriated, the
future reclamation of new lands must depend upon storage.
The water supply is derived mainly from the streams of the Colorado
River and Rio Grande Basins. The flow of these systems and other
independent streams is shown in Figures 6 and 7. Table 1 also
gives the characteristics of discharge of 16 important streams. The
Colorado River as a source of water for irrigation, domestic use, and
hydraulic power is a present and potential asset of great value. The
upper Colorado, Green, and other tributaries rising in the high snow-
clad mountains of Wyoming, Utah, and Colorado unite to form a river
which drains portions of seven States and a part of Mexico. The
Colorado River, which is 1,700 miles long, traverses three distinct
12 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 185, M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
?
GREEN RIVER-WYOMING
400
200
0
1
■
1
1
1
■
JAN.
FEB.
MAR.
APR.
MAY
JUNE
JULY
AUG.
SEPT.
OCT.
NOV.
DEC.
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
UPPER COLORADO RIVER -COLORADO |
1
■
1
■
1
1
I
I
I
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
JAN.
FEB.
MAR.
APR.
MAY
JUNE
JULY
AUG.
SEPT.
OCT.
NOV.
DEC.
4400
4200
4000
3800
)600
J400
J200
3000
2800
2600
2400
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
COLORADO RIVER -ARIZONA
1000
800
600
400
200
0
■
■
■
1
1
1
1
I
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
JAN.
FEB.
MAR.
APR.
MAY
JUNE
JULY
AUG.
SEPT.
OCT
NOV.
DEC.
Figure 6. — Mean monthly flow of typical streams
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMI ARID LANDS 13
topographical sections. The upper basin, with its surrounding
snow-clad mountains, contributes about 85 per cent of the total flow
from the three large tributaries, the Green, the upper Colorado, and
the San Juan. The Grand Canyon, which crosses a high, rough
table-land, gashed also by branches of the main stream, divides the
upper basin from the broad, low, arid plains of the lower basin. Here
to
COLORADO RIVER OF TEXAS
400
200
0
.
*
^
■
■
1
1
I
■
1
I
■
■
JAN.
FEB.
MAR.
APR.
MAY
JUNE
JULY
AUG.
SEPT.
OCT.
NOV.
DEC.
600
400
200
0
BRAZOS RIVER- TEXAS
■
1
-
■
.
„
1
1
1
1
■
1
■
g
■
JAN.
FEB.
MAR.
APR.
MAY
JUNE
JULY
AUG.
SEPT.
OCT.
NOV.
DEC.
800
600
400
200
0
RIO GRANDE-TEXAS |
■
I
1
.
1
1
1
1
1
1
■
1
■
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
JAN.
FEB.
MAR.
APR.
MAY
JUNE
JULY
AUG.
SEPT.
OCT.
NOV.
DEC.
400
200
0
RIO GRANDE -NEW MEXICO |
I
^
I
1
1
p
■
JAN.
FEB.
MAR.
APR.
MAY
JUNE
JULY
AUG.
SEPT.
OCT.
NOV
DEC.
400
200
0
SALT RIVER -ARIZONA |
■
■
■
^
JAN.
FEB.
MAR.
APR.
MAY
JUNE
JULY
AUG.
SEPT.
OCT.
NOV.
DEC.
400
200
0
GILA RIVER-ARIZONA
1
1
1
I
^
g
JAN.
FEB.
MAR.
APR.
MAY
JUNE
JULY
AUG.
SEPT.
OCT.
NOV.
DEC.
Figure 7.— Mean monthly flow of typical streams
the principal tributary is the Gila, joining the Colorado near Yuma.
Although the Gila drains a large area and at times is subject to high
floods of short duration, its mean annual discharge is but 6 per cent of
the total flow of the Colorado Kiver. Projected irrigation develop-
ment, together with reservoir construction now under way, will
largely consume the flow of the Gila River, so that flood flows reaching
the Colorado will diminish in volume and intensity in the near future.
14 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 1S5, M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 1. — Discharge of typical streams of the Southwest
River
Colorado
Gila
Salt
Green
Duchesne
Virgin
San Juan
Upper Colorado.
Yampa
Gunnison
Rio Grande
Do.i
Pecos
Colorado (of Texas) .
Neuces
Brazos
San Antonio
Station
State
Yuma
do
Roosevelt ;.
Green River i
Myton !
Virgin ..J.
Atmouth '.
Fruita !
Maybell .-.1.
Grand Junction. .
San Marcial ;
Ea<zle Pass..-
Comstock
Austin
Three Rivers.
Waco
San Antonio.
Arizona.
....do...
....do...
Wyoming..
Utah
— .do
....do
Colorado. -.
— .do
....do
New Me.K-
ico.
Te\as
.—do
---do
....do
.-..do
....do
I
Years | Water -
of I shed
record j area
1
Squire
miles
242,000
71,050
5, 756
7,670
2,750
1,010
26,000
23,800
3,670
7,920
30,000
Yearly discharge
Maximum
14
21 \
24 34,200
6 i 15,600
20 ! 25,^00
6
Acre- feet
25, 975, 000
4, 4yO, 000
3, 226, 000
2, 102, 600
891, 700
322, 700
3, 690, 000
8, 122, 000
2, 100, 000
3, 020, 000
2, 420, 000
8, 102, 400
1, C07, 930
5, 171, 000
2 1,431,000
4, 762, 000
116,900
Minimum
Acre-feet
7, 959, 000
61.000
240, 900
656,000
382,000
139, 200
847,000
4, 243, 000
950. 000
1,110,000
240,000
2, 157, 600
159. 300
359.000
16,300
304,000
19, 250
Mean
Acre-feet
16, COG, 000
1,110,000
1, 072, 000
1, 392. 000
555, 000
201, 300
2, 350, 000
6, 365, 000
1, 280, 000
1,170.000
1, 200, 000
3, 910, 000
453,700
1. 802, 000
513.000
1,968.000
66,240
1 Previous to storage by Elephant Butte Dam.
2 10 months.
The flood period of the Colorado generally occurs in June. During
late summer and early fall the river is low. The long crop-growdng
season of the extreme Southwest makes necessary a constant supply
of water for irrigation most of the year. During floods much w^ater is
lost to the land by the flow passing directly to the Gulf of Cahfornia,
while in low-flow periods the supply is insufficient for the needs of
Imperial Valley. This condition can be remedied only by the con-
struction of storage reservoirs. Irrigation in both the upper and low^er
basins is reasonably certain to increase with the growth of the South-
west, and it has been estimated that 6,000,000 acres may be irrigated
ultimately; for this total the water supply will be ample when suffi-
cient storage is provided. In Salt Kiver Valley, Ariz., the Roosevelt
Reservoir furnishes water to about 235,000 acres, and other large
storage dams have been completed.
Most of New Mexico is arid. Its principal drainage system is the
Rio Grande, which rises in the snow-clad San Juan Alountains of
Colorado and flows south through New Mexico, dividing it into two
nearly equal parts. At El Paso the river turns southeast and for
about 900 miles forms the boundary betw^een Texas and Mexico. In
the San Luis Valley in Colorado and in its numerous valleys in New"
Mexico the Rio Grande has long furnished w^ater for irrigation. With
an increase in the cultivated area the natural flow became insufficient
in the lower valley in New Mexico, and the Elephant Butte Dam w^as
built. This large reservoir is capable of storing 2,638,000 acre-feet
and will hold the river's usual flood flow, furnishing enough water for
the irrigation of 150,000 acres in New Mexico and Texas and 60,000
acre-feet annually to lands in Mexico near El Paso. Along the low^er
Rio Grande other large areas are irrigated from the river by large
pumps.
Of the Rio Grande's tributaries in the United States the Pecos is
the most important. Rising in New Mexico and flowing tln-ough
western Texas, it supplies water for irrigation [near Carlsbad and
Roswel], N. Mex., and Barstow, Tex. As wdth other southwestern
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS 15
streams, its natural flow is insufficient for the land cultivated, and
about 50,000 acre-feet of storage is provided by the Government's
Avalon and McMillan Reservoirs.
Central Texas is well provided with direct run-off. The most
important streams are the Trinity, Brazos, Colorado, Guadalupe,
San Antonio, and Nueces Rivers. Although rain is more plentiful
in central Texas than elsewhere in the Southwest, and much of it
falls during the growing season, in many places it is supplemented by
irrigation. A community near Wichita Falls, for example, organized
to irrigate about 100,000 acres. The mean annual precipitation is
about 28 inches, 20 inches falling between April and October. This
amount during the growing season may produce fair yields, but a
wider range of crops can be grown and better yields obtained with
supplementary irrigation. Hence a reservoir of about 500,000 acre-
feet capacity was built on the Big Wichita River, some 50 miles above
Wichita Falls.
Many springs also supply water for irrigation. Some are of con-
siderable size. Comal Springs, at the head of the Comal River, Tex.,
have an average discharge of approximately 350 cubic feet per second,
and much of the cultivated land near Fort Stockton, Tex., receives its
water from springs that discharge freely.
Wells likewise serve large areas, the area irrigated by wells in
Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas reaching 125,000 acres in 1919.
In the Salt River Valley pumping from wells is practiced to lower the
ground-water level; then the pumped water is delivered into canals
for reuse in irrigation. This combination of drainage and irrigation
will undoubtedly extend to other districts in which conditions are
similar.
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
The agricultural resources of the Southwest are by no means com-
mensurate with its vast extent. Much of it is mountainous and too
rough and rocky to be cultivated, while a still larger portion has too
little precipitation for plants that are of much value to man. The
crops which grow naturally and those producible by human effort
may be grouped into three main divisions: (1) The native grasses and
other herbaceous plants, which provide food for domestic animals;
(2) crops of low water requirement, which can be successfully grown
by dry-farming methods; and (3) a large variety of irrigated crops.
In the upper Colorado Basin native grasses thrive where a plow
furrow can not be turned. Hence the grass on the open range, when
fed to stock, and the products derived from irrigated farms on the
limited arable land constitute the main sources of farm revenue.
This is especially true of 12,000,000 acres in southwestern Wyoming
drained by Green River, where the precipitation on the valley lands
is too scanty, as a rule, to grow crops, and the fine pasturage on moun-
tain slopes, supplemented in winter by hay crops grown under irriga-
tion, maintains large numbers of stock. Leaving out of consideration
the pasturage on unimproved portions of farms, there remains an
area of 11,000,000 acres of grazing land, including the open range of
the public domain, national forests, and Indian reservations. Only
211,000 acres are irrigated, and much more stock could be pastured
if more winter feed were provided by extending the irrigated area.
It is estimated (7) that 910,000 acres can be irrigated, and if it were
16 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 185, M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
reclaimed a more profitable use could be made of the remaining
11,000,000 acres of pasture land.
In eastern Utah conditions are somewhat similar, but on a larger
scale. Including open range, national forests, and Indian reserva-
tions, there is an area of 22,500,000 acres affording pasturage for stock.
There are also 362,000 acres of irrigated land and a possibility of
extending the area now irrigated to 815,000 acres, on which alfalfa and
some cereals are likely to be the principal crops.
Nearly 44 per cent, or 28,812,000 acres, of Colorado is drained by the
Colorado River and the Rio Grande. Nearly 24,000,000 acres of this
area are not included in farms and are more or less suitable for grazing.
Chiefly because of a more favorable climate, irrigation development
has progressed more rapidly than in the country farther north within
the same watershed. In 1919, 1,387,000 acres were irrigated in the
Colorado and Rio Grande Basins, while the Bureau of Reclamation
estimates (7) that 1,758,000 acres are susceptible of irrigation. The
principal products, exclusive of native grasses, are alfalfa and ^\dld
hay.
Less than 13 per cent (about 9,000,000 acres) of Nevada is within the
Colorado Basin, and of it only 15,000 acres were irrigated in 1919,
although about 87,000 acres are susceptible of irrigation. On the
basis of previous estimates, 8,900,000 acres have a limited value as
grazing land. Southern Nevada has mild winters and a long growing
season, and large quantities of deciduous fruits and other crops might
be produced if the available water supply were more abundant.
In this bulletin onty that part of southern California in the water-
shed of the Colorado River and the lands it irrigates are taken into
account. The irrigated area in 1919 was 447,400 acres, whereas
about 939,000 acres can be irrigated if the river is properly controlled.
Owing to the extreme aridity, native grasses have little value as stock
feed, but there is some grazing on 3,600,000 acres of unfarmed land.
The principal agricultural resources are confined to products of irri-
gated farms.
Compared with southern Nevada and southeastern California,
New Mexico has the heaviest normal precipitation, and because of the
resulting favorable soil-moisture conditions native grasses grow
profusely on extensive areas. It also provides opportunities for dry
farming with such crops as beans, sorghums, and corn. The area
irrigated in 1919 was 538,400 acres, but the available water supply is
sufficient for about 2,500,000 acres. The area harvested in 1919 was
1,131,806 acres, indicating that more than 50 per cent was dry farmed.
In 1924, 50,000,000 acres in national forests, vacant public land, or
privately owned land afforded pasturage for stock.
In Arizona there are several million acres of fertile, arable land
which would become valuable and yield a high annual revenue if
irrigated. These lands can not be dry farmed profitably, and unless
water is provided they will remain grazing lands of low value indefi-
nitely. The water supply of the State is mainly in Colorado River
and its local tributaries. Satisfactory progress has been made in
storing and diverting the waters of tributary streams for irrigation,
and development is likely to proceed until all such available water is
utilized. In 1919 the area irrigated was 468,000 acres, but it is esti-
mated that the water obtainable from tributaries and the main river
below the canyon section, if properly controlled and utilized, together
IRKIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS 17
with underground supplies, will irrigate 2,200,000 acres. The results
of reconnaissance investigations made recently by Arizona {1 ) indicate
that water can be diverted from the Colorado at some point near
Diamond Creek and conveyed southward to irrigate an additional
area of about 2,000,000 acres in southwestern Arizona.
Exclusive of the unimproved portions of farms, the area which may
be grazed includes 61,700,000 acres, of which less than 14,000,000
acres are vacant, 22,000,000 acres are in Indian reservations, and
11,000,000 acres in national forests.
In this report the arid and semiarid portions of Texas have been
separated from the eastern humid portion by a line connecting the
eastern boundaries of San Patricio and Clay Counties, 153 counties
being in the section with which this bulletin is concerned. This
division is based on the normal rainfall, which in the western counties
varies from 10 to 30 inches a year.
During the past 60 years agricultural conditions in western Texas
have undergone far-reaching changes, many of which are still in
progress, making it difficult to estimate agricultural potentialities.
From the close of the Civil War to near the beginning of the present
century, long-horned cattle were grazed on the Staked Plains, con-
stituting almost the only source of agricultural revenue. During the
past 25 years both dry and irrigation farming have greatly increased
the agricultural returns. In 1924 the cropped land harvested was
12,278,000 acres. In 1919 the area irrigated was 342,600 acres and
the unf armed land available for grazing was about 43,000,000 acres.
As development progresses, much of the arable land will be cultivated,
and the ultimate extension of the irrigated area will be limited only
by the lack of available water. It is believed that the water supply,
if properly controlled and used, is sufficient for the irrigation of 4,000,-
000 acres, and the present dry-farmed area may be increased to
30,000,000 acres.
IRRIGATION PRACTICE
While much of the irrigation development of the Southwest has
been accomplished since 1899, irrigation was practiced far back in
unrecorded times. The value of water in nourishing such crops as
maize, beans, squash, and cotton was well known to the Pueblo
Indians. The patience characteristic of the race enabled them, with
very meager equipment, to dig surprisingly long canals. These, as the
indirect source of a part of their sustenance, were built, maintained,
and operated generally as communal enterprises, subject to regula-
tions prescribed by the community leaders. Many of these were
retained under Spanish rule, forming, with some innovations, the
basis of Spanish-American practice.
The common proprietorship of water supplies, public construction of irrigation
works, and the administration of local irrigation affairs by separate communities
were very important features of Moorish and Spanish institutions long before the
discovery of the New World {14, p.
^ They did not differ essentially from those of the Indians' communal
ditch. However, Spain colonized its new possessions by three sepa-
rate agencies — civil, ecclesiastical, and military — and the eflPect of this
procedure tended to modify native practice. The presidios, designed
to develop into towns, afforded military protection; the missions were
intended primarily for the conversion of the Indians ; and the pueblos
106469—30 3
18 TECHNICAL BtTLLETIN 185, M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
themselves developed agriculture, industry, and commerce. In all
three the construction of an acequia madre, or main canal, was neces-
sary wherever the rainfall was deficient.
Mexico^s attainment of independence and control of the Southwest
brought a second confirmation and modification of existing irrigation
laws and customs, and when part of the territory was ceded to the
United States a final international adjustment was effected. Hence
the present irrigation laws, customs, and methods are a composite of
Indian, Spanish- American, and Anglo-Saxon, although Anglo-Saxon
practices are becoming more marked as time passes. Notwith-
standing this tendency, in many parts of the Southwest Indian ditches
are still in use and are managed and maintained much as in pre-Span-
ish times, and many more typical acequias built under Spanish and
Mexican regimes are still owned and operated much as they were
more than two centuries ago.
Compared with that of former periods, the progress made during the
past 25 years in reclaiming desert lands has been rapid. The Nation
has expended large sums for irrigation works in Texas, Colorado,
New Mexico, and Arizona, and this has influenced private capital to
make like investments. Knowledge and experience so gained and
avoidance of many former errors have resulted in better plans, more
economical means of working, and the construction of more practical
and effective systems. In consequence the Southwest, although still
operating many faulty irrigation systems inherited from pioneer days,
offsets them with several large modern systems, which, as a rule, are
well built and managed, and this advantage is reflected in its irriga-
tion practice.
The farmers have struggled with several troublesome problems,
some of which still await solution; until they are overcome improve-
ments in irrigation practice can not take place rapidly. In the lower
Rio Grande Valley of Texas, which depends entirely on water pumped
from the river, a reorganization of enterprises and the reconstruction
and enlargement of pumping plants have been necessary. This work
is nearing completion, but the question of water rights remains to be
adjudicated between the United States and Mexico, and until this is
effected by treaty much uncertainty ^^411 exist over water allotments
and future irrigation development.
The irrigable lands of the Salt River Valley were seriously injured
by a continually rising water table, but this menace has been over-
come by the operation of a large number of deep-well pumps, which
have at the same time supplied much-needed additional water for
irrigation (17). The Rio Grande Valley in New Mexico likewise was
damaged by a high water table, combined with uncontrolled flood
waters, but deep drainage canals have reclaimed part of the valley,
and organizations are being formed to remedy other portions. In the
Imperial Valley the farmers have been contending for the past 20 years
with floods, with enormous quantities of silt annually transported
by the Colorado River, and with rising ground water. The wet
lands are being drained, and adequate steps are being taken to remove
the flood menace and to abate the silt nuisance.
The part of irrigation development that is performed by farmers is
retarded and rendered difficult and costly by the presence of brush
and shrubs. Some localities have a heavy growth, chiefly sagebrush,
while others are dotted with mesquite and other shrubs. As a rule
the shrubs and heavier sagebrush are grubbed out by hand, adding a
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS 19
heavy expense to new settlers at a time when they can least afford it.
The expense of preparing land for irrigation in the Southwest de-
pends partly on the size and density of the desert growth to be
removed, the cost of removal varying from about $7.50 to over $50
an acre, and partly upon the preparation of the land to receive water.
Successful irrigation depends upon the proper preparation of the land
to receive water and the selection of the best method of applying it.
Farm distributing ditches or underground pipes so located that water
may spread rapidly over the fields are a necessary part of land prep-
aration. Fields should also be leveled so that water will flow evenly
over the surface. Unless the fields are so prepared, water will stand
in hollows and high spots will remain dry, resulting in damage to
crops in each case.
CROPS GROWN UNDER IRRIGATION
The area irrigated increased from 1,504,000 acres in 1902 to'
3,771,000 acres in 1919, but the area of the principal irrigated crops
did not increase in the same ratio. Staple crops have given place in
part to new crops; and the changing conditions involved in production
and marketing have brought about corresponding changes in the
management of farms, especially in sections where a long growing
season makes possible a wide diversification. In the upper basins of
the Colorado River and the Rio Grande, where the elevations are
much higher, the winters more severe, and the growing season shorter,
fewer changes in crop production have taken place, and these have had
little effect on the water requirement. The leading crops in the
Green River Basin of southwestern Wyoming continue to be, in the
order named, wild hay, alfalfa, and oats cut for grain. In the same
basin of eastern Utah alfalfa is far in the lead, with wheat, oats, and
corn following. On the Pacific slope of Colorado the largest part of
the irrigated area is devoted to alfalfa, wild hay, wheat, and oats being
next in order.
In the upper basins of these two rivers, in Colorado, Utah, and Wyo-
ming, there has been a gradual conversion of native-grass meadows
into other crops, chiefly alfalfa, but this conversion has not materially
affected the water requirement of crops, since the native meadows are
irrigated, as a rule, by wild flooding which wastes water, and a larger
tonnage of alfalfa per acre can usually be produced with no more
water than was formerly used on native meadow^s, on account of a
more economical use.
In the agricultural history of the more southerly and warmer por-
tions of the Southwest, from Imperial Valley in California to the
lower Rio Grande Valley in Texas, the introduction and extension of
cotton planting in the past 10 to 15 years has been most noteworthy.
A large area of new land, as well as much formerly in alfalfa, has been
planted to cotton. The seasonal water requirement of cotton being
considerably less than alfalfa, this change has had its effect on the
quantity of water used in irrigation, especially in the Imperial Valley,
the Salt River Valley, and the Rio Grande Valley of New Mexico.
During the past 26 years more than 400,000 acres of desert land in
California have been reclaimed in Imperial Valley by water diverted
from the Colorado River. Barley was first the chief crop. A report
{19) prepared by the Division of Agricultural Engineering says that
in 1903 about three-fourths of the irrigated area was in barley and
20 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 185, M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
that the average seasonal duty of water for that year on 120,000 acres
was 2.04 acre-feet per acre, ranging from 1 to I'ji acre-feet for barley
to 3 to 4 acre-feet for alfalfa. In 1909 the barley acreage had
decreased to 36,986 acres, whereas there was an increase in alfalfa to
30,847 acres. In 1926 the land in cereals, whether cut for grain or
used as forage, was 80,000 acres; in alfalfa, 155,000 acres. The grow-
ing of cantaloupes and lettuce during the winter and early spring has
become an important industry, in 1927 these crops covering nearly
L80,0q0 acres.
Prior to 1910 cotton was grown in an experimental way in Imperial
County, Calif. The area devoted to this crop increased rapidly, and
in 1924 was 80,000 acres. Since then, however, this crop has
decreased, and in 1927 was only 23,000 acres.
In writing of alfalfa in the Southwest in 1914, Freeman {11, p. [233])
said:
Every agricultural community has its staple product. What corn is to Illinois,
wheat to Kansas, and cotton to the Gulf States, alfalfa is to Arizona. More than
one-third of all her cultivated land is devoted to its culture. * * * H forms
* * * the safeguard of cattlemen in times of drought, the raw material for a
growing dairy industry, the natural food for fine, fat stock, and the conserver of
soil fertility by its deeply penetrating, nitrogen-gathering roots.
Freeman could not foresee that in another decade Arizona's
cotton acreage would be 60 per cent more than that of alfalfa. In
the Salt River Valley the acreage planted to cotton increased from
a small area in 1910 to 75,062 acres in 1919 and 121,620 acres in
1924, but part of this increase has been at the expense of alfalfa,
which decreased from 66,071 acres in 1919 to 60,955 acres in 1924.
A somewhat similar development has taken place in New Mexico.
The total area of irrigated alfalfa fields in 1919 was 87,105 acres,
while that of cotton was 7,527 acres, whereas in 1924 the acreage of
irrigated and nonirrigated cotton was nearly equal to that of alfalfa.
Another important change during the past decade has been the rapid
extension of dry-farmed sorghums harvested for grain or cut for
silage, hay, or fodder. The 1924 area was 289,099 acres, which
placed this crop far in the lead as regards acreage.
In 1919 about 340,000 acres, exclusive of the rice fields, were
irrigated in western Texas. The principal crops in the order of
acreage were corn, sorghums, cotton, and alfalfa. The statement,
however, covers only a small part of crop production in this part
of the State. On account of a heavier annual rainfall than occurs
in either Arizona or New Mexico, the majority of farmers grow crops
without irrigation. There being available a large extent of fertile
virgin soil at relatively low cost, on which small or medium crop
yields can be harvested, the need to utilize water for agriculture
has not been urgent except in very dry years. Accordingly, the
extent of land dry farmed is far in excess of that irrigated. In 1924
the principal crops grown in 153 counties of western Texas mth
their respective acreage were: Cotton, 6,442,348; sorghums, 2,230,-
355; wheat, 1,122,471; corn, 824,519; oats, 635,821; and hay,
260,175.
RELATION OF WATER APPLIED TO CROP YIELD
Investigations have been carried on by the Division of Agri-
cultural Engineering either independently or in cooperation with
State or community agencies in several locahties of the Southwest
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS 21
to determine the relation of water applied to crop yield. In this
work the factors which affect yield other than moisture conditions
have been eliminated, as far as practicable, by selecting uniform
soil, growing the crops on plots of the same or nearly the same area,
and subjecting them to the same cultural treatment and climatic
influences. When, under repeated tests, crops fail to produce profit-
able yields with the natural rainfall, the need for irrigation is
demonstrated, and the effective rainfall, combined with the quantity
of supplemental irrigation water required to produce a satisfactory
yield, is a fair indication of the total water requirement.
The results of such experiments likewise serve to determine how
much water farmers should apply in order to obtain profitable
yields. By growing plants in duplicate or triplicate plots, applying
a different quantity of water to each plot, and noting the effect on
the quality and quantity of the product grown, it is possible to deter-
CROP
SEED COTTON
Grown on pfots on adobe so//
overlying coarse sane/ at
the tJew Mexico Experiment
Station
YIELD
Pounds pen acre
TT"
LINT COTTON
Grown on p/ots on worn-out
fine sandy soil at Medina
Experiment Station, Texas
LINT COTTON
Grown on plots on sandy loam
soil near A4ercedes, Texas
Figure 8.— Relationship between amount of water applied and yield of cotton as determined by
experiments carried on cooperatively in different parts of the Southwest from 1915 to 1926
mine with fair accuracy, especially for crops of low and medium
water requirement, the right quantity of water to apply for their
proper development. Most of the results show an increase in yield
in proportion to the quantity of water appUed until a stage is reached
when additional applications injuriously affect the plant and lessen
the yield.
In irrigating alfalfa, sugarcane, and other crops of high- water
requirement, it is more difficult to ascertain when enough water has
been apphed. It sometimes happens that the more water used the
larger the tonnage harvested. In such cases it is well to consider^
besides yield, the value of water, the cost of applying it, and the
damage to soils arising from excessive use.
The relationship between quantity of water applied and yield
of crop is shown graphically in Figures 8 to 11. The basic data for
these charts are selected from Tables 6 to 19. The charts show the
number of irrigations; the number of tests involved; the water used
22 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 186, M. S.-DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
by the crop, whether irrigation or rainfall; the kind of crop; the gen-
eral character of the soil on which it was grown; and the crop yield.
WATER REQUIREMENT OF CROPS
The high water requirement of one set of conditions is offset in a
measure by the medium or low requirement of another. The long
growing season, high temperature, clear sunshine, dry air, and heavy
evaporation require a large quantity of water to mature crops, but
the extensive acreage planted to crops having a low or medium
water requirement tends to lower what would otherwise be a high
average.
SORGHUMS
The climatic conditions in much of the Southwest are well adapted
to sorghums. Compared with corn, the grain sorghums need less
14
H
WATER APPLIED
CROP
YIELD
Inches in depth on land
SORGHUM HAY
Grown on plots on fine sandy
loam at the New Mexico
Experiment Station.
Tons per acre
40 30 20 10
123456789 10
5-6
2
1
5
3
■
1
1
■
1
!■
1
■i
■-
"
1-2
1
1
i
m
RtSATlON 1
SORGHUM HAY
Grown on plots on fine sandy
foam at Medina, Texas
UUNFAU. r
1
■
1
f
1
1
1
7-8
6
9
9
1
■
^
SUDAN GRASS
Grown on plots on fine sandy
loam at the New Mexico
Experiment Station
1
I
*
*
■
■
■
■
■
"
"
0-2
2
2
SUDAN GRASS
Grown on plots on thin upland
day near Law ton, Oklahoma.
1
L
1
■
■
,.1-L
^
__
Figure 9.— Relationship between amount of water applied and crop yield of sorghum hay and
Sudan grass as determined by plot experiments carried on cooperatively In different localities of
the Southwest from 1915 to 1921
water, while sorghums cut for hay require more, but both kinds
withstand drought better. Most crops receive a permanent setback
when the soil moisture remains for a considerable time below the
wilting point, whereas the sorghums have the extraordinary ability
to revive when rain falls or irrigation water is provided. This peculiar
quality, which overcomes to a considerable extent the injurious effects
of droughts by furnishing roughage for stock at a time when other
crops fail, accounts for the popularity of the sorghums on the dry
farms of the Southwest and for the rapid increase in arable land
devoted to sorghums harvested for grain. In New Mexico the area
planted to grain sorghums in 1909 was 63,570 acres, whereas in 1919
it was 151,685 acres. During the same decade in western Texas the
area increased from 570,188 to 1,461,736 acres. The sorghums are
also grown quite extensively on irrigated farms to provide fodder and
IKRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS 23
silage and as catch crops. Under favorable weather conditions
they can be planted after grain crops are harvested or after other
crops have failed.
In growing sorghums on dry farms there is a more or less close
relationship between the precipitation and crop yields. This is
shown in Table 2. The data (3) on which this table is based represent
in each case the average of averages. In other words the yields
reported represent in each case the average of a large number of plot
i4
H
WATER APPUED
CROP
YIELD
Inches in depth on land
SUGARCANE
Crown on plofs on both sandy
and clay soils near Mercedes,
Tons per acre
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
9-23
9
5
8
5
4
m.«T.o.....«J^| 1
1
RMMVUX....
s.
l' '
■
J-
^
■
1
■
"
n
I
■
4-7
2
1
1
1
1
RHODES GRASS
Grown on plots on sandy soil
near Mercedes, Texas
■
■
■
■
■
1
1
n
■
1
1
■
r
1
n
.1
H
1
7-11
2
2
2
3
ALFALFA
Grown on plots on sand and
sand ana gravel at /^ew
Mexico Experiment Station.
1
1
-
H
I
H|
■
n
5
2
1 1
■
■
■
ALFALFA
Grown on plots on Maricopa
I
—
■
%Vt%v/jiL^^y^^'"^''"""'
m
;;
H
■
■n
■■
"
Figure 10. — Relationship between amount of water applied and crop yield for sugarcane, Rhodes
grass, and alfalfa as determined by plot experiments carried on cooperatively in different localities
of the Southwest from 1916 to 1919
yields at each locality. To equalize further the effects of crop hazards
of various kinds, the authors have subjected the crop yields at each
locality to a second averaging based on yearly precipitation. Thus a
variety of sorghum known as milo was grown at Woodward, Okla.,
for 10 consecutive years. The five years of highest precipitation as
well as the five years of lowest precipitation have been averaged, and
each is shown in the table in conjunction with the average crop yield
for the corresponding period. Like treatment has been given sor-
ghum crops grown in other parts of the Southwest.
24^TECHNICAL BULLETIN 185, M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
i4
^1
WATER APPUED
CROP
YIELD
Inches in depth on land
MERCEDES, TEXAS
CABBAGE
Grown on loam soil
Crown on sandy loam soil
Grown on clay soil
Tons per acre
25 20 15 10 5
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
1-4
4-5
5
IRRIGATION 1
RAINFALL. 1
r^-
i
=:
"t-
■n-
1
^
1 1
■
1
1 1
1 1
^
1
„
■
H
^
■ ■
1
:
■^
■ ■
■
"-
3
3
3
3
.
LETTUCE
Grown on sandy soil
in ■
m ■
■
1 H
■ 1
4
2
2
2
1
CAULIFLOWER
Grown on sandy soil, a/so
on clay soil. Yields on clay
soil are heavier
1^
■
1 1
T
■1
"l 1
■
■ 1
5-7
2
3
2
1
■
■ ■
^
1
TOMATOES
Grown on sandy soil
h
1
■
1
+
1
5
3
3
3
1
1
1
"
TABLE BEETS
Grown on sandy so/I.
L
i
1
^K
TTT
3-4
2
2
2
CARROTS
Grown on sandy soil
1
;'
1-
1
■
1 1
5
1
■
■
■=
SNAP BEANS
Grown on clay soil
1
■-
0-4
■
SPINACH
Grown on loam soil
■i
L
■
■ ■
1
J.
Li.
H|
■pi
PO
T
IT
-
BERMUDA ONIONS
Grown at Laredo, Texas
±
L
I
e-si :
I
L.
'
"l '
T
rr
\
_
Figure 11.— Relationship between the amount of water applied and crop yield of vegetables as
determined by plot experiments conducted cooperatively by the Division of Agricultural Engi-
neering and the Texas State Board of Water Engineers near Mercedes and Laredo, Tex., from
1914 to 1920
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS 25
Table 2. — Relation between crop yields of milo and kafir and precipitation
Years of
tests
Mean
annual
precipita-
tion
Mean crop yield of—
Station
Milo
Kafir
Grain
Total
Woodward, Okla
Number
5
5
4
5
8
8
7
6
4
5
I
Inches
130.49
2 20.25
1 36. 35
2 22.24
123.07
2 14. 38
1 22. 31
2 14. 61
1 24. 15
2 12. 72
1 24. 95
2 12. 48
Bushels
24.1
14.2
Bushels
25.7
15.9
29.0
5.7
26.0
12.2
18.7
6.7
24.0
8.8
26.3
11.1
Pounds
5,271
5,009
5,682
2,658
Lawton, Okla _. .
Dalhart, Tei
30.7
15.4
32.6
12.2
34.0
12.6
36.1
15.3
6 392
Amarillo, Tex
5,245
5,965
3,482
4.475
2,832
4,527
2,792
Big Springs, Tex
Tucumcari, N. Mex
> Average rainfall for years of highest precipitation.
2 Average rainfall for years of lowest precipitation.
Under conditions equally favorable the yields of sorghums are
greater when the effective rainfall is supplemented by irrigation water,
although the combined quantity of water needed is relatively small.
This is shown by the results of irrigated plot experiments of sorghums,
a few of which are outlined in the following paragraphs.
In 1919 sorghum for hay was grown on seven plats near Mercedes,
Tex. The rainfall during the growing season was 2 acre-feet, and
this was supplemented by three light irrigations, the total of which
varied from 0.53 to 1.14 acre-feet. The yields of plots which received
less than 0.9 acre-foot of irrigation water averaged 10.29 tons per
acre, while those that received more than 0.9 acre-foot averaged
11.83 tons.
In 1915 sorghum harvested for fodder was grown on 11 plots at the
New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station and somewhat heavily
irrigated six times during May, June, July, and August. The average
seasonal quantity of irrigation water applied was 2.36 acre-feet per
acre, and there was 0.22 acre-foot of rainfall. The plots produced an
average yield of 6.89 tons. Those which received less than 2 acre-feet
produced an average yield of 4.98 tons; those which received 2 acre-
feet and less than 2.50 acre-feet averaged 5.87 tons; and those which
received from 2.67 to 2.77 acre-feet averaged 10.23 tons.
Hence it w^ould appear that sorghums, including Sudan grass
grown for fodder, require from 2.5 to 3 acre-feet per acre to produce
heavy yields.
COTTON
Compared with the extent and value of the cotton crop in the South-
west, the data pertaining to its water requirement are somewhat
meager. Investigations of the relationship of this plant's growth to
soil moisture conditions have not kept pace with the rapid increase
in the area devoted to its production. The available data seem to
demonstrate fairly well that less irrigation water is required to mature
cotton in western Texas than in the cotton-producing districts of
New Mexico, Arizona, or southeastern California. This is pre-
106469—30 4
26 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 185, M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
sumably because of the greater humidity, a lower rate of evaporation,
and the storage of rain water in the soil and subsoil. When the normal
effective rainfall is included, a water requirement of 1.25 to 2 acre-feet
per acre seems to be ample for a large yield, whereas in the more arid
cotton-growing localities of Arizona, New Mexico, and southeastern
California from 2.5 to 3 acre-feet per acre seems to be required. At
Safford, Ariz., the summer rainfall (May 1 to September 30) averages
4.73 inches and the yearly precipitation 9.2 inches, and about 30 inches
of irrigation water on an average is applied to land planted to cotton.
ALFALFA
The water requirement of this forage plant has been fairly well
ascertained by cooperative experiments conducted by the Division
of Agricultural Engineering in tanks, on plots, and under field con-
ditions. The results indicate that a large quantity is required per
unit of dry fodder grown. Estimating the consumption of water by
transpiration and soil evaporation from alfalfa grown in tanks under
cHmatic conditions somewhat similar to those of the lower and
warmer portions of the Southwest, about 3 acre-feet per acre would
be required to produce a seasonal yield of 5 tons of hay. If to this
consumption is added 25 per cent for unavoidable losses of water,
the total is 3.75 acre-feet per acre. The average yield of 276 tests of
alfalfa grown in plots at the New Mexico Agricultural Experiment
Station was 5.55 tons with the use of 4.2 acre-feet of water per acre,
including rainfall. Under field conditions in Arizona the average of
49 fields tested gave 4.36 acre-feet per acre and a yield of 5.2 tons.
These results and other available data indicate that a heavy seasonal
yield of alfalfa requires about 4.25 acre-feet of water per acre through-
out the lower and warmer portions of the Southwest. At higher
elevations, having shorter growing periods and fewer crops, the water
requirement is proportionately less.
RHODES GRASS
The water requirement of this crop can be estimated with some
degree of accuracy from the results of cooperative experiments
directed by the Division of Agricultural Engineering near Mercedes,
Tex., from 1917 to 1920, inclusive. Six plots were seeded to Khodes
grass in March, 1917, the soil type being Brennan fine sandy loam.
During the first season the plants were allowed to develop without
any tests being applied, and the plots were pastured during the
fourth season, thus precluding yields in those years, but the rela-
tionship between the yield of each plot for each cutting and the
quantity of water applied was accurately determined for the other
two years.
In Table 3 the average quantity of water applied to the six plots
for each cutting is given, as well as the rainfall and yields.
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS 27
Table 3. — Quantity of water applied to plots planted to Rhodes grass near Mercedes,
Tex., and yield in 1918 and 1919
SEASON OF 1918
Cutting
No.
Period of growth
Days to
maturity
Quantity of water applied
Yield
per acre
1
Total
1
Mar. 7 to May 8—.
Number
63
50
42
40
59
Acre-feet
0.38
.54
.78
.98
.39
Acre-feet
0.59
.24
.03
.02
.30
Acre-feet
0.97
.78
.81
1.00
.69
Tons
1 25
2
May 8 to June 26..
1.09
3
June 26 to Aug. 6 _ .
84
4
Aug. 6 to Sept. 14
1 23
5
Sept. 14 to Nov. 11
78
Total
3.07
1.18
4.25
5.19
SEASON OF 1919
,
Mar. 5 to May 16
73
41
42
49
46
0.24
.40
.00
.74
.00
0.43
.32
.55
.58
.22
0.67
.72
.55
1.32
.22
1 21
2
May 16 to June 25
.52
3
June 25 to Aug. 5
1.02
4
Aug. 5 to Sept. 22
1.03
6
Sept. 22 to Nov. 6
1.26
Total
1.38
2.10
3.48
5.04
If a determination of the water requirement of this plant from 12
individual plot experiments is justifiable, at least 3.5 acre-feet per
acre, including rainfall, seems to be needed for a seasonal yield of
5 tons of air-dried hay harvested in five cuttings.
CORN
In the Southwest the growing of corn is confined mainly to Texas
and New Mexico. In that part of Texas considered in this bulletin,
in 1924 there were 900,493 acres of corn; in New Mexico the total
was 215,811 acres; and in Arizona there were only 31,000 acres.
The results of plot experiments by the Division of Agricultural
Engineering, the New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station, and
the Board of Water Engineers of Texas indicate generally the quantity
of water required for a satisfactory yield of corn. In 1915, in the
Mesilla Valley, N. Mex., 12 plots planted to corn produced an average
of 40 bushels per acre with the use of 1.85 acre-feet per acre of irriga-
tion water and 0.22 acre-foot of rainfall, a total of 2.07 acre-feet. In
another Mesilla Valley experiment the same average yield was
obtained with the use of 1.95 acre-feet per acre, including rainiall.
Corn was grown in plots near Mercedes, Tex., for the five years from
1915 to 1919, inclusive. During this period the effective rainfall
varied from 0.41 to 0.94 acre-foot and the quantity of irrigation
water from 0.20 to 1.53 acre-feet. Of 24 plot experiments in this
5-year period, those which received less than 1.5 acre-feet per acre^
including rainfall, produced an average of 54.6 bushels per acre, and
those which received 1.5 to 1.96 acre-feet per acre produced 62.5
bushels per acre. On the basis of the tests reviewed the water
requirement of corn in the Southwest may be adjudged to be about
1.75 acre-feet per acre, including rainfall.
28 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 185, M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
s VEGETABLES
Under this heading are included such crops as cabbage, lettuce,
cauliflower, table beets, tomatoes, snap beans, cantaloupes, and
spinach. Throughout the Southwest many of these crops are grown
under irrigation for home consumption or canning, but those grown
commercially on a large scale are confined in the main to the Imperial
Valley and the lower Rio Grande Valley. In 1924 (23) cantaloupes
and muskmelons were grown for sale on 20,241 acres and lettuce on
16,634 acres in Imperial County, Calif. In the same year the acreage
in Cameron and Hidalgo Counties, Tex., in cabbages and tomatoes
was 9,697 acres and 2,295 acres, respectively.
In September, October, and November of 1914, 1916, 1918, and
1919 measurements were made of the water applied to cabbage
grown in plots near Mercedes, Tex. Unpublished results of these
experiments show that the average quantity, including rainfall
applied during the period of growth, was 1.20 acre-feet per acre, and
the average yield was 7.28 tons per acre. More than 1.25 acre-feet
per acre did not increase the yield; hence it was concluded that this
quantity was sufficient for southwestern Texas. In Mesilla Valley
slightly more than an average crop of 10 tons per acre was raised
from plots which received 2.31 acre-feet per acre.
LETTUCE
The average quantity of water used on 49 plots of lettuce near
Mercedes, Tex., was 1.03 acre-feet per acre, and the average yield
was 5.97 tons. The plots which received from 1 to 1.5 acre-feet per
acre did not show any substantial gain in yield; hence it appears that
for this crop and locality 1 acre-foot per acre is an adequate water
requirement.
CAULIFLOWER
In the same locality an average of 1.6 acre-feet was applied to six
plots of cauliflower, which produced an average yield of 6.65 tons
per acre. The three plots which received an average of 1.43 acre-
feet yielded more heavily than the three which received 1.77 acre-feet,
and it was concluded that 1 .4 acre-feet per acre was a near approach
to the water requirement of this crop in that locality.
TOMATOES
The water requirement of tomatoes grown on both sandy and clay
soil, as determined on 15 plots in the lower Rio Grande Valley
of Texas, was found to be about 1.75 acre-feet per acre, that of table
beets about 1 .4 acre-feet per acre, and that of snap beans and spinach
about 1.2 acre-feet per acre.
SUMMARY OF WATER REQUIREMENTS OF LEADING CROPS
The results of the water-requirement investigations of the leading
crops grown in the Southwest show that variation in climate, soils,
and other conditions produce variations in the quantity of water
required for profitable yields. Accordingly, in Table 4, which sumrna-
rizes results of plot and field experiments as given in the appendix,
the water requirement is expressed in two ways — (1) the lowest
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS 29
general average, and (2) the highest general average — so as to conform
more closely to changes due to natural causes.
Table 4. — Water requirement of crops in the Southwest, including irrigation and
rainfall
Crop
Alfalfa
Barley
Beets (table)
Beets (sugar)
Broomcorn...
Cabbage
Cauliflower..
Carrots
Corn -
Cotton
Emmer
Flax
Feterlta
Kafir
Lettuce
Milo
Water requirement
Tests
per acre
Lowest
Highest
general
general
average
average
Number
Acre-feet
Acre-feet
369
3.47
5.08
3
1.24
1.83
28
.87
1.37
5
1.77
2.72
9
.97
1.15
21
.94
L49
6
1.43
1.77
6
1.27
L60
42
1.44
1.99
103
2.35
3.51
6
1.19
1.87
3
L23
1.59
8
.97
LIO
16
1.32
1.54
49
.72
1.35
35
.96
L67
Crop
Millet ,
Oats
Onions
Peas
Potatoes
Rhodes grass..
Snap beans...
Spinach.
Sorghum
Soybeans
Sudan grass...
Sugarcane
Sweetpotatoes
Tomatoes
Wheat
Tests
Number
5
2
4
8
12
12
9
12
34
36
25
41
3
17
46
Water requirement
per acre
Lowest
general
average
Acre-feet
0.91
1.90
.73
1.21
1.59
3.49
.83
.80
1.69
1.66
2.88
3.48
1.77
.95
1.46
Highest
general
Acre-feet'
1.09"
2.09
1.52
1.56
2.04
4.4a
1.44
1.07
2.08
2.81
3.16
4.56
2.25
1.42:
2.24.
CONDITIONS INFLUENCING THE QUANTITY OF WATER REQUIRED'
FOR IRRIGATION
In determining the quantity of water required for a project or farm
of know^n area, consideration should be given to each of a number of
influential factors. These may be grouped under (1) physical con-
ditions; (2) character of equipment, structures, and methods neces-
sary for handling water; (3) conditions relating to farm management;
and (4) economic phases. Legal and administrative conditions con-
stitute a fifth group, but these will be treated under a separate
heading.
PHYSICAL CONDITIONS
These include climate, water supply, soils, and topography. Com-
pared with other large divisions of the West, the average irrigation
requirement of the Southwest is higher by reason of the greater
aridity of its climate. On much of the arable land susceptible of
irrigation the annual rainfall is very light — almost negligible in some
localities — the summer temperature is high, the intense rays of the
sun are rarely obscured, and evaporation from soils and water sur-
faces, as well as the transpiration from plants, is excessive.
The light rainfall, together with heavy evaporation, results in a
small stream flow. Both surface and underground water supplies are
likewise affected by the manner in which the rain falls. As a rule
the rainstorms are erratic and often torrential in character, resulting
in quick run-off, so that the inflow into underground basins is small,
and flood storage in reservoirs is necessary.
On the other hand, the character of the soils and topography of the
arable lands of the Southwest are such as to call for a small rather
than a large quantity of irrigation water. In some cases rivers have
transported through long ages enormous quantities of sediment which
have formed alluvial deltas Hke those of the lower basins of the Colo-
30 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 185, M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
rado River and the Rio Grande. In other cases deep depressions have
been filled by water-borne material eroded from higher portions of
the drainage area, making valleys similar to that of Salt River in
Arizona. In both cases the surface, although characterized by gently
undulating slopes, is level enough so that it is not difficult to convey
and distribute water, and the soil generally contains enough fine silt
and clay to prevent excessive losses from deep percolation.
CHARACTER OF EQUIPMENT, ETC.
This group of factors includes the main water-supply ditch, pipe, or
other conduit for the farm, the division of the farm into fields suitable
for irrigation and cropping, all permanent farm ditches, the prepara-
tion of the surface of each field to receive water, and the method best
adapted to the application of water. With few exceptions the water
channels of the irrigated farms of the Southwest are made of earth.
Up to the present, economic conditions have not warranted the use of
pipes or other water-tight conduits. More or less water is absorbed
by earthen ditches, but the loss of water in this manner is governed
largely by the character of the soil, which is on the whole fairly
impervious. At first wooden structures were in common use on the
farms, but experience showed that the climatic conditions were un-
favorable for the preservation of wood, and concrete is now generally
used instead.
The chief defect in the farm systems of irrigation has been incom-
plete and improper planning. Settlers without experience, technical
advice, or assistance located and built supply ditches, subdivided their
holdings, and prepared a few fields for irrigation. Such work is more
likely to be wrong than right, and when wrong it is difficult to make
it right. Few settlers have the time or means to prepare their entire
farms for irrigation during the first year, but if started in accordance
with a comprehensive plan the work can be spread over several years,
with the assurance that when completed it will serve the purpose for
which it was designed.
CONDITIONS RELATING TO FARM MANAGEMENT
The most profitable crops to grow, the maintenance of soil fertility,
and the rotation and diversification of crops are included in this group.
Elsewhere in this bulletin the variation in the water requirement of
crops.is discussed, but little is said of the saving in water by diversifica-
tion and soil fertility. Few practices in irrigation farming are so well
established by experience as that of changing crops periodically,
particularly, from leguminous to other kinds, and vice versa. Theo-
retically, such a change can not be made in most orchards on account of
their long life, but it is both practical and economical to grow cover
crops between the rows of trees, thus serving the same purpose. No
matter how fertile virgin soil may be, experience has shown that it
needs to be replenished with decayed vegetable matter. The decayed
roots and foliage of such legumes as alfalfa, beans, and peas improve
the texture of soils, increase the yields, and reduce the water require-
ment.
ECONOMIC PHASES
While economic considerations enter into the second and third
groups, such subjects as cost of water, manner of payment, and per-
missible waste are considered of essentially economic importance.
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS 31
As irrigation development progresses the cost of water increases, and
under some proposed projects a stage is being reached at which the
cost of water is too high to permit profits. On other projects the
cost is so high as to warrant extreme measures to lessen its waste.
In general, arable land is cheap and readily available, but water is not
plentiful. Therefore if a seasonal water requirement of 2)^ acre-feet
per acre will suffice instead of 3}^ acre-feet, 40 per cent more land can
be served and the unit cost of water similarly reduced.
When a farmer pays for water on an acreage basis he has little in-
ducement to economize in its use. His water-right contract may call
for enough to irrigate a given number of acres, and if he uses less,
those who own the canal system receive the benefits. On the other
hand, if he buys water by the acre-foot or other unit, any saving he
can effect during the season reduces his water bill proportionately.
Were it possible for all the water delivered to a farm to be absorbed
by the roots of crops and transpired by their foliage, an efficiency of
100 per cent would be reached, but this is unattainable. With the
best equipment for distributing water and its most skillful use in
moistening the soil, it is seldom practicable to utilize more than 80
per cent, and with poor equipment and less skillful handling the
efficiency may drop to 30 per cent. This loss has been termed
^^permissible waste,'' and its relative quantity depends on economic
considerations. If the service which water can perform in producing
a larger quantity and a better quality of crops will justify more careful
land preparation and more efficient equipment in order to utilize a
larger part of the available water supply, such a course should be
followed; but if, as is sometimes the case, the returns from farming
are too small to warrant such expenditures the farmer must get along
as best he can with cheaper methods and equipment and suffer the
losses which these entail.
DUTY OF WATER AS AFFECTED BY STATE, COMMUNITY, AND
CORPORATE REGULATIONS 3
Five of the States discussed in this bulletin are also included in
part in the Great Basin and Missouri and Arkansas Kiver basins.
The present discussion of effect of State, community, and corporate
regulations will therefore be limited to conditions in Arizona, New
Mexico, and Texas; the reader is referred to the two preceding
bulletins (5, 9) of this series for similar discussions relating to the
other States, including Oklahoma, which for this purpose may be
classed with the Missouri and Arkansas River Basin States.
STATUTES AND COURT DECISIONS
Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas were settled by the Spaniards
and for some 250 years were subject to Spanish and Mexican law.
So far as they concerned irrigation institutions, these Old World
laws prior to the independence of Mexico were of a decidedly miscel-
laneous character; local customs, therefore, became strong and fre-
quently had all the force of written law in both Spain and the New
World. The earliest legislation of Territorial New Mexico and
Arizona indicated a clear intention to continue existing Mexican
irrigation laws and customs in force, and the intent of an early
» The material in this section was prepared by Wells A. Hutchins, irrigation economist, Division of
Agricultural Engineering.
32 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 185, M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Texas irrigation statute was similarly construed by the supreme
court of that State."* The laws and customs in question, aside from
those rights covered by the civil law, dealt mainly with construction,
operation, and ownership of acequias, grants of land and water rights,
and rights of impresarios and colonists to water for irrigation; and,
while they contained some broad provisions regarding the use of
water and gave the viceroys and courts authority to make further
provision for it, there was apparently no serious attempt on the
part of the Spanish officials to reduce such use to an economical
basis. Varying local customs had most influence in determining
this use.
Within the present century, however, all three States have adopted
modern irrigation codes and have set up machinery for their admin-
istration. Applications to appropriate water must be made to the
State. Beneficial use is declared to be the basis of acquirement of a
right to use water for irrigation, and for this purpose, according
to the Texas statute —
beneficial use shall be held to mean the use of such a quantity of water, when
reasonable intelligence and reasonable diligence are exercised in its application
for a lawful purpose, as is economically necessary for that purpose.
Determination of what is beneficial use in any instance necessarily
depends upon the facts in that case. Appropriation rights may be
declared forfeited for nonuse. State water divisions are provided for.
Hydrographic surveys are authorized. Arizona and New Mexico
provide for determinations of existing priorities and regulation
under State authority of the distribution of water to various ditches.
These measures are all aimed at the orderly appropriation and
diversion of water, elimination of unnecessary waste, and substitution
of some measure of economy of use for the older practices of applying
water without regard to the needs of other users; and they are chiefly
valuable to the extent that they bring about a real coordination of
water uses into which the point of view of the State has been injected.
RIPARIAN RIGHTS
The Territorial Legislature of Arizona specifically abrogated the
common-law doctrine of riparian rights, and in so doing was upheld
by the courts.^ The ensuing State constitution contained a similar
provision. In New Mexico the courts have rejected the riparian
doctrine and accepted the statutory rule of prior appropriation.^ A
recent Texas decision, reviewing the whole subject of water law in
that State, affirms the validity of riparian rights, at least in connec-
tion with lands granted prior to the appropriation act of 1889, but
definitely restricts riparian waters to "the ordinary flow and imder-
flow of the stream." ^
COMMUNITY REGULATIONS AND CONTRACTS
Until the present century local usages and regulations have had
more to do with determining water requirements than have any
state-wide measures, and they still exert a marked influence. Usage
* ToUe p. Correth, 31 Tex. 362, 98 Am. Dec. 540.
« Austin et al. v. Chandler et al.. 4 Ariz. 346, 42 P. 483. See also Clough v. Wing, 2 Ariz. 371, 17 P. 453.
« In Hagerman Irrigation Co. v. McMiirry, 16 N. M. 172, 113 P. 823, the court stated: "The doctrine of
prior appropriation with application to beneficial use has definitelj^ and wholly superseded the common-
la / doctrine of riparian rights in many of the jurisdictions in which irrigation is necessary to the growth of
crops, and among them is New Mexico."
7 Motl et al. V. Boyd et al.,— Tex. — , 236 S. W. 458, decided June 26, 1926.
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS 33
on any one of the several hundred community acequias or ditches in
New Mexico conformed mainly to the available water supply, method
of delivering water to individuals, and ability and disposition of the
major-domo, or superintendent, to enforce the regulations impartially;
the water rights of some acequias having been derived from Spanish
or Mexican sources and those of others acquired under United States
laws. The actual quantity of water delivered to an individual de-
pends upon the number of so-called rights he holds, which may be
based upon his irrigable acreage, or upon his ditch frontage, or upon
the amount of labor he chooses to subscribe to the ditch maintenance
in any one season. Such a right usually represents a proportional
part of the total available water supply, rather than a fixed quantity
of water or rate of flow. The New Mexico Code provides that com-
munity customs and regulations having for their object the econom-
ical use of w^ater, and not detrimental to the public welfare, shall
govern the distribution of water from the ditches to which they
apply, but that the authority of the State engineer is not thereby to
be impaired.
Contracts between the Federal Government and water users on
reclamation projects have unquestionably influenced the quantity of
water used on those projects, for they have involved a minimum
charge for a given quantity of water used per acre and an additional
charge for additional water. Salt River Valley Water Users\ Asso-
ciation, which operates the Salt River project, levies a minimum
annual charge against each acre of land to which association stock is
appurtenant, which entitles that acre to 2 acre-feet of water, and
makes a further charge, which may be graduated if the board of
governors see fit, for each additional acre-foot. As the Salt River
and Yuma projects together included more than half the irrigated
area of Arizona reported in the census of 1920 (22), the effect of these
contracts is obviously important in connection with water require-
ments in that State.
Commercial enterprises are not relatively important in Arizona
and New Mexico, but were reported in the census of 1920 {22) as
supplying water to 45 per cent of the land irrigated in Texas, some
of this area, however, having since gone into districts. Where water
is delivered by these companies on a flat acreage basis there is little
incentive to economical irrigation. Where a minimum rate per acre
is made, with an additional charge for each watering, there is some
inducement to irrigate carefully, and where the rate is based upon
the quantity delivered the water user is led more forcibly to consider
his actual requirements before ordering water. This last type of
contract is therefore most desirable from a broad public point of
view.
Water improvement districts (irrigation districts) in Texas have an
opportunity to influence the use of water for different crops under
the statutory requirement that one-third to two-thirds of the annual
maintenance and operation funds be paid in advance by applicants
X)r water, in which event the board of directors may take into con-
secration the acreage to be planted by each applicant for water, the
cr^D to be grown by him, and the amount of water per acre to be
use! by him, provided, however, that each water user shall pay the
sam^price per acre for use of water upon the same class of crops.
^06469—30 5
\
\
34 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 185, M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
ARID LANP RECLAMATION AND MONTHLY AND SEASONAL IRRIGA-
TION REQUIREMENTS
Most of the summer flow of the streams of the Southwest is utilized,
and the extension of the irrigated area will depend largely on the
storage of the flood flow and other unused waters. A substantial
beginning has been made in this direction. In 1920 the Federal
census (22) reported 800 reservoirs having a combined capacity of
5,000,000 acre-feet. Since then other reservoirs have been built
or started. Building high dams to impound water not only provides
a water supply for agricultural purposes but also creates facilities
for the generation of hydroelectric power. A part of this energy
can be used to operate pumps to raise water from underground and
other sources and to drain water-logged lands. Taking advantage
of the cheap electric energy developed at the Koosevelt Dam and
accessory storage and power plants below the dam, the farmers of
Salt River Valley use part of it to operate deep-well pumps for the
dual purpose of lowering the ground-water level and providing water
to supplement the gravity flow from the reservoirs. From 1921 to
1926 the average quantity of water pumped from wells was about
200,000 (15) acre-feet per annum.
It is likewise true that some of the advantages gained by impound-
ing water and developing power at favorable sites is offset by the
deposition of silt wherever the waters of silt-laden streams are stored.
All southwestern streams carry more or less silt, which in time
impairs, if it does not destroy, the usefulness of storage reservoirs.
In Roosevelt Reservoir the average rate of sedimentation for the
20 years dating from the time the dam was begun was 5,050 acre-
feet per annum (10). In the Elephant Butte Reservoir of New
Mexico the average rate of sedimentation from November, 1916, to
August, 1925, was 20,470 acre-feet per annum (13).
The agricultural resources of the Southwest can not be utilized to
much more than one-third their potential extent without water, and,
compared with the vastness of the territory, water is extremely
scarce. The bulk of it is derived from two streams, the Colorado and
the Rio Grande. The storage of flood waters on these and smaller
streams will not suffice for all irrigable lands likely to be reclaimed.
Measures will have to be taken to collect and utilize the w^aste water
from irrigation. Such waters may be grouped under (1) seepage,
(2) return flow, and (3) underground recovery. The meanings of
these will be understood from what follows. The inefficiency arising
from the use of water in irrigation is readily accounted for. In this
practice the discharge of streams, instead of being permitted to flow
to the sea in natural channels, is diverted and distributed over wide
areas by artificial means. The artificial channels are seldom efficient
carriers of water, but permit one-fifth to one-half the intake volume
to be absorbed by the porous materials of which they are composed.
The water remaining in the channel at the end of its run is dis-
tributed to farms, where a second loss is sustained in efforts to moisten
dry soil. In most cases the revenue derived from farming does no^
w^arrant the installation of water-tight conduits, and in spreadirg
water over fields some loss is unavoidable. Hence the authors hrv^e
made use of the term ''permissible waste" (9) in reference to convey-
ance and use, which, combined, have been found over large are<^s to
average 50 per cent of the quantity of water diverted. Res'^ts of
recent determinations on 22 Federal projects showed that t^^ per-
IREIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS 35
cent age of intake water delivered to farms varied from 29 to 77 per
cent and averaged 50 per cent. The water absorbed by earthen
channels and the deep percolation losses from irrigated fields is acted
upon by gravity, causing it to move through soils and subsoils to
lower levels. This is usually termed ''seepage water."
''Return flow" is a term applied to diverted water which finds its
way back to a stream, and is used with reference to an entire stream
system or to one or more of its natural subdivisions. The sources
of the return flow may be identical in part with those of seepage
waters, but the former comprise larger land areas. During periods
of high water and abundant supply it is common practice to apply
large quantities to cropped land. A part of the water so applied finds
its way sooner or later to the channel from which it was derived, but
at a lower elevation. If feasible, this return flow is reused on lower
lands. The presence of more or less return flow in western streams
has given rise to an expression, the "consumptive use" of water,
which means in its most restricted sense the difference between the
inflow and outflow of a return-flow area. Stated difterently, the
surface water supply of the upper portion of a stream basin or other
natural subdivision may be wholly diverted and used for agricultural
purposes and at the same time not represent the potentialities of this
portion of the stream for irrigation, since from 20 to 40 per cent of the
diverted water may return to the channel and be available for reuse.
Accordingly, consumptive use represents the unrecoverable portion of
a water supply irrespective of whether it is transpired by plants,
evaporated from water and soil surfaces, or permanently retained in
the materials beneath the surface.
Underground recovery as a source of irrigation water is quite
general in its application and may include seepage and return flow
as well as the residue of precipitation, or what remains of the natural
supply after surface run-off, evaporation from ground surfaces, and
transpiration from vegetation are deducted. Water is recovered from
underground basins by (1) drainage conduits, (2) pumping from wells,
and (3) combinations of gravity conduits and pumping equipment.
An example of the first on a large scale is found in the Mesilla Valley,
N. Mex. Here the waste water from a large extent of irrigated land,
augmented by rainfall and return flow, was allowed to accumulate
for years until a high ground-water table damaged crops and menaced
the productivity of the greater part of the valley.
To remedy this situation, deep drainage ditches were installed,
which have proved effective in lowering the ground-water table and
restoring the fertility of the soil. In Texas imderground recovery
has likewise resulted in regaining a large quantity of water and
rendering it available for use. From 1923 to 1927 the average
quantity of water recovered from 66,700 acres of valley lands and
returned by gravity drains to the Rio Grande was 189,000 acre-feet
per annum. Reference has been made elsewhere to the successfully
operated pumping plants in the Salt River Valley, Ariz., which make
satisfactory use of waste waters from irrigation. In parts of western
Texas and New Mexico numerous pumping plants are operated to
recover underground waters for irrigation.
In line with what has been stated, it is evident that the apportion-
ment of water to the arid and semiarid lands of the Southwest should
be made with the greatest care and the strictest economy. From a
farmer's point of view, nature has not apportioned to this region those
36 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 185, M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
essential elements of agriculture — fertile soil and water — in the right
proportion. There is an excess of the former and a marked deficiency
in the latter. The only remedy for this basic defect is to make the
best possible use of the available water supply. The remedy, how-
ever, must not be carried too far or it will result in diminished yields
and profits to the farmer. On the contrary, if a lavish use of water is
permitted it will greatly curtail the extent of land which can be irri-
gated. The adoption of some safe and sane middle course is desirable,
and in order to keep development in this course the needs for water
of the various natural subdivisions of the Southwest have been care-
fully considered and a quantity of w^ater in acre-feet per acre has
been tentatively allotted to each.
Table 5 contains a description of each of the 30 divisions into which
the Southwest has been divided, as shown in Figure 1, the average
seasonal net irrigation requirement for each, and the percentage of
total seasonal net requirements used in each month of the irrigation
period. This table is based on the results of experiments summarized
in this report, on anticipated improvements in irrigation practice,
and on the judgment of the authors. In many localities the data
available were too meager to enable trustworthy estimates of irriga-
tion requirements to be given, but to the bewildered traveler any
guidepost or familiar landmark is welcomed. In like manner those
who have to do with land reclamation in future in this part of the West
will profit, it is believed, by the guideposts indicative of a wise use
of water in irrigation farming herein set up.
Table 5. — Monthly and seasonal net
divisions
irrigation requirements
of the Southwest
Of
he
various
sub-
Location'of division
Monthly percentages of total seasonal net irrigation
requirements
•2 fe
6
■>
S
1
08
1
1
<
^
S
3)
a
a
be
3
<
1
0
1
o
1
a
1
§
III
1
Imperial Valley, Calif -
5
1
3
6
1
4
9
4
7
5
4
6
10
8
12
10
12
10
5
4
12
13
14
15
17
12
17
14
10
8
7
6
8
11
15
13
26
27
15
20
19
18
20
22
21
22
14
15
17
16
14
14
17
17
5
17
13
20
14
16
10
18
12
13
23
15
29
30
18
29
27
22
22
26
24
23
15
12
16
18
22
25
24
22
30
30
35
30
18
30
24
28
36
12
21
14
15
13
17
23
30
16
16
17
15
14
15
8
14
17
20
23
22
20
35
25
34
25
17
27
26
10
14
11
9
8
13
17
14
10
10
8
9
9
12
5
7
12
18
15
16
15
22
13
18
15
12
13
99 1
8
8
8
4
4
10
6
4
6
6
4
5
5
9
3
3
8
11
9
10
12
8
7
7
3
6
2
2
7
5
1
4
4
1
3
3.10
0
2.90
3
3.00
4
2.30
5
Navaho country, in northern Arizona —
Southeastern Arizona
2.30
6
2
2
....
2.60
7
San Juan Basin, N. Mex _.
2.20
8
Western New Mexico ..
2
3
2
2
I
3
3
3
4
4
3
5
6
1.70
q
Rio Grande Basin, N. Mex _. __
1
1
2
1
1
1
4
12
7
3
7
7
5
6
5
6
12
12
6
3
4
2
1
1
1
1
4
4
2
2
1
1
"3"
4
2
2
2.60
in
Pecos River Basin, N. Mex _.
2.40
11
Northeastern New Mexico
1.60
T>
Rio Grande Basin, west Texas
3
5
3
2
2.40
13
Pecos River Basin, Tex
2.25
14
West-central Texas _.
1.60
15
Lower Rio Grande Basin, Tex
L75
16
Upper Nueces and Colorado River
Basin, Tex
1.30
17
1S
Upper Brazos and Red River Basin, Tex.
Eastern Panhandle, Tex
1.10
1.35
1<)
Western Panhandle, Tex
1.65
'>0
Panhandle, Okla
1.25
?1
LOO
??,
San Luis Basin, Colo ...
1.80
?3
San Juan Basin, Colo
8
1.90
?4
Yampa and White River Basins, Colo
1.35
?5
5
11
7
4
3
5
10
7
11
5
L70
?6
Virgin River Basin, Utah _
3
7
6
2
....
2.25
?7
San Juan Basin, Utah
2.10
?8
Green River Basin, Utah
3
2.00
W
Uintah Basin, northeast Utah 1
26 20
36 16 I
L75
30
Green River Basin, Wyo 1
L60
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS 37
APPENDIX
USE OF WATER ON CROPS IN THE SOUTHWEST, IRRIGATION WATER APPLIED, RAIN-
FALL, AND CROP YIELDS IN COLORADO, CALIFORNIA, ARIZONA, NEW MEXICO, TEXAS.
AND OKLAHOMA
Table 6. — Irrigation water applied monthly, rainfall, total water received, and crop
yields in San Luis Valley, ColoA
ALFALFA
Year
Irriga-
tions
Monthly application of water in acre-feet per acre
Total quantity of
water in acre-feet re-
ceived by crop per
acre
Yield per
acre
May
June
July
Au-
gust
Septem-
Octo-
ber
Irriga-
tion
Rain-
fall
Total
1913
Number
3
4
3
3
4
3
3.
0.77
.82
.39
.62
.21
.65
1.31
""o.'3r
.45
1.16
■"■'.li'
0.30
""."99"
.92
.87
.97
■"'o.li'
.59
0.28
"o.'ig"
1.35
1.73
1.43
2.77
2.03
1.97
2.89
0.49
.49
.49
.70
.70
.70
.70
1.84
2.22
1.92
3.47
2.73
2.67
3.59
Tons
1913
1913.
1914
2 06
1914.
.90
.45
».46
1914
3 1.30
1914
L34
BARLEY
1913.
2
3
3
0.42
.39
"'0.I5'
.59
0.44
........
....
a 86
L37
1.46
0.38
.38
.45
1. 24
1.75
L91
9.8
1913
0.53
.45
4 10 g
1913
• 15. 95
BEETS
0.37
0. 71 0. 42
FLAX
OATS
Footnotes on page 38.
L60
0.49
Tons
4.11
EMMER
1913.
2
2
2
3
2
4
"■"0."25"
"""."55"
.29
0.36
""".'37"
""■.'62'
0.44
.28
.55
.26
.23
.99
0.80
.53
.92
1.07
.52
1.51
0.38
.45
.42
.45
.73
.70
1.18
.98
1.34
L52
1.25
2.21
Pounds
•531
1913
•625
1913
6M73
1913
0.26
«622
1914.
»M43
1914
«864
1913
2
2
2
'"'0.'27"
.85
0.43
0.27
0.70
.86
1.14
0.45
.45
.45
1.15
1.31
1.59
8 137
1913
.59
»320
1913
.29
8 85
1913
2
3
3
2
0.51
.42
'"b'lV
"".'46'
.54
0.47
.12
.42
.74
.86
0.98
.72
1.46
1.20
1.39
0.38
.45
.45
.70
.70
L36
LIT
1.91
1.90
2.09
"1,477
1913
0.19
.62
"1,083
Bushels
69
1913
1914
41
1914.
4L7
PEAS
1913.
2
2
3
2
4
"'6.' 61'
.36
0.42
"'i.'02'
.62
0.44
.46
.20
0.86
1.07
.79
L02
LSI
0.42
.49
.49
.70
.70
L28
1.56
1.28
L72
2.21
Pounds
"362
1913
"293
1913
0.24
" 296
1914
1914
.99
38 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 185, M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 6. — Irrigation water applied monthly, rainfall, total water received, and crop
yields in San Luis Valley, Colo. — Continued
PEAS AND BARLEY
Year
Irriga-
tions
Monthly application of water in acre-feet per acre
Total quantity of
water in acre-feet re-
ceived by crop per
acre
Yield per
acre
May
June
July
Au-
gust
Septem-
Octo-
ber
Irriga-
tion
Rain-
fall
Total
1914
Number
3
3
4
1.18
.85
.62
0.71
.44
.99
1.89
1.29
1.61
0.70
.70
.73
2.69
1.99
2.24
Tons
12 2. 31
1914.
12 2.31
1914
"2.66
PEAS AND OATS
1913
3
3
3
3
3
4
0.42
.42
1.24
.89
.70
.52
0.42
.42
1.05
.98
.89
.99
0.62
.62
1.46
1.46
2.29
1.87
1.59
1.51
0.45
.45
.70
.70
.70
.70
1.91
1.91
2.99
• 2.57
2.29
2.21
"1.28
1913
" 1. 79
1914
12 13 4. 44
1914
i» 13 4. 00
1914
12 13 3. 43
1914
12 13 3. 07
POTATOES
1913.
2
2
0.27
0.33
.24
0.60
.54
0.45
.45
1.05
.99
Bushels
(14)
1913
0.30
1*19.8
RYE
1913
2
2
""0.*57'
0.30
.74
0.48
0.7S
1.31
0.28
.73
1.06
2.04
18.3
1914.-
18 19. 6
WHEAT
1913
2
2
3
3
2
0.43
.61
.42
.33
"'0.'66"
0.28
.80
.19
.42
.78
0.71
1.46
.99
1.46
1.11
0.42
.42
.49
.45
.73
1.13
1.88
1.48
1.91
1.84
11.2
1913
"9.7
1913
0.19
.62
Tons
12 0. 34
1913
Bushels
28.8
1914
" 15. 6
1 This experimental work was conducted by the Division of Agricultural Engineering, Bureau of Public
Roads, U. S. Department of Agriculture, and the Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station in coopera-
tion with the Costilla Estates Development Co., on three tracts near San Acacio, Colo. Each crop was
grown on a group of plots, the groups including from 2.1 to 11.1 acres. The soil of farm A is a heavy sandy
loam, cut up by gravel deposits; of farm B, much heavier, in some places almost adobe, with a few grave
deposits and on one side some sand; of farm C, sandy.
2 First-year alfalfa.
3 Damaged by rot.
* Nurse crop for alfalfa.
» Damaged by wind and animals.
6 Grain.
"> Winter emmer; March and April rainfall included.
* Seed; crop affected by wilt and thistles.
' Seed; affected by thistles.
m Sheaf; needed for feed.
11 Seed.
12 Hay.
13 Estimated yield.
1* Crop practically destroyed by wilt.
1* Damaged by wilt.
16 Winter rye; March rainfall included.
17 Winter wheat; March rainfall included.
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS 39
Table 7. — Irrigation water in acre-feet applied on cotton in Imperial Valley, Calif. ^
Acres
irri-
gated
Monthly application of water per acre
Total
quan-
Year
March
April
May
June
July
August
Sep-
tem-
ber
October
tity of
irrigation
water
received
by crop
per acre
1926
160
160
321
160
160
200
160
160
150
"'o.'is'
"".'66'
0.48
.67
.70
.34
.50
.11
.43
.73
.84
0.43
.25
.19
.48
.14
.38
.45
.25
.21
0.59
1.01
.69
.59
.91
.86
.50
.27
.75
1.04
1.12
.81
.28
1.17
1.16
1.47
.77
1.35
1.21
.99
.98
.71
.90
1.13
1.30
1.12
1.10
0.81
1.00
.85
.48
.62
.81
1.25
1.45
1.07
0.25
.58
.35
.26
""'."68"
........
.59
2 4 gi
1926
a 5 62
1926.-.-
2 4 72
1926 ^
1926
2 3.14
2 4 24
1926
3 5 79
1926
3 5 40
1926
3 4 97
1926
3 5 91
1 Information furnished by M. J. Dowd, chief engineer and general superintendent, Imperial irrigation
district, Imperial, Calif.
2 Grown in Calipatria area on soil somewhat harder than Imperial loam.
3 Grown in Brawley area on soil somewhat harder than Imperial loam.
Table 8. — Irrigation water applied on cotton in Imperial Valley, Calif., and Lower
California, Mexico ^
Year
Area
irrigated
Total
quantity
of irriga-
tion water
received
by crop
per acre
Year
Area
irrigated
Total
quantity
of irriga-
tion water
received
by crop
per acre
Year
Area
irrigated
Total
quantity
of irriga-
tion water
received
by crop
per acre
1923
1923
1923
1923
1923
1923-.
1923.
1923
1924
1924
1924.
Acres
600
12,000
3,000
1,500
450
855
800
300
650
560
500
Acre-feet
4.44
3.24
3.22
3.60
3.00
2.54
3.66
3.06
3.88
4.52
4.12
1924
1924
1924-.
1924
1924
1925.
1925
1925-
1925
1925
1925........
Acres
500
450
800
300
1,000
690
2,500
2,400
400
3,900
1,828
Acre-feet
3.90
3.14
4.72
3.34
3.06
4.28
4.46
4.06
2,88
3.92
3.12
1925.
1925-_
1926
1926
1926--
1926
1926
1926
1926
1926
Acres
350
1,221
645
1,000
25
100
398
260
1,575
380
Acre-feet
3.38
3.04
4.06
3.38
4.00
3.02
2.54
2.76
3.34
2.52
1 Information furnished by M. J. Gowd, chief engineer and general superintendent, Imperial irrigation
district. Imperial, Calif.
Table 9. — Number of irrigations, dates of first and last application, irrigation
water applied, rainfall, total water received, and crop yields in Salt River Valley,
Ariz.^
WHEAT HAY
Year
Irriga-
tions
Date of first and
last application
Total quantity of water re-
ceived by crop per acre
Yield per
acre
Litera-
ture
cited
First
Last
Irriga-
tion
Rainfall
Total
1900
Number
4
4
Nov. 11
Nov. 10
Acre-feet
Mar. 19 2. 1
do 1 2 1
Acre-feet
0.12
.12
Acre-feel
2 2.22
2 2.22
Tons
3.4
3.5
(4)
1900
(4)
WHEAT
1900
1901.
1901
1901
1901.
Nov. 5
Mar. 4
Dec. 8
Mar. 5
Mar. 7
Apr. 14
Apr. 6
...do
Apr. 11
Apr. 14
2.2
2.2
2.5
2.1
2.1
0.16
.17
.17
.17
.17
2 2.36
2 2.37
2.67
2 2.27
2 2.27
Bushels I
40.0
35.9
30.9
35.4
32.0
(4)
(5)
(5)
(5)
(5)
1 Experiments conducted at Phoenix, Ariz., by the Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station,
are clayey, gravelly loam underlaid with gravel. Loam is 5 to 6 feet deep.
2 Includes 0.6 acre-foot before planting.
Soils
40 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 185, M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 9. — Number of irrigations, dates of first and last application, irrigation
water applied, rainfall, total water received, and crop yields in Salt River Valley,
A riz. — Continued
POTATOES
Year
Irriga-
tions
Date of first and
last application
Total quantity of water re-
ceived by crop per acre
Yield per
acre
Litera-
First
Last
Irriga-
tion
Rainfall
Total
ture
cited
1900...
Number
4
4
4
3
3
Feb. 17
...do
Mar. 17
Mar. 27
...do
May 2
...do
May 10
...do
...do.-...
Acre-feet
2.0
2.0
2.4
2.0
2.0
Acre-feet
0.11
Acre-feet
2 2.11
2 2.11
»2.67
3 2.17
«2.17
BusheU
66.7
53.3
53.4
60.0
50.0
i
(6)
(5)
1900
1901
1901
1901
COTTON
1901.
13
Apr. 11
Oct. 3
5.0
0.30
3 5.30
Pounds
400
CORN
1901.
Aug.
Oct. 7
2.1
0.20
2 2.30
Bushels
31.0
MELOT^S
1900.
1901-
Tons
13
Mar. 29
July
15
3.2
0.20
2 3.40
15.0
12
Mar. 26
July
8
3.3
.03
3.33
13.5
STRAWBERRIES
1901.
36
Feb. 16
Dec. 26
3.2
0.31
3 6.51
Pounds
5,000
1901.
TOMATOES
27
Feb. 26
Oct. 28
4.3
0.25
2 4.55
12,300
BARLEY HAY
1900.
Nov. 10
Mar. 18
1.6
0.12
2 1.72
Tons
4.2
CABBAGE
16
16
Sept. 15
Nov. 22
Feb. 25
May 9
5.0
5.0
0.20
.28
!
2 5.20 1
2 5.28 1
1
7.0
6.2
1900.
1900.
COWPEA HAY
1900-
9
June 9
Sept. 9
3.8
0.11
2 3.91
3.6
U)
SUGAR BEETS
1900.
1900-
Apr. 1
Apr. 3
June 26 2.5
July 15 2.5
0.22
.22
2 2.72
2 2.72
14.5
10.5
ONIONS
1900.
29 Sept. 16 July 11 6. 2 0. 30 2 6. 50
2.6
(4)
GREEN PEAS
1900
6 1 Dec. 10
Mar. 22 2. 4
0.08
2 2. 48 1
2.2 1
(4)
2 Includes 0.6 acre-foot before planting. 3 includes 0.7 acre-foot before planting.
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS 41
Table 10. — Number of irrigations, quantity of water received by irrigation and by
rainfall, and crop yields in Salt River Valley, Ariz.
ALFALFA (16)
Year
Area irri-
gated
Irriga-
tions
Total quantity of water re-
ceived by crop per acre
Yield per
Irriga-
tion
Rainfall
Total
acre
1913, 1914, 1915
Acres
25.0
35.0
28.0
20.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
48.0
40.0
30.1
24.0
24.0
70.0
70.0
70.0
30.7
30.7
48.0
4&0
48.0
37.68
6.0
34 85
37.68
18.53
18.53
44.0
46.0
100.96
100.96
75.00
51.41
118.53
19.22
154 02
154 02
147. 86
42.33
42.33
42.33
19.4
lao
Number
Acre-feet
4 06
5.68
2.34
3.10
438
3.08
2.44
1.77
3.77
4 07
2.85
5.10
3.13
5.60
3.46
2.50
3.03
1.51
1.46
2.62
4 32
416
484
4 39
5.61
4 31
5.36
3.22
1.08
4 47
4 71
3.00
4 71
1.72
3.26
5.80
1.82
2.02
3.10
3.55
1.87
Acre-feet
2 0 KA
Acre-feet
3.20
4 92
6.64
3.20
3.96
5.24
3.94
3.30
2.63
4 63
4 93
3.71
5.96
3.99
6.46
4 32
3.36
3.89
2.37
2.32
a48
5.18
5.02
5.70
5.25
6.47
5.17
6.22
408
1.94
5.33
5.57
3.86
5.57
2.58
412
6.66
2.68
2.88
3.96
4 41
2.73
Torus
4 00
1913, 1914, 1915
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
2 6.00
^ 8 00
1913, 1914, 1915
1913, 1914, 1915 ....
«4 80
s 8 00
1913, 1914, 1915
1913,1914,1915
7 6 00
1913, 1914, 1915
7 5 00
1913, 1914, 1915
7 4 20
1913, 1914, 1915 . .
7 3.00
7 6 50
1913, 1914, 1915
1913, 1914, 1915.
7 6 50
1913, 1914, 1915
7 5 00
1913, 1914, 1915
7 7 50
1913, 1914, 1915
7 5 50
1913, 1914, 1915.
7 4^30
1913, 1914, 1915
7 2 30
1913, 1914, 1915
7 5 00
1913, 1914, 1915
7 480
1913, 1914, 1915
72 80
1913, 1914, 1915
7.80
1913, 1914, 1915...
7 450
1913, 1914, 1915
7 4,40
1913,1914,1915
7 3.73
1913, 1914, 1915
^7 00
1913, 1914, 1915
"> 7 39
1913, 1914, 1915.
7 7.60
1913, 1914, 1915
7 6 99
1913, 1914, 1915.
7 7 39
1913, 1914, 1915
7 5 35
1913, 1914, 1915
^3 68
1913, 1914, 1915 .
7 g 25
1913, 1914, 1915...
7 4.97
1913,1914,1915
'
7 5 00
1913,1914,1915
7 6 36
1913, 1914, 1915
7 2 24
1913, 1914, 1915 .
7 5 57
1913, 1914, 1915
7 7 85
1913, 1914, 1915
7 3 00
1913,1914,1915
7 4 00
1913, 1914, 1915
7 5.36
1913, 1914, 1915
7 5.70
1913, 1914, 1915
7 3 50
LINT COTTON
1913, 1914, 1915 .
27.0
70.25
88.80
105. 25
39.0
12.76
1.00
70.25
40.00
34 88
17.00
55.00
55.00
55.00
1.83
1.87
2.51
1.41
1.27
2.05
2.29
1.50
1.50
1.22
1.25
1.84
3.50
3.50
8 0.28
.28
.28
.28
.28
.28
.28
.28
.28
.28
.28
.28
.28
.28
2.11
2.15
2.79
1.69
1.55
2.33
2.57
1.78
1.78
1.50
1.63
2.12
3.78
3.78
Pounds
7 259
1913, 1914, 1915
7 371
1913,1914,1915
7 449
1913, 1914, 1915
7 166
1913, 1914,1915...
7 86
1913, 1914, 1915
^438
1913,1914,1915
12
7375
1913, 1914, 1915
7 275
1913, 1914, 1915.. ..
7 235
1913,1914, 1915.
7 176
1913, 1914, 1915
7 218
1913, 1914, 1915
7 177
1913,1914,1915
7400
1913, 1914, 1915
7 650
Footnotes on page 42.
42 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 185, M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 10. — Number of irrigations, quantity of water received by irrigation and by
rainfall, and crop yields in Salt River Valley, Ariz. — Continued
SUGARCANE (16)
Year
Area irri-
gated
Irriga-
tions
Total quantity of water re-
ceived by crop per acre
Yield per
Irriga-
tion
RainfaU
Total
acre
1915- .
Acres
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Number
3
3
3
6
6
6
6
6
6
Acre-feet
2.68
1.97
1.85
2.81
3.04
3.32
4.19
4.23
4.33
Acre-feet
0.83
.83
.83
.78
.78
.78
.78
.78
.78
Acre-feet
3.51
2.80
2.68
3.59
3.82
4.10
4.97
6.01
6.11
Tons
3.87
1915
1.02
1915
.42
1916
5.47
1916 -
7.81
1916
7.39
1916 .. ...
16.95
1916
20.53
1916
25.41
WHEAT m)
1915
30
20
12
45
20
14
62
45
75
40
100
40
13
26
36
3
3
4
3
2
3
3
4
3
4
4
3
4
»1^
3
1.08
1.67
2.19
2.28
1.42
1.06
1.67
1.60
1.10
1.40
1.51
1.61
2.27
1.10
1.61
«0.78
.78
.78
.78
.78
.78
.78
.78
.78
.78
.78
.78
.78
.78
.78
1.86
2.45
2.97
3.06
2.20
1.84
2.45
2.38
1.88
2.18
2.29
2.39
3.05
1.88
2.39
Bushels
10 17
1915
10 29
1915
1128
1915 .
" 33
1915
"30
1915
u 28
1915
"33
1915
10 23
1915
10 20
1915
" 23
1915
"26
1915
10 33
1915
10 31
1915
10 21
1916
"33
MILO {16)
1915
20
60
8
7
15
40
8
20
10
43
8
15
6
7
20
20
40
60
17
1
18
4
3
5
3
4
4
3
4
3
7
3
6
3
1
3
10
3
4
4
2
3
1.65
1.13
1.57
.81
1.00
.75
.95
1.51
2.26
2.29
1.67
2.10
.70
.23
1.13
2.29
1.13
2.20
1.97
.35
.99
i< 0. 17
.17
.17
.17
.17
.17
.17
.17
.17
.17
.17
.17
.17
.17
.17
.17
.17
:i?
.17
.17
1.82
1.30
1.74
.98
1.17
.92
1.12
1.68
2.43
2.46
1.84
2.27
.87
.40
1.30
2.46
1.30
2.37
2.14
.52
1.16
Tons
" 1.5
1915
"1.0
1915
10 1.0
1915
10.28
1915 - .—
11.75
1915
10 1.25
1915
10 1.00
1915
10.75
1915
12.76
1915.
10.75
1915
10 1. 12
1915
10.75
1915
10 1.25
1915
10.76
1915....
10 1.00
1915
10.76
1915
10 1. 12
1915
10 1.00
1916.-..
10 1.00
1915.
10.67
1915
10.60
1 Data gathered under cooperative agreement between Division of Agricultural Engineering and State of
Arizona.
iRainfall is average for entire years of 1913, 1914, and 1915.
3 Maricopa gravelly loam.
< Glendale loess.
» Maricopa clay loam.
6 Salt River adobe.
7 Maricopa sandy loam.
« Mean of 1913, 1914, and 1915, April to October, inclusive.
» December to May, inclusive.
10 Sandy loam.
" Clay loam.
1* Loam.
" Partly irrigated a second time.
i< March to July, inclusive.
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS 43
Table 11. — Use of water on alfalfa (16), irrigation water applied monthly , rainfall,
total water received, and yields in Salt River Valley, Ariz.^
Irriga-
tions
Monthly application of water in acre-feet per acre
Total quantity of water
in acre-feet received
by crop per acre.
Yield per
acre
Year
April
May
June
July
August
Sep-
tember
and
October
Irriga-
tion
Rain-
fall
Total
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916-
1916
Number
5
6
5
6
5
5
5
0.42
.43
.43
.43
.42
.62
.46
0.31
.40
.46
.60
.80
1.10
1.37
0.31
.40
.47
.59
.80
1.10
1.46
0.21
.27
.31
.40
.54
.73
.98
0.71
.86
.96
1.19
1.51
2.00
2.64
1.96
2.36
2.63
3.21
4.07
5.45
6.91
»0.78
.78
.78
.78
.78
.78
.78
2.74
3.14
3.41
3.99
4.85
6.23
7.69
Tons
»2.92
»3.15
8 3.60
3 4.84
«6.24
8 7.70
8 8.88
> Data gathered under cooperative agreement between Division of Agricultural Engineering and State
of Arizona.
» Rainfall for entire year.
8 Average from 3 plots.
44 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 185, M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
f
5S5
si
t
I
1^
M-
tl
, ■>«''<4»'<i<rHe«3idrj5e»5T(i-<»5dd«oio<d««odo(5oi3o6o6«o«©>od
M
e<j ■*■ «o CO eo c^ c^ -.jJ ec CO d «o o Ti! d <o «o TjJ »d irf -^ ■*'■*■ lo -^jJ ■*■
cic6»dne6'-icie4e6ciuiiti-<finui>4uirfui^^c4-<i^^'^eo
»co»eot>-^t^OT(<Qoo
co?ico(M?5.-(eo(N«i-<
^feS§KgS^§gS?§5gfeSg5J
1-HiO I b- C<) >Q 1-H C<» O .-I CO CO •* c<i eo c>i «o «o o
CO ^ I ^ ^ CO CO ^ ^ ^ CO ^ CO CO d CO CO CO CO
S^SSSoSFigSS^SSgpiggSgggSSSSgSS
o»ooeciot^coc<«oocor-iosTt<oocoM«ot^e^(NtooT}*t^-Ti<'«*
Ncoco'o-^«o-^cscocoot^oo«oos05c»t^osoot>.ot^ot>.«
C5 1-H iH ' *
^iOiO'^^C^'^J^COCO^COCO'^CO'^CO'^
• OiOsc^t^t^cO'^i-Ht^^cocococococococococococococococo
«o"t5"S »o i^ i^ C00000005 OiO »-i coco eoo ^>•^^Sl
CP^Pnco-'^oi'^d'^'d'^
loioiocoe
cSodOdOdOJO)OdOdOiOdC)O^OdOdO>0>0^0>^0>C>00^<
io>a>a>aiOio>o>a>a>o>o>a>Aa>o>o>oo>a>ao>
|i§:i:s§So
2.36
2.31
2.10
2.25
0.61
.22
.22
.22
1.85
2.09
1.88
2.03
1 i i i
jd • •
0.35
.35
.35
•.33
d - • -
0.68
.56
.33
.40
i i i 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 j 1
i 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
■ ill
! I 1 1
till
III!
1 1 1 1
co«o«o<o
10.10
.55
.40
.42
SSS2
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS 45
?5g§?oJSSg5SS
2.32
2.11
2.16
2.15
2.41
1.96
1.39
1.69
2.00
g|g^§^?|§J§^?J?^S|
2.10
1.89
1.94
1.93
2.19
1.74
1.17
1.47
1.78
gs3§3i^^S^^:S§oS
g§S^S^S^^^^2c5S2
gijJoSSg§;2S^^
S^SSJgS^gSJoSo
1 1 i I i ! ! ! :
« «0 O O <© «D lO >0 O
S§55^^§?3SS
^ ^ ;C Oi lO -^jl J> « 00 Tf CO o
c4 iri IN ci o< c^ i-< c>i c^ ci c<«
?^g3gJ?^S?5^?3?5?3a
c3
rn' (N l?i (N (N d r-; (N c4 (N <N
^^^S^B^^B^^
d rH- * •
^SS5J5^?§5S5?
o
SgJSSSSSSSSS
d
g^g^s^^^^sss
d
<©tcocoo«o"3eo«ci©o
S^^555§$g^S?^?S
d
1 CO •*' CO •»t CO «*■ CO -"j^' Tf eo cs c>i c4 e<i ci
e05JQ'aiT*<(3>C0{N0»t*OC<^»Ht^N
t- o» o o> o> t^ CS .-H O O i-< .-H o <o O M -g
&
' 1
B
rj
c^oooQQ>co>ao>cco;oooQt^eCQO .S
CO Tjt ic i5 >J5 CO t^ 2 w «M» ® S »-i «o t^- K
ci c4 CM <N iM* c4 ri c<i CO ci (N iM* ei c4 c< e4 ^
8
S
I tc ;o ;o o <o t^ <
lTj<COC<rH <
00 00 00 00 oo 00 00 00 00 CO CO 00 00 1> t^ t^ ,g4S
0 OT
la
s
icocortSw ■C<»r^-u
O^ O^ O^ O) O) O) Od O) O) O^ O^ O) O) O) O) Od
46 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 186, M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICtTLTTIRE
1 -g
3S*
fee
o ©
'■3 £
£-^
boa
>ooo
5!^;J5^^:3:^5;:j
c5
C5
cocccocococccocococo
coeoeoeocoeceooocoeo
c3
C5 ■ 'i-ii-Hr-Jr-irHr-Jr-i
d
,t^t^t^i^r^i>t^t^i^t>.
fed
(Mc4
d •
d *
d •
85S
SS
00 U5
d *
c4c4
J25
d •
S2
c4(M
d
d^-
d *
d •
d
c»o»
i
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS 47
ec c^ ci c<j ■<i' 00 (N rH <H c4 c^ c^ CO ec (N c<i .-i ,-; rH
^•^wwi^®OT«e»5?5coco«iocO'»j<eo^
c5
.-I t^ ^ (?« OJ t^ (3> ■«< Tj< t^ »H lO t>. t^ »-< Q 1 <«
« lO >o T|t t>. « CO ec M CO Tj< -^ «o <o lo >o i iJS
cot^t^eot*»ocoe«5eoe«5-*ooeckOcoiot»«OrH
t>.-«*<«OT(<««0'*eocoeO'^^coto-<*<T}trHCO>o
CQC0'^C0O0iC0C*0C0C0C0CS0>05'^C0C^C0C0
^5;;S^^2?^^85^Sc3^S§?3^S
gCO CO t^ O CO
lO eo Tji Tfi ec
c5
sg
»o Tj< coco
«o«o«o;o<-Hr-iiokCoo;ocOi-)i-4>o>c>OkO>o
O^ O) ^ 03 o^ o^ o^ o o^ o^ o^ c
lis
i-i ® d
48 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 185, M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 13. — Use of water on alfalfa, irrigation water applied per cutting, rainfall,
total water received, and crop yields in Mesilla Valley, N. Mez.^
Year
Area
irri-
gated
Irriga-
tions
Acre-feet of Irrigation water applied
per cutting
Total quantity of water
in acre-feet received
by crop per acre
Yield per
First
cutting
Second
cutting
Third
cutting
Fourth
cutting
Fifth
cutting
Irriga-
gation
Rain-
fall
Total
1915
1915
1915
1915
1915
1915.
1915
1915
1915
1915
1915.
1915
1915
1915
1915
1915
1915_
1915
1915
1915
1915
1915.
1915
1915
1915
1915.
1915
1915
1915.
1915
1915
1915
1915
1915
1915
1915
1915
1915
1915
1915.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Number
13
14
9
14
12
10
11
13
14
12
12
14
13
13
12
12
10
10
11
11
13
12
14
11
13
11
11
11
14
16
10
15
10
12
12
12
9
14
13
11
1.33
.75
.67
1.00
.75
1.08
.92
1.00
.75
1.60
1.25
1.00
.75
1.50
1.00
.75
.92
1.08
.92
.92
.83
.67
1.00
.92
1.50
.58
.50
.92
1.00
.75
1.08
.75
.92
1.00
.75
1.25
.67
.75
.92
1.00
0.92
.58
.67
.75
.75
1.08
.58
.75
.58
.67
.58
.75
.58
1.08
.75
.75
.92
1.08
.92
.58
.75
.58
.75
.58
1.08
.42
.67
.92
.75
.58
1.08
.58
.58
.50
.75
.92
1.08
.58
.92
.92
1.00
.50
.83
.75
.75
.83
1.00
.75
.50
1.25
.67
.75
.50
1.25
.50
.75
.67
.83
.67
.67
.75
.33
.75
.67
1.25
.50
.75
.67
.75
.50
.67
.50
.33
.50
.50
.67
.83
.50
1.00
.67
0 33
.33
.83
.67
.25
.25
.33
.25
.33
.42
.67
.25
.33
.42
.25
.25
.33
.42
.33
.67
.50
.33
.50
.33
.42
.17
.25
.33
.50
.50
.42
.50
.67
.50
.50
.33
.42
.33
.67
.33
0 67
.34
.42
.50
.50
.42
.67
.50
.34
.83
.67
.75
.34
.83
.50
.50
.33
.42
.66
.66
.50
.34
.50
.33
.83
.33
.50
.66
.50
.50
.42
.33
.67
.50
.50
.66
.42
34
.66
.67
4.25
2.50
3.42
3.67
3.00
3.66
3.50
3.25
2.50
4.67
3.84
3.50
2.50
5.08
3.00
3.00
3.17
3.83
3.50
3.50
3.33
2.25
3.50
2.83
5.08
2.00
2.67
3.60
3.60
2.83
3.67
2.66
3.17
3.00
3.00
3.83
3.42
2.60
4.17
3.69
0 48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
.48
4.73
2.98
3.90
4.16
3.48
4.14
3.98
3.73
2.98
6.15
4.32
3.98
2.98
6.56
3.48
3.48
3.65
4.31
3.98
3.98
3.81
2.73
3.98
3.31
6.56
2.48
3.15
3.98
3.98
3.31
4.15
3.14
3.65
3.48
3.48
4.31
3.90
2.98
4.65
4.07
Tons
8.46
7.65
5.88
6.12
5.16
6.60
6.35
6.89
5.81
7.37
6.06
6.30
4.41
6.97
5.62
5.66
6.60
7.42
7.01
6.85
5.51
4.51
7.10
6.15
7.36
6.78
5.69
7.69
7.46
5.80'
8.74
6.66
7.35
6.79
6.06
6.63
5.97
4.65
6.86
6.35
1 These experiments conducted cooperatively by the Division of Agricultural Engineering, Bureau of
Public Roads, and the New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station. Experiments were conducted at
the experiment station on mesa lands in 1915. Soil: Sandy loam, open, friable, and easily tilled, quite
uniform to a depth of 6 feet except where pockets of gravel and coarse sand appear.
Table 14. — Use of water on alfalfa {20) , water applied at each irrigation, rainfall,
total water received, and crop yields in Mesilla Valley, N. Mex}
Year
Area irri-
gated
Irriga-
tions
Depth
applied
each
irrigation
Total quantity of water
received by crop per acre
Yield per
acres
Irrigation
Rainfall*
Total
1916
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Number
14
18
9
14
13
12
12
Inches
4
2
5
I
5
4
Acre-feet
4.67
3.00
3.75
3.50
3.25
5.00
4.00
Acre-feet
0.66
.56
.66
.56
.56
.56
.56
Acre-feet
6.23
3.66
Tons
7.84
1916
fi.29
1916
4 31 i 6 70
1916
4.06 \ .'»-.'i2
1916
3.81
6.56
4.56
4.50
1916
6.70
1916
5.94
1 These experiments conducted cooperatively by the Division of Agricultural Engineering, Bureau of
Public Roads, and the New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station. Experiments were conducted
at the experiment station on mesa lands from 1915 to 1919, inclusive. Soil: Sandy loam, open, friable,
and easily tilled, quite uniform to a depth of 6 feet except where pockets of gravel and coarse sand appear.
2 Precipitation not published with other data, but assumed to be from Mar. 1 to Nov. 1, 1916, 1917,
and 1919.
s During 1916, 6 cuttings were secured and 5 cuttings in each of the years 1917, 1918, and 1919.
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS 49
Table 14. — Use of water on alfalfa (20), water applied at each irrigation, rainfall,
total water received, and crop yields in Mesilla Valley, N. ilfex.— Continued
Year
1916.
1916..
1916.,
1916..
1916.,
1916..
1916..
1916.
1916..
1916..
1916..
1916.,
1916..
1916..
1916-.
1916..
1916-.
1916..
1916..
1916..
1916..
1916..
1916-.
1916..
1916..
1916..
1916..
1916..
1916..
1916..
1916..
1916..
1916..
1917..
1917..
1917..
1917..
1917..
1917..
1917..
1917,.
1917..
1917..
1917..
1917- .
1917..
1917..
1917..
1917..
1917..
1917..
1917- .
1917..
1917..
1917..
1917..
1917..
1917..
1917..
1917..
1917..
1917..
1917..
1917..
1917..
1917...
1917..
1917..,
1917..,
1917...
1917...
1917...
1917...
1918...
1918...
1918...
1918...
Depth
applied
Total quantity of water re-
Area irri
■ Irriga-
ceived by crop per acre
Yield per
gated
tions
each
irrigatioi
acre
^ Irrigatioi
1 Rainfall
Total
Number
Inches
Acre-feet
Acre-feet
Acre-feet
Tons
Plot.
17
3
4.25
a 56
4.81
7.00
Plot.
18
2
3.00
.56
3.56
6.46
Plot.
11
5
4.58
.56
5.14
6.15
Plot.
12
4
4.00
.56
4 66
6.02
Plot.
16
3
4.00
.56
4.56
5.98
Plot.
17
2
2.83
.56
3.39
412
. Plot.
12
5
5.00
.56
5.56
7.27
Plot.
14
3
3.50
.56
4.06
483
Plot.
15
3
3.75
.56
4.31
5.90
Plot.
12
4
4.00
.56
4.56
6.02
Plot.
9
5
3.75
.56
4.31
5.49
Plot.
12
4
4.00
.56
4.66
6.52
Plot.
10
4
3.33
.56
3.89
5.62
Plot.
16
3
4.00
.56
4.66
6.10
Plot.
18
2
3.00
.56
3.56
5.98
Plot.
15
3
3.75
.56
4.31
6.34
Plot.
12
4
4.00
.56
4.56
6.36
Plot.
13
5
5.42
.56
5.98
7.45
Plot.
16
2
2.67
.56
3.23
4 55
Plot.
13
3
3.25
.56
3.81
4 16
Plot.
12
4
4.00
.56
4.56
5.76
Plot.
17
3
4.25
.56
4.81
6.32
Plot.
21
2
3.50
.56
4.06
5.65
Plot.
12
5
5.00
.56
5.56
7.03
Plot.
19
2
3.17
.56
3.73
5.66
Plot.
14
4
4.67
.56
5.23
5.53
Plot.
16
3
4.00
.56
4.56
5.56
Plot.
15
3
3.75
.56
4.31
5.29
Plot.
13
4
4.33
.56
4 89
6.41
Plot.
10
5
4.17
.56
4 73
6.08
Plot.
18
2
3.00
.56
3.56
418
Plot.
19
4
6.33
.56
6.89
7.91
Plot.
12
5
5.00
.56
6.56
7.20
Plot.
14
4
4.67
.44
5.11
7.36
Plot.
18
2
3.00
.44
3.44
5.51
Plot.
10
5
. 4.17
.44
4 61
6.63
Plot.
13
3
3.25
.44
3.69
5.68
Plot.
14
3
3.50
.44
3.94
5.65
Plot.
12
5
5.00
.44
5.44
6.82
Plot.
11
4
3.67
.44
411
6.08
Plot.
16
3
4.00
.44
4 44
7.00
Plot.
17
2
2.83
.44
3.27
5.43
Plot.
12
5
5.00
.44
5.44
6.94
Plot.
12
4
4.00
.44
4 44
6.23
Plot.
14
3
3.50
.44
3.94
5.71
Plot.
16
2
2.67
.44
3.11
4 32
Plot.
12
5
5.00
.44
6.44
7.30
Plot.
14
3
3.60
.44
3.94
4 96
Plot.
13
3
3.25
.44
3.69
5.52
Plot.
10
4
3.33
.44
3.77
5.68
Plot.
9
5
3.75
.44
4 19
6.09
Plot.
11
4
3.67
.44
411
6.07
Plot.
10
4
3.33
.44
3.77
4 95
Plot.
15
3
3.75
.44
419
6.13
Plot.
18
2
3.00
.44
3.44
5.55
Plot.
15
3
3.75
.44
419
6.29
Plot.
11
4
3.67
.44
411
5.91
Plot.
13
5
5.42
.44
5.86
7.53
Plot.
14
2
2.33
.44
2.77
4 10
Plot.
15
3
3.75
.44
4 19
5.23
Plot.
13
4
4.33
.44
4 77
7.35
Plot.
14
3
3.50
.44
3.94
5.62
Plot.
19
2
3.17
.44
3.61
6.28
Plot.
11
5
4.58
.44
6.02
6.62
Plot.
17
2
2.83
.44
3.27
5.66
Plot.
12
4
4.00
.44
4 44
5.33
Plot.
13
3
3.25
.44
3.69
6.08
Plot.
12
3
3.00
.44
3.44
4 53
Plot.
11
4
3.67
.44
411
5.32
Plot.
9
5
3.76
.44
419
4 35
Plot.
16
2
. 2.67
.44
3.11
3.37
Plot.
14
4
4.67
.44
6.11
6.77
Plot.
10
5.
4.17
.44
4 61
6.47
Plot.
15
4
6.00
.29
5.29
8.64
Plot.
18
2
3.00
.29
3.29
6.16
Plot.
8
5
3.33
.29
3.62
6.11
Plot.
1.3
3.25
.29
3.54
5.17
50 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 185, M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 14. — Use of water on alfalfa (20), water applied at each irrigation, rainfall,
total water received, and crop yields in Mesilla Valley, N. Mex. — Continued
Year
Area irri-
gated
Irriga-
tions
Depth
applied
each
irrigation
Total quantity of water re-
ceived by crop per acre
Yield per
acre
Irrigation
Rainfall
Total
1918 -
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Number
14
11
12
17
19
11
11
15
17
12
14
12
10
9
12
9
16
20
16
12
12
15
14
13
16
20
10
18
11
14
15
12
9
16
14
10
15
14
10
12
12
10
10
Inches
3
5
4
3
2
5
4
3
2
6
3
3
4
5
4
4
3
2
3
4
5
2
3
4
3
2
5
2
4
3
3
4
5
2
4
5
4
2
5
3
3
5
4
3
2
5
4
3
2
5
3
3
i
4
3
2
3
4
5
2
3
4
3
2
5
2
4
3
3
5
I
4
5
Acre-feet
3.50
4.68
4.00
4.25
3.17
4.58
3.67
3.75
2.83
5.00
3.50
3.00
3.33
3.76
4.00
3.00
4.00
3.33
4.00
4.00
5.00
2.50
3.50
4.33
4.00
3.33
4.17
3.00
3.67
3.50
3.75
4.00
3.75
2.67
4.67
4.17
5.00
2.33
4.17
3.00
3.17
4.08
3.25
3.17
2.67
4.58
3.67
3.25
2.67
4.58
3.00
2.50
2.67
3.75
3.33
3.00
4.00
2.83
3.50
3.67
5.00
2.17
2.50
4.33
3.25
2.67
4.17
2.00
Acre-feet
0.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.29
.58
.58
.58
.68
.68
.58
.58
.58
.58
.58
.58
.68
.68
.58
.58
.68
.68
.68
.68
.68
.68
.68
.68
.58
.68
.68
.68
.58
.58
.58
.58
.68
Acre-feet
3.79
4.87
4.29
4.64
3.46
4.87
3.96
4.04
3.12
5.29
3.79
3.29
3.62
4.04
4.29
3.29
4.29
3.62
4.29
4.29
5.29
2.79
3.79
4.62
4.29
3.62
4.46
3.29
3.96
3.79
4.04
4.29
4.04
2.96
4.96
4.46
5.58
2.91
4.75
3.58
3.75
4.66
3.83
3.75
3.25
5.16
4.25
3.83
3.25
5.16
3.58
3.08
3.25
4.33
3.91
3.58
4.58
3.41
4.08
4.25
5.58
2.75
3.08
4.91
3.83
3.26
4.75
2.58
3.25
3.08
3.33
4.25
4.33
2.68
4.68
6.08
Tons
5.57
1918
7.58
1918
7.27
1918 -
7.64
1918 -- -
6.33
1918
6.77
1918
5.78
1918 - - ---
5.22
1918
4.34
1918 _x
7.89
1918
4.92
1918
4.35
1918
5.42
1918
6.33
1918
6.38
1918
4.75
1918---
6.10
1918
3.84
1918 -
5.71
1918 --
5.28
1918 ---
7.46
1918
3.55
1918 - - -
4.90
1918
7.31
1918
6.06
1918
5.00
1918
6.68
1918
5.58
1918 - . - -
5.66
1918
3.87
1918
5.40
1918 --
6.08
1918
5.95
1918 . . - .
3.76
1918
6.93
1918
6.50
1919
7.03
1919
5.50
1919 - -
7.16
1919 - -
5.22
1919
5.31
1919
6.76
1913 -
6.44
1919
6.64
1919 . -
16
11
11
13
16
11
12
'!
■i
16
17
14
11
12
13
10
13
13
16
10
12
8
10
11
11
9
12
12
11
5.70
1919 -
6.66
1919 - - -
5.71
1919
4.64
1919 .-.
4.69
1919
8.02
1919 _ -
5.23
1919 -
5.23
1919
5.20
1919.- -
7.15
1919- -
6.36
1919-
5.14
1919
6.13
1919
3.12
1919
5.50
1919-
5.41
1919 -
7.63
1919 --
4.26
1919 - .
4.08
1919
7.86
1919-
5.68
1919 -.-
5.00
1919
7.19
1919 — -
5.34
1919
2.67 1 .58
2.50 1 .58
2. 75 . 58
3.67 .58
3. 75 . 58
2. 00 ' . 58
4. 00 ; . 58
4. 50 . 58
6.23
1919-
3.92
1919
5.38
1919 --- -- -
6.00
1919 . -
6.42
1919 -
4.52
1919- -
6.64
1919
6.82
IKEIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS 51
Table 15. — Date of first and of last irrigation, irrigation water applied at each
irrigation, rainfall, total water received, and crop yields in Mesilla Valley, N. Mex.^
ALFALFA (2)
Year
Area ir-
rigated
Irriga-
tions
First irri-
gation
Total quantity of water re-
Depth
applied
ceived by crop per acre
Last irri-
Yield per
gation
each ir-
acre
rigation
Irriga-
tion
Rainfall
Total
Inches
Acre-feet
Acre-feet
Acre-feet
Tons
Oct. 15
2
2.00
0.66
2.66
» 8 « 3. 59
Nov. 9
2
3.00
.61
3.61
» » * 5. 79
Oct. 23
2
3.00
.56
3.56
2 8 4 5. 24
Oct. 15
2
2.83
.44
3.27
»«M.90
Sept. 26
2
3.00
.29
3.29
2 » * 4. 82
Sept. 29
2
2.50
.50
3.00
2 3 4 4. 77
Oct. 15
3
2.50
.66
3.06
» » < 3. 55
Nov. 9
3
3.50
.61
4.11
« 3 < 6. 20
Oct. 23
3
3.75
.56
4.31
* » < 6. 62
Oct. 15
3
3.50
.44
3.94
2 8 < 5. 60
Sept. 26
3
3.75
.29
4.04
» 3 4 6. 37
Sept. 29
3
3.00
.50
3.50
» 3 * 5. 25
Oct. 15
4
2.67
.56
3.23
a 3 < 3. 62
Nov. 9
4
4.00
.61
4.61
2 3 4 6. 77
Oct. 23
4
4.33
.56
4.89
2 3 4 6. 36
Oct. 15
4
4.00
.44
4.44
» 3 < 6, 10
Sept. 26
4
4.00
.29
4.29
2 3 4 6. 32
Sept. 29
4
3.67
.60
4.17
» » * 6, 09
Oct. 9
4
3.67
.93
4.60
2 3 4 2. 97
Oct. 15
5
2.92
.56
3.48
« 3 4 3. 88
Nov. 9
5
4.68
.61
5.19
» 3 4 7. 04
Oct. 23
5
4.58
.66
5.14
2 3 4 6. 67
Oct. 15
5
4.58
.44
5.02
a 3 4 6. 55
Sept. 26
5
4.17
.29
4.46
2 3 4 6. 81
Sept. 29
5
4.17
.50
4.67
» 3 4 7, 08
Oct. 4
5
2.75
.44
3.19
2 3 4 1. 62
July 16
5
2.67
.44
3.11
2 3 4 2, 56
Oct. 7
2
2.00
.47
2.47
2 3 5 3, 75
—do
2
1.92
.47
2.39
2 3 5 3. 42
...do
3
2.83
.47
3.30
2 3 « 3. 70
...do
3
2.42
.47
2.89
2 3 5 3. 45
—do
3
2.50
.47
2,97
2 3 8 3. 39
—do
3
2.50
.47
2.97
2 3 * 3. 40
—do
3
2.42
.47
2.89
2 3 5 3. 00
...do..-
3
2.67
.47
3.14
2 8 5 3. 80
Aug. 8
3
2.00
.48
2.48
2 3 5 2. 80
Sept. 19
3
3.25
.61
3.86
2 3 s 2. 72
Oct. 16
4
3.83
.36
4.19
2 3 5 5. 97
Sept. 14
4
2.67
.23
2.90
2 3 8 2. 95
-.do-.-.
4
3.00
.23
3.23
2 3 8 3. 47
Aug. 8
4
2.67
.48
3.15
2 3 8 3. 11
— do.-..
4
2.67
.48
3.15
2 3 6 2. 78
Aug. 15
4
2.67
.35
3,02
2 3 8 4. 06
..-do-...
4
2.67
.35
3.02
2 3 8 4. 03
...do....
4
3.33
.35
3.68
2 3 8 2. 85
—do....
4
3.33
.35
3.68
2 3 8 3. 08
Oct. 2
4
4.92
.51
5.43
2 3 s 6. 78
...do....
4
4.58
.51
5.09
2 3 8 6. 44
...do....
4
3.83
.51
4.34
2 3 8 6. 55
...dO---
4
4.50
.51
5.01
2 3 8 8. 31
— do.---
4
4.08
.51
4.59
2 3 8 6. 05
Sept. 14
4
3.50
.36
3.86
2 3 8 5. 11
—do...
4
3.83
.36
4.19
2 8 8 5. 27
Oct. 2
4
4.67
.46
5.13
2 3 87.38
-.do....
4
4.58
.46
5.04
2 3 85.49
—do....
4
4.75
.46
6.21
23J5.90
— do-.-
4
4.33
.46
4,79
2 3 84.00
Sept. 14
5
3.33
.23
3.56
2 8 84.47
Aug, 8
5
3.33
.48
3.81
2 8 83.61
Sept. 19
5
5.42
.61
6.03
2 3 83.28
Sept. 15
5
5.08
.62
5.70
2 8 84.37
Oct. 2
5
5.25
.51
5.76
2386.64
...do....
5
5.00
.51
5.61
28 86.93
...do. ..
5
5.17
.51
6.68
2 8 » 6, 12
Sept. 14
5
4.75
.36
5.11
2885.84
...do....
5
4.67
.36
5.03
23 8 5.70
...do....
5
4.50
.36
4.86
2 3 8 5. 24
...do....
5
4.50
.36
4.86
2 3 86.18
...do....
5
4.67
.36
5.03
2 8 84.97
...do....
5
4.50
.36
4.86
2385.46
Litera-
ture
cited
Acres
Number
12
18
18
17
18
15
10
14
16
14
15
12
8
12
13
12
12
11
11
7
11
11
11
10
10
Mar, 6
Mar. 30
Mar. 13
Mar. 15
Mar. 11
Mar. 18
Mar. 5
Mar. 30
Mar. 13
Mar. 15
Mar. 11
Mar. 18
Mar. 5
Mar. 30
Mar. 13
Mar. 16
Mar. 11
Mar, 18
Feb, 26
Mar, 5
Mar, 30
Mar, 13
Mar, 15
Mar, 11
Mar, 18
Mar, 19
Mar. 24
Mar, 3
...do
...do
...do
...do
...do
...de-
Mar. 5
Mar. 7
Apr. 3
Mar. 10
Apr. 1
...do---.
Mar. 7
--do.--.
Apr. 10
—do..-.
...do-..,
—do--..
Mar. 9
...do....
...do....
...do...,
...do....
-.do...
-.do...
Mar, 8
...do-..
—do-...
...do--.
Apr. 1
Mar. 7
Apr. 4
Mar. 31
Mar. 9
--do...
...do...
...do...
...do-..
...do...
...do...
...do...
-..do...
See footnotes on page 53.
52 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 185, M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTCJRE
Table 15. — Date of first and of last irrigation, irrigation water applied at each
irrigation, rainfall, total water received, and crop yields in Mesilla Valley,
N. Mex. — Continued
ALFALFA («)
Year
Area ir-
rigated
Irriga-
tions
First irri-
gation
Last irri-
gation
Depth
applied
each ir-
rigation
Total quantity of water re-
ceived by crop per acre
Yield per
acre
Litera-
ture
cited
Lrriga-
tion
RainfaU
Total
1924
1924
1924
1924
1924
Acres
"Plot'"
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Number
13
13
13
13
8
8
6
8
8
6
8
11
6
4
4
12
14
14
14
14
Mar. 3
...do....
...do....
...do....
Apr. 1
Mar. 7
May 2
Apr. 1
Mar. 7
May 2
Mar. 4
Feb. 25
Mar. 18
Mar. 24
Mar. 26
Mar. 28
Mar. 20
...do....
...do....
...do....
Nov. 23
...do....
...do....
...do..-.
Sept. 14
Aug. 8
Sept. 19
Sept. 14
-\ug. 8
Sept. 19
Oct. 16
Oct. 20
July 1
June 3
Aug. 7
Sept. 10
Oct. 3
...do....
...do....
...do-...
Inches
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
8
8
10
3
4
4
6
6
::::::::
::::::::
Acre-feet
6.08
5.92
6.33
6.58
4.00
4.00
3.00
5.33
5.33
5.00
2.17
3.67
1.75
2.00
2.00
4.32
5.86
6.68
6.31
5.58
Acre-feet
0.36
.36
.36
.36
.23
.48
.61
.23
.48
.61
.58
.93
.72
.72
.58
.29
.33
.33
.33
.33
Acre-feet
6.44
6.28
6.69
6.94
4.23
4.48
3.61
5.56
5.81
5.61
2.75
4.60
2.47
2.72
2.58
4.61
6.19
7.01
6.64
5.91
Tons
»»»8.00
*»»5.52
»»»5.50
2 3S5.25
J3S3.13
»»»3.54
»»»2.36
»3»2.30
»3J3.11
»3 53.17
2364.26
»3«3.59
3 3 e 5. 10
33«4.28
2 384.75
2.96
6.87
4.87
4.53
3.87
(^5)
US)
OS)
(IS)
US)
CORN (2)
1924..
1924..
Plot.
Plot.
May 15
Apr. 30
.do.
May 5
...do.._.
Aug. 26
Aug. 17
-do.
Sept
—do
Sept. 1
L25
1.67
1.67
2.50
2.47
2.61
0.22
.22
,22
1.47
1.89
2.50
2.83
2.86
Btishels
3 5 T 39, 9
3 8 36. 0
Pounds
3 913, 719
Bushels
3844
44
23.5
US)
US)
RYE
1923
1923
Plot.
Plot.
7
6
Nov. 20
May 24
1.76
3.62
0.16
.30
1.92
3.92
29
18
?,%
CABBAGE
1923.
1924.
Plot.
Plot.
Mar. 17
Mar 12
June 25
June 17
2.27
2.29
0.03
.03
2.30
2.32
Tons
10.42
9.84
U2)
US)
CHILI
Plot.
14
May 14
Sept. 17
3.11
3.39
92
(^5)
CANTALOUPES
1924.
Plot.
10
May 14
Aug. 5
2.26
.22
2,48
Crates
195
US)
See footnotes on page 53.
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS 53
Table 15.- — Date of first and of last irrigaiion, irrigation water applied at 'each
irrigation, rainfall, total water received, and crop yields in Mesilla Valley,
N. Mex. — Continued
WHEAT («)
Year
Area ir-
rigated
Irriga-
tions
Number
1909
1909
1909
1909
1909
1909
1909
1924
First irri-
gation
,---
4
'..-._
7
6
5
"Plot"'
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
6
4
5
7
4
5
7
5
5
Oct. 4
Nov. 3
Dec. 3
Jan. 17
Feb. 3
Mar. 3
Jan. 5
...do....
Oct. 4
Nov. 3
Dec. 3
Jan. 17
Feb. 3
Mar. 3
Jan. 5
...do.--.
Oct. 4
Nov. 3
Dec. 3
Jan. 17
Feb. 3
Mar. 3
Apr. 18
Feb. 21
Feb. 14
Last irri-
gation
May 28
...do-.-
...do
May 29
...do
...do
June 15
...do
May 28
...do
...do
May 29
...do
...do
June 15
...do
May 28
...do..-.
...do
May 29
...do--..
—do
May 30
June 10
June 7
Depth
applied
each ir-
rigation
Inches
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
Total quantity of water re-
ceived by crop per acre
Irriga-
tion
Acre-feet
1.42
1.08
.83
.83
2.00
1.50
2.17
1.83
1.50
1.33
1.25
1.25
2.42
2.92
3.00
2.50
2.17
1.67
1.67
1.75
1.08
2.50
1.33
1.25
1.17
1.00
.83
.58
.42
1.06
Rainfall
Total
Acre-feet
0.22
.22
.22
.22
.22
.22
.54
.54
.22
.22
.22
.22
.22
.22
.54
.54
.22
.22
.22
.22
.22
.22
11.29
11.29
11.29
11.29
11.29
11.29
11.29
.15
Acre-feet
1.64
1.30
1.14
1.05
1.05
1.05
2.54
2.04
2.39
2.05
1.72
1.55
1.47
1.47
2.96
3.46
3.22
2.72
2.39
1.89
1.89
1.97
Yield per
acre
2.58
1.62
1.54
1.46
1.29
1.12
.87
.71
1.21
Bushels
3»11.4
» 8 22. 7
»»22.9
3»16.6
» « 17. 6
8 « 13. 2
> » 15. 1
» » 10. 6
»»14.3
a « 18. 9
3*30.0
3 « 16. 8
3 » 19. 1
3i 44
3 » 16. 6
3 U8. 0
3 s 16. 2
3 » 21. 1
3 » 30. 7
3 5 14.9
3 8 13. 0
3 6 9.6
2 3 6 43, 5
J 3 6 23. 1
10 24. 6
10 15. 1
12 16. 6
10 14.9
12 9.0
"11.7
12 2.2
7.3
Litera-
ture
cited
(13)
POTATOES 3 (e)
June 20
3
1.75
0.06
1.81
June 13
5
1.67
.06
1.73
...do....
5
1.25
.06
1.31
May 30
5
.83
.06
.89
June 15
5
1.25
.06
1.31
May 30
5
.83
.06
.89
June 13
5
1.25
.06
1.31
2 3 58. 4
> 3 86. 2
2 3 60.5
2 3 58. 7
2 3 54. 0
2 3 11.7
2 3 39. 9
SOYBEANS (U)
1911
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
Plot.
1
2
3
4
4
3
0.88
1.36
1.50
1.72
2.83
2.19
0.30
.30
.30
.30
.30
.30
1.18
1.66
1.80
2.02
3.13
2.49
Pounds
10 678
10 980
10 1,028
'« 1, 022
10 1,404
10 745
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
I These experiments conducted cooperatively by the Division of Agricultural Engineering, Bureau of
Public Roads, and the New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station.
'■' Experiments covered several years and are here grouped together.
" Fields and plots vary from 0.6 acre to 29.95 acres.
* Soil: Coarse sand, and sand and gravel.
* Soil: Equal parts sandy loam with adobe or clay.
' Good soil, fairly deep, with sandy loam texture.
■ Corn, grain.
^ Corn on cob.
*■ Corn, silage.
1" Average of 6 plots.
II Rainfall from Apr. 1 to Nov. 1
'■'' .\verage of 3 plots.
54 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 185, M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
^35
o
t
.2 •"
1
if
n
m
O OJ ft
3'
o^^^ -^-^^ -^^^^ -^^
1
8838382828S8§8g8S3§S§Sg§§
o ^^^^ • • • !
11
o • •
^^^
S^?3
^s
Monthly application of water in aci-e-feet per acre
>
o
•
i
Q.
5
-
;-
bib
<
a
3
(NCO>0
o ■ ■
^5og
^^S?
^^
i
^ i
1
i
^ 1
<1
S
^
■n.2
1
1
g
^
2
?
a-
i
1
i
1
1
1
r
?:?:3S25^gs^
?;25S?S2gS^S:jSi
1 |d J
> jd 1
oo^-.^ — -, — o
iillillii
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS 55
1
^^^.^.^
^^^^
lo
6
— ;
: i i i
'c
5
\\"
i
ii
II
e>» (N
1 3 ^:;
o
i
d ■ i
—
i '^
' 1
'r-
'i CO
1 CO
1 d
—
-
e
i
r- >o o c? OJ csi
•^ t^ S S >0 M CN
3
COC^CMOI
00 (M CO "r CO ^-
t^ _ C4 .--^ IM CO
d ■ ^' -; .-<■ ^"
OO'-^'H^.
g&:§s
gf*S5:{2SSJ^:;i5^g5
eS
8S2^SgSSf^Sg?:g
OCOOQCOCOOCOeO'CiOOJNMM
o
i::S^?i5^ggS?Si§S?§
d
;::;;;; '
o
o
I i i It^
I 1 1 1 d "
^ \ \ \^^^
1 ' 1 ! oi uc JO
• 1 i |d ■ ■
0.17 '
0.21
.25
.32
:::::::::::::::::::
isss? i i
: 1
— H '
!"HH~
-
^^^^C<W(M^^«CMC»C<
§i§§§§g
^ii^^ii
56 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 185, M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
h
§ss
1
Sjp
1?"
•O o
e-i
>^
a a
<a*^s2
i
^ -H- C^-
■Ja >>
H
^
l^t^I--
o >
*
^g
a
o
S 0
S
Ph
^li
g
icSo
lia
o ■-;
^
S
>
o
12:
^
a
g
QQ
1
CO'O'*'
^
o * '
1
<5
2
o
c
>»
^ss§
3
i^
H-s
ee
^
o
®
i^s??
C
£
o
3
^
i
o.
«c«c«c
&
>>
^
o
;§
08
^
XJ
o
»-
w^rt<-*
a 05
^
B-2
1
§
i^
CMCO CM 1
222 1
ss$
! S 50
J::§2
«2g 1
1.01
1.09
1.18
0.80
.80
.80
1
0.17
.26
.33
1
o * ■
i
—
c*e^(N
oso:
i
5
11
"2-5
o
o * *
o '
o
1
1
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMI ARID LANDS 57
?
oo ao oo
ss
?
2 2 2 2 S2
>C Tt< lO
f
c
SS§55!S?5^SS5S^^S§8SS§^^^_^S3
d
S^?3_SS§S{2S^SS?S§S2gS_23§:St:^^So
jd • •■ • • •
0.12
.28
.42
.11
.17
.22
§??Sgi:;^_SI??S_5c:S^_^_2^SI
d
1
^^^
2^
d
Ih?3^22:S
d
5
5
5
5
•*
5
5
5
CC
5
5
s
5
22
«
5
eoMcc
00 00 oc
SS5
2
CC
a
5
CC
a
5
e<3
5
S?^2t£
s s s
s
s s g a s
O ■ rt" ^' ^* ^* ^" ^* ^' .^ ^ ^ ^' .-<■ -4 ■ ' ^
g?{o§?SgS22SSS§S§^J^22
^
•
■
82S
d • •
fe
d
^.^
d
d • •
0.26
.25
.25
.25
.25
.25
2§§
0.25
.25
.25
.25
.25
.25
.*iC>OCO»CO«»0!0'.«<-^»«0»«»0»0-HC>)^l
5
If]
5
5
2
5
5
2
5
5
a
5
2
z
a
i
2
58 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 185, M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
ag.
o «
ill
iciO'O'C'^'O'OiCTr'O'^'*
S~ "^ « «
K22 2 2
T«< iO ■^' ■^' CO CO eo CO e<5 CO CO CO
oooooooooooo^^o^c^c^
co»o^oocccocococ^e>»>CQO
eo' cs CO CO cs c^ -^ — <■ -H r^ ' »^
SS^S^S
OOOCM^C^iOOOC^lC^COCO
C0»O-^T»<-«»<CS»O»O-»t<-^C>»C0
03 <»
bOO
OOQOOOOOOOOOOiCftOJOSOJO
OB ■<»< to «o ?5 ■* 00 1- lo ^
1 uf «3 eo 'jfec CO Vco es
gs§$s:2Ssss
S^S^&J^gS222
o
SS§.t^88ggSJ^
0.26
.17
.08
.10
.21
.31
d Ill
d Ill
^e5§3 i i i i ! i
d • • 1 1 1 1 1 1
i i : i i igj^s
1 1 I 1 1 |d • •
i i i i i i^g{5
1 1 1 1 1 Id • •
1 1 1 1 1 ;g2^
1 1 1 1 1 |d ' '
kf5»0i0-^-<J<Tt<>0iC»0
^2222§222
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS 59
*0 Tj* CO CO CO CO ^
a to a ^ <o lo t^
fc3 o c4 r-I a> CD .-H
C^ «4 tf« e« e^ ,0 c« e«
»0 00 O .-I eo 00 O
cvi oi (m' CO <n c4 CO
8888888
M C^ Ol (N CM <N C«
«o ooos 1-1 o (
ico-^csco-*
CM CO ■«*< >0 (N CO -
;^?5?5S5:
CO CO CO CO CO CO CO
0> 0> 0> ^ Oi o>^
0> Oi Oi Oi 0> Oi Oi
O »-i '^ 00 «3 00 <
CO CM C> c4 '»' O «0
lOCM-S^O'
leMCM.-! CMi
^ CO ^ ^T CO ^ ^
cm c^ cm cm cm cm cm
cm' cm cm' cm' cm" cm* cm'
CM r-I i-H CM .-J .-J CM
'QC^-^OCM
)«o«oeo«o«o
•«J< CM «0 ■<»* CM «0 ^
Ol »C t^ 05 «o t- o>
t^ o cq t^ o CM t^
2§
22
§22
o •
?32
^5321:;
S
c5 •
Od O) O) O) O^ ^^ Od
O) O^ O) Od Od O) o^
Od O) 03 O) 03 Ob o>
o»ooocoQO«pc^t^«or^-3<oo»ot»eo
»0t^rHl0O'^C0C0r-lCM01i-lOO»0
CMCM'^^'aJioo-^'cMcoodcsocdeeuS
50ocoOi-*'-ieO"<»<eM^or^«ot^»o
Ococotoo'iJ'r^i-itoocotocoooo
lOioiocMCMCMCMCMCMcoeocoeoeoeo
rfOO^^t^CMOS-^^Ot^OCOi-ieOj-H
■^t^i-i-*oo.-i«oc»po«ooseoo t>,io
;?§§
c5eoe8
o
»0»0«0«0>0»0"3»0»Ot^r~t^eO«D«D
000000000000000000<
60 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 185, M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
-2 tf
3$S
«0 t>- t>. i-H t« lO
^oooo
I
oac^oooN
>-l 0» 00 i-< f-t o
"d"*"* 00 00 00
^JJ ' ' '
c>
I lO O CO U5 ^-.
>(N.-iCO(Ni-i
SSSI
. N (N C^ r-l ,-1 ^
GO 00 00 o a <
O) O) Od O) O^ C
»OQOO»OC^O> I
S S S S S g
1.07
.90
.73
1.18
1.11
1.02
0.40
.40
.40
.85
.85
.85
0.67
.50
.33
.33
.28
.17
c5
t^^^ 1 1 i
c5 • • : ; ;
ei<NM^ -Hr-I
22222S222
222222
^eocow
1
(
1
1
!
* 1
1
^.*«
cs • •
1
o • •
1
1
>
CIC4C4
oc
S
oc
2
1
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS 61
1 {^5
1
1.44
1.36
1.28
Z'^Z
0.33
.25
.17
1
c
o
o
a
o
1
IT
1.67
1.50
1.42
1.42
1.42
1.42
o ■
o •
—
-
^r^O
a
z
5
5
o
a
sn w)
tc c
CI
'-♦2
M
U
Vl
P<
^
»ii
CO
u
.11
C3X3
CO
>> J2.JQ
5a°°
.■^'■^ § §
•|§.s.s
S S >» ^
t* S o «
<U +J o o
■-< CQ
oS
So-5
■^ a
. O « M
-: 3 ° c
•OS s
„^ p. ft a
ft t„ ft ft-;2
to (M^
1-5 CO O 02 Tf< P=H E-i
X5 « c5 tS "
.bf ^ O O g
H ^ w M 2
.»- V- o « "-
•^ o.r3.c;.-j
■^ CO S S5
.u « .9 .S o
T3 a tf .:
S 03 OJ3 ® S 3
So
ai
V O
•43 S
ftX3!?
W§"0
2
•O rt
c: 5
4^S
go.
. bi bo
coXJ C
^•^•3-
S 03
•O CO
2-S,
^^
os-Sgg^g
ftaj
£ ^« flic
^2 3
•O Mo o''^ O O'rt
« >>
2>.2>.
fl >■ ^ ««2 t- <ui3 a
o -?» *-t^'C: " « §
> gT3 "" <S S
o S S >>« i
° o s ca c c8
•S >..a « 8c "
ccc-S >.« fe
^'S.'S'O^'O
-« g « « « ^
.2 9 >»fll,«
■;;= 03 >«^^
9>
5 CO '
lis
;r; >> ai o) w
"'^""^ 9^2 So SI'S
o ^ .2 >> r^- *:
' o t) K -
2S§
C bo
CO MO'
Qj ,„ a> » ~ ■« TT
« S£-.5 9g
b:ro«gi
62 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 185, M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 17.- — Irrigation water applied monthly, rainfall, total water received, and
crop yields in lower Rio Grande Valley, TexA
TABLE BEETS
Total quantity of
Monthly application of wat«r in acre-feet per acre
water in acre-fe«t
received by crop
Year
Irriga-
tions
per acre
Yield
per acre
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Jan. F(
}b.
Mar.
Irri-
gation
Rain-
fall
Total
Number
Tons
1917-18
8
0.17
0.10
0.34
0.34 ...
0.44
L39
0.04
1.43
i i 10. 32
1917-18
8
.17
.10
.31
.34 ...
.44
1.36
.04
1.40
2 3 11.84
1917-18
8
.17
.10
.31
.34 ...
.44
1.36
.04
1.40
» » 8. 53
1917-18
8
.17
.17
.32
.34 ...
.37
1.37
.04
1.41
2 3 11.45
1917-18
8
.17
.17
.30
.34 ...
.37
1.35
.04
1.39
2 3 6. 70
1917-18
8
.17
.17
.29
.33 ...
.33
1.29
.04
1.33
2 3 7.50
1917-18
8
.12
.13
.25
.25 ...
.29
1.04
.04
1.08
2 3 7. 49
1917-18
8
.12
.13
.25
.25 ...
.29
1.04
.04
1.08
2 3 9.90
1917-18
8
.12
.13
.23
.25 ...
.29
1.02
.04
1.06
2 3 8.58
1917-18
8
.12
.13
.23
.25 ...
.29
1.02
.04
1.06
2 3 7. 78
1917-18
8
.12
.11
.24
.25 ...
.27
.99
.04
1.03
2 3 7.03
1917-18
' 8
.12
.11
.26
.25 ...
.23
.97
.04
1.01
2 3 7.29
1917-18
8
.08
.11
.23
.25 ...
.21
.88
.04
.92
2 3 6. 86
1917-18
8
.08
.11
.19
.27 ...
.21
.86
.04
.90
2 3 5. 72
1917-18
8
.08
.17
.19
.27 ...
.21
.92
.04
.96
2 3 5. 79
1919-20
5
.33
.42
.25
25
1.25
.15
1.40
2 i 11. 12
1919-20
5
.25
.31
.17
17
.90
.15
1.05
2 4 10. 44
1919-20
5
.17
.23
.08
08
.56
.15
.71
2 UO. 33
1919-20
5
5
5
5
5
5
.16
.16
.16
.27
.27
.27
.08
.08
.08
.17
.17
.17
08
08
08
17
17
17
.09
.09
.09
.16
.16
.16
.41
.41
.41
.77
.77
.77
.15
.15
.15
.15
.15
.15
.56
.56
.56
.92
.92
.92
< 5 9. 90
1919-20
<5 7.68
1919-20
< 5 7. 36
1919-20
*«8.09
1919-20
<»7.26
1919-20
< « 7. 42
1919-20
5
.42
.25
25
.25
1.17
.15
1.32
* 5 7. 47
1919-20
5
.42
.25
25
.25
1.17
.15
1.32
< 5 7. 36
1919-20
5
.42
.25
25
.25
1.17
.15
1.32
« J 5. 39
CABBAGE
1914-15
1
3
4
14
0.17
.13
.13
.26
0.17
.20
.50
1.35
0.76
.76
.76
.21
0.93
.97
1.26
1.56
6 M5. 7
1914-15
0.11
.26
0.01
.12
.30
0.06
.14
.36
6 r 16. 3
1914-15
6 7 21. 5
1916-17
0.17
8 9 3. 81
1916-17
14
.17
.24
.25
.31
.28
1.25
.21
1.46
8 » 12. 04
1916-17
14
.14
.18
.17
.20
.20
.89
.21
1.10
8 9 4.84
1916-17
11
.15
.20
.15
.14
.25
.89
.21
1.10
8 9 7. 87
1916-17
11
.16
.16
.20
.14
.22
.88
.21
1.09
8 9 8. 36
1916-17
11
.17
.12
.14
.10
.18
.71
.21
.92
8 9 3. 74
1918-19
4
5
.20
.28
.16
.33
.36
.78
.86
.86
1.22
1.64
8 9.52
1918-19
.17
8 10. 72
1918-19
5
4
0.28
.36
.17
.50
.08
.25
1.11
.53
.86
JO. 55
1.97
1.08
8 9.72
1919-20
"
8 116.06
1919-20
4
.28
.33
.17
.78
10.55
1.33
8 11 6. 24
1919-20
4
5
.28
.50
.25
.13
1.03
.46
10.55
1.58
.63
8 11 6. 57
1919-20
.08
.08
0.17
8 12 9. 72
1919-20
5
.08
.17
.17
.33
.75
.92
8 12 9. 39
1919-20
6
.13
.25
.50
.50
1.38
1.55
8 12 7.37
1919-20
5
.14
.25
.25
.50
1.14
1.31
2 13.02
1919-20
5
.14
.17
.17
.33
.81
.98
2 9.98
1919-20
5
.14
.08
.08
.17
.47
.64
2 8.49
CARROTS
1918-19
3
3
4
4
4
4
0.17
.17
.17
.17
.16
.16
0.25
.25
.33
.33
.42
.42
0.42
.42
.67
.67
.83
.83
0.85
.85
.85
.85
.85
.85
1.27
1.27
1.52
1.52
1.68
1.68
. s 13 6. 97
1918-19
« 13 5. 81
1918-19
0.17
.17
.25
.25
5 13 6.39
1918-19
J 13 5. 25
1918-19
» 13 6. 94
1918-19
« 13 6. 20
See footnotes on page 64.
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMI ARID LANDS 63
Table 17. — Irrigation water applied tnonthly, rainfall, total water received, and
crop yields in lower Rio Grande Valley, Tex. — Continued
CAULIFLOWER
■
Year
Irriga-
tions
Monthly application of water in acre-feet per acre
Totai quantity of
water in acre-feet
received by crop
per acre
Yield
per acre
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar 1 ^^^.^'
^^^^'^' gation
Rain-
fall
Total
1919-20
Number
0.21
.21
.21
.19
.19
.19
0.17
.33
.50
.50
.33
.17
0.08
.17
.25
.25
.17
.08
0.46
.71
.96
.94
.69
.44
0.90
.90
.90
.90
.90
.90
1.36
1.61
1.86
1.84
1.59
1.34
Tons
* " 5 12
1919-20
5 14 5 37
1919-20
5 14 5 45
1919-20
2 14 7 72
1919-20
i 14 8 24
1919-20
2 14 g 03
LETTUCE
1914-15 i
0.74
.74
0.74
.92
6 15 10. 65
6 15 13. 91
1914-15
4
0.04
0.14
0.18
1914-15
4
.17
.42
.59
.74
1.33
6 '5 14.57
1916-17
8
8
I
8
8
6
0.15
.15
.10
.10
.06
.07
.08
0.46
.37
.31
.31
.19
.20
.10
0.49
.42
.36
.32
.18
.22
.21
.21
.17
.17
.07
.06
.08
.08
1.31
1.11
.94
.80
.49
.57
.60
.24
.24
.24
.24
.24
.24
.04
1.55
1.35
1.18
1.04
.73
.81
.64
5 1«3 88
1916-17
4 16 4 23
1916-17
5 18 3. 50
1916-17
s IS 4 16
1916-17
5 16 3 71
1916-17
5 18 5 50
1917-18
.13
2 1.72
1917-18
6
.08
.10
.21
.08
.13
.60
.04
.64
2 2.89
1917-18
6
.08
.10
.21
.OS
.13
.60
.04
.64
2 3. 05
1917-18
6
.08
.10
.21
.08
.13
.60
.04
.64
2 2.79
1917-18
6
.08
.11
.21
.08
.10
.58
.04
.62
2 2.25
1917-18
6
.08
.10
.21
.08
.13
.60
.04
.64
2 3.88
1917-18
6
.12
.17
.31
.13
.13
.86
.04
.90
2 4.33
1917-18
6
.12
.17
.31
.13
.13
.86
.04
.90
2 3.60
1917-18
6
.12
.17
.31
.13
.13
.86
.04
.90
2 3. 77
1917-18
6
.10
.17
.33
.13
.15
.88
.04
.92
2 3.68
1917-18
. 6
.10
.18
.32
.13
.15
.88
.04
.92
2 3.53
1917-18
6
.14
.18
.41
.19
.14
1.06
.04
1.10
2 2.53
1917-18
6
.14
.19
.42
. 17
.14
1.06
.04
1.10
2 3.49
1917-18
6
.12
.21
.42
.17
.16
1.08
.04
1.12
2 2.90
1918-19
4
4
.17
.17
;S
.25
.25
.89
.89
.78
.78
1.67
1.67
5 17 4. 97
1918-19
5 17 4. 72
1918-19
4
4
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
5
.17
.17
.17
.17
.52
:??
.35
.25
.25
.29
.25
.33
.39
.39
.30
.30
.33
.33
.33
.25
.25
.25
.16
.16
.26
.16
.16
.72
.72
.47
.47
.85
.62
.60
.60
.50
.50
.45
.78
.78
.78
.78
.90
.90
.90
.90
.90
.90
.90
.90
.18
1.50
1.50
1.25
1.25
1.75
1.52
L40
1.50
1.40
1.40
i.;-;.>
l.:ii
. il4
3 17 4. 46
1918-19
5 17 3.91
1918-19
5 17 4. 04
1918-19
5 17 4. 47
1918-19
.
23 89
1918-19
2 3.76
1918-19
2 4.30
1918-19
2 4.39
1918-19
2 5. 09
1918-19
- .? 85
1918-19
- H 04
1918-19
- 2. >■{)
1919-20
.08
.09
■ 14. in
1919-20
5
.25
.32
.17
.16
.to
.18
l.U-
- 14. 23
1919-20
5
.17
.29
.25
.25
.96
.18
1.14
2 14. 36
1919-20
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
.19
.19
.19
.27
.27
.27
.33
.33
.33
.08
.03
.o^
.17
.17
.17
.25
.25
.25
.27
.27
.27
.44
.44
.44
.58
.58
.58
.18
.18
.18
.18
.18
.18
.18
.18
.18
.45
.45
.45
.62
.62
.62 :
.76 ,
.76!
.76 i
5^.89
1919-20---
i-J 97
1919-20
» 9. 65
1919-20
5 8. 19
l91t'-20
* 10 37
1919-20
5 11 46
1919-20
59.13
1919-20
5 10. 84
1919-20.
5 11 62
--
See footnotes on page 64.
64 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 185, M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 17. — Irrigation water applied monthly, rainfall, total water received, and
crop yields in lower Rio Grande Valley, Tex. — Continued
SPINACH
Year
1
Irriga-
1 tions
1
Monthly application of water in acre
-feet per acre
Total quantity of
water in acre-feet
received by crop
per acre
•
Yield
per acre
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
D£C.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Irri-
gation
Rain-
fall
Total
lOl'^-L')
Number
0.49
.49
.49
.68
.68
.68
.68
.68
.68
.48
.48
.48
0.49
.71
.99
.94
.94
1.03
1.03
1.18
1.18
.92
.98
1.07
Tons
«6. 15
1914-15-..
.-; 4
.-1 ■ 4
.1 2
.1 2
2
-i 2
2
2
.. - 2
-1 2
--i ^ 2
t
0.03
.12
0.07
.20
0.12
.18
0.22
.50
.26
.26
.35
.35
.50
.50
.44
.50
.59
• 11.20
1914-15
« 11.85
1918-19
0.16
.15
.18
.18
.25
.25
.17
.25
.33
0.11
.11
.17
.17
.25
.25
»3.34
1918-19
i
«3.04
1918-19- -.
1
»3.01
1918-19
i
5 2.20
1918-19
1 •
5 2.12
1918-19
I
5 2.78
1918
;::;;;;
0.27
.25
.26
2 1.13
1918
2.89
1918
2.98
1 These experiments were conducted under cooperative agreement between the Texas State Board of
Water Engineers and the Bureau of Public Roads, U. S. Department of Agriculture. These were plot
experiments conducted at station 1 mile south of Mercedes. Soil of west 14 acres consists of light-colored
sandy loam underlaid with yellowish sandy loam. Soil of the east 17 acres consists of dark, heavy clay
loam underlaid at 4 feet with sandy clay. Soil at Mercedes a gray-black soil of fine texture underlaid
with sandy clay subsoil. Rainfall under 0.25 inch, unless followed by another rain in 24 hours, was gen-
erally not counted, although lighter showers on shallow-rooted plants during winter seasons were some-
times included.
2 Clay soil.
3 3 frosts occurred, retarding growth, lengthened production period, and increased water requirements.
* A normal year.
5 Sandy soil.
6 Loam soil.
" Estimated 4-inch rainfall was of no benefit to shallow-rooted crop.
8 Sandy loam soil.
» Yield damaged twice by frost.
" Rainfall 3.23 inches immediately following irrigation has been deducted.
" First crop.
" Second crop.
13 Irrigations 3 and 4 followed by 1-inch and 3-inch rainfall probably reduced effective applications at
least 3 inches.
i» It is probable that 5.94 inches rainfall in September, immediately following an irrigation, was wasted.
" At least 2 inches of the 4.04 inches of rainfall in January was of no benefit.
i« Growth checked by temperature of 24° F. in February.
i' Crop injured by heavy rains.
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS 65
CO l~-. COC<l
ss
CO CC O O CA 1
OO-3'Q'VCCiO
!SS
f^«
c p
a
c cc
0J0S0>0>CTia50>0>OOOOOOOOOC<lc!l
COeO>-liOQ-^CO'-l'-lt>..-lt>.rtr-0>-l05Qr-405Q'-tOS'^»0
i-iOt:^i00050cO»0»0>0'0»Ci'OOOT»'00-*0«0-<tiCOQO
c^' oi ci <N CO (N C3 M (N CO <m' CO ci eo im' m* oioicinoioieO'-i rn
iC<ii-i(N.-iC^eo»ooc<30coe<5'
CO "O (
(MOO'OC^iMt^Ot^COOCOOeOO'OOOO'OOOO'OOOO
»-iT-(<Ncsco(M'0«>co>c>co'oeo'Occ'Ot-co»ot^co»ot^
»0.-(C^.-iOOl^050t-Ot^Ot--(N«5CO<N>CCO<N>OeOt>.r-l
COCO-*Tt<»0»C«Ot^«OtO«00'00(MC<»eOC<>C^CO(M(MeOi-l(M
! s
l^t-(^l^t^t-<NeO00(MQ0(MQ0CSQ0g0Q0Q0Q000000pQ0
«OCO«OCOO«5»-ti-cOi-iOr-iOr-iOOOOOOOOO
c«(Neoeoeocococoggggggggg
t«oococo«Oi-i'0»c»ot^r- 1>» t^ t^t^ioo«c«oi05D>oo<o»»
ao(»«ooooQOooaooooja>
o
>.
>
-U
^
^ o
d o
!l
Wl
-O a.
a >.i2
C § CS C3 3
li^ilEli
^ • «« s ca TT ^ i
M^ ® T3 a "o g a
"^ «:3'2 3 fl "^
o 2-S 5 o
3 «i
<u q.C
« H C £^ « a. ?
- • - » W fcH u . 00 3
&03
® J3 £ o asS ^S^
66 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 185, M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 19. — Irrigation water applied monthly, rainfall, total water received, and
crop yields in Lawton, Okla.^
BROOMCORN (DWARF)
Year
Irriga-
tions
Monthly application of water in acre-feet
per acre
Total quantity of
water in acre-feet
received by crop
per acre
Yield per
acre
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Irri-
gation
Rain-
fall
Total
1919..
Number
1
2
0.06
.07
0.06
.16
.00
0.Q4
.94
.94
1.00
1.09
.94
Pounds
1,235
1,650
850
1919. _
0.08
1919
BROOMCORN (STANDARD)
1919
1919
1919
1919
1919
1919
2
2
1
1
0
0
0.10
.10
.06
.06
0.14
.15
0.24
.25
.06
.06
.00
.00
0.94
.94
.94
.94
.94
.94
1.18
1.19
1.00
1.00
.94
.94
1,525
1,975
1,076
1,360
1,830
1,690
FETERITA
1919
0
0
0.06
.06
.05
.11
.21
.17
0.06
.06
.05
.11
.21
.17
0.94
.94
.94
.94
.94
.94
.94
.94
1.00
1.00
.99
1.05
1.15
l.ll
.94
.94
2,275
2,602
3,336
1919
1919 . .
1919
3,658
3,905
1919
1919
3,195
1919
2,502
2,790
1919.
KAFIR
1919
1919
1919
1919
1919
1919
1919
1919
1919
1919
0
0
0.14
.15
.11
.11
.16
.14
0.14
.15
.11
.11
.16
.14
1.60
1.60
1.60
1.60
1.60
1.60
1.60
1.60
1.60
1.60
1.74
1.75
1.71
1.71
1.76
1.74
1.60
1.60
1.60
1.60
2,628
-2,737
2,975
2,550
2,020
2,128
1,825
2,100
2,651
2,111
MILLET
1919 ...
1
0
0.23
0.23
0.94
.94
1.17
.94
5.076
1919
3,960
MILO
1919 .
il
0.10
0.10
1.08
1.08
1.18
1.08
2,750
1919.. .
0
2,000
1 These experiments were conducted under cooperative agreement between the Biueau of Public Roads
and the Oklahoma State Board of Agriculture at the Cameron School of Agriculture, near Lawton. The
plots included 0.1 acre each. The soil is a thin upland clay.
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS 67
Table 19. — Irrigation water applied monthly, rainfall, total water received, and
crop yields in Lawton, Okla. — Continued ~
ORANGE CANE
Year
Irriga-
tions
Monthly application of water in acre-feet
per acre
Total quantity of
water in acre-feet
received by crop
per acre
Yield per
acre
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Irri-
gation
Rain-
fall
Total
1919
Number
1
0
0.14
0.14
1.08
1.08
1.22
1.08
Pounds
9,500
7,500
1919
PEAS
1919
1
1
0
0.10
.07
0.10
.07
1.08
1.08
1.08
1.18
1.15
1.08
5,250
6,700
5,700
1919
1919
RIBBON CANE
1919.
1919.
1
0
0.31
0.31
1.08
1.08
1.39
1.08
22,800
15,800
SUDAN GRASS
1919. 2
0.05
.10
0.41
0.46
.10
•0.94
.94
.94
.94
1.40
1.04
.94
.94
7,200
7,200
7 100
1919- 1
1919-. 0
1919- 0
3,800
1
LITERATURE CITED
(1) Arizona, Engineering Commission.
1922-23. report based on reconnaissance investigations of arizona
land irrigable from the colorado river. 72 p., iuus.
(2) Bloodgood, D. W., and Curry, A. S.
1925. NET REQUIREMENTS OF. CROPS FOR IRRIGATION WATER IN THE
MESILLA VALLEY, NEW MEXICO. N. Mex. AgF. Expt. Sta. Bul.
149, 48 p., illus.
(3) Chilcott, E. C.
1927. the relations between crop yields and precipitation in the
GREAT PLAINS AREA. U. S. Dept. AgF. Misc. Circ. 81, 94 p.,
illus.
(4) Code, W. H.
1902. irrigation investigations in the salt river valley. u. s.
Dept. Agr., Off. Expt. Stas. Bul. 104: 83-125, illus.
(5)
1902. IRRIGATION INVESTIGATIONS IN THE SALT RIVER VALLEY FOR 1901.
U. S. Dept. Agr., Off. Expt. Stas. Bul. 119: 51-87, illus.
(6) Coffey, G. N.
1912. reconnaissance soil survey in SOUTH TEXAS. U. S. Dept.
Agr., Bur. Soils, Field Oper. (1909), Rpt. 11: 1029-1129, illus.
(7) Davis, A. P.
1922. PROBLEMS OF IMPERIAL VALLEY AND VICINITY. U. S. CongreSS
67th, 2d sess.. Senate Doc. 142, 326 p., illus.
68 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 185, M. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
(8) FORTIER, S.
1925. IRBIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF THE ARABLE LANDS OF THE GREAT
BASIN. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 1340, 56 p., illus.
(9)
1928. IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF THE ARID AND SEMI ARID LANDS OF
THE MISSOURI AND ARKANSAS RIVER BASINS. U. S. Dept. AgF.
Tech. Bui. 36, 112 p., illus.
(10) and Blaney, H. F.
1928. SILT IN THE COLORADO RIVER AND ITS RELATION TO IRRIGATION.
U. S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bui. 67, 95 p., illus.
(11) Freeman, G. F.
1914. ALFALFA IN THE SOUTHWEST. Ariz. AgF. Expt. Sta. Bul. 73,
p. [233]-320, illus.
(12) Garcia, F.
1923-24. THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT. N. Mcx. Agr. Expt. Sta. Ann.
Rpt. 35, 55 p., iQus.
(13)
1924-25. THIRTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. N. Mcx. Agr. Expt. Sta. Ann.
Rpt. 36, 61 p., iUus.
(14) HUTCHINS, W. A.
1928. THE COMMUNITY ACEQUIA; ITS ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT. South-
west. Hist. Quart. 31: 261-284.
(15) Lawson, L. M.
1928. silting of the lake at austin, texas. discussion. amer.
See. Civ. Engin. Papers and Discussions 54 (pt. 1): [13451-
1346.
(16) Marr, J. C.
1927. THE USE AND DUTY OF WATER IN THE SALT RIVER VALLEY. Ariz.
Agr. Expt. sta. Bul. 120, 97 p., illus. (With preface bv G. E. P.
Smith.)
(17)
1926. DRAINAGE BY MEANS OF PUMPING FROM WELLS IN SALT RIVER
VALLEY, ARIZONA. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 1456. 21 p. illus.
(18) Murphy, D. W.
1928. DRAINAGE RECOVERY FROM IRRIGATION. Amer. Soc. Civil Engrs.
Papers and Discussions 54 (pt. 1): 1103-1107.
(19) Tait, C. E.
1908. irrigation in imperial valley, CALIFORNIA ITS PROBLEMS
AND POSSIBILITIES. U. S. Congress 60th, 1st sess., Senate Doc.
246, 56 p., Ulus.
(20) Thompson, C. A., and Barrows, E. L.
1920. SOIL MOISTURE MOVEMENT IN RELATION TO GROWTH OF ALFALFA.
N. Mex. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 123, 38 p., illus.
(21) United States Department of Agriculture, Weather Bureau.
1926. summary of climatological data for the United States by
sections. reprint of section 1. SOUTHERN TEXAS. U. S.
Dept. Agr., Weather Bur. Bul. W, Ed. 2, v. 1, p. 1-23, iUus.
(22) United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census.
1922. fourteenth census of the united states taken in the year 1920.
V. 7.
(23)
1927. UNITED STATES CENSUS OF AGRICULTURE 1925. SUMMARY STATISTICS
BY STATES. 149 p., iUus. Washington, [D. C]
(24) WiLLARD, R. E., and Humbert, E. P.
1913. SOIL MOISTURE. N. Mcx. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 86, 86 p., illus.
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1930
ORGANIZATION OF THE
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
May 17, 1930
Secretary of Agriculture Arthur M. Hyde.
Assistant Secretary R. W. Dxjnlap.
Director of Scientific Work A. F. Woods.
Director of Regulatory Work Walter G. Campbell.
Director of Extension Work C. W. Warburton.
Director of Personnel and Business Adminis- W. W. Stockberqer.
tration.
Director of Information M. S. Eisenhower.
Solicitor E. L. Marshall.
Weather Bureau Charles F. Marvin, Chief.
Bureau of Animal Industry John R. Mohler, C^-ze/.
Bureau of Dairy Industry 0. E. Reed, C/ii'e/.
Bureau of Plant Industry William A. Taylor, Chief.
Forest Service R. Y. Stuart, Chief.
Bureau of Chemistry and Soils H. G. Knight, Chief.
Bureau of Entomology C. L. Marlatt, C/ize/-
Bureau of Biological Survey Paul G. Redington, Chief.
Bureau of Public Roads Thomas H. MacDonald, CAte/*
Bureau of Agricultural Economics Nils A. Olsen, Chief.
Bureau of Home Economics Louise Stanley, Chief.
Plant Quarantine and Control Administration Lee A. Strong, Chief.
Grain Futures Administration J. W. T. Duvel, Chief.
Foody Drug, and Insecticide Administration^. Walter G. Campbell, Director of
Regulatory Work, in Charge.
Office of Experiment Stations , Chief.
Office of Cooperative Extension Work C. B. Smith, Chief.
Library Claribel R. Barnett, Librarian.
This bulletin is a contribution from
Bureau of Public Roads Thomas H. MacDonald, Chief.
Division of Agricultural Engineering S. H. McCrory, Chief.
Technical Bulletin No. 184
June, 1930
EROSION AND SILTING OF
DREDGED DRAINAGE
DITCHES
BY
C. E. RAMSER
Senior Drainage Engineer
Division of Agricultural Engineering
Bureau of Public Roads
United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
For 8ftl* by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C.
Price 25 c«nt8
Technical Bulletin No. 184
June, 1930
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
EROSION AND SILTING OF DREDGED
DRAINAGE DITCHES
By C. E. Ramser
Senior Drainage Engineer, Division of Agricultwal Engineering, Bureau of
PuUic Roads
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction 1
Relation of velocity to erosion and silting 2
Velocity due to three factors 4
Conditions affecting erosion and silting in a
channel 5
Vegetation 5
Caving and sloughing banks 6
Backwater 7
Variation in water stages 8
Enlargement of cross section 8
Silt charge in streams 9
Variation in fall of channels 9
Volume of run-ofl water 10
Page
Effect of erosion and silting on the discharge
capacity of a channel 10
Field measurements 11
Computations 11
Tabulated results 12
Description of channels 16
Streams in Lee County, Miss 16
Streams in Bolivar County, Miss 21
Streams in western Tennessee 29
Streams in western Iowa 41
Application of results 49
INTRODUCTION
It is a matter o'f considerable importance to a drainage engineer
to be able to foretell whether silting or erosion will occur in a
drainage channel. Satisfactory and economical drainage often de-
pends upon the accuracy of his prediction. For instance, if silting is
expected it may be advisable to employ preventive measures such
as sedimentation basins or check dams, thus obviating the necessity
of redredging the channel later at great expense. If erosion in a
channel is anticipated, it may bo desirable to employ means to
prevent it, or to take advantage of it by digging, at a comparatively
low cost, a ditch smaller than is actually needed and dej)ending upon
the erosive action of the water to enlarge the ditch to the required
capacity.
In many drainage enterprises a knowledge of the effects of silting
and erosion has been gained only through costly experience. A con-
siderable part of the main outlet ditch of a large drainage district
in the Missouri Kiver bottoms in eastern Nebraska was filled within
a few weeks, and the crops on a large area were destroyed by the
102889°— 30 1 I
2 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 184, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
deposit of sediment contributed by a number of upland tributary
streams. This ditch was cleaned out at considerable expense, and
further silting prevented by providing 18 settling basins and one
short diversion floodway.
A large channel in the main diversion floodway of a drainage
district in Missouri was constructed close to one of the floodway
levees for economy in handling the levee material. Erosion soon
began to undermine the levee in places and seriously threatened it
in others, so that costly protection works and the construction of a
new levee in places, farther back from the channel, were imperative
in order to avert disastrous floods. A foreknowledge of the possi-
bilities of erosion and silting in these two instances would have
rendered possible a substantial reduction in the ultimate cost of the
projects.
There are a number of drainage districts in this country in which
a considerable saving in the cost has been effected by constructing
a ditch of inadequate size and allowing it to erode to the required
size. There are some ditches w^here advantage could have been taken
of the work of erosion with great saving to the landowners. In
one instance in western Tennessee an engineer, foreseeing the prob-
able effect of erosion, did not attempt to provide a ditch large enough
for satisfactory drainage at the start. Most of the land in this
district was in timber, and by the time a large portion of it was
cleared and ready for cultivation the ditch had enlarged through
erosion and satisfactory drainage prevailed.
During the investigations reported in this bulletin, measurements
and observations were made between 1913 and 1921 on 22 dredged
drainage ditches in Mississippi, Tennessee, and Iowa. The informa-
tion presented consists of cross-sectional and hydraulic measure-
ments and results of observation of all conditions that influence
the erosion and silting of ditches. In these studies the writer has
been particularly impressed with the fact that the measurements of
the cross-sectional area and fall of a channel alone do not afford
adequate information for a full story of erosion and silting, and
in the following pages an effort is made to point out evidences of
other factors that enter into the problem. It is believed that the
results of these investigations will assist the engineer in making
predictions as to probable erosion and silting in ditches so that
drainage improvements can be planned accordingly,
RELATION OF VELOCITY TO EROSION AND SILTING
The erosive power of a stream varies as the square of the velocity.
Theoretically, the maximum size of particle (as measured by the
diameter) which can be transported by a current, assuming bodies
of similar shape and substance, varies as the square of the velocity,
and their weights (assuming equal volumes) as the sixth power
of the velocity. However, it has been found by experiment that
the weights vary more, nearly as the fifth power of the velocity.
From these general laws it is apparent that slight variations in
the velocity of a stream may materially change its erosive and trans-
porting capacity, and that the nonsilting velocity varies with the
weight of the silt particles.
EROSION AND SILTING OF DREDGED DRAINAGE DITCHES 6
Clay soils are characterized by considerable cohesion among the
particles and they present greater resistance to erosion than do
sandy or silty soils. Excepting very sandy soils it is generally true
that a soil that can be eroded can also be transported by the same
current. Although clay soils are more difficult to erode than sandy
soils, yet after being worn off the clay particles are more easily
transported than the sandy particles. Observations show that little
erosion of alluvial clay soil occurs where the velocity is much less
than 3 feet per second. In some instances the velocity is not suffi-
cient to erode the banks but is enough to pick up and carry away
material that has caved into the channel, and in this way the en-
largement of the channels takes place. The greatest erosion in a
channel occurs in connection with the maximum velocity. Hence,
it is important that the probable maximum velocity be known in
predicting the likelihood of erosion in a channel. In the absence
of backwater conditions the maximum velocity in a channel occurs
with the highest stage.
Silt is transported by a stream in two ways: (1) In suspension and
(2) by rolling along the bottom. It is believed, however, that rolling
plays a minor part in the movement of silt in most drainage ditches.
The power of a stream to transport silt in suspension is derived from
the eddies at the bed. The upward component of these eddies tends
to prevent the suspended particles from sinking, and the greater the
velocity of flow the greater is this upward component. The eddies
generated on 1 square foot of the bed of a stream hold the silt in sus-
pension in a vertical column above, extending to the surface of the
water. With a given density of silt in the water, the longer this
column the greater would be the velocity of the water required to
support the silt. Hence, it is seen that a relation may exist between
the velocity and the depth such that no silting in the channel takes
place and for which, if it be already fully charged with silt, the water
will not pick up and carry off more material. This velocity is known
as the critical velocity. The relation is expressed by Kennedy in the
equation,
in which F= critical velocity in feet per second,
D = depth of water in feet,
C and m are constants depending upon the kind of silt.
The values 6^=0.84 and m=0.64 were found to be suitable for fine
sand such as that found in the beds of rivers in the Punjab (India)
shortly after they have left the hills. The curve representing this
equation is shown in Figure 1. From this equation it is seen that in
a nonsilting channel the velocity is independent of the width, but
increases w^ith the depth of the channel.
Column 8 of Tables 1, 2, and 3 (see p. 13) show velocities as taken
from this curve corresponding to the depths of the different channels,
and column 7 shows the velocities obtained by measurements for
bank-full stages of the channels. These latter velocities are plotted
in Figure 1, symbols being used to indicate whether erosion or silting
occurs in the channels. It is seen from this figure that both erosion
and silting took place in many of the channels and that silting
occurred where the normal velocity was much greater than that
4 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 4, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
obtained by the Kennedy formula for the particular depth. This
may have been due either to difference in size of transported par-
ticles, or to the fact that the velocity in a channel at the time silting
occurred was less than that under normal conditions of flow, although
under normal conditions the velocity might have agreed closely
with the velocity as obtained by Kennedy s formula. The size of
the particles transported by the different streams was not determined,
and sufficient data are not available to determine definitely what
happened.
Ordinarily the velocity in a drainage channel varies greatly during
rapidly rising and falling stages and where affected by backwater.
The growth of vegetation tends to promote silting and to prevent ero-
sion, irrespective of the depth-velocity relation. Caving of banks
20
II
.c:l5
|lO
®5
/
Channel Erociina .•
/
,„'
Lhannel oilting. ^
Channel Eroding and Silting...®
®22
/
/
/
/
y
*'°/
''l9<9
/^
®4
/
/ •
■• •
li 13
'2.
y
®2I
/
/
6°
/
8o
>
/
18®
17^
'o
9°
14^
•l5
/
/
®I6
1 2 3 4 5 6
Velocity in feet per second =V
Figure 1. — Relation between Kennedy's velocities as indicated by curve, and meas-
ured velocities in channels at bank-full stages. The numbers near the plotted
points refer to the numbers of the ditches given in Tables 1, 2, and 3
often occurs where the velocity is insufficient to carry away caved-in
material. Most of the ditches investigated were affected by one or
more of the above conditions, so that it w^ould be unreasonable to
expect conditions as regards erosion and silting to conform to the
Kennedy formula. Even though the conditions of caving banks
and growth of vegetation were eliminated by proper side slopes and
systematic maintenance, it is not believed that Kennedy's formula
would be applicable to the design of drainage channels where there
are generally such great variations in the velocity.
VELOCITY DUE TO THREE FACTORS
A common mistake in predicting the probability of erosion or
silting in a drainage channel is to base the estimate upon the fall
of the channel alone. Though it is true that fall is the positive
factor that produces velocity through the action of gravity, yet
EtfOSlON AND SILTING OF DREDGED DRAINAGE DITCHES 5
there are two other factors that exert a decided effect upon the
velocity. These are the hydraulic radius and the resistance to flow
caused by the condition of the channel, as represented by the value
of n in Kutter's formula ; the larger the value of n^ the greater the
resistance to flow. The velocity varies with these factors about as
given in the formula,
where F= velocity in feet per second,
6^ is a constant representing the condition of the channel
(the greater the resistance to flow the smaller is C)^
L8il+ 41.66 + '^^05281
Th S
where ^= the Iwdraulic radius,
6 = slope of the water surface.
The term " n " in tiie above formula is a measure of all the conditions
in a channel that tend to retard the flow.
An inspection of the values given in the tables shows that the
highest velocities are not always in the channels with the greatest
fall. For instance, in comparing the channel of the South Forked
Deer River at Roberts, Tenn. (Table 2, p. 14), which has a fall of
1.32 feet per mile, with that of Cyjoress Creek with a fall of 10.1 feet
per mile, it is seen that the former has the greater velocity due to its
larger hydraulic radius and less resistance to flow as represented by
the values of n. The hydraulic radius is equal to the cross-sectional
area divided by the wetted perimeter. Thus it is apparent that a
large, deep ditch would have a greater hydraulic radius than would
a small, shallow one. For example, the hydraulic radii of the chan-
nels of the South Forked Deer River at Roberts and the Bogue
Phalia may be compared with those of Cypress Creek and Pecan
Bayou as given in Tables 1 and 2.
A comparison of the channel of Willow Creek in Iowa with that
of Bogue Hasty in Mississippi, where the hydraulic radii are, re-
spectively, 5.35 and 6.1, the fall, 0.86 and 0.83 foot per mile, the
roughness coefficient n, 0.0128 and 0.0353, and the velocities, 4.46 and
1.86 feet per second, shows that the hydraulic radii and fall do not
differ greatly; the considerable difference in the velocities must
therefore be due to the large difference in the roughness coefficient n.
(Tables 1 and 3.)
CONDITIONS AFFECTING EROSION AND SILTING IN A CHANNEL
VEGETATION
Vegetation in a channel checks or greatlv reduces erosion and pro-
motes silting. A heavy mat of grass, high weeds, cattails, saplings,
or small shrubs protects the soil from the erosive action of the water,
and the roots hold the soil in place. The vegetation tends to retard
the flow, thus reducing the velocity and thereby the erosive action
6 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 184, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
of the water. Erosion had practically ceased in the channel of
Coonewah Creek in Mississippi at the time of the last measurements
when the side slopes and part of the bottom of the channel were cov-
ered with a heavy growth of grass. (Table 1.) The channel of
Mud Creek in Mississippi is an instance where such growth has pre-
vented rapid erosion such as occurred in Chawappah Creek, the
channel of which was practically free of vegetation. Vegetation in
the channels of Willow Creek and Allen Creek in Iowa promoted
silting and prevented erosion since the soil and velocities were prac-
tically the same as in the channel of the Boyer River at Missouri
Valley where considerable erosion and not much silting occurred,
there being comparatively little vegetation in the latter channel. To
prevent permanent silting in these channels, or to reduce it to a
minimum, the vegetation should be cleared out annually. Usually
the velocity of flow and the consequent erosive action decrease with
the age of the ditch on account of general deterioration caused chiefly
by the growth of vegetation; therefore the greatest volocity of flow
for a given stage in a ditch, as well as the most rapid erosion, usually
take place before vegetation is established.
CAVING AND SLOUGHING BANKS
In nearly all ditches where rapid enlargement occurs, this is largely
the result of caving of the banks. This caving may be due to sev-
eral causes. If the side slopes are dug at an angle greater than the
angle of repose for the particular kind of soil, caving may take
place caused by gravity alone. An example of this type of caving
occurred shortly after construction in the channels of Twenty Mile,
Chawappah, and Coonewah Creeks in Mississippi, where the side
slopes were 1 on i^.
If the soil in the bank is saturated, the angle of repose is flatter
than for drained soil. For this reason, in digging a ditch through
marshland where the soil is saturated, it is advisable to lower the
water in the ditch slowly so that the water has time to drain from
the soil; otherwise, caving may result which will seriously damage
the ditch. Openings should always be provided in spoil banks so
that water will not be held back of them and the banks become satu-
rated. Failure to do this has caused many ditches to cave.
A rather common practice in southwest Minnesota, in marshland
having a gravelly subsoil, is first to dig a narrow ditch to drain out
the soil and later to enlarge the ditch to the required size. At-
tempts to dig the ditch to the required size at the start dictated this
practice because of the caving of banks and the filling of channels.
If the spoil banks are placed close to the edge of the ditch the tend-
ency to cave is increased by the superimposed weight of the spoil
banks which reduces the angle of repose. This practice has been
common in western Iowa, and the rapid enlargement of the Boyer
River ditch at both Missouri Valley and Dunlap was due largely to
this cause, nearly all of the spoil banks of these ditches having caved
into the channels. In an effort to prevent such caving into the chan-
nels of Allen and Willow Creeks, side slopes of about 1 on 2 were used.
The widening of a channel by caving is greater for a deep than for
a shallow channel since it is apparent that in the case of a deep ditch
the angle of repose will intersect the ground surface at a greater
EROSION AND SILTING OF DREDGED DRAINAGE DITCHES 7
distance from the edge of the bank. To this cause may be attributed,
in part, the great widening of the channels of the Boyer Kiver in
Iowa, the South Forked Deer River at Roberts, Tenn., and the
Bogue Phalia in Mississippi. Another cause of the caving of banks
is undermining by erosion, the portion above the undermined sec-
tion of the bank caving into the channel. It is obvious that where a
combination of the foregoing causes of caving operates on the bank
of a ditch the caving action is very rapid.
Sloughing of the banks is very common in the South where alter-
nate freezing and thawing often occur several times during a single
spring season. The freezing heaves the soil, and when thawing takes
place the loosened soil moves down the slope and the first high water
thereafter washes it away.
The tendency to cave is greater for some soils than for others,
depending upon the angle of repose. Soils in which layers of sand
are found are very susceptible to caving. Alluvial silt soils cave
more readily than clay soils. The side slopes of all of the channels
investigated were measured in order to determine about what slopes
should be used for different types of soils. It was found that for
strictly alluvial soils in the Mississippi and Missouri River bottoms
in the States of Mississippi and Iowa the average of the side slopes
measured was 1 on 2. Flatter slopes probably would be required
where considerable sand is encountered or where the soil is an ex-
tremely fine silt. Measurements showed that the average side slope
of ditches that drain upland areas in Iowa, Tennessee, and Missis-
sippi was about 1 on li^. The silty soils in these comparatively
narrow bottoms are not so fine as those in the large river bottoms since
they have been washed from near-by upland areas and carried off
at relatively high velocities.
Material that caves into a channel is not always carried away but
may settle to the bottom. This happens where the velocity is not
sufficient to move the caved-in material, as was the case in some of
the ditches in Bolivar County, Miss. In Figures 9 and 14 are shown
cross sections of two ditches where caving took place. In the chan-
nel of the North Forked Deer River the velocity was 4.57 feet per
second, sufficient to remove the caved-in material, while in the chan-
nel of West Bogue Hasty the velocity was but 0.93 foot per second,
insufficient to remove the caved-in material which settled to the bot-
tom. Practically all the material in the bottom of this channel came
f roni the caving banks since the the entire watershed is flat land, and
erosion is negligible. In some instances the mean velocity was high
enough to transport the material if the bottom velocities were able to
pick it up. Again, some banks cave into the channel as a solid mass
held together by vegetation and roots which even water flowing at a
high velocity fails to move. An example of this type of caving oc-
curred in the channel of the Little Sioux River cut-off in Iowa.
(PL 22 and fig. 23.) From the foregoing it is apparent that the cav-
ing of ditch banks may be the cause either of the enlargement or of
the filling of a ditch.
BACKWATER
The effect of backwater is a marked reduction in the velocity of
flow due to a decrease in the slope of the water surface caused by a
high stage at the outlet of the channel. Where backwater occurs
8 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 4, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
the velocity for any particular stage may vary widely. The maxi-
mum occurs when the outlet channel is at low stage, and the minimum
when an extreme flood stage is in the outlet channel. Hence, it is
apparent that the velocity may be such as to permit silting in the
channel at one time and scouring at another. In addition to widen-
ing the channel, scouring may wash out much or all of the silt that
has accumulated during backwater conditions. The Boyer River
at Missouri Valley, Iowa, is a good example of this type of chan-
nel. Backwater resulting from fluctuations in its outlet channel (the
Missouri River) happens frequently and has a very decided influence
upon the deposition of silt in the channel. Where there is consid-
erable vegetation in a channel, silt deposited during periods of back-
water may not all be removed during times of high velocity, and the
accumulated silt soon incapacitates the ditch. An example of this is
the Allen Creek Channel near Missouri Valley, Iowa.
VARIATION IN WATER STAGES
Since the water supply of a drainage channel is dependent upon
rainfall, and as the duration, intensity, and amount of rainfall are
subject to extreme variations, it is obvious that the stages in the
drainage channels will likewise be subject to wide variations, rang-
ing from a stage a little above low water for light rains to one often
several feet over the banks of the channel for heavy rains. Few
drainage channels have been designed to carry the run-off from the
heaviest rain. In general the velocity in a channel increases with
the stage so that wide variations in velocity occur, the highest often
being sufficient to cause erosion and the lowest to permit silting.
Often in the case of a channel running to full capacity with a
high velocity and water fully charged with silt, the water supply is
suddenly cut off by the cessation of rain ; this results in the deposi-
tion of much silt during the rapidly falling stage. Under such
conditions erosion may take place at the high stage and silting
during the falling stages.
ENLARGEMENT OF CROSS SECTION
When, owing to erosion, a channel widens and the velocity is
such as to carry in suspension all of the silt delivered to it, the
channel will maintain its original depth until the velocity is so far
reduced as to cause deposit of the charge of silt. As the channel
widens the cross-sectional area increases so that the stage does not
rise so high as formerly to remove the same quantity of water. As
a result the hydraulic radius and the slope of the water surface are
slightly reduced with an accompanying reduction in the velocity.
Silting occurs and increases with each decrement of the velocity,
and a gradual filling takes place, which keeps pace with the widening
of the channel. The deposits of sediment in Twenty Mile and
Chawappah Creeks in Mississippi probably were caused chiefly in
this manner. (Figs. 3 and 4.) The same thing happened in the
channel of the Boyer River at Dunlap and Missouri Valley, Iowa,
but had not proceeded far at the time of the last cross-sectional
measurements. (Figs. 20 and 21.)
EPvOSION AND SILTING OF DREDGED DRAINAGE DITCHES \j
SILT CHARGE IN STREAMS
The silt in a stream may be washed from the surface of the tribu-
tary watershed, or it may be picked up or eroded from the^bed or
sides of the channel. If the velocity is not sufficient to cause erosion
or to pick up material that may cave into the channel, and if erosion
from the watershed is negligible, the water will contain very little
silt and there will be practically no silting or erosion in the channel.
The channels of Pecan Bavou and East Bogue Hasty in Mississippi
are instances where the foregoing conditions prevailed. If these
same channels with their slight fall and low velocity drained up-
land areas, as is the case with the channels in Lee County, Miss., they
would silt up rapidly.
The quantity of silt carried into channels from upland watersheds
is exceedingly variable and depends largely upon the intensity of
the rainfall and upon the susceptibility of the ground surface to ero-
sion. If the land surface be protected from erosion, as by systems
of good terraces, very little washing will result, and the streams
will be practically free of silt. With the exception of the streams in
Bolivar County, Miss., those mentioned in this bulletin were, during
maximum floods, almost fully charged with silt eroded from the
hilly portions of their watersheds. When more silt is contributed to
a channel than the water can carry, the excess is deposited in its bed.
An example of this type of silting is the Cypress Creek ditch in
Tennessee which has a large fall and a fairly high velocity, but
which was overloaded with silt washed from the comparatively
steep hillsides.
VARIATION IN FALL OF CHANNELS
Other factors remaining the same, the velocity in a channel varies
about as the square root of the fall. Hence, it is apparent that if
the fall can be changed at will any desired velocity may be obtained.
Advantage is taken of this fact in controlling erosion on some streams
by building check dams across them at intervals to reduce the fall and
thereby the velocity and the eroding power of the water. The same
principle is applied to prevent silting in a channel. As is generally
known, the fall of most channels decreases from the upper to the
lower end of the watershed; sometimes changes in fall are very
abrupt, but generally they are gradual. Other conditions being the
same, the channel w^U carry more silt on the steeper than on the
flatter grades, and where abrupt changes occur and for some dis-
tance below that point silting takes place until the balance between
the silt carried and the velocity of the water is restored.
The inference should not be drawn from the above that the
velocity in all streams where the fall decreases grows less as the
stream approaches its mouth. Such is the case only when all other
conditions affecting the velocity remain the same. For example,
the velocity in the channel of the South Forked Deer River at
Roberts, Tenn., was found to be higher than that of the South
Forked Deer River above Roberts, at Jackson and at Henderson.
Although the channel at Roberts has less fall than at either of
the other points, it has a larger hydraulic radius and a lower value
of n — both factors that tend to produce a higher velocity. Another
102889''— 3() 2
10 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 4, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
example is the Bogue Phalia Channel in Mississippi as compared
with the channel of Bogue Hasty, a tributary of the Bogue Phalia.
The most sudden variation in the fall of drainage channels usually
takes place where a stream emerges from an area of rolling and
hilly relief and enters the comparatively flat bottom lands of a
large river such as the Missouri or the Mississippi. Silt at high
velocities is brought down from the hilly areas and deposited in
the bottom-land channels of low velocity. Such a condition exists
where the channels of Allen and Willow Creeks emerge from the
hills, and the condition is somewhat aggravated during times of
backwater from the Missouri Kiver. Where this condition requires
too frequent cleaning out of a ditch it can be remedied by con-
structing sedimentation basins on the bottom land where the stream
emerges from the hills as has been done on several streams in the
Burt-Washington district in eastern Nebraska.
VOLUME OF RUN-OFF WATER
Other factors being the same, the total volume of water that runs
off through a channel increases with the size of the watershed and
the amount of rainfall. Where the rainfall is the same, stages in
streams with large watersheds remain high for a longer period than
do those in streams with small watersheds. Thus, high stages in
the South Forked Deer River at Roberts, Tenn., with 'a watershed
area of 704 square miles, continue usually several days, while in
Cypress Creek at Bethel Springs, Tenn., with a watershed area of
6 square miles, they last only a few hours. It is therefore apparent
that the time during which erosion and silting occur is much greater
for a channel with a large watershed than for one with a small
watershed, and this accounts for the fact that erosion is sometimes
slower in a channel with a large fall and small watershed than in
a channel with a slight fall and a large watershed.
In the case of channels with watersheds of the same size and
similar characteristics, the greater erosion and silting will take
place where the greater annual rainfall occurs, since, for instance,
the length of time that high stages prevail in a ditch will be greater
where the annual rainfall is 60 inches than where it is only 30 inches.
This is one of the reasons why, other conditions being the same, ero-
sion and silting progress more rapidly in the South than in the
North, the frequency of floods being much less in the North on
account of the lighter rainfall.
EFFECTS OF EROSION AND SILTING ON THE DISCHARGE
CAPACITY OF A CHANNEL
The discharge capacity of a channel may be increased by erosion or
decreased by silting. In column 9 of Tables 1, 2, and 3, opposite the
mean velocities in column 7, are given discharges that were measured
for bank-full stages. The other discharges in this column were com-
puted upon the assumption that the value of n for each ditch re-
mained the same as at the time the actual discharges were measured.
Attention is particularly called to the fact that, even where there
was no change in the value of ?^, an increase in cross-sectional area
does not necessarily result in an increased discharge capacity since
EROSION^ AND SILTING OF DREDGED DRAINAGE DITCHES 11
the hydraulic radius may decrease sufficiently, on account of silting,
to oifset the increased cross-sectional area caused by erosion. By
reference to the tables it is seen that in many instances decided in-
creases in discharge capacities took place where there was very little
change in the value of n^ judging from the condition of the channels
shown in the photographs. Drainage conditions over the bottoms
drained by Twenty Mile Creek in Mississippi and the North Forked
Deer Eiver in Tennessee improved greatly as a result of the increased
discharge capacities of these channels. In both of these instances a
considerable financial saving was effected by digging a channel
smaller than was needed and allowing the action of erosion to enlarge
it to the required size. It is true that, in adopting this practice, the
benefit from erosion is not realized immediately. However, in the
case of the North Forked Deer River, by the time a large part of the
land was cleared and ready for cultivation the ditch had enlarged
lo adequate size.
On the other hand, silting may occur and decrease the discharge
capacity of a ditch, as in the case of Cypress Creek near Bethel
Springs, Tenn. This is very common where silt brought down by
upland streams is deposited in channels extending through bottom
land.
FIELD MEASUREMENTS
Preliminary to making the cross-sectional measurements of each
stream, a length of channel was selected in which erosion and silting
were typical. These courses ranged in length from 300 to more
than 1,000 feet. Within each course from five to eight cross sections
were made and these measurements were repeated at intervals of
from one to eight years. The measurements were repeated once for
some streams and twice for others.
At the time the first cross sections were made, measurements of the
surface slope and velocity of flow were also made to determine the
roughness coefficient, 7^, in Kutter's formula. The results of these
latter experiments and the methods of making measurements are
presented in Technical Bulletin 129.^ However, some of the results
are included in this bulletin to show the relation existing between
silting and erosion, and the hydraulic elements in a channel.
COMPUTATIONS
The mean cross-sectional areas given in Tables 1 to 3 were deter-
mined in tlie following manner: The several cross sections along a
course were plotted on cross-section paper; these were then super-
imposed so that the center lines and the water-surface lines for a
bank-full stage coincided; a mean cross-section line Avas then deter-
mined for each set of measurements, and these were plotted as shown
in Figures 2 to 23, inclusive, one over another as described above.
Any change in the channels during the period of observation is
thus evident. The original cross sections of the ditches, according
to the engineer's specifications, are also plotted with the mean cross
sections, but it should be remembered that a dredged section seldom
conforms closely to the specified dimensions.
1 Ramser, C. E. flow of water in drainage channels. U. S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull.
129, 104 p., lllus. 1929.
12 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 184, U. S. DEPT. OF AGEICXJLTUKE
The water-surface line for bank-full stage was plotted on both the
mean cross sections and the several measured cross sections. In
cases where the spoil banks serve as levees this line was taken as
level with the ground surface outside the levees. For that part of
each mean cross section below the water-surface line the cross-sec-
tional area, wetted perimeter, top width, and average depth, which
thus represent the mean values in that course of the channel, were
determined. The cross-sectional areas were measured with plani-
meter. The hydraulic radius for each mean section was computed by
dividing the cross-sectional area by the wetted perimeter. Values
of nonsilting velocities corresponding to the average maximum
depths were taken from the curve representing Kennedy's formula.
(Fig. 1.) Computations for values of 71 in Kutter's formula were
made in the manner described in Technical Bulletin 129.
TABULATED RESULTS
Tables 1 to 3 show the hydraulic elements of the channels together
with data relating to the changes in the channels due to erosion and
silting. In most cases the cross-sectional area given as of the time
the ditch was constructed is based upon the dimensions given in the
engineer's specifications for the channel. Usually a ditch is dug a
little wider and a little deeper than the specifications require, but it
may be dug smaller. Consequently not much dependence can be
placed upon these areas, and they are of little significance where
only a slight change has taken place in the channel. Where a very
great change has occurred, as in the Boyer Eiver at Dunlap, Iowa,
the probable error in the original area at construction would not be
large enough to aifect materially the percentage of change in the
cross section.
In column 7 are given the mean velocities in the channels which
were measured at about the time the cross-sectional measurements
opposite which they are placed in the table were made, and in column
8 are shown the velocities corresponding to the average maximum
depth for each channel as computed by Kennedy's formula.
Column 9 shows the discharges of the channels in cubic feet per
second. The values given opposite the velocities (column 7) were
obtained by actual gagings. The other values were computed by
using the values of slope and 72, which are given in columns 13 and
14, and which were determined at the time the gagings were made.
The discharge values are given to show the effect of erosion or silt-
ing upon the discharge capacity of a channel provided no change
in the roughness coefficient occurs.
The mean maximum depths and mean top widths of each chan-
nel are given in columns 10 and 11 ; these values indicate the changes
in depth and width caused by erosion and silting. Column 12 shows
the mean hydraulic radii, changes in which indicate variations in
the hydraulic efficiencies of the channels, other factors remaining the
same.
In column 15 are given the depths at which the water stood over
the banks for floods during the season in which the discharge meas-
urements were made.
EROSION AND SILTING OF DREDGED DRAINAGE DITCHES
13
J3
u
q^pi^doj,
1:1
0»0 0 (N >00 CO—I -*■<!< 00 »OCO OC^ 0
^ t-'eo t^t- (ct^ giN oiod oco ec-; r4t-: t-:©
^ _ „^ „^ c.^ ^^ ^^ _^^ ^_^ ^
J
-*-
q^daa
M
■g eoos c>^(N CO— ( 05Tt< 00 N«o 0 0 10 t^ «ci
^ +4- II II ++ + +? 4- +J +1
I
T
II
o3JuqosiQ[
S
c^o o<c lot^ Tfos coo CO"* coco «Deo Tfo
I
S^ g^ g!r 82 S?T T . «'f 5"? ?i2
++ $+ 4!^ qi+ ++ ++ +' +' +1
1
i
Baiv
A
oco ^0 '^tO (N(M OiO COiO rH(N <D (N eO (M
fi fi §1 n ft it it it ft
f
t
Hi
sq^uoH
2
■<*<(M t-io o(N eo»o 0-* 00-* o«D 00 00
X
SJBa^:^
r»
oot^ oo«o 000 05»o oo<o <»<© os<© 00 OSO
<
•ON
aouajajoH
«e
^ ^ CC CO ■^ ■^ CC CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO
•d-O -0^3 TJ-O T)X5 T3T3 'O'O -CO •O'CJ -Cd
qg CC CC cc cc ca oc cc cc
CSCS 0303 C3C3 CBC3 0303 e3o3 e3c8 C3c3 03o3
^CS ^SM ^c^ ^t^ ^c^ ^c^l ^CM ^IM ^M
c,
<
SJlUBq JOAO
a3B;s poog jo q^daa
«9
■^0000 0000
^co CO (N (Nocsooeoco
1^
a
Bintnjoj
s.ja?;n;a. u jo aniBA
•^
0. 0263
.0440
.0385
.0430
.0313
.0353
.0395
.0436
.0430
s
0
aoBjjns ja^BAV jo n^ J
53
Ft.per
mi.
2.1
■6.1
4.9
3.3
1.03
■ .83
• .41
.40
1.31
I
snipBj
oiinBjpiiq UBaj^
e«
*iCOOiOOOIM-*05 0i-ia>CO-^<N»OCO<N— H— (OCOC5r^(MO>0«005»0
qjpiAi. do} nBai\[
^
■»o 0 ■oioooocoo»oo>ooiMcoooMHO 00 >ot^ 00000000
a
^oco^^^^gog^cgo^^oog|oj;50g.^oc^jg^j;accc
q^dap
ranniixBni UBaj^
0
•^0«^00«0 00 00000 —it^OiOC5OQ000Ot^iMC0C0e0O»0O»0l:^iM
^ ^* 0 — ; CQ 0 Tf' cJ — ; — ; 00 1-* 0 r-H* r-i -* o* oi od od oj »c «? CO «3 !>: !>-■ id <c cc
'5
a
aSjBqosiQ
e»
. «0 t^ 05 (N M 0 t^ TJ< 10 CO CO -^ »0 05 — 1 -* — 1 CO CD CO CO ,h >-l — ( — t — ( — i
jg ^ i-T — r i-Tc^T r-Tr-ii-T r-Tcoicio
if:jiooiaA gui
-^HTsnoa s.iipaiinax
QO
Ft.per
sec.
3.82
4.47
4.07
4.00
5.67
3.36
2.72
3.05
2.84
r
-ooiaA [Buuon uBaj^
»»
Ft. per
sec.
3.60
■ 4.57
4.34
3.14
3.74
1.86
.85
.93
1.39
^
BajB
IBuoipas-ssojo uta;^
«e
.00(Nooo»cooooiooooo(NOooo»cooooooooeoo'oeo
*^p M^' CO 00 0 Tj; 06 10 c4 t-r CO lO oi 05 CO -^' CD 0 CO oJ 0 CO 05 CO CO 00 — ■ c^' ^
■CA JOOC0t^Q0-;HCD-;MCCOTOjCC0l--C0C0t^t-05-<O^OOa>CN-l
^(N CSCOCOrHCOlOr-HCOCOCO— 1COCOOCO-*COCOCO„ — i— 1— ie^C>^^ r-ir-H
?naai
-aansBaui ;o a^BQ
«9
eO'<*<00>-iOCOOC^COOO^CftCOOOCOiC-H— <iO-H— iTj<,.H^Tf— 1— <rf— <
OOsSosSoSSSSoJoSSSSosSSoOsSosSSosOOsSs
^;^5s^s5ss5sss-Ss^s.g^s5lssls5l§
c
1
BaiB paqsja^BM
^
^1 § « S § 1 g 2 S S
c
0
ijuamajn&Baui
JO -ojsi aouaaajan
M
-HNeo>«t<,-HC^eci-H(Neo'«*'^<Meo^esiec^c«eo-i(Ne<5r-.e<ro^c^co
s
•ON uiBaj-jg
»»
i-H w eo"*»o«ct>'oeo>
0
!
-
Mud Creek near Tupelo,
Miss.
Twenty Mile Creek near
Baldwyn, Miss.
Chawappah Creek near
Shannon, Miss.
Coonewah Creek near
Shannon, Miss.
Bogue Phalia near Helm,
Miss.
Bogue Hasty near Shaw,
Miss.
Pecan Bayou near Shaw,
Miss.
West Bogue Hasty near
Shaw, Miss.
East Bogue Hasty near
Shaw, Miss.
0
,5
0
14 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 4, V, S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE
q?piM do J,
i:^
oo CO 0000 Nc« t^«o oo tnm
^ ++ + ++ +^. ++ ++ ++
q^dea
s
•^ t^^ <4<^ «0 ■««<e^^ Tf^ NiO <D^
'*^ ++ ++ +1 ++ 1+ ++ II
o
9
gSJBqosia
s
(M(N«00 >CO0 OOO t^a> t^<N (NO»
^S 5'^ §5^ ^■:? 22 ^S 2V
4I+ ++ :;:+ 1^1+ ++ ++ 1^
B9JV
as
+92.1
+46.9
+29.3
+21. 6
+103. 0
+32.2
+101.2
+36.1
+20.9
+7.0
+33.8
+17.6
+4.2
+6.9
11
.11 §
sq^uoK
2
t^coict^ «o.-H eoTj. t^^ torn »oco
SiB9A
s
>o«cc^rH 1010 eoir< <oio «»o «c«o
•ON
90U9J9J9H
«e
ri and 4..
\2 and 4..
fl and 3..
\2and3..
n and 4...
\2and4..
fl and 4..
\2and4..
fl and 4..
\2and4..
/land 4..
\2 and 4..
/land 4..
\2and4 .
SllUBq J9A0
93b}s poog JO q4d9a
"9
■5; 00 0 «c >o t^ t^
(^ (H cs <N ' (N .-; 0
B(nraJoj
s.ja^nx u JO gniBA
;s
0. 0242
.0322
.0268
.0265
.0333
.0331
.0403
90Bjjns j9:iBAV JO n« J
ra
Ft.per
mi.
1.32
2.82
1.70
2.76
3.27
4.52
10.10
snipBJ
oiinBjpifq aB9pv[
e»
.«->*<»O(NC0O^C^0000<N0CC05C<r)O<M0000Ol^00C^e0t^.-i->*<0S
q^piAV doj nB9pv:
»H
.«OOOOOCOCOOOOOOOOO(NCIM(Nt^OOCOOOOOiO
(^SSg5^.iSS5S§SS^^S^SES?5^^^^S5^?5^??^/c;5 1
q?d9p
ranuiixBui UB9i^
O
■^ 0 CO CO O- 0 0 "* 0 (N iC tC 0 C^ 0 'iJ* 0 "O «0 «D 0 t^ 00 (N 0 »0 «0 '!<
[^ 0 CO CO •*' 0 '-H CO ^-^ 0 05 o> 00 --H rt ,-H ^^ 0 «? 0 <o CO 0 1^ ;d >o «d -**
93iBqosia;
OS
. 00 00 £> ^ -* CO t^ M «C. d i^ ^ 00 »C 00 .-H CO ^ ^ >* CO -"T -* u; -* CO -T CO !
i:;iooi9A 3ui
-;nsnou s,iip9uu93
QO
Ft. per
sec.
4.39
3.90
3.72
3.90
2.78
2.83
2.50
Ml
-ooieA iBxnaou ub9jv
r»
Ft. per
sec.
4.12
4.09
3.30
4.67
2.76
3.26
3.69
B9JB
lBaop09S-SSOiO UB9JV;
«0
.0 50(NcoO'*c^Oi-HO»ooO'i't^»oeocccoo05«o»cocoo050
jg-iC ?Ot-O5^rJ.U3^<MC0eO(MC0^-<l'r-H^r^r-,^r-,^^^r^r-,r-H
5n9ai
-ajtisBara jo 9:)Ba
W9
>OCC00-H«Cl^00»O!CQn^lO5Ol^00'*«00^'*'«C00 — »C«;QCr.H
B9JB p9qSJ9}B^\i
■^
. . ■* CO "O CO t^ 05 0
^1 g § a - " «
^n9ai9jnsB9ui
JO on: 90UeJ9J9H
e<9
^(NeO'*rH(Neo.H(Neo-<i<.-i(Nec-*^c^ec-*^(Neo-<*<^c^co-«*<
•ON raB9J4s
"
0 ^ c;^ CO ^ J2 2 '
CO
^
South Forked Doer River
near Roberts, Tenn.
South Forked Deer River
near Jackson, Tenn.
South Forked Deer River
near Henderson, Tenn.
North Forked Deer River
near Trenton, Tenn.
Huggins Creek near Fin-
ger, Tenn.
Sugar Creek near Hen-
derson, Tenn.
Cypress Creek near Bethel
Springs, Tenn.
m 53
•sa
EROSION AND SILTING OF DREDGED DRAINAGE DITCHES
15
O
mpiMdox
IS
Feet
0
+4.1
+55.5
+31.1
+78.0
+22.2
+4.7
+1.3
+43.7
+13.2
md9a
e*
Feet
-1.1
+.8
-.6
-2.5
+4.9
-1.4
+2.7
-.8
+2.7
-1.6
o
9ajBqosia
§
-30.3
+5.8
+137. 0
+17.3
+50.4
-1.8
+82.0
-12.1
Bajy
s
-20.9
+6.0
+117.0
+22.8
+346.0
+26.6
+33.6
+68.8
-3.3
111
sqJuo]^[
s
;^ ;::: i^ r
^ 1^
sjBaA
s
CO CO r-l>0 r-tm
CO t^^
•ON
aouaaajaa
«o
CO eo ■* "^ •'J*'^ eoeo coco
'o 'a '2'2 'O'^ '^'^ '^'^
eacfl "S"" o3o8 e8c8o3c:
(M(M -IIM ..HiM ^(M^iM
S3{nBq jaAO
93b:>s poog JO mdaa
U5
■^ O O
;^ O O <M O ■*■ O
BinniJoj
s,J9«n2 u JO aniBA
-*
0. 0140
.0128
.0151
.0220
.075
aoBjius ja:iBAi jo hb j
eg
Ft.per
mi.
[l.53
• .86
.66
3.28
4.92
snipBj
ojinBipiq uBaj\[
s
^SJ^J§;5S^gS5B^S^S^§g^§
[^■*co»o>ot-05 05od«dj--]r---HU5?c>«cod-|05
Hjpm do} uBai\[
^
^(M(M(MC0O-*O»OO00»OOO-*r^O«Ot^
^555Si§?2S3§S3S5S2§^^SS§
mdap
uinraixBui uB9j\[
s
•^03oocc-*00>«o-<*<oeocoOiO»ot^oeot^
[^r^a5i>:o6(Meoco>-H(Modod«ci>-'o05eoi>^ic
aSiBqosia:
OS
jw«JiM-<ti(MOiOeooi^ 1 i i leot^»o(Mcooo
.aoOt^C^OCOOt^C^'^ 1 1 1 ii— it^t^OeOOO
i«?iooiaA 3ni
-^nsuou s,i^pauna3
QO
Ft. per
sec.
3.15
3.08
4.43
3.78
5.19
Ml
-00I9A IBUUOU UBa]^
r»
Ft. per
sec.
4.95
4.46
4.87
»d eo
B9JB
IBUOIJ09S-SSOJO UB9J\[
o
. »c OS ^ ic o rH ?o eo o o o o o •* »o o lo lo
172
287
304
1444
785
871
964
1312
1,097
1,231
1,389
1231
309
308
1689
1,203
1, 163
juara
-9JnSB9UI JO Q%Va
MS
/June, 1917
i May, 1921
/June, 1917
\May, 1921
1910
Apr., 1916
June, 1917
May, 1921
1910
Apr., 1916
June, 1917
May, 1921
June," 191 7'
May, 1921
1910
] June, 1916
[July, 1917
B9JB paqsja^BAV
■*
mi.
59
143
900
654
148
2,680
;uaui9ansB9ui
JO OJ^ 90U9J9J9a
««
c^eo(Meo^(Meo-<i<,HC<ieoT»<,H(Neo-H(Meo
■OM U1B9J?S
et
^ 22 2 8 S ?J
'
-
Allen Creek near Missouri
Valley, Iowa.
Willow Creek near Mis-
souri Valley, Iowa.
Boyer River near Mis-
souri Valley, Iowa.
Boyer River near Dunlap,
1
1
cent, lowa.
Little Sioux River cut-ofl
near Turin, Iowa.
•e2
16 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 184, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Columns 16, IT, and 18 show the time that elapsed between the
measurements as numbered in column 3. In columns 19 and 20
are given the per cent changes in the cross-sectional areas and the
discharges during the periods between the measurements indicated
in columns 17 and 18. Usually two values are given for each ditch,
the first value indicating change that occurred between construction
and the final measurements and the second indicating change be-
tween the first and the final measurements. Columns 21 and 22
give the changes in depth and top width, showing whether silting
or erosion took place during the period of observation.
DESCRIPTION OF
CHANNELS
STREAMS IN LEE
COUNTY, MISS.
Measurements of
the following four
channels were made
in Lee County, Miss. :
Mud Creek, Twenty
Mile Creek, Chaw-
appah Creek, and
Coonewah Creek.
Each of these chan-
nels was nearly 10
years old at the time
of the last measure-
ments and they
therefore afford a
good opportunity
for the study of ero-
sion and silting.
The conditions in
these channels are
typical of those in
the uplands of Mis-
sissippi and adja-
cent States where
the watershed areas
range from about 50
to 150 square miles, and where there is considerable fall. The rough
and rather steep watersheds are subject to rapid erosion and the
streams at flood stages are therefore heavily laden with silt and sand.
The annual rainfall is about 50 inches.
Figure 2. — Cross sections of Mud Creek near Tupelo, Miss.
MUD C
Cross sections of this channel were measured along a course 1,194
feet in length just above the highway bridge about 1 mile east of
Tupelo. The first measurements were made about one year after
the channel was excavated, and the last measurements about eight
years after the first. From Plate 1 it is apparent that the channel
deteriorated greatly, having become choked with a growth of weeds,
Technical Bulletin 184, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 1
Mud Creek, Miss. : A, February, 11)13 ; B, May, 11)21
102889"— 30 3
Technical Bulletin 184. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 2
Twenty Mile Creek, Miss. : A, February, 1913 ; B, December, 1920
EEOSIOX AND SILTIXG OF DREDGED DRAINAGE DITCHES
19
sprouts, and willows. Although the stream has a comparatively
good fall the rate of enlargement due to erosion was relatively slow
(fig. 2) since the vegetation in the channel tended to decrease the
velocity and protect the soil from erosion. The soil is an alluvial,
sandy, waxlike clay.
TWENTY MILE CREEK
In this channel measurements were made over a course 324 feet
long below the highway bridge about 1 mile east of Baldwyn. By
referring to Table 1, it is seen that this channel increased rapidly, in
both depth and width, for several years after construction; then
sedimentation began and, while the widening continued, a consider-
able decrease in depth occurred as is shown in Figure 3. The large
fall, freedom from vegetation (pi. 2), and susceptibility of the banks
to caving were principally responsible for the rapid widening and
-erosion of this channel. The sandy nature of the soil rendered the
banks particularly subject to caving, which was greatly accelerated
by the weight of the spoil banks placed near the edge of the ditch.
During the first few years after construction the water carried away
most of the material that caved into the channel; but when caving
Figure 3. — Cross section of Twenty Mile Creek near Baldwyn, Miss.
of the spoil banks began, the material fell into the channel faster
than it could be carried away by the water and much of it settled to
the bottom. A part of the sediment was caused by silt and sand
washed from the hills during floods, some of which was deposited
in the channel when the floods subsided. Moreover, the velocity in
the channel was decreased from year to year as the cross section grew
larger. Figure 3 indicates the extent to which sediment was de-
posited. The soil is a w^axy clay loam containing considerable sand
which makes it particularly susceptible to erosion. Since construc-
tion, drainage conditions have continued to improve with the increas-
ing discharge capacity of the channel.
CHAWAPPAH CKJEEK
Measurements of this channel were made along a course 320 feet
in length between the highway and the railroad bridges one-half
mile south of Shannon. The conditions governing erosion and silt-
ing on this channel were almost identical with those of Twenty Mile
Creek, except that possibly the soil does not erode so easily. (Fig.
4.) The channel was practically free of vegetation in 1913, and
except for a few small saplings contained little in 1921. (PI. 3.)
The soil varies from a sandy loam at the top to a waxy clay at the
Technical Bulletin 184, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 3
Chawappah Creek, Miss. : A, February, 1913 ; B, May, 1921
EKOSION AND SILTING OF DREDGED DRAINAGE DITCHES
21
bottom. The discharge capacity increased, but not as much as in
the case of Twenty Mile Creek, since the hydraulic radius decreased
after 1913, while that of Twenty Mile Creek showed a small increase.
The increase in discharge capacity between 1913 and 1921 was not
sufficient to cause much improvement in drainage conditions, while
the increase prior to that time effected a very decided improvement.
COONEWAH CREEK
Cross sections of this channel were measured along a course of
450 feet between the highway and the railroad bridge about
Figure 4. — Cross section of Chawappah Creek near Shannon, Miss.
three-fourths of a mile north of Shannon. During the first few
years after construction this channel was practically free of vegeta-
tion, and its enlargement due to erosion and caving of the banks
was very rapid. (PL 4 and fig. 5.) A growth of heavy grass
then appeared in the channel ; erosion was checked and silting took
place, giving the condition of the channel as at the last measure-
ments. Later, the channel was cleaned out and somew^hat enlarged
by the use of dynamite. The view in Plate 4, B, was taken after
this work was done. The soil is a sandy clay loam. The increase
in discharge capacity since construction resulted in improved
drainage conditions.
Figure 5. — Cross section of Coonewah Creek, near Sliannon, Miss.
STREAMS IN BOLIVAR COUNTY, MISS.
Five streams in Bolivar County measured were Bogue Phalia,
Bogue Hasty, Pecan Bayou, West Bogue Hasty, and East Bogue
Hasty. The watershed areas vary in size from 13 square miles
for Pecan Bayou to 323 square miles for Bogue Phalia. The water-
sheds of these channels are practically flat, the streams being in a
part of the bottom lands of the Mississippi River commonly known
as the Delta.
Erosion and silting conditions in Bolivar County are quite differ-
ent from those in Lee County. Practically no erosion occurs on the
w^atersheds in Bolivar County, so that what little silt is found in the
Technical Bulletin 184. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 4
Cuunewah Creek, Miss. : A, Febnuny, lUlo ; B, May, 1«J21
EROSION AND SILTING OF DREDGED DRAINAGE DITCHES
23
channels is eroded from the banks and bed. Excepting Bogue
Phalia, no appreciable erosion occurred in these channels, the
hydraulic radius and fall being too small to produce sufficient
velocity to cause erosion. Although Bogue Phalia has only a slight
fall, it has a large hydraulic radius to which is due the high velocity
that results in considerable erosion. Conditions governing silting
and erosion in Bolivar County are typical of those prevailing on the
bottom lands of most large rivers where the watersheds of the tribu-
tary streams are confined to the bottom lands. The annual rainfall
is about 50 inches.
BOGUE PHALIA
Measurements of this channel were made on a course 1,003 feet
long located about one-half mile above the bridge of the Yazoo &
Mississippi Valley Eailroad about 2 miles from Helm. Up to the
time the first measurements were made (January, 1915) the chan-
nel had increased in depth, width, and hydraulic radius. (Fig. 6.)
After that a slight increase in the depth and a considerable increase
in the width occurred, but the hydraulic radius did not change
greatly. The bottom was covered with about one-half foot of sand,
and considerable vegetation, such as willow and cottonwood sap-
lings, was found in the channel at the time the measurements were
Figure 6. — Cross section of Bogue Phalia, near Helm, Miss.
made in 1921. (PI. 5, B.) A view of the same course of channel
taken during April, 1915, is shown in Plate 5, A. At that time the
channel contained very little vegetation, and the banks were slough-
ing off very rapidly. This action was caused by the sandy nature
of the soil, the great depth of channel, and the effect of frost. Some
undermining of the banks resulted from the washing away of sandy
layers in the soil. When the widening of the channel reached the
spoil banks the caving action was greatly increased by the weight
of the latter. When the slight fall of the channel is considered,
the velocity appears to be rather high, a condition due to the large
hydraulic radius and the low frictional resistance to flow. The
upper soil is a clay loam, below which is a sandy loam»
BOGUE HASTY
A course of 1,039 feet just above the highway bridge about 3
miles west of Shaw was selected. Table 1 shows that the velocity in
this channel was low, being only half that in the channel of Bogue
Phalia. The slight increase in cross-sectional area was chiefly due
to sloughing of the banks. (Fig. 7.) When the measurements were
made in 1915 the upper part of the channel was covered with weeds
and small tree sprouts. This growth increased from year to year
Technical Bulletin 184, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
Plate 5
Bugue I'halia, Mis«. : A, April, VJlo ; JJ, May, 1^21
EROSION AND SILTING OF DREDGED DRAINAGE DITCHES
25
until by 1920, when the growth was removed, the channel had become
choked with small willow and cottonwood trees. Views of the chan-
nel are shown in Plate 6. The upper soil of the channel is a dark,
silty loam, and the lower a dark-yellow clay, which is sticky when
wet and which cracks and crumbles when dry.
Figure 7. — Cross section of Bogue Hasty, near Shaw, Miss.
PECAN BAYOU
Cross-sectional measurements of this channel were made along a
course of 665 feet, about 600 feet above the highway bridge 5 miles
south of Skene and about 3 miles northwest of Shaw. This chan-
nel has a very low velocity and little fall. The cross-sectional area
Figure 8. — Cross section of Pecan Bayou, near Shaw, Miss.
decreased slightly between 1914 and 1921 due to silting caused largely
by vegetation which grew up in the channel. (Fig. 8.) Had it not
been for this growth, the channel would no doubt have undergone
little chanire. (PL 7.) The soil is a dark waxy clay.
Figure 9. — Cross section of West Bogue Hasty, near Shaw, Miss.
WEST BOGUE HASTY
Measurements of this channel were made along a course of 757
feet above the highway bridge about 1 mile east of Litton and 6 miles
northwest of Shaw. This channel has a very low velocity; a slight
increase in the cross section of the channel resulted from the tendencv
of the banks to slough when alternate freezing and thawing occurrea.
As shown in Figure 9, the channel decreased in depth and gained
in width.
102889°— 30 4
Technical Bulletin 184, U. S. Dcpt. of Agriculture
PLATE 6
Bogue Hasty, Miss. : A, April, 1915 ; B, May, 1921
Technical Bulletin 184. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 7
Pecan Bayou, Miss. : A, April, 1913 ; B, May, 1921
Technical Bulletin 184. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 8
West Bogue Hasty, Miss. : A. April, 1915 ; B, May, 1921
EEOSIOX AXD SILTIXO OF DREDGED DRAINAGE DITCHES
29
Views of the channel are presented in Plate 8. In 1915 a few
weeds were found on the slopes, and between that time and 1920,
w4ien the channel was cleared, a thicket of brush, sprouts, and
small saplings grew up. Plate 8, B, shows the banks lined with a
thick, short growth of vegetation which sprang up after the channel
was cleared in 1920. The soil is similar to that found in the channel
of Bogue Hasty.
EAST BOGUE HASTY
For measurements of this channel a course 502 feet long just above
the highway bridge about 2 miles east of Litton and 5 miles north-
w^est of Shaw was selected. Between November, 1914, and May,
1921, this channel decreased in cross-sectional area on account of
silting. (Fig. 10.) No doubt this silting was caused by the thick
growth of sprouts and saplings that sprang up in the channel be-
tween 1915 and 1920, when the channel was cleared. Views of the
channel are shown in Plate 9. The soil is a dark clay which cracks
and crumbles when dry.
STREAMS IN WESTERN TENNESSEE
Measurements of seven channels were made in western Tennessee :
South Forked Deer Kiver at Eoberts, Jackson, and Henderson;
Figure 10. — Cross section of East Bogue Hasty near Shaw, Miss.
Xorth Forked Deer Eiver; Huggins Creek; Sugar Creek; and Cy-
press Creek. The watersheds vary in size from 6 square miles for
Cypress Creek to 704 square miles for the South Forked Deer Kiver
at Roberts. Conditions as to erosion and silting in these channels are
similar to those found in the channels in Lee County, Miss. How-
ever, they cover a much wider range with respect to areas of water-
sheds and size of channels. The topography of these watersheds
ranges from gently rolling to very rough and hilly, and considerable
surface erosion occurs. The annual rainfall is about 50 inches.
SOUTH FORKED DEER RIVER, NEAR ROBERTS, TENN.
Cross sections of this channel were measured along a course 1,412
feet in length just above the highway bridge about 1 mile south of
Roberts. Since construction the channel has been quite free from
irregularities in the sides and bed and practically free from vegeta-
tion. Although it has a comparatively slight fall, its high velocity,
which has caused a rapid rate of erosion, is due to its large hydraulic
radius and low frictional resistance to flow as indicated by the low
value of n obtained. The hydraulic radius and the cross-sectional
area increased materially between 1915 and 1921. (Fig. 11.) This
Teclinical Bulletin 184, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
East Bogue Habty, Miss. : A, April, 1915 ; B, May, 1921
South Forked Deer River noar IlolxM-ts, Tenn. : A, July, 1917
B, May, 1921
32 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 4, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
increase came from a widening of the channel due both to the caving
of the banks after the recession of floods and to erosion of the soil.
The soil is an alluvial silt loam. Views of the channel are shown
in Plate 10.
SOUTH FOEKED DEER RIVEK NELAR JACKSON, TENN.
The channel at this point was cross-sectioned along a course of
952 feet above the Bolivar Levee road bridge about one half mile
from Jackson. Although the channel at this point has a much
greater fall than at Eoberts, yet the velocity is slightly less since
Figure 11. — Cross section of South Forked Deer River near Roberts, Tenn.
it has a smaller hydraulic radius and a greater resistance to flow
as indicated by the values of n obtained for the respective channels.
(Table 2.) A fair comparison of the rates of erosion of the two
channels can not be made since only a short time elapsed between the
two sets of cross-sectional measurements at Jackson. The soil is a
firm, waxy clay and does not seem to erode or cave easily. Between
January, 1917, and August, 1918, the channel increased in depth
but not in width. (Fig. 12.) There was practically no vegeta-
tion in the channel as may be seen from the views in Plate 11.
Figure 12. — Cross section of South Forled Deer River near Jackson, Tenn.
SOUTH FORKED DEER RIVER NEAR HENDERSON, TENN.
Cross sections were measured along a course of 624 feet above the
steel highway bridge about 2 miles east of Henderson. This channel
was not enlarging as fast here as at Jackson and Roberts since it had
a smaller hydraulic radius and a lower velocity. As may be seen in
the views in Plate 12, there was not much vegetation in the channel
and the banks were irregular and caving. Silting amounting to
over one-half foot in depth occurred between April, 1916, and May,
1921, when the channel was in good condition and had increased con-
siderably in discharge capacity since construction. (Fig. 13.) The
soil is a silty loam.
Technical Bulletin 184, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 1 1
MWMt-l
South Forked Ducr Uivor near Jackson, Tciui. : A, June, Jl)i« ;
B, May, 1021
34
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 4, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
NORTH FORKED DEE31 RIVER
This channel was measured along a course 700 feet in length above
the Huntingdon Levee road about one-half mile from Trenton. The
high velocity of flow was partly caused by the low frictional re-
sistance, there being very little vegetation in the channel as may be
seen from the views in Plate 13. The erosive action of the water on
the sides and bed of the channel and the caving and sloughing of
the banks caused an enlargement in both depth and width of tlie
channel. An idea as to the progressive erosion of the channel can
be obtained from Figure 14. The soil varies from an alluvial
silty loam at the top to a heavy silty clay at the bottom of the chan-
PiGURE 13. — South Forked Deer River near Henderson, Tenn.
nel and is quite susceptible to erosion. The increase in discharge
capacity of this channel since construction has greatly improved
drainage conditions.
HUGGINS CREEK
Cross sections of this channel were measured along a course of
914 feet above the highway bridge located about 100 yards east of
the Mobile & Ohio Railroad near Finger. This channel is very
irregular, and the side slopes are covered with vegetation, both
factors contributing to the low velocity. (PL 14.) Moreover, the
channel is small and has a small hydraulic radius. The vegetation
Figure 14. — Cross section of North Forked Deer River, near Trenton, Tenn.
to a considerable extent prevented erosion, and the velocity of the
water w^as insufficient to pick up all the material that sloughed off
the banks of the channel. This and the Sugar Creek Channel are
examples of a very slow rate in the enlargement of a channel even
w^here the slope is comparatively great. The soil is principally a
heavy silty loam. See Figure 15 for cross sections.
SUGAR CREEK
Measurements of cross sections of this channel were made along
a course of 669 feet, half of the course being straight and half a
smooth, easy curve. Both the sides and bottom of the channel were
Technical Bulletin 184, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 1 2
South Forked licer Kivci- near ll(iid(us(»n, 'rcim. : A. Aiuii,
May, 1921
Technical Bulletin 184. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 13
North Forked Deer River, Teiin. : A, April, 1916 ; B, May, 1921
Technical Bulletin 184. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 14
lluygiiLS Civik, itnn. : A, July, I'JlT ; U, May, 1921
Technical Bulletin 184, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 15
\L "^911
••
B
Sugar Creek, Tenn. : A. June, 1917 ; B, May, 1921
EEOSION AND SILTING OF DREDGED DRAINAGE DITCHES
39
irregular. (PL 15.) As shown in Plate 15, A, there was practically
no vegetation in the channel, whereas in May, 1921, some vegetation
was present, as indicated by Plate 15, B. Although the channel had
more fall than any of the channels heretofore mentioned in this
group, yet a much lower velocity prevailed because the frictional
Figure 15. — Cross section of Iluggins Creek dredged channel, near Finger, Tenn.
resistance to flow was large and the hydraulic radius small. Atten-
tion is particularly called to this fact since an opinion commonly
prevails that the greatest erosion takes place in a channel with the
greatest fall regardless of the other factors. The soil in the channel
is a light-yellow clay, very tenacious and much less easily eroded
than the soil in the channel of South Forked Deer Eiver. Cross
Figure 1G. — Cross section of Sugar Creeli, near Henderson, Tenn.
sections in Figure 16 show that the rate of erosion in this channel
w^as comparatively slow during the period of observation.
CYPRESS CKEIEIC
Cross sections of this channel were measured along a course 308
feet long above the highw^ay bridge at Bethel Springs. This channel
increased in width on account of erosion of the banks, but not much
Figure 17, — Cross section of Cypress Creelj, near Cethcl Springs, Tenn.
change occurred in sectional area because the channel decreased in
depth as a result of the deposition of silt and sand. (Fig. IT.) This
may seem unusual since Cypress Creek has a much greater fall than
any of the other measured channels in Tennessee. However, its
hydraulic radius is very small, and the side slopes are protected from
erosion by vegetation. (PI. 16.) The silt and sand in the bottom of
Technical Bulletin 184, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 16
Cypress Creek, Tenn. : A, August, 1917 ; B, May, 1921
EROSION AND SILTING OF DREDGED DRAINAGE DITCHES 41
the channel come principally from the watershed where erosion is
very active. Although the channel has a fairly high velocity, the
Avater is overloaded with soil washed from the hill slopes and is forced
to drop part of it in the channel. The deposition of silt is due also
to the rapid decrease in discharge and consequent decrease in velocity
following floods. Because of the slight depth of the channel very
little caving of the banks has occurred.
STREAMS IN WESTERN IOWA
Measurements of six channels in western Iowa were made : Allen
Creek, Willow Creek, Boyer River at Missouri Valley and at Dunlap,
Pigeon Creek, and Little Sioux Eiver cut-oif. The watershed areas
of these streams vary from 59 square miles for Allen Creek to 2,680
square miles for the Little Sioux Eiver cut-off. The watersheds lie
principally in the uplands, which vary from undulating to rolling
and rough, and the ground surface is subject to considerable erosion ;
during floods the streams are therefore heavily charged with the
eroded soil. During one of the largest floods a bucket of water taken
from a stream contained about one-fourth silt by volume. The
streams, particularly those in the vicinity of Missouri Valley and
Crescent, are affected by backwater from the Missouri River. Dur-
ing periods of backwater the velocity is greatly reduced and silting
takes place. How^ever, when a high stage occurs in a channel during
a low stage of the Missouri River, the water has a velocity sufficient
to carry away a large part of the silt previously deposited. The
annual rainfall is about 30 inches.
ALLEN CREEK
Cross sections of this channel were made along a course 794 feet
long below the first highAvay bridge north of the Chicago & North
Western Railway about 1 mile west of Missouri Valley. This chan-
nel had been redredged shortly before the first measurements were
made in June, 1917. In Plate 17 are shown views of the channel.
In the first view it is seen that the channel is uniform in cross section,
that vegetation was springing up over the flat side slopes, and that
the slopes w^ere covered with a coating of silt of a slick nature.
The soil is a dark, silty loam. The growth of vegetation continued
to increase until four years later the channel was in very bad condi-
tion, as shown in the second view. The absence of caving banks
was no doubt because of the flat side slopes, and the lack of erosion,
which usually occurs with such a high velocity, probably was attrib-
utable to the presence of vegetation. Silting occurs at times of
reduced velocity when the stream is affected by backwater from
Missouri River, and the rate of silting is increased by the vegetation
in the channel. No doubt large quantities of silt were carried aw^ay
during periods of high velocity, but this action was not sufficient to
keep pace with the rapid silting during periods of backwater. The
decrease in cross-sectional area {Rg, 18) of this channel only being
considered, and the effect of vegetation being disregarded, the dis-
charge capacity decreased materially between 1917 and 1921.
Technical Bulletin 184, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 17
Allen Creek, Iowa: A, June, 1917; B, May, 1921
EROSION AND SILTING OF DKEDGED DRAINAGE DITCHES
43
WILLOW CREEK
Measurements of this channel were made along a course of 1,004
feet below the Chicago & North Western Railway bridge at Missouri
Valley. This channel was redredged in 1917. In Plate 18 are
shov/n views of the channel, the first taken shortly after the channel
had been redredged, and the other about four years later. Both
silting and erosion have occurred in the channel as may be seen from
the views and from the cross sections in Figure 19. In June, 1917,
the channel was practically free of vegetation, but four years later
considerable vegetation was present in the upper part of the channel,
althouorh much less than was found in the channel of Allen Creek.
1
^
^C^^^
<^^^
^0^^^
^^^'-'
^^
-*-5'— ►
•--.,
^.^]]^ ■
y
-^
.
Figure 18. — Cross section of Alien Creek near Missouri Vall(>y, Iowa
It is believed that this accounts for the fact that there was erosion
in this channel Avhereas there Avas none in Allen Creek, and that less
silting took place even though the fall and velocity were less than
in the case of Allen Creek. The silting that occurred was on account
of the reduced velocity caused by backwater from the Missouri River.
The soil is a heavy, dark, silty loam similar to that found in Allen
Creek. Were it not for vegetation in the channel, the discharge
capacity would have been somewhat larger in 1921 than in 1917 when
the first cross-sectional measurements were made.
It appears that vegetation grew much more rapidly in Allen Creek
probably because the drainage area and therefore the low-water flow
was less than in WilloAV Creek. The effect of ve«:etation in this chan-
-jr
Figure 19. — Cross section of Willow Creek dredged channel near Missouri Valley, Iowa
nel, no doubt, played a much more prominent part in silting than in
the channel of Willow Creek since, judging from conditions shown in
Plate 17, B, the value of the roughness coefficient must have been
high and the velocity correspondingly low.
BOYEB KIVEB NEAR MISSOURI VALI.EY, IOWA
Cross-sectional measurements of this channel were made above
the Lincoln Highway bridge about 1 mile from Missouri Valley,
along a course 8G8 feet in length. Although this channel has but
Technical Bulletin 184, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 18
I
Willow Creek, Iowa : A, Juue, 1917 ; B, May, 1921
EROSION AND SILTING OP DREDGED DRAINAGE DITCHES
45
little fall, it has a high velocity due to its large hydraulic radius and
very low resistance to flow, the value of n obtained for this channel
at bank-full stage being 0.0151. Enlargement of this channel from
erosion and caving of the banks has been very rapid. (Fig. 20.)
This caving has been accelerated considerably by the weight of the
spoil banks, most of which have caved into the channel. At the
time of the measurements in 1921 about 2 feet of silt lay in the
bottom of the channel. Silting occurs at one time and erosion
or the washing out of the silt at another, depending upon whether or
not the slope and velocity are reduced hy backwater from the Mis-
souri Eiver. Since this channel drains about 900 square miles, there
is always an appreciable low-water flow which prevents the growth
Figure 20. — Cross section of Boyer River near Missouri Valley, Iowa
of vegetation in the bottom. There was practically no vegetation on
the side slopes in 1921. The soil is a dark, silty loam underlaid
by a hard, yellow clay. The considerable increase in the discharge
capacity of this channel that accompanied the large increase in
cross-sectional area resulted in a decided improvement in drainage
conditions over the adjoining bottom lands. Plate 19 shows views
of the channel.
BOYER RIVER NEAR DUNLAP, IOWA
This channel was measured on a course 904 feet long above the
highway bridge about one-half mile southwest of Dunlap. It has a
V
^
1^*—
Z
^
^
x
^<
"s^
\
,k-
P
^^
^
^
■^
s
s
<;v
\
►?^;
Y*
V
S
^
\
''*,
^
~
--i-
'^f^
y
"^
■=ii
r —
— •
,:
— -
1
— ^
Figure 21. — Cross section of Boyer River near Dunlap, Iowa
comparatively great fall and large hydraulic radius, both factors
being responsible for its rapid enlargement from erosion. (Fig. 21.)
About June, 1917, silting started and in May, 1921, there was about
11/^ feet of silt in the bottom of the channel. The rapid widening
was caused chiefly by caving of the banks which, in turn, was caused
by deepening from erosion and by the weight of the spoil banks.
By 1921 the original spoil banks were practically gone. In June,
1917, there was no vegetation in the channel — a condition no doubt
due to the rapid caving of the banks and the fairly large low-water
flow. In May, 1921, considerable vegetation had started on the
upper side slopes of the channel. (PI. 20.) Measurements for the
value of n were not made for bank-full stages, but it is believed that
a very low value would have been obtained before the growth of
Technical Bulletin 184. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
Plate 19
Boyer River near Missouri Valley, Iowa : A, June, 1917 ; B, May, 1921
EROSION AND SILTING OF DREDGED DRAINAGE DITCHES
47
vegetation in this channel. The percentage of increase in cross-
sectional area was greater than for any other channel measured.
The discharge capacity increased to such an extent that by 1921
the adjoining lands were practically free from flood hazard. The
soil in the bottom of the channel is a very hard, whitish clay, and
in the upper part of the side slopes it is a silty loam. The Boyer
Kiver at Dunlap is not affected by backwater from the Missouri
Kiver.
riGEON CREEK
Measurements of this channel were made along a course of 858
feet below the highw^ay bridge about one-half mile above the Chicago
FiGUEE 22. — Cross section of Pigeon Creek near Crescent, Iowa
& North Western Eailway near Crescent. The cross-sectional area
did not change materially between 1917 and 1921. (Table 3 and
fig. 22.)
A slight increase in width and some silting in the channel have
occurred. The channel is not so deep as that of the Boyer River at
Dunlap and at Missouri Valley, and the spoil banks were set farther
from the edge of the ditch so that there has been very little caving
as compared with that along the Boyer Eiver. Silting occurs at
times, due to backwater caused by high stages in the Missouri River.
The condition of the channel is shown by the views in Plate 21.
\
^
\^
r^^/
/
,^C>?^
n
s
'v^
\
s
/
^
P
^^
*^.
^*>^,
^
/
~
■*~«i.
_.
^^_^
. •
♦ 5V
"*^
P-H
^^^
—
—
— ■^"
Figure 23, — Cross section of Little Sioux River near Turin, Iowa
From these it is seen that vegetation in the channel increased between
1917 and 1921. The soil is a heavy, dark, silty loam.
LITTLE SIOUX RIVER CUT-OFF
This channel was measured along a course of 1.212 feet above the
highway bridge on the Onawa-Turin road about one-half mile from
Turin. It enlarged very rapidly until about June, 1916, when the
right bank began to cave and carried into the channel trees and a
part of the roadway that was built on the spoil bank. The com-
paratively high velocity for the moderate slope is due to the large
hydraulic radius. In Figure 23 is shown a partial filling of the
Technical Bulletin 184. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 20
Boyei- Uiver near Dunlap. Iowa : A, Juue, 1917 ; B, May, IDi'l
EROSION AND SILTING OF DREDGED DRAINAGE DITCHES
49
channel which occurred after June, 1916. The views in Plate 22
show the condition of the channel as to the presence of vegetation.
The spoil banks were placed close to the edge of the channel and thus
accelerated the caving of the banks. The material that caved into
the channel, being held together by roots and vegetation, was re-
moved very slowly by the current. The soil in the upper part of the
Sxisiing drainage channel. =^=^=
Proposed drainage channel... — —
Gaging slotions \-j
tVatershed boundaries ^^ — »-
Height above datum .../— 500^
Figure 24. — Map of the watershed of Bay Creek, 111.
channel is a dark, silty loam and in the lower part a heavy, hard,
light-colored clay.
APPLICATION OF RESULTS
To show the practical application of the results presented in this
bulletin, these results have been applied to the design of a dredged
channel on the Bay Creek watershed in southern Illinois. Figure 24
is a map of the Bay Creek watershed. The part of the channel
Technical Bulletin 184, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
Plate 21
Pigeon Creek, Iowa : A, June, I'JlT ; B, May, 10:J1
Technical Bulletin 184, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 22
Little Sioux River Cut-oflE, Iowa: A, June, 1916; B, June, 1917
52
la
aSjBqosia:
§
+142.9
+41.8
+109.5
t39JV
s
+101. 2
+36.1
+78.7
IP
sqjuoK
s
CO'** I
SJBOA
G
eoc< !
•on: 00U9a9J9H
2
land 4..
2 and 4-
Jl and 2..
oajBqosya
ts
Cu.ft.
per sec.
883.0
1, 512. 0
1, 838. 0
2, 144. 0
1,881.0
3, 940. 0
iC^popA x^mjou UB9I\[
■^
Ft. per
sec.
{3.94
"4.' 57'
4.76
4.18
4.90
puuBqo JO n^^i
e«
Ft. per
mi.
2.75
2.64
2.64
u s.J9;^n3: JO 9niBA
s
0. 0265
.0300
.0300
B9JB JBUOI}09S-SSOJ0 UB9I\[
224.0
331.0
402.4
450.7
450.0
804.0
1
a
a
;S
o
-i
a
S
sntpBJ
OipiBjpiCq UB9J^
s
■^ COCOCOO i-lO
Cs^ locdcdt^ t>^05
q:}pTM. do:j tiB9iA[
9
Feet
36.0
42.0
55.0
57.2
55.0
79.0
q:id9p
ranratxBra ub9 j\[
00
Feet
8.0
11.2
11.0
11.4
10.0
12.0
e^BQ
r»
May, 1915
Apr., 1916
Jan., 1917
Aug., 1918
^n9ra9jnsB9Ui
JO •ON 9ouaJ9j9H
«0
.-H (NfO-* T-H <N
nBJUIBi t^nnUB UB9J^
us
^' f ^_
1
c
a
§
CO
•^
Varies from allu-
vial silty loam
at top to heavy
silty clay at bot-
tom; easily
eroded and sub-
. ject to caving.
Fine sandy loam,
subject to cav-
ing and easily
eroded.
i
eo
Varies from gently
rolling to very
rough and hilly;
erosion very ac-
, tive.
Rough and hilly;
very little level
land except in
bottoms; many
gullies and
much badly
eroded land.
03
ffi
^•8 1_ i_
a
-
North Forked
Deer River near
Trenton, Tenn.
Bay Creek near
Reevesville,
S
EROSION AND SILTING OF DREDGED DRAINAGE DITCHES 53
considered extends upstream from the mouth of Sugar Creek near
Keevesville, to the mouth of Cedar Creek. It is not affected by
backwater to an appreciable extent.
Data pertinent to the possibilities of erosion and silting in the Bay
Creek Channel are given in Table 4, and for comparison correspond-
ing actual figures are shown for the North Forked Deer River near
Trenton, Tenn.
The waterslied area of the North Forked Deer River is 93 square
miles as compared with 146 square miles for the part of Bay Creek
under consideration. Other factors being the same the rate of ero-
sion and silting would be greater for the larger watershed. (See p.
10, Volume of run-off water.)
In column 3 of Table 4 the topography of each watershed is de-
scribed briefly. It would appear that erosion is even more active
on the Bay Creek than on the North Forked Deer River watershed.
As a result a greater charge of silt would be expected in the run-off
water from the former than from the latter. (See p. 9, Silt charge
in streams.)
From column 4 it is seen that the soils along both channels are
subject to caving and are easily eroded, from which it appears that,
other factors being the same, erosion or silting would proceed at
about the same rate in both channels. The side slopes for the Bay
Creek Channel would stand at about 1 on 1%- (See p. 6, Caving
and sloughing banks.)
The annual rainfall on the Bay Creek watershed is about 45
inches and on the North Forked Deer River watershed, 50 inches.
Hence it would be expected that the rate of erosion and silting
would be somewhat greater for the latter than for the former stream.
(See p. 10, Volume of run-off water.)
The fall along the two channels is about the same. The fall,
the hydraulic radius and the condition of the channel as regards
resistance to floAv determine the velocity in a channel. (See p. 4,
Velocity due to three factors.) The resistance to flow is measured
by the value of n in Kutter's formula. The value of n for the
North Forked Deer River Channel was found by measurement to be
0.0265 and was for the purpose of design assumed to be 0.030 for the
Bay Creek Channel. The hydraulic radius varied from 5.3 feet to 7
feet for the North Forked Deer River Channel and was found to be
9 feet for the required size of channel for Bay Creek. The velocity
of flow was determined for each of the two channels and was found
to range from 3.94 feet per second at the beginning to 4.76 feet
per second at the close of the investigations on the North Forked
Deer River Channel, and to be 4.90 feet per second for the required
size of the Bay Creek Channel. In the North Forked Deer River
Channel the velocity was at all times greater than 3 feet per second,
which is sufficient to cause erosion. (See p. 2, Relation of velocity
to erosion and silting.) Since the velocity for the required size of
channel for Bay Creek is slightly greater than that in the North
Forked Deer River Channel at the end of the investigations, it may
be inferred that erosion would occur in the proposed channel of
Bay Creek.
The mean cross-sectional area of the North Forked Deer River
Channel increased from 224.0 square feet to 450.7 square feet, and
54 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 184, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
the discharge from 883 cubic feet per second to 2,144 cubic feet per
second. This is an increase in cross-sectional area of 101.2 per cent
and in discharge of 142.8 per cent during the period May, 1915, to
August, 1918.
From the foregoing comparisons of characteristics that affect
erosion, it is seen that all are equally favorable or more favorable to
erosion in the case of Bay Creek than for the North Forked Deer
Eiver, except that rainfall favored to a very slight extent greater
erosion on the latter stream.
It follows that the enlargement of channel and increase in dis-
charge due to erosion would apparently be somewhat greater on
Bay Creek than on the North Forked Deer Kiver in the same period
of time. To accomplish a saving in the cost of construction of a
channel on Bay Creek, a channel smaller than the required size
might be constructed and the work of erosion allowed to enlarge
it to the required size while the uncleared lands are being cleared
and made ready for cultivation.
While the North Forked Deer River Channel more than doubled
in cross-sectional area during a period of three years and three
months, in order to be on the safe side it wdll be assumed that the
channel of Bay Creek will increase in size from a cross-sectional
area of 450 square feet to 804 square feet (the required size) during a
period of four years. This is an increase of only 78.7 per cent in
cross-sectional area, and an increase of only 109.5 per cent in dis-
charge as compared with an increase of 101.2 and 142.8 per cent,
respectively, for the North Forked Deer River Channel.
In columns 8 and 9 of Table 4 it is seen that the mean maximum
depth for the North Forked Deer River Channel increased from
8 to 11.4 feet and the average top width from 36 to 57.2 feet. It is
therefore reasonable to assume that the average maximum depth
for the Bay Creek Channel w^ould increase from 10 to 12 feet and
the average top width from 55 to 79 feet. While the soil will stand
at a slope of ll^ on 1, a slope of 1 on 1 should be used since the ditch
can thereby be constructed more cheaply, and enlargement due to
erosion will increase faster for the steeper slope, the velocity being
sufficient to remove caved-in material.
The length of the proposed channel is about 7 miles. The earth
to be excavated for the proposed channel would amount to about
616,000 cubic yards and for the required size of channel about
1,101,000 cubic yards, a difference of 485,000 cubic yards. If the cost
of excavation were estimated at 9 cents per cubic yard, the difference
in the cost of the two channels would be $43,650. From this it is
apparent that a substantial saving could be effected by allowing the
work of erosion to enlarge the channel to the required size. Some
damage to crops on the cleared lands might be done during the
period of enlargement, but it is believed that this would be offset,
to some extent at least, by the saving in drainage taxes on lands in
the district.
ORGANIZATION OF THE
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
May 14, 1930
Secretary of Agriculture Arthur M. Hyde.
Assistant Secretary R. W. Dunlap.
Director of Scientific Work A. F. Woods.
Director of Regulatory Work Walter G. Campbell.
Director of Extension Work C. W. Wabburton.
Director of Personnel and Business Adminis- W. W. Stockberger.
tration.
Director of Information M. S. Eisenhower.
Solicitor E. L. Marshall.
Weather Bureau Charles F. Marvin, Chief.
Bureau of Animal Industry John R. Mohler, Chief.
Bureau of Dairy Industry O. E. Reed, Chief.
Bureau of Plant Industry William A. Taylor, Chief.
Forest Service R. Y. Stuart, Chief.
Bureau of Chemistry and Soils H. G. Knight, Chief.
Bureau of Entomology C. L. Marlatt, Chief.
Bureau of Biological Survey Paul G. Redington, Chief.
Bureau of Public Roads Thomas H. MacDonald, Chief.
Bureau of Agricultural Economics Nils A. Olsen, Chief.
Bureau of Home Economics Louise Stanley, Chief.
Plant Quarantine and Control Administration^ Lee A. Strong, Chief.
Grain Futures Administration J. W. T. Duvel, Chief.
Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration- Walter G. Campbell, Director of
Regulatory Work, in Charge.
Office of Experiment Stations , Chief.
Office of Cooperative Extension Work C. B. Smith, Chief.
Library Claribel R. Barnett, Librarian.
This bulletin is a contribution from
Bureau of Public Roads Thomas H. MacDonald, Chief
Division of Agricultural Engineering S. H. McCrory, Chief.
55
U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1930
Technical Bulletin No. 183 MBc^^^^^a^-^T'®' June, 1930
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
LIFE HISTORY OF THE ORIENTAL PEACH MOTH AT
RIVERTON, N. J., IN RELATION
TO TEMPERATURE
By Alvah Peterson, Senior Entomologist, and G. J. Haeussler, Assistant
Entomologist, Division of Deciduous Fruit Insects, Bureau of Entomology
Page
Introduction 1
Explanation of terms.. 1
Methods and equipment 2
Insectary and orchard compared 8
Life history of the oriental peach moth 9
General discussion 9
The egg 10
The larva 14
The cocoon 17
CONTENTS
Page
Life history of the oriental peach moth— Con.
The pupa. _. 21
The adult 22
The life cycle 25
Generations per season 26
Temperature and effective day-degrees 27
Summary 35
Literature cited... 1 37
INTRODUCTION
From 1925 to 1927, inclusive, a detailed life-history study was made
of the oriental peach moth at Riverton, N. J. The species, Laspeyresia
molesta Busck, belongs to the family Olethreutidae (Eucosmidae) and
the order Lepidoptera. Particular attention was paid to the relation-
ship occurring between temperature and the development of the insect.
In this bulletin, so far as possible and advisable, long detailed life-
history tables have been omitted. Summary tables and graphs have
been used in their place. Also all general information and biological
data which do not have a direct bearing on the life cycle are omitted.
Most of the information of this type which has been ascertained at
Riverton, N. J., may be found in other publications by the writers
{9, 10, 11, 12)}
EXPLANATION OF TERMS
The terms used in describing the various stages of the oriental peach
moth for the most part are the same as those employed by workers of
the Bureau of Entomology in life-history studies of the codhng moth.
A ''generation" begins with the e^g and ends with the moth or
adult. It may or may not be completed the same season the egg is
deposited.
A ''brood'' consists of the individuals of any one stage in the life
cycle, Qgg, larva, pupa, or adult; and it may be considered "first
1 Italic numbers in parentheses refer to "Literature cited," p. 37.
102934-30 1
2 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 183, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUKE
brood," "second brood," etc., depending upon the generation to
which it belongs. ''Spring brood" refers to pupae or adults which
come from ''wintering larvae."
"Wintering" refers to those individuals which hibernate, passing
the winter as larvae in cocoons. Individuals of several generations
(second to fifth or more) may be represented by the "wintering"
individuals.
"Transforming" refers to those individuals which complete their
life cycle the same season the eggs are deposited; thus we have "trans-
forming eggs," "transforming larvae," "transforming cocoons,"
"transforming pupae" and "adults from transforming stages."
"Black spotted" refers to that stage in the development of the egg
in which the dark head capsule of the larva usually shows through
the eggshell 15 to 48 hours before the egg hatches.
The time during which the cocoon is being formed is called the
"cocooning period," while the time from the beginning of formation
of the cocoon until the adult emerges is called the "cocoon period."
The "life cycle" of any generation is the time from the deposition
of the egg to the emergence of the adult, while the "complete life
cycle" includes the time from the egg deposition of one generation
to the egg deposition of the next generation.
The seasonal development in any year starts with "wintering lar-
vae" inside of "wintering cocoons," which give rise to "spring-brood
pupae," and from these "spring-brood moths" emerge. The "spring-
brood moths" deposit the "first-brood eggs," and these in turn pro-
duce "first-brood larvae," "first-brood cocoons," "first-brood pupae,"
and "first-brood moths." The "first-brood moths" deposit the
"second-brood eggs," and thus the story continues for several genera-
tions.
The "average temperature for a day" is the average of 12 readings
in 24 hours (one reading every 2 hours from midnight to midnight)
taken from a thermograph record.
The "theoretical zero of development" is the temperature at which
development begins when the temperature is rising and at which it
ceases when the temperature is falling.
The "degree of maximum rate of development" is the temperature
at which development proceeds most rapidly.
The "day-degree" is the unit used for measuring accumulations of
temperature and is equivalent to 1° of temperature maintained for
24 hours.
"Effective day-degrees" are day-degrees above the zero of develop-
ment after necessary corrections have been made for retardation due
to temperatures above the maximum rate of development. This
correction is made by subtracting twice the day-degrees above the
degree of maximum rate from the total of day-degrees above the zero
of development.
METHODS AND EQUIPMENT
During the dormant season of 1924-25 the senior author started
the life-history study discussed in this bulletin. For several years
previous to 1925 he had the opportunity to observe the behavior of
the insect in the orchards throughout New Jersey and also conducted
a detailed life-history study at New Brunswick, N. J. The informa-
tion derived from these experiences which has already been published
LIFE HISTORY OF THE ORIENTAL PEACH MOTH 6
{2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 13, 16), proved to be very valuable because it helped
to obviate mistakes and to improve the equipment for a careful study.
One of the most serious mistakes eliminated was in conjunction with
the spring-brood emergence of moths. In the life-history studies at
New Brunswick the senior writer started with moths which emerged
from material that had been kept all winter and spring in an open
screened insectary, or in covered wooden boxes with screen bottoms.
After the study was started it was learned that the moths had emerged
about two weeks later than the first moths in the orchard; conse-
quently the life-history study got a late start. This experience and
considerable investigation since (11) has shown that great care must
be taken with wintering material. It should be placed in a situation
where the spring-brood emergence would be approximately the same
as that in the orchard. Any decided deviation from the normal emer-
gence in the orchard will influence considerably the development for
the season. The matter of normal spring-brood emergence is most
important if one expects to make a comparison between insectary
development and orchard conditions.
Numerous wintering cocoons containing larvae were collected from
peach and quince trees during the dormant season of 1924-25. These
were brought to the laboratory and placed in screened cages out of
doors, and some wxre placed in vials plugged with cotton in a screened
insectary. The spring-brood moths used in the life-history study
came from the material kept out of doors. When additional adults
were needed some of the insectary material was used, provided the
emergence was still taking place in the orchard and in the outdoor
cages.
In this investigation a serious attempt was made to determine the
extreme limits of time required and the average period of develop-
ment for all of the individuals of each stage in each generation for the
growing seasons of 1925 and 1926. No attempt was made to make the
development of the insect in the insectary a duplicate of that in the
orchard on a quantitative basis. The writers are of the opinion that
this is almost impossible and also impractical, especially if one takes
into consideration the tremendous and variable influence that para-
sites and other factors have on the severity of the infestation in the
orchard.
One thousand individuals per generation reared to maturity was
set as a standard for this investigation. This gave a sufficient number
of individuals to use as a basis for any reasonable calculations. The
mortality in rearing to maturity runs from 50 to 70 per cent. To rear
1,000 or more individuals of each generation to maturity it is neces-
sary to start 100 eggs each day from each generation when possible.
At the beginning and toward the end of the period for each brood
of eggs and sometimes during cool weather an insufficient number
were deposited to make use of 100 per day. One advantage in start-
ing with a fixed number of individuals is that it furnishes a constant
factor which is valuable in figuring mortality, daily averages of de-
velopment, and many relationships between temperature and other
environmental factors.
The insectary used in these studies measured 10 by 12 by 60 feet, was
screened on all sides (except a central closed portion), and was covered
with a hip roof. (Fig. 1.) It was located at the edge of a small
peach orchard at Riverton, N. J.
4 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 183, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The cages used for the wintering lairvae kept out of doors were
similar to those described in a previous publication (11) in which
the authors discuss the best methods for determining the normal
spring-brood emergence of oriental peach moths and codling moths.
These cages were covered with screen and the cocoons were constantly
exposed to the weather. The cages were fastened to poles, four near
the ground and four about 5 feet above, with one of each set of four
facing north, east, south, and west.
As the moths emerged in the spring of the year under outdoor con-
ditions, 10 females and 10 males w^ere selected each day and placed in
a 6 by 8 inch glass jar containing 2 inches of moist sand, a wet sponge
in a watch glass, and a sprig of fruit foliage (usually pear) in a small
bottle. (Fig. 2.) The jar was covered with a good grade of white
gauze held in place by two rubber bands. Each jar was placed on
Figure 1.— Oriental peach-moth insectary, Riverton. X. J.
the west side of the insectary 5 feet above the groimd and in such a
a location that the late afternoon sun w^ould strike it.
Early in the morning while it was cool the jars were examined for
egg deposition and adult mortality. All the eggs were counted. If
eggs were located on the glass they were marked or destroyed. If eggs
were found on the leaves or stems the twig was removed and a new
one was put in its place.
Moths were also placed in screen cages of various sizes and covered
with gauze. Jlound cages, the same size as the jars, and oblong cages
measuring 6 by 8 by 12 inches w^ere used. The cages were kept in an
insectary which had a screen roof and screen side walls so sunlight
could strike them most of the day. The screen cages, particularly
the oblong type (fig. 3), proved to be the most satisfactory from the
standpoint of egg production ; yet the adults lived no longer in these
cages than in the glass jars.
LIFE HISTORY OF THE ORIENTAL PEACH MOTH
The chief reason
why moths produce
more eggs in screen
cages than in glass
jars seems to be the
greater circulation of
air and the possibility
of keeping them in
sunlight without in-
juring the moths.
Sunlight seems to be
essential for maxi-
mum egg production.
It was also found that
codling moths pro-
duced a greater num-
ber of eggs in screen
cages which were ex-
posed to sunlight than
in glass jars.
All twigs bearing
eggs were placed in
the entirely screened
portion of the insec-
tary where the sun-
light and rain could
strike them. They
were kept in this
location until they
were black-spotted.
When the eggs were ready to hatch, 10 were placed on a green peach
(or peaches, depending upon the size) in an 8-ounce jelly glass and
covered with surgical gauze. All rearing in the life-history study
in the insectary was carried on in peaches, except early in the
Figure 2.— Oriental peach-moth egg jar
W%
l|Pi
'4
1 "
.ia
■d^^
^^^^^^^^
V
i
jjl
^Br^"~ '\
■JM
m
m
i|
^^^^^Mj^^^^v
■^B.
mrm^^mm^
IHMdl
)th rgg rage;
6
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 183, XJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
season, when the fruit was not available or was too small and late in
the season (September 20 or later), when peaches were no longer
available. The first larvae of the first brood were reared on new,
succulent peach twigs. Rearing larvae on twigs in the insectary is
not verj^ satisfactory, for the mortality is very high and a great deal
of time is needed for rearing a few individuals. The last larvae of
the late broods were reared in apples.
Each jelly glass was examined daily until the eggs hatched. When
hatching occurred a record was made on each glass of the deposition,
^'black-spotted," and hatching dates. At this time each glass re-
ceived a piece of corrugated strawboard (one-half by 3 inches long,
with four corrugations to the inch), and was covered with a piece of
strong, finely woven gauze which was held in place by two one-eighth
by 2 inch rubber
bands. (Fig. 4.)
The glasses were
placed in trays, and
the trays were placed
in racks in the center
of the screened in-
sectary. When full-
grown larvae made
their appearance the
glasses were exam-
ined daily. The ma-
jority of the larvae
entered the corru-
gated paper strips
and spun cocoons.
These cocoons were
removed once a day.
At the time the co-
coons were removed
from the glasses a
record was made on
5 by 8 inch cards of
Figure 4.— Jelly glass used for rearing oriental peach-moth larvae i-i |-i inform fl tion
pertaining to each individual. All the life-history records and all
sorts of notes were kept on 5 by 8 inch cards. (Fig. 5.)
Each cocoon was given a number which was written on the smooth
part of the corrugated board or on a separate piece of paper. The
individual cocoons were placed in 3-dram homeopathic vials plugged
with cloth-covered cotton plugs. These vials were placed in small
racks (fig. 6), which in turn were placed in trays and kept in the
center of the screened portion of the insectary. The cocoons in the
vials were examined daily for adult emergence. When an adult
emerged its number and sex were recorded. No pupation records
were made from the cocoons placed in homeopathic vials.
For pupation records 5 to 10 full-grown larvae were placed each
day individually in 2-dram shell vials (fig. 7) stoppered with cloth-
covered cotton plugs. These larvae spun their cocoons against the
glass, usually adjacent to the plug, consequently it was an easy
matter to note the changes in each larva through the glass.
LIFE HISTORY OF THE ORIENTAL PEACH MOTH
No.
date.
Viriod.
B. 5.
' Hi
H.
cLaTt
tory —Br
-Feeding
T>eriodr
oocL
Coc.
date
Cocoon.
-ptripcL
Adult ehttr-
jf 9. nee. date
per
rJ'
M.sc. ©
hates
Z/o?
?/»
%
s
;^A
7//Z
%
<f
7/;?y
"n
^
%
J
<?•
2.110
1
y
1
\
/^
IZ
^s-
zr
1
7/9
y
7//.?
7//3
II
13
fi
<e^
a
7/io
:r
7//y
7//r
?
/3
^i.
z?
3
7/7
y
7//.
7///
/y
7/2r
/>^
•%
30
y
1
y
//
/J
^7
3f
S'
y
/y
/3
^7
31
4
y
/y
/z
J/i
JO
7
y
/y
/z
^i
30
/
7/i
V
7///
7//Z
/7
/3
^?
30
f
y
/3
/J
^7
30
dead
/
^
/J
/J
/J
Mr
JO
l)vp/'cafe
X
/
/3
IZ
^^
29
J
7/f
/
y/z
7/n
/Z
/3
fl
Z9
V
I
/
IZ
/3
^7
Z9
-r
y
IZ
/3
^7
^9
i,
y
/-a
/3
^7
Z9
J
Figure 5.— Sample record of oriental peach-moth life history
A thermograph and maximum and mmimum thermometers were
kept adjacent to the feeding larvae and cocoons within the insectary.
Normal air circulation was available about the temperature-recording
instruments, and no direct rays of sunlight came in contact with the
Figure
-Rack of homeopathic vials containing oriental peach-moth cocoons used for obtaining
records of adult emergence in the insectary
bulbs. The thermometers and thermograph were read daily from
May 1, 1925, to August 1, 1927. The temperature records were also
checked against those obtained at the Japanese beetle laboratory and
the near-by Weather Bureau stations.
Figure 7. — Oriental peach-moth cocoons in shell vials used for pupation records
8 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 183, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTTJKE
ft
INSECTARY AND ORCHARD COMPARED
In conducting a life-history study of an insect in an insectary one
can not expect to duplicate the life history of the insect in the field
in all details. All one can hope to do is to provide closely approxi-
mate conditions and then carefully check the results with those found
in the natural environment.
In this life-history study all the stages were checked with those
under orchard conditions as carefully as possible. In checking the
insectary results with the development in the orchard several methods
were used, and various observations were made. The spring-brood
emergence was checked by noting the date of appearance of the first
moths in the orchard. This was determined hj the presence of moths
or of fresh empty pupal skins on the south side of fruit trees. For
three years the first emergence in the orchard has occurred on the same
day or within 24 hours of the time the first adults appeared in the
outdoor screen cages facing south adjacent to the ground.
Bait pans were used to determine the peak of abundance of the
spring-brood moths in the orchard, which agreed closely with the
peak of emergence in the screened outdoor cages. Bait-pan catches
are also useful in determining the emergence of the first-brood moths
in the orchard. After the middle of July bait-pan records are ex-
tremely irregular; consequently they can not be used as a check on
the development of the insect within the insectary.
The incubation period in the insectary throughout the season was
checked against orchard conditions by placing 50 or more eggs daily
in a peach orchard the morning after they were deposited. The
small bottles containing the peach or pear foliage which had eggs on
them were placed on wooden stands in the center of 7 to 8 year old
peach trees. Almost every day the incubation period of the eggs
placed out of doors was exactly the same as that of those eggs kept
in the open screened insectary. In a few instances in cool weather
or during decided changes in the weather there was a difference of
12 to 24 hours one way or the other. However, this difference is no
greater than that which occurs in the orchard itself, because eggs
exposed to direct sunlight sometimes hatch 12 to 24 hours sooner than
those which are shaded.
The senior author in 1924 reared a goodly number of larvae in the
orchard in twigs and fruit and at the same time reared larvae in picked
green peaches in the insectary. In most every test the period of
development of the outdoor larvae was the same as that of those
reared in the insectary. In a few of the tests the larvae reared out
of doors in growing green tissue required one or two days longer for
development. Under insectary conditions throughout the season
there is a distinct difference in the period of development of larvae in
green peaches and in green apples. They develop more slowly in
apples than in peaches. If a given lot of larvae require 12 days to
develop in peaches, a similar lot may require 15 days in apples.
Since conditions would not permit the carrying on of a large-scale
life-history study under strictly orchard conditions, it was necessary
to rear the larvae in picked fruit in the insectary. During both
seasons peaches were used as long as they were available (from late
in May to late in September).
LIFE HISTORY OF THE ORIENTAL PEACH MOTH 9
The development of the larvae in twigs in young orchards was
checked with the development of larvae in the insectary, and for the
most part they agreed closely. By collecting larvae from several
young (2 to 4 year old) peach orchards regularly once a week for a
given number of minutes the peak of larval abundance was ascer-
tained, and the size of the larvae gave a good check on the develop-
ment of the early generations in the orchard. This was particularly
true of the firs! and second generations.
The cocoon period under insectary conditions was checked against
that under the outdoor conditions by placing in the orchard dany, so
far as possible, small screen cages containing 5 to 10 newly formed
cocoons in corrugated paper. These small cages (wire strainers
mounted on pieces of board) were placed on all parts of peach trees
or on the ground below the trees. The cocoon period of the trans-
forming cocoons placed out of doors checked closely with similar lots
of individuals kept in vials in the insectary. This, however, was not
true of wintering material kept in the insectary, as mentioned before
and fully discussed in an earlier publication (11).
LIFE HISTORY OF THE ORIENTAL PEACH MOTH
GENERAL DISCUSSION
In presenting the detailed information on the life history the writers
do not intend to follow the usual method which many authors have
used in presenting life-history data on the oriental peach moth or
similar insects, such as the codling moth. Much of the detailed
tabular information will be omitted; however, the more important
information pertaining to dates for each stage and sex in each genera-
tion and the period of time required for the development of each
stage and sex in each generation will be found in the summary tables.
The average period for ''all broods" in each case was obtained by
dividing the total number of days by the total number of individuals.
Some of the information in these tables will not be considered in the
discussion. The summary tables will serve as a good reference for
anyone interested in a life-history study of the oriental peach moth,
especially in an area where the climate is similar to that in southern
New Jersey. The summary tables on the life history include only
those individuals which completed all stages of their development;
consequently for any generation the number of individuals for all the
stages is the same. The number of individuals reared in each genera-
tion is shown in Table 1 . This table also shows the number and per-
centage of transforming and wintering individuals in each brood for
the two years.
The life-history discussion will consider the more important bio-
logical facts for each stage in the life of the insect and the relationship
to temperature. The influence of effective day-degrees for each stage
is discussed under a separate heading.
The charts and tables giving information on the relationship of
development to effective day-degrees include data on all of the
individuals which completed any given stage under consideration.
102934—30—2
10
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 183, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 1. — Number of individuals per brood used in the life-history studies of the
oriental peach moth in 1925 and 1926 at Riverton, N. J., and the percentage of
transforming and wintering individuals in each brood
Brood
Transforming in-
dividuals
Wintering indi-
viduals
Total individuals
Proportion of ! Proportion of
individuals individuals
transforming wintering
^
s
I
1
^
S
1^
1
^
s
o
1
"3 •
ill
1
1
1925
First
Num-
ber
582
760
393
26
0
Num-
ber
668
Num-
ber
1,250
1,495
803
67
0
Num-
ber
0
1
285
209
21
Num-
ber
0
0
229
208
14
Num-
ber
0
1
514
417
35
Num-
ber
582
761
678
235
21
Num-
ber
668
735
639
249
14
Num-
ber
1,250
1,496
1,317
484
35
Per
cent
100
99.9
58.0
11.1
0
Per
cent
100
100
64.2
16.5
0
Per 1 Per
cent i cent
100 1 0
99. 91 00. 1
61.01 42.0
13.8 88.9
0 100
Per
cent
0
Per
cent
0
Second
Third
Fourth
Fifth
0 1 00.1
35.8; 39.0
83. 51 86. 2
100 jlOO
Total or av.
1,761
1,854
3,615
516
451
967| 2, 277
2,305
4,582
77.3
80. 4| 78.9 22.7
19.6
21.1
1926
First
488
528
185
0
438
463
172
0
926
991
357
0
0
0
561
242
0
0
508
234
0 488
0 528
1, 069 746
476 242
438
463
680
234
926
991
1,426
476
100
100
24.8
0
100
100
25.3
0
100
100
25
0
0
0
75.2
100
0
0
74.7
100
0
Second
Third
Fourth
0
75
100
Total or av.
1,201
1,073
2,274
803
742
1,545
2,004
1,815
3,819
59.9
59.1
59.5
40.1
40. 9| 40. 5
1
THE EGG
The egg (fig. 8) is scalelike in form, round or oval, flattened toward
the edge, the upper surface minutely rugose; the color is grayish
white, somewhat iridescent; and
the average measurement across is
about 0.7 millimeter.
In peach orchards most of the
eggs are found on the under surface
of two-thirds to full-growm leaves,
near the terminal ends of growing
twigs. This is particularly^ true in
the case of young trees. In quince
and apple orchards the eggs are
placed on the smooth upper sur-
face of the leaves, w^hile in pear
orchards eggs may be deposited on
the upper and lower leaf surfaces.
Eggs are also deposited on newiy
formed smooth twigs, such as those
of peach and pear. The texture
of the surface on w^hich eggs are deposited seems to be important.
Smooth surfaces are preferred to rough or pubescent ones. When
adults are placed inside of smooth glass jars (6 by 8 inches) containing
foliage of peach, pear, or apple, most of the eggs will be deposited on
the smooth glass rather than on the leaves. When adults are placed
in small screen cages made entirely of screen and cloth and containing
twigs from fruit trees, the eggs are deposited mainly on the twigs and
not on the cages. If smooth w^ooden supports are used in the con-
struction of the cages, many eggs will be deposited on the w^ood. This
may be prevented by frequently coating the wooden supports vdih
concentrated lime-sulphur.
Figure 8.— Egg of oriental peach moth. X 50
LIFE HISTORY OF THE ORIENTAL PEACH MOTH
11
A few hours previous to hatching, the newly formed larva can be
seen inside the eggshell. Its dark head is the first visible portion and
shows as a dark spot near the center of the egg. An egg in this stage
is called '^black-spotted." When summer temperatures prevail, the
black spot appears 15 to 48 hours before the egg hatches. In case the
incubation period is three and one-half days, the black spot appears
15 to 18 hours before the larva emerges.
— -
—
— -
'• ! ^
M"
1 1 ! M ' i 1 1
—
^~
90
89
! 1 1
/ _
'—rAAf^£:je^o'yp£: .
/
—
—//^e^i/a^/o/v f-e^eyp
5
i 1
/
1 ! 1
/
! 1
1
i ' '
1
>;?
1
1 i \ ''■
^L_
62
Ol
i 1 '
— j-
M ' '
1
1
1 ' ' i '
\fi
1
I
' M :
'
\
TOT
!
MT :
1
1 .
A
'
!
! II M
MM
f
'
A
' 1 i III
1 1 M
'
/
1
\
\\
,/^
'
■:J^
i 1 ■■ \
\l
/
V
' i*
\ ■ l/l\
%\
^--'- - .
- ;
\ 1
w
r
\
A
i
1 ; /
^-M-
; 1 * !
y
1
'
\
^
i ; /
EI -
' i ' /
V
i
i ' \
ryi
M ' 1
V
1 i /
Ml
M jz:
1 i Ml
1
y W j
i ^Ai '
i
i i ! 1
_f
cc\\
' i
-T^rr ' 1
_\.\_
Cr^
l^f
i ! i !
X'
/' i
1
! ' ' ; 1
1
l~^jt
M M ■ M \
1
1 M. : ' ! i 1
4
i
j M ! M 1 !
^_l.
^'^.
i\
1
^r: : ; M M
4^
1
i ■ 1
i
M ' '
/
r,:
. ;
A/
j ',
1
■1 i i
■^ "
i
Mil
I ■'
—
\
/
\ .y
1
1
\
\
/
\ 1 i/ 1
M /'
1
\i
^^/
' '
J
V
M '^
i>> ' ' /
(\
' M
\ r\
i\
r
-A
/^^W^ /
1 i ''
V '
^-..'"S
J '
w
^* '
\—
—
/ 1
i \^r
\l
^'^-
i i_ _...^. .
I
^/O
1
1
i !
' M M M 1
/SZOZSJfl S /O /S 20 25 Jt( S /O IS 20 25 3^, S 10 15 20 ZS Jj S /O /^2G2S J/^ S /O /S 20 ZS" ^^ ^ /O /S 20
>'?/>/e. /^y9y Kyo'/v£r ^c/ly ^a<5. ^£:/=7-. ocr
/^/jpsr a^ooD -a^/3 . . /^oo^Th' a^voo -/zoes
^£:coA/£> 3/eooo -2S.>3a/
/v'^/T/ Sjeooo-/,
■S39
7y///eo B^ooD - 2o, eas
Figure 9. — Average incubation periods of eggs of the oriental peach moth compared with the aver-
age temperatures for the respective incubation periods, at Riverton, N. J., season of 192/^
When the larva has completed its development within the eggshell,
it bites its way out and emerges through the slitlike opening. The
mortality in normal fertihzed eggs which are not parasitized is very
low, being about 2 to 5 per cent.
The incubation period of the egg is largely dependent upon tem-
perature. Figures 9 and 10 and Tables 2 and 3 show the decided
variations in this period. In the summer, when warm weather is
more or less continuous, the eggs hatch in the insectary and out of
12
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 183, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
doors in Sji to 6 days, whereas early in the spring the first eggs
deposited by the adults of the spring brood require 7 to 14 or more
days to hatch. Late in the fall (October and November), when
cool weather is almost continuous, the incubation period may be 20
days or longer. Under constant temperature conditions in the labora-
tory, averaging 86° to 88° F., all eggs hatch in three days or less. The
minimum time for the incubation period under constant and controlled
temperature has been 60 to 65 honrc;.
The incubation-period curve for the seasons shown corresponds
fairly well (inversely, of course) with the ups and downs in the tem-
perature curve. It is probable that a closer agreement between the
1
^ ^
J 1 i [ 1 1 1 J 1 1
—
—
—
&j
:i:
. 72r/vwf-/e^7-6ia£-
^
r
-
1
1-
~/A
^cc/^
^^/c
W yO/^A
I G
1
: :: tt t
_ t
jt^
n
1
-H - -ntn
/
1
[J
1
y
\
T
/ ' 1
1
'io^
X5
] ^vn
1
':'^\
1
1
1
1
1
il
/
/
1
i
/ 1
/ 1
\ 1
\
1 <t\
/
1
j /
\
i n
1\
/
1/
1/
\
7
14
i
/
7
•)
\
7
^ K
f
■A
/
7
_j
\
.
/
]\J
\ /
1
'
\
1
\
\
A.
Vv
1
ir«
\
/
,/
4_
1
.
/
1
\
/
\/
\
n
\ ~1
./^
\ \ o
(
\
'!\
\
^
-
\ '
1 -
I ^
J
/ ^^
i ^/
Si
1 1.
^'
!
>'
'^^^
\ '^.
„
i;
\>
y
1
9l
"^'M V
\r^
V
1
-' i^ ;• 1
1
1
I
_L
i 1 i 1
1
1"
ZfJO S /O /S ZOZS3/, S /O /S^202SJ(?, S /O /S 20 2S Jl S /O /S eo ZS ^j J- /O /SZO 2SJQ S /O /f
^c/iLy
Z-y^/^/2 /9^oo/:) -x?/, /o-^
^A/L B^oo^^ - eOj-^:?y ifXPG^
Figure 10.— Average incubation periods of eggs of the oriental peach moth compared
with the average temperatures for the respective incubation periods, at Riverton,
N. J., season of 1926
details of these curves would have resulted if the observations on the
incubation period of the eggs had been made oftener than once a
day. Each point in the incubation curve indicates the average period
of time required for all eggs deposited on a given day. Each point
on the temperature curve opposite a deposition date is the average
temperature during the average incubation period (days and fraction)
following the deposition date. For example, the average incubation
period of eggs deposited on June 30, 1925, was ^\^ days, and the
temperature recorded on the temperature curve is 71° F., which is
the average of all temperatures recorded for five daj^s from June 30
to Jujy 4, inclusive.
LIFE HISTORY OF THE ORIENTAL PEACH MOTH
13
Table 2. — Incubation periods and deposition dates of oriental peach-moth eggs at
Riverton, N. J., 1925
TRANSFORMING INDIVIDUALS
Incubation periods
Deposition dates
Brood
Average
Maximum
Minimum
First
Last
Male
Fe-
male
Both
Male
Fe-
male
Male
Fe-
male
Male
Female
Male
Female
First
Days 1 Days
6. 69 5. 49
4. 49 4. 48
4. 91 4. 85
4.62 4.90
Days
5.64
4.48
4.88
4.79
Days
6
6
6
6
6
6
Days
3
4
4
Days
3
3
4
4
Apr. 23
June 10
July 12
Aug. 14
Apr. 25
June 10
July 12
Aug. 13
June 24
June 24
Second
Aug. 6 Aue. 6
Third
Aug. 31
Aug. 26
Aug. 31
Fourth
Aug. 28
All broods...
4. 89 i 4. 87
1
4.88
9
9
3
3
Apr. 23
Apr. 25
Aug. 31
Aug. 31
WINTERING INDIVIDUALS
Second
5.00
4.86
5.12
5.66
"4.91
5.16
6.71
5.00 i
4.89
5.14
6.08
I
7
8
6
1 11
1 17
5
4
4
5
4
4
5
Aug. 2
Aug. 2
Sept. 13
Sept. 18
Sept. 20
Third ..
July 31 1 Aug. 1
Aug. 13 ■ Aug. 14
Sept. 13 Sept. 13
Sept. 14
Fourth
Sept. 26
Fifth
Sept. 29
All broods. -.
5.00
5.08
5.04 j
8
17
4
4
July 31 1 Aug. 1
Sept. 20
Sept. 29
BOTH TRANSFORMING AND WINTERING INDIVIDUALS
First
5.59
4.49
4.89
5.06
5.66
4.92
5.49
4.48
4.87
5.12
6.71
5.54
4.48
4.88
5.09
6.08
9
6
6
7
8
9
6
6
11
17
I
4
4
5
3
1
1
5
Apr. 23
June 10
July 12
Aug. 13
Sept. 13
Apr. 25
June 10
July 12
Aug. 13
Sept. 13
June 24
Aug. 6
Sept. 13
Sept. 18
Sept. 20
June 24
Second .
Aug. 6
Third
Sept. 14
Fourth
Sept. 26
Fifth....
Sept. 29
All broods...
4.92
4.92
9
17
3
3
Apr. 23 1 Apr. 25
Sept. 20
Sept. 29
1 Individual.
Table 3. — Incubation periods and deposition dates of oriental peach-moth eggs at
Riverton, N. J., 1926
TRANSFORMING INDIVIDUALS
Brood
First
Second
Third
All broods...
Incubation periods
Deposition dates
Average
Male
Days
6.95
4.33
4.23
5.38
Fe-
male
Days
6.79
4.43
4.28
5.37
Both
Days
6.88
4.38
4.25
5.38
Maximum
Male
Days
114
Fe-
male
Days
11
Minimum
~\
Fe- I
male i
First
Male
Days
4
3
3
Male
Days
5
3
3
May 13
June 26
Female
May 13
June 26
July 26 July 26
3 ! May 13 I May 13
Last
Male Female
June 26
Aug. 8
Aug. 17
Aug. 17
June 26
Aug. 11
Aug. 19
Aug. 19
WINTERING INDIVIDUALS
Third
5.95
6.78
6. 14 1 6. 04 i 8 8 3 3
6.83 6.80 ; 9 9 6 4
Aug. 3
Aug. 7
Sept. 25
Sept. 24
Sept. 24
Sept. 23
Fourth
Aug. 27
Aug. 27
All broods...
6.20
6. 35 6. 27 j 9 1 9 j 3 3
Aug. 3
Aug. 7
Sept. 25 1 Sept. 24
BOTH TRANSFORMING AND WINTERING INDIVIDUALS
First...
Second.
Third..
Fourth.
All broods
6.95
4.33
5.52
6.78
5.71
6.79
4.43
5.66
6.83
6.88
4.38
5.59
6.80
14
6
8
9
11
6
8
9
4
3
3
5
5
3
3
4
May 13
June 26
July 26
Aug. 27
May 13
June 26
July 26
Aug. 27
June 26
Aug. 8
Sept. 25
Sept. 24
5.77
5.74
14
11
3
3
May 13
May 13
Sept. 25 1
June 26
Aug. 11
Sept. 24
Sept. 23
Sept. 24
1 1 individual.
14 TECHNICAL.BULLETIN 183, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
THE LARVA
Oriental peach-moth larvae range in length from 1.5 to approxi-
mately 12 millimeters. (Fig. 11.) In all larval instars the larvae
possess biting mouth parts, three pairs of true jointed legs, located on
the thoracic segments, and five pairs of fleshy false legs (prolegs),
located on the ventral aspects of the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and
last abdominal segments. The larva in its development casts its
skin four or five times; consequently there are four or five larval
instars. The number of instars is dependent upon the rate of growth
of the larva. With slow growth there are five instars, and with rapid
growth, four instars. The rapidity of growth is dependent upon at
least two factors — temperature and type of food. More detailed
information on the number of larval instars is given in an earlier
publication (12). Larvae in all larval instars except the last are
white, with a black head and dark-colored thoracic and anal shields;
in the last instar the larva is at first a dirty white or gray, but as it
increases in size it gradually'
becomes pink or almost red.
It has been noted that
mature larvae which have
fed on peach tissue are
more likely to be red (or
pink) than larvae which
have fed on apples or
quinces. The head and the
FiQUEE 11.— Oriental peach-moth larva, lateral view. X 3 thoraClC and anal shlclds in
the last instar are brown
(mottled). A small, brown, chitinized anal fork is present on the
ventral aspect of the last abdominal segment caudad of the anal
opening, and is most prominent in the last larval instar.
A newly hatched larva immediately seeks food. Even though small,
it is active and can crawl a considerable distance in a short time. It
proceeds to enter the first desirable plant tissue found. When suitable
plant food is located, the larva spins a loose silken covering about
itself, which probably gives it some support while gouging out pieces
of the plant tissue. The first mouthfuls of tissue are set to one side
unconsumed. The larva begins to feed when its head is deeply em-
bedded in the plant tissue.
Larvae transforming during the summer require 6 to 24 days to
complete their growth, the average time being approximately 12
days. Late in the season, when cool weather is almost continuous,
larvae (wintering) may require as many as 50 to 115 days. In New
Jersey all wintering larvae pass the winter in cocoons so far as known.
The rate of larval development and its relationship to temperature
is illustrated in Figures 12 and 13. Each point on the feeding-period
curve is the average time required for all larvae hatching on that date
to complete their development irrespective of the generation they
may represent, while each point on the temperature curve is the aver-
age of all temperatures the larvae of a given date were subjected to
during their average feeding period. For example, 11 days was the
average feeding period for all larvae hatching on June 4, 1925, and
the average temperature recorded for that day was 79° F. This
temperature was obtained by averaging all of the temperatures for
ll days, beginning with and following the hatching date.
LIFE HISTORY OF THE ORIENTAL PEACH MOTH
15
Wintering larvae may sometimes be found in the second generation
and are present in all succeeding generations at Riverton, N. J.
In 1925 all of the first-brood larvae completed their development
during the current season, one individual of the second brood was
1 1
1 1 1 1 1 Ml
1
irzr
64
m
1
- . 1 ^,.^j
rrfv^ i^r-t-iS-Tt. . 1
a9
\
*1'Z!11*I1I
/Py*f/A/S />JjP.^<>9^
82
81
eo
/^£S£>/M? /'S^/OO y^O/C ^/A/rS/PZ/VG Zy^/?/i%£".
\
(^
\
/
\
'
73
\
\\
.,/
\
^
J
\
1
\
1
\
A
t:i^
\
J
I
^
/
\
,JS
^'%
28
V
t
j
t
'.
^y£-f^sss e7ws3z^ys
\
r^
Vi
/
"1
Z7
V
j
\
25
;
n>
/
V
70 t^
\\
/
\
1
23
1
V
1
!
»"
/
^
1
€4
^ >n
/
1
/
f
63
^
A
J
\
:
/€
/
"v
S/
A
/l
\
1
\
e/
/<■
\
'
A
\
11
\
/^
\
ll<
t
'\
J
[^
\
V
:
/3
/2
//
/O
9
\
/''
»1
/\
K
\
\r
\\
A
t
\
A
\
V
'^y
/\
(^
s
1
/
\ ^
J
/
•
\
,'
w
J
\l
\
J,
/
\
'
V'
"'
'A/
.
1
, /^/ff3r 3/20OD- /,2Sor. , i-err /nx//?r/^ seoo^-4/7^.
y. : 1 * 4 * t
K ♦
/,49S'r ^scoA/£> S/eooo - //^i /^/rrMAeoo^-ssf
r-ao37: TA'/zeo s^ooo j-/4fi^.
* ♦ — J
'^
Figure 12.— Average feeding periods of transforming and wintering larvae of the oriental peach
moth compared with the average temperatures for the respective feeding periods, at Riverton,
N, J., season of 1925
a wintering larva, and the succeeding generations (third, fourth, and
fifth) produced successively greater percentages of wintering larvae.
(Table 4.) In 1926 all of the first and second brood larvae trans-
formed, while 75 per cent of the third and all of the fourth generation
were wintering larvae. (Table 5.)
16
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 183, U. S. DEFT. OF AGBICTJLTXJRE
1 1
1
.L
- £
L.4
1 1
fv
: ■ ■" zxj^
1 1
/?i^£i
■ I
1
/N
7e
£0/? 1
A
A
(^
'J^S/B'fijSS JO ^0SJ £l4yS
itl-
\£S££>/A/G /'£^/00 £Oje
/
r^
J
29
28
1
'1
\
4
J
1
\J*^/A
{r£:^/A/0 1
^^i^
\
iiT
.
1
I
/
ze
2S
2^
fl
^1
\
\
1
Z^
r.^.
1
22
^2/
k20
/e
\
r
\ r-
^K
1
/
^
/•
/I
1
^
\i
«i
1
j
V
r^
1
L
'f\ '
k
1
an
\i
\
A
(\
//
\
)j
7
\
/
k
r
/'
V
"J
•
T
.r
i
li
H
L
ff
/
S0
S6
<J
V,
u
/
1-
1
/2
//
»s
J
\
»/>
f
!
1
; ,
I
1
f
V
1
9
jr /O /f 20 2^ J/_ S /O /S 20 25 3Q S /O /ff ZO ZS J(^ S /O /^ 20 ZS Jj S /O /S 20 25 dfl
/v^y ^0/i/£: ^c/LX ^c/3. ^£/:>7:
^^57r £////?£> S^OO£> -/^069 /V.-\
* 1 * *
/yyeyrsieck?/? -92e t:-^
^£:COA/0 BjeOO£>-S9/ 7^
y^oc/^r// Sjeooo -^^rei
Table 4.
z.^yeu^£:, z,^-^^ Mz/A/r£:^/A/G r^^ £^/?l<>9£:.
Figure 13.— Average feeding periods of transforming and wintering larvae of the
oriental peach moth compared with the average temperatures for the respective
feeding periods, at Riverton, N. J.,. season of 1926
-Feeding periods and hatching dates of oriental peach-moth larvae at
Riverton, N. J., 1925
TRANSFORMING INDIVIDUALS
Feeding periods
Hatching dates
Brood
Average
Maximum
Minimum
First
Last
Male
Fe-
male
Both
Male
Fe-
male
Male
Fe-
male
Male
Female
Male
Female
First
Days
10.61
12.07
12.11
13.31
Days
11.15
12.92
12.73
13.85
Days
10.89
12.49
12.42
13.64
Days
18
19
22
16
Days
124
21
20
21
Days
6
8
8
8
Days
7
8
8
10
May 3
May 5
Jime 28
Aug. 10
June 28
Second
June 15
June 15
Auc. 10
Third .....
July 16 July 16
Aug. 18 Aug. 17
Sept. 5 i Sept. 5
Fourth
Sept. 1
Sept. 3
All broods..
11.70
12.38
12.05
22
24
6
7
May 3
May 5 | Sept. 5
Sept. 5
WINTERING
INDIVIDUALS
Second
11.00
14. 05 14. 72
16. 19 15. 86
41. 09 41. 14
11.00
14.35
16.02
41.11
11
21
91
115
23
85
82
11 ;
8 i 8
9 ! 9
13 1 10
Aug. 7
Aug. 7
Sept. 18
Sept. 25
Sept. 28
Third
Aug. 5
Aug. 17
Sept. .18
Aug. 6
Aug. 18
Sept. 18
Sept. 20
Fourth
Fifth
Oct. 7
Oct. 16
All broods.-
16.01 16.06
16.04
115
85
8 1 8
Aug. 5
Aug. 6
Sept. 28
Oct. 16
BOTH TRANSFORMING AND WINTERING INDIVIDUALS
First.-.
Second.
Third..
Fourth.
Fifth...
All broods. -
10.61
12.07
12.93
15.87
4L09
12.75
11.15
12.92
13.44
15.53
41.14
13.16
10.89
18
24
6
7
May 3
May 5
12.49
19
21
8
8
June 15
June 15
13.18
22
23
8
8
July 16
July 16
15.69
91
85
8
9
Aug. 17
Aug. 17
41.11
115
82
13
10
Sept. 18
Sept. 18
12.95
115
85
6
7
May 3
May 5
June 28
Aug. 10
Sept. 18
Sept. 25
Sept. 28
Jime 28
Aug. 10
Sept. 20
Oct. 7
Oct. (^/^
Sept. 28 j Oct.
16
1 individual.
LIFE HISTORY OF THE ORIENTAL PEACH MOTH
17
Table 5. — Feeding periods and hatching dates of oriental peach-moth larvae at
Riverton, N. J., 1926
TRANSFORMING INDIVIDUALS
Feeding periods
Hatching dates
Brood
Average
Maximum
Minimum
First
Last
Male
Fe-
male
Both
Male
Fe-
male
Male
Fe-
male
Male
Female
Male
Female
First
Days
14.21
11.54
12.44
Days
14.72
12.44
13.66
Days
14.45
11.96
13.03
Days
25
21
21
Days
24
19
21
Days
10
8
8
Days
10
8
10
May 20
July 1
July 31
May 20
July 1
July 31
July 1
Aug. 12
Aug. 23
July 1
Aug. 14
Aug. 26
Second.
Third
All broods-
12.76
13.57
13.14
25
24
8
8
May 20
May 20
Aug. 23
Aug. 26
WINTERING INDIVIDUALS
Third
18.87
22.56
19.11
21.80
18.99
22.19
62
61
62
63
58
11 11
14 14
Aug. 7
Sept. 1
Aug. 12
Sept. 1
Oct.
Oct.
2
2
Oct. 2
Fourth
Sept. 30
All broods- -
19.98
19.96
19.97
63
11
11
Aug. 7
Aug. 12
Oct.
2
Oct. 2
BOTH TRANSFORMING AND WINTERING INDIVIDUALS
First
14.21
11.54
17.27
22.56
14.72
12.44
17.73
21.80
14.45
11.96
17.49
22.19
25
21
62
61
24
19
63
58
10
8
8
14
10
8
10
14
May 20
July 1
July 31
Sept. 1
May 20
July 1
July 31
Sept. 1
July 1
Aug. 12
Oct. 2
Oct. 2
July 1
Second
Third
Aug. 14
Oct. 2
Fourth
Sept. 30
All broods-.
15.65
16.18
15.90
62
63
8
8
May 20
May 20
Oct. 2
Oct. 2
Wintering larvae have a slightly longer feeding period than trans-
forming larvae. This is illustrated in Figures 12 and 13, where the
curves showing the number of days required for the development of
larvae which started their development at the same time overlap.
The curve for wintering larvae in all cases is above that for the trans-
forming larvae. If one takes into consideration the number of larvae
existing in the period when both transforming and wintering larvae
are developing, it will be noted that the feeding period of wintering
larvae is approximately one or more days longer than that of trans-
forming larvae.
THE COCOON
The cocoon (fig. 14) is a silken covering spun by a full-grown larva
for its protection during hibernation and while it changes to and exists
as a pupa. After a larva completes its development in a twig or fruit
it usually eats its way out, drops to the ground by means of a silken
thread, or crawls down the tree, and seeks a place suitable for spinning
a cocoon. Larvae which drop to the ground, or come out of fallen
fruit, spin their cocoons on, under, or within some object on the
ground, whereas larvae which crawl down the tree may spin their
cocoons on some part of the tree. The cocoon averages one-half inch
in length and three-sixteenths inch in width and is made of silken
threads and particles of the objects on which it rests; these particles
may be bark, peach pubescence, sand, leaves, or other material.
Usually a cocoon is constructed in 24 to 48 hours.
In the summer the cocoons are more fragile than are those of the
wintering forms. The summer cocoons may be found on fruit, in
axils of twigs, under pieces of bark, and in other situations. The
102934—30 3
18
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 183, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
more substantial wintering cocoons are found in rough places on the
tree, particularly in the crotches and under rough bark on the trunk.
If late varieties of peaches have been heavily infested, cocoons may
occur in considerable numbers on the trunks of the trees near the
ground. Old quince trees with shaggy bark afford excellent hiberna-
tion quarters; frequently a dozen or more cocoons of the oriental
peach moth may be bunched together under one piece of quince bark.
Cocoons may also be found under flakes of apple-tree bark, when an
infestation has occurred in the apples.
Cocoons are also found in places other than on the host plant.
Trash of all kinds underneath infested trees serves as hibernation
Figure 14.— Oriental peach-moth cocoons and hibernation quarters: A, summer cocoons on
peaches; B, wintering cocoons under quince bark; C, D, empty pupal skins protruding from
typical hibernation quarters. Two-thirds natural size
quarters. Cocoons have been found on old dried peaches and quinces.
After heavy infestation of quince trees some of the larvae spin co-
coons inside of the fruit, near the skin. Old dried quinces in the
spring sometimes have six or more protruding empty pupal shells
after all the adults of the spring brood have emerged.
The cocoon period (Tables 6 and 7) for transforming individuals
was 8 to 33 days, or an average of approximately 14 days for the two
seasons. The wintering -cocoon period ranged from 131 to 307 days
for the two winter periods. The relationship between the tempera-
tures existing during the summer period and the length of the cocoon
period is illustrated in Figures 15 and 16. The high points of the
LIFE HISTORY OF THE ORIENTAL PEACH MOTH
19
temperature curve correspond for the most part with the low points
of the time curve. The location of a given point on the cocoon-
period curve indicates the average time required for all of the insects
within the cocoons formed on a given date to complete their develop-
ment. The temperature indicated for any day is the average of all
20 z^ j/[ jT /£? /s 20 zsj^q s /o /^ 20 zs c?^ s /o /■^ 20 ZS J/,^ s /o /s
/=v/2sr s^oo£) - /, 2 so
J
^^06//Pr// Syeooo -ey
Y
r07>?^-iJ,6/^ COCOOA/S-
Figure 15.— Average cocoon periods of transforming individuals of the oriental peach moth com-
pared with the average temperatures for the respective cocoon periods, at Riverton, N. J., season
of 1925
temperatures the cocoons formed on a given date were subjected to
during their average cocoon period. For example, the average
cocoon period for all cocoons formed on July 15, 1925, was 14 days,
and the average temperature recorded for that day is 73.3° F. This
temperature is the average temperature for 14 days following and
including July 15.
20
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 183, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTtJRE
K
76
A
f\
J
•
\
7€
/'
V
/
s
ys"
/^
f
/
1
7^\
7/ ^
^>7^
1
\
f
\
/
\
r
\
/
\
f^
/
V
\
I
\
y
J
\
V
/
\
y
^Ji
r
\
/
/
\
ev '^
2/
20
/9
'^%
\/6
/S
/4
/3
/2
//
/O
,A
/
\
/
\
^^
/i\
.
i
\
/
k
>
»v
/
i
A
/
^'i
1
f
'/>
\
A
;
1
r
\
I
^
1
A
t
li
V
^
V,
/
\
-^,
/
\i
\
I
V
v)
^v
JU
A
.'V
— - ?
'/fr/v/^^r
/Py^TL/A
p/=-
"T~1
J___ i 1 1 1
2.
^ u?^, ^ /a /S 20 es 3Q^ S /O /S 20 2S ^/ S /O /5 20 2S S/ S /O /3
^^y
T/V/^^ SyeOO£> -3S7
t
9^C
-OA/
0 ^
Sy^C
?c?^:> -s>&/
Figure 16.— Average cocoon periods of transforming individuals of the oriental peach moth
compared with the average temperatures for the respective cocoon periods, at Riverton,
N. J., season of 1926
Table 6. — Cocoon periods and cocooning dates of oriental peach-moth cocoons at
Riverton, N. J., 1925
TRANSFORMING INDIVIDUALS
Cocoon periods (prepupal and pupal)
Cocooning dates
Brood
Average
Maximum
Minimum
First
Last
Male
Female
Both
Male
Fe-
male
Male
Fe-
male
Male
Female
Male
Female
First
Second
Third
Fourth
Days
13.17
14.05
14.44
13.23
Days
12.93
13.62
14.00
14.32
Days
13.04
13.77
14.22
13.90
Days
20
19
33
17
Days
18
24
20
29
Days
10
8
10
10
Days
9
9
10
10
May 24
June 26
July 27
Aug. 31
May 22
June 26
July 27
Aug. 29
July 11
Aug. 23
Sept. 16
Sept. 12
July 10
Aug. 24
Sept. 15
Sept. 15
All broods-
13.84
13.53
13.68
33
29
8
9
May 24
May 22
Sept. 16
Sept. 15
WINTERING INDIVIDUALS
Second
287.00
262. 04
258. 05
210. 14
262.68
259. 35
206.78
287.00
262. 32
258. 70
208.80
287
298
302
253
306
299
251
287
225
153
131
1 Aue. 18
Aug. 18
Oct. 7
Dec. 22
Jan. 14
Third
Fourth
Fifth -.
232
156
150
Aug. 17
Sept. 2
Oct. 1
Aug. 17
Sept. 3
Oct. 4
Oct.
Dec.
Jan.
15
2
All broods.
258.36
259. 40
258. 85
302
306
131
150
Aug. 17
Aug. 17
Jan. 14
Jan.
2
LIFE HISTORY OF THE ORIENTAL PEACH MOTH
21
Table 7. — Cocoon periods and cocooning dates of oriental peach-moth cocoons at
Rivertony N. J., 1926
TRANSFORMING INDIVIDUALS
Brood
First
Second
Third
All broods
Cocoon periods (prepupal and pupal)
Male
Days
14.94
13.59
16.95
14.66
Female
Days
14.53
13.52
16.47
14.41
Both
Days
14.75
13.56
16.72
14.54
Maximum
Male
Days
25
26
33
33
Fe-
male
Minimum
Male
Days Days
25
31
26
31
Fe-
male
Days
11
9
11
Cocooning dates
First
Male Female
June 4
July 11
Aug. 10
June 4
June 10
July 13
Aug. 11
June 10
Last
Male Female
July 15
Aug. 29
Sept. 6
Sept. 6
July 20
Aug. 31
Sept. 13
Sept. 13
WINTERING INDIVIDUALS
Third
Fourth
254. 54
239. 08
258.97 1 256.74
245.91 1 242.43
304
284
307
288
178
178
176
178
Aug. 25
Sept. 19
Aug. 29
Sept. 17
Nov. 27
Nov. 27
Nov. 30
Nov. 27
All broods-
250.01
255.00 252.40
304 307
178
176
Aug. 25 Aug. ^9
Nov. 27
Nov. 30
THE PUPA
After the cocoon is completed, the larva becomes quiescent, and
gradually its body shortens and becomes thicker. The duration of
this prepupal stage averages
three or four days during the
summer (Table 8), after which
the larva sheds its skin, and
a yellowish pupa {fig. 17),
about one-fourth of an inch
in length, emerges. If a larva,
after constructing a cocoon
late in August and during
September, does not change
to a pupa within five to seven
days, more than likely it
will live over the winter un-
changed. Almost without ex-
ception all pupae formed late
in the season emerge as adults
during the current season.
So far as known no oriental
peach moth survives the winter in the pupal stage. After a pupa is
formed, it gradually turns reddish and becomes darker. From 24
to 48 or more hours before the adult emerges the wing cases of the
pupa turn black, and a few hours prior to emergence the entire pupa
becomes dark in color. At length the pupa pushes its way through the
loosely spun end of the cocoon and the adult breaks the pupal shell
near the cephalic end along the meson.
The length of the pupal stage is shown for 1926 in Table 8. For
transforming individuals the minimum period is 7 days, the maximum
13 days, and the average for the season is 9.81 days. For wintering
individuals which change to pupae early in the spring the average
Figure 17.— Oriental peach-moth pupa: A, lateral view; B,
ventral view; C, dorsal view. X 4
22
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 183, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
pupal stage is 27.35 days, and the minimum and maximum periods
are 17 and 51 days, respectively. In the material reared for observa-
tion of the pupal stage it will be noted, from the dates shown for the
various periods, that there is not the distinct overlapping of broods
that occurs in the life-history study of the other stages. This is due
to the fact that only a small proportion of the life-history material
was allowed to spin up in shell vials for observation of the pupal
transformations, and owing to the scarcity of cocooning individuals
at the beginning and end of each brood none was taken for this pur-
pose at that time. The records for the pupal stage in 1925 are in-
complete, consequently they are omitted, yet the partial records
obtained agree closely with those for 1926.
Table 8. — Prepupal and pupal periods and cocooning and pupation dates of orienta''
peach moths which formed cocoons in 1926 at Riverton, N. J.
Prepupal period (from cocooning to
pupation)
Pupal period (from pupation to emergence)
Brood
Average
Maximum
Minimum
Average
Maximum
Minimum
Male
Fe-
male
Both
Male
Fe-
male
Male
Fe-
male
Male
Fe-
male
Both
Male
Fe-
male
Male
Fe-
male
First 1
Second 1
Third I
Days
4.03
3.42
4.35
Days
4.31
3.22
4.00
Days
4.16
3.32
4.12
Days
7
6
Days
I
9
Days ' Days
i. 1
11 1
2! 1
Days
9.99
9.22
11.87
Days
9.61
9.32
11.46
Days
9.82
9. 28
11.60
Days
12
13
13
Days
11
13
13
Days
I
11
Days
7
7
10
First, sec-
ond, and
third 1
3.77
3.74
3.75
6
9
1
1
9.82
9.79
9.81
13
13
7
7
Third 2
216. 84 223. 71
220. 05
246
255
172| 159
28.30
26.25
27.35
51
51
22
17
Brood
First i„.
Second K
Third L.
First, second, and
third 1
Third K
Cocooning dates
First
Male Female
June 18
July 15
Aug. 19
June 18
Aug. 31
June 19
July 15
Aug. 19
June 19
Aug. 31
Last
Male Female
July 15
Aug. 19
Sept. 3
Sept. 3
Oct. 12
July 15
Aug. 20
Sept. 13
Sept. 13
Oct. 12
Pupation dates
First
Last
Male
June 22
July 19
Aug. 24
June 22
1927
Mar. 18
Female
Male
June 24 July 20
July 19 I Aug. 24
Aug. 21 i Sept. 9
June 24 j Sept. 9
1927
1927
Mar. 19 May 20
Female
July 20
Aug. 24
Sept. 15
Sept. 15
1927
June 3
Transforming individuals.
Wintering individuals; moths emerging in spring of 1927.
THE ADULT
The adult, the last stage in the life cycle of the insect, is a small
grayish-brown (fuscous) moth (fig. 18) with a wing span of approxi-
mately one-half inch. The following description by A. Busck (14)
agrees with the writers' observations.
Laspeyresia molesta, n. sp.
Head dark, smoky fuscous; face a shade darker, nearly black; labial palpi a
shade lighter fuscous; antennae simple, rather stout, half as long as the fore wings,
dark fuscous with thin, indistinct, whitish annulations. Thorax blackish fus-
cous; patagia faintly irrorated with white, each scale being slightly white-tipped.
Forewings normal in form; termen with slight sinuation below apex; dark fuscous,
obscurely irrorated by white-tipped scales; costal edge blackish, strigulated
with obscure, geminate, white dashes, four very faint pairs on basal half and three
more distinct on outer half besides two single white dashes before apex; from
the black costal intervals run very obscure, wavy, dark lines across the wing,
LIFE HISTOEY OF THE ORIENTAL PEACH MOTH
23
all with a strong outwardly directed wave on the middle of the wing; on the middle
of the dorsal edge the spaces between three of these lines are more strongly
irrorated with white than is the rest of the wing, so as to constitute two faint and
poorly defined, white dorsal streaks. All these markings are only discernible in
perfect specimens and under a lens; ocellus strongly irrorated with white, edged
Figure 18.— Adults of the oriental peach moth, dorsal view: A, With wings spread; B, natural
position when at rest. X 7
by two broad, perpendicular, faint bluish metallic Hnes and containing several
small, deep black, irregular dashes, of which the fourth from tornus is the longest
and placed farther outward, so as to break the outer metallic edge of ocellus;
the line of black dashes as well as the adjoining bluish metallic lines are continued
faintly above the ocellus in a curve to the last geminate costal spots; there is an
indistinct, black apical spot and two or three small black dots below it; a thin
24
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 183, TJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
but distinct, deep black, terminal line before the cilia; cilia dark bronzy fuscous.
Hind wings dark brown with costal edge broadly white; cilia whitish; underside
of wings lighter fuscous with strong iridescent sheen; abdomen dark fuscous with
silvery white underside; legs dark fuscous with inner sides silvery; tarsi blackish
with narrow, yellowish white annulations.
Alar expanse: 10 to 15 mm.
United States National Museum type 20664.
Males and females resemble each other closely. The female is
usually a trifle larger; this difference is especially noticeable in the
abdomen of the female when filled with eggs. The abdomen of a
female is somewhat swollen, and a circular depression or area sur-
rounded by a ring of scales occurs at the posterior end of the ventral
side. The abdomen of a male is narrow, pointed at the end, and bears
a slitlike mark at the posterior end on the ventral aspect.
Adults are most active about sundown. They have an irregular,
up and down, or zigzag, flight. In the orchard they may be seen
darting about the terminals, or new growth, of their host plants.
Adults are occasionally very active in the middle of the day; this
seems to be particularly true of the spring brood. When confined in
6 by 8 inch glass jars with moist sand and water, moths were found to
live 3 to 37 days. (Table 9.) The average length of life of adults is
14 or 15 days during the summer, but in the spring and fall they may
live much longer.
Table 9.-
■Length of life of adults of the oriental peach moth at Riverton, N. J.,
1925 and 1926
Year
1925.
1926.
1925 and 1926
combined..
Brood
First- -.
Second.
Third..
Fourth.
Fifth...
Spring.
First...
Second.
Third..
Fifth...
Spring.
First-- -
Second.
Third- -
Fourth.
Fifth.- -
Moths
Length of life
Average
Male
No.
250
355
256
28
889
321
259
326
61
967
321
509
681
317
28
1,856
Fe-
male
No.
240
346
219
38
843
318
256
307
55
936
318
496
653
274
38
1,779
Both
No.
490
701
475
66
1,732
639
515
633
116
1,903
639
1,005
1,334
591
66
3,635
Male
Days
15.12
14.53
15.62
20.32
15.19
16.96
14.44
15.70
16.49
15.83
16.96
14.77
15.09
15.78
20.32
15.52
Fe-
Days
14.34
14.41
15.72
20.37
15.00
17.88
13.86
15.48
16.47
15.91
17.88
14.09
14.90
15.87
20.37
15.48
Both
Days
14.74
14.47
15.67
20.35
15.10
17.42
14. 15
15.59
16.48
15.87
17.42
14.43
15.00
15.82
20.35 I
15.50 I
Maximum Minimum
Male
Days
23
26
32
30
32
30
37
32
27
37
30
37
32
32
30
37
Fe-
male
Days
22
29
36
32
36
37
25
28
25
37
37
25
29
36
32
37
Male
Days
3
4
5
10
3
3
3
5
7
3
3
3
4
5
10
3
Fe-
male
Days
4
4
6
12
4
5
3
5
5
3
5
3
4
5
12
3
Egg deposition usually begins 2 to 5 days after the females emerge
and continues for 7 to 10 days, or even longer. Unless the female is
fertilized, few or no eggs will be deposited. The maximum number of
eggs are deposited when the females are exposed to sunlight a goodly
portion of the day and have access to plain or sweetened water.
Females deposit 100 to 200 or more eggs. In one series of trials
10 females were placed in each of 10 different glass jars, 6 by 8 inches
in size, with 5 to 10 males in each jar. The ^gg production per female
ranged from 96 to 227, and averaged 148 for the entire lot. Possibly
under natural conditions more eggs per female might have been
deposited by these same moths.
LIFE HISTORY OF THE ORIENTAL PEACH MOTH
25
Most eggs are deposited late in the afternoon, and deposition con-
tinues until an hour after sunset. On warm cloudy days the eggs may
be deposited earlier in the day. Also some eggs may be deposited
just before sunrise, if the temperature is near 70° F. or higher. Prac-
tically no eggs are deposited when the temperature during the normal
egg-deposition period is below 60°. The most favorable temperatures
seem to be between 70° and 90°.
Temperature has considerable influence on the time of day adults
emerge. Early in the season or during periods when the nights are
cool (50° F. or below) and when the morning hours are cool the peak
of daily emergence occurs at noon or shortly thereafter, whereas on
days when the night and early morning temperatures are fairly high
the adults come out earlier, and the peak of emergence occurs about
9 a. m. A sudden cold spell of two or three days during the period of
rapid emergence will check the daily emergence very decidedly for a
day or two.
The location of the cocoon, particularly the wintering cocoon,
influences the time of emergence of the adult. If the cocoon is ex-
posed to direct sunlight for a number of hours per day the chances are
that the adult will emerge much sooner than if the cocoon is located in
a completely shaded situation. Light rays may have some influence
on the time of emergence. It is known that the direct rays of the sun
make a very great difference in the temperature of the environment
where a cocoon is located. This is particularly true of wintering
cocoons and is illustrated and discussed by the writers in a previous
publication (11). The first spring-brood moths emerge in the orchard
about the time the first peach blossoms appear and the leaves are
beginning to form.
THE UFE CYCLE
The life cycle (Tables 10 and 11) of transforming individuals for the
two seasons ranges from 23 to 59 days, with seasonal averages of 30
and 33 days for the two seasons. Generally speaking, an individual
moth completes its development in one month during most of the
growing season. The life cycle for wintering individuals ranged from
232 to 331 days, with averages of 278 and 279 days for the two winters.
Table 10. — Life-cycle periods and dates of adult emergence of oriental peach moths
from eggs deposited in 1925 at Riverton, N. J.
TRANSFORMING INDIVIDUALS
Brood
First
Second
Third
Fourth
All broods.
Life-cycle periods
Average
Maximum
Male
Days
29.38
30.50
31.46
31.15
30.44
Fe-
male
Days
29.56
31.03
31.57
.33. 07
Both iMale
Days
29.47
30.76
31.52
32.33
30.78 30.61
Days
47
40
59
35
59
Fe-
male
Days
40
42
42
46
Minimum
Male
Days
23
25
25
26
23
Fe-
male
Days
24
25
26
27
24
Dates of moth emergence
First
Last
Male Female ; Male Female
1925
June 5
July 8
Aug. 10
Sept. 11
June 5
1925 I 1925
June 5 July 25
July 8 I Sept. 7
Aug. 9 I Oct. 16
Sept. 11 I Sept. 28
June 5
Oct. 16
1925
Julv 25
Sept. 7
Oct. 5
Oct. 12
Oct. 12
WINTERING INDIVIDUALS
Second .
303.00
281.01
279. 39
256. 90
282.17
280.36
254.64
303.00
281.53
279. 87
256.00
303
317
325
271
328
318
268
303
247
244
244
252
241
246
1026
June 1
May 15
May 19
May 22
1926
1926
June 1
June 29
July 5
June 11
1926
Third
Fourth
Fifth
May 16
May 20
May 19
July 9
July 6
June 12
All broods.
279.42
280.48
279.91
325
328
244
241 1 May 15
May 16
July 5
July 9
26
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 183. U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table II. — Life-cycle periods and dates of adult emergence of oriental peach moths
from eggs deposited in 1926 at Riverton, N. J.
TRANSFORMING INDIVIDUALS
Life-cycle periods | Dates of moth emergence
Brood
Average
Maximum
Minimum
First
Last
r
Male
Fe-
male
Both
Male
Fe-
male
Male
Fe-
male
Male
Female
Male
Female
First
Second
Third
Days
36.12
29.44
33.62
Days
36.05
30.40
34.41
Days
36.08
29.89
34.00
Days
60
44
53
Days
51
48
47
Days
29
24
26
25
28
1926
June 23
July 24
Aug. 23
1926
June 28
July 25
Aug. 24
1926
Aug. 1
Sept. 17
Oct. 6
1926
Aug. 3
Sept. 18
Sept. 26
All broods.
32.80
33. 35
33.05 53 51
24
25 1 June 23 June 28
Oct. 6
Sept. 26
WINTERING INDIVIDUALS
Third.
Fourth
279. 57
268.41
284.42
274.55
281. 87
271. 43
324
308
331
310
232
243
243
242
1927
May 11
May 13
1927
May 11
May 23
1927
July 17
July 3
1927
July 21
July 11
All broods-
276.20
281.30
278.65
324 331
232
242
May 11
May 11
July 17
July 21
Table 12. — First and last dates of spring-brood emergence of oriental peach moths
in 1926, 1926, and 1927, at Riverton, N. J.
Type of inclosure
Screened insectary and outdoor cages
Screened insectary
Outdoor screen cages
Screened insectary
Outdoor screen cages
Year
1925
1926
1926
1927
1927
Dates of moth emergence
First
Male Female
Apr. 13
May 15
May 4
May 11
Apr. 7
Apr. 13
May 16
May 4
May 11
Apr. 11
Last
Male Female
June 19
July 5
June 13
July 17
June 11
June 14
July 9
June 22
July 21
July 2
The relationship between prevailing temperatures and the length
of the life cycle of transforming individuals is illustrated in Figures
19 and 20. The location of a given point on the time curve indicates
the average time required for the individuals from eggs deposited on
the given day to complete their life cycle. The temperature indicated
for any day is the average of all temperatures the individuals starting
on that day were subjected to for the period of their average life
cycle. For example, the average life cycle for all the individuals from
eggs deposited on June 24, 1925, was 30 days, and the temperature
recorded for that day was 75.4. This temperature is the average of
all temperatures for 30 successive days starting with June 24.
GENERATIONS PER SEASON
At Riverton, N. J., in 1925 there were five complete or partial
generations and in 1926 four complete or partial generations, as shown
in Figure 21. This chart also shows the beginning dates and the 25,
50, 75, and 100 per cent completion dates of moth emergence, egg
deposition, hatching, and cocoon formation for each generation in
1925 and 1926.
LIFE HISTORY OF THE ORIENTAL PEACH MOTH
27
TEMPERATURE AND EFFECTIVE DAY-DEGREES
The chief reason why there was such a decided difference in the
number of generations and the dates when the various stages in the
several generations occurred in 1925 and 1926 was the marked
difference in temperature during the two seasons. Table 13 and
Figure 22 show the decided contrast. In Table 13 it will be noted
that June, July, and September were warmer in 1925 than in 1926.
This was particularly true of June and September. From May 1
to September 30 the monthly mean temperatures for 1926 averaged
3.3" lower than for 1925, the total of the effective day-degrees (50 to
2<p 2Sjq ^ /o /s 20 2S j(^ s /o /s 20 2S JQ^ s /o /s eo 2S jy, s /o /s 20 25 J(
, ^ ;yy/ye£> s/200^y -303 .
Figure 19.— Average life cycle, egg to adult, of transforming individuals of the oriental peach moth
compared with the average temperatures for the respective life-cycle periods, at Riverton, N. J.,
season of 1925
86'' F.) for this period in 1926 was 333.3 less than in 1925, and the
monthly average was 66.6 effective day-degrees less than in 1925.
In 1925 there were 66 days between May 1 and September 30 when the
temperature exceeded 86°, while in 1926 there were only 19 days when
the temperature exceeded 86°. The monthly mean temperatures were
taken from the Weather Bureau records and from temperatures
recorded by investigators at the Japanese beetle laboratory. The
accumulated effective day-degrees (50° to 86°) in the insectary were
figured from 12 readings taken from thermograph records for each
24-hour period. In Figure 22 each point on the curves indicates the
average number of day-degrees above 50° for seven days. These are
28
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 183, U. S. DEPT. OF AGKICULTURE
ascertained by adding the day-degrees for the three previous days and
the three following days to those of the given date and dividing by
seven.
48
47
_
rs
—
—
—
—
\r
rr
.
—
— '
—
7a
N,
1
-.1
. J
\
74
4S
S
1
J^
n
\y
\j^
*^
u-
/
A
^^\^
43
42
4/
40
J
\
7/\
7ol
ii\
J
\
V
\
,r
fj
V
\
\
/
f
V
69 (>N
\
/
\
R>
6et
?
'V
\
— 1
\
/
\
.N
'\
vt
J
(1
1
^5"
3S
^4
33
32
3/
30
y
\
'
'
A
1
1
/
\
^
/
J
{
1
62
1
u
1
1
1
/
"*
1,
\
/]
V
\
h
/
\
^Al
V,\
;
■
y^.
V
'4
f\
1
28
27
-
z-z/^/E cy
S
s
■ '
V
\r
J!
0 S /O /S 20 2S 3/^ S /O /J 20 2S 30^ JT /O /S 20 2S ^/ S /O /S 20 2S 3/
/Vy4)^ ^UA/£: ^L/^y .y^C/<F.
^£:COA/£> S/eoo^^-99/
7-07>^A -2,27-^ /A^S£:C7-^
Figure 20.— Average life cycle, egg to adult, of transforming individuals of the oriental
peach moth compared with the average temperatures for the respective life-cycle periods,
at Riverton, N. J., season of 1926
Table 13. — Comparisons of temperature for 1925 and 1926, at Riverton, N. J.
Mean temperatures
Effective day-degrees
Month
1925 1926
«
More (+)
or less
1925
1926
More (+)
or less
(-)m
1926
May
° F. i <>F.
59. 1 59. 7
76.4 1 65.2
73.6 i 72.6
72. 1 1 73. 0
70.4 1 64.6
° F.
+0.6
-11.2
-1.0
+0.9
-5.8
358.4
722.1
720.4
653.8
538.3
346.7
473.9
692.4
696.8
449.9
—11 7
June V-
—248 2
July.
— 28 0
August
+43.0
—88 4
September..
Total
351. 6 1 335. 1
70. 3 67. 0
-16.5
-3.3
2,993.0
598.6
2,659.7
531.9
—333 3
Average
—66 6
In the detailed life-history study of the oriental peach moth no
serious attempt was made to control temperature and other factors.
However, careful observations were made on the development of the
insect under insectary conditions (see ''Methods and equipment,"
2), and continuous records were kept of the daily temperatures
y thermographs and maximum and minimum thermometers. Most
I
LIFE HISTORY OF THE ORIENTAL PEACH MOTH
29
of the information presented bearing on temperature is based on these
observations.
In 1922 Glenn (1) published a paper on the relationship existing
between effective day-degrees and the development of the codling
moth. Glenn's paper has been subjected to considerable criticism,
yet it showed the decided importance of temperature as a factor in
the development of the codling moth. It also showed for the first
time that in general the effective degrees for the development of the
t^
II ! 1
/9
es-/vo7
7/
1
\ \ \
I yco^^ j 1
;
S/=>^A/ff
/^//?ST
/yzs^
^
^
^926 y^
k.>^
^
V
!
1
1
\
FOi/^r//
F/Fr/f
1
^
u
c?^/^^><
^S3d/y
i<::^^<5'/^><^^W-^i::J^
/92
» Z?FjO
5/V
/^/^ST
s£-com
7?y/fiD
Foc/^r/y
^
^ /'^997^^^^
^^07^^
^//o<ry^
V\^p
y
/
5/7
9<9
70/
/
~COA/£>
i
i ;
i
1
^
i^y^so-^
< M96 y''<^3/7X ^CT"^^
y92S-
V^
rc
^//
/(?
1 ' !
1 ' ^
'ST- ^^C0//0
TW^D
FO(/^r//
»
i/\
\ y\\
Ix^
Vkk^
1
^^926\
X^p/ yC/^eeX ^^ \o^^-l^.
^C///A
^G
1
\
S£COA/D
1
1
>^^96y^
b^^
/92S-CC?C00/V
^—-^^~^^F^^e/t^r/o/v
1
..ca^
j
I
^
^
^26 X
^../^
<Z/'*2^ X^^^^'^'^^^^
/926-COCod/V 1
_
— I
' 1
1 1
!
1
1 1
1
1
. /O 20 30 /O 20 Jl /O 20 JO /O 20 J/_ /O 20 J( /O 20 JO /O 20 J/ /O 20 JO /O 20 3/ /O
^/^/e. /vy9y ^'i.w£ joiY ^o<F. sfpf. ocj: A/dy. dec. jAaj.
Figure 21.— Summarized life-history chart of the oriental peach moth for 1925 and 1926, at River-
ton, N. J. The triangular figures show the beginning dates and the 25, 50, 75, and 100 per cent
completion dates of adult emergence, egg deposition, larval hatching, and cocoon formation for
the several generations in each season
codling moth were between 50° and 86° F.; the 50° being the theo-
retical zero of development and the 86° being the degree of maximum
rate of development, and every additional degree above 86° retarded
development at the same rate as every advancing degree below 86°
accelerated development. In other words, to ascertain the number of
effective day-degrees needed for the development of any stage of an
individual only those degrees between 50° and 86° are favorable, and
corrections should be made for all temperatures above 86°.
30
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 183, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
In these studies extensive and intensive use has been made of
Glenn^s ideas and theories, and the results have proved to be most
interesting. Table 14 summarizes the results obtained when the
idea of effective day-degrees was applied to large numbers of indi-
viduals of each stage for two seasons. When it is considered that the
two seasons of 1925 and 1926 were extremely different from the stand-
point of temperature, it is rather significant that the average total of
effective day-degrees for the two seasons should so closely approximate
each other for all stages. This fact alone indicates strongly that the
50° to 86° range is approximately correct for the oriental peach moth
and further emphasizes the close relationship existing between the
codling moth and the oriental peach moth.
J7
3S-
31
29-
/3
A
\
' \
/-
i
;
\ '
\ V\ , r
t A
A
-^M
^4' 2v^
1
1,
r
y^ii
^/^\/ /
\ i
■
/-^
U \j
% p.pt^
■
L
\l -
:xMt U
■
X
^j
1
^5/^tv5 i^
A
i\
1
. ^ c^Laj A
■
t<'\ h,
1 i
V
^ ^ Vi-i-L
j 1
j f
\/
Uf-l
/U
"n/
■7^
l^i
/
'^^:1
■ /
/.^G^/VD
d3
/
/926^
^ it
_L
1 \'^
/ S /O /S ZO ZS J{ S /O /S 20 2S 3<p S /O /5 20 ZS J/ S /O /S ZO 2^ J/^ S /O /S ZO ZS 3Q S /O /5,.
^^^^K 'Jo^\/£ Z^CUJy- Z^t^. 'S^PT. OCT.
Figure 22. — Comparison of 7-day averages of the day-degrees above 50° F., from May 1 to October
15, for 1925 and 1926, in the insectary at Riverton, N. J,
Table 14. — Average number of effective day-degrees {50° to 86° F.) needed to com-
plete the development of the several stages of the oriental peach moth in 1925 and
1926 in an open screen insectary at Riverton, N. J.
Item
Period
Number of
individuals
Number of effective day-
degrees
Stage
1925
1926
1925
1926
More (+>
or less
(-)in
1926
Egg
A
I c
If
1-
Unobserved half day of incubation
period.
Observed part of incubation period
Entire incubation period
40,210
40, 210
40, 210
3,270
929
3,431
3,270
(0
23,507
23, 507
23, 507
2,309
1,532
2,270
2,267
(1)
10.4
99.6
110.0
278.3
281.0
304.6
694.0
1 692. 9
8.7
102.1
110.8
277.6
282.4
306.7
694.4
1 695. 1
-1.7
-f2. 5
+0.8
Larva
Cocoon (larva
and pupa).
Life cycle
(egg to
adult).
Feeding period of transforming larvae.
Feeding period of wintering larvae
Cocoon period of transforming indi-
viduals.
Life cycle of transforming^ndividuals.
Life cycle of transforming individuals
(C, D, and F).i
-.7
-fl.4
+2.1
-^0.4
+2.2
1 This item (H) includes the records of transforming individuals which completed any stages, whereas
the preceding item (G) is based on the records of those transforming individuals which completed all stages
of the life cycle.
LIFE HISTORY OF THE ORIENTAL PEACH MOTH
31
Various ranges of temperature, 50° to 84° F., 50° to 86°, 50° to 88°,
and 50° to 90°, and also other ranges with 45° to 55° as the minimum,
were used to determine the effective day-degrees for the several stages.
In general, the 50° to 86° gave results most nearly alike for the two
seasons ; consequently the writers have assumed that this range comes
nearest to being correct. For the sake of brevity the results of this
range are the only ones presented. (Table 14.) Tables 15, 16, 17,
and 19 show the extent of variation in the number of effective day-
degrees needed to complete the development of the respective stages
by the various individuals on the basis of a 50° to 86° range.
The average incubation periods of the eggs (Tables 14 and 15) for
the two seasons, expressed in effective day-degrees, were 110° and
110.8°, respectively. Thus the difference in the average totals of
effective day-degrees for the incubation period in 1925 and in 1926
was 0.8°, or a difference of less than 1 per cent.
In Tables 14 and 15 the entire incubation period is subdivided into
two parts; the unobserved half day and the observed period. This-
is due to the method used in taking records. All deposition and
hatching records were made early in the morning of each day, and
experience has shown that nearly all eggs are deposited about sunset.
To obtain the complete record of effective day-degrees for any lot
of eggs, it was necessary to take into consideration the time and
effective day-degrees occurring between the deposition and the first
observation. Since it was impractical to make observations on the
exact time each egg was deposited, it was estimated that an average
of 12 hours elapsed for all eggs between the time of deposition and the
first observation. This period has been called the unobserved half
day. Consequently, to obtain the entire incubation period, it is-
necessary to add the unobserved half day to the observed period.
The unobserved half-day period is also considered in determining the
life cycle, and it is included in the figures shown in Tables 14 and 19.
Table 15. — Number of eggs of the oriental peach moth which completed their incu-
bation period within given ranges of effective day-degrees and the average number
of effective day-degrees required at Riverton, N. J., seasons of 1925 and 1926
Range of effective day-degrees
1925
1926
80-84.9
Eggs
780
821
5,833
12, 613
11,484
6,642
1,666
16
356
Eggs
OO
85- 89.9
630
90- 94.9.
2,253
6,526
5,601
5,755-
1,825-
725
95-99.9
IOa-104.9 .
105-109.9
110-114.9..
115-119.9
120-125
192
Total
40, 210
23,507
Average number of effective day-degrees for observed period
Average number of effective day-degrees for unobserved half-day period.
Average number of effective day-degrees for entire period
I Day-degrees
^ 99.6
10 4
110 0
Day-degrees
102.1
8.7
110 a
The feeding period of transforming larvae (Tables 14 and 16) aver-
aged 278.3 and 277.6 effective day-degrees in 1925 and 1926, whereas
the feeding period of wintering larvae averaged a little higher, 281
and 282.4 effective day-degrees. Again the results for the two sea-
sons resemble each other closely, the variation being less than one-
32
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 183, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
half of 1 per cent for both transforming and wintering larvae. The
difference in the effective day-degree requirement of wintering and
transforming larvae substantiates the results shown in Figures 12
and 13, where it is evident that wintering larvae feed longer than
transforming larvae.
Table 16. — Number of transforming and wintering larvae of the oriental peach moth
which completed their feeding periods within given ranges of effective day-degrees,
and the average number of effective day-degrees required, at Riverton, N. J., seasons
of 1925 and 1926
Range of effective day-degrees
Transforming larvae
Wintering larvae
1925
1926
1925
1926
199-209.9
Number
1
8
59
297
86
134
376
641
460
639
346
119
84
20
Number
0
0
17
71
122
183
420
530
205
373
213
169
0
6
Number
0
20
10
79
53
0
121
209
268
55
91
5
3
15
Number
0
210-219.9..
0
220-229.9
0
230-239.9
0
240-249.9
67
250-259.9
120
260-269.9 .
248
270-279.9 . --
317
280-289.9
251
290-299.9
235
300-309.9
181
310-319.9
76
320-329.9
31
330-340.0
6
Total
3,270
Day-degrees
278.3
2.309
Day-degrees
277. Q
929
Day-degrees
281.0
1,532
Day-degrees
Average number of effective day-degrees
The cocoon period (larva, prepupa, and pupa) of transforming indi-
viduals (Tables 14 and 17) averaged 304.6 and 306.7 effective day-
degrees for 1925 and 1926. This stage showed the greatest variation
of all the stages for the two years, yet the difference was less than
1 per cent. P. A. Glenn has shown that the pupal stage of the codling
moth has an effective day-degree range of 52 to 86. It is probable
that if a similar correction could have been made the results for the
two years might have been closer. Unfortunately continuous records
on the pupal stage for 1925 were not made; consequently a separate
zero of development for pupae could not be ascertained.
Table 17. — Number of oriental peach moths which completed their cocoon periods
within given ranges of effective day-degrees, and the average number of effective
day-degrees, Riverton, N. J., seasons of 1925 and 1926
Range of effective day-degrees
1925
1926
258-259.9
Cocoons
7
116
161
311
234
772
1,595
186
49
Cocoons
0
260-269.9 -
9
270-279.9 - . .
40
280-289.9
201
290-299.9
502
300-309.9.
773
310-319.9 - . .
655
320-329.9 .
174
330-334.9
16
Total
. 3,431
Day-degrees
304.6
2,270
Average number of effective day-degrees -.
Day-degrees
306.7
LIFE HISTOKY OF THE ORIENTAL PEACH MOTH
33
The influence of effective day-degrees on wintering larvae and
pupae in cocoons is different from that on transforming individuals
in cocoons, for it requires many more effective day-degrees to com-
plete the development of the stages within and produce adults. At
one time it was the opinion of the writers that the average of accu-
midated effective day-degrees in the spring of the year, starting with
January 1, would be the same for wintering material in any season.
Apparently this is not the case, for after trying zeros of development
from 45° to 55° F. and figuring the accumulated degrees above the
zero points for each individual and averaging them for the two seasons
under consideration (Table 18), it was learned that the average
effective day-degree requirement for the spring of 1927 was more than
12 per cent higher than for the spring of 1926. In calculating it was
learned that changes in the maximum degree of development for the
spring of the year had little or no effect, for there were but two or
three days when the temperature was higher than 86°.
Table 18. — Average number of effective day-degrees (using various ranges) to which
the wintering cocoons that produced moths were exposed during the dormant seasons
of 1925-26 and 1926-27 in the insectary at Riverton, N. J.
Effective
day-
degree
range
Item
Dormant season
Time
1925-26
1926-27
More (+) or less \,—)
in 192d-27
°F.
A...
C...
D...
If...
G...
[i-.-
J....
1^-
Spring
Effective
day-degrees
802.2
583.1
1, 385. 3
545.0
380.5
925.5
459.0
325.5
784.5
349.4
232.5
581.9
Effective
day-degrees
936.5
504.0
1, 440. 5
633.3
332.2
965.5
529.6
273.4
803.0
394.7
148.8
543.5
Effective
day-degrees
+134. 3
-79.1
+55.2
+88.3
-48.3
+40.0
+70.6
-52.1
+18.5
+45.3
-83.7
-38.4
Per cent
+16.7
45-86
F^l .
—13.5
Both .
+3.»
Spring
+16.2
50-86
F^L. ...:..::
-12.6
Both
+4.3
Spring
+15.3
52-86
yA\ :::::.::"::::::'"" :
—16.0
Both
+2.3
Spring
+12. 9
55-86
Fall
-36.0
Both .
—6.5
Since there seemed to be a more or less consistent variation in the
accumulated effective day-degrees for the spring of the year for the
two seasons, it was thought that the accumulated effective day-degrees
in the fall of the year might have had some influence on the develop-
ment of the wintering larvae; consequently these were ascertained.
The effective day-degrees from the time the cocoon was constructed
in the late summer or fall until January 1 was figured for each indi-
vidual and the average determined for all. The averages for each
zero of development are recorded in Table 18. The average of
accumulated effective day-degrees for the fall of the year of 1926 is
consistently less (by 12 per cent or more) for all zeros of development
than in 1925. This is just the reverse of the situation in the spring
of the year. This reversal indicates strongly that the accumulated
effective day-degrees in the fall of the year must be taken into con-
sideration in determining the spring-brood emergence of moths.
When the accumulated effective day-degrees for the fall and spring
of the year are added together they give (for each range of effective
day-degrees) all the accumulated effective day-degrees the cocoons
are subjected to between the time of their formation and the emergence
of the adult. It will be noted in Table 18 that the addition of the fall
temperatures to the spring temperatures for each season reduces the
34
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 183, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTtTRE
total difference in the two seasons materially. The 52° to 86° range
shows the smallest difference, which is 18.5°. This difference approxi-
mates 2 per cent for the two seasons when the entire cocoon period is
considered. Since the 52° to 86° range shows the least difference in
the average of accumulated effective day-degrees for the two seasons,
it is assumed that 52° F. is probably the zero of development for the
stages within the overwintering cocoon. This is the zero of develop-
ment that Glenn established for the codling-moth pupa.
The foregoing facts on wintering cocoons of the oriental peach
moth indicate strongly that in determining the spring-brood emer-
gence the accumulated effective day-degrees in the fall of the year
must be considered as well as those in the spring in determining or in
forecasting the time of emergence of the spring brood.
One observation remains, however, which may or may not have an
important bearing on the validity of the above statements. It has
been learned that individuals which spin cocoons early in the fall do
not necessarily emerge first in the spring, nor do individuals which
spin cocoons late in the fall emerge correspondingly late in the
spring. In fact there is some indication that larvae which spin their
cocoons late in the fall are likely to produce the earliest spring-brood
adults. These facts are difficult to explain in view of the information
presented in regard to the influence of fall temperatures on the spring-
brood emergence. It is probable that important factors other than
temperature might explain the seeming inconsistency.
The entire life-cycle period (egg to adult) of transforming indi-
viduals (Tables 14 and 19) averaged 694 and 694.4 effective day-
degrees for 1925 and 1926. The variation was 0.4° or less than 0.1
per cent. If the average effective day-degrees calculated for each
stage, eggs (C), transforming larvae (D), and transforming cocoons
(F) in Table 14 are combined, the totals are 692.9 and 695.1 effective
day-degrees for the two seasons, or a variation of 2.2°, which is less
than 0.4 per cent.
Table 19. — Number of oriental peach moths which completed their life cycles
within given ranges of effective day-degrees ^ and the average number of effective
day-degrees required, at Riverton, N. J., seasons of 1925 and 1926
Range of effective day-degrees
1925
1926
585-589.9
Individuals
0
0
12
14
44
121
170
331
320
156
211
402
450
452
354
233
0
0
Individuals
24
590-599.9
0
600-609.9 -
5
€10-619 9
5
€20-6299
17
€30-639.9 --
22
640-649.9
61
€50-659 9
198
€60-669 9
278
670-679.9 - -
369
680-689.9 --
278
690-699.9. ... --
446
700-709.9
177
710-719.9
113
720-729.9
177
730-739.9
0
740-749 9
88
750-7599
9
Total. -
3,270
Day-degrees
683.6
10.4
694.0
2,267
Average rmmher
Day-degrees
Average number of effective day-degrees for unobserved half-day period
8.7
Average number of efTftctivfi dav-dfterpfis for fttitirft np.riod . .. ..
694.4
LIFE HISTOKY OF THE ORIENTAL PEACH MOTH 35
The foregoing discussion shows that the 50° to 86° F. range of
effective day-degrees is approximately correct if all the individuals of
a given stage for an entire growing season are taken into consideration;
however, if the effective day-degrees are ascertained for a given stage
in the several generations there is a slight difference in the generations.
The indications are that early or late in the season an effective day-
degree produces a greater development than during midseason, when
high temperatures predominate. In other words, it requires a some-
what smaller total of effective day-degrees within the 50° to 86°
range for the completion of the feeding period or cocoon period (not
so true of the incubation period) early or late in the year, when the
night temperatures fall below 50°, than during midsummer, when all
temperatures are much above 50°.
It is possible that the zero of development for the oriental peach
moth may be somewhat below 50° F. for some of the stages, particu-
larly the feeding period and possibly the cocoon period of transforming
individuals. Shelf ord in his investigations (15) shows that tem-
peratures as low as 45° are to some extent effective in the development
of certain stages of the codling moth. If this is also true of the
oriental peach moth, it may help to explain the apparent difference
in the effective day-degrees rfequired (within the 50° to 86° range) for
development of individuals existing in temperatures which average
high or low.
SUMMARY
Eggs of the oriental peach moth are deposited on smooth surfaces.
In the insect ary eggs may be found on the smooth surface of glass,
wood, or foliage (pear, apple, peach, quince, etc.). Under orchard
conditions eggs are found on the lower surface of peach foliage, usually
on the upper surface of apple and quince foliage, on either the upper or
lower surface of pear foliage, and also on any smooth portion of newly
formed twigs of peach and pear.
From 15 to 48 hours before the newly formed larva hatches, its
head can be seen inside the eggshell. This is called the '^ black-spot"
stage.
The incubation period of the egg ranges from 3 K to 20 or more days,
depending upon the temperature, being shortest during the summer
and longer in the spring and fall.
Larvae transforming during the summer require 6 to 24 (or an aver-
age of 12) days to complete their growth, while wintering larvae have
a slightly longer feeding period and may require as many as 50 to 115
days. There are four or five larval instars, depending upon the rate
of growth of the larva.
The cocoon is usually constructed in 24 to 48 hours. Summer
cocoons are more fragile than the wintering forms. The cocoon period
for transforming individuals is 8 to 33 days or an average of about 14
days, while the wintering cocoon period varies between 131 and 307
days.
The prepupal stage during the summer averages 3 or 4 days.
Larvae cocooning late in August and during September are usually
overwintering if they do not pupate within 5 to 7 days.
The length of the pupal stage for transforming individuals is 7 to
13 days or an average of nearly 10 days, and for wintering individuals
which pupate in the spring it is considerably longer, 17 to 51 days or
an average of about 27 days.
36 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 183, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICXJLTUKE
The adult is a small grayish-brown moth with a wing spread of
approximately one-half inch. Males and females resemble each other
closely. The average length of life when they are confined in glass
jars is 14 or 15 days or longer. Egg deposition begins 2 to 5 days after
emergence and continues for 7 to 10 days or longer. Females deposit
100 to 200 or more eggs.
Temperature and sunlight have considerable influence upon adult
emergence.
The life cycle of transforming individuals averaged 30 to 33 days for
the two seasons, and the average for wintering individuals was 278 and
279 days for the two winters.
In 1925 there were five complete or partial generations at Riverton^
N. J., and in 1926 there were four complete or partial generations.
The marked difference in the temperature during the two seasons
(1925 and 1926) was chiefly responsible for the decided difference in
the number of generations and the dates when the various stages in
the several generations occurred. The season of 1926 was consider-
ably cooler than the preceding season and from May 1 to September
30, 1926, there were 333.3 effective day-degrees less than for the same
period in 1925.
The work of P. A. Glenn indicates that in general the effective
temperatures for the development of the codling moth exist between
50° and 86° F. Although the two seasons of 1925 and 1926 were so
extremely different from the standpoint of temperature, the applica-
tion of Glenn's ideas and theories to the oriental peach moth indicate
that the 50° to 86° range is approximately correct for this insect.
This further emphasizes the close relationship existing between the
codling moth and the oriental peach moth. The variation in the
number of effective day-degrees required to complete the development
of each stage {egg, larva, and cocoon, including pupa) in the life cycle
of the oriental peach moth did not exceed 1 per cent for the two
seasons.
The average accumulated effective day-degree requirement for the
fall of 1926 was found to be consistently less (12 per cent or more) for
all zeros of development than that for the fall of 1925. Conversely,
the average effective day-degree requirement for the spring of 1927
was more than 12 per cent higher than that for the spring of 1926.
Thus, in the case of wintering larvae the effective day-degrees in the
fall of the year as well as those occurring in the spring must be taken
into consideration in determining the spring-brood emergence of
moths. A temperature of 52° F. is probably the zero of development
for the stages in the overwintering cocoon. Although the 50° to 86°
range of effective day-degrees is approximately correct if all the indi-
viduals of a given stage for an entire growing season are taken into
consideration, there is a slight difference in the generations when the
effective day-degrees are ascertained for a given stage in the several
generations. It is possible that the zero of development for the
oriental peach moth may be somewhat below 50° for some stages,
particularly the feeding period and possibly the cocoon period of
transforming individuals.
LIFE HISTORY OF THE ORIENTAL PEACH MOTH 37
LITERATURE CITED
<l) Glenn, P. A.
1925. CODLING-MOTH INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STATE ENTOMOLOGIST'S
OFFICE, 1915, 1916, AND 1917. Bul. 111. Nat. Hist. SuFvev (1921-23)
14: [2191-289, illus.
<2) Peterson, A.
1920. SOME STUDIES ON THE EFFECT OF ARSENICAL AND OTHER INSEC-
TICIDES ON THE LARVAE OF THE ORIENTAL PEACH MOTH. JoUF.
Econ. Ent. 13:391-398.
<3) -
<4) -
<5) -
(6):-
(7) -
(8) -
1925. A BAIT WHICH ATTRACTS THE ORIENTAL PEACH MOTH (LASPEYRESIA
MOLESTA BuscK). Jour. Econ. Ent. 18:181-190, illus.
1925. ORIENTAL PEACH MOTH IN THE SEASON OF 1923. N. J. AgF. Expt.
Sta. Ann. Rpt. (1923-24) 45:291-294.
1925. THE ORIENTAL PEACH MOTH. 111. State Hort. See. Trans. 58:183-188.
1926. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON BAITS ATTRACTIVE TO THE ORIENTAL
PEACH MOTH, LASPEYRESIA MOLESTA BUSCK, 1925. Jour. EcOn.
Ent. 19:429-439, illus.
1926. A REPORT ON BIOLOGICAL STUDIES OF THE ORIENTAL PEACH MOTH
(LASPEYRESIA MOLESTA BUSCK) FOR 1924. N. J. AgF. Expt. Sta.
Ann. Rpt. (1924-25) 46:379-386, illus.
1927. SOME BAITS MORE ATTRACTIVE TO THE ORIENTAL PEACH MOTH THAN
BLACKSTRAP MOLASSES. JouF. Econ. Ent. 20:174r-185.
(9) and Haeussler, G. J.
1926. THE ORIENTAL PEACH MOTH. U. S. Dept. AgF. CIfc. 395, 28 p.,
illus.
(10) and Haeussler, G. J.
1928. RESPONSE OF THE ORIENTAL PEACH MOTH AND CODLING MOTH TO
COLORED LIGHTS. Ann. Ent. Soc. AmeF. 21:353-379.
(11) and Haeussler, G. J.
1928. DETERMINATION OF THE SPRING-BROOD EMERGENCE OF ORIENTAL
PEACH MOTHS AND CODLING MOTHS BY VARIOUS METHODS. JoUF.
Agr. ReseaFch 37:399-417, illus.
(12)2 and Haeussler, G. J.
1928. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE NUMBER OF LARVAL INSTARS OF THE
ORIENTAL PEACH MOTH, LASPEYRESIA MOLESTA BUSCK. JoUF.
Econ. Ent. 21:843-852, illus.
(13) and Stearns, L. A.
1925. A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE ORIENTAL PEACH MOTH IN NEW
JERSEY. N. J.. AgF. Expt. Sta. Circ. 175, 11 p., illus.
(14) QuAiNTANCE, A. L., and Wood, W. B.
1916. LASPEYRESIA MOLESTA, AN IMPORTANT NEW INSECT ENEMY OF THE
PEACH. JouF. AgF. Research 7:373-378, illus.
(15) Shelford, V. E.
1927. AN EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF THE RELATIONS OF THE
CODLING MOTH TO WEATHER AND CLIMATE. 111. Nat. Hist.
SuFvey Bul. 16: [311J-440, illus.
(16) Stearns, L. A., and Peterson, A.
1928. THE SEASONAL LIFE HISTORY OE THE ORIENTAL FRUIT MOTH IN NEW
JERSEY DURING 1924, 1925, AND 1926. N. J. AgF. Expt. Sta. Bul.
455, 48 p., illus.
ORGANIZATION OF THE
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
Majr 16. 1930
Secretary of Agriculture Arthur M. Hyde,
Assistant Secretary R. W. Dunlap.
Director of Scientific Work A. F. Woods.
Director of Regulatory Work Walter G. Campbell.
Director of Extension Work C. W. Warburton.
Director of Personnel and Business Adminis- W. W. Stockberger,
tration.
Director of Information M. S. Eisenhower.
Solicitor E. L. Marshall.
Weather Bureau Charles F. Marvin, Chief.
Bureau of Animal Industry John R. Mohler, Chief.
Bureau of Dairy Industry. O. E. Reed, Chief.
Bureau of Plant Industry William A. Taylor, Chief.
Forest Service R. Y. Stuart, Chief.
Bureau of Chemistry and Soils H. G. Knight, Chief.
Bureau of Entomology C. L. MahijATT, Chief.
Bureau of Biological Survey Paul G. Redington, C/iie/-
Bureau of Public Roads Thomas H. MacDonald, Chief.
Bureau of Agricultural Economics Nils A. Olsen, Chief.
Bureau of Home Economics Louise Stanley, C/iie/-
Plant Quarantine and Control Administration. Lee A. Strong, Chief.
Grain Futures Administration J. W. T. Duvel, Chief.
Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration-. Walter G. Campbell, Director of
Regulatory Work, in Charge.
Office of Experiment Stations , Chief.
Office of Cooperative Extension Work C. B. Smith, Chief.
Library Claribel R. Barnett, Librarian.
This bulletin is a contribution from
Bureau of Entomology C. L. Marlatt, C/iie/-
Division of Deciduous Fruit, Insects A. L. Quaintance, Associate Chief
of Bureau, in Charge.
38
U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1930
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C, Price 10 cents
Technical Bulletin No. 182
April, 1930
FACTORS AFFECTING THE
MECHANICAL APPLICATION
OF FERTILIZERS TO
THE SOIL
BY
ARNON L. MEHRING
Associate Chemist^ Fertilizer and Fixed Nitrogen Investigations
Bureau of Chemistry and Soils
AND
GLENN A. CUMINGS
Agricultural Engine er. Division of Agricultural Engineering
Bureau of Public Roads
United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
Technical Bulletin No. 182
April, 1930
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE MECHANICAL
APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS
TO THE SOIL
By Arnon L. Mehring, Associate Chemist, Fertilizer and Fixed Nitrogen Inves-
tigations, Bureau of Chemistry/ and Soils, and Glenn A. Cumings, Agricultural
Engineer, Division of Agricultural Engineering, Bureau of Put)lic Roads^
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction __ 1
Early mechanical distributors 2
Purpose of the investigation 5
Preliminary work 5
Description of experimental apparatus, raate-
terials, and methods 8
Air-conditioning plant 8
Fertilizers and distributors selected 11
Experimental methods 15
Factors affecting the drillability of fertilizers. . 17
Weather 17
Hygroscopicity 22
State of subdivision.. 24
Heterogeneity 32
Specific gravity 33
Friction between particles 35
Conditioners 40
Distributors, their construction and opera-
tion 42
Types of distributors 42
Types of fertilizers used in the study of dis-
tributors-_. 42
Experimental procedure 44
Distributor No. 1, grain-drill attachment.. 47
Distributor No. 2, grain-drill attachment. 51
Distributor No. 3, potato-planter attach-
ment 54
Page
Distributors, their construction and opera-
tion—Continued.
Distributor No. 4, potato-planter attach-
ment... 56
Distributor No. 5, potato-planter attach-
ment 58
Distributor No. 6, corn-planter attachment- 60
Distributor No. 7, broadcast or 3-row dis-
tributor- - 62
Distributor No. 8, single-row distributor... 63
Distributor No. 9, single-row distributor... 66
Distributor No. 10, single-row distributor.. 67
European types of distributors 70
Factors affecting the operation of distributors 72
Depth of fertihzer in the hopper. 72
Inclination of distributor 75
Variation in distributing units... 77
Unrestricted flow of fertihzer through the
distributing mechanism 80
Use of agitators 81
Feed-wheel speed 82
Positive action of the distributing mecha-
nism__ 83
Uniformity of distribution 84
General results and recommendations 87
Conclusions 93
Literature cited.. 94
INTRODUCTION
Although marl, saltpeter, animal excrements, and wood ashes had
been used for many centuries to inci-ease crop yields, the fertilizer
industry may be said to have begun with the introduction of super-
phosphate in 1842. Within the following 20 years Chilean nitrate,
guano, sulphate of ammonia, fish scrap, and the German potash salts
came into general use as fertilizers.
At first these fertilizer materials were applied singly to crops, and
this is still the usual practice in Europe. About 1860, a mixture
iR. B. Gray, senior agricultural engineer, and M. A. R. Kelley, associate agricultural
engineer, represented the Bureau of Public Roads during the early stages of this study.
The writers wish to express their indebtedness to W. II. Ross, senior chemist in charge of
concentrated-fertilizer investigation's, for valuable suggestions and kindly assistance in
connection with this study.
98734—30 1 1
2 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 2, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
known as ammoniated phosphate and consisting of guano and super-
phosphate was first sold. This met with such success that complete
mixtures were soon offered, and by 1880 their use was widespread.
For many years these mixed fertilizers were prepared from guano,
cottonseed meal, bone dust, hardwood ashes, and superphosphate,
with small additions of Chilean nitrate, ammonium sulphate, and
potash salts. The average plant- food content was about 2 per cent
ammonia, 8 per cent phosphoric acid, and 2 per cent potash.
EARLY MECHANICAL DISTRIBUTORS
Machines for spreading lime, plaster, ashes, and guano were in-
vented before commercial fertilizers were developed. The first
patent on such an implement was granted about 1830 by the United
States Patent Office. A periodical (i)^ in 1838 mentions Wells's lime
1 /°) 1^ (°\ /°l /°l
^ 4f -W- 4f 4? ^l"
Figure 1. — Seymour's broadcast lime and guano sower
sower, which it was claimed was capable of distributing " from 2 to
500 bushels " of lime, marl, ashes, etc., per acre.
Seymour's broadcast lime and guano sower (^), patented in 1845,
was first offered to the public about 1848. This implement is illus-
trated in Figure 1. In advertisements the claim was made for years
that the machine would dust evenly every square inch of soil with an
application as small as one-half bushel of plaster, lime, or bone dust
to the acre, and that the quantity sown could be regulated to within
1 pint per acre. Cooper's lime spreader ^ (fig. 2) and Fawkes's lime
and guano spreader * were placed on the market a few years later.
These early distributors were broadcasters of simple construction.
Usually the lEiopper was oblong, with an adjustable slit running the
' Italic numbers in parentheses refer to Literature cited, p. 94.
8 Cooper, L. improvement in spreading lime and manure. (U. S. Patent No. 9339,
Oct. 19, 1852.) U. S. Patents, v. 109. 1852-53
* Pawkes, .T. W. improvement in manure and limb spbkadbbs (U. S. Patent No.
11602, Aug. 29, 1854.) U. S. Patei.ts, v. 114. 1S54.
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERTILIZEES S
entire length of the bottom. The fertilizer was fed through this
opening either by a revolving rolled or by a reciprocating agitator.
The so-called slit machines still in use in Europe, as well as some
American lime and fertilizer spreaders, are in principle similar to
these early types.
In the cotton-producing States, guano horns formerly were much
used for distributing fertilizers. This implement was an elongated
funnel which was filled from a sack strapped on the back of the
laborer. The bottom of the tube was carried in the furrow opened
for the seed. Much of the work formerly done in this way is now
accomplished with horse-drawn row distributors.
The Westfalia or chain type of broadcaster came into use about
25 years ago, and to-day is widely used in Europe. However, it is
being displaced in favor, especially in England, by the top-delivery
type of distributor which may be used either for row drilling or
for broadcasting.
Fertilizer distributors, as separate machines and distinct from
grain drills or planters, had not been used extensively prior to the
early part of the present century. According to the United States
census reports, 474 lime spreaders were manufactured during 1900.
The classification apparently
includes commercial fertilizer
distributors but not manure
spreaders. During 1914, 180,-
854 fertilizer distributors were
manufactured. According to
Storz (20), about 10,000 ferti-
lizer distributors were in use
in Germany in 1907. In 1925 figure 2.— Cooper's llme and fertilizer spreader
a census taken by the German
Government showed 104,000 in use there, or about one for every 50
farms. These figures indicate that in recent years there has been a
very rapid growth in the use of such machines.
In tracing the development of fertilizer distributors, only imple-
ments designed primarily for that purpose have so far been con-
sidered. While not much used in Europe, the horse-drawn imple-
ment most widely employed in this country for applying fertilizers
is the combination grain and fertilizer drill. Prior to 1893 this
implement was the principal type sold in this country for applying
fertilizers.
Although used in England since about 1782, grain drills were first
manufactured in this country about 1840. The advertisements
offering the first grain drills to the farmers, as well as the patent
specifications, claimed that the same mechanism would apply grain
or fine manures equally well. It was suggested that time could be
saved by mixing the seed and fertilizing substance and sowing them
together. This suggestion apparently did not meet with approval,
for combination fertilizer distributors and seeders were soon intro-
duced. One_of the earliest fertilizer attachments for a grain drill
was invented by T. F. Nelson. '^
iol2CSlc:kls6iTT.TFat^^^^^^ ^^^^«^^- <^- «• ^'''-' N-
4 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 2, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Seymour's combination grain and fertilizer drill was first offered
for sale in 1854. Within a year or two thereafter practically all
makes of grain drills were obtainable with fertilizer attachments.
The Bickf ord and Hoffman ^ combination grain and fertilizer drill
(fig. 3) soon became a favorite, and for many years was very popular.
The star-wheel or Avizard type of feed for use in grain-drill attach-
ments was invented in 1883, and the first model was almost identical
with the design still commonly used.
Probably the first combination planter and fertilizer distributor
was devised in 1838 by White {^2). (Fig. 4.) It was rather compli-
cated and never was commercialized. The earliest combination corn
Figure 3. — The Bickford and Hoffman grain drill and fertilizer distributor
planter and fertilizer distributor placed on the market probably was
Billings's machine (IS), which is illustrated in Figure 5.
Potato planters with fertilizer attachments w^ere first used about
1880. One of the first was True's (S), shown in Figure 6.
In 1919 Hurd (12) made a survey of the products of the leading
manufacturers of farm implements and estimated that 27 per cent
of the corn planters, 35 per cent of the potato planters, and 29 per
cent of the grain drills sold in that year had fertilizer attachments.
Practically no cultivators with such attachments were sold in that
year.
At present many different types of distributors are in use, and
most seeders and planters, as well as several makes of cultivators and
* Bickford, L. improvement in machines foe sowing fertilizers.
No. 21181, Aug. 17, 1858.) U. S. Patents v. 137. 1858.
(U. S. Patent
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS
transplanting machines, may be purchased equipped with fertilizer
attachments. Considering the sales of several of the leading manu-
facturers in 1928, the percentages of machines now sold with ferti-
lizer attachments are estimated by classes as follows : Corn planters,
37 per cent ; cotton planters, 9 per cent ; potato planters, 60 per cent ;
grain and beet drills, 40 per cent; and cultivators, 4 per cent. Sev-
eral thousand patents on fertilizer-distributing machines have been
issued by the United States Patent Office. Allen (5) describes
and illusfrates most of those granted up to the end of 1885.
The implements now employed in this country were designed to
apply the low-grade mixtures which have constituted the bulk of the
fertilizer used. On
the other hand, sev-
eral of the distributors
used abroad were de-
signed especially for
applying chemicals.
PURPOSE OF THE
INVESTIGATION
The investigation
on which this report
is based was under-
taken primarily to ob-
tain reliable informa-
tion concerning the
mechanical applica-
tion of fixed nitrogen
and other concentrated
fertilizers to the soil.
In reviewing the
literature no scientific
data were found re-
specting the compara-
tive drilling qualities
of the fertilizers now
used or the factors affecting these properties. Various contrivances
for distributing fertilizer are available, but no accurate information
could be obtained as to the relative merits of the several American
types of machines for applying different kinds of fertilizers. It was
desirable, for instance, to compare the new fertilizers with the stand-
ard ones commonly used, under controlled conditions which would
permit accurate observation. But since no information was avail-
able for making comparisons, it was necessary first to ascertain the
factors that affect the drilling qualities of fertilizers, and then to
determine how these factors operate in general as well as when the
materials are being distributed by representative types of machines.
Accordingly a general study of the application of fertilizers to the
soil was made, and this was followed by a detailed study of each of
the factors found to have a bearing on the problem.
PRELIMINARY WORK
General information on present-day practices in applying fertili-
zers was obtained through a questionnaire addressed to each State
Figure 4.-
White's seeder and fertilizer distributer in-
vented in 1838
6
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 2, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
agricultural experiment station. More detailed information was
gained through visits to a number of the near-by stations and
through interviews with county agricultural agents, farmers in
selected agricultural districts, and others having first-hand knowl-
edge of the current practices.
As a means of securing first-hand information the authors vol-
unteered to apply fertilizers for several farmers in the vicinity of
Washington, D. C. In one instance it was desired to broadcast a
4-8-4 ^ commercial fertilizer at a rate of 600 pounds per acre on a plot
to be planted with tomatoes. It was found necessary to set the drill
(similar to No. 1, p. 47) for 1,100 pounds per acre, according to its
calibration chart, to get a delivery of approximately 600 pounds. In
other experiments with wheat, corn, and potatoes it was found diffi-
cult to distribute fertilizer on the measured plot at a rate within
25 per cent of that desired. While it would be desirable to have
Figure 5. — Billings's corn and fertilizer planter
more accurate control of the delivery rate with the fertilizers now
used, the importance of accurate control increases greatly with highly
concentrated fertilizers, because of their cost.
A number of tests on rate of delivery of ammonium phosphate
were made in the field, under actual working conditions, with an
attempt to control the experiments. Relative humidity of the at-
mosphere and water content of the fertilizer were observed for each
test. The fertilizer was screened so as to be composed of particles
that w^ould pass through a 20-mesh but not through a 40-mesh sieve.
The drill was a standard 11-tube grain drill with a star- wheel fer-
tilizer attachment. The seed bed was thoroughly prepared. The
drill was operated on a 1-acre plot 1,000 feet in length at a rate of
approximately 2.5 miles per hour, and the fertilizer was delivered
into containers hung below the delivery tubes. A small sample of
"^ Fertilizer formula as used in this work means a statement of the ingredients and
weights of each required to make a ton of fertilizer. Analysis formula means a statement
of the minimum percentages of ammonia, phosphoric anhydride, and potash in a fertilizer.
Thus 4-8-4 is the analysis formula of a fertilizer containing nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium equivalent to 4 per cent of ammonia, 8 per cent of phosphoric anhydride, and
4 per cent of potash. Similarly, the grade of ingredients is expressed as percentages of
ammonia, phosphoric anhydride, and potash.
MECHAXICAL APPLICATION" OF FERTILIZEES 7
fertilizer was taken for moisture determination at the end of each
test, and the fertilizer returned to the hopper for another test. It
was noticed that the drive- wheel slippage under the conditions of the
tests averaged 7.5 per cent. The average temperature of the atmos-
phere during the tests was 65° F. The feeding mechanism was
set, according to the manufacturer's rating, to deliver 80 pounds per
acre. The results of a representative series of tests are given in
Table 1.
Table 1.
-Delivery of ammonium phosphate in the field under uncontrolled
conditions
Test No.
Relative
humidity
of air
Moisture
content of
fertilizer
Rate of
delivery
per acre
1 Relative
Test No. jhumidity
: of air
Moisture
content of
fertilizer
Rate of
delivery
per acre
1
Per cent
95
93
64
Per cent
0.631
1.048
.553
Pounds
48.8
39.2
54.7
4_..
5
6. .—
Per cent
J 53
-! 48
60
Per cent
.406
.370
.424
Pounds
84.6
2
90.3
.3
88.7
j
Figure 6. — True's potato planter with fertilizer attachment
The ammonium phosphate had been stored in a fairly dry place
until just prior to the first run which was made on a foggy morning.
It was in excellent condition at the start of the test, but by the time
1 acre had been drilled it appeared to be damp. When drilled again
it contained still more moisture and was delivered at a lower rate.
Later in the day, when the humidity had fallen, the fertilizer dried
out rapidly and drilled much more freely. The change of moisture
content and delivery rate of the fertilizer lagged behind the varia-
tions in atmospheric humidity, owing to the considerable time re-
quired to attain equilibrium. Nevertheless, the amount delivered
varied from 39.2 to 90.3 pounds per acre with changes in relative
humidity typical of a summer working day in the Middle Atlantic
States. This change in delivery rate would, however, have been
much less had the material not been so freely exposed to the air.
8 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 2, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
A number of other experiments were conducted in a similar man-
ner with various fertilizers and other types of distributors, with like
results. These experiments emphasized two points: (1) The im-
portance of further study, and (2) the necessity in these studies of
having positive and accurate control of air temperature and humid-
ity. A constant humidity room was therefore constructed in which
the temperature and humidity could be controlled at will through
the limits ordinarily met in the field when distributing fertilizers.
DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS, MATERIALS, AND
METHODS
AIR-CONDITIONING PLANT
Figure 7 shows diagrammatically the arrangement and relation-
ships of the different units which make up the temperature-humidity
control scheme used in this study. Essentially this comprises four
distinct parts — ^the air, water, cooling, and electric systems.
The air was circulated by means of a direct-connected, motor-
driven blower operating under a static head of. approximately one-
half inch of water. The air was driven at a rate of 175 cubic feet
per minute against the direction of a water spray produced in the
spray chamber by special xV-inch tangential nozzles supplied by a
centrifugal pump working at 25 pounds per square inch pressure.
From this chamber the air passed through a zigzagged set of plates^
called the eliminator, which separated out any particles of water
held in suspension. The saturated air then passed the thermostat
controlling the dew-point temperature, then was conducted through
the felt-insulated air pipe into the constant-humidity room, where
heat was added from a thermostatically controlled electric heater,
and the desired temperature and humidity effected. The air, while
passing through the room, gave up or absorbed moisture from the
materials in it, thus finally bringing them into equilibrium with the
conditions of the air as it entered the room. It then passed out
through the top of the room through a felt-insulated pipe and again
into the spray chamber, thereby completing the cycle. When a
lower relative humidity was desired, the air was cooled by colder
spray water and some of the moisture condensed ; if higher humidity
was desired, higher spray-water temperature added more moisture
to the air.
The water system derived its circulation from a 1-inch centrifugal
pump, capable of delivering 8 gallons per minute at 25 pounds pres-
sure. The water (or brine for temperatures below freezing) was
drawn by the pump through a double strainer from a tank and forced
into three banks of four nozzles each. The water condensed from
the incoming air, that separated by the eliminator, and the excess
spray flowed out of the bottom of the spray chamber into a collector
and trickled doAvn over the refrigerating coils into the tank, thus
completing the cycle of the water circuit. For a relative humidity
of 90 per cent it was necessary to use an auxiliary spray in the
constant-humidity room.
The cooling system reduced the temperature of the returning hu-
midifying water low enough to necessitate intermittent heating in
order to maintain the required temperature. The brine coils were
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERXILIZEES
9
^
e-i
J ^
^(2 n _^5Jd
ixj JT_r->L-.
/Mojp uaziij/i^udj
'-'
Ji>t
s^^cy i7/
10 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
supplied from a cold-storage plant with brine at a temperature
of about 20° F., the flow of which was controlled by a needle
valve. A number of additional valves and by-passes were used
to control accurately the rate of
cooling.
The electric system was made up-
of two electric circuits, each ther-
mostatically controlled. One cir-
cuit maintained a constant tem-
perature by means of the nichrome
heating coils in the constant-hu-
midity room. The other controlled
the temperature of the humidify-
ing water by means of an electric-
hairpin immersion heater, thereby^
maintaining the right dew point
for the room conditions required..
In both circuits the expanding or
contracting mercury column in the-
i thermostat closed or opened the
5 primary relay circuit, which in.
^ turn actuated a second relay and
S opened (if too hot) and closed (if
I too cold) the main heating circuit.
j3 A wide range of heat control (200.
I to 2,000 watts) was available in the
« room according to the position of
■3 various knife switches. Two heat-
^ ing units were placed in the water
g tank — one, of 1,000 watts, con-
3 trolled manually by a snap switch ;.
^ the other, of the same capacity,,
controlled automatically.
The constant-humidity room it-
self was lined inside with insulat-
ing board, well shellacked, and the
spaces between this lining and the
outside walls were filled with saw-
dust. The only entrance to the
room was through three tight -fit-
ting doors in the vestibule.
Three hygrothermographs were
kept in this room. One was placed.
upon the floor, another upon a
table, and the third upon a shelf
near the ceiling. The maximum
differences between the records om
these charts was not more than 2
per cent of relative humidity when the entire outfit was functioning"
properly. Figure 8 is a reproduction of a representative chart from,
one of these instruments. The hygrothermographs were checked
almost every working day with a sling psychrometer, and reset
whenever necessary.
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FEETILIZEKS
11
FERTILIZERS AND DISTRIBUTORS SELECTED
As many fertilizers were chosen as space in the constant-humidity
room permitted. They were intended, as far as possible, to be repre-
sentative of the various classes of fertilizers now in use or proposed
for use and included both fertilizer materials and mixtures.
Each individual material was of the usual commercial grade hav-
ing the composition shown in Table 2. These materials were obtained
on the open market, except the diammonium phosphate, mono-
potassium phosphate, urea-ammonium phosphate, and potassium-
ammonium phosphate, which were made in the fertilizer division of
this department.
Table 2. — Percentage of armnonia, phosphoric anhydride, and potash in the
fertilizer materials used
Fertilizer material
I NH3
P2O5
K2O
Nitrate of soda
Sulphate of ammonia
Ammonium nitrate.
Calcium nitrate
American urea (granulated)
German urea (powdered)..
Leunasalpeter
Cottonseed meal
Fish scrap
Ammo-phos
Monoammonium phosphate
Diammonium phosphate
Urea ammonium phosphate
Superphosphate
Triple superphosphate
Potassium nitrate
Monopotassium phosphate
Potassium ammonium phosphate.
Trona potassium chloride.
Per cent
19
25
42.2
18.8
51
56
31.6
8
10
13
14.2
25.2
24.3
16.7
Per cent
Per cent
2.5
7
47
60.6
52.3
49.4
18
43
50.9
54.1
1.5
45.9
33.6
18.6
60
The mixed goods, both ordinary and double strength, were obtained
from leading fertilizer manufacturers in various parts of the country
and are believed to be representative commercial fertilizers. In-
formation as to the ingredients from which these mixtures were made
was furnished by the makers and is given in Table 3, together with
the compositions of six concentrated and three ordinary mixtures
which were prepared in the fertilizer division.
12
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 2, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
i
§
3
CQ
(9 -ON)
•M
i
i§
js
,S »
(5 -ON) ^
iR
12
§ i
8I-68-ei
(f -ON)
;^'
i
s
^ g
SI-68-8I
(8 "ON)
•*5
i
1
1 g
1-1-8^-^1
(Z -ON)
1
r1
i
1 g
(I -ON)
3
i
g s
O .
H-9I-0I I®
i
5
og
eOr-1
1
§
8-91-8
4
g
2
l§
i
oz-zi-s
3-
1
§
ii
1
V^^
3^
•r<.
J§
s
s
01-91-^
a
S
8
g
CO
ig
os-oz-0
1
§
S
i
1
S
03
?
w
1
Z-9-2I
g
11
i
g
'
0I-8-0T
3'
§
1
s
1
8
9-01-^
1
Ss
s
t
s-si-z 1
1
§
1
^-^i-c
1
ss
R
\
a
O
1
CQ
8-6-8
(8 -ON)
1
gg
\
8-6-8
(Z -ON)
5
l§
g
8-6-8
(I -ON)
l§
i
s
i
Q
9-0-6
a
OOQ
g
V^-^
5-
1
i
8-6-8 q
§§
i
g
5-8-Z
1
8
1
11
o
c. ^:
iCkO
c«
O 00
«0«J
■8
a.*
MC4
■*«oeo
-
t^QOt^ooeo»oot-t^Q
5
«HN
*^ JO 2 ^ g' ^ JO t>.' 00 !>•' O ^H »■ 00 O «0 -<< j-H CO ■*
1
'
1
c
C
c
e
c
1
C
1
1
1
1
0
P
c
s>
1
p
o
P
i
o
p
c
p
1
1
P
1
>
t
a
1
c
c
£
<
OQ
•s
«
.^
o
p
o
p
o
-
s
§
0
1
c
'S
£
0
1
•1
c
O 1
x: <
p. ;
6 :
13 .
1 i
a :
OS ;
a i
ii
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS
13
'
;§
1 i
1
ii
i il
1
1
;.[
s
s
1 i
1
i
[^
i
s
§
CO
1
P
g
i
^
s
1
!
!
g
1
i i
1
00
1
1
1
c
p.
c
) c
1
a
.3
a
■1
o
I 1 «
; \s
' 'S
\ \x.
1 1 c
i :e
! 1 -
! !l
> 1 oi
N
i
i3
14 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 182, V. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
By concentrated fertilizer is meant a material or mixture contain-
ing a total of plant food, calculated as ammonia, phosphoric acid
(PgOs), and potash, equal to or greater than 30 per cent of its
weight. In addition to several concentrated mixtures obtained on
the market, a number of mixtures were made up containing four
or five times the amount of plant food present in the usual grade of
commercial fertilizer. Several of them also contained 10 per cent
of organic ammoniate. They are the most highly concentrated fer-
tilizers it is possible to make commercially at present and contain
about 65 to 70 per cent plant food.
High-analysis and concentrated mixtures, which were first intro-
duced only a few years ago, are rapidly coming into general use.
Some of those used in this study contain double the amount of plant
food of several of the most popular grades of ordinary mixtures.
Two of them, the 4-16-10 and 8-16-8, correspond to two of the ordi-
nary mixtures included in this list.
Mechanical analyses were made of the fertilizers used in these
experiments. The results are given in Table 4. The analyses were
made by shaking about 1 kilogram of each fertilizer in a series of
standard screens, ranging from 3 to 200 meshes to the linear inch,
until no more passed through them. The 3-5 mesh fraction, for
example, was composed of particles passing through a 3-mesh and
held on a 5-mesh screen. The fractions separated in this way were
weighed separately and the percentages calculated.
Table 4. — Mechanical analyses of experimental materials
Material separated into screen sizes of—
FertUizer
3-5
mesh
5-10
mesh
10-20
me.sh
20-40
mesh
40-80
mesh
80-200
mesh
Finer
than
200
mesh
Ordinary fertilizer materials:
Superphosphate
Percent
Per cent
Per cent
Per cent
24.22
39.63
89.50
35.43
31.54
25.83
30.46
93.41
89.88
85.15
21.43
16.77
98.41
34.68
2.40
9.78
84.34
85.71
12.00
25.48
24.92
29.60
30.85
26.49
28.85
26.37
22.53
25.20
23.54
Percent
14.61
54.44
8.84
9.14
15.14
27.06
19.43
3.88
8.98
14.22
30.16
8.98
1.06
42.77
2.39
5.43
11.62
12.57
63.50
20.38
38.01
18.58
33.61
27.15
27.40
39.56
20.43
28.87
29.76
Percent
12.34
5.93
1.66
1.71
12.40
27.91
17.54
2.71
1.14
.63
18.97
10.63
.53
16.62
2.81
5.14
4.04
1.72
24.26
18.56
21.02
14.54
20.28
43.31
41.10
32.04
23.23
35.66
21.35
Percent
48.83
Sulphate of ammonia
Nitrate of soda - -
Nitrate of lime
0.57
10.85
.31
.37
1.32
42.28
40.38
18.45
25.61
.23
.38
Peat -
.22
5.42
Concentrated materials:
Urea
2.38
1.80
18.25
26.35
8.73
35.32
.08
.15
Monoammonium phosphate
Diammonium phosphate
2.89
8.61
60.86
3.03
Triple superphosphate _
1.91
81.82
17.39
.06
1.38
Potassium nitrate
Trona potassium chloride
.24
Ordinary mixtures, commercial:
2-8-5 .
1.27
.31
.69
.28
7.64
1.25
9.66
.55
17.83
12.46
20.61
11.57
8.83
3-9-3 _
2.03
4-8-4_
6.31
9-0-6_-
2.86
Ordinary mixtures, special:
(No 1) 3-9-3
3.05
(No. 2) 3-9-3
2.65
(No. 3) 3-9-3
2.03
High-analysis mixtures, commercial:
4-10-6
1.10
.26
.36
4.95
1.05
3.50
15.93
5.51
19.03
11.83
10-8-10
3.45
12-6-2
2.46
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FEKTILIZEES 15
Table 4. — Mechanical analyses of experimental materials — Continued
Material separated into
screen sizes of—
Fertilizer
3-5
mesh
6-10
mesh
10-20
mesh
20-40
mesh
40-80
mesh
80-200
mesh
Finer
than
200
mesh
•Concentrated mixtures, commercial:
0-20-20
Per cent
.24
.40
.86
.24
.55
Per cent
3.08
5.67
17.24
6.23
1.65
4.13
Per cent
19.67
16.19
25.00
24.72
15.38
19.01
2.29
5.45
8.60
3.03
2.10
6.67
Per cent
35.78
21.06
26.72
22.72
31.87
36.36
33.59
36.36
43.89
31.51
22.10
37.78
Per cent
32.23
24.29
15.52
18.68
25.27
24.79
29.77
25.45
22.62
31.52
42.11
25.55
Per cent
8.89
23.82
14.66
27.41
25.28
15.11
31.26
20.10
21.31
30.15
31.35
27.52
Per cent
.11
4-16-10
8.67
4-24-4
8-12-20.
8-16-8. _
10-16-14 J
.60
•Concentrated mixtures, special:
(No. 1) 14-42-14
3.09
(No. 2) 14-43-14
12.64
(No. 3) 13-39-13
.45
.61
2.11
3.12
(No. 4) 13-39-13
3.18
(No. 5 ) 13-41-13
.23
(No. 6) 17-26-17
2.48
Ten distributors, representing types commonly used, were chosen
for this study and are illustrated in Plates 1 to 5A, inclusive. Gen-
•eral specifications are given in Table 5. More detailed descriptions
of these distributors will be given under " Distributors, their con-
struction and operation" (p. l2).
Table 5. — Specifications of fertilizer distributors used
Dis-
trib-
Type of distributor
Type of feed
Agita-
tor in
hopper
Delivery-rate control
Manufacturers'
deUvery rating
utor
No.
Mini-
mum
Maxi-
mum
1
Grain-drill attach-
ment.
do
Potato-planter attach-
ment.
do
do
Corn-planter attach-
ment.
Broadcast or 3-row
Single-row
Star wheel
Yes...
Yes...
No....
Yes...
Yes...
No ...
Gate and feed-wheel
speed.
do
Depth of plow and
plate speed.
Fertilizer gate
Pounds
per acre
30
24
300
260
200
Pounds
per acre
1,135
2
5
4
Revolving plate and
plow.
Paddle wheel
1,250
3,000
3,600
5
«
Revolving plate and
deflector.
Revolving plate and
plow.
E ndless conveyor
Revolving cylinder,
top delivery.
Agitator
Gate and feed-plate
speed.
do
3,400
7
No....
No....
No....
Yes...
Gate
8 .
Cyhnder speed
Gate and amplitude
of knock.
Conveyor speed
120
200
480
fl
do
do
2,60
10
(Oscillating plate.)
Screw conveyor
900
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
About 40 or 50 pounds of each of the fertilizers described was
spread in a wooden tray measuring 18 by 30 by 2.5 inches. These
trays had burlap bottoms supported by three small wooden strips.
The trays were supported on racks in the constant-humidity room
so as to obtain the best possible ventilation of the fertilizers. There
was a clearance of 2 inches between the drawers, and each tier was
entirely clear of the wall on all sides. A 14-inch fan on the opposite
16 TECHNICAL BITLLETIN 18 2, V. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
side of the room kept ffie air circulating all around them except
when dust was being raised in the room, when a tight curtain was
drawn about them. One tier of drawers is shown in Plate 5, B.
Each tray with its contents was weighed daily on a platform scale
sensitive to 0.01 pound, as long as any change in weight was recorded.
After weighing, the fertilizer was dumped into a metal tray, well
stirred, and returned to its original drawer. The metal tray was
carefully brushed to insure the return of all of the material. After
a given substance had weighed the same on three consecutive days,
it was considered to be at equilibrium with the atmospheric condi-
tions. To make sure that this was the case, the daily weighing was
continued after the fertilizer had been used experimentally until
all of the experiments at that humidity and temperature were com-
pleted when, if any material had shown a further change in weight,
the experiments with that material were repeated.
Distributor No. 1 was chosen for most of the experiments through-
out this work because it is representative of one of the principal types
of distributor now used in this country. It has a wide range of
delivery rates and is capable of convenient and positive adjustment.
In studying the drilling properties of fertilizers it was necessary to
use the same distributor for each set of experiments in order that
the results secured might be comparable.
In most of the experiments the gates were set at notch 10 on the
gate-lever scale, which gave one-third of the maximum opening and
which, according to the manufacturer's table should give 80 pounds
per acre with the slow-speed gear. This rate is lower than is com-
monly employed at present but approximates the rate that probably
would be used with concentrated fertilizers. With fast-speed gears
this setting, according to the same table, gives 375 pounds per acre
which is within the range of rates frequently used with commercial
fertilizers. In practically all of the experiments both speeds were
used. For reasons which will be explained later, only the slow-
speed delivery rates are given in the tables.
A revolution counter automatically registered the turns of the
main axle. By means of the clutch the machine could be started
and stopped almost exactly at the instant the counter registered a
revolution. Weights of fertilizer delivered when the machine was
run the number of revolutions corresponding to an advance in the
tield of 100, 500, 1,000, and 4,000 feet were all exact multiples
of the lowest weight to within 0.01 pound. It is believed, therefore,
that no error was introduced in starting and stopping the drill.
In making a test, sufficient material was placed in the drill to give
a head of about 8 inches. The machine was run for a few minutes
to insure that the fertilizer was flowing normally from all units,
when the clutch was thrown out, and the material delivered was re-
turned to the hopper. The machine was started again, and when
the revolution counter registered a number corresponding to 250
feet advance for fast speed, or 1,000 feet for slow speed, the fertilizer
caught in a pan beneath the delivery tubes was accurately weighed
and returned to the hopper. The shorter time for fast speed was
used so that the depth of fertilizer in the hopper should not be re-
duced to a point where this would materially affect the results. Not
less than three closely agreeing determinations were made in any ca^e.
Tech. Bui. 182. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 1
A, Distributor No. 1, grain-drill attachment; B, distributor No. 2, grain-drill attachment
Tech. Bui. 182. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 2
A, Distributor No. 3, potato-planter attachment; B, distributor No. 4, potato-planter attachment
Tech. Bui. 182, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
Plate 3
A, Distributor No. 5, potato-planter attachment; B, distributor No. 6, corn-planter attachment
Tech. Bui. 182. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 4
A, Distributor No. 7, broadcaster, 3-row; B, distributor No. 8, single-row; C, distributor No. 9,
single-row
Tech. Bui. 182, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 5
A, Distributor No. 10. B, Interior of constant humidity room, c, weighing pan; d, fertilizer dis-
tributor; e, fertilizer drawer; /, hygro thermograph; g, revolution counter; h, dust screen
MECHANICAL APPLlCATTOISr OF FERTILIZER^ 17
FACTORS AFFECTING THE DRILLABILITY OF FERTILIZERS
The principal properties of fertilizers that affect their distribution
are hygroscopicity, state of subdivision, degree of physical hetero-
geneity, apparent specific gravity, and friction between the particles.
The mechanical condition of the fertilizer at any time also depends
largely upon the weather to which it has been exposed. For con-
venience the word " drillability " is used to denote the resultant of all
the properties which influence the manner in which a fertilizer Avill
be distributed by machinery.
WEATHER
The elements of the weather which it was thought desirable to
study in connection with the drillability of fertilizers are relative
and absolute humidity and temperature. Kelative humidity already
was known to have a decided effect upon drilling qualities, but it
was not known whether absolute humidity and temperature were
of importance in this respect.
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
The first controlled experiments were made in an atmosphere with
a temperature of 68° F. and 40 per cent relative humidity. When
the desired tests had been made the humidity was increased to 50
per cent, while the temperature remained the same. After the
experiments at the latter figures had been completed the relative
humidity was raised further, 10 per cent at a time, until 90 per cent
relative humidity was reached. It was then decreased 10 per cent
at a time, until 40 per cent relative humidity was again obtained.
The experiments were repeated after each change. Thus equilibrium
was approached in most cases from both drier and damper condi-
tions. No evidence was found of a lag in the establishment of
equilibrium sufficient to materially affect the results presented in this
bulletin.
From two to four weeks were necessary to establish equilibrium
with changes of 10 per cent in relative humidity, but 80 per cent
and 90 per cent relative humidity required even longer times. In
general, mixed fertilizers required more time to change their water
content with changes in relative humidity than did the fertilizer
salts, although considerable variability in this respect was observed.
These differences appeared to be partly due to the more porous
structure of the mass in some cases, and to the greater amount of
change in water content in others.
Table 6 shows the delivery rates on the moist basis and wat^r
content of the various fertilizers, obtained when they were at equilib-
rium under various relative humidities. Since all of the materials
contained more water at high than at low relative humidities, the
differences in delivery rate of actual plant food are generally even
greater than those indicated in this table.
98734—30 9
18 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 6. — Effect of changes in relatwe humidity at 68° F. upon the water con-
tent of fertilizers and their delivery rate hy distributor No. 1
[Calculations are on the moist basis]
Fertilizer
Water content (per cent) and delivery rate (pounds per acre) of
fertilizer distributed at percentage relative humidity of—
40
50
70
90
Per
Ordinary fertilizer materials: cent
Superphosphate 0.44
Sulphate of ammonia 03
Nitrate of soda 23
Nitrate of lime 14. 79
Fish scrap. 5. 60
Cottonseed meal -.. 6.82
Peat 11.69
Concentrated fertilizer materials:
Urea, granulated 07
Urea ammonium phosphate. . . 11
Ammonium nitrate 02
Leunasalpeter 09
Ammo-phos 76
Monoammonium phosphate . .29
Diammonium phosphate 24
Triple superphosphate 2. 44
Potassium ammonium phos-
phate 23
Monopotassium phosphate... . 14
Potassium nitrate .27
Trona potassium chloride 14
Ordinary mixtures, commercial:
2-8-5 2. 54
3-9-3.- 3.42
4-8-4 2.33
&-0-6 - 3.75
High analysis mixtures, com-
mercial:
4-10-6 1.30
10-8-10 2.44
12-6-2... 1.80
Concentrated mixtures, com-
mercial: i
0-20-20 1 .85
4-16-10 i 2. 14
4-24-4 I 1.42
8-12-20 1. 79
8-16-8 2.02
10-16-14.. ._ 1. 72
Special:
(No. 1) 14-42-14 05
(No. 2) 14-43-14 32
(No. 3) 13-39-13 58
(No. 4) 13-39-13 37
(No. 5) 13-41-13. 08
(No. 6) 17-26-17 i .60
Average of 14 remaining
drillable at 90 per cent
relative humidity 1.57
73. 33
78.41
96.41
88. 28!
80. 591
104. 981
66. 79
Lbs.
per
acre
102. 95
82.76
135.04
Per
cent
0.87
.12
.40
100.48,24.77
58.951 6.58
48.35! 7.47
91.04112.90
70.57
70.42
89.18
82.62
81.02
104. 98
63.60
115.87! 3.241113.98
.14
.35
.17
.19
.95
.31
.74
Lbs.
per
acre
100. 77
82.47
125. 45!
24. 39
58.08
47.04
90.31
Per
cent
1.05
.23
.51
65.05!
117.181
123. 71
104. 11
87.85
78.26
93.36
84.07
94.09
94.67
88.28
118. 34
92.64
81.75
98.30
105. 56
93.94
99.75
53.58
104. 98
109.05
104.54
95.69
100.10
.30
.24
.28
.16
2.8ol
4.89
3.39
5.86i
2.00
2. 97
Lbt.
per
acre
93.65
69.12
112.09
0)
7.54 56.34
8.93 45.30
14.12 89.88
.31
.53
.38
.31
1.21
.42
63.45
66.50
73.33
76.08
84.07
101. ?0
1.23 59.53
4.45|lll.51
66.21 .43! 67.66
112. 68i .471105.27
118.05 .29115.43
92.20 .20! 77.54
85.96
74.05
91.04
67.66
83.34
97.14
60.84
1.35
2.80
3.31
2.62
2.96
2.06
.12
1.35
.83
.51
.14
1.12
2.06
107. 30
90.46
79.42
96.56
101. 93
92.93
96.56
46.46
98.74
107. 88
101. 35
88.43
57
2.76
3.57
8.12
78.55
73.33
81.31
61.13
82.18
94.38
55.32
Per
cent
1.96
.53
8.80
12.24
15.39
.76
4.03
1.63
.51
1.61
.65
.82
.44
1.38
10.91
15.43
15.13
15.04
7.25
4.94
14.72
1.64 96.85
3.96 86.83
5.27 75.79111.65
97.19
3.37
3.81
2.77
.31
3.83
1.20
.79
.26
1.79
2.74
93.94 5.46
90.60 6.23
8.24
82.33
33.84
91.62
96.99
90.31
78.99
92. 58
Lbs.
per
acre
85.67
51.55
(»)
(0
54.89
43.85
90.10
Per
cent
3.10
2,
11.86
13.35
16.82
55.90
5.811
(2)
9.00
84.65 8.36
96. 12! . 61
55.611 4.99
107. 16 9. 83
67.23 1.03
94.821 1.25
96.70 .61
53.72I 4.96
59. 97129. 96
63. 45124. 83
56. 19 28, 28
5.52
67.52
84.65
10.45
86.54
69.12
69.41
89.44
80.44
56.34
4.69 9.87
8.50 14.37
4.19| 57.06
4.24 62.58
1.04 65.34
6.22 17.71
4.49
80.35
15.09
19.16
21.69
22.76
11.87
11.86
7.61
7.01
3.31
Lbs.
per
acre
79.57
11.76
(I)
(1)
53.14
52.27
89.46
(»)
(2)
(0
(»)
65.63
90.75
6.82
106.58
63.31
85.38
86.83
28.17
1.89
15.25
9.15
(2)
58.23
22.94
(')
Per
cent
14.82
19.46
16.27
4.17
16.92
6.02
3.27
1.35
33.55
(') '
35.43!
60.84!41.19
53.72
60.2619.01
(»)
(»)
(»)
33.69
21.12
12.78il5.32
22. 94; 10. 65
Lbs.
per
acre
57.35
^'}
(•)
(0
(')
(»)
87.99
(0
(0
0)
(0
34.27
71.00
(»)
90.60
71.44
39.64
80.44
(*)
66.45
15.94
3.78
(2)
(»)
(^)
(*)
8.42
{')
55.76
(»)
^)
3.92
4.21
4.50
(»)
43.81
' In solution.
* Undrillable due to absorption of moisture.
» Decomposed.
The moisture contents recorded in the accompanying tables were
determined by placing 10 cubic centimeters of the materials in a
weighing bottle and drying in a vacuum desiccator well supplied
with dry phosphorus pentoxide. After a reasonable length of time
had elapsed the samples were weighed daily until no further loss
of weight was recorded. This required a month or more but gave
better results than the official method.
Nitrate of lime, or Norwegian saltpeter, was perfectly dry and
drilled exceptionally well in an atmosphere of 40 per cent relative
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS
19
humidity. At 50 per cent relative humidity it was soggy with
moisture and drilled very poorly, and at 60 per cent relative humid-
ity it had entirely liquefied.
Chilean saltpeter, or sodium nitrate, drilled excellently at 40, 50,
and 60 per cent relative humidity, but could not be handled at all
in this distributor when the humidity was 70 per cent or higher.
Sulphate of ammonia drilled very well at 70 per cent relative
humidity, but was entirely unsatisfactory at humidities above this.
Superphosphate was too dusty at 40 per cent relative humidity
and too damp at 90 per cent for best results, but could be distributed
alone at any humidity tried; it did best at 70 or 80 per cent. At
90 per cent the delivery rate was only about one-half of that at
40 per cent.
Of the new concentrated nitrogenous fertilizers, urea, ammonium
nitrate, and leunasalpeter gave results very much like those for
sodium nitrate, although urea could be drilled at humidities 10 per
cent higher than could nitrate of soda.
The concentrated phosphates, ammo-phos, monoammonium phos-
phate, triple superphosphate, and monopotassium phosphate, could
be drilled excellently at all humidities, although at reduced rates at
the highest humidity.
Diammonium phosphate was fully as satisfactory as sulphate of
ammonia but not nearly so satisfactory as monoammonium phos-
phate. It gave off ammonia and became a pasty mass at 90 per cent
relative humidity.
Peat was unpleasantly dusty in an atmosphere of 40 per cent
relative humidity, and fish scrap and cottonseed meal decayed in one
of 90 per cent. These materials differed from the water-soluble
ones, however, in one important respect. They distributed at
practically the same rate per acre at every degree of relative
humidity.
Potassium ammonium phosphate, although containing more water
at 90 per cent than at lower relative humidities, could be drilled at
almost the same rate throughout the range, thus behaving like an
organic ammoniate in this respect. The uniformity of the rate be-
comes more apparent when allowance is made for the moisture con-
tent, as is seen in Table 7.
Table 7. — Delivery rate of potassium ammonium phosphate for various relative
humidities on the dry and moist "bases
Basis
Pounds per acre delivered at percentage relative humidity of—
40
50
60
70
80
90
Moist
65.05
64.90
66.21
66.01
67.66
67.37
67.23
66.79
63.31
62.66
71.44
Dry.
67.14
Of the 19 mixtures used in these tests, only one could be drilled
satisfactorily when at equilibrium with an atmosphere of 90 per
cent relative humidity, and this one, the 8-16-8, at only one-half
the rate at which it distributed in an atmosphere of 40 per cent
relative humidity. The variations in delivery rate were of the same
order for the mixtures as for the individual ingredients.
20 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
As a class, the double-strength mixtures were le^s affected by high
relative humidity than were similar mixtures of ordinary grade.
The concentrated mixtures as a class were very similar in their
drilling properties to the ordinary grade commercial mixtures.
Some experiments were also made at relative humidities of 20 and
30 per cent; these in general gave the same delivery rates as those
at 40 per cent relative humidity.
At relative humidities lower than 50 per cent all fertilizers
tested — whether salts or organic ammoniates, materials or mixtures,
low grade or concentrated — without exception, were dry and in
good condition and could be drilled satisfactorily in distributors that
were suitable in other respects. At 50 per cent relative humidity all
of the samples distributed well excepting calcium nitrate or nitrate
of lime.
The average rate at which over 50 different fertilizers were dis-
tributed in an atmosphere of 60 per cent relative humidity was 81.21
pounds per acre (manufacturer's rating, 80 pounds per acre).
At humidities of 60 per cent or above, certain fertilizers could not
be drilled at all, and the higher the relative humidity the fewer were
the substances that could be distributed. The delivery rates of
different materials at humidities of 60 per cent or above varied from
nothing to well over 100 pounds per acre.
The delivery rate for any given fertilizer varied inversely with the
relative humidity, and the nature and amount of this variation
depended upon the hygroscopicity of the fertilizer, which factor will
be considered later.
The relative humidity of unconditioned air fluctuates constantly,
being highest at night and lowest in mid afternoon. During the
night, in the Atlantic Coast States, it often attains 100 per cent and
by 2 p. m. of the same day may fall to 30 per cent. A fertilizer in
storage is protected somewhat from this rapid change by its own
bulk, by the bags containing it, and sometimes also by reason of its
being in a heated building where the humidity does not undergo
marked change. In an unheated building the relative humidity will
change just as it does outside with equal changes in atmospheric
temperature. At night the air in the spaces between the fertilizer
particles cools and decreases in volume, whereupon some outside air
is drawn into the mass. When the mass becomes heated again some
of the air is expelled. Thus the changing atmospheric conditions
permit the fertilizer to absorb moisture at times and to dry out at
other times. It never reaches a state of equilibrium, but tends to
contain the amount of moisture corresponding to the mean relative
humidity to which it is exposed.
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY
Some of the results obtained in studying relative humidity and
temperature were tabulated in such a way (Table 8) as to show the
relation, if any, of absolute humidity to the water contents and
delivery rates of the fertilizers. No correlation, however, is ap-
parent. At both high and low absolute humidities good and poor
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS
21
Jesuits were obtained, depending upon the combination of relative
iiumidity and temperature. The differences shown in the table are
due to variations in relative humidity and temperature, as indicated
in Tables 6 and 9, respectively, and^ it is believed that absolute
humidity has no definite relation to the physical properties of
fertilizers.
Table 8. — Relation of absolute humidity to the water content of three fertilizers
and to their rate of delivei'y by distributor No. 1
Absolute
humidity
Rela-
tive
humid-
ity
Tem-
pera-
ture
Sodium nitrate
3-9-3 commercial
fertilizer
Monoammonium
phosphate
Water
content
Delivery
rate
Water
content
Delivery
rate
Water
content
Delivery
rate
Grains per
cubic foot
2.04
2.45
2.86
3.00
3.26
3.74
3.94
4.48
5.24
5.26
5.99
6.56
7.90
Per cent
50
60
70
40
80
50
30
60
70
40
80
50
60
op
50
50
60
68
50
68
86
68
68
86
68
86
86
Per cent
0.20
.32
1.03
.28
"Mo"
.19
.91
"".'26"
'"'11"
Pounds
per acre
125. 02
126. 90
97.43
130. 10
(0
125. 45
112.82
93.36
0)
126.61
(0
107. 16
(0
Per cent
4.12
5.56
7.85
3.42
16.50
7.57
2.26
8.85
15.40
4.91
24.83
7.37
9.71
Pounds
per acre
80.44
76.08
67.81
78.26
50.00
74.05
73.62
73.33
19.75
72.31
8.13
66.79
63.60
Per cent
0.24
.30
.38
.29
.52
.31
.25
.42
.51
.38
.61
.32
.50
Pounds
per acre
103. 53
104.83
100. 91
104. 98
96.06
104. 98
89.88
101. 20
96.12
103. 53
90.75
102. 22
98.74
1 Undrillable, owing to absorption of moisture.
TEMPERATURE
Experiments intended to show the effect of temperature changes
upon the drilling qualities of fertilizers were conducted in the same
manner as those designed to test the effect of relative humidity.
The humidity was held constant at 60 per cent, and experiments were
run at temperatures of 50°, 68°, and 86° F., which it was believed
re])resent the range encountered by farmers actually using fertilizers.
The effects of temperature changes upon the drilling qualities of
fertilizers, over the range ordinarily encountered in applying them,
are slight in comparison with those produced by changes in relative
humidity, as will be observed by referring to Table 9. The greatest
difference in delivery rate was obtained with ammonium nitrate. It
varied from 31 pounds per acre at 86° F. to 83 pounds per acre at
50°, when the machine was set to deliver 80 pounds per acre. The
rate of delivery of nitrate of soda and a few other nitrogenous salts
showed considerable variation with changes in temperature, but most
of the fertilizers were only slightly affected. The delivery rate of
phosphates as a class varied less with temperature than did that of
the commercial mixtures.
22 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 2, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 9. — Effect of air-temper at wre changes at €0 per cent relative humidity
upon the water content of fertilizer 8 and upon their rate of delivery hy
distributor No. 1
Fertilizer
Ordinary fertilizer materials:
Superphosphate
Sulphate of ammonia
Nitrate of soda
Nitrate of lime
Fish scrap
Cottonseed meal
Peat.
Concentrated fertilizer materials:
Urea, granulated
Urea ammonium phosphate
Ammonium nitrate
Leunasalpeter
Ammo-phos-
Monoammonium phosphate
Diammonium phosphate
Triple superphosphate
Potassium ammonium phosphate.
Monopotassium phosphate.
Potassium nitrate
Trona potassium chloride
Ordinary commercial mixtures:
2-8-5
3-9-3
4-8-4
9-0-6.
High-analysis mixtures, commercial:
4-10-6
10-8-10
12-6-2
Concentrated commercial mixtures:
0-20-20-_.
4-16-10
4-24-4
8-12-20
8-16-8
10-16-14 .--.
Concentrated special mixtures:
No. 1. 14-42-14
No. 2. 14-43-14
No. 3. 13-39-13..
No. 4. 13-39-13
No. 5. 13^1-13
No. 6. 17-26-17
50* F.
Delivery
rate
Pounds
per acre
99.17
71.58
126.90
3.05
59.39
48.79
92.78
70 86
75.65
83.34
90 60
84.22
104.83
63.89
118.48
69.41
111.51
119.21
88.28
86.83
77.54
93.07
78.84
86.97
94.96
85.96
115. 14
93.80
85.38
100.33
100.91
95.54
35.57
104.11
109.48
103.96
89.15
Average (excepting nitrate of lime).. 89. 60
Water
content
Per cent
0.95
.22
.32
24.95
7.36
8.87
12.70
.05
.11
.08
.13
1. 19 j
.30 !
.39 I
4.34
.20
.24
.27
.15 I
68* F.
Delivery
rate
3.51
5.56
4.44
5.73
1.70
2.74
2.76
1.16
3.39
3.64
3.16
3.56
2.59
.19
1.56
1.11
.71
.21
1.43
2.35
Pounds
per acre
93.65
69.12
112.09
(')
56.34
45.30
63.45
66.50
73.33
76.08
84.07
101.20
59.53
111.51
67.66
105.27
115.43
77.54
81.89
73.33
81.31
61.13
82.18
94.38
55.32
96.85
86.83
75.79
93.94
90.60
89.59
82.33
33.83
91.62
96.99
90.31
78.99
Water
content
Per cent
1.05
.23
.61
86" F.
Delivery
rat«
7.54
8.93
14.12
.31
.53
.38
.31
1.21
.42
1.23
4.45
.43
.47
.29
.20
3.90
8.85 I
4.64
8.66 I
2.76 '
3.57 !
8.12 i
1.64 I
3.96 ,
5.27 I
3.37
3.81 j
2.77 !
.31
3.83
1.20
.79
.26
1.79
Pounds
per acre
87.41
60.11
84.61
0)
56.34
45.74
85.52
68.23
34.99
30 93
64.03
81.02
98.74
60.11
108.46
65.34
103.53
98.88
76.96
78.55
63.60
76.23
39.20
79.86
92.06
49.37
100.33
84.65
71.44
96.12
56.77
32.67
87.70
93.51
85.23
56.48
Water
content
Per cent
1.29
.31
1.17
81.22
3.03
73XK)
7.55
8.88
15.05
.46
1.01
1.83
.67
1.24
.50
.84
4.65
.54
.53
.4?
.26
4.00
9.71
5.12
9.48
2.97
3.91
9.05
1.96
4.18
6.44
3.63
3.82
3.12
.64
5.48
1.20
.87
.39
3.11
3.41
» Undrillable.
Other experiments made at 40, 50, and 70 per cent relative hmnidi-
ties indicated that the relationships shown in Table 9 for 60 per cent
hold good generally. They seem to justify the conclusion that, in
general, the drilling properties of fertilizers improve and the water
content diminishes as the temperature is lowered, provided the rela-
tive humidity is constant.
HYGROSCOPICITY
In general, all substances contain a certain amount of moisture
when in contact with the atmosphere for any length of time. The
amount depends upon the character of the substance and the vapor
pressure of the atmosphere. Every material containing water exerts
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FEETILIZEBS
23
a vapor pressure. If this pressure is greater than that of the atmos-
phere to which it is exposed, the material will dry out until the vapor
pressure is equalized. If the vapor pressure of a substance is lower
than that of the air, that substance will absorb moisture. Thus, a
fertilizer will tend to reach a state of equilibrium in this respect with
the atmosphere in which it is kept. The vapor pressure of the air
changes considerably with changes in relative humidity and to a
much less extent with changes of temperature such as occur in ordi-
nary atmospheres.
When the vapor pressure of the atmosphere is appreciably lower
than that of a saturated solution of a given salt, the equilibrium
water content of that salt will be small and it will appear to be dry.
In an atmosphere with a vapor pressure equaling or exceeding that
corresponding to a saturated solution of the salt, the latter will absorb
water and tend to become a solution. If sufficient time elapses it
will liquefy completely.
For convenience the relative humidity corresponding to the vapor
pressure of the air which is equal to the vapor pressure of a saturated
solution of a given salt is called the hygroscopic point of that salt.
This point is different for every fertilizer salt. It has been deter-
mined carefully for a number of pure salts, and Table TO gives the
values published by Eoss, Mehring, and Merz (^<^). Determinations
of the hygroscopicities of these and other materials and mixtures
over a considerable range of temperatures were recently published by
Adams and Merz {Jf) . The hygroscopic points of impure fertilizer-
grade salts will differ slightly from the values in the table.
Table 10. — Hygroscopic points of various fertilizer salts
Fertilizer salts
Relative hu-
midity at— .
Fertilizer salts
Relative hu-
midity at—
68° F.
86° F.
68° F.
86° F.
Calcium nitrate
Per cent
54.8
63.3
74.5
80.7
79.2
81.0
Per cent
46.5
59.4
73.7
75.2
77.5
81.1
Per cent
83.2
85.3
93.1
93.2
94.5
97.0
Per cent
82.8
Ammonium nitrate.
Potassium chloride
84.4
Sodium nitrate
Monoammonium phosphate
Monopotassium phosphate
Potassium nitrate
92.9
Urea
93.0
Ammonium chloride
93.3
Ammonium sulphate..
96.5
The hygroscopicity of a mixture of salts usually is greater than
that of its most hygroscopic constituent, but it may be less. If an
impurity is a soluble salt, it will increase the hygroscopicity of the
material containing it. Insoluble impurities have no effect. Sub-
stances forming chemical combinations may either increase or de-
crease the hygroscopicity ; for instance, a mixture of superphosphate
and urea is more hygroscopic than is either of these materials alone.
A comparison of the hygroscopic points with the delivery rates
and water contents given in Table 6 shows definitely that the effects
of relative humidity upon fertilizers are largely due to their hygro-
scopicity. The water content in every case increases gradually with
increase in relative humidity until the hygroscopic point is reached,
24 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 2, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
when absorption of moisture becomes very rapid. Above this point
salts become solutions, and mixtures containing them become undrill-
able. In general, delivery rates diminish with increase in water con-
tent, and all fertilizers become undrillable when exposed freely for
several days to atmospheres above their hygroscopic points.
STATE OF SUBDIVISION
An experimental drill of the No. 1 type, which contained three
separate units working simultaneously, was run with potassium ni-
trate prepared in different ways. The left-hand compartment was
filled with 20-40 mesh crystals, the center one with 20-40 mesh
spherical pellets made by spraying fused material into cold air, and
the right-hand end with the same substance ground to pass a 100-mesh
sieve. Each of these units will deliver the same weight of the same
material in a given time, but with these different states of subdivision
different amounts were delivered. The pellets and crystals issued
more or less continuously and at nearly the same rate, although the
rate for the former was the higher. On the other hand, the pow-
dered potassium nitrate drilled very poorly. The small amount de-
livered came out in the form of a few rather large lumps at very
irregular intervals. The differences in delivery rate are shown in
Plate 6, A.
Thus, it becomes evident that the manner of preparing a fertilizer
for use has a decided effect upon its drilling properties. This effect
is due to the size of the individual particles, their shape, and the
degree of homogeneity of the mass.
SIZE OF PARTICLES
Fineness of grinding affects the uniformity with which any given
material can be distributed with machinery, as well as its delivery
rate in pounds per acre. This is evident at once to any one who com-
pares, in a fertilizer distributor, finely ground and coarsely ground
samples of the same material.
The differences in drillability between fairly dry commercial sam-
ples of urea is shown in Plate 7, A and B. The coarse, granular
material containing 93.41 per cent of particles too large to pass
through a 40-mesh sieve flowed down the hopper steadily and uni-
formly on all sides as the feed wheels removed it from the bottom,
as shown in Plate 7, A. Finely ground urea, 52.70 per cent of which
passed through an 80-mesh screen, would not flow steadily. As the
feed wheels carried out the material at the bottom of the hopper
caverns formed. After a time these caved in, leaving wells as illus-
trated in Plate 7, B. The agitator provided with the machine helped
only to a slight extent to prevent this formation of wells.
Some experimental results secured with urea and potassium-ain-
monium phosphate, both coarsely and finely ground, when in equi-
librium with the atmospheric conditions mentioned, are given in
Table 11. In each of these tests distributor No. 1, set to deliver 80
pounds per acre, was used.
Tech. Bui. 182. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE
A, Comparative amounts of potassium nitrate in the form of crystals, spherical pellets, and fine
powder delivered by three units of distributor No. 1 operating simultaneously; B, instrument for
measuring angle of repose, containing potassium phosphate
A, Interior of distributor No. 2 operating with granular urea; B, interior of distributor No. 2, operating
with powdered urea
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS
25
Table 11. — Effect of subdimsion on the drillability of urea and pota^siwm
ammonium phosphate at 68° F.
Material separated by screens with mesh of—
Material
State of subdivision
5 and
10
10 and
20
20 and
40
40 and
80
80 and
200
200
Powdered
Granulate
Per cent
Per cent
1.35
Per cent
20.27
93.41
100.00
38.88
9.78
Per cent
25.67
Per cent Per cent
27.34 1 25.36
Do
i
3.88 2.71 !
Do
11
)rayed...
1
Potassium ammonium phosphate.
Do
iwdpTpH
1 _
1.59
60.87
11.90 16.60 1 31.03
Granulated 17.39
5.44 6.52 !
1
Material
State of sub-
division
Delivery rate at percentage relative humidity of—
Average devia-
tion 1 in delivery
at percentage
relative humid-
ity of—
40
50 60
70
80
90
60
90
— ■ ■
Urea
Powdered...
Granulated .
Sprayed
Pounds
per acre
54.3
73.3
179.8
55.3
65.1
Pounds
per acre
52.6
70.6
176.9
52.6
66.2
Pounds
per acre
39.5
63.5
171.0
43.3
67.7
Pounds
per acre
10.3
55.9
92.9
19.5
67.2
Pounds
per acre
Pounds
per acre
•
Per cent
51.09
19.36
17.85
69.39
11.37
Per cent
Do
Do
Potassium ammonium
phosphate.
Do...
Powdered
Granulate
d.
20.9
63.3
24.4
71.4
99.86
35.90
» Deviation is calculated on the basis of 3-foot intervals of delivery.
The coarsely ground variety of both materials drilled much more
uniformly and the delivery rate was much less affected by changes
in relative humidity than in the case of the powdered materials.
The granulated potassium-ammonium phosphate was distributed at
nearly the same rate at all relative humidities from 40 to 90 per cent,
while at high humidities the powdered material was delivered at
less than one-half the rate prevailing at low humidities. The differ-
ences between the two samples of urea were even more marked. In
this connection it is interesting to compare the delivery rates for
ordinary and triple superphosphate at different humidities, as given
in Table 6. These materials were similar in physical properties,
except that the ordinary superphosphate was more finely ground.
Here, too, there was less variation in the delivery rate and greater
evenness of distribution with the coarser material. The finer mate-
rials in every case were also much less satisfactory at low relative
humidities because of excessive dustiness.
Of the materials used in these experiments, those which contained
appreciable percentages finer than 200 mesh (see Table 4), the super-
phosphate particular^, were excessively dusty when the humidity
was 40 per cent or lower. It was necessary, when working in the
constant-humidity room with such materials at low humidities, to
wear respirators, in spite of the fact that a curtain was drawn around
the delivery tubes. Another curtain drawn around the fertilizer
trays effectively protected the other fertilizers from contamination.
The 18 per cent superphosphate was still slightly dusty when at
equilibrium in an atmosphere of 80 per cent relative humidity, but
26 TECHNICAL. BULLETIN 18 2, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
practically no other materials were sufficiently dusty to be trouble-
some when the humidity was at 70 per cent or higher.
A large batch of crystallized monoammonium phosphate was care-
fully screened until a sufficient sample of each of several sizes was
obtained. They included 5-10, 10-20, 20-40, 40-80, 80-200, and
particles finer than 200 mesh. These lots were exposed in the con-
stant-humidity room and drilled in the same way as in the previously
described experiments. The materials were rescreened after each
test to remove the small amount of broken particles.
From Table 12 it is seen that size of particle has no practical
effect upon the water content of monoammonium phosphate, except
at the highest humidities, and then only where the size is finer than
60 70
Per cent relative humidity
Figure 9. — Effect of particle size upon delivery rate
200 mesh. The finely ground material was distributed much less
satisfactorily than the coarser, especially at the higher humidities.
This is graphically shown in Figure 9.
Table 12. — Effect of particle size upon the rate of distribution of monoammo-
nium phosphate at 68° F. and at various relative humidities
Relative
humidity
at 68° F.
(per cent)
Rate (pounds per acre) and water content (per cent) of monoammonium phosphate
separated into screen sizes of—
5-10 mesh
10-20 mesh
20-40 mesh
40-80 mesh
80-200 mesh
200 mesh and
finer
Pounds
per acre
103. 21
103.09
100.65
96.99
84.07
86.54
Per
cent
0.27
.32
.41
.50
.67
3.07
Pounds
per acre
106.85
107. 16
105.50
102. 80
93.22
8.S.52
Per
cent
0.29
.32
.43
.54
.62
2.76
Pounds
per acre
104.98
104.83
101.20
97.28
90.75
71.00
Per
cent
0.29
.31
.42
.51
.61
2.97
Pounds
per acre
107. 40
106.72
102. 86
97.43
84.51
29.18
Per
cent
0.18
.20
.27
.35
.41
2.12
Pounds
per acre
123.49
120.52
113.90
ia5. 71
75.50
11.76
Per
cent
0.17
.21
.26
.33
.48
2.51
Pounds]
per acre
80.70 I
78.99
75. 65
69.98
17.28
1.74
Per
cent
0.28
.34
.46
.53
1.49
10.71
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERTILIZEES
27
Humidity had the least effect upon the samples composed of the
largest particles. It is believed that the trend shown by the
results for ammonium phosphate would be exhibited generally by
soluble fertilizer salts, due allowance being made for differences in
hygroscopicity.
In studying the effect of particle size on uniformity of distribu-
tion the percentage deviations in delivery for successive 3-foot por-
tions were calculated. For this purpose the experimental drill was
used in the constant-humidity room. It is realized that 3-foot inter-
vals of delivery are rather long, but it was impossible to collect
with any degree of accuracy individual portions for a shorter dis-
tance with the machine in the constant-humidity room. This subject
was also studied under less perfect control of atmospheric condi-
tions for 1-foot intervals of delivery. The latter experiments will
be described in a later section.
In making the uniformity tests the quantity of material issuing
from one spout of the drill was collected in a succession of beakers
which moved up at the rate of one beaker each second. Thirty such
portions of each of several different fertilizers were collected and
weigh-ed separately. Then the amount that each weight varied
from the average w^eight of the 30 was found, and the percentage
deviation from the mean was calculated for the average of these
weight deviations. If the distribution of the fertilizer were per-
fect throughout the row so that each beaker received the same weight,
this percentage would be zero.
Percentage deviations for coarse and fine samples of urea and
potassium-ammonium phosphate are presented in Table 11, and for
various sizes of ammonium phosphate in Table 13. The materials
were all at equilibrium with the humidities given, and the distributor
was set to deliver 80 pounds per acre. The nearest approach to
perfect distribution was obtained with the granulated potaesium-
iimmonium phosphate, with a percentage deviation of only 11.37
per cent. The machine itself has a cycle of delivery that would
account for this variation. The best results with the ammonium
phosphate were obtained when the particles were 10 to 20 mesh in
size and the material was kept in an atmosphere of 50 per cent rela-
tive humidity.
Table 13. — Effect of particle size and, relative hK/midity upon percentage devia-
tions in delivery of ammonitim phosphate
Kelative humidity (per cent)
Ammonium phosphate separated into sdreen sizes of —
5-10
mesh
10-20
mesh
20-40
mesh
40-80
mesh
80-200
mesh
200
mesh
60..
Per cent
31
36
31
Per cent
17
30
25
Per cent
24
32
31
Per cent
26
29
48
Per cent
27
37
118
Per cent
30
70
45
90
131
Size of particles had some effect upon evenness of distribution
even when the materials were dry, but a decided one when they were
damp. The coarsest material was distributed almost as evenly when
quite damp as when quite dry, but the finer sizes were distributed
28 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 2, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
more and more irregularly as they became damper. In the case of
the size finer than 200 mesh, in an atmosphere of 90 per cent rela-
tive humidity 11 of the 30 beakers contained nothing, and the weights
of the contents of the others ranged from 0.0005 to 1.2101 grams.
This is explained by the fact that in a 200-mesh powder in the dry
state some of the particles are usually so small and near each other
that cohesion exists between them. When the particles are damp,
however, the forces attracting them to each other will be very much
greater, due to the surface tension of the liquid films.
The differences in distribution between the coarsest and finest mate-
rials are much greater than one might suppose from a cursory exami-
nation of the percentage deviations, because the larger particles were
scattered throughout the row, while the smaller ones stuck together
in little bunches, and in some cases the entire amount for 3 feet of
row was delivered in one lump.
The effect of size of grain on the rate of flow of several materials
was investigated by recording the time required for 100 grams of
material to flow through copper funnels having various-sized open-
ings, and angles between the sides equal to BO"", 60°, and 90°, respec-
tively. Crystallized ammonium phosphate and potassium nitrate in
the form of tiny spheres were very carefully screened and kept in the
constant-humidity room until at equilibrium with 30 and TO per cent
relative humidities and a temperature of 68° F. A determination
was made by setting the funnel with its axis vertical upon a tripod,
placing a finger over the funnel opening, and then pouring the mate-
rial into it. A stop watch was started at the same instant the finger
was removed from the funnel opening. The numbers in Table 11,
representing the time required for 100 grams to flow through i)y
gravity, are averages of four or five closely agreeing determinations.
The 60° funnel with a 10.06-millimeter opening was used in the ex-
periments recorded in the table. Other funnels with different open-
ings gave results from which the same conclusions may be drawn.
Table 14. — Effect of particle size on time required for 100 grams of crystallized
ammonium phosphate and of sprayed potassium nitrate to flow from a 60"
funnel with a 10.06 millimeter opening
Size of particle screen mesh
Average
diameter
of parti-
cles
Milli-
\ meters
5-10 j 2.83
10-20-_ I 1. 10
20-30 I .70
30-40 I .40
40-eO .28
60-80 19
80-100 . 16
100-125 .13
125-157 10
157-200 : 08
200-250 06
250-300 05
300-350 044
Crystallized ammonium
phosphate
Sprayed potassium nitrate
Apparent
specific
gravity
0.83
.84
.84
.85
.86
.88
.90
.92
.93
.92
.88
.81
.70
30 per
cent rela-
tive hu-
midity
Minute
C)
0.210
.168
.151
.135
. 122
.119
.119
.132
.153
.182
.220
(')
70 per ! A ^„„ ..„„+! 30 per
centrela-rVpPS^^«°4«l^-
tivehu- |P«^4J^ itivehu-
midity
midity
Minute
(0
0.218
.178
.158
.141
.134
.121
.121
.141
.172
.213
0)
0)
1.19
1.22
1.23
1.23
1.24
1.24
1.23
1.23
L22
1.20
1.18
Minute
0.133
.102
.080
.070
.066
.0c3
.056
.068
.070
.079
.135
(')
(•)
70 per
cent rela-
tive hu-
midity
MinvXe
0.128
.099.
.079
.068
.OW
.068
.073
. 07.->
(0
(«)
0)
(•)
No flow.
MECHANICAL APPLICATION- OF FERTILIZERS 29
Each substance lias a minimum size of particle that will flow by
gravity through an opening. This varies with the material and with
the atmospheric conditions. For instance, 200 to 250 mesh ammon-
ium phosphate in an atmosphere of 70 per cent relative humidity
will flow freely, whereas 250 to 300 mesh size will not flow at all.
Moreover, 125 to 157 mesh potassium nitrate in the same atmosphere
will not flow. Of course, if the opening is large enough, chunks
will break off and fall through, but the reference here is to a free
movement of the individual particles upon one another. On the
other hand, there is a maximum size of grain that will flow through
an opening of given size. This size is approximately the same for
all materials that will floAv through that opening, but increases
.^lightly the more nearly spherical the grains are. There is a mini-
mum time required for particles of intermediate size to flow through
any given opening.
If the opening and size of grains remain the same and the effect of
molecular forces is imperceptible the rate of flow will vary with the
friction of the material. The fertilizer with the lowest friction will
flow most readily and in a proper distributor should give the best
distribution.
In the present experiments coarse materials flowed at nearly the
same rate when in equilibrium with both 30 and 70 per cent relative
humidity; but finely divided ones required considerably more time,
or did not flow at all, at a relative humidity of 70 per cent, although
they appeared dry. The results given in Table 14 help to explain
the differences in delivery rate shown in Table 12. They indicate
that gravity flow is an important factor in delivery rate with this
distributor.
Not only does the feeding mechanism of most distributors deliver
a granular material in a steadier stream than a finely ground one
but this difference is increased as the material passes down the de-
livery pipe. Hard grains bounce back and forth from one side of
the tube to the other, and when they collide the velocity of one
l^article is diminished while that of the other is accelerated. Thus
the tendency is to spread the discharge still more uniformly in this
case, and the material issues from the spout in the form of a spread-
ing cone. A fine powder, on the other hand, shoAvs a tendency to
cohere in irregularly shaped masses, and this is greatly exaggerated
if the material is damp. A familiar example is the difference be-
tween clay and sand when slightly moist.
If fertilizers are distributed at the rate of 80 pounds per acre,
4?ach square foot of soil surface will receive 0.833 gram of material.
The number of particles in this weight of potassium nitrate, in the
form of tiny pellets of various screen-interval sizes is shown in
Table 15.
30
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 2, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 15. — 'Number of particles of various sizes per square foot when the-
application is 80 pounds per acre
Screen
mesh
Average
diameter
of particles
Particles
per square
foot 1
1
6-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
4fr-€0
MiUimeters
2.83
1.10
.70
.40
.28
Number
44
471
3,301
9.332
24,450
Distributed uniformly over the surface of the soil, this quantity
of fertilizer would make a layer only 0.007 millimeter thick. The
average diameter of the 20-30 mesh particles is about 0.700 milli-
meter. The opening in a 325 -mesh screen, about the finest obtain-
able, is 0.044 millimeter. From these figures it becomes apparent
that applying fertilizers uniformly at low rates is a very difficult
matter. Fortunately, fertilizers do not need to be applied in a
continuous layer over the entire area of a field but are usually placed
only in the root zone of the crop where they dissolve and diffuse
somewhat through the soil solution. However, they do not diffuse
far.
In summing up the results of experiments on the size of particles,
it was found that the least variation in delivery rate with changes
in moisture content was with the 10-20 mesh size. The nearest ap-
proach to uniform distribution was also obtained with the 10-20 mesh
material, but the 20-40 mesh particles gave results almost as good.
Particles larger than 10 mesh are too large for thorough incorpora-
tion with the soil. Those smaller than 20 mesh are certainly satis-
factory in this respect. Thus, the ideal size of grain for a fertilizer
appears to be about 20 mesh. Good results in distribution should be
obtained when the diameters of the particles of a fertilizer do not
exceed 1 millimeter nor fall below 0.2 millimeter. No fertilizer is
likely to give even fair results in distribution if it contains a con-
siderable proportion of material finer than 200 mesh.
SHAPE OF PARTICLES
Table 14 showed the rates of flow of various sizes of two materials
with differently shaped grains. One of these materials was in the
form of oblong crystals and the other of little spheres. Both of
these materials flowed quite freely, but for every size of each mate-
rial it is observed that the same weight of spherical particles required
only about one-half the time to flow through the given opening that
was required by the oblong particles. Part of this difference in rate
of flow is due to difference in specific gravity. Therefore samples
of urea and of potassium nitrate were prepared in several ways.
One sample of each consisted of unbroken crystals, another was
ground so as to round off the corners, and a third was made by spray-
ing the molten material through a nozzle and catching it after it had
congealed into pellets. The latter were rolled down glass plates to
remove everything but spheres. The materials were carefully
screened to 20-30 mesh sizes in each case, and 100 grams of each
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS
31
was caused to flow by gravity through a 10-millimeter opening. The
time required for this flow was recorded with a stop watch. The
results in Table 16 indicate that under the same stress such crystals
will flow only about one-third as fast as spherical grains of the
same material.
Table 16. — Time required for 100 grams of 20-30 mesh grains of v/ren am4
potassium nitrate of different shapes to flow ly gravity from a 60° funnel
with a 10-millimeter opening
Fertilizer
Normal
crystals
Ground
into
broken
and
rounded
grains
Spherical
pellets
Urea
Minute
0.380
.225
Minute
0.231
.107
Minute
0.140
.079
In Table 11 delivery rates for sprayed (pellets) and granulated
urea were given. The delivery rate of the sprayed material, owing
to uncontrolled delivery when dry, varied more with relative
humidity than did that of the granulated urea.
In the last section it was observed that particles too large to pass
through a 30-mesh screen drilled very well even when damp. A fer-
tilizer composed of spheres with smooth surfaces will remain drill-
able with a higher water content than the same fertilizer in the form
of rough particles, although, of course, no fertilizer will remain drill-
able if kept in an atmosphere of higher relative humidity than its
hygroscopic point.
Although the hygroscopic point of urea is 81 per cent at 68° F., a
40-pound sample of it in the form of 10-20 mesh spheres, kept in a
2-inch layer in a relative humidity of 80 per cent at 68° for two weeks,
drilled at the rate of 47 pounds per acre with the implement set as
usual to give 80 pounds. It contained enough water to moisten every-
thing it touched, yet was distributed quite well. However, it became
undrillable when it finally attained equilibrium with 80 per cent rela-
tive humidity. A granular sample, of which 93 per cent was of
20-40 mesh size and the remaining 7 per cent finer in size, became
undrillable in one day when exposed in the same way in an atmos-
phere of 80 per cent relative humidity. Urea, 53 per cent of which
was finer than 80 mesh in size, was practically undrillable in equilib-
rium with 70 per cent relative humidity.
In other experiments to be described in the discussion of fertilizer
distributors it was found that spheres gave most uniform distribu-
tion in distributors Nos. 1 and 6 but flowed too readily for best
results in some machines. On the other hand, long needlelike crystals
or similarly shaped particles tend to mat together or to interlace in
such a manner as to prevent proper distribution. The ideal shape of
particles for best distribution in the majority of the distributors now
available seems to be that of rounded grains. Grains that are per-
fectly round will flow through the feeding mechanism of some dis-
tributors while the machines are not operating, while particles with
somewhat rough surfaces like most ground or granulated materials
will not flow too freelv.
32 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 2, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
HETEROGENEITY
Mixed fertilizers made from materials of widely different physical
properties tended to separate. For example, a mixture of finely
ground superphosphate, large crystals of sodium nitrate, coarsely
flaked fish scrap, etc., could not be uniformly distributed. When a
mixture of particles of different specific gravities is agitated the
heavy grains work to the bottom of the mass and the light ones rise
to the surface. The finely powdered material, whether light or
heavy, sifts down betAveen the coarser particles. Heavy or round
particles, if given momentum, will roll farther or fly farther through
the air than will light or irregularly shaped ones. Dust floats away
with the wind. Thus it becomes very difficult to apply a heterogene-
ous mixture so that all parts of the field will receive the same pro-
portions of the different fertilizing elements.
In the preceding experiments it was observed that most of the
mixtures showed some tendency to segregate while being distributed,
but the 8-12-20 mixture exhibited this tendency to a greater degree
than the others. It was, therefore, studied more carefully in this
connection. A representative sample of it was passed through a
series of screens from 3 to 80 mesh. A fraction of the sample was
held back by each screen, and each of these fractions was analyzed
separately for moisture, ammonia, phosphoric acid, and potash. The
results are shown in Table IT.
Table 17. — Chemical composition of the differetit-sized particles of an 8-12-20
fertilizer
Size of particles (screen mesh)
II2O
NHs
PaO*
K2O
3-10- --
Per cent
2.94
4.14
4.82
4.45
3.16
Per cent
13.15
11.27
9.56
8.17
4.60
Per cent
13.06
14.32
11.91
7.90
4.77
Per cent
0.94
10-20
6.87
20-40
13.78
40-80
21,05
Finer than 80
30.61
The hoppers of distributors Nos. 1 and 3 were filled with the
8-12-20 mixture and run in the constant-humidity room until no
more was delivered. Samples for analysis were taken at regular
intervals from the start to the finish of the runs. The results of
these analyses are presented in Table 18. Mechanical analyses of the
first and last samples of each run were also made, and these are given
in Table 19.
Table 18. — Chemical composition of an 8-12-20 mixed fertilizer as delivered
at intervals hy distri'butors Nos. 1 and 3
Distributor and sample
NHs
PjOs
K,0
Distributor No. 1:
First sample
Per cent
8.32
8.27
8.71
8.85
9.31
10.13
9.97
7.45
8.22
8.79
9.66
Per cent
9.14
9.23
9.76
10.06
10.51
1L37
12.63
8.28
9.42
10.09
1L27
Per cent
18.06
Second .sample
19.80
Third sample...
16.70
Fourth sample
16.06
Fifth sample
14.37
Sixth sample .
1L39
Seventh sample.
1L97
Distributor No. 3:
First sample
21.08
Second sample
18.02
Third sample
16.26
Fourth sample
13.00
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FEETILIZEES
33
Table 19. — Mechanical analyses of the first and last portions of an 8-12-20
mixed fertilizer delivered from distributors Nos. 1 and 3 during single runs
Distributor No. 1
Distributor No. 3
Size of particles (screen mesh)
First
sample
Last
sample
First
sample
Last
sample
3-10
Per cent
10.82
15.92
21.02
19.43
32.80
Per cent
26.53
25.17
20.40
11.57
16.32
Per cent
3.82
16.32
17.44
20.06
42.35
Per cent
10.49
10-20
32.40
20-40
24.53
40-80
15.92
Finer than 80 - --
16.66
From these results it is clear that the tendency in both types of
distributors was to deliver the finer particles first. With a mixture
such as this, the composition of the fertilizer applied in one part of a
field would be materially different from that in another.
This difficulty may be entirely eliminated by making a slurry of
the components to be mixed and then graining them all together.
This process probably would not be practical with low-grade mix-
tures, but is entirely feasible with mixtures like nitrophoska.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Actual specific gravity is the ratio obtained by dividing the weight
of a solid substance by the weight of water it will displace. The
apparent specific gravity of a fertilizer is the ratio obtained by divid-
ing the weight of a unit volume by the weight of an equal volume of
water.
In this study apparent density or specific gravity is of more in-
terest than absolute specific gravity because it varies with the state
of subdivision, moisture content, degree of packing, etc., while actual
specific gravity remains the same.
In Table 20 are. listed the apparent specific gravities of the experi-
mental materials, together with the weights and volumes of the vari-
ous materials delivered per acre when they were at equilibrium in an
atmosphere of 68° F. and relative humidities of 40, 60, and 80 per
cent. These apparent specific-gravity determinations were made by
filling a graduated cylinder to the 100 cubic centimeter mark, tapping
it lightly on the bottom and again filling to the mark if necessary.
The weight of this volume in grams was divided by 100 to obtain the
apparent specific gravity. Each value in the table is the average of
several such determinations.
In order that apparent specific gravity determinations may be com-
parable, they must all be made in the same manner because greater
degrees of packing give higher values. If a large volume— such as a
bushel of material— had been weighed, values somewhat higher than
those given in Table 20 would have been obtained in some cases.
The volumes delivered by distributor No. 1, as given in Table 20,
were calculated from the actual weights delivered and the apparent
specific gravities.
98734—30 3
34
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 20. — Apparent specifio gravity of fertilizers and weight and volume deliv-
ered l)y distributor No. 1 at several relative humidities and at 68° F.
Apparent specific gravity and rate of fertilizer delivery at percentage rela-
tive humidity of—
Fertilizer
Ordinary fertilizer materials:
Superphosphate
Sulphate of ammonia
Nitrate of soda
Nitrate of lime
Fish scrap
Cottonseed meal -...
Peat -
Concentrated fertilizer mate-
rials:
Urea
Urea ammonium phos-
phate
Ammonium nitrate
Leunasalpeter
Ammo-phos
Monoammonium phos-
phate ---
Diammonium phosphate.
Triple superphosphate
Potassium ammonium
phosphate
Monopotassium p h o s -
phate
Potassium nitrate
Trona potassium chloride.
Ordinary mixtures, commer-
cial:
2-^5..
3-9-3
4-8-4...
9-0-6
High analysis mixtures, com-
mercial:
4-10-6..
10-8-10
12-6-2
Concentrated mixtures, com-
mercial:
0-20-20...
4-16-10
4-24-4...
8-12-20
8-16-8
10-16-14
Special:
(No. 1) 14-42-14
(No. 2) 14-43-14
(No. 3) 13-39-13
(No. 4) 13-39-13
(No. 5) 13-41-13
(No. 6) 17-26-17
Average
40
Appar-
ent
specific
gravity
0 977
.785
1.061
.909
.501
.601
.789
,807
,874
,867
630
901
983
927
961
729
915
794
,950
.846
.799
,907
,896
.851
.944
.593
.948
.988
,935
,813
,832
Delivery rate
Pounds
per acre
102. 95
82.76
135.04
100.48
58.95
48.35
91.04
73.33
78.41
96.41
88.28
80 59
104.98
66.79
115. 87
65.05
117, 18
123.71
104.11
87.85
78.26
84.07
94.09
94.67
118. 34
92.64
81.75
98.30
105. 56
93.94
99.75
53.58
104.98
109.05
104.54
95.69
92.45
Pints
105. 37
105.42
127.27
110 54
117. 66
80 44
115. 39
116.39
113. 15
119. 47
101. 01
100.48
121.08
106.01
128.60
108.78
119. 21
133. 45
108.33
101. 21
107. 35
102. 03
100.92
112.28
111.90
111. 18
124.56
109.50
102. 31
108.38
117. 81
110 39
105. 54
90 35
110 74
110 37
111.81
117. 70
111.00
60
Appar-
ent
specific
gravity
0 991
.785
1.064
.499
.592
.781
,673
,811
,788
,776
,592
,579
983
950
724
844
815
842
799
,788
,953
,887
,834
,598
,944
,970
,921
,803
,812
Delivery rate
Pounds
per acre
93.65
69.12
112.09
(1)
56.34
45.30
89.88
63.45
66.50
73.33
76.08
84.07
101.20
59.53
111.51
67.66
105.27
115. 43
77.54
78.55
73.33
81.31
61.13
82.18
94.38
55.32
96.85
86.83
75.79
93.94
90 60
89.59
Pints
94.60
88.05
105.35
112.90
76.52
115.08
101.03
98.81
90 42
96.55
108.34
114.22
100.55
124.17
116. 86
107.09
121. 50
92.53
94.64
101.28
96.34
75.01
97.60
118.12
68.46
10O99
108.54
96.18
98.57
102.14
107. 42
8Z 33 101. 77
33.84 56.59
91.62 s 97.08
96.99 ! 99.98
90 31 i 98.06
78.99 I 98.37
81. 13 99. 50
80
Appar-
ent
specific
gravity
0 922
.750
,470
,523
.770
.778
.665
,664
954
917
,762
1.073
.654
.748
809
794
,775
.729
.861
.684
,722
Delivery rate
Pounds
per acre
79.57
11.76
(0
(')
53.14
52.27
(0
t^
(')
65.63
90.75
6.82
106.58
63.31
85.38
86.83
28.17
1.89
8.13
9.15
(0
58.23
22 94
(0
(*)
35.43
60 84
53.72
60 26
(»)
0)
(')
33.69
12.78
22.94
(>)
, 772 47. (
Pints
86.30
15.68
113.06
99.94
116.18
84.38
102. 1»
10 26
119.08
95.35
89.50
94.68
36.97
L76
12L43
12.2a
71.98
45.72
83.45
62 39
72 34
50 43
18.68
31.77
1 Undrillable due to absorption of moisture.
The effects of moisture, size of particles, and other factors com-
plicate a comparison of the delivery rates, as shown in Table 20.
However, considering only the values obtained with materials at
equilibrium with an atmosphere of 40 per cent relative humidity, in
which the effect of other factors is least, a much greater variation
in delivery rate is seen when measured by weight than when measured
by volume. The weights range from 48 to 135 pounds per acre
(mean 92.45^2.05), and the volumes from 80 to 133 pints per acre
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERTILIZEES 35
(mean 111.00±0.52). The standard deviations of the delivery rates
b}^ weight and by volume are 18.73 and 4.76, respectively. Thus it
is evident that much of the difference in these delivery rates, when
figured by weight per acre, is due to the apparent specific gravity
of the fertilizer. This effect is noticeable, however, only when the
materials are dry, as it is masked by other factors when the materials
are damp.
Inasmuch, then, as delivery rate is more accurately gaged when
figured in pints, calibration charts, if given, should be expressed in
pints per acre.
FRICTION BETWEEN PARTICLES
The kinetic angle of repose of any substance is the angle with the
horizontal at which the substance will stand when poured into a
pile. The tangent of this angle is a measure of the resistence to
flow and is called the kinetic coefficient of friction. It can be shown
that in the case of a substance having a kinetic angle of repose
greater than 45° no free flow can occur. Slopes steeper than 45°
can, of course, be obtained with some substances, but only with those
whose particles adhere by reason of stickiness or from some other
cause. It should not be concluded, however, that no delivery could
be made of a fertilizer having an angle of repose greater than 45°.
Fairly satisfactory results may be obtained with materials having
a somewhat greater angle; this is due both to the positive action
of the dispensing mechanism and to the fact that under the pressure
imposed by the material above, the fertilizer in the bottom of the
hopper may actually flow from that cause alone.
The angle of repose of a fertilizer may be measured by slowly
pouring a gallon or so of it into a heap upon a level surface, being
careful to keep the pouring edge of the vessel just above the center
of the pile. The angle with the horizontal may then easily be deter-
mined with a protractor; or if the height of the pile is divided by
its radius, the kinetic coefficient of friction will be obtained. The
apparatus used in this work for measuring the angle of repose is
illustrated in Plate 6, B. It may be described as one corner of a
rectangular box whose perpendicular sides are 10 inches in height.
The sides and bottom of the box were graduated in degrees of angles
with the horizontal. The graduations on the sides were radiuses
drawn from a common point where the inner top edges of the sides
meet. The graduations on the bottom were concentric arcs of circles
joining corresponding graduations of the two sides.
In conducting a test the box was carefully leveled and the ferti-
lizer materials were poured into it at the apex formed by the gradua-
tions on the side until the mass of fertilizer piled up exactly to this
apex, as illustrated in Plate 6, B, which shows the instrument con-
taining potassium phosphate ready for reading. The angle of repose
was then read on the three graduated scales. With all materials
with angles of repose of less than 45°, the readings on the three
scales were usually identical and could be duplicated at a later
date to within half a degree. As the readings approached 55° they
became progressively less reliable.
The kinetic angle of repose was determined for 22 selected ferti-
lizers under various temperature and relative humidity conditions,
as shown in Table 21. Different materials were found to have, very
different angles of repose at the same relative humidity. It will
36 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
be observed that in the majority of cases the angle of repose increases
more or less as the relative humidity increases above 40 per cent,
and that this feature is more pronounced at relative humidities of
60 and 70 per cent. No results are given for 80 or 90 per cent rela-
tive humidity because in most cases consistent results could not be
obtained; with few exceptions the angles determined were greater
than 50°.
By comparing Tables 6, 9, and 21, it will be observed that rates of
delivery and angles of repose are inversely correlated. When the
delivery rates by weight of all fertilizers having the same angle of
repose were averaged, and the delivery weight correlated with angle
of repose, the correlation coefficient was as follows :
r=- 0.928 ±0.019.
"When the rates in pints per acre were correlated with the angles
of repose of the same materials the following coefficient was obtained :
r=- 0.970 ±0.008.
In this case the correlation is as nearly perfect as one could expect
to achieve with an experimental instrument as crude as a grain-drill
fertilizer attachment. It therefore appears justifiable to derive
formulas for calculating the delivery rate of a fertilizer from its
angle of repose.
Table 21. — Kinetic angles of repose of fertilizer materials at different relative
humidities and at different temperatures
Angles of repose at—
FertUizer
Percentage rela-
tive humidity
(50° F.) of-
Percentage relative
humidity (68° F.) of—
Percentage relative
humidity (86° F.) of—
50
60
70
40
60
60
70
30
40
50
60
Ordinary fertilizer materials:
Superphosphate _..
De-
grees
37
38.5
37.6
40.5
34
36
42
38
37.5
41
38
42
42
35
35
35
38.5
40.5
38
35.5
37
37
De-
grees
38
40
37
41
35
36
43.5
41
37
40
39
40
44
36
35
34.5
38.5
40
38
35
36.5
36.5
De-
grees
42
53
47.5
41.5
36
38.5
52
46.5
37.5
41.6
40
43
45
35.5
36.5
36.5
39
38
42
35
37
36.6
De-
?r
40
36
42
36
36
42.6
37
38
40.6
39
42
43
36
35.5
35.5
37
42
37
36
37
38
De-
grees
39
42
37
40.6
36
36.5
50
44
37
40.5
39
41
46
36
35
37
39
40
46
36
36
37.5
De-
grees
40
49.5
51
41
35.6
37
64
48
38
40.5
38
43
47
36
38
43
42
39.5
47
36
37.5
36.5
De-
grees
40
54
40.5
36
45
38.5
43
45
49
(0
39
40
46
43.5
40
(0
40
38
37
De-
grees
38
40
35
42
35
34
41
37
37
39
36
40
44
37
35
35
37
37
38
36
36
38
De-
grees
37
40
37
40.6
34
35
44.5
40
37.6
39
38
37
45.5
37.5
37
36.6
38
37
39
35
35
36
De-
grees
37
47
47
40.6
35.5
37
50
45
37
41
41
41
47
38.5
37
42
40.5
40.5
44
36.6
37
37
De-
grees
39.6
Sulphate of ammonia _..
47
Nitrate of soda
61
Fish scrap
40.5
Peat
36.6
Concentrated materials:
Urea, granulated- _
37
Urea ammonium phosphate. _
Ammonium nitrate
63
60
Monoammonium phosphate. .
Monopotassium phosphate __
Potassium nitrate.
37
41
4L6
Ordinary mixtures, commercial:
42
^-0-6.—
47
Special:
No. 1, 3-^3
38.5
No. 2, 3-»-3
37
No. 3, 3-^3. .
42
High-analysis commercial mix-
tures:
4-10-6 ...
40.5
10-8-10.
40
12-6-2
48
Concentrated commercial mix-
tures:
0-20-20
36.5
8-16-8
37
8^12-20 . -
37
* Material too damp to make a satisfactory determination.
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS
37
At present sufficient data are available for deriving a formula for
distributor No. 1 when the gate lever is set on notch No. 10. Deliv-
ery rates in pounds stated in Tables 6 and 9 were translated into pints
according to apparent specific gravities shown in Table 20 and cor-
related with angles of repose given in Table 21. The average deliv-
/so
\^
r
\/oo
\ 90
yo
\ 70
\
20
/O
/7^
\
^
\, /
^
k
\
N
>.
.'\
V
\
86
7/
.>
^ay^e^'^s'
'Z^c:^o^^.
5-^^//^ =
esz/a-^..
^SJC
Z^"
K^O° ^S° ^0°
^s^
^o^
cTcT*
FiGURB 10. — Correlation between average delivery rates of distributor No. 1 and
angle of repose
ery rate for each angle of repose is plotted in Figure 10. The
equation representing the line of closest fit is as follows :
y=257.18-3.T8a?,
where y is the delivery rate per acre in pints while the distributor
is operating at slow speed, and x is the angle of repose of the fertil-
izer in degrees. For fast-speed gear the following equation would,
be used :
y=18.2 (67-a?)
According to these formulas a fertilizer with an angle of repose of
25° should have a delivery rate 321 per cent of that of a fertilizer
with an angle of 54°.
38 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 2, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Figure 10 and the foregoing computations are based on 155 actual
tests made with the slow speed, using all sorts of fertilizers. Some
were powdered, others were granular, flaked, or crystalline. Some
were dry and others damp. High angles of repose in some cases
were due to dampness, in others to interlacing crystals, and in still
others to fine grinding or other causes. Nevertheless, in many cases
the experimental result was the same as that calculated from the
formula. In 87 (or 56 per cent) of the cases, the experimental result
was within 10 per cent of the calculated value. A few erratic re-
sults were obtained which were not in line with the formula, and
these can not be explained at present.
When the angle of repose of the fertilizer is about 42° for settings
of the gates other than on notch 10, delivery in pints will be approxi-
mately equivalent to delivery in pounds as given in the manufac-
turer's rating. Apparently the manufacturer in calibrating this
distributor used a fertilizer having an angle of repose of about 42°
and an apparent specific gravity of approximately 1.0. When the
gates are entirely closed the delivery rate by volume will be about
the same for materials with a considerable range of angles of repose,
because in this case the delivery is positive and is accomplished by
the teeth only. When the angle of repose is above 55° opening the
gates will increase the delivery rate very little. Crystallized urea,
with an angle of repose of 57°, gave the following deliveries:
Gate setting Delivery rate
notch No. pounds per acre
1 18 '
10 19
20 20
30 22
As the gates are opened, the delivery rate increases more rapidly the
lower the angle of repose.
Fertilizers having a low angle of repose will flow through the
gates by gravity alone when the latter are opened above a certain
height. The size of the gate opening of distributor No. 1 required
for such spontaneous delivery was found to be correlated directly
with the angle of repose. The gate lever of this machine operates
on a scale having 30 notches, the gates being wide open on No. 30
notch. Urea in the form of tiny spheres, with an angle of repose of
25°, flowed through the gates of this implement when it was motion-
less and with the gate lever set on notch 5. Practically all ferti-
lizers with an angle of repose less than 39° flowed through the gates
by gravity only at some setting, although the size of opening neces-
sary for this was somewhat variable. On the other hand, no fer-
tilizer with an angle of repose greater than 43° was delivered from
the distributor unless the latter was operating, no matter how wide
the gates were opened. Of 20 materials having an angle of repose
of 42°, only 7 flowed from the machine while it was idle and these
only when the gates were wide open. Of 43 fertilizers having an
angle of repose of 40°, 27 flowed through the gates at various set-
tings above notch 18, while the machine was idle. The average gate
settings which would barely permit fertilizers of various angles of
repose to flow through are given in Table 22. The correlation coeffi-
cient for these data is +0.983 ±0.007.
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OP PERTILIZBES
39
Table 22. — Average gate setting of distributor No. 1 at or above tchich spon-
taneous delivery occurred for fertilizers having given angles of repose
Angle of repose (degrees)
Ferti-
lizers
having
the given
angle
Average
gate set-
ting
Angle of repose (degrees)
Ferti-
lizers
having
the given
angle
Average
gate set-
ting
25
Number
1
1
4
34
44
52
34
5
13
16.7±3.7
17. 2±3. 2
18. 0it3. 0
20. 7±7. 3
21. 8±5. 2
39
Number
24
43
23
20
11
57
24. 5db5. 5
29
40
25. 9db7. 8
34
41
26. 8±8. 8
35
42
27.4d=6.4
36
43
29. 9±0. 9
37 :
44+
(0
38
1 No spontaneous delivery at any gate opening.
The effect of head is greatest with materials having the lowest
angle of repose. In the case of distributor No. 1 an increase of 4
inches in depth in the hopper of spherical pellets of potassium nitrate
having an angle of repose of 29° increased the delivery rate 15 per
cent. The same increase in head of this material in the form of 20-40
mesh crystals with an angle of repose of 36° increased the delivery-
only 6 per cent. When the latter fertilizer was damp and had an
angle of repose of 54° the same increase in head caused less than 1 per
cent increase in delivery rate.
The uniformity with which a given fertilizer can be distributed
decreases regularly as its angle of repose increases. In these experi-
ments all materials with an angle of repose greater than 50° issued
from the delivery tubes very irregularly, and usually in lumps of
varying sizes. When the angle of repose exceeded 55° the fertilizer
was practically undrillable.
Thus the angle of repose of a fertilizer is a fair indication of
(1) the rate of delivery, (2) the size of gate opening through which
it will escape when the distributor is not operating, (3) the extent of
variations in delivery caused by changes in depth of fertilizer in the
hopper, and (4) the uniformity with which a fertilizer can be
applied with distributor No. 1. When each of these four points was
taken into consideration for all circumstances that might arise fer-
tilizers with an angle of repose between 40° and 45° were found
most satisfactory with this machine. If no more than 500 pounds
of fertilizer were to be applied to the acre and the hopper were kept
well filled, better results would be obtained with materials having
an angle of repose between 35° and 40°. Theoretically, the best
results could be obtained with a distributor especially designed for
fertilizers having the lowest angle of repose. However, present dis-
tributors were designed to handle the average materials now in use
which have angles of repose of about 40°, and consequently in some
cases are not quite as satisfactory with materials of best drillability.
The angles of repose and kinetic coefficients of friction for most
of the fertilizers used in this study, when at equilibrium with a rela-
tive humidity of 40 per cent, are given in Table 23.
40 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 2, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 23. — Kinetic angles of repose and coeffiovents of friction of experimental
fertilizer^ materials at equilihnum with an atmosphere of 86" F. and 40 per
cent relative humidity
Fertilizer
Kinetic
angle
repose
Kinetic
coeffi-
cient of
friction
Fertilizer
Kinetic
angle
of
repose
Kinetic
coeffi-
cient of
friction
Ordinary fertilizer materials:
Superphosphate
Degrees
40
37
41
40.fi
47.6
34
35
43
44.5
40
38.5
37
37.5
36.5
37
43
39
38
37
38
37
39
45.5
0.764
.839
.754
.869
.854
1.091
.676
.700
.933
.983
.839
.795
.754
.767
.740
.754
.933
.810
.781
.754
.781
.754
.810
1.018
Special:
No. 1, 3-9-3
Degrees
37*
36.6
38
37
39
35
36.5
37
36.6
36
35
36
39.6
48
40
38
39
39.5
a 767
Sulphate of ammonia
No. 2, 3-^3
.764
No. 3, 3-9-3
.740
Nitrate of lime
High-analysis mixtures:
4-10-6
Fish scrap
.781
Cottonseed meal
10-8-10..
.764
Peat
12-6-2
.810
Concentrated materials:
Urea, granulated .
Concentrated mixtures, commer-
1 cial:
0-20-20
Urea, powdered
.700
Urea ammonium phosphate..
! 4-16-10
.740
Ammonium nitrate
■ 4-16-20
.754
Leunasalpter
1 4-24-4
.740
8-12-20 1.
.726
Monoammonium phosphate..
PiamTnoniurn phosphate
8-16-8
.700
10-16-14
.727
Triple superphosphate
Potassium ammonium phos-
phate - . -
Special:
No. 1, 14-42-14
.824
No. 2, 14-43-14
1.111
Monopotassium phosphate . . .
Potassium nitrate
No. 3, 13-39-13
.839
No. 4, 13-3^13
.781
Trona potassium chloride
Ordinary mixtures, commercial:
2-8-5 _
No. 5, 13-41-13
.810
No. 6, 17-26-17
.824
3-9-3
4-8-4
9-0-6
CONDITIONERS
Insoluble substances, such as animal tankage, fish scrap, cotton-
seed meal, and peat, have long been used for improving the drilling
properties of fertilizer mixtures as well as for their plant-food con-
tent. These materials, while containing at ordinary humidities much
higher percentages of water than soluble salts do, are nevertheless
dry to all appearances and have a capacity for remaining so after
the absorption of still more moisture. Eecently garbage tankage,
cocoa shells, sewage sludge, castor pomace, leather scrap, and other
similar substances have been used to supplement the diminishing
supplies of the conditioners mentioned above. A small amount of
ammonia, lime, ground limestone, or calcium cyanamide (usually
about 2 per cent) is also frequently added to fertilizer mixtures,
for several reasons, among which is the fact that they neutralize the
free acids in the mixtures, thus rendering them less hygroscopic and
improving the mechanical condition. The conditioning powers of
the materials mentioned are not of equal value. Their present use
represents a sort of equilibrium between the needs of the farmer, the
capabilities of distributors, and the economics of the fertilizer-ma-
terials market. Several conditioners were studied alone and in
mixtures in the course of these experiments, to obtain a better idea
as to the necessity or desirability of adding them to concentrated
fertilizers.
A mixture was prepared having the same composition as the com-
mercial 3-9-3 used in these experiments, except that it contained no
organic ammoniate. It was then divided into three equal parts, one
of which was used as a check mixture, while to the other two 13.3 per
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FEETILIZEES
41
cent of conditioner was added, in the form of fish scrap and peat,
respectively. The composition and mechanical analyses of these mix-
tures are given in Tables 3 and 4. No. 1 distributor was used with
gate lever at notch 10.
The results obtained with these mixtures, when at equilibrium
with various temperatures and relative humidities, are given in Table
24 and shown graphically in Figure 11. The delivery rates obtained
with the commercial 3-9-3 mixture are given in Table 25. In com-
paring these two tables it must be borne in mind that while the com-
mercial 3-9-3 fertilizer was made of the same kinds of ingredients,
except that the conditioner was cottonseed meal, it was prepared at
a different time, and is therefore not strictly comparable with the
other three mixtures.
50 60 70
Per cent relative humidity
PiGURD 11. — Effect of conditioners upon delivery rate
In Table 6 the delivery rates of peat, cottonseed meal, and fish
scrap were shown to vary less with changes in relative humidity
than any other fertilizers used in the experiments, except potassium-
ammonium phosphate. The cottonseed meal and fish scrap both de-
cayed when kept in a relative humidity of 90 per cent, but no spoil-
age was observed at 80 per cent.
Table 24. — Effect of peat and fish-scrap conditioners upon delivery rate of
fertilizer mixtures at equilibrium under various atmospheric conditions
Conditioner
None
Peat
Fish scrap.
Tem-
pera-
tiu-e
60
Rate (pounds per acre) and water content (per cent) at percentage relative
humidity of—
Lbs.
per
acre
108. 32
103. 38
102. 07
Per
cent
0.26
1.15
40
Lbs.
per
acre
101. 78
102.80
101. 78
Per
cent
0.30
1.44
.91
50
Lbs.
per
acre
79.28
94.67
95.98
Per
cent
0.50
2.26
1.53
60
Lbs.
per
acre
67. 40
57.02
54.97
82.31
73.39
64.47
82. 46
74.27
69.45
Per
cent
1.10
1.81
2.31
2.37
2.96
3.35
2.00
2.40
2.95
70
Lbs. I
per I Per
acre I cent
56. 61
65.76
^63.
4.97
6.66
6.05
Lbs.
per
acre
55.85
67.46
61.56
Per
cent
16.99
15.21
14.68
90
Lbs.
per
acre
12.43
24.56
26.44
Per
cent
26.76
21.65
20.67
42 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 2, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
As in the experiments described in the sections on relative humid-
ity and temperature, the delivery rates of these special mixtures
varied inversely with the moisture contents, which were lowest when
both relative humidity and temperature were at a minimum. The
percentage of moisture present increased regularly with increases in
either humidity or temperature, when the other was held constant,
and the changes in the drillability of the check mixture were similar
to those of the conditioned mixtures, as may be seen in Figure 11.
Thus it appears that organic ammoniates, in the proportions used
here, have but limited abflity to impart to mixtures their property of
retaining excellent drillability in damp air.
Table 25. — Delivery rates and moisture contents of a S-9-3 commercial fertilizer
containing cottonseed, meal when in equiUbrium with various atmospheric
conditions
Tem-
pera-
Rate (pounds per acre) and water content (per cent) at percentage relative humidity of—
ture
CF.)
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
SO
68
86
Lbs.
per
acre
'75.94
Per
cent
2.06
Lbs.
per
acre
78.26
Per
cent
3.42
Lbs
per
acre
74.05
Per
cent
4.89
Lbs.
per
acre
|77. 54
{73. 33
[63.60
Per
cent
5.56
8.85
9.71
Lbs.
per
acre
1
[63.45
Per
cent
15.40
Lbs.
per
acre
15.25
Per
cent
24.83
Lbs.
per
acre
(0
Per
cent
(0
» Undrillable.
DISTRIBUTORS, THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION
TYPES OF DISTRIBUTORS
A fertilizer distributor probably operates under a greater number
of variable conditions than does any other agricultural machine.
Many types are in use, and according to the mechanical principles em-
ployed they may be classified as follows: Bottom-delivery distribu-
tors— guano horn, agitator, revolving plate, star wheel, chain, paddle
wheel, endless belt, roller, screw, and top-delivery distributors — re-
volving cylinder, ascending hopper, and descending dispenser.
The bottom-delivery distributors depend either partly or wholly
upon gravity flow for the delivery of the f-ertilizer, whereas the top-
delivery machines depend entirely upon positive mechanical action.
Distributors may be further classifieci as broadcast and row ma-
chines. Broadcast distributors, while widely used in Europe, are not
employed to any considerable extent in this country, except for
spreading lime. Row distributors with closely spaced units are
sometimes used as broadcast machines. Row distributors include
guano horns and hand distributors, as well as single or multiple row
horse-drawn machines and attachments. They may deposit the
fertilizer in a continuous strip in or near the crop row or only at
the hills.
TYPES OF FERTILIZERS USED IN THE STUDY OF DISTRIBUTORS
By reference to the results of previous tests of the drillability of
fertilizers under various controlled conditions and to angle of repose
measurements, seven different fertilizers for use in studying the
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERTILIZEES 43
distributors were selected and maintained under such conditions that
they represented a series of different degrees of drillability. If 100
be arbitrarily chosen to represent perfect drillability, and 0 to rep-
resent poorest drillability or that of a fertilizer which could not be
drilled by ordinary means, then the relative numerical score for the
drillability of each selected fertilizer is defined as follows:
Score 95: Hard spherical particles flowing with exceptional uni-
formity and with only the slightest resistance, flowing more freely
than dry sand. Fertilizer selected, sprayed potassium nitrate, 20 to
40 mesh, maintained under atmospheric conditions of 50 per cent
relative humidity. Angle of repose, 28°.
Score 85 : Granulated particles somewhat irregular in shape, flow-
ing with a considerable degree of uniformity, flowing like coarse,
dry sand. Fertilizer selected, potassium-ammonium phosphate, 10
to 20 mesh, maintained under atmospheric conditions of 70 per cent
relative humidity. Angle of repose, 35°.
Score 75 : A mixture of various sizes of irregularly shaped parti-
cles, breaking down and flowing readily, although there is a notice-
able tendency for the finer material to adhere in small lumps, flowing
somewhat like slightly moist, pulverized soil. Fertilizer selected,
4-8-4 commercial mixture, maintained under atmospheric conditions
of 70 per cent relative humidity. Angle of repose, 42°.
Score 65 : A mixture of large jagged particles, light strawlike mate-
rial, and fine particles, flowing quite freely when broken up, but
readily matting together into a mass. Fertilizer selected, fish scrap
(different sample from that used in previous experiments) main-
tained under atmospheric conditions of 70 per cent relative humidity.
Angle of repose, 48°.
Score 55: Powdered material appearing to be slightly damp and
partially retaining its form when squeezed in the hand ; not flowing
much by gravity unless continually agitated and tending like flour to
flow in lumps unless mechanically separated. Fertilizer selected,
potassium-ammonium phosphate, maintained under atmospheric con-
ditions of 70 per cent relative humidity. Angle of repose, 54°.
Score 35: A mixture of various sizes of particles of which none
are very large, appearing to be damp" and retaining its form when
compressed in the hand, flowing by gravity only by breaking down
in lumps, having a loose or porous texture when thoroughly agitated
and divided mechanically. Fertilizer selected, concentrated mixture
No. 4, maintained under atmospheric conditions of 80 per cent rela-
tive humidity.
Score 15 : A mixture of various sizes of particles very damp, form-
ing a soft mass similar to heavy mud except that it is not so sticky,
under pressure flowing to some extent as a semisolid, under ordinary
means of agitation separable into very large lumps. Fertilizer se-
lected, mixture 10-8-10, maintained under atmospheric conditions
of 90 per cent relative humidity.
Although the different stages of drillability are represented above
by different kinds of fertilizers under specific conditions, it is be-
lieved that in general those selected represent any stages of drilla-
bility which are likely to be found among the various classes of
fertilizer materials and mixtures.
44 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Ten different fertilizer distributors were tested with the selected
fertilizers mentioned above. The time required for conducting the
tests was so great that not only was the number of fertilizers and
distributors limited, but also the number of tests on each distributor.
The distributors represent several general types of machines com-
monly used and will be described m detail. The study was made
with the idea of determining the performances and limitations of
types of machines, rather than of discovering the mechanical im-
perfections of individual machines.
Distributors, representative of various types were operated and
tested to show the relationship of construction and principle of
operation to evenness of distribution and control of delivery rate.
The tests on uniformity of distribution not only showed the nature
of delivery and extent of variations for each distributor, but also
were a means of determining the causes of variations in delivery and
the relation of the drillability of a fertilizer to rate of delivery.
This phase of the study also permitted conclusions to be drawn with
respect to the limitations for satisfactory operation, ease of opera-
tion and control, and fineness of adjustment.
Uniformity of distribution was studied at 1-foot intervals of the
travel of the distributor. This interval was chosen for several
reasons: (1) Many plants are grown at intervals of 1 foot or less;
(2) the root systems of many plants confine themselves to compara-
tively small areas; (3) the diffusion of plant food from artificial
fertilizer in the soil may extend only a few inches in a horizontal
plane ; and (4) it has been found that fertilizer must be applied near
the plant to be of maximum benefit during the immediate season.
The tests could not be conducted in the constant-humidity room,
owing to insufficient space. Since previous tests had shown that
rate of delivery was affected very little by ordinary changes of
temperature, no attempt was made to control the temperature ex-
cept in cases where it was necessary in maintaining approximately a
desirable relative humidity. A hygrothermograph in the laboratory
showed that the relative humidity conditions at all times agreed
closely with those under which the fertilizers were stored. The
fertilizers were stored under controlled conditions and were exposed
to atmospheric conditions only while being used for the tests. Con-
sidering the nature of the tests and the magnitude of the variations
found, the brief exposure of the fertilizers to slightly different at-
mospheric conditions during the tests would have little or no effect
on the conclusions to be drawn from the study. The series of tests
with sprayed potassium nitrate was conducted during cold weather
when the relative humidity of the air in the slightly heated labora-
tory remained almost constant at 50 per cent.
The manner of conducting the tests was as follows: The dis-
tributor was given a charge of fertilizer and operated until the
fertilizer was flowing normally. The distributor was then drawn
over a wooden floor through a distance varying from 20 to 35 feet,
the fertilizer being deposited on a strip of paper. The paper was
stretched smoothly and tacked securely to the floor to eliminate any
irregularities or motion of the paper which might cause some move-
ment of the fertilizer after being deposited. The paper was ruled
to facilitate accurate division of the fertilizer at 1-foot intervals.
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS
45
The fertilizer delivered at each interval was weighed on a sensitive
laboratory balance.
The position of the rotating parts of the distributing mechanism
was noted at the end of each test, enabling their corresponding
position to be readily determined for every interval of delivery.
Allowance was made for the slight difference between discharge of
the material into the delivery tube and actual delivery from the tube.
In all instances with the fertilizers of better drillability, variations
were due primarily to the imperfect construction or principle of
operation of the machine. After each test was completed and the
variation in delivery noted, the position of the distributing mechan-
ism for every abnormal flow of fertilizer was studied and further
tested to determine positively the cause of such deviations. The
distributing mechanism of the machines either revolved or was
actuated by one or more revolving parts, thus producing one or more
cycles of delivery for each machine. Slight variations in the rate
of travel and vibrations of the machines had some effect on the de-
livery but were negligible in comparison to other causes of varia-
tion. Fertilizers with poorer drillability passed through the dis-
tributors so irregularly that in many instances deviations caused by
the machine itself were obscured.
The distributors usually were adjusted to deliver approximately
25 per cent of their capacity. The setting of each machine remained
the same throughout the series of tests, except as indicated in cases
where additional tests were desirable. Where the distributor had
several similar distributing units only one unit was used.
Since all distributors deliver fertilizer by volume rather than by
weight, comparison of results on rate of delivery should be made on
the basis of volume. The relative delivery rates, maximum and
minimum deliveries per foot, and average per cent deviations in de-
livery for each of the distributors and fertilizers represented are
given in Table 26.
Table 26. — Delivery of fertilisers representing seven
various types of distributors
stages of drillability by
Ferti-
lizer
Description of delivery
Distributor number and distance between rows
drill-
ability
score
No. 1,
7 inches
No. 2,
8 inches
No. 3,
38 inches
No. 4,
38 inches
No. 5,
38 inches
[Rate, pints per acre
452
555
4.52
1.91
622
764
9.45
1.57
914
1,122
50.19
29.11
Rate, pounds per acre
..--.—.
96
Maximum, grams per foot
0)
0)
Minimum, grams per foot
Average per cent deviation
1
23.37
38.38
12.94
!
Rate, pints per acre.
i """
384
270
2.98
.67
552
388
4.81
.88
994
699
29.74
18.91
2,450
1,722
71.92
46.70
2,083
1,464
28.85
20.03
Rate, pounds per acre
85
Maximum, grams per foot
Minimum, grams per foot
1
Average per cent deviation
1
34.42
39.86
12.44
6.99
7.29
[Rate, pints per acre..
342
272
2.94
.84
479
381
4.48
1.30
807
624
25. 13
16.15
1,193
950
43.68
13. 15
1,790
1,425
28.82
17.68
1
Rate, pounds per acre
75 i
Maximum, grams per foot
Minimum, grams per foot. ..
Average per cent deviation
33.96
24.94
12.21
24. 15
9.87
Unrestricted flow. No results recorded.
46 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 26. — Delivery of fertilizers representinff seven stages of drillabiUty Jyy
various types of distributors — Continued
Ferti-
lizer
Description of delivery
Distributor number and distance between rows
drill-
ability
score
No. 1,
7 inches
No. 2.
8 inches
No. 3,
38 Inches
No. 4,
38 inches
No. 5,
38 Inches
f Rate pints per acre ........
435
239
2.46
.50
437
240
4.01
.78
612
336
14.67
6.94
1,812
995
40.32
26.41
1,612
885
Rate pounds per acre
Maximum grams per foot
16 96
65
11 17
Average per cent deviation.
36.95
40.38
18.66
9.62
9 61
Rate, pints per acre .
381
203
2.64
.26
403
216
3.13
.33
385
205
16.01
2.58
477
264
19.21
1.50
1 638
Rate, pounds per acre
873
24 39
65
Minimum grams per foot _
8.20
Average per cent deviation.
42.15
31.30
33.21
51.34
17 56
45
31
1.35
.00
19
13
.37
.006
674
461
28.91
6.06
306
209
17.80
.19
1 102
Rate, pounds per acre
Maximum grams per foot
764
20 49
35
Minimum grams per foot
2.23
Average per cent deviation _ .
112. 72
84.88
39.22
63.27
29 11
[Rate, pints per acre
164
122
13.17
.08
640
Rate, pounds per acre.
508
Maximum grams per foot .-.
(»)
0)
«
66.34
15
Minimum grams per foot
.00
. Average per cent deviation. .
76.56
152 51
i
Ferti-
lizer
drill-
abUity
score
Description of delivery
Distributor number and distance between rows
Average
deviation
No. 6,
42 inches
No. 7,
33.26
inches
No. 8,
42 inches
No. 9,
42 inches
1
No. 10,
42 inches
for dis-
tributors
tested
(per cent)
fRate, pints per acre _ . . ..
194
238
9.81
7.67
■
134
166
7.38
4.17
414
509
36.11
7.64
Rate, pounds per acre
"""■"
95
Maximum grams per foot
Minimum grams per foot
Average per cent deviation.
Rate, pints per acre
0)
(0
6.3
11.06
45.28
22.88
122
86
3.88
2.66
730
513
17.67
11.16
131
92
3.94
2.62
307
216
12.26
4.24
798
661
39.03
6.66
Rate, pounds per acre _
85
Maximum grams per foot
Minimum grams per foot
Average per cent deviation.
(Rate, pints per acre
10.06
9.16
8.13
21.33
63.66
20.33
176
140
6.32
4.04
662
519
19.31
9.65
131
104
5.09
2.78
133
106
5.93
1.70
761
606
41.19
8.33
Rate, pounds per acre
75
Maximum grams per foot
Minimum grams per foot
Average per cent deviation.
(Rate, pints per acre
10.81
15.05
11.79
31.16
36.29
21.02
120
66
3.21
1.87
534
293
11.94
6.08
131
72
4.36
1.48
153
84
4.45
1.29
647
365
22.78
4.52
Rate, pounds per acre. .
65
Maximum grams per foot
Minimum grams per foot
Average per cent deviation.
(Rate, pints per acre
10.49
12.85
29.39
25.51
45.77
23.90
169
90
6.39
.79
413
220
11.02
2.71
131
70
4.96
1.22
131
70
3.97
1.11
709
378
28.25
6.66
Rate, pounds per acre .
65
Maximum grams per foot
Minimum grams per foot
Average per cent deviation.
36.64
28.42
31.99
25.07
30.38
32.80
« Unrestricted flow. No results recorded.
•No delivery.
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FEBTILIZEKS
47
Tahls 26. — Delivery of fertilizers representing seven stages of driUabiUty by
various types of distributors — Continued
Ferti-
lizer
drill-
ability
score
Description of delivery
Distributor number and distance between rows
Average
deviation
No. 6,
42 inches
No. 7,
33.25
inches
No. 8,
42 inches
No. 9,
42 inches
No. 10,
44 inches
for dis-
tributors
tested
(per cent)
fRate, pints per acre
1.5
1.0
.48
.00
297
203
9.94
2.30
28
19
2.13
.16
569
Rate, pounds per acre _..
389
24.61
6.61
35
Maximum grams per foot
Minimum grams per foot
Average per cent deviation.
Rate, pints per acre
«
158.22
25.87
63.75
32.54
67 73
524
416
33.26
1.28
Rate, pounds per acre
"""""""
15
Maximum grams per foot
Minimum grams per fnot ..
i})
(«)
(^)
(»)
""*"
Average per cent deviation.
"""""
53.46
94.17
» Partial delivery into delivery tubes. » No delivery. * No delivery into delivery tubes.
DISTRIBUTOR NO. 1, GRAIN-DRILL ATTACHMENT
Distributor No. 1 is of the star-wheel type and used as an attach-
ment on grain drills. (Plate 1, A.) The principle of operation is
shown in Plate 8, A and B. The fertilizer is carried by the hori-
zontal star feed wheel at the bottom of the hopper, through the gate
opening into the delivery compartment, which is a shielded part of
the hopper. (Plate 8, B). The fertilizer between the teeth of the
feed wheel is carried over the delivery opening and falls by gravity
into the delivery tube. The fertilizer carried on the solid part of the
feed wheel is diverted into the delivery opening by a deflector which
is a projection of the back plate. (Plate 8, A.) The fertilizer on the
top of the teeth or adhering to the sides of the teeth is carried back
into the hopper. Agitators are provided to prevent caking and
bridging of the fertilizer in the hopper; these are not shown in
Plate 8, B.
Thirty notches on the quantity lever rack permit the setting of the
fertilizer gate in as many different positions, thus regulating the
quantity of fertilizer carried by the feed wheel. At notch 1 the gate
opening above the feed wheel is approximately one-sixteenth inch;
at notch 30 it is 1% inches. Although the notches on the lever rack
are equally spaced, corresponding gate movements are not of equal
increments, owing to the method of operating the gates. The ferti-
lizer gate rod travels through an arc of a circle in giving the gate a
linear motion ; thus the increments of gate movement are greater in
the center of its range than at either extreme. This fact is of little
importance in actual practice where a calibration chart is followed,
but must be taken into consideration in experimental work.
The distributor was operated with the quantitjr lever set at notch
12 and the feed wheels running at high speed, in all cases except
where otherwise specified. Two speeds of the wheel are provided,
with a ratio of 1 : 4.55. The combination of the two methods of con-
trolling the delivery rate makes minute adjustments possible.
Wheels of different sizes and with various shapes of teeth may be
48 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 2, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
used for particular conditions. The wheels used in this study were
regular equipment, 6.5 inches in diameter and had seven V-shaped
teeth 1-inch long carried five-sixteenths inch above the bottom plate.
The shape of the delivery opening is such that the tendency should
be to give even distribution. The fertilizer carried between the teeth
first strikes the narrow portion of the opening — an arrangement
which should prevent a greater part of the charge from immediately
flowing through the opening.
The ledge, which may be defined as that part of the bottom plate
between the delivery opening at its narrow end and the bottom plate
wall, holds a small part of each fertilizer charge which is pushed
over the delivery opening by the point of the tooth that fellows.
Uneven distribution by this implement when using fertilizer of
good drillability, was due principally to the type of the distributing
mechanism. The fertilizer wheel at high speed makes one revolution
during 52.36 feet of travel by the machine; the delivery corre-
sponding to that section of the feed wheel between two successive
teeth is therefore represented by one-seventh revolution of the feed
wheel or 7.48 feet of travel of the machine. In the delivery curve,
20
10
IS
20
Distance in feet
FiauKB 12. — Delivery curve of distributor No. 1
Figure 12, a distinct and uniform cycle of delivery corresponding
to each tooth is noted. No doubt a cycle of only slight amplitude
exists for one revolution of the feed wheel, embracing seven cycles
for the seven teeth, but such a cycle w^as not studied.
By observing the position of the feed wheel for the intervals of
delivery, it was found that the position of the feed wheel at mini-
mum delivery is at the point where tooth No. 2 has just reached the
delivery opening and tooth No. 1 is opposite the deflector. (Fig. 13,
A.) In this position the charge of fertilizer between the two teeth
mentioned has been delivered and the succeeding charge can not be
delivered until tooth No. 2 travels forward and exposes the delivery
opening to the charge of fertilizer as shown at Figure 13, B.
Again, when the wheel is in the position of minimum delivery it
is noted that the deflector is diverting the fertilizer from the solid
part of the feed wheel directly upon tooth No. 1. Although tooth
No. 1 may retain only a small part of the fertilizer, the flow is re-
tarded, contributing to decreased delivery at the instant in question.
The remaining portion of the delivery, which is the fertilizer pushed
off the ledge by tooth No. 2, tends slightly to counteract the minimum
flow. However, the amount delivered from the ledge is so small that
its effect is negligible.
Tech. Bui. 182. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 8
ix,rias:iaB:si.3a
mMmssmmmmmmmamfi^
A, Distributing mechanism of distributor No. 1, a, fertilizer feed wheel; b, gate opening; c, feed-wheel
tooth; d, delivery opening; e, deflector; /, back plate; g, fertilizer gate; h, bottom plate; i, ledge.
B, Interior view of distributor No. 1. a, fertilizer feed wheel; b, gate opening; c, feed-wheel tooth;
d, delivery opening; e, deflector; /, back plate; g, fertilizer gate; h, bottom plate; i, ledge; ;, fertilizer
gate rod; k, hopper
Tech. Bui. 182. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
Plate 9
^No. 1 type of distrib utor containing samples of 75, »5, and 35 drillabilitv fertilizers from left to right,
respectively; B, relative quantities delivered
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERTILIZEES
49
At maximum-delivery position of the feed wheel the delivery
opening is exposed sufficiently to permit the charge of fertilizer be-
tween the teeth to flow freely through the opening, as shown in
Figure 13, B. A large part of a free-flowing fertilizer carried between
teeth Nos. 2 and 3 immediately flows through the delivery opening.
Tooth No. 1 has passed beyond the deflector, and the fertilizer being
diverted from the solid part of the feed wheel is now free to flow
through the delivery opening. The delivery from the ledge that
occurs at this instant augments the maximum delivery but is neg-
ligible in comparison with the total delivery.
The foregoing discussion dealt with the cycle of delivery produced
by a feed-wheel tooth, which is very regular and distinct with free-
flowing fertilizer. As the drillability score of the fertilizer becomes
less, variations in delivery are introduced by the fertilizer itself in
addition to those caused by the machine. Fertilizer of poor drill -
ability flows in lumps rather than in finely divided particles; it
bridges in the hopper, slips on the feed wheel, and supplies the feed
Figure 13. — Positions of feed wheel of distributor No. 1 at points of mininram
(A) and maximum (B) delivery: a. Fertilizer feed wheel; d, delivery open-
ing; e, deflector; i, ledge
wheel. with only a partial charge, thus giving both uneven distribu-
tion and decreased delivery.
While average percentage of deviation is a means of comparing
the manner in which the fertilizers are distributed by the machine,
the magnitude of the variations is more clearly shown by the maxi-
mum and minimum deliveries per foot. (Table 26.)
The fertilizer of 95 drillability, which flows as freely as any
fertilizer now offered on the market, was delivered with an average
deviation of 23.37 per cent. The fertilizer passed through small
openings in the hopper and flowed directly through the distributing
mechanism when stationary, if the fertilizer gate opening was
greater than that represented by notch 12, and through a much
smaller opening when the machine was subjected to any motion or
vibration. The fertilizer was delivered at a rate 105 pounds per
acre higher than that given by the manufacturer's calibration, owing
to its high apparent specific gravity and free-flowing properties.
Changes of fertilizer head had a marked effect on delivery rate.
Thus, with the particular type of distributor under discussion, a
98734—30 4
50 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
fertilizer of 95 drillability can not be positively controlled when the
fertilizer gate is more than one-third open, nor can a constant de-
livery rate be maintained if great changes in fertilizer head occur.
The 85 drillability fertilizer was delivered by distributor No. 1
with an average deviation of 34.42 per cent. This material did not
flow through small openings in the hopper and did not flow through
the distributing mechanism when not in motion, except at a very
wide gate opening. The fertilizer was delivered at a rate 180 pounds
less per acre than that given on the calibration chart. Cycles of de-
livery were very distinct and were the principal cause of the high
average per cent deviation. The 75 fertilizer gave results very
similar to those of the 85 material.
The 65 drillability fertilizer was delivered with an average de-
viation of 36.95 per cent and at a reduced rate. The low rate by
weight was due to a very low apparent specific gravity. It will
be noted that the rate by volume exceeds that of the 75 material.
The large pieces of bone,. which were much heavier than the straw-
like material were more numerous in certain foot intervals than in
others ; this feature had some bearing on uniformity of distribution.
The 55 drillability fertilizer, while giving results somewhat sim-
ilar to those of the 65 material, was delivered witl> an average
deviation of 42.15 per cent. The delivery was more or less in
bunches, because the fertilizer resisted separation to a considerable
extent and did not flow freely. The fertilizer carried between the
teeth of the feed wheel did not enter the delivery opening gradually,
but remained intact until carried over the opening and then dropped
down in a mass.
The 35 drillability material was delivered in bunches and at an
exceedingly low rate. This fertilizer bridged in the hopper, slipped
on the feed wheel, and worked very unsatisfactorily. In some in-
stances there was no delivery of fertilizer during a 7-foot advance
of the machine. The results indicate that the 35 drillability material
could not be delivered under any circumstances, except at a com-
paratively low rate.
The 15 drillability fertilizer bridged in the hopper and adhered
in a mass to such an extent that no delivery was made.
Fortunately most of the commercial fertilizers, under favorable
conditions, have physical properties similar to those of the 75 drilla-
bility material. However, under unfavorable conditions their prop-
erties may be similar to those of the 35 or 15 mixtures.
In Plate 9, A is shown a distributor of the No. 1 type, built espe-
cially for experimental purposes. Each unit was adjusted to deliver
like amounts of the same fertilizer, but in this case each compart-
ment contained a 4-8-4 mixture made from different materials, in
equilibrium with a relative humidity of 70 per cent. From left to
right, the drillability of these mixtures, according to the scale here
used, was 75, 85, and 35. The 75 drillability mixture flowed down
irregularly but fairly well. The mixture in the center was a granu-
lar material and flowed down steadily, while the 35 drillability
mixture was damp and was delivered at a very low rate. The
quantities of the three materials delivered in the same time are
shown in Plate 9, B.
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERTILIZEKS 51
DISTRIBUTOR NO. 2, GRAIN-DRILL ATTACHMENT
A general view of distributor No. 2 is shown in Plate 1, B.
The principle of operation of this distributor is similar to that
of distributor No. 1, but the details of construction are different.
The distributing mechanism is shown in Plate 10, A and B.
The fertilizer is carried by the horizontal star feed wheel at the
ibottom of the hopper (Plate 10, B) into the delivery compartment
from which it flows by gravity through a delivery opening into the
delivery tube. The material retained between the teeth of the feed
wheel is carried directly over the delivery opening, while that car-
ried on the solid part of the feed wheel is diverted into the delivery
opening by a deflector. (Plate 10, A.) The fertilizer carried on top
of the teeth and adhering to their sides is removed by a knocker.
The feed wheel, with an outside diameter of 6.5 inches, has seven
V-shaped teeth three-fourths inch in length. The teeth travel one-
eighth inch above the bottom plate and have small lugs or scrapers
one-eighth inch in width which ride on the bottom plate and are ar-
ranged spirally in such a manner that as the feed wheel makes one
revolution all the fertilizer directly below the teeth is stirred to
prevent caking. These small scrapers also assist in carrying ferti-
lizer into the delivery compartment. The faces of the teeth are
beveled for raising the knocker. Each feed wheel has a lug ex-
tending upward one-half inch, that travels in a 3-inch circle for
operating an agitator. While various types of feed wheels may be
used with this distributor, the above description applies to the one
used in the tests.
The delivery opening is narrow at the point where it is first ex-
posed to the charge of fertilizer; this, as in the case of distributor
No. 1, tends to give uniform distribution. A small part of the ferti-
lizer charge is held by the ledge until pushed into the delivery open-
ing by the points of the teeth.
The rate of delivery is regulated by a fertilizer gate over the feed
wheel, as well as by changing the speed of the wheel. Two speeds
are provided for the wheel with a ratio of 1 to 3. The gate is at-
tached rigidly to the fertilizer gate rod and operates vertically
through the arc of a circle. The notches on the quantity-lever rack
provide for 35 different positions of the gate for each speed of the
feed wheel, thus giving fine adjustments for rate of delivery. The
maximum gate opening is 1% inches above the feed wheel.
Distributor No. 2 was operated with the quantity lever set at notch
13 and the feed wheel at high speed, except where otherwise specified.
The machine delivered fertilizer in cycles corresponding to the sec-
tors between the teeth on the feed wheel. The cycles of delivery are
very distinct as is shown on the delivery curve, Figure 14. The
■cycles of delivery for the wheel as a whole were not studied. One
revolution of the feed wheel at high speed corresponds to 31.36 feet
of travel of the machine. Thus the delivery corresponding to each
tooth on the feed wheel will be represented by 4.46 feet of travel.
The position of the feed wheel at minimum delivery is at a point
where tooth No. 2 has just reached the delivery opening and tooth No.
1 is directly opposite the deflector, as shown in figure 15, A. In this
position all the fertilizer carried between teeth Nos. 1 and 2 has been
•delivered and there will be no delivery of the charge between teeth
52 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 2, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
2 and 3 until tooth No. 2 has advanced far enough to expose the de-
livery opening to the charge of fertilizer. Also, tooth No. 1, being
directly in the path of fertilizer diverted by the deflector, tends to
retard the flow, which contributes to minimum delivery at the instant
in question. The delivery of fertilizer from the top of the teeth by
the knocker, as well as the delivery from the ledge by the points of
the teeth, occur at the instant of minimum delivery, and thus the
tendency is to prevent an extremely low point in the cycle of
delivery ; however, the combined effect is very slight in most cases.
The position of the feed wheel for maximum delivery (fig. 15, B)
is obvious from the preceding discussion.
The cycle of delivery corresponding to each tooth is evident
throughout the series of tests, but becomes less distinct with fer-
tilizers of poor drillability. In distributing such a fertilizer, the
irregularities due to its own inherent properties may be much greater
than those due to the distributing mechanism. Fertilizers having^
poor drillability also have decreased delivery rates, as explained in
the discussion of distributor No. 1. Fertilizers having very poor
drillability are not delivered at all.
I
I'
10
Distance in feet
20
Figure 14. — Delivery curve of distributor No. 2
The 95 drillability fertilizer flowed by gravity through the dis-
tributing mechanism of distributor No. 2 when stationary at a gate
opening corresponding to notch 16. Increased head and any motion
or vibration of the machine caused the fertilizer to flow by gravity
through a smaller gate opening. Because of the method of operating
the gate, that part of the gate slot above the gate is not entirely
closed except when the gate is in its extreme upward position. When
the height of the fertilizer in the hopper reached the top of the gate
slot, the 95 fertilizer flowed out freely over the top of the gate, al-
though the other fertilizers did not. Thus, if positive control is ta
be maintained, this fertilizer can not extend above the gate slot, nor
can the gate be opened wider than notch 16. The fertilizer was de-
livered with an average deviation of 38.38 per cent. The cycles
of delivery for each feed-wheel tooth were very distinct and were of
considerable amplitude.
The 85 drillability material was delivered at a rate one-half that
of the 95 fertilizer, by weight, but with about the same degree of
uniformity; the difference by volume was only about 11 per cent.
This material did not flow through the opening immediately above
the fertilizer gate, nor through the gate opening proper by gravity^
except at an extremely wide opening. Cycles of delivery for the
teeth on the feed wheel were very regular and distinct.
Tech. Bui. 182. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
Plate 10
A, Distributing mechanism of distributor No. 2, a, fertilizer feed wheel; b, gate opening; c, feed-wheel
tooth; d, delivery opening; e, deflector; /, back plate; h, bottom plate; i, ledge; /, agitator drive lug;
n, scraper. B, Interior view of distributor No. 2, a, fertilizer feed wheel; b, gate opening; c, feed-wheel
tooth; d, delivery opening; e, deflector;/, back plate; g, fertilizer gate; h, bottom plate;;, fertilizer gate
Tech. Bui. 182. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 11
A, Distributing mechanism of distributor No. 3, a, fertilizer feed plate; ft, fertilizer plow; c, feed-
plate wall; d, feed-plate shield; e, shield teeth; f. feed-plate cleaner; g, feed-plate lugs; h, hopper;
t, fertilizer divider;;, delivery tube. B, Distributing mechanism of distributor No. 4, a, fertilizer
feed wheel; ft, feed-wheel paddle; c, feed-wheel shield; d, deliverv opening; e, delivery tube; /, fer-
tilizer gate; g, gate opening; h, hopper; i, agitator; j, feed wheel and agitator shaft
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS
53
The 75 drillability fertilizer was delivered at a reduced rate but
more uniformly than were either of the more freely flowing mate-
rials. Although cycles of delivery appeared at regular intervals,
they were of less amplitude.
The 65 drillability material was delivered with an average devi-
ation of 40.38 per cent, which is about what might be expected from
its drillability score. Cycles of delivery were not uniform, indicat-
ing that the fertilizer was not flowing properly at the delivery open-
ing. The fertilizer, being composed of pieces of bone and strawlike
material, could easily produce much irregularity in a small distrib-
uting unit.
The 55 drillability material was delivered at a lower rate but with
greater uniformity than the 65, 85, and 95 drillability fertilizers.
The cycles of delivery were irregular and of low amplitude.
The 35 drillability fertilizer was delivered at such a low rate that
it is evident that distributor No. 2 could not make a practical field
distribution of this material. Plate 10, C, shows the manner in which
Figure 15. — Positions of feed wheel of distributor No. 2 at points of minimum
(A) and maximum (B) delivery: a. Fertilizer f6ed wheel; d, delivery
opening ; e, deflector ; i, ledge ; m, knocker
powdered urea having a drillability score of 35 was delivered. Each
of the six distributing units delivered in bunches at regular intervals
of 4.5 feet. The fertilizer was in such a poor mechanical condition
that it was carried only in small quantities between the feed wheel
teeth, and passed through the delivery opening in distinct lumps.
The 15 drillability fertilizer remained in a mass in the hopper, and
no delivery was made.
Table 26 shows that the 55 and 75 drillability fertilizers gave the
most uniform distribution. Owing to the size and character of the
particles of which the 65 material is composed, it could not be dis-
tributed uniformly in a small-scale distributing unit. The 85 ma-
terial, flowing freely and responding readily to mechanical irregu-
larities, passed from between the feed-wheel teeth in such a manner
as to cause distinct cycles of delivery of considerable magnitude.
Thus a delivery of high average per cent deviation resulted. The
free-flowing fertilizer did not remain on the ledge or tops of the
teeth in sufficient quantities to counteract materially the maximum
and minimum points of delivery. The 55 fertilizer, by failing to
flow rapidly from between the feed- wheel teeth, did not produce a
high maximum point of delivery. This material remained on the
ledge and on the tops of the teeth in sufficient quantities to be deliv-
54 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 2, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUKE
ered at the point of minimum delivery, so that the amplitude of thr-
cycle was not great. In addition, the scrapers on the bottom of the
teeth delivered fertilizer at the point of minimum delivery, and no
doubt in greater relative amounts with a medium than with a high-
drillability material. The mechanism seems to be so designed that
cycles of delivery are less marked with a 55 drillability than with
an 85 drillability fertilizer.
DISTRIBUTOR NO. 3, POTATO-PLANTER ATTACHMENT
Distributor No. 3, shown in Plate 2, A, is of the revolving-plate
type. It is also illustrated in Plate 11, A, with the hopper raised
to show the internal construction.
The feed plate carries the fertilizer to the plow, which diverts it
over the wall of the feed plate into the delivery tubes. The flow
of fertilizer is divided and flows through two delivery tubes instead
of one ; thus fertilizer is distributed on both sides of the row.
The fertilizer is fed to the shielded part of the feed plate through
a 1%-inch fixed opening designated as the throat opening. The feed
plate is 161/^ inches in diameter and has a wall 1% inches high. The
central portion has radial rows of lugs or small projections which
assist in carrying the lower layer of fertilizer with the plate and
cause it to move outward toward the periphery of the plate.
V-shaped teeth, set 1 inch on centers, extend downward three-fourths
inch into the throat opening and at a distance of 2% inches from
the periphery of the feed plate. As the fertilizer in the hopper
moves along the teeth, it is forced outward by the deflecting action
of the teeth.
A cleaner rides on the feed plate to insure that the throat opening
is free from obstructions which might be caused by fertilizer ad-
hering or caking on the feed plate. The rate of delivery is reg-
ulated by the depth at which the plow is set and the speed of the
feed plate. There is no scale to indicate the position of the plow,
which for the tests was set five-eighths inch above the feed plate.
For convenience an indicator was attached to the plow, and grad-
uations were stamped on the hopper.
Uneven distribution with free-flowing fertilizer was caused mainly
by variations in the relative height of the feed-plate wall at the
plow. A maximum variation of three-sixteenths inch was found
as the plate made one revolution, the variation being caused by the
fact that the plate was not at right angle to its axis. One revolu-
tion of the feed plate corresponded to 15.2 feet travel of the machine.
Thus a distinct cycle of delivery is shown, even in a 20-foot test,
by a gradual increase and decrease in the delivery rate. (See deliv-
ery curve. Figure 16), Minor deviations within the cycle of delivery
were caused by small irregularities in the feed-plate wall, and the
jerky motion of the plate.
The 95 drillability fertilizer, although flowing very freely and
uniformly, was subject to a relatively high average per cent devia-
tion in delivery due to the mechanical imperfections of the dis-
tributing mechanism. The fertilizer was distributed under a 1-inch,
head, which was sufficient to raise the fertilizer outside the throat;
opening to the top of the plate wall. It is evident that an ap-
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS
65
preciable increase in head would cause the fertilizer to rise to a
point where it would flow over the plate wall. A decrease in deliv-
ery rate was shown at the end of the test, due to a reduction of
head.
The 85 and 75 drillability fertilizers were distributed with about
the same degree of uniformity as the 95 fertilizer. The high rate
of delivery by a large type of distributor makes possible the same
degree of uniformity of distribution in each case, notwithstanding
minor differences in the drillabilities of the materals.
The 65 drillability mixture was agitated and broken up as it passed
between the teeth in the throat opening and as a result was dis-
tributed with a fair degree of uniformity. At any particular ad-
justment of distributor No. 3 the quantity delivered depends mainly
upon the effect of head or lateral pressure at the throat opening
in forcing the fertilizer to the outer part of the feed plate. Since
the 65 drillability mixture is a light material, and its physical
properties are such that the mixture does not respond readily to
pressure, it was not forced to the outer part of the feed plate at as
30
/
"^
X
s
1
y
\
^
V^
'""»«^
^
'.- in
^
0
'
5
1
D
1
5
20
Distance In feet
Figure 16. — Delivery curve of distributor No. 3
great a depth as were the fertilizers of higher drillability, and as
a result was delivered at a reduced rate.
The 55 drillability fertilizer was delivered at a low rate, espe-
cially as compared with the 85 drillability fertilizer, which is the
same material in granular form, for reasons similar to those stated
concerning the 65 drillability fertilizer. The 55 drillability material
was subject to uneven distribution. It was finely divided as it
passed between the teeth in the throat opening, but because of the
fineness of the particles and their disposition to adhere when the
fertilizer piled up at the plow to flow over the plate wall by gravity,
it flowed in lumps. A free-flowing material flows over the plate
wall at the plow in a continuous stream several inches wide, while a
material such as the 55 drillability fertilizer slides off in lumps. It
is this characteristic which accounts for the greater unevenness of
distribution of the latter.
The distribution of the 35 drillability mixture was similar to that
of the 55 drillability material, although it was subject to greater
variations in delivery caused by the fertilizer piling up higher at
the plow and flowing over the plate wall in larger lumps. The un-
expected high rate of delivery as compared to that of tne 55 drilla-
56 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
bility fertilizer may be accounted for as follows: The latter, being
finely powdered, passed beyond the hopper teeth in a compact form
and tapered off in depth toward the periphery of the feed plate,
while the 35 drillability mixture was given a loose texture by the
teeth and was carried at a greater and more uniform depth. Since
the plow was set some distance above the feed plate, the upper part
of the charge of fertilizer determined the delivery rate. It is possible
that a greater weight of the 55 drillability fertilizer was carried
on the shielded part of the plate, but if a large percentage of it
passed under the plow the delivery rate would necessarily be small.
The 15 drillabiiit}^ mixture gave a very small delivery through the
distributing mechanism. This fertilizer had a tendency to remain in
a mass in the hopper. The small amount that passed out of the
hopper piled up at the plow and broke off in lumps so large that
they would not enter the delivery tubes.
DISTRIBUTOR NO. 4, POTATO-PLANTER ATTACHMENT
Distributor No. 4 is an implement of the paddle-wheel type and
is used as an attachment on a potato planter. (PI. 2, B.) The
principle of operation is shown in Plate 11, B.
The fertilizer enters the feed-wheel chamber from either side
through the gate opening and is carried by the paddles on the feed
wheel to the delivery opening where it flows into the delivery tube.
Both gravity and centrifugal force cause the fertilizer to leave the
paddle at the delivery opening. The rate of delivery is controlled
hy the fertilizer gate in the feed-wheel chamber. The gate opening
can not be entirely closed. The rate of delivery may also be varied
by changing the speed of the feed wheel, which can be done only by
changing the size of sprockets. The distributor is rated for 250
pounds per acre at the minimum gate opening of 0.5 inch and 3,500
pounds per acre at the maximum gate opening of 2 inches. It was
operated at the manufacturer's rating of 1,000 pounds per acre. A
scale indicates the position of the fertilizer gate and the manufac-
turer's rating.
The feed wheel, which is 8 inches in diameter, has eight paddles
approximately 1% inches wide and 2 inches long. The feed-wheel
shaft has on each side of the feed-wheel chamber three projecting
fingers to form an agitator. The bottom of the hopper slopes toward
the gate openings which, with the action of the agitator, facilitates
the flow of fertilizer into the feed- wheel chamber. An agitator is
also provided in the hopper above the feed- wheel shield to prevent
caking or bridging at that point.
The feed wheel makes one revolution as the machine travels
through a distance of 11.13 feet. The delivery of each paddle
corresponds to 1.39 feet travel of the machine. The feed wheel as
a whole produced a cycle of delivery as shown on the delivery curve.
(Fig. 17.) The paddles also produced cycles or impulses of delivery.
The paddle cycles can not distinctly appear on the delivery curve,
since the length of cycle is just a little greater than the intervals
of delivery recorded. However, with certain fertilizers, especially
when the delivery rate was low, the paddle cycles were apparent to
i:he eye.
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERTILIZEES
57
The following are causes of uneven distribution with machine No.
4: The principle of operation, which causes a delivery of fertilizer
at intervals of 1.39 feet; mechanical irregularities in the distributor
mechanism; and irregular flow of fertilizer into the feed-wheel
chamber. The paddles on the feed wheel vary one-eighth inch in
length and are not uniform in shape, both of which factors tend to
vary the amount of fertilizer the different paddles will carry. These
variations are particularly noticeable at a minimum rate of delivery.
Fertilizer of suitable drillability flows through the gate opening at
a uniform rate, but as the drillability becomes poorer the flow be-
comes more irregular.
The 95 drillability fertilizer flowed by gravity out of the delivery
opening, witL the distributing mechanism stationary and the gate
closed as far as possible ; for that reason the fertilizer was not under
control, and no results were recorded.
40
«9
i
•5 20
I
/
\
^
/
/
^
\
/
/
\
/
\
/
/
/
/
/
\
/
\
/
/
/'■■
10
15
20
Distance in feet
Figure 17. — Delivery curve of distributor No. 4
The 85 drillability material flowed freely and uniformly into the-
feed chamber and was distributed with a low average percentage
deviation. It is true with distributor No. 4 — as perhaps with some
others — that the distributing mechanism was designed to function
most efficiently at a medium or high-delivery rate. When distrib-
utor No. 4 is delivering at a low rate, small quantities of fertilizer
are carried at the tips of the paddles and delivered in distinct im-
pulses, while at a high rate the fertilizer must necessarily be carried
on the entire paddle surface, and at the point of delivery some time
is required for all the fertilizer to leave the paddle. The latter
condition contributes greatly to uniform distribution.
The 75 drillability material was delivered less uniformly and at a
rate about one-half that of the 85 drillability mixture. The dis-
tributor depends to a great extent on flow by gravity through the
gate opening, thus a decided reduction in delivery rate will be found
with fertilizers that do not flow freely.
The 65 drillability fertilizer was delivered at a higher rate than;
the 75 drillability material, resulting in more uniform distribution.
The fertilizer is of such a nature that continual stirring by the-
58 TECHNICAL, BULLETIN 18 2, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
agitators prevents matting and caking, and permits it to flow quite
freely. For the same reason, similar results will be observed for
tests with certain other machines.
The 55 and 35 drillability mixtures were handled much alike by
distributor No. 4, although the 55 mixture, as might be expected,
was distributed more uniformly. These fertilizers do not flow well
by gravity; therefore irregular and decreased delivery results.
The agitator arms, rotating near the feed chamber, have beveled
faces that tend to throw the fertilizer away from the gate opening.
With free-flowing fertilizer such action would not interrupt the
passage of the fertilizer, but with materials such as those of 55 and
35 drillability it is likely that the beveled faces of the agitator arms
would retard the flow.
The 15 drillability mixture was delivered irregularly and at a very
low rate. The agitators, rotating in the mass of fertilizer, occa-
sionally separated small lumps, which found their way into the feed
chamber ; otherwise there was no flow into the feed chamber, and the
delivery was only in widely separated lumps.
The effect of drillability upon delivery rate is clearly shown by
comparing the tests with 85 and 55 drillability fertilizers. All con-
ditions of the tests were the same, and the materials were the same
except that they were prepared in such a way that they had different
drillabilities. The difference in drillability in this case was due
entirely to particle sizes. The 85 drillability fertilizer was delivered
at a rate of 1,722 pounds per acre, while the 55 material was de-
livered at a rate of 254 pounds per acre.
Distributor No. 4 has a mixing device at the base of the delivery
tuJDe the primary purpose of which is to mix the fertilizer with the
soil. It is evident that such a device would contribute to more
uniform distribution, but the extent of its effect was not studied.
DISTRIBUTOR NO. 5, POTATO-PLANTER ATTACHMENT
Distributor No. 5 is used as a separate 2-row machine or as an
attachment on a potato planter. (Plate 3, A.) The distributor
has two similar units for each row which deposit fertilizer on both
sides of the row. The distributing mechanism is of the revolving-
plate type, as shown in Plate 12, A and B.
The fertilizer is carried by the revolving horizontal feed wheel or
plate in the bottom of the hopper. The fertilizer gate or finger
(Plate 12, A) extending into the hopper just above the feed wheel,
diverts a portion of the fertilizer carried by the wheel out of the
delivery opening into the delivery tube. The feed wheel is 9 inches
in diameter, and the fertilizer finger or deflector is 1 inch in height.
The maximum gate opening is approximately 2 inches. A shield
(Plate 12, B) has been provided above the gate to prevent fertilizer
from flowing out of the gate opening by gravity.
To prevent slippage of the fertilizer on the feed wheel and to in-
sure that the desired amount of fertilizer revolves with the feed plate,
four primary arms of the agitator revolve with the feed wheel and
at a distance of I14 inches above it. The primary agitator arms
are 1% inches wide and extend to within one-fourth inch of the
hopper wall. They are equipped with wide lugs by means of which
Tech. Bui. 182, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 12
Tech. Bui. 182. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 13
A, Distributing mechanism of distributor No. 6, a, fertilizer feed plate; b, fertilizer plow; c, feed-plate
wall; d, feed-plate shield; e, throat opening; /, quantity lever and adjustment; g, delivery tube;
h, hopper. B, Distributing mechanism of distributor No. 7, a, fertilizer conveyor; b, delivery
tube; c, fertilizer gate; d, fertilizer-gate adjustment; e, gate opening; /, hopper; g, conveyor drive
sprocket: h, rivet projections
MECHANICAL APPLICATIOISr OF FERTILIZEKS
59
they are driven and which assist in carrying the fertilizer with the
feed wheel. In revolving-, the primary agitator arms pass between
the fertilizer gate and the gate shield. Secondary agitator arms
prevent bridging and caking of the fertilizer at higher points in
the hopper.
The rate of delivery is regulated by the position of the fertilizer
fate or amount of gate opening. The delivery could also be varied
y changing the speed of the feed wheel. For the test& the fertilizer
gate was set approximately one-third open. A graduated quantity
lever rack indicates the position of the fertilizer gate.
It is presumed that a cycle of delivery of only slight amplitude
exists for the feed wheel proper. On the delivery curve (Fig. 18)
points of minimum delivery appear w^hich correspond to the primary
agitator arms. Since the feed wheel makes one revolution during
15.3 feet of travel of the machine, a primary agitator arm passes
the gate opening at intervals of 3.83 feet.
The 85 drillability fertilizer flowed to some extent by gravity
through the gate opening with the distributing mechanism station-
Oi stance in feet
Figure 18. — Delivery curve of distributor No. 5
ary except when a primary agitator arm was in the position of just
reaching the gate shield. Evidently when the wide agitator arm
was in this position the gate opening was sufficiently protected to
prevent the gravity flow of the fertilizer. In other words, most of
the pressure due to the head of the fertilizer was carried by the
gate shield and the agitator arm. This fertilizer gave very uniform
distribution, but showed points of low delivery at regular intervals,
corresponding to the moments of no-gravity flow. The existence,
then, of points of low delivery was due to the absence of head on the
fertilizer being delivered.
The 15 drillability fertilizer was delivered at a low rate and in
large lumps. Flow out of the delivery opening occurred only when
a primary agitator arm was passing the opening. The fertilizer
was subjected to sufficient pressure, as it was being delivered, to
cause moisture to appear on the surface. It passed through the
delivery opening in a column that broke down only in large lumps
to enter the delivery tube. In some of the tests the lumps were so
large that they would not enter the delivery tube. In the distribu-
tion of fertilizer of 15 drillability, the delivery as affected by the
primary agitator arms was directly the reverse of that in the case
of the 85 drillability fertilizer ; that is, the points of maximum deliv-
ery occurred at the time the agitator arms passed the gate opening.
60 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 2, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUEE
The agitator arms as they passed the gate opening in this case
reduced the slippage of the fertilizer on the feed plate.
The 35 drillability mixture was delivered at a reduced rate and
with a high average per cent deviation. The action of the fertilizer
was similar to that of the 15 drillability mixture, except that con-
ditions were not so extreme. A noticeable impulse of delivery was
present, which indicated that less slippage on the feed plate occurred
as the prim-ary agitator arms passed the delivery opening. The
column of fertilizer in passing out of the delivery opening tended
to remain intact, and as a result broke off in lumps to enter tlie
delivery tube.
The 55 drillability fertilizer gave results whicl) may be considered
to be about midway between those of the two extremes just discussed.
While slippage of the fertilizer on the feed wheel was not so evident
as in the case of the 35 drillability mixture, from the character of
the material it is reasonable to suppose that it would resist move-
ment in the hopper and at the gate opening. It is probable that
the low rate of delivery as shown in the results was due partially to
the absence of fertilizer in the spaces immediately below the wide
agitator arms. The fertilizer did not flow uniformly into the delivery
tube as did the 85 fertilizer, but broke into lumps at the delivery
opening.
The 75 and 65 drillability fertilizers were distributed very uni-
formly. They were delivered, however, at a lower rate than the
85 drillability material, evidently due to slippage on the feed wheel.
DISTRIBUTOR NO. 6, CORN-PLANTER ATTACHMENT
Fertilizer distributor No. 6 (pi. 3, B) is of the revolving-plate
type. The horizontal feed plate revolves and carries the fertilizer
to the plow, which diverts it over the wall of the plate into the
delivery tube. (PI. 13, A.)
The rate of delivery is varied by changing the height of the feed-
plate shield above the feed plate; this regulates the depth of fer-
tilizer carried to the plow. Delivery rate is also controlled by the
speed of the feed plate. Three speeds are provided. The plow is
1 inch wide and nonadjustable. Minute adjustment of the throat
opening is possible, but there is no scale to indicate the position of
the plate shield. For convenience in testing, the hopper-adjusting
device was graduated to show the exact relative positions.
Fertilizer is continuously supplied to the shielded part of the feed
plate by virtue of the location and peculiar shape of the shield, the
edge of which is spirally shaped. That part of the shield back of the
plow is placed near the feed-plate wall, an arrangement which per-
mits the uncharged part of the plate to pass directly under the
charge of fertilizer in the hopper. In the direction of plate move-
ment the shield edge gradually recedes from the plate wall, to clear
the inner edge of the plow, at which point it abruptly extends out-
ward to the point back of the plow before mentioned. The action
of the shield in regulating the quantity of fertilizer carried to the
plow is similar to that of a straight gate, except that the band of fer-
tilizer is gradually widened throughout the revolution of the feed
plate.
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS
61
The feed plate was operated at high speed during the tests and
made one revolution during 17.45 feet of advance of the machine.
The feed plate is in reality a circular pan, 9l^ inches in diameter
with a wall three-fourths inch in height. While it is evident that a
cycle of delivery existed for each revolution of the feed plate, the
extent of the deviations was so small and the length of cycle so
long in comparison with the distance represented by the tests that
cycles do not appear distinctly on the delivery curves. A repre-
sentative delivery curve is shown in Figure 19.
Uneven distribution resulting frdm the distributor itself was
caused principally by the variation in position of the rim of the
feed-plate wall and the feed-plate bottom in relation to the plow.
The relative height of rim had a maximum variation of three
thirty-seconds inch. The distance of the rim from the plow varied
only slightly. The feed plate was operated by a beveled pinion
driving a ring gear attached to the plate. Since the feed plate fitted
loosely, irregularities of the gear teeth or variations in resistance of
the plate permitted the drive pinion to raise and lower the plate,
which in turn changed the relative positions of the rim and plow
20
6^
—
—
■— •
^
■^
■^
--
I
1
5
1
D
1
5
20
Distance In feet
Figure 19. — Delivery curve of distributor No. 6
and momentarily varied the flow of fertilizer passing over the rim.
At the same time changes in relative height of the plate bottom
varied the quantity of fertilizer fed to the plow.
The fertilizer of 95 drillability responded so quickly to irregular
motion and vibrations of the machine that distribution was affected
someAvhat where the fertilizer piles up and flows by gravity over the
plate wall. The delivery curves for this fertilizer showed varia-
tions which corresponded to the relative positions of the rim as it
passed the plow.
The 85 drillability fertilizer, as compared with the 95 drillability
material, not being so greatly affected by head, was delivered at a
much lower rate. Because of lower drillability the distribution was
more irregular.
The 75 and 65 drillability materials were distributed a little less
regularly than the 85 drillability material because they exhibited
slightly greater cohesion as they flowed over the plate wall into the
delivery tube.
The 55 drillability fertilizer was delivered at a normal rate as com-
pared with the fertilizers mentioned above, but it flowed over the
plate wall in lumps and thus gave a high average per cent deviation
in delivery.
62 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUBE
The 35 drillability mixture resisted separation to such an extent
that slippage on the feed wheel was high, and only a small quantity
of fertilizer was carried through the throat opening. The almost
negligible amount of delivery was made in lumps, with no delivery
most of the time. As a consequence the average per cent deviation
was exceptionally high.
The 15 drillability mixture remained in a mass within the hopper,,
and no delivery was made.
DISTRIBUTOR NO. 7, BROADCAST OR 3-ROW DISTRIBUTOR
This machine, shown in Plate 4, A, is of the belt-conveyor type and'
is essentially a broadcasting machine, although the fertilizer may
be delivered in bands about 8 inches wide. The distributor has three
units rigidly fixed at 2.75 feet apart. One of the units is illustrated
in Plate 13, B.
The fertilizer is carried by an endless canvas conveyor 6 inches in
width to a point outside the hopper, where it falls by gravity into
the delivery tubes. Chains running over sprockets are fastened to
both edges of the belt to prevent slippage and creeping. Each unit
is equipped with four delivery tubes which are adjustable for broad-
casting the fertilizer. Since the machine has no furrow openers,,
the fertilizer must be broadcast on the ground surface or distributed,
in open furrows.
The rate of delivery is controlled by the fertilizer gate 5 inches
in width, which determines the depth of fertilizer carried on the
conveyor. It would be possible to vary the delivery by changing
the speed of the conveyor, but no such provision is made on this
distributor. The gate is adjusted by a thumbscrew, but there is no
scale to indicate the position of the gate. The maximum gate
opening is 1 inch, and the gate was set approximately one-fourth
open for the tests.
Uneven distribution of free-flowing fertilizer is caused mainly by
the irregularities in the surface of the conveyor. Metal strips at
intervals of 2 inches connect the chains at either side of the belt and
act as supports and reenforcements for the canvas. The canvas is
riveted to the metal strips ; thus a row of rivet ends projects at each
support. Moreover, the ends of the canvas are lapped, which
feature gives another irregularity in the belt surface.
A cycle of delivery occurs for each revolution of the conveyor,
which represents 15.1 feet of travel of the machine. Variations in
delivery occur at regular intervals corresponding to the canvas
supports or rows of projecting rivets; these were clearly visible to
the eye in certain tests. The variations corresponding to the rows
of rivets occurred at intervals of 16.5 inches of travel of the machine
and for that reason can not appear regularly on the delivery curve.
(Fig. 20.) However, points of maximum or minimum delivery may
be indicated on the delivery curve when either of them falls near
the center of a 1-foot interval measured during the tests.
Since the 95 drillability fertilizer flowed out of the hopper by
gravity, both through the gate opening and at the point where the
conveyor entered, no results were recorded.
The 85 drillability fertilizer was distributed quite uniformly. The
principal variations in the normal flow were points of decreased.
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS
63
delivery corresponding to the rows of projecting rivets and the lap
joint of the belt.
The 75 and 65 drillability mixtures were delivered in much the
same manner as the 85 drillability material, except that they passed
through the gate opening more irregularly.
The 55 and 35 drillability materials, adhering to the conveyor and
resisting separation in the hopper, were delivered at a reduced rate.
The conveyor was not charged uniformly, and large variations in
delivery were caused by the adherence of the fertilizer to the rivet
ends, resulting in a high average per cent deviation.
The 15 drillability mixture either bridged across the hopper or
resisted separation to such an extent that no delivery was made.
No exceptionally high average percentage deviations in delivery
were found with distributor No. 7, apparently because the fertilizer
has to pass under the gate in a wide, thin layer and there is no fur-
ther opportunity for it to build up and flow in large lumps.
DISTRIBUTOR NO. 8, SINGLE-ROW DISTRIBUTOR
This machine is of the top-delivery type and is shown in Plate
4, B. It consists of a revolving cylinder with a movable bottom
20
^^^-- k— _<e ^^~~ 1^^ ^ 3^ ^^^ . "v ^^^^ _ —
10
15
20
Figure 20.
Distance in feet
-Delivery curve of distributor No. 7
which rises and delivers the material over the top as the machine is
operated. (Plate 14, A.)
A beveled drive pinion when engaged in the ring gear rotates the
cylinder, which has a diameter of 8 inches and total depth of 18
inches. A slot in the diaphragm through which a vertical flange in
the cylinder passes permits the diaphragm to move up or down in
the cylinder as the diaphragm rotatoes with the cylinder. As illus-
trated in Figure 21, a patented split nut, attached to the diaphragm
and rotating about the stationary threaded rod causes the diaphragm
to move upward when the machine travels forward. The shield in-
closing the threaded rod also revolves with the diaphragm. As the
cylinder rotates, carrying the fertilizer with it, a blade shaves off
a definite amount of fertilizer and diverts it out of the delivery
opening into the delivery tube. By virtue of the mass of fertilizer
continually revolving with the cylinder and at the same time being
raised by the diaphragm, the blade is supplied with fertilizer at a
constant rate. The threads on the stationary rod have a pitch of
0.2 inch, which means that a 0.2-inch layer of fertilizer is fed to the
blade during each revolution of the cylinder. A cleaner prevents
the fertilizer from building up around the shield or entering the
shield guide.
64 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 2, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The blade is adjustable and is set at an angle with the horizontal ;
it therefore maintains the surface of the fertilizer in the hopper in
the form of the frustum of a cone, a feature greatly facilitating
the flow of fertilizer along the blade and out the delivery opening.
The diaphragm may be lowered at any time by first pulling it up-
ward, which disengages the split nut. When the diaphragm reaches
the bottom of the cylinder, the split nut is forced into mesh with the
threaded rod. The rate of delivery may be
varied by changing the speed of rotation of the
cylinder.
The top carriage provides a support and guide
for the cylinder, a guide for the shield, and a
support for the blade and cleaner; it also con-
tains the delivery opening. Its spider braces
are so designed as to serve as a feed regulator
when the hopper is filled with fertilizer. For
fertilizers that tend to settle as the machine is
put in motion it has been recommended that the
hopper be filled above the delivery blade. This
excess fertilizer in the hopper provides a reserve
to take care of any settling. The fact that it is
held between the spider braces prevents its being
carried to the blade during the first revolution
of the cylinder. The braces are set 0.2 inch
above the bottom of the blade so that the excess
fertilizer is fed to the blade gradually.
Distributor No. 8 gave variable distribution
with free-flowing fertilizer, principally because
of mechanical imperfections. The top of the
cylinder was not in the form of a smooth circle
and varied by one thirty-second inch in height.
The cylinder guide in the hopper gave the cylin-
der one-sixteenth inch of play. As the fertilizer
was being delivered it piled up somewhat at the
blade and flowed over the edge of the cylinder.
Any irregularity in the shape of the cylinder
wall would change the relative position of the
rim as it passed the blade and change the deliv-
ery of fertilizer accordingly. Thus, when the
rim of the cylinder passed near the blade, or a
low point in the rim passed the blade, the ferti-
lizer flowed at a greater rate for an instant, the reverse being true
when the rim passed at a greater distance from the blade or in a
higher position. The distance from the blade to the rim of the
cylinder had a maximum variation of one-eighth inch.
Any jerky motion of the distributor would also give a slight
variation in the deliverjr rate, but great care was taken to reduce
such variations to a minimum during the tests. The distributor was
operated with an 8-toothed drive sprocket and a 12-tooth driven
sprocket, which required 24.24 feet of advance of the machine for
one revolution of the cylinder.
Since the volume of fertilizer fed to the blade is constant, any
momentary increase in delivery must be followed by an equal de-
FiGURB 21. — Section of
distributor No. 8 ;
a. Cylinder ; 6, dia-
phragm ; c, d i a-
phragm slot ; dj dia-
phragm drive
flange ; e, tapered
split nut ; f, station-
ary threaded rod ;
g, fertilizer delivery
blade ; h^ delivery
opening ; i, shield ;
j, shield cleaner ; fc,
top carriage ; I, spi-
der brace ; m, deliv-
ery tube ; n, cylin-
der ring gear ; o,
drive pinion
Tech. Bui. 182. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 14
A, Distributing mechanism of distributor Au. a, a, cylinder; b, diaphragm; c, diaphragm slot;
d, diaphragm drive flange; g, fertilizer delivery blade; h, delivery opening; i, shield; ;, shield
cleaner; k, top carriage; /, spider brace; m, delivery tube. B, Distribution of potassium nitrate
by distributor No. 8, a, crystalline; b, pellet: c, powdered
Tech. Bui. 182, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 15
A, Distributing mechanism of distributor No. 9, a, fertilizer feed plate; 6, hopper; c, throat opening;
d, tappet flange; e, tappet-flange lug; /, tappet; g, tappet rod; h, tappet spring; i, feed-plate stop
arm; j, adjustable plate stop; k, quantity lever and rack; /, plate adjustment; m, land wheel.
B, Distribution of 95 drillability fertilizer by distributor No. 9
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FEBTILIZBHS
65
crease in delivery, and vice versa. No distinct cycle of delivery was
apparent in the delivery curve, of which Figure 22 shows a repre-
sentative portion. All variations are comparatively small, and the
variations occur irregularly because they are largely due to the
minor changes in relative positions of a loose-fitting cylinder.
The fertilizers of low drillability gave greater variations in deliv-
ery because of their irregular flow from the blade over the rim of
the cylinder.
The 95 drillability material flowed so freely that it responded
very quickly to movements or vibrations of the machine, both at the
point of delivery and on the sloping surface of the fertilizer in the
cylinder.
Table 26 shows that delivery rate by volume was the same for
all materials except the 95 drillability fertilizer. The probable
causes of a slightly higher rate with the latter material were
(1) slight leakage past the diaphragm, and (2) loss from the top of
the fertilizer due to jarring.
The 85 drillability fertilizer did not respond so readily to minor
vibrations of the machine or irregularities in the cylinder rim; this
20
I'
Distance in feet
Figure 22. — Delivery curve of distributor No. 8
20
may explain why it gave a lower average percentage deviation than
the 95 drillability material. The 75, 65, and 55 drillability materials
responded very little to vibrations and irregularities of the cylinder
rim, but owing to their characteristic properties they flowed over
the rim of the cylinder irregularly in lumps. Since the deviations
in delivery of the three materials last mentioned were due princi-
pally to the manner in which the materials flowed, the results in
Table 26 are indicative of their relative drillabilities. It will be
noticed that the 75 drillability mixture was distributed much more
uniformly than was the 55 drillability material.
The 35 drillability fertilizer had a tendency to remain in a mass ;
only a part broke down into finer particles and passed through the
delivery opening, while the remainder passed in a column over the
blade. The 15 drillability mixture did not pass through the delivery
opening; all of it passed over the blade, some falling behind the
blade and the remainder falling over the edge of the hopper.
The distribution of fertilizers of different drillability is shown in
Plate 14, B. Three samples of potassium nitrate were used: a is
20 to 30 mesh crystalline, with 80 drillability; & is 20 to 30 mesh
centrifugally sprayed, with 95 drillability; c is powdered, passing
a 100-mesh screen, with 55 drillability. The 95 drillability material,
although spreading out into a wide strip, was not distributed so
98734—30 5
66 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
uniformly as the 80 material. The 55 drillability material had the
greatest variations, but its pure-white powdered form gives a
blurred effect in the illustration, which may be misleading unless
carefully observed. The delivery rate was the same in each case.
DISTRIBUTOR NO. 9, SINGLE-ROW DISTRIBUTOR
Distributor No. 9, shown in plate 4, C, is an example of the agi-
tator-bottom type. The distributing mechanism is illustrated in
Plate 15, A.
The fertilizer passes from the hopper through the throat opening
and is thrown off the feed plate by vibration and centrifugal
force. The feed plate is vibrated or oscillated by a tappet working
on a flange. The tappet is connected with the feed glate by a tappet
rod. As the tappet is carried to its extreme position by a lug on
the flange, the feed plate is also slowly moved to its extreme posi-
tion, and tension is built up in the tappet spring. When the tappet
is released, the tension in the spring forces the feed plate back at
great speed. The feed plate is stopped suddenly when its stop arm
strikes the stop. This motion forces the fertilizer off the feed plate.
The stop is adjustable and regulates the amount of knock, or by
eliminating the knock it stops the flow of fertilizer. The feed plate
is 8.5 inches in diameter and is dished one-fourth inch to prevent
free-flowing fertilizer from flowing over its edge by gravity. The
feed plate has an adjustment in its support by which it may be raised
or lowered to vary the width of throat opening, and thus regulate
the amount of delivery. The combination of the two adjustments
gives accurate control of delivery. The lower rim of the hopper is
6.5 inches in diameter and the maximum throat opening is 1 inch.
For the tests the distributor was adjusted to a seven-sixteenths-inch
opening with medium plate agitation.
Uneven distribution with fertilizer of good drillability was caused
principally by variations in the knock. Unless the lugs on the tap-
pet flange are perfectly shaped and accurately centered on the drive-
wheel, the distances through which the tappet and feed plate move
will vary. The flange carries nine lugs and gives delivery impulses
at intervals of 0.4 foot. Since the fertilizer is delivered in circular
bands with a mean diameter of approximately 8 inches, the delivery
impulses at 0.4-foot intervals do not greatly affect uniformity of
distribution as measured at 1-foot intervals. However, when one
impulse is greater than another the variation is very distinct. In
this particular instance the tappet flange was not centered on the
drivewheel, and three lugs on one side of the flange were traveling
in a circle approximately one-eighth inch greater m diameter than
that of the circle in which the lugs directly opposite were traveling.
This mechanical irregularity was magnified by the tappet, and a dis-
tinct cycle of delivery occurred with every revolution of the drive-
wheel, or 3.6 feet of travel of the machine, as is illustrated by the
delivery curve, Figure 23.
The 95 drillability fertilizer responded so readily to the agitation
of the feed plate that variations in delivery were of considerable
magnitude, as is indicated by the average per cent deviation. Plate
15, B, is a photograph of the 95 drillability fertilizer after being dis-
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS
67
tributed. Cycles of delivery appear distinctly at regular intervals
corresponding to 3.6 feet of travel of the machine. However, in the
plotted results, cycles are not of the same amplil ude because the de-
livery was measured at 1-foot intervals. By properly regulating the
throat opening and amplitude of plate agitation, the average per-
centage deviation in delivery may be reduced. For instance, with
the distributor set at a ^^-inch opening and with medium plate agita-
tion the average per cent deviation was 45.28, while after reducing the
throat opening to approximately ^^^r inch, and increasing the ampli-
tude of agitation to a maximum, the average per cent deviation was
only 10.99, although the rate of delivery was practically the same.
By increasing the amplitude of knock the percentage of variation of
knock was greatly reduced.
The 85 dri liability fertilizer was delivered at a decreased rate as
compared with the 95 fertilizer, for it did not flow through the throat
opening so freely and did not respond so readily to the vibration of
the feed plate. For the latter reason also more uniformity of dis-
tribution was attained because no exceptionally high points of de-
livery occurred.
20
I.
I-
1
/
\
y
V
\
^
^
\
^
/
\
\
/
/
\
\
y"
^
\
/
10
Distance
2Q
feet
FiGDRB 23. — Delivery curve of distributor No. 9
The 75, 65, and 55 drillability fertilizers were similarly distributed.
They gave decreased rates of delivery for the same reasons as apply
to the 85 drillability fertilizer. They were distributed with about
the same degree of uniformity, because the agitating action of the
feed plate was very effective in breaking up the fertilizers at the
point of delivery.
The 35 drillability mixture resisted flow to such an extent that
only a slight delivery was made and that irregularly in small lumps.
The 15 drillability fertilizer remained in a mass in the hopper,
and no delivery was made.
DISTRIBUTOR NO. 10, SINGLE-ROW DISTRIBUTOR
Distributor No. 10 is a typical screw-delivery machine. It is illus-
trated in Plate 5, A.
The fertilizer is carried by a tapered screw conveyor in the bottom
of the hopper (Plate 16, A) to the delivery opening, where the fer-
tilizer falls on a spreader to be distributed in a wide band. A spe-
cially shaped agitator driven by the screw flights tends to prevent
caking and bridging in the hopper and to keep sticky material from
rotating with the screw. The screw conveyor is 13 inches long and
3 inches in diameter, with 1-inch flights spaced 2 inches apart at the
68 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE
rear or delivery end, and 2.5 inches in diameter, with three-fourths
inch fli^^hts spaced 1.5 inches apart at the front end. The base of
the hopper is 10 inches long; thus the fertilizer is carried about 3
inches after leaving the hopper before being delivered.
The delivery rate is varied by changing the speed of the screw
conveyor which is accomplished by shifting the conveyor drive
pinion into mesh with any one of nine concentric gears on the main
wheel. The delivery rate used in this study was that corresponding
to medium conveyor speed, or the manufacturer's rating of 600
pounds per acre.
The delivery opening is V-shaped, with the point toward the hop-
per, the object being to maintain a constant delivery as the charge
of fertilizer is carried over the opening. However, a distinct cycle
of delivery exists corresponding to each revolution of the screw con-
veyor, or 6.22 feet of travel of the machine, and this is the principal
cause of uneven distribution. (Fig. 24.)
30
L
\
/
\
.y.
\
/
\
y
\
/
/
\
/
^
^
1
1/
f
\
/
\
/
\
/
r
-H
\,
/
7^
A
^
/
\
^^
/
\
/
0
1
5
1
0
1
5
20
Distance in feet
Figure 24. — Delivery curve of distributor No. 10
The cycles of delivery with free-flowing fertilizer are of con-
siderable magnitude. Minimum delivery occurs at the instant the
screw flight is directly over the point of the delivery opening as
shown in Figure 25, A. In this position practically all of one charge
of fertilizer has passed through the delivery opening and the suc-
ceeding charge can not be delivered until the screw flight has passed
over the opening far enough to permit a flow of fertilizer. When
the screw flight has passed over the delivery opening far enough to
permit a relatively large flow of fertilizer, as shown in Figure 25, B,
a free-flowing material will respond very readily, giving a point of
maximum delivery.
Distributor No. 10 gives most uniform distribution with medium-
drillability fertilizers because the cycles, which are the principal
cause of uneven distribution, are of much less amplitude than for
the materials of highest and lowest drillability. This implement
was designed especially for guano, which has medium drillability.
The fertilizer of 95 drillability flowed freely by gravity through
the distributing mechanism when it was stationary, and no results
were recorded.
^ The 85 drillability fertilizer was subject to a high average devia-
tion in distribution, 53.65 per cent. This resulted principally from
Tech. Bui. 182. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
Plate 1
A, Distributing mechanism of distributor No. 10, a, tapered screw conveyor; b, delivery opening;
c, screw delivery flight; d, agitator; e, hopper. B, Distribution of an 80 drillability fertilizer by
distributor No. 10
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERTILIZEES
69
delivery cycles of great amplitude, which are typical of a free-flowing
fertilizer, as explained above. At certain positions of the screw the
fertilizer flowed through the distributing mechanism by gravity
alone. The distribution of a free-flowing fertilizer is shown in Plate
16, B, the material being 20 to 30 mesh crystaline potassium nitrate
having a drillability score of 80. Distinct cycles of delivery are
visible, corresponding to 5.22 feet of travel of the machine.
The 75 and 65 drillability mixtures were distributed more uni-
formly than the 85 drillability fertilizer. They did not flow from the
delivery opening in as finely divided condition, but the amplitude of
delivery cycles was greatly reduced. The delivery curves show
clearly that the maximum deliveries were lower and that the mini-
mum deliveries were higher, indicating a better distribution of the
charge. It is evident that the 75 and 65 drillability mixtures did
Figure 25. — Positions of delivery screw of distributor No. 10 at points of minimum
(A) and maximum (B) delivery: a, tapered screw conveyor; &, delivery opening;
c, screw delivery flight ; e, hopper
not flow out SO rapidly through the narrow part of the delivery
opening, and greater amounts of the fertilizers remained in the
delivery chamber until the screw was in the position of minimum
delivery. The rate of delivery indicates that the screw carried a
full charge in each case.
The 55 drillability fertilizer was distributed with the lowest aver-
age percentage deviation. Although it was not deposited in a finely
divided form, the explanation of the more uniform delivery is the
same as that given for the 75 and 65 drillability mixtures. The 55
fertilizer showed no appreciable decrease in rate of delivery and
apparently had properties best adapted to the particular design and
type of distributor under discussion.
The 35 drillability mixture was distributed with a greater average
percentage deviation than the 55 drillability fertilizer, but more uni-
formly than the 65, 75, and 85 drillability fertilizers. The reason for
this is that the irregularly charged screw, resulting from bridging
in the hopper, and the breaking off of the material in lumps from
the delivery opening produced uneven distribution regardless of tlie
70 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
tendency of this material to flow to the delivery opening at about
the same rate during the entire revolution of the screw.
The 15 drillability mixture was delivered unevenly and at a re-
duced rate. The screw conveyor was only partially charged, because
of the bridging of the fertilizer and its great tendency to adhere in a
mass. However, there was no great reduction in delivery rate, which
is an interesting fact since the other types of distributors gave little
or no delivery of this mixture. The material was deposited only in
large lumps.
It is worth noting that the 15 drillability mixture was distributed
with the same average percentage deviation as the 85 drillability
mixture, and probably more uniformly than the 95 drillability fer-
tilizer would have been distributed had it been possible to control
that exceptionally free-flowing material in the distributor.
EUROPEAN TYPES OF DISTRIBUTORS
The chain type of distributor is very common in Europe, but is
practically unKnown in this country. The Westfalia, Pommerania,
Obotrit, and Fricke implements are examples of this type. The fer-
tilizer is dispensed from a slit at the bottom of the hopper by
obliquely set fingers on an endless chain which moves lengthwise in
this opening. The quantity is regulated by the width of the slot and
the speed of the chain. As the fertilizer issues from the slot it slides
down a board set with pins or falls upon a rapidly revolving studded
roller, which spreads it and breaks up masses to secure greater uni-
formity of distribution. Over this distributing roller or board a
wind shield is hung. Gunness {11) has tried this type of machine
at the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station and reports
very favorably on it.
Tests {9) were conducted in Germany in 1921 under the direction
of the German Agricultural Society to determine the relative merits
of 15 distributors entered in a contest sponsored by the German
nitrogenous fertilizer committee. The points considered in these tests
were uniformity of distribution, row fertilizing, dust prevention,
adjustment and manaf^ement of the machines, and comparative cost
of operation and practical value of the distributors.
Each of these 15 machines was of a type different from any of those
used in the present study. While the experiments in Germany were
under uncontrolled conditions and were rather superficial, neverthe-
less the conclusions drawn tend to confirm the results obtained in
this investigation.
Several of the machines showed very distinct rhythmic cycles of
delivery. Others applied the fertilizer more heavily at the middle of
the implement than at the ends. The so-called "slit" machines
applied dry fertilizers fairly well but were entirely unsatisfactory
with damp materials. Distributors of the chain type (pi. IT, A and
B) were best for fertilizers of poor mechanical condition, and the
combination chain and spiked-roller type (pi. 18, A and B) gave the
best results of all. Spreading boards were of great aid in spreading
free-flowing materials evenly, but did more harm than good when
the fertilizer was damp or finely powdered. Such material stuck to
the board until it built up into quite a mass and then jarred off in
Tech. Bui. 182, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 17
A, Westfalia, chain-type distributor; B, Westfalia, distributing mechanism
Tech. Bui. 182. L
I. S. Dept. of Agriculture
Plate 18
>c
D>L f
^-TIW
^
^ .^xlT^
^^^^^-«.
A
ay
^^^"^
A, Pommerania, combination chain and spiked-roller distributor; B, Pommerania, distributing
mechanism; C, English star-wheel distributor
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS
71
lumps. Some of these machines were supplied with devices designed
to prevent the raising of dust in filling and operating, but none was
entirely satisfactory. Great -difficulty was experienced in adjusting
the machines so as to secure the desired application rate, but the
chain type proved least troublesome in this respect. Practically all
of the machines were easily emptied. In distributors of the chain
type the bottom is hinged or may be slid out of its position, while
those of the other types usually are so arranged that the hopper may
be easily tipped over. They appear to have an advantage over most
American machines in this regard. A machine 4 meters in width was
found to be practicable for a 2-horse team. Implements of this
width usually are provided with additional axles or with pivoted
wheels for transporting over narrow roads or through gates.
The use of foretrucks on many of these implements lightens the
work of the horses, largely eliminates swaying, and reduces tilting
of the distributor, thus permitting
greater uniformity of distribution
of the fertilizer. No machine tested
was satisfactory in every respect.
A more comprehensive study (6)
of fertilizer distributors, which in-
cludes both laboratory and field
tests, was recently conducted in
Denmark by the State implement
committee. Eleven European types
of distributors and various ferti-
lizers were selected for the study.
The construction of the machines,
adjustments, and operation are de-
scribed in great detail. Uniform-
ity of distribution, effect of incli-
nation of the machine on delivery
rate, and draft for
., cxxvi vixct^v a.v.x various soil
conditions were determined. Other
Figure 26. — Section of top-delivery
broadcast or row distributor : a. As-
cending hopper bottom ; b, liopper lift-
ing pinion ; c, paddle wheel dispenser ;
dj stationary rear hopper wall
observations and suggestions are also given on the operation and
care of distributors.
The top-delivery type of dispenser, the principle of which is
illustrated in Figure 26, is growing in popularity in Europe. This
distributor consists of an oblong hopper, usually with a movable
bottom that rises steadily as the machine is operated and forces the
fertilizer into contact with a revolving paddle wheel at the top of
the hopper. On some of these machines the rear hopper wall and
paddle wheel descend. The paddles scrape the fertilizer over the
rear top edge of the hopper, whence it falls directly to the ground for
broadcasting or into collectors for drilling. The rate of delivery
depends upon the speed with which the hopper rises or the dispenser
descends.
A number of patents® have been issued on this type of dis-
tributor.
"United states: 399399 (1889); 1654414 (1927). German: 46628, 76252 (1894);
236631 (1911) ; 257740, 261243 (1913) ; 272948 (1914) ; 3259T8 (1920). French, 434833
(1911); 513776 (192()). English: 5668 (1901); 142106 (1920). Austrian: 55,382
11912) ; 56153 (1912). Swedish: 35995 (1911).
72 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE
Several reports (7, p. 27^-280; 10; U, p. 5Jf-55; 16, p. 183-m)
on the operation of the top-delivery type have been made. The
advantages claimed for it are {!) elimination of the effect of
the mechanical condition of the fertilizer upon delivery rate; (2)
even distribution at exceptionally low delivery rates; (3) excellent
distribution of fertilizers that are in only fair condition. The dis-
advantages are (1) high cost; (2) heavy draft; and (3) a tendency
of some fertilizers to pack down and thus slightly change delivery
rate.
The star-wheel type of distributor is used in Europe as well as in
this country. Plate 18, C, illustrates one of English make.
In 1927 an entirely new type of distributor {20, />• 7) , fundamen-
tally different from any other, was put on the market in Germany.
The machine consists of a flat-lying hopper in the form of a 3-sided
frame, having no front wall or bottom. The frame rests and moves
upon a fixed table. The desired quantity of fertilizer for applica-
tion upon one-half acre is spread in the hopper and the top is fas-
tened down upon it, thus giving a layer of fertilizer of uniform
thickness held between the top and bottom plates somewhat like a
sandwich. In operation the top and rear wall of the hopper move
forward, shoving the contents with them. The fertilizer falls upon
a rapidly revolving roller which scatters it. The machine is so
geared that the hopper empties itself as just one-half acre has been
traversed. The entire implement, including gears, is constructed
of moisture-proofed wood.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE OPERATION OF DISTRIBUTORS
The factors studied in relation to the operation of distribution
were depth of fertilizer, inclination of the distributor, variations in
delivery units, unrestricted flow of fertilizer, efficiency of agitators^
feed- wheel speed, and amount of positive delivery action.
DEPTH OF FERTILIZER IN THE HOPPER
Three series of experiments were performed to determine the
effect of head or depth of fertilizer on delivery rate. This was
done by filling the hopper and measuring the rate at intervals until
the hopper had been emptied.
The first series was performed to determine the effect of the
fertilizer properties. Four different fertilizers — commercial 3-9-3
mixture, potassium nitrate, fish scrap, and urea-ammonium phos-
phate— were used with distributor No. 1 in an atmosphere of 86° F.
and 30 per cent relative humidity. The 3-9-3 mixture was similar
to many mixed fertilizers now on the market. The crystalline
potassium nitrate was screened to pass a 20-mesh but not a 40-mesh
sieve. The fish scrap was a characteristic sample containing flakes
and fishbones, thus giving it mechanical properties somewhat differ-
ent from those of the other materials. The urea-ammonium phos-
phate was similar in appearance and physical properties to commer-
cial ammonium sulphate or urea.
The results given in Table 27, show that the rate of delivery is
dependent to some extent on head, but varies with different ferti-
lizers. When the head of material was equal to or greater than 5
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS
73
inches, no appreciable variations in delivery rates occurred with
changes of the head. However, at different depths of fertilizer be-
low 5 inches a material variation in delivery rates will be noted,
the rate at 5 inches being from 5 to 9 per cent higher than that at
a 2-inch head. The width of the hopper at the gate opening being
6 inches in this case, the conclusion seems to be warranted that in-
creasing the head above that equal to the width of the hopper has
little or no effect upon the delivery rate. This conclusion was sub-
stantiated in the second series of tests.
Table 27. — Effect of head upon delivery rate of various fertilizers hy No. 1
distributor
Depth of fertilizer
(inches)
•
Delivery rate per acre
Commercial 3-9-3
20-40 mesh potas-
sium nitrate
Fish scrap
Urea-ammonium
phosphate
2
Pounds
68.49
69.94
71.15
71.87
72.60
73.33
73.08
72.84
Pints
93.82
95.80
97.47
98.45
99.45
100. 45
100. 11
99.78
Pounds
86.64
89.54
91.96
92.20
92.25
92.20
91.96
91.72
Pints
94.17
97.33
99.95
100.22
100.27
100.22
99.96
99.70
Pounds
41.08
42.69
43.86
44.74
45.47
45.91
43.71
43.42
Pints
82.16
85.38
87.72
89.48
90.94
91.82
87.42
86.84
Pounds
55.18
57.11
58.32
59.05
59.53
59.77
60.00
60.02
Pints
84 89
3
87 86
4
89 72
5
90 84
6
91 58
7
91 95
8
92 31
9
92 34
Major Phillips first observed that a downward force applied to a
column of dry sand in a cylinder is not transmitted to the bottom if
the height of the column is more than twice its diameter, the reason
being that the additional pressure is borne by the walls of the con-
tainer because of a bridging effect in the sand {19).
The second series of tests was conducted with granulated potas-
sium-ammonium phosphate having a drillability score of 85, to
show the effect of head upon delivery rate for nine different dis-
tributors. (Table 28.) It will be observed that this effect varies
greatly in different types of distributors and that it was very pro-
nounced at low heads in every instance, except for distributor No. 8.
Table 28. — Effect of head upon delivery rate of 85 drillaUlity fertilizer by
various distributors
Head of fertilizer (inches)
Pounds per acre delivered by distributor No.
1
2
3
6
6
7
8
9
10
1.
285
303
322
325
328
331
331
333
360
382
389
391
392
398
406
(')
416
492
528
514
486
470
470
472
475
485
487
499
505
509
(0
1,468
1,569
1,618
1,625
1,631
1,636
1,639
1,652
1,655
1,655
1,652
80
89
98
101
102
103
103
104
104
(0
538
639
540
542
543
543
545
545
548
643
198
198
198
198
199
199
200
201
204
207
209
(«)
1,630
1 651
(0
733
2
3
75S
4
1,679 i 7!*7
5
1,572
1,559
1,649
1,545
1,579
1,682
1,682
1,679
738
6
741
7_
743
«
746
10
741
12
744
14
744
16
18
30
—--—*-
22
""-""""
1 Impossible to maintain a constant head.
74 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE
One general conclusion drawn from these tests was that in all bot-
tom-delivery types of distributors, changes of head had little or no
effect on delivery rate when the depth of fertilizer was greater than
the width of the hopper at the discharge opening. However, when
little fertilizer remained in the hopper, changes of head had a
marked effect; in several such instances changing the head from 2 to
4 inches varied the delivery rate by as much as 10 per cent.
Obviously, in the case of distributor No. 8, which is of the top-
delivery type, any increased delivery rate attributable to greater
head, must be ascribed to a compacting of the fertilizer. With this
distributor the head shown in Table 28 is not the actual depth of
material in the hopper, but represents the maximum pressure to
which the particular fertilizer being deliyered had been subjected
when the hopper was filled. In this case there is little or no varia-
tion in the delivery rate at low heads, but any significant changes
that occur will be found at the greater heads. This is explained by
the fact that during the operation of the machine the lower heads
are delivered first and there is not sufficient time for the material
to settle, while the greater heads are delivered after the machine has
been operated for some time and the fertilizer has settled and is
more compact. It has been found that the effect on delivery rate
depends upon the amount of settling, which, in turn, depends upon
the character of the material. For instance, a material composed of
large, regularly shaped, hard particles will not settle as much as
one made up of rough particles mixed with a high percentage of fine
material.
Table 28 shows that with distributors Nos. 3 and 9 the delivery
rate increased as the head was increased from 2 to 4 inches, then
decreased until an 8-inch head was reached, after which there was a
gradual increase. The presence here of a high point in the delivery
rate with a 4-inch head resulted from segregation of the material
in the hopper. At or near a 4-inch head the fertilizer directly above
the throat opening was moved with the hopper bottom and vigorously
agitated. This produced rapid separation of fine material from the
coarse, thus permitting the coarser material to flow out on the deliv-
ery plate as a separate mass. The coarser material, flowing much
more readily than the finer material or the mixture of coarse and
fine material, increased the delivery rate, as already explained under
the heading " Operation of distributors." At heads of about 8
inches or greater, the surface of the fertilizer in the hopper was not
carried about or vigorously agitated; thus no opportunity was
afforded for very rapid segregation.
Head is of some importance even with materials now commonly
used. The maximum reduction in delivery rate during emptying
of the hopper was 23 per cent. In the case of distributor No. 8
there was a slight increase in the delivery rate.
The third series of tests was conducted primarily to determine
the maximum effect of head that might be encountered. The more
freely a fertilizer will flow the greater the effect of head will be.
Centrifugally sprayed potassium nitrate, being the freest flowing
material available, was used for these tests, ^veral types of ma-
chines were tested. The experimental results are presented in
Table 29.
MECHANICAL, APPLICATION OP FEHTILIZEES
75
Table 29. — Delivery rates of 95 drillahiUty fertilizer {centrifugally sprayed
potassium nitrate) shoiving maximum effect of head
Distributor »
No.
1
2
6
8
9
Head
Inches
1.50
5.50
2.25
5.75
1.50
3.50
1.00
5.20
2.75
6.50
Change of
head-
InehM
4.0
3.5
2.0
4.2
2.75
Delivery
Grams
492.7
668.3
1, 205. 6
1,312.3
590.2
944.7
686. 56
686.50
653.5
737.6
Increase of
delivery
Per- tent
15.34
8.80
60.06
0
12.87
> The fertilizer flowed unrestrictedly through the distributing mechanism in distributors Nos. 4, 6, 7
and 10, which made testing impossible but indicated that effect of head would be very significant.
The results indicate that any change in a comparatively low
initial head of free-flowing fertilizer has considerable effect on rate
of delivery. The one exception to this is No. 8 distributor, the
explanation for which has been given (p. 74).
An extreme case appears with distributor No. 6, where increasing
the head from 1.5 inches to 3.5 inches increased the delivery rate 60
per cent. Head acted in this case in such a way as to be very effec-
tive. It did not have much effect in compacting the fertilizer to
be delivered, but it determined the height of the fertilizer on the
shielded part of the feed plate. The quantity of fertilizer delivered
by the plow being in turn dependent on the depth of fertilizer on
the plate, only a slight change in the depth is necessary to materially
change the delivery rate. Head also functions effectively in this case
by reason of the free-flowing qualities of the fertilizer which permit
the particles to readjust themselves during the gradual charging
of the feed plate. A head of 1.5 inches brought the level of the
fertilizer on the shielded part of the feed plate 0.25 inch above the
throat opening, whereas, under the same conditions, materials with
the usual properties would not have been raised above the throat
opening.
INCLINATION OF DISTRIBUTOR
Distributors which depend in any way upon gravity for unload-
ing, as most of them do, deliver at different rates when the machine
is inclined from its normal operating position, as for instance when
traveling over sloping parts of a field. The difference in delivery
rate is due primarily to a change in the direction of the force of
gravity with reference to the outlet in the feeding mechanism.
Distributors show greater differences in delivery rate when
tilted forward or rearward than when tilted to either side. One-
row distributors which are held upright by the operator usually
may be operated in hilly country without much inclination of the
machine if the rows follow contours. Wide distributors such as
lime spreaders and grain, beet, and grass seed drills are subject to
lateral inclination on sloping ground.
Distributor No. 2 was operated in the constant-humidity room at
various inclinations to the front and rear at atmospheric conditions
of 68° F. and 40 per cent relative humidity. The gate-control lever
was set at notch 15. The results obtained are presented in Table 30.
76 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPT. OP AGEICULTURE
Table 30. — Effect of inclination of distributor No. 2 on delivery rate
Depth
of fer-
tilizer
in
hopper
Feed wheel speed'
Inclination forward
Normal
Inclination rearward
Fertilizer
9»
60
S*
posi-
tion
3*
6*
9«»
2-15-5
Inches
2
8
8
Fast
Pounds
per acre
618
533
109
Pounds
per acre
506
618
99
Pounds
per acre
500
612
92
Pounds
per acre
453
494
86
Pounds
per acre
458
Pounds Poundt
per acre per acre
2-16-6
do
Slow
486 472
80 7fi
462
4-8-4
78
The results show that minor inclinations of the distributor appre-
ciably affect the delivery rate, and to a greater extent when the
machine is tilted forward than when tilted rearward. The greatest
change in delivery rate was with the 4^8-4 mixture, when an in-
clination of 9° forward increased the rate 27 per cent. Delivery
rate was more affected by forward inclination when the depth of
fertilizer in the hopper was 2 inches than when it was 8 inches.
Since the delivery opening and fertilizer gate are at the front of the
distributing mechanism, and the feed-wheel speed and gate opening
are the same for each series of tests, any increase of delivery rate
due to forward inclination must result from a greater influence of
gravity than that under the normal operating position. With a
rearward inclination the decrease in delivery rate must be due to
a decrease in the influence of gravity, and in case the effect of gravity
in the normal position is small, as in the present instance the de-
creases in delivery rate will be of slight extent.
In operating those distributors that have several feed wheels in
one long hopper, the fertilizer is gradually carried to the end toward
which the feed wheels revolve in the hopper. Lateral inclination
of the machine may either augment or counteract the shifting of the
fertilizer, a fact it is well to bear in mind when operating along
contours of sloping ground.
Further tests were conducted to show the effect of inclination of
the distributor upon delivery rates for nine different distributors.
The fertilizer used was granulated potassium ammonium phosphate.
The results as given in Table 31 show the relative delivery rates for
each distributor when in the normal operating position, inclined 10°
forward and inclined 10° rearward.
Table 31. — Effect of inclination of distributor upon delivery rate with ati 85
drillaMUty fertilized^
Inclination of distributor
Distributor No.
Inclination of distributor
Distributor No.
10" for-
ward
Normal
10° rear-
ward
10° for-
ward
Normal
10° rear-
ward
1
Pounds
per acre
416
399
471
2,002
126
Pounds
per acre
373
362
488
1,662
104
Pounds
per acre
333
330
488
1,413
90
7
Pounds
per acre
1,241
199
1,667
692
Pounds
per acre
1,186
200
1,579
744
Pounds
per acre
1,171
2
8
200
8-
9
1,790
6
10
840
6
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERTILIZEES
77
The delivery opening of distributors Nos. 1, 2, 5, and 7 is at the
front and of No. 10 is at the rear of the hopper. The results of
the tests of these distributors show that inclining the machine 10°
toward the delivery opening greatly increased the delivery rate,
the increase varying from 5 to 21 per cent, while inclining the dis-
tributor away from the delivery opening decreased the delivery rate
varying from 1.3 to 14 per cent. The maximum difference in rate
of delivery between the extreme positions was 41.7 per cent of the
lesser rate.
Distributors Nos. 3 and 9, which have a gate opening in the form
of a circular band, were not distinctly and regularly affected by
inclination of the machine. Distributor No. 3 showed little varia-
tion, while in the case of distributor No. 9 inclination in either
direction increased the delivery rate. In the latter case when the
distributor was inclined in either direction the effectiveness of the
dished feed plate in preventing the fertilizer from flowing freely,
was lost on the side of the hopper toward which the machine was
inclined, and the fertilizer was free to flow very rapidly over the
feed plate ; this accounts for the increased delivery. Distributor No.
8 being of the positive-feed type, its delivery rate was not affected
by inclination.
VARIATION IN DISTRIBUTING UNITS
Table 32 shows the results of a series of tests conducted to deter-
mine the rate of delivery for each of the 11 distributing units on No.
1 drill operating simultaneously. A number of gate openings
throughout the range of the machine were used in order to get aver-
age results for each unit. The distributor was operated under atmos-
pheric conditions of 80 per cent relative humidity and 68° F., with
40-80 mesh ammonium phosphate.
Table 32. — Variation of delivery rates of individual units of distributor No. 1
operating at slow speed and its relationship to gate-rod heights
Fertilizer gate
Pounds per acre
delivered by unit No.
adjustment
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
21
29
61
62
80
101
9
10
11
Notch No. 1
45
61
7S
80
no
135
33
41
73
89
95
131
40
45
69
74
91
112
40
47
64
66
83
105
34
43
58
??
102
32
37
61
67
79
104
21
28
47
55
74
96
29
28
61
61
80
105
22
28
49
66
85
107
26
Notch No. 3
25
Notch No. 7
48
Notch No. 11
66
Notch No. 15
88
Notch No. 17
114
Average
83
77
72
67
64
62
53
67
69
60
61
HEIGHT OF FERTILIZER GATE ROD ABOVE BOTTOM PLATE, IN INCHES
Average.
1.598 1.488 1.504 1.452 1.405 1.433 1.394 L354 1.402
429 L457
The table shows a marked variation in delivery rate of the 11
units. The greatest deliveries occurred from the units nearest the
quantity lever, while lower deliveries occurred from those units
farthest from the quantity lever. Since all units are similarly con-
structed and operated it is evident that the size of the gate opening
78 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE
must vary. The average height of the fertilizer gate rod at each
unit, which is indicative of the gate opening is also shown in Table
32. The individual delivery rates and corresponding gate-rod
heights show the following correlation:
r=+ 0.889 ±0.043.
This coefficient indicates that about 80 per cent of the variations in
delivery between the separate units was due to this one cause. Since
unit No. 1 was adjacent to the quantity lever and the average height
of gate rod shows a decrease from unit No. 1 toward unit No. 11,
the conclusion may be drawn that the gate rod does not have suffi-
cient rigidity or was improperly installed. Minor irregularities in
the fertilizer gates or other castings are responsible for the balance
of the variations.
From the standpoint of uniform distribution it is highly im-
portant that all units on a machine distribute approximately the
same amount of fertilizer. As will be noticed in Table 32, the
delivery by certain units was more than double that of other units,
with the same setting of the machine, which would be objectionable
under any circumstances. When the optimum amount of fertilizer
is being applied, the average rate of delivery of the distributor as a
whole may be satisfactory, but the delivery from certain units may
be great enough to cause considerable damage.
Similar tests with granulated potassium ammonium phosphate
were conducted on No. 2 distributor, the results of which are given in
Table 33. Some variation was found in the average delivery rate
for the different units which is in almost direct proportion to the
height of the fertilizer gate above the bottom plate, indicating that
the gates were not uniformly installed. The correlation coefficient
between the delivery rate for each unit and the corresponding gate
height is :
r=+ 0.923 ±0.045.
Therefore about 85 per cent of the variation is due to differences in
height of the gates.
Table 33. — Variation of delivery rates of individual units for distributor No. 2
operating at slow speed and its relationship to gate-rod heights
Fertilizer gate adjustment
Pounds per acre delivered by unit No.
1
2
3
4
6
6
Notch No. 1
187
195
255
391
543
184
195
282
420
553
155
165
244
369
521
146
168
271
404
575
152
168
266
412
553
155
Notch No. 5 -
174
Notch No. 10 —
266
Notch No 15
404
Notch No 20
553
314
327
291
313
310
310
HEIGHT OF FERTILIZER GATE ABOVE BOTTOM PLATE, IN INCHES
Average.
0.701
0.721
0.685
0.705
0.693
0.697
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERTILIZEES
79^
Distributor No. 3 has two delivery tubes leading from the distrib-
uting unit for applying fertilizer on both sides of the row. The
division is accomplished by permitting the stream of fertilizer com-
ing from the plow to fall on the fixed junction of the tubes. How-
ever, the center of mass of the stream of fertilizer will change with
different fertilizers and at different rates of delivery. A series of
tests with five different kinds of fertilizers and at five different
rates of deliveries were made to show to what extent division of the
fertilizer was affected. The results are given in Table 34.
Table 34. — Delivery rates in pounds per acre of various fertilizers hy right and
left tubes of distributor No. 3
Notch No. «
Ammonium
sulphate
Potassium
nitrate
Superphos-
phate
3-9-3 commer-
cial
8-12-20 com-
mercial
Right
tube
Left
tube
Right
tube
Left
tube
Right
tube
Left
tube
Right
tube
Left
tube
Right
tube
Left
tube
1
Pounds
178
193
223
374
601
Pounds
226
282
347
375
477
Pounds
147
209
376
597
972
Pounds
170
211
229
350
542
Pounds
273
279
340
461
635
Pounds
152
257
367
565
774
Pounds
136
168
238
475
608
Pounds
173
225
263
402
445
Pounds
191
240
e90
968
1,368
Pound*
184
2
244
3
286
4
776
6
1,014
1 Notch refers to the position of the fertihzer plow as indicated on an arbitrary scale placed on the hopper
during the experiment.
When the sum of the delivery rates of the two tubes was approxi-
mately 600 pounds per acre, all the fertilizers seemed to be quite
evenly divided. When the rate of delivery was low a greater pait
of the fertilizer passed over the feed-plate wall at a point near the
plow and into the left tube, and when the delivery rate was high the
fertilizer piled up for a considerable distance in front of the plow
and flowed over the plate wall in a wide stream, the greater part
passing into the right tube, except in the case of the superphosphate.
This fertilizer was finely powdered and somewhat damp. At low
rates of delivery some of it adhered to the front of the plow and
diverted the flow over the plate wall at such a point so that the
greater part fell into the right tube. At high rates of delivery this
fertilizer had a tendency to flow as a column over the plow, and a
greater part of the delivery was directed into the left tube.
A consistent and significant variation in the delivery from the
tubes of distributor No. 3 was also noted from the standpoint of
segregation according to size of particles. The material used was
granulated potassium-ammonium phosphate, and the delivery rate of
the machine was 505 pounds per acre, divided 196 pounds from the
right tube and 309 pounds from the left tube. The percentages of
various particle sizes as delivered by each tube are given in Table
35. It will be observed that a smaller percentage of the large par-
ticles and a greater percentage of the small particles were delivered
through the left tube. The most striking variation was with the
30-50 mesh particles, in which case 15.18 per cent of the total
delivery from the left tube and only 1.58 per cent of that from the
right tube consisted of this size of material.
80
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUEE
Table 35. — Size distribution of granulated potassium ammonium phosphate as
delivered by the two tubes of distributor No. S
Right tube
Left tube
Particle size (screen intervals)
Mean per
cent
Probable
error, plus
or minus
Mean per
cent
Probable
error, plus
or minus
a-5
0.26
22.90
36.20
37.69
1.58
.23
1.15
0.03
■M
.29
.03
.005
.02
0.29
20.25
21.59
36.63
15.18
3.52
2.59
0.03
5-10 , .
.09
10-16
.07
lfi-30
.06
30-50 — — - — — —
.06
60-100
.04
Through 100
.07
Several other distributors represented in the study had more than
one distributing unit, but each unit had independent adjustments,
and by careful manipulation the same delivery rates could be ob-
tained with each unit.
UNRESTRICTED FLOW OF FERTILIZER THROUGH THE DISTRIBUTING MECHANISM
A series of tests was conducted under controlled conditions to
determine the size of gate opening of distributor No. 1 through
which different kinds of fertilizers would flow by the force of
gravity when the distributing mechanism was not in motion. This
study is significant in that it shows the gate opening at which the
fertilizer is no longer under positive control. The results are pre-
sented in Table 36, in terms of the notches on the quantity-lever
rack, which are convenient to use and whose relation to gate opening
has been previously discussed (p. 47). The results show that, ex-
cept in the case of sprayed or spherical urea, which flows more freely
than the bulk of the fertilizers sold at present, unrestricted flow
occurred only at gate openings corresponding to high rates of de-
livery. It was shown in a previous section that the size of gate
opening through which spontaneous delivery occurs with this imple-
ment is directly correlated with the angle of repose of the fertilizer.
It will also be observed that in an atmosphere of 40 per cent relative
humidity most of the materials flowed through the distributing
mechanism, but only when the gate approached its maximum open-
ing ; and that only a few materials flowed, even at the maximum gate
opening, when the relative humidity of the atmosphere was higher
than 60 per cent. Since the mean relative humidity in sections of
the country where the bulk of fertilizer is at present used is above
60 per cent, unrestricted flow of fertilizer through the distributing
mechanism is seldom experienced in practice.
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERTILIZEES
81
Table 36. — Gate adjustment permitting unrestricted flow of fertilizers through
the distributing mechanism of distributor No. 1
Fertilizer
Gate adjustment at percentage relative humid-
ity of—
40
60
60
70
80
Notch
Notch
Notch
Notch
Notch
22
15
S
S
'■!
s
16
17
22
(')
0)
23
24
24
27
25
(0
(0
(0
(0
(0
17
17
18
16
17
5
5
9
14
(»)
17
18
22
(')
(')
%
(0
(1)
(0
(0
<■
^li
21
26
(')
0)
(»)
24
22
21
24
(')
16
17
17
21
(0
17
19
24
Q)
(0
23
23
24
25
30
(0
(0
(0
(0
(0
(')
18
18
20
(»l
17
18
22
(')
(0
17
24
(0
0)
0)
24
26
(0
(')
(0
20
27
30
0)
(0
26
28
(0
(0
(0
20
20
20
(0
(0
23
24
26
27
s
18
18
20
24
18
18
20
(0
(0
26
30
(1)
(0
(0
21
24
(1)
(»)
(0
20
22
(0
(0
(0
90
Ordinary fertilizer materials:
Superphosphate—
Sulphate of ammonia
Nitrate of soda
Fish scrap
Cottonseed meal
Peat
Concentrated materials:
Urea, sprayed
"Urea, granulated
Urea, powdered.
Ammonium nitrate
Leunasal peter
Ammo-phos
Monoammonium phosphate
Diammonium phosphate
Triple superphosphate
Potassium-ammonium phosphate.
Monopotassium phosphate
Potassium nitrate
Trona potassium chloride
Ordinary commercial mixtures:
:^-8-5
3-9-3
Notch
(»)
(»)
(»)
(»)
Concentrated commercial mixtures:
4-16-10
4-24-4
8-16-8
10-16-14.
Concentrated mixtures:
No. 3
No. 4
No. 6
> No unrestricted flow at maximum gate opening.
* Too damp for testing.
• Decomposed.
If an attempt is made in dry weather to distribute more than 600
pounds per acre of free-flowing fertilizer with this type of machine,
one should make sure that the material is not escaping from the
distributor while it is idle.
In other types of distributors free-flowing fertilizer may or may
not pass through the distributing mechanism when the machine is
not in operation. For instance, distributors like Nos. 3, 6, and 8 are
not subject to unrestricted flow of the fertilizer through the dis-
tributing mechanism, since there is no opportunity for free passage
of the material into the delivery tube by gravity flow;
Some difficulty was experienced with all types of distributors, due
to free-flowing fertilizer escaping through small openings in the
hopper. Under ordinary conditions commercial fertilizers usually
do not flow freely enough to give much trouble in this respect.
USE OF AGITATORS
Delivery rate was not affected by the use of an agitator with high-
drillability fertilizers, and was affected appreciably only when the
fertilizer was in such condition as to bridge over the delivering
mechanism. When the fertilizer had exceptionally low drillability
98734—30 6
82 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUEE
the agitator revolved within the mass without breaking down the
bridge or effecting any separations.
Table 37 compares delivery rates of distributor No. 1, with and
without the agitator, for five selected materials under various rel-
ative-humidity conditions. Since the agitator does not affect de-
livery in the case of high-drillability fertilizers, only those materials
which have comparatively low drillability when in equilibrium with
from 50 to 70 per cent relative humidity conditions were selected.
The distributor was operated at a gate opening corresponding to
notch 10 and at slow feed- wheel speed.
Table 37. — Delivery rates of various fertilizers hy distributor No. 1, with and
without agitator^ at different relative humidities
Pounds per acre delivered at percentage relative
humidity of—
FertUizer
50
60
70
With agi-
tator
Without
agitator
With agi-
tator
Without
agitator
With agi-
tator
Without
agitator
Urea ammonium phosphate
70.28
82.41
125.23
67.37
66.79
70.42
82.47
125. 45
60.84
67.66
69.26
80.73
93.22
68.53
64.03
66.50
69.12
82.76
65.32
61.13
33.69
64.90
^.«
45.74
6.81
Sulphate of ammonia
61.65
Nitrate of soda
<?0 4,
12-6-2
»-0-6
6.52
> Fertilizer too damp.
The agitator had little or no effect on delivery rate at 50 per
cent relative humidity when the fertilizers flowed freely; that it
increased the delivery rate slightly at 60 per cent relative humidity
when the fertilizer was bridging to some extent; and that it in-
creased delivery rate greatly when the relative humidity was 70
per cent. In this last case the fertilizer was bridging badly and
could scarcely be delivered without the use of an agitator.
While the agitator makes possible the drilling of fertilizers which
otherwise could not be drilled, it does not completely compensate
for the decrease in delivery rate due to low drillability.
FEED-WHEEL SPEED
The delivery rate of distributor No. 1 was recorded for both slow
and fast feed-wheel speeds during several complete series of tests
under controlled conditions. The two speeds provided have a ratio
of 1:4.55. The ratio of the observed delivery rates, as taken from
the average of a large number of materials tested under various
atmospheric conditions, was identical with that of the feed-wheel
speeds, although in individual cases the ratio varied as much as 5
per cent from the average.
The delivery ratio decreased as the gate opening was increased
^with fertilizers in good drillable condition. When the gate opening
approached the point where the fertilizer began flowing unrestrict-
edly through the distributing mechanism, the delivery ratio for
slow and fast feed-wheel speed was low, ranging from 4.37 to 4.49.
This apparently was due to some additional delivery resulting from
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERTILIZEES
83
I
the force of gravity when the machine was put into motion. Since
the additional delivery was approximately the same for both speeds,
the ratio between the delivery rates is thereby decreased.
POSITIVE ACTION OF THE DISTRIBUTING MECHANISM
Many distributors of the bottom-delivery type have distributing
mechanisms, which it is claimed, give forced feed, when as a matter
of fact they do so only partially. These machines may be divided
into two classes.
In the first class are those having some means of positively deliv-
ering a portion of the material. To increase the delivery rate, the
opening is usually enlarged by a gate which permits a greater grav-
ity flow of the substance. When the physical properties of the
fertilizer are such that the material will not flow by gravity, the
delivery rate can not be materially increased above that due to posi-
tive action.
As was previously stated, damp urea, was delivered by distributor
No. 1 at practically the same rate regardless of the gate adjustment.
Another experiment was conducted which shows that the delivery
rate of damp materials depends almost entirely upon the amount of
positive action of the distributing mechanism. The results as given
in Table 38 show the delivery rates of the 3-9-3 mixture, by three
types of feed wheels in comparison with the manufacturer's rating
for various gate adjustments. The three types of feed wheels used
were (1) smooth wheel; that is, a standard wheel with the teeth
removed; (2) regular-equipment wheels; and (3) broad-teeth wheels
(special equipment). The material was in equilibrium with an
atmosphere of 80 per cent relative humidity and a temperature
of 68°.
Table 38. — Delivery rates ly distributor No. 1 of the S-9S commercial fertilizer
in equilibrium vnth 80 per cent relative humidity, by different degrees of
positive action, as compared with manufacturer's rating
Tooth-face dimensions
Manu-
Gate adjustment
No teeth
0.16 by
0.98 inch
0.39 by
1.1 inches
facturer's
rating
Notch No. 1
Pounds per acre
None
Pounds
per acre
7.12
8.13
8.13
8.71
11.03
14.08
17.28
Pounds
per acre
20.76
27.30
29.04
29.62
33.11
38.04
40.51
Pounds
per acre
30
Notch No 5
do
45
Notch No. 10
do
80
Notch No. 15
do
11«
Notch No 20 - -
do
3
Notch No 25 —
do .— .
Notch No. 30
do
25a
When the gates were opened the increase in delivery rate was
very small as compared with the manufacturer's rating. The ef-
fective area of each tooth on the regular and broad-teeth wheels
upon which positive action depends, was 0.157 and 0.429 square
inch, respectively. The delivery rates were in practically the same
proportion as these areas, and no delivery was obtained with smooth
wheels that had no positive action. This indicates that the delivery
84 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUEE
of materials of poor drillability is almost entirely dependent upon
the positive action of the dispensing parts.
In the second class are those machines, of which No. 4 is an ex-
ample, that have a means of positively delivering the fertilizer into
the delivery tube but which depend almost entirely upon gravity to
transfer the material from the hopper to the positive-acting parts.
In this case the delivery rate for each adjustment of the fertilizer
gate will depend to a large extent upon the gravity flow of the mate-
rial. A damp material that does not flow by gravity will be delivered
at a greatly reduced rate or not at all, as has been shown in Table 26.
Top-delivery types of distributors are wholly positive in their
action.
UNIFORMITY OF DISTRIBUTION
The manner of applying fertilizers to crops has considerable
effect upon the results to be obtained from their use. This may be
considered from two standpoints: (1) The position of the fertilizer
in reference to the seed, and (2) the uniformity of distribution.
The subject has been carefully studied from the first standpoint by
a number of investigators, and Truog and Jensen (21 p, 33-55)
have published an extended bibliography of such work.
From theoretical considerations the application of the same
amount of fertilizer to each plant appears to be as important as the
particular location of variable amounts with respect to the seed^
provided the fertilizer is not in contact with the seed. The desirabil-
ity of uniform distribution for securing the most profitable returns
has long been recognized {15), The subject has received practically
no attention, however, from research workers, so far as one can
judge from the literature — a condition probably due to the conviction
that distributors generally apply fertilizers very evenly. The fact
that they do not has been recognized in Germany, but only in a
qualitative way. Fischer {8) points out the great difficulty of ob-
taining satisfactory distribution of small quantities of fertilizer in
good condition, and the impossibility of obtaining it when the fertil-
izers are damp. He also discusses several types of German distribu-
tors in this respect. Mertens {17) likewise found that distributors
did not give uniform distribution.
Damp or finely powdered substances or those composed of oblong
crystals will not flow freely, if at all. Distributors differ in the way
they handle fertilizers that will not flow, but in practically every
such case the fertilizer is delivered more or less irregularly. For
example, slightly damp, powdered urea was found to issue from the
delivery spouts of a star-wheel type distributor only when a tooth
of the feed wheel passed over the opening in the bottom plate. Such
delivery is very unsatisfactory because as much as an ounce of ferti-
lizer may be dropped in one spot while in the succeeding 5 or 10
feet none is applied. This is an extreme case, but in the best results
obtained during the entire series of tests in this study the average
deviation was 6.33 per cent from the mean and at least 1 out of every
10 intervals of delivery used in calculating this average deviated
more than 15 per cent.
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERTILIZEES 85
To obtain the greatest profit from the use of fertilizers, it is neces-
sary that each plant shall receive the right amount of food. Ac-
cording to the law of diminishing returns, an excess over the most
profitable application may still produce an increase in crop yield,
but perhaps not enough to pay for the additional fertilizer. A still
higher excess will prevent germination of the seed or injure the
plant by inducing plasmolysis or other disorder. When one cal-
culates the most profitable rate of application of a given fertilizer
for a given crop it is on the assumption that each individual plant
will receive its proportionate share. If the fertilizer is distributed
over the field in such a way that the feeding areas of some plants
receive from two to five times as much as the average amount, while
the roots of others are able to obtain none, it is clear that the profits
accruing from its use must be far below the maximum.
Uniformity of distribution is most necessary when heavy, appli-
cations are made, for then still heavier rates at certain points may
prevent germination or during a drought may kill the plant.
By using concentrated fertilizers it is possible to make mixtures
containing four or five times the amount of plant food found in
ordinary commercial mixtures. The replacement of the present
mixed goods by concentrated mixtures in general farm practice
rneans that from 50 to 100 pounds of fertilizer per acre must be
distributed for small grains if the relative amount of plant food ap-
plied is to be the same as at present. Most of the distributors now
available for this work are capable of distributing even smaller
ainounts. The minimum setting of the delivery mechanism of grain-
drill attachments will usually give 25 to 40 pounds per acre. At
these low rates, however, greater irregularity of distribution occurs.
With crops such as corn, cotton, tobacco, and many vegetables,
heavier applications of fertilizer are usually employed ; and the feed-
ing area of the roots being much greater, it is not quite so difficult
to apply the desired quantity of fertilizer to each plant.
Several of the distributors were run at both high and low rates
of application, and the percentage deviations from the mean appli-
cation per foot were determined. The results are compared in
Table 39. All of the implements except No. 8 gave materially bet-
ter distribution at the higher rates. In the case of the fertilizer
having a drillability score of 95, the lack of uniformity was due to
the imperfections of the distributors or to jarring of the machine.
These factors functioned to about the same extent at all delivery
rates with most distributors, and hence their effects were not pro-
portionally so great at the higher rates. This fact should be borne
in mind in considering the percentage deviations of the various
distributors as shown in Table 26, for the capacities of the different
distributors were so different that what would be a maximum de-
livery rate for one machine was a minimum rate for another. The
implement which must apply relatively small quantities is thus at
a disadvantage.
86 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 39. — Effect of delivery rate of 95 drillability fertilizer {centrifugally
sprayed potassium nitrate) on uniformity of distribution
Distributor No.
Rate
Maximum
delivery
Minimum
deUvery
Average
deviation
1
Pints per
acre
/ 103
\ 452
f 81
1 622
f 221
\ 914
/ 36
1 270
107
\ 437
Pounds per
acre
127
655
100
764
271
1,122
44
331
132
637
Orams per
foot
1.30
4.52
1.38
9.45
13.69
50.19
2.29
14.29
5.88
24.00
Grams per
foot
0.26
1.91
.28
1.57
6.26
29.11
.89
10.10
3.95
15.96
Per cent
33.79
23.37
42.40
38.38
21.77
12.94
19.54
6.33
8.88
8.34
2
3 ^.
6
8
A consideration of tlie experiments made in this study leads to
the conclusion that, for most of the distributors now on the market,
the nearest approach to uniform distribution will be made with fer-
tilizers of 20-mesh grained particles having approximately uniform
dimensions. Such particles will drill well even when slightly damp,
while the same material containing a considerable percentage of
particles finer than 80 mesh will be undrillable when damp and will
give only poor to fair results when dry.
Hygroscopic salts after becoming damp not onljr can not be applied
uniformly to the soil but may be entirely undrillable. Such salts
can, in some cases, be applied with greater uniformity and less trou-
ble by first dissolving them in water. The combined weight or bulk
of concentrated fertilizers like calcium nitrate, ammonium nitrate,
or urea plus the necessary water to dissolve them would be consider-
ably less than that of dry ordinary fertilizers of equal plant-food
content. For instance, at ordinary temperatures 100 pounds of
water will completely dissolve more than 200 pounds of ammonium
nitrate. Three hundred pounds of this solution contains nitrogen
equivalent to that contained in more than 400 pounds of dry sodium
nitrate or about 1,000 pounds of cottonseed meal.
For general farm crops, the application of highly soluble ferti-
lizers in solution would be practicable, if at all, only under special
circumstances, but the prospects for truck crops which are inten-
sively farmed are more promising. In transplanting tobacco, cab-
bage, strawberry, sweetpotato, pepper, tomato, and certain other
plants, machines with attachments for watering each plant are used.
Ordinarily about one-half pint of water is applied to each plant,
and thus from 3 to 20 barrels of water per acre are used according
to the condition of the soil and the kind of plant. Some of these
machines are also provided with fertilizer attachments which deliver
dry commercial fertilizer near each plant. Wholly soluble materials
could be placed in the water reservoir without difficulty, but ferti-
lizers containing insoluble matter would soon clog the gusher. Sixty
pounds of urea was thus applied during the course of these experi-
ments in setting out an acre of tobacco plants, and with excellent
results. Throughout the trucking section of New Jersey and in
some parts of a few other States where intensive agriculture is fol-
lowed overhead irrigation is practiced. Fertilizers are sometimes
applied to growing crops with these sprinkling systems. The method
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS 87
consists of suspending a bag of soluble fertilizer, like sodium nitrate,
in the tank from which water is being pumped. When the bag has
collapsed it is removed, the insoluble dirt being retained in it.
When sufficient fertilizer has been applied, pure water is pumped
for a few minutes to wash all fertilizer from the leaves of the grow-
ing plants. Usually about 200 pounds per acre is applied in this
way. Those who use this method claim no difficulty is experienced
and better distribution of the fertilizer is secured with much less
labor than would be possible with the usual method of side dressing
by hand.
GENERAL RESULTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The drillability of a fertilizer depends upon its properties and
physical form and upon the conditions of the atmosphere in which it
has been stored.
These various causative factors operate in two ways to influence
distribution by machinery. (1) They establish the delivery rate
from a given distributor with a fixed setting of the delivery mecha-
nism, and (2) they determine the degree of uniformity of distri-
bution.
A distributor does not deliver all fertilizers at the same rate at
any given adjustment of the machine. The differences in delivery
rate by weight at relative humidities of 50 per cent or lower are
due principally to differences in apparent specific gravity and to
the kind of particles composing the fertilizer. At humidities above
50 per cent moisture content is the most important factor.
The delivery rate of most distributors varies inversely with the
percentage of moisture the fertilizer contains. The quantity of
water necessary to render a fertilizer undrillable varies with the
material and the type of distributor.
In general it may be said that no fertilizer can be distributed
satisfactorily except as a solution, if it has been freely exposed for
a short time in an atmosphere having a relative humidity higher
than its hygroscopic point. In this respect, however, one can not
make categorical statements about concentrated or ordinary ferti-
lizers. As a class fertilizer nitrates (except potassium nitrate) , both
low grade and concentrated, are all highly hygroscopic. On the other
hand, fertilizer phosphates as a class are quite nonhygroscopic when
containing no free phosphoric acid, and can usually be handled satis-
factorily in all types of distributors if their physical properties are
suitable. Concentrated potash salts are nonhygroscopic, but those
of low grade, such as manure salts, are likely to give trouble in
distribution, owing to the presence of calcium and magnesium salts
as impurities.
Unless sealed in an air-tight container, a fertilizer in a few months
will contain approximately the amount of moisture that corresponds
to the mean relative humidity of the air in which it is stored. If it
is freely exposed to the air — as when being poured into a fertilizei
distributor — its moisture content will change appreciably within a
few minutes and will approach equilibrium in several hours.
In the Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coast States, except those sec-
tions bordering on the coast, the mean summer relative humidity
88 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 18 2, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICLlTUKE
ranges from 40 to 60 per cent. Relatively little fertilizer is used in
these States at present, but except under unusual circumstances no
trouble should be experienced because of hygroscopicity in distrib-
uting any of the fertilizers mentioned in this bulletin in the semiarid
sections. On the other hand, in the New England, Atlantic, and Gulf
Coast States, where the bulk of the fertilizer used in this country is
consumed, the mean spring and summer relative humidities are usu-
ally between 70 and 85 per cent. In these States only a few fertilizer
materials — such as superphosphate containing no free acid, mono-
ammonium phosphate, monopotassium phosphate, potassium sul-
phate, and the organic ammoniates — may be stored without special
precautions for any length of time and remain in a satisfactorily
drillable condition. However, even in this region the relative hu-
midity on sunny days frequently falls below 50 per cent in mid-
afternoon.
The drillability of fertilizers over the range of temperatures used
in this study (50° to 86° F.) was best at the lowest temperatures,
when other factors were held constant, but the effect of temperature
was very small in comparison to that of humidity. Since relative
humidity ordinarily falls rapidly with rise in temperature, and vice
versa, it usually is most advantageous for best distribution to apply
hygroscopic fertilizers in the hottest part of the day.
Very hygroscopic materials may be distributed without serious
difficulty in fairly humid weather by the present types of machinery
if certain precautions are taken in their manufacture and handling.
The material for such distribution should be manufactured in a gran-
ular form and should contain relatively few particles smaller than
80 mesh ; it should be dried thoroughly and packed in moisture-proof
bags with instructions to the farmer not to open the bag until ready
to apply the fertilizer to the soil ; when opened the fertilizer should
be exposed to the air as little as possible and applied without delay.
A 200-pound bag of calcium nitrate thus prepared by a German con-
cern was successfully distributed by the authors with a grain-drill
attachment on the Arlington Experiment Farm, Rosslyn, Va., when
the humidity was at 70 per cent.
In some sections sodium nitrate and ammonium sulphate are used
for top-dressing pastures and orchards, as well as for side dressings
to truck crops during the growing season. Practically all of this is
applied by hand or with a shovel. Farmers who attempt to apply
these materials with machines usually do not succeed because the
fertilizer is too damp and either fails to be delivered or is delivered
too irregularly. Considerable difficulty also has been experienced in
applying these and other hygroscopic fertilizer materials to the
soil in Europe. On the other hand, such materials, either alone or
mixed with superphosphate, are applied successfully with drills in
certain sections. This is satisfactory when the material is kept dry
until used.
The delivery rate with certain distributors varies with particle
size. The quantity per acre applied with a given setting of the
niechanism is at a maximum with coarse, dry materials and falls off
either when the size of the grains decreases or when the moisture
content increases. With damp, powdered fertilizers a very low
delivery rate will be obtained, if any at all, when gravity is in-
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS 89
volved in any way in the operation of the distributor. In general,
less variation in delivery rate with changes in moisture content was
found with particles coarser than 20-mesh than with those of
smaller size.
The nearest approach to uniformity of distribution will be ob-
tained with fertilizers which are homogeneous with respect to the
size, shape, and specific gravity of particles. In general these par-
ticles will give best results when they are about 20-mesh in size and
roughly rounded in form.
Powdered fertilizers give trouble not only when damp but also
when quite dry on account of dustiness. When dry, powdered mate-
rial is blown from the hopper and delivery tubes, and the irritating
dust is very objectionable to the operator and horses. Calcium cyana-
mide, Thomas slag, and superphosphate are particularly likely to
be dusty if finely ground, and for this reason are often disagreeable
to distribute. Dustiness is especially objectionable with calcium
cyanamide because it irritates the eyes and mucous membranes of
those exposed to it; this substance also injures clothing. In Ger-
many, where much calcium cyanamide is applied alone to the soil,
special distributing machines and filling devices have been designed
to prevent the escape of dust.
The delivery rates of mixtures both with and without conditioners
varied in the same way. The 8-16-8 and 4-16-10 mixtures, which
have double the strength of two of the ordinary mixtures used, had
better drilling properties than the corresponding lower grade mix-
tures, although the latter contained a higher percentage of condi-
tioner. The present experiments indicate that conditioners have
little effect in maintaining good drillability in atmospheres of high
relative humidity. The presence of from 5 to 10 per cent of an
insoluble substance as a conditioner tends to prevent caking in a
fertilizer subjected to atmospheres in which the relative humidity
varies above and below its hygroscopic point. With few exceptions
the addition of any substance to a fertilizer solely as a conditioner
is probably not justified if the fertilizer is protected adequately from
exposure to a relative humidity above its hygroscopic point.
Distributors as a rule are best adapted to fertilizers of from 75
to 85 drillability (see p. 43), which comprise the bulk of commercial
fertilizer now on the market, when the materials are comparatively
dry. Some distributors will not distribute satisfactorily materials
that have a drillability much greater than 85, and most will not when
the drillability is less than 65. Satisfactory delivery requires con-
trol of the fertilizer, control of the delivery rate, and reasonable
uniformity of distribution.
Unrestricted flow of fertilizer through the distributing mechanism
when not in motion presents difficulties only with fertilizers of high
drillabilities. Few of the fertilizers now on the market are subject
to unrestricted flow, and then only in certain types of machines
when the fertilizers are dry and the fertilizer gate is set for a high
delivery rate.
Delivery rate at any particular adjustment of the distributor is
affected by a number of conditions. The degree to which the rate is
affected in the various types of distributors depends upon the relative
effects of gravity and of positive mechanical action in moving the
90 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
fertilizer through the distributing mechanism. In the top-delivery
types of distributors, where gravity is not a factor and the dispensing
action is positive, delivery rate by volume does not vary.
High drillability of a fertilizer insures a fully charged dispensing
mechanism. With low-drillability materials the discharging mecha-
nism either is only partially charged because of bridging or is unable
to carry its full charge through lack of positive action.
Head affects rate of delivery in any one or more of the following
ways: (1) By increasing the amount of fertilizer carried to the
final discharging element (2) by increasing the rate of flow through
discharge opening and (3) by compacting the material. The degree
to which rate of delivery is affected by head depends primarily upon
the drillability and texture of the fertilizer. Free-flowing fertilizers
transmit and respond to pressure resulting from head, but are not
materially compacted under ordinary pressures. Loose-textured
material responds to head chiefly by being compacted.
In types of distributors having a revolving plate with external
plow, where no positive action is provided to discharge the fertilizer
from the hopper, head has a considerable influence over the depth or
quantity of fertilizer carried to the plow. Compactness is not an
important factor in this case.
With types of distributors with partial positive feed, where head
exerts its influence on the flow of fertilizer through the delivery
opening or by compacting the material, the rate of delivery may
vary appreciably with changes of head, but the variations will be
much less than in the preceding case. The rate of delivery by such
types — which include the majority of those in use — was found to
vary as much as 15 per cent with 95 drillability fertilizer when the
head was increased from 1.5 to 5.5 inches.
In top-delivery types of distributors delivery rate by weight is
affected by head only in the compacting of the fertilizer in the
hopper ; this in most cases is insignificant, but may be noticeable with
easily compacted materials.
Generally speaking, when the depth of fertilizer is equal to or
greater than the width of the hopper at the feeding mechanism, a
change of head has little influence on the delivery rate. For that
reason it is essential that the hopper be well filled at all times if a
constant delivery rate is to be maintained.
Inclination of the distributing mechanism from its normal operat-
ing position affects the delivery rate except with top-delivery ma-
chines. Thus delivery rate is likely to change when ascending or
descending sloping parts of a field, or when changing depth of
drilling where such adjustment is made by altering the inclination of
the machine.
The use of an agitator in the hopper influences delivery rate only
with fertilizers that cake or bridge. The increase of delivery rate
obtained by the use of an agitator over that without it determines the
effectiveness of the agitator in preventing caking and bridging. In
some instances fertilizers may be drilled at the desired rate by the
use of an agitator when otherwise it would be impossible.
The apparent specific gravities of fertilizers vary greatly, and it
is not uncommon for a distributor set to deliver 200 pounds per
acre of one fertilizer to deliver 400 pounds per acre of another
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS 91
fertilizer of equal drillability. The calibration chart sometimes
attached to the machine by the manufacturer is intended only as an
approximate guide, for it does not take into consideration either
apparent specific gravity or physical condition of the fertilizer.
The operator should calibrate ® his distributor for each allotment of
fertilizer and check the calibration occasionally when much time is
required for its application.
The maintenance of accurate delivery rates would be greatly
facilitated if all distributors were equipped with land measurers, as
some of them now are, or if the number of revolutions of the main
wheel necessary to cover 1 acre were indicated on the machine by
the manufacturer; if the hopper were graduated on the inner side
in such a manner that volume delivered might be read directly in
pints; if a graduated scale were placed on the quantity- adjusting
device for reference and convenience in making adjustments; and if
manufacturers of fertilizers would include on their labels the number
of pounds per 100 pints -of contents. The use of pints rather than
bushels, quarts, or some other measure of volume is preferable be-
cause the division of pounds by pints will give apparent specific
gravities.
Uniform distribution is a highly important function for a dis-
tributor. Uneven distribution is due to characteristics of design and
lack of refinement of the machine and to poor drillability of the
fertilizer.
Distributors usually have at least one revolving member as an
integral part of or directly connected with the distributing mecha-
nism; this produces a cycle of delivery. Many distributors have
fingers or projections for positively carrying a charge of fertilizer
out of the hopper ; these cause impulses of delivery. All distributors
tested had mechanical imperfections which produced deviations in
delivery. These various factors of mechanical construction usually
predominate in producing variable delivery when the drillability of
the fertilizer is above 75, but, although they continue to function
with materials of low drillability, the physical properties of the
fertilizer become dominant.
The intervals and amplitudes of cycles and impulses of delivery
vary greatly in different types of distributors. The amplitude of
cycles and impulses also varies with the drillability of the fertilizer.
In some distributors provision has been made to counteract and
reduce the^e effects, but these provisions are effective only to a lim-
ited extent. Where either impulses or cycles are due to the design
of the dispensing member it appears that material improvement will
be at the expense of simplicity of construction and free passage of
the fertilizer. Where cycles result from lack of precision and poor
workmanship they may easily be eliminated. Likewise mechanical
» A distributor may be calibrated in the following manner : Having seen that the hopper
Is well filled, make the estimated adjustments ; then raise one wheel off the ground and
with the distributor in gear turn the wheel through the predetermined number of revolu-
tions necessary for the machine to cover a certain fmctlon of an acre. After weighing
the fertilizer delivered, the rate per acre may be readily calculated. Wheel slippage In
soft seed beds prevents the distributor from delivering quite as much fortilizer as shown
by the calibration thus made. Wheel slippage varies, but may be assumed as 10 per cent
for wheels over 18 inches in diameter and 15 per cent for wheels less than 18 inches In
diameter. A convenient method of checlcing' the delivery rate is to observe the acreage
covered while distributing a definite amount of fertilizer ; for example, 200 pounds.
92 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
imperfections, which may have a very significant effect on uniformity
of distribution at low rates of delivery, can be considerably reduced.
Uniformity of distribution does not necessarily vary directly with
the drillability of the fertilizer, for the correlation varies with the
type of distributor. The drillability of a material for greatest uni-
formity in one type of distributor may be 55, and in another 95.
However, the fact that a particular distributor gives greatest uni-
formity with a 55-drillability material does not necessarily mean
that it delivers a 55-drillability material more uniformly than do
other types of distributors.
Theoretically a 95-drillability fertilizer, which has the most per-
fect physical form obtainable at present, should lend itself to the
most uniform distribution. Such a material does give the most uni-
form distribution in those types of distributors where mechanical ir-
regularities are not pronounced. In general, however, present types
of distributors do not distribute a 95-drillability material as uni-
formly as an 85 material, because the former responds to mechanical
irregularities and vibrations to a greater degree and more decided
deviations in delivery result. Even minor defects in the dispensing
parts or vibrations due to fluctuating chain movement are indicated
by variations in delivery.
When the drillability of a fertilizer is above that which gives
greatest uniformity in a particular type of distributor, the irregu-
larity of distribution increases, in a general way, directly with the
drillability, because of the more ready response of the fertilizer
to mechanical variations.
Present distributors are not adapted to low-drillability fertilizers.
For a fertilizer the grains of which cohere, or which cakes and
bridges in the hopper, no adequate provision is made to insure uni-
form charging of the distributing mechanism. Low-drillability fer-
tilizers flow to the discharging mechanism irregularly because of
bridging in the hopper, and because they resist separation, and
are not carried out of the discharge opening uniformly; nor do
they leave the distributing mechanism in the finely divided state
which is essential to uniform distribution. In some types of dis-
tributors the fertilizer offers such resistance at the delivery opening
that it is compressed into a rigid column which sometimes breaks into
lumps too large to enter the delivery tube.
In many cases the variations in delivery with a low-drillability
material are caused almost entirely by tKe physical properties of
the fertilizer, for the variations occur irrespective of mechanical
irregularities.
When the drillability of the fertilizer is below that which gives
greatest uniformity in any particular type of distributor the uni-
formity of distribution varies with the drillability of the fertilizer.
Lack of cohesion between the fertilizer particles or some mechan-
ical means of overcoming* the cohesion, is necessary for uniform
distribution. Where some mechanical means is provided at the point
of delivery for breaking down the fertilizer into a finely divided
state greater uniformity is obtained, and the range of drillability
at which fertilizers can be uniformly distributed is widened.
Uniform distribution is most difficult at low-delivery rates. Since
the trend seems to be toward the use of concentrated fertilizers, dis-
MECHANICAL APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS 93
tribution at low-delivery rates demands careful consideration. In
this connection mechanical precision of the distributor and proper
state of subdivision of the fertilizer at the point of delivery are of
major importance.
In further development of fertilizer distributors the following are
some of the points that should receive consideration: Low ampli-
tude of cycles or impulses of delivery; minimum effect of head and
of inclination of distributor on delivery rate ; elimination of gravita-
tional flow of fertilizer through the distributing mechanism; posi-
tive delivery action; subdivision of fertilizer at the point of de-
livery; accuracy and refinement of dispensing parts; a reference
scale on the quantity-adjustment device; provision for compara-
tively small changes in delivery rate ; provision for ready determina-
tion of actual delivery rates; ease of emptying and cleaning; pro-
tection of the mechanism from rust and corrosion; and protection
of the operator from dust.
CONCLUSIONS
Drillability of fertilizers and the construction and operation of
fertilizer distributors were studied under controlled conditions.
The principal conclusions to be drawn from these experiments may
be summarized as follows :
Drillability of fertilizers is profoundly affected by changes in the
relative humidity of the atmosphere in which they are stored, and
only slightly by differences in temperature. Drillability is not
necessarily affected by changes in absolute humidity. The effects
of relative humidity and temperature operate through the moisture
content of the fertilizer and their extent depends upon the hygro-
scopicity of the fertilizer.
AH fertilizers tested are drillable at .relative humidities below 50
per cent, but no fertilizer remains drillable when exposed to a hu-
midity above its hygroscopic point.
Fertilizers containing a considerable proportion of material finer
than 200 mesh are unduly dusty when dry and when slightly damp
are undrillable in most distributors.
Fertilizers containing not less than 90 per cent of material between
5 and 80 mesh in size usually are drillable at all humidities 5 per
cent or more below their hygroscopic points.
When a mixed fertilizer is heterogeneous with respect to the size,
shape, or specific gravity of the particles of its components, the ma-
terials separate more or less during distribution, and the ratio of
the plant-food elements delivered may change markedly from time
to time.
The drillability of a fertilizer varies inversely with the kinetic
angle of repose. Fertilizers with a kinetic angle of repose greater
than 55° usually are undrillable.
Fertilizers with an angle of repose of about 40° and composed of
20-mesh rounded grains with rough surfaces are best adapted to
present types of distributors.
Distributors deliver by volume rather than by weight ; hence their
delivery rate by weight varies with the apparent specific gravity of
the fertilizer.
94 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPT. OF AGBICULTUKE
Delivery rate from bottom-delivery machines also varies greatly
with changes in drillability of the fertilizer, changes in depth of the
material in the hopper, and differences in the inclination of the dis-
tributor. The amount of low-drillability fertilizer discharged de-
pends to a great extent upon the amount of positive action of the
mechanism. Variations in delivery rate due to changes of head are
greatest when the depth of material is low. Tilting a distributor
toward the discharge opening increases delivery rate, and vice versa.
Delivery rate by volume does not vary in top-delivery distributors.
The uniformity of distribution varies with the design and me-
chanical refinement of the distributor and with the drillability of the
fertilizer. Cycles and impulses of delivery are the principal causes
of the irregular distribution of free-fiowing fertilizer. Fertilizers
of low drillability are delivered unevenly by all types of distributors.
LITERATURE CITED
(1) Anonymous.
1838-39. MACHINE FOR SOWING LIME. Cultivator 5 : 59.
(2)
1848. seymcub's machine. Cultivator (n. s.) 5:190, illus.
(3)
1879. IMPROVED FARM MACHINERY — ^v. Country Gent. 44 : 2, illus.
(4) Adams, J. R., and Merz, A. R.
1929. THE HYGROSCOPICITY OF FERTILIZER MATERIALS AND MIXTURES.
Indus, and Engin. Chem. 21 : 305-307, illus.
(5) Allen, J. T,
1879-86. ALLEN'S DIGEST OF SEEDING MACHINES AND IMPLEMENTS PATENTED
IN THE UNITED STATES ... I. 1800-79 1 1-1326, lllUS. ;
II. 1879-82 : 1327-1728 ; III. 1882-85 : 1729-2295. Washing-
ton, D. C.
(6) Christensen, a, Hansen, A, and Stoub^k, P.
1929. ABBEJDSPE0VB MED KUNSTG0DNINGSSPREDERE . . . Danske Stat-
ens Redskabsprover Beret. 56, 96 p.
(7) COUPAN, G.
1915. MACHINES DE CULTURE, PREPARATION DES TERRES tPANDAGE DES
ENGRAIS ET DES SEMENCES ENTRETIEN DES CULTURES. Ed. 2, 480
p., illus. Paris.
(8) Fischer, G.
1923. DtJNGERSTREUMASCHiNEN. Ztschr. Pflanzencmahr. u. Diingung
(B) 2: 92-97.
(9) and Hagmann.
1921. PRtiFUNG von kalkstickstoff-streumaschinen. preisauschrei-
BEN DES DtJNGERSTICKSTOFF-AUSCHUSSES. Mitt. Deut. LandW.
Gesell. 36: 351-358.
(10) Graeser, K.
1924. DtJNGERSTREUMASCHiNEN. Ztschr. Pflanzeuemalir. u. Dungung
(B) 3: 111-113.
(11) GUNNESS, C. I.
1928. CONCENTRATED FERTILIZER DISTRIBUTOR. Amer. Fertilizer 69 (6) :
35, illus.
(12) HuRD, W. D.
1919-20. THE NEED OF FERTILIZER DISTRIBUTING MACHINERY. PotatO Mag.
2 (10) : 16.
(13) J., A. C.
1856. CORN CULTURE AND BiujNQs' PLANTER. Country Geut. 7: 202.
(M) KtJHNE, G., and Meyer, E.
1923. LEITFADEN DER LANDWIRTSCHAFTLICHEN MACHINENKUNDE. 122 p.,
illus. Berlin.
(15) McGinnis, L. H.
1876. the true theory of farming. xi. fineness and thorough dis-
semination of all manures necessary for the best results.
Amer. Farmer (n. s.) 5: 212-214.
TtIechanical application of fertilizers 95
(16) Malden, W. J.
1896. FARM BUILDINGS AND ECONOMICAL AGRICULTURAL APPLIANCES 192 p.,
illus. London.
(17) Mertens, W.
1927. PBUFSTANDVERSUCHE AN DUNGERSTREUMASCHINEN. Tcchnik LandW.
8 (2) : 28-31, illus.
(18) Ross, W. H., Mehring, A. L., and Merz. A. R.
1927. recent DEVELOPMENTS IN THE PREPARATION AND USE OF CONCEN-
TRATED FERTILIZERS. Indus. and Engin. Chem. 19: 211-214.
(19) Shaxby, J. H., and Evans, J. C.
1923-24. ON THE PROPERTIES OF POWDERS: THE VARIATION OF PRESSURE
WITH DEPTH IN COLUMNS OF POWDERS. Faraday Soc. Trans. 19:
60-72, iUus.
(20) Stoiiz, H.
1928. ijber die anwendung von maschinen in landwirtschaftlichen
BETRiEB. Landbau u. Technic 4 (1) : 7-8, illus.
(21) Truog, E., and Jensen, O. F., compilers.
1928. REPORTS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE ON FERTHJZEB
APPLICATION 1925-1928. 55 p., illus. Washington, D. C.
(22) White, R., jr.
1848. description of a drill barrow, for planting seeds, and applying
manures, such as poudrette. bone-dust, ashes, plaster, marl,
ETC., AT THE SAME TIME. Cultivator (n. s.) 5: 184-185, illus.
ORGANIZATION OF THE
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
April 18. 1930
Secretary of Agriculture - Abthub M. Hyde.
Assistant Secretary R. W. Dunlap.
Director of Scientific Work A. F. Woods.
Director of Regulatory Work Waltee G. Campbell.
Director of Extension Work C. W. Warbubton.
Director of Personnel and Business Adminis- W. W. Stockberger.
tration.
Director of Information M. S. Eisenhower.
Solicitor E. L. Marshall.
Weather Bureau Charles F. Marvin. Chief.
Bureau of Animal Industry John R. Mohler, Chief.
Bureau of Dairy Industry O. E. Reed, Chief.
Bureau of Plant Industry William A. Taylor, Chief.
Forest Service R. Y. Stuart, Chief.
Bureau of Chemistry and Soils H. G. Knight, Chief.
Bureau of Entomology C. L. Marlatt, Chief.
Bureau of Biological Survey Paul G. Redington, Chief.
Bureau of PuUic Roads Thomas H. MacDonald, Chief.
Bureau of Agricultural Economics Nils A.. Olsen, Chief.
Bureau of Home Economics Louise Stanley, Chief.
Plant Quarantine and Control Administration- Lee A. Strong, Chief.
Grain Futures Administration J. W. T. Duvel, Chief.
Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration Walter G. Campbell, Director of
Regulatory Work, in Charge.
Office of Experiment Stations , Chief.
Office of Cooperative Extension Work C. B. Smith, Chief.
Library Claribel R. Barnett, Librarian.
This bulletin is a joint contribution from
Bureau of Chemistry and Soils H. G. Knight, Chief.
Fertilizer and Fixed Nitrogen Investiga- F. G. Cottrell, Chief,
tions.
Bureau of Public Roads Thomas H. MacDonald, Chief.
Division of Agricultural Engineering S. H. McCrory, Chief.
96
U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1930
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. - - - Price, 30 cents
Technical Bulletin No. 181
April, 1930
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
CLUBROOT OF CRUCIFERS'
By F. L. Wellman, formerly Agent, Offlx^e of Horticultural Crops and JJiseaaes,
Bureau of Plant Industry''
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction 1
Early history, importance, and geographical
distribution of clubroot 2
Certain phases of the life history of the causal
organism 3
Spore germination 4
Comparison of temperature ranges of
spore germination and disease develop-
ment 8
Soil moisture and the infection period 9
Soil reaction in relation to clubroot 11
Review of literature U
Soil reaction in relation to clubroot— Contd.
Methods used in determining soil reaction. 1 3
Results of survey of infested soils 14
Influence of addition of various chemicals
to the soil 15
Liming for control of clubroot 17
Previous investigations 17
Greenhouse pot tests 19
Field experiments 20
Discussion of control studies 25
Summary 27
Literature cited _ 28
INTRODUCTION
Clubroot of crucifers, caused by Plasmodiophora hrassicae Wor.,
has probably given gardeners concern for -well over 200 years. The
first historic mention of the disease is that by Ellis (i^),^ who stated
that he first noted it in 1736 on some of his travels in England. It
was attacking turnips and was considered a very serious and con-
tagious disease at that time. It was not until 1878, however, that
Woronin (56) described and named the causal organism.
The disease, which attacks members of the Cruciferae only, is
induced by a parasite which penetrates underground tissues of the
liost. These infections produce characteristic irregularly hyper-
trophied subterranean organs to which the descriptive names for the
disease, such as anbury, finger and toe, maladie digitoire, Kohlhernie,
Kapoustnaja kila, and clubroot, are applied. Very often the first
symptom of the disease aboveground is not seen until after the host
passes the seedling stage. Seedlings, w^hich are one of the most
potent means of distributing the trouble, may often be diseased but
have apparently healthy foliage parts. Unless the roots are care-
fully examined after they have been pulled from an infested seed
1 Investigations carried on cooperatively by the Office of Horticultural Crops and Diseases, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the department of plant pathology, University of
Wisconsin.
2 The writer is indebted to many persons at the college of agriculture. University of Wisconsin, for aid
and advice in the execution of this work; but especially to J. C. Walker, under whose direct supervision
the work was carried on and who has given invaluable help in the preparation of the manuscript, and to
L. R. Jones for stimulating interest and for suggestions during the cotirse of the experiments.
3 Reference is made by italic numbers in parentheses to " Literature cited," p. 28.
07800'— 30 1 1
2 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 181, IT. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
bed, many slightly affected individuals will be passed over as being
normal. Kecently infected roots often appear to be healthy, and in
many cases roots not actually infected carry infested soil on them.
Later in the season, however, as the diseased plant develops, its roots
will be found to be characteristically swollen and malformed. (Fig.
1, B.) Actually tJie first aboveground sign of clubroot infection
usually occurs after the plant has attained considerable size. It con-
sists of a flagging or wilting (fig. 1, A), which is decidedly marked
on warm, bright days. Before the disease has become too far ad-
vanced a plant thus wilted will often recover fully during the cooler
part of the day and will appear quite normal durmg cloudy and wet
weather.
The writer's investigations of the disease were prompted by the in-
creasing economic loss to cabbage growers in the Middle West. Ad-
ditional information was needed concernino: the life historv of the
^ •T'i^A B^I^F^^BHipH ^3^B. ^
Figure 1. — Symptoms of clubroot on half-grown cabbage plants in the field : A, Wilt
or flagging of the foliage, the first indication of the trouble in the field ; B, mal-
formed and swollen or clubbed roots found when a plant such as in A is pulled
organism, and control measures had not been studied adequately.
Previous students had given attention to mycological and cytological
details, but few had experimented with the physiological phases of
the disease under controlled conditions. It is the purpose of this
bulletin to review briefly the known salient features concerning the
malady and the causal organism, apart from its cytology, and to
present in detail the results of the present researches.
EARLY HISTORY, IMPORTANCE, AND GEOGRAPHICAL
DISTRIBUTION OF CLUBROOT
Ellis {16) reported having seen in 1736 the " Turnep Disease,
called in Norfolk and Suffolk, Anbury." He believed it to be con-
tagious and probably due to an excess of barnyard manure, especially
" the long undigested ranker sort." In Scotland from 1829 to 1831
Farquharson {17), Abbay (i), and Birnie {6) described the disease
and attributed it to unsatisfactory soil conditions or unbalanced fer-
tilizing practices. Abbay stated that he saw the disease first in 1801.
In 1855 Anderson {2) asserted that the trouble first appeared about
1813. At about the time Anderson wrote, American and English
CLUBROOT OF CRUCIFERS S
students, among them Curtis (15)^ and later Slingerland {U)*
studied the trouble and concluded that it might be due at least in part
to insects. Henderson, in his gardening book {28) published in
1867, discussed observations made on clubroot in the northeastern
part of the United States many years previously. He believed the
disease was caused by the attack of the cabbage maggot. In 1874
Sorauer (45) attributed the disease in part to insects. In one of his
papers Kavn (40) wrote of the history of the disease and included
in his bibliography citations of 18 articles published before Wor-
onin's final description of the nature of the causal organism. Woro-
nin began his studies of the malady in 1873, and in 1875 {5.f^) he pub-
lished a preliminary report on the organism, but did not name it
at that time. His paper in which the nature of the organism and its
host relationships were carefully described and illustrated did not
appear until 1878 (35). He published a total of eight papers on this
disease, of which three were in Russian and five in German.
The fact that for nearly two centuries botanists have been studying
the nature and control of clubroot, and that now, as in the past, in-
terest is not wanting, is ample proof of the importance and difficulties
of the problems involved. Economically, the effects of a plant dis-
ease are hard to gauge, and because of the nature of the trouble it is
peculiarly so in this case. Woronin (SS) estimated that in 1869, in
the vicinity of St. Petersburg, Russian gardens lost approximately
half their cabbage plants, and in 1918 it was reported^ that in the
United States New York sustained a loss of several thousand tons
of cabbage. The important fact is that the disease spreads readily
and that, once established in a field, it may completely destroy, for
an indefinite number of years, the usefulness of the plot as ground
on which to grow crucifers.
Geographically the disease is very widely distributed. In the
Old World it occurs in nearly all regions where cruciferous crops are
important. In the United States it has been reported as occurring
in 36 States and as important in 21. It also occurs in Alaska. No
trucking sections growing crucifers intensively appear to be incapable
of becoming infested with the trouble.
CERTAIN PHASES OF THE LIFE HISTORY OF THE
CAUSAL ORGANISM
Certain facts of the life history of the organism have been well
established. The spore germinates in the soil as a uninucleate
zoospore with a single anteriorly placed flagellum. Through move-
ment in the soil water these bits of naked protoplasm come in contact
with subterranean portions of the host. The organism penetrates,
grows in the tissue, and forms a true multinucleate Plasmodium,
which may migrate as a whole or separated into smaller parts from
cell to cell. Through toxic action of the parasite, hypertrophic and
hyperplasic reactions of irritable host cells about the infecting Plas-
modium produce the typical swollen regions characterizing the dis-
ease. Derangement of the health of the host upon the development
* Haskell, R. J., and Martin, G. H., jr. summary of plant diseases in the united
STATES IN 1918 DISEASES OF FIELD AND VEGETABLE CROPS. (Continued.) U. S. Dept. Agr.,
Bur. Plant Indus. Plant Disease Bui. Sup. 3, p. 84-118. 1919. [Mimeographed.]
4 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 181, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
of the swollen roots probably results largely through the disturbance
of the systems absorbing the soil solution and conducting it away
from the place of entry. In the enlarging regions of infection, plas-
modia develop rapidly and live for a time in intimate union with
host cytoplasm without killing the cells. The plasmodia mature
within the lumina of the host cells, produce no capillitium or
peridium characteristic of truly saprophytic myxomycetes, but simply
break up into spores which mature and lie packed within the un-
broken host cell walls. Disruption of these walls by the action of
secondary decay organisms allows the spores to be deposited in the
soil. Here they germinate upon the advent of proper moisture and
temperature conditions. Kunkel (34) described the tissue invasion
by PlasTnpdiophora brassicae.
There are portions of the life cycle of PlasTTwdiophora hrassicae
that have not been thoroughly studied. It came within the field of
the present investigations to study some of them witli especial
emphasis on limiting factors, and these results are herewith pre-
sented. vThe method of germination was observed, some of the con-
ditioning factors for germination were studied, and the minimum
period required for infection of the host at a favorable soil moisture
was determined.
SPORE GERMINATION ^
PREVIOUS STUDIES OF SPORE GERMINATION OF MYXOMYCETES
Spore germination of myxomycetes was first studied by DeBary,
who in 1854 described the main facts of this process. In his mono-
graph (4) published in 1864 he described further observations on the
process and physiological factors involved in its consummation. His
findings were partly included in a general work, the English trans-
lation of which was published in 1887 (S). Woronin's complete
report of studies on the spore germination of the parasite, Plasmo-
diophora hrassicae, was published in 1878 (SS), and was soon con-
firmed by the work of numerous students following him. The works
of Jahn, Lister, Pinoy, and others should be mentioned in con-
nection with this general subject, but space does not permit citations
or specific reviews. The somewhat monographic publication of
Constahtineanu (IS), however, deserves especial note. In this were
treated many factors governing development of myxomycetes and
germination of their spores. He found, of course, much variation
etween the different genera and species studied. Usually he ob-
tained good germination at room temperature in 30 minutes to 20
days. In general, a maximum temperature was established at 35°
to 40° C, an optimum at about 30°, and a minimum at below
18°. In some species plasmodia developed below 5°, but in general
growth was poor below 12°. An optimum for growth was obtained
usually at about 25°. At 30°, or slightly above, the plasmodia
encysted, and they were usually killed a few degrees above that point.
This maximum temperature for inactivation of the plasmodia was
in some cases lower than the maximum for spore germination.
Kunkel (33) described observations of others along with his own
relative to spore germination of the myxomycetous parasite of the
potato, Spongrospora subterranea (Wallr.) Johnson. Chupp's (10)
CLUBROOT OF CRUCIFERS 5
researches on the clubroot organism supplement those of Woronin
b}/ the use of modern cytological killing and staining methods.
Eeeently Gilbert reported a series of studies on spore germination
and feeding habits of saprophytic myxomycetes. In his study of
spore-germination processes {21) he concluded they could be divided
into two general types. It appears, however, that spore germination
of Plasrtiodiophora hrassicae does not fall under either of Gilbert's
two generalized schemes of myxomycete spore germination. In
spite of all the work that has been done on the spore germination
of myxomycetes, many interesting phases are still untouched. It
is evident, therefore, that even aside from its economic aspect a
fuller knowledge of the process and attending phenomena in P.
hrcBssicae is worthy of attention.
SPORE GERMINATION OF PLASMODIOPHORA BRASSICAE
Spores Avere teased out from previously frozen clubbed roots of
cabbage into sterile distilled water. Excess debris was removed,
and the suspension was centrifuged. The supernatant water w^as
then decanted and a fresh. supply poured on the pasty mass of
spores. This was then stirred up from the bottom of the centrifuge
tubes, and the process was repeated several times. Spore suspen-
sions were made in distilled or tap water, incubated, and observed
in hanging-drop cultures. Because of the minute size of the spores
and zoospores the oil-immersion objective was used.
The ripe spores of Plasviodiophora hrassicae are smaller than
those of typical saprophytic myxomycetes and are spherical, with a
smooth, colorless episporium which appears somewhat membranous
under the oil-immersion objective. Freshly matured spores studied
by the writer averaged about 1.7 /x in diameter, while older spores
from the same source which showed the first stage of germination
averaged slightly more than 2 /x in diameter. This increase in
size, which was first described by Chupp {10)^ in 1917, would seem
to be due to water absorption. The factors upon which this de-
pends and its duration before actual germination occurs have not
been ascertained.
In the large number of gerlnination studies made by many students
no actual observations of emergence of the zoospore have been
reported. Woronin's {55) illustrations of the process, which were
apparently partly based upon his knowledge of the saprophytic
myxomycetes, have been copied by many. It has been assumed since
that time that spore germination produces a single zoospore, but no
absolute proof has ever been presented. Jones {32) in a recent
paper stated that the spore germinates into one or more zoospores
which act as gametes. His evidence obtained from a limited amount
of material seems to the writer to be inconclusive. Of the multitude
of actively germinating spores observed by the writer, from a large
number of sources during three seasons, no evidence has been noted
of the production of more than one zoospore from a resting spore.
Hundreds of germinating spores were studied, but in only nine
cases has the writer seen actual emergence of the zoospore. In each
such case it resulted in only one zoospore. After a spore swells it
appears that an irregular break occurs in the spore wall, and the
spore contents become vigorously appressed behind it. The germi-
6 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 181, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
nating spore becomes lopsided, and, accompanied by a slow peculiarly
irregular series of motions, the zoospore emerges, probably by means
of a combination of mechanical pressure upon the epispore and its
dissolution. Microscopic observations indicate that 9 to over 24
hours elapse from the time the epispore appears to be cracked until
germination is completed. At the moment of zoospore emergence
consequent activity is often so heightened that under the oil-immer-
sion objective of the microscope germinating individuals frequently
are temporarily lost to view. In many such cases when the in-
dividuals were found again just after germination the empty
episporium and a single zoospore could be seen lying more or less
quietly side by side tor a few moments before the zoospore swam
away. Furthermore, a newly emerged zoospore is considerably
smaller than the diameter of the swollen spore from which it germi-
nates, but it is very nearly the same size as dormant spores before
being placed under conditions favoring germination.
Germination itself does not suggest either of the two typical
methods described by Gilbert (21) for saprophytic myxomycetes,
but it resembles more closely that described by De Bary (l) for
Stemonitis. Spores of the clubroot organism germinate differently
from any myxomycete the writer has thus far observed or found
reported, in that an actively lashing flagellum is typically produced
very soon after the first portion of the zoospore body emerges from
the epispore and long before the process of germination is complete.
Near the edge of a hanging drop the germinating spore often
presents a peculiarly characteristic twirling or spinning motion ^
which appears to be counterclockwise under the microscope. De
Bary (4) seems to have noted something similar to this twirling
motion in his study of myxomycetes, for in a general discussion
he stated that when the zoospore has difficulty in emerging from the
spore wall it may whirl around in its efforts to complete emergence.
Gilbert {22) in a study of feeding habits of zoospores found that
they moved in two ways, " an active rotating movement and * * *
a slower, more or less undulatory, creeping movement." The
twirling activity of Plasmodiophora hrassicae is not an invariable
accompaniment of germination, nor does it always continue without
interruption. In many cases slight "trembling" or "jigging" as
described by Chupp {10) is all that is noticeable before emergence.
As he and others found, activity usually increases greatly as the
time approaches for the zoospore to leave the epispore. Often a
few seconds before emergence the spore may be seen to spin so
fast as to appear almost a blur ; then it suddenly ceases whirling, and
the single, naked zoospore struggles out of the spore wall and
swims off. The excessive activity of these last few moments, unless
the organism is surrounded by inactive spores or debris, is the
greatest hindrance to observation of the actual emergence process.
DESCRIPTION OF THE ZOOSPORE
Woronin (55), with whose observations the writer is in accord,
described the organism after germination as a round to spindle -
^A. H. R. Buller, in a personal interview during which he was shown spores acting in
this way, stated that he had noted the same type of activity in the spermatozoa of sea
urchins. A review of zoological literature relative to this question was made and this
movement of spermatozoa was found not to be confined to sea urchins.
CLUBROOT OF CRUCIFERS 7
shaped myxamoeba having an elongate, anteriorly located beak with
a single flagellum. The lashing of the flagelluni, coupled at times
with the doubling back and forth of the motile beak, pulls and
jerks the zoospore body along. It is also able to move in an amoe-
boid fashion by the protrusion of posterior pseudopodia even
while still retaining its flagellum. Chupp (10) found the zoospore
to be spherical or pyriform with an anteriorly placed flagellum.
This had been previously observed by Woronin, but Chupp did not
see the narrow spindle-shaped bodies his predecessor saw, nor was he
able to see suggestions of amoeboid movement.
In the writer's experiments numerous uniflagellate zoospores were
observed. The zoospore gains in size rapidly after germination
and becomes capable of changing its form readily. Speed of move-
rnent ranged from a barely perceptible rate to such rapidity that a
single zoospore could not be followed under the microscope. In
studying a single flagellate zoospore, from a culture several days
old, it w^as seen to change readily from a rather globular or pyri-
form individual to a narrow spindle-shaped body. Its property of
changing form readily was further exhibited by the pushing out of
rounded pseudopodia almost immediately when it touched glass.
Flagellate zoospores were found as soon as the spores in the cultures
began germinating. True myxamoebae (swarm cells lacking flagella
and moving only by pseudopodia) were only found when the cul-
tures were several days old. No indications of the fusion of zoo-
spores or myxamoebae were noted.
INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON GERMINATION
Chupp (10) failed to get spore germination at room temperature
(16° to 21° C), but stated the optimum to be between 27° and 30°.
He obtained root infection at room temperature and concluded that
" the presence of the host seems in some manner to exert an influence
which to a certain extent takes the place of that offered by a greater
amount of heat."
Suspensions of spores from frozen clubbed roots of cabbage were
placed in constant-temperature chambers arranged at approximately
3-degree intervals from 3° to 35° C. The suspensions w^ere in open
culture cells in moist chambers, and the relative germination was
determined by microscopic examination at 24-hour intervals. Hang-
ing drops were removed from the culture cells with a flamed plati-
num loop both before and after the suspensions in the culture cells
were stirred. Hanging drops of spore suspensions were also pre-
pared and carried through at different temperatures, but they did
not give such satisfactory results as the culture cells. All of the
six series that were run gave practically the same results, and as a
consequence a single one of these was chosen as a typical example.
Spore germination (Table 1) is furthest advanced after a 4-day in-
cubation period and begins to drop off after five days. The maxi-
mum temperature for germination appears to be just below 28°,
and the minimum occurs at about 6°. The optimum range extends
from 18° to a little over 25°, with the peak probably at 25°. In some
cases germination occurred at 27°, but never at 28° or above.
8
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 181, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 1. — Results of a typical experiment showing relation of temperature to
germination of spores of Plasmodiophora brassieae
Temper-
Germination at end of indicated period
Temper-
ature
Germination at end of indicated period
(°C.)
2 days
3 days
4 days
6 days
2 days
3 days
4 days
5 days
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Trace.
0
0
Slight.
Fair.
Fair.
0
0
Slight.
Fair.
0
18—
22
25
28
30 -
0
0
Good.
0
0
Good.
Fair.
Very good.
Good.
Good.
Very good.
0
0
0
5
9
Good.
11
14
0
0
COMPARISON OF TEMPERATURE RANGES OF SPORE GERMINATION
AND DISEASE DEVELOPMENT
Monteith (S6) in his soil-temperature studies demonstrated that
the disease developed at 9° to 30° C, though in one case he found
slight clubbing at 35°. However, he stated that this clubbing pro-
duced at 35° was on the main stem at the surface of the soil where
its contact with the air may have resulted in a somewhat lower tem-
perature. He found that the disease was most severe at about 25°,
which condition he considered due in great measure to host reaction.
Up to the time of Monteith's work it was commonly believed that
outbreaks of the disease were most severe in cool countries and during
the cool seasons in warm regions. He concluded that the tempera-
ture range over which the disease occurred would be practically
parallel with that required by the host and that temperature itself
could not be considered a limiting factor in disease production.
Monteith's soil temperature range as it affected disease produc-
tion was not quite in agreement with the writer's spore-germination
findings and was consequently reinvestigated. In the present study
a 2-inch layer of insulating material was placed on top of soils held
at constant temperatures, and the water when added to the pots was
at the exact soil temperatures being studied. The writer found
(Table 2) that no clubbing resulted below 12° and above 27° C. The
optimum temperature for percentage of disease production was at a
range extending from 18° to 24°, with the peak for severity of club-
bing occurring slightly above the latter figure. In the 12°, 15°, and
27° soil temperatures a fair percentage of plants became infected,
but comparatively slight development of swollen roots resulted.
Table 2. — Results of two representative experiments, showing the relation of
soil temperature to the production of cluhroot of cabbage
Temper-
Experiment No. 1
Experiment No. 2
Temper-
ature
(°C.)
Experiment No. 1
Experiment No. 2
ature
Plants
observed
Per cent
diseased
Plants
observed
Per cent
diseased
Plants
observed
Per cent
diseased
Plants
observed
Per cent
diseased
9
35
35
35
35
0
74
75
100
21
24
27
30
35
35
35
35
100
100
20
14
14
14
14
100
12
15—
18—
14
14
14
29
36
100
93
29
0
CLUBROOT OF CRUCIFERS 9
In the light of these new facts it is of interest to consider the
question as to whether the temperature influence upon disease devel-
opment is one of direct effect upon the host or the parasite or both.
Tisdale H6) studied healthy cabbage-root development over a grow-
ing period of seven and a half weeks. He found that excellent con-
ditions for growth occurred through a range of 14° to 20° C, the
optimum point being about the latter temperature. A rapid drop
in growth occurred as the temperature rose, and at 23° the roots pro-
duced about 50 per cent less dry weight than at 20°. The roots grew
poorly at a higher temperature than 23° and only very slightly at
35°. Comparison of Tisdale's studies of the host temperature rela-
tionships with the writer's investigations of the spore-germination
and disease-production temperature ranges show significant differ-
ences. At 14° vigorous root development w^as accompanied by fair
spore germination and slight clubbing. At 18° about the peak of root
development took place along with fairly good spore germination
and only fairly serious clubbing. At 23° the rate of root develop-
ment took a decided drop, while very good spore germination re-
sulted, together with an approach to almost optimum disease pro-
duction. At 25°, where root growth was about the same as at 23°,
there occurs optimum spore germination and the most malignant
disease development. At 27°, where the rate of root growth was
again about the same as at 23°, slight clubbing occurred, together
w^ith poor spore germination. At 29°, where roots grew as well or
slightly more successfully than at 23°, no spore germination nor
clubroot could be found.
It is difficult to state a critical conclusion as to what part tempera-
ture plays in disease development in clubroot of cabbage. Plasmo-
diophora hrassicae has never been studied in pure culture, and the
fragmentary data at hand concerning temperature as it affects the
organism only cover spore germination. It is hardly possible to
determine directly whether the effect is the result of host reaction or
a stimulation produced by the temperature as it affects the growth,
motility, or production of irritating substances by the parasite
within the host tissues. It is evident, however, that the optimum
temperature for host-root development, 20° C, is distinctly lower
than the optimum temperature for spore germination and disease
development, 25°. It would seem that these facts indicate at least
that the effect of temperature upon disease production is in a great
measure due to its influence upon the causal organism.
SOIL MOISTURE AND THE INFECTION PERIOD
Monteith {36) demonstrated that the production of clubroot re-
quires high soil moisture. He was able to grow plants free from
clubroot in thoroughly infested soil by keeping the soil moisture
content down to 45 per cent of the water-holding capacity. At 60
per cent of the water-holding capacity the disease would again be
uniformly present. He concluded that failure of clubroot to develop
on plants growing in infested soils with low moisture content was
probably due to insufficient moisture for spore germination. Ob-
servations show that often the plants appearing to be most seriously
97800°^30 2
10 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 181, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
diseased in infested fields occur in low spots and in what appeared
to be the most poorly drained portions of infested areas. In neigh-
boring fields, however, malignant disease development has been
found on the higher, well-drained soils and in fields carefully under-
drained with tile. Monteith (36) discussed observations of investi-
gators in this and other countries w^ho found that the employment
of good soil-drainage measures was an actual curative agent, though
he believed that it could not be relied upon in itself as an inhibitor.
It seemed evident that complicating soil factors such as humus con-
tent and relative acidity entered into the question of the efficacy of
drainage as a curative measure. It occurred to the writer that the
question of the part drainage played as a preventive measure would
depend largely upon the length of time required for the existence of
high soil-moisture conditions about the host roots before infection
takes place. Studies were carried out to determine this infection
period, with clubroot-infested soils from Wisconsin fields.
Plants from disease-free soil were transplanted into infested soil
which was kept at 40 to 47 per cent of the water-holding capacity,
determined according to Monteith 's methods (S6). This had been
found to be below the minimum soil moisture for infection. The
plants were watered twice a day until they became adjusted to
growth after the transplanting process and showed signs of new
top and root growth. This required seven to nine days. The soil
moisture was then increased to 80 per cent of the w^ater-holding
capacity, and at stated time intervals series of 5 to 10 plants were re-
moved, the roots washed, and replanted in relatively dry infested
field soil. This was held at 40 to 47 per cent soil moisture in a
greenhouse in which the air temperature was held at 15° to 22° C.
After one month the plants were removed and the roots examined
for evidence of clubroot.
These experiments w^ere performed repeatedly and show (Table 3)
that, in the soils described, clubbing results quite generally in roots
which have been exposed for 18 hours to soil having relatively ex-
cessive soil moisture. This period was reduced in some cases to 10
hours. These data indicate that even in an otherwise dry season a
single heavy rain, or a few moderate rains at short intervals, might
raise the soil moisture sufficiently and for a long enough time to in-
sure clubroot infection. Therefore it seems reasonable to conclude
that while an adequate system of drainage might in some cases re-
duce the severity of the disease in lightly infested sandy soils, it
should be expected neither to inhibit absolutely infection by Ptas-
77iodiophora hras^icae nor to offer, of itself alone, a practical remedial
measure.
CLUBROOT OF CRUCIFERS
11
Table 3.
-Results of exposure of cabbage for various periods to moist soil
thoroughly infested with cluhroot
Hours of
Occurrence of disease in the indicated experiment
exposure
No. 1
No. 2
No. 3
No. 4
0
Healthy.-
Healthy. .
Healthy
Healthy.
1
do
2 .
do
3
.do
Healthy
4
....do
5
do
6
Healthy
Healthy
Do
7 .
Healthy
9
Healthy
10
Healthy
Diseased
Do
12
Healthy
do
Do
15
Diseased
Do
18
Piseased-- .
Healthy
Diseased
Diseased.
21...
Diseased
24
Diseased
do
27
Diseased
Do
36
Diseased...
48
do
72
do
96
..--do.- -
SOIL REACTION IN RELATION TO CLUBROOT
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The physiological ecology of soil-inhabiting organisms a*s affected
by the H-ion concentration relationships is still incompletely under-
stood. Historical or theoretical treatment of this complex question
is beyond the scope of this work, but it is discussed in such papers
as those by Fisher {18, 19), Truog (.^7), and Pierre {39). Wherry
{52), after a long series of studies, found that certain chlorophyllous
plants thrive in soils of a relatively narrow pH range. Investiga-
tions, one of the purposes of which was to determine whether changes
brought about in soil reaction might be useful in preventing or re-
ducing the various diseases caused by the organisms studied, are
reported by Peltier {38), Sherwood {^3), Hopkins {29), Hawkins
and Harvey {27), Gillespie {23), and Waksman {J^s).
Webb {1^9) in 1921 and Wolpert {53) in 1924 reviewed literature
on the relation of the H-ion concentration of media to the action of
fungi. They found in their own studies that in general OH ions
were more toxic than H ions. Webb noted that the pH range for a
specific organism was not the same under all conditions, though the
reason for this was not always explainable. Wolpert concluded that
it was not possible to name a marked optimum pH value for an or-
ganism or even a narrow range in which the optimum would invari-
ably fall, and that the pH range was dependent on various environ-
mental factors.
It has long been asserted that Plasmodiophora hrassicae is most de-
structive in acid soils, and liming has been used with varying success
in combating clubroot. In a number of papers from Denmark, Ravn
and his associates presented and discussed evidence which they be-
lieved demonstrated that the action of lime as an inhibitor of club-
root was due to the reaction of the organism to the basic condition
induced in the soil, rather than to the toxic action of the lime itself.
12 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 181, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Ravn {Ji^) in 1911 reported results from liming experiments on
infested soil over a period of nine years. He used in this series of
trials a finely divided " vaporized " lime. This consisted of a powder
which was seven-eighths lime, all in the form of CaCOa. At the be-
ginning of the experiment the infested soil showed a " normal " con-
tent of calcium, was practically neutral to litmus solution, effervesced
slightly upon treatment with dilute HCl, and sustained slight growth
of Azotobacter in some cases, though in others the bacteria failed
to grow. For these reasons Ravn considered the soil practically
neutral. In the light of recent knowledge it is known that the change
of color in litmus occurs over such a wide range of pH values that it
has been discarded as an indicator for denoting exact neutrality.
Gainey {20) in 1922 showed that Azotobacter spp. grow well at pH
6.0 and also in media strongly alkaline.
Ravn found that it required the application of vaporized lime
(CaCOg) at the rate of at least 1.23 tons per acre each year for four
years, a total of 4.92 tons per acre, before any appreciable effect could
be noted in litmus reaction or in consistency in occurrence of azoto-
bacterial growth on cultures inoculated with soil. With this treat-
ment, however, he obtained no control of the disease. After he had
applied 1.64 tons of vaporized lime every year for four years, a total
of 6.56 tons to each acre of land, he obtained fairly strong alkaline
litmus reaction, a good growth of Azotobacter on cultures inoculated
with soil, and a notable reduction in the amount of clubroot. His
heaviest application of vaporized lime, 2.47 tons per acre each year
for four years, a total of 9.88 tons per acre, induced vigorous alkaline
litmus reaction, a consistently abundant growth of Azotobacter on
samples of soil, and in practically every plot an almost normal crop
of healthy roots, though in some cases, for reasons he could not
explain, serious infection still occurred. To a certain extent he
carried on parallel tests in which he used air-slaked instead of
vaporized lime. The largest quantity of the slaked material that he
applied was 1.23 tons per acre for four years, which made a total
of 4.92 tons to the acre. Though he did not apply a greater quantity
than this, his data show that ton for ton the air-slaked lime, composed
of a mixture of one-half CaO and one-fourth CaCOg, was much
more efficient as a disease inhibitor than the vaporized lime, con-
taining six-sevenths CaCOg. Both limes seemed to change the soil
reaction with equal effectiveness.
Bramer (7, 8) found that strong alkalinity inhibited the germina-
tion of Plmmodiophora hrassioae spores without killing them. He
believed that the hydrogen-ion concentration was in itself a limiting
factor for the organism, though unexplained exceptions were ob-
served. Germination resulted over a pH range of 5.4 to 7.5, but not
at pH 8.0. Lindfors (SS) noted in pot tests that with increase in
alkalinity of the soil there was a decline in infection until at pH
7.8 all plants were healthy. Naumov {S7) studied the effect of
various metallic salts on the control of clubroot. He concluded that
inhibition depended not on the character of the metal ion so much
as upon the presence of free hydroxyl ions in the substratum.
Chupp (11) in 1928, working with a naturally acid soil, applied
calcium hydrate and sulphur and studied the effect of H-ion con-
centration on clubroot incidence. He found that applications which
CLUBROOT OF CRUCIFERS 13
served to raise the pH value to slightly more than 7.0 inhibited the
disease. At a pH of 7.2 to 7.4 only a trace of clubroot was evident.
The amount of trouble increased rapidly between pH 7.0 and 6.0.
At pH 6.6 he found 80 per cent of the host plants diseased; at below
pH 6.0 it was possible to get almost 100 per cent diseased.
METHODS USED IN DETERMINING SOIL REACTION
The double-wedge comparator described by Barnett and Barnett
(S) and later adapted to soil-acidity determinations by Wherry (51)
was used for H-ion concentration measurements after being found
to check within pH 0.1 with a standard Clark & Lubs colorimeter
set. The apparatus was found to be simple to manipulate and suffi-
ciently accurate for the work herein discussed. Soil samples were
obtained occasionally by shaking soil from the roots of plants but
usually by the use of a 6-inch soil auger. The samples while still
moist were crumbled with the fingers and thoroughly mixed and
sifted. In no case was a sample crushed or ground in a mortar or
forced through a sieve. Wide-mouth bottles of a little over 30 c. c.
capacity with screw caps were graduated at 12.5, 15, 27.5, and 30 c. c.
The new bottles were first cleaned with soap powder and weathered
for a number of days, first in concentrated H2SO4 and then in 20
per cent NaOH. Before each test the bottles were washed by first
being scrubbed with soap powder and then soaked in 20 per cent
HCl for about one hour. They were then rinsed under the tap and
placed in a bath of water made strongly alkaline with NH4OH.
The alkaline bath was rinsed off, first under the tap and then re-
peatedly with distilled water, and the bottles were allowed to drain.
Just before the bottles were used they were rinsed carefully with con-
ductivity water. The aluminum screw caps were always carefully
washed in soap, rinsed, and dried. None of the solutions to be tested
stood in contact with the metal cap, its main use being to exclude
air and serve as a cover when the soil and water were shaken in the
bottles. Samples of distilled and conductivity water shaken in con-
tainers treated in this way and kept covered at room temperature
for 12 hours did not change in pH values.
In testing soils a bottle was filled with conductivity water up to
the 12.5 c. c. mark. Soil from the sifted and mixed sample was put
into the bottle until the water level reached the 15 c. c. mark, when
it was capped, shaken 50 times, and set aside to settle. The particles
of some soils showed no signs of settling out of suspension after a
few minutes. Conductivity water was added to the bottle of such
a suspension, bringing the level up to the 27.5 c. c. mark. Soil from
the same sample was added until the 30 c. c. mark was reached; the
bottle was shaken again 50 times and set aside to settle. In this
quantity of solution the soil particles had a longer column in which
to settle. In many cases this helped in obtaining a sufficient quantity
of clear solution for pH determination.
In a few cases the pH value was determined as soon as enough
clear liquid was obtainable to fill the test cells of the comparator.
In most cases, however, the soil solutions remained overnight in the
capped bottles in an evenly heated room at approximately 22° C.
and were tested for pH value within 12 to 15 hours. No radical
14
differences were noted in identical solutions 3 to 15 hours after set-
tling, and the greater ease of color determinations in the clearer
liquids with indicator dyes in them made using the longer period of
settling the more satisfactory method. The conductivity water used
ranged in pH from 6.7 to 7.2, depending upon storage conditions.
To offset any such possible variations in results, the same stock of
water was used in testing a given series of soil samples.
RESULTS OF SURVEY OF INFESTED SOILS
The writer visited more than 200 fields of cruciferous crops af-
fected with clubroot in Wisconsin, Illinois, and Indiana. The types
of soils were noted, and 116 samples were obtained for acidity de-
terminations. It was found that clubroot apparently occurred with
equal severity in any type of soil capable of producing a cruciferous
crop in the regions studied. These soils were largely loams and
sands, though silts and clays were also commonly encountered.
Fields close to limestone outcrops and those on the bottom of pre-
historic Lake* Chicago along the west shore of Lake Michigan, which
contained large numbers of gastropod shells, were seriously diseased.
Subsoils were also found of gumbo, limestone, and marl. Disinte-
grating peat and other newly reclaimed marsh lands in which no
particles of lime were noticeable were also seriously diseased. Sub-
soils in some infested fields were of noncalcareous nature and con-
sisted of pure sand, clay, and glacial deposits of sand, clay, and
pebbles.
In testing for the pH values of the 116 soil samples studied it
was found that clubroot occurs in soils with a pH of 5 to 7.8. Fifty-
seven per cent of the soils tested between 6.5 and 7.4, which is near
the neutral point for soils ; ^ 35 per cent tested between pH 5.5 and
6.4; 4 per cent were distinctly acid, testing between pH 5 and 5.4;
and 4 per cent were quite alkaline, testing between pH 7.5 and 7.8.
At first glance these results seemed significant in giving the pre-
ponderance of soils a pH of below 7. It is also to be noted, how-
ever, that healthy crucifers grew in fields over the same range of
H-ion concentrations. In a number of partially infested fields
studied (Table 4) the pH values usually differed slightly in diseased
and healthy areas, though the number of shifts toward the acid and
toward the alkaline side was practically equal. When the distribu-
tion of acidity was studied in certain infested fields (Table 5) the
pH values were found to vary over a wide range, and diseased areas
were not necessarily confined to the more acid regions. From these
observations it seems logical to conclude that the percentage distri-
bution of diseased soils with regard to H-ion concentration is just
what might be expected in samples taken from fields in the truck-
ing areas studied without respect to occurrence of clubroot. Proba-
bly soils slightly more acid than pH 5 and more alkaline than pH
7.8 might be found growing cruciferous crops, and it is to be ex-
pected that the range of clubroot occurrence might also be extended.
In the soils investigated the H-ion concentration does not appear
to be a limiting factor in the occurrence of clubroot of crucifers.
« Wherry (50) used the term " circumneutral," which includes slightly acid, absolutely
neutral, and slightly alkaline reactions.
CLUBROOT OF CRUCIFEHS
16
Table 4. — Comparison of pH values of soils free from and infested with Plasmo-
diophora bj-assicae in tvell-defined regions withi/n the same field
Field No.
pH values of soil
in the indicated
region
Differ-
ence in
pH value
Field No.
pH values of soil
in the indicated
region
Differ-
ence in
Infested
Disease
free
Infested
Disease
free
pH value
l.__.
5.9
7.1
6.8
7.1
6.5
. 7.4
6.7
6.7
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.9
7.0
7.3
6.9
6.5
-H).9
-.3
0
-.2
+.5
-.1
+.2
-.2
9
7.3
5.6
6.1
6.3
6.7
5.2
7.1
7.4
7.0
6.9
6.5
6.4
5.5
7.1
+0.1
+1.4
— 2
2
10
3
11
4
12 -
+.2
+.7
+.3
5
13
6
14
7
15
0
8.
Table 5. — Irregularities in pH values shown by soils of three clubroot-infested
fields
Location of sample
Soil type
Drainage condition
Infection
(per cent)
pH value
Field A:
High land
Black loam
Excellent
95
100
100
95
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
7 2
Shoulder
Dark sand .
do
6 9
Black silt
Fair . .
6.2
Highland
Light sand..
Excellent
6.6
Field B:
High knoll
Light loam
do
6.4
Shoulder
Dark loam
Good
6.5
Edge of bottom
Black loam
Fair
7.7
Shoulder
Excellent
6.6
Bottom
Black loam -..
Fair
7.6
High land
Dark loam
Excellent
6.7
Field C:
High knoll. ..
Light clay
do
5.9
High land
do
6.8
Bottom
Black clay
Poor
7.1
INFLUENCE OF ADDITION OF VARIOUS CHEMICALS TO THE SOIL
After the wide range of pH values at which clubroot occurred in
the field had been determined, the H-ion concentration was varied
experimentally in clubroot soils by adding certain chemicals. Those
used were of laboratory grade, " C. P." quality, and in a well-ground
state. Quantities used varied increasingly from a little more than
1 to 11 gm. per kilogram (oven-dry weight) of infested soil. The
soils used were from portions of fields which were known to be
thoroughly infested with clubroot. These experiments were all
performed in the greenhouse.
The soils were sifted and thoroughly mixed. Requisite quantities
of alkali were added to weighed amounts of soil in a pile and mixed
by being turned five times with a trowel and rubbed between the
hands. Vigorous cabbage seedlings were grown in the treated soils
at a high soil moisture content (70 to 85 per cent water-holding
capacity). After a month the plants were removed and examined
for clubbed roots, and the pH of the soil was then determined.
Various alkalis were tested for their toxicity to cabbage and their
effect on the clubroot disease. The H-ion concentration was shifted
16 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 181, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
with varying degrees of success, depending upon the soils employed.
Four soils used in the experiments tested, respectively, pH 6.6, 7.2,
7.1, and 6.7, all close to neutrality. As all four gave essentially the
same results, the data from only one are presented. (Table 6.) In
the case of this soil, which tested originally pH 7.2, the H-ion con-
centration was raised by the use of K2CO3 to pH 8.1 without in-
hibiting the occurrence of the disease. One treatment with Ca
(OH) 2 inhibited disease production but only increased the pH 0.1.
A large excess of chemically precipitated CaCOa inhibited the dis-
ease, but it affected the H-ion concentration only slightly in com-
parison with' Ca(0H)2. At a higher H-ion concentration than was
produced by the Ca(0H)2 treatment, and when three times as much
reagent was employed, the carbonate raised the pH" 0.1 above the
point at which inhibition occurred when the hydroxide was used,
but did not reduce disease production. It was not until the pH was
raised to 7.9 that CaCOg inhibited clubroot.
Table 6. — A representatwe experiment, showmg the comparative effect of the
addition of certain chemicals to the soil upon the pH value and upon the
occurrence of cluhroot in cahhage
pH value
Ca(0H)3
CaCOs
K2CO3
pH value
Ca(0H)j
CaCOs
K2CO3
71
Diseased...
do
Healthy
Diseased...
Diseased.
Do.
Do.
Diseased.
7.7
Healthy....
72
7.8...
Diseased...
Healthy....
73
7.9
7 4
Diseased...
do
do.
8.0...
Healthy
76
Healthy....
do
8.1
do
Diseased.
7.6
The pH of naturally infested field soil was found to be as high as
7.8, and it is to be noted that the disease was inhibited at much
below this (Table 6) by the use of Ca(0H)2, while K2CO3 in-
creased the pH to well above 7.8 without inhibiting disease develop-
ment. On the other hand, several trials showed that Ca(0H)2
inhibited the disease without raising the pH more than 0.2 or 0.3
above the approximate neutrality shown by untreated soil.
The pH determinations in an experiment on one seriously in-
fested field (Table 7), to which different quantities of several types
of commercial liming materials were applied, ranged from 6.4 to 8.1.
The larger percentages of plants that died of clubroot occurred in
soils having a pH of 6.4, 6.5, 6.7, 7.1, or 7.5. The highest per-
centage of normally developing plants occurred in soils having a
pH of 6.7, 7.1, 7.5, 7.8, 7.9, 8, or 8.1. On the other hand, plants
were so seriously diseased that they were not able to head in plots
showing a pH of 6.5, 6.7, 6.8, and 7.6. In plots showing a pH
of 6.8 and 8 no plants were killed by Plasmodiophora hrassicae.
From these data no correlation appears between severity of disease
and increase in active alkalinity of the soil.
CLtTBROOT OF CRUCIFEES
17
Table 7. — Relation of pH values to clubroot of cabbage in plots of thoroughly
infested field soil treated icith lime
pH value
Plants
headed
(per cent)
Plants
dead from
elubroot
(per cent)
pH value
Plants
headed
(per cent)
Plants
dead from
elubroot
(per cent)
6.4
1
0
7
23
0
4
0
49
27
47
51
52
2
49
54
0
5
22
7.5
1
?1
0
7
62
20
3
78
36
23
6.6 -
7.5
49
6.6 -
7.6
15
67
7.7
16
6.7
7.8
6.7
7.9
7
6.8
7.9-
7
7.1
8.0.
0
7.1-
8,1
3
From the foregoing data it appears that, in the soils studied,
Plasmodiophora hrassicae is a disease-producing agent over such a
wide range of naturally occurring and artificially induced H-ion and
OH-ion concentration in the soil that to consider OH-ion concentra-
tion alone as a limiting factor is questionable. A limiting influence
is exerted, however, which may be interpreted as actual toxicity of
the chemical molecules themselves. This question needs further in-
vestigation. The pH relationship may be indicative of a condition
of chemical dissociation in the soil solution, but it appears that this
should not be considered the only limiting toxic element. It seems
that to control the disease effectively materials must be applied which
will alter the soil solution in such a way as to inhibit the action of
the parasite while altering of the pH value in itself is of secondary
importance.
LIMING FOR CONTROL OF CLUBROOT
PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS
Ellis {W) reported that before 1742 farmers were using clay or
marl for dressing their diseased fields before planting turnips.
About 75 years later the Highland Agricultural Society of Scotland
offered prizes for essays concerning the nature and control of the
turnip disease known as " finger and toe." Farquharson {17) be-
lieved the disease to be due to abnormal growth of host roots induced
by the use of inadequately decayed manure and suggested that the
mixing of quantities of powdered lime shells in manure heaps would
hasten fermentation and produce well-rotted manure, which would
obviate future excess stimulation. At the same time Abbay (i)
recommended, after careful trials on diseased land, the application
of a particular type of lime known as " Knottingley " at the rate of
256 bushels per statute acre. His general conclusion was that " bone
manure affords no relief from the disease; and different kinds of
lime have been tried without success."
In 1855 Anderson (^), chemist to the Highland Agricultural
Society, reported detailed analyses of soils from diseased and
healthy fields. He concluded that the chemical nature of the ground
could not be correlated with occurrence of the disease, though it
occurred most severely on light " deafish " soils which would not
18 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 181, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
respond readily to manuring practices. He recommended, after
field experimentation, the use of lime at the rate of 60 bolls per
Scotch acre two or three years before the crop was to be grown,
but found that for some unexplainable reason it did not always
prove effective. At about the same time Hunter (30) found that
on his farm " lime applied to the young plants [turnips] was quite
ineffective; phosphates in the drills equally so; lime worked in
whilst preparing the land very slightly beneficial." He recommended
the use of 14 to 16 tons of "hot " (probably burnt) lime per Scotch
acre applied on the "lea" and plowed under. Henderson (28), a
gardener near New York City, reported in 1867 observations that
crucifers grown in soils containing excessive numbers of disinte-
grating oyster shells were not subject to attack by the insect causing
clubroot. He found that on lime-free seriously infested land
heavy dressings of lime were both expensive and only temporarily
effective. He procured successful control, however, by the use of
2,000 pounds of "flour of bone " per acre. Halsted (25) noted that
gardeners of the eastern United States were using lime as a pre-
ventive of clubroot. He concluded (26), after seven years of field
experimentation, that air-slaked lime at the rate of 75 bushels per
acre was a commercially satisfactory remedy for the disease.
Christensen, Harder, and Kavn (9) through a series of laboratory
and field experiments came to the conclusion that the more a soil
needed a base the greater the possibility of malignant infection of
the crop. They believed that the quantity of lime required to inhibit
the organism depended materially upon the nature of the soil. Ravn
(4^) reported the results. from liming experiments over the period
1902 to 1911. He used calcium carbonate and a mixture of calcium
carbonate and calcium oxide for the liming materials, in quantities
varying from about two-fifths of a ton to nearly 10 tons per acre.
His conclusions were that the largest treatment was the most suc-
cessful as a disease inhibitor. Infection still occurred in spite of
this quantity of lime, but crop returns were usually commercially
satisfactory.
Though Ravn did not believe in the intrinsic toxicity of lime
itself, it is noticeable that the results from his experiments show that
he obtained more effective clubroot inhibition with some types of
limes than with others. In 1910 (41) he reported the successful
inhibition of clubroot by the use of one application of air-slaked
lime at the rate of 2 tons to the acre. A year later (^2) he found
it required four yearly applications of vaporized lime totaling 9.88
tons per acre to procure successful inhibition of the disease. The
air-slaked lime tested about 51 per cent CaO and 25 per cent CaCOs,
and the vaporized lime tested a total of about 89 per cent CaCOa,
which indicated that CaO was a much more efficient disease in-
hibitor than CaCOs. The differences which appeared in the ef-
fectiveness of air-slaked limes were probably due to the differences
in the contents of oxides or hydroxides and carbonates. Halsted
(26) found 75 bushels of air-slaked lime per acre a successful club-
root inhibitor, but Cunningham (14) reported that it required from
75 to 150 bushels for effective inhibition of the disease.
CLUBROOT OF CRUCIFERS 19
Calcium may be more readily obtained and applied to the soil in
the carbonate form than in any other. Its traditional use as a
remedial measure for soil troubles is well known. Carbonated forms
of lime have, therefore, become very popular as material for clubroot
treatment. Other forms of lime have been used, some cases of which
have already been mentioned. Chloride of lime was reported as an
unsuccessful remedy by Cunningham {lli). Jones {31) applied
stone lime (CaO) at the rate of 80 bushels per acre to the surface
of the soil, where it was allowed to slake and was worked in with a
rake. The field was planted, and the limed areas showed much
less disease than the untreated. Hall (^4)? writing in 1904 in a
general text on soils developed out of English experience, suggested
3 or 4 tons of quicklime (CaO) to the acre as a curative measure for
clubroot.
As has been pointed out, liming has proved effective as a treatment
against clubroot in many instances, although exceptions have occur-
red. The purpose of the present investigations was to gain some
knowledge of the part lime played in the clubroot treatment, what
forms were efficient disease inhibitors, and why liming operations
have not always been effective.
GREENHOUSE POT TESTS
Soils for greenhouse pot experiments were obtained from thor-
oughly infested fields. Weights were calculated on an oven-dry
basis, 3,750,000 pounds per 9-inch acre being arbitrarily used as the
average weight of cabbage-growing soils. These experiments were
all carried on under greenhouse conditions. Calcium compounds
of " C. P." grade and commercial types of limes were applied at
rates of 1, 1%, 2, and 6 tons per acre. The materials were carefully
mixed with moist soil and allowed to stand in pots for 24 hours
before cabbage seedlings were planted in them. After planting,
the soil was held at 80 per cent water-holding capacity for two weeks,
after which it was allowed to dry out slightly but held at approxi-
mately 60 to 70 per cent water-holding capacity to keep the plants
growing thriftily. After six weeks the plants were examined for
clubroot.
From these experiments (Table 8) it may be seen that chemically
pure CaCOs, raw ground limestones of either high calcium or
dolomitic types, and gypsums are not effective clubroot inhibitors.
Commercial air-slaked lime and a compound in which air-slaked and
ground limestone were used together, if applied in large quantities,
6-ton rate at least, in some cases showed a tendency toward checking
the disease. Chemically pure CaO, quicklime, or ground burnt or
stone lime are effective clubroot inhibitors. Chemically pure
Ca(0H)2 and commercial hydrated limes are also potent preventive
agents.
20 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 181, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 8. — Relative value of liming materials as preventives of cluhroot of cahhage
as determined bg pot tests
Predominant chemical
compound
Material applied
Rate used
(tons per
acre)
Result as
to disease
develop-
ment
CaO.
Ca(0H)2-
CaCOa.
CaCOs, CaO, and Ca-
(OH)i.
CaSO^BHjO.
CaO, C. P
Quicklime (lot A)...
Quicklime (lot B)
Milk of lime.-
Ca(0ll)2. C. P
Ilydrated lime (lot A)
Ilydrated lime (lot B)
Hydrated lime (lot C)
CaC03, C. P
H igh calcium limestone
Dolomitic limestone (lot A)
Dolomitic limestone (lot B)
Dolomitic limestone Clot C)
Dolomitic limestone (screenings) .
Marl (high quality, ground)
Marl (natural, unground)
Air-slaked lime (lot A)
Air-slaked lime (lot B), (fresh)...
Air-slaked lime (lot C)
Mixed air-slaked lime (lot B) and limestone (lot A) .
do._
1CaS04.2H20, C.
Gypsum (lot A).
do
Gypsum (lot B).
Healthy.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Diseased.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Some
healthy.
Do.
Some
healthy.
Diseased.
Do.
Do.
Do.
FIELD EXPERIMENTS
SEED-BED TREATMENTS
Clubroot-free seedlings are of utmost importance to growers of
cruciferous crops that are transplanted. The roots of seedlings hav-
ing incipient infections or infested soil clinging to them distribute
the disease and insure crop failure the first year. In regions where
the Brassicas are grown intensively in the United States it is usually
easily possible to obtain clubroot-free plants for transplanting; yet
these conditions may not always exist. For that reason, and because
of its general interest, seed-bed treatments were carried on. Various
laboratory and proprietary compounds of copper, mercury, and cal-
cium were used in powder and in variously concentrated water solu-
tions. Copper carbonate and sulphate did not appear to inhibit club-
root even in concentrations sufficiently strong to be decidedly toxic to
the plant. Experimentation with mercury compounds following Clay-
ton's (12) method, which was reported as successful in New York,
did not inhibit disease production under Wisconsin conditions.
Further trials with mercury compounds in Wisconsin showed them
to be capable of inhibiting the disease, but only when they were ap-
plied in sufficient quantities to be poisonous to the host; but such
quantities are too expensive to be practicable. Carbonates and sul-
phates of calcium were not toxic to the clubroot organism. Calcium
hydrate, however, gave promise of being useful.
Seed-bed treatments with lime were carried on for three years in
the greenhouse and in thoroughly infested fields. In the field the
material was applied to freshly plowed ground and thoroughly
worked into the soil with hoe and rake. Cabbage seed was sown
CLUBROOT OF CRUCIFERS
21
immediately, and after six weeks the seedlings were removed from the
soil with a digging fork and examined for clubbed roots.
An examination of data from a typical lime-treated seed bed
(Table 9) shows that limestone at the rate of 6,000 pounds to the
acre does not appear to reduce infection even slightly enough to be
considered of any importance. A good grade of hydrated lime at
the rate of 1,000 pounds per acre reduced infection to almost nothing.
Five hundred pounds of hydrated lime per acre did not inhibit the
disease, a treatment which admitted fairly large percentages of dis-
eased plants in two trials in previous years. It was not until 1,500
pounds were applied that control was so perfect that there would be
no danger of transplanting infected seedlings from the seed bed to
the field. It appears from the data cited that hydrated lime well
worked into the soil at the rate of 1,500 pounds ^ or more per acre
is a practicable treatment for the control of clubroot in the seed bed.
Table 9. — Effect of application of hydrated lime and ffround raw limestone to
seed beds on the control of clubrodt of cabbage
Treatment and
Plants diseased (per cent)
Treatment and
pounds per acre
Plants diseased (per cent)
pounds per acre
Bed No. 1
Bed No. 2
Average
Bed No. 1
Bed No. 2
Average
None
48
21
22
27
10
14
21
58
25
23
24
26
33
27
63
23
23
26
18
24
24
Hydrated lime:
3,000
0
0
0
0
0
19
0
0
0
1
3
54
Limestoile:
0
6,000
2,000
0
3,000
1,500
0
2,000
1,000
1
1,500
500
2
1,000
None
37
None
In contrasting the above-described seed-bed findings with field
data it is well to note several differences. From field observations it
appears that in the same soil fewer individuals will be found with
clubbed roots at the end of the seedling stage than will be found
months later in matured plants at the close of the growing season.
In seed-bed treatments the materials were applied by hand on a
relatively small area. With the machine methods of more extensive
field operations a deeper layer of soil is stirred, which results in the
lime's being mixed into a larger quantity of soil. It should be noted,
therefore, that in handling extensive seed beds by machinery disease
control would probably require more than 1,500 pounds of hydrated
lime per acre.
FIELD TREATMENTS
The principal field tests were conducted in Wisconsin upon badly
infested soil in Kenosha County. This field had been abandoned by
the owner for growing cabbage because of the severity of clubroot.
The last year cabbage was grown on the field by the owner the crop
was abandoned without having a head cut from it. This field was
examined by the writer that fall. Except for a few individuals in
one corner of the field, none of the plants pulled were free from
the disease. The area was found to be as uniformly infested as
' At least 5 tons ol! hydrated lime to the acre are required in the Wisconsin soils studied
to produce a sufficiently toxic effect on cabbage seedlings to be noticeable.
22 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 181, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
it could well be under natural field conditions. For the more criti-
cal field studies (Table 10) it was measured off into part-acre plots,
and the limes were applied at ton-per-acre rates. These plots were
studied for three years. Of the large number of data obtained only
a few representative and significant cases are cited and tabulated.
Commercial grades of Imie were applied to plowed ground the
first two years by hand and the third by a fertilizer drill. The
materials were disked and harrowed into the soil as soon after appli-
cation as possible. Cabbage seedlings used for the field tests were
all obtained from untreated seed beds known to be free from club-
root and were transplanted into the experimental field at the usual
rate with a cabbage planter. Since the soil in the Kenosha County
experimental field was known to be thoroughly infested with Fusa-
rium conglutinans Wr., all data presented are based on the use of a
commercial strain of cabbage resistant to the Fusarium disease.
This strain was also grown on a near-by field whose soil was free
from clubroot but known to be thoroughly infested with the yellow
organism. The harvest count from the clubroot-free field was con-
sidered 100 per cent. In this way ordinary losses due to death at
transplanting, yellows infection, and improper heading were not
included under clubroot effects.
Table 10. — Data from representative plots in a field experiment, showing the
effect of lime applications on the control of cluhroot of oabhage in Wisconsin
[This field was known to be thoroughly infested with Fusarium conplutinans as well as Plasmodiophora
hrassicae. The method of determining clubroot effects is described in the text]
Plot
No.
Liming treatment
Lime
applied,
per acre
Salable
heads at
harvest
Plot
No.
Luning treatment
Lime
applied,
per acre
Salable
heads at
harvest
6
No treatment
Tons
Per cent
0
83
0
7
3
19..-.
21_-._
Hydrated lime
Tom
2
IH
Percent
98
7
Air-slaked lime i
do.i _
3
m
2%
m
do.
78
9
22...-
24....
28-.-
No treatment
7
10-...
do.i
Raw ground agricul-
tural limestone.i
Hydrated lime
1
75
13....
do
69
1 This treatment was applied to the plot the year previous and a crop was grown on it and replanted.
LIMESTONE
The most popular liming recommendation of professional agri-
cultural advisors has long been the use of raw ground limestone.
This material is cheap, is considered a soil sweetener, and is widely
used to prepare some soils for successful legume culture. It has
been believed for many years that clubroot is found only in acid
soils, which applications of ground limestone should effectively
change. However, preliminary laboratory studies did not establish
the usefulness of limestone as a clubroot inhibitor in Wisconsin
soils.
Finely ground, raw, dolomitic limestone rock, spread under the
writer's direction at the rate of 2 and 4 tons to the acre on com-
mercial fields, did not inhibit the trouble. Heavier limestone appli-
cations were, therefore, studied in the experimental field. Fine
screenings from a local dolomite limestone quarry were applied to
one plot at the rate of nearly 4i/^ tons to the acre. These were ap-
CLUBROOT OF CRUCIFERS 23
plied late in the fall and lay in the soil about nine months before
transplanting time. Cabbage grown, on this plot produced 5 per cent
salable heads, practically the same quantity as that produced on the
control plot. Some investigators have thought that the longer
limestone was allowed to remain in the soil the more effective it
might become against clubroot. The limestone plot just described
was, therefore, replanted to cabbage another year, 21 months after
the ground limestone had been applied. No heads were produced
from this planting.
In a plot adjacent to the winter-limed plot was an area treated
with what seemed to the writer to be almost an excess of limestone.
The stone was prepared for agricultural use, being ground to pass
through a sieve with 10 meshes to the inch. It was presumably in
a more readily available form. It was applied in the spring at the
rate of over 9% tons to the acre. That year not a single head was
grown on that plot, and but 3 per cent were produced the next
season. (Fig. 2, B.)
AIR-SLAKED LIME
The action of air-slaked lime on clubroot was also tried. In
pot tests it had been previously found to differ in its effectiveness
with regard to disease control. It is worthy of note that this form of
lime varies as to relative amounts of hydrate and carbonate in its
composition, depending upon the conditions under which the oxide
is slaked. To this fact may be due its inconstancy as a disease in-
hibitor. In this series lime was obtained from two sources. In one
case it had been freshly made; in the other it had been made some
months previously. This lime was applied to the field at a number
of different rates. The results from three plots, however, were
illustrative of the rest and of especial interest. One application of
nearly 2 tons of lime per acre and another of nearly 2i/^ tons per
acre from the same source did not increase crop production signifi-
cantly above the control areas. In another case fresh air-slaked lime
from another source was applied at the rate of 3 tons per acre, and
a commercially practicable crop resulted.
HYDBATED LIMB
Hydrated lime was proved by laboratory and pot tests to be capable
of completely inhibiting clubroot. Experimentation with this form
of lime in the field was therefore believed to be of great importance.
Hydrated lime is readily obtained. It is manufactured for the
building trade and comes sealed in heavy paper bags to obviate car-
bonation. Although a large number of plots were treated with this,
only a few will be discussed here. Different methods of application
were tried, the question of residual effect was considered, and the
most effective quantities to be used from the standpoint of disease
control and economy were studied.
The lime was applied in different ways. Large quantities were
thrown in around the roots of seedlings at transplanting time. This
served to keep the taproot free from disease, but as soon as secondary
roots pushed laterally into the lime-free soil they became seriously
infected, and unproductive plants resulted. Heavy suspensions of
24
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 181, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
CLUBROOT OF CRUCIFERS 25
hydrated lime in water were also used to water seedlings at trans-
planting, with the same result. Lime applied on top of the soil
after transplanting served to keep the roots free from clubroot at
the surface, but this effect did not appear to extend down into the
soil below. The only satisfactory way of applying lime was found
to be working it into as much as possible of the soil through which
the roots ramify. This was done both by machinery and by hand,
and the more thorough the mixture the better the results obtained.
The residual effect of hydrated lime was tried by several plot ex-
periments. Kesults varied slightly, but the conclusion was reached
that in well-limed soil clubroot inhibition was distinctly noticeable
even three years after the application. The third-season crop was
not necessarily so perfect as the crop of the first season of the experi-
ment, but it was good.
A separate series of applications of hydrated lime was made the
third year, which is worthy of note. It had as its object the finding
of the most effective and economical quantities of hydrated lime to
use in field control. This lime of commercial quality was applied
by machine at from one-half to 2 tons per acre. Immediately after
application the lime was worked into the soil with a disk.
Comparative data were obtained at harvest time. Control plots
produced practically nothing, every year, in all cases. The treatment
of one-half ton of hydrated lime per acre did not inhibit clubroot
sufficiently to justify recommending it as a control measure. Sixty-
nine per cent of the plants produced salable heads, though they were
neither solid nor of good quality. The stand was fair, but all roots
were more or less seriously clubbed. In the plot treated at the rate
of 1 ton per acre a suggestion of successful control was noted. By
this treatment not quite 100 per cent stand of plants resulted, and
up to the time of heading it seemed that a very good crop would be
produced. Only 75 per cent of the plants finally headed well, how-
ever, and though the heads appeared to be of good quality, they
were not heavy. All plants when pulled showed considerable club-
bing of the roots. When II/2 tons of hydrated lime were applied
per acre 78 per cent of salable heads were cut at harvest. This is
only a slightly greater percentage than was produced in the 1-ton
plot. Individual heads from this plot appeared to be about as
heavy as those from the previous one, but the general appearance
of the foliage was better. The stand of plants was perfect, but the
roots seemed about as badly clubbed in this plot as in the one re-
ceiving the 1-ton application. In the last plot, on which 2 tons of
hydrated lime were applied per acre, what appeared as full crop
production resulted. (Fig. 2, A.) The stand was perfect, a normal
percentage of plants produced salable heads, and the heads cut were
heavy, solid, and of good quality. Nearly all plants in this plot
showed slight swellings on the roots, but occasional individuals had
root systems that were free from clubs.
DISCUSSION OF CONTROL STUDIES
In the case of turnips and other cruciferous crops that are grown
for their roots alone, the only perfectly successful clubroot remedy
is one that absolutely inhibits the disease. If an edible root is not
only malformed but opened to secondary decay organisms, its value
26 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 181, TJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
is immediately greatly diminished. However, it is not necessary to
inhibit the disease completely when growing members of the kohl
group of Brassica which are useful for their edible aerial portions,
as in the case of cabbage. This type of crucifer can mature with a
diseased root system only relatively free from clubroot, provided a
sufficient supply of readily available plant food is present in the soil
for the remaining healthy roots to absorb for the use of the plant.
Even with a reduced root system (fig. 3) the maturity of the aerial
portions of the plant may be thus assured.
Hydrated lime appears to be a practicable material to use for ap-
plication to clubroot-infested soil. It is much more toxic to the club-
root organism than any of the sulphate or carbonate forms of lime.
Figure 3. — Mature cabbage roots from field plots treated to study the etifect of
hydrated lime on control of clubroot. A, From soil into which lime had been well
mixed. Lateral roots branched freely and had numerous fibrous rootlets with a
few small clubs. Normal crop was produced. B, From soil treated with lime
scattered on the surface just previous to plowing the land. Taproot and stem
infections were common, and cordlike lower lateral roots had a few fibrous
branches on them. Fair crop was produced. C, From untreated plot. The few
living plants were severely stunted and had clubbed root systems almost wholly
decayed
The toxicity to the parasite of calcium hydroxide seems to be due to
a definite poisoning action on the organism by this chemical com-
pound. The inhibiting effect produced on the disease by limes is
apparently neither correlated with the amount of Ca ions applied
or the number of active OH ions observed through pH-determination
studies of the soil. Ground quicklime (calcium oxide) is unstable,
but if it is incorporated into moist soil and left to slake it is appar-
ently as successful an inhibitor of clubroot as is hydrated lime. In
this case the moisture in the soil probably combines with the oxide,
producing calcium hydroxide. The efficiency of burnt lime appar-
ently depends upon whether it changes to carbonate or to hydrate.
Hydrated lime is easily applied and does not cause the discomfort to
the operator that air- slaked lime or ground quicklime does. A good
grade of hydrated lime appears to have very definite inhibitive
effects on the disease, whereas the efficacy of air-slaked lime can not
be predicted.
CLUBROOT OF CRUCIFERS 27
Efficient control of clubroot of cabbage was obtained in the case of
the present field experiments by the use of 2 tons of hydrated lime
per acre. (Fig. 2, A.) The lime was spread by machine and imme-
diately worked into the soil by disking and harrowing. In some soils
a larger application of commercial hydrated lime may be desirable.
It is impossible to make any general recommendation for all locali-
ties, all susceptible crops, and all soils, without much more extensive
field study. The cost of hydrated lime in some cases may be pro-
liibitive after the disease has become very severe. This is especially
true on lower-priced land where cabbage is grown as a cash crop in
a program of general farming. It is possible that in such cases long
rotation with smaller applications of hydrated lime, between other
crops several years before crucifers are planted, may be found to be
practicable. In regions of higher-priced land where' intensive crop-
ping is practiced the cost of hydrated lime will not be so serious,
and still less so where specialized crops such as cauliflower, kohlrabi,
or Brussels sprouts are being grown. Considering the results from
greenhouse and field studies, it appears that a long interval between
the time of applying the lime and planting the crop is not necessary.
If the proper quantity of hydrated lime is thoroughly mixed into the
soil before the lime has had a chance to become carbonated by a few
hours' exposure to the open air, the seed or seedlings may be planted
as soon as convenient for the grower, with assurance that the treat-
ment will be eifexjtive.
SUMMARY
The purpose of this bulletin is to report the results of sevei'al
years' studies on the life history and control of Plasmodiophora
hrassicae^ the cause of the destructive disease of crucifers known as
clubroot.
The details of the process of spore germination are described.
The temperature range for spore germination occurs at a minimum
of about 6° C. and a maximum of about 27°. Spores germinate well
at temperatures ranging from 18° to a little above 25°, with the peak
at 25°. Disease development occurs over a range of 12° to 27°, with
the optimum from 18° to 25° and with most malignant disease de-
velopment at about 25°. The temperature range for disease de-
velopment and spore germination are practically identical, whereas,
as shown by Tisdale, the temperature effect upon the growth of the
host is different. This indicates that probably the temperature
range of the disease development is the direct result of the action
of temperature on the parasite.
It is shown that infection of the host occurs quite readily after 18
hours of exposure to infested soil held at a sufficient moisture con-
tent. This indicates that upon the occurrence of a heavy rain even
the most adequate system for drainage could not necessarily be ex-
pected to inhibit infection by Pla^modiophm^a brassicae.
A survey of clubroot-infested fields in three States showed in some
cases seriously infested soils which were naturally high in lime.
A H-ion concentration survey of 116 disease-infested soils showed
that they occurred at a range of pH 5 to 7.8, which was also found
to be the range covered by samples of cabbage-growing soils selected
28 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 181, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICXTLTtRE
without respect to disease condition. The action of certain alkaline
chemicals was studied by adding them at different rates to infective
soils. In a soil with a pH of 7.2 the addition of K2CO3 produced a
pH of 8.1 without inhibiting the disease, while by the application of
Ca(0H)2 the disease was completely prevented at a pH of 7.3.
Data from field experiments have also shown that the H-ion concen-
tration could not be considered a limiting factor in disease control.
Experiments carried on with different limes in pots and in the
field confirm the above results. Limeg consisting of CaCOg and
CaS04.2H20 are not good clubfoot inhibitors. The limes which are
of CaO or Ca(0H)2 composition controlled the disease well in plants
grown in the clubroot-infested soils used.
In thoroughly infested seed beds it was found necessary to apply
at least 1,500 pounds of hydrated lime per acre for satisfactory club-
root control. Unusually large quantities of raw ground limestone ap-
plied in the field did not inhibit the disease. Air-slaked limes were
found to be of questionable value in their inhibitory effects. This
form was therefore considered an unsatisfactory control material.
Hydrated lime applied at the rate of one-half ton per acre was
found to check the disease noticeably, but it was not until 2 tons
per acre were used that a commercially satisfactory control was ob-
tained on the soil in question.
LITERATURE CITED
(1) Abbay, J.
1831. REPORT ON THE DISEASE IN TURNIPS CALLED FINGEB AND TOE.
Highland and Agr. Soc. Scot. Trans. (1829/31) (n. s.) 2:
238-240.
(2) Anderson.
1855. report on the disease of finger and toe in TURNIPS. Highland
and Agr. Soc. Scot. Trans. (1853/55) (3) 6: 118-140.
(3) Barnett, G. D., and Barnett, C. W.
1921. COLORIMETRIC DETERMINATION OF HYDROGE!N ION CONCETNTRATION
BY MEIANS OF A DOUBLE- WEDGE COMPARATOIi. SoC. Expt. Biol. Med.
Proc. 18: 127-131.
(4) Bary, a. de
1864. die myoetozoen ( schleimpii/ze) . ein beitrag zub kenntniss
DER NIEDERSTEN ORGANISMEN. Ed. 2, 132 p., lUuS. Leipzig.
(5)
1887. COMPARATIVE MORPHOLOGY AND BIOLOGY OF THE FUNGI MYCETOZOA
AND BACTERIA. English translation by H. E. F. Garnsey, rev.
by I. B. Balfour. 525 p., illus. Oxford.
(6) BiRNIE, M.
1831. REPORT ON THE DISEASE IN TURNIPS CALLED FINGERS AND TOES. High-
land and Agr. Soc Scot. Trans. (1829/31) (n. s.) 2: 241-242.
(7) Bramer, H.
1924. UNTERSUCHUNGEN tJBER BIOL06IB UND BEKAMPFUNG DBS ESRBEGEEtS
DER KOHLHERNIE, PLASMODIOPHORA BRASSICAE WORONIN. LandW.
Jahrb. 59: [227]-243.
(8)
1924. UNTERSUCHUNGEN UBER BIOLOGIE UND BEKAMPFUNG DES ERREGERS
DER KOHLHERNIE, PLASMODIOPHORA BRASSICAE WORONIN. 2 MIT-
TEiLUNG. KOHLHERNIE UND BODENAziDiTAT. Landw. Jahrb. 59:
673-685.
(9) Christensen, H. R., Harder, P., and Ravn, F. K.
1909. undersogelser over forholdblt mellem jordbundens beskaffen-
HED OG KAALBROKSVAMPENS OPTRAEDEN I BGNEM MEILLEM AARHUS
OG silkeborg. Tidsskr. Landbr. Planteavl. 16 : [430]-476.
CLUBROOT OF CRUCIFERS 29
(10) Chupp, C.
1917. STUDIES ON CLTJBBOOT OF CRUCIFEROUS PI.ANT8. N. Y. Comell Agr.
Expt Sta. Bui. 387: 41^-452, illus.
(11)
1928. CLUB ROOT IN RELATION TO SOIL ALKALINITY. Phytopathology 18:
301-306, illus.
(12) Clayton E. E.
1926. control of seedbed diseases of cruciferous crops on long island
by the mercuric chloride treatment for cabbage maggot.
N. Y. State Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 537, 29 p.
(13) CONSTANTINEANU, J, C.
1906. i'TBER DIB ENTWICKLUNGSBEDINQUNGEN DER MYXOMYCETEN. Allll.
Myc'ol. 4: [495] -540.
(14) Cunningham, G. C.
1914. studies of CLUB-ROOT. II. DISEASE RESISTANCE OF CRUCIFERS ;
METHODS OF COMBATING CLUB-ROOT. Vt. AgF. Expt. Sta. Bul. 185 :
[67]-96, illus.
(15) Curtis, J.
1843. OBSERVATIONS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND ECONOMY OF VARIOUS
INSECTS AFFECTING THE TURNIP-CROPS, INCLUDING THE SURFACE-
CATERPILLARS, THE TURNIP-GALL WEEVIL, AND THE DIPTEROUS FLIES
AND ROVE BEETLES INFESTING ANBURY. Jour. Roy. AgF. SOC. Eng-
land 4 : 100-138, illus.
(16) Ellis, W.
1742-44. the modern husbandman, or, the practice of farming. 4 v.
London.
(17) FaRQUH ARSON, J,
1831. REPORT ON THE DISEASE OF FINGER AND TOE IN TURNIPS. Highland
and Agr. Soc. Scot. Trans. (1829/31) (n. s.) 2: 233-238.
(18) Fisher, E. A.
1921. STUDIES ON soil REACTION. I. A Rf:suME. Jour. Agr. Sci. 11 :
[19]-44, illus.
(19)
1921. STUDIES ON SOIL REACTION. II. THE COLORI METRIC DETERMINATION OF
THE HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATION IN SOILS AND AQUEOUS SOIL
EXTRACTS. (PRELIMINARY COMMUNICATION.) JOUF. AgF. Sci. 11:
[45]-65, illus.
(20) Gainey, p. L.
1922. correlation between the presence of azotobacter in a soil and
THE HYDROGEN -ION CONCENTRATION OF THE SOIL. AbS. Bact. 6 :
14-15.
(21) Gilbert, F. A.
1928. A STUDY OF THE METHOD OF SPORE GERMINATION IN MYXOMYCETE8.
Amer. Jouf. Bot. 15: 345-352, illus.
(22)
1928. OBSE31VATION8 ON THE FEEDING HABITS OF THE SWARM CELLS OF
MYXOMYCETTES. Amer. Jour. Bot. 15 : 473-484, illus.
(23) Gillespie, L. J.
1918. THE GROWTH OF THE POTATO SCAB ORGANISM AT VARIOUS HYDROGEN-
ION CONCENTRATIONS AS RELATED TO THE COMPARATIVE FREEDOM
OF ACID SOILS FROM THE POTATO SCAB. Pliytopathology 8: 257-
269, illus.
(24) Hall, A. D.
1904. THE soil; an introduction to the SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF THE
GROWTH OF CROPS. 286 p., iUus.
(25) Halsted, B. D.
1894. CLUB-ROOT OF CABBAGE AND ITS ALLIES. N. J. AgF. Expt. Sta. Ann.
Rpt. 1893: 332-345, illus.
(26)
1901. EXPERIMENTS WITH TURNIPS. N. J. AgF. Expt. Sta. Add. Rpt. 1900 I
410-413.
(27) Hawkins, L. A., and Harvey, R. B.
1919. PHYSIOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE PARASITISM OF PYTHIUM DEBARYANUAf
HESSE ON THE POTATO TUBER. JouF. AgF. ReseaFch 18: 275-298,
illus.
30 tp:chnical bulletin 181, u. s. dept. of agriculture
(28) Henderson, P.
1867. GARDENING FOR PROFIT ; A GUIDE TO THE SUCCESSFUL CULTIVATION OF
THE MARKET AND FAMILY GARDEN. 243 p., iUuS. NeW York.
(29) Hopkins, E. F.
1922. HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATION IN ITS RELATION TO WHEAT SCAB.
Amer. Jour. Bot. 9: 159-179, illus.
(30) Hunter, W. B.
1857. FiNGER-AND-TOE IN TURNIPS. Highland and Agr. Soc. Scot. Trans.
(1855/57) (8) 7: 347-349.
(31) Jones, L. R.
1898. club-root and black rot — two diseases op the cabbagb and
TURNIP. Vt. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 66, 16 p., illus.
(32) Jones, P. M.
1928. MORPHOLOGY AND CULTURAL HISTORY OF PLASMODIOPHORA BEA88ICAE.
Arch. Protistenk. 62 : 313-327, illus.
(33) KUNKEL, L. O.
1915. A CONTRIBUTION TO THE LIFE HISTORY OF SPONGOSPORA SUBTEBBANEA.
Jour. Agr. Research 4 : 265-278, illus.
(34)
1918. TISSUE INVASION BY PLASMODIOPHORA BRAssiCAE. * Jour. Agr. Re-
search 14 : 543-572, illus.
(35) LiNDFORS, T.
1924. BIDRAG TILL KANNEDOMEN OM KLUMPROTSJUKAN& BEKAMPANDE, K.
Landtbr. Akad. Handl. och Tidskr. 63 : 267-287, illus. (Abstract
in Rev. Appl. Mycol. 3:621-622. 1924.)
(36) MONTEITH, J., JR.
1924. RELATION OF SOIL TEMPEIIATURE AND SOIL MOISTURE TO INFECTION BY
PLASMODIOPHORA BRASSICAE. JouT, Agr. Rescarch 28 : 549-562,
illus.
(37) Naumov, N.
1927. l' ACTION DU CALCIUM ET DE CERTAINS AUTRES M^TAUX DANS LE MODE
d'infection DU CHou PAR l'hornie. (In Russian, title ia
French. ) La Defense des Plantes 4 : 320-328.
(38) Peltier, G. L.
1912. A consideration OF THE PHYSIOLOGY AND LIFE HISTORY OF A PARA-
SITIC BOTRYTis ON PEPPER AND LETTUCE. Missouri Bot. Gard.
Ann. Rpt. 23 : 41-74, illus.
(39) Pierre, W. H.
1925. the h-ion concentration of soils as affected by carbonic acid
and the soil-water ratio, and the nature of soil acidity as
REVEALED BY THESE STUDIES. Soil Sci. 20 : 285-305.
(40) Ravn, F. K.
1908. KAALHROKSVAMPEN. Tidsskr. Landbr. Planteavl 15: [527]-620,
illus.
(41)
1910. rORS0G MED ANVENDELSE AF KALK OG KUNSTRGODNING SOM MIDDEL
MOD KAALBROKSVAMP. Tidsskr. Landbr. Planteavl 17: [163]-
177.
(42)
1911. FORS0G MED ANVENDELSE AF KALK SOM MIDDEX MOD KAALBROKSVAMP.
Tidsskr. Landbr. Planteavl 18: [357]-392.
(43) Sherwood, E. C.
1923. hydrogen-ion concentration as RELATED TO THE FUSARIUM WILT
OF TOMATO SEEDLINGS. Amer. Jour. Bot. 10: 537-553, illus.
(44) Slingerland, M. V.
1894. THE CABBAGE MAGGOT WITH NOTES ON THE ONION MAGGOT AND
ALLIED INSECTS. N. Y. Cornell Agr. Expt. Sta., Ent. Div. Bui.
78: 481-577, illus.
(45) SORAUEB, P.
1874. HANDBUCH DER PFLANZENKRANKHEITEN FtJR LANDWIRTHE, GARTNER,
UND FORSTLEUTE. 406 p., illus. Berlin.
(46) TiSDALE, W. B.
1923. INFLUENCE OF SOIL TEMPERATURE AND SOIL MOISTURE UPON THE
FUSARIUM DISEASE IN CABBAGE SEEDLINGS. JOUT. Agr. RcSCarch
24: 55-86, illus.
CLUBROOT OF CRUCIFERS 31
(47) Truog, E.
1916. THE CAUSE AND NATURE OF SOIL ACIDITY WITH SPECIAL REGARD TO
COLLOIDS AND ADSORPTION. Jour. Phys. Chem. 20: [457J-484.
(48) Waksman, S. a.
1922. the influence of soil reaction upon the growth of actinomy-
CETES CAUSING POTATO SCAB. Soil Sci. 14 '. 61-79.
(49) Webb, R. W.
1921. studies in the physiology of fungi. xv. germination of the
spores of certain fungi in relation to hydrogen-ion concen-
TRATION. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 8 : 283-341, illus.
(50) Wherry, E. T.
1920. determining soil acidity and alkalinity by indicators in the
FIELD. Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci. 10 : 217-223.
(51)
1924. THE ACTIVE ACIDITY OF SOILS. Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci. 14 : 207-211.
(52)
1927. DIVERGENT SOIL REACTION PREFERENCES OF RELATED PLANTS. Ecology
8: 197-206.
(53) WOLPERT, F. S.
1924. STUDIES IN THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FUNGI. XVII. THE GROWTH OF
CERTAIN WOOD-DESTROYING FUNGI IN RELATION TO THE H-ION CON-
CENTRATION OF THE MEDIA. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 11 : 43-98,
illus.
(54) WORONIN, M.
1875. DIE WURZELGESCHMULST DER KOHLPFLANZEN. Bot. Ztg. 33 I 337-339.
(55)
1878. PLASMODIOPHORA BRASSICAE, I RHEBER DER KOHLPFLANZEN-HERNIE.
Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 11 : [548J-574, illus.
ORGANIZATION OF THE
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
April 17, 1930
Secretary of Agriculture Arthur M. Hyde.
Assistant Secretary R. W. Dunlap.
Director of Scientific Work 1 A. F. Woods.
Director of Regulatory Work Walter G. Campbell.
Director of Extension Work C. W. Warburton.
Director of Personnel and Business Admin- W. W. Stockbergeb.
istration.
Director of Information M. S. Eisenhower.
Solicitor E. L. Marshall.
Weather Bureau Charles F. Marvin, Chief.
Bureau of Animal Industry John R. Mohler, Chief.
Bureau of Dairy Industry O. E. Reed, Chief.
Bureau of Plant Industry William A, Taylor, Chief.
Forest Service R. Y. Stuart, Chief.
Bureau of Chemistry and Soils H. G. Knight, Chief.
Bureau of Entomology C. L. Marlatt, Chief.
Bureau of Biological Survey Paul G. Redington, Chief.
Bureau of Public Roads Thomas H. MacDonald, Chief.
Bureau of Agricultural Economics Nils A. Olsen, Chief.
Bureau of Home Economics Louise Stanley, Chief.
Plant Quarantine and Control Admi/nistr at ion- Lee A. Strong, Chief.
Grain Futures Administration J. W. T. Duvel, Chief.
Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration— Walter G. Campbell, Director of
Regulatory Work, in Charge.
Office of Experiment Stations , Chief.
Office of Cooperative Extension Work C. B. Smith, Chief.
Library Claribel R. Barnett, Librarian.
This bulletin is u contribution from
Bureau of Plant Industry William A. Taylor, Chief.
Office of Horticultural Crops and Diseases. E. C. Auchter, Principal Horti-
culturist, in Charge.
32
U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1930
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C Price 5 cents
Technical Bulletin No. 180
May, 1930
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION
OF THE COMMERCIAL
STRAWBERRY CROP
BY
J. W. STROWBRIDGE
Principal Marketing Specialist Assistant, Division of Fruits and
Vegetables f Bureau of Agricultural Economics
United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents. Washington, D. C. Price 25
Technical Bulletin No. 180 V^*^^^i^^^K^^^^^^/ May, 1930
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE
COMMERCIAL STRAWBERRY CROP
By J. W. Strowbridge, Principal Marketing Specialist Assistant, Division of
Fruits and Vegetables, Bureau of Agricultural Economics
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction 1
Commercial position of the crop 4
Growth of the industry 5
Areas of production 5
Yield per acre 9
Production 11
^rend of acreages 12
Production and shipments __. 14
Crop-movement period. 16
Varieties of strawberries 22
Page
Review of the strawberry industry by States,
1920 to 1926, inclusive 24
Approximate distribution from five impor-
tant districts 53
Carload unloads at 50 markets 63
Origin of the carload strawberry supply of 69
markets 68
Cost per quart for transportation of straw-
berries 101
Conclusions 104
INTRODUCTION
Strawberries constitute one of the most widely grown fruit crops of
the United States. They can be grown successfully in all latitudes
of the country and are the first deciduous fruit to mature each season
in the localities in which they are grown. Strawberries are available
on the larger markets for practically nine months of each year.
Although the total crop of strawberries in the United States could
be produced on less acreage than the land area of an average county,
the labor and money expended in details of production, harvesting,
and marketing, approximate an estimated value of more than
$44,000,000 annually.
Although estimates of commercial strawberry acreages are made
each season by the United States Department of Agriculture, records
of the entire acreage of the United States are available only for
census years. The 1924 census reports, combined with the Bureau
of Crop and Livestock Estimates reports, indicate that an area that
approximated 211,000 acres was utilized for production of the crop
that season, exclusive of many small plots grown wholly or in part
for home consumption. (Tables 1 and 2.)
96608°-30 1 1
2 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 1. — Estimated strawberry acreage by States, season 1924
Acreage
State
Acreage
State
Market >
All
other i
Total
Market »
All
other >
Total
Alabama
Acres
3,«60
20,780
Acres
464
736
38
410
609
301
Acres
4,424
21, 516
38
4,150
609
790
4,900
4,999
1,015
397
5,207
3,398
3,669
1,888
5,647
14,813
714
12,000
1,373
9,710
2,465
1,395
13, 078
282
382
Nevada
Aaes
Acres
25
352
Acres
25
Arkansas
New Hampshire
352
Arizona
New Jersey
6,500
6,500
20
California..
3,740
20
1,086
771
69
1,053
666
462
922
88
179
115
1,401
905
151
261
2,121
238
838
1,542
52
Connecticut
New York
4,900
6,180
5,986
6,951
69
Colorado
3 489
4,900
4,690
3 445
North Carolina
North Dakota
Delaware
Florida
309
570
397
1,617
1,378
709
968
1,277
213
714
920
1,373
1,920
913
205
1,658
202
382
Ohio
3,800
3 471
6,020
3,250
4,853
1 137
Georgia
Oklahoma
Idaho
Oregon
6,482
4, 172
Illinois
3,590
2,020
2,960
920
4,370
14,600
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
Indiana
88
Iowa
South Carolina
South Dakota
550
729
Kansas
115
Kentucky
Tennessee .
26,220
1,070
813
27,621
Louisiana .
Texas . --
1,975
Maine
Utah
964
Maryland
11,080
Vermont
261
M assachusetts
Virginia.
11,360
5,620
13, 481
Michigan ...
7,790
3 1, 552
1,190
11,420
3 80
Washington
5,858
838
Minnesota .
West Virginia
Mississippi
Wisconsin
2,040
3,582
Missouri ---
Wyoming
52
Total
Nebraska
179, 370
31,600
210, 970
1 Compiled from revised unpublished estimates of market or commercial acreage reported by the Division
of Crop and Livestock Estimates under date of May 21 , 1927, and from 1925 Census of Agriculture reports.
2 Acreage in those counties which were not included in the reports of the Division of Crop and Livestock
Estimates, but for which figures weie published in the State reports of the Census of Agriculture, 1925.
3 Acreage, considered as commercial in this bulletin, which was published in the State reports of the
Census of Agriculture, 1925, but was not included in the Division of Crop and Livestock Estimate reports.
The yield per acre reported by commercial growers for the 1924
crop was practically the same as the United States average yield of
1,758 quarts reported for the 7-year period ended \vith 1926. If it is
assumed that this yield is fairly representative for the country, the
total production for the 1924 season was about 371,000,000 quarts,
equivalent to 43,647 average carloads. This indicates a per capita
consumption of 3.3 quarts.
A considerable part of the strawberry production is grown and
consumed locally, but the greater part of the crop in certain districts
must be disposed of on the general market in carloads. Thirty of the
States make carload shipments each year. The total of these yearly
shipments has averaged 14,203 cars during the 7-year period ended
with 1926. ^ (Fig. 6.)
The details of marketing the strawberry crop present many recur-
rent problems. Statistical information as to areas of production,
time and volume of movements, sources of market supplies, and
volume of market demands will aid in solving these problems.
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP
03 g
6 i 9
6 « S
«^ 3-2
ccg
■r7H
cog
A^ ^-2
•S's
o o g
/^ S.2
^1
p6S
|i
cog
o o g
«^ 3.2
cpoooo«o 00 >QOeO'-i ^t^cc-HOsoot^i-Hio oa>eooOiQ'-no
aooocq^— I© a5 c5«oc5c^ (m co -^ <-! t- o ■-< ec c^ t- ^t^cst^Q^rH
k. ■^ 00 «o --I i-H i-H ■^ior^io »-i oj eo CO CO rH C30 •<i** o CO ^— sC>-^oO'^«eo cc^
r^ cf N T^T-^ci' i-T T»<^(N.-i" ^— ' r-T r-T r-T ■•
Jjooioost^ I-H ooeot-»
.^ fo csTco ;
SSi/5iC«60>SfOO
55ooooost^co.o»o
OOQOOOO
CO t^ Q e^ O * t^
vC^iOOPO.-iOOOj
' «0 -^ CO l>^ CO «0 rH "■
t~ ■^ to O OJ O CD C^ 1— I ■^ C^ CO O ■^ I-H Ol
«D O) lO t^ »0
«s r»< 35 o es t-H
oir^«>«o «o c^ N CO CO c<i 00 r-i c^ CO o«ooo:9;oQ
5:;-<*<c^jeO'-i05 05 r-iiot^S oSco»ct^05<N--iCT)»o ^-,Tt< tj< t^ cs —i ■* oo ,
1 iOt^i
CO TJ< CO »0 CO >« »
t^ioooco CO -^cocso) t>. t^ r^ Tt* CO o t^ >o o oi "-i -^ "2 "-"^ £:: S $2 15
lOOCDOt^ >-i CO I-H O '-I CS O CO IM <-i T»( CO »o a> o t^ «o -rtt i-l eo cs co oo »o
"O 00 >-< CO i-H 05 0> i-HCOCO r-l -^ i-l 0> ■<*< lO CO r-*
OiC^^
O—i'-tC^t^ CS C^OOCOCD «0^(Ni-i05-^i-iTt<COCO aoQ-<i<>ot^»-i-^
so vo o> I-H -^ CO OT ■<*'•<*< a> o o CO I-H o 05 CO Tt< t-- 1-1 05 oi ^ o i-h t--. t-- lO
I~»Of^O>'-Hi-H O CO'«*<'<*i'-i t>.»Ol^-^T»<C^»C>-H0000 ,---^rJ< CO t^ »-H CO 1-H CO ^
ic^coco I-H
OiCOCO-H o I>
05l^ C^ CO
S8SmSSRSS8 8S8§'0(N2!
t^05»OOCT>05C0O-*'O ^—,1^ 05 00 O (N CO O J
"t-Tco ^-'t-r-'^cocdco'oes'-
i-H-^CO<M<N
COOOOOi-H Oi c^
I 05 CO t^ Tf lO Tj<
. CO Oco »-i CO
r-TcOT-r
lO Tjl ■* CO IM 05 1^ CO (N I^ 00 OO r-H 00 »0 05 t^ -H CO
I-H (N (N <N 00 »-H C^ »-H t^ 00 OOO -H t^iOt^
eSOKN O0O5O01-H i-H-«*<CO i-H -HrH
NcO'-Ht^co'O-^ooooco
050-^r-iocooooo:2*Q
oooiocot>. 05C0OO
1 rH CO 00 00 O Oi
1 1^ lO ■^ O CO CO
I CO lO CD OS C3i >-H ^
c -•
.-H l-HCOi
_oooo<
*» «3 i-H lO t^ C
SJcooocoosc
>00(
I 00 >-i <
1858
OQOQOOOOOp O
C^O'HOOOOOO CMCOO Q
'-Hr-ITtlOeOIMOCO'OlO ,^-^0 03 OO "J CN r^ I.
<Ncoco(Nco »ooo>o ^-^ CO CO c4" CO CO CO
lO P OS Tfl rH
CO ^ocooj
.-H .-HCOCO
00<-H(N0CiO p 05'
00»OIN00(NC
CO CO CO i-H C35 >
t^coioco-^
lo »o •<»< -^ ■«j< o t^
ooooo o
' iO t^ CO OSCO CO
' TjH .-< lO t^ CO CO
eoocoi^osco<ooooico
csiocoi-hcs -^odorio
vOO OO t^-^ OS 05 <
'»OCOCSCOCSM
:g^i«" g ?^iii
-iO(
t^COt^<M(N
c^oo
(Nt»<C005CD»0OC<I(
O »0 •«*< .-H >-H M* »C
l-H-«»<(N .-H ,-H
c -
^:eo(Mt-.-H o
it^t-- 00 »o t- 00 CO ■* o r^ t^ t^ CO c<j «c o »o Tt< .-I
I lO t^ CO 1-H 00 <N t^ -^ »0 O 05 CO »C 00 05 OS 00 CO !>.
ic^oo t^i-Hcoc^Jco t^i-Hosi-H ^-^t^ OS ■* 00 1^ 00
I ■«( O lO O <M
■cOO<Nt^«0
o ppoo ooooooppoo oooopoo
■^ ?i O ■>*' o CO CO »o es »-i es o (N 00 CO «o co os co ^ co es
O* OSOiOl^ CM-^CMOSCOeO(Nl>-OS'«*' ^-^lO OS 00 «0 I-H rt CO,-— .
•<!)? Cfcoc^ (NTpcO'-^'ci -^jJ^odcDiO ^-^CDCO<NC0C0CO ^-'
OSOCOCDC^ O
iCOOsCSi-H lO
.1-HrHCD CO
1-HcOOO t^ M (M »0 CO O 'O CO iC CO •>*< CO t^ «0 CO 00 C^ '
1-H CO lO r- Tj< lo I-H CO it< coos-^co CD T»< lo o rH es (
CO.-H(N (NCOt-h CSt^(MCO -^Ci rH
00 OS «0 CD ■>*' CO
t^(N00r^ OT CD 00 'O CD CO IM c
1^ >0 Tf CO O O lO CO O CO CO "
O^iOOO-^ CDO0'«*<CO-^ «o «
CO lO 00 '<1< O <M OS
lO l^ 00 OS CO 1^ OS
sOSt^'^ "O CD »0
g§88S8 S
J; CO "-I «o t^ TTi o
^ ^-^-CO" OS-
)Ooo poopoooopo poopppo
> t^ ^ P O C^ "-H C^ OS Oi ■* "-H CS CO O Ol "-H t^ O O I-H
>OSOO C0t^<NO'0f^''l<05'^C^ /— <OSt--0C OS »-H OS CO^
r-TrHC^ cfcoeoc^fN eot^»o»o ^^loeoc^cfcocs ^
'5 '<
' 3 '
H^p'
.Sf>^
2,a^
i«?
J- O'er
op_
c S ®
-o^o
III
III
O-PL..^
.2 -2
^^tn
^>.^
■s>?^
CO
9 5^o
•2>^
QJ O 53
.5 s&H
OT O" t.^
•o§.S
«2^
cio3_
^t- g
OS o
t:'2§
^--22
3 b ®
4 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, TJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Statistical data are records of past performances. Knowledge of
the past is necessary for the safe conduct of any industry although
there is no assurance that exact duplications of experiences will occur
in the future. These records show that the several areas have pro-
duced strawberries each year for a continued period and have dis-
tributed them among specified markets in variable quantities each
season. Therefore it is logical to assume that these areas will con-
tinue to produce and distribute during the next few seasons approxi-
mately as in the past. The distribution from all districts is subject to
variations each season in volume, time, and destinations of ship-
ments. These changes are influenced by volume of production,
weather, and market conditions.
Experience has proved that a proper use of records of the past, in
conjunction with current official information on crop and market
conditions, is of value in determining market operations. In practice
past records of such factors as acreage, production, yield, and prices
are often used as a measure for comparison with current attainments
in those items. Present acreages are compared usually with acreages
of certain outstanding years of the past, or with average acreages
of a definite period of time. The prominent years of an industry are
those in which unusual results (large acreages, crop failures, etc.)
occurred, which were caused by exceptional conditions.^ Compari-
sons with unusual results are likely to convey, to a certain degree,
wrong impressions as to the true significance of the factors involved
at the present time. An average affords a much wider measure for
comparison than does any single year. The total production of the
strawberry industry for a term of years is the result of all influences
affecting production during the period involved. If this total pro-
duction is evenly apportioned among the years of the period, the
average thus obtained represents the result in production which would
have been attained each season under average or ordinary conditions.
It is a fact that average results are seldom attained; consequently,
the results of the current season are reported usually as above or
below the average, or, in other words, they are above or below the
results which occur under average conditions.
To present the statistical situation of the strawberry industry in the
United States, as indicated by the Department of Agriculture's
records of the 7-year period ended with 1926, many graphic illustra-
tions are given in this bulletin.
COMMERCIAL POSITION OF THE CROP
The production of strawberries is classed among the leading truck-
crop industries of the United States. The estimated value of the
market-strawberry crops of the country averaged $44,128,000 for the
three years ended with 1926. During this period the crop was fifth
among the fruit crops of the country in total farm cash value, and in
gross returns to the growers it was exceeded only by apples, oranges,
grapes, and peaches in the order named. As compared with the cash
values of truck crops for this period, the total cash values of the straw-
berry crop were exceeded only by those of early-crop potatoes and
tomatoes. During the years mentioned the average gross returns per
acre for the United States from 10 important truck crops are esti-
J Conditions as used in this sentence represent a combination of prices, demand, competition, shipments,
and all other factors that directly or indirectly affect the strawberry industry.
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP 5
mated as follows: Celery, $525; strawberries, $278; lettuce, $272;
onions, $259; cantaloupes, $202; asparagus, $163; snap beans, $150;
cabbage, $142; tomatoes, $124; and cucumbers, $94. Data drawn
from Government studies of cost of producing these fruits and vege-
tables are too meager to be of value as a guide for estimating the net
returns per acre.
GROWTH OF THE INDUSTRY
The commercial strawberry of to-day is believed to be a descendant
of the wild meadow strawberry native to the country. The crossing
of this wild strawberry of the eastern part of the United States with
the cultivated varieties from Chili resulted in hybrids from which the
strawberry grown at the present time is the result. Market produc-
tion began about 1800, but, because of the perishable nature of the
varieties then grown, only small quantities were produced and those
in localities near points of consumption. The expansion of the in-
dustry as a commercial proposition began about 1860 and has been
encouraged by better methods of culture and the development of
varieties which are adapted to meet the varied growing conditions in
many producing sections of the country and which have qualities
that give a reasonable assurance of delivery in good condition to
distant markets.
The use of refrigeration and other improvements in transportation
facihties have aided the development of the industry in sections far
removed from the centers of consumption. As a result of these
improvements and the growing public demand for strawberries, the
industry has increased to the extent that 150,370 acres were utilized
for market production during 1926, and the average was 136,304
acres during the 7-year period ended with that year.
AREAS OF PRODUCTION
The data of the 1925 census of agriculture^ indicate the wide extent
of the strawberry industry in the United States. These data show
acreage distributed over 2,395 of the 3,068 counties into which the
48 States are divided.
Although these reports show a wide dissemination of the cultivated
strawberry crop in the United States, most of the counties in the
greater part of the territory included report less than 10 scattered
acres per county. (Fig. 1.)
The greater part of the strawberry crop is produced on small acre-
ages. Plots ranging in size from less than one-fourth to 4 or 5 acres
are the usual limitations of the individual operators. More exten-
sive operations than this statement would indicate are practiced in
certain localities, but they are the exceptions rather than the rule.
Strawberry ''patches" are to be found scattered over practically all
tilled sections of the country. The combination of small acreages
that are located in sections especially adapted to strawberry culture
form the larger districts of the industry.
A very large percentage of the total production of strawberries is
intended for market purposes, but all the acreage (fig. 1) utilized for
* United States Department of Commerce Bureau of the Census, united states census or
AGRICULTURE, 1925. 3 pts. Washington, [D. C.J. 1927.
6
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPT. OF AGEICULTURB
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP 7
this purpose is not included in the commercial estimates. The total
strawberry crop of the country is here considered under two heads —
that part of the crop grown for home consumption or sale on near-by
markets in small lots and the general market supply grown principally
in the larger producing centers for delivery in carloads or motor-
truck loads to more distant points. The information received by the
United States Department of Agriculture from these larger districts
is the basis of the official commercial or market acreage yield and
crop-condition estimates reported each season.
The latest available data on the total acreage of strawberries
grown in the United States are for the season of 1924. These data
are included in the 1925 agriculture census reports. For the pur-
poses of this bulletin that part of the acreage included in the official
estirnates and some of the larger acreages reported in the census but
not included in the official estimates have been combined and will
be designated as market acreage. Table 1 includes these data and
they form the basis of Figure 2.
Practically two-thirds of the market production is confined to a
few large centralized shipping districts. These include the Eastern
Shore district,^ the Norfolk section of Virginia, and the Carolina
district, all situated in the Atlantic coast area; Florida, Louisiana,
Mississippi, Alabama, and Texas in the Gulf area; Tennessee, Ken-
tucky, southern Illinois, and Indiana in the east-central area; and
the Ozark ^ and the White County ^ districts in the west-central area.
The Pacific-coast area includes California, Washington, and Oregon.
These States form a self-sustaining strawberry industry inasmuch as
they produce and consume in the fresh state or preserve practically
all stock handled in the home territory.
Michigan, New York, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Iowa
each have small acreages that produce minor quantities for carload
distribution. Maine and Montana have small acreages that produce
late crops, from which the last carload shipments of the season are
made.
Massachusetts reports carload shipments each season, but no other
data regarding the industry in this State are available. The New
Jersey area is, practically, a part of the Eastern Shore district.
Utah, Colorado, and Minnesota have small areas that produce
market stock, but this is for local consumption, no carload ship-
ments being reported out of these sections. (Fig. 2.)
Tennessee, which averaged 17,744 acres per year during the period
1920-1926, leads the States in strawberry acreage; Arkansas, with
an average of 15,499 acres, is second.
The grouping of States used in official-estimate reports is determined
by the probable maturing period of the crops of the different States.
Those States south of the thirty-fourth parallel are classed as the
early-crop group. The second-early-crop and intermediate-crop
groups are located in a belt that extends east and west across the
country and is bounded by the thirty-fourth and fortieth parallels.
These groups produce the greater part of the eastern market supply.
The States north of the fortieth parallel form the late-crop group.
The States included in each group are named in Table 3.
' Includes Delaware, and those parts of Maryland and Virginia situated on the peninsula that lies east
of Chesapeake Bay.
< Includes parts of Missouri, Arkansas, and Oklahoma!
* Includes White County, Ark., and vicinity.
8
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPT. OF AGEICTJLTURE
rf>
•J
ii
■^
5 g
* — -
4*
♦. *
CM
^5
0>
^
■c
-^
:?'
is:
\ v4IU ^'-^W ^A
\ V
X
^f*
jl
'^
cr
^^^j^fe^^rsN ^
'^K V
/
\
rt^
<
2 I Si? H^^^-^
/
\
4^
2
Q
S^-- '^^
/^ y,'j#\l
(
^4
^
tr
-^^fiTr^lS^'^
r^v^
^^v^
/•~ -
5
s
i i
\s\J
S
It
ii
s
id
^
^m
/
1 •"
1.^
(0
■Si
tr
UJ
J •-
in
ki
\
'-s-
t
\
S-p.
v/ ^ y^
CD
1
■§-
J
\^
■y.
<
1
— /
v
/
tr
/^
H
f
(/)
1 / ^
r — ' — —J ^o
- —
— 1
s
^ \
/ ] /^
1
/
O I
/ / '^^
^
u /
/ / ^
1
^
y
o /
/ / °
/
if^
< /
/ M—~~
/
1
u /
-4 — .
s
oc /
J~ -T-J?
7
-H
/
</
/
7
y
1 ^
^
X J
6--
-Or
1^/^
1/
•*' J
^
^
/
'
"■v.^^* *•*: J.
i
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP
Table 3. — Average of estimated market acreage, yield per acre, production, and
carload shipments of strawberries by States, 1920-1926
Acreage
Yield per
acre i
Estimated produc-
tion
Carload shipments
State
Total
Percent-
age of
produc-
tion
Early crop:
Alabama.
Acres «
2,879
2,876
12,014
930
746
Quarts
1,689
1,927
1,435
1,456
1,355
1,000
quarts
4,863
5,542
17, 240
1,354
1,011
Cars 2
482
825
1,842
134
108
Carsi
407
465
1,627
71
31
Per cent
84
Florida
66
Louisiana
83
Mississippi
53
Texas.
29
Total or average
19, 445
1,543
30,010
3,391
2,501
74
Second early crop:
Arkansas
15, 499
1,186
4,491
17, 744
6,309
1,347
3,830
2,443
1,551
2,408
20,876
4,542
10, 973
27,528
15, 191
2,071
582
1,478
2,731
1,978
1,318
23
1,253
2,242
1,162
64
California (southern district)
4
Carolinas
85
Tennessee..
82
Virginia
59
Total or average
45,229
1,749
79, 110
8,840
5,998
68
Inteimediate crop:
California (other)
2,129
4,289
3,317
1,847
2,860
574
4,380
9,524
10, 051
5,620
3,224
2.098
1,505
1,703
1,665
1,639
1,602
2,134
1,580
1,633
6,864
8,998
4,992
3,145
4,762
941
7,016
20,328
15, 876
9,177
880
1,172
495
312
472
109
696
2,647
1,575
1,195
177
833
225
39
59
13
517
1,445
1,065
275
20
Delaware
71
Illinois
45
Indiana. _
13
Iowa
13
Kansas
12
Kentucky
74
Maryland.. . . .-
55
Missouri...
68
New Jersey
23
Total or average
4^, 591
1,841
82,099
9,553
4,648
49
Late crop:
Massachusetts ^
80
385
273
10
87
11
89
87
35
Michigan
6,396
4,183
3,191
4,677
3,116
4,276
1,200
1,437
2,299
1,788
1,847
1,699
1,867
1,690
9,194
9,615
5,705
8,640
5,294
7,983
2,028
884
1,253
566
1,000
689
924
176
44
New York-- -
22
Ohio
2
Oregon
9
Pennsylvania
2
Washington
10
Wisconsin . . . ..
49
All other 3
Total or average
27,039
1,792
48,459
5,492
1,057
« 17
United States
136,304
1,758
239,678
27, 276
14,203
52
1 Weighted averages.
« Averages of data in Table 2.
Acreages and production data not available.
Massachusetts and "all other" not included.
YIELD PER ACRE
The yield per acre is the main factor, other than acreage, to be
considered when estimating the volume of a season's crop. The
importance of this statement is shown in a comparison of the average
production factors for Delaware and Kentucky. Delaware, with a
yield of 2,098 quarts and an acreage that averaged 91 acres less than
that of Kentucky, produced 1,982,000 more quarts per year during
the 7-year period (1920-1926) than did Kentucky with a yield of
1,602 quarts. (Table 3 and Fig. 3.)
The quantity of yield in all sections is affected by weather condi-
tions at all stages of the crop's development. This fact shows the
necessity for the use of daily information on weather conditions in
the producing sections as a basis for estimating the prosx)ective yield
10
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, U. S. BEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
of the current season's crop. It is reasonable to assume that practi-
cally all weather or other conditions affecting the strawberry yield
were encountered at one time or another during the 7-year period
THOUSANDS OF ACRES
0 5 10 15
THOUSANDS OF QUARTS PER ACRE
MILUONS OF QUARTS
10 . 20 30
I I
I I
Figure 3. — average market acreage. Yield per Acre, and Produc-
tion OF STRAWBERRIES. 1920-1926
A comparison of the acreages and yields of California and the Carolinas shows the effect of yields
per acre on total production. A similar outstanding example is shown by a comparison of
Michigan, New Jersey, and Delaware.
ended with 1926. Upon this assumption is based the conclusion that
the weighted average obtained by dividing the total production by
the total acreage for that period is a fair estimate of the yield per
acre that may be anticipated for any given area.
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP
11
From 1920 to 1926, inclusive, the yearly average yield per acre in
the United States was estimated as 1,758 quarts; the early-crop
States, 1,543 quarts; the second-early crop States, 1,749 quarts; the
intermediate-crop States, 1,841 quarts; and the late-crop States, 1,792
quarts. These average yields indicate that, considering each group
as a whole, the most favorable growing conditions for strawberries
occur in the intermediate and late-crop States. (Fig. 4 and Table 3.)
California, with a 7-year (1920-1926) State average of 3,441 quarts
per acre, leads the country in bounteous strawberry yields. The
Carolinas (2,443 quarts), Virginia (2,408 quarts), New York (2,299
quarts), and Maryland (2,134 quarts), in the order named, are the
five States next in rank in yields per acre. (Fig. 3 and Table 3.)
PRODUCTION
The yearly average market production of strawberries in those
States included in the official estimates is about 240,000,000 quarts,
STATES
EARLY- CROP
ACREAGE
THOUSANDS OF ACRES
0 10 20 30 40 50
YIELD PER ACRE PRODUCTION and SHIPMENTS
HUNDREDS OF QUARTS MILLIONS OF QUARTS
0 5 10 15 20 0 20 40 60 80 100
SECOND EARLY-CROP
INTERMEDIATE-CROP
LATE- CROP
Figure 4.— average Market acreage. Yield per acre, and Produc-
tion OF strawberries. 1920-1926
The second early-crop States averaged the largest acreage among the four groups, but the inter-
mediate-crop States with a smaller acreage and a larger yield per acre ranked first in volume of
production. The greater part of the late crop is for local consumption.
which is equivalent to 27,276 average cars. This quantity is esti-
mated to be about 83 per cent of the total average production of the
country. The volume of the production of any district, or of the
country as a whole, is very difficult to anticipate each season, for, no
matter how favorable the growing conditions may have been during
the season, the conditions during the harvest period determine the
final results. From the viewpoint of safety in marketing activities,
it is well to plan operations on the basis that production of straw-
berries during any season will be indicated by estimated acreage and
yield-per-acre reports.
Although strawberries are grown in each of the 48 States, and
usually the production is for market purposes, yet over one-half of
the commercial crop originates in 6 leading States which, in order of
number of quarts produced, are Tennessee, Arkansas, Maryland,
Louisiana, Missouri, and Virginia. (Fig. 3.)
12
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, TJ. S. DEPT. OF AGKICULTURE
TREND OF ACREAGES
The conditions of 1920 are considered as the beginning of an
upward trend of the strawberry industry of the United States, and for
PER CENT
400
200
100
0
400
200
100
0 -
^ll
m
400
200
100
0 ■
400
200
100
0
400
200
100
0 •
400
200
100
ALABAMA ARKANSAS CAUFORNIA CAROLINAS
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I
111
FLORIDA
LOUISIANA
n
NEW JERSEY
null
TENNESSEE
fiffll]
EARLY CROP
ILLINOIS
anujaano
MARYLAND
nmt
NEW YORK
Dim
TEXAS
m
SECOND
EARLY CROP
nw
INDIANA
MICHIGAN
nun
OHIO
mmj
INTERMEDIATE
CROP
mDi
M
IOWA
mm
MISSISSIPPI
nffli
OREGON
U^
WASHINGTON
tsm
LATE CROP
nmt
DELAWARE
fdn
KENTUCKY
nmt
MISSOURI
^^
PfTIII
iUJll
PENNSYLVANIA
mm
WISCONSIN
si
U.S. TOTAL
I^t
1921 '33 '25 1921 '23 '25 1921 '23 '25 1921 '23 '25 1921 '23 '25
FIGURE 5. — ESTIMATED COMMERCIAL STRAWBERRY ACREAGE BY STATES.
1921-1926 (1920=100)
Each State panel in this figure stands alone and is not comparable with the panels of any other
State. The bars indicate each year's acreage expressed in per cent of the acreage of 1920. The
arrow indicates the trend of the acreage in each State for the period. Virginia shows the
greatest upward trend and Delaware the greatest decline. The early-crop group shows the
largest percentage of increase.
that reason the comparisons in this bulletin for the succeeding years
are based on data of that year.
The status of an industry of national importance that specializes
in a perishable commodity does not remain stationary. It advances
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP
13
or recedes in accord with the financial results attained. An industry
may slump or may boom for a season, but these abnormal conditions
are incidental, and real growth or decline is determined by average
results for a period of years.
There are certain factors which indi^cate the tendency of the
developments of an industry. The progress of the strawberry indus-
try for seven years (1920-1926) is indicated by the extent of acreage
cultivated from year to year during that period. For the United
States, there was an increase above the previous year's acreage during
each of the four seasons following 1920 that resulted in the peak of
1924. (Tables 2 and 4.) The 1925 acreage was 18 per cent less than
that of 1924, but during 1926 a considerable part of this loss was
regained. The average acreage cultivated for the entire period
(1920-1926) was 46 per cent above that of 1920. The gains in acre-
age that were made during 1926, following the general decrease of
1925, occurred in the early-crop and intermediate-crop groups. The
second-early-crop and late-crop groups continued the reduction of
acreage in 1926. Considering the area indicated in Table 4 as a
whole or in detail, there was an upward trend in the strawberry
acreages from 1920 to 1926, inclusive. Delaware, Indiana, and Cali-
fornia were the exceptions. (Fig. 5.)
Table 4. — Estimated commercial strawberry acreage by States, 1920—1926
[Acreage of 1920=100]
State
1920
Percentage of 1920 acreage in—
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
Average
Early crop:
Alabama
Acres
1,380
1,190
6,500
780
400
119
88
127
90
130
178
182
178
101
158
265
320
221
124
225
287
394
225
153
268
249
356
159
149
245
262
250
285
118
180
Per cent
209
242
185
119
186
Acres
2,879
2,876
12, 014
930
Florida
Louisiana
Mississippi
Texas
746
Total
10,250
119
172
231
249
197
261
190
19, 445
Second early:
Arkansas .
9,070
900
1,970
11,090
2,000
157
102
102
122
135
202
107
204
177
250
187
176
293
191
325
229
219
342
236
568
165
128
282
169
430
156
91
273
124
400
171
132
228
160
315
15, 499
1, 186
California (southern dis-
trict)
Carolinas ^
4,491
Tennessee ._
17, 744
Virginia
6,309
Total
25,030
133
192
208
268
196
168
181
45,229
Intermediate:
California (other)
Delaware
2,300
3,720
3,210
2,020
2,590
290
3,440
7,910
5,420
5,230
98
120
101
95
101
110
122
110
129
104
102
135
105
88
114
103
131
112
184
108
92
164
106
99
127
97
148
130
195
105
77
132
112
100
114
317
127
140
211
124
88
70
104
76
107
328
124
115
221
105
91
86
95
82
110
331
139
135
259
105
93
115
103
91
110
198
127
120
185
107
2,129
4,289
Illinois
3,317
Indiana
1,847
Iowa
2,860
Kansas
574
Kentucky
4,380
Maryland
9,524
Missouri
10,051
New Jersey
5,620
Total
36, 130
111
124
135
137
122
135
124
44, 591
1 1920 data used as base or 100 per cent.
» Includes North Carolina and South Carolina.
14 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, tJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTTJKE
Table 4. — Estimated commercial strawberry acreage by States, 1920-1926 — Con.
State
1920
Percentage of 1920 acreage in—
Average
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
Late:
Michigan
Acres
6,900
3,720
2,810
2,970
3,100
2,900
610
111
106
103
120
101
109
102
99
104
98
116
94
102
102
102
105
100
118
103
130
131
132
132
135
203
105
194
334
109
118
132
200
100
187
302
106
123
128
246
100
210
307
Percera
108
112
114
157
101
147
197
Acres
6 396
New York
4 183
Ohio
3 191
Oregon
4,677
3 116
Pennsylvania
Washington
4,!276
Wisconsin
1,200
Total
22,010
108
102
109
152
140
149
123
27,a39
Grand total ,
93,420
117
142
159
188
154
161
146
136, 304
Total production
Cars
17,409
122
163
169
208
150
181
157
Cars
27,276
Total sbipTTipnt,*!
7,207
151
260
247^
263
170
188
197
14,203
PRODUCTION AND SHIPMENTS
It has required a season's production from about 4.8 acres of
average yield to supply an average carload of strawberries during
the period covered in this report. This indicates that a district
must include a considerable acreage in order to produce carload
quantities within the limited time that the perishable nature of
strawberries allows. There are many districts scattered over the
several States that produce strawberries in carload quantities, but
80 per cent of the carload shipments each season are produced in
five large centralized districts which include Louisiana, the Caro-
linas, the Eastern Shore, Arkansas-Missouri, and Tennessee-Ken-
tucky.
From 1920 to 1926, inclusive, about 52 per cent of the estimated
market production of the United States was delivered in carloads.
During this period, the States included in the early-crop group
shipped 74 per cent of their estimated market production in carloads,
and, in addition to these shipments, Florida distributed by express
among the larger markets a considerable part of its early production
in containers known as ''pony refrigerators." This group is located
a long distance from the consuming centers and has comparatively
small local demands to supply. Practically, the same conditions
exist in the second-early-crop group, which moved 68 per cent of its
raarket crop in the same manner. The intermediate-crop group is
situated in a more densely populated area which furnishes a local
demand that reduced carload shipments to less than 50 per cent of
its production. The late-crop group, which is situated in the northern
market areas, moved only 17 per cent of its crop in carloads. (Fig.
6 and Table 3.)
The Pacific Coast States make comparatively few carload ship-
ments to points outside the three States. The total carload move-
ment reported by the railroads from this territory during the 7-year
period ended with 1926 averaged 376 cars annually, of which 97 per
cent were unloaded on markets situated within the coast area.
In addition to the carload movement, a motor- truck movement has
developed in practically all strawberry areas. In many instances
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP
15
this movement covers the territory within 100 or more miles of a
market. No authentic records of this truck movement are kept at
the present time, and, until adequate information as to the extent of
these shipments is available, the shipper will continue to forward his
products to the several markets with only incomplete knowledge of
supplies on hand at such points. A noticeable example of the
present extent of this truck movement is revealed by the records of
the Philadelphia market. During the 1926 season this market
reported a total unload of 363 cars of strawberries received from
various sources by rail and an equivalent of more than 600 cars by
motor truck from the Eastern Shore and New Jersey districts.
PRODUCTION AND CARLOAD SHIPMENTS OF STRAWBERRIES
Figure 6.— The white sectors of the State circles represent that part of the estimated production
for which no authentic disposal records are available, but it is assumed that less-than-carload
freight and express shipments, motor-truck shipments, local consumption, canning, barreling,
and deterioration during the harvesting period will account, for all practical purposes, for the
disappearance of this part of the crop
During the trucking season (May 14 to June 24, inclusive) only 44
cars were reported as having been received at this market by rail.
A considerable difference between the estimated production and
carload shipments is shown for each State. This difference represents
one of the '' unknown quantities" among the strawberry-marketing
problems, as no authentic information as to its disposal is available.
It is assumed that a large part of this difference represents home
consumption or consumption within a motor-trucking radius of the
point of production when it occurs in the more populous sections,
and that less-than-carload shipments by freight and express will
account for a large part of the differences that occur in the carload
shipping districts. Canning and barreling of the berries near points
of production represent the disappearance in some sections, and
deterioration of the crop during the harvesting period may occur in
any section. (Fig. 6.)
16 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, tJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
CROP-MOVEMENT PERIOD
The shipping period in each of the strawberry districts varies from
season to season to such an extent that to anticipate dates of the
current seasonal movement is a difficult problem. There is often a
difference of three weeks or more in the time of the beginning of the
movements of two consecutive seasons in the same area. Weather
conditions are the main factors that control the shipping dates each
year and current crop-condition reports are the only trustworthy
guide as to the prospects for the time of movement of any present
season's crop.
Table 5 was compiled to ascertain the approximate earhest and
latest dates within which the carload movements of the several
States occurred during the 7-year period ended with 1926 and to
determine the time of the peak movements of the period.
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP
17
1— I 1— 1 CS i-H 03 CS •<*< T-l
'^S555_=»S^5^
lOO'O-^'-H
■»«< 1-1 e'jos •»»< 00 fh
t-.C*Q|
'^2§;r=
1 ■^ iC <
«0 O 1-H rH C< 0»
OS »0 "J ■»)< N
t^ ■>*< <o to w
0»0«Oi3>CS
o> '.J* lo 00 eo
t^,-noecc<
t>. e<i «o r* .-t rH CO
.,-<-*I»Of-I it»<
T»< r-( CO ■* C<1 .
Ir-C^t^e^ |(N
>oc*«o(Neo i»-i
it^05(NC><,
t« no VCO II
eo leoeoeoM
5S'
eor^e^O.
^Q-^fi^
■^i>. c^<
t^ lO 00 CO
ecpj ^<
S5§52^
<a lo OJ i
^S^SI
?3?5j;3{2
§^SS^^
iSS
igsgsl
ISS
'gg
'^S
oo-*ect^
c^<o-<»<t--
00 o> ■<*< ■«*<
^c< «oo
t^O'^t^
/^ II-HC^/
C^ Q^-M-H
ss
^-N.-(eo<DC^
^->v.-i es <cco
M-<r-lCOr»<
,^i-H»0<C
.^rHTttO
1-1 it-ie*
<OCO<OCOCDOOCOOOCD<
05?0^0^50'^O^tO^!C'^tC^5C'^CO'-'^0^50'
05 0> Oi
^2^2^2^2^2^2^2<
^H ^a /r^ ^ fTt h* f^ f^ h*
S S
03 CO
« rt J;
iS tS ci
^ ^, <
5
"i
95608°— 30-
fc-'l-H
18 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, XJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
1
•s
1
§
1
H
SS||S2|<='8|5{::«"g?22°||g§g|2SgSgSS||§§|g|||g§|
«
: ."^ 1 1
! is;:: !!!!!!: !^5 ! :5^ ! :«'2 : :^s : :S$ !:?;£;!!
s
S8^ 1 :
2 :2^ ! !<^-£ id !§'« i ;8 ; i :'""' i i^?^ 1 IS 1 i 128 : |
8
2«"-£
2 :ss ! i-" 1 1 1^ 15^ I lUfe I :«2 j Ifetg ! ig^ i ;8S; 1 1
8
?i2--£
2 jS^S J \£^£ l?5 !g^ 1 :g5g 1 l^** 1 !S:§ 1 !g§S 1 ;?5S5 .' !
^
55-'"-£
2 |?5g3 1 p !£ 18 I^^ I 13:5 1 I«* 1 ISJo 1 118S 1 12^ 1 1
8
«^C.«j^
2 \^^ 1 p-^g l'^ IS^ I 1^12 1 \^::£ IS^ 1 iSg 1 12::: ! 1
^
s-"-£
J^ I?SS 1 r 1 ! 12 I5JS I l^g 1 !»» 1 152 I ISS-" !2« 1 1
^
S-'S;:: ;
" I^g 1 1- \£ 1^ IF^S 1 I2?| I piS^ 1^2 I IS^£ I2« 1 1
S
i-H 11-^ IN 1 '^ CO II 1 1 i <0 1 1 TO III « ICO - 1 1 «C 1 i^ 1 1 1
?^
2 :28£
- I^IS I r r !£ l^S 1 I5S2 1 !'«"' 1 18^ 1 I$S^'°2 1 1 1
S
2 IS l?r
« isss i i£ p-^g !i8S§ 1 i;;i 1 r^— g3« 1 :?5*^-2 1 1 |
8
gj :?52£
"^ iStS ! Isr 1^ 1 1 ISS ! 1"^*^ ! 1"^^'-' 12*^?^ IS'^'^ 12^^ 1 '
S
o, ,gj5^
"^ \^^£ 1 I l^-^ 1 18S i i^g 1 !^---'i:;-- 1S:5"='^*^2 I 1 !
2
2 :2^£
'^ ISSSo 1 l;r If? 1 1 IK{^ 1 lgg2 1 1^ r-^2 1-^-^^ 12*^3 1 1 !
r^
2 !?§^£'^'" isgg: I ! r-" : ig§ 1 i§S ! i" r'^2 r^s :2;:2 : ; i
2
00 .05-.-
^ 'SeC: 1 |'-^ '<N 1 . loov 1 iCM 1 1 ■«) iec«N« leccca ..oooiN i i i
1 ■* eO 1 IN 1 11 1 1— 1 1— ( 1 100 III 1 r-< 1 C< 1 F-l 1— 1 i-H 1 1 1
12
^ ig§9-
^ Igg£ 1 I P"" 1 ISSn; |f:SN: 1"= r"=s l^::^ p5S» Ig j
IS
^ \^U£
" i^^ ! I i i^ ! i \^^£ i^^ i T i"'^^ i'^^* i^"" i£ !
2
^ \^^£
£ ISS 1 1 1 1'^'^ 1 ',2°"^ IS'^JT I"** !«w« !t-^;^3 ;o .^ .-^ .
N
" iss-"
£ 1S^£ 1 1 1^^ 1 !gS<^ Jg^^rH^- ;cC«;H jcogO. |g.^C. ; CO .O
^
"= I5§§-^
^v jSjJJjr^ 1 1 ii-H 1 1 1 eg t^ CO ■<*< 05 il M ICO i-*«Ot}< iTt<t^iO it;.l^C>« i»c«o
o
£ iSg£
£ i^^£ i i i*^*^ i ;S2^«^ i^^-^ 1""=* li^s"" i^^s^ i"'*
c»
^ i'l§ l'^'~'er 1!§^^ I ! I'^ ! ! !§o 1*^^°° |<Nr-^rt |'^2°° ;g8°*" I'-'^gS'^ I2°°
00
- ;S§^" I ii^SJ-*" i r-- i |g2^«=2^ !^^- rs«= lgS£ i^S£ 12^
t^
^ l^fe^'"^: 1^2"^ j !"^ ! 1?? 12^2 l*'^'^ l^i:;" j^g^ l§g£ pS
to
1 i^S-" j 1 ij;;*'^'^ j p ! 1 !S 12'«?5 !"= |« !"=«"= jSfe£ ;s§ ,' l 122
ta
^ l§|-^-"£ i^;^~°* j !^«^ j 1^ 1SS52 l^^-" r«" ISSI-" ::5^s^ :?5^
•^
! ;§2^ j j j^'^^s j i^-^ 1 ',:^ ',c^^^ i^^-^ ;«=2^ l^a£ i*^ ; i^^
CO
! 1^2^-" 1 ;i^^"'2 ! j^*^ 1 |S |2g«= !^g3£ l'^^^ !lgg£ !S^ ! !g5S
<N
1 IJ^-^^^ ! :S p2 ! P ! ! 1^ i«^'^ l^S I !«2'" :^|£ ;?28 1 :??s
-
1 1^^^^ 1 ;2"22 j p^ ! ig !^:§" :^S£ :*2£ :5So : iS^ 1 |8S
1
43
i : i i ;
id Id I c
^ 1 1
Jq >;« jQdQ ti.«d^ t^Q J« >;« dO >;Q Jq ^0 Jo i^Q Jo ^Q dQ
2
Q
03
0
1
Arkansas
South Carolina
Tennessee
Virginia
Illinois
Missouri
Maryland
Kentucky
ORIGIN AND DISTBIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP
19
;^^S2^='l§'^§|gg|g2°^gS«^$^='g|S^^®2S:Sj^:S^^5§:3:^^2"^§^-S
•^-^ ! icT .'S-^ : ;g§g§ ; i-^ ; ; ;« ; ; ;-" ; ; ;;r ."« i : isr i i i : ; : i i r i : ; ; :
wrHj-s [j^ [CO jjip. 100 ijp 1 1 ;j^>c^<N ; ; ;^ l^'^'^ ,"^ !22^ I"**® ' '"^^ , ,^ ,r-* . , ,
^<N-i jjjv .c^ <^ ;s52?r i"^ isr'^" ; ; ; ; i^uSeT i .' ."°°*er J"'*^ i J""" ! i^ ;*^ i ! ;
'^'^^ ;jr !^ i^ i'?3"'?r ."^ isr*^'^ i^ I ; .'22'^ i ; 122 .' .""^ ! i'*'^^ I 1'^ J*^ ! 1 I
^ i'^ ifT I'" In" i^'^^ ."^ li?""" ; ; ;sr ;"=^;^'^ ; i i*^ i i i*°* i i"'^ i ijt i*^ ! i i
rH^i-H ij^ it^ ij-s ;j^<«^^^ ,'fr'^'~' i?r J 1* I'^'^sr I i I22 i i"* ! i i'^*"' ! i^ i"^ j j i
^^^^^ ,^ ,c. ;jH ;^c.^ ,^^ i ;£ ! i i"2£ i i i°''°E: :""" i !*^"£ •£ i^ i i i
W 1 W 1 1 v** t 1 INCIIWIII II r^ II II 1 1 C9 III
w Iw ! 1 '^1 ! ! ! ! Iw ! ! 1 ! ! I""* w ! ! ! w !w I 1 ! 1
w Iw I ! ! !S1- ! Iw !!!'"' I 1'"' ^ I ' ' tl^ ' ' ' < > <
jjv^eo [jjN 1^ ;"''°*2 i""*jr I'eT^ I i"^** I ,'°°°0'^" ; i^'^'^ ,'^ ; ; ,"*=^'-^ l'^ l*^ ! ' 1
^-srHCO 1^ IrH 100 ,«3 100 1^ 1 1 1 1 ir-^ 1 1 1 0> Tf< <N CO 1 ICO .^-^CO(M 1 1 CO rH ^ 1 ^»-< -<t< 1^ 1
CT^ 1«^ 1 1 1 1 le^ 1 1 1 1 1 111 1 IrH le^ II N l<N IM 1
^l-HCO t 1 l^-N l0O«O>C ITt<rH^.v 1^-s^ 1 IC^ 1 1 lOOrHr-C-»t< 1 1<N(M,-V ICO 1 1 lC<l»H^-v 1 ,^-<C^ CO 1 ,-> 1
^COeO l^s 1.^ ICOOO-^ lOOCSI l IrHrn 1 iC^-^ 1 .OOiCT-ieO l .C^ H-t Ir-lN 1 ICO^^-N i,-nC«C<I i 1 I
' tl^ 'w ' ""* 1 i-H rH II II II 1 1 i-l II II N ie4 III
jjvCM-* ijp jjjv ;c;j^5iM ;^Sj^ ,"-'«^ ; ;*^ ; ; ;■*'-'<N^- • • «d (N ^^ ^ (n »-h i t,-t^^ ■ i leo 1 1 1
^rHiO 1^ 1^ .eO(N<N leOO^ irH<N 1 iCOt- ■ lOJCS^ i i iCO(M^(MC«^^ 1^ i-i i^rHTt- 1 1 1
« ICi 1 1 1— 1 rH 1 C^ e5 N 1 II II II 1 1— 1 N N 1 1 1 N III
j-vC^Tji 1,^ 1 1 lOos > leojc^v iT-<T}4 1 iTt<»o 1 loeoeoo i leoeo^^i-id i/-v ic>4i-hi-i i,-^,h-^ i i i
1 leO 1/-V 1 1 1COQO.-I '«CiO 1 ir-ieo i irj<t^ i it^ leort* i icO i ,-< C^ ^h 1.-S I--V i»H 1 i,HTt<TH 1 1
! !" .'JT IST .'2 1 ! ;2 ; 1 J*^" ,' ,"^ ; I 1* i*^"" ,' 12 ,"-'=^^" ;'-^'-^'-- '-^ i^csw i^ i
^^■^(N^ 1^ it^CO 1 itJ-r-J 1 lrH(N 1 f^ftO 1 lO ICOOO 1 .00 .r-400^ 1 ^ (M ^ IrH 1 ^(N Tj< 1 rH (N
« N 1 N 1 rH 1 1 Ol ■<J< 11 II III III 1 e>) ■ 1 CI 1
1 !'*'"' ! I 1 I2c5 I iS'co 1 i"^'* J i""'* 1 i'^ i'^"^ i ."" i"^ I'jT >"^*^?r ."^ I'sT"^^ i?r"^
I 1"* ! I ! I i'^S I i'5c« I 1*""^ ! i'"*^ J i'"' l^"^ ! 12 1"^'^'^ ,""• J'^ i"^ | ,"~"^ ''-^'^
^-vrHCO 1 1 1 1 INt.< 1 ITfO 1 lC<«0 1 ICOCO 1 ICO ICOCO 1 1(N i-^JHTt<.-vfC^C^ 1 1 CS rH ,-^,-1 C<1 l--vTt<
w 1 ! I ! \'^'^ ! 1 "^ II ! 1 III 1 1"^ I w I II SI. ISl.
I I" iJT 1 I i^;ii I ic5S§ ! J*^*^ ! J*^"^ 1 i'*" ;'°2 1 ;;23 j'^^^jt i'^'^^ jcocsj^thc^ ,^ i ■
1 I^ leT 1 I 122 1 ImJo j I^"* ,' ,'^^ i' 1" ,"^°° 1 ,'2 I'^'^cT J*^*^ I t'^'^ i 1^'-'--^ ' '
■ 1 ,(N 1^ 1 1 irH , , ,0C r, 1C^(N . 1<N 1 1 .CO lt-T}< 1 ICO .TPt- 1 1(NC0 . ICO"l l ■ rH l^iO
II IN 1 1 IrH r 1 1 C4 111 II III 1 rH 1 IrH 1 11 II III 1 e^
I 1*^'"' ! ' 1 '2^ 1 '::X.S I ""' ' ' "■• ' ' "^ '°°^ ' '^ i^a>^i(Nic i ioo<n i irH • i i
II I 1 1 l'^ 1 1'^" 1 I III II! 1 "^ 1 I 1 ^ ', 11 1 I 1 1 I
1 iCSleO j 1 1 jOOOS t IttJQ [ irHCM 1 jCq l l IrH ItXN 1 ■•<*< IIO . ITJ«00 1 iC^r-t 1 1^ 1 1 1
1 I'^^JT I ; I***® I IKS I i^ i ', i^ I I i"-* i'"''^ ; ."* i^^' I ,"=^ ; ; i*^ i i i?r isr"*' "'
j j'-^WjJ^ 1 1 ;<»•* ; |0 0 1 IrH 1 1 [rH [ 1 [ ^ 1 t^ Ol 1 [CD 1 O >0 1 1 -^ ■* 1 1 CO rH 1 l^ ,^ i
1 I'^'^sT 1 1 is*^ I ;:?g 1 i"^ 1 i ,"^ ; ; ,'?r 1^°" \ i^ i'"'2 i i*^"^ i i'^'^ i i'^ ."-vcm"
jsJ8|ijl|!l!l!JsjlisJ!|iiiIiIi|f|!|!ll|!|iIiH!
^S Jo 40 ^0 s'c ^a :S ^S Je ^S ^S ^S, ^S jS ^S ^S jg gS ^S .^S jS ^S JS jS
^h, H,<l-,(«^t-,l^t-,(^!l-,<;i-,»-,(2;^r-sl-,(-,l-,l-,|i2!i>^H,
Oregon
New Jersey
Delaware
Indiana.. _.
Iowa...
New York
Michigan
Massachusetts
Wisconsin
Washington
^ I xi
! is \£ i ^
20 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, tJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
10 20 :
MAY JUNE
FIGURE 7.— DAILY AVERAGE SHIPMENTS OF STRAWBERRIES. BY STATES.
AVERAGE 1920-1926 SEASONS
The competitive-marketing season of the several carload-shipping districts occurs from March 1
to J une 30. The order of succession of shipments within this period is an important marketing
factor of the strawberry industry.
OEIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP
21
JUNE
FIGURE?.— DAILY AVERAGE SHIPMENTS OF STRAWBERRIES, BY STATES.
AVERAGE 1920-1926 SEASONS— Continued
The heavy crop-movement period occurs from May 1 to June 10. During this time North Carolina,
Arkansas, Tennessee, Virginia, Missouri, Maryland, and Delaware ship the greater part of their
crops.
22 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE
Louisiana has made carload shipments as early as March 2 and as
late as May 29 during the period mentioned. The peak movements
from the State have been made between April 17 and May 3. The
1926 movement from Louisiana began March 27 and ended May 29.
The peak movement occurred from April 17 to May 17. The start
of the movement from the State in 1926 was practically 20 days late,
but the movement ended on the average closing date. That the 1926
total State shipments were about 53 per cent larger than the average,
coupled with the fact that the shipping period was shortened by 20
days, which necessarily increased daily shipments, explains partially
the larger daily shipments of that year as compared with the daily
average for the period.
Variations in the seasonal movements of Louisiana strawberries are
similar to those of strawberries from other States. The start of the
1926 movement in 14 of the States named in Table 5 was from 11 to
20 days late as compared with the average; nevertheless the move-
ment in each of the States terminated on practically the same date as
that on which the 7-year average season ended.
There are less-than-carload or mo tor- truck movements from most
areas that take care of the early production until such a time as the
output reaches carload proportions. The ^* clean-up" at the end of
the season is usually shipped in the same way, and there is a less-than-
carload movement throughout the season that accounts for a consider-
able part of the total production. Available data on these movements
are too inadequate to be included in the general review of the straw-
berry situation.
The maturing period of the strawberry crop is reached in each of
the several areas in accordance with the climatic conditions of the
current season. The beginning of the strawberry season usually oc-
curs in December at points in southern Florida. This State is the
source of practically all strawberry supplies from the beginning of its
movement until March. The competitive marketing period of the
industry begins in March, with the general movement of the crop.
From time to time, with the advance of the season northward, the
different areas reach the harvest period and begin to add their quot^
to the daily shipments. Usually, as a result of these additions, there
is a steady increase in total shipments from day to day, which culmi-
nates in the peak movement that occurs near the last of May or in
early June. Following the peak movement, there is a rather rapid
decrease in daily shipments which continues to the end of the season
in July. The succession of the average daily carload movement of
the several States from March 1 to June 30 is illustrated in Figure 7.
VARIETIES OF STRAWBERRIES «
It is important in a commercial sense to know the varieties of straw-
berries grown for market in the different districts, for the trade, as a
rule, is familiar with the distinctive market qualities of the principal
varieties. The producer should learn the important quahties of the
different varieties adapted to his locality and should select for growing
those that conform to the requirements of his prospective market.
8 This information was derived from the following publication: Darrow, G. M. strawberry varie-
ties IN THE UNITED STATES, U, S, Dept. Agr, Farmers' Bui. 1043, 36 p., illus. 1919. (Revised, 1927.)
OBIGIN AND DISTRIBtJTION, STRAWBEERY CROP
23
A large number of varieties of strawberries are grown for market
purposes in the United States, but about 87 per cent of the total
strawberry acreage is utilized in growing the first eight varieties named
in Table 6. Other varieties are grown locally in several districts, but
usually these are in favor only as they have qualities that are suitable
to the conditions existing in the localities in which they are grown.
Table 6. — Percentage distribution of principal strawberry varieties in the United
States, in the order of their importance ^
Rank
Variety
Klondike
Aroma
Howard 17 (Premier)
fMarshaU
\Oregon
Dunlap.
Missionary..
Parsons (Gibson)
Gandy
Chesapeake
Joe
Total
acreage
Per
cent
25.0
22.0
16.0
7.0
6.0
6.0
3.0
2.0
1.5
1.5
Rank
Variety
Belt
Sample
Ettersburg 121 .
Glen Mary
Heflin
Lupton
Mastodon
Other varieties
Total-..
Total
Per cent
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
.5
1.0
.5
4.0
100.0
1 Computedon the basis of the acreage of each variety as estimated by George M. Darrow, Bureau of
Plant Industry.
The Klondike is the leading variety in the early-crop group of
States. The Missionary is the main-crop variety of south central
Florida, and both Missionary and Klondike are grown in the northern
X//A Dunlap
yy.-.\ Gandij
Klondike
Miasionaru
Figure 8.— The Dunlap is the general-purpose midseason variety grown in the States of the North
and mid-West. The Gandy is grown as a late variety in an area extending from the Atlantic
westward to the Mississippi River and bounded by the thirty-sixth and forty-second parallels.
The Klondike is the early variety grown in the sections shown on the map. The Missionary is
the chief variety grown in Florida, and it is grown extensively in the Carolinas, Virginia, and
Maryland
parts of this State. (Fig. 8.) The Aroma is grown as a late crop in
Alabama. (Fig. 9.)
The Klondike is grown in each State of the second-crop group.
(Fig. 8.) In Arkansas the Klondike is grown for the early crop and
24 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, tJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
the Aroma for the late crop. CaUfornia grows several varieties, but
the Klondike is recommended for commercial planting in the southern
part of the State. Both Missionary and Klondike are grown in the
Carolinas and the Missionary almost entirely in the Norfolk section
of Virginia. Various varieties are grown in the Eastern Shore district.
The Klondike, Aroma, and Gandy are the principal varieties in Ten-
nessee. (Figs. 8 and 9.)
The Aroma, Dunlap, and Gandy are the main varieties of the
intermediate-crop group of States. Delaware, Maryland, and New
Jersey grow various varieties. (Figs. 8 and 9.)
The Dunlap, Howard 17, and Gandy are the principal varieties of
the late-crop group of States. Several minor varieties are grown in
Strawberry Varieties
[i\T| Howard 17
yTA Marshall
Y//\ Aroma
Figure 9.— Howard 17 is grown as an early variety in the New England, Middle Atlantic, and
North Central States. The Marshall is the general-purpose variety of the western districts and
it is grown for special markets in the New England States. The Aroma is grown for a late crop
in the inland sections of the intermediate-crop areas
different parts of these States. The Marshall (fig. 9) and the Oregon
are grown extensively in Washington and Oregon.
REVIEW OF THE STRAWBERRY INDUSTRY BY STATES, 1920 TO
1926, INCLUSIVE
The strawberry is a highly perishable commodity which is usually
in its best condition for consumption at the time of picking. Although
deliveries to market are usually made in what is considered quick
time and while the berries are in good condition, yet each hour added
to the interval between time of picking and time of consumption
increases the effect of the deterioration that starts at the moment the
berry is detached from the plant. For this reason an economic dis-
tribution of a strawberry crop should begin as near to the point of
production as is possible when all other market conditions are equal.
Near-by markets stand first, to the extent of their needs, as an outlet
for a crop. To go beyond these markets unless assured of a better
price is to incur the unnecessary hazards of time and distance.
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP 25
Large producing districts must extend their distribution beyond
the local markets, but even these sections should work from the point
of production outward and should use available markets in the order
in which they occur geographically. To go beyond usual available
markets with the idea of betterment on a sale is to take the risk of
poorer condition on delivery, of decline in prices from changing market
conditions, and of adding to the cost of delivery. When the net
return from a shipment to a distant market is equal only to the net
return that could have been received from a near-by sale, the shipper
is a loser to the extent that he has increased his risks in transit. It is
conceded that the larger consuming centers afford better prices during
certain seasons; and long-distance deliveries are justifiable at such
times because of the increased net return, but this condition does not
exist at all times.
The producer of strawberries is better equipped for marketing
activities when he is familiar with the distribution of his own and
competing State crops. To aid producers and shippers with reliable
information regarding the distribution of fruits and vegetables among
the markets of the country, the Department of Agriculture is fur-
nished by the railroads with data on carload unloads of the several
commodities on 79 of the important markets. Ten of these markets
are situated in strawberry-producing areas and did not report any
carload receipts of strawberries during 1926, but during that year 69
of the markets (Table 7) reported the unloading of practically 74 per
cent of the total carload shipments of strawberries in the United States,
and a study of that carload distribution among those markets will
show the value of the unload reports as a marketing guide for all sec-
tions engaged in the strawberry industry.
There are certain strawberry-producing districts that are favorably
situated near large consuming centers which furnish an outlet for a
large part of the crop. This causes a decrease in the proportion of
the production that is shipped in carloads to distant markets as com-
pared with districts situated farther from the market centers.
(Fig. 6.)
The distribution of strawberries from States of origin, as discussed
in the following paragraphs, is based on the unload reports from the
69 markets, supplemented by all available data on carload destina-
tions of strawberries furnished by the railroads. The term '' average "
as here used refers to the average for the period from 1920 to 1926,
inclusive, unless otherwise stated,
26
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 7. — Distribution of carload shipments of strawberries from State of origin as
indicated by time of arrivals on 69 markets, season 1926 ^
State and market
Febru-
ary
March
April
May
June
July
August
teraber
Total
Florida:
Cars
Cars
1
30
34
3
Cars
Cars
Cars
Cars
Cars
Cars
Cars
I
4
8
4
1
1
1
40
7
3
1
42
C^\\\otiart
2
40
P'lTipinnjiti
4
1
>JftW York
20
8
110
38
11
10
180
Philftdelnhia
53
Pittsbureh
14
Wilkes-Barre
1
Total -
32
227
66
12
337
California:
Denver
1
6
1
12
7
El Paso
1
2
7
6
16
2
21
PnrtlnnH OrPP
6
Seattle
2
2
6
24
Spokane
4
Total
6
32
25
63
Alabama:
Akron
1
3
10
6
6
77
23
45
30
4
6
29
22
10
16
1
1
1
Atlanta
2
2
5
3
6
15
11
Chicago
6
Cincinnati
19
5
6
102
Cleveland
28
2
47
30
Detroit
6
10
"R.vnTissvillft
6
TnHianannlis
8
5
1
4
37
T.miisvillfi
2
1
29
Pittsburgh
12
Toledo
20
Wilkes-Barre
1
Williamsport- .
1
Total
56
290
15
361
Louisiana:
3
4
10
59
5
25
201
13
25
6
8
4
8
55
4
5
7
8
11
Paltimnrfi
10
Boston
69
2
13
408
1
129
7
88
Chicago
9
618
Cinpinnftt.i
13
Cleveland
14
3
21
5
7
130
4
3
5
6
8
1
11
17
2
56"
20
1
1
65
1
20
8
39
9
Dallas
2
31
9
Des Moines
15
Detroit
3
188
Duluth
8
3
El Paso
2
3
3
1
17
24
7
Fort Worth
9
Grand Rapids
11
Hartford
2
28
41
Los Angeles
'
2
Louisville
7
20
18
6
2
122
9
11
2
2
9
76
38
Newark
7
New Haven
3
New York . ...
187
Oklahoma City
10
Omaha
31
Peoria
10
1 All cities in Pennsylvania other than Philadelphia and Pittsburgh are reported by the Bureau of
Markets, Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture,
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP
27
Table 7. — Distribution of carload shipments of strawberries from State of origin as
indicated by time of arrivals on 69 markets, season 1926 — Continued
State and market
Febru-
ary
March
April
May
June
July
August
Sep-
tember
Total
Louisiana— C ontinued .
Philadelphia
Cars
Cars
Cars
48
31
6
10
5
33
7
Cars
15
37
2
6
15
31
10
1
7
Cars
Cars
Cars
Cars
Cars
63
Pittsburgh
68
Portland, Me
8
Providence
16
20
St. Louis
64
St Paul
17
San Antonio
1
3
10
1
1
Sioux City
8
12
10
4
6
4
5
17
11
13
Springfield, Mass
29
Syracuse
21
Toledo
4
Washington
6
Wilkes-Barre
4
Worcester . _ . .
1
22
1
Youngstown
22
Total
864
1,093
18
1,975
, _ _
Mississippi:
Birmingham
1
3
3
1
4
6
1
3
5
7
2
1
1
1
1
Boston
3
Chicago
2
5
Cincinnati
1
Cleveland
4
Columbus
6
Dayton.
1
Detroit
1
4
Duluth
6
7
LouisviUe
2
Milwaukee
1
2
Pittsburgh
1
Providence
1
Rochester
1
1
St Louis
1
1
Syracuse.-'
i
1
Terre Haute
2
2
Total-
2
41
5
48
North Carolina:
AUentown .
5
9
5
5
Albany...
1
10
Altoona
5
Atlanta...
1
1
Baltimore .
20
129
5
33
1
3
7
13
1
6
60
440
1
195
17
23
10
1
7
9
6
1
37
11
3
4
20
Boston.. . ...
4
3
136
Bridgeport
5
Buffalo
33
Cincinnati
1
Dayton
1
4
Harrisburg
7
Hartford
13
Indianapolis
1
New Haven
6
Newark
3
5
63
New York City
4
449
Norfolk
1
Philadelphia
6
1
201
Pittsburgh
17
Providence.
1
24
Portland, Me...
10
Richmond...
1
Rochester
7
Scranton
g
Sjni^cuse
6
12
Toledo
1
Washington
37
Wilkes-Barre. -.-
11
Williamsport
3
Worcester
4
Total
18
1,062
17
1,097
-.—.
28 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, XT. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 7. — Distribution of carload shipments of strawberries from State of origin as
indicated by time of arrivals on 69 markets, season 1926 — Continued
State and market
Febru-
ary
March
April
May
June
July
August
Sep-
tember
Total
Bouth Carolina:
Bethlehem
Cars
Cars
Cars
Cars
Cars
1
1
1
Cars
Cars
Cars
Cars
1
1
1
1
6
3
1
1
2
1
1
2
2
Newark
1
1
New York City
1
6
Philadelphia
'
2
5
1
Portland, Me
■
1
Syracuse
1
2
4
Washington - -
1
Wilkes-Barre
1
Total
!
2
18
6
25
Texas:
8
8
1
6
1
Fort Worth
3
4
1
7
12
Indianapolis _ _ .
Kansas City
1
Oklahoma City
1
4
1
Total
3
24
8
35
Arkansas:
1
1
48
1
14
82
36
3
1
40
24
38
13
3
7
10
52
10
69
14
3
1
29
5
.47
1
6
86
36
3
2
15
4
1
10
2
13
1
1
Boston
3
51
Bridgeport
1
Buffalo
■
14
15
97
Cleveland
36
Columbus
3
Dallas
3
5
4
Denver - -
45
Des Moines
24
Detroit
8
3
1
3
46
Duluth
16
Fort Worth
4
Grand Rapids
10
Indianapolis .
10
Kansas City
7
4
6
59
Milwaukee
14
Minneapolis
75
New York City
14
New Haven.
3
Oklahoma City
4
7
5
Omaha
36
Peoria
5
Pittsburgh
5
52
Portland, Me _ .
1
Rochester, N. Y
6
St. Louis
2
4
88
St Paul
40
Scranton
3
Shreveport ._ _. .
2
Sioux City
15
Springfield, Mass
4
, Syracuse
1
Toledo
2
12
Wilkes-Barre
2
Worcester
13
Total
731
82
813
1
Delaware:
Akron.
1
12
4
69
53
15
3
7
4
5
15
7
1
Albany
12
Altoona.
1
5
Boston
59
Buffalo
2
55
Cleveland ...
15
Cnlnmhiis
3
Detroit
1
8
Easton-Phillipsburg
4
Erie
5
Hartford .
15
Newark
7
OEIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP
29
Table 7. — Distribution of carload shipments of strawberries from State of origin as
indicated by time of arrivals on 69 markets, season 1926 — Continued
State and market
Febru-
ary
March
April
May
June
July
August
Sep-
tember
Total
Delaware— Continued .
Cars
Cars
Cars
Cars
Cars
16
61
3
27
28
24
7
10
21
2
5
7
2
Cars
Cars
Cars
Cars
16
New York City
2
63
Philadelphia
1
Pittsburgh
3
Portland, Me
4
31
Providence
28
Rochester
24
Scranton
7
Springfield, Mass
10
Syracuse
1
22
Wilkes-Barre
2
Williamsport
5
7
Youngstown
2
Total
11
399
410
Illinois:
Akron
1
111
4
2
2
1
21
132
4
Detroit
2
Milwaukee
2
Alinneapolis
1
3
1
11
14
Total
25
131
156
Virginia:
17
4
7
184
32
5
20
6
2
3
54
4
23
Allentown
6
Altoona
10
238
36
Bridgeport
5
Buffalo
7
1
2
4
4
1
5
27
Detroit
1
Easton-Phillipsburg
5
7
9
6
27
7
270
17
24
6
1
21
2
6
8
2
13
17
18
11
1
7
Erie
11
Harrisburg
13
Hartford
7
Newark
32
7
New York City
11
281
Norfolk
17
Philadelphia
2
5
26
Pittsburgh..
11
Portland, Me
1
Prouidence
2
2
2
4
5
23
Reading
4
7
10
Springfield, Mass
6
Syracuse
18
17
Wilkes-Barre
13
31
Williamsport
11
Worchester
3
4
Total
747
143
890
Kentucky:
1
7
1
11
6
74
31
48
16
4
82
1
3
20
8
1
2
2
8
Atlanta
Buffalo
1
2
10
2
12
Boston
8
84
Cincinnati-
33
Cleveland
48
Columbus
2
18
Dayton
4
Detroit
82
Duluth
Erie
3
Grand Rapids
20
Indianapolis
1
9
Louisville
M ilwaukee
1
3
Minneapolis
2
Peoria
1
1
30
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUKE
Table 7. — Distribution of carload shipments of strawberries from State of origin as
indicated by time of arrivals on 69 markets, season 1926 — Continued
State and market
Febru-
ary
March
April
May
June
July
August
Sep-
tember
Total
Kentucky— Continued.
Pittsburgh
Cars
Cars
Cars
Cars
Cars
41
2
9
2
6
2
3
16
Cars
Cars
Cars
Cars
41
T'roviflftnpfl
1
2
3
Rochester. N. Y
11
Springfield, Mass
2
6
Toledo
2
Worcester
3
Youngstown
16
Total
24
398
422
Maryland:
Albany -
1
12
7
41
226
14
47
11
13
Altoona -
7
Baltimore
12
53
7
8
1
1
53
279
Bridgeport
21
Buffalo
55
Cleveland
12
1
Detroit
5
5
Easton-Phillipsburg
1
1
1
Erie
6
1
19
1
1
10
7
177
6
33
30
33
28
12
21
15
5
14
2
13
7
Harrisburg
1
Hartford
17
36
1
Johnstown
2
3
6
93
3
Newark
13
New Haven
13
New York City
270
Philadelphia
6
Pittsburgh
1
9
6
10
4
10
4
2
1
1
4
34
Portland Me
39
Providence
39
Rochester
38
Scranton
16
31
19
Toledo
7
Wilkes-Barre
15
Williamsport
3
Worcester
17
1
Total
258
798
1,056
Missoiu-i:
Akron
1
9
2
11
10
1
23
19
152
9
3
7
25
27
60
15
3
1
4
6
1
2
16
55
114
1
8
46
6
2
24
2
1
2
11
37
2
2
32
Buffalo
21
163
Cleveland
19
Columbus
3
Dallas
7
1
7
9
26
34
Detroit
69
Duluth
15
El Paso _
3
Erie
1
Port Worth
4
Grand Rapids
6
Hartford
1
Indianapolis
2
1
5
3
4
Kansas City
17
Milwaukee
60
117
New Haven
1
New York City.
8
Omaha
46
Oklahoma City
6
Peoria
2
Pittsburgh
24
Portland, Me
2
Providence
1
2
Rochester
2
St. Louis
2
1
13
St. Paul
38
San Antonio
2
ORIGIN AND DISTEIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP
31
Table 7. — Distribution of carload shipments of strawberries from State of origin as
indicated by time of arrivals on 69 markets, season 1926 — Continued
State and market
Febru-
ary
March
AprU
May
June
July
August
Sep-
tember
Total
Missouri— Continued.
Cars
Cars
Cars
Cars
1
Cars
5
35
2
6
8
14
7
1
Cars
Cars
Cars
Cars
6
Sioux City ._.
35
Springfield, Mass
1
3
Syracuse
Q
Scranton
8
Toledo
2
2
16
9
Youngstown
1
Total
71
763
834
Termessee:
Akron
16
2
8
24
Albany
2
1
5
2
2
Atlanta
5
Boston
27
1
25
160
80
29
45
25
19
2
13
3
29
11
2
1
1
6
1
28
7
9
5
5
1
7
6
6
22
1
3
8
29
Bridgeport
1
Buffalo
1
49
48
43
17
27
42
26
Chicago
209
Cincinnati .
128
Cleveland
72
Columbus
62
Dayton
52
Detroit
61
Evansville
2
Grand Rapids
3
16
Hartford .
3
Indianapolis
6
17
2
1
35
Louisville
28
Lexington
4
Milwaukee
2
New York City
1
Peoria-
6
Philadelphia
1
Pittsburgh..,
21
49
Portland, Me
7
Providence
9
Rochester
5
St. Louis
5
Sioux City
1
Springfield, Mass
7
Syracuse
6
Terre Haute
6
Toledo
24
4£
Wilkp«i-Barre
1
Worcester
3
Youngstown
4
12
Total..
607
321
928
Indiana:
Buffalo
1
1
26
1
20
1
Chicago..
26
Detroit..
i
1
Pittsburgh
20
Total
48
48
Iowa:
Chicago
26
1
8
26
Duluth
1
Milwaukee
8
Total
35
35
Kansas:
Minneapolis
1
1
New York:
Boston..
3
3
Newark
1
85
6
6
1
New York
81
2
1
1
3
1
166
Philadelphia
7
Pittsburgh
6
Portland, Me...
1
Rochester
3
Springfield, Mass
Syracuse
1
1
Total
92
97
189
1
32
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 7. — Distribution of carload shipments of strawberries from State of origin as
indicated by time of arrivals on 69 markets, season 1926 — Continued
State and market
Febru-
ary
March
April
May
June
July
August
Sep-
tember
Total
Massachusetts:
Cars
Cars
Cars
Cars
Cars
44
6
Cars
Cars
Cars
Cars
1
Boston
46
9
90
15
Total
51
55
106
Michigan:
61
38
56
17
107
Milwaukee
55
Total
89
73
162
New Jersey:
Boston
11
4
6
1
11
Prnviflftnnft
4
Sorinefleld
6
Worcester
1
Total
22
22
■
_. _. _.
Washington:
Minneapolis
1
1
St Paul
1
1
Total
1
1
2
Wisconsin:
Chicago
1
3
2
1
Duluth
9
1
12
Milwaukee
3
Total .
10
6
16
Oregon:
Los Angeles
1
1
1
1
Total
1
1
2
Maine:
Boston.
2
1
3
Pennsylvania:
Pittsburgh
8
8
Montana:
Chicago
6
6
1
12
Detroit
1
Total
6
7
13
Grand total _.
32
236
1,064
~5,023
3,445
243
7
7
10,057
ALABAMA
The Alabama market-strawberry acreages are scattered across the
State from its southern boundary northward. The State reported
1,380 acres as having been utilized for growing market strawberries
in 1920, and there was a steady upward trend of the acreages during
the period ended with 1926. The peak of the acreages planted dur-
ing the 7-year period was reached in 1924. A considerable decrease
occurred in 1925, but a part of this loss was regained in 1926. The
State cultivated an average of 2,879 acres for the 7-year period, which
was 109 per cent above the 1920 acreage.
Alabama has produced an average of 4,863,000 quarts of market
strawberries per year, which is equivalent to 482 cars with a capacity of
four hundred and twenty 24-quart crates each, which is the usual car-
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP 33
load from this State. Although 19 States produce larger strawberry
crops than does Alabama, the production of this State is a consider-
able factor in the market-strawberry trade because of the large pro-
portion of its production that is moved in carloads. These ship-
ments move an average of 84 per cent of the State crop, and the State
ranks eleventh among the strawberry-producing States in number of
carload shipments.
The average yield per acre of strawberries in Alabama is 1,689
quarts, which is 69 quarts below the average for the United States.
This yield is the second largest of the yields in the early-crop States
and is 146 quarts above the average for its group, which, other con-
ditions being equal, places Alabama in a strong position to compete
with other State crops that are encountered on the markets used.
Alabama is an early-crop State in which the marketing period
occurs usually between March 18, and June 8. The 1926 movement
began April 19, continued 46 days, and was terminated June 3.
This was a late start for shipments from this State, but as is usual in
such instances, the season was over on about the average closing
date. The greater part of the shipments of strawberries from this
State are unloaded on Ohio markets. These shipments arrive in
May, and meet in competition early-season shipments from Tennes-
see and Arkansas, and late-season shipments from Louisiana.
The Klondike, the principal market variety in southern Alabama,
is grown for the early crop in the northern parts, and the Aroma is
grown for the late crop.
Castleberry, Conecuh County, is the principal carload shipping
point for strawberries in Alabama.^
Keferences to Alabama are made in Figures 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, and
10, and in Tables 2 and 4.
ARKANSAS
The Arkansas market-strawberry acreages are divided between two
important districts. The principal district is part of the large Ozark
section, which is located along the western boundary of the State and
extends into southwestern Missouri. Another important district is
situated in White County, which is located in the central part of the
State. Arkansas reported 9,070 acres as having been utilized for
growing market strawberries in 1920. This acreage was increased to
14,240 in 1921 and in 1922 to 18,360. There was a decrease from the
1922 acreage in 1923, but in 1924 the plantings were again increased
to reach the peak for the period, which was 20,780 acres. There was
a considerable decrease from the peak during 1925 and 1926. Not-
withstanding these decreases, each year of the period shows a larger
acreage than was reported for 1920, and the total acreage planted
was equal to a yearly average of 15,499 acres, which was 71 per cent
above that of 1920. These acreages indicate an upward trend of the
industry in this State for the period.
1 The following publications list all strawberry shipping stations in the United States that ship 10 or
more cars per year:
United States Department of Agriculture. Bureau of Agricultural Economics. Carload
shipments of fruits and melons from stations in the united states for the calendar years
1920, 1921, 1922, AND 1923. U. S. Dept. Agr. Statis. Bul. 8, 79 p. 1925.
Carload shipments of fruits and vegetables from stations iw the united states fok
THE CALENDAR YEARS 1924, 1925. U. S. Dept. Agr. Statis. Bul. 19, 158 p. 1927.
95608°— 30 3
34 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Arkansas has a comparatively small average yield per acre (1,347
quarts), which discounts somewhat the importance of the large acre-
ages reported each season. The average yield is about 400 quarts
below the United States average and is the smallest among the
strawberry-producing States.
The State produces an average of 20,876,000 quarts of market
strawberries per year, which is equivalent to 2,071 cars with a capa-
city of four hundred and twenty 24-quart crates each, which is the usual
carload from this State. Arkansas ranks second in volume of market
production and moves about 64 per cent of the crop in carloads, which
places it third among the strawberry-shipping States in carload
shipments.
Arkansas is considered as a second-early-crop State. The market-
ing period occurs usually between April 14 and June 9. The 1926
movement began May 3, continued 39 days, and was terminated
Jime 8. The movement was late in starting, but the ripening period
ended on about the average closing date. Arkansas strawberries are
distributed among 37 of the 69 markets reporting strawberry unloads.
The markets shown unloaded about 59 per cent of the State shipments
during 1926. (Fig. 10.) Tennessee, North Carolina, Virginia,
Alabama, and Missouri market the larger part of their crop during
May in competition with Arkansas.
The Klondike is grown for the early crop in Arkansas and the
Aroma for the late crop.
Judsonia, Bald Knob, McKae, and Springdale in the order named
are the most important strawberry shipping points in Arkansas.
Keferences to Arkansas are made in Figures 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and
10 and Tables 2 and 5.
CALIFORNIA
The California strawberry acreages are scattered over most of the
State from its southern boundary northward. The largest district is
situated in Los Angeles County and the principal commercial (rail)
sections are in Sacramento and Imperial Counties. The State
reported 3,200 acres as having been utilized for growing strawberries
in 1920, and it cultivated about that number as the yearly average
during the period from 1920 to 1926, inclusive. The southern district
of California increased its average acreage about 32 per cent above
that of 1920 during the period, but other sections of the State reduced
their acreage 7 per cent.
California produces an average of 11,406,000 quarts of market
strawberries per year, which is equivalent to 1,462 cars with a capacity
ranging from twelve hundred to fourteen hundred 12-pint crates,
which is the usual carload in this State. California ranks seventh in
volume of strawberry production, but only about 14 per cent of the
crop is moved in carloads.
The average yield per acre in this State is 3,830 quarts in the
southern district and 3,224 quarts in other sections. These are the
largest average yields among the strawberry-producing States and
are usually the results of irrigation.
California is considered as both a second-early-crop and an inter-
mediate-crop State. The carload-shipping season occurs usually
OEIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP
35
between March 19 and May 31, but the trucking season extends over
a much longer period. The greater part of the carload shipments are
t^--^^^_^ ARKANSAS
-y
/a?^=I
^~IZ^
tTt^
^W
J"^
tn^H
sV
v^
^^
K
i*?
s
^
>. > / j 1 • —
^^\jj--^—j ••''
xh
J•^-^^
1^^^^^^^ FLORIDA
^^i^^
Dots represent markets report/ng unloads
Stars represent points of aria in
Figure 10. — carload strawberry Distribution from origin. 1926
The destinations indicated on this map are named in Table 7, which also gives volume and
months of arrival at each market.
unloaded on the Pacific-coast markets and meet little carload
competition.
36 TECHNICAL BtJLLETIN 180, tJ. S. DEPT. OP AGRICtJLTtJRE
The Marshall and the Oregon are the chief varieties of strawberries
grown in California. The Dollar is grown near Sacramento and the
Klondike to some extent, south of Fresno.
Brawley, Imperial County, and Florin, Sacramento County, are
the principal carload-shipping stations in the State.
Keferences to California are made in Figures 2, 3, 5, 9, and 10 and
Table 4.
DELAWARE
Strawberries are grown in nearly all parts of Delaware, but the
principal district is in the southern half of the State. The State
reported 3,720 acres as having been utilized for growing strawberries
in 1920 and an increase each year until the peak, 6,100 acres, was
reached in 1923. From the peak there was a drop to 4,900 acres in
1924, and in 1925 the low point of the period (2,600 acres) was
reached. There was an increase to 3,200 acres in 1926. The average
for the period was 4,289 acres, but there was a considerable downward
trend of the acreages of this State for the period as a whole.
Delaware has produced an average of 8,998,000 quarts of market
strawberries per year for the period, which is equivalent to 1,172 cars
with a capacity of two hundred and forty 32-quart crates each, which
is the usual carload from this State. Delaware ranks twelfth in order
of production among the strawberry-producing States, and ships
71 per cent of its crop in carloads. This places the State eighth in
order of carload shipments.
The average yield per acre of strawberries in Delaware is 2,098
quarts. This is about 257 quarts above the average of the inter-
mediate-crop group and 340 quarts above the United States average
yield.
Delaware is considered as an intermediate-crop State. It markets
its crop usually between May 14 and June 30. The 1926 movement,
began May 26, continued 32 days, and was terminated June 26.
The daily average shipments of strawberries from Delaware during
the flush of the 1926 season were above the average of the period as
a result of the short ripening season of a crop that was above the
average for the State. About 48 per cent of the carload shipments
from this State r.re marketed among the cities that report carload
unloads to the Bureau of Agricultural Economics.
The competition met by Delaware on the markets comes from June
shipments from Maryland, New Jersey, Missouri, Kentucky, Ten-
nessee, Indiana, New York, and Massachusetts.
Several varieties of strawberries are grown in Delaware: Howard 17
and Missionary are planted for the early crop and the Gandy, Joe,
Lupton, and Chesapeake for the late crop. Some Klondikes are
grown.
Selbyville, Bridgeville, and Millsboro in Sussex County are the
principal strawberry-shipping stations in Delaware.
References to Delaware are made in Figures 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and
10 and in Tables 2 and 5.
FLOMDA
There are two important market-strawberry districts in Florida.
Hillsborough and Polk Counties in the southern part of the State
form the earlier district and Bradford County in the northern part
produces a crop that is marketed somewhat later. The State reported
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP 37
1,190 acres as having been utilized for growing market strawberries
in 1920, and this acreage was reduced slightly in 1921, but an increase
in 3^early plantings began in 1922 and continued until the peak, 4,690
acres was reached in 1924. The acreage was reduced to 4,240 acres in
1925, and in 1926 it was reported as 2,980. Considering the acreages
cultivated by the State for the 7-year period as a whole, there was a
decided upward trend of the industry in this State. The average
acreage was 2,876, which was 142 per cent above that of 1920.
Florida produces an average of 5,542,000 quarts of market straw-
berries per year, which is equivalent to 825 cars of average-size ship-
ments from this State. Florida ranks seventeenth among the straw-
berry-producing States in volume of production and ships about 56
per cent of its crop in carloads. A large part of the remainder of the
crop is shipped by express to the large northern markets in containers
known as ^'pony refrigerators.'^ These shipments have a very wide
distribution.
The average yield per acre of strawberries in Florida is 1,927 quarts,
which is the largest yield in the early-crop group of States and is 169
quarts above the United States average.
Florida is an early-crop State from which the early movement
usually begins in December with less-than-carload shipments. The
carload movement often starts as early as January 1 and continues
for a period of about four months, ending usually during the last week
of April. The greater part of the carload shipments are unloaded on
the large northern markets, of which New York is the most important.
The State has little competition in marketing its crop from the begin-
ning of the movement until March. During March Louisiana enters
the markets and is a strong competitor of Florida to the end of the
season.
^ The Missionary is practically the only variety grown in the southern
districts of Florida, and is the chief variety in the northern part,
although a few Klondikes are grown there.
Plant City and Lakeland in the west-central part and Lawtey in
the northern part are the leading carload-strawberry-shipping stations
in Florida.
References to Florida are made in Figures 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, and 10 and
Tables 2, 4, and 5.
ILUNOIS
The Illinois market-strawberry districts are situated in the south-
central and extreme southern parts of the State. This State reported
3,210 acres as having been utilized for growing strawberries in 1920,
and a small increase was reported each succeeding year until the peak
was reached in 1924. There was a decrease from the 1924 acreage
during 1925, and in 1926 the decline continued. The State cultivated
an average of 3,317 acres for the 7-year period. This was about 3
per cent above the 1920 plantings and shows a slight upward trend
for the period as a whole.
Illinois produces an average of 4,992,000 quarts of market straw-
berries per year, which is equivalent to 495 cars with a capacity of four
hundred and twenty 24-quart crates each, which is the usual carload
from this State. Illinois is nineteenth in rank in volume of market
production and ships less than 50 per cent of its market crop in
carloads.
38 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The average yield per acre of strawberries in Illinois is 1,505, which
is 253 quarts below the average for the United States and 336 quarts
below the average of the intermediate-crop group of States, of which
this State is one.
The marketing period for Illinois strawberries usually occurs between
May 4 and June 26. The 1926 movement began May 19, continued
33 aays, and was terminated June 21. This was a late season for this
State, but the country in general had a late season during that year.
The greater part of the Illinois shipments are made in June to the
Chicago market and meet competition on that market with shipments
from Missouri, Tennessee, Arkansas, Kentucky, Indiana, Iowa, and
Michigan.
The leading varieties grown in Illinois are the Dunlap and Howard
17 in the northern part and the Gandy and Aroma in the southern
part. (Figs. 8 and 9.)
Villa Kidge, Pulaski, and Fayette are the principal strawberry
carload-shipping points in Illinois.
References to Illinois are made in Figures 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10.
INDIANA
The Indiana strawberry districts are situated in Clark and Floyd
Counties in the southeastern part of the State. The State reported
2,020 acres as havitig been utilized for growing market strawberries
in 1920. There was a slight downward trend in acreage in Indiana
from 1920 to the end of the period in 1926. The average cultivated
by the State for the period was 1,847 acres, which is about 9 per cent
less than the 1920 plantings.
Indiana produces an average of 3,145,000 quarts of market straw-
berries each year, which is equivalent to 312 cars with a capacity of
four hundred and twenty 24-quart crates each. The market produc-
tion of this State has little bearing on the general market as only
about 13 per cent is moved in carloads.
The average yield per acre of strawberries in Indiana is 1,703
quarts, which is 138 quarts below the average of the intermediate-crop
group of States, of which it is one.
The marketing period of Indiana occurs usually between May 15
and June 30. The greater part of the shipments from this State
are unloaded on the Chicago and Pittsburgh markets during June
in competition with shipments from Tennessee, Maryland, Missouri,
and Kentucky.
The Gandy, Dunlap, Howard 17, and Aroma are the most important
varieties grown in Indiana.
References to Indiana are made in Figures 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, and 10,
and in Table 5.
IOWA
The Iowa market-strawberry district is situated in the extreme
southeastern part of the State, in Lee County. The State reported
2,590 acres as having been utilized for growing market strawberries
in 1920 and an increase each year until the peak was reached in 1923.
From the peak of 3,300 acres in 1923 there was a decrease to 2,850
acres in 1926, which made the average 2,860 acres for the 7-year period.
This average was 10 per cent above the 1920 acreage and shows a
slight upward trend of the acreages of this State for the period.
H;
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP 39
Iowa produces an average of 4,762,000 quarts of market strawber-
ries per year, which is equivalent to 472 cars with a capacity of
four hundred and twenty 24-quart crates each. Iowa ships about 13
per cent of its crop in carloads; that is, about 59 cars.
The average yield per acre of strawberries in Iowa is 1,665 quarts,
which is 93 quarts below the average for the United States and 176
quarts below the average of the intermediate-crop group of States,
of which it is one.
The marketing period of Iowa occurs usually between May 24
d June 28. The greater part of the Iowa carload shipments are
nloaded on the Chicago and Milwaukee markets in June and come
into competition with shipments from Missouri, Kentucky, Indiana,
Illinois, Tennessee, and Arkansas.
The Dunlap is the chief variety of strawberry grown in Iowa.
Keokuk and Montrose are the principal strawberry-shipping sta-
tions.
References to Iowa are made in Figures 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 10, and
in Table 5.
KANSAS
The Kansas strawberry acreages are located in the northeastern
part of the State, the larger part being in Doniphan County. The
average plantings from 1920 to 1926 were 574 acres, but there was a
considerable increase during the last three years, which show an aver-
age of 943 acres.
The average production of Kansas has been 941,000 quarts per year,
which is equivalent to 109 cars with a capacity of seven hundred and
twenty 24-pint crates, which is the usual carload from this State.
The increase in the industry during the last three years of the period
indicates a much larger production than the average for the period.
The average yield per acre of strawberries in Kansas is 1,639
quarts, which is 119 quarts below the average for the United States.
Kansas is a late-crop State which markets its crop in June. Only
about 12 per cent of the crop is moved in carloads; in 1926 but one
car was reported as received from Kansas and that was delivered to
Minneapolis.
The Aroma is the chief variety grown for market.
References to Kansas are made in Figures 2, 3, 5, and 11.
KENTUCKY
The Kentucky strawberry districts are located along the southern
boundary of the western part of the State and in the vicinity of
Louisville in the north-central part. The State reported 3,440 acres
as having been utilized for growing market strawberries in 1920 and
an increase for each of the following years until the peak (5,080 acres)
was reached in 1923. There was a reduction to 4,370 acres in 1924,
and, in 1925, the acreage was reduced to 4,260, but an increase to
4,790 acres was made in 1926. The average of these changing acre-
ages for the period was 4,380 acres, which was 27 per cent above the
1920 plantings. As a whole, the period shows a slight upward trend
in the strawberry industry of this State from 1920 to 1926, inclusive.
Kentucky produces an average of 7,016,000 quarts of market
strawberries per year, which is equivalent to 696 cars with a capacity
40 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, tJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
|.^^~,^^^^^^KENTUCKY
f
At-Z J -^[C^A
V ( / / —
V-T^TJW^
\ \ /— i-^
] \Mt^
^^
|^f^~^^_^_^ MISSISSIPPI
n
(t5=p^
fe
^
w
m
3
\ \i~~4— — _
\
\ )/ "~i Y~t
-^^
h
^
£>of5 represent markets reporting unloads
Stars represent points of oricfin
Figure 11.— Carload Strawberry Distribution by origin, 1926
These distributions represent only that part of the crop which was reported as unloads at the markets
involved. Stations in some States report the shipment of cars to other markets, but no report oi
their arrival at ^hQse jparkets js received by the Pepartment of Agriculture from the railroads,
ORIGIN AND BISTKIBtJTION, STRAWBERRY CROP 41
of four hundred and twenty 24-quart crates, which is the usual load
from this State. Kentucky is fifteenth in order of rank in production
of market strawberries, but as 74 per cent of the crop is marketed in
carloads, its production is an important factor among the larger
markets. The State ranks ninth among the strawberry-producing
States in number of carload shipments.
The average yield per acre of strawberries in Kentucky is 1,602
quarts, which is 156 quarts below the average for the United States
and 239 quarts below the average of the intermediate-crop group of
States.
The marketing period of Kentucky occurs usually between May 5
and June 15. The 1926 strawberry season in Kentucky was of
short duration. Shipments were not begun until May 24, which is
a late date for the State, the movement was continued for 20 days
only, and was terminated June 12. About 61 per cent of Kentucky
carload shipments are unloaded on 26 of the markets that report their
receipts to the Bureau of Agricultural Economics. The greater
part of the shipments are made in June and come into competition
on the markets with shipments from Tennessee, Maryland, Missouri,
Delaware, Alabama, Arkansas, Illinois, and Michigan.
The Aroma is the principal variety grown in Kentucky, though the
Gandy is grown to some extent. The Aroma is a medium-late berry
in this State and the Gandy is a late variety.
Paducah, Franklin, Bowling Green, Bristow, and Oakland are the
principal strawberry carload-shipping stations in Kentucky.
References to Kentucky are made in Figures 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and
11 and in Table 5.
LOUISIANA
The Louisiana market-strawberry acreages are situated in the
southeastern part of the State, in Tangipahoa, Livingston, and St.
Helena Parishes. The State reported 6,500 acres as having been
utilized for growing market strawberries in 1920, w^hich was in-
creased to 8,250 acres in 1921. The 1921 acreage was increased by
more than 3,000 acres in 1922 and an additional 3,000 was reported
in 1923. The 1924 acreage was practically the same as that reported
for 1923, but a decrease of more than 4,000 acres was reported for
1925. The peak acreage of this State for the period was reached in
1926, when the plantings were increased to 18,500 acres. The
average for the period was 12,014 acres, which was 85 per cent above
the number reported in 1920. The trend of the industry in this State
was decidedly upward from 1920 to the end of 1926.
Louisiana produces an average of 17,240,000 quarts of market
strawberries per year, which is equivalent to 1,842 cars with a
capacity of 9,360 quarts, which is estimated as an average car for this
State. Some cars shipped from Louisiana carry seven hundred and
twenty 24-pint crates and others four hundred and twenty 24-quart
crates. Louisiana is fourth among the strawberry-producing States
in volume of production and first among the early-crop group of
States. The carload shipments from Louisiana represent about 83
per cent of the production and have equaled 1,527 cars each year,
which places the State second in rank among the strawberry-shipping
States in number of carload shipments.
42 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The average yield per acre of strawberries in Louisiana is 1,435
quarts, which is 323 quarts below the average of the United States
and 108 quarts below the early-crop group average.
Louisiana is an early-crop State in which the marketing period
occurs usually between March 2 and May 29. The 1926 movement
began March 27, continued 64 days, and was terminated May 29.
This was a late start for the early shipments from this State, but the
ripening period was shortened, and the season closed May 29. During
1926, 50 of the 69 markets reporting strawberry unloads received
shipments from Louisiana. The greater part of these shipments
were received during April and May and represented more than 84
per cent of the State shipments for the season. Shipments from
Louisiana usually meet only limited competition on the markets
during April, but during May shipments from this State have to
compete for sale with the bulk of the shipments that originate in
Tennessee, Missouri, Kentucky, North Carolina, Arkansas, Virginia,
Maryland, Mississippi, and Alabama.
The Klondike is the principal variety grown in Louisiana.
Albany and Denham Springs, Livingston Parish; Montpelier,
Saint Helena Parish; and Amite, Hammond, Independence, and
Ponchatoula in Tangipahoa Parish, are important strawberry-shipping
stations in Louisiana.
Keferences to Louisiana are made in Figures 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 11,
and Tables 2 and 5.
MAINE
Maine cultivated 714 acres of strawberries in 1924, according to
the 1925 agricultural census report. Information for other years of
the period is not available. The acreages reported for 1924 are located
in the southeastern part of the State. During July and August of
the 1926 season Maine shipped 3 carloads of strawberries to the
Boston market.
MARYLAND
The chief market-strawberry acreages of Maryland are situated in
the counties on the east side of Chesapeake Bay which are part of the
territory known commercially as the Eastern Shore district. The
State reported 7,910 acres as having been utilized for growing market
strawberries in 1920, and an increase during each of the following
years until the peak, 11,080 acres, was reached in 1924. There was
a decrease to 9,100 acres in 1925, but this acreage was increased to
10,650 acres in 1926. The average cultivated for the 7-year period
was 9,524 acres, which is 20 per cent above the 1920 acreage. These
acreages indicate that there was a slight but steady upward trend
of the strawberry industry of Maryland from 1920 to 1926.
Maryland produces an average of 20,328,000 quarts of market
strawberries per year, which is equivalent to 2,647 cars with a capacity
of two hundred and forty 32-quart crates, which is the usual carload
from this State. Maryland ranks third among the States in volume
of strawberry production. Only 55 per cent of the crop is moved in
carloads, but there is a large additional movement by truck which
includes the greater part of the remainder and makes the State
second only to Tennessee in volume of market deliveries.
The average yield per acre of strawberries in Maryland is 2,134
quarts, which is 376 quarts above the United States average and
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP 43
293 quarts above the average of the intermediate-crop group of
States, of which Maryland is one.
The marketing period of Maryland occurs usually between May 2
and June 21. The 1926 movement began May 19, continued 36
days, and was terminated June 23. Thirty-one of the sixty-nine
markets that furnish carload-unload reports of strawberries were
included in the distribution of Maryland strawberries in 1926. The
shipments to these markets represented about 73 per cent of the
carload movement from the State. About 76 per cent of the Mary-
land carload shipments are made in June and come into competition
on the markets with shipments from Delaware, Virginia, Missouri,
New Jersey, Tennessee, New York, Kentucky, North Carolina,
Massachusetts, Arkansas, Illinois, and Indiana.
Several varieties are grown in Maryland, but the Howard 17 and
Missionary for the early crop, and the Lupton, Chesapeake, Joe,
and Gandy, for the late crop are extensively planted.
Marion, Pittsville, Fruitland, and Berlin are important strawberry
carload-shipping stations in Maryland.
References to Maryland are made in Figures 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and
11 and in Tables 2 and 5.
MASSACHUSETTS
Massachusetts has produced and shipped an average of 80 carloads
of strawberries per year from 1920 to 1926, inclusive. This infor-
mation is furnished by the market-unload reports made to the Bureau
of Agricultural Economics. Acreage, yield, and other data for this
State are not available in the commercial records at the present
time. The 1924 agricultural census reported 1,373 acres of straw-
berries scattered over a large part of the State.
During the 1926 season, a total of 106 cars of Massachusetts
strawberries were among the reported receipts at Albany, Boston,
and Portland.
References to Massachusetts are made in Figures 1 and 10.
MICHIGAN
The Michigan market-strawberry acreages are located in the
Lower Peninsula in those counties that border on Lake Michigan, and
in the southeastern counties of the State. The State reported 5,900
acres as having been utilized for growing market strawberries in
1920 which was increased to 6,550 acres in 1921. There was a small
decrease in the acreages of 1922 and 1923, but there was an increase
to 7,790 acres in 1924, which was the peak year of the 7-year period.
There was a drop to 6,450 acres in 1925, and in 1926 the acreage was
reduced to 6,230 acres. The State cultivated a yearly average of
6,396 acres during the period, which was 8 per cent above the 1920
acreage. The plantings for the period indicate a slight upward trend
of the strawberry industry of this State.
Michigan produces an average of 9,194,000 quarts of market
strawberries per year, which is equivalent to 884 cars with a capacity
of six hundred and fifty 16-quart crates each, which is the usual
carload from this State. Michigan ranks tenth in order of volume
of production among the strawberry-producing States. Carload and
boat shipments represent about 44 per cent of the crop; the larger
part of the crop moves by truck.
44 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The average yield per acre of strawberries in Michigan is 1,437
quarts, which is 321 quarts below the average for the United States
and is the lowest yield among the late-crop group of States.
The marketing period of Michigan occurs usually between May 30
and July 31. The 1926 carload movement began June 15, continued
36 days, and was terminated July 20. Chicago and Milwaukee are
the only markets that reported carload receipts of Michigan straw-
berries in 1926. The June shipments from Michigan are sold in com-
petition with Arkansas, Tennessee, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky,
Indiana, and Iowa shipments.
Several varieties are grown in Michigan ; chief among them are the
Howard 17, Dunlap, Parsons (Gibson), and Gandy.
References to Michigan are made in Figures 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, and 11,
and Tables 2 and 5.
MISSISSIPPI
The Mississippi market-strawberry acreages are located in Panola
County, in the northern part, Lauderdale County, in the east-central
part; and in Covington and Harrison Counties, in the southern part.
The State reported 780 acres as having been utilized for growing
market strawberries in 1920 and there was little change in the reported
acreage for the three years following. In 1924 the plantings were
increased to 1,190 acres, and practically the same acreage w^as culti-
vated in 1925, but reports for 1926 show a reduction to 920 acres. The
State cultivated an average of 930 acres for the period, which was 19
per cent above the acreage of 1920. A comparison of the acreages
cultivated each year indicates that there was an upward trend of the
strawberry industry in Mississippi during the period.
Mississippi produces an average of 1,354,000 quarts of market
strawberries per year, which is equivalent to 134 cars with a capacity
of four hundred and twenty 24-quart crates each, which is the usual
carload from this State. The carload shipments have averaged
71 cars per year, which is about 53 per cent of the crop. Only two of
the market-strawberry States produce less than Mississippi.
The average yield per acre of strawberries in Mississippi is 1,456
quarts, which is 302 quarts below the average of the United States
and 87 quarts below the average of early-crop group.
Mississippi is an early-crop State in which the marketing period
occurs usually between March 25 and May 26. The 1926 movement
began April 21, continued 35 days, and was terminated May 25. A
large percentage of the carload shipments from Mississippi are made
in May and are distributed in small numbers among 18 of the markets
reporting carload unloads. These shipments meet in competition
with shipments from Alabama, Louisiana, North Carolina, Mary-
land, Virginia, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, and
Illinois.
The Klondike is the chief variety grown in Mississippi for market
purposes.
Sanford, Marion, and Batesville are the most important strawberry
carload -shipping stations in Mississippi.
Eeferences to Mississippi are made in Figures 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, and H
and in Tables 2 and 5.
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP 45
MISSOURI
The Missouri market-strawberry acreages are situated in the south-
western counties of the State, in the Ozark section. There are some
market acreages in the vicinity of St. Louis and Kansas City. The
State reported 5,420 acres as having been utilized for growing market
strawberries in 1920. An increase over the previous year was
reported for each of the following seasons until the acreage reached
14,030 acres in 1926. The yearly average was 10,051 acres for the
period, which was 85 per cent above the acreage of 1920. As Missouri
was the only State that increased its acreage over the previous year
during each season of the period, it developed the most consistent
upward trend of the strawberry industry among the States, although
its percentage of average increase was exceeded by several States.
Missouri produces an average of 15,876,000 quarts of market
strawberries per year, which is equivalent to 1,575 cars with a capacity
of four hundred and twenty 24-quart crates, which is the usual car-
load from this State. Missouri ranks seventh among the strawberry
States in number of carload shipments, and fifth in production.
These shipments represent 68 per cent of the State production and
make the State a leading factor in the commercial strawberry markets.
The yield per acre of strawberries in Missouri is comparatively
small; the average of 1,580 quarts is 178 quarts below the average
for the United States and 261 quarts below the average of the inter-
mediate-crop group of States.
The marketing period of Missouri occurs usually between May 1
and June 20. The 1926 movement began May 19, continued 31 days,
and was terminated June 18. This was a short shipping season for
Missouri, and the carload movement was above the average for the
period. As a result the daily shipments during the flush of the 1926
season were far above the daily average for the period. More than
58 per cent of the carload shipments from Missouri were unloaded
among 40 of the markets which report unloads. A very large per-
centage of the carload shipments from Missouri are marketed in June
in competition with shipments from Tennessee, Kentucky, Illinois,
Delaware, North Carolina, Maryland, Virginia, Arkansas, New Jersey,
New York, Massachusetts, Indiana, Louisiana, Mississippi, Iowa,
Michigan, and Alabama.
Several varieties are grown in Missouri, but the principal one of the
Ozark section is the Aroma, though a few Klondikes are grown for
the early crop. In districts north of the Missouri River, the Dunlap
and Howard 17 are grown; south of the river, the Aroma, Gandy,
and Dunlap are planted.
Sarcoxie, Jasper County; Neosho, Newton County; and Anderson,
McDonald County, are important strawberry carload-shipping
points in Missouri.
References to Missouri are made in Figures 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and
11, and in Tables 2 and 5.
MONTANA
Montana produces a few cars of strawberries each year, which are
usually moved in August and September. In 1926 the State shipped
12 cars to Chicago and 1 car to Detroit. The chief variety grown is
the Progressive, an ever-bearing sort.
46 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUKE
The 1924 agricultural census reported 282 acres as having been
utilized for growing strawberries. These acreages are widely
scattered over the State. (Fig. 1.)
NEW JERSEY
The New Jersey market-strawberry acreages are scattered over
most of the State, but the principal district is situated in the southern
half. The State reported 5,230 acres as having been utilized for
growing market strawberries in 1920, which was gradually increased
each season until the peak (6,500 acres) was reached in 1924. The
acreage was reduced to 5,500 acres in 1925 and the same number of
acres was reported for 1926. The State cultivated an average of
5,620 acres per year for the period, which was about 7 per cent above
the 1920 acreage. A comparison of the acreages cultivated each
season indicates that the strawberry industry did little more than
hold its own in New Jersey during the period.
New Jersey produces an average of 9,177,000 quarts of market
strawberries per year, which is equivalent to 1,195 cars with a capacity
of two hundred forty 32-quart crates each, which is the usual carload
from this State. New Jersey is eleventh in rank among the straw-
berry-producing States in volume of production, but its carload
movement is relatively small, only about 23 per cent of the crop being
moved in that manner. The importance of the New Jersey straw-
berry crop is shown by receipts on near-by markets of truck and less-
than-carload shipments which move the greater part of the State
production.
The average yield per acre of strawberries in New Jersey is 1,633
quarts, which is 125 quarts below the United States average and 208
quarts below the average of the intermediate-crop group of States.
The marketing period of New Jersey occurs usually between May
12 and June 30. The 1926 movement began May 31, continued 25
days, and was terminated June 24. Only a small number of the
carload shipments from New Jersey are unloaded on markets that
report receipts to the Bureau of Agricultural Economics. The
remainder of the carload shipments are distributed among smaller
markets which do not report unloads.
Twelve varieties are reported as being grown in New Jersey, but
the Howard 17, Lupton, Aberdeen, Gandy, Chesapeake, Joe, and
Success predominate.
Cedarville, Cumberland County, is the principal strawberry carload-
shipping station in New Jersey.
Keferences to New Jersey are made in Figures 2, 3, 5, 7, and 11
and in Tables 2 and 5.
NEW YORK
The New York market acreages are situated in the Hudson Kiver
Valley, and along the shores of Lake Ontario and Lake Erie. The
State reported 3,720 acres as having been utilized for growing market
strawberries in 1920, which was increased during the following years
until the peak, 4,900 acres, was reached in 1924. This was reduced
to 4,400 acres in 1925, and 4,590 acres were reported for 1926. These
plantings represent a yearly average of 4,183 acres for the period,
which was 12 per cent above the 1920 acreage. A comparison of the
OKIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP 47
acreages cultivated each season indicates that the strawberry industry
of New York was on the upward trend during the period as a whole.
New York produces an average of 9,615,000 quarts of market
strawberries per year, which is equivalent to 1,253 cars with a capacity
of two hundred and forty 32-quart crates each, which is the usual
carload from this State. New York is ninth in order of volume of
market production among the strawberry-producing States. The
New York carload shipments are comparatively small; only about 22
per cent of the crop is moved in this way. A large part of the produc-
tion is moved by truck.
The average yield per acre of strawberries in New York is 2,299
quarts, which is 541 quarts above the United States average and
507 quarts above the average of the late-crop group of States.
The marketing period in New York occurs usually between May
30 and July 31. The 1926 movement began June 15, continued 39
days, and was terminated July 24. This was a late season for this
State. The greater part of the carload shipments from New York
are sent to New York City, but a few cars are distributed among the
other eastern markets.
Twenty varieties are reported as being grown in New York, of
which the Howard 17, Dunlap, Gandy, Glen Mary, and Late Stevens
are the leaders.
Germantown, Columbia County; Tivoli, Dutchess County; Rich-
land, Oswego County; and Marlboro, Ulster County, are the principal
shipping stations in New York.
References to New York are made in Figures 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and
12, and in Tables 2 and 5.
NORTH CAROLINA AND SOUTH CAROUNA COMBINED
The Carolina market-strawberry acreages are situated in one dis-
trict, which is located in the eastern part of the States and separated
by the State line only. The larger part of the acreage is located in
North Carohna. The States reported 1,970 acres as having been
utilized for growing market strawberries in 1920, which was increased
during each of the following years until a peak of 6,730 acres was
reached in 1924. A drop from the high point to 5,560 acres occurred
in 1925, and in 1926 the acreage was lov/ered to 5,380 acres. The
plantings for the period were equal to a yearly average of 4,491 acres,
which was 128 per cent above the acreage of 1920. A comparison
of the acreages cultivated each season indicates a decided upward
trend of the strawberry industry of these States for the period as a
whole.
The Carolinas produce an average of 10,973,000 quarts of market
strawberries per year, which is equivalent to 1,478 cars with a capac-
ity of two hundred and forty 32-quart crates, which is the usual
carload from these States. Seven States produce larger strawberry
crops than do the Carolinas, but as 85 per cent of the production is
moved in carloads, the two States together rank fifth in number
among the strawberry-shipping States.
The average yield per acre of strawberries in the Carolinas is 2,443
quarts, which is the largest among the market-strawberry-producing
States excepting California. This yield is 685 quarts above the
average for the United States and 702 quarts above the average of
48 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Dots represent markets reporting unloads
Stars represent points of origin
Figure 12.— Carload strawberry Distribution from Origin. 1926
The smaller volume shipped from certain districts is as important to those interest«d as are the
larger shipments from other sections.
vv
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBtJTION, STRAWBERRY CROP 49
the second early-crop group of States, with which these States are
classed.
The marketing period of North Carolina begins usually about April
7 and closes as late as June 29. The 1926 movement began April 24,
continued 47 days, and was terminated June 9. The South Carolina
movement occurs usually between April 16 and May 30. The
greater part of the strawberry shipments from these States are
unloaded on the eastern markets that report carload receipts to the
Bureau of Agricultural Economics. The largest movement is in
May and meets in competition shipments from Louisiana, Tennessee,
Arkansas, Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, Mississippi, Missouri,
Kentucky, and Alabama.
The Missionary variety is grown in the Wallace to Mount Olive
district and lOondike in the Chadbourn to Mount Tabor district.
Chadbourn, Mount Tabor, Rose Hill, Teacheys, Wallace, and
Rocky Point in North Carolina, and Loris in South Carolina are
important strawberry carload-shipping stations.
References to the Carolinas are made in Figures 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, and
12, and Tables 2 and 5.
OREGON
The Oregon market-strawberry acreages are situated in the
Willamette and Hood River Valleys, in the northwestern part of the
State. The State reported 2,970 acres as having been utilized for
growing market strawberries in 1920, which was increased to 3,560
acres in 1921, and about that number of acres was cultivated during
each of the three years following. In 1924 the acreage was increased
to 6,020, but a slight decrease was reported for 1925. The peak
acreage for the period was reached in 1926, when 7,320 acres were
reported. The average yearly acreage for the period was 4,677,
which was 57 per cent above the 1920 plantings. A comparison
of the acreages cultivated each season indicates an upward trend of
the strawberry industry of Oregon for the period as a whole.
Oregon produces an average of 8,640,000 quarts. of market straw-
berries per year, which is equivalent to 1,000 cars with a capacity of
seven hundred and twenty 24-pint crates, which is the usual carload
from this State. Oregon ranks thirteenth in volume of strawberry
production, but the carload movement (87 cars) has little influence on
general market supplies. A very large part of the Oregon strawberry
crop is barreled or canned. It is estimated that 10,000,000 quarts
were barreled and from 2,500,000 to 3,000,000 quarts were canned
during 1926 in this State and the State of Washington combined.
The average yield per acre of strawberries in Oregon is 1,847 quarts,
which is 89 quarts above the United States average and 55 quarts
above the average of the late-crop group of States.
The Clark is the chief variety grown in the Hood River district,
and the Gold Dollar, Magoon, Marshall, Wilson, and Oregon are
grown throughout the State.
The greater part of the carload shipments are from Hood River
station.
References to Oregon are made in Figures 2, 3, 6, 9, and 12 and in
Table 2.
95608°— 30 4
60 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPT. OF AGKICULTURE
PENNSYLVANIA
The Pennsylvania market-strawberry acreages are situated in the
western and southeastern parts of the State. The plantings of this
State have averaged 3,116 acres per year, which were rather evenly
distributed over the period from 1920 to 1926, inclusive.
Pennsylvania produces an average of 5,294,000 quarts of market
strawberries per year, which is equivalent to 689 cars with a capacity
of two hundred and forty 32-quart crates. Only about 2 per cent of
the crop is moved in carloads, and the shipments are usually from
Mercer County, in the western part of the State, and are destined for
Pittsburgh. The eastern strawberry district of Pennsylvania is in a
trucking belt which handles the greater part of the production.
From the last of May until early July is the usual marketing period
for Pennsylvania strawberries. Howard 17, Gandy, and Dunlap are
the chief varieties.
References to Pennsylvania are made in Figure 2, 5, 6, 8, 9, and 12.
TENNESSEE
The market-strawberry acreages of this State are situated in three
separate localities that are known commercially as north, east, and
west Tennessee districts. The State reported 11,090 acres as having
been utilized for growing market straw^berries in 1920, and a sub-
stantial increase w as reported for each of the years following until the
peak for the period (26,220 acres) was reached in 1924. The acreage
was decreased to 18,780 acres in 1925, and again, in 1926, to 13,730.
The total acreage for the period represents a yearly average of 17,744
acres, which was 60 per cent above the number cultivated in 1920.
A comparison of the acreages cultivated each season in Tennessee
indicates that, although there was a considerable decrease in the
1925-26 acreage, yet for the period as a whole there w^as an upward
trend of the strawberry industry of the State.
Tennessee produces an average of 27,528,000 quarts of market
strawberries per year, which is equivalent to 2,731 cars with a capacity
of four hundred and twenty 24-quart crates each, which is the usual
carload from this State. Tennessee ranks first in volume of produc-
tion and carload shipments among the strawberry-producing States.
Eighty-two per cent of the crop of this State is shipped in carloads
which indicates the extent to which the producers have to go to
outside markets for outlets.
The average yield per acre of straw^berries in Tennessee is 1,551
quarts, which is 207 quarts below the average for the United States,
and 190 quarts below the average of the second early-crop group of
States of which it is one. This comparatively small yield discounts
to some extent the production indicated each season by the large
acreages reported.
The marketing period of Tennessee occurs usually between April 21
and June 15. The 1926 movement began May 3, continued 33 days,
and was terminated June 11. This was a very late season in Tennes-
see as compared with other seasons of the period. Tennessee ship-
ments have a very wide distribution among the markets of the
mid-west, and reach also most of the eastern markets that report
carload unloads. The volume of the competition met on these
markets by Tennessee shipments originates during May and early
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP 51
June in Louisiana, Alabama, Arkansas, Missouri, Kentucky, Illinois,
Delaware, North Carolina, Maryland, Virginia, and Mississippi.
The Klondike, Aroma, and Gandy are the chief varieties in Ten-
nessee. The Ivlondike is planted for the earlier and the Aroma and
Gandy for later crops.
Dayton, Spring City, Kipley, Humboldt, Jackson, and Portland
are the principal carload-shipping stations in Tennessee.
References to Tennessee are made in Figure 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and
12 and Tables 2 and 5.
TEXAS
The Texas market-strawberry acreages are located in three districts
in the southeastern part of the State. The State reported 400 acres
as having been utilized for growing market strawberries in 1920, and,
although the strawberry interests of this State are comparatively
small, the trend of the industry was decidedly upward. The increase
in acreage for the period raised the yearly average to 746 acres by
the end of the 1926 season.
Texas produces an average of 1,011,000 quarts of market straw-
berries per year, which is equivalent to 108 cars with a capacity of
four hundred and twenty 24-quart crates each, which is the usual
carload from this State. The total market crop of Texas is small as
compared with those of other strawberry-shipping States, and only
about 29 per cent of the production is moved in carloads.
The average yield per acre of strawberries in Texas is 1,355 quarts,
which is a small yield in comparison with those of other States or
with that of the United States as a whole.
The carload-marketing period of Texas is uncertain each year as
scattering carload shipments were made at different times each season
of the seven years from 1920 to 1926, but all shipments were made
within the limits of March 19 and May 30. The greater part of
these shipments are unloaded on the markets of the mid-west.
The Klondike is the chief variety grown in Texas.
Pasadena, Harris County, is the principal carload-shipping station
in Texas.
References to Texas are made in Figures 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, and 12 and
Tables 2 and 5.
VIRGINIA
The Virginia market-strawberry acreages are located in two dis-
tricts— the Norfolk district, situated in the southeastern part of the
State, and the Eastern Shore district, on the peninsula east of Chesa-
peake Bay. The State reported 2,000 acres as having been utilized
for growing market strawberries in 1920, which was increased to
2,700 acres in 1921, to 5,000 in 1923, and to 11,360 in 1924. The
1924 acreage was the peak for the 7-year period. A reduction was
made in 1925 to 8,600 acres, which was continued in 1926 to 8,000
acres. The growth of the strawberry industry in Virginia exceeded
that of any other State during the seven years from 1920 to 1926.
The yearly average of 6,309 acres for the period represents a 215 per
j cent increase of the acreage of 1920.
Virginia produced an average of 15,191,000 quarts of market straw-
berries per yeai», which is equivalent to 1,978 cars with a capacity of
52 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, V. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
two hundred and forty 32-quart crates each, which is the usual carload
from this State. Virginia ranks sixth among the strawberry carload-
shipping States in volume of total market production, but as a large
percentage of the crop is moved by truck the carload movement is
reduced to about 59 per cent of the production.
The average yield per acre of strawberries in Virginia is 2,408 quarts,
which is the third largest yield among the States and is exceeded only
by California and the Carolinas. This yield is 650 quarts, or prac-
tically 37 per cent more than the United States average.
Virginia is classed as a second-early-crop State in which the market-
ing period occurs between May 1 and June 15. The 1926 movement
began May 11, continued 33 days, and was terminated June 12.
About 77 per cent of the carload unloads of strawberries from Virginia
are received on those markets which report unloads and are situated in
the Middle Atlantic and southern New England States. The volume
of the competition that is met by Virginia strawberry shipments is
greatest in May and originates in Louisiana, North Carolina, Ten-
nessee, Arkansas, Delaware, Maryland, Missouri, and Kentucky.
The Missionary is the chief variety grown about Norfolk, while
Heflin, Howard 17, and Missionary are grown about Onley, on the
Eastern Shore.
Onley, Malfa, Painter, and Makemie Park, in Accomac County;
Port Norfolk, in Norfolk County; and Bayyiew, Northampton
County, are the principal shipping points in Virginia.
Keferences to Virginia are made in Figures 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 12
and Tables 4 and 5.
WASHINGTON
The most important Washington market-strawberry acreages are
situated in the northwestern counties of the State. The State
reported 2,900 acres as having been utilized for growing market straw-
berries in 1920. There was a small increase in the acreages of 1921
and 1922, which was continued in 1923, when 3,770 acres were re-
ported. In 1924 the acreage planted was increased to 5,620 acres,
which was decreased to 5,430 acres in 1925 and again increased to
6,090 acres in 1926. The average yearly plantings for the 7-year
period were 4,276 acres, which is 47 per cent above that of 1920 and
indicates an upward trend of the strawberry industry of the State
for the period.
Washington produces an average of 7,983,000 quarts of market
strawberries per year, which is equivalent to 924 cars with a capacity
of seven hundred and twenty 24-pint crates, which is the usual car-
load from this State. About 10 per cent of the State production is
moved in carloads and a large percentage of the remainder is either
barreled or canned. The only data available regarding the quantity
of stock barreled and canned in Washington includes the Oregon
stock handled in the same manner. It is estimated that the two
States combined barreled 10,000,000 quarts and canned from 2,500,000
to 3,000,000 quarts in 1926.
The Marshall, Gold Dollar, Clark, and Ettersburg 121 are the
chief varieties grown in Washington.
References to Washington are made in Figures 2, 5, 9, and 12.
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP 53
WISCONSIN
The Wisconsin market-strawberry acreages are scattered over the
greater part of the State, but the carload-shipping districts are cen-
tralized in Bayfield, Door, Monroe, and Racine Counties. The
State reported 610 acres as having been utilized for growing market
strawberries in 1920. This acreage was not greatly changed until
1924, when it was increased to 2,040 acres. The acreage was reduced
to 1,840 acres in 1925 and 1,870 acres were reported for 1926. The
acreages cultivated during the last three years of the period indicate
a considerable increase in the strawberry industry of the State.
Wisconsin produces an average of 2,028,000 quarts of market
strawberries per year, which is equivalent to 176 cars with a capacity
of seven hundred and twenty 16 -quart crates, which is the usual
carload from this State. The average production was 276 cars for the
three years 1924-1926. About one-half of the market production of
this State has been moved in carloads.
The average yield per acre of strawberries in Wisconsin is 1,690
quarts, which is about 68 quarts below the average of the United
States.
Wisconsin is a late-crop State in which the marketing period occurs
usually between June 8 and July 25. A large percentage of the
carloads have been distributed in Duluth, Milwaukee, and Chicago.
The Dunlap, Howard 17, Warfield, and Progressive are the chief
varieties grown for market purposes in this State.
References to Wisconsin are made in Figures 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 12,
and in Table 5.
APPROXIMATE DISTRIBUTION FROM FIVE IMPORTANT DISTRICTS
EASTERN SHORE DISTRICT
The Eastern Shore district includes the State of Delaware and
those counties of Maryland and Virginia that are situated on the
peninsula that lies east of Chesapeake Bay. This section is the
largest market strawberry-producing area in the United States, and
it is estimated that production during 1926 reached 54,981,000 quarts,
which are equivalent to 7,159 cars with a capacity of two hundred and
forty 3 2 -quart crates, which is the usual carload from this section.
The distribution of the strawberry crop from the Eastern Shore
usually occurs between May 8 and June 25 and reaches a majority of
the larger and a great many of the smaller markets situated in the
territory extending northward from the point of origin to include a
number of Canadian markets and eastward from the central Indiana
markets to points in Maine.
Available records show that the equivalent of about 4,117 cars of
the usual capacity were distributed from the Eastern Shore during
the strawberry season of 1926. This distribution represented 3,031
cars shipped by rail and the equivalent of 1,086 cars by motor truck.
The rail shipments were distributed among 114 markets in the
United States and 8 markets in Canada. (Fig. 13 and Table 9).
The distribution by truck reached the markets in eastern Pennsyl-
vania, New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Connecticut, Maryland,
Massachusetts, and Washington, D, C, (Fig. 14 and Table 8.)
54
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 8. — Approximate distribution of Eastern Shore district carload strawberry
shipments by cities, season 1926 ^
Market
Esti-
mate
of de-
liveries
Market
Esti-
mate
of de-
liveries
Market
Esti-
mate
of de-
liveries
Akron, Ohio
Cars
1
2 48
26
222
6
4
8
2 291
26
33
2 374
7
4
2 26
2 137
15
1
67
2 27
24
1
4
4
2 14
9
7
1
2 12
17
17
223
15
2
12
2
1
15
2 14
2 58
Hazelton, Pa
Cars
2
\
1
23
6
3
1
3
4
1
1
8
1
6
20
6
1
3
39
3
252
4
2 36
5
2 614
2 17
11
1
6
1
13
4
11
6
4
233
3
2 48
8
271
290
Quebec, Canada
Reading, Pa
Cars
4
Albany N Y
Indianapolis, Ind
Ithaca, N. Y
24
Ridgway, Pa
3
Altoona, Pa
Jamestown, N. Y
Johnstown, Pa .
Rochester, N. Y...
Rockland, Me
2 69
Amsterdam N Y
4
Ashtabula Ohio
Keene, N. H
Rutland, Vt
3
Auburn, Me
Kenton, Del...
St. Johnsbury, Vt.
Salisbury, Md
4
Lawrence, Mass.
Lebanon, Pa
14
Saranac Lake, N. Y
Saratoga Springs, N. Y .
Schenectady, N. Y
Scranton, Pa
Bethlehem Pa
Lehigh ton. Pa
5
Binghamton, N. Y
Boston, Mass
Lewiston, Me
22
London, Canada
Lowell, Mass
233
Bradford, Pa
Selbyville, Del
1
Brantford, Canada
Mahonoy City, Pa
Malone, N. Y.
Shamokin, Pa
2
Bridgeport, Conn
Shenandoah, Va..
1
Buflalo, N. Y
Manchester, N. H.
Middletown, N. Y
Millsboro, Del
South Bend, Ind...
Springfield, Mass
Rnnhnry, Pa
1
Burlington, Vt
247
Canton, Ohio
1
Clayton, Del
Milton, Pa
Syracuse, N. Y
259
Cleveland, Ohio
Montreal, Canada
New Bedford, Mass
Newark, N. J. .
Toledo, Ohio...
27
Columbus, Ohio
Concord, N. H
Toronto, Canada..
Trenton, N. J
30
4
Corning, N.Y.
Newburg, N. Y
Troy, N.Y
20
Delmar, Del
New Haven, Conn
New London, Conn
New York, N. Y.
Norfolk, Va
Uniontown, Pa
1
Detroit, Mich
Utica,N.Y
15
Dover, Del
Wellington, N. Y
Washington, D. C.
Waterbury, Conn
Watertown, N. Y
Wheeling, W. Va
White River Jet. Vt
Wilkes Barre, Pa
Williamson, W. Va
Williams Park, Pa
Williamsport, Pa
WMnona, Canada...
Worcester, Mass
Wyoming, Pa
1
Dover, N. H _.
2 17
Dubois, Pa.
North Adams, Mass
North Bay, Canada
Norwich, Conn
24
Easton, Pa. - Phillips-
burg, N.J.
19
1
Edgemoor, Del
Oakville, Pa
4
Elmira, N. Y
Erie, Pa
Ogdensburg, N. Y
Olean, N. Y
2 48
1
Fall River, Mass
Oneonta, N. Y
1
Felton, Del
Ottawa, Canada
Paterson, N. J
2 19
Fitchburg, Mass.
3
Fort Wayne, Ind.-
Glen Rock, Pa
Philadelphia, Pa..
Phillipsburg, N. J
Pittsburgh, Pa
228
3
Glens Falls, N. Y
Youngstown, Ohio
Total
23
Pittsfleld, Mass
Harrisburg, Pa
Portland, Mq... ........
3,031
Hartford, Conn _
Providence, R. I..
The total carload shipments reported by the railroads from this district during 1926 were 3,201; from
Delaware, 671; Virginia, 1,136; and Maryland, 1,394, This table compiled from railroad destination reports
and unload reports from 69 markets for 1926 which include only 3,031 of the 3,201 cars shipped.
1 Includes Delaware and that part of Maryland and Virginia east of Chesapeake Bay.
2 Estimated from market unload reports which show State of origin, but do not show districts.
The truck loads were reported as ranging from sixteen to one hun-
dred and seventy-five 32-quart crates each. This range in size of
truck shipments allows the smaller markets to handle supplies direct
from the producing section instead of depending upon reshipments
from the larger centers which receive supplies in carload quantities.
These truck deliveries are reported by the receivers as being in better
condition than the usual rail receipts, and as good quality will usually
increase consumption, there is likely to be a considerable increase in
the future use of trucks for the delivery to market of strawberries.
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP
65
Distribution of Eastern Shore
Strawberries
Figure 13.— The Eastern Shore district is advantageously situated for the distribution of its crop
among the markets of the most densely populated area of the United States. The markets are
named in Table 8
Table 9. — Approximate autotruck distribution of strawberries from the Eastern
Shore district May IJ^to June 24, 1926 i
Destination
Philadelphia, Pa.*.
New York, N.Y..
Newark, N. J
Baltimore, Md
Wilmington, Del..
Trenton, N.J
Wyoming, Pa
Chester, Pa
Woodstown, N. J..
Easton, Pa.._
AUentown, Pa
Dover, Del
Washington, D. C.
Heading, Pa._
Bethlehem, Pa
Asbury Park, N. J
Hazelton, Pa
Wilkes-Barre, Pa_.
Lititz, Pa
Pottsville, Pa
Fredericktown, Pa
Norwalk, Conn
Pedricktown, N. J.
Frederick, Md
Paterson, N. J
Penns Grove, N. J
Shipments
Crates
Cars
130, 527
543. 86
72,094
300.39
17, 947
74.78
7,679
32.00
5,481
22.84
3,116
12.98
3,039
12.66
2,117
8.82
2,013
8.39
1,541
6.42
1,373
5.72
1,182
4.93
1,014
4.22
871
3.63
858
3.58
764
3.18
711
2.96
666
2.78
663
2.76
660
2.75
645
2.69
555
2.31
549
2.28
513
2.14
421
1.75
362
1.51
Destination
Lexington, Pa
Brooklyn, N. Y...
Felton, Del
Camden, N. J
Atlantic City, N. J
Boston, Mass
Harrington, Del—
Milford, Del
Fredonia, N. Y
Kenton, Del
Bridgeville, Del...
Hartly, Del
Darby, Pa
Pottstown, Pa
Middletown, N. Y
Woodbury, Pa
Lancaster, Pa
Pennsville, N. J._.
Mahonoy City, Pa
Jersey City, N. J..
Newburgh, N. Y..
Bridgeton, N. J
Perkasie, Pa
Cheswold, Del
Total
Shipments
Crates
314
298
261
256
210
204
165
150
150
147
142
136
128
101
101
100
100
97
67
65
65
27
18
16
Cars
1.
1
1
1
260, 679 1, 086. 16
1 Compiled from the Delaware State Highway Department records of truck passings at Bridgeville,
Dover, and Georgetown, Del.
2 Includes 2,840 crates in barrels.
MISSOURI AND ARKANSAS (OZARK DISTRICT)
Under this heading the Ozark district of Missouri and Arkansas and
the White County district of Arkansas will be discussed as a unit.
(Fig. 2.) Although the distribution reports from the Ozark district
56
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPT. OF AGKICULTtJKE
and the White County district are furnished to the Department of
Agriculture as separate units, the unload reports of 69 markets
Distribution of Eastern
SHORE Strawberries
byAutoTruck,I926
Stippled area represents area of production
• Shipping point
♦ Destination point
Figure 14.— This illustrates the extent to which the motor truck may be employed in the dis-
tribution of perishable commodities in sections provided with improved highways. The vol-
ume of these shipments is shown in Table 9
designate State shipments only, and, in order to check the unload
reports against the shipping reports, it is necessary to combine the
three. Table 10 represents the result of the combination.
ORIGIN AND WSTBIBUTION, STRAWBERKY CROP
57
Table 10. — Approximate distribution of Missouri and Arkansas carload strawberry
shipments, season 1926
Market
Aberdeen, S. Dak
Abilene, Tex
Akron, Ohio
Albany, N. Y.
Amarillo, Tex
Appleton, Wis
Auburn, N. Y
Bangor, Me
Battle Creek, Mich
Bay City, Mich
Bismarck, N. Dak
Bloomington, 111
Boston, Mass
Brandon, Canada
Brantford, Canada
Bridgeport, Conn
BufTalo, N. Y
Burlington, Iowa
Carroll, Iowa
Carthage, Mo
Casper, Wyo
Cedar Rapids, lowa..
C heyenne, W yo
Chicago, 111
Cleveland, Ohio
Colorado Springs, Colo
Columbia, Mo
Columbus, Ohio
Council Bluffs, Iowa_ .
Crawford, Nebr
Dallas, Tex
Danville, 111
Davenport, Iowa
Decatur, 111
Denver, Colo
Des Moines, Iowa
Detroit, Mich
Dixon, 111
Dodge City, Kans
Dubuque, Iowa
Duluth, Minn
Eau Claire, Wis
Eldorado, Kans
El Paso, Tex
Enid, Okla
Erie, Pa
Escanaba, Mich
Esterville, Iowa
Fairmont, W. Va
Fargo, N. Dak
Fitchburg, Mass
Flint, Mich
Esti-
mate
of de-
liveries
Cars
3
1
3
1
3
4
1
1
1
7
2
2
83
3
2
35
5
2
3
4
7
2
260
55
1
1
6
3
2
11
3
15
2
71
58
115
1
1
3
31
1
1
3
2
1
2
1
1
5
1
8
Market
Fort Smith, Ark
Fort Wayne, Ind
Fort Worth, Tex
Freeport, Ill._
Galesburg, 111
Grand Rapids, Mich
Green Bay, Wis
Hannibal, Mo
Hartford, Conn
Hastings, Nebr
Hays, Kans
Herrin, 111
Huron, S, Dak
Huron, Mich
Hutchinson, Kans
Indianapolis, Ind
Ishpeming, Mich
Jackson, Mich
Jamestown, N. Dak
Kalamazoo, Mich
Kansas City, Mo
Kearney, Nebr
Kewanee, 111
La Crosse, Wis
Lansing, Mich
La Prairre, Canada
Lincoln, Nebr
Logansport, Ind -..
Lowell, Mass
Mason City, Iowa
Malone, N. Y
Mankato, Minn
Marshalltown, Iowa
Menominee, Mich
Milwaukee, Wis
Minneapolis, Minn
Minot, N. Dak.
Mitchell, S. Dak
Monett, Mo
Montreal, Canada
New Bedford, Mass
New Haven, Conn
New York, N. Y
Norfolk, Nebr
North Bay, Canada
Ogdensburg, N. Y
Oklahoma City, Okla...
Omaha, Nebr
Ottawa, Canada..
Ottumwa, Iowa
Pittsburgh, Pa
Peoria, 111
Esti-
mate
of de-
liveries
Market
Esti-
mate
of de-
liveries
Cars
1
8
Ponce City, Okla
Portland, Me
Cars
7
3
8
1
Providence, R. I
Pueblo, Colo ...
2
7
5
Racine, Wis.
2
16
Regina, Canada
2
4
7
1
Rochester, N. Y
Rochester, Minn
Rockford, 111
8
1
4
6
Rock Island, 111
1
1
Saginaw, Mich ..
2
1
Salina, Kans
1
2
3
3
14
San Antonio, Tex
Saskatoon, Canada
SaultSte. Marie, Mich..
Scranton, Pa
2
1
2
11
1
Sherman, Tex
1
1
Shreveport, La
8
2
1
76
1
Sioux City, Iowa
Sioux Falls, S. Dak
South Bend, Ind
Spencer, Iowa
50
8
4
1
1
Springfield, 111. ..
3
2
Springfield, Mass
Springfield, Mo
7
3
1
11
St. Joseph, Mich
St. Louis, Mo.
2
ICl
1
St. Paul, Minn.
78
4
2
Stevens Point, Wis
Syracuse, N. Y..
1
7
1
Toledo, Ohio .
28
7
Topeka, Kans ..
5
1
1
Toronto, Canada
Trinidad, Colo
3
1
74
Tulsa, Okla
1
192
Utica, N. Y
3
2
2
Van Buren, Ark
Waterloo, Iowa
1
3
199
6
1
4
Watertown, N. Y
Watertown, S. Dak
Wheeling, W. Va
Wichita, Kans
2
1
1
15
22
2
Wilkes Barre, Pa
Williston, N. D
2
6
4
Winfield, Kans
3
1
11
Winnipeg, Canada
Winona, Minn
7
1
82
5
1
76
Worcester, Mass.
Youngstown, Ohio.
Total
22
1
2,064
7
This table compiled from railroad destination reports, and unload reports from 69 markets which show
destination for only 2,064 of the 2,809 cars shipped by Arkansas (1,375), and Missom-i (1,434) during 1926.
1 Diversion point from which the 99 cars shown were distributed, but the destinations not reported.
This combined territory is the second largest market-strawberry-
producing district in the United States. The district produced 2,204
cars with a capacity of four hundred and twenty 24-quart crates each
during 1920, which was increased to 4,209 cars in 1926. The average
production of Arkansas during the 7-year period was 2,071 cars and
that of Missouri 1,575 cars, which, combined, gives an average of
3,646 for the period from this district. The greatest growth o^ the
industry in this district was in Missouri, which increased its average
yearly acreage 85 per cent over that of 1920, whereas the acreage in
Arkansas increased only 71 per cent. The distribution of the straw-
berry crop from this district usually occurs between April 15 and
June 20, and the 2,064 cars moved during 1926 reached markets
58 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
scattered over the territory extending from Wyoming in the West
to Maine in the East and northward to Canadian markets. This
distribution includes practically the same territory as that from the
Eastern Shore district but extends farther westward, and the greater
part of the shipments are to points in the western part of the area
reached. (Fig. 15.) The distribution as shown reaches 143 markets
in the United States and 10 in Canada. The Missouri and Arkansas
movement occurs somewhat in advance of that from the Eastern
Shore, but the greater part of the shipments from both districts are
made during the same period.
DtSTRIBUTlON OF OZARK STRAWBERRIES
Based On £06<i ears
ihipptdin 1926
Figure 15. — The Ozark district has a wide distribution both east and west of the Mississippi River
and in Canada. The cars indicated for Monett (a division point) were undoubtedly forwarded to
other points but not reported
TENNESSEE-KENTUCKY
The five commercial strawberry-producing centers located in
Tennessee and Kentucky are included in this review. (Fig. 2.) The
latest available data on the distribution of the strawberry crop of
Tennessee-Kentucky are for 1924. These data include shipments
from north and west Tennessee and Kentucky only. Data on the
distribution from east Tennessee for that year are not available.
The combined production of Kentucky and the three Tennessee
districts is the third largest of the five large strawberry-producing
centers of the United States. These districts produced 2,380 cars
with a capacity of four hundred and twenty 24-quart crates each in
1920, and the average production was 3,427 cars per year until the
end of 1926. About 80 per cent of the total production of these
districts is Tennessee stock, and the remainder is from Kentucky.
The largest growth of the industry in these districts was made m
Tennessee, which increased its average production about 47 per cent
over that of 1920; the Kentucky increase was about 31 per cent.
The distribution of the strawberry crop from these districts occurs
usually between April 21 and June 15, and, although the average time
of movement is somewhat later than that from Missouri and Arkansas
and a little earlier than that from the Eastern Skore^ the larger part.
OEIGIN AND DISTEIBtrTlON, STRAWBERRY CROP
50
of the crops of the three districts are marketed at the same time.
Either through estabHshed business connections or habit or both,
a district uses practically the same markets for disposal of its crop
year after year; consequently, und^ normal seasonal conditions
shipments from the same districts meet in competition on the same
markets each season. A comparison of the distribution of shipments
from the Tennessee-Kentucky districts with the distribution of ship-
ments from Missouri-Arkansas and the Eastern Shore districts shows
that Tennessee-Kentucky shipments competed with Missouri-Arkan-
sas shipments on 74 markets and with the Eastern Shore shipments
on 44 markets.
The distribution during 1924 of 2,299 cars from the Tennessee-
Kentucky districts (east Tennessee not included) reached 142 mar-
kets in the United States and 4 markets in Canada. (Fig. 16.)
Table 11. — Approximate distribution of western Tennessee and Kentucky carload
strawberry shipments, season 1924^
Market
Aberdeen, S. Dak
Akron, Ohio
Albany, N. Y..
Alliance, Ohio.-
Altoona, Pa
Appleton, Wis
Ashland, Ky
Atlanta, Ga
Auburn, Me...
Aurora, 111
Battle Creek, Mich..
Bay City, Mich
Binghamton, N. Y...
Boston, Mass..
Bloomington, 111
Buffalo, N. Y..
Burlington, Vt
Cambridge, Ohio
Canton, Ohio
Carpentersville, 111...
Cedar Rapids, Iowa..
Centralia, 111...
Champaign, 111
Chicago, 111..
Cincinnati, Ohio
Cleveland, Ohio
Charleston, W. Va...
Columbus, Ind.
Columbus, Ohio
Conneaut, Ohio
Council Bluffs, Iowa
Cumberland, Md
Danville, 111
Davenport, Iowa
Dayton, Ohio
Detroit, Mich
Dixon, 111.
East St. Louis, 111
Effingham, 111
Elmira, N. Y
Elwood, Ind
Erie, Pa
Evansville, Ind
Fitchburg, Mass
Flint, Mich
Freeport, 111
Fort Wayne, Ind
Gainesville, 111..
Galesburg, 111..
Glens Falls, N. Y....
Esti-
mate
of de-
liveries
Cars
2
14
2
1
6
4
1
4
2
1
2
6
5
24
7
31
2
1
3
2
2
5
3
490
229
157
3
2
134
1
3
189
1
'31
4
7
1
7
1
3
5
2
12
1
Market
Grand Rapids, Mich
Green Bay, Wis
Greensburg, Pa
Hannibal, Mo
Hartford, Conn
Haverhill, Mass..
Herrin, 111
Huntington, W. Va
Huron, S. Dak..
Indianapolis, Ind
Ishpeming, Mich..
Ithaca, N. Y
Jackson, Mich
Jacksonville, 111
Jamestown, N. Y
Kalamazoo, Mich
Kankakee, 111
Kansas City, Mo
Kenosha, Wis
Kewanee, 111
Kewanna, Ind
La Fayette, Ind.^.
Lansing, Mich
La Salle, 111
Latona, 111
Lexington, Ky
Lima, Ohio
Logansport, Ind..
London, Canada
Louisville, Ky..
Madison, Wis
Manchester, N. H
Mansfield, Ohio
Marion, Ohio
Mattoon, 111
Milwaukee, Wis
Minneapolis, Minn
Mitchell, S. Dak
Moberly, Mo
Montreal, Canada.
Morgantown, W. Va
Mounds, 111
Mtmcie, Ind
New York, N. Y...
Norfolk, Nebr...
Ogdensburg, N. Y
Olean, N. Y
Omaha, Nebr..
Oneonta, N. Y
Oshkosh, Wis
Esti-
mate
of de-
liveries
Cars
15
3
1
6
4
1
3
1
2
2 19
1
8
6
4
32
1
5
3
1
2 78
42
12
2
1
12
2
2
8
1
1
1
1
8
1
Market
Ottawa, Canada
Ottumwa, Iowa
Parkersburg, W. Va..
Peoria, 111
Pittsburgh, Pa
Portland, Me
Providence, R. I
Quincy, 111
Racine, Wis
Robinson, 111
Rochester, N. Y
Rockford, 111
Rock Island, 111
Rockland, Me
St. Joseph, Mo..
St. Louis, Mo...
St. Paul, Minn.-
Saginaw, Mich
Saratoga Springs, N.Y
Schenectady, N. Y
Sioux City, Iowa
Sioux Falls, S. Dak...
South Bend, Ind
Springfield, 111
Springfield, Ohio
Steubenville, Ohio
Stevens Point, Wis...
Streater, 111
Syracuse, N. Y
Terre Haute, Ind
Toledo, Ohio..
Tolona, 111
Toronto, Canada
Troy, N.Y
Utica, N. Y
Vincennes, Ind
Wabash, Ind-
Wapakoneta, Ohio
Warren, Pa
Watertown, N. Y
Wheeling, W. Va
Wilkes-Barre, Pa
Wooster, Ohio...
Worcester, Mass
Youngstown, Ohio
Zanesville, Ohio
Total-.
Esti-
mate
of de-
liveries
Cars
1
2
1
7
119
10
19
2
5
1
16
3
1
2
1
14
9
2
5
5
16
6
4
2
1
1
2
3
5
1
92
2
10
11
2,299
The latest available data for this district are the 1924 destination and unload reports which include only
2,299 of the 3,369 cars shipped by these States that year. Destination data for eastern Tennessee shipments
for 1924 are not available.
1 Includes western Tennessee and Tennessee- Kentucky sections.
» Diversion point.
60
TECHNICAL BULLETIN ISO, TJ. S. DEPT. OF AaRICtrLTTJRE
DISTRIBUTION OF KENTUCKY ANDTENNESSEE
Strawberries
Figure 16.— This district includes nearly the same area in its distribution as the Ozark and
Eastern Shore districts, but centrahzes a large percentage of its shipments in near-by available
iparkets
LOUISIANA
Louisiana ranks fourth in production among the five large market-
strawberry districts of the United States. The industry of this State
is centrahzed in Tangipahoa, Livingston, and St. Helena Parishes,
and practically 6 per cent of the farm lands of those parishes are
utilized for growing market strawberries.
The Louisiana strawberry season follows closely that of Florida,
and during the early part of the season there is little competition from
other districts. The demand for strawberries at this time comes from
all parts of the country, and carload shipments from Louisiana were
sent to markets scattered over a territory that extends from Phoenix
in Arizona on the west to Portland in Maine, and from the point
of origin northward to Winnipeg and Montreal, Canada. This rep-
resents a wider distribution of carload shipments than that of any
other strawberry district. (Fig. 17.)
The approximate destinations of 2,208 of the 2,342 cars reported
as having been shipped by Louisiana in 1926 are named in Table 12,
and the distribution is illustrated in Figure 17- These shipments
reached 88 markets in the United States and 4 in Canada.
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP
61
Table 12.— -Approximate distribution of Louisiana carload strawberry shipments,
season 1926
Market
Bsti-
mat«
of de-
lireries
Market
Esti-
mate
of de-
liveries
Market
Esti-
mate
of de-
liveries
Aberdeen, N. Dak
Cars
2
11
8
10
4
2
2
129
7
3S
3
4
2
618
13
39
9
31
9
9
9
15
188
8
4
7
2
9
4
3
12
Grand Rapids, Mich....
Green Bay, Wis
Hartford, Conn
Cars
11
2
2
28
1
3
41
1
8
3
9
1
76
38
22
7
187
.J
31
i§
63
i
3
8
16
3
20
5
St. Joseph, Mo
Cars
2
Albany, N. Y
St. Louis, Mo
64
Akron, Ohio...
St. Paul, Minn
17
Baltimore, Md
Indianapolis, Ind
Jackson, Tenn
San Antonio, Tex
Schenectady, N. Y
Scranton, Pa ._
Battle Creek, Mich
13
Binghamton, N. Y
Kalamazoo, Mich
Kansas City, Mo
Lansing, Mich
10
Bloomington, 111
Shreveport, La...
1
Boston, Mass
Sioux City, Iowa
Sioux Falls, S. Dak
South Bend, Ind
Springfield, 111
Springfield, Mass
Springfield, Mo
13
Bridgeport, Conn
Lincoln, Nebr
16
Buffalo, N. Y
Los Angeles, Calif
Louisville Ky
^
Burlington, Vt .
1
Butte, Mont
Marshfleld, Wis
29
Cedar Rapids, Iowa
Milwaukee, Wis
Minneapolis, Miim
Montreal, Canada
Newark, N.J...
1
Chicago, 111
Syracuse, N Y
21
Cincinnati, Ohio
Toledo, Ohio
4
Cleveland, Ohio
15
Colmnbus, Ohio
Dallas, Tex
New Haven, Conn
New York, N. Y
Ogdensburg, N. Y.J
Oklahoma City, Okla...
Omaha, Nebr
Toronto, Canada
Troy, N Y
26
3
Davenport, Iowa
Tulsa, Okla
10
Decatur, 111
Utica, N. Y
6
Denver, Colo . -. .
Washington, D. C
Waterloo, Iowa.. . .
6
Des Moines, Iowa
Ottawa, Canada
Peoria, 111
1
Detroit, Mich
Wichita, Kans
6
Duluth, Minn
Philadelphia, Pa
Phoenix, Ariz
Wichita Falls, Tex
WiJkes-Barre, Pa
Winnipeg, Canada
Worcester, Mass
Youngstown, Ohio
Total
3
Easton Pa.-Phillipsburg,
4
N. J.
Pittsburgh, Pa
8
El Paso, Tex
Ponca City, Okla
Portland, Me
1
Flint, Mich
22
Fort Worth Tex
Providence, R. I
Racine, Wis
Glens Falls,'N. Y.'.""".'
2,2C8
Grand Forks, N. Dak...
Grand Island, Nebr
Rochester, N. Y
Rockford, 111
Compiled from the 1926 destination reports from the railroads and unload reports from 69 cities, which
include 2,208 of the 2,342 cars shipped from the State.
Distribution of Louisiana Strawberries
BostdoniOZd cars
shipped in 1926
Figure 17.— Louisiana produces strawberries at that season of the year when they are in demand
as an out-of-season commodity on most markets of the country. This demand, together with a
lackof competition from other producing districts, results in prices which justify wide distribution
62 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, IJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
THE CAROUNAS
The Carolina strawberry district ranks fifth in estimated produc-
tion among the large producing districts of the United States. The
railroads reported that 1,274 cars of strawberries were shipped from
this district during 1926. (Table 13.) New York State, Pennsyl-
vania, New England, Baltimore, and Washington markets receive
the greater part of the crop. (Fig. 18.) The peak of the Carolina
movement follows those of Louisiana and Alabama and precedes
that of Arkansas, but a large percentage of the crop from these four
districts is moving to markets during the same period. (Fig. 7.)
Table 13. — Approximate distribution of the North Carolina and South Carolina
carload strawberry shipments, season 1926
Market
Esti-
mate
of de-
liveries
Market
Esti-
mate
of de-
liveries
Market
Esti-
mate
of de-
liveries
Albany, N. Y ....
Cars
10
5
5
1
20
2
1
8
138
3
5
35
3
1
4
1
8
1
7
Hartford, Conn
Cars
13
2
1
1
1
64
6
455
1
2
1
2
206
17
11
25
1
2
7
Schenectady, N. Y
Scranton, Pa
Cars
2
Allentown, Pa
Hazelton, Pa
9
Altoona, Pa
Ithaca, N. Y
16
Atlanta, Ga
Indianapolis, Ind
Montreal. Canada
Newark, N J
Toledo, Ohio
1
Baltimore, Md
Toronto, Canada
Trenton, N. J
1
Bangor, Me . .
5
Bethlehem, Pa
New Haven, Conn
New York, N. Y..
Norfolk, Va .. .
Troy, N. Y
9
Binghamton, N. Y. ...
Utica, N. Y .
4
Boston, Mass
Washington, D. C
Water bury. Conn
Watertown, N. Y
Wilkes-Barre, Pa
Williampsort, Pa
Wilmington, Del
Worcester, Mass
Total
38
Brandford, Pa
North Adams, Mass
Ottawa, Canada
Petersburg, Va
1
Biidgeport, Conn
Buffalo, N. Y
1
12
Charleston, W. Va^
Cincinnati, Ohio .
Philadelphia, Pa
Pittsburgh, Pa
3
1
Dayton, Ohio
Portland, Me
4
Dubois, Pa
Providence, R. I
Richmond, Va
Elmira, N. Y
1,183
Glens Falls, N. Y
Harrisburg, Pa
Ridgway, Pa
Rochester, N. Y
Compiled from railroad destination reports and unload reports from
the 1,274 cars shipped by these States during 1926,
markets which include 1,183 of
DISTRIBUTION OF Carolina Strawberries
Figure 18.— About 68 per cent of the Carolina shipments were unloaded on the markets of New
York, Boston, and Philadelphia. The peak of this movement occurs about 10 days in advance
of that of Arkansas. (Fig. 7)
I
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP
63
CARLOAD UNLOADS AT 50 MARKETS
(Fig. 19 and Table 14)
The majority of the markets that handle strawberries in carload
quantities are located in the northern part of the eastern half of the
United States and are outside the areas that produce the bulk of the
market strawberries. The relative importance of these markets in
carload strawberry consumption is governed to a large extent by the
population of each. In certain cases, however, the carload demand
that might be expected from a market when judged by its size is
curtailed, at times, through use of supplies from local or motor-
truck deliveries. To what extent these local supplies will influence a
market during any season can be ascertained only through use of
current local market reports.
Table 14. — Carload unloads of strawberries at 69 markets, hy State of origin and
months, season 1926
Receiving market and
State of origin
Apr.
May
June
Total
Receiving market and
State of origin
Apr.
May
June
Total
Akron, Ohio:
Louisiana
Cars
3
Cars
5
1
1
16
1
1
Cars
......
1
7
1
1
Cars
8
1
1
24
2
8
1
1
Baltimore, Md.:
Florida
Cars
Cars
Cars
Cars
2 1
10
10
Arkansas
North Carolina
20
184
12
"'11'
41
20
Virginia
238
Missouri
Maryland
53
Total
10
216
95
Illinois
Bethlehem, Pa.: i
South Carolina
Delaware.
1
3
25
18
46
1
Total _
Birmingham, Ala.:
Alabama
Albany, N. Y.:
4
1
7
9
2
1
17
1
......
12
12
1
3
11
10
2
1
23
13
12
1
3
3
10
1
2
15
Mississippi
North Carolina
Total
Tennessee
3
11
2
16
Boston, Mass.:
Florida
Virginia _
8
59
4
Maryland
2 42
Delaware. _
Louisiana
69
129
3
1
53
32
9
2
27
48
1
3
......
226
4
23
6
2
3
69
11
3
44
129
Massachusetts
North Carolina
Mississippi
136
Unknown
3
2
Total.
5
37
34
76
Maryland
279
36
32
AUentown, Pa.: i
5
4
......
5
6
Missouri
North Carolina
Kentucky
8
Virginia. _
Tennessee
29
51
Total
9
2
11
Delaware
59
11
3
Altoona, Pa.: i
5
1
7
1
......
3
1
7
t
5
5
10
2
7
New York
North Carolina
Massachusetts
3 90
Delaware. .
Maine
33
Virginia
Nova Scotia
3 21
Tennessee
3 3
Maryland ._
Unknown
3 1
Total
Total..
14
15
29
71
373
386
* 938
Bridgeport, Conn.:
Louisiana .
Atlanta, Ga.:
3
2
5
1
1
5
5
1
1
5
2
5
5
1
1
7
""u
7
Alabama.
North Carolina
5
Tennessee .
Virginia
5
North Carolina
1
Kentucky... _
Arkansas.
1
21
Total
3
9
12
Total
5
21
14
40
1 Data furnished by Bureau of Markets, Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture.
2 Total includes cars shipped before April 1.
3 Total includes cars shipped after June 30.
* Total includes cars shipped before April l and after Juae 30^
64
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, tJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 14. — Carload unloads of strawberries at 69 markets, by State of origin and
months, season 1926 — Continued
Receiving market and
State of origin
Apr.
May
June
Total
Receiving market and^
State of origin
Apr.
May
June
Total
Buflfalo, N. Y.:
T^niQiana
Cars
25
5
Cars
13
6
33
14
1
20
8
2
1
2
25
Cars
-----
7
47
19
11
63
1
1
Cars
38
11
33
14
2
27
55
21
12
56
26
1
295
Dallas, Tex.:
Texas .
Cars
8
8
Cars
Cars
Cars
8
Alfthiama
Louisiana
21
1
2
3
7
31
Arkansas
4
Missouri
7
Total
Virginia -
16
22
12
50
Dayton, Ohio:
Alabama _-.
30
1
3
26
......
27
4
30
Mississippi.
1
North Carolina
4
Indiana
Tennessee...
52
4
30
125
140
59
32
91
Chicago, 111.:
Florida
4
2
408
6
3
82
160
21
11
10
......
......
15
49
111
152
74
26
26
51
MO
618
6
5
97
209
132
163
84
26
26
3 107
31
3 12
Denver, Colo.:
California
1
4
6
5
40
1
52
......
25
30
Louisiana
7
Alabama
Louisiana
9
Arkansas...
46
Arlra'n<?as
Missouri
26
Tennessee
Total
5
Illinois
87
Des Moines, Iowa:
Louisiana
Kentucky
8
7
1
24
7
""27'
16
Iowa
Texas
1
TVTiphipan
Arkansas
24
Missouri. .--
34
Total
8
39
27
74
r^^r\■^rt^
205
703
515
n,526
Detroit, Mich.:
Louisiana
55
6
130
4
3
38
19
9
3
..
8
42
60
82
7
1
2
5
1
CinclTinati, Ohio:
Florida
1
13
19
24
13
102
1
1
128
33
188
Alabama
10
Mississippi...
4
Alayinma
77
1
1
80
2
6
""48"
31
Arkansas
46
ATi<?<;i«;<?inr)i
Tennessee. --
61
North Carolina
Missouri
69
Kentucky
82
Delaware
1
8
Virginia
1
Total
38
161
85
2 282
Illinois
2
IVT arvlnnH
5
r^lpi7<»loTiH Ohio*
1
25
5
1
39
28
4
36
72
12
19
4
48
15
1
279
Indiana
1
Florida
Montana
3 1
14
23
4
36
29
1
10
43
11
9
4
48
15
1
131
Total
61
204
212
3 478
Easton, Pa.-Philipsburg,
N. J.:i
Louisiana
Arkansas
3
1
6
......
4
Tennessee.-
3
ATi<5smiTi
Maryland
1
Illinois
Virginia
7
Delaware
4
Total
TTnlrnn'wn
9
6
16
Duluth, Minn.:
Total
31
117
4
4
5
13
......
15
1
1
9
8
f^nlnmHn<5 Ohio*
1
6
1
9
47
6
3
1
62
18
3
3
31
Mississippi .
5
Florida
Arkansas
16
Ix>uisiana
3
45
6
3
1
45
2
......
""17'
16
3
3
Missouri
15
Alabama
Kentucky
1
Iowa
1
Arkansas
Wisconsin...
3 12
Maryland
4
22
29
3 58
Tennessee
El Paso, Tex.:
Kentucky
2
5
1
......
Missouri ...
7
1
Delaware
Unknown
Missouii.—
3
Total
7
105
41
3 154
Total
2
6
3
11
» Data furnished by Bureau of Markets, Pennsylvania Department %t Agrieulture.
J Total includes cars shipped before April 1.
3 Total includes cars shipped after June 30.
* Total includes cars shipped before April 1 and after June 30.
r
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP
65
Table 14. — Carload unloads of strawberries at 69 markets, by State of origin and
months, season 1926 — Continued
Receiving market and
State of origin
Apr.
May
June
Total
Receiving market and
State of origin
Apr.
May
June
Total
Erie, Pa.: >
Virginia
Cars
Cars
7
1
Cars
4
6
1
3
6
Cars
11
7
1
3
5
Lexington, Ky.:
Tennessee
Cars
Cars
2
Cars
2
Cars
4
Los Angeles, Calif.:
California
Missouri
7
• 12
2
Kentucky
«21
Louisiana—
2
Oregon
3 I
Total
8
19
27
7
14
<24
Evansville, Ind.:
Alabama ..
6
2
6
2
Louisville, Ky.:
Louisiana
7
5
""22'
2
11
2
2
""ir
1
Tennessee
9
29
2
Total
8
8
Mississippi
28
I
Fort Worth Tex •
4
3
5
6
3
......
4
M2
9
4
4
Kentucky .
Texas
Unknown
2 1
Total
12
35
22
2 70
Milwaukee, Wis.:
20
1
56
1
10
1
5
I
......
1
55
2
2
8
38
1
Total
7
14
5
229
76
2
14
Grand Rapids, Mich.:
Louisiana
3
8
7
13
......
3
6
20
11
10
16
6
20
63
Arkansas . .
Tennessee
2
Arkansas
Missouri
60
Kentucky
3
Illinois
2
Kentucky
Iowa .
8
3 55
Total
3
28
32
Wisconsin
33
Total
21
74
Harrisbin-g, Pa.: •
7
9
......
1
7
13
1
111
»225
Minneapolis, Minn.:
Louisiana
Virginia
18
20
1
69
3
......
114
2
1
1
1
Maryland
38
Illinois
Total
16
5
21
Arkansas
75
117
Hartford Conn.:
1
1
13
3
6
17
......
19
1
15
2
13
3
7
36
1
15
Kentucky
2
Kansas...
1
Washington
1
Tennessee
Oregon
1
Total
Maryland
18
93
125
236
Newark, N. J.:
T,nni«si{mA.
Delaware
6
3
1
60
1
27
3
......
10
7
7
Total
1
40
36
77
North Carolina
63
1
Indianapolis, Ind.:
Texas
1
17
8
1
28
37
7
1
10
35
4
9
1
32
Maryland
13
Louisiana
11
29
7
1
10
29
?
......
2
8
1
Delaware
7
New York
»1
Total
»
92
22
3 124
New Haven, Conn.:
Louisiana
Tennassee
2
1
6
3
7
6
......
1
16
Missouri
3
North Carolina
6
Arkansas...
3
Virginia
7
Total
26
90
17
133
13
A/fic<5nnri
1
Johnstown Pa ■ '
2
1
3
Delaware
16
Marvland
Tntal
2
23
24
49
Kansas City, Mo.:
Texas
7
24
7
41
59
17
New York, N. Y.:
Florida
40
122
5
10
65
440
6
14
1
......
.
Louisiana
17
52
1
......
16
« 180
Arkansas
Louisiana
187
Missouri
North Carolina
South Carolina
449
5
Total
31
70
23
124
Arkansas
14
Tennessee...
1
1 Data furnished by Bureau of Markets, Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture.
2 Total includes cars shipped before April 1.
3 Total includes cars shipped after June 30.
* Total includes cars shipped before April 1 and after June 30.
95608°— 30 6,
66
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 14. — Carload unloads of strawberries at 69 markets, by State of origin and
months, season 1926 — Continued
Receiving market and
State of origin
Apr.
May
June
Total
Receiving market and
State of origin
Apr.
May
June
Total
New York, N. Y.— Con.
Virginia
Cars
Cars
270
93
2
Cars
11
177
61
8
81
Cars
281
270
63
8
»166
Portland. Me.:
Louisiana
Cars
6
Cars
2
10
1
1
7
9
4
Cars
"36'
27
2
1
6
Cars
8
Maryland
North Caiolina
10
Delaware .-.,
South Carolina
1
Missouri
Arkansas
1
New York
Tennessee
7
Virginia
1
39
Total
167
901
342
< 1,625
1
17
Maryland
Delaware
1
17
Norfolk, Va.:
Missouri
2
North Carolina
New York
1
Virginia
Massachusetts
3 15
Total
Total
18
18
6
35
66
3 116
Portland, Oreg.:
California
Oklahoma City, Okla.:
Texas
1
1
1
::::::
4
6
1
10
5
6
6
6
Louisiana
9
Providence, R. I.:
Louisiana
Arkansas.
10
6
1
9
1
23
21
6
1
1
......
2
33
1
2
28
Missouri
16
Total
9
3
10
22
MissiSvSippi
1
Tennessee
9
4
11
4
31
36
46
South Carolina
Omaha, Nebr.:
North Caiolina
24
Virginia
23
Maryland
Louisiana
20
29
......
46
39
Missouri
Arkansas
2
Xentucky
Missouri
Delaware.
28
Total
15
49
53
117
New Jersey
4
Total..
10
69
Peoria, 111.:
2
8
5
6
1
3
""n
2
10
5
6
1
14
2
71
150
Reading, Pa.:»
Virginia
Louisiana
2
1
2
Arkansas...
4
Unknown
1
Total
Missouri
3
2
5
Total..
2
23
13
38
Richmond, Va.:
1
1
Philadelphia, Pa.:
Florida
7
48
5
2
»53
63
201
5
1
26
6
1
37
Rochester, N. Y.:
Louisiana
5
15
6
7
5
6
10
2
......
28
9
1
2
24
3
Louisiana . .
15
195
3
1
24
......
......
6
1
2
20
North Carolina
Arkansas
6
South Carolina
North Carolina
7
Tennessee
5
Virginia
7
Maryland l
Maryland
38
Delaware..
Kentucky
11
New York
Mississippi
1
2
Total -
62
238
12
<363
Delaware
24
New York
3
Pittsburgh, Pa.:
Florida...
3
31
1
U4
68
12
1
17
52
49
11
34
24
41
3
20
1
35
38
Total
5
51
68
124
37
10
1
17
47
28
6
1
......
......
21
5
33
24
41
3
20
1
St. Louis, Mo.:
Mississippi
Alabama
1
33
Mississippi
1
North Carolina-
Louisiana...
Tennessee
31
5
86
2
......
11
64
Arkansas
5
Tennessee
Arkansas
88
Virginia
13
Maryland
Total
Missouri
34
124
13
171
l^^ftntiiplrv
8t. Paul, Minn.:
Delaware
7
10
36
1
......
37
Indiana
17
Unknown
Arkansas
40
New York...
Missouri
38
Pennsylvania
Washington
3 1
Total
Total
35
147
154
*360
7
47
41
396
1 Data furnished by Bureau of Markets, Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture.
3 Total includes cars shipped before April 1.
3 Total includes cars shipped after June 30.
* Total includes cars shipped before April 1 and after June 30.
OEIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP
67
Table 14. — Carload unloads of strawberries at 69 markets, by State of origin and
months, season 1926 — Continued
Receiving market and
State of origin
Apr.
May
June
Total
Receiving market and
State of origin
Apr.
May
June
Total
San Antonio, Tex.:
Louisiana
Car.
Cars
1
Cars
......
Cars
1
2
Toledo, Ohio:
Louisiana
Cars
4
4
Cars
Cars
Cars
4
Missouri
16
1
10
22
2
2
......
24
5
14
2
20
Total
1
2
3
Arkansas
12
46
7
Scranton, Pa.:>
3
7
3
9
8
4
......
12
8
10
3
9
10
16
8
7
Maryland
Missouri
16
North Carolina
Kentucky
2
Virginia
Total
8
6
53
47
Maryland
Washington, D. C:
Louisiana
Delaware.
6
Total
3
31
29
63
North Carolina
37
1
17
37
South Carohna
1
Seattle, Wash.:
16
6
2 24
Viiginia..
17
Tntftl
6
55
61
Shreveport, La.:
2
1
......
1
2
6
1
Wilkes-Barre, Pa.:i
Florida
1
4
1
Louisiana
4
Total
3
6
9
Arkansas
2
1
11
1
1
18
1
""\Z
14
2
2
1
11
Sioux City, Iowa:
8
5
15
1
"'35'
13
15
1
35
North Carolina
South Carolina
1
Tennessee
Tennessee
1
Virginia
Missouri...
31
Total...
8
21
35
64
Delaware
2
Total
Spokane, Wash.:
California
2
24
5
35
29
69
Williamsport, Pa.:i
Springfield, Mass.:
Louisiana...
12
17
4
7
2
10
1
......
21
2
2
10
6
1
29
4
7
6
31
3
2
10
6
1
1
3
11
1
......
5
1
1
Arkansas...
North Carolina
3
Tennessee --
Virginia
11
Virginia
Maryland
3
Maryland
Delaware
5
Missouri
New York
1
Total
Delaware
16
8
24
New Jersey
Worcester, Mass.:
Louisiana
New York...-
1
4
13
3
1
4
2
......
13
7
3
7
1
Total
12
41
46
99
North Carolina
4
Syracuse, N. Y.:
10
11
1
1
3
......
......
2
5
15
21
. 6
6
21
1
1
3
1
6
12
4
18
19
22
6
6
Arkansas
13
Louisiana
Tennessee
3
Texas
Virginia
4
Arkansas..
17
Unknown
Missouri
9
Mississippi
Kentucky
3
Tennessee
6
6
2
13
4
1
Delaware
7
North Carolina
1
Total
Virginia
28
34
62
ATarvlnnrJ
Youngstown, Ohio:
Delaware ...
22
8
......
1
1
16
\
Missouri
22
Kentucky
Tennessee
12
New York
Maryland
1
Missouri
10
48
62
3 121
1
Kentucky
16
Terre Haute, Ind.:
2
6
2
6
Delaware
2
Mississippi
Unknown
1
Total
30
25
55
Total
8
8
Ora-n/l tnfal 4
1,064
6,027
3, 451 ^
10,094
» Data furnished by Bureau of Markets, Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture.
2 Total includes cars shipped before April 1.
3 Total includes cars shipped after June 30.
* Total includes cars shipped before April 1 and after June 30.
68
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
ORIGIN OF THE CARLOAD STRAWBERRY SUPPLY OF 69 MARKETS
When planting a crop, the operator has two major objects in view.
The production of the greatest possible quantity of first-quality stock
at the least possible cost is one and the disposal of the crop at the
highest net price is the other. Under favorable climatic conditions,
an industrious producer can usually insure the first object, but price
depends to a large extent upon the supply and demand of the con-
suming markets. There are limitations to the demand of the public
for strawberries, and, frequently, the supplies equal or exceed the
requirements of the general market. At such times, the pressure to
sell that develops in all competing districts usually creates an unbal-
anced market supply in the consuming centers, and the disposal of
Total Carload Unloads of Strawberries
AT Fifty markets, 1926
Figure 19. — The relative importance of 18 of the principal and 32 of the secondary strawberry
markets named in Table 14 is shown in this illustration
the daily receipts becomes an individual problem of each dealer.
Such situations signify a consumer's market, and a wade range of
prices is the result at each market, as well as at the markets in general.
Where to market to the best advantage is a problem in normal sea-
sons, and the problem becomes more complicated in seasons in which
chaotic conditions exist. Therefore, any authentic information
regarding the supplies of a specific or the general market, whether for
the present or past seasons, is of value as an aid to a decision in answer
to this important question.
There are 69 markets from which data on carload strawberry
receipts are available. Fifty-one of these markets reported from 1 to
124 cars each as their receipts during the 1926 season. The total of
these receipts represented 23 per cent of the total unloads at the 69
markets. Eighteen of the 69 markets have reported an average of 150
cars or more per year during the 7-year period ended with 1926. The
total carload receipts on these 18 markets represented a volume equal
to practically 4 quarts per capita for the markets involved.
The series of market maps (figs. 20-52) include considerable com-
parable information regarding the supply of strawberries at each
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP
69
market center, and the following explanations are offered as sugges-
tions as to what the details illustrate. The circles in each State of
' the series of maps are drawn to the same scale and represent the total
carload shipments from the State to all points. These circles are
comparable with each other as to volume of sliipments from the
State. The black and hatched sectors of these circles indicate that
part of the total shipments from the State that were unloaded on the
market involved and show to what extent the State depends upon the
market for an outlet for its crop. The black dotted circles represent
the total carloads on the market named and are drawn to the same
scale as the State circles. They are comparable in carload volume
with other markets of the series and with total shipments from the
State. The market legend circles are drawn to a larger scale for con-
venience in reading the sectors, but represent the same volume as the
black dotted market circle. Each sector of the legend represents that
part of the total carload receipts on the market that was received from
the source indicated, and shows the extent of the dependence of the
market on that source for its supply.
NEW YORK CITY
New York City is the leading carload strawberry market in the
United States. This market has received an average of 1,815 cars
of strawberries per year during the time under review, which are
equivalent to about 15,000,000 quarts. The smallest receipts
reported during the period were for 1920, when only 736 cars arrived
on the market. During 1921 the receipts were increased to 1,101
cars, and from 1922 to 1925, inclusive, the arrivals averaged 2,310
cars per year. The peak of the carload receipts on this market was
reached during the 1924 season, when the arrivals were reported to be
2,537 cars. (Table 15.)
Table 15. — Carload unloads of strawberries at New York City, 1920-1926
Origin
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
Average 1
Early crops:
Alabama
Cars
Cars
1
86
63
8
260
30
262
169
134
2
85
1
Cars
4
204
59
6
536
31
512
219
452
11
153
6
Cars
Cars
Cars
4
353
99
10
730
""'382'
59
258
2
107
1
Cars
'"'iso'
187
14
455
1
281
63
270
8
166
Cars
1
Florida
113
31
1
204
13
118
60
46
4
146
510
96
1
751
""336'
214
465
1
131
8
312
140
""'964'
1
430
126
500
58
6
251
Louisiana
96
Second early:
Arkansas
6
Carolinas 2
557
Tennessee
11
Virginia ... ...
331
Intermediate:
Delaware .
130
Maryland
304
4
Late:
New York _
121
All other . .
3
Total
736
1,101
2,193
2,507
2,537
2,005
1,625
1,815
1 Averages adjusted.
» Includes North Carolina and South Carolina.
The Carolinas have been the leading States in carload shipments of
strawberries to the New York market. A little over 44 per cent of
the carload shipments from these States was received at this market,
70 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICTJLTtJEE
and these shipments represented about 31 per cent of the market's
carload supply. Virginia, Maryland, and Florida, in the order
named, use New York City as an outlet for a considerable part of
their carload shipments, which, combined, have averaged about 49 per
cent of the carload receipts on the market. New York State has sup-
plied about 7 per cent of the carload strawberry supply of the city,
and is the only late-crop State that has made carload shipments to
this point. (Fig. 20 and Table 16.)
shipmfm. and sectors the amount
unloaded at New Yorh.
STRAWBERRY UNLOi
AVERAGE. 1
920
ATNE
-1926
IV YORK
\^^ / NEW YORK
\f^ UNLOADS BY
J STATES
(~ \
— 'V_
^^
~u
I.
7^
a
V
V
t
y<PZ
i/
'3^
01*MtTtR5 O
'^ IsiZI OrClRCaNOT
6 i i 5 lb I's in
HUNOdCOS Of CABS
Figure 20.— Florida sends nearly 54 per cent of its carload shipments to New York City, which is
equivalent to about one-seventh of the market's supply. These shipments form the early-season
receipts. The Carolinas, Virginia, and Maryland supply over 65 per cent of the carload receipts
on this market. These shipments represent over 30 per cent of the total carload movement from
these States
Table 16. — Shipments of strawberries by State of origin, and unloads at New York
City, average 1920-1926
Average State
shipments
State of origin
To all
points
To New
York
City
New York City
Carolinas ^
Cars
1,253
1,162
1,445
465
833
273
1,527
2,242
1,318
1,065
407
Per cent
44.45
28.49
21.04
53.98
15.61
44.32
6.29
.49
.46
.38
.25
Cars
557
331
304
251
130
121
96
11
6
4
1
3
Per centi
30 69
Virginia..
18 24
Maryland
16.75
Florida
13.83
Delaware
7 16
New York
6 67
Louisiana ...
5 29
Tennessee ... . .. .. ...
.61
Arkansas .
.33
Missouri
.22
Alabama. .
05
All other
. 16
Total
11,990
15.14
1,815
100.00
1 Per cent adjusted.
» Includes North Carolina and South Carolina,
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP
71
Carload supplies of strawberries are usually available on the New
York market from the first of January until near the end of the fol-
lowing July. The early supply is furnished from Florida and is fol-
lowed by shipments from Louisiana, after which the source of ship-
ments moves to points northward with the advance of the season.
During the period of the principal movement of each season's crop,
shipments from the several States meet in competition on this market
at variable times. (Fig. 21.)
FLORIDA
LOUISIANA
NORTH CAROLINA
SOUTH CAROLINA
VIRGINIA
ARKANSAS
TENNESSEE
MARYLAND
DELAWARE
NEW JERSEY
MISSOURI
NEW YORK
Figure 21
•
10 20
JAN.
10 20 ro 20
FEB MAR
10 20
APR.
10 20 10 20
JUNE JULY
10 20
AUG
-APPROXIMATETIMESTRAWBERRIES WERE AVAILABLE ON NEW
YORK Market. 1926 season
Although the length of the strawberry season varies from year to year, this shows the long period
through which Florida may be free from competition from other sections In marlceting its
strawberry crop.
CHICAGO
Chicago is the second largest carload strawberry market in the
United States. The receipts on this market have averaged 1,422 cars
per year during the period under discussion. The 1920 receipts were
767 cars, which were increased to an average of 1,681 cars during the
four years following. During 1925, the receipts dropped to 942 cars
but reached 1,526 cars in 1926. (Table 17.) These receipts approxi-
mated 5.2 quarts per capita for the city.
Table 17. — Carload unloads of strawberries at Chcago, 1920-1926
Origin
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
Average i
Early crop:
Alabama
Cars
16
6
143
1
54
127
37
1
24
35
1
309
Cars
3'
630
13
79
21
279
78
7
1
69
11
288
Cars
1
38
432
9
110
5
354
125
3"
42
80
457
Cars
18
77
504
12
63
""538"
89
1
15
32
9
300
Cars
11
29
401
1
26
2
447
204
3
42
43
42
520
Cars
19
60
272
6
16
Cars
6
40
618
5
97
Cars
10
Florida .
36
Louisiana .
428
Mississippi... . _
7
Second early:
Arkansas
64
Cahfornia
4
Tennessee
200
89
10
19
41
171
33
209
132
26
26
84
163
107
12
308
Intermediate:
Illinois ....
108
Indiana .
7
Iowa
18
Kentucky .
49
M issouri
68
Late:
Michigan
288
2
Montana
Ohio
9
2
5
4
3
15
32
8
5
2
4
2
Oregon
3
Washington
5
Wisconsin..
9
3
30
2
36
2
3
2
1
13
2
All others
Total
767
1,499
1,719
1,696
1,809
942
1,526
1 422
1 Averages adjusted.
72 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICTJLTURE
Louisiana sends about 28 per cent of its carload shipments to
Chicago, which represents about 30 per cent of the market's carload
supply. A large part of the Michigan' strawberry movement to Chi-
cago is by boat and is reported by the market in carload equivalents.
There are some scattering carload shipments by rail from sections
of Michigan that are without boat connection. About 75 per cent of
the total combined boat and rail shipments from Michigan are deliv-
ered to Chicago, and they are equal in quantity to more than 20 per
cent of the market's carload supply. Tennessee and Illinois also use
this market to a considerable extent. (Fig. 22 and Table 18.)
Strawberry Unloads at Chicago
AVERAGE.1920-1926
Circles represent total State
shipments, and sectors the amount
unloaded at Chicago
Figure 22. — Chicago receives about 28 jper cent of the Louisiana carload shipments, and these
shipments combined with those from Tennessee and Michigan represent over 72 per cent of
this market's carload supply
Table 18. — Shipments of strawberries hy State of origin
average 1920-1926
and unloads at Chicago,
Average State
shipments
State of origin
Average unloads at
To
all points
To
Chicago
Chicago
Louisiana
Cars
1,527
2,242
385
225
1,065
1,318
517
465
60
87
407
39
71
89
200
87
10
4
Per cent
28.03
13.74
74.81
48.00
6.39
4.86
9.48
7.74
30.00
14.94
2.46
17.95
9.86
5.62
2.00
3.45
20.00
100.00
Cars
428
308
288
108
68
64
49
36
18
13
10
7
7
6
4
3
2
4
Per cent^
30 10
Tennessee
21.66
Michigan
20.25
Illinois .
7 60
Missouri .
4 78
Arkansas
4 50
Kentucky
3.45
Florida.. .
2 53
Iowa . .
1 27
Wisconsin
.92
Alabama
.70
Indiana
49
Mississippi
49
Washington...
.35
California
.28
Oregon .
21
Ohio
. 14
All others
.28
Total
8,798
16.16
1,422
100 00
1 Per cent adjusted.
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP
73
Carload supplies of strawberries were available on the Chicago
market from the last of January until September during the 1926
season. The early shipments were from Florida and the late ones
from Montana. The time that each of the State's shipments were
available on this market is shown in Figure 23.
FLORIDA
^ \ 'r- 1 1
LOUISIANA
ALABAMA
■
.4_
MISSISSIPPI
ARKANSAS
-■■"■■
TENNESSEE
ILLINOIS
KENTUCKY
MISSOURI
1
1
INDIANA
IOWA
MICHIGAN
WISCONSIN
MONTANA
•
~™~
,
,
,• ,
, ,
, ,
- — 1 1
JAN.
10 20
FEB.
10 20
MAR.
10 20
APR.
10 20
MAY
10 20
JUNE
10 20
JULY
10 20
AUG.
Figure 23.— approximate Time strawberries were available on
Chicago Market, 1926 Season
Strawberries from all States shipping to Chicago during 1926, except those from Wisconsin and
Montana, met Louisiana strawberries in competition on this market.
BOSTON
Boston is the third largest strawberry market in the United States.
The carload receipts on this market are considerably less in number
than are those at either New York or Chicago, but, considered on
the basis of the population of the three cities, the Boston carload
receipts are nearly four times as large as those of New York and more
than twice as large as those of Chicago. Boston received an average
of 920 cars per year during the period under discussion. The smallest
receipts (526 cars) of the period were in 1920; and the largest (1,237
cars) in 1924. (Table 19.)
Table 19. — Carload unloads of strawberries at Boston, 1920-1926
Origin
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1926
1926
Average '
Early crop:
Florida
Cars
14
34
3
15
1
30
19
65
Cars
5
72
17
20
53
25
148
2
260
2
28
4
35
Cars
34
104
9
14
66
73
159
134
36
281
59
12
16
61
Cars
99
100
3
25
169
32
72
140
18
301
17
1
10
85
18
4
28
5
Cars
82
160
1
38
147
20
129
118
4
364
15
24
5
59
9
2
36
36
Cars
104
47
34
149
16
94
38
10
202
72
8
Cars
42
129
3
51
138
29
36
59
8
279
32
11
Cars
Louisiana-. .
92
Mississippi
3
28
97
Second early:
Arkansas
Carolinas 2.
Tennessee
36
76
Virginia
Intermediate:
Delaware.
100
Kentucky
11
Maryland...
237
274
Missouri.. ,
28
New Jersey
23
10
45
15
Late:
Connecticut
Q
Massachusetts
43
7
2
90
3
3
24
1
60
Maine
5
New York
26
3
1
28
2
13
11
Imports 3
18
Another..-
Q
Total ---
626
701
1,060
1,127
1,237
866
938
920
> Averages adjusted.
2 Includes North Carolina and South Carolina.
3 From Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.
74
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, V. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Maryland sends more carload shipments to Boston than does any
other State. These shipments represent a little less than 19 per cent
of the State's carload movement and are equal to about 30 per cent
of the market's carload supply. Delaware, the Carolinas, and Louis-
ana together furnish about 31 per cent of the carload supply of Boston.
These shipments are divided about equally among the three States.
Nova Scotia and New Brunswick usually make some late carload
shipments to this market. (Fig. 24 and Table 20.)
Orc/es represent total State
shipments.and sectors the amount
unloaded at Boston.
STRA
WBERRY UNLOADS AT B
Average, 1920-1926
OSTON
V ^T BOSTON
\f^ UNLOADS BY
J 1 STATES
^ «iitoraiiciiiiOT
^\J OIIAWM TO SCAU
n
-"-y^^
— 1
\f
^-s
\ y\
rrinxi
\^
A/
^ OI*MtTt»$ Of
OMCUI
M
6 ( i i io ii »
HUNOBtOJ Of C*»$
Figure 24.— Maryland is the principal single source of the carload supply of Boston. Delaware,
the Carolinas, and Louisiana supply about 31 per cent of this market's carload needs, these ship-
ments being divided about equally among the States. The remainder, about 39 per cent, repre-
sents scattering shipments from the various States shown
Table 20. — Shipments of strawberries hy State of origin,
average 1920-1926
and unloads at Boston,
State of origin
Average State
shipments
Average unloads
To all
points
To Boston
at Boston
Maryland
Cars
1,445
833
1,253
1,527
1,162
80
465
2,242
1,318
1,065
275
517
273
6
5
71
18
6
Per cent
18.96
12.00
7.74
6.02
6.54
75.00
11.61
1.61
2.12
2.63
5.45
2.13
4.03
100.00
100.00
4.23
100.00
100.00
Cars
274
100
97
92
76
60
54
36
28
28
15
11
11
6
5
3
18
6
Per cent i
29.78
Delaware
10.87
Carolinas 2 .. . .
10.55
Louisiana
10 00
Virginia
8.26
Massachusetts
6.52
Florida
5.87
Tennessee . . . .. ... . .. .
3.91
Arkansas . .. ...
3.04
Missouri
3.04
New Jersey .-. ....
1.63
Kentucky ... . .
1.20
New York
1.20
Connecticut-.
.65
Maine
.54
Mississippi . .
.33
Imports 3
1.96
All others
.65
Total
12,561
7.32
920
100.00
J Per cent adjusted.
2 Includes North Carolina and South Carolina.
8 From Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP
75
The Boston market reports indicate that a continuous carload sup-
ply of strawberries was available on this market from January 1 to
August 8, 1926. The earlier shipments of the supply were from
Florida, and the carload season closed with Massachusetts shipments.
(Fig. 25.)
FLORIDA
LOUISIANA
MISSISSIPPI
CAROLINAS (2)
TENNESSEE
ARKANSAS
VIRGINIA
MARYLAND
MISSOURI
KENTUCKY
DELAWARE
NEW JERSEY
NEW YORK
MASSACHUSETTS
NOVA SCOTIA
MAINE
NEW BRUNSWICK
10 20
10 ?0
10 20
10 20
10 20
10 20
10 20
10 20
JAN.
FEB.
MAR.
APR.
MAY
JUNE
JULY
AUG.
Figure 25.— Approximate Time Strawberries were Available on
Boston Market, 1926 Season
Eight important districts compete for sales of strawberries on the Boston market during the last of
May and early June period.
PHILADELPfflA
Philadelphia is fourth in rank among the large markets in number of
carload strawberry receipts. The average carload unloads on this
market have been 486 cars each season for the 7-year period. (Table
21.) This number does not indicate the true volume of strawberry
consumption on this market. Available records show that the
equivalent of more than 600 cars w^as shipped to this market by motor
truck during the 1926 season. Perhaps similar conditions exist at the
other large markets, but no authentic data have been compiled to
verify the extent of the truck movement at those markets.
Table 21. — Carload unloads
of strawberries at Philadelphia, 1920-1926
Origin
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
Average 1
Early crop:
Florida. . .
Cars
42
10
Cars
7
31
Cars
30
33
7
168
12
225
39
3
43
5
3
Cars
139
24
2
274
Cars
77
37
2
350
Cars
98
11
Cars
53
63
Cars
64
Louisiana
30
Second early:
Arkansas _-
2
C'arolinas 2 .
97
3
78
19
17
2
93
3
100
49
3
12
259
206
1
26
1
207
Tennessee... ..
3
Virginia
218'
33
182
12
73
129
Intermediate:
Delaware _
22
Kentucky
3
Maryland ..-
60
31
4
10
6
7
22
Late:
New York
3
Another
2
1
Total..
268
300
568
750
691
455
363
486
Averages adjusted.
' Includes North Carolina and South Carolina shipments.
76 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, V. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The Carolinas are the largest carload shippers of strawberries to
the Philadelphia market. They furnish about 43 per cent and
Virginia about 26 per cent of the carload receipts at this point. The
remainder, which is about 31 per cent of the receipts, is divided among
eight other States. (Fig. 26 and Table 22.)
STRAWBERRY UNLOADS AT PHILADELPHIA
AVERAGE, 1920-1926
Circles represent total State
shipments, and sectors ttte amount
unloodedat Philadelphia
Figure 26.— The Carolinas and the Norfolk district of Virginia are the leading carload shippers to
Philadelphia. The greater part of the shipments are made previous to the beginning of the
Eastern Shore season
Table 22. — Shipments of strawherries by State of origin, and unloads at Phila-
delphia, average 1920-1926
State of origin
Average State
shipments
Average unloads
To all
points
To Phila-
delphia
at PhUadelphia
Carolinas 2
Cars
1,253
1,162
465
1,527
833
1,445
2,242
517
1,318
273
Per cent
16.52
11.10
13.76
1.96
2.64
1.52
.13
.58
.15
1.10
Cars
207
129
64
30
22
22
3
3
2
3
1
Percent^
42.59
Virginia „. .
26.54
Florida.
13. 17
Louisiana ... ... . . ....
6. 17
Delaware . ... ..- ............. ...
4.53
Maryland
4 53
Tennessee
.62
Kentucky ... .. ...
.62
Arkansas . ... . ... ... . .
.41
New York
.62
Another
.20
Total -
11,035
4.40
486
100.00
Per cent adjusted.
2 Includes North Carolina and South Carolina shipments.
During 1926 carload supplies of strawberries were available on the
Philadelphia market from February 11 to June 10, both inclusive.
The early-season carload supply was furnished by Florida, and the
carload season terminated June 10 with Virginia and Maryland
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP
77
shipments. Carload quantities delivered by motor truck continued
to be available as late as June 25. (Fig. 27.)
FLORIDA
LOUISIANA
NORTH CAROUNA
SOUTH CAROUNA
VIRGINIA
MISSISSIPPI
VA..DEL..MD..
AND N.J. (TRUCK)
MARYLAND
DELAWARE
FIGURE 27.
10 20
JAN
10 20
FEB.
10 20
MAR.
10 20
APR.
10 20
MAY
10 20
JUNE
10 20 10 20
JULY AUG.
-APPROXIMATE TIME STRAWBERRIES WERE AVAILABLE ON
Philadelphia Market. 1926 Season
Competition among the producing districts for the sale of strawberries on this market began April
26 in the 1926 season.
DETROIT
Detroit, with an average unload of 420 cars per year during the
7-year period, was fifth in rank among the larger markets in number
of carload-strawberry receipts. This market received 171 cars of
strawberries in 1920, but the receipts were increased to 552 cars
during 1922. The supply during 1923 and 1924 was practically the
same as that of 1922, but was decreased to 478 cars during 1926.
The average receipts on this market are equal to about 1 car for each
2,500 inhabitants. (Table 23.)
Table 23. — Carload unloads of strawberries at Detroit, 1920-1926
Origin
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
Average i
Early crop:
Alabama..
Cars
Cars
17
61
2
9
65
Cars
6
89
17
82
214
Cars
22
116
1
26
263
Cars
21
111
2
91
HI
11
35
78
13
59
Cars
20
88
3
37
145
5
44
6
54
Cars
10
188
4
46
61
1
8
82
5
69
Cars
14
Louisiana
64
2
4
56
102
Mississippi
4
Second early:
Arlcansas
42
Tennessee.- ..... . .. ..
131
Virginia
2
Intermediate:
Delaware.
7
Kentucky
31
50
102
72
4
12
9
23
66
Maryland
4
Missouri...
8
3
3
1
16
4
18
8
16
32
Late:
Michigan
5
All other 2.
18
11
4
11
Total
171
225
552
548
550
413
478
420
Averages adjusted.
2 Includes Illinois, Indiana, and imports.
Tennessee ships about 6 per cent of its carload movement to
Detroit; this represents a little over 31 per cent of the market's
carload supply. Kentucky sends about one-eighth of its shipments,
and Louisiana, Arkansas, and Missouri use this outlet for a portion
of their shipments. Michigan makes a very few carload shipments
to this market, but as supplies of Michigan strawberries are reported
as being available on the market part of each season, it is inferred
that these supplies represent truck deliveries, (Fig. 28 and Table 24.)
78 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, tJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICXILTtlRE
STRAWBERRY UNLOADS AT DETROIT
Average. 1920-1926
Circles represent totalState
shipments, and sectors the amount
unloaded at Detroit
Figure 28.— Tennessee, Louisiana, and Kentucky are the principal sources of the carload-
strawberry supply of Detroit. The combined receipts from the three States constituted more
than 71 per cent of the market's carload unloads
Table 24. — Shipments of strawberries hy State of origin, and unloads at Detroit,
average 1920-1926
State of origin
Average State
shipments
Average unloads
To all
points
To
Detroit
at Detroit
Tennessee
Cars
2,242
1,527
517
1,318
1,065
407
833
385
71
1,445
1,162
Per cent
5.84
6.68
12.77
3.19
3.00
3.44
.84
1.30
5.63
.28
.17
Cars
131
102
66
42
32
14
7
5
4
4
2
11
Per cent i
31 19
Louisiana .
24.29
Kentucky
15 71
Arkansas
10 00
Missouri.,
7.62
3 33
Alabama ...
Delaware ... ... .
1 67
Michigan ... .
1 19
Mississippi
95
Maryland
95
Virginia ..
48
All others
2 62
Total
10, 972
3.83
420
100 00
1 Per cent adjusted.
« Includes Illinois, Indiana, and imports.
This market had carload-strawberry suppHes available from March
10 to June 19, 1926. Florida supplies the early receipts, and 10 other
States continued the supply until the end of the season. Michigan
stock was quoted on this market as late as July 20. (Fig. 29.)
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP
79
i
FLORIDA
LOUISIANA
ALABAMA
MISSISSIPPI
ARKANSAS
TENNESSEE
MISSOURI
ILLINOIS
DELAWARE
KENTUCKY
MARYLAND
HOME GROWN
INDIANA
1
—
1
1
t
1
1
-m
... .
......
, ,
, ,
, ,
, ,
, ,
10 20
JAN.
10 20
FEB.
10 20
MAR.
10 20
APR.
10 20
MAY
10 20
JUNE
10 20
JULY
10 20
AUG
FIGURE 29.— APPROXIMATE TIME STRAWBERRIES WERE AVAILABLE ON
Detroit Market. 1926 season
The lines represent the length of time that strawberries from the various sources were quoted in the
market reports received from this market.
PITTSBURGH
The average carload receipts on the Pittsburgh market have been
374 cars for the period, which is about 1 car to each 1,600 inhabitants.
The smallest receipts (185 cars) were received in 1920. From 1922
to 1924, inclusive, the receipts averaged 490 cars, but there was a
decrease from this number during 1925 and 1926, when only 285 and
360 cars were received. (Table 25.) The average receipts approxi-
mate 5.9 quarts per capita for the city.
Table 25. — Carload unloads of strawberries at Pittsburgh, 1920-1926
Origin
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
Average i
Early crop:
Alabama
Cars
22
2
3
Cars
26
63'
4
23
11
63
18
35
41
24
4
Cars
35
1
65
29
10
229
10
20
67
8
6
Cars
37
38
58
3
13
12
209
10
33
79
18
2
Cars
15
19
71
11
40
17
94
22
64
25
50
4
4
Cars
12
34
28
40
13
54
4
12
35
25
23
4
Cars
1^
68
1
52
17
49
11
3
41
34
24
20
5
Cars
23
Florida
15
61
Louisiana
Mississippi
3
Second early:
Arkansas
2
8
18
1
37
39
24
28
13
Carolinas 2
Tennessee
102
Virginia
11
Intermediate:
Delaware. ..
29
Kentucky. .
47
Maryland.. .
26
Missouri ....
9
Indiana
4
Late:
New York
2
23
5
3
2
Ohio -- -
9
3
5
2
2
8
12
2
6
Pennsylvania
8
1
3
Another
4
1
2
Total
185
321
497
516
458
285
360
374
Averages adjusted.
* Includes North Carolina and South Carolina.
Tennessee furnishes about 27 per cent of Pittsburgh's unloads and
is the principal source of its carload supply. The remainder of the
carload supply of this market originates in 15 other States. (Fig. 30
and Table 26.) There is a rather extensive strawberry district in
western Pennsylvania that is within trucking distance of the Pitts-
burgh market. (Fig. 2.)
80 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, tJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
STRAWBERRY UNLOADS AT PITTSBURGH
AVERAGE. 1920-1926
Crc/es represent total State
shipments and sectors ttie amount
unloaded at Pittsburgh.
\\\
Figure 30.— Tennessee supplies over one-fourth of the Pittsburgh carload-strawberry receipts,
and Louisiana, Kentucky, Delaware, and Arkansas, combined, furnish about one-third. The
remainder represents the total of all shipments received from States showing black sectors in
the chart
Table 26. — Shipments of strawberries by State of origin, and unloads at Pitts-
burgh, average 1920-1926
State of origin
Average State ship-
ments
Average unloads at
To all
points
To Pitts-
burgh
Pittsburgh
Tennessee
Cars
2,242
1,527
517
833
1,318
1,445
407
465
1,253
1,162
1,065
10
39
11
71
273
Per cent
4.55
3.34
9.09
3.48
2.12
1.80
5.65
3.23
1.04
.95
.85
60.00
10.26
27.27
4.23
.73
Cars
102
51
47
29
28
26
23
15
13
11
9
6
4
3
3
2
2
Per cent »
27.27
Louisiana
13 64
Kentucky
12 57
Delaware . . . .
7 75
Arkansas . . ... .
7.49
Maryland .. .- . _
6.95
Alabama
6 15
Florida
4 01
Carolinas ^
3 48
Virginia . .
2 94
Missouri.- ... .....
2.41
Ohio
1.61
Indiana ... . .. ..
1.07
Pennsyl vania
80
Mississippi ... ....
80
New York
.53
All others.
.53
Total
12,638
2.96
374
100 00
1 Per cent adjusted.
* Includes North Carolina and South Carolina.
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP
81
During 1926, carload receipts from Florida were available on this
market on January 8, and there was a continuous carload supply of
strawberries on this market from that date until July 23. The late
I
FLORIDA
LOUISIANA
ALABAMA
CAROLINAS
ARKANSAS
TENNESSEE
VIRGINIA
MARYLAND
KENTUCKY
MISSOURI
MICHIGAN
DELAWARE
INDIANA
HOME GROWN
PENNSYLVANIA
NEW YORK
from ]
S^ew Y
ork St{
ite shij
jments
. (Fig. 31.)
1 1
1
— 1
1
^^
.11'
T
1 1 _.
, ,
1 ,
i ,
, ,
10 20
JAN.
10 20
FEB.
10 20
MAR.
10 20
APR.
10 20
MAY
10 20
JUNE
10 20 10 20
JULY AUG.
APPROXIMATE Time Strawberries Were available on
Pittsburgh Market, 1926 Season
Figure 31
Strawberries were quoted on this market for about six and one-half months of the 1926 season
CINCINNATI
Cincinnati ranks seventh among the larger markets in number of
cars of strawberries received each year. These receipts have averaged
350 cars and represented 1 car for each 1,150 population. The
largest receipts on this market arrived during 1922 and 1923 and the
smallest in 1920, when only 80 cars were available. (Table 27.)
Table 27.-
—Carload unloads of strawberries at Cincinnati, 1920-1926
Origin
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
Average »
Early crop:
Alabama
Cars
1
2
Cars
99
.-
2
Cars
138
2
2
Cars
189
29
5
7
6
314
6
3
1
Cars
99
1
10
2
6
228
1
4
4
Cars
61
17
1
3
2
252
1
Cars
102
4
13
1
128
33
Cars
98
Florida..
8
Louisiana -
5
Mississippi
2
Georgia
5
72
3
Second early:
Tennessee
228
2
21
1
315
5
11
1
220
Intermediate:
Kentucky .
7
Late:
Michigan
6
All other
3
1
1
Total
80
356
474
560
355
340
282
350
Averages adjusted.
Nearly 63 per cent of the carload supply of strawberries at Cin-
cinnati originated in Tennessee. Alabama supplied 28 per cent of
the market's carload needs, and the remainder of the carload supply
was shipped by Florida, Kentucky, Louisiana, Georgia, Michigan,
and Mississippi. (Fig. 32 and Table 28.)
95608°— 30-
82 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
STRAWBERRY UNLOADS AT CINCINNATI
Average. 1920-1926
Circles represent total State
shipments, and sectors ttie amount
unloaded at Cindnnoti.
Figure 32.— Nearly one-fourth of the carload-strawberry shipments from Alabama and about one-
tenth of those from Tennessee reach the Cincinnati market. These shipments, combined, are
equal practically to 91 per cent of the market's carload supply
Table 28. — Shipments of strawberries by State of origin, and unloads at Cincinnati^
average 1920-1926
Average State
shipments
Average unloads
at Cincinnati
State of origin
To all
points
To
Cincin-
nati
Tennessee..
Cars
2,242
407
465
517
385
1,627
11
71
Per cent
9.81
24.08
1.72
1.35
1.56
.33
27.27
.28
Cars
220
98
8
7
6
5
3
2
1
Per cent i
62.86
Alabama
28.00
Florida
2.28
Kentucky ... ... . .
2.00
Michigan ..
1.71
Louisiana
1.43
Georgia -
.86
Mississippi . .....
.57
All other
.29
Total 2
5,625
6.22
350
100.00
1 Per cent adjusted.
» Some less-than-carload or express shipments received on this market from North Carolina and Georgia
during 1926.
During 1926 carload quantites of strawberries were available on
this market from January 6 to June 12. The early shipments were
from Florida, and the late supply came from Kentucky. (Fig. 33.)
FLORIDA
LOUISIANA
ALABAMA
TENNESSEE
NORTH CAROUNA
GEORGIA
MISSISSIPPI
KENTUCKY
HOME GROWN
. ,_, ■
an
10 20
FEB.
10 20
MAR.
10 20
APR.
10 -20
MAY
10 20
JUNE
10 20 10 20
JULY AUG.
Figure 33.— approximate Time strawberries were available on
Cincinnati Market. 1926 Season
Louisiana stock is usually available on most of the large markets during the period of that State's
strawberry season, but, in 1926, this stock disappeared from the Cincinnati market soon after
the arrival of Alabama shipments on April 19.
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP
83
Ohio-grown strawberries were quoted on this market as late as
June 25.
MINNEAPOLIS AND ST. PAUL
The combined receipts at MinneapoHs and St. Paul give this market
center the rank of eighth among the larger markets in number of
strawberry-carload unloads. These receipts have averaged 317 cars
per year for the period and represent 1 car for each 1 ,950 of popu-
lation. The largest receipts reported for Minneapolis and St. Paul
were for 1922, when 511 cars were unloaded. The receipts during
1926 were 332 cars. (Table 29.)
Table 29. — Carload unloads of strawberries at Minneapolis and St. Paul, 1920—1926
Origin
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
Average 1
Early crop:
Louisiana _
Cars
32
43
7
5
1
Cars
48
96
5
5
' 3"
42
7
13
Cars
55
200
45
17
2
1
171
15
5
Cars
59
131
30
20
9
7
93
22
5
Cars
70
126
12
10
21
1
113
23
4
Cars
39
123
4
1
15
2
84
1
1
Cars
55
115
i'
2
155
4'
Cars
51
Second early:
Arkansas...
119
Tennessee
15
Intermediate:
Iowa
8
Kansas _ .. _.
7
Kentucky
2
Missouri ..
24
10
11
98
Late:
Wisconsin... .
11
All other 2
6
Total
133
219
511
376
380
270
332
317
1 Averages adjusted.
2 Includes shipments from Michigan, Illinois, Washington, Oregon, Minnesota, Indiana, and Texas.
Arkansas and Missouri are the main sources of the strawberry sup-
ply on these markets. These States supplied practically 69 per cent
of the carload needs of these markets during the 7-year period.
Louisiana has furnished about 16 per cent of the receipts, and Ten-
nessee, Wisconsin, Iowa, Kansas, and Kentucky supplied the re-
mainder of the carload unloads. (Fig. 34 and Table 30.)
Strawberry unloads at Minneapolis and St. Paul
SEASON 1926
Circles represent total Siat»
Shipmenti and sectors the amount
unloaded at Umneopola and StPaul.
Figure 34.— These markets are more important to Wisconsin, Iowa, and Kansas in proportion
to their total carload movement than they are to Louisiana, Arkansas, and Missouri, which
are the principal sources of the carload strawberry supply of these cities
84
TECHNICAL BXJLIiETIN 180, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICTTLTTJEE
Table 30.
— Shipments of strawberries hy State of origin, and unloads at
apolis and St. Paul, average 1920-1926
Minne-
State of origin
Average State
shipments
Average unloads at
Minneapolis and
St. Paul
To all
points
To
Minne-
apolis and
St. Paul
Arkansas
Cars
1,318
1,065
1,527
2,242
87
60
13
517
Per cent
9.03
9.20
3.34
.67
12.64
13.33
53.85
.39
Cars
119
98
11
8
7
2
6
Per cent i
37.54
Missouri _
30.92
Louisiana
16.09
Tennessee
4.73
Wisconsin ..,
3.47
2.52
Kansas
2.21
Kentucky
.63
All other 2.
1.89
Total
6,829
4.64
317
100.00
1 Per cent adjusted.
* Includes shipments from Michigan, Illinois, Washington, Oregon, Minnesota, California, Indiana, and
Texas.
Louisiana strawberries were available on these markets April 13,
1926, and a continuous supply from various sources was reported from
that date until July 15. The last of the supplies of 1926 were re-
ported as being from Minnesota, but dates are not available.
(Fig. 35.)
LOUISIANA
ARKANSAS
ILLINOIS
MISSOURI
KENTUCKY
KANSAS
HOME GROWN
OREGON
•I
■
- - ■
10 20 10 20
JAN. FEB.
10 20
MAR.
to 20
APR.
10 20
MAY
10 20
JUNE
10 20 10 20
JULY AUG.
Figure 35. — Approximate Time Strawberries Were Available on
Minneapolis and St. Paul markets. 1926 Season
Arkansas follows Louisiana with strawberry supplies for these markets and meets in competition
Missouri and home-grown stock during the last part of the season.
CLEVELAND
The average unloads of strawberries at Cleveland were 285 cars per
year during the 7-year period. This number represents 1 car for each
2,800 population. The average receipts from 1922 to 1924, inclusive,
were 361 cars, and the 393 cars received during the 1923 season were
the peak of the yearly unloads. (Table 31.)
Table 31. — Carload unloads of strawberries at Cleveland, 1920-1926
Origin
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
Average 1
Early crop:
Alabama
Cars
6
18
Cars
25
37
Cars
35
20
186
Cars
93
20
0
6
195
Cars
68
25
5
36
120
26
37
27
1
4
Cars
45
9
29
85
8
27
16
34
7
Cars
28
39
4
36
72
15
48
12
19
6
Car*
43
Louisiana
36
Mississippi
3
Second early:
Arkansas
4
79
1
21
6
22
105
6
29
6
2
7
22
Tennessee-
120
Intermediate:
Delaware
8
Kentucky
32
6
22
2
58
6
' 9'
36
Maryland
11
Missouri ..
11
All other 2
3
5
Total
138
239
342
393
349
260
279
285
1 Averages adjusted.
» Includes shipments from Florida, Georgia, Carolinas, Virginia, Illinois, Michigan, and Ohio.
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP
85
Tennessee, Alabama, and Kentucky supply about 70 per cent of
this market's carload needs. The remainder of the supply is fur-
nished by six other States. (Fig. 36 and Table 32.)
Figure 36.— Cleveland has received about 42 per cent of its strawberry supply from Tennessee, 15
per cent from Alabama, and 13 per cent from Kentucky during this period. Shipments are not
shown for Florida, Georgia, Carolinas, Virginia, Illinois, Michigan, or Ohio, but each of these
States made one or more carload shipments to this market during this period
Table 32. — Shipments of strawberries by State of origin, and unloads at Cleveland j
average 1920-1926
State of origin
Average State
shipments
Average unloads
To all
points
To Cleve-
land
at Cleveland
Tennessee.
Cars
2,242
407
517
1,527
1,318
1,445
1,065
833
71
Per cent
5.35
10.57
6.96
1.70
1.67
.76
1.03
.96
4.23
Cars
120
43
36
26
22
11
11
8
3
5
Per cent »
42.11
Alabama
15 09
Kentucky
12.63
Louisiana -..._ ._.-. ..
9.12
Arkansas.. . --. .
7.72
Maryland . . . .-- . . .
3.86
Missouri
3.86
Delaware
2.81
Mississippi . . . .
1.05
All other 2
1.75
Total
9,425
3.02
285
100.00
1 Per cent adjusted.
' Includes shipments from Florida, Georgia, Carolinas, Virginia, Illinois, Michigan, and Ohio.
On January 27, 1926, the first strawberries of the season were re-
ported on the Cleveland market. These were from Florida and were
followed by shipments from other States that continued the supply
until June 18. The supplies after June 18, were home-grown berries,
(Fig. 37.)
86 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, TJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
FLORIDA
LOUISIANA
ALABAMA
MISSISSIPPI
ARKANSAS
TENNESSEE
MISSOURI
MARYLAND
KENTUCKY
VIRGINIA
DELAWARE
HOME GROWN
ILLINOIS
m DIANA
FIGURE 37.
I I I I I I L
10 20
JAN
10 20
FEB
10 20
MAR
10 20
APR.
10 20
MAY
10 20
JUNE
10 20 10 20
JULY AUG.
-approximate time strawberries were available
Cleveland Market. 1926 Season
ON
strawberries were quoted on this market from all the principal shipping districts except the
Carolinas during 1926.
BUFFALO
Kecords of carload receipts of strawberries at Buffalo are available
for only four years. During this period (1923 to 1926, inclusive) the
average unloads on this market were 278 cars per year. On the basis
of the usual carload shipment from each of the States that supplied
this market, the average receipts represented about 2,349,000 quarts,
which is equivalent to 4.6 quarts per capita for the city. The largest
yearly receipts at this market during the four years were 338 cars,
unloaded in 1924. The unloads of that year furnished a carload sup-
ply equal to 5.8 quarts per capita. (Table 33.)
Table 33. — Carload unloads of strawberries at Buffalo, 1923-1926
Origin
1923
1924
1925
1926
Averages 1
Early crops:
Alabama
Cars
2
40
3
14
14
62
13
10
23
31
34
16
Cars
3
40
1
39
25
28
28
66
3
64
20
31
Cars
6
18
3
2
23
30
36
32
31"
37
1
Cars
11
38
14
35
26
27
55
12
55
21
1
Cars
6
Louisiana .. - .
34
2
Second early:
Arkansas . _.. .. - .
17
Carolinas ^
24
Tennessee
36
Virginia
26
Intermediate:
Delaware -. . . . . .
41
Kentucky . . ... ...
9
Maryland
43
Missouri - - .
28
All other 3
12
Total
262
338
219
295
278
1 Averages adjusted.
2 Includes North Carolina and South Carolina.
3 Known States included are California, Delaware, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, and New York.
The shipments from Maryland, Delaware, Tennessee, Louisiana,
Missouri, and Virginia to Buffalo, when combined, represent about
75 per cent of the market's carload supply of strawberries. The re-
mainder of the shipments to this market are divided among six other
States. (Fig. 38 and Table 34.)
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP
87
Figure 38.— The carload-strawberry shipments to Buffalo are rather evenly divided among several
producing States. Maryland, Delaware, Tennessee, Louisiana, Missouri, and Virginia supplied
about 75 per cent of the shipments, and "all other" States supplied the remainder
Table 34.- — Shipments of strawberries by State of origin, and unloads at Buffalo,
average 1923-1926
State of origin
Average State
shipments
Average unloads at
To all
points
To
Buffalo
Buffalo
Maryland ._ _
Cars
1,639
844
2,268
1,740
1,198
1,374
1,699
1,331
547
490
89
Per cent
2.62
4.86
1.59
1.95
2.34
1.89
1.41
1.28
1.65
1.22
2.25
Cars
43
41
36
34
28
26
24
17
9
6
.1
Per cent i
15.47
Delaware
14.75
Tennessee
12.95
Louisiana .. ...
12.23
Missouri .
10.07
Virginia ..
9.35
Carolinas 2 .
8.63
Arkansas ..
6.11
Kentucky . .
3.24
Alabama
2.16
Mississippi . ...
.72
All other 3
4.32
TotaL-
13,219
2.10
278
100.00
1 Per cent adjusted.
2 Includes North Carolina and South Carolina.
' Known States included are California, Delaware, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, and New York.
LOUISIANA
ALABAMA
NORTH CAROLINA
SOUTH CAROLINA
TENNESSEE
ARKANSAS
VIRGINIA
MISSOURI
MARYLAND
DELAWARE
KENTUCKY
Figure 39.-
I
10 20
JAN
10 20
FEB
10 20
MAR
to 20
APR
10 20
MAY
10 20
JUNE
10 20
JULY
10 20
AUG.
-APPROXIMATE TIME STRAWBERRIES WERE AVAILABLE ON
BUFFALO MARKET. 1926 SEASON
t
Considerable competition among the States for sales on this market is indicated.
88
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
In 1926 the first strawberries of the season were reported to be
av^lable on this market April 2, and the supply continued until
June 25. The earlier shipments were from Florida and Louisiana,
and the season closed with supplies from New York State. (Fig. 39.)
BALTIMORE
Records of carload-strawberry receipts on the Baltimore market
are available for the seasons of 1924 to 1926, inclusive. A large
percentage of the strawberry deliveries to this market arrive by boat,
but the Federal market news service reports these arrivals in carload
equivalents for the purpose of comparison with other markets. The
yearly average receipts by boat and rail on this market during the
three years included were equivalent to 264 cars. This supply was
equal to about 2,028,000 quarts, or 2.7 quarts per capita for the city.
The supply received by boat and rail during 1926 was practically
322 cars. (Table 35.)
Table 35.-
— Carload unloads of strawberries at Baltimore, 1924-1926
Orisin
1924
192,")
1926
Average i
Early crop:
Florida
Cars
2
3
17
186
69
Cars
1
Cars
1
10
20
238
53
Cars
1
Louisiana
4
Second early:
Carolinas ^
25
147
21
21
Virginia
Intermediate:
Maryland
190
48
Total
277 1 194
322
264
Averages adjusted.
2 Includes North Carolina and South Carolina.
Virginia and Maryland furnish about 90 per cent of the carload
supply of the Baltimore market. The remainder of the carload supply
is usually from the Carolinas, Louisiana, and Florida. (Fig. 40 and
Table 36.)
Strawberry unloads at Baltimore
average.i924-i926
Circles represent total State
shipments, and sectors the amount
ualooded at Bolt/more
Figure 40.— More than 87 per cent of the Baltimore strawberry receipts (truck deliveries not in-
cluded) arrive by boat, but are reported by the market in carload equivalents. Maryland and
Virginia furnish over 90 per cent pf these supplies
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP
89
Table 36. — Shipments of strawberries by State of origin, and unloads at Baltimore,
average 1924-1926
State of origin
L-
Maryland
C'aroliuas ^
Louisiana
Florida .
Total
Average State ship-
ments
To all
points
Cars
1,435
1,547
1,689
1,761
521
To Balti-
more
Per cent
13.24
3.10
1.24
.23
.19
Average unloads at
Baltimore
Cars
190
48
21
4
1
264
Per cent i
71.97
18.18
7.95
1.52
.38
100.00
Per cent adjusted.
2 Includes North Carolina and South Carolina.
During 1926, Florida strawberries were reported on this market
January 8, and a continuous supply of strawberries was available at
this point until June 28. (Fig. 41.)
FLORIDA
LOUISIANA
NORTH CAROLINA
HOME GROWN
VIRGINIA
MARYLAND
FIGURE 41
:::::::::i::::H;::::z:[:: 1
I
'. ■ I — I — ^ — ^-i — i"" ""\""\"""\"""\ I I I I , I I ■ ■
10 20
FEB.
10 20
MAR.
10 20
APR.
10 20
MAY
10 20
JUNE
10 20 10 20
JULY AUG.
-APPROXIMATE Time Strawberries Were available on
Baltimore Market. 1926 Season
strawberries from localities that are comparatively near predominate on this market while
they are available.
MILWAUKEE
Records of strawberry unloads at Milwaukee are available for the
four years from 1923 to 1926, inclusive. During this period the
receipts averaged 205 cars per year w^hich were equivalent to about
2,064,000 quarts, and represented a volume equal to 4.5 quarts per
capita for the city. The largest yearly receipts (226 cars) of the
4-year period were unloaded during 1923, and these represent 5.1
quarts per capita for the city. (Table 37.)
Table 37. — Carload unloads of strawberries at Milwaukee, 1923-1926
Origin
1923
1924
1925
1926
Average'
Early crop:
Louisiana
Cars
46
3
27
38
7
9
14
40
1
41
Cars
34
4
24
42
17
6
13
49
Cars
35
2
13
20
14
Cars
76
2
14
2
2
8
3
60
65
3
Cars
48
Mississippi .
3
Second early:
Arkansas . .
19
Tennessee
25
Intermediate:
Illinois
10
Iowa
6
Kentucky
2
62
8
Missouri
53
Late:
Michigan
14
Wisconsin ...
24
7
2
19
All other 2
Total
226
213
157
225
205
Averages adjusted.
' Includes shipments from Alabama and Oregon.
90
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Missouri, Louisiana, and Tennessee are the largest shippers to the
Milwaukee market and their combined shipments during the 4-year
period averaged over 61 per cent of the market's carload receipts.
(Fig. 42 and Table 38.)
Strawberry unloads at Milwaukee
AVERAGE. 1 923-1926
Crc/es represent tofa/ State
shipmenti. and sectors tf)e amount
unloaded at Milwaukee
Figure 42.— Missouri, Louisiana, and Tennessee are the sources of over 61 per cent of the car-
load supply of Milwaukee
Table 38. — Shipments of strawberries by State of origin, and unloads at Milwau-
kee, average 1923-1926
State of origin
Average State shij)-
ments
Average unloads at
To all
points
ToMU-
waukee
Milwaukee
Missouri . . _
Cars
1,198
1,740
2,268
1,331
99
289
283
547
70
89
Per cent
4.42
2.76
1.10
1.43
19.19
4.84
3.53
1.46
8.57
3.37
Cars
53
48
25
19
19
14
10
8
6
3
Percent!
25 85
Louisiana .-. . . .. ...
23.41
Tennessee -. .- ... .. .
12.20
Arkansas.- ..- . ... . ...
9.27
Wisconsin
9 27
Michigan
6 83
IlUnois .... ... .
4.88
Kentucky .. . .
3.90
Iowa
2.93
Mississippi
1 46
Total
7,914
2.59
205
100.00
» Per cent adjusted.
ORICIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP
01
I^K StOi
During 1926, Louisiana strawberries appeared on this market
ril 15, and a continuous supply was available from that time until
y 15. The late supplies were from Wisconsin and Michigan
stock. (Fig. 43.)
LOUISIANA
MISSISSIPPI
ARKANSAS
MISSOURI
TENNESSEE
KENTUCKY
ILLINOIS
IOWA
MICHIGAN
WISCONSIN
FIGURE 43.
J
1
^■^M
1
•
"^ i
.
.
■
.
I
10 20
10 20
10 20
10 20
10 20
10 20
10 20
FEB.
MAR.
APR.
MAY
JUNE
JULY
AUG.
-Approximate Time strawberries Were available on
Milwaukee Market, 1926 season
Louisiana and Mississippi compete for the early sales on this market, but both are supplanted by
Arkansas and Missouri stock soon after it becomes available.
ST. LOUIS
As there is a considerable local production of strawberries in the
vicinity of St. Louis, the carload needs of this market are compar-
atively small. The average unloads from 1920 to 1926, inclusive,
were 184 cars, which represent a per capita supply for the city of
only 2.3 quarts in addition to local production. The largest yearly
receipts of the period were 277 cars in 1923. (Table 39.)
STRAWBERRY UNLOADS AT ST. LOUIS
Circles represent total State
shipments, and sectors the amount
unloaded at St Louis.
Figure 44.— Arkansas markets a little over 8 per cent of its carload shipments in St. Louis, and
these shipments represent something over 58 per cent of the market's carload supply. Truck
deliveries to this market reduce the volume of the carload demand below the average of other
cities of its rank
92 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 39. — Carload unloads of strawberries at St. Louis, 1920-1926
Ortgin
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
Average >
Early crop:
Loui.slana.
Cars
20
Cars
25
97
3
5
1
Cars
40
170
23
6
21
5
Cars
47
7
131
62
8
4
18
Cars
40
3
165
14
Cars
19
11
61
25
Cars
64
1
88
5
Cars
37
3
107
22
3
Mississippi
Second early:
Arkansas
40
25
Tennessee , ..
Intermediate:
Kentucky...
Missouri
2
5
12
2
13
8
4
All other «
Total
85
132
265
277
229
130
171
184
' Averages adjusted.
» Includes shipments from Florida, Alabama, Texas, Illinois, Michigan, Iowa, and Wisconsin,
Arkansas, Louisiana, and Tennessee are the principal sources of the
carload supply on this market, and their combined shipments have
averaged nearly 92 per cent of the carload receipts. (Fig. 44 and
Table 40.)
Table 40. — Shipments of strawberries by State of origin, and unloads at St. Louis,
average 1920-1926
State of origin
Average State
shipments
Average unloads
To all
points
To St.
Louis
at St. Louis
Arkansas
Cars
1,318
1,527
2,242
1,065
517
71
Per cent
8.12
2.42
.98
.75
.58
4.23
Cars
107
37
22
8
3
3
4
Per cent i
58 15
Louisiana . ....._.
20 11
Tennessee .
11 96
Missouri . .
4.35
Kentucky. . . _
1 63
Mississippi... . .
1 63
All other 2
2.17
Total
6,740
2.73
184
100.00
1 Per cent adjusted.
2 Includes shipments from Florida, Alabama, Texas, Illinois, Michigan,Iowa, and Wisconsin.
Florida strawberries were reported on this market from January 27
to April 7, 1926. Supplies from local points only were available on
the St. Louis market at the end of the season which terminated
June 20, 1926. (Fig. 45.)
FLORIDA
LOUISIANA
MISSISSIPPI
ALABAMA
HOME GROWN
ARKANSAS
TENNESSEE
MISSOURI
Figure 45. — approximate Time Strawberries Were Available on St.
Louis Market, 1926 Season
The St. Louis market attracts long-distance carload shipments during the early-crop season but
depends to a large extent upon comparatively near-by production for the remainder of the
)0 20
10 ?0
10 20
10 20
10 20
10 20
10 20
10 20
JAN.
FEB.
MAR.
APR.
MAY
JUNE
JULY
AUG.
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP 93
PROVIDENCE
Data regarding strawberry-carload receipts on the Providence
market arv^ available for the four years 1923 to 1926, inclusive. The
yearly receipts on this market for the four years averaged 177 cars,
which were equivalent to about 1,421,000 quarts. This supply
represents 5.9 quarts per capita for the city. The largest receipts
were 240 cars, which arrived during 1924. (Table 41.)
Table 41. — Carload unloads of strawberries at Providence, 1923-1926
Origin
1923
1924
1925
1926
Average ^
Early crop:
Louisiana
Cars
13
Cars
10
13
23
19
50
38
80
1
5
Cars
1
1
21
, 5
31
16
30
11
5
12
1
Cars
16
Cars
10
Second early:
Arkansas ..
3
Carolinas ^
29
2
24
38
78
25
9
23
28
39
2
4
3
1
24
Tennessee . ..
9
Virginia.
32
Intermediate:
Delaware
30
57
Missouri... . ..- . .
4
New Jersey. . . . .. .
3
Kentucky .. _ ..
4
All other
1
1
Total
184
240
134
150
177
1 Averages adjusted.
2 Includes North Carolina and South Carolina.
Maryland suppHes nearly one-third of this market's carload needs,
and the Virginia, Delaware, and CaroUna shipments, combined,
represented about 49 per cent of the supply. The remainder of the
receipts originated in six other States. (Fig. 46 and Table 42.)
Orcles represent total Stofe
shtpments.and sectors tfie amount
unloaded at Providence
A^BERRY UNLOADS AT PRO\
AVERAGE. I9E3-I926
^IDENCE
^--r PROVIDENCE
\y^ UNLOADS BY
y STATES
^ SIZI or C1»CL£ NOT
V J DRAWN to SCAUI
^^"^^^'^y^
—- \ \ i!f
ttVi
WvJ
1 1 JL /
[fc
\ 1 0 . J j ib.sio
\^ NUNOMOS Of c/ws
Figure 46.— Maryland, Virginia, Delaware, and the Carolinas are the leading shippers to this
market, but the "all other" receipts include shipments from most of the other jmiwrtant
districts
94
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 42. — Shipments of slrawherries by State of origin, and unloads at Provi-
dence, average 1923-1926
State of origin
Average State
shipments
Average unloads
To all
points
To Provi-
dence
at Providence
Maryland .
Cars
1,639
1,374
844
1,699
1,740
2,268
647
1,198
1,331
230
Percent
3.48
2.33
3.65
1.41
.57
.40
.73
.33
.23
1.30
Cart
57
32
30
24
10
9
4
4
3
3
1
Per cent »
32.20
18.08
16. 95
Carolinas ^..
13.56
Louisiana -- -
5.65
Tennessee - -
5.08
2.26
2.26
Arkansas
1.70
New Jersey -
1.70
All other
.56
Total
12,870
1.38
177
100.00
1 Per cent adjusted.
2 Includes North Carolina and South Carolina.
Louisiana strawberries appeared on this market April 12, 1926, and
the strawberry supply of this market was continuous from that date
until June 18. (Fig. 47.)
10 20
10 20
10 20
10 20
10 20
10 20
10 20
10 20
JAN.
FEB
MAR.
APR.
MAY
JUNE
JULY
AUG.
LOUISIANA
NORTH CAROLINA
TENNESSEE
VIRGINIA
MISSOURI
MARYLAND
KENTUCKY
DELAWARE
NEW JERSEY
FIGURE 47.— Approximate Time Strawberries Were Available on
Providence Market. 1926 Season
The order of succession of the sources of supply of this market follows closely the northward
movement of the season.
COLUMBUS
The strawberry carload supply of Columbus averaged 168 cars
during the four years 1923 to 1926, inclusive. These receipts were
equivalent to 1,683,000 quarts and represented a per capita supply of
7.1 quarts, which is a large carload supply when compared to other
markets. The receipts were 192 cars during 1924. (Table 43.)
Table 43. — Carload unloads of strawberries at Columbus, 1923-1926
Origin
1923
1924
1925
1926
Average »
Early crop:
Alabama
Louisiana
Cars
35
2
5
2
104
Cars
37
Cars
32
Cars
47
9
6
3
62
Cars
38
4
Mississippi
2
14
77
4
Second early:
Arkansas
5
Tennessee
119
90
ORIGIN AND DlSTRIBtJTION, STRAWBERRY CROP 95
Table 43. — Carload unloads of strawberries at Columbus, 192S-1926 — Continued
Origin
1923
1924
1926
1928
Average
Intermediate:
Delaware...
Cars
Cars
2
15
3
3
5
Cars
Cars
3
18
1
3
2
Cars
1
15
2
4
5
Kentucky.
20
1
7
2
8
3
Alary land
Missouri..
All other ^ . .
10
179
Total
. 192
145
154
168
» Includes shipments from Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, Texas, and Virginia.
Tennessee and Alabama supply over 76 per cent of the carload
needs of Columbus. Seven other States contribute the remainder of
the carload supply. (Fig. 48 and Table 44.)
Strawberry Unloads at Columbus
Average. 1923-1926
Circles represent total State
shipments, and sectors the amount
unloaded at Columbus
Figure 48. -Tennessee supplies more than one-half of this market's carload needs, and these
shipments combmed with those from Alabama and Kentucky, represent 85 per cent of the
Columbus carload supply
Table 44. — Shipments of strawberries btj State of origin, and unloads at Columbus,
average 1923-1926
Average State
shipments
State of origin
To all
points
To
Colum-
bus
at Columbus
Tennessee
Cars
2,268
490
547
1,331
1,740
89
1,198
1,639
844
Per cent
3.97
7.76
2.74
.38
.23
4.49
.33
.12
.12
Cars
90
38
15
6
4
4
4
2
1
5
Per cent i
53 57
Alabama ....
22 62
Kentucky
8 93
Arkansas ...
2 98
Louisiana.
2 38
Mis.sl88ippi
2 38
Missouri .. .
2.38
Maryland
1.19
Delaware
59
All other 2
2.98
Total ,
10, 146
1.66
168
100 00
Per cent adjusted.
IncJudes shipments from Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, Texas, and Virginia.
96
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Louisiana shipments were the first to arrive on this market during
the 1926 season. These supplies were available April 13, and there
was a continuous carload supply of strawberries on this market from
that date until June 16. (Fig. 49.) The season ended June 30 with
supplies of Ohio-grown berries.
LOUISIANA
ALABAMA
MISSISSIPPI
ARKANSAS
TENNESSEE
MARYLAND
KENTUCKY
MISSOURI
DELAWARE
■
,
"^
•
"
;
1 ,
, ,
, ,
, ,
10 20
JAN.
10 20
FEB.
10 20
MAR.
10 20
APR.
10 20
MAY
10 20
JUNE
10 20
JULY
10 20
AUG
Figure 49.— Approximate Time Strawberries Were Available on
Columbus Market, 1926 season
Delaware and Maryland make shipments to Columbus in competition with western districts. See
Figures 29, 31, and 37 for other markets of the mid- West used by these States. This movement
is contrary to the general eastward movement of the crop.
INDIAN APOUS
The receipts of strawberries at Indianapolis averaged 158 cars per
year from 1923 to 1926, inclusive. This average was equivalent to
1,577,000 quarts and represented a supply equal to 5 quarts per capita
for the city. The largest receipts of the 4-year period arrived during
1923, when 192 cars were reported. (Table 45.)
Table 45. — Carload unloads of strawberries at Indianapolis, 1923-1926
Origin
1923
1924
1925
1926
Average i
Early crop:
Alabama
Cars
10
36
3
3
112
12
3
7
6
Cars
13
35
4
16
88
10
5
2
5
Cars
26
1
Cars
37
28
7
10
35
9
4
Cars
22
Louisiana
25
Mississippi
3
Second early:
Arkansas
43
46
18
Tennessee -_
70
Intermediate:
Kentucky .
8
Missouri
12
6
Late:
Michigan
2
All other 2 _•
1
3
4
Total
192
178
129
133
158
1 Averages adjusted.
2 Includes shipments from Florida, Illinois, Maryland, North Carolina, and Texas.
Tennessee supplies about 44 per cent of the market's carload
needs, and the combined shipments from Louisiana, Alabama, and
Arkansas average 41 per cent. The shipments from the last-named
States are divided about equally among them. Kentucky, Missouri,
Mississippi, and Michigan contribute the remainder of the supply.
(Fig. 50 and Table 46.)
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP
97
STRAWBERRY UNLOADS AT INDIANAPOLIS
AVERAGE. 1923-1926
* Figure 50.— Tennessee, Alabama, Louisiana, and Arkansas furnish more more than 85 per cent
of the carload needs of this market. The carload receipts of Indianapolis have averaged 158
cars during the 1923-1926 period
Table 46. — Shipments of strawberries by State of origin, and unloads at Indian-
apolisy average 1923-1926
^■k^^ state of origin
Average State
shipments
Average unloads
at Indianapolis
To all
points
To
Indian-
apolis
Tennessee...
Cars
2,268
1,740
490
1, 331
547
1,198
89
289
Per cent
3.09
1.44
4.49
1.35
1.46
.60
3.37
.69
Cars
70
25
22
18
8
6
3
2
4
Per cent i
44.30
Louisiana -
15.82
Alabama . - .
13.93
Arkansas . . .
n. 39
Kentucky
5.06
Missouri
3.80
1.90
Michigan
1.27
All other *
2.53
Total
7,952
1.99
158
100.00
Per cent adjusted.
Includes sbipmeiyts from Florida, lUinojs, Maryland, North Carolina, and Texas.
LOUISIANA
ALABAMA
MISSISSIPPI
ARKANSAS
TENNESSEE
KENTUCKY
MISSOURI
HOMEGROWN
10 20
JAN.
10 20
FEB.
10 20
MAR.
10 20
APR.
10 20
MAY
10 20
JUNE
10 20
JULY
10 20
AUG.
Figure 51.— approximate Time Strawberries were Availabue on
INDIANAPOLIS MARKET, 1926 SEASON
The strawberry season of 1926 at the Indianapolis market began April 9 and ended June 18.
95608°— 30 7
98 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
During 1926, Louisiana strawberries were available on this market
April 9, and the supply was continuous from that date until the season
ended on June 18, with berries from Indiana. (Fig. 51.)
KANSAS CITY
The receipts of strawberries at Kansas City averaged 151 cars per
year from 1920 to 1926, inclusive. This volume was equal to 1,490,-
000 quarts and represented a city per capita supply of 4.6 quarts.
The receipts at this market wotg 262 cars during 1922. That year
Arkansas delivered 140 cars to this market or nearly double the usual
shipments to Kansas City from this State. (Table 47.)
Table 47.-
-Carload unloads
of Strawberries at Kansas City, 1920-1926
Origin
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1926
1926
Average i
Early crop:
Louisiana
Cars
26
Cars
33
Cars
hi
Cars
49
6
48
5
16
5
Cars
50
9
73
1
7
6
Cars
32
5
49
Cars
41
59
Cars
41
Texas .-.
4
Second early:
Arkansas.
38
87
140
1
57
7
71
Tennessee
1
Intermediate:
Missouri ..
4
58
58
1
17
31
All other 2
3
Total
68
180
262
129
146
145
124
151
1 Averages adjusted.
2 Includes shipments from California, Kansas, Oklahoma, Wisconsin, and Washington.
Arkansas supplies about 47 per cent of the Kansas City carload
receipts of strawberries, and the combined shipments from Louisiana
and Missouri to this market equal about the same quantity. Texas
and Tennessee make a few shipments to this market. (Fig. 52 and
Table 48.)
STRAWBERRY UNLOADS AT KANSAS CITY
AVERAGE,I920-I926
Figure 52.— Carload receipts at Kansas City average the smallest among the 18 large markets
included in this review. Near-by production is available for this market to a considerable extent
I
OEIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STEAWBEBRY CROP
99
Table 48. — Shipments of strawberries by State of origin, and unloads at Kansas
City, average 1920-1926
Average State ship-
ments
state of origin
To
all points
To
Kansas
City
Kansas City
Cars
1,318
1,627
1,065
31
2,242
Percent
5.39
2.69
2.91
12.90
.04
Cars
71
41
31
4
1
3
Per cent »
47.02
IvOuisiana
27.15
Missouri -
20.53
2.65
Tennessee
.66
All other 2 - -
1.99
Total
6,183
2.44
151
ICO. CO
1 Per cent adjusted.
2 Includes shipments from California, Kansas, Oklahoma, Wisconsin, and Washington.-
Florida strawberries were available in Kansas City January 26,
1926, and the strawberry supply was continuous from that date
until June 18. (Fig. 53.) Considerable local stock is grown in the
vicinity of Kansas City. (Fig. 2.)
FLORIDA
LOUISIANA
TEXAS
ARKANSAS
MISSOURI
Figure 53.
10 20
JAN.
10 20
FEB.
10 20
MAR.
10 20
APR.
10 20 10 20
MAY JUNE
10 20
JULY
■0 20
AUG.
-APPROXIMATE TIME STRAWBERRIES WERE AVAILABLE ON
KANSAS City market, 1926 season
The early supplies at Kansas City during 1926 were received from Florida in less-than-carload
shipments.
FIFTY-ONE SECONDARY MARKETS
Although the 40 markets shown in Figures 54 and 55 are not so
important in volume of consumption as are the 18 which have been
discussed, they are a considerable factor in the carload-distribution
scheme inasmuch as they are prospective outlets for strawberries
in carload quantities. A consideration of the possibilities for a
sale on these markets is often advisable when making a decision as
to where to place a shipment.
Table 14 includes data regarding sources and volume of supply,
wdth dates received, on 69 strawberry markets. This distribution
is illustrated in Figures 20 to 55, inclusive, for 58 of these markets.
The 1 1 markets not included in the illustrations but which reported
carload receipts during the season, together with number of ship-
ments, are as follows: Bethlehem, Pa., 1; Birmingham, Ala., 16;
Johnstown, Pa., 3; Lexington, Ky., 4; Norfolk, Va., 19; Portland,
Oreg., 6; Richmond, Va., 1; San Antonio, Tex., 3; Seattle, Wash.,
24; Spokane, Wash., 4; Terre Haute, Ind., 8.
100 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, tJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
• Point of origin (volunne not considered)
■^ Indicates market
FIGURE 54.— CARLOAD UNLOADS OF STRAWBERRIES AT 32 MARKETS BY
STATES OF ORIGIN. 1926 SEASON
These cities represent 32 prospective carload-strawberry markets.
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP 101
I
• Point of origin (volume not considered )
•^ indicates market
FIGURE 55.— CARLOAD UNLOADS OF STRAWBERRIES AT 8 MARKETS BY
STATES OF ORIGIN. 1926 SEASON
Each of the important shipping districts uses one or more of these markets as an outlet for a portion
of its crop.
COST PER QUART FOR TRANSPORTATION OF STRAWBERRIES
The cost of delivery of strawberries, whether by truck to near-by
points or by rail to more distant markets, is an important item in
the marketing scheme of this commodity. Table 49 (illustrated in
figs. 56 and 57) has been compiled to show the estimated cost per
quart for delivery by rail to each of 10 important markets from a
point in each of the large shipping districts. The minimum carload
freight or express rate was used for computing cost in each case.
Carloads were reduced to quart equivalents on the basis of 24 pounds
Table 49. — Estimated cost in cents per quart for transportation of strawberries
from point of origin to 10 markets ^
To Boston
To Buffalo
To Chicago
To Cleveland
To Detroit
Shipping point
Freight
Express
Freight
Express
Freight
Express
Freight
Express
Freight
Express
Castleberry, Ala
5.0
8.3
3.3
6.8
2.7
5.8
3.2
6.3
3.3
6.3
Dayton, Tenn
4.6
6.7
3.0
5.5
2.9
4.4
2.9
4.8
3.0
4.6
Franklin, Ky
3.9
6.3
2.3
5.0
2.2
3.7
2.2
4.4
2.3
4.1
Hammond, La
5.0
5.9
3.4
5.1
2.7
3.9
3.2
4.7
3.3
4.9
Humboldt, Tenn
4.3
5.0
2.7
4.2
2.0
3.0
2.5
3.8
2.5
3.9
Judsonia, Ark
5.5
5.2
4.4
4.5
2.8
3.3
4.0
4.3
4.0
4.3
Lawtey, Fla
8.8
7.8
8.5
7.4
5.3
6.9
5.3
7.3
5.3
7.6
Marion, Md
3.3
4.2
3.4
4.6
5.1
6.1
3.9
4.7
4.1
5.6
Monett, Mo
5.5
5.2
4.5
4.9
2.5
3.6
4.2
4.7
4.1
4.5
Port Norfolk, Va....
2.2
4.6
3.5
4.7
5.0
6.0
4.0
4.8
4.0
5.6
Selbyville, Del
3.3
4.1
3.4
4.6
5.1
6.1
3.9
4.7
4.1
5.6
Wallace, N. C
4.5
5.8
3.5
5.8
3.9
6.7
3.8
5.8
3.9
6.5
' Based upon published minimum carload freight and express rates including refrigeration charge.
Minimum carload from 15,000 to 17,000 pounds. Eighty per cent of freight-refrigeration charge used to
compute express cost when not specified in express rate. Since freight and express rates are frequently
changed, the figures represented can have no standing in adjusting claims against carriers.
102 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICXJLTTJRE
Table 49. — Estimated cost in cents per quart for transportation of strawberries
from point of origin to 10 markets — Continued
Shipping point
To Kansas City
To Minneapolis
To New York
To Philadelphia
To Pittsburgh
Freight
Express
Freight
Express
Freight
Express
1
Freight Express
Freight
Express
Castleberry, Ala
Dayton, Tenn.
Franklin, Ky
Hammond, La
Humboldt, Tenn
Judsonia, Ark
Lawtey, Fla._
Marion, Md
Monett, Mo.
Port Norfolk, Va....
Selbyville, Del.
Wallace, N. C
3.4
3.4
3.1
3.3
2.8
2.3
5.6
7.1
1.6
5.8
6.9
5.2
7.0
5.8
5.8
4.3
3.8
3.0
8.3
9.4
2.3
7.9
8.4
8.6
3.7
3.4
3.2
3.6
3.1
3.2
5.8
6.8
2.7
6.6
6.8
5.2
7.3
6.1
5.7
7.6
5.6
6.1
9.3
9.6
6.3
8.2
8.6
9.0
4.7
4.4
3.6
4.7
4.0
5.3
7.5
2.7
5.4
2.2
2.7
3.0
7.5
6.1
5.7
5.4
5.0
4.8
7.0
3.2
5.2
3.9
3.2
5.2
4.6
4.2
3.5
4.6
3.9
5.2
7.2
2.3
5.3
2.2
2.3
3.0
7.2
5.8
5.3
5.4
5.0
4.S
6.5
2.5
5.2
3.4
2.4
4.5
3.2
2.8
2.3
3,3
2.7
4.4
7.6
3.2
4.5
3.3
3.2
3.8
6.5
5.0
4.6
5.1
4.2
4.3
7.3
4.2
4.7
4.3
4.2
5.4
<tLBvyiL.Le
iAR\ON
OBT NORFOLK
COST OF EXPRESS
COST or Fff EIGHT
FIGURE 56.— Estimated Transportation Cost Per Quart of Straw-
berries From Point of Origin
The station named is the most important market center in each of the principal strawberry
districts. These costs are merely estimates and should be used only as an index for comparison.
ORIGIN AND DISTKIBUTION, STRAWBERRY CROP
103
FIGURE 57. — Estimated Transportation cost Per Quart of Strawberries
From Point of Origin
The station named is the most important market center in each of the principal strawberry districts.
These costs are merely estimates and should be used only as an index for comparison.
per 24-pin t crate, 25 pounds per IG-quart crate, 4o pounds per 24-
quart crate, and 63 pounds per 32-quart crate. The icing charge
was added to the transportation charge, and the total was divided
by the number of quarts per car. In certain cases the express-tariff
schedules do not give the exact icing charge, but state that the charge
will be at ''cost." In such instances, 80 per cent of the freight-
schedule icing charge between the points involved was used as an
estimate of this cost. Actual cost of delivery will vary to some
extent from the estimates in this table because of the differences
in the detail of the conditions under which shipments are made.
104 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
CONCLUSIONS
The strawberry is adapted to practically all tilled sections of the
United States. It is an earlj; cash crop for each locality in which it is
grown. In general, each village, town, and city is a prospective
market for a limited quantity of strawberries. They can be grown
successfully in small ''patches" to supply local demands, or on a more
extensive scale to meet the larger market requirements.
The strawberry must be considered as a delicacy at all times, and,
as such, the consumer must be tempted by quality and appearance to
use them, as necessity will never influence the demand for production.
A imited effort by the industry as a whole to deliver to the consumer
at all times well-graded stock in prime condition should tend to in-
crease consumption, which is the main basis for expansion of the
industry.
That part of the industry located in the early-crop and second-
early-crop districts is favored, from a marketing viewpoint, inasmuch
as its production reaches the northern markets during the winter and
early spring months when fresh home-grown strawberries are not in
season in that latitude. Owing to lack of competition at this season,
prices are usually comparatively high, and consumption is limited
accordingly. These early districts made a greater percentage of in-
crease in acreage during the 7-year period than did the other produc-
ing districts, which indicates an increased consumption for this early
production. To what extent this early production can be increased
and still maintain satisfactory sales depends in a measure upon the
general prosperity of the country.
The largest production of strawberries during the 7-year period
occurred in 1924. The marketing of this crop resulted in a sea,son of
comparatively low prices, and a general reduction in cultivated
acreages occurred during the following year. The conditions of the
1924 season are worthy of the attention of all sections interested in the
strawberry industry. As the greater part of the volume of market-
strawberry production is grown in the intermediate-crop districts,
these are essentially more interested in the prospective volume of
production than are the other districts; consequently, all contem-
plated increases in acreage for these sections should be governed by
discretion.
The late crop is grown principally in the areas in which the con-
suming centers are located, and as only a small percentage of the crop
is moved by rail, these producers can use local markets mainly as a
gage for measuring production.
The presentations in this bulletin, although not complete in all
details, furnish a fairly accurate picture of the strawberry industry of
the United States during the 1920-1926 period. With this informa-
tion as a background, the reader will be better equipped to interpret
the current seasonal information on present-day conditions as they
affect his individual problems.
U. S. GCVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1330
ORGANIZATION OF THE
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
May, 1930
Secretary of Agriculture...- Arthur M. Hyde.
Assistant Secretary R. W. Dunlap.
Director of Scientific Work A. F. Woods.
Director of Regulatory Work Walter G. Campbell.
Director of Extension C. W. Warburton.
Director of Personnel and Business Adminis-
tration W. W. Stockberger.
Director of Information M. S. Eisenhower.
Solicitor E. L. Marshall.
Weather Bureau Charles F. Marvin, Chief.
Bureau of Animal Industry John R. Mohler, Chief.
Bureau of Dairy Industry O. E. Reed, Chief.
Bureau of Plant Industry William A. Taylor, Chief.
Forest Service R. Y. Stuart, Chief.
Bureau of Chemistry and Soils H. G. Knight, Chief.
Bureau of Entomology ^__ C. L. Marlatt, Chief.
Bureau of Biological Survey Paul G. Redington, Chief.
Bureau of Public Roads Thomas H. MacDonald, Chief.
Bureau of Agricultural Economics Nils A. Olsen, Chief.
Bureau of Home Economics Louise Stanley, Chief.
Plant Quarantine and Control Administration. Lee A. Strong, Chief.
Grain Futures Administration J. W. T. Duvel, Chief.
Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration. Walter G. Campbell, Director of
Regulatory Work, in Charge.
Office of Experiment Stations , Chief.
Office of Cooperative Extension Work C. B. Smith, Chief.
Library Claribel R. Barnett, Librarian.
This bulletin is a contribution from
Bureau of Agricultural Economics Nils A. Olsen, Chief.
Division of Fruits and Vegetables Wells A. Sherman, Principal
, Marketing Specialist, in Charge.
k
Technical Bulletin No. 179
May, 1930
COOPERATIVE MARKETING
OF FLUID MILK
BY
HUTZEL METZGER
Senior Agricultural Economist, Division of Cooperative Marketing
Bureau of Agricultural Economics
United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
MIIIMIinilllllMIIIIII]IIIIIIMIIIIIIlllllllllllllllllllllllllllLJtlAIIJI|llllllinilllllllini]iiiMiiiniiiiiii]iiiiii]iiiiiiiiiMiiii|gnTt
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C.
Price 20 cents
Technical Bulletin No. 179
May, 1930
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF
FLUID MILK
By HuTZEL Metzger
Senior Affriomltural Economist, Division of Cooperative Marketing,^ Bureau of
Agricultural Economics
CONTENTS
Introduction.-
Development of milk-marketing associations-
Cooperatives of the Philadelphia milk
shed
Development in the New York milk
shed
Development in other sections..
Chicago milk-producers' strike.-
Other strikes follow
Influence of United States Food Adminis-
tration
Legality of associations questioned
The Capper-Volstead Act
Present status of fluid-milk cooperatives.
Types of associations...
Bargaining associations
Operating or marketing associations
Organization of milk-marketing associations.
Pooling practices...
Financing milk cooperatives
Sources of capital for ciirrent operating
Page
Seasonal variation and production control
plans 29
The basic surplus plan 31
The contract plan... ._ 38
The plans compared. 45
Price policies and plans 46
Price methods of some individual cooper-
ative associations _ 51
Some representative associations... _ 60
Dairymen's League Cooperative Associa-
tion (Inc.) 60
Maryland State Dairymen's Association. 63
The Inter-State Milk Producers' Asso-
ciation 69
Connecticut Milk Producers' Associa-
tion 73
The Dairymen's Cooperative Sales Co.._ 75
Cooperative Pure Milk Association 79
Twin City Milk Producers Association., 81
California Milk Producers Association 84
National Cooperative Milk Producers Feder-
ation 86
Appendix-- 88
INTRODUCTION
Fluid-milk marketing associations marketed approximately two-
fifths of the milk sold in the United States during 1928. This milk
had a value of more than $325,000,000. The rapid growth of coopera-
tive milk-marketing associations began during the World War.
Much of the time since 1920 has been spent in strengthening and
perfecting the associations already organized.
Economic forces assert themselves quickly in the fluid-mill^ mar-
ket. The fluid-milk cooperative that neglects economic laws finds
itself in difficulties. This fact has been important in placing these
associations among the most efficient cooperative organizations.
In delimiting their fields of operation these associations have had
to observe economic boundaries rather than those of political sub-
^The Division of Cooperative Marketing was transferred by Executive order from the
U. S. Department of Agriculture to the Federal Farm Board, Oct. 1, 1929.
95492"— 30 1 1
2 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 179, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
divisions. Each milk shed has problems peculiar to its market; yet
there are certain interrelationsnips and similarities among them.
Through the medium of cooperative marketing, milk producers near
many of our large cities have been brought into close contact with
their marketing problems.
A study of fluid-milk marketing organizations in the United
States was completed by the Division of Cooperative Marketing of
the Bureau of Agricultural Economics in 1929. A survey was made
of the development and methods of operation of each association in
its particular market and of the economic conditions under which
the organization operates. Data were obtained through interviews
with officers and members of the associations, who generously opened
their records and gave other assistance to those who conducted the
study, and from material on file in the Division of Cooperative
Marketing. The principal findings from the study are presented in
this bulletin.
DEVELOPMENT OF MILK-MARKETING ASSOCIATIONS
The sale and distribution of fluid milk by the producer to the con-
sumer was one of the earliest forms of fluid-milk marketing and is
still the practice in many of the smaller towns. With the growth
of the cities, each farmer could not so well have personal contact
with his customers, and the practice of selling his milk to a dis-
tributor grew up. Moreover, sanitary regulations in some cities
made necessary a greater investment and the purchase of more
elaborate equipment than was profitable for a small family business.
In almost every city many of these small distributors began to
operate, each with a business somewhat larger than the family unit,
but not distributing a large proportion of the total supply. Gradu-
ally the more efficient increased their business, and consolidations
took place. At present there are many cities in which one distributor
sells more than half of the milk marketed.
The object which the producers had in mind in forming most of
the earlier cooperative-marketing associations was the retail distri-
bution of milk. They felt that the distributor was getting more
than his share of the consumer's dollar. By retailing tne milk used
for fluid consumption and processing the remainder, they reasoned
that they would not only receive the same wholesale price that they
received under the private-distributor system but would obtain the
distributors' share of the profits, which they believed to be exception-
ally large.
These cooperative-marketing associations, which were established
principally in the small or medium-sized cities, operated a plant and
distributed milk on regular routes. The operations were usually on
a small scale, and milk came from close-in territory. This fact
made it easy for the producers, who were as a rule personally ac-
quainted, to get together in cooperative effort and rendered elaborate
organization unnecessary.
In other cities, particularly the larger ones, where a greater amount
of capital was necessary to enter the distributing business, the pro-
ducers came together in a cooperative organization for the purpose
of determining what would be their terms of sale and of obtaining
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK 3
power to negotiate with the distributors as to prices. This type
of producers' cooperative organization became known as the bargain-
ing association. It owned no facilities for and had nothing to do
with physically handling the milk. Because the bargaining associa-
tion had no effective method of enforcing its demand in case the
distributors refused to accept its terms, some groups of producers,
who wished to wholesale their milk but not distribute it, established
facilities for receiving the milk in the country and city. They con-
stitute another class usually termed the operating or marketing
associations.
The growth of cooperative fluid-milk marketing associations pre-
vious to the World War was slow. The first such association formed
which is still in existence and reporting to the United States De-
partment of Agriculture was formed in 1882. This department has
record of only 4 such associations established before 1900. Three
of those established from 1900 to 1910 are still operating; 7 of those
established from 1910 to 1915 ; 57 of those established from 1915 to
1920; 76 of those established from 1920 to 1924; and 12 of those es-
tablished from 1925 to 1928. Only 14 of the 159 active associations
reporting to the Department of Agriculture were established prior to
1915; the large growth in numbers came principally in the 10-year
period from 1915 to 1925. Some of those formed since 1925 have
been formed in places where others had failed. The record of in-
crease in numbers is shown in Table 1.
Table 1. — Cooperatwe milk-marketmg associations: Period of organisation and
type
Period organized
Retail dis-
tribution
Wholesale
distftbution
Bargaining
Total
Cumulative
total
1880-1889 --
Number
1
1
Number
29
48
fi
Number
Number
2
2
1
2
7
57
76
12
Number
2
1890-1899
4
1900-1904
5
1905-1909 -
1
3
20
14
5
7
1910-1914-
14
1915-1919.
8
14
1
71
1920-1924
147
1925-1928
159
1
Total
25
91
43
159
159
Previous to 1916, cooperative fluid-milk marketing on a large scale
had gained little permanent foothold. It had, however, laid a back-
ground and furnished a wealth of experience as a foundation upon
which some of the later associations built. In the New York milk
shed, for instance, several associations had been established and dis-
appeared. Table 2 gives the names of a number of associations that
were built up around different cities and were succeeded by others.
In a few cases successors were hardly more than changes in names ;
in others they were new associations built on the ruins of the old.
Often the names of leaders and enthusiastic supporters of coopera-
tion will be found identified with every association formed in the
shed. To these men who carried along experiences gained from as-
sociation to association, or passed these results on to others, and en-
abled the present associations to develop on a firm foundation, belongs
4 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 179, XT. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
much of the credit for the successful establishment of existing
associations.
Table 2. — Some of the present cooperative milk^marketing associations and
those preceding them which furnished valuable cooperative experience
Name of association
Date
of
Principal
organi-
market
zation
1883
Boston.
1904
Do.
1904
Do.
1913
Do.
1917
Do.
1883
New York.
1889
Do.
1898
Do.
1903
Do.
1907
Do.
1919
Do.
1883
PhUadelphia.
1887
Do.
1887
Do.
1896
Do.
1916
Do.
1899
Baltimore.
1909
Do.
1918
Do.
1889
Pittsburgh.
1894
Do.
1916
Do.
1918
Do.
1887
Cleveland.
1897
Do.
1919
Do.
1923
Do.
1916
Columbus.
1923
Do.
1917
Cincinnati..
1923
Do.
1923
Do.
1887
Chicago.
1891
Do.
1897
Do.
1909
Do.
1918
Do.
1922
Do.
1924
Do.
1913
St. Louis.
1921
Do.
1924
Do.
1925
Do.
1926
Do.
1928
Do.
Boston Milk Producers Union
Boston Cooperative Milk Producers Co
New England Milk Producers' Association
Do.i
Do.2
Orange County Producers
Five States Milk Producers Union...
Five States Milk Producers Association
Cooperative Creameries Association.
Dairymen's League
Dairymen's League Cooperative Association (Inc.) J
Local associations
Dairymen's Protective Association of Pennsylvania and New Jersey
United Milk Producers Association.
Philadelphia Milk Shippers' Union..
Inter-State Milk Producers' Association
United Milk Producers Association
Maryland State Dairymen's Association
Do.3.
Milk Producers Union ..^
Milk Producers Association of Eastern Ohio and Western Pennsylvania
Northeastern Ohio Milk Producers Association
Dairymen's Cooperative Sales Co
Milk Producers Union.
Northern Ohio Milk Producers Association
Ohio Farmers Cooperative Milk Co
Ohio Farmers Cooperative Milk Association
Central Producers Co.
Scioto Valley Cooperative Milk Producers' Association
Queen City Milk Producers Association
Tri-State Milk Marketing Association (Inc.)
Cooperative Pure Milk Association *.
Milk Shippers Central Union *
Milk Shippers Association
MUk Shippers Union
Chicago Milk Producers Association
Milk Producers Cooperative Marketing Co
The Milk Producers Cooperative Marketing Co.*
Pure Milk Association
Southern Illinois Milk Producers Association
Illinois- Missouri Cooperative Milk Producers Association
Illinois-Missouri Dairy Co
Illinois-Missouri Cooperative (Inc.)
St. Louis Pure Milk Producers' Association
Do. «
1 Reorganized in 1913.
2 Reorganized in 1917.
3 Began functioning as a milk-marketing organization in 1918.
* A change of name without reorganization.
« Reorganized in 1928.
Some of these earlier organizations were bargaining associations,
but more often they were of the marketing type. Among those pro-
ducers who to-day have years of experience back of their organization
are those in the Philadelphia and New York milk sheds. If the
instilling of the spirit of cooperation into any group of agricultural
producers is the result of a gradual process of education and experi-
ence, the milk producers of these sheds may consider themselves
fortunate.
COOPERATIVES OF THE PHILADELPHIA MILK SHED
Cooperation in milk marketing in the Philadelphia milk shed
probably began during the period from 1883 to 1885. Between 1885
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK 5
and 1895, five cooperative associations were formed which were
federated in one central sales organization known as the Dairymen's
Protective Association of Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Three of
these were known as the Milk Association of Pennsylvania, Schuyl-
kill Valley Railroad and its Tributaries; the North Penn Dairy-
men's Protective Association ; and the Pennsylvania Milk Producers
Association. The names of the other associations are not now defi-
nitely known.
The Dairymen's Protective Association of Pennsylvania and New
Jersey acted as a central sales organization and established a surplus
by-product manufacturing plant which was operated during the
latter part of the period. The central association encountered diffi-
culties in prorating the cost of manufacturing the surplus to the
individual organizations so loosely federated.
An organization known as the United Milk Producers Association
was formed about 1887, but whether this was a separate organization
or one of the five in the federation can not be definitely ascertained.
PHIIiADELPHIA MILK SHIPPEBS' UNION
About 1896 the Philadelphia Milk Shippers' Union was organized.
It was reorganized about 1 901 ; locals were established, and the union
became a collective bargaining association of the locals throughout
the territory. In 1910 the name was changed to the Inter-State Milk
Producers Association, but the territory included and the member-
ship were too small to exert great influence on the market. The
executive committee agreed on a monthly price and did what they
could in conference with the distributors, to secure this price but,
because of the small quantity of milk that they contracted, their
bargaining had less effect than if a larger volume had been under
the control of the association. The association had practically no
dealings with the large distributors, who were inclined to ignore its
existence. Those shipping through receiving stations were in no
position to bargain, since they would probably lose their market to
some one else.
Most of the bargaining was with the small distributors, much of
it by individuals who tried to base their prices on that set by the
association. Distributors bought from producers outside the asso-
ciation, and there was no uniform price throughout the territory.
But the association kept alive the cooperative idea, represented the
farmers in their relations with distributors, and, among other things,
obtained legislation changing the standards of measurement for milk
from dry to liquid measure.
With the increase in the general level of prices of most commodi-
ties, following the outbreak of the World War in Europe, the price
of milk failed to keep pace. The efforts of willing distributors to
increase the retail prices of milk, for practically a 15-year period
before the war period, had always been met by a strong resistance
on the part of the public, supported by the public press. Produc-
tion costs mounted, and the purchasing power of milk became
smaller and smaller. There had been practically no increase in milk
prices. By 1916 there was widespread agitation because of these
inequalities.
6 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 179, IT. S. DEPT. Ot AGRtCITLTITRE
A special committee of the Pomona Granges of Chester and Dela-
ware Counties was appointed ; meetings were held ; and the old pro-
ducers' organization was expanded to take in new territory which
formed the most important milk-shipping districts. Aided by the
county agent of Chester County, the tentative reorganization plans
were presented to the old executive committee September 27, 1916,
and a month later they were adopted.
GOVEENOBS' TEI-STATE MILK COMMISSION
Continued opposition of the public to increased prices and grow-
ing losses of the farmers caused the governors of the four States that
supply Philadelphia to appoint, soon afterwards, the so-called gov-
ernors' tri-State milk commission, of which Clyde L. King, of the
University of Pennsylvania, was made chairman. The commission
Avas charged with the investigation of the whole milk marketing sit-
uation so that farmers, distributors, and consumers might have an
authentic, unbiased report on the status of milk production and mar-
keting in the Philadelphia milk shed.
Immediate results of the investigation were such as to convince
the distributors and consumers that, if they were to have an ade-
quate milk supply, the price would have to be increased to a point
that would enable the farmer to produce milk and remain in busi-
ness. One of the longer-time effects was that the studies and work of
men identified with the commission laid an economic foundation
upon the basis of which the association has functioned, and pro-
vided a means by which differences could be adjusted and business
cooperation could be accomplished between producers and dis-
tributors.
DEVELOPMENT IN THE NEW YORK MILK SHED
The background of experience for the dairymen of the New York
milk shed dates from about the same time that cooperative market-
ing of milk began in Philadelphia. In fact, an attempt was made, in
1872 to form a fluid-milk marketing association of producers who
shipped milk to New York. A 2-day meeting was held, but capital
was lacking, and no one seemed willing and fitted to undertake the
management, so the producers went home without any definite accom-
plishment.
DISTRIBUTORS FORM NEW YORK MILK EXCHANGE
The New York distributors formed a purchasing association in
1882, known as the New York Milk Exchange. It included no pro-
ducers as members. Its function was to buy milk for the distribu-
tors, on a commission of about 3 cents per 100 pounds, and to fix
the price paid to producers. Each distributor held stock in the ex-
change. About 1891, action was brought against the exchange on the
ground that it was a combination to control prices, and it was finally
dissolved in 1895. Upon its dissolution a similar organization com-
posed largely of the membership of the previous exchange and known
as the Consolidated Milk Exchange (Ltd.) was formed. Its mem-
bers discussed the value instead of price of milk at their meetings
and, on the basis of these discussions, prices were made by each dis-
tributor individually, and quotations were issued.
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK 7
.The second attempt of producers to get together was in Orange
County, N. Y., in 1883. The fact that the distributors had organized
the exchange made it more necessary that the producers have some
organization to represent them in price negotiations, but the ex-
change refused to recognize the producers' association. A strike
was called, which so decreased supplies that the exchange agreed to
negotiations that resulted in a price agreement. Within two years,
however, the distributors had widened their milk shed so that they
were receiving milk from outside the Orange County territory.
This essentially broke down any power exercised by the Orange
County producers.
PEODUCERS OF FIVE STATES ORGANIZE
Producers then began to talk of bringing together all shippers,
actual or potential, to the New York City market. They thought
that by doing this they could regulate prices. Local groups were
formed in New York, Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and
Pennsylvania. They thought of uniting all these locals into a cen-
tral organization to be known as the Five States Milk Producers
Union, which was to enter the distributing business and supply
the consumers. The central organization appears never to have
functioned as a marketing agency, but it did much to bring the local
units together.
In 1898, the Five States Producers' Association succeeded the Five
States Milk Producers Union. The formation of the Consolidated
Milk Exchange and the activities of the distributors served as an
incentive to hasten its formation. Many of the local associations
built or bought creameries which were operated cooperatively. A
large part of the market was organized locally, but the central organ-
ization again failed to function as a sales agency. The central
organization appears to have existed until about 1907, although some-
what inactive, while the locals continued to function actively.
About 1903 the Orange County producers organized as the United
Dairymen and attempted to sell its members' milk, but it was
ignored by the New York dealers. A grange committee tried to
negotiate with the distributors but without result.
dairymen's league formed
In 1907 the grange became active again in Orange County. Rep-
resentatives from that and near-by counties met at Middleton; later
in the year the Dairymen's League was formed and incorporated
under the laws of New Jersey. The agreement upon organization
was that the association should function when it had secured mem-
bers owning 50,000 cows. It was not until 1910 that this goal was
reached. The membership increased during the next few years,
but the attempts on the part of the association to confer with dis-
tributors were unsuccessful.
By 1916, costs of production had risen so much more than the
prices of milk that the members of the league were aroused enough
to urge action on the part of their organization.
The executive committee established a price for October 1, 1916,
but distributors refused to pay it. A strike, which lasted two weeks.
8 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 9, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
was called and was finally settled by distributors, agreeing to pay the
price asked. Membership grew from 15,000 to 25,000 in a few
months. From 1917 to 1919, prices were set by the United States
Food Administration. When the Food Administration was dis-
banded, friction between producers and distributors developed again.
The producers' asking price for January, 1919, was 40 cents per 100
pounds over the amount bid by the distributors. A strike lasting 18
days was won by the farmers. Membership had increased in 1919 to
about 75,000.
The end of the World War, and its attendant shutting off of de-
mand from European markets, left a large surplus of milk with no
method of caring for it. It was decided that the league, which up
to this time had been a bargaining association, must have facilities
for handling the surplus. The Dairymen's League Cooperative As-
sociation (Inc.) was therefore organized, and began the operation of
country plants in April, 1920. This association has continued its
operation to the present time. Its status is discussed later in this
bulletin.
DEVELOPMENT IN OTHER SECTIONS
The history of many other associations parallels, to a considerable
degree, that of those in Philadelphia and New York.
Boston's first cooperative association was started about 1883, and
was succeeded by others; the present New England Milk Producers
Association was established in 1917.
Chicago and Cleveland had associations operating in 1887, Pitts-
burgh in 1889, and Baltimore in 1899. Most of these were weak
and rather ineffective as marketing organizations, but served a useful
purpose in providing the producers with experience along coopera-
tive lines.
It is evident that the cooperative association was not an important
factor in the marketing of fluid milk previous to the World War.
But these experiences which schooled the dairymen in thinking and
acting cooperatively, together with the unfavorable economic situa-
tion, and the Government's part in food control during the World
War, were the major factors that contributed to the rise and develop-
ment of the cooperative marketing of fluid milk.
In a great many cities, during the 10 years previous to 1916, there
had been little change in retail prices of milk. The price for grade
B milk on delivery routes in New York, prior to the fall of 1907, was
8 cents per quart. In Chicago it was 7 cents. In New York it did
not exceed 9 cents, or in Chicago, 8 cents, at any time prior to 1916.
(Fig. 1.) The consumers had been accustomed, for years, to paying
a certain price for milk and felt that any increase was exorbitant.
Efforts of producers to increase the price were always met with a
strong resistance on the part of the public, supported by the public
press.
Prices to producers under these circumstances were necessarily
low, but as long as prices of other commodities remained low also
returns were sufficient to keep plenty of dairymen in business. An
examination of Figure 2 reveals how nearly a composite of the prices
paid producers for milk in Boston, New York, and Pittsburgh fol-
lowed those of other commodities, for the SO^year period 1908 to
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OP FLUID MILK
9
1927. A study of other areas shows this price to be representative
of other markets over any appreciable period of time. Taking the
5-year period 1910 to 1914 as the base for the all-commodity index
number and for calculating relative prices of milk, the figure shows
the deviations of the monthly relative price of milk above or below
the monthly index number of all commodities.
For the period 1908 to 1912, prices of milk were intermittently
higher and lower than the average price of all commodities, but on
the whole for that period they averaged 5 points lower relatively than
the average of all commodities. From the latter part of 1912 until
near the end of 1915 they were almost invariably higher than the
level of all commodities. Any prolonged period in which costs are
higher than prices can not fail to bring about curtailment of supplies
and dissatisfaction among producers. The year 1916 further showed
a wide disparity between the prices of milk and of other commodi-
CENTS
PER QUART
15
10
PRICE OF GRADE B MILK
New York Clf,j
Chicago
.jl_J
190! 1905 1910 1915 1920 1925
Figure 1.— Average Monthly Prices of Milk on delivery Routes in
New York City and Chicago, 1901-1927
During the period from 1901 to 1907, there was little change in retail prices in
either New Yorlc City or Chicago. Prices during the following 10-year periods
were considerably higher and showed greater variation.
ties. Milk prices in the latter part of 1916 were more than 30 points
lower than all commodities relative to the period 1910 to 1914, and
they dropped still lower in the spring of 1917, with no relief in
sight. The point was actually reached at which prices of milk had
to go up or many farmers would necessarily stop producing.
The farmers naturally turned to any existing cooperative market-
ing associations to represent them in getting higher prices. Pro-
ducers for the Chicago, New York, and Boston markets appear to
have been among the earlier ones to take up the fight actively. The
results of organized labor in securing higher wages served as an
example of accomplishments from organization, and it is but natural
that milk producers thought of the strike as a method of enforcing
their demands. Local groups began to be organized, and old associa-
tions were revived. Especial interest in marketing fluid milk was
shown around the large cities, and active membership in many asso-
ciations increased rapidly.
10 TECHNICAL BtJLLETm 179, XT. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE
<
ii.
0
X
lU
Q
Z
0
I-
f
0
ir
D
m
in
h
h
-4t<) CL
-:
2?
-^
==
-i
-
-i
CO
2
., ,... ■■
-\
■
—.
1
~2
CM
1
——^——
""
-
'
—-
C\J
—
'
_
-E
^
_
cn
~
_
-i
o
O)
—
1
2}
2
1 .
-
-^
00
1
—-
r^
_ 1 1
O)
——
^^^
^
to
11
-"5
=
r
d
1
■=
i
:=
~:
£2
E
~-
2?
II
-
—
-i
O)
1
-H
o
1
==
3
o
.—
^
00
" 1 1
E>
-2 UJ
u 0
a,
<
UJ
U
E
Q.
UI
0
<
UJ
>
<
u.
0
z
0
h
<
J
UJ
GC
I.
cvi
UJ
o a
I 0
;3
O o
O Oj
7j <u
L'5 R
£.
'^Ti
<
00 4J
-
O rt
i^
o^
q:
0
'O m
>-
2.^
UJ
Z
29
5a
o
z
fccw
0
0^
h
^"i;?
(/) h'
0 <^
m ^
fcCo)
Zoo
^2
o
S^CJ
00 aj
•S5
o
Xu
^^
C O
Q
0
^a
o o
as
sa
ft«6
■4-T-l
<D*43
la
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK 11
CHICAGO MILK-PRODUCERS' STRIKE
The producers of the Chicago district, organized under the name
Chicago Milk Producers Association, were the first to take up active
opposition against the distributors in favor of higher prices.
, In the spring of 1916 the producers asked $1.55 per 100 pounds for
3.5 per cent milk. On April 1, 1916, there were about 13,000 pro-
ducers supplying milk to Chicago, about 2,600 of whom were mem-
bers of the Chicago Milk Producers Association. This association
estimated that 52 per cent of the townships were about 70 per cent
organized. Over 65 per cent of the farms were operated by tenants,
and 56 per cent of the producers were foreign born.
The producers' asking price of $1.55 per 100 pounds for 3.5 per
cent milk was an increase over the price for the previous year. The
distributors offered $1.33i/^ per 100 pounds. The producers with-
held the milk ; in about a week the producers' price was granted, and
the strike was ended.
The Chicago strike spread to southern Illinois, where a price of
$1.40 for 3.5 per cent milk in the St. Louis district was asked. The
distributors fixed $1.30 as their maximum. "After a few weeks the
strike was called off, although the producers' demands had not been
met. This strike failed because these producers were unable to
restrict the supply enough to enforce their demands. Many of the
producers failed to hold their milk after a few days, and the distribu-
tors were able to procure an ample supply of milk in the condensery
districts just outside the regular fluid-milk shed and some from
greater distances.
OTHER STRIKES FOLLOW
In September, 1916, rumors of the success of the organized dairy-
men in other cities began to reach members of the Dairymen's League,
and a leader of the Chicago dairymen was invited to New York
Statue. He aided the league in arousing enthusiasm, and a price of
$2.05 per 100 pounds for 3 per cent milk was announced for October.
On September 30 the league notified its members not to make
deliveries unless notified to do so. A 14-day strike followed, during
w^hich milk was shipped from the Chicago, Indianapolis, Cleveland,
Philadelphia, and Boston milk sheds and from points in Maine and
Canada. After two months, distributors handling 65 per cent of
the milk were reported to have met the league price; the other dis-
tributors gradually fell in line, and the strike was at an end.
In the Boston milk shed, a strike was called by the New England
Milk Producers' Association on October 1, 1916; the association
asked for a price of 50 cents per 8^2 -quart can. The strike lasted
about 6 weeks before the distributors met the demands of the associa-
tion.
A milk strike was ordered for October 20, 1916, in Pittsburgh, but
was called off. On August 1, 1917, producers asked $2.80 per 100
pounds for 3.5 per cent milk and 7.6 cents for each additional point
of butterfat f. o b. shipping point for all Ohio milk, while local pro-
ducers asked $3.48 per 100 pounds f . o. b. the city. The distributors
offered $2.60 per 100 pounds f. o. b. shipping point, with 4 cents for
each point above 3 per cent and a discount pf 2 cents for each point
12 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 9, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
below in the butterfat test. The strike lasted through August. Then
the producers agreed to accept, for a limited period, $2.60 for 3.5 per
cent milk with a 5-cent differential for each point of variation in
butterfat either up or down. The retail price was then increased
to 13 cents per quart.
In the Cincinnati milk shed locals had been established, and men
from these groups began meeting together by October, 1916. By
January, 1917, they had come to an agreement that some central
organization must be started if they were to obtain higher prices.
On January 10, 1917, they asked all their members to withhold their
milk. The city health department was not in sympathy with the
strike and let down all bars as to requirements. Many distributors
obtained milk from any possible source, maintained no butterfat
standard, and employed powdered milk for making milk for distribu-
tion. When the strike came to an end, it had resulted in a heavy cost
to both distributors and the association, but the men fighting for the
establishment of a cooperative had been brought together. The dis-
tributors had not been forced to meet the demands of the producers,
but they were thoroughly tired of the opposition and anxious that it
should not be repeated.
When producers and distributors came together the following
October the distributors agreed to prices asked by producers, and
the leaders agreed to use their influence to prevent any further dis-
turbance as long as the producers were treated fairly.
A second strike in the New York milk shed occurred in 1919 when
the league prices were 40 cents over the prices offered by the distrib-
utors. The strike was. won by the producers in 18 days, at which
time the league membership was reported as 75,000, or about its
maximum for all time up to the present.
Although the strikes which occurred from 1916 to 1920 were fairly
successful in obtaining the demands of the producers, their effect was
only temporary. They did, however, focus public attention on the
question of the milk supplies of the cities and on the fact that the
producer must, on th^ average, receive a fair return for his produc-
tion. They also hastened the necessary increases in retail prices.
They served to bring producers together and to strengthen the co-
operative associations of farmers in fluid-milk areas. Their success-
ful termination was in considerable part due to the fact that as
prices of other commodities were rising, resistance on the part of the
consumers to increases in prices of milk was less.
The only strike of significance in recent years was that of the Pure
Milk Association of Chicago, which occurred in 1929. A fact-find-
ing committee representing the public had investigated the situation
and recommended an increase in milk prices to producers and, if
necessary, to consumers. The large distributors had refused to
recognize the producers' association in any way. The producers
stated that their selling price for milk would be raised January 1,
1929, from $2.50 to $2.85 per 100 pounds for 3.5 per cent milk. The
distributors posted signs at their plants that the price would be
$2.50. From about January 18, members of the association withheld
their milk. An agreement was reached with the distributors on
January 22 to submit the question to arbitration.
COOPEKATIVE MARKETING OV FLUID MILK 13
Clyde L. King, of Philadelphia, who was selected as arbitrator,
placed the price at $2.64 for the first three months of 1929 and, in
addition, ruled that the distributors were to pay 1 cent per 100
pounds to the Pure Milk Association on all milk received, and were
to refuse to receive milk from any new producers who were not mem-
bers of the association. Indications are that, if the association is
managed wisely, the results of this plan may be beneficial to both
distributors and producers. One of the differences between this
strike and those which occurred in Chicago and in other cities in
previous years was the fact that the consumers here were in sympathy
with the producers and favored an increase in prices.
INFLUENCE OF UNITED STATES FOOD ADMINISTRATION
The Federal Food Administration, which operated from 1917 to
1919, let it be known early that it preferred to deal with groups
and not with individuals. Cooperative associations were the only
representatives of groups of milk producers. The administration
was anxious to keep everybody as well satisfied as possible and read-
ily advised distributors to acquiesce in producers' demands for
prices, when such demands were justified; and the distributors gave
in rather than oppose the Food Administration. Some of the asso-
ciations were aided considerably in establishing proper differentials
between the primary and secondary markets by the fact that distrib-
utors in these towns obeyed the orders of the Food Administration.
When the Federal Food Administration ceased to function, in 1919,
a few distributors tried to regain their old-time position, but most of
them accepted the new order of things which in most cases, was as
profitable to them as the old. The action of the Food Administra-
tion had given the producers' cooperative organizations a foothold
strong enough, in the majority of cases, to insure its permanent
establishment.
LEGALITY OF ASS0CLA.TI0NS QUESTIONED
Along with the increases in prices which came during the war pe-
riod the right of the producers to get together for the purpose of
naming a price or of agreeing with distributors as to the prices for a
particular market was questioned in a number of instances. In 1917
a disagreement between the Milk Producers Association of Chicago
and the distributors relative to prices brought in the Food Adminis-
tration, which settled the dispute. The producers' association called
a meeting with the intention of putting into effect the recommenda-
tions of the Food Administration. The State's attorney of Cook
County, 111., claimed that this meeting was in violation of the State
antitrust act and filed suit to criminally prosecute the leaders of the
association; eight directors were indicted. Arrangements were
made for the prosecution to be delayed during the war, but in 1919
it was resumed, and the men were given a jury trial. The jurors
were city men, most of them laboring men and consumers of milk.
A verdict of " not guilty " was rendered, but the trial cost the farm-
ers of the district an immense sum and was highly detrimental to th«
morale of the organization.
14 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 9, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
In 1917 the directors of the Ohio Farmers' Cooperative Milk Co.,
which supplied milk to Cleveland, Ohio, were suddenly arrested at
night under charge of violating the Valentine Antitrust Act of Ohio.
They were taken to the county jail of Cuyahoga County, and were
denied the right of bail until 10 o'clock the next morning, when their
friends obtained their release. A trial resulted in a verdict of not
guilty.
The executive committee of the Twin City . Milk Producers' Asso-
ciation in Minneapolis was indicted in the fall of 1917 ^ on the
grounds that they were attempting to increase and fix milk prices.
After being continued for about two years the case was brought to
trial September 15, 1919; the jury was selected and then dismissed
while the attorneys for the accused men argued for two days that
the case should not be brought to trial since there was really no
charge against the men.
The case was dismissed by Judge Leary on September 19, 1919.
In rendering the decision he said :
The corporation entered into no agreement with anybody else, any person
or with any corporation of any kind. There is no evidence of that and no
offer to prove that. If as a matter of fact it was alleged that these particular
defendants had entered into a combination with the Clover Leaf or the Metro-
politan Milk Co., and then proof should be offered it was the corporation and
that the corporation controlled the milk and that the corporation fixed the
price I think then the point might be, I am not so sure but what the indictment
would be indefinite even then, but that would supply an element that is abso-
lutely necessary; but it is not set forth in the form of the indictment and is
not supported by any evidence in the case. What really appears here as near
as I can see is simply this: There was a cooperative corporation formed, and
these defendants were the officials, that this cooperative corporation fixed the
price or did some act tending to fix the price of milk in the city of Minneapolis,
and at the time had control of 50 i)er cent of the milk to be supplied here.
Now that is about all there is in this claim from the evidence so far as I can
see now. That may be a crime. I am not passing upon that. It is not charged
at least that it is. And for these reasons I have indicated the court at this
time sustains the objection.
Attempts at prosecution under other State and Federal statutes
were also made. In New Orleans a small group of producers dis-
agreed with the principal distributor of that city concerning the pro-
portionate share which the producers and the distributor should take
in a price cut. The producers held a meeting, and the Federal dis-
trict attorney started a prosecution against them. Other associations
came to their assistance, and the indictment was quashed.
THE CAPPER-VOLSTEAD ACT
These various prosecutions were a disturbing element in the prog-
ress of the fluid-milk cooperative associations. Most of the organi-
zations do not follow State lines. They were, therefore, especially
interested in obtaining a certain degree of exemption from the opera-
tion of the Federal antitrust acts. Such legislation has been accom-
3 Anonymous, case against t. c. m. p. a. joci^cutivb committee dismissed. Twin
City Milk Producers Bui, 3 (10):^. 1919,
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF PLyiD MILK 15
plished through the passage of the Capper- Volstead Act,^ and to-
day these cooperatives participate frequently in conferences and
enter into agreements for which hardly a decade ago they would have
been prosecuted. In spite of the fact that they were given this ex-
emption, they have not unduly enhanced the price of their product
to the consumer. To date not a single complaint has ever been filed.
PRESENT STATUS OF FLUID-MILK COOPERATIVES
In 1927, the 159 fluid-milk cooperative associations reporting to
the Division of Cooperative Marketing are estimated to have mar-
keted 11,000,000,000 pounds of milk, which is approximately 40 per
cent of the milk marketed in the IJnited States. This was sold for
about $325,000,000. Of this amount, bargaining associations received
$185,000,000 and operating associations $140,000,000. This includes
only milk marketed by producers. A quantity of milk approxi-
mately equal to that marketed is estimated to be consumed on farms
and never enters the market.
These associations are confined largely to the eastern part of the
United States and the northern cities of the Middle West and the
Pacific coast. Little of the milk in the South is marketed coopera-
tively. The locations of the various associations are given in Fig-
ure 3. The active membership of these associations ranges from less
than 100 to over 40,000.
The Dairymen's League Cooperative Association (Inc.) has slightly
over 71,000 contracts on its records, but has only about 41,000 par-
ticipating members ; that is, shippers who actually sell milk through
the league at some time during any year. The changes in number of
contracts on record ^e shown in Table 3.
3 The Capper-Volstead Act became a law on February 18, 1922. This act of Congress
was passed for the purpose of making it plain that producers are free to act together
along normal business lines in the collective handling, processing, and marketing of
their agricultural products, with respect to interstate or foreign commerce. Since the
passage of the Capper-Volstead Act stock and nonstock associations of producers may be
formed and operated without violating the Federal antitrust laws. In order for an
association of producers to obtain the benefits of the Capper-Volstead Act, the associa-
tion must meet the terms and conditions of that act. In order to come under the act,
an association of producers must be operated for the mutual benefit of the members
thereof as such producers. The association must not deal in the products of nonmem-
bers to an amount greater in value than that handled by it for members. The dividends
on the stock or membership capital in the association may not exceed 8 per cent a year
unless each member of the association is restricted to one vote in the association. If
the Secretary of Agriculture is of the opinion that an association has unduly enhanced
the price of the product it is engaged in marketing, he may issue a complaint against the
association, requiring it " to show cause why an order should not be made directing it
to cease and desist from monopolization or restraint of trade." If an association fails
to comply with an order issued by the Secretary of Agriculture against it, the order
may be enforced by the Department of Justice in the proper Federal district court.
16 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 9, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 3. — DaArymen's League Coopera-ti/ve Association (Inc.) contracts: Chcmges
and number in force, 1921-1928
Contracts
Year beginning Apr. 1
At begin-
ning of
year
Received
during
year
Total
Canceled
Total
after can-
cellation
1921
Number
160,843
65,050
64,251
63,746
64,635
63,420
66,383
71,603
Number
17, 470
9,837
4,587
5,116
3,890
5,079
7,423
Number
68,313
74,887
68,838
68,862
68,525
68,499
73,806
Number
3,263
10,636
5,092
4,227
5,105
2,116
2,203
Number
65,050
64 251
1922
1923
63,746
64,635
63,420
66,383
71,603
1924
1926
1926
1927
1928
Compiled from annual reports of Dairymen's League Cooperative Association (Inc.) and appearing in the
following publication: United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Agricultural Eco-
nomics. MORE MILK PRODUCERS IN DAIRYMEN'S LEAGUE. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. AgT. Econ. Agr. Coop.
6: 332. 1928.
1 May 1, 1921.
FIGURE 3.— LOCATION OF MlLK-MARKETlNG ASSOCIATIONS, 1929
Milk-marketing associations have been organized mostly in the Eastern States and
the northern cities of the Middle West and the Pacific coast. Little of the milk
in the South is marketed cooperatively.
The number of contracts in force does not represent the number
of producers actually delivering milk. Some of these may be start-
ing out in milk production, or may be discontinuing it; or it may
not be definitely known whether thejr are still in the business and
have not canceled their contracts, which run continuously until can-
celed. For that reason the participating membership in any year
runs far below the number of contracts in force. This fact has often
led to confusion in interpreting the membership data published.
The New England Milk Producers' Association and the Inter-State
Milk Producers' Association each report 20,000 or more members.
The Dairymen's Cooperative Sales Co. of Pittsburgh and the Michi-
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK
17
gan Milk Producers' Association of Detroit report 10,000 or more
members. Forty associations reported a membership of 500 or more
and 25 of 1,000 or more. The approximate membership by types of
associations is shown in Table 4.
Table 4. — Milk marketing association»: Type and membership, 1928
Associations
Membership group
Retail dis-
tribution
Wholesale
marketing
Bargain-
ing
Total
Cumula-
tive total
Under 100
Number
14
4
4
Number
41
21
15
6
3
3
Number
5
4
11
3
2
4
1
4
1
4
4
Number
60
29
30
9
6
7
1
5
1
6
5
Number
60
lOQ-199
89
20(M99
119
500-749
128
750-999
1
134
1,000-1,999
141
2,000-2,999 •.-.-.
142
3,000-3,999
1
147
4,0004,999
148
5,000-9,999 -
1
1
1
164
10,000 and over
159
Total
25
91
43
159
159
The territory over which one of these associations operates may
extend 400 miles from the primary market, as in the case of the
Dairymen's League Cooperative Association (Inc.). It reaches out
almost that distance in the Boston milk shed and a similar distance
from the Philadelphia market. The approximate borders of the
territories in which the various associations operate are shown in
Figure 4. In some instances the territories of two large associations
may overlap along the line where the borders of the sheds meet, and
smaller cooperatives may be located within the territory from which
a large-scale cooperative obtains its supply.
TYPES OF ASSOCIATIONS
The cooperative associations fall into two general classes, (1)
bargaining associations, and (2) marketing or operating associa-
tions. The location of these associations, by types, is indicated in
Figure 2. Many modifications and combinations of these are found
in existing associations.
BARGAINING ASSOCIATIONS
The typical bargaining association is one which operates no fa-
cilities for the physical handling of milk. Originally its function was
to act as a broker in arranging for the sale of the members' milk to
the distributors. That still is its most important work, but it has
taken on many other duties, so that it now performs a variety of
economic services to producers and distributors. In addition to rep-
resenting the producer in all price negotiations for the sale of his
milk, it may guarantee the producer that he will receive payment for
the milk in case the distributor fails, for any cause whatever, to make
payment. This means that the association must have a sufficient
reserve fund so that it can meet any possible loss from this direction.
95492°— 30-^ — 2 __
18 TECHNICAL BTTLLETIN 17d, XT. S. DElPT. O^ AGRICULTURE
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK 19
It also means that the association, if it must guarantee payment,
will keep more carefully investigated the kind of credit risk and the
financial condition of a particular distributor, or will require him
lo give a bond adequate to protect the association and its members.
Another function is the testing of milk for producers or, if the
distributor does his own testing, the association may maintain check
testers, and may also check weights. It may guarantee a market for
unplaced milk ; or for milk the usual distributors of which have re-
fused to concede a price in line with the rest of the market. If
producers are paid on the basis of the individual distributor's pur-
chases and utilization, the association can adjust the supplies of the
distributor more nearly to equalize the amount of surplus that each
distributor must carry, by shifting producers from one distributor
to another. It can regulate seasonal production through some plan
of production control by means of which a producer who has a rather
even supply of milk throughout the year will receive a premium
above the average price, and the one whose production varies widely
will be penalized. It may increase the consumption of milk through
dairy-council work with schools and clubs and other forms of adver-
tising. Field inspection and maintenance and improvement of qual-
ity through sanitary requirements and standards by inspection are
other services that may be rendered. The association can also render
a valuable service to producers by representing them publicly when-
ever occasion demands, such as in securing beneficial legislation,
tariff adjustments, and more favorable transportation rates.
The association does not itself receive or actually handle the milk.
It ordinarily does not pay the producer for his milk; the check is
mailed directly by the distributor. The association may receive its
income from an annual membership fee, but more often it comes from
a service charge on the basis of the quantity of milk sold.
This type of association has the advantage that it can be started
with a relatively small amount of capital and can be conducted for
a small cost per unit of product sold. It has the disadvantage that,
in case the distributors wish to ignore the association, it may not be
able to bring any great degree of pressure to bear on them in securing
desired adjustments in price or other matters. Through the pay-
ment for milk, the distributor has a direct contact with each member
and therefore with a possible source of supply in case of difficulties
with the association.
But the association may render such services in securing for the
distributor an adequate supply of high-quality milk at all times that
the distributor may be unwilling to dispense with the services of the
association, and so may make concessions. Then too, a producer
who has thus been brought in closer touch with his market is more
likely to adjust his production so that he can secure a higher average
price ; this in turn aids the distributor since his daily supplies will
more nearly correspond with sales. The association also renders the
distributor a service in teaching the public that it must expect to
pay a reasonable price for milk and to give the distributor an ade-
quate margin if it is to secure a good quality of milk at a reasonable
price. For these services the distributors should be willing to pay
9, considerable sum as long as they are allowed an adequate margin.
20 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 179, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Many of the fluid-milk associations are of the bargaining type, as
those supplying Boston, Hartford, and other Connecticut cities,
Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Baltimore, and Washington. This type
tends to be adapted to milk sheds located in a more or less deficit
area. Its effectiveness may be considerably increased if it has re-
serve funds large enough to enable it to change to an operating or
marketing association within a short period of time.
OPERATING OR MARKETING ASSOCIATIONS
The terms " operating " or " marketing " associations are applied
to all associations that actually handle all or a part of the milk and
operate physical handling facilities. They may perform all the
functions of bargaining associations, as well as handle milk and
manufacture and sell milk products.
These associations might be further subdivided into (1) those that
own all country receiving facilities and sell at wholesale only, manu-
facturing the surplus, if they are so equipped, into whatever products
will give them the greatest return; (2) those that own city and coun-
try facilities and sell at retail as well as wholesale; and (3) those
that own only a part of the facilities for handling the product and
sell principally at wholesale.
Associations of the operating type are found in such cities as New
York, Cleveland, Cincinnati, St. Paul, Minneapolis, and Los
Angeles. .
Such an association, by operating its plants, may be able to take
off the market at times when supplies are in excess of fluid consump-
tion a sufficient quantity of milk so that prices will not be unduly
depressed or so that distributors will not have an instrument in the
form of a surplus by which they are able to depress prices below
what the supply and demand situation justifies.
Since the association actually makes the payments to the producers
a contact is maintained constantly between the members and their
association, and the members can be kept fully informed as to the
aims and accomplishments of the association. As the distributors
may not operate the country plant they do not have country contacts
and are more dependent upon the association for milk supplies.
The greatest disadvantage of the marketing association has been
that as it takes the producer into business, the one without necessary
skillful business management in the sale and manufacture of dairy
products may suffer. Then this association may require a large
amount of capital, a considerable portion of which must be raised
before the association can begin operation, and this may tend to keep
the membership much smaller than it would otherwise be.
ebtahing eejquibes capital and expeet management
It is in the retail milk business that capital requirements are
especially high relative to the volume of milk. The retailing of
milk by cooperative associations has not been as successful in the
United States as has wholesale milk marketing. The problem of a
sufficient volume of business to make possible low operating costs
per unit of product plays an important part. In selling milk at
wholesale, by merely deciding that they will market their milk
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK 21
through the cooperative, the producers have the means whereby they
may be able to increase the volume of product for sale through the
cooperative until it is larger than that handled by any competitor.
With this large volume, the costs of operation may compare favor-
ably with the most efficient wholesale operations by competitors and
may be lower than many.
In establishing a retail business the producer must go out and
secure business on the same basis as competitors. The experience of
the cooperatives in retailing milk seems to indicate that many of
them have not been able to operate as efficiently during the first five
years as do many privately owned distributing companies, handling
an equal volume, that have been in the business for years.
If the cooperative can afford to buy and finance an established
and successful distributing business and can retain a management
friendly to the association it is likely that many difficulties will be
avoided.
There has been a tendency for cooperatives to buy the business of
a distributor who is failing or has not been successful. The business
is frequently purchased upon the basis of its assets rather than upon
its earnings. Frequently the result is a burden which none of their
competitors would consider.
The capital requirements for a retail milk business are high. Un-
less the cooperative has accumulated a substantial reserve that may
be used for this purpose the financing may prove burdensome.
A cooperative that is retailing milk at the same time that it is sell-
ing milk at wholesale to other distributors who are its competitors,
is in a difficult position. But if the cooperative is a retailer only,
it can expect to get only a part of the business and therefore can
accommodate only a proportionate number of producers. Some co-
operatives have attempted to solve the wholesale and retail problem
by having a subsidiary organization in the distribution business while
the principal organization sold milk to the subsidiary as well as to
other distributors. If the same group of men control and manage
both the principal association and the subsidiary it is likely to be
much like one association. The retail end of the business is interested
in obtaining milk as cheaply as possible whereas the producers who
wholesale it to the retail distributors want as high a price as possible.
For that reason it is difficult to bring the interests of the two together.
Few of the fluid-milk cooperatives are retailing in large cities.
Those operating in Cincinnati, Los Angeles, and St. Louis have de-
veloped a very substantial business in each city. On March 1, 1929,
the Ohio Farmers' Milk Association entered the retail field in Cleve-
land ; at this writing it is too early to make any prediction as to the
character of changes that will be brought about in their business
from this move. Most of the other associations that retail milk are
confined to fairly small towns.
ORGANIZATION OF MILK-MARKETING ASSOCIATIONS
It is desirable to have the best set-up possible, on the basis of the
experience of successful cooperatives, but the actual success of the
venture often depends to only a limited extent upon this organiza-
tion. Many of those that are now operating successfully say that
22 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 9, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
a change in their set-up would be desirable, but as long as the present
one does not seriously handicap them they think it unwise to make
any change.
Both the bargaining and operating fluid-milk associations are of
the type that have central control. Most of the larger associations
have some sort of local unit (which may or may not have a legal
status) to facilitate the dissemination of information relative to the
plans, progress, and policies of operation of the association, and in
some cases to serve as a means of voting in the elections of the direc-
torate. The contract for the sale of milk, however, is always between
the individual and the central association that sells his milk, and
with which he must deal in making any adjustments.
The control of the association is ordinarily vested in a directorate
of from 5 to 25, apportioned roughly on the basis of production,
though there are a number of variations. If the directorate is not
small, an executive committee usually functions between meetings
of the board. In some instances this committee assumes the active
management of the business of the association ; in others a manager
or manager-secretary, who is usually not a director or officer of the
association, may be employed.
POOLING PRACTICES
The operations of practically every cooperative fluid-milk asso-
ciation involve pooling in some form. It may be the pooling of the
returns of all members or of the members shipping to a single dis-
tributor or it may be a pooling of expenses only. The difficult prob-
lems are chiefly in connection with the pooling of returns.
In many of the associations the problem of a large section is in-
volved. The borders of the milk shed must be determined so that
all localities that naturally come into competition for the fluid-
milk market will be included. If more distant localities, that are
not economically competitors with those closer in for a given mar-
ket, are brought into the pool the total supply is increased and prices
to many of those participating are lower than they otherwise would
be. If too small a district is included, unless the cooperative pos-
sesses adequate machinery and is so organized that it can buy milk
outside the regular milk shed to supply distributors whenever neces-
sary, distributors are likely to be short of milk at times and to go
outside the shed to obtain it. When this supply outside the shed
once gains access to the market it frequently can not easily be pre-
vented from continuing, although it was needed only temporarily.
The final result is an oversupply, except during the low-production
periods, and a lower average price to the producers.
With the extremes of the shed defined, the fluid-milk problem
involves the question of whether the shed is to be divided into a
number of pools related to secondary markets as well as to the pri-
mary market, or whether the entire section shall be included in a
single pool. Differentials to take care of differences in transportation
costs and butterf at content have been generally recognized as essen-
tial. The question of proper differentials to care for inherent eco-
nomic advantages possessed by producers located near a primary
or principal market, or near a secondary market, is beginning to be
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLXTID MILK 23
recognized by cooperative associations as important; that is, the
producer located near a market has an economic advantage other
than differences in transportation costs. He can more easily make
contacts with distributors. Generally speaking, he has usually ad-
justed his production to the market demands, and has less seasonal
variation in supply. The smaller distributors, especially, are willing
to pay him a premium for his milk and can afford to do so since the
supply may cost them less in the end. These factors enable him to
secure a price which will keep him in business when prices are too
low to cover the costs of the more distant producer.
If the association has some plan of production control or gives
premiums for even production, the near-by producer's disadvantage
from this source may be removed. His ease of making contact with
buyers may still enable him to make a more profitable bargain than
participation in a pool with distant producers. If the association
does not recognize these factors in a way that compensates him for
his natural advantages, he is likely to withdraw at any time, and
probably within a few years.
If more than one pool by areas is made within the shed and milk
is shipped from these pools into the primary market only as needed,
its sale price is likely to be the same as for milk produced near the
primary market. For the portion sold for fluid consumption in the
iirecondary market the price should be less unless the farmer is located
in a deficit locality. If the secondary market is located in a locality
of considerable surplus, the differential between the price of fluid
milk that enters into that secondary pool and of that entering the
primary one is approximately the primary market price minus the
cost of transportation.
FINANCING MILK COOPERATIVES
The operating type of fluid-milk association requires a consider-
able amount of initial capital for plants and equipment, which must
be retained in these fixed assets. If it is to enter the retail-distribu-
tion field, the capital must be still greater. A number of the man-
agers of cooperative associations have estimated that, if an associa-
tion owns its plants and operates on 15 to 20 retail routes in a small
city, the capital requirements will be from $9 to $10 per quart of
business daily.
Funds must also be provided to take care of normal growth in
the business and to provide for any changes in its character which
make additional investments necessary.
The problem of working capital is not so great, because of the
steady flow of the product to market and its immediate sale to
distributors. The requirements for current financing are different
from those of some annual commodity, as cotton or wheat. If the
proceeds of sales for any month are retained until the 15th to
25th of the month following, collections from distributors can usually
be made before the producers' payments are due.
The bargaining type of association requires only funds enough to
pay its employees; these funds are usually derived from a service
charge on the milk sold.
The securing of adequate capital within a short period of time has
been one of the difficulties. The methods by which the associations
24 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 179, tJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTTJRE
have been financed have varied, in part at least, according to the
amount of capital required. The bargaining type of association,
ordinarily requiring only a small amount of initial capital, usually
obtains its original funds through the charging of a membership
fee ranging in most instances from $1 to $5, paid only once. The plan
of having each member sign a note (the amount based on his number
of cows) to be used with the notes of other members as collateral for
loans if necessary, has been employed by some associations to provide
a potential reserve for working capital. Other associations have been
organized as stock corporations with the subscription to stock on
the basis of something like one share for each 10 cows as a requisite
to membership.
A par value of $2.50 per share, with fractional shares if the mem-
ber has less than 10 cows, was used by some of the older associations
established before suitable cooperative laws were enacted, under
which they could incorporate as a cooperative. Since the associa-
tions intend to make no profits and expect to pay no dividends, the
purchase of shares of stock is comparable to an initial membership
fee. In case it is dissolved, the association is obligated to the mem-
bers for the amount of the stock.
This plan seems to have been advantageous in that the association
was more likely to accumulate a reserve equal to the capital stock
outstanding than to set aside such a reserve if it charged only a
membership fee in the first place. With the increasing trend of
cooperatives toward establishing larger reserves, this will probably
not be the case in future.
SOURCES OF CAPITAL FOR CURRENT OPERATING EXPENSES
After the initial capital has been acquired, income for current
expenses must be obtained. Charging of an annual membership fee,
based on number of cows, was one of the first methods. On account
of the extra cost and trouble involved in collection of funds, it is
not in general use to-day. The officers of a few associations, how-
ever, believing that it gives the association an additional benefit to
have an annual contact with the member, have retained the plan.
SERVICE CHARGES SUPPLY CAPITAL
The method in most general use is the deduction of a service charge
on all sales of milk through the association. For successful collec-
tion, it is almost essential that the charge be deducted by the dis-
tributor, if he pays the producer, and paid over to the association.
Such a procedure is to the association similar to the " check-off " of
the labor unions. It not only secures the charges due but establishes
a degree of business cooperation between the producers' association
and the distributors which might not otherwise exist.
The charge varies somewhat in proportion to the services per-
formed and to the success of the association in marketing. The mini-
mum charge is one-half cent per 100 pounds and the maximum about
11% cents. In the latter case 80 per cent of the total charge is set
aside as a contingency reserve to insure all producers against any
losses from failure of distributors to pay for milk purchased, and
against changing market conditions. It is contemplated that at least
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK * 25
a large part of the contribution to this reserve will be returned with-
out interest. About 40 per cent of the associations are receiving a
charge of 3 cents per 100 pounds; 10 per cent charge a greater
amount ; and 50 per cent less than that amount. From the associa-
tions' experiences it does not seem that they can be expected to
operate on less than 3 cents per 100 pounds and give adequate serv-
ice. In the few cases in which expenses are met by an annual per-cow
charge, this ranges from 30 cents to $1 a cow per year.
There is a tendency for new associations to increase the services
to the producer and to make a higher charge, and some of the older
associations are increasing the amount charged.
^ In no case does the charge of 3 cents or less provide for a con-
tingency reserve or a sinking fund for expansion. It does include
funds paid by the associations which participate in dairy-council
activities toward quality improvement and increase of consumption
of milk. In most cases the associations' contribution for this work
is augmented by an equal contribution from the distributors, but as
this practically increases the cost of milk to distributors it is prob-
able that their buying price is slightly lower because of it. Thus
most of the cost is shifted to the producer which is, in effect, the game
as an increased charge.
If the general price level remains somewhat as it is, the trend
toward higher charges in new and old associations will probably
increase the charge to 5 cents within a few years. This will not be
excessive, and should enable the association to set aside some reserves,
as well as render greater service to producers and distributors.
Leaders in the most successful associations believe that practically
as many members will pay a charge of 5 cents as will pay 3 cents or
less. They believe that the increased income may render the associa-
tion so much stronger, through its increased service and bargaining
power that it may be better able to obtain equitable returns for its
product.
Charges for the sale of milk by bargaining associations are now
almost always made on the physical-unit basis rather than on value.
Originally many associations made charges on a value basis, but
most of them have changed to a fixed charge per 100 pounds or per
gallon. Deduction on the physical-unit basis tends to make those
who produce a large quantity of milk during the summer months
when prices are low, and a small quantity in the winter season
when prices are high, pay a relatively larger amount to the associa-
tion in proportion to their returns than do the men who have a
more even production. A payment on the value basis makes the
producer with the more constant production pay more. Inasmuch
as an even production throughout the year is desirable and that de-
ductions on the value basis tend to be against quality improvement
which is reflected in price, the physical-unit basis appears to be the
more equitable from the standpoint of a permanent policy for the
association.
The marketing associations that operate and, in most cases, own
facilities for actually handling milk require much larger amounts of
capital, not only for current needs but for fixed investment in build-:
ings and equipment than does the bargaining type of association.
The initial requirements may be fairly Targe even if the ^ssociatioq
begins on ^ moderate scale.
26 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 9, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
CAPITAL STOCK FREQUENTLY USED
Sale of stock has been one method of raising the capital. Pur-
chase of stock may be made a condition of membership and allot-
ments of stock made on the basis of the number of cows in each pro-
ducer's herd ; that is, the producer may be required to subscribe for
stock to the amount of from $10 to $20 per cow. For the small asso-
ciation stock may be sold on voluntary basis without regard to size
of herd or production. The voting power and dividends are likely
to be limited. The sale of stock may be limited to members only;
but if there is difficulty in securing adequate finances the small
cooperative may have to sell a part of the stock to business men or
those interested in furthering the enterprise. If a large proportion
has to be taken by such a group, producers may lack confidence in
the enterprise and may not join in numbers large enough to make the
project a success. Then, too, it may place the control in the hands
of stockholders who are neither active members nor patrons. To
prevent control by nonmembers, some associations have been organ-
ized as nonstock associations with a subsidiary stock association, the
membership in the two being identical. Nonvoting stock is avail-
able to nonmembers, and the voting stock is under the control of
members.
REVOLVING-FUND PLAN
Many associations are organized without capital stock. The
" revolving- fund " plan, known also as the " certificate-of -indebted-
ness " plan, and probably introduced to the cooperatives by the
United States Department of Agriculture, has frequently been em-
ployed in the nonstock fluid-milk associations. The initial capital
is usually obtained by a cash loan, or by members giving individual
notes payable on call or a short specified time thereafter. This pay-
ment in cash or notes is frequently based on the size of the member's
herd. For the loan the association ordinarily issues an interest-
bearing certificate of indebtedness payable at the end of some speci-
fied period of time, ranging usually in different associations from
3 to 10 years.
Some associations have provided for an amortization, the first
payment of one-fifth of the amount to be made at the end of the
sixth year, and a similar amount each year thereafter until the end
of the tenth year, when payment will be completed. The only ad-
vantage of such a partial-payment plan is that the loan is in effect
for seven and one-half years, and producers who begin to get some
return on loans at the end of six years may be better satisfied than
if it were a straight seven and one-half year loan.
After the initial capital is obtained, the association makes a deduc-
tion each month of whatever amount it thinks reasonable and neces-
sary, and similar certificates are issued once a year or more often
for these deductions. Associations have found it desirable to issue
certificates in such manner that they can be called at any time or
after a given time, at either par or a premium, so that if their capital
requirements decrease they can be assured of a means of adjustment.
Since it is preferable that certificates be held by their original
owners, the provision making them callable does not make them
Uji4esirable from the standpoint of these original holders. The
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK 27
practice of issuing common stock for deductions for capital purposes
is sometimes employed.
The revolving-fund plan is adapted to maintaining the capital of
fluid-milk cooperatives as long as the character of the business re-
mains the same, and there is no great decrease in volume of business
during the life of the certificate of indebtedness if that plan is
followed. It may not provide enough funds if the type of business
is changed to one which requires a greater amount of capital (as
from a wholesale bulk to a wholesale bottled or a retail business),
or to a type of manufacturing which requires large equipment in-
vestments. Funds for an expansion that involves any appreciable
change in the character of the business and, in some instances, funds
to take care of a normal increase in business must be obtained in
some other way. At present there is no credit agency to make loans
of this type.
Some of the cooperatives have resorted to lengthening the term
in which deductions are retained; that is, the association may have
been issuing to the producer a certificate of indebtedness for the
capital deductions made from his milk checks, payable in five years.
It may seem that eventually it will need more capital for expansion
and so may lengthen the term of the certificates to six or seven years.
This method requires that the needs of the association be antici-
pated far in advance; it does not meet requirements for immediate
capital. If, instead of certificates of indebtedness, common stock is
issued, or if the deduction is retained and each member's account
credited with his proportionate part of the fund, the calling of stock
or paying of refunds may be passed for a year to secure a certain
amount of capital. But such procedure tends to destroy the confi-
dence of the membership and may cause more harm than benefit.
If the volume of business handled by the association decreases to
any great extent during the term for which the certificates are is-
sued, and the money from these deductions has been invested in
fixed assets, there may be difficulty in meeting the payments unless
rather large deductions are made, in which case a more rapid decline
in volume of business is usually brought about. When changes in
the business are gradual, these increases or decreases in requirements
can be well taken care of under the plan. The callable feature
should be incorporated in the certificates so that the amount of any
maturity may be lessened whenever funds are available.
The plan is defective from the standpoint of satisfying the pro-
ducer. Few associations have reached a point in stability at which
the members have full confidence in the value of its securities. More-
over the members do not feel that they wish to act as the banker for
the association, therefore they are not likely to be enthusiastic about
repeated deductions from the milk checks. If the competitors of
the association meet or exceed the prices paid by it, the association
will lose some of its members, and such decreases in membership and
attending volume of business are likely to make further deductions
necessary.
If the members are sufficiently interested in the business to pur-
chase its stock, financing by the direct sale of stock may place the
cooperative association on a more stable basis with respect to its
financing than would a revolving fund plan. Both plans have been
28 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 179, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
successfully employed. The circumstances surrounding eaxih case
should determine which plan is preferable.
ADEQUATE BESEBVES NEEDED
A phase of the financial policy that has been somewhat neglected
in many fluid-milk associations is the accumulation of adequate
reserves. The wisely managed cooperative will adjust its business
operations and provide a means of financing to meet unforeseen
difficulties. The anticipation of market difficulties and unforeseen
expenses is good business foresight. Establishment of a substantial
reserve, held in a form that makes it quickly available, is one of the
most important steps in developing a sound financial policy.
Those associations that have any appreciable investment in fixed
assets have followed conservative accounting practice in setting up
sufficient reserves to care for needs that can be well anticipated, but
the importance of adequate contingency reserves is becoming more
apparent to the cooperatives. A contingency reserve is designed
to meet the events that can not be forecast. In many respects it
corresponds to the surplus of the usual corporation. Either the
cooperative or the private business may operate for a long period
without extraordinary financial demands. When such funds are
required it is frequently at a time when it is most difficult for the
association to obtain credit. Some provision for supplying funds in
an emergency is even more necessary for a cooperative than for the
ordinary corporate enterprise.
Because of the nature of the organization of a cooperative and
its fundamental no-profit principle, it can not accumulate a surplus
from earnings as can the commercial stock corporation. The op-
portune time for the corporation to set aside contingency reserves
is whenever its net earnings are large. These increased earnings
may be due to a particularly favorable demand for its product,
to increase in production efficiency, or to unusually favorable pur-
chase of raw materials. The cooperative is not interested in pur-
chasing raw material cheaply from its members. Its usual method
of reserve accumulation is to make a deduction from each sale
and thus gradually build up a surplus fund. The deductions made
from each individual should be recorded, and after the fund has
become adequate for the purpose intended deductions may still be
made and the earlier contributors reimbursed for their proportion
of the original contribution which still remains.
The fund is a reserve for extraordinary occasions whenever they
occur. No interest is paid the producer on his share in the fund;
he should be willing to consider his interest as the cost for market
insurance.
The operating association that owns and operates plants and
actually handles milk must establish its ordinary reserves to care
for anticipated expenses. Because of its ownership of physical
assets, some definite method of financing to secure funds for capital
purposes has been necessary. For that reason, and because its
physical assets give it a certain credit standing, it has been in a
somewhat better position to raise funds quickly than has the bar-
gaining association, but it would be in a much stronger position
if it had an ample contingency reserve.
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OP FLUID MILK
29
A large contingency reserve is particularly important in the bar-
gaining type of association. One of the fundamental weaknesses
of such a cooperative is its lack of ability to impress on those
with whom it deals that it has essential services for sale. If the
buyers do not care to consider its terms of sale, the cooperative is
not in a position to act independently of the buying group, unless
it has sufficient financial backing to take whatever course it deems
wise.
The Maryland State Dairymen's Association has accumulated
a contingency fund amounting to over half a million dollars. The
Connecticut Milk Producers' Association, the New England Milk
Producers' Association, and the Maryland- Virginia Milk Producers'
Association are among those that have begun to accumulate such a
fund ; others will no doubt follow.
POUNDS
MILUONS
Tot
7/ purchases
d milk sales
1
A
k
k
k
pyyyX
m
A
M.
A
w^
^^^^^^^P
^^mmm^mm>mi^m^
Z^<^»^»^4^*^
m
60
50
40
30
20
10
JAN. APR. JULY OCT. JAN. APR. JULY OCT. JAN. APR. JULY OCT. JAN. APR. JULY OCT JAN. APR. JULY OCT. JAN. APR. JULY OCT. JAK.
1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927
FIGURE 5.— VOLUME OF MONTHLY PURCHASES OF ALL MiLK AND SALES OF
FLUID MILK BY FIVE LARGE BOSTON DISTRIBUTORS, 1922-1927
Seasonal variation in production of shippers wlio sliipped to these distributors may
be taken as typical of many large milk sheds where no control plan has been in effect.
SEASONAL VARIATION AND PRODUCTION CONTROL PLANS
Sales of fluid milk are influenced by such factors as changes in
temperature, the day of the week, holidays, and vacations. These
factors affect sales at retail and wholesale, sales of quarts or pints,
and various grades of milk, in different ways.* Sales, however, are
relatively stable from month to month; the total variation from
the peak to the low point of the year usually does not exceed 10 per
cent. Production varies much more widely. In some milk sheds
the variation may reach 75 per cent or more; in others, it may not
exceed 25 per cent. Figure 5 shows the receipts and sales of fluid
milk of five large Boston distributors from 1922 to 1927. The milk
came from all parts of New England. The seasonal variation in
production of those who shipped to these distributors may
* For an analysis of these factors see the following publication : Ross, H. A. some
FACTORS AFFECTING THE DEMAND FOR MILK AND CREAM IN THB METROPOLITAN AREA OP
NEW YORK. U. S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bui. 1?>, 68 p., illus. 1928.
30 ^ECSIJICAL BULLETIiq^ 17 9, tJ. S. t>EPT. 01? AGllICULTUtlB
be taken as typical, not only of New England but of many other
large milk sheds in which no control plan hag been in effect.
Vafiation in production in the case of many individual shippers
reaches a still greater extreme* Dairies that have been producing
milk for the fluid market for a number of years show, in most
cases, far less seasonal variation than those that have been producing
for a short period. As the distance from market increases, seasonal
variation tends to increase, for the time when the more distant pro-
ducer was selling his output for butter or cheese is not far away.
High production in summer and low production in winter was not
undesirable for manufactured products; in some cases it was more
desirable than a stable production. Moreover, this may have meant
lower production costs if a large proportion of the producers' land
was more suitable for pasture than for crops.
The type of distributor and the market outlet are other factors
that affect seasonal production of milk. Smaller distributors who
have practically no outlet for surplus can not profitably take milk
from producers who have highly seasonal production. Producers
who retail their own milk usually manage to have a fairly even
supply. The large distributor who has facilities for manufacturing
may wish to receive a large surplus and may do little to discourage
variation. The peak of production is usually reached either in May
or June. The occurrence of the low point varies more widely. It
is found in August, September, and October, but November is the
usual month.
Production in the county of least variation in Vermont is of inter-
est. In the month when production was highest, it was 157 per cent
of what it was in the month of lowest production.^ For the county of
greatest variation, production in the peak month was 257 per cent of
that in the month of lowest production. Similar figures from Maine
were 145 and 200 per cent, respectively, and from New Hampshire 125
and 226 per cent, respectively. The production of individual dairies
in these counties varied even more. In each case there is a tendency
for the nearest counties to have the least variations and for vari-
ation to increase with distance. Franklin County, Yt., and Coos
County, N. H., which are on the Canadian border, show the largest
variation. Thirteen of the fourteen counties of Vermont reached
the peak of production in June ; the fourteenth in May. Five of the
counties reached the low point in September, six in November, and
three in December.
In New Hampshire, the peak of production occurred in June in
8 counties, in May in 1 county, and in September in 1 county. The
low point occurred in March in 8 counties, in November in 1, and in
December in 1.
In Maine the month of high production was June. The month of
low production was September in 3 counties, October in 8 counties,
November in 2 counties, and December in 1 county.
The greater part of the territory of the New England Milk Pro-
ducers' Association has turned more recently from butter and cheese
production than has any large part of the territory in any other
eastern milk shed. The degree of seasonal variation is therefore
" Data compiled, for 1925, by the research department of the New England Milk Pro-
^vscers' Association.
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK 31
probably as great or greater than in any other eastern milk shed.
Supplies have usually been ample so far, so that a seasonal shortage
has not been a problem. The producers' principal concern is how to
reduce the surplus during the summer and thus obtain higher prices.
Over the entire period the New England Milk Producers' Asso-
ciation has shown the greatest range of variation with the Twin City
Milk Producers Association second. The variation has tended to
increase in both associations. Neither has attempted any plan of
greater uniformity of production throughout the year. The Inter-
State Milk Producers' Association, which has had such a plan in
operation during that period, had a seasonal variation in 1921 of
practically the same amount as the other associations, but since that
time has shown far less.
Certain of the cooperative fluid-milk marketing associations have
been pioneers in the field of controlling production of an agricultural
commodity. Some of the plans make no attempt to control total pro-
duction but aim to control only seasonal variations. They may be con-
sidered plans for equalizing production throughout the year. Pro-
duction is brought more nearly into line with consumption require-
ments, and a higher proportion of the product is sold as fluid milk,
which brings a higher return to the producer.
In New York State, which is slightly further removed from the
butter and cheese period, not only has there been a problem of pro-
ducing less summer milk in order to secure better prices, but for
the last two years the market has been bordering on, and at times
there has actually existed, a shortage of milk that might be used
for fluid purposes. The producers will soon have to change their
seasonal production, or more territory must be admitted under
New York City inspection, to supply the city's requirements at
reasonable prices.
Production of milk in sheds that are situated in butter-producing
areas (as the one in which is located the Twin City Milk Producers
Association of St. Paul and Minneapolis) follows in large part the
same seasonal variation as the production of milk for butter. Fig-
ure 6 shows the variation in seasonal production in the Twin City
Milk Producers Association, the New England Milk Producers-
Association, and the Inter-State Milk Producers' Association from
1921 to 1927. The variation each month is expressed as a per-
centage of the annual average production, correction being made for
trend.
THE BASIC SURPLUS PLAN
The plan for adjusting production that probably has been given
the most exhaustive test is the so-called '' basic surplus " or " basic
rating " plan. Under this plan the individual producer is assigned a
definite section of the fluid-milk market, based usually on his produc-
tion during the period of the year when supply and demand most
nearly balance. Any production above that quantity is paid for at
lower prices. Apparently this scheme was first used by the Maryland
State Dairymen's Association, of Baltimore, about 1918. Late the
next year it was employed by the Inter-State Milk Producers' Asso-
ciation, of Philadelphia. About 1924 the Maryland and Virginia
Milk Producers' Asspcii^tionj of Washington, was operating under
32
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 9, U. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE
the plan. Some of the proprietary milk distributors of Chicago
have employed it in purchasing milk from their producers. In
October, 1928, the Dairymen's Cooperative Sales Co., of Pittsburgh,
adopted a modified basic surplus plan.
The Inter-State Milk Producers' Association has operated under
the plan for the longest period of time with the least modification
of any of the associations. It has brought about a greater degree
of equalization of production throughout the year than have any of
the other associations that use the plan. Therefore the plan as
developed by that association is here described.
The fact that the association was able to operate for over seven
years, from 1919 to 1926, without modifying the plan may have
been due in considerable part to the variety of environments under
which it operates. Its producers, who live in some five States,
PER
iCENT
KO
120
100
80
.60
/nterstafe milk producers, seasonal variation from yearly
average (corrected for trend ). Philadelphia •
JULY
1921
JULY
JAN
JULY
JAN
JULY
JAN.
JULY
JAN
JULY
JAN.
JULY
(922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
Figure 6.— seasonal Variation in receipts of Three large coopera-
tive Milk-Marketing associations, 1921-1927
Seasonal variation in all th~ree~associations was about tlie same at the beginning of
the period. Although it has continued witli little change in the New England Milk
Producers' Association and the Twin City Milk Producers' Association, the varia-
tion decreased considerably in the Inter-State Milk Producers' Association.
some of them about 280 miles westward in Pennsylvania (a few
receiving stations are more than 400 miles away), represent a
variety of types of farming. Delaware, the Eastern Shore of
Maryland, and a large part of the territorv in New Jersey are
located in the coastal plain. A small part of the territory in New
Jersey and northern Maryland and eastern Pennsylvania is in the
-piedmont section. West of this is a strip of foothill territory extend-
ing northeast, having its western border over 200 miles west of Phila-
delphia. Farther west the territory becomes more mountainous.
The climate in the coastal plain and the piedmont section is milder
than in the foothill and mountain sections.
A joint study ^ by the United States Department of Agriculture
and the State College of Pennsylvania shows the largest herds to
be in the piedmont section, the section nearest the Philadelphia
* LiNINGER, P. F. THE RELATION OF THD BASIC-SURPLUS MARKETING PLAN TO PRODUC-
TION IN THE PHILADELPHIA MILK SHED. Peun. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 231, 63 p., illus. 1928,
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK 33
market, and the smallest herds to be in the mountain section. The
largest returns from grain are found in the coastal plain and foot-
hill sections. A much larger proportion of the land in the mountain
section is in permanent pasture than is true in any other section.
The members of the Inter-State Milk Producers' Association located
in the piedmont section are engaged essentially in dairying, doubt-
less because of their proximity to market. Those of the coastal
plain and foothill sections are engaged in growing crops with dairy-
ing a secondary enterprise. In the mountain section, dairying is
relatively important because of the large acreage of pasture. Pro-
ducers in these diflPerent types of farming, as well as individual
producers, react differently to the plan. While over adjustment was
taking place in one group, other groups may not have made enough
adjustment. The net result has been that no peak of production
has developed in the basic period of October, November, and De-
cember, and the association was able to proceed without modifica-
tion from the time the p>lan was initiated until the beginning of 1927,
and then with only a slight change.
The plan involves the establishment of a basic quantity by each
producer. The basic quantity was supposed to be equal to the pro-
duction during a period of the year when production and fluid sales
were most nearly equal, which is a short period. From 1919 to 1926
the basic quantity of each producer was established as his average
production for the months of October, November, and December.
For these three months the producer received basic prices for his
entire production. For the nine months following December 31 of
any year he received the basic price agreed upon (f. o. b. Philadelphia
minus differentials for transportation, an adjustment for varying
butterfat content, and receiving-station charges if not shipped
direct) for a quantity of milk equal to the average made by his
herd during the previous 3-month basic period.
For any milk in excess of the producer's basic quantity up to a
quantity equal to but not exceeding it, the producer received the
" first-surplus " price. If the quantity of milk delivered was greater
than twice the basic quantity, this excess was paid for at second-
surplus prices. First and second surplus prices were calculated on
the basis of the butterfat in the milk.
To illustrate the plan, assume that a patron produced an average
of 3,000 pounds a month during October, November, and December
of a given year. For his entire production during these three months
in any year, from 1919 to 1926, he received basic prices. The 3,000-
pound average was his basic quantity for the following nine months.
If in May following his basic period he produced 7,000 pounds of
milk he would have received basic prices for 3,000 pounds. For an
amount equal to this (or 3,000 pounds) he would have received
first-surplus prices. For the additional 1,000 pounds the producer
received second-surplus prices.
Prices for both surpluses are based on butter prices and the as-
sumption that the milk will not be shipped to market. Prices are
f. o. b. the shipping station, and all points delivering to a receiving
station receive the same surplus prices. Prices for first surplus at
receiving stations are 20 per cent higher than for second surplus.
Prices for basic milk bear no fixed relationship to surplus prices but
95492°— 30 3
34 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 9, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
usually range from 80 cents to $1 per 100 pounds above first-surplus
prices f. o. b. the market. Under the price plan in operation during
1927 and 1928, whereby basic prices are not lowered in midsummer,
the spread between basic and surplus prices reaches its maximum
during the summer months.
PRESENT BASIC QUANTITY DETERMINED FROM 3-YEAB AVEBAGB
Since 1926 the method of determining the basic quantity has been
so modified that it now consists of a 3-year average of the last
quarters of the year rather than a single year. During 1927 the
basic quantity established in the fall of 1925 or 1926, whichever was
the higher, was allowed. During 1928 the average of this basic
quantity employed in 1927 and the monthly average of October,
November, and December were used. For 1929 the basic quantity
for each old producer was determined by taking the average monthly
production of October, November, and December of the years 1925
or 1926 (whichever was higher) , 1927, and 1928.
For the 12 months following, or for the calendar year 1929, the
producer will be paid basic prices for his average production in this
period during these three years. First and second surplus quanti-
ties are determined in the same way as was used previous to the
modification of the period. In 1930 and thereafter, if the same
procedure is continued, the basic quantity of each old producer will
be determined by the average production of the three previous years
during October, November, and December, making each producer's
basic quantity for a series of years a 3-year moving average.
The modification by the association of the period during which
the basic quantity was to be established injected into the plan a
certain degree of production control in the way of limiting expan-
sion in production, which was not included in the original plan.
Under the present scheme an old producer who wishes to expand his
production can not in a single year increase his basic quantity com-
mensurate with the increase in his herd, but must accept a lower
price on the greater part of his increase than he would have received
on his regular production, because much of this increase will be sold
the first year as surplus milk. If he can produce this additional
milk at surplus prices and cover his costs, in about three years he
will have established himself on the new plane and will then receive
somewhat higher prices. The fact that it will take him three years
so to establish himself in many instances prevents his expansion.
The new producer, the man who wishes to enter the dairy business,
is now at a still greater disadvantage. Previous to 1927 the new
producer who came in after January 1 of any year was allowed a
basic quantity equal to 70 per cent of his first month's production
after becoming a shipper. If he were a former patron who had
shipped no milk during September, October, or November, his entire
output would be paid for at surplus prices until tlie following
October. Each became an old shipper on October 1 and sold all his
milk at basic prices for the three last months of the year ; and his
new basic quantity was established as the average for these months.
At most, the new patron had to wait only nine months before being
on an equal basi^ with old shippers.
Under the present method of establishing the basic quantity, the
new shipper who enters the market is more severely penalized.
COOPETIATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK 35
The regulations in effect for 1929 to be applied to old shippers,
to producers whose herds have undergone an initial tuberculin test
during 1927 or 1928, and to producers beginning to ship after
January 1, 1928, as published in a memorandum of the Inter-
State Milk Producers' Association ^ effective October 1, 1928, are as
follows :
The established basic quantity of each producer during the first nine months
of 1928 shall continue to be his established basic quantity during October,
November and December, 1928.
Old Shippers
The basic quantity of each old producer to be used during 1929, shall be
established by adding together the three following items and dividing the sum
thereof by three :
1. Established basic quantity used for 1927 payments.
2. Average production made in October, November and December, 1927.
3. Average production made in October, November and December, 1928.
Old Shippers Without 1927 Basic Quantities
The basic quantity for 1929 of any producer having no established basic
quantity for 1927 payments shall be determined by adding together the three
following items and dividing the sum thereof by three :
1. Established basic quantities for 1928 payments.
2. Established basic quantities for 1928 payments.
3. Average production made in October, November and December, 1928.
Initial Tuberculin Test, 1927
Any producer whose cows underwent an initial test for tuberculosis during
the year 1927, and who elected during 1928 to be paid on a basis of the basic
quantity for 1927, shall for 1929 receive an established basic quantity as
follows: Add together the three following items and divide the sum by three:
1. Established basic quantity used for 1927 payments.
2. Established basic quantity used for 1927 payments.
3. Average production made in October, November and December, 1928.
Initial Tuberculin Test in 1928
Any producer whose cows undergo an initial test for tuberculosis during
the year, 1928, may elect to have used as his established basic quantity during
1929, either, first the basic quantity used during 1928, or second, the estab-
lished basic quantity determined in accordance with the provisions governing
old shippers.
New Producer's from January 1, 1928, to September 30, 1928
Any producer starting to ship on or after January 1, 1928, establishing a
basic quantity on a basis of 50 per cent of the first 30 days' shipment or any
other basic not above 70 per cent of same, shall during October, November and
December, 1928, receive basic price for 70 per cent of his production in each
of those three months. His established basic quantity for 1929 shall be 70
per cent of the average daily production made in October, November and
December, 1928, multiplied by 30.
New Producers after October 1, 1928, until December 31, 1928
Any producer starting to ship on or after October 1, 1928, and prior to
January 1, 1929, shall during October, November and December, 1928, receive
basic price for 70 per cent of his production in each of those three months.
His established basic quantity for 1929 shall be 70 per cent of his average
daily production made in October, November and December, 1928, on a monthly
basis computed by taking the sum of his daily shipments, dividing same by
the number of days shipping and multiplying the quotient by thirty.
"^ ALLEBACH, H. D. the 1929 PHILADELPHIA SELLING PLAN WITH DETAILED EXPLANA-
TIONS. Inter-State Milk Prod. Rev. 9 (3) : 1, 3. 1928.
36 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 9, tJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTTJUE
New Producers after January 1, 1929, and until Further Notice
Any producer starting to ship after January 1, 1929, sliall establish a basic
quantity on a basis of 50 per cent of his first 30 days' shipment.
The new shipper who begins after January 1, 1929, is allowed a
basic quantity of 50 per cent of his first 30 days' production until
further notice, which means that, if the distributors have plenty of
basic milk to supply their requirements, he may have to continue
another year or more on this basis. About the best he could hope for
would be a 70-30 basis for the first three years. This feature of the
plan tends to limit the expansion of milk production for the fluid-
milk market by reserving for the old producer the greatest part of
this market and preventing the new shipper from taking it away
from him.
DESIRED RESULTS ACHIEVED THROUGH PLAN
The operation of the basic surplus plan in this market has achieved
many of the desired results. A survey by the governors' tri-State
milk commission, in 1917, showed that the variation in production
expressed relative to the average annual production from 1913 to
1917 had a range in seasonal variation of 72 per cent from the high
production of May to the low production of November. (Table 5.)
This may be taken as representative of the condition existing at the
time the Inter-State Milk Producers' Association initiated the basic
surplus plan in 1919. Data from that association for 1921, the first
year on which figures are available, showed a range of 52 per cent ;
this continued to decline until 1924, when the range from low to high
was only 21 per cent of the average, the trend being eliminated in
each case. In 1927, because of the unusually low drop in that year to
84 in January and a higher production than usual in June, the
variation increased to 36 per cent of the average. This increase in
variation may have been due to weather conditions more than to other
changes in the production plans of farmers. The high price of cows
in the fall may have prevented the herd increases that farmers ordi-
narily make at that time to increase their basic quantity. High
feed prices may have been another contributing factor.
Table 5.
-Seasonal variation in quantit]/ of mdlk purchased on the hasic
surplus plan in Philadelphia, 1921-1927
(Expressed as percentage of the average monthly production for the particular
year, corrected for trend)
Month
Average
1913-1917
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
January
Per cent
88
94
97
89
147
129
115
109
97
81
75
77
Per cent
81
85
94
109
133
124
97
110
93
99
88
87
Per cent
78
80
81
86
125
124
113
114
107
100
95
95
Per cent
88
98
91
94
106
115
103
90
103
109
102
100
Per cent
96
95
93
92
113
110
96
96
98
105
103
• 102
Per cent
95
93
96
98
115
103
97
106
100
99
96
101
Per cent
106
102
93
107
112
116
100
95
97
97
90
86
Per cent
84
February.
88
March .
92
April
98
May..-
115
June
120
July
102
August
104
September
104
October
102
November .
97
December ...
94
Range from low to high
72
52
47
27
21
22
30
36
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK 37
The basic surplus plan, as employed in the Maryland State Dairy-
men's Association of Baltimore, is described in the discussion of
that association. Its original form was similar to that used by the
Inter-State Milk Producers Association. The small size of the
milk shed from which it drew milk, the lack of diversity in types
of farming in the territory, the opportunity for alternative enter-
prises in crop production, and the varying profitableness of these
crops from time to time combine to increase the probability of all
producers readjusting in the same direction. These factors made
necessary an earlier modification in the plan than in Philadelphia.
It i^ not possible to say whether the Philadelphia group will proceed
farther in the direction of the plans developed in Baltimore but, if it
wishes to do so, much of the experimental work has been done.
Under the present plan employed in Philadelphia, the patron
who produces less than his usual average during October, November,
and December is penalized only in that one-third of this decrease
in production will go to lower his basic quantity. In the plan of
the association in Baltimore, if he fails to maintain his old basic
quantity, he takes the new lower average of October, November, and
Deceinber, and thereby loses a portion of the fluid market which
has been allotted to him. This serves as a spur to maintain his pro-
duction during the last quarter of the year. The fact that the Mary-
land State Dairymen's Association uses an average of production
for the last quarters of 1921, 1922, and 1923 for establishing a basic
quantity has made more difficult the problem of equitably establish-
ing a basic quantity for new members. It has retained for the con-
tinued producer who has maintained the supply, a degree of monop-
oly of the fluid-milk market that can not be destroyed by the new
producer.
The operation of the basic surplus plan in the Dairymen's Coop-
erative Sales Co., of Pittsburgh, is new. Under the plan initiated
in October, 1928, and still in effect, the average production during
October, November, December, and January forms the basis of
allotment of the fluid market to each producer for the following
12 months. It differs from the original plan used in Philadelphia
and Baltimore in that the distributor pays fluid prices for only
that portion of the milk that is used for fluid consumption. The
producer is allotted a part of the fluid-milk market determined as
a percentage of his basic quantity. This is taken as the ratio of
sales of fluid milk by all distributors in the month of least sales to
the average monthly production during the basic period; that is,
if the association finds the month of lowest sales to be January and
that total sales during January are just 70 per cent of the average
monthly production during the following October, November, Decem-
ber, and January, then for the following year each producer will be
paid fluid prices for 70 per cent of his average production during
the four months of the basic period. (See p. 78 for detailed illus-
tration of plan.) As was the case in the Philadelphia and Baltimore
markets, once the basic quantity of a producer has been established,
there is no penalty if he produces less than his basic quantity. Over-
production during the remainder of the year, but not underpro-
duction, is penalized.
38 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 9, IT. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The Maryland and Virginia Milk Producers' Association, of
Washington, D. C, operates on a plan which is practically like that
employed by the Maryland State Dairymen's Association.
Kecently the New England Milk Producers' Association has aroused
considerable sentiment toward using a basic surplus or " rating "
plan. The plan under discussion uses the average production (ad-
justed to a 30-day month) of October, November, and December as
the basic quantity. Milk would be sold to the dealers on a classifica-
tion basis, as at present, and the producer would be paid a weighted
average price of all sales for a quantity up to twice his basic quantity.
For any quantity in excess of this he would be paid surplus prices.
It has been suggested that the producer be allowed average prices for
twice the basic quantitjr during the first year, for one and three-
fourths times that quantity during the second year, and one and one-
half times the basic quantity in the third year, or with similar
changes in this direction until a proper balance is reached. The sug-
gested plan would not affect a great many producers during the first
year, but would accustom producers to a rating plan and would
penalize, to some extent, the most serious offenders.
^ The Pure Milk Association of Chicago, which began active coopera-
tion with distributors effective January 1, 1929, is employing a rating
plan of payment to producers. The basic period is taken as Septem-
ber, October, and November. The plan has been in effect such a short
time that the course it will follow is not certain. The outline pro-
vided that for April, 1929, 120 per cent of the basic quantity would
be paid for at basic prices; for May, 110 per cent; for June, 105 per
cent; and for July 120 per cent. The entire production during
August was to be taken at basic prices. The following year the per-
centages may be modified, but apparently the rating plan will be a
part of the association's marketing plan.
THE CONTRACT PLAN
In another plan of adjusting production throughout the year, fre-
quently termed the " contract " plan, the producer himself names the
basic quantity.
AS EMPLOYED BY CONNEOTICXJT MILK PRODUOEBS
The Connecticut Milk Producers' Association, of Hartford, Conn.,
operating throughout the State, has successfully employed the plan
for a longer period of time than has any other association. As oper-
ated by that association, the plan attempts to control production only
with respect to seasonal variation.
Upon signing the contract with the association previous to March
31 of any year, the producer states the quantity of milk which he
proposes to deliver daily for the next 12 months, beginning April 1.
He may state any quantity in excess of his previous year's contract,
the same quantity, or a smaller quantity. Penalties are provided for
any excess production above the contracted quantity, or for any short-
age if production is below the contract. Penalties are not exacted
on the basis of each day's deliveries, but on the average for each pay-
ment period, which is usually 30 or 31 days; that is, if a producer
contracts to deliver 40 quarts per day and his deliveries for the 30-day
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK
39
period from September 1 to 30 are 1,500 quarts, he is penalized for
overdelivery of 300 quarts.
The plan provides that the producer shall be penalized 2 cents a
quart for any production in excess of his contract or for any quantity
by which he fails to meet his contract during any payment period.
The milk is sold to the distributors on a classification basis, according
to the use made of the milk. The penalties for variation in deliveries
from the contracted quantity do not go to the distributors to lessen
their cost, but are pooled by each distributor and prorated back to
the producers so that those whose production most nearly meets their
contracts receive the greatest share in these penalties. All producers
share in the penalty pool and, since it is highly improbable that any
producer can exactly meet his contract, all producers probably pay
penalties. However, if a member's production varies little from
this contracted quantity, he pays only a small penalty and receives a
much larger share, the net effect of which is a bonus for even pro-
duction.
In Table 6 and Figure 7 are illustrated the method of exacting and
distributing penalties. It has been assumed that each of 21 producers
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
UNDER OVER
PERCENTAGE VARIATION FROM CONTRACTED AMOUNT
50
Figure 7.— Prices That would Have Been Received by producers
Through The Connecticut Milk producers' association under A
Given Distribution
Some of these producers delivered as much as 50 per cent below their contracts
and others as high as 50 per cent above. One producer produced the quantity
contracted for.
who are the patrons of a given distributor have contracted to deliver
200 quarts a day, or 6,000 quarts during a 30-day payment period.
Some of these producers delivered as much as 50 per cent below their
contracts, and others as high as 50 per cent above. Others ranged
in between, and one member produced according to his contract.
The weighted average price to be paid for milk by the particulai
distributor to which these men ship is taken as 9 cents a quart.
40 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 179, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 6. — Penalty distribution under Connecticut Milk Producers' Association
contract plan of equalizing production
Amount
delivered
Variation from contract
Gross
amount
Penalties
at 2 cents
a quart
Producer No.
contracted
per month
Percent-
age
Quantity-
over •
Quantity
short
due pro-
ducers at
9 cents a
quart
1 .
Quarts
6,000
6.000
6,000
6,000
6,000
6,000
6,000
6,000
6,000
6,000
6,000
6,000
6,000
Quarts
3,000
3,300
3,600
3,900
4,200
4,500
4,800
5.100
5,400
5,700
6,000
6,300
6,600
6,900
7,200
7,500
7,800
8,100
8,400
8,700
9,000
Per cent
-50
-45
-40
-35
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Quarts
Quarts
3,000
2,700
2,400
2,100
1,800
1,500
1,200
900
600
300
Dollars
270
297
324
361
378
405
432
459
486
513
640
667
694
621
648
675
702
729
756
783
810
Dollars
60
2
54
3
48
4 . - _ .
42
5
36
6 .
30
7
24
8 -
18
9
12
10
6
11 ...
0
12
300
600
900
1,200
1,600
1,800
2,100
2,400
2,700
3.000
6
13
12
14 . .
6,000
6,000
6,000
6,000
6,000
6,000
6,000
6.000
18
16
24
16
30
17'
36
18
42
19
48
20
54
21
60
Total
11,340
660
Producer No.
Gross
amount less
penalties
Refund at
8.18 per cent
Total due
the pro-
ducer
Net loss
Net gain
Average
price per
quart re-
ceived by
producers
1
Dollars
210
243
276
309
342
375
408
441
474
507
540
661
582
603
624
645
666
687
708
729
750
Dollars
12.98
15.02
17.06
19.10
21.13
23.17
25,21
27.25
29.29
31.33
33.37
34.67
35.97
37.26
38.56
39.86
41.16
42.46
43.75
45.05
46.35
Dollars
222. 98
268. 02
293.06
328.10
363. 13
398. 17
433. 21
468. 25
503.29
538. 33
573. 37
595. 67
617. 97
640.26
662.56
684. 86
707. 16
729.46
761. 76
774. 05
796.35
Dollars
47.02
38.98
30.94
22.90
14.87
6.83
Dollars
Cents
7 A3
2
7.82
3
8.14
4
8.41
6 .......
8.65
6
8.85
7
1.21
9.25
17.29
25.33
33.37
28.67
23.97
19.26
14.56
9.86
5.16
.46
9.03
g
9.18
9
9.32
10
9.44
11
9.56
12
9.46
13
9.36
14
9.28
15
9.20
16
9.13
17
9.07
18
9.01
19
4.25
8.95
13.65
8.95
20
8.90
21
8.85
Total
10, 680
660.00
11,340.00
188.39
188.39
The penalties to which each producer is subject are shown in col-
umn 8, the total being $660. This amount is prorated back to each
producer on the basis of the gross amount due each producer minus
penalties, or the amounts shown in column 9. By dividing the total
of column 8 by that of column 9, or $660 by $10,680, it is found that
each producer will be refunded from this penalty pool 6.18 per cent
of the gross amount minus penalties due from him (amounts of col-
umn 9). The refunds from the penalty pool for each producer are
shown in column 10 and the total amount due each is shown in col-
umn 11. The net loss or gain to the producer over what he would
have received at 9 cents per quart is given in columns 12 and 13, and
the net price per quart paid the producer, in column 14.
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK
41
From Table 6 and Figure 7 it is evident that underproduction is
penalized more severely than overproduction. A shipper who pro-
duces 35 per cent above his stipulated quantity, under these condi-
tions, receives 9 cents or average price, while the producer who is
only 20 per cent under his contract receives approximately the same
price. The producer who falls 50 per cent below the quantity stipu-
lated in the contract receives 7.43 cents per quart for his shipments,
whereas the one who produces 50 per cent in excess of his stipulated
quantity receives 1.42 cents more, or 8.85 cents per quart.
If the member's production does not vary more than 10 per cent
in either direction, his refunds ar'^ so much in excess of his penalties
that he receives a substantial premium for his even production. In
fact, a variation of 15 per cent in either direction penalizes him but
little. If there is any doubt in the producer's mind as to the quan-
tity he is likely to produce, he should underestimate it rather than
overestimate it.
In Figure 8 the contracted quantity and actual deliveries for the
various months of 1925, 1926, and 1927, adjusted to a 30-day basis, are
100 —
50
100 -CONTRACTED AMOUNT
_
APR. JULY OCT. JAN. APR. JULY OCT. JAN. APR. JULY OCT JAN.
1925 1926 1927
Figure 8.— milk Production by Members of Connecticut Milk Pro-
ducers* Association Expressed as percentage of contracted
QUANTITY. 1925-1927
Production was less than that contracted by producers in 8 of the 12 months during
1925, in 7 months of 1926, and in 8 months of 1927.
shown. During 1925, producers fell under their contracted quantity
in 8 of the 12 months, during 192G in 7 months, and during 1927
in 8 months. Apparently there has been a tendency on the part of
producers to overestimate the quantity to be produced and this fact
has made it especially profitable for the man who underestimates his
production rather than overestimates it.
It is doubtful if most of the members know of the difference in
returns from over or under production, relative to the contracted
quantity. The member's check shows the amount of penalties and
refunds, and he is aware that a penalty of 2 cents a quart is exacted
for either over or under production, which tends to fix in his mind
that he is penalized equally for both. The difference in the rate of
refund is not placed prominently before him.
42 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 179, U. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE
The curve of prices per quart for over or under production (fig. 7)
remains the same shape, regardless of the size of the producer's con-
tract. A member who produces 50 per cent above his contract re-
ceives the same price per quart regardless of whether he has stip-
ulated 10,000 or 1,000 quarts. Likewise the member who agreed to
furnish 1,000 quarts every 30 daj^s receives the same price per quart
as the one who agreed to furnish 10,000 quarts, if each producer
has produced only 50 per cent of his contract. The curve of prices
per quart may move up or down the scale, depending upon the
number of producers delivering above or below their contracts, but
the relationship remains the same for over and under production;
actual refunds are smaller or larger and make less absolute change
in prices per quart.
Each pooling distributor makes the deductions and pays out the
penalties in the form of refunds to the particular producers who
ship to him that month. For that reason the refund per quart for
two producers who ship to different distributors, and who vary
from their contracts a certain amount, as 15 per cent in a given direc-
^UAPrrs
MILLIONS
9
8
7
6
5
t*
3
2
C/ass U ( buffer i
—— C/ass 3 (all milk monufocfurecf, except buffer)
— C/ass 2 (cream )
— C/ass I ( flu/d)
APR. JULY OCt JAN. APR JULY OCT. JAN. APR. JULY OCT. JAN. APR. JULY OCT. JAN. APR. JULY OCT JAN. APR. JULY OCT. JAN.
1922 1923 192^' 1925 1926 1927
figure 9.— receipts and utilization of milk sold by connecticut
Milk Producers' association. 1922-1927
Over two and one-half times as much milk was received by the association In 1928
as in 1922. Most of the increase in sales went into classes 1 and 2.
tion, may vary slightly but not enough to be of any significance. To
pool all penalties in one pool would require the sending out of re-
fund checks by the association and would increase the cost of admin-
istration of the plan.
The contract plan was initiated in April, 1922. Although there
has been a large increase in membership, the seasonal variation has
been lessened somewhat and maintained at a low figure. (Table 6.)
June production is not ordinarily more than 20 per cent above
November production, usually the lowest of the year. Any producer
may expand his production and increase his contract on April 1
of each year, but production has not increased enough to make bur-
densome supplies or to reduce prices. A considerable part of the
cream used in Connecticut comes from outside the State. Data
presented in Figure 9 indicate that in six years (April, 1922, to
COOPEKATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK
43
April, 1927) the volume of business of the association increased to
over two and one-half times what it was in 1922. At the end of
this period an average of 80 per cent of this total volume (Table 7),
was being sold as fluid milk, as compared with 75 per cent of the
association's production in 1922. This indicates that consumption
was more than keeping pace with production.
Table 7. — Percentage of milk sold i/n various classes by the Cormecticut Milk
Prodiicers' Association, by months, 1922-1927
Year begin-
ning April
1922
April
May
June
July
August
September-
October...
November.
December.
January...
February..
March
1923
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October...
November-
December.
January..-
February..
March
Class 1,
milk
used in
fluid
form
1924
April.
May
June
July
August
September.
October
November-
December ' .
January
February...
March
Per cent
72.6
69.7
69.4
73.1
69.5
74.9
78.8
83.9
78.2
75.0
76.3
76.8
74.0
75.5
76.5
76.2
74.4
80.6
73.2
68.2
67.5
70.0
67,7
66.9
73.2
77.8
74.0
75.9
77.4
72.5
73.7
73.8
Class 2,
milk
used
for
fluid
cream
Per cent
19.4
23.7
21.3
19.5
20.5
19.4
18.3
12.0
16.1
17.7
19.7
19.8
18.9
21.8
19.8
17.0
17.3
17.0
16.4
17.5
20.9
23.4
22.6
23.0
21.3
24.2
23.0
19.0
16.9
19.3
17.9
18.3
20.5
19.4
19.9
Class 3,
milk
used for
manu-
factured
products
other
than
butter
Per
cent
8.0
6.6
9.3
7.4
10.0
5.7
2.9
1.0
2.9
3.7
2.7
1.3
4.2
8.4
8.5
5.6
4.2
5.3
5.2
1.5
2.8
3.8
3.0
3.0
6.1
6.4
9.1
6.3
3.7
4.7
3.8
2.9
3.4
2.9
4.1
Class 4,
milk
used in
making
butter
Per cent
3.1
2.8
3.6
2.3
2.1
2.9
1.5
1.9
1.9
2.0
1.5
4.0
.4
3.1
4.6
6.9
7.1
3.6
2.7
2.0
2.5
1.6
2.0
2.4
1.4
3.6
4.0
2.2
Year begin-
ning April
1926
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October...
November.
December.
January...
February..
March
1926
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October
November.
December.
January. . .
February..
March
1927
April
May
June
July
August
September-
October...
November.
December.
January -.-
February.-
March
Class 1,
milk
used in
fluid
form
Per cent
74.0
71.2
74.9
79.3
80.3
81.3
81.1
82.0
76.7
73.2
74.9
74.0
74.4
69.8
67.4
78.9
80.1
77.6
81.5
85.0
81.6
81.8
78.5
78.3
75.9
70.6
69.8
78.3
79.7
81.8
85.9
89.5
85.8
81.8
78.4
78.3
Class 2,
milk
used
for
fluid
Per ccTtt
19.7
23.5
19.7
16.5
15.6
14.8
16.0
16.2
18.9
21.4
20.1
20.8
19.2
21.1
20.8
14.5
14.6
16.4
14.6
12.8
15.7
14.3
16.5
16.9
18.5
22.4
21.9
17.1
15.9
14.4
11.0
8.5
11.6
14.3
16.5
16.9
Class 3,
milk
used for
manu-
factured
products
other
than
butter
Per cent
4.1
3.7
3.9
2.9
2.8
2.9
2.1
1.6
3.7
3.8
3.7
3.8
5.2
8.5
10.3
5.9
4.5
4.8
3.5
1.8
2.5
3.2
4.4
4.2
4.6
6.1
7.1
3.9
3.9
3.5
2.8
2.3
3.2
4.4
4.2
Class 4,
milk
used in
making
butter
Per cent
2.2
1.6
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.6
1.3
1.4
1.2
.6
1.5
.7
1.0
.9
1.2
.7
.5
.3
.3
.2
.3
.7
.7
1 Infprmation not available.
AS USEJD BY THE OHIO FARMERS COOPEJRATTVB MELK ASSOCIATION
A contract plan employed by the Ohio Farmers Cooperative Milk
Association, Cleveland, Ohio, aims to equalize production through-
out the year. The producer states, before May 10 of each year, the
total quantity of milk that he will supply to the association during
the 12 months following June 1 thereafter. One-twelfth of this
quantity is considered the specified quantity he will deliver each
month. The sum of all these monthly contracts is the total supply
which the association can contract with the distributors. If the
44 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 9, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
total milk delivered by a producer in any month exceeds his con-
tracted quantity, only that portion which he has contracted is en-
tered in the pool and paid for at pool prices. The quantities deliv-
ered by members in excess of their contracts are sold ; each producer
receives for his excess an average of such price as the association
is able to obtain minus the necessary handling charges and other
deductions authorized by the board of directors of the association
under authority of the advisory council.
In case the actual total production of all members falls below
the total quantity contracted by the association, the board of direc-
tors has power to authorize the purchase of milk outside the mem-
bership. The difference between the amount paid for such milk
and cream and the price received for it by the association is charged
to the accounts of delinquent producers and deducted from their
milk checks on the basis of the difference between the quantity each
has contracted to produce and his actual deliveries. If the group
as a whole does not underproduce, the plan results in no penalty
for those individual members who underproduce.
PLAN OF SCIOTO VALLETT MILK PRODUCERS' ASSOCIATION
The Scioto Valley Cooperative Milk Producers' Association, of
Columbus, Ohio, has employed a contract plan. Their contract pe-
riod coincides with the calendar year. These contracts run continu-
ously, but either party may withdraw at the end of the period,
giving 30 days' notice before that time.
Upon signing the contract the producer states the average daily
production he will deliver during the year following. As long as
the contract continues in force he has the privilege of naming a new
quantity for delivery at any time between the 1st and 25th of Jan-
uary of each year. The producer is paid fluid or base prices, which
are agreed on in a conference of distributors and the producers'
association, for a quantity of milk equal to but not exceeding the
quantity stipulated in his contract, and for all milk in excess of this
contracted quantity he receives prices based on Chicago 92-score
butter prices. If the producer delivers less than his monthly total
as established by his daily average contract, he receives base price
for the actual quantity delivered minus a deduction of a sum equal
to the number of pounds of shortage multiplied by the difference in
price between base and manufactured milk, but in no event does
this price fall below the manufactured price.
Assuming that a producer has contracted to deliver 100 pounds per
day, or 3,000 pounds in a 30- day month, assume that in June he
delivers 4,000 pounds; 3,000 pounds would be sold at fluid or, as
termed by that association, base prices, and 1,000 pounds at manu-
factured prices. If it is assumed that these prices are $3 and $2, re-
spectively, per 100 pounds, the producer would be paid ($3 X 30) +
($2 X 10) = $110, or an average price of $2.75 per 100 pounds. If, in
the following November, the member's production falls to 2,000
pounds during the month and prices for fluid and manufactured
milk are taken at $3.25 and $2.25, respectively, the average price
received will be (20 X $3.25) - ($3.25 - $2.25) X (3,000 pounds -
2,000 pounds) = $65 - ($1 X 10) - $65 - $10 =^ $55, The aver-
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK 45
age price received by this producer would be $2.75 per 100 pounds,
or 50 cents per 100 pounds less than if he had produced according to
his contract. The contract is signed by the distributor, the pro-
ducer, and the producers' association, and is frequently termed a
" three-way contract."
dairymen's league cooperative Association plan
The Dairymen's League Cooperative Association (Inc.) of New
York, has endeavored to influence production by educational cam-
paigns. They have no doubt had some beneficial effect, but the
variation in production in New York has followed much the same
movement as in Vermont, which lies outside the league's territory
and the influence of its campaign. As a means of correcting this
variation in certain localities, production differentials have been
established. The producer states the quantity of milk he will deliver
monthly during the following year. He is allowed a 20 per cent
variation either above or below this stated quantity. If his produc-
tion does not vary more than 20 per cent from this quantity in any
month, he receives his share of the production bonus set aside for his
station or city.
For example, if the production bonus set aside for a given city is
15 cents per 100 pounds on all class 1 milk delivered, and each
farmer produces not more than 15 per cent above or below his con-
tracted quantity each receives 15 cents per 100 pounds more on
the proportion of milk going into class 1 than do those whose varia-
tion is greater. If a part of the producers in the territory where
this premium is in effect have a variation in production such that
they are not entitled to the premium their share is prorated among
those who maintain their production within the stipulated limits.
The result is that each producer sharing will receive a somewhat
higher figure as, perhaps, 25 cents per 100 pounds.
In determining the net pool prices on all milk, the funds for these
premiums are first set aside, and all remaining are divided by the
total quantity of milk, which gives the pool price. This is the price
received by the man who is outside production-differential territory
or who does not receive the premium because of his variation in
production.
THE PLANS COMPARED
Both the basic surplus and contract plans have proved effective in
adjusting production. But because a plan accomplishes certain
results in a given milk shed it does not necessarily follow that the
same results may be expected in another milk shed where conditions
are somewhat different. It is probable, however, that the principles
of either plan may be applied successfully in any area. Each plan
must be fitted by those administering it to the particular conditions
of the milk shed in which it operates. The greater the production
in excess of fluid consumption in the market in the milk shed and
surrounding territory the more difficulty will be experienced in
operating the plan. The most important factor in its success under
any circumstances is probably tne whole-hearted cooperation of
the distributors who handle the greater part of the milk»
46 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 9, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
It has been the experience of the cooperatives operating under
these plans that, in the cases in which only a few distributors handle
a large proportion of the business, it is easier to obtain their approval
of the idea than it is to convince the distributors when the business
is divided among a larger number. Summer competition from those
producers outside the cooperative who do not attempt to regulate
their production is greater in a surplus than in a deficit area. If
the distributors are united in cooperating with the association and,
by so doing, protect their own interests, little difficulty may be expe-
rienced from the outside producers as long as prices are kept at about
the point justified by current market conditions.
The contract plan has a degree of flexibility not so easily attain-
able in the basic surplus plan. The former places upon the member
the responsibility for the quantity which he should attempt to pro-
duce each month. If he overestimates or underestimates this quan-
tity, the blame falls upon himself. The basic surplus plan leaves
more to chance the establishment of a quantity which forms the pro-
ducers' basis of payment. Either plan may have features which pe-
nalize the producer for underproduction, although the usual basic
surplus plan as now employed does not. Either plan may be oper-
ated with a classification or sale plan so that the distributor pur-
chases his milk on the basis of the use which is made of it, whereas
the farmer is paid in relation to some established base. The plan
used by the Inter-State Milk Producers' Association does not do
this; payments to the farmers are on the same basis as are sales to
the distributors. The distributor takes any gain or loss that results
because his basic milk is below or in excess of the quantity consumed
in fluid form.
PRICE POCICIES AND PLANS
The principles to be followed in establishing a price for milk in
any market by cooperative fluid-milk marketing associations must
follow economic laws. Although the forces of supply and demand
must determine milk prices over a period of time, there are many
factors which determine how quickly the price will adjust itself
to these forces. Because of the hindrances to their operation in the
milk business in the way. of sanitary restrictions, contracts, various
buying plans, customs of the trade, and possibly inadequate informa-
tion as to supplies, prices are in many respects man-made. If the
adjustments are instituted with skill and in accordance with eco-
nomic laws, prices may be made to react in such a way as to benefit
producers materially. Because of the quick reactions resulting from
establishing a price out of line with supply and demand conditions,
most fluid-milk cooperatives early turned from any idea of monopoly
control. This in spite of the fact that many, developing during the
World War, were established on the principle of securing " cost of
production plus a reasonable profit," and that their prices, during
the war, were based largely on the estimated cost of production.
To be successful over any extended periods, a price policy must
meet the needs of the situation involved. It must establish a price
that seems fair to both producer and consumer. From the producer's
standpoint the price must not be so low as to make his production
unprofitable. From the standpoint of the consumer it must be low
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK 47
enough to allow him to purchase an adequate supply. The two-fold
aim will be most nearly accomplished if the price established is such
that the quantity produced and the quantity consumed will be main-
tained in such balance that drastic readjustments will not take place.
The quantity of milk produced responds quickly and markedly to
changes in prices of milk and of feed (particularly the concentrates).
The quantity of fluid milk that the consumer will buy is only slightly
affected by moderate changes in price. If the price is placed either
too high or too low, production may be adjusted to the new level
of prices long before what is taking place is definitely recognized. If
the retail price is too high its effect on consumption may be slight.
If producers' prices are at a corresponding level the result is likely
to be a supplj^ of milk greatly in excess of the quantity required for
consumption in fluid form. However, the period required for this
reaction to become effective may vary from two months to more than
a year. If the prices are too low consumption may be increased a
little, but in a relatively short period production may fall off until it
is not sufficient for fluid requirements. In that case, prices must be
advanced, which will stimulate production again and tend to cut
down consumption, or other areas must be drawn upon to make up
the deficit, or both. If the distributors continue to receive milk from
the outside areas, when the regular producers respond to the increase
in prices or when their production increases seasonally, the market
will be called upon to absorb more milk ; in the end this must result
in lower price.
Before any cooperative-marketing association can intelligently de-
termine what course to follow in establishing a price it should know
the basic facts as to the relation of price changes to production in its
territory and the relation of price and price changes to consumption.
A knowledge of the range in costs of milk production is essential
in determining how much milk is likely to be produced at a given
price. However, if too large a quantity of milk is now received in a
market, the producers' association is not warranted in raising the
?rice of milk merely because the average cost of production is nigh,
f prices are to be stabilized, production must be relatively stable.
The fact that demand is so regular and constant has resulted in
practically a fixed-price plan of sales, with infrequent changes. Be-
cause of this, prices to the producer are usually fixed for as long a
period as one month without any fluctuations. This fixing is often
done in advance. In many of the markets certain modifications are
in effect which provide for arriving at prices for the quantities mov-
ing into fluid consumption and for the volume used for less valuable
products. In each case there is a fixed or contract price for some
period of time. In this respect the basic sale of milk differs from
any other agricultural commodity.
Hardly more than a decade ago the flat-price plan was the ac-
cepted method of purchasing milk. The distributor bought the pro-
ducers' milk at a given price. The distributor sold all he could for
fluid use and manufactured or disposed of the remainder as profit-
ably as possible. He took whatever risk was involved in having to
dispose of a part of the milk at a lower price. He established his flat
Erice so low that the average price of all roilk sold would compensate
im for any risk involved.
48 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 9, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
With the coming of the cooperative association to represent the
producers, the distributor continued to use the same argument for
lower prices that he had used for years: That there was so much
surplus he could not profitably dispose of the milk unless his buying
price was low. In many markets it was felt that this was often used
as an argument to place prices lower than they should be. It was
proposed that the distributor show the producers exactly the quan-
tities he sold for different uses, and that a basis of payment be ar-
ranged according to the quantities of milk sold in each of these
classes. The plan is usually known as the " Classification " plan
and sometimes as the " Use plan.
The producers have asked a higher price for fluid milk on the
ground that it is worth more than milk for manufacturing purposes ;
that the consumers of fluid milk will pay increased prices without
appreciably curtailing consumption; and that higher fluid-milk
prices will have less tendency to result in an increase in supply than
is the case with the price of manufactured-milk products. The
near-by producer enjoys a partial monopoly of the fluid market, but
for that portion of his milk used to supply cream or for manufac-
ture he must compete on a country-wide or world-wide basis with
producers in those localities which are not accessible to a fluid
market. Fluid milk can be shipped great distances and arrive in
a satisfactory condition, but with prices and transportation rates
on the present level, the distance that this can be done economically
is limited. About 400 miles is the maximum distance that any con-
siderable quantities now move. The problem of increased cost of
sanitary inspection and regulation is another factor that tends to
limit the distance from which supplies are obtain d by a market.
These obstacles tend to limit the supply of fluid milk available in a
given market at the usual prices which can be placed somewhat
higher than prices of milk for other uses.
Cream can be shipped economically much greater distances than
milk because of its more concentrated form. The production of a
given number of cows occupies about one-tenth the space and weighs
correspondingly less when shipped as cream. Cream rates are ap-
proximately one-fourth higher than those on milk. The result is
that cream can be shipped rather economically, under present rates,
for relatively long distances. Points on the Atlantic seaboard re-
ceive large quantities of cream from Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michi-
gan, Iowa, and Kansas. This makes the producer near the east
coast a competitor of the dairyman in the Middle West in cream
production.
Shipments of cream to eastern points have increased rapidly dur-
ing the last few years. Data of the New England Milk Producers'
Association show that receipts of western cream in Boston have
practically doubled each year since 1925. In that year the volume
was 217,000 quarts; in 1926, 554,000 quarts; in 1927, 1,315,000 quarts;
and in 1928, approximately 2,500,000 quarts, which was about 10
per cent of the city's cream receipts. In November, 1928, western
cream receipts amounted to about 40 per cent of Boston's cream
receipts. Because of the large supply area whose producers can
profitably compete for any market the price of milk skimmed for
rream is placed lower than that for fluid milk.
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK 49
Prices for milk made into butter, cheese, and other manufactured
products range still lower than for that made into cream. Trans-
portation costs for butter are so low, when considered in terms of
milk, that any producer is on fairly equal terms with any other
in the United States in competing for any market. For that rea-
son, the dairyman who has no other market and whose costs are
low enough so that he can compete with anyone else in the country
will produce for the butter market. Milk for many other manu-
factured products can be produced with about the same care and
at a similar cost. Therefore, prices for milk that is used in these
products are usually somewhat near those for milk used in making
butter.
The greater the quantity of milk in any milk shed in excess of
that needed for fluid purposes, the nearer fluid prices must be to
those of milk used in manufactured dairy products. Because of
this large supply that might be used for fluid consumption, every
producer within the milk shed is a potential fluid-milk producer;
therefore the difference in prices for fluid milk and for manufac-
tured milk can be only a little more than the increased care in pro-
ducing milk for the fluid market costs the producer. If the spread
between these is wide it is impossible to keep distributors from
purchasing this excess milk at lower prices and underselling their
competitors. Milk for cream in such an area must also be sold at
practically the same price as for manufactured products.
The number of price classes into which milk for sale has been
divided varies with different associations. Some have elaborate
classifications; others have confined themselves to two classes. The
uses to which the milk is put should largely determine the classifi-
cation.
In some sections practically all of the milk not used in fluid form
is skimmed for cream. In that case two classes — fluid and surplus —
are satisfactory. In others, where a portion of the supply is made
into butter or cheese, a third class is desirable. In a section of
heavy surplus, conditions may warrant little higher price for
milk used in cream than for butter manufacture, and a twofold
classification may prove satisfactory. It is probable, however, that
a threefold classification as a general rule will reflect the proper
price relationship between supply and demand for the different
uses more adequately than a twofold one. Additional classes render
more complicated the administration of the plan but if a sufficiently
distinct line can be drawn with respect to uses a more elaborate
classification may prove profitable.
The most usual method of arranging a price for class 1 or fluid
milk is by a conference between distributors and the producers' or-
ganization. No two markets are exactly alike in the factors that
should be considered, or weights given to these factors. Through
experience a number of associations have found that the price can be
placed too high. In the first place, this high price may cause the
average price received by producers to be high, which soon results in
an expansion of production that forces prices down. It may also
so widen the difference in price between class 1 or fluid milk and
the one or more classes of surplus that the price to cooperating dis-
95492°'-^0 i
50 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 179, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
tributors is much higher than that their noncooperating competitors
have to pay. The latter, securing their product at a lower price,
are likely to cut prices to the individual consumer.
Unless sales prices for fluid milk by the cooperative are reduced,
the cooperating distributor is faced with a loss of business, or he
must reduce his prices to the consumer. If he pays the higher price
fdr his milk and charges a lower price it may result in a loss. The
difference between the price of class 1 milk and the price of surplus
milk is limited in this way, and the price of surplus milk must bo
closely related to the prices of manufactured products, particularly
of butter. The average selling price which the distributor receives
for milk must necessarily determine an upper limit on fluid prices.
Frequently the family-delivered price may be at a certain figure,
as 15 cents; but a considerable quantity may be sold to stores or
restaurants at a lower price, making the average selling price as
much as a cent or more lower. It is this average price that must
form the basis of dealing. As a general rule, the higher this price,
the higher the fluid price is likely to be placed. The spread between
the distributor's purchasing price and his selling price can not be
constant for all markets. If operating with equal efficiency varia-
tion in distributor's costs in different markets may be due chiefly
to differences in labor and transportation costs. The general wage
scale, degree of unionization of labor, size of the city, and location
of milk terminals, all influence these factors. Because distributors
in one city can operate on a 5i/2-cent spread between buying and
selling prices, it does not necessarily follow that, to be as efficient,
the distributor in another city must operate on that spread.
The distributor's average selling price for fluid milk, the price of
surplus milk, the probable difference between the prices to be paid
by distributors for fluid milk and surplus milk, the general price
level of all commodities, the level of milk prices as compared with
costs (particularly feed concentrates), and the quantity of milk
in excess of probable fluid-milk consumption are all factors that
must be given consideration in establishing a price for that portion
of the milk sold for consumption in fluid form.
In arranging prices for milk that is skimmed for cream, the price
of butter is the most important single factor. Cream prices are
always related to the butterfat contained therein. The premium
that is possible for producers in any market to secure above butterfat
prices is dependent upon whether enough is produced in the territory
ordinarily considered as the market's milk shed, the maximum dis-
tance it must be shipped from the borders of this milk shed, to-
gether with the cost of transportation and the restrictions placed by
the board of health upon the entry of outside cream into the market.
If the market in which there is not an excess supply of cream does
not admit cream from outside its own inspection district and milk
shed, the price at which distributors can secure cream in the open
market will be above that at which it can be obtained in surrounding
markets which admit outside cream on an equal trading basis.
The prices of western cream sold in eastern markets are usually
arranged with New York 92-score butter as the basis. Some of the
brokers sell cream on the basis of New York 92-score butter price
plus 20 per cent, plus 5 cents a pound for the butterfat contained
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK 51
therein. With the above grade of butter selling at 50 cents, the price
of butterfat in sweet cream would be $0.50 + (f 0.20 X $0.50) +$0.05=
$0.50 + $0.10 + $0.05 = $0.65 a pound. Sales may also be arranged at a
definite percentage of increase above butter prices. Another practice
is the sale of cream on the basis of a fixed premium above the New
York butter market. This, during 1928 and 1929, has frequently-
ranged from 20 cents to 22 cents over the New York 92-score market
for the butterfat in the cream. If the New York 92-score price is
50 cents, cream would be selling at 70 cents to 72 cents per pound
of butterfat cost, insurance, and freight to the eastern buyer. Local
cream may sell at a slight premium over cream that must be shipped
long distances as it is easily obtained and as the distributor some-
times feels that the quality may be superior. Prices of surplus milk
in a deficit area, where outside cream must be brought in but is
permitted free entry, must be governed largely by the price at which
the market can obtain this outside cream.
Where there is more than enough milk to supply all the fluid-milk
and cream requirements, the price of milk for cream must be about
the price at which sweet cream can be obtained from the country.
This will be probably somewhat above the price of butterfat em-
ployed in manufactured product's. The price must be enough bighei
to induce the producer to deliver his product in a better condition
and more frequently than for the usual manufacture of butter. This
has been placed by many at about 20 per cent above 92-score butter
prices in a central market.
Prices for milk made into butter must be determined by the re-
turns that can be secured for the butter. For other manufactured
products with a less organized market than butter, prices of the
latter have an important bearing, but the price at which the product
can be sold and its cost of manufacture are significant in determining
an equitable milk price.
In establishing prices for milk in classes other than fluid, coopera-
tive associations have frequently used some type of formula with
butterfat as the basis in determining these prices.
PRICE METHODS OF SOME INDIVIDUAL COOPERATIVE ASSOCIATIONS
The Connecticut Milk Producers' Association employs a classified
plan of sale according to the use made of the milk. The plan pro-
vides for four classes, viz : Class 1, all milk sold in fluid form ; class
2, milk made into cream that is sold in fluid form; class 3, milk
made into manufactured products, except butter; and class 4, milk
used in making butter.
Prices of class 1 milk are negotiated for milk containing 4 per
cent butterfat. The differential for a change of one-tenth of 1 per
cent in butterfat is 4 cents per 100 pounds of milk. Representatives
of the producers' association meet with representatives of the dis-
tributors each month to determine what prices for the following
month shall be. Their prices for class 1 milk may vary from time to
time. As long as retail prices remain the same, however, the price
of fluid milk to dealers is likely to be established at about the same
figure from month to month. During 1926, it was 9% cents per quart
for eight months of the year; Sy^ cents, in May and June; and 9%
62 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 179, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
cents, in July and August. The retail price for 1927 and 1928 was
16 cents.
Prices for class 2 milk are determined usually at a fixed premium
over Boston 92-score butter for the butterf at contained therein. The
prices of class 1 milk, per quart, the premium per pound of butterf at
in classes 2 and 3, ovei" Boston 92-score butter, the price of butter
and the retail price of milk, in Hartford, Conn., are shown in Table
8. The premium above butterfat remains the same for long periods.
From May 1, 1925, to September 1, 1928, butterfat in class 2 was
paid for at 221/2 cents above the Boston 92-score butter market.
There was a provision that if the price of butter" exceeded 50 cents
in any month, this premium was limited to 20 cents. The milk goes
with the fat, with no additional allowance for skim milk. Class 3
milk is also sold at a fixed premium over Boston 92-score butter
prices. For the last quarter of 1928, this premium was 15 cents per
pound of butterfat. Class 4 milk is sold at Boston 92-score butter
prices for the fat contained therein.
Table 8. — Milk prices of Connecticut Milk Producers' Association, 1923-1928
Year and month
Price
received
for class 1
milk per
quart
Premium received per
pound of butterfat
over Boston 92-score
butter
Boston
price per
pound of
92-score
butter,
received for
butterfat in
class 4
milk
Retail-
route
price of
milk per
Class 2
milk
Class 3
mUk
quart at
Hartford,
Conn.
1923
Jflnnarv _
Cents
8.50
8.60
8.50
8.50
8.50
8.50
8.50
8.50
9.25
9.25
9.50
9.50
9.50
8.50
8.50
8.50
8.50
8.50
8.50
8.50
9.50
9.50
9.50
9.50
9.50
9.50
9.50
8.50
8.50
8.50
8.50
8.50
9.50
9.50
9.50
9.50
Cents
25.0
25.0
25.0
25.0
25.0
25.0
27.5
27.5
27.5
27.5
25.0
25.0
25.0
22.0
22.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
22.5
22.5
22.5
22.5
22.5
22.5
22.5
22.5
Cents
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.0
15 0
15.0
17.5
17.5
17.5
17.5
15.0
15.0
15.0
12.0
12.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
Cents
52.44
50.35
51.11
47.12
42.88
39.98
39.70
44.11
4a 44
47.81
51.36
53.44
53.35
51.73
47.60
39.43
39.19
41.52
40.17
38.60
38.32
38.36
41.59
44.17
40.69
41.11
47.42
45.30
42.98
43.26
43.64
43.98
47.88
50.60
50.23
49.16
Cents
15
15
March
15
April
15
May
15
15
July
15
AuKust - - -
15
Seotember -
16
16
16
16
1924
Tnnnarv
16
February
15
15
April
15
May
15
15
July . _
15
August
15
16
16
November ^
December -
16
16
1925
16
FpHmarv _
16
March _ _ .
16
April
16
May
15
June
16
July
16
August -
16
September _ _
16
October-- . _ _ - . .
16
November
16
December.-,
16
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK
53
Table 8. — Milk prices of Connecticut Milk Producers' Association, 1923-1928 —
Continued
Year and month
Premium received per
Boston
1 pound of butterfat
price per
pound of
KetaU-
Price
over Boston 92-score
route
received
butter
92-score
price of
for class 1
butter,
received for
milk per
milk per
quart at
Hartford,
Conn.
quart
Class 2
milk
Class 3
milk
butterfat in
class 4
milk
Cents
Cents
Cents
Cents
Cetits
9.50
22.5
10.0
45.25
16
9.50
22.5
10.0
45.38
16
9.50
22.5
10.0
43.26
16
9. .50
22.5
10.0
39.96
16
8.50
22.5
10.0
41.16
16
8.50
22.5
10.0
41.66
15
8.50
22.5
10.0
40.88
15
9.25
22.5
10.0
41.87
16
9.50
22.5
10.0
44.72
16
9.50
22.5
10.0
46.55
16
9.50
22.5
10.0
48.38
16
9.50
22.5
10.0
53.69
16
9.50
22.5
10.0
49.53
16
9.50
22.5
10.0
51. 86
16
9.60
22.5
10.0
50.95
16
9.50
22.5
10.0
51.08
16
9.50
22.5
10.0
43.76
16
9.50
22.5
10.0
42.62
16
9.50
22.5
10.0
41.80
16
9.50
22.5
10.0
42.06
16
9.50
22.5
10.0
46.24
16
9.50
22.5
10.0
47.80
16
9.50
22.5
10.0
48.02
16
9.50
22.5
10.0
49.85
16
9.50
22.5
10.0
48.62
16
9.50
22.5
10.0
46.93
16
9.50
22.5
10.0
49.62
16
9.50
22.5
10.0
46.00
16
9.50
22.5
10.0
45.38
16
9.50
22.5
10.0
44.47
16
9. 50
22.5
10.0
45.32
16
9.50
22.5
10.0
47.12
16
9.50
27.5
15.0
48.73
16
9.50
27.5
15.0
47.96
16
9.50
27.5
15.0
50.15
16
9.50
27.5
15.0
50.24
16
January
February.-
March
April
May
Jime
July
August
September.
October
November.
December.
1926
January —
February.,
March
.A-pril
May
June
July
August
September.
October
November.
December.
1927
January...
February. -
March
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October. _.
November.
December.
1928
As long as these premiums are held without change, the prices
to producers are likely to remain fairly steady. Fluctuations would
be due to varying percentages of the total supply being used in
different classes and to changes in the price of butter. Average
prices per 100 pounds to producers f . o. b. the market for 4 per cent
milk, for the April-March contract years 1922-23, 1923-24, 1924-25,
1925-26, 1926-27, and 1927-28 were $3.48, $3.71, $3.64, $3.84, $3.90,
and $4.02, respectively. Increases in prices have been due to higher
butter prices, an increase in the proportion of sales as fluid milk,
and some to increases in premiums and the price of class 1 milk.
In obtaining the price to the producer, all sales to a given distribu-
tor are weighted according to the quantities used in each of the dif-
ferent classes. The weighted average price is the price which pro-
ducers are paid for milk f . o. b. the market. The result is a pool of
the prices received for the milk of all producers shipping to a par-
ticular distributor. The sales to another distributor, using different
quantities of milk in the different classes, when blended together,
may result in a slightly different price to producers who ship to him.
54 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 179, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
This plan is, then, essentially a series of pools by distributors, the
result of which may be a series of prices to producers differing
slightly from each other but necessarily rather close together. Mem-
bers who sell milk to different distributors but who are otherwise
under substantially similar circumstances may then receive somewhat
different prices.
The Dairymen's League Cooperative Association employs four
principal classes in the sale of its milk. These may be modified to
some extent from time to time and certain subdivisions made. The
following extract relating to classes is taken from a copy of the dis-
tributors' contract ^ of the league used in a given month of 1929 :
Class 1
Price $3.37 per 100 pounds. — For all milk leaving Buyer's herein named
plants in fluid form.
(All milk leaving Buyer's plants in fluid form must be reported and paid
for in this Class whether sold for resale in fluid form or for ice cream manu-
facture or any other disposition.)
For all milk made into cream and leaving Buyer's herein named plants in
such form of which the skim milk is sold in fluid form.
For all milk utilized in any manner on which prices are not herein estab-
lished.
For all milk made into cream and leaving Buyer's herein named plants in
such forms of which the skim milk is sold for consumption in fluid form,
whether or not in combination with other products excepting buttermilk.
Class 2-A
Price $2.46 per 100 pounds. — For all milk made into cream and leaving
Buyer's herein named plants in such form.
If the resulting skim and/or buttermilk is made into or sold as buttermilk,
30 cents per 100 pounds is to be added.
If the resulting skim is used in the manufacture of either ice cream or the
cheeses described in Class 3, or skim powder or sweetened skim condensed,
homogenized mixture or plain skim condensed, 25 cents per 100 ix)unds is to
be added.
If the resulting skim is either sold to the farmer or made into skim milk
cheeses, or casein or milk sugar, or if no profitable disposition is made thereof,
15 cents per 100 pounds is to be added.
Class 2-B
Price $2.71 per 100 pounds. — F'or all milk made into plain condensed milk.
For all milk used in the manufacture of homogenized mixtures composed
entirely of milk products with the addition only of sugar, flavors, gelatin and
other binders.
For all milk used in the manufacture of ice cream.
For all milk that is used in the manufacture of cheeses other than those
specified by name in this Class and Classes 3 and 4-B.
For all milk used in the manufacture of cheeses of the soft type, such as
Cream, Neufchatel, Pimento, Pimento Olive, DeBrie, D'Isigny, Fort DeSalut,
Liederkranz, Lunch, Kosher, Petit Suisse, etc., and Farmers' Pressed Cheese.
For all milk from which only a part of the butterfat is used in the manufacture
of butter, and the resultant milk containing some butterfat is used in the
manufacture of soft cheeses.
Class 3
Price $2.40 per 100 pounds. — For all milk that is used in the manufacture
of sterilized and evaporated whole milk.
For all milk that is used in the manufacture of sweetened whole condensed
milk.
' Dairymbn^s League Co-Operative Association. Inc., distributors^ contract. 3 P.
1929. [Mimeographed.]
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK
55
For all milk that is used in the manufacture of milk chocolate.
For all milk used in the manufacture of whole milk powder.
For all milk used in the manufacture of powdered malted milk.
For all milk to which butterfat is added that is used in the manufacture of
milk powder.
For all milk that is used in the manufacture of Swiss, Limberger, Muenster.
Pineapple, Edam, Roquefort, Gouda, Camembert, Hard Italian, Brick, and
other cheeses of similar type.
If the whey resulting from the manufacturing of cheese covered by Class 3
is made into milk sugar, five cents per 100 pounds shall be added to the prices
stated.
Note : — If the milk from which any part of the butterfat is removed and sold
in the form of fluid cream is made into sterilized evaporated or sweetened
condensed milk, Class 2 price shall apply on milk used.
Class Jf-A
Prices. — For surplus milk that is made into butter. Determined as follows:
Take for the months during which the milk is handled, the official New York
average outside quotations for 92-score butter, deduct five cents a pound for
making, and figure an over-run of 16 per cent. ^
If the resulting skim and/or buttermilk is made into or sold as buttermilk,
30 cents per 100 pounds is to be added.
If the resulting s]^im is used in the manufacture of either ice cream or
skim powder or sweetened skim condensed or homogenized mixture or plain
skim, condensed, 25 cents per 100 pounds is to be added.
If the resulting skim is either sold to the farmer or made into skim milk
cheeses, or casein or milk sugar, or if no profitable disposition is made thereof,
15 cents per 100 pounds is to be added.
Any dealer using 50 per cent or less of his receipts in Class 4 shall be
allowed 5 cents per pound for making butter, and when he uses over 50
per cent of his total receipts in Class 4 the allowance for making shall be 4
cents per pound.
Class 4-B
For surplus milk that is made into American Cheese.
Take for the month during which the milk is handled the oflacial New York
City average price for New York State average run colored and uncolored
flats or a price l^A cents per pound less than the official New York City average
price for New York State fresh flats fancy, whichever the seller elects.
The allowance for making cheese under Class 4-B for all dealers who use up
to and including 49 per cent of their total receipts in Class 4 shall be at the
rate of Sy2 cents per pound.
For all those who use 50 to 59 per cent inclusive in Class 4, the allowance
for making shall be 3 cents per pound.
For those who use from 60 to 69 per cent inclusive in Class 4, the allowance
for making shall be 2% cents per pound.
For all who use 70 per cent or over, in Class 4, the allowance for making
shall be 2% cents per pound.
Figure according to the test of milk yields per each 100 pounds of milk as
follows :
Butterfat
Cheese
Butterfat
Cheese
Butterfat
Cheese
test
yield
test
yield
test
yield
Per cent
Pounds
Per cent
Pounds
Percent
Poinds
3.0
8.30
4.0
10.60
5.0
12.90
3.1
8.53
4.1
10.83
5.1
13.13
3.2
8.76
4.2
11.06
5.2
13.36
3.3
8.99
4.3
11.29
5.3
13.59
3.4
9.22
4.4
11.52
5.4
13.82
3.5
9.46
4.5
11.74
5.5
14.05
3.6
9.68
4.6
11.98
3.7
9.91
4.7
12.21
3.8
3.9
10.14
10.37
4.8
4.9
12.44
12.67
56 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 179, U. S. DEPT. OF AGEICULTURE
Disposition of whey.
Prices stated in Class 4-B for milk made into cheese apply when no profitable
disposition shall be made of the whey.
If the whey resulting from the manufacture of cheese covered by Class 4r-B
is made into milk sugar, 5 cents per 100 pounds shall be added to the price
stated.
The prices stated are based on delivery of Grade B milk testing, unless other-
wise specifically stated, 3.5 per cent of butterfat at railroad points from New
York 201-210 miles, both inclusive for Class 1 ; 201-225 miles, both inclusive for
Classes 2-A and 2-B ; 201-250 miles, both inclusive lor Class 3 from which to
New York Interstate rates apply, and at all points at which milk is received
from producers for Class 4.
Butterfat. — There shall be a differential of 4 cents per one-tenth of 1 per
cent butterfat. Such differential to be added to the base price for all milk
testing over 3.5 per cent, and for all milk testing less than 3.5 per cent down to
and including milk testing 3 per cent such differential to be deducted from the
base price. Such diffei-entials apply to all prices stated in Classes 1 and 3
while the differential to be thus added or deducted for all prices stated in
Classes 2-A and 2-B shall be 6 cents per one-tenth of 1 per cent butterfat.
For milk utilized in Classes 4r-A and 4— B prices on all milk testing over
3 per cent shall be determined in accordance with schedule of yields shown
under Classifications 4-A and 4-B.
The league receives milk, actually handles much of the milk, and
pays the producer for all milk whether' handled through league
plants or those of cooperating distributors. It has actual milk for
sale. Its prices for the various classes, based upon the best market
information it can secure, are set at such points and with such differ-
entials as the sales committee believes will move the milk. The buyer
takes no risk from being unable to use all milk received in a given
class, but pays the class price for the quantity utilized in each class.
The Maryland State Dairymen's Association makes its sales on a
plan that employs only two classes: (1) Fluid and (2) surplus.
Most of its surjDlus is used as sweet cream either for table use or ice
cream. The price of class 1 or fluid milk is determined by agree-
ment in conference of distributors and the producers' association.
Once a price is agreed upon no conference is held regularly, but the
price is continued until the distributors or producers request a price
conference. The price of fluid milk was kept without change at
31 cents a gallon from January 1, 1924, to October, 1926. In Octo-
ber, 1926, this price was increased to 33 cents a gallon, or $3.83 per
100 pounds. The management states that as long as present condi-
tions obtain no change is contemplated. The retail price for bottled
milk delivered to the family trade was 14 cents a quart. Prices are
made on a basis of 4 per cent milk, which is reported as about the
average test. A differential of one-half cent a gallon or 5.8 cents
per 100 pounds is applied for variations of each one-tenth per cent
in butterfat above or below 4 per cent.
The price of class 2 milk is based on the price of New York
92-score butter and the price of class 1 milk, according to a definite
formula. As long as there is no change in the price of class 1 milk,
it is necessary only to ascertain the average price of New York 92-
score butter. The only regular meetings to consider the price of
milk are those of the committee which meets on the 27th of each
month to verify the average price of New York 92-score butter for
the last 30 days.
Class 2 milk is sold to the distributors on the basis of butterfat in
the milk and the price of fluid milk, by taking a differential below
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK 57
the price of fluid milk. The surplus price is thus automatically de-
termined by current prices for fluid milk and the New York butter
prices.
The Maryland and Virginia Milk Producers' Association, of
Washington, D. C, sells milk on the same plan as the Maryland
State Dairymen's Association. Prices are calculated on the basis of
4 per cent milk, but the differential is 6 cents per point, or per one-
tenth per cent change in butterfat content. Distributors also pay
certain premiums for various barn and cattle scores, which on an aver-
age, amount to approximately 23 cents per 100 pounds. In the origi-
nal basic surplus plan of sale, as now- employed by the Inter-State
Milk Producers' Association of Philadelphia, the distributor takes all
the risk resulting from the fact that the basic milk production of his
shippers may not be in exact agreement with his fluid requirements ;
that is, he pays his producers basic prices for any milk up to the
producers' established basic quantity. If he has to manufacture some
of this milk he probably suffers some loss. On the other hand, if his
fluid requirements are in excess of basic milk, he can bottle some of
his surplus milk and secure any resulting gain.
Prices for basic milk are determined by a conference between
distributors and the producers' association. Changes are considered
only when one or the other side requests a conference for that pur-
pose. Usually changes in the basic price are infrequent and distribu-
tors have adopted a policy of no seasonal changes in retail prices.
Basic prices are determined on the basis of 4 per cent milk, f. o. b.
the market, wdth a differential addition or deduction of 4 cents per
100 pounds for each change of one-tenth per cent in butterfat con-
tent. If milk is handled by the distributor through a receiving
station, the producer pays a handling charge of 23% cents per 100
pounds in addition to the freight.
Prices of first-surplus milk are determined by formula, according
to the butterfat content of the milk and New York 92-score butter
prices. The price per 100 pounds is the butterfat content multiplied
by the monthly average New York 92-score butter price, plus 20 per
cent. For the second surplus, the price per 100 pounds is the butter-
fat content of the milk multiplied by the average monthly price of
New York 92-score butter. These prices are for surplus milk f. o. b.
Philadelphia. At receiving stations, the price is 57 cents per 100
pounds less, which allows the dealer a handling charge of 23.5 cents
per 100 pounds and the freight from the 51-60 mile zone of 34.5
cents per 100 pounds. No further freight allowance is made, and
the distributor, therefore, pays the producers the same price for
surplus milk at all receiving stations.
The Dairymen's Cooperative Sales Co. of Pittsburgh employs a
classification plan in making sales to the distributors, paying accord-
ing to the use made of the milk. The five* classes employed are :
(1) Milk used in fluid form, (2) milk used for cream, (3) milk used
in making butter, (4) milk used in making cheese, (5) milk used in
evaporated and condensed mUk. Prices for fluid or class-1 milk (3.5
per cent basis) are arranged by agreement in a conference of pro-
ducers, consumers, and the distributors. Prices for class 2 or cream
are based on prices of western cream or of outside supplies. Milk
used for butter (class 3) at country plants is paid for according to the
58 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 9, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
butterfat contained therein at 15 per cent above the average monthly
quotations of Chicago 92-score butter. All overrun over 15 per cent
and the skim milk are allowed against the cost of manufacture.
Prices for class 4 (milk used for cheese) are determined on the basis
of the daily average New York quotation for American cheese white
flats, less 3 cents per pound, as manufacturing expense, on the basis
of a yield of 9.41 pounds of cheese equaling 100 pounds of 3.5 per cent
milk. Prices of class 5 milk are charged to the buyer on the basis of
prices determined by the conference board of midwestem condens-
eries.
Essentially the whole plan depends upon the establishment of
prices of fluid milk based on retail prices and the prices of manufac-
tured products. The prices of the latter are based directly on na-
tional prices for these products. The practice of having the con-
sumer represented in price conferences in Pittsburgh is a practice not
common to most other markets.
The New England Milk Producers' Association makes its sales
on a classification plan, using two classes: (1) All milk used in fluid
form; (2) all milk in excess of this quantity. Class 2 is further
subdivided into (a) milk used for cream and (h) all other milk.
The price of class 1 milk is determined monthly by conference be-
tween the distributors and the New England Milk Producers' Asso-
ciation. The quantity of milk sold in class 1 is determined by actual
record. However, the quantities that are used for cream and
for other purposes are estimates of the proportions that will be
used for each purpose. These proportions are determined in con-
ference in advance. In months when production is lowest, as in the
last three months of the year, 100 per cent of this surplus may be
allowed in the cream class. In other months the proportion may
be 75-25; that is, 75 per cent of the surplus in the (a) or cream
class and 25 per cent in the (h) or other-use class. In the summer
months, the percentage allowed in the cream class may be low,
and the surplus may be paid for on a 10-90 basis.
Prices for the cream or (a) class of surplus are determined by
taking the average butterfat content, multiplied by the average
price of Boston 92-score butter for the month, plus 20 per cent.
Prices for (h) class surplus are determined by taking the average
monthly 92-score Boston butter price, minus 5 cents for manufac-
turing cost, plus 16% per cent allowance for gain in overrun.
The Michigan Milk Producers' Association initiated a plan of
sale in Detroit on August 1, 1928, which differs somewhat from
the usual plan. Milk is divided into two classes — (1) fluid and (2)
surplus. The price of fluid milk in Detroit has remained at $3 per
100 pounds for a considerable period of time. It was the aim to
keep this price about constant. The plan does not take into consid-
eration changes in butter prices, but varies only with the quantity
of surplus produced each month. No definite period of time has
been set for the continuance of the plan; presumably it may be
changed whenever it appears inequitable to producers or distribu-
tors. This may depend on whether or not retail milk prices, butter
prices, and cream prices, for any year, remain around the present
levels.
The plan provides for a variation in price according to the fluc-
tuation in the sales of fluid milk and the quantity of milk that
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MiLK
m
has to go into the surplus class. It places a minimum of $2.60 per 100
pounds on all 3.5 per cent milk, f . o. b. Detroit. This plan is, in effect,
a series of flat prices varying according to the quantity of surplus.
The butterf at differential for each one-tenth of 1 per cent variation
in butterfat content is 4 cents per 100 pounds, when 92-score
butter prices are below 45 cents, and 5 cents when they are
above that point. The following schedule gives the prices which
distributors pay for milk containing 3.5 per cent butterfat, with
varying proportions of surplus:
Schedule of prices paid hy producers for fluid mUh f. o. 6. Detroit, with varying
percentages of surplus
Percentage of surplus
Price per
100 pounds
Percentage of surplus
Price per
100 pounds
Percentage of surplus
Price per
100
pounds
10 .
$2.95
2.94
2.93
2.92
2.91
2.90
2.89
2.88
2.87
2.86
20
$2.85
2.84
2.83
2.82
2.81
2.80
2.783^
2.77
2.75J^
2.74
30
$2.72>^
2.71
11
21
31
12
22
32
2.69K
2.68
13
23
33 ...
14
24...-
34
2.66
15
25
35
2.65
16
26
36
2.63H
2.62
17
27
37
18
28
38 : ■■"■
»2.60
19
29
1 The minimum price shall be $2.60 for 3.5 per cent milk, f. o. b. Detroit, regardless of
the quantity of surplus.
The Illinois Milk Producers' Association of Peoria, 111., make their
contracts with the distributors for an entire year in advance. For
the year 1929, the distributors agreed to pay the association $2.77 per
100 pounds for 3.5 per cent milk f . o. b. the market for all milk sold
as fluid mill^ or table cream. For that portion of the milk used
for making butter, cheese, ice-cream mix, and other products, the
price is to be on the basis of the butterfat content at a premium
of 4 cents above the average 92-score price of butter in Chicago plus
an allowance of 30 cents per 100 pounds for the skim milk. The
fat differential for class 1 milk is 4 cents per 100 pounds, either up
or down from 3.5 per cent for each variation of one-tenth per cent
in butterfat. The returns are pooled so that each producer gets the
same price f . o. b. the market for milk of similar fat content and
(juality. A premium above the pool price is paid for quality, deter-
rnined by a methylene blue test. Each member's milk is tested five
times each month with the methylene blue test, and each time the
milk passes the standard set for the test the member receives a
premium of 5 cents per 100 pounds for his milk during that month.
If the milk passes all five tests, the price paid is 25 cents per 100
pounds above the pool price. Nonmembers do not receive the
premiums.
Associations such as the Twin City Milk Producers Association,
located in a large-surplus section, must necessarily keep their fluid
prices near the price distributors can pay for milk for manufacture.
Since they manufacture most of the surplus received, the returns
they receive from this milk must depend upon the prices they can
obtain for their products. Fluid-milk prices are then just enough
above the returns for manufactured milk to approximately cover all
60 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 179, U. S. DEPT. OP AaRICULTURE
the producer's excess costs, above the cost of producing milk for
manufacture.
SOME REPRESENTATIVE ASSOCIATIONS
The cooperative associations described in the following pages
are representative of some features which may be common to a
number of such organizations or to the particular association only,
but which have been a contributing factor in the successful operation
of the association. They may serve to illustrate more clearly the
methods of operation of cooperative fluid-milk associations in the
United States.
DAIRYMEN'S LEAGUE COOPERATIVE ASSOCIATION (INC.)
The Dairymen's League Cooperative Association (Inc.) may be
taken as representative of the large operating-marketing type of
association. It is, in fact, the largest of the fluid-milk marketing
cooperatives. Its sales for the fiscal year ended March 31, 1929,
amounted to over $85,000,000. The volume of milk pooled, sales,
and average number of shippers during each year from 1922 to
1929 are shown in Table 9. Its producers are located throughout
the State of New York, in western Connecticut, Massachusetts,
Vermont, and northern New Jersey and Pennsylvania. Some milk
is shipped slightly more than 400 miles. In March, 1929, the league
was operating 238 plants. During that year approximately 40
per cent of its milk was handled through plants operated by the
league and the remainder through plants operated by distributors
who were obtaining their milk supply through the league.
This association supplies milk not only to distributors in New
York City but to those in other cities of the State, including Buffalo,
Rochester, and Albany, and to those in cities of northern Pennsyl-
vania and New Jersey. Its aim is to operate as a wholesaler only.
Occasionally it purchases a retail business in order to provide an
outlet for fluid milk, but its policy has been to sell such a business as
soon as it can find a favorable purchaser.
Table 9. — Volume of business transacted hy the Dairymeii's League Cooperative
Association (Inc.), 1922-1929
Milk handled—
Percentage
of milk
handled in
league
plants
Value of
milk sold
Year ended Mar. 31—
In league
plants
In distributors'
plants
Total
1922
Pounds
391, 167, 452
793, 040, 638
720,331,348
731, 918, 516
694, 781. 474
739.334,117
861, 089, 526
975,941,406
Pounds
2, 174, 309, 353
2, 566, 232, 720
1, 957, 100. 130
1, 627, 023, 390
1, 575, 745, 366
1, 484. 885, 949
1,559,295,059
1, 509, 000, 333
Pounds
2, 565, 476, 805
3, 359, 273, 358
2,677,431.478
2, 358, 941, 906
2, 270, 526, 840
2,224.220,066
2,420,384,585
2,484,941,739
Per cent
15.2
23.6
26.9
31.0
30.6
33.2
35.6
39.3
Dollars
61. 943, 832
1923
82, 130, 902
1924
75, 132, 468
1925
65, 048, 895
1926
66, 632, 884
73, 716, 900
1927
1928
1929
82,501,310
85,648,162
The league maintains a more elaborate field organization than does
any of the other fluid-milk organizations. It has a directorate of
24, elected for 3-year terms, 1 from each district into which the ter-
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK 61
ritory is divided roughly on the basis of production. • These districts
may be divided into subdistricts, but no subdivision is made if it
results in a subdistrict having less than 400 members. All director's
districts, and the subdistricts follow county lines. Each subdistrict
has a president, who may be either the director of the district or a
member elected as the subdistrict president. In the latter case, this
subdistrict president attends directors' meetings, but has no vote.
Each subdistrict is composed of a number of locals that are incor-
porated under laws provided by the States for this purpose. Each
local is a separate and distinct corporation having officers and direc-
tors who are elected annually. There were approximately 800 locals
in the league in August, 1928.
After every directors' meeting, delegates from each local attend a
subdistrict meeting to receive a report of the last directors' meeting.
These delegates, in turn, go back to their locals with a report of the
subdistrict meeting.
Subdistricts and locals are financed through the central organiza-
tion ; a deduction of 1 mill per 100 pounds on all milk pooled is made
for the subdistrict and 2 mills for the local.
The territory is also covered by about 15 division offices, located
at strategic points, each in charge of a man who is the direct repre-
sentative of the league. These offices serve as clearing houses for
the members regarding the association's problems. *
The outstanding duties of these offices are to see that every eligible
member is kept in the association, to increase the membership
through obtaining new members, to obtain signatures to orders on
distributors when diversions or transfers take place. The man in
charge supervises and acts as the detail man on hauling, looks after
the convenience of members in transferring from one plant to an-
other, considers complaints regarding weights, tests, and misunder-
standings on checks. He sees that distributors report promptly and
assists them in any way possible. He assists the directors and sub-
district presidents with respect to meetings and general relationship
with members. He obtains information requested by department
heads with respect to country conditions. The division representa-
tive makes the direct contact with the membership, distributors, and
the public, but his principal service is to the members in whatever
manner required by local conditions.
The management of the association is vested in an executive com-
mittee of five, elected from the directors, of which the president is
ex officio chairman.
The total cost of administrative expenses and selling expenses
averaged 6 cents per 100 pounds for the year ended March 31, 1928,
and the average for the years 1922-1928 was 6.8 cents per 100 pounds.
The association recognizes the right of each member to receive the
same price for his milk as is paid to each other member under sub-
stantially similar circumstances without regard to the use made of
the milk. The receipts from the sale of all milk produced by mem-
bers, whether handled through league or distributors' plants, are
pooled, and each member is paid by check direct from the associa-
tion, according to the quantity of milk which he delivered during
that month. Checks are mailed about the 25th of the month for
deliveries during the previous month. At present approximately 40
62 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 179, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
per cent of the milk handled passes through plants operated by the
league. Table 10 shows the quantity of milk handled by the league
plants, the number of plants operated by the league in March of
each year, and the number of members shipping at that time.
Table 10. — Milk handled through pUmts operated by the Dairymen's League
Cooper ati/ve Association (Inc.), 1922-1929
Year ended
Mar. 31
Milk
handled
Plants
operated
by the
league on
Mar. 31
Members
shipping in
March
Year ended
Mar. 31
Milk
handled
Plants
operated
by the
league on
Mar. 31
Members
shipping in
March
1922...
1923
1924
1925
Pounds
391, 167, 452
793,040,638
720,331,348
731, 918, 516
Number
84
118
140
160
Number
42, 562
45, 715
36,858
30,805
1926
1927
1928
1929
Pounds
694,781,474
739, 334, 117
861, 089, 526
975, 941, 406
Number
169
184
218
238
Number
33,170
30,792
34,755
36, 952
It is the present policy of the league to confine its activities to the
handling and sale of fluid milk as much as possible and to manu-
facture surplus only when it is found more economical to do so.
By operating a large number of country plants and maintaining
equipment and personnel so that milk could be manufactured if
necessary, it believes that it can maintain a key position in the in-
dustry and so can obtain a price justified by market conditions. In
case any large distributor should discontinue buying league milk, the
association could take care of the supply until further sales arrange- .
ments could be made. Because of the country receiving stations the
distributors lack direct contact with producers so it would be rel-
atively difficult for them to obtain a supply quickly.
The milk received is sold to distributors on the classified plan ; the
price is based upon the use made of the milk.
Minor changes in classification are made from time to time, but
the following four classes are those usually employed : Class 1, fluid
milk and milk skimmed for fluid cream; class 2, cream, plus skim
charges, ice cream, homogenized soft cheese, such as cream Neuf-
chatel, Pimento Olive, De Brie, D'Isigny, Fort De Salut, Liederkranz
Lunch, Kosher, and Farmers' Pressed Cheese; class 3, evaporated
and condensed milk, milk chocolate, whole-milk powder, and hard
cheeses, such as Swiss, Limburger, Muenster, Pineapple, Edam,
Roquefort, Gauda, Camembert Hart Italian, and Brick; and class
4, butter, with skim charges, and American cheese.
For the year ended March 31, 1928, 57.75 per cent of all milk
handled through both distributors' and association plants was sold
in class 1 ; and 22.03 per cent in class 2.
The net pool price is the total amount received by the league less
any deductions for expenses. The price to the individual producer
is the net pool price with adjustment for differences in transporta-
tion costs, butterfat, quality, and other factors.
The Dairymen's League Cooperative Association (Inc.) is a non-
stock corporation and is financed by means of a revolving fund ob-
tained by deductions from the membership. The deductions are
made from the members' checks each month and, at the end of the
fiscal year, a certificate of indebtedness is issued to the member for
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK
63
the total amount deducted during the year. These certificates bear
interest at the rate of 6 per cent and mature five years from their
date of issue. Each certificate has five coupons attached to it repre-
senting the amount of money due each year. In appearance it is
similar to a coupon bond. Under terms of the association's charter,
funds obtained in this manner may be used for the acquisition and
equipment of plants, or for other property essential to the market-
ing of milk and milk products, and to provide funds for working
capital. The average gross pool prices, administration and sales
expense, and deductions for capital purposes for the years 1922 to
1928 are given in Table 11.
Table 11. — DwvrymerCs League Cooperative Association (Ina): Prices to pro-
ducers f. o. &. New York City a^d dedu4)tions from producers' returns,
1922-1929
Year ended Mar. 31
Average
gross pool
price 3.5
milk f. 0. b.
New York
City
Average
deductions
for expense
Net pool
price to
producers
for 3.5
milk f. 0. b.
New York
City
Average
deductions
for certifi-
cates of in-
debtedness
1922
Dollars
2.7400
2.6300
2.8300
2. 6279
2. 9189
3.0040
3. 1390
3. 1836
Dollars
0.0500
.0695
.0871
.0832
.0669
.0620
.0600
.0600
^Dollars
2.6900
2. 5605
2. 7429
2.5447
2.8520
2.9420
3.0790
3. 1236
Dollars
0 1680
1923
.1376
.0957
.0747
.1000
.1120
.1110
.1163
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
1929
MARYLAND STATE DAIRYMEN'S ASSOCIATION
The Maryland State Dairymen's Association has played an im-
portant role in the development of cooperative marketing of fluid
milk. The things for which it is particularly noted are its use of
the basic surplus plan for production control and the combination
of this plan with the use plan, by which distributors pay for milk
on the basis of its use while the producer is paid according to his
basic and surplus production. It has attracted considerable atten-
tion, because of the accumulation of a contingency reserve fund
adequate to insure a market-reflecting demand and supply for the
producers' milk at any time and to guarantee that the producer
will receive payment for all milk delivered, regardless of the
financial status of the distributors.
The association is a nonstock corporation operating in Baltimore
and Annapolis, Md. It has always functioned as a bargaining
association. A membership fee of $1 is charged upon joining the
association. The member is required to sign a demand note to the
extent of $1 per cow, with a minimum of $15 if his herd is less than
15 cows. The brokerage commission charged for selling milk is
1 cent per gallon or 11.6 cents per 100 pounds for milk delivered
direct to market. For that delivered to receiving stations, the as-
sociation's commission is one-half cent per gallon or 5.8 cents per
100 pounds. Producers delivering to country points pay 2 cents per
gallon or 23,2 cents per 100 pounds, cooling charge, and producers
64 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 9, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
shipping their milk direct to the market pay a can-washing charge
of one-fifth cent per gallon or 2.32 cents per 100 pounds.
An allowance of one-fifth cent per gallon, or 2.32 cents per 100
pounds is made for current operating expenses, of which the associa-
tion has never used all, and the remainder is placed in a contingency
reserve.
The association guarantees the producer a market for all his milk
all of the time. It arranges the terms of sale and prices to the
producer and guarantees the financial responsibility of any distrib-
utor to whom it sells milk. It requires the distributor to give bond,
but assumes responsibility for payment to the producer in case he
should not be paid at the proper time by the distributor. Testing
is done by a disinterested agency on a contract at a given rate per
sample, and both distributors and producers accept these tests and
share in the cost of testing.
This association, reorganized late in 1918, has grown from a
membership of about 450 to more than 4,000, at the present time.
For the fiscal year ended July 31, 1928, it handled 222,738,972
pounds of milk, for which it received $8,161,257 or an average of
$3.66 per 100 pounds. The maximum distance from which milk is
brought to market will not exceed 75 miles.
It was one of the pioneers in a plan for production control. It
employs the so-called basic surplus plan, which has been adopted
in a number of markets since it was put into use in Baltimore.
From 1918 to 1923, the plan in use was similar to the one employed
by the Inter-State Milk Producers' Association of Philadelphia.
Since that time, a number of interesting modifications have been
made.
When the plan was put into effect in 1918, the three months of
October, November, and December were taken as the basic period.
Each producer's basic quantity was established for the following
nine months, and payment was made on the basis of this basic
quantity, described for the Philadelphia milk shed. The farmer
made a new average each fall, and the distributors purchased basic
and surplus milk as produced. The distributors assumed the risks
arising from the fact that basic purchases might exceed the fluid
sales while they received whatever benefit might accrue from using
surplus milk for fluid purposes. It had been the aim of the associa-
tion to develop a seasonal variation in production which would be
more nearly in accord with actual consumption. The sales of fluid
milk are fairly constant from month to month ; usually they do not
vary more than 10 per cent from the low month, which occurs some
time during the winter — January perhaps — to the high month, which
is probably in the summer or early fall. In Baltimore, the high
month has occurred most often in October.
Before the initiation of the basic surplus plan the peak of produc-
tion ordinarily came in May or June and the low point in November
oi" December. After four to five years of operation, a low point
began to appear in the late spring months (about April) and an-
other in midsummer following the pasture season. In 1923 this
condition was further accentuated with low-production periods ap-
pearing about the same time as during the previous year. The man-
agement of the association saw that, if it continued the plan then
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK 65
in operation, it would have no better adjustment between production
and sales than before the plan was initiated. The producers had
reacted too far to the price stimulus, and the pendulum had swung
the other way. Since by the arrangement of the plan all milk pro-
duced during October, November, or December was to be paid for
at basic prices, the distributors now found themselves facing the
problem of paying basic prices for milk which went into surplus
uses. The only method that could be followed if the association
were to continue the plan was to give the distributors a lower price
on basic milk. It did not want to do this, and the distributors
were insistent on some other basis of purchasing their milk, as the
system was obviously unfair to them under conditions existing at
that time.
Beginning January 1, 1924, the association put into effect a modi-
fication of the plan which they hoped would correct the situation
and especially the large averages in the fall of 1923. The farmer
was told that he would be given a basic quantity equal to that estab-
lished during 1922, which was about equal to fluid sales. Production
decreased immediately, and in April they were allowed to use the
1923 fall averages instead of 1922. Production increased and was
still so high by September that the association found it necessary
to put them back on the 1922 averages, which was continued until
the end of the year. Beginning January 1, 1925, each producer was
allowed a basic quantity equal to the 3-year averages of his basic
quantities for 1921, 1922, and 1923. The total basic milk thus al-
lotted was in rather close agreement with fluid sales at that time.
Shippers coming in after January 1 and before October of any
year were to be admitted on a 50-50 basis. After October 1 they
were to be allowed a 70-30 basis ; that is, 70 per cent basic and 30 per
cent surplus. After January 1 they were to be allowed a basic
quantity equal to 70 per cent of the fall production of the previous
year.
The use of the 1921, 1922, and 1923 fall averages as a basis for
establishing individual basic quantities is still in effect, but there
have been some modifications for new shippers and for old shippers
who fail to maintain these averages during the three fall months.
The following are the periods employed for establishing the farm-
ers' basic quantities since 1918 :
January 1, 1919, to January 1, 1924; average production for Octo-
ber, November, and December of the previous year.
January 1, 1924, to April 1, 1924; average production in October,
November, and December, 1922.
April 1, 1924, to September 1, 1924; average production in Octo-
ber, November, and December, 1923.
September 1, 1924, to December 31, 1924; average production in
October, November, and December, 1922.
January 1, 1925, to December 31, 1928; average production in
October, November, and December, 1921, 1922, 1923.
For 1927, any member who failed to maintain 80 per cent of his
established basic, during October, November, and December, 1926,
was automatically given such new average as he did maintain as his
new basic quantity. For 1928, unless the producer produced 90
95492^-50 5
66 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 9, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
per cent of the old average, he was given the new one and, for 1929,
this requirement was raised to 100 per cent. The following letter
given out by the Maryland State Dairymen's Association on August
1, 1928, defines the policy for 1929:
Maryland State Dairymen's Association,
August 1, 1928.
The Maryland State Dairymen's Association will continue the use of the
present fall averages as a basis for fluid-milk sales during 1929, with the
following exceptions :
1. Any member producer who does not produce in October, November, and
December, 1928, at least 100 per cent of liis present basic average will lose
his present average on January 1, 1929, and be credited with an average based
on his actual production in October, November, and December, 1928.
2. All new shippers who began shipping milk on this market after November
1, 1927, and prior to January 1, 1928, and are now being paid on a 50-50 jper
cent basis, will continue on that basis after October 1, 1928, unless market
conditions warrant additional basic milk.
3. All new shippers who began shipping after January 1, 1928, and are now
being paid on a 40-60 per cent basis will on October 1, 1928, be paid on a 50-50
per cent basis, unless market conditions warrant additional basic milk.
4. Ajiy producer now on this market, or who begins shipping milk prior to
October 1, 1928, and who fails to produce and ship milk during the entire three
fall months, will be credited with an average based on the 3-month period.
5. Any producer now on this market, or who begins shipping milk prior
to October 1, 1928, and who produces no milk during the fall months from
which an average can be taken, then comes on the market again the following
year, will be paid surplus price for all his milk until the following October 1.
6. When any shipper sells his cows and ceases to ship milk, then within
one year resumes his shipments, he will receive surplus price for all his milk
until the following October 1.
7. If, on January 1, 1929, it is found, after all shippers have been credited
with the quantity of basic milk as above specified, and this amount is less
than the fluid consumption in Baltimore, then the shippers who had the
highest per cent of surplus during October, November, and December, 1928,
vrill be credited with any additional basic milk then not allocated.
The above policy was adopted by the Board of Directors at their last meet-
ing, and, we believe, is the only policy whereby we can continue to market
unlimited production of milk and maintain our present basic and surplus
prices.
Under this plan some producers who failed to keep up their fall
production would be given a lower basic quantity than originally
established, at which time basic milk and fluid were approximately
equal. This fact, together with natural increases in fluid sales,
would tend to make the total quantity of basic milk less than fluid
sales. To correct this, members who produce in excess of their estab-
lished basic quantity during October, November, and December of
any year are allotted a pro rata share in this excess of fluid sales
over basic supplies. Also, in past years, a certain amount of this
excess has been allotted to new shippers who began during the
year. At present, there is no i-3surance that the new shipper will
secure better than a 40-60 basis for the future, though, if there is
additional basic milk to be allotted, he may receive some share in it.
Under the plan as set up at the present time, the producer is
Penalized for any highly seasonal variation in production and may
e particularly so for failure to maintain production during the last
quarter of the year.
The demand for fluid milk and cream has been growing rapidly,
^nd there has been no necessity to curtail total production so long
^s producers are r^geiving prices that will give them an adequate
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK 67
return. Under present conditions prices of fluid milk are remain-
ing constant and, under the plan, no other producer can take this
portion of the fluid market away from the old producer as long
as he maintains his supply for fluid use. The old producer who
wisl^es to expand can do so if his costs are low enough to enable
him to produce milk largely at surplus prices. Likewise the new
producer can enter the field if he can aft'ord to produce 60 per cent
of his milk for surplus prices which have been well maintained dur-
ing the last two years. During May and June of 1928 the surplus
amounted to 73 per cent, yet the surplus price for 4 per cent milk
was $2.90 per 100 pounds.
Although farmers are paid on the basis of their basic and surplus
production in accordance with the plan described above, distributors
make their purchases on a classification basis according to use. A
twofold classification is employed: (1) All milk for fluid use and
(2) all other milk. The first class is usually spoken of as fluid milk
and the second as surplus. Practically all of the surplus is used as
table cream or for ice cream. Any change in prices or any discus-
sion of proposed changes in price is arranged in a conference be-
tween distributors and the association. The management states that
there has been only one price conference and only one price change
that has not been automatically taken care of since February, 1923.
That price change took place on October 1, 1926, when the fluid price
was raised from 31 to 33 cents per gallon or from $3.60 to $3.83 per
100 pounds for 4 per cent milk f. o. b. the market. Basic prices are
always the same as fluid prices.
During 1928 and 1929, with no factor to cause any significant
change in demand and with production regulated as it has been, it
has been the opinion of the management that more money could be
returned to the producers if both fluid prices and distributors' retail
prices were kept the same throughout the year. For that reason re-
tail prices have been kept at 14 cents per quart, with fluid prices at
$3.83 per 100 pounds since the last price change on October 1, 1926.
The price of surplus milk (class 2) is determined by formula with
the price of New York 92-score butter and the agreed price of fluid
milk as a basis. The differential between fluid and surplus milk of
4 per cent butterfat content is taken as the fluid price less 50 per
cent of the difference between the fluid price and the monthly aver-
age price of New York 92-score butter plus 20 per cent, in all
months except May and June, in which a differential of 60 per cent is
taken instead of 50 per cent. That is, the fluid price (which is also
the basic price) minus 50 per cent (fluid price minus four times New
York 92-score butter price plus 20 per cent) equals the surplus price
for any month except May or June. To illustrate, assume the price
of fluid milk in April to be $3.80 per 100 pounds for 4 per cent milk
and the price of New York 92-score butter to be 50 cents per pound
during that month, then :
$3.80-0.50 ($3.80-4 [$0.50+$0.20X $0.50] )=surplus price.
$3.80-0.50 ($3.80-4X$0.60)=surplus price.
$3.80-0.50 ($3.80-$2.40) =$3.80- ($0.50X$1.40) =$3.80- $0.70= $3.10 per 100
pounds for surplus price.
If the month had been June instead of April, the price would
have been $3.80-0.60 ($1.40) =$3.80 -$0.84 =$2.96 per 100 pounds.
68 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 179, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Unless this surplus price to distributors is increased by agreement
of distributors and the association, it will be also the farm surplus
price. In addition to the payment of the agreed price for class 1,
or fluid milk, each distributor pays into a so-called basic sales ad-
justment fund three-fourths of a cent per gallon. Farmers are
Eaid by the distributors on a basic surplus plan; that is, for his
asic quantity, the producer is paid the basic price, and for all in
excess of this quantity he receives the farm surplus price.
If a distributor finds that he has paid for more basic milk than he
has been able to sell as fluid and it has thus been necessary for him
to turn some of the basic into surplus uses, he is paid from the
basic sales adjustment fund the difference between what he paid
the producer on the basic surplus plan, and what he would nave
paid had he purchased it from him and paid according to the quan-
tities used for fluid and surplus. Then if some of the milk for which
the farmer is paid surplus prices is sold for fluid use, the distributor
pays into the basic sales adjustment fund the difference between
what he paid for the milk as surplus and what he would have paid
for it as fluid milk ; that is, basic milk multiplied by basic price, plus
farm surplus milk, multiplied by farm surplus price, must equal
fluid milk multiplied by fluid price, plus three-fourths cent per
gallon, plus surplus milk, multiplied by surplus price, for the market
as a whole over a period of time.
In order that the payment into the basic sales adjustment fund
may not have to be more than three-fourths cent per gallon or that
the fund may not be increased to any great extent, basic must be
kept approximately equal to fluid sales. The management of the
association has done this. Their policy has been such that the size
of the basic sales adjustment fund has tended to increase rather
than decrease. The association has employed a part of this increase
to increase the farm surplus price. This has been done by agree-
ment of association and distributors at a time of the year when it
was desired to stimulate production. In such a case the farm sur-
plus price would be found slightly higher than the surplus price
paid by distributors.
As a matter of actually making payments, the distributors, on
agreement with the association, pay to the farmers for surplus a
price higher than the formula surplus price, and the adjustment is
made with each distributor's account in the basic sales adjustment
fund, only as a bookkeeping transaction, no money in any case
actually being paid into or taken out of the fund. A schematic
arrangement of the plan of payment to producers of the Maryland
State Dairymen's Association is shown in Figure 10.
The contingency reserve fund is that set aside out of brokerage
fees in excess of one-fifth of a cent per gallon. On about one-half
the milk which is shipped direct, this amounts to approximately
91/^ cents per 100 pounds and, on that passing through country sta-
tions, about 3.5 cents per 100 pounds. This brokerage scale has
been in effect since 1921, and a careful record has been kept of each
member's contribution to the fund. No interest is paid members on
their contributions. It is the belief of the management that a per-
manent fund of about $500,000 is adequate. In 1927 this fund had
reached $700,000 and, although deductions continue to be made,
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OP FLUID MILK
69
those contributing in 1921 were repaid their share of the fund.
In 1928 those making payments in 1922 were given refunds. In
this manner, the fund is maintained, and the burden of its main-
tenance is placed largely on those actively engaged in dairying at
a given time.
THE INTER-STATE MILK PRODUCERS' ASSOCIATION
The Inter-State Milk Producers' Association, which operates in
Philadelphia and a number of secondary markets in that milk shed,
has been one of the outstanding examples of the successful em-
ployment of the basic surplus plan of equalizing production. With-
out any protective policy on the part of the State or city health
departments, it has succeeded in maintaining its association and has
established its own efficient sanitary inspection system.
PRODUCERS'
RETURNS
BASIC
MILK
Payment formilM
at basic price
Paym enr for m iiK
FARM
SURPLUS
MILK
at farm surplus price
DEALERS
PAYMENTS
ASSOCIATION'S
FUNDS
FLUiD
MILK
0.8 cent per gallon
CONTINGENCY
RESERVE
FUND
Adjustment where
fluid sales exceed
former^ basic milk (
SALES
ADJUSTMENT
FUND
t 3/itCent per gallon \
on all fluid milK |
Adjustment wt)ere^
fluid sales foil below
farmer^ basic milH
02 cent per gal/on
DEALERS-
SURPLUS
MILK
OPERATING
FUND
FIGURE 10.— PLAN OF PAYMENT TO PRODUCERS. MARYLAND STATE DAIRY-
MEN'S ASSOCIATION. 1929
This is a combination of the basic surplus and use plans. The producer receives
payment according to his basic and farm surplus production. The distributor pays
according to the quantities employed iu fluid and surplus uses.
The association secures milk from Pennsylvania, a distance of
some 400 miles west and 75 miles north of Philadelphia, from the
entire State of Delaware, the Eastern Shore and parts of northern
and western Maryland, northeastern West Virginia, and the southern
half of New Jersey. The milk shed may be classed as a deficit area
so far as supplying milk and cream to the Philadelphia market.
It furnishes all of the fluid milk and a part of the cream, but large
quantities of cream are received in that market from points west of
Pennsylvania. There is little in the way of sanitary restrictions
under city ordinances that prevents any quality of cream from com-
ing into that market.
The Inter-State Milk Producers' AsvSociation operates purely as
a cooperative bargaining organization. It operates no facilities for
70 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 9, U. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE
the physical handling of milk and confines its activities to negotia-
tion and adjustment of price agreements, check testing of members'
milk for butterfat, settlements with buyers for errors, and' shortages
in payment for milk. It does not assume liability for payment for
milk, in case the distributor fails or for any reason does not pay the
j)roducer, although it makes every effort to collect money due the
member and to designate only financially reliable distributors to
whom its members should ship. Through its close affiliation with
the Philadelphia Inter-State Dairy Council, it carries on an educa-
tional campaign to increase milk consumption, and provides for
quality improvement through a sanitary inspection system in which
all members must have their farms inspected and receive a permit
before they can ship milk. It maintains a statistical department for
the collection and analysis of information relative to market condi-
tions, costs, and the business of the association. Through its editorial
department it publishes the Milk Producers' Review, through which
it disseminates the information to its membership.
The association was incorporated in its present form on March
14, 1917. Due to the fact that there was no cooperative law in
Pennsylvania at that time, the association was incorporated as a
stock company under the laws of Delaware. Its charter provided
for an issue of $100,000 of capital stock, divided into 40,000 shares
with a par value of $2.50 per share. Each member is required to
subscribe for stock on the basis of one-tenth share for each cow
owned, with a minimum holding of four-tenths of a share. This
plan of distribution causes the stock to be held in an approximately
similar proportion to production. Each member has the right to
vote in person or by proxy according to the number of shares of
capital stock held. In fact each local, of which there are 287 in the
association, ordinarily elects a delegate to represent it at the annual
meeting, and this delegate, as a rule, votes the proxies of most of
the members of the local.
The local associations of the Inter-State Milk Producers' Associa-
tion have no legal status, and the member contracts for the sale of
milk are direct with the parent association. The local units are
organized, however, for the purpose of handling local problems and
for gathering the membership together for the dissemination of mar-
ket information and the election of delegates to the annual meeting
of the Inter- State Milk Producers' Association, who will represent
them and vote their proxies at this meeting. The association's busi-
ness is under the control of 24 directors elected for a 3-year term,
one-third being elected each year, who meet every two months, and
an executive committee of 7 who meet as frequently as necessary.
The association has shown a steady growth since it began opera-
tions, in 1917. The number of members reported, together with the
number of locals into which the membership is divided, is shown
in Table 12. During their fiscal year, ended October 31, 1928, the
association sold for its members 798,368,828 pounds of milk for
which the members received $28,493,762. This represented a gain
in returns, over those in 1927, of $2,915,514. Data as to the volume
handled for years previous to that are not available, but over the
5-3^ear period from 1923 to 1928, total service charges, the rate of
which did not change, increased from approximately $50,000 to
eouPEr.ATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK
71
$93,078, or an increase of 86 per cent. Five years ago a number of
producers who shipped to distributors not cooperating with the
association paid their service charges direct to the association. At
present, the number of cooperating distributors has increased, and
practically all service charges are received through cooperating
distributors. Of the total membership holding stock, it is estimated
that approximately 15,000 are delivering milk to cooperating dis-
tributors. Many of the others are not located so that they could
advantageously ship to such distributors.
Table 12. — Metnhership and local units of the Inter-State Milk Prochioers'
Association, 1917-192S
Year ended
Approxi-
mate
member-
ship
!
Local
units
Year ended
Approxi-
mate
member-
ship
Local
units
Year ended
Approxi-
mate
member-
ship
Local
units
Oct. 31:
1917 »
1918
1919
1920
Number
4,097
6,009
10, 219
12, 53S
Number
186 1
217 !
Oct. 31:
1921
1922
1923
1924
Number
14, 697
15, 527
17, 680
19, 022
Number
244
251
264
274
Oct. 31:
1925
1926
1927
1928
Number
19, 830
21, 820
22, 827
23,729
Number
275
279
281
287
1 Association was incorporated and began operating on Mar. 14, 1917.
The association's principal contribution to cooperative marketing
has been its experience in equalizing seasonal production. It tried
to function, in 191T and 1918, on the same plan as many other
bargaining associations — negotiating prices with distributors, mak-
ing them higher when there was a scarcity of milk and dropping
them again when supplies became plentiful. The Inter-State Milk
Producers' Association, beginning with 1919, put into use a plan
adopted by the Maryland State Dairymen's Association, of Balti-
more, the previous year and. usually known as the basic surplus
plan (described under production control plans). The time em-
ployed as the basic period Vv^as October, November, and December,
and the average production by a member during this period became
his basic quantity for the nine months following; that is, from
January to September, inclusive. The use of this period was con-
tinued from 1920 to 1926. Any producer was allowed to expand his
business as much as he liked, providing he expanded his production
in the last three months of the year accordingly.
In the fall of 1926 it appeared that expansion was taking place
more rapidly than necessary, that production that fall would be
heavy, and that there was a danger of a peak of production appear-
ing during the three fall months. Prices had ]ust been raised 35
cents per 100 pounds, which gave a further incentive for increasing-
fall production, which the management of the association wanted
to offset. It was announced, therefore, in the fall of 1926, that
basic quantities established in the fall of 1925 would be continued
through the months of October, November, and December of 1926, as
well as into 1927. This basis supplied a quantity of milk at basic
prices which was estimated to about equal the quantity consumed
in fluid form.
As many producers allowed their production to lapse somewhat
in the three fall months, the association credited the producer, on
72 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 9, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
January 1, 1927, with the fall average of either 1925 or 1926, which-
ever was the higher. For 1928 the basic quantity was taken as the
average of that established in the previous year for 1927 and pro-
duction of the last three months of 1927. The basic quantity for
1929 is the average of that used in 1927 and 1928, and the production
in the last three months of 1928. This makes the basic quantity for
1929 an average of three years and, if production remains at about
the same figure during 1929 as in previous years, it is probable that
the basic quantity may be established on the basis of a 3-year moving
average of the production in the months of October, November, and
December. The effect of this plan of operation upon seasonal pro-
duction is indicated in Figure 11.
Prices of basic milk are determined by agreement in a conference
of representatives of the producers' association and the distributors.
If they should fail to agree, the price is determined by arbitration.
Clyde L. King, of the University of Pennsylvania, has usually filled
this place, when an arbitrator was necessary. Prices at country
points are f. o. b. Philadelphia prices, minus the cost of transporta-
tion; and if the milk passes through a receiving station, a charge
of 231/^ cents per 100 pounds is made to the producer. There
is a differential of 4 cents for each change of one-tenth per cent in
butterfat, or 2 cents for each change of five one-hundredths or
one-twentieth per cent in butterfat above or below a 4 per cent
standard. Prices for first surplus milk, w^iich is a quantity equal to,
but in excess of the producers' basic quantity, are determined on the
basis of the average monthly price of New York 92-score butter plus
20 per cent for the butterfat contained therein.
All milk in excess of this first surplus is paid for as second sur-
plus, according to the price of the butterfat in it, at the average
price of New York 92-score butter for that month. No transporta-
tion differential is employed for any surplus milk delivered to a
receiving station, all such points receiving the same price. No allow-
ance is made for skim milk. Because there is no transportation of
surplus milk, the prices of fluid and surplus approach each other
more nearly as the distance from market increases. In addition to
the above prices, distributors must pay to the Inter- State Milk Pro-
ducers' Association 2 cents per 100 pounds and a similar amount to
the Philadelphia Inter- State Dairy Council on all milk purchased
from members of the Inter-State Milk Producers' Association. On
all milk purchased on the association's plan from nonmembers, the
distributor pays 2 cents per 100 pounds to the above-mentioned
dairy council.
In spite of the fact that retail prices in Philadelphia have been
for the last 10 years, on an average, over II/2 cents a quart lower
than in most other cities along the Atlantic seaboard, the price to
producers has compared favorably with those paid in milk sheds
supplying these cities. Retail milk prices for milk delivered to the
family trade in a number of cities is shown in Table 21, page 90 of
appendix. In January, 1929, retail prices for grade B bottled milk,
delivered to family trade in the following eastern cities were as
follows: Philadelphia, 13 cents; Boston, I5I/2 cents: Hartford, 16
cents; New York, 16 cents; Baltimore, 14 cents; Washington, 15
cents; and Pittsburgh, 15 cents. During the war period a limited
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK
73
amount of zoning was clone in Philadelphia, which prevented some
duplication in retailing and possibly decreased distributors' costs
to some extent. The lower spread between the prices paid producers
and retail prices to consumers in Philadelphia is probably due in
considerable part to the more even supply throughout the year
(fig. 11) and to the increase in volume of business of each distribu-
tor. During the last 10 years, while total sales of five large dis-
tributors increased about 50 per cent, the number of distributors is
reported to have declined from about 700 to 50.
CONNECTICUT MILK PRODUCERS' ASSOCIATION
The Connecticut Milk Producers' Association represents a type of
bargaining association containing many features not common to
PER CENT
JULY
921
JAN.
JULY
1922
JAN.
JULY
1923
JAN.
JULY
1924
JAN.
JULY
1925
JAN.
JULY
1926
JAN.
JULY
1927
Figure TL— Average Monthly Purchases of Milk by five Large
Philadelphia Dealers Expressed as Percentage Deviation of
THE Yearly Average. (Corrected for Trend)
The seasonal variation in production by members of the Inter-State Milk Producers'
Association decreased from 1921 to 1925 with a slight increase in 1926.
other associations. Its successful use of a contract plan of equalizing
production throughout the year has been one of the things which
set it apart from other associations.
It produces a high quality of milk and, along with this, has suc-
ceeded in bringing a State policy of protection to its dairy business.
Every producer of milk for sale in Connecticut must be registered
with the office of the State dairy and food commissioner before he
can sell milk. State regulations as to requirements are prescribed
and are under supervision of the State dairy and food commissioner.
While local boards of health may make further regulations to safe-
guard the health of their cities, the fact that there is a uniform
regulation throughout the State results in little variation in
requirements.
The State policy of protection is, in effect, that as long as enough
milk is produced within the State to supply the people at a reason-
able price, the State will protect its dairymen against dumping of
74 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 9, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
outside milk, which is likely to come in at a lower price. The State
department, therefore, does not make inspections and register pro-
ducers outside the State, when that milk is not needed. The policy
to date has proved beneficial to producers within the State. Should
the policy be abandoned, as has been proposed by producers in other
parts of New England, it would probably result in somewhat lower
prices to producers, with supplies in the remainder of New England
as they are at present; it probably would not result in any appre-
ciable increase in prices to proclucers in other sections of New
England.
The plan of the Connecticut Milk Producers' Association involves
a series of pools by distributors. Each pool, therefore, includes only
a relativel}^ small territory, so that the difficulties common to pool-
ing the product from a wide territory are not encountered. The asso-
ciation obtains milk from all parts of the State except the extreme
eastern section, which ships to Providence and Boston. It also ob-
tains a small quantity from just across the State line in New York.
It sells milk in some 36 markets of the State, and in 1928 was selling
milk to 112 distributors. The total membership reported on January
1, 1929, was 3,547, and they had contracted to furnish 316,000 quarts
of milk daily from a total of 45,450 cows. Table 13 gives the mem-
bership and quantity of milk contracted by members from 1921 to
1929. The association's membership includes almost 100 per cent of
those supplying milk to many of the markets, and its leaders have
estimated about 75 per cent of the commercial dairymen of the State.
It is governed by a directorate of 24, elected annually. An executive
committee of five has the authority of the board between meetings.
The association employs a general manager and assistant general
manager.
Table 13.
-Connecticut Milk Producers' Association: Mcml)€rsMp and, milk
under contract 1921-1920
Year
Member-
ship Jan. 1
Cows
owned by
members
Milk under
contract
for year
ended
Mar. 31
Year
Member-
ship Jan. 1
Cows
owned by
members
Milk under
contract
for year
ended
Mar. 31
1921
Number
1,445
2,008
2,487
2,934
2,923
Number
Quarts
58,500
118,000
204,000
224,000
234,000
1926-.
Number
3,100
3,352
3.505
3,547
Number
QuarU
277,000
1922
1927
43, 391
44,838
45,450
302,000
1923
1928
1929
324,000
1924
316,000
1925
It is purely a bargaining association. It neither owns nor oper-
ates plants nor actually handles milk. The members appoint the
association their sole agent for the sale of milk and agree to deliver
a specified quantity of milk each day to whomever the management
of the association directs. If the producer fails to produce the con-
tracted quantity or produces in excess of his contract, a definite
penalty is provided.
Contracts with producers are made either on a pool or nonpool
basis. For the year ended March 31, 1929, about 85 per cent of the
producers are under the pool contract. The pool contract has been
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK 75
in use since April 1, 1922. The producer with the nonpool or so-
called straight contract is paid for all milk on the basis negotiated
by the association, which is usually the price of class 1 milk. The
producer agrees to deliver a specified quantity of milk each day. If
his deliveries exceed 10 per cent above his contracted quantity in any
month, all milk in excess of this 10 per cent above his contracted
quantity is to be paid for at 2 cents per quart less than the price
specified. Likewise, if the deficiency falls more than 10 per cent
below the specified contract, the deficiency below 10 per cent is penal-
ized 2 cents per quart. Approximately 15 per cent of the producers
are selling on this plan.
The other 85 per cent of the producers selling under the pooling
plan receive a price determined by blending the prices paid by each
distributor, weighted according to the quantity of milk used in each
class. That is, each distributor's purchases form a separate pool and
the total money paid for milk in all classes is divided by the total
quantity of milk purchased, and the resulting figure will be the price
to be paid each producer' for 4 per cent milk f. o. b. the market.
Producers selling to different distributors may then receive some-
what different prices for the same kind of milk, because some dis-
tributors have used more of the milk in higher classifications than
others. If this occurs, the association, having the authority to shift
producers, may transfer' some producers to more nearly equalize
prices.
Contracts with producers are not continuous but must be renewed
annually on April 1, when the quantity contracted must be named.
A series of meetings is held each year, during February and March,
at which time producers can conveniently sign contracts for" the year
following. New members pay a membership fee of $5. For the
services of the association, the producer pays annually on July 1,
$1 per cow on the average number in his herd, instead of a brokerage
fee on sales. The distributor deducts whatever fees the association
certifies are due it and pays these amounts to the association.
THE DAIRYMEN'S COOPERATIVE SALES CO.
This organization operates as a bargaining association with its
primary market in Pittsburgh and secondary markets in Youngs-
town, Ashtabula, Wheeling, Sharpesville, East Liverpool, New Ken-
sington, and other cities. It operates no plants but sells milk at
wholesale to distributors who sell the milk to the consumers. Milk
not used in fluid form or as cream is manufactured by the distributor.
The Dairymen's Cooperative Sales Co. represents a particular type
of association. It combines the bargaining association with a number
of pools within a milk shed instead of one large pool. It pools
the milk going to all the distributors in a district, so every producer
in that district receives the same price for his milk imder substan-
tially similar circumstances as related to quality and location, re-
gardless of the uses made of the milk by the one distributor to
whom he sells.
The total membership reported by the association on December 31,
1927, was 17,128. The set-up of the association places considerable
emphasis on the local unit. There are approximately 141 local units
in the association, and a minimum of 26 members is required for a
76 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 179, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
local. The local unit handles all local pfroblems pertaining to haul-
ing, testing, quality improvement of milk, maintaining membership,
and selecting its own officers. A local sends a delegate to the ad-
visory council for each group of 50 members, or major fraction
(26 or more), in the local. The advisory council is the governing
body of the producers. At the council meeting, which is held four
times each year, delegates from the locals are given an opportunity
to discuss their problems.
Policies and practices pertaining to the sale of dairy products
are carried out by a board of five directors. These directors are
nominated at the June meeting of the advisory council by the dele-
gates to the council. The ballots are forwarded to the secretaries
of the locals which hold their annual meetings about a week later,
and producers vote for directors. The five persons receiving the
largest vote are the directors for the following year, and are respon-
sible through the advisory council and locals to the members.
Milk is sold to distributors on a classified price plan which recog-
nizes the market values of milk in different uses. Five classes are
emplo^^ed: (1) Milk in fluid form, (2) cream, (3) butter, (4) cheese,
and (5) evaporated milk.
Prices paid by distributors for milk used in fluid form or as cream
are determined in open conference. The conferees meet at intervals
of from one to five months, the frequency depending upon whether
market conditions Avarrant price changes. Prices for both cream and
fluid milk are determined by current market conditions. Prices for
cream or milk used for cream are determined largely by prices at
which western cream can be obtained. The retail price at which milk
is sold is determined at a conference of distributors in cooperation
with a committee of producers and consumers. Usually the retail
price is based on a definite spread over the classification price for
milk used in fluid form.
Prices for milk used in making butter, cheese, and evaporated
milk are based directly upon country- wide market prices for these
commodities. The price of butterfat in milk used for butter at
Pittsburgh country plants is 15 per cent above the average monthly
quotation of Chicago 92-score butter. If the average monthly quota-
tion for butter was 50 cents, the price charged per pound of butter-
fat contained in the milk would be 50 cents X 1.15, or 57.50 cents.
For milk testing 3.5 per cent butterfat, the price would be 57.50
cents X 3.5 or $2.01 per 100 pounds for milk going into butter at
country plants. All overrun above 15 per cent and the skim milk
are allowed against the cost of manufacture. For milk made into
cheese the distributors pay on the basis of the daily average of New
York quotations for American cheese, white flats, less 3 cents per
pound as a manufacturing expense. It is assumed that 9.41 pounds
of 3.5 per cent milk equals 1 pound of cheese. Then there would be
10.63 pounds of cheese in 100 pounds of milk. If the daily average
of New York quotations for cheese were 23 cents per pound and 3
cents is allowed for manufacture, the price to be paid by the dis-
tributor, for 3.5 per cent milk, would be 10.63X20, or $2.13 per 100
pounds. Milk manufactured into evaporated or condensed milk
is charged to the distributor or manufacturer on the basis of prices
determined by the conference board of mid western condenseries.
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK 77
The marketing department is in direct charge of the sales and
supplies. It serves as a clearing house for payments, it diverts milk
and makes adjustments in supplies to meet distributors' requirements.
The market area, in which the association operates, is divided
into 12 districts. Each district is considered a distinct market unit.
When a distributor within a market unit does not have enough milk
to supply his needs, he reports the fact to the marketing department
which is informed as to the relative supply and requirements of other
distributors within the same market district. Transfers of milk are
then made from distributors who have an excess to those who have an
insufficient supply. This is usually brought about by transferring
shippers. So far as price is concerned, it makes no difference to the
shipper since his returns will be the same. A distributor not
equipped to handle surplus may often have shippers transferred dur-
ing peak production periods. In times of shortage, milk may be
diverted from one of the country plants to one of the smaller fluid
markets. Definite price provisions are made for the transfer of
milk from one market to the other. Diversion of milk from one dis-
tributor to another and one use to another, as from the cream to
fluid-milk class, is possible because of the regular sales on a use-
classitication basis.
All producers who have equal transportation costs receive the same
price in a given market for milk of a specified fat content. The price
paid producers is calculated from the volume of the entire market
in each classification and its value at the classification prices, sub-
mitted to the marketing department of the association by the pur-
chasing distributors in a given market. Each distributor pays the
producers who ship milk to him the average price for his market
(subject to fat and transportation differentials). When the total
payments to producers are less than what the milk actually cost him,
according to the volume and prices in the different classes, he pays to
the marketing department the difference between the value oi the
milk received in the different classifications and the cash paid to
producers. When the total payments to producers exceed the value
of milk, calculated at prices for different classifications, the market-
ing department pays the net difference between the cash paid out by
the distributor and the value of the milk received.
This plan differs from that of the usual bargaining association,
in which each distributor pays the producers who ship to him on the
basis of the uses made of the milk received during the month. Under
that plan, farmers who produce similar milk at the same distance will
receive the same price when the milk is shipped to the same dis-
tributor, but if shipped to different distributors they will receive dif-
ferent prices because of the different proportions ot the milk used in
fluid form.
The same plan of sale and operation is applied to each secondary
market that is similar to the market in Pittsburgh. Producers
within each market receive the distributors' payments, as derived
from the sale of milk at classification prices, established in a confer-
ence of those who produce, those who distribute, and those who con-
sume milk in that particular market. All problems relating to a
given market are handled by the board of directors of the association
in cooperation with the producers and distributors in that market.
78 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 179, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Country plants are maintained in the Pittsburgh district only at
those points at which a part of the milk passes through country re-
ceiving stations and a part is shipped direct. These country plants
are owned and operated by the distributors. In all other districts
the milk is shipped direct without passing through a receiving
station.
Because of the high seasonal production, which amounted in
different districts to from 50 to 80 per cent of the quantity produced
in the month of low production, the association has modified the
plan of payment to the producer so as to combine a basic surplus
plan with the plan in use. This was initiated October 1, 1928, in
district No. 1, or the Pittsburgh district, and it is planned to extend
it to other districts of the shed if it proves successful.
Sales to distributors are made as formerly on a classification basis
according to utilization, but total returns from these sales are paid
to producers in such a way that those producers who have the least
seasonal variation in their production will supply a greater propor-
tion of the class 1 milk and therefore receive a higher average price
than those with more uneven production.
The plan of securing a base is as follows: Total fluid sales of
distributors for every month (adjusted to 30 days) of the year are
ascertained, and the quantity sold in the month of lowest sales is
taken as the base month. Production for each month of the year
is also ascertained and the average for the four lowest consecutive
months of production (adjusted to 30-day month) taken as the
base period. The production by each member during this period
is used as a basis for determining the member's basic quantity for
the coming year. The ratio of sales in the month of lowest produc-
tion to the average monthly production during the basic period
forms the basic ratio. If this ratio is 70, then each producer is paid
class 1 prices for 70 per cent of his average production during the
basic period ; that is, assuming the sales of fluid milk in the month
of lowest sales to be 7,000,000 pounds and the average monthly
production during the basic period to be 10,000,000 pounds, each
producer would be alloted 70 per cent of his average production
during the basic period as his basic quantity. Assume his average
during this period to be 8,000 pounds per month. Then he is paid
class 1 prices for 70 per cent of 8,000 or 5,600 pounds of milk during
any month. All in excess of this quantity is paid for at surplus
prices. If, however, he produces only 5,000 pounds in any month,
he is paid the class 1 price for his entire production, and no penalty
is exacted for his failure to produce more. Whenever more than
7,000,000 pounds is sold to distributors as fluid milk in any one
month the proceeds from the sale of this additional milk in class X
increases the price of surplus milk in those months. There is no
penalty for failure to produce a quantity equal to or in excess of
the producer's basic quantity, except that the member who produces
a larger proportion of his milk in the summer receives lower prices
than does the one who produces a more even supply throughout the
year, and it is to the advantage of every member to produce as large
a quantity as possible during the basic period.
In the spring of 1929 this basic surplus plan had been extended
to five districts in the milk shed.
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK 79
COOPERATIVE PURE MILK ASSOCIATION
The Oooperative Pure Milk Association, whicii operates in Cin-
cinnati, is one of the few large cooperative fluid-milk associations
that has entered the field of retail distribution in a large city. The
principal cause of its entry into this field was the opposition of the
local milk trade to any cooperative. The association has a member-
ship of approximately 3,200. It secures its milk from Ohio, Ken-
tucky, and Indiana, a maximum distance of about 42 miles in the two
former States and 52 miles in the latter. For the fiscal year ended
March 31, 1928, deliveries of milk were 85,036,098 pounds, for which
members received $2,286,379, and in addition 74,142 pouiMis of but-
terfat in sour cream, for which members were paid $34,291. The
milk is sold largely for fluid consumption and for the manufacture
of ice cream.
Each producer signs a contract with the association which runs con-
tinuously but may be canceled by the producer or association. During
the period from 1915 to 1923 three different cooperative associations
were engaged in marketing fluid milk in Cincinnati. The first to
come into existence, the Queen City Milk Producers' Association,
was organized in 1917. This association was a purely voluntary
organization and attempted to function as a bargaining association.
It remained in existence until the Tri-State Cooperative Milk
Marketing Association began operation on January 1, 1923. Be-
cause of opposition by the Tri-State Butter Co., the name Tri-State
was abandoned, and the charter of the association was amended.
A short time later, the association reincorporated to secure the
benefits of the cooperative laws passed in Ohio, and a new charter
was granted it on September 10, 1923, under the name of the Co-
operative Pure Milk Association.
The association was, at the end of 1928, the largest fluid-milk
cooperative in the United States, taking the milk from the farmer
and distributing it to the consumer.
The difficulties with distributors in Cincinnati resulted in this
particular type of organization. The distributors were organized
as the milk exchange of the chamber of commerce. The largest
distributor was the most influential member and the strongest in
the distributor opposition to cooperatives.
It was the original plan, in the formation of a cooperative asso-
ciation, to negotiate prices with distributors, as was being done by
bargaining associations in other cities. Since the distributors refused
to recognize the association, nothing could be done as a bargaining
association, so far as selling milk was concerned. The association
was in reality forced to acquire its own outlets to consumers in order
to function.
Only a small quantity of its members' milk was taken at first.
The association began the operation of 1 wagon in January, 1923,
and made the remainder of the milk into butter and ice cream. In
July, 1923, it was operating 33 wagons. Some of the distributors
began to refuse to take milk from any members. The association
tried to care for the milk, even though it was necessary to ship some
of it south. About July 1, the association issued a call for all the
members' milk after July 15, and notified distributors if they needed
milk they could obtain it from the association. Some of the dis-
80 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 9, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
tributors obtained 95 per cent of their supply from the association.
The association had only four pasteurization plants; had»the dis-
tributors refused to buy milk from the association, the latter would
have had difficulty in taking care of it. Before July 15, however,
the largest distributor in Cincinnati, distributing at that time about
50 per cent of the fluid milk, 75 per cent of the ice cream, and a
large part of the butter and cheese, announced that it would buy
its milk from the cooperative. This company had been the leader
of the opposition, but control had passed into the hands of a group
who felt it would be more profitable for them to work witn the
cooperative.
This company then offered to sell its business to the cooperative
association. The association agreed to buy it at the appraised value,
which was approximately $3,600,000. This included nothing for
good will. Out of the 120,000 shares of stock outstanding, 100,000
shares were placed on deposit under a trust agreement, and the coop-
erative agreed, on November 30, 1923, to purchase this stock over a
5-year period with the option of a 3-year extension. The contract
became effective January 1, 1924.
Under the original agreement the minimum payment w^as to be
$150,000 per year; in addition dividends on stock were to be main-
tained, and 4 per cent of the valuation of the assets or $144,000 was
to be set aside annually in a fund to be used for expansion.
The purchase of this business was financed through a certificate-of-
indebtedness plan. At the time the member signed the contract the
association required an advance of $20 per cow, either cash or a
30-day note. This was the plan on which the original plants had
been financed. In addition to the advance payment, the contract
gives the association the right to make such deductions as necessary
from the monthly milk checks. For initial payments of $20 per
cow, as well as for these deductions, certificates of indebtedness
bearing 6 per cent interest, payable annually, are issued. One-fifth
of the principal of this certificate is due at the end of the sixth year
and one-fifth annually thereafter until the end of the tenth year,
when the entire principal will be repaid.
The management of the company was retained and the business
carried on as before. The milk exchange had refused to negotiate
with the company as soon as it had been purchased by the coopera-
tive, and the distributors started a costly milk war, expensive to
them and to the cooperative. At the end of the first year, the co-
operative was unable to meet its entire contract. The interests that
had sold the stock were sympathetic and wanted to complete their
sale. They agreed to allow the cooperative association to defer the
dividends due, and many of the stockholders generously assigned any
claim they might have to these dividends to the cooperative. In
1925, they allowed a modification of the contract so that only 7 per
cent dividends were to be paid on the common stock and 6 per cent
on the preferred. The expansion provision of the contract for
$144,000 per year, after having been carried out for one year, was
discontinued until such time as the cooperative was in a position to
continue it. The company sold its grocery stores, bakery, and some
other properties and used the proceeds, together with its surplus, for
expansion.
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK 81
The 5-year period from the date the original contract became
effective, ended January 1, 1929. At the end of 1927 the association
had paid $8 per share on the purchase price of $22. The original
agreement provided that one-half of the stock should be paid for at
the end of five years, and that the entire debt should be paid in eight
years. To meet this agreement would have required a payment of $3
per share in 1928, which could have been met by increasing deduc-
tions or by outside loans. The same would be true of the $11 per
share for the next three years. On December 20, 1928, however, the
contract with the stockholders was further modified. This agree-
ment provided that no payments would be made in 1928, 1929, or
1930 ; for the years 1931 up to and including 1937, a minimum pay-
ment of $1 per share must be made; and by the end of 1938 full
payment for the stock must be completed. This effects a 7-year
extension of the original contract.
The association plans to continue making its capital deductions
of approximately 20 cents per 100 pounds on deliveries, and the needs
of the company for expansion will be supplied during the next few
years from this fund, after the guaranteed dividends have been set
aside. These deductions for 1927-28 amounted to $170,373. A cer-
tain amount of these deductions for 1929 and the years following
will have to be used to meet payments on certificates of indebted-
ness, the first of which will be due in 1930. If the present volume
of business can be maintained, which appears probable, the associa-
tion should be able to meet its contract without further modifi-
cations.
Because of the retail distribution feature, the operations of this
association have been watched with particular interest by the other
cooperatives. It has been one of the few cooperatives entering this
field that have bought an active going concern, in contrast to the
policy of buying retail businesses which some proprietary interest
had not been able to operate at a profit. Few of these attempts at
rehabilitation have been any more successful than the operations of
those from whom the business was purchased.
The broadminded attitude toward cooperatives and the generous
treatment of the Cooperative Pure Milk Association by the stock-
holders of the company has been an important factor contributing to
the success of the venture. It is so unusual that another association
could not rely upon finding similar conditions upon entering the
retail field.
TWIN CITY MILK PRODUCERS ASSOCIATION
The Twin City Milk Producers Association is a typical fluid-
milk marketing association operating over a relatively small milk
shed. It is the oldest of the large operating or marketing associa-
tions. Organized originally as a bargaining association, it was
incorporated January 2, 1917, and began handling milk on April
1, 1917. The entire bargaining plan was abandoned in July, 1918,
•and it has since continued as an operating association.
The association obtains its milk within a 40-mile radius of the
Twin Cities, including the counties of Anoka, Hennepin, Ramsey,
Washington, and Dakota; and practically all of Carver and Scott;
95492°— 30 6
82 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 9, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
and parts of Isanti, Chisago, Goodhue, Rice, Le Sueur, Wright, and
Sherburne, and a very small area in Wisconsin.
Within this 40-mile radius are located 96 creameries and cheese
factories, many of which are within easy hauling distance. Fifteen
of these are owned and operated by the Twin City Milk Producers
Association as receiving and manufacturing plants. A rough ap-
proximation of the density of production of milk in the Twin City
milk shed may be obtained from census figures. Calculation of the
quantity of milk per square mile of land in farms, based on these data
for counties in the milk shed, shows an annual production of over
200,000 pounds of milk per square mile. If the entire area, includ-
ing lakes and cities and all lands not in farms, as well as that in
farms is considered, the average density of annual production is
about 160,000 jDOunds per square mile in the counties from which
the association receives its milk. From these data it appears that
the total milk production within the 40-mile radius of St. Paul and
Minneapolis is about five times as great as the volume consumed for
fluid milk and cream in these cities. Within an 80-mile radius there
is approximately twenty times as much milk as required for fluid
consumption.
It is evident, therefore, that the possibility of anything approach-
ing monopoly control is out of the question. Likewise prices paid
to producers can not greatly exceed the prices returned for milk
when sold for manufacture, or the association could not keep milk
from the fluid market. Health regulations in these cities do not act
as appreciable barriers.
The association operates some 15 plants located within the 40-mile
radius of the Twin Cities. One of these is located in Minneapolis
and another in St. Paul. The greater" part of the milk sold to the
distributors for fluid distribution is trucked from the country direct
to the plants of the distributors. The other milk for manufacture
may remain at the country plants or be brought to the St. Paul or
Minneapolis plants. The plants in the cities ai'e used principally
for manufacture but also serve as a source of supply for any dis-
tributor who does not have a sufficient quantity of milk coming direct
to his plant or as a place to take care of extra milk in case his supply
exceeds his requirements.
The association was originally financed by the sale of capital
stock. Provision was made that no man could be a stockholder in
the corporation unless he was a dairyman engaged in business as
such, or an officer or director of a cooperative creamery. The prin-
ciple of one man one vote was followed.
The organization originally authorized an issue of $50,000 capital
stock consisting of 50,000 shares having a par value of $1 each. At
the annual meeting on November 3, 1919, a plan of reorganization
was submitted, and at a special meeting on December 8 the association
decided to reorganize under the new cooperative law of Minnesota.
A capitalization of $500,000 was authorized to consist of 10,000 shares
of $50 par value. Each member was asked to take one share, and a
6 per cent dividend basis for the coming year was announced at once.
Provision was made for the redemption of any shares whenever a
member discontinued his business and ceased to be a producer. If
the producer did not wish to pay cash he could have 5 per cent
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK 83
deducted from his milk check each month until he had paid for the
share. The value of the old shares at this time had grown from $1
to $6.50, and credit on new shares was given for the old on this basis.
Up to this time the association had been renting all its plants.
Contracts had to be renewed each year, and there was always the
possibility of having to rent on unfavorable terms, or the lessee might
even not care to lease again. The association was hindered in mak-
ing economical improvements and providing proper equipment to
manufacture the most profitable products. Machinery in one fac-
tory, not in use, could not be profitably moved to another. In addi-
tion, the association often found it necessary to sell its products at
an inopportune time. This was especially true of cheese. These
handicaps, and the wish to buy or build new plants, constituted the
principal cause of increased capitalization at this time.
In March, 1921, a definite rule w^as made regarding the number
of shares each member must purchase. Every new member joining
after that date was required to buy one share of stock for each cow
in his herd, Avith three as the minimum number of shares. Excep-
tions might be made to the minimum in special cases, but not to the
one share for each cow. No definite ruling was made with respect
to old members but they were urged to meet the same requirements.
A further increase in capitalization from $500,000 to $1,000,000 was
authorized in 1922. By September 30, 1925, the membership had
reached 6,479, and the total shares of stock outstanding was 13,517,
with a par value of $675,850.
At the annual meeting, December 10, 1926, the authorized capitali-
zation was increased from 20,000 shares of $50 par value or
$1,000,000 to 60,000 shares or a capitalization of $3,000,000. The
capital stock outstanding on October 31, 1926, was $878,600, and on
October 31, 1928, capital stock sold, including that not fully paid for
but subscribed to, amounted to $1,051,600.
The dividend rate on stock is determined by the directors. It was
at the rate of 6 per cent until December 31, 1921:; since then it has
been 7 per cent.
To keep the stock in the hands of dairymen as much as possible, the
directors have acted to take up at par any stock owned by a member
W'ho sells his farm and cows and goes out of the dairy business in the
Twin City territory. The by-laws, however, do not stipulate that
the holder must sell his stock at par.
The association's territory is divided into 50 locals, although they
have no legal status, they are an important working part of the
organization. Representation is by locals, w^hich means sls many
directors as locals. These locals are formed wherever groups of
producers naturally come together, and vary from 30 to 300 mem-
bers. Before the annual meeting one or more members from each
local are nominated as directors, and nominations are presented at
the annual meeting for a vote of the entire membership. Voting
may be by mail but not by proxy. There is no specified number of
locals or directors for the association, but whenever the territory is
increased and there is a new natural group, a new local is formed,
and the -directorate is increased. The articles of incorporation pro-
vide for a minimum directorate of 5 and a maximum of 100. The
length of the directors' term is one year.
84 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 179, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
An executive committee of five is elected by the directors from
among their number. The manager is employed by the executive
committee and is in charge of all the personnel under the direction
and supervision of the executive committee, which meets every
Monday morning. The directors meet regularly on the 10th of
March, June, September, and December.
Every member is required to sign a 1-year contract which is self-
renewing but may be canceled by the member by giving notice 30
days before June 1 of any year. Contracts are made with distribu-
tors for the sale of milk and other products; a yearly contract is
customary, and the price is based on marketing conditions. Most of
the contracts are for a distributor's entire supply, but some provide
that the distributor may obtain a part of the milk outside ; the asso-
ciation is then paid for taking care of the surplus of these non-
members.
The association has both a milk and a cream pool. All milk of a
given quality delivered by members is pooled, and each receives the
same for the milk f . o. b. the Twin Cities, regardless of the use made
of a particular lot of milk. Milk may be actually delivered to a
country plant, and manufactured, and yet not reach the central
market. If the milk passes through the country receiving station,
the zone transportation rat«, which is about 1 cent per mile per 100
pounds of milk, is deducted just as if it had gone direct to the city;
that is, payment is made on the basis of city delivery.
About 1,000 members deliver cream instead of milk and at some
points the association is equipped to receive cream only. The sale of
cream is likely to prove as profitable as milk at points 35 or more
miles distant from the Twin Cities. The cream is made into butter
or sold as sweet cream. This part of the business is kept in a sepa-
rate pool from the milk. Prices are determined by taking actual
sales minus expense. As these pools depend on somewhat differ-
ent factors, the prices of milk and cream do not always bear the
same relationship. When butter prices are high and prices for such
products as condensed milk and milk powder are low, the price of
cream will be relatively high and those participating in the cream
pool may receive higher prices than those in the milk pool.
Pools are for a 1-month period. At the end of that time expenses
for the month are deducted from the total amount received, and re-
turns are made to producers. Such items as taxes, insurance, and
dividends on stock are apportioned in such a way that one-twelfth
the 3^early requirements are deducted monthly. The price for the
preceding month is ordinarily calculated on the 9th of the month
following. At that time a certain amount of the sales must be esti-
mated. The Land O'Lakes Creameries (Inc.), and the National
Cheese Producers Federation, both of which purchase products from
the Twin City Milk Producers Association do not make a return for
butter and cheese until about the 15th of the month. Eeturns
are sufficient, however, to make possible a fairly accurate estimate
of prices.
CAUPORNIA MILK PRODUCERS ASSOCIATION
The California Milk Producers Association of Los Angeles is the
largest fluid-milk cooperative association west of the Twin Cities.
It was organized in 1915. It is a bargaining association, but it is
COOPEEATflVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK 85
often considered an operating association because it has established
subsidiary operating organizations.
Its volume of business has shown a rapid growth. In 1917 the
sales of milk handled amounted to $521,611 ; in 1928 they amounted
to $6,210,484. The membership is approximately 500.
The association charges a membership fee of $5 per cow, with $50
as the minimum membership fee if the producer has less than 10
cows. Ten per cent of this fee is payable upon joining the associa-
tion ; over half the balance is due one year later, and the other half
is due two years later. Memberships are not transferable except on
consent of the association. If a member ceases to be a producer for
a period of two years the association will return the amount of the
membership fee, or a smaller amount if its book value is less than
the amount paid in. In no case under these circumstances will the
amount paid be more than the membership fee paid by the producer.
The purchase in 1920 of the controlling interest in one of the large
distributing plants in Los Angeles, which operated about 26 retail
routes, marked the entry of the association into the operating field.
It acquired 60 per cent of the creamery company's stock for $60,000.
paying $25,000 cash, raised by borrowing money on notes signed by
the directors; the balance w^as to be paid at the rate of $1,000 per
month. A creamery-purchase fund was set up, and deductions of
2 cents a pound of butterfat in the milk sold was made to meet
payments. After 25 months of deductions, creamery-purchase cer-
tificates Avere issued to the members for the deductions made. The
common stock purchased was held by the California Milk Producers
Association. Later a preferred stock dividend in this operating
association was paid to holders of the creamery-purchase certificates.
Any member who went out of business w^as repaid the amount of his
certificates.
At the end of 1925 the association reported that 41 per cent of the
f>roduction of its membership was being distributed through its
own plants which were operating 200 routes. The remainder of the
milk was being sold at wholesale to other distributors. In February,
1926, a basic surplus plan of payment for milk was adopted.
In 1927 the California Cooperative Creamery Co. was incorpo-
rated, taking over all physical facilities of the association for the
pale of dairy products, and became the operating company for the
California Milk Producers' Association. The Dairymen's Feed &
Supply Co., established several years earlier by the association for
the sale of supplies and feed to members of the California Milk
Producers Association, still remained a separate organization. The
management and control of the California Milk Producers Associa-
tion, the California Cooperative Creamery Co., and the Dairymen's
Feed & Supply Co. are, however, practically the same.
Early in 1928 three creameries, at San Bernardino were purchased
by the operating association and consolidated into one creamery.
The plant there is used chiefly as a surplus plant, and is equipped
for the manufacturing of powder. At the end of 1928 the plant was
separating about 600 cans of milk per day, powdering the skim milk,
and marketing the sweet cream largely in Los Angeles. The Cali-
fornia Cooperative Creamery Co. also enlarged its business in Los
Angeles considerably, in 1928. The Sanitary Gold Seal Dairy was
86 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 179, XT. S. DEPT. 6F AGRICULTURE
i:)urchased for $1,550,000, and bonds amounting to $1,725,000 were
issued.
Early in 1929 the California Milk Producers Association decided
it could best serve its members by disposing of its distributing busi-
ness in Los Angeles to a large proprietary corporation. The sale
price was reported as approximately $4,000,000. After retiring all
outstanding obligations to its membership, except the original mem-
bership fees, there will remain in the treasury of the California
Milk Producers Association, which will continue as a bargaining
association, a reserve of about $1,000,000. Most of this will prob-
ably be retained by the association as a contingency reserve although
many of the members want to have it distributed.
NATIONAL COOPERATIVE MILK PRODUCERS FEDERATION
The National Cooperative Milk Producers Federation is a na-
tional trade body for the cooperative dairymen of the United States.
It does not engage in business in any way, but is a service organiza-
tion. Its membership includes not only cooperative milk marketing
associations, but also cooperatives engaged in manufacturing milk
products. The federation was incorporated in February, 1917, under
the laws of Illinois, with a membership of some eight cooperative
dairy associations. In 1928 it included 45 of the large cooperative
dairy associations and federations of the United States, with a mem-
bership of over 300,000 and a total business of over $300,000,000.
Among its membership are listed 34 milk-marketing associations, 2
federations of cooperative creameries, 2 federations of cooperative
cheese factories, a sales agency, a service organization for coopera-
tive creameries; the remainder are individual cooperatives engaged
principally in manufacturing butter, concentrated milk, and other
products.
A list of the members of the organization, together with the date
of organization, membership of each association, and value of the
business transacted for the calendar year 1928, or the fiscal year
ended in that year, as reported by the United States Department of
Agriculture is given in Table 14.
Table 14.
-Member associations of the National Cooperative Milk Producers
Federation, 1928
Association
Date
of cr-
Estimated
number of
tion
members
Year
Number
1918
168
1915
480
1911
15,000
1917
5,000
1917
3,547
1915
3,400
1918
19,104
1919
455
1921
43,067
1917
1,250
1916
106
1918
300
1926
1,245
1922
546
Estimated
annual
Berrien County Milk Producer's Association, Benton Harbor, Mich...
California Milk Producers Association, Los Angeles, Calif
Challenge Cream and Butter Association, Los Angeles, Calif
Chicago Equity Union Exchange, Chicago, 111
Connecticut Milk Producer's Association, Hartford, Conn
Cooperative Piu-e Milk Association of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio
Dairymen's Cooperative Sales Co., Pittsburgh, Pa
Coos Bay Mutual Creamery Co., Marshfield, Greg
Dairymen's League Cooperative Association (Inc.), New York, N. Y..
Des Moines Cooperative Dairy Marketing Association, Des Moines
Iowa...
Farmer's Milk Producers Association, Richmond, Va..
Gray's Harbor Dairymen's Association, Satsop, Wash
Illinois Milk Producers Association, Peoria, 111
Indiana Dairy Marketing Association, Muncie, Ind
Dollars
441,000
6, 210, 4&t
15, 689, 910
2, 985, 401
12, 000, 000
2, 022, 583
12, 373, 849
449, 255
85, 648, 162
81,000
1,200,000
330, 937
788, 186
396,000
COOPEKATiVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK
87
T..BLE 14. — Member assoctuti/ms of the National Cooperative Milk Prodiwers
Federation, 192S — Continued
Association
Inland Empire By-Products Co., Spokane, Wash..
Inter-State Milk Producers Association, Philadelphia, Pa
Iowa Cooperative Creameries Secretaries and Managers Association,
Waterloo, Iowa
Land O 'Lakes Creameries (Inc.), Minneapolis, Minn
Lewis- Pacific Dairymen's Association, Chehalis, Wash
Maryland and Virginia Milk Producers Association, Washington, D. C.
Maryland State Dairymen's Association, Baltimore, Md
Miami Valley Cooperative Milk Producers Association, Dayton, Ohio.
Michigan Milk Producers' Association, Detroit, Mich
Milk Producers' Association of San Diego County, San Diego, Calif
Milk Producers' Association of Summit County, and Vicinity, Akron,
Ohio
Milwaukee Cooperative Milk Producers, Milwaukee, Wis
National Cheese Producers Federation, Plymouth, Wis
New England Milk Producers' Association, Boston, Mass
Northwestern Cooperative Sales Co., Wauseon, Ohio
Ohio Farmers Cooperative Milk Association, Cleveland, Ohio
Pure Milk Association, Chicago, 111
Scioto Valley Cooperative Milk Producer's Association, Columbus,
Ohio _.
Seattle Milk Shippers Association, Seattle, Wash
Skagit County Dairymen's Association, Burlington, Wash..
Snohomish County Dairymen's Association, Everett, Wash
St. Louis Pure Milk Producers Cooperative Association, East St. Loul
111
Stark County Milk Producers Association, Canton, Ohio
Tillamook County Creamery Association, Tillamook, Oreg
Twin City Milk Producers Association, St. Paul, Minn
Twin Ports Cooperative Association, Superior, Wis
Valley of Virginia Cooperative Milk Producers, Harrisonburg, Va.
Whatcom County Dairymen's Association, Bellingham, Wash
Yakima Dairymen's Association, Yakima, Wash
Date
of or-
ganiza-
tion
Year
1918
1917
1921
1919
1916
1917
1S22
1916
1917
1917
1916
1914
1917
1920
1919
1925
1923
1921
1916
1917
1913
1910
1909
1916
1916
1922
1919
1921
Estimated
number of
members
Number
874
21,829
15,000
73,000
1,000
1,000
3,700
4,000
10,000
55
2,300
1,800
7,500
20,154
4,000
3,500
3,500
3,250
450
1,500
1, 182
18,000
700
700
7,527
316
700
1,650
909
Estimated
annual
Dollars
628,000
28, 290, 888
9, 000, 000
47, 834, 068
993, 695
4, 677, 662
8, 161, 257
1, 318, 663
15, 000, 000
548, 712
2, 701, 000
5, 400, 000
9, 033, 359
30, 000, 000
979, 466
5, 841, 000
5, 477, 000
1, 978, 100
2, 209, 978
2, 632, 123
1, 559, 231
1 9, 600, 000
982,500
1, 851, 529
9, 854, 354
506,000
247,000
2, 728, 951
630, 000
1 As reported by the association for 1928.
Sanitary Milk I'roducers Association.
This organization was later succeeded by the
The organization employs a full-time secretary and maintains an
office at its headquarters in Washington, D. C. The purpose of the
federation is service to its members, the dairy cooperatives. It col>
lects and disseminates information for the promotion of cooperative
marketing of dairy products, furnishes price and other market in-
formation to its members, serves as a clearing house for exchange
of information between cooperative associations, and assists in bring-
ing the experience and counsel of member associations to any mem-
ber association that wishes such service.
The association has been especially effective in the field of secur-
ing legislation beneficial to the producers represented by these dairy
cooperatives of the federation. It is the policy of the federation to
advocate no measure that has not the unanimous indorsement of the
board of directors of the federation, of which there are 25, chosen
from the cooperative associations constituting its membership.
Among the more important pieces of legislation which the National
Cooperative Mill^ Producers Federation has been active in sponsor-
ing since its organization are the following :
The Capper-Volstead Act.
The cooperative marketing? act, establishing the Division of Cooperative Mar-
keting in the United States Department of Agriculture and authorizing coopera-
tive associations and federations of cooperatives to exchange crop and marliet
information.
88 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 9, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The agricultural tariffs of the emergency tariff act of 1921.
Establishment of higher duties in the dairy schedules and vegetable-oil
schedules of the tariff act of 1922.
The packers and stocky a i-ds act.
The Federal antiflUed milk act.
Increased appropriations for eradication of bovine tuberculosis.
Increased appropriations for Federal agricultural research, including dairy
activities.
It has aided individual members in opposing freight-rate increases
on milk and cream in their respective territories. It has energetically
presented the case of the dairy cooperative before the Tariff Com-
mission to secure the benefits of increases in duties under the flexible
provisions of the tariff act. It has taken an active part in appear-
ing before the Ways and Means Committee and in working for an
increased tariff on dairy products and vegetable fats and oils used
in the manufacture of butter substitutes under the present contem-
plated tariff revision.
APPENDIX
Table 15. — Weighted average milk prices in dollars per 100 pounds, f. o. 6., city
market, received by members of the Nciv England Milk Producers' Associa-
tion, 1920-1928 '
Month
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
January
4.06
3.93
3.92
3.74
3.42
3.26
3.56
3.92
3.93
3.95
3.92
3.83
3.41
3.05
2.82
2.71
2.37
2.36
2.78
3.12
• 3.24
3.22
3.25
3.95
2.45
2.40
2.39
2.23
2.19
2.18
2.48
2.62
2.73
3.00
3.16
3.15
3.09
3.05
3.02
2.56
2.48
2.43
2.62
2.99
3.10
3.12
3.41
3.28
3.15
2.74
2.41
2.11
2.10
2.13
2.47
2.67
2.90
2.91
3.02
3.00
2.92
2.87
2.64
2.58
2.35
2.35
2.62
2.88
3.00
3.11
3.13
3.05
2.96
2.95
2.82
2.70
2.65
2.32
2.66
2.77
2.87
2.81
3.14
3.10
2.82
2.87
2.83
2.77
2.51
2.44
2.60
2.87
3.10
3.19
3.34
3.40
3.23
3.10
March
3.05
April
2.66
May
2.54
June
July
2.44
2 77
August
3.08
September
3.03
October
November
3.15
3.46
December . ...
3.34
Average.. ... .
3.79
3.02
2.58
2.93
2.64
2.79
2.81
2.89
2.99
1 All prices are converted to a basis of 3.5 per cent milk.
to month.
The butterfat differential varies from month
Table 16. — Weighted average milk prices in dollars per 100 pounds, f. o. h., city
m^arket, recei/ved by members of the Dairi/men's League Cooperative Asso-
ciation, 1920-1928'-
Month
1920
1321
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
January
4.42
4.21
4.09
3.28
3.28
3.56
3.68
4.08
4.38
4.38
4.38
3.91
3.91
3.31
2.83
2.83
2.435
2.15
2.43
2.88
2.97
3.20
3.15
3.12
2.84
2.70
2.33
2.065
2.03
2.075
2.35
2.485
2.73
2.94
3.195
3.48
2.94
3.04
2.86
2.805
2.55
2.645
2.715
2.815
2.93
3.05
3.06
2.88
2. Go
2.55
2.53
2.48
2.13
2.07
2.15
2.365
2.575
2.59
2.99
3.14
3.145
3.03
2.99
2.865
2.62
2.53
2.58
2.83
2.945
3.04
3.14
3.16
3.12
3.04
2.95
2.845
2.665
2.54
2.68
2.89
3.09
3.11
3.25
3.33
3.20
3.20
3.13
2.97
2.75
2.66
2.77
2.95
3.28
3.41
3.55
3.52
3.43
Februarv
3.33
March
3.01
April
2.78
May - - -.
2.69
June .
2.59
July
2.81
August
September
3.16
3.31
October
3.42
November
3.61
December
3.57
Average
3.97
2.93
2.60
2.86
2.52
2.91
2.96
3.12
3.14
1 All prices are converted to a basis of 3.5 per cent milk. The butterfat differential is 4 cents for each
one-tenth per cent.
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK
89
Table 17. — Weighted average milk prices in dollars per 100 pounds, f. o. &., city
market, received by members of the Inter-State Milk Producers' Association,
1920-1928 '
Month
January
February.-.
March
April
May
June
July
August.
September
October
November
December
Average
1920
1921
845
905
885
955
785
685
665
885
985
385
385
455
3.365
3.325
3.265
3.195
2.595
2. 375
2.565
2.585
2.585
2.645
2.645
2.645
3. 902 2. 816
1922
2.595
2. 595
2.565
3. 535
2. 475
2.485
2.545
2. 525
2.605
3.155
3.155
3.155
2.1
1923
3.125
3.115
3. 085
3.065
3.185
3.235
3.415
3.365
3.445
3.575
3. 165
3.165
3.245
1924
3.125
3.115
3.075
3.015
2.925
2.945
2.975
2. 965
2.975
3. 155
3. 155
3.155
3.048
1925
3.085
3.105
3.095
3.105
2.985
3.075
3.065
3.045
3.125
3.145
3. 205
3.375
3.118
1926
3.183
3.097
3.052
3. 03()
2.790
2.800
3.051
3.053
3. 246
3.404
3.447
3.459
3.135
1927
3.451
3.460
3.428
3.426
3.302
3.281
3.338
3.316
3.372
3.396
3.416
3.419
3.384
1928
3.423
3.419
3.397
3.376
3.287
3.265
3.330
3.350
3.384
3.387
3.489
3.383
I All prices are converted to a basis of 3.5 per cent milk. The butterfat differential is 4 cents for each
one-tenth per cent.
Tablej 18. — Weighted average mdlk prices in dollars per 100 pounds, f. o. h., city
market, received by m,embcrs of the Maryland State Dairymen' s Association
1918-1927 "■
Month
1918
1919
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
January ..
3.05
3.05
3.05
3.05
3.05
3.05
3.05
3.05
3.98
4.21
4.44
4.44
4.13
3.84
3.16
3.14
2.99
3.06
3.05
3.51
4.21
4.21
4.21
4.21
4.27
4.15
4.00
3.84
3.67
3.67
3.71
3.98
4.21
4.21
4.09
3.51
3.45
3.34
2.84
2.82
2.73
2.19
2.53
2.48
2.40
2.59
2.59
2.59
2.52
2.49
2.46
2.45
2.27
2.27
2.30
2.41
2.45
2.59
2.82
3.V7
2.97
2.98
2.95
2.96
2.92
2.87
2.96
3.28
3.61
3.63
3.28
3.17
3.00
3.03
3.00
3.02
2.85
2.78
2.92
2.92
2.87
2.97
3.10
3.04
2.99
3.03
3.00
3.05
2.93
2.98
3.05
3.00
3.14
3.25
3.27
3.22
3.03
3.04
2.98
2.99
2.85
2.74
2.99
3.03
3.06
3.32
3.39
3.36
3.32
3.33
March
3.27
April
3.24
May
2.97
June
3.06
July
3.18
August ... - .
3.18
September
October
3.22
3.32
November .
3.33
December..
Average
3.46
3.64
3.94
2.71
2.52
3.13
2.96
3.08
3.07
3. 22
I All prices are converted to a basis of 3.5 per cent milk,
one-tenth per cent.
The butterfat differential is 5.8 cents for each
Table 19. — Weighted average milk prices in dollars per 100 pounds, f. o. b., city
market, received by m^embers of the Dairymen's Cooperative Sales Co.,
1923-1928 '
Month
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
January
3.80
3.74
3.57
3.57
2.80
2.80
3.04
3.16
3.33
3.51
3.74
• 3.68
3.57
3.21
3.10
2.98
2.57
2.68
2.80
2.80
2.92
2.92
3.04
3.16
3.04
3.04
3.09
3.04
2.48
2.86
2.92
2.98
3.09
3.27
3.27
3.27
3.15
3.09
3.06
2.85
2.60
2.60
2.63
2.93
2.93
3.16
3.52
3.54
3.39
3.35
3.35
3.01
2.84
2.76
2.82
2.90
3.12
3.46
3.51
3.45
3.37
February...
3.03
March. ...
2.99
April
2.73
May
2.68
June
2.58
July
2.71
August
2.97
September ._
3.09
October
f '3.83
'2.50
'3.83
'3.25
'3.82
1 ' 3. 24
November .
December —
Average
3.40
2.98
3.03
3.01
3.16
1 All prices are converted to a basis of 3.5 per cent milk. The butterfat differentiftl I? 6 wnts for each one
tenth per cent.
' Basic surplus price.
90
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 9, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 20. — Weighted average milk prices in dollars per 100 pounds, f. o. h., city
market, received hy members of the Cooperative Pure Milk Association,
1920-1928 '
Month
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
January
4.44
4.25
4.20
3.70
3.80
3.60
3.60
3.85
3.90
3.90
3.90
3.90
3.90
3.30
3.30
3.15
2.50
2.60
2.70
2.70
2.70
2.70
2.70
2.70
2.70
2.70
2.30
2.30
2.30
2.30
2.30
2.50
2.50
2.60
2.70
2.70
2.70
2.70
2.70
2.60
2.50
2.40
2.45
2.50
2.70
2.95
3.10
3.10
3.20
2.95
2.60
2.60
2.20
1.80
1.80
1.80
1.80
2.25
2.25
2.25
2.25
2.25
2.45
2.50
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.30
2.30
2.30
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.40
2.25
2.15
2.15
2.15
2.40
2.50
2.60
2.60
2.70
'"2.'56"
2.30
2^50
2.5e
2.50
2.60
2.75
2.76
2.70
February
2.60
March
2 60
April...
2 40
May
2 25
June
2.25
July
2.50
August
2 50
September
2 50
October
2.75
November
2.90
December
3.00
Average
3.92
2.91
2.49
2.70
2.29
2.43
2.41
2.52
2. .58
1 All prices are converted to a basis of 3.5 i)er cent milk,
one-tenth per cent.
The butterfat differential is 4.5 cents for each
Table 21. — Weighted average milk prices in dollars per 100 pounds, f. o. 6., citij
market, received by members of the Ticin City Milk Producers Association,
1918-1928 '
Month
1918
1919
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
January
February
2.80
2.70
2.50
2.42
2.31
2.25
2.30
2.55
2.75
3.20
3.50
3.70
3.30
2.57
3.12
3.00
2.95
3.00
3.05
3.15
3.10
3.10
3.15
3.15
3.15
3.05
3.80
3.90
2.70
2.70
2.57
3.21
3.25
3.42
3.23
3.00
2.65
2.40
2.33
2.25
1.75
L60
L80
2.15
2.25
2.25
2.25
2.10
1.95
L90
L90
1.93
L85
1.82
2.00
2.10
2.42
2.55
2.65
2.80
2.68
2.50
2.47
2.42
2.35
2.25
2.35
2.75
2.68
2.62
2.52
2.50
2.48
2.41
2.20
L80
L80
L85
L85
2.20
2.20
2.20
2.25
2.22
2.20
2.20
2.23
2.23
2.29
2.20
2.20
2.33
2.65
2.70
2.70
2.65
2.35
2.25
2.20
2.12
2.15
2.18
2.25
2.27
2.32
2.41
2.50
2.52
2.48
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.35
2.31
2.31
2.38
2.48
2.60
2.63
2.63
2.57
2.50
March
April
May
June
2.52
2.48
2.42
2.43
July
August
September
2.48
2.56
2.65
October
2.64
November
December
2.60
2.61
Average
2.75
3.05
3.16
2.15
2.16
2.51
2.12
2.38
2.29
2.47
2.54
1 All prices are converted to a basis of 3.5 per cent milk. The butterfat differential is 5 cents for each
one-tenth per cent.
Table 22. — Retail m^ontJily price of m^'lk in cents per quart delivered to family
trade in indicated markets, 1920-1928
Market and year
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
17
17
17
17
16
16
17
17.5
18
18
18
17
16.5
16
15.5
15
15
15
16
15.5
15
16
13.5
13.5
13. 5
13. 5
12.5
12.5
13.5
13.5
13.5
14.5
14.5
14.5
14.5
14.5
13.5
13.5
13.5
14
14.5
14.5
14.5
15.5
14.5
13.5
12.5
12
12
12
12.5
13.5
14.5
14.5
14.5
14.5
14.5
13.5
13.5
13.5
13
14
14.5
14.5
14.5
14.5
14.5
14.5
14.5
14.5
14.5
13.5
14.5
14.5
14.5
14.5
14.6
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
15
15.5
15.6
15.5
16
15.5
15.5
14.5
14.5
14.5
14.5
12.5
15.5
15.5
15.6
18
16.5
16.5
15
15
15
16
17
18
18
18
17
15
16
15
15
15
14
13
14
14
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
13
16
15
15
15
14
14
14
14
15
15
16
15
14
14
14
13
13
13
13
14
14
15
15
15
15
15
15
14
14
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
16
16
16
16
16
15
15
15
15
15
le
16
16
16
Dec.
Boston:
1920.-..
1921....
1922....
1923....
1924....
1925... .
1926....
1927....
1928....
New York:
1920... .
1921-.-
1922-.-.
1923---.
1924....
1925....
1926..--
1927....
1928.—
18
16
14.5
16
14.5
14.5
15
16.5
15.5
17
15
16
15
15
15
15
16
16
COOPERATIVE MARKETING OF FLUID MILK
91
Table 22. — Retail monthly q^rice cj milk in cents per quart delivered to family
trade in indicated markets, 1920-1928 — Continued
Market and year
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Philadelphia:
1920 -- --
14
13
11
11.5
12
12
12
13
13
16
15
12
13
13
13
13.5
14
14
16
15
13
14
13
11
12
12
12
12
13
13
16
15
12
13
13
13
13
14
14
16
15
12
14
13
11
12
12
12
12
13
13
16
14
12
13
13
13
13
14
14
16
14
12
14
14
14
14.5
15
14
15
14
12
12
14
14
13
11
12
12
12
12
13
13
16
14
12
13
13
13
13
14
14
15
14
12
14
14
14
14
14
13
15
14
12
12
14
14
11
11
13
12
12
12
13
13
16
14
12
13
13
12
13
14
14
15
14
12
14
14
14
13
14
13
15
13
12
12
14
12
14
11
11
13
12
12
12
13
13
16
12
12
13
13
13
13
14
14
15
14
12
14
14
14
13
14
13
15
13
12
12
14
11
11
13
12
12
12
13
13
16
12
12
13
13
13
13
14
14
15
14
12
14
14
14
13
14
13
15
13
12
15
11
11
13
12
12
12
13
13
16
12
12
12
13
13
13
14
14
16
"12""
14
14
14
14
14
14
15
13
12
12
15
11
11
13
12
12
12
13
13
16
12
12
14
13
13
13
14
14
16
14
15
11
12
13
12
12
13
13
13
16
12
12
14
13
13
14
14
14
16
14
15
11
12
12
12
12
13
13
13
16
12
12
13
13
13
14
14
14
16
14
14
15
14
14.5
14.5
15
15
15
13
12
14
13
1921
11
1922
12
1923 - ---
12
1924
12
1925
12
1926
13
1927 - ---
13
1928
13
Baltimore:
1920
15
1921
12
1922
13
1923
13
1924
12.5
1925
13
1926 - ---
14
1927 -
14
1928
14
Pittsburgh:
1920
16
1921 - -
13
1922
14
1923
14
14
14
14
14
14
15
13
12
12
15
14
14.5
14
15
15
15
13
12
14
15
1924
15
14
14.5
15
15
15
15
13
12
14
14
14
14.5
15
14
15
14
12
12
14
14
1925
14 5
1926
15
1927
15
1928
15
Cincinnati:
1920
15
1921
13
1922
12
1923
14
1924
1925
12
12
14
16
12
12
it
14
14
14
14
14
11
11
12
11
12
11
12
12
18
14
14
15
17
15
15
15
15
'12""
14
14
15
12
12
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
11
11
12
11
12
11
12
12
18
14
15
15
15
15
12
1926
12
14
12
14
14
14
14
12
13
14
14
14
14
14
13
10
10
11
10
11
11
11
12
16
16
14
15
15
15
15
15
"14'
14
15
14
12
14
14
14
14
14
14
13
10
10
11
10
11
11
11
12
18
15
14
15
17
15
15
15
14
14
14
16
14
12
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
11
10
12
11.5
11
11
11
12
18
14
14
15
15
15
15
15
15
12
14
14
16
12
12
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
11
11
12
11
12
11
11
12
18
14
14
15
17
15
15
"'is'
14
1927
14
14
15
14
12
12.5
14
1^
14
14
13
13
10
11
12
11
12
10
12
16
18
14.5
15
15
14
15
15
15
14
14
14
14
14
14
12
13
14
14
14
14
14
13
11
10
11
10
11
11
11
12
16
""u
15
15
15
15
15
15
14
1928
14
Chicago:
1920
15
14
12
13
14
14
14
14
14
13
12.5
10
11
12
11
11
11
12
16
16
14
15
15
14.5
15
15
15
14
14
12
13
14
14
14
14
14
13
12
10
11
12
11
11
11
12
16
16
14
15
"is""
15
15
15
14
14
12
13
14
14
14
14
14
13
12
10
11
10
11
11
11
12
16
16
14
15
16
15
15
15
15
14
1921
12
1922
12
1923
14
1924 - -
14
1925
14
1926
14
1927
14
1928
14
Minneapolis:
1920
14
1921
10.5
1922
11.5
1923
12
1924
11
1925
12
1926
11
1927
P
1928
12
Los Angeles:
1920 . -
18
1921
14
1922...-
15
1923
15
1924
14.5
1925
15
1926
15
1927
l.^i
1928
15 15
Date from yearbooks of United States Department of Agriculture except for 1928.
Prices for 1928 are from Crops and Markets.
ORGANIZATION OF THE
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT ,OF AGRICULTURE
April 23, 1930
Secretary of Agriculture Arthur M. Hyde.
Assistant Secretary R. W. Dunlap.
Director of Scientific Work A. F. Woods.
Director of Regulatory Work Walter G. Campbell.
Director of Extension Work C. W. Wabburton.
Director of Personnel and Business Adminis- W. W. Stockbebger.
tration.
Director of Information M. S. Eisenhower.
Solicitor . E. L. Marshall,
Weather Bureau Charles F. Marvin, Chief.
Bureau of Animal Industry John R. Mohler, Chief.
Bureau of Dairy Industry O. E. Reed, Chief.
Bureau of Plant Industry William A. Taylor, Chief.
Forest Service R. Y. Stuart, Chief.
Bureau of Chemistry and Soils H. G. Knight, Chief.
Bureau of Entomology C. L. Marlatt, Chief.
Bureau of Biological Survey Paul G. Redington, Chief.
Bureau of PuNic Roads Thomas H. MacDonald, Chief.
Bureau of Agricultural Economics Nils A. Olsen, Chief.
Bureau of Home Economics Louise Stanley, Chief.
Plant Quarantine and Control Administration-- Lee A. Strong, Chief.
Grain Futures Administration J. W. T. Duvel, Chief.
Foody Drug, and Insecticide Administration— Walter G. Campbell, Director of
Regulatory Work, in Charge.
Office of Experiment Stations ■ , Chief.
Office of Cooperative Extension Work C. B. Smith, Chief.
Library Claribel R. Barnett, Librarian.
This bulletin is a contribution from
Bureau of Agricultural Economics Nils A. Olsen, Chief,
92
y. 5. GOVIRNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: '93°
Technical Bulletin No. 178 K^y^^^^^if/^S'W/ March, 1930
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
PROPERTIES OF SOILS WHICH INFLU-
ENCE SOIL EROSION
By H. E. MiDDLETON
Associate Physicist, Division of Soil Chemistry and Physics, Soil Investigations,
Bureau of Chemistry and Soils
CONTENTS
Introduction 1
Outline of investigation. 2
Experimental work 2
First group — 3
Second group.. 7
Third group U
Page
Discussion 13
Summary 15
Literature cited 16
INTRODUCTION
Soil erosion is not a new problem, the necessity for protection of
farm lands from denudation having long been recognized. In 1909
in a report of the National Conservation Commission (ISy attention
was called to the enormous losses resulting from erosion, and in 1911
a bulletin on soil erosion (16) discussed the problem and remedial
measures which might be employed. These reports apparently
roused very little interest. In recent years, however, the work of
agricultural experiment stations and of the Federal Government {8)
has served to focus attention on the great loss resulting from erosion.
The Seventieth Congress made a special appropriation for the study
of soil erosion and water conservation, with particular reference to
the various soil types. Experimental work on erosion will be done
at several stations established for this purpose.
Experimental field studies on soil erosion have been in progress for
several years at the State agricultural experiment stations at Colum-
bia, Mo., Spur, Tex., and Raleigh, N. C, and at the Forest Service
experiment stations at Ephraim, Utah, and San Bernardino, Calif.
In this field work it has been recognized that some soil types erode
more readily than others. The literature reveals no laboratory
studies which show any relation between erosivity and the physical
and chemical characteristics of the soil types. The fact that definite
information concerning the erosional behavior of soils was not avail-
able explains this lack of investigation. Such information became
available with the appearance of the results (4^ 6, 6, 7, 8) of extensive
1 Italic numbers in parentheses refer to literature cited, p. 15.
94846°— 30
Z TECHNICAL BULLETIN 178, U. 8. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
erosion studies made in the field by H. H. Bennett of this bureau,
who observed that certain soil types were easily eroded whereas
others were much less susceptible to erosion. With a view to deter-
mining the properties of soils which influence soil erosion, samples
were collected and work begun.
OUTLINE OF INVESTIGATION
Three groups of soil samples were collected. In one group samples
of four soil types were obtained from widely separated regions. Two
of these types, the Nipe clay from Cuba and the Aikin silty clay loam
from Oregon, were notable because of the resistance they offer to
erosion, in spite of heavy rainfall. In contrast with these were the
Orangeburg fine sandy loam and the Memphis silt loam from Missis-
sippi. A second group of samples consisted of the Iredell loam, which
is erosive, and of the Davidson clay loam, which is nonerosive.^
These samples were collected near Greensboro, N. C, and under like
climatic conditions differ very strikingly in erosional behavior. The
samples of these two groups were very carefully examined, especially
with respect to the A and B horizons. The properties were con-
trasted and the effort made to determine which properties accounted
for the erosional differences. A third group of samples was later
obtained from three erosion experiment stations, and a similar study
was made on them.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
The mechanical analyses were made by a slightly modified form of
the international method (19). Hydrogen peroxide, hydrochloric
acid, and sodium carbonate or hydroxide were used. The quantity
of colloid was determined by the water-vapor adsorption method,
over 3.3 per cent sulphuric acid (20), the moisture equivalent by the
method outlined in a previous publication (16, p. 159), the maximum
water-holding capacity by the metl^od of Hilgard (13, p. 209), the
lower liquid limit by the method of Atterberg (3, p. 36), and the
specific gravity by a method essentially the same as that described
by HHlebrand (14y p. 56),
The slaking value was determined with an apparatus described by
Boyd (9, p. 345) but by a somewhat different method of procedure.
Five grams of air-dry soil was thoroughly mixed with just sufficient
water to saturate it at a pressure of 2,000 pounds per square inch and
made into a briquette 25 millimeters in diameter. This was immedi-
ately placed on a metal ring and submerged in water. The slaking
value is the number of seconds necessary for the briquette to dis-
integrate sufficiently to fall through the ring.
The moisture content, apparent specific gravity, shrinkage, pore
space, and volume of voids were calculated by measuring and weighing
briquettes made by the method outlined by the writer (17, p. 502), in
which 20 grams of air-dry soil was mixed with sufficient water to
give the greatest density at a pressure of 2,000 pounds per square inch.
The dispersion ratio was determined as follows: A sample of air-
dry soil equivalent to 10 grams of oven-dry soil was placed in a tall
* "Nonerosive" is used in this bulletin to describe soils notably less susceptible to erosion than normal
soils. The terms erosive and nonerosive are used relatively, as are the terms soluble and insoluble. All
soils are somewhat susceptible to erosion by run-ofl water.
PROPERTIES OF SOILS WHICH INFLUENCE SOIL EROSION O
cylinder of approximately 1,200 cubic centimeter capacity fitted with
a rubber stopper. Sufficient distilled water was added to make the
volume a liter. The cylinder was closed with the stopper and was
shaken end over end 20 times. The suspension was then allowed to
settle until a 25 cubic centimeter sample which was pipetted at a
depth of 30 centimeters consisted of particles of a maximum diameter
of 0.05 millimeter. A metal tip placed on the end of the pipette with
six radial No. 80 drill holes was used; through it liquid was drawn
from the side rather than from directly under the pipette. From the
dry weight of the pipetted fraction, the total weight of silt and clay
in the suspension was calculated. The ratio, expressed in percent-
age, of the silt and clay so determined to the total silt and clay
obtained by mechanical analysis is called the dispersion ratio. The
erosion ratio is the quotient obtained by dividing the dispersion ratio
by the ratio of colloid to moisture equivalent.
Colloid was extracted {12, p. 16), and chemical analyses were made
by methods now in use in the Division of Soil Chemistry and Physics
of this bureau, but special effort was exerted to make the colloid
extraction as complete as possible.
FIRST GROUP
DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLES
The samples used in this experiment were collected by H. H.
Bennett, of this bureau. The erosive samples are as follows:
Memphis silt loam from 5 miles east of Vicksburg, Miss. Sample
No. 1, A horizon, 0 to 8 inches, brown mellow silt loam; sample No.
2, B horizon, 8 to 28 inches, buff moderately friable silty clay loam;
and sample No. 3, C horizon, 120 to 216 inches, yellowish-brown
friable silt loam.
Orangeburg fine sandy loam from Jackson County, Miss. Sample
No. 4, A horizon, 0 to 16 inches, fine sandy loam, brown to 4 inches
and buflt below that depth; sample No. 5, Bi horizon, 16 to 72 inches,
red friable sandy clay; sample No. 6, B2 horizon, 72 to 96 inches, red
friable fine sandy loam with some yellowish splotches; and sample No.
7, C horizon, 96 to 136 inches, white and pale-pink coarse sand with
some thin seams of red fine sandy loam.
The nonerosive soil types of this group are as follows :
Nipe clay from Fulton mining region, Fulton, Oriente, Cuba.
Sample No. 8, 0 to 12 inches, red, highly porous, friable material,
somewhat compact in places (plancha layer), with abundance of
highly ferruginous small and large nodules (accretions or concre-
tions); and sample No. 9, 12 to 24 inches, red, highly porous, and
friable material, with abundance of small and large ferruginous
nodules.
Aikin silty clay loam from 5K miles south of Salem, Oreg. Sample
No. 10, 0 to 20 inches, brownish-red silty clay loam to clay; and
sample No. 11, 20 to 40 inches, red clay.
RESULTS
The physical determinations which were made on samples of the
first group are shown in Table 1 and the chemical analyses in Table 2.
4 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 178, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 1. — Physical properties of erosive and nonerosive soils
Mechanical
Maxi-
Character and
Soil type
Depth ■
analysis
Col-
loid
Mois-
ture
equiv-
alent
Lowei
liquid
limit
mum
water
hold-
ing ca-
pacity
- cmc
grav-
ity
Slak-
value
sample No.
Sand
Silt
Clay
Per
Per
Per
Per
Per
Per
Per
Sec-
Inches
cent
cent
cent
cent
cent
cent
cent
on<U
Memphis silt
loam (Miss.). 1
0-8
11.2
75.4
13.4
14.6
21.5
27.0
48.9
2.65
340
do
8-28
6.2
63.0
30.8
32.2
28.6
36.7
57.9
2.73
(»)
do.
120-216
5.6
80.3
14.2
12.3
21.7
28.3
49.9
2.74
50
Erosive
Orangebm-g fine
sandy loam
(Miss.).
do
0-16
64.0
26.1
9.9
11.6
15.0
16.7
36.9
2.64
25
16-72
56.9
20.1
23.0
23.5
17.3
23.9
41.6
2.69
80
do.
72-96
77.4
6.4
16.2
16.5
12.5
20.2
38.0
2.69
76
do
96-136
97.6
.6
1.8
2.4
2.2
. 27.1
2.66
1
Nipe clay (Cuba)
0-12
820.4
32.5
47.1
65.1
30.4
40. i
68.7
3.99
0)
do
12-24
323.4
24.1
62.5
63.7
27.2
36.7
51.3
3.92
(v
Nonerosive.
10
Aikin silty clay
loam (Oreg.).
0-20
11.7
28.8
59.5
52.5
30.3
36.3
57.5
2.84
(»)
11
.....do 20-40
10.4
23.7
65.9
59.8 30.8 40.3
57.1
2.87
(*)
Soil type
Briquettes at maximum density
Dis- c
per-
sion
ratio
Ratio
of
jolloid
to
mois-
ture
equir-
alent \
j
Ero-
sion
ratio
Character and
sample No.
Mois-
ture
con-
tent
Appar
ent
specifl<
grav-
ity 1
, Shrink-
' agei
Pore ,
space 1 5
Vol-
ime of
coids 1
Ratio
of
clay
tosUt
Per
Per
Per
Per
cent
cent
cent
cent
1
Memphis silt loam
(Miss.).
16.9
1.64
1.08
38.1
10.5
44.6
0.68
65.2
0.18
2
.—-do...
14.7
1.87
3.50
31.5
4.0
26.3
1.13
23.3
.49
3
do
19.5
1.63
.74
40.7
9.0
66.0
.57
115.8
.18
Erosive
4
Orangeburg fine
9.4
1.87
.75
29.1
11.7
39.2
.77
50.9
.38
sandy loam
(Miss.).
do.
fi
11.2
1.98
1.87
26.3
4.0
16.9
1.36
12.4
1.14
fi
(Jq
12.4
1.90
.48
29.4
5.9
29.6
1.32
22.4
2.63
7
8
do
27.0
6.1
1.09
2.14
24.8
2.9
3.00
Nipe clay (Cuba)..
23.3
1.91
3.97
52.1
7.6
1.45
9
do.
22.2
2.03
4.15
51.9
6.9
5.2
2.34
2.2
2.69
Nonerosive.-
10
Aikin silty clay
loam (Oreg.).
19.3
1.77
6.62
37.6
3.6
15.1
1.73
8.7
2.07
111
do
19.9
1.76
6.47
38. 6 3. 5
13.4
1.94
6.9
2.78
1 Based on wet volume.
' Did not slake in 18 hours.
* A considerable part consists of concretions.
Table 2. — Chemical composition ^ of erosive and nonerosive soils '
Character and
sample No.
Soil type
Depth
SiOi
TiOa
FezOs
A1203
MnO
CaO
Per cent
Per cent
Per cent
7.94
0.11
0.46
12.72
.11
.41
3.72
.03
.03
9.29
.01
Trace.
3 14. 71
L09
.41
8 15. 33
.99
.39
24.11
.30
.24
25.18
.23
.17
Erosive.
Nonerosive.
Memphis silt loam.
do
Orangeburg fine
sandy loam.
do
Nipe clay
do
Aikin silty clay
loam.
Inches
0-8
8-28
0-16
16-72
0-12
12-24
0-20
20-40
Per cent
80.90
73.03
90.63
83.92
7.96
7.04
40.57
40.54
Per cent
0.92
.76
.72
.73
.65
3.06
3.27
Per cent
2.74
5.15
1.40
3.09
64.00
65.37
17.71
17.91
Per cent
0.27
»No sample contained carbonates.
* Determinations by Q. Edgington.
> Sample contains chromium.
PROPERTIES OF SOILS WHICH INFLUENCE SOIL EROSION O
Table 2. — Chemical composition of erosive and nonerosive soils — Continued
Character and
sample No.
Soil type
K,0
Na20
PiO»
SOi
N
Ignition
loss
H20at
110* C.
Erosive
1
2
4
5
I
10
11
Memphis silt loam
do....
Orangeburg fine sandy
loam.
do
Nipe clay .»
Per cent
1.84
1.95
.06
.07
Trace.
Trace.
.55
.41
Percent
0.66
.71
Trace.
.07
.03
Trace.
.18
.17
Per cent
0.11
.20
.04
.02
.04
.05
.43
.41
Per cent
.08
.09
.24
.32
.14
.11
Per cent
0.10
.04
.06
.01
.08
.02
.17
.10
Per cent
4.03
3.99
2.96
3.22
10.12
9.20
12.31
11.28
Per cent
1.27
3.18
.82
1.14
3 29
Nonerosive...
do
Aikin silty clay loam
do
2.88
4.28
4.47
Data given in Table 1 indicate that the nonerosive soils studied
are considerably heavier in texture than the erosive soils. This is
unfortunate in that such a wide difference in texture makes comparison
diflicult. Many of the differences indicated in the various determina-
tions may be explained by this difference in texture without regard to
erosional characteristics. The moisture equivalent, lower liquid limit,
maximum water-holding capacity, slaking value, and shrinkage follow
rather closely the mechanical composition and colloid content. The
volume of voids is slightly higher in the erosive than in the nonerosive
soils, particularly in the surface soils. The specific gravity of the non-
erosive soils is higher than that of the erosive soils, but this is not be-
lieved to be significant.
The dispersion ratio seems to have some bearing on the erosional
characteristics of the soil without regard to the other properties. For
instance, the Nipe clay was regarded as being the least erosive in the
group of samples, and it has the lowest dispersion ratio, whereas the
Memphis silt loam, which was regarded as being the most easily
eroded, has the highest dispersion ratio.
In the Memphis soil the dispersion ratio also indicates the relative
degree of erosivity of the different horizons as observed in the field.
The A horizon, with a dispersion ratio of 44.6, erodes more rapidly
than the B horizon (where it is exposed), which has a dispersion ratio
of 26.3. The C horizon, which has a dispersion ratio of 66, erodes
more rapidly, once it is exposed, than either the A or the B.
The ratio of the colloid to the moisture equivalent is considerably
higher for the nonerosive than for the erosive soils. The higher ratio
should indicate a lower water-holding capacity of the soil and, there-
fore, probably a higher rate of percolation, with a consequent decrease
of run-off from one rainfall. It is the water which runs off after
the soil is saturated which causes erosion. A soil with a high rate of
percolation may not necessarily erode less for a given amount of run-
off, but it is believed that conditions which cause rapid percolation
tend to make it less erosive. A satisfactory laboratory method of
measuring the percolation rate of soils under conditions comparable
to those in the field has not been found. A method is now being
studied whereby samples may be taken in their natural condition and
sent to the laboratory. It is hoped thus to determine a relation be-
tween the percolation rate under natural field conditions and artificial
conditions in the laboratory. The chief difficulty lies in determining
the rate of percolation of the entire profile. A fairly satisfactory
determination may be made for a single horizon, but if the horizon
6 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 178, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
examined is underlaia by a comparatively impervious stratum the
determination will be of little value. Soil samples are ordinarily
collected by horizons which in most places, rather than being sharply
differentiated, are separated by transitional zones. This arrange-
ment of layers makes it very difficult to repack the material in a con-
dition remotely simulating that in which it occurs originally.
In general, the drspersion ratio decreases as the resistance to erosion
increases. The converse is true of the colloid moisture-equivalent
ratio. As both ratios are indicative of the erosional characteristics
of the soil, it seemed desirable to combine them into one expression.
Since the two ratios vary inversely, a combination was accompUshed
by dividing the dispersion ratio by the colloid moisture-equivalent
ratio and designating it as the erosion ratio. The dispersion ratio is a
function of the ease of dispersion and of the mechanical composition
of the soil, and the colloid moisture-equivalent ratio is a function of
the ease of percolation and the absorptive power of the soil. Hence
the erosion ratio combines the relations of the soil toward water in
such manner that a low value of the ratio is indicative of high resist-
ance to erosion.
The lowest erosion ratio shown by the erosive soils is 12.4 for the
Orangeburg subsoil (No. 5), and the highest for the nonerosive soils
is 8.7 for the Aikin surface soil (No. 10). The erosion ratio distin-
guishes the erosive from the nonerosive soils in the same order as the
dispersion ratio, but the differentiation is more marked. In the Mem-
phis and Nipe soils previously mentioned, the dispersion ratios are
44.6 and 6.1, and the erosion ratios are 65.2 and 2.9, respectively.
The erosion ratios appear to express more satisfactorily the differences
between the soils. Neither the dispersion nor the erosion ratios are
to be regarded as quantitative expressions of relative erosivity.
The ratio of clay to silt in the soil is taken as an index of the me-
chanical composition. In soils as heavy as or heavier than a loam
(containing more than 50 per cent of silt and clay) in texture this
may give some idea of erosiveness. Where the ratio is very low, as
in a silt loam soil, very Httle clay is present to bind the material into
aggregates, and the silt particles are free to enter quickly into sus-
pension in the run-off water. This is exempHfied in Memphis silt
loam, which has a very low ratio of clay to silt and a very high dis-
persion ratio. This no doubt accounts, at least in part, for the high
erosivity of this particular soil. In sandy soils the ratio is not so
significant, because the silt and clay together constitute such a small
proportion of the total material.
The main variations in the chemical composition of these soils,
as indicated in Table 2, may be correlated with the mechanical com-
position and colloid content. The nonerosive soils are low in sand and
high in colloid and are low in Si02 and high in Fe203 and AI2O3. This
may be indicative of a low silica-sesquioxide ratio,^ which ratio is
beheved to have a very important bearing on soil erosion and on other
soil characteristics {2). Bennett (4) has shown that this ratio is
indicative of the friability and plasticity of Central American soils
and that these properties are closely associated with erosional behavior.
1 The silica-sesquioxide ratio is the molecular ratio of the silica to the combined alumina and iron oxide
present in the colloid.
PROPERTIES OF SOILS WHICH INFLUENCE SOIL EROSION 7
SECOND GROUP
In the first group of samples the great difference in texture between
the erosive and nonerosive soils made it difficult to correlate the
results. Furthermore, the samples were derived from very different
soil material and were collected in widely separated localities where
they had been subject to very different climatic conditions. There-
fore it was deemed advisable to collect, from the same locality, two
samples as nearly alike in texture as possible, one of which was
erosive and the other nonerosive and to make a study of their physical
and chemical properties. For this study the Iredell and Davidson soils
of North Carolina seemed to furnish admirable examples, as they are
derived from the same soil material, occur under the same climatic
and topographic conditions, and lie almost immediately adjacent to
each other but differ notably in that one is very readily eroded and
the other is markedly resistant to- erosion.
DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLES
R. C. Jurney, of the Division of Soil Survey of this bureau, collected
samples of the Iredell loam (erosive) and of the Davidson clay loam
(nonerosive), near Greensboro, N. C. The samples were described as
follows :
Iredell loam from 14 miles east of Greensboro, N. C. Sample No.
12, Ai horizon, 0 to 5 inches, gray loam containing some organic
matter; sample No. 13, A2 horizon, 5 to 10 inches, yellowish-brown
loam; sample No. 14, B horizon, 10 to 20 inches, yellowish-brown
heavy tenacious impervious plastic clay, breaking into large lumps
which on further pressure break into angular particles, and containing
few plant roots; and sample No. 15, C horizon, 20 to 27 inches,
greenish, yellowish, and brownish decomposed diorite rock. Iron-
stone concretions occur in the A2 horizon and in adjoining plowed
fields appear on the surface. Horizon B, when exposed to the atmos-
phere, turns rust brown and cracks when dry. On moderate slopes
the B or C horizon is exposed through erosion.
Davidson clay loam from 9 miles north of Greensboro, N. C.
Sample No. 16, A horizon, 0 to 9 inches, slightly reddish-brown clay
loam; sample No. 17, Bi horizon, 9 to 36 inches, deep-red heavy
brittle clay, breaks into large lumps which finally crumble into
smaller angular and subangular particles; sample No. 18, B2 horizon,
36 to 60 inches, light-red friable crumbly clay; and sample No. 19,
C horizon, 60+ inches, ocherous-yellow, black, and reddish-brown
decomposed diorite rock. A cut surface of the Bi horizon shows a
Hghter-red color than the broken portion, and when well dried the
material in road cuts to a depth of about 2 feet shows perpendicular
cracks one-eighth inch and less in width. The Davidson soil is much
more deeply weathered than the Iredell.
RESULTS
Determinations were made on these samples in the manner
described for the first group. The physical determinations are
shown in Table 3 and the chemical analyses in Table 4. In addition,
samples of colloid were extracted and analyzed, the determinations
being shown in Table 5.
8 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 178, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 3. — Physical properties of an erosive and a nonerosive soil from the same
locality
Character and
sample No.
Soil type
Hori-
zon
Mechanical
Maxi-
analysis i
Col-
loid
Mois-
ture
equiv-
alent
Lower
liquid
limit
mum
water-
hold-
ing
capa-
ciflc
grav-
ity
Depth
Sand
Silt
Clay
city
Per
Per
Per
Per
Per
Per
Per
Inches
cent
cent
cent
cent
cent
cent
cent
0-5
36.2
38.4
16.4
24.7
30.6
39.0
67.8
2.74
5-10
37.3
45.6
16.4
15.0
18.1
19.5
44.4
2.89
10-20
11.2
23.9
63.1
63.9
45.9
56.1
78.2
2.84
20-27
34.9
28.5
35.2
39.0
38.0
34.6
62.0
2.90
0-9
31.9
39.9
23.8
27.3
25.1
29.1
59.9
2.68
9-36
14.0
22.3
60.4
64.8
39.3
61.0
80. 9
2.77
36-60
18.5
30.4
50.3
66.5
43.0
63.1
88.0
2.80
60+
35.4
34.5
29.6
63.8
39.3
62.8
79.0
2.82
Slak-
ing
valu*
Erosive..
Nonero-
sive.
Iredell loam...
do
do
.....do
Davidson clay
loam.
do
.....do
..-do..
Ai
Ai
B
C
A
B,
B,
C
See-
ond$
56
25
(»)
"ioo
(»)
Character and
sample No.
Briquettes at maximum density
Soil type
Mois-
ture
con-
tent
Ap-
parent
spe-
cific
grav-
ity*
Shrink-
age*
Pore
Vol-
ume
of
voids *
Dis-
per-
sion
ratio
Ratio
of col-
loid to
mois-
ture
equiv-
alent
Ero-
sion
ratio
Ratio
of clay
to silt
Erosive.
Nonero-
sive.
Iredell loam
do.
do.
do
Davidson clay loam.
do
do
do
Per
cent
15.5
11.9
17.2
13.3
14.0
19.6
20.1
17.6
1.64
1.95
1.83
2.01
1.84
1.69
1.68
1.73
Per cent
6.17
1.09
9.93
6.57
3.60
2.74
3.00
2.93
Per
cent
40.2
32.2
35.6
30.7
31.3
39.0
40.0
38.7
Per
cent
14.8
10.5
4.1
3.7
5.6
5.8
6.1
&1
19.6
13.0
20.9
23.5
13.3
6.1
6,6
10.6
0.81
.83
1.39
1.03
1.09
1.66
1.56
1.37
24.2
15.7
15.0
22.8
1Z2
3.7
4.3
7.7
0.43
2.64
i.ai
2.71
1.65
> Determinations by L. T. Alexander. * Based on wet volume. • Did not slake in 18 hours.
Table 4. — Chemical composition ^ of an erosive and a nonerosive soil from the same
locality ^
Character and
sample No.
Soil type
Hori-
zon
Depth
SiOj
TiOj
FejOs
AljOs
M„0
CO
[12
13
14
16
16
17
18
19
Iredell loam
A,
t'
C
A
Bi
B,
C
Inches
0-5
5-10
10-20
20-27
0-9
9-36
3&-60
60+
Per cent
56.40
60.56
47.70
47.62
70.63
52.70
50.53
52 fi2
Per cent
2.41
2.38
1.84
1.82
1.80
1.39
1.47
1.23
Per cent
12.34
12.37
13.82
12.35
6.10
10.62
14.87
13.37
Per cent
11.17
11.83
21.62
20.22
12.45
22.87
23.05
20.98
Per cent
0.27
.22
.06
.18
.22
.07
.08
.47
Per unt
4.43
Erosive....
do
do
do
4.38
2.92
5 77
Nonerosive
Davidson clay loam.
do
do
.75
.51
27
do
27
1 ■"■"
Character and
sample No.
Soil type
MgO
KjO
NajO
PaO,
SO,
N
Ignition
loss
H20at
110° C
fl2
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Iredell loam
Per cent
0.92
.94
1.26
2.46
.45
.40
.58
1.00
Per cent
0.20
.20
.21
.26
.58
.45
.34
.72
Per cent
1.48
1.79
1.19
2.00
0
0
0
0
Per cent
0.31
.21
.16
.20
.10
.12
.20
.24
Per cent
0.18
.13
.08
.09
.12
.12
.12
.09
Per cent
0.27
.03
.04
.02
.11
.02
.01
.01
Per cent
10.50
5.03
10.00
6.96
7.66
10.55
9.37
9.15
Percent
2 10
Erosive
Nonerosive
do
do
do
Davidson clay loam.
do
do
do
1.10
3.90
2.90
1.45
1.95
3.70
4.25
* No sample contained carbonates.
* Determinations by Q. J. Hough.
PROPERTIES OF SOILS WHICH INFLUENCE SOIL EROSION 9
The results shown in Table 3 indicate that the texture of the two
samples was, as a whole, very nearly the same. The Iredell rarely
occurs as a clay loam except in eroded phases, and the Davidson
rarely occurs as a loam, so the agreement m this respect was consid-
ered very satisfactory. The surface horizon of the Iredell contained
more organic matter than that of the Davidson, which undoubtedly
accounts for the fact that all the determinations involving moisture,
except the colloid content, which is higher in proportion to the quan-
tity of clay, are higher for the Iredell Ai than for the Davidson A.
This difference in organic-matter content also constitutes the main
difference between the Iredell Ai and A2. The slaking value is lower
for the Iredell surface horizon than for the Davidson, and the shrinkage
is greater. These differences are probably significant. A peculiar
circumstance is noted in the volume of voids determinations. The
value decreases through the Iredell profile and increases through the
Davidson.
The dispersion ratio is notably higher in the Iredell than in corre-
sponding horizons of the Davidson soil, and is higher in the Iredell B
than in either the Ai or A2. This is the only profile so far examined
in which this is the case. The Davidson B horizon has a dispersion
ratio very similar to that of the Nipe soil (see Table 1), and the indi-
cations are that if it were exposed it would be equally resistant to
erosion.
The ratios of colloid to moisture equivalent are all higher for the
Davidson soil than for the Iredell in corresponding horizons. The
ratio for the Iredell B horizon (1.39) is the highest obtained from
several determinations of the moisture equivalent. The material is
of such character that it is difficult to make a satisfactory determina-
tion of the moisture equivalent.
The erosion ratio differentiates the two soils more completely than
the dispersion ratio. The dispersion ratio of the Iredell A2 horizon is
slightly lower than that of the Davidson A. However, the highest
erosion ratio of the Davidson is lower than that of any horizon of the
Iredell. The relative degree of erosion of these two soils could be
determined only by careful measurements under similar conditions.
Personal observation indicates that the difference would be greater
than is shown by the erosion ratio, as in the cornfield adjoining the
area where the sample of Iredell was taken; though the slope was
very gentle only a very thin layer of the A2 horizon was left in the rows,
and the B horizon was exposed between the rows. On the other hand,
no evidence of erosion was noted in the Davidson soil.
The Davidson A horizon has an erosion ratio higher than the Aikin
or the Nipe in the first group. The observations of field men of long
experience, with whom the writer has discussed the matter, indicate
that it is probably the most erosive of the three nonerosive soils. In
fact, there may be some question about classing the A horizon as a
nonerosive soil, as defined. However, for the purpose of this phase
of the investigation, the marked difference in the resistance of these
two soils to erosion is the important consideration. The Davidson
B horizon, however, where it has been exposed by the cultivation of
steep slopes or because of extraordinary local conditions, is markedly
resistant to erosion and unquestionably should be classed as nonero-
sive.
10 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 178, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The ratio of clay to silt is higher in the Davidson than in the Iredell
soil. The slightly heavier texture of the Davidson accounts for the
small diJfferences noted. In two soils of exactly the same texture this
ratio would of necessity be the same and could have no bearing on
the erosional characteristics.
The chemical analyses shown in Table 4 indicate that the Davidson
soil is slightly higher in silica and alumina and lower in iron, especially
in the A and B horizons. However, it is doubtful whether these
differences are of significance. The Iredell contains considerably
more basic materials which, undoubtedly, have an important bearing
on its physical properties, especially its dispersivity and plasticity.
The color of the two soils is in marked contrast. The Iredell is yellow,
and the Davidson, in spite of its lower iron content, is very red.
Undoubtedly the greater part of the iron in the Iredell is present as a
part of the complex silicate, whereas in the Davidson it is present as
a partly hydrated oxide. This is in accord with the acid dye adsorp-
tion figures obtained by J. G. Smith, of this bureau. The Iredell B
horizon adsorbed 0.0016 gram of biebrich scarlet per gram of soil,
whereas the Davidson Bi horizon adsorbed 0.0057 gram per gram.
The chemical analyses of the colloid extracted from these soils is
shown in Table 5. Only the B horizon was examined. No dis-
persion agent was used in the Iredell soil, and 63.3 grams of colloid
were extracted from 100 grams of soil, the separation being made at 1
micron; 55.7 grams were extracted from 100 grams of the Davidson.
Since this colloid would not stay in suspension \vithout some disper-
sion agent, sufficient ammonia was added to keep it in suspension.
This fact is probably as significant with respect to erosion as any of
the properties which have been discussed. It accounts for the fria-
bility and high percolation rate of the Davidson soil, owing to the
flocculation and granulation of the particles. It undoubtedly accounts
for the low erosivity and the physical properties, such as the disper-
sion ratio, of which it is indicative.
Table 5. — Chemical composition of colloids from the Iredell (erosive) and the David-
son (nonerosive) soils ^
Sam-
&^
No.
Soil type from which
colloid was
extracted
Hori-
zon
Depth
SiOs
TiOi
FeiOs
AljOs
MnO
CaO
MgO
14C
Iredell loam..
B
Bi
Inches
10-20
9-36
Per cent
40.73
36.92
Per cent
1.91
.92
Per cent
15.45
16.03
Per cent
26.94
31.67
Per cent
0.014
.06
Percent
a 97
.56
Per cent
0.93
17C
Davidson clay loam..
.41
Sam-
Soil type from which col-
loid was extracted
K2O
NaaO
PjOs
SO3
N
Ignition
loss
HiOat
110° C.
Mok SiOi
Mols RjOs
14C
Iredell loam
Per cent
0.11
..•^7
Per cent
0
Per cent
n IS
1
Per cent Per cent
0. 16 0. 15
.12 .07
Per cent
12.44
13 u
Per cent
7.25
3 20
1.88
17C
Davidson clay loam
o\ .18
l.£0
Determinations by Q. J. Hough.
The analyses of the two colloids are very similar, the most impor-
tant difference being shown in the silica-sesquioxide ratio which, how-
ever, is not so great as might be expected from such contrasting soils.
The water at 110° C. also shows a significant difference. These sam-
PROPERTIES OF SOILS WHICH INFLUENCE SOIL EROSION 11
pies were air-dried and kept together in the same laboratory at all
times so the air-dry moisture content would be in the same order as
the adsorption of water vapor over 30 per cent sulphuric acid {8,
p. 11).
Several other determinations, some of which are listed in Table 6,
were made on these soils. The heat-of -wet ting determinations were
made by the method outlined by Anderson {Ij p. 927), the pH deter-
minations electrometrically, and the modified dispersion ratio by
shaking a 10-gram sample of soil in 100 cubic centimeters of water in
a reciprocating shaker for seven hours before transferring it to a
cylinder and pipetting in the usual manner.
Table 6. — Miscellaneous determinations on the Iredell and Davidson soils
Sam-
SoU type
Hori-
zon
Depth
Heat of
wetting 1
pH
Modified
disper-
sion ratio
12
Iredell loam
At
C
A
Bi
Bj
C
Inches
0-5
5-10
10-20
20+
0-9
9-36
36-60
60+
Cal. per
gm.
4.6
2.6
7.4
5.4
2.9
3.7
4.9
3.9
6.6
6.9
6.7
6.7
6.4
5.2
4.5
4.4
87.4
13
do
14
do -
96.2
15
do
Davidson clay loam
16
84,9
17
_..._do
(2)
18
do ...
19
do
» Determinations by M. S^ Anderson.
2 Flocculated. With sufficient NH4OH to prevent flocculation=96.4.
The heat-of-wetting determinations are approximately twice as
high for the respective horizons of the Iredell soil as for the Davidson.
Since the two soils have approximately the same colloidal content in
their respective horizons, a much higher heat of wetting is indicated,
corresponding to the higher silica-sesquioxide ratio, as shown by
Anderson and Mattson (2) for the Ireden colloid.
The pH determinations indicate that the Iredell soil is more nearly
neutral than the Davidson. The acidity of the Davidson, which
increases with depth, is probably responsible for the flocculating action
of the colloid. The modified dispersion ratio indicates that the
Iredell B horizon is nearly completely dispersed by shaking seven
hours whereas that of the Davidson is completely flocculated.
XmRD GROUP
Data as to the quantity of run-off and the degree of erosion taking
place for periods of three or more years are available for the erosion
experiment stations at Columbia, Mo., Spur, Tex., and Raleigh.
N. C. These data show rather wide variation when the quantity of
rainfall and the slope of the plots are considered. With a view to
determining to what extent the character of the soil influenced these
results, samples were obtained * from the various stations.
DESCRIPTION OP SAMPLES
Cecil fine sandy loam from erosion experiment station, Raleigh,
N. C. Sample No. 20, 0 to 6 inches, surface soil; and sample No. 21,
6 to 24 inches, subsoil.
♦ The writer wishes to acknowledge the courtesy ef R. E. Dickson, of the Texas Agricultural Experiment
Station, of H. H. Krusekopf, of the University of Missouri, and of S. H. McCrory, of the Bureau of Public
Roads, in providing these samples.
12 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 178, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Shelby loam from erosion experiment station, Columbia, Mo.
Sample No. 22, 0 to 7 inches, A horizon; sample No. 23, 7 to 24 inches,
B horizon; and sample No. 24, 24 to 36 inches, C horizon.
Miles clay loam from erosion experiment station. Spur, Tex.
Sample No. 25, 0 to 8 inches, surface soil.
RESULTS
The samples obtained were representative of the erosion station
plots. However, only two plot treatments were the same for all three
stations — sod plots and bare uncultivated plots. Inasmuch as there
was no similarity in the types of grass grown in the sod plots, only
the data for bare uncultivated plots ^ {10, 11) were examined. Some
of the pubUshed data have been recalculated. The results obtained
are given in Table 7.
Table 7. — Some of the physical properties of soils' and erosion data from erosion
experiment stations
Sam-
Duration
Mechanical
analysis »
Col-
loid
Mois-
ture
equiv-
alent
Maxi-
mum
water-
to.
SoUtype
of experi-
ment
Depth
Sand
Silt
Clay
hold-
ing
capac-
ity
20
21
Cecil fine sandy loam, North Carolina,
do - - . --
1924-1927
1924-1927
1917-1923
1917-1923
1917-1923
1926-1928
Inches
0-6
6-24
0-7
7-24
24-36
0-8
58.0
28.4
11.9
6.1
14.9
30.1
14.4
12.3
61.4
49.7
42.3
33.1
25.3
58.6
24.3
42.5
41.7
34.0
Per
cent
21.1
53.9
19.5
40.2
37.6
31.4
Per
cent
19.2
32.9
23.6
32.4
30.4
25.2
Per
cent
46.9
64.4
22
Shelby loam, Missoi
do
iri
5L6
23
24
64.6
57.0
25
Miles clay loam, Te
sas
56.3
Soil type
Slak-
ing
value
Dis-
per-
sion
ratio
Katio
of col-
loid to
mois-
ture
equiv-
alent
Ero-
sion
ratio
Ratio
of clay
tosUt
Bare uncultivated plots
Sam-
Slope
Aver-
age an-
nual
rain-
fall^
Aver-
run-
ofl
Aver-
age an-
nual
run-
off
Aver-
age an-
nual
ero-
sion
Ero-
sion
per
inch of
run-off
20
Cecil fine sandy
loam, North Car-
olina
Sec-
onds
60
28.4
9.8
31.0
27.6
30.3
27.4
LIO
L64
.83
1.24
1.24
1.25
25.8
6.0
37.4
22.3
24.4
21.9
L76
4.76
.40
.86
.99
L03
Per
cent
9
Inches
4L16
Per
cent
32
Inches
13.3
Tons
per
acre
21. U
Tons
per
acre
L6
21
do
22
Shelby loam, Mis-
souri...
65
3.68
35.87
49
17.6
39.13
2.2
23
do.
do
24
25
Miles clay loam,
Texas
25
2
20.30
38
7.7
2L77
2.8
» Determinations by L. T. Alexander.
» Average for the duration of the experiment.
The data of Table 7, in the light of the results obtained in the first
two groups, would lead one to expect amounts of erosion somewhat
at variance with those actually obtained in the field. On the Texas
soil (No. 25) the slope, rainfall, and run-off are all lower than at
the other stations, but the erosion is the greatest. This soil has the
lowest dispersion ratio, the highest ratio of colloid to moisture
equivalent, and the lowest erosion ratio of the three surface soils,
• Babtel, F. O. Progress report on soil erosion and run-off experiments at north Carolina
EXPERIMENT STATION FARM. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Puh. Roads, Div. Agr. Engin. [Mimeographed.]
PROPERTIES OF SOILS WHICH INFLUENCE SOIL EROSION 13
which would indicate that it is the least erosive. The differences,
however, are not large, and from the laboratory data all these soils
would be classed as highly erosive, as they actually are in the field.
These soils occur under widely divergent conditions of climate and
topography, the experiments did not run concurrently, and additional
factors ^ not indicated by the data influenced results.
Under these conditions it would be too much to expect that the labo-
ratory results would indicate accurately the relative erosivity of these
soils. Under more nearly similar conditions a closer correlation
would undoubtedly appear.
DISCUSSION
The results obtained in the investigation of the three groups of
samples do not include all the properties which may have a bearing
on the question. A preliminary study made of the angle of repose
indicated that it is much greater in nonerosive soil in a saturated
condition than in an easily eroded soil. It is possible that the plas-
ticity number would be more significant than the lower liquid Hmit.
The percolation rates, if available, would doubtless be of value.
The quantity of organic matter, the silica-sesquioxide ratio, and
the totd exchangeable bases all have some bearing on the erosional
behavior of soils. A complete picture would, doubtless, require the
determination of these quantities. On the other hand, some of the
properties actually determined seem to have little bearing on the
question at issue. The maximum water-holding capacity, the lower
hquid limit, and the properties of briquettes at maximum density
show no marked differences with respect to erosive and nonerosive
soils. The slaking-value determination may, with some modification,
be of distinct value. The results obtained indicate that the slaking
value increases with increase in the quantity of colloid, but the
indications are that, other things being equal, the slaking value will
be higher for a nonerosive soil. This is illustrated by the Iredell
(No. 12) and Davidson (No. 16) soils in Table 3.
None of the chemical properties studied have been found useful
in differentiating between erosive and nonerosive soils, though
undoubtedly the dispersivity of a soil is influenced by the quantity
and character of the exchange bases present and the silica-sesqui-
oxide ratio is the determining influence on physical properties.
The nonerosive soils reported in this bulletin have all developed
under conditions of high annual rainfall (40 inches or more), which
indicates a low silica-sesquioxide ratio. Kobinson and Holmes {21)
found that soil colloids having a ratio less than 1.85 were from
localities having 40 or more inches of rainfall annually.
The outstanding characteristics of soils which make possible their
differentiation with respect to erosion seem to be the dispersion
ratio, the ratio of colloid to moisture equivalent, and the erosion ratio.
The dispersion ratio is probably the most valuable single criterion
in distinguishing between erosive and nonerosive soils. It is logical
• For example, the Texas experiment was started in 1926, when the rainfall was greater than in any other
of the 17 years during which records had been kept at the Spur station. In the annual report of the Spur
station for 1926 the condition of the soil at the beginning of the experiment is described as follows: "The
soil in the plots at the beginning of this test was in an abnormal condition for the following reasons: Some
subsoil was mixed unavoidably with the surface soil when the ditches were dug for the erection of the
walls; the soil was packed very hard by men walking across it during the time the plant was under con-
struction; the soil in spots had become puddled."
14
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 178, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
to assume that soil material which is easily brought into suspension
is more readily carried away by run-off water. The highest disper-
sion ratio obtained for the nonerosive soils was 15.1 (No. 10) and the
lowest for the erosive soils was 13.0 (No. 13). It is probable that on
the basis of this property alone soils with a dispersion ratio of less
than 15 may safely be classed as nonerosive. The method of making
the determination may unquestionably be improved. During the
course of the investigation several improvements were suggested, but
the original method was adhered to in order to keep determinations
comparable.
Ttxe ratio of colloid to moisture equivalent is also an important
criterion of erosion. The nonerosive soils examined have all shown
a high ratio (approximately 1.5 or more), and no erosive soil has
shown a ratio as high as 1.5. However, the greatest significance of
the ratio of colloid to moisture equivalent is in its relation to the
erosion ratio.
The erosion ratio is even more significant than the dispersion ratio,
because it involves two additional factors which have an important
bearing on erosion, the quantity and the character of the colloid.
The erosion ratio is an indication of the erosiveness of soils under
similar field conditions. It does not necessarily indicate the relative
degree of erosion of soils which are subject to different conditions of
topography and climate, particularly temperature and quantity and
periodicity of rainfall. This, in part, accounts for the lack of correla-
tion between the erosion ratio and the extent of erosion on the experi-
ment-station soils.
In order to illustrate more clearly the variation of the erosion ratio
for the soils examined, the erosion ratios in Tables 1, 3, and 7, are
sho^vn in descending numerical order in Table 8.
Table 8. — Erosion ratio summarized
Sam-
Son type
Depth
Ero-
sion
ratio
Sam-
^1
Soil type
Depth
Ero-
sion
ratio
3
Memphis silt loam
Inches
120-216
0-8
0-16
0-7
0-6
96-136
24-36
0-5
8-28
20-27
72-96
7-24
0^
115.8
65.2
50.9
37.4
25.8
24.8
24.4
24.2
23.2
22.8
22.4
22.3
21.9
13
14
5
16
10
19
11
21
18
17
8
9
Iredell loam
Inches
5-10
10-20
16-72
0-9
0-20
60+
20-40
6-24
36-60
9-36
0-12
12-24
15 7
1
do
do
Orangeburg fine sandy loam.
Davidson clay loam
15.0
4
22
Orangeburg fine sandy loam.
Shelby loam. . .
12.4
12 2
20
7
Cecil fine sandy loam
Orangeburg fine sandy loam.
Shelby loam .._
Aikin silty clay loam
Davidson clay loam
8.7
7.7
24
Aikin silty clay loam
Cecil fine sandy loam
Davidson clay loam
6 9
12
Iredell loam
6 0
2
Memphis silt loam
4 3
15
Iredell loam.
do
3.7
6
Orangeburg fine sandy loam.
Shelby loam. .
Nipe clay
2.9
23
do
2.2
25
MUes clay loam
If the upper limit for nonerosive soils is arbitrarily set at 10, the
surface horizon of the Davidson clay loam (No. 16) is the only non-
erosive soil which does not come within this limit. If the limit is
made higher, the Orangeburg fine sandy loam subsoil (No. 5) will be
included. This material is probably relatively resistant to erosion,
the difficulty being caused by the ready washing out of the sandy
substratum (No. 6), which causes the heavier-textured layers above
to cave in. However, until more data are available it seems advisable
to set the Hmit for the erosion ratio at 10 for nonerosive soils.
PROPERTIES OF SOILS WHICH INFLUENCE SOIL EROSION 15
From these data it is clear that soils may readily be classified as
erosive or nonerosive when they differ widely in their erosion ratios as
herein defined. However, whether within narrow limits of difference
the ratio is sufficiently distinctive to place soils in exact relative order
of erosiveness is not wholly certain. The number of samples which
have been examined was necessarily Hmited, owing to the difficulty
of obtaining samples whose erosional characteristics were known.
As the number of erosion experiments is increased, however, it will be
possible ' to obtain more exact data on the field behavior of soils
which are necessary for a proper comparison with the data obtained
in the laboratory.
SUMMARY
A study of the physical and chemical properties of three erosive
and three nonerosive soil types is presented. The properties having
the greatest influence on soil erosion are indicated by the dispersion
ratio, the ratio of colloid to moisture equivalent, the erosion ratio,
and the silica-sesquioxide ratio. Limiting values of these ratios are
tentatively suggested for distinguishing erosive from nonerosive soils.
Determinations made on samples of soil from three erosion experi-
ment stations are compared with the erosion and run-off data.
LITERATURE CITED
(1) Anderson, M. S.
1924. THE HEAT OP WETTING OF SOIL COLLOIDS. JouF. AgF. Research 28:
927-935.
(2) and Mattson, S.
1926. PROPERTIES of THE COLLOIDAL SOIL MATERIAL. U. S. Dept. AgF,
Bul. 1452, 47 p., iUus.
(3) Atterberg, a.
1911. DIE PLASTiziTAT DER TONE. Intematl. Mitt. Bodenk. 1: 10-43,
illus.
(4) Bennett, H. H.
1926. some comparisons of the properties of humid-tropical and
humid-temperate AMERICAN SOILS, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE
TO INDICATED RELATIONS BETWEEN CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. Soil Sci. 21: 349-375, illus.
(5)
(6)
1926. AGRICULTURE IN CENTRAL AMERICA. Ann. Assoc. Amer. Geogr.
16: 63-84.
1928. THE GEOGRAPHICAL RELATION OF SOIL EROSION TO LAND PRODUC-
TIVITY. Geogr. Rev. 18: 579-605.
(7) and Allison, R. V.
1928. THE soils of CUBA. 410 p., illus. Washington, D. C.
(8) and Chapline, W. R.
1928. SOIL erosion a national menace. U. S. Dept. Agr. Circ. 33,
36 p., illus.
(9) Boyd, J. R.
1922. physical properties of subgrade materials. Amer. See.
Testing Materials Proc. 22 (Pt. II) : 337-355, illus.
(10) Dickson, R. E.
1929. the results and significance op the spur (texas) run-off
AND EROSION EXPERIMENTS. JOUF. AmCF. SoC. AgFOn. 21:
415-422.
(11) DuLET, F. L., and Miller, M. F.
1923. EROSION AND SURFACE RUN-OFF UNDER DIFFERENT SOIL CONDI-
TIONS. MissouFi AgF. Expt. Sta. ReseaFch Bul. 63, 50 p., illus.
(12) GiLE, P. L., MiDDLETON, H. E., RoBiNSON, W. O., Fry, W. H., and Ander-
son, M. S.
1924. ESTIMATION OF COLLOIDAL MATERIALS IN SOILS BY ADSORPTION.
U. S. Dept. AgF. Bul. 1193, 42 p.
16 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 178, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
(13) HiLGABD, E. W.
1921. SOILS, THEIR FORMATION, PROPERTIES, COMPOSITION, AND RELA-
TIONS TO CLIMATE AND PLANT GROWTH IN THE HUMID AND ARID
REGIONS. 593 p., illus. New York and London.
(14) HiLLEBRAND, W. F.
1919. THE ANALYSIS OP SILICATE AND CARBONATE ROCKS. U. S. Gcol.
Survey Bui. 700, 285 p., Ulus.
(16) McGee, W. J.
1911. SOIL EROSION. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Soils Bui. 71, 60 p., illus.
(16) MiDDLETON, H. E.
1920. THE MOISTURE EQUIVALENT IN RELATION TO THE MECHANICAL
ANALYSIS OP SOILS. Soil Sci. 9: 159-167, illus.
(17)
1924. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE BINDING POWER OP SOIL COLLOIDS.
Jour. Agr. Research 28: 499-513, illus.
(18) National Conservation Commission.
1909. report op the national conservation commission, february,
1909 ... 3 v., iUus. (U. S. 60th Cong., 2d sess., S. Doc. 676.)
(19) NovXk, V.
1927. CONCLUSIONS OF THE FIRST COMMISSION MEETING AT ROTHAMSTED-
HARPENDEN 1926. Intematl. Soc. Soil Sci. 16 p. Brno,
Czechoslovakia. [In English, French, and German.]
(20) Robinson, W. O.
1922. THE ABSORPTION OP WATER BY SOIL COLLOIDS. JoUF. PhvS. Chem.
26: 647-653.
(21) and Holmes, R. S.
1924. THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SOIL COLLOIDS. U. S. Dcpt. AgT.
Bui. 1311, 42 p.
O. S. COVERNMENT PRIRTIR6 OFFICE: 1930
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. - - - - Price 5 cents
Technical Bulletin No. 177
March, 1930
COMMERCIAL IRRIGATION
COMPANIES
BY
WELLS A. HUTCHINS
Irrigation Economist^ Division of Agricultural Engineering
Bureau of Public Roads
United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. --- Price 10 cents
Technical Bulletin No. 177
March, 1930
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
COMMERCIAL IRRIGATION COMPANIES^
By Weuls a Hutchins
Irrigation Economist, Dimsion of Ac/rictdtural Engineering, Bureau of
Puhlic Roads
CONTENTS
PaffO
Introduction - 1
Conclusions as to present usefulness of com-
mercial companies 2
As a means of irrigation development. .. 2
As a permanent irrigation-utility invest-
ment - --- 3
As a means of best serving the interests of
water users 4
Classification of commercial companies 5
Construction or development companies, 5
Private-contract companies .-- 5
Public-utility companies 6
Contribution of commercial enterprises to
irrigation development 6
Why commercial-company investments have
been generally unprofitable 6
Construction or development companies. 7
Private-contract companies 8
Public-utility companies 9
Internal features of commercial companies.. 15
Character of organization 15
Securities .-. 15
Page
Internal features of commercial companies —
Continued.
Water rights 16
Q ualiflcations of consumers 17
Rights of consumers upon transfer of util-
ity properties 18
Water charges and collections.. 18
Management 22
Public regulation of irrigation utilities. 23
Power of State to regulate 23
Companies subject to regulation 23
Regulating agencies 25
Proceedings 25
Rates 25
Service 31
Security issues and construction 33
Accounting 34
What public regulation has accom-
plished 34
Appendix 36
Literature cited 39
INTRODUCTION
The commercial irrigation company is an organization designed to
construct and operate irrigation works for the profit of persons who
build the works and retain temporary or permanent ownership. It
thus differs essentially from the mutual irrigation company and
the irrigation district, which are nonprofit community enterprises.
Commercial irrigation companies in 1919, according to the Four-
teenth Census, were irrigating 1,822,001 acres and reported a total
capital investment of $85,735,470. Commercial companies for years,
however, have been giving place to community organizations, im-
portant transfers having taken place since 1919. In view of this,
the present study was undertaken to determine (1) whether the com-
^ Prepared under the direction of W.
Agrricultural Engineering.
94459—30 1
W. McLaughlin, Associate Chief, Division of
2 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGEICULTURE
mercial company is useful mainly as a phase in the development of
community enterprises, and what promise, if any, it still holds as a
permanent operating organization, and (2) the influence upon its
usefulness of public regulation, which is mainly a development of
the past 15 years. Whatever part the commercial company may
play in future development of new irrigation projects, it unquestion-
ably represents at the present time a considerable investment and
is the means of serving many water users. This connection presents
some serious problems in administration and public regulation upon
which it is hoped the discussion in this bulletin may throw light.
Data were secured for this study from some 40 projects, 13 of
which are located in California and the others scattered throughout
the West, mainly by visits to company headquarters and in some
cases from records of State commissions; in addition, a considerable
amount of detached information was obtained from various sources
concerning many other enterprises. Of these 40 projects, 1 suffered
disaster to its irrigation wDrks which has not been repaired, 5 have
recently been acquired by the water users, and 34 are being operated
by commercial companies.
Commercial irrigation companies are to be sharply distinguished
from domestic-water companies, of which there are many in the
United States. The two groups are on entirely different economic
footings, and the comments and conclusions presented in this bulletin
as to the character, usefulness, and financial returns of commercial
companies furnishing water for irrigation are not intended to apply
to those furnishing water to municipalities for domestic and indus-
trial purposes.
CONCLUSIONS AS TO PRESENT USEFULNESS OF
COMMERCIAL COMPANIES
AS A MEANS OF IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT
The commercial company's chief value in irrigation development
is in combined land and irrigation enterprises. It is not a medium
for acquiring large profits and is best adapted to projects which
depend for profits primarily upon the increment in land values re-
sulting from irrigation and in which selling prices to settlers are
placed low enough to encourage individual success. When the need
for new development again arises and land-settlement conditions
improve, sound projects of this type may offer reasonable profits to
speculative capital, with, of course, the risk incident to any new
enterprise.
Capital stock of commercial companies is on the whole the only
suitable means of financing new irrigation construction privately.
Bonds are not suitable, for their value depends wholly upon future
settlement and improvement of lands at a fairly rapid rate, and
they are, therefore, speculative rather than income-producing in-
vestments. Capital stock, however, taken by a group of individuals
familiar with the situation and prepared to take either substantial
profits or heavy losses, purports to represent nothing else than
speculative ownership and consequently offers a more legitimate
means of attracting capital for new development.
COMMERCIAL IRRIGATIOlSr COMPANIES 6
The commercial company is not so well adapted as. the irrigation
district to financing extensions, improvements, or increase of water
suppl}^ of an established irrigation community.
AS A PERMANENT IRRIGATION UTILITY INVESTMENT
IN GENERAL
Experience under public-utility regulation has shown rather con-
clusively that so far as the present and immediate future are con-
cerned, standards used in fixing rates of domestic water, power, and
gas utilities can not be applied unqualifiedly to irrigation companies.
The income of an irrigation utility is more closely identified with
the occupational industry of the average consumer than is the case
with other utilities. The quantity of irrigation water used by a
farmer largely governs the volume of crop production; hence the
value of irrigation-utility service to the farmer depends more upon
his profits and losses than the value of service to consumers of other
utilities depends upon their profits and losses, and consequently the
irrigation-utility income is more subject to violent depressions. The
irrigation-utility income, furthermore, owing to larger payments
from individuals and greater difficulty in taking on substitute con-
sumers, suffers more when consumers discontinue service. An irri-
gation company is ordinarily more affected by competition from in-
dividuals and can not always claim a monopoly. Finally, the wel-
fare of the irrigation utility is based upon a hazardous industry
which for some years past has not expanded in step with many urban
pursuits upon which the growth of other utilities depends.
For these reasons investors in irrigation-utility stocks have not
been receiving the T or 8 per cent return on valuation set as the
standard in many rate-fixing cases and can neither expect to receive
it nor substantiate a claim that a much lower return is necessarily
confiscatory, so long as the present agricultural situation persists.
Even under very favorable circumstances an annual return of 8 per
cent is difficult to secure from an irrigation project ; hence the added
difficulty, where farmers are receiving 3 per cent on their own farm
investments may be readily appreciated. In reporting on 2,593 irri-
gated farms investigated in 1924 Teele (9)^ shows that an average
of $594 was available from farm income for payment of interest on
debts and for reduction of indebtedness, or 3.55 per cent of the total
farm value. Of this the amount available for reduction of indebted-
ness was $300, or 2.46 per cent of the farmer's net investment after
deducting indebtedness. Out of this return must come capital irri-
gation charges, such as profit to irrigation-utility owners.
The practical result of this situation is that utility owners in a
number of cases have endeavored to dispose of their irrigation sys-
tems to the water users, and failing this, have instituted drastic
operation economies.
OWNERSHIP ADVANTAGES IN SPECIAL CASES
Advantages of irrigation-utility ownership, other than that of
earning a fair return upon capital invested in irrigation works.
'Italic numbers in parentheses refer to Literature Cited, page 39.
U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
tend in exceptional cases to offset operation deficits. Several exam-
ples follow :
(1) Assurance of water supply for large tracts of land, or develop-
ment of additional supplies. This has actuated acquisition or con-
tinued possession of otherwise clearly losing enterprises, particularly
where 40 to 50 per cent of irrigable land belonged to one concern
not willing to risk its fortunes in a community organization. Earn-
ings from land are being made to comi>ensate for lack of irrigation
profits in several such cases.
(2) Improvement of service to land close to a city and development
of back country to augment the labor supply for a large stock-raising
industry.
(3) Protection of water rights from encroachment by hostile own-
ers. This was an important reason for the purchase of the Northern
Colorado Irrigation Co. system by the city of Denver.
(4) Protection of a sugar company's interests by assuring an ade-
quate acreage in sugar beets and discouraging competitors from en-
tering the territory.
(5) Settlement of conflicting local interests. Several years ago a
group of interests in southern California about to take over their
carrier canal voluntarily assumed a public-utility status. They were
suspicious of each other at that time and would not organize as a
mutual company but were willing to trust the matter of rates and
service to the railroad commission.
(6) Combined irrigation and power development. This feature,
however, has very little force at present, in view of the tendency of
power companies to sell out their irrigation business and to coop-
erate with irrigation districts. Furthermore, under public-utility
regulation, irrigation losses can not be saddled upon power con-
sumers, as was done in certain instances in the past. The situation
differs fundamentally from recoupment of public-service losses
through a purely private enterprise such as a land-development
company.
AS A MEANS OF BEST SERVING THE INTEI?ESTS OF WATER USERS
During an agricultural depression water users may be individually
better off under a utility than under a community organization, if
they can convince the rate-fixing commission that existing charges
are higher than the lands can stand. Reduced rates, however, will
probably mean pooi'er service. Aside from this doubtful advantage,
the water user ordinarily has little reason to prefer the public
utility to the district or mutual company from the standpoint of
operating the system serving him or improving its facilities, provided
he chooses the directors of Jiis community enterprise wisely and is
willing to spend the money necessary to hire an able executive.
With equal managerial ability and authority, an irrigation district
can be operated more economically than a utility, because of its
power to spread charges over all irrigable areas and for other rea-
sons discussed herein, and is therefore more desirable from the rate-
payer's standpoint. District and mutual company charges, further-
more, include amortization of the cost of construction, rather than
a perpetual profit to outsiders on capital invested. District bond
COMMERCIAL IRRIGATION COMPANIES O
markets have been active at certain periods during the present cen-
tury, whereas money for commercial enterprises has been increas-
ingly difficult to obtain. Consequently the possibility of financing
needed storage, extension, and improvement work through district
bond issues has been a most important inducement to water users to
buy commercial systems serving them, districts being preferred to
mutual companies primarily because of their better bond markets.
In view of these conditions, the trend from commercial to district
ownership of irrigation works has been marked, especially during the
past 12 to 15 years ; and with the district's superiority for operation
and supplemental development purposes established, there is no
apparent reason why the trend should not continue.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMMERCIAL COMPANIES
CONSTRUCTION OR DEVELOPMENT COMPANIES
Construction or development companies are designed for con-
struction of irrigation systems, sale of so-called " water rights "^ at
a profit and retirement from business upon disposal of all rights.
They have often been promoted in connection with subdivision and
sale of land, in which case the profit is expected to accrue largely
from enhanced value of land due to irrigation, rather than from sale
of rights to the use of water alone. The two methods of passing
control to settlers are: (1) Provision in contracts that when the
company shall have sold rights equal to the carrying capacity of the
canal it will transfer the system without further consideration to
the water users; and (2) formation of a mutual irrigation company
prior to land sales and transfer of stock to land purchasers, control
automatically passing to water users when more than one-half the
acreage has been sold.
COMPARATIVE FEATURES
Temporary life ; expected profits from initial sales of " water
rights " or of land and rights ; water users acquire proportional in-
terests in the irrigation system; irrigation rates usually not subject
to public regulation.
PRIVATE-CONTRACT COMPANIES
These companies construct irrigation systems and sell rights to
the use of water therefrom to land purchasers or other selected
individuals under contracts providing for perpetual service at rates
usually limited by the contracts and payable whether water is used
or not. These contracts do not provide for assumption of ownership
or control by water users.
3 The term " water riglit " is often applied loosely in connection with commorcial com-
panies. A water right, strictly speaking, is a right to the use of water, either originally
acquired by appropriation and perfected by beneficial use, or derived through ownership of
riparian land. If ac(iuir('d by appropriation, it may vest in the company making the
diversion or in the individual to whose land water is delivered, depending upon the
statutes and court decisions of the State involved. The tern> is used frequently, how-
ever, to denote the water user's interest in the irrigation system or his right as against
the company, which is more properly a right to the continued delivery of water through
that system. When such usage is intended In this bulletin, " water right " is shown for
convenience and clarity in quotation marks.
6 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
COMPARATIVE FEATURES
Permanent life ; expected profits from initial sales of " water
rights " or of land and rights and from annual rates ; users acquire
no interest in the irrigation system ; rates usually not subject to pub-
lic regulation.
PUBLIC-UTILITY COMPANIES
These enterprises devote all or part of their water supply to pub-
lic use, " holding themselves out as ready and willing to serve all
applicants to the extent of the available supply. Contracts regard-
ing rates made with consumers after dedication to public use are
subject to modification by the State. Consumers, therefore, may
be either contract holders or annual renters of water service.
COMPARATIVE FEATURES
Permanent life ; expected profits from annual rates ; users acquire
no interest in the system; rates subject to public regulation.
CONTRIBUTION OF COMMERCIAL ENTERPRISES TO
IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT
The rapid advances in large irrigation construction in the seventy's
and eighty's which marked a sharp departure from earlier small-
scale individual and community work, were financed mainly by out-
side capital attracted by the prospect of great increases in land
values, resulting from irrigation as well as profits from sale of " water
rights." Failure in so many of these ventures to induce settlers to
buy " water rights " compelled recognition of the absolute inter-
dependence of land and water, and led on the one hand to passage
of the Carey Act and on the other to many land-development schemes
in which irrigation construction has been necessary but often more
or less incidental. In the meantime other systems now usually
classed as public utilities were being developed, in some cases from
very small beginnings, for the purpose of obtaining continuous
profit from water deliveries to customers on an annual-rental basis.
From this commercial irrigation in the West has grown a large num-
ber of settled agricultural communities, of which many now own
their irrigation systems free from material indebtedness, others have
bonded for purchase of the systems, and still others are being served
by commercial enterprises. The number of older commercial enter-
prises is constantly decreasing, mainly by transfer to the district
form of organization, and few new ones are being organized except
those identified with land subdivisions, mostly on a small scale.
WHY COMMERCIAL-COMPANY INVESTMENTS HAVE BEEN
GENERALLY UNPROFITABLE
Commercial-irrigation investments, while contributing substan-
tially to the agricultural development of the West, have been so
generally unprofitable to investors that little new capital has been
available for such purposes for some years past. Certain causes of
trouble, common to all types of irrigation organizations — commercial
and nonprofit alike — are as follows : Lack of complete financing, re-
COMMERCIAL IREIGATION COMPANIES /
suiting in inefficient works and contraction or loss of original invest-
ment ; overcapitalization, due largely to high promotion costs, faulty
engineering, and extravagant construction; failure of water supply
to measure up to expectations; poor soils, overoptimism regarding
crop yields and prices, and inaccessibility of profitable markets; in-
adequate colonization of irrigable lands ; disaster to irrigation works,
and to other property from operation of works ; high capital charges,
in some cases unavoidable because of necessarily expensive character
of irrigation works and roughness of country traversed by canals;
poor management and extravagance in administration; expensive
litigation, frequently in connection with water rights; and heavy
delinquencies in payment of water charges during periods of agri-
cultural depression.
Some troubles, then, resulted from mistakes or dishonesty in
original financing or construction of systems, whereas others arose
in connection with subsequent operations. While often disastrous
to the particular investments involved, these troubles alone should
not weigh heavily against commercial developments, especially as
many of them grew from conditions the effect of which is being
constantly lessened by increasing knowledge and experience. On the
other hand, as shown below, there are other features which have an
important bearing upon the desirability of commercial investments
as distinguished from community irrigation obligations, and there-
fore call for special consideration.
CONSTRUCTION OR DEVELOPMENT COMPANIES
INABILITY TO INDUCE LANDOWNERS TO BUY " WATER RIGHTS "
Many early projects failed on account of inability to induce land-
owners to buy " water rights." Canals were built by promoters, fre-
quently with borrowed money, to serve both public and private lands
on the assumption that on completion of construction entrj^men and
owners would buy " water rights " promptly. Unfortunately there
was no way of compelling them to do so. Consequentlv lands were
often acquired by speculators who refused to purchase " water
rights " but held out in the hope of selling their lands to others at
high prices. So much land speculation and so little settlement by
bona fide farmers meant ruinous delays to canal promoters in meet-
ing obligations, with the result that creditors often had to foreclose
and in turn dispose of the systems on the best terms obtainable. An
insurance company that had made several such loans was compelled to
take over six canals in one State, two of which it is still operating
through subsidiary companies pending final disposal of all contract
rights, the original investment having been written off many vears
ago. After such experiences it was realized that prevention of this
particular trouble rested upon securing control of land as well as
water, or assurance of a substantial demand for water, before under-
taking construction.
DELAYS IN SELLING IRRIGABLE LANDS
Acquisition of large tracts of dry land, construction of irrigation
works, and resale of subdivided tracts with " water rights " attached
has been the program followed by some who appreciated the need of
8 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
identity in control of land and water. Such developments have
proved profitable when colonization proceeded rapidly, the water
supply proved ample, irrigation works adequate, soils fertile, and
economic conditions such that settlers were able to make their pay-
ments year after year. They have been disappointing where settle-
ment was slow or where the cost to settlers was so high as to result
in widespread failures and abandonments. Where such conditions
are general, forfeiture of payments already made by settlers on land
purchases is poor solace to the company. New people must be ob-
tained to take their places, and this is made more difficult by the
existence of numerous abandoned farmsteads. Promoters of certain
projects, with the sole idea of selling land, have yielded to the temp-
tation to build irrigation works as cheaply as possible, trusting to be
out of the way before replacements should become necessary. Pro-
tracted delays in selling the land have reduced expected profits in a
number of undertakings to little or nothing. In attempting to avoid
such situations neither rapid land settlement nor favorable economic
conditions can be assured, but certainly it is advantageous to design
such projects with the idea of success to the settlers.
INSUFFICIENT OPERATION CHARGES
" Water-right " contracts offered by development companies usually
provided that the settler pay, in addition to purchase-price install-
ments, an annual operation and maintenance charge while the com-
pany operated the project. To attract purchasers this charge was
often made very small on the assumption that the project would soon
be sold out and the few seasons' operation deficits easily absorbed.
Delays in selling " water rights " and lands, however, led to heavy
accumulations of annual deficits which frequently affected profits
seriously.
PRIVATE-CONTRACT COMPANIES
Returns on investments in private-contract companies are expected
primarily from sale of " water rights " or of land with '* water
rights " attached, and are, therefore, subject to much the same haz-
ards as investments in development companies. Comments made
above, particularly on delays in selling irrigable lands, are appli-
cable here. The annual operation charge, however, requires further
discussion.
INFLEXIBLE CONTRACT OPERATION CHARGES
An added margin of profit is anticipated by owners of contract
companies to accrue perpetually from the annual operation or serv-
ice charge exacted from " water-right " purchasers ; otherwise there
would clearly be no inducement to continue indefinitely in the irri-
gation business after selling all " water rights." This annual service
charge, to fulfill its purposes, should be high enough to defray op-
eration and maintenance costs, provide for replacement of worn-out
or obsolete works, and yield in addition a reasonable profit to the
owners of the system. Actually the charge w^as often set at $1 or
$2 per acre, was fixed perpetually by contract, and was therefore un-
alterable— with certain exceptions not^d under " Companies subject
to regulation" (p. 23) without consent of the water user.
COMMERCIAL lERIGATIOlSr COMPANIES 9
Time has developed several fatal weaknesses in these contract
charges: (1) Predication upon economic conditions existing when
the contracts were signed, (2) inclusion of little or no margin for
protection against future changes in economic or operating condi-
tions, and (3) inflexibility. Consequently such contract rates have
almost invariably proved insufficient in the face of increasing op-
eration costs, and the owners have found themselves not only with-
out their annual margin of profit, but on the contrary compelled to
make up operation deficits themselves. Transfer of most of such
s^'^stems to the water users has inevitably resulted — in some cases at
reasonable compensation and in others as a gift, depending upon the
bargaining position of the parties.
It is to be emphasized that this condition has nothing to do with
the ability of water users to pay the contract rate, and is therefore
to be sharply distinguished from the main trouble with irrigation-
utility rates, discussed latef. The water users under private-con-
tract companies, because of their contractual rates, simply hold the
whip hand. Determination of the question of whether a given com-
pany is a private-contract company or a public utility is conse-
quently often a vital matter to owners and water users alike.
PUBLIC-UTILITY COMPANIES
Public-utility irrigation companies — called for convenience " irri-
gation utilities " — normally derive their income almost entirely from
annual rates paid by water users. The fact that owners of a given
utility may have resources connected with the utility's functions —
such as earnings from operation or sale of irrigated land — from
which deficits incurred in operating the irrigation system may be
recouped, is simply a fortunate combination of circumstances that
may make it possible or even desirable to continue in the irrigation
business in the face of inadequate irrigation returns, but that ordi-
narily has no bearing upon irrigation rates fixed by a public-utility
commission. Many of the important irrigation utilities have no such
outside resources. Consequently the rate question is vital in irriga-
tion-utility finance, and is in fact the outstanding question facing
these companies to-day.
INSUFFICIENCY OF ANNUAL RATES
That rates of irrigation utilities are all too frequently inadequate
is shown by Table 2 relating to California companies, which comprise
a very large proportion of irrigation utilities in the West. This
table is presented because the exact figures upon which it is based
are available and because it is a graphic representation of the general
situation in which irrigation utilities are found throughout the
West.
The table shows that for the 14 years ended with 1926 an average
of 28 companies reporting to the railroad commission showed net
incomes aggregating $424,734 per annum (averaging $15,169 each),
while 33 reported net losses aggregating $315,403 per annum (aver-
aging $9,558 each). That the companies with resources other than
proceeds from sales of irrigation water fared better, on the whole,
is indicated by the fact that the ratio of average irrigation earnings
94459—30 2
10 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
to average total revenues was 59 per cent for companies reporting
net incomes and 78 per cent for those with net losses.
The most significant fact brought out by this table is that the excess
of yearly average net incomes over net losses for all companies —
$109,331 — is but 0.38 per cent of the total nominal capitalization of
all companies. Even assuming that to approximate real value the
aggregate nominal capitalization should be cut in half, which would
undoubtedly be a much too drastic reduction, still the annual net
return to owners of California irrigation utilities, considered as a
whole, would average for these 14 years less than 1 per cent on the
value of their investments.
The table shows further that not over five companies paid divi-
dends in any year. Annual dividends averaged 3.82 per cent of the
capital stock of companies paying them. The averages have been
especially low during the past six years, except in 1923, when 70 per
cent of dividends paid was derived from revenue other than irri-
gation sales.
Complete information from other States is not available, but data
on hand show the situation to be in line with that in California.
Of the commercial companies in other States doing primarily an
irrigation business which were studied in connection with this proj-
ect, very few were found to be actually making money under existing
rates.
WHY BATES ARE INADEQUATE
Existing irrigation rates as a whole not only fail to give utility
owners a 6 to 8 per cent return, but in some cases are barely suffi-
cient to provide properly for operation and maintenance. Why,
then, has public-utility regulation not corrected this condition?
Mainly for three reasons, discussed in the following pages: (1)
With some companies rate increases can not be legally forced upon
the water users, (2) with others increases are legally and economi-
cally possible but inadvisable for psychological reasons, (3) with
still others increases are legally possible but out of the question
economically.
NO AUTHORITY TO CHANGE RATES
In several States there is no statutory authority for regulation of
irrigation rates, and little or no demand for it, as only a few com-
panies are affected. A more serious matter in some other jurisdic-
tions has been the existence, on portions of utility systems, of private-
contract rates which public authority is powerless to disturb. Such
contracts were necessarily entered into before the companies devoted
the balance of their water supplies to public use. Lack of legal
power to increase these contract rates deprives the company of a
portion of the income to which it would otherwise be entitled.
Much friction among water users likewise ensues because of the
apparent discrimination in rates.
COMMERCIAL IRRIGATION COMPANIES 11
INCREASES NOT ADVISABLE
Threatened loss of custom due to competition from individual
pumping plants has deterred several companies from asking for
needed rate raises.^ The effect of this condition is intensified by
the tendency of so many prospective pump owners, in figuring pump-
ing costs, to overlook interest and depreciation on the plant and the
inevitable increase in operating cost when extensive pumping over a
large area shall have lowered the underground water level.
Other reasons in this category for not seeking or allowing higher
rates have been: (1) Probable retarding effect upon disposal of
further " water rights " ; (2) shift of intending settlers to neighbor-
ing projects, due to their lower water charges; (3) increase in al-
ready existing friction between private-contract holders and public-
utility users on the same system, due to rate differentials; and (4)
antagonism which might defeat pending negotiations for sale of
systems to water users. In this last group of cases the owners'
original purposes in building or acquiring the systems had been ac-
complished, and continuance of control even with adequate rate levels
was no longer desired, because of reorganizations or other changes
in ownership personnel or because needed storage or drainage works
could be more successfully financed by district organizations.
USERS UNABLE TO PAY HIGHER RATES
In a large number of cases inadequate rates are due to inability
of users to pay more for the service rendered and are maintained at
such levels by companies or utility commissions through recognition
of the fact that insistence upon higher payments would threaten
the company's main source of income.
WHAT USERS CAN PAY
A study was undertaken by the Department of Agriculture in
1924-25 to determine how much farmers can pay for water. This
study covered a number of irrigation projects or communities reflect-
ing the principal interests in western agriculture and included 2,593
farms operated by their owners. The results, as reported by Teele
(P), showed that the average net return over expenditures for farm
and living purposes available for capital irrigation charges (amor-
tizing district bonds, buying private-contract rights, or paying re-
turns to utility owners) was $3.70 per acre. These returns varied
widely and were not at all proportionate to outstanding obligations
for " water rights."
Table 1, which was suggested by the leaders in this study, shows
the construction charge which will be amortized under the terms re-
quired or permitted by State irrigation district laws, based upon an
annual available farm income of $3.70 per acre. There is also in-
cluded a comparison of charges under permissible public-utility
returns.
* This led the California Railroad Commission in one case to fix a rate comparable with
the cost of pumping at that time, which was lower than a rate based upon value of the
system would have been. (4)
12
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Table 1. — Construction charge per acre on which available farm income imll
amortize district honds or pay permissible returns to public-utility oivners
Annual
farm
income
Capital
invested
in irriga-
tion works,
or con-
struction
charge
Term
in which
district
bonds
bearing
6 per cent
interest
wiUbe
amortized
Maximum
return to
public-
utility
owners i
Annual
rate
required to
provide
return
to public-
utility
owners
of 8 per
cent on
capital
invested
Dollars
per acre
3.70
Dollars
per acre
{ 27
36
42
47
51
54
56
Years
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Per cent
8
8
8
7.9
7.3
6.9
6.6
Dollars
per acre
2.16
2.88
3.36
3.76
4.08
4.32
4.48
1 8 per cent is usually the maximum permissible return upon which public-utility rate revisions are based
Three conclusions may be drawn from Table 1 :
(1) The limit upon valuation of irrigation Avorks for rate-making
purposes, beyond which public-utility owners could not expect to
obtain 8 per cent under average conditions prevailing throughout
these projects during the past few years, was well under $35 to $50
per acre.
(2) A net return of $3.70 per acre per annum from farm opera-
tions will enable water users on a project capitalized at $55 an acre
to buy the works free and clear in periods authorized by district
law^s of some States, yet will not enable them to pay the annual rate
necessary to give utility owners the maximum return they expect
under favorable conditions.
(3) The margin available for capital irrigation charges or other
purposes under present conditions is very narrow on many projects
and therefore materially limits the value of service to the utility
consumer. In view of this, a variation in an annual public-utility
rate of $1 or $2 per acre is sufficient in many cases to measure the
diiference, on the one hand, between ability and lack of ability of
users to pay and, on the other, between satisfactory and unsatisfac-
tory performance from the utility owner's point of view. Particu-
larly is this true since, as shown below, these figures are based on
total irrigable areas from which the district, but not necessarily the
utility, can count on revenue.
ABILITY TO PAY AS AFFECTED BY CHARACTER OF ORGANIZATION
Limitation of rate-paying ability by the narrow margin just dis-
cussed affects utility revenues more severely than those of districts
or mutual companies and offers an explanation as to why nonprofit
community organizations under parallel conditions have been better
able to withstand the postwar agricultural depression.
The average irrigation project includes areas seldom or never
irrigated but which benefit from their location through enhancement
of market value or from subirrigation from adjoining lands. An
COMMERCIAL IRRIGATION COMPANIES 13
irrigation district usually includes and assesses such tracts, but a
public utility can not force them to contribute revenue. On some
utility systems, reasonably capitalized from the standpoint of po-
tentially irrigable lands and which apparently would be feasible as
districts, the value of service to lands actually irrigated is not suf-
ficient to cover the entire overhead. The result is that rates are
necessarily insufficient.
Some projects include areas in crops requiring water only in dry
years, or in annual crops planted only when markets are promising,
with resulting fluctuations in demand for water. Here, again, the
public utility suffers by comparison with the district or mutual com-
pany or even with the private-contract company — which is entitled
to an annual payment from each customer regardless of whether
water is used or not — inasmuch as the utility has insufficient recourse
or none at all to its idle noncontract users. Liens against contract
lands acquired by public utilities prior to commission regulation
have been left undisturbed by State commissions in some rate-fixing
cases, but usually these cover only part of the lands served and there-
fore afford only partial protection. Stand-by charges furthermore
(see " Public regulation of irrigation utilities," p. 23) can not cover
the entire range of expenses. Consequently losses from lack of de-
mand must be (1) anticipated by fixing rates estimated to be ade-
quate when averaged over a series of years; or (2) included in sub-
sequent years' rates and paid wholly or partly by these occasional
users; or (3) absorbed by utility owners. Where the first course
is feasible the utility may well be on a sound basis, but the difficulty
in so many actual situations is that higher rates necessary to cover
lack of revenue from temporarily idle lands are found impracti-
cable w^hen measured by ability of irrigated lands to pay. Increased
rates required by the second course are often equally impracticable,
whether applied to regularly irrigated lands or to those occasionally
irrigated. However, crops subject to extreme fluctuations in price,
such as rice, are capable of carrying heavy loads in some years. ^
Revenue losses due to lack of demand that can not be carried by ac-
tual users must necessarily be written off by the utility.
Temporary shortages of water cause loss of revenue which can be
recouped by districts and mutual companies through assessments
upon all land or stock and against which private-contract com-
panies are usually protected by contract provisions for prorating
water. Public utilities may have similar provisions in contracts;
but these, as stated above, usually apply to only part of their users.
Recovery of these losses is subject to much the same difficulties as
those outlined in the preceding paragraph; in other words, is im-
practicable where higher rates would exceed the value of service.
Water users are apt to be very antagonistic toward a public-service
corporation representing outside capital — much more so than where
stock is owned locally. They dislike to pay a profit to outsiders,
° This fact led the Texas Board of Water Engineers in fixing rates of a rice irrigation
company in 1919 to include 6 per cent on valuation as the owners' normal return and an
additional 7 per cent as " estimated reasonable profits " — subject to modification whenever
necessary — in order to compensate the owners for losses in other years due to reductions
in area served, (J. E. Broussard et al. v. The Anahuac Canal Co., July 16, 1919.)
Disaster to the irrigation system in question prevented a thorough test of this set-up.
14 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
who may have no interest in local matters aside from making money
out of the irrigation system, and they are not readily convinced of
absence of profits. With a heritage of bitterness from the days
when water disputes often meant bloodshed, real or fancied griev-
ances against the company are likely to be perpetuated and to result
in a permanent attitude of hostility. The practical results are lack
of cooperation from users in paying bills promptly and in elfecting
operation economies, general unpleasantness in administration, the
importance of which is not to be minimized, and a multiplicity of
damage suits which in the aggregate are very costly to the company
irrespective of outcome.^
This expensive hostility toward the management is, on the whole,
much less pronounced in community enterprises.
Other advantages of the district over the utility that have a bearing
upon operation costs are ability to obtain cheaper money ; lower cost
of financing ; exemption from local taxation, which is granted to com-
mercial companies in only a few States ;'^ possibility of correlating
irrigation and drainage activities under one management; and amor-
tization of replacement charges after they become necessary, rather
than in advance, as utility consumers are required to do — a point of
considerable importance to a project in course of development.
The fact is to be emphasized that these several causes, while often
of little importance in individual cases, have in the aggregate mater-
ially influenced the fortunes of irrigation utilities.
This question of ability of users to pay, which is the crux of
the irrigation-utility situation, may be summed up as follows : Irri-
gation projects are capitalized on the basis of potentially irrigable
lands; incomes of irrigation utilities are nevertheless derived from
payments by actual rather than potential water users, because of the
impracticability of holding unirrigated lands liable; deficits due to
failure of irrigable lands to take water must therefore be written off
by the utility or provided against by actual users of water to the
extent of the value of service to them, which in the last analysis is
measured by their ability to pay from proceeds of farm operations;
the margin of available farm income for some years past has been
very small; irrigation-utility owners have therefore been limited
to generally unsatisfactory profits or required to take net losses ; and
generally adequate irrigation-utility rates will be neither possible nor
justified until such marked improvement in the agricultural economic
situation has taken place that available income from actually irri-
gated farms will more than pay capital charges on all lands for which
service is made available.
«The local point of view on this matter may be illustrated by a case against a
California irrigation utility in which the jury, after watching the plaintifif's attorney dis-
play on a blackboard calculations from which he argued that judgment should be given
for $1,700, returned a verdict for over $1,900.
' This is a very substantial advantage. Taxes paid by the California companies con-
cerned in Table 2 averaged 10 per cent of total operating expenses for the years 1913
to 1926, inclusive, being lowest, with 7.7 per cent, in 1916, and increasing with con-
siderable regularity to 13.2 per cent in 1926.
COMMERCIAL IRRIGATION COMPANIES 15
INTERNAL FEATURES OF COMMERCIAL COMPANIES
CHARACTER OF ORGANIZATION
Commercial companies are usually incorporated, for reasons com-
mon to many industrial enterprises — namely, to effect a business or-
ganization which may enter into contracts, incur obligations, appear
in court, and hold property in the corporate name rather than by
joining all individual owners ; to limit liability of owners ; to secure
perpetual succession; to compel assent of disaffected minorities to
expenditures for needed improvements; and to attract capital by
issuance of stock and bonds. However, incorporation is not essential,
even to a public-utility status, for a system owned solely by one
person is classed by law as a utility if it performs public-service
functions.
Commercial enterprises engaged in other than purely irrigation
service are frequently organized into two or more companies under
common ownership. For example, Kern County Canal & Water Co.,
California, which holds most or all of the capital stock of 17 sub-
sidiary irrigation companies, is controlled by the interests owning
Kern County Land Co., which in turn owns a very large percentage
of lands served by the combined systems. Associated land and irri-
gation enterprises have been numerous. Other combinations in-
clude irrigation and livestock, power, or packing companies. Segre-
gation of functions under different companies in the early history
of a development paves the way for the eventual disentanglement of
physical assets and accounts that accompanies transfer of the irri-
gation system to water users or submission to public-utility
regulation.
SECURITIES
Capital stock of commercial irrigation companies represents own-
ership of the system only, and not, as with mutual companies, the
right to receive water. A majority of stock of a commercial com-
pany is sometimes held by a majority of water users, as is the case
with Hagerman Irrigation Co., New Mexico; and a mutual company
may acquire public-utility status by delivering water to other than
stockholders at cost. These, however, are exceptional phases. Com-
mercial-company stock is acquired primarily in expectation of prof-
its through dividends on enhanced market values or to obtain control
of the irrigation system for some specific purpose. Very rarely,
since the advent of public-utility regulation, do consumers acquire
stock to obtain special privileges. In fact, lower rates to stock-
holders have been specifically denied by the California Railroad
Commission in several irrigation cases on the ground that they con-
stitute discrimination. Such advantages as priorities in water serv-
ice or lower annual charges are now due, in most cases, to character
of water rights held by the individual or to private-contract re-
quirements which may be coincident with stock ownership yet not
derived through it.
Bonds were sold extensively to finance Carey Act and private
land and water development, especially during the early years of
the present century, few such issues being sold after 1913. These
16 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
bonds were secured by first mortgages upon all irrigation works
to be constructed, and by deposits of settlers' purchase-money con-
tracts for rights to water delivery or for lands and attached rights.
Deferred payments on contracts w^ere secured in turn by first liens
upon lands or, in case of reclamation of public lands, upon the
settlers' equity therein. For reasons given above, defaults upon
both Carey Act and private-company bonds were heavy.
Stocks, bonds, and short-term notes have all been issued by public-
service enterprises to finance construction work. Extensions of
going projects to reach new consumers have been financed by new
security issues, by assessments upon outstanding capital stock, and
by advances from consumers in the form of " water-right " con-
tracts, prepayments upon rates, or outright donations. Indebtedness
of utilities for capital expenditures can not be amortized through
normal rates paid by consumers; therefore maturing bond issues or
notes must be refunded by new obligations or paid from proceeds of
stock assessments or sale of new stock. Seven per cent cumulative
preferred stock of Sutter Butte Canal Co., California, was exchanged
at par several years ago for maturing notes bearing 8 per cent
interest. The principal motive in choosing preferred stock rather
than bonds in refunding this particular indebtedness was to provide
a more elastic financial structure than would have been possible by
issuing all interest-bearing obligations in the form of bonds, inas-
much as a large refunding bond issue was arranged for at the same
time.
Bond issues of a small number of irrigation utilities in several
States, principally California, are now outstanding. The largest
issue of a utility delivering water primarily for irrigation purposes
known to the author is that of Sutter Butte Canal Co. In that case
$945,000 of 61/2 per cent bonds were sold at various times during the
past five years to refund earlier bond issues. A much larger issue of
another California company sold in Europe about 15 years ago was
foreclosed in 1927.
Commercial companies borrow money for operation and main-
tenance purposes on short-term not^s as a matter of ordinary business
procedure.
WATER RIGHTS
Water rights vest in the consumers in some States, and in others
may vest in either the company or consumers, depending upon the
statutes and court decisions involved. Where the title actually lies,
as indicated under "Water charges and collections" (p. 18), has a
bearing upon remedies against delinquent ratepayers, and further-
more becomes important when the water supply is insufficient for the
needs of all consumers. That is, w^hen water is scarce and consumers
are themselves regarded as the appropriators, as is the case, for
example, in Colorado, any priorities among them must be respected.
On the contrary, if the company is the appropriator, consumers are
on the same basis regardless of date of their first service by the
company, and the water supply must be prorated among them all.
COMMERCIAL IRRIGATION COMPANIES 17
Statutes of some States® provide that water shall be prorated in
time of scarcity, and contracts between commercial companies and
consumers frequently include provisions to the same effect. The
effect of title to the water rights upon valuation of public-utility
properties for rate-making purposes is discussed below under
'' Public regulation of irrigation utilities."
Water delivered by commercial companies is appurtenant to land
as a result of law in some States and as a result of contracts with
consumers in some others. Appurtenance is a decided advantage
to a company which disposes of rights to water delivery by con-
tract, in protecting its future market for sale of rights against
transfers to new lands from lands already under contract. It is
also advantageous to a company selling lands with rights to water
delivery attached, in that the company is protected against alienation
of water rights from lands on which it holds mortgages to secure
deferred purchase payments. On the other hand, while a company
in some States could legally refuse to deliver water to a delinquent
landowner whose water right is appurtenant, its right to deliver that
particular water to other land prior to forfeiture of the delinquent's
water right by nonuse — and hence its opportunity to secure revenue
therefrom — would be questionable.
Water rights acquired by appropriation entitle the user to divert
definite quantities of water, the maximum being set by law in some
States. Contracts between commercial companies and users almost
invariably provide for delivery of specific quantities, such as 1 sec-
ond-foot for each 160 acres throughout the irrigation season or, in
case of stored water, 2 acre-feet per acre per annum, with the usual
provision for proportionate reductions in case of shortage.
QUALIFICATIONS OF CONSUMERS
Irrigation companies which do not dedicate their water supply
to public use may select their own consumers to the same extent that
any other business organization may select individuals with whom it
will make private contracts. The usual prerequisites to service in
such cases are purchase of a perpetual right to water delivery or
purchase of land with contract right attached.
Public-service companies, on the other hand, are required to serve
consumers without discrimination and without imposition of un-
reasonable restrictions, to the extent of their ability and capacity of
plant. This is a well-established principle.^ Any member of the
public, therefore, who desires water for the irrigation of land lying
within reach of the canal system, or within the area to which service
has been dedicated, is entitled to service upon tender of established
rates, provided the water is physically and legally available for his
use. Irrigation utilities, from the nature of their industry, may
limit service to particular areas of land or be required by regulatory
8 For example, the California act (1, seo. 6, p. 86) states that "as between consumers
who have been voluntarily admitted to participate by the corporation in its supply of
water or been required to be supplied by an oi-der of the railroad commission, in times of
shortage there shall be no prioritv or- preference, and such corporation in times of
shortage shall be required to apportion such supply ratably among its consumers. '
•For details see Wiel {IS, sec. 1280, footnote 5).
94459—30 3
18 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
commissions to do so, in view of the fact that spreading a given
supply of water over an arela larger than justified by local water
requirements is bound to impair its usefulness to that extent.
RIGHTS OF CONSUMERS UPON TRANSFER OF UTILITY PROPERTIES
The irrigation utility's obligation to serve the public, once assumed,
can not be divested by transfer of the irrigation system to another
public-service company. The new owner, if itself a public-utility
company, takes the property impressed with the same duty of serv-
ing all persons who were being served by, or who could have re-
quired service from, the preceding owner.
An irrigation district, upon purchasing utility properties, succeeds
to the obligation of continuing to render service to persons already
receiving it, whether located within or without the district boundaries.
Several cases support this principle. A point raised in connection
with a proposed transfer of utility properties is whether a district
will be required to serve persons outside the district boundaries who
at the time of the transfer had not demanded and were not receiving
service from the utility but were entitled to it. Apparently the
courts have not yet definitely passed on this point.
Possible " dilution " of utility consumers' water supplies on trans-
fer of utility properties to a water-storage district covering a much
larger service area, with plans to develop additional water and assess
the lands considerably more than they had been paying in the form
of public-utility rates, was involved in a recent California case.
The railroad commission in approving the contract of sale of the
irrigation system refused to pass upon a suggested allocation of the
utility water to lands theretofore served by the utility or upon
reasonableness of the price which the district had agreed to pay.
The ground for this action was that affairs of the district, includ-
ing determinations of feasibility, were covered solely by the storage
district law and were the concern of the State engineer and the land-
owners, the railroad conunission's only concern being to safeguard
the interests of those former consumers located outside the district
boundaries. The commission's action was upheld by the court.^®
WATER CHARGES AND COLLECTIONS
BONUS OR INITIAL CHARGE FOR PUBLIC-UTILITY " WATER RIGHT "
The widespread practice among irrigation companies of exacting
a bonus as a condition precedent to obtaining water, which, however,
conveyed to the purchaser no interest in the physical works, was
prohibited in 1879 by the Colorado Legislature and later by that of
Idaho and was declared illegal by the California Railroad Com-
mission after an extended review of more or less conflicting court deci-
sions (3), In some States there are no statutes prohibiting the prac-
tice and no court or utility-commission decisions holding it illegal,
and on certain projects it is still being done. Obviously the illegality
of the practice (where it is illegal) applies only to contracts made by
public-servica companies and not to essentially private-contracts for
sale of " water rights " entitling purchasers to share eventually in
proportionate ownership of the irrigation works.
» Baldwin et al. v. Railroad Commission of California, 77 Calif. Dec. 889, 275 P. 425.
COMMERCIAL IRRIGATION- COMPANIES 19
Fundamental objections to the bonus have been :
It is a charge for service over and above the " reasonable rate "
which a utility is entitled to receive from the public it is required
to serve.
It often purported to be only a charge for a " water right." In
jurisdictions in which the real water right vests in the user rather
than the carrier, and is perfected by applying water to beneficial
use, the charge was therefore for something to which the company
had no claim and hence could not sell.
It frequently covered much or all of the first construction cost.
Hence, as the company retained title to the irrigation works, con-
sumers were often placed under an unfairly heavy burden, which
would have been even more serious if after paying the entire cost
they had been required to pay further, in the form of annual rates,
a return on the value of the system. In adtual practice, hoAvever,
this has not been altogether the case. Bonus payments went far
toward reimbursing original builders of some systems, but in the
long run have represented only a small part of capital expenditures
on others. Therefore, in many instances they may be considered
in much the same light as those donations which other development
enterprises have been allowed by commissions and courts to capitalize
and without which the developments might not have taken place.
Furthermore, earnings of public-utility irrigation companies on the
whole have not been such as to include excessive profits on these
bonus payments.
It has undoubtedly complicated subsequent public-utility regula-
tion. A number of companies have charged different amounts to
different users — for example, in the case of Dawson County Irriga-
tion Co., Nebraska, first $5 per acre, then $3.50, $8, and finally $10
per acre — these amounts usually increasing with added construction
costs. In other cases declaration of illegality of the practice has
led to service to later consumers who paid no bonuses. These real
or fancied discriminations tend to promote discord among consumers
and have led to setting up of rate differentials in order to equalize
the burden. The case of Sutter Butte Canal Co. is in point. Con-
tracts outstanding in 1918 which had carried initial payments rang-
ing from $5 to $10 per acre required some users to pay an annual
charge of $1 and others $2 per acre. The railroad commission in
that year fixed an annual rate of $2 per acre for all contract lands
and authorized noncontract applicants to secure water for $2.50 per
acre, or for $2 if they chose to pay an initial charge of $10 per
acre, which few or none of them did. After subsequent revisions
the commission in 1924 abolished the rate differential between con-
tract and noncontract users, the company, however, still retaining
liens under the original contracts for the minimum annual charge
per acre, and by a decision in 1925 removed this final difference in
an attempt to end the friction between classes of users, which the
1924 decision had failed to accomplish.
The bonus, then, viewed as a payment for individual water rights,
is legally unsound in some jurisdictions and in some cases specifically
forbidden. As a return upon capital invested it is unnecessary in
any case where public regulation is effective in insuring adequate
rates, although it might with reason be regarded as compensation for
20 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 7, V, S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
revenue losses due to temporary idleness of irrigated lands.^^ Viewed
as a donation in aid of construction, where legal, it has a definite
practical value, mainly at present in connection with extensions of
already established systems. If in such cases the fact of outright
donation is agreed to by all parties, it is difficult to see anything
wrong in the transaction, and acquiescence of the regulating commis-
sion should minimize the chances of resulting rate complications.
STATE SUPERVISION OVER CHARGES
Public-utility regulation, which on account of its importance is
treated separately hereinafter, involves supervision by State agencies
over all charges made by public-service companies.
State supervision over sale of "water rights" by other than
public-utility companies is provided by laws accepting the terms of
the Carey Act, under which no new development has taken place for
many years, and in certain States by statutes covering other private
development. The most extensively followed of the latter laws is
that passed in 1909 by Idaho (6, v. i, sees. 3061-306S), requiring
State approval of sale of " water rights " by companies or parties
not operating under the Carey Act. Early Carey Act development
was actually subjected to " little more than nominal supervision "
{6) , which in many instances probably did more harm than good in
misleading investors and settlers alike. Later developments received
more careful attention from State officials, with beneficial results.
Annual operation and maintenance charges on Carey Act projects
still operated by development companies prior to being turned over
to the farmers — which is the status of many of them to-day — were
fixed by contract between these companies and the State at extremely
low rates to insure payment by the development company itself of
that proportion of expense properly chargeable to undeveloped lands.
On other projects operating under supervisory laws such as those of
Idaho, charges were set out in settlers' contracts the form of which
was approved by the State. Finances of the development companies,
and the resulting quality of service to water users, have suffered
severely from inadequacy of these contract rates to cover mounting
operation costs.
TIME OF PAYMENT
Installments of purchase price of " water rights " are usually
payable annually and sometimes carry interest on deferred payments.
Annual operation charges vary widely as to time of payment. Ex-
perience has brought out the advisability under certain circumstances
of dividing the annual rate into two or more installments, with dates
of payment depending mainly upon character of crops grown and
consequent times of receipts from sale of farm products and upon
operation necessities. Charges based upon quantity of water deliv-
ered are often payable immediately or shortly after each irrigation,
11 Wiel US, p. ^232) makes this point, stating further that " from a financial point of
view it is difficult to establish any new Irrigation system where the distributors do not
receive, in addition to the rates, some profit from the creation of the system, such profit
coming either from ownership by the company of irrigable land in the vicinity reaping the
benefit of its increased value or else from a special initial charge, usually called the
' watar-right ' charge," As stated heretofore, most commercial systems originating in
recent years have been built in connection with land-development enterprises.
COMMERCIAL IRRIGATION COMPANIES 21
sometimes with a cash payment at the time of making application for
service at the beginning of the season. Interest, often 8 to 10 per cent
per annum, usually attaches to delinquent payments.
METHODS OF ENFORCING COLLECTIONS
SUIT TO RECOVER
This remedy is always available, but frequently unsatisfactory
on account of the expense involved, for delinquencies large in the
aggregate are often made up of many small claims against individ-
uals.
CANCELLATION OF PRIVATE CONTRACT FOR PURCHASE OF " WATER RIGHT "
Contracts often provide that failure to pay any installment of the
purchase price shall entitle the company to declare the " water
right " forfeited. In a jurisdiction in which the real water right
belongs to the user rather than the company and is perfected by ap-
plication to beneficial use, it is doubtful if the company by this pro-
cess could sever the water right from a delinquent's land and transfer
it to other land. Deprivation of right to use the company's system,
however, would lead to eventual forfeiture of water right, inasmuch
as the delinquent landowner would be very unlikely to have other
means of conveying the water to his land. The right to cancel the
contract is therefore a powerful instrumentality.
Consumers under a public-service irrigation system probably could
not be deprived of water service by cancellation of contracts, inas-
much as their right to water delivery rests primarily upon the com-
pany's duty to furnish water to the public, rather than upon any
contractual relationship.^^
ENFORCEMENT OF LIEN ON LAND OR ON CROPS
Liens upon land are provided in contracts of many development
and some public-service companies, to secure not only installments
upon purchase of land and " water rights ", but annual operation
and maintenance charges as well. Some States grant statutory liens.
For example, Idaho provides that a charge " for the delivery of said
water, which amount may be fixed by contract, or may be as pro-
vided by law, is a first lien upon the land for the irrigation of which
said water is furnished and delivered" {6 v. ^, sec. 6631)^ while
Texas gives parties supplying water for irrigation " a preference
lien superior to every other lien upon the crop or crops raised upon
the land thus irrigated " {10, art 7696).
REFUSAL OF WATER DELIVERY
This is a simple, widely practiced, and most effective remedy.
It is not, however, legal in all jurisdictions. For example, on the
one hand a recent Washington decision is to the effect that a " water-
right " purchaser delinquent in payment of annual installments can
not have damages for failure to furnish irrigation water, the court
stating : " No user of water can refuse to pay his delinquent bills and
still demand service." A decision of the United States District
" See discussion by Kinney (8, «eo. 15^) .
22 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Court (District of Idaho, Southern Division) relating to the Federal
Boise project is to the same effect. On the other hand, several cases
in the Idaho State Supreme Court, not arising on Federal projects,
hold that delivery of water may not be withheld for nonpayment oi
past-due assessments, the company's authority to refuse delivery ex-
tending only to current charges and its remedy for past delinquencies
being suit to collect.^^
BEQUIMNG PAYMENT IN ADVANCE OF WATER DELIVEBY
An irrigation company is obliged to deliver water to users upon
tender of legal charges or in some jurisdictions upon furnishing
reasonable security, and conversely may require this prior condition
to be fulfilled. One important company requires renters (who may
be gone from the project within a year) to prepay irrigation charges,
but bills landowners with charges incurred by themselves and re-
fuses water delivery until all accounts are settled.
Necessarily adequate enforcement of collections depends in the
last analysis upon ability of users to pay. In times of financial
stress, when lawsuits are of little avail and refusal to deliver water
would result in materially smaller diversions by the company and
possible forfeiture or compromise of part of the water right, there
is no alternative other than to continue deliveries and to await
better times to clear up accumulated delinquencies. The several
remedies listed above are of greatest value against individuals will-
ful or careless in payment of bills.
MANAGEMENT
Management of a commercial company, if incorporated, is in the
hands of a board of directors elected by the stockholders, and if not
incorporated, rests upon the will of the owners. Active manage-
ment of business affairs and superintendence of operation and main-
tenance, including water delivery, are delegated to one or more
regular employees.
The qualit}^ of management necessarily varies widely. The larger
companies in good financial circumstances are apt to be well man-
aged, because of availability of funds for needed expenditures and
the realization on the part of owners that proper maintenance of
works and careful administration pay in the long run. On the other
hand, systems of companies struggling for existence become run
down, operation is effected with inadequate forces, the temi^tation
to economize unduly in salaries is great, and service becomes con-
stantly poorer. There seems to be little extravagance in adminis-
tration at the present time. Incomes of commercial companies in
recent years have not been such as to encourage it, and it is frowned
upon by regulatory commissions; therefore there is no incentive to
owners to countenance obviously useless expenditures which must
come out of their own pockets.
Methods of water delivery do not differ from those of otlier irri-
gation organizations. So far as contacts with water users go, the
13 These three examples are found, respectively, in Holmes et ux. v. Whitestone Irrigation
& Power Co., 138 Wash. 261, 244 P. 579 ; Mower v. Bond, 8 P. (2d) 518 ; and Rejrnolds v.
North Side Canal Co. (Ltd.), et al., 36 Idaho 622, 213 P. 344.
COMMERCIAL lERIGATION COMPANIES 23
main point of difference between commercial and community organi-
zations is that friction develops much more easily under the former,
and unreasonable demands, complaints, and damage suits by users
are consequently more numerous.
PUBLIC REGULATION OF IRRIGATION UTILITIES
The several State constitutions and statutes and court decisions
construing them are far from uniform (1) as to whether irrigation
companies are to be regulated at all; (2) if regulation is provided
for, what the test of an irrigation utility is to be; and (3) what ac-
tivities are to be regulated. Rates and service most immediately
concern the consuming public and therefore are most generally sub-
ject to regulation. California is typical of States exercising most
extensive control and has produced the largest number of court and
commission orders involving irrigation companies.
POWER OF STATE TO REGULATE
The State's power to regulate public-service irrigation companies,
and particularly their rates, whether previously fixed by contract
or otherwise, has been established many years. The prior-contract
question has been disposed of on the ground that regulation of pub-
lic utilities is an inherent attribute of sovereignty, and that rate
contracts between utilities and consumers must therefore be deemed
to have been entered into subject to possible revision by the State.
If no definite provision is made in the constitution or statutes for
fixing rates of irrigation companies, as is the case in several States,
the consumer must look to the courts for relief from unreasonable
rates.
COMPANIES SUBJECT TO REGULATION
Regulation of irrigation utilities is usually provided for by in-
cluding irrigation companies within the statutory definition of " pub-
lic utility " or " public-service company."^* Within any State which
has authorized such regulation, the question of whether a given
irrigation company is a public utility, and therefore subject to com-
mission control, is largely a question of fact, determination of which
in some States has involved many controversies and some very fine
distinctions. Most of these companies in fact originated before com-
mission control was extended to irrigation companies and before the
differences between public and private service were widely under-
stood. Early promoters did not know that they were engaging in
public service if they did one thing and in private service if they did
something else ; so that while dedication of water to public use
presumes a positive intention to dedicate, and while the courts
"For example, the Utah law {11, sec. }ft82, p. 966) defines "public utility" as including
every " water corporation," which in turn includes every corporation or person owning or
operating a '* water system " for compensation, excepting companies distributing water
only to their own stoclsholders The California act (1) states In some detail the circum-
stances under which a water company is a public utility. The Montana Supreme Court
decided that the language " company * * * furnishing • * ♦ water for busi-
ness," as used In the public utilities act of that State, does not include Irrigation com-
panies. (State ex rel. Thacher et al. v. Boyle et al.. Pub. Serv. Com., 62 Mont. 97, 204
P. 378.)
24 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUBE
scrutinize closely the acts upon which an alleged dedication is based^
nevertheless these people as a matter of fact often simply drifted
into one status or the other, and they or their successors subsequently
either made or resisted efforts to be declared public utilities, depend-
ing upon the eventual desirability of being engaged in public or
private service. This is particularly exemplified by the many Cali-
fornia cases in which the principle that dedication of water to public
use constitutes an irrigation company a utility has been put to test
under a wide range of circumstances.
Principles derived from court and utilitv-commission decisions
declaring companies subject or not subject to public regulation may
be summed up as follows:
Irrigation companies engaged in public service are subject to
regulation when and to the extent provided by State constitutions
and statutes, as construed by the courts. Those in private service
are subject to only such supervision as the State may exercise over
other private enterprises, which does not extend to alteration of
rates fixed by contract.
Companies which appropriate water for distribution to all who
may apply, and actually carry out such purpose, or otherwise " hold
themselves out " as ready and willing to serve the public indis-
criminately, are engaged in public service. Incorporation for such
purpose does not in itself constitute such dedication. Fulfillment
of contract provisions that rates shall be such as may be fixed by
law constitutes engaging in public service. Requirement by the
company that consumers purchase permanent " water rights " does
not render the enterprise a private-contract company exempt from
regulation.
Companies may be engaged simultaneously in public service as to
part of their water supply and private service as to the balance.
After a given supply of water has been devoted to the public, how-
ever, private rights can not be carved out of it. Water contracted
privately to individuals may, with their consent, be devoted to public
use by submission of the company to public rate-fixing authority,
but can not thereafter revert to private use unless all public bene-
ficiaries consent.
Companies may engage in service to a given class of the public,
such as those farming lands within a defined geographical area, to
the exclusion of other classes. They may engage in one kind of
Ijublic service, such as delivery of water appropriated by themselves,
without being required to perform some other public service, such as
carrying water for independent appropriators.
Mutual companies serving their own members only at cost are not
engaged in public service and are therefore not subject to rate or
service regulation ; but those supplying water to outsiders for com-
pensation are subject to regulation, at least to the extent of such
outside service. Irrigation districts are not subject to this kind of
regulation; but upon the transfer of utility properties to an irriga-
tion district, rights of consumers located outside the district bound-
aries are defined and protected in the commission's order approving
the transfer.
Construction or development companies are subject to regulation
in some States and not in others. Such companies while under con-
COMMERCIAL IRRIGATION COMPANIES 25
tract to deed their systems eventually to the purchasers of " water
rights " have been considered common carriers in Nebraska and their
rates regulated accordingly, and have been declared public-service
companies in Idaho in a case in which no rate question was involved.
Those companies operating under the Carey Act are not subject to
this kind of regulation. Development companies which form mutual
irrigation companies and transfer mutual stock to land buyers are
not public-service companies, although jurisdiction over service of
mutual companies while still controlled by the development company
has been retained by the Arizona corporation commission.
Companies which serve land with " water rights " attached, sold
by themselves or by associated enterprises, are held in certain States,
notably California and Oregon, to be private-contract companies,
on the ground that they are serving only individuals selected by
themselves; but in Texas such companies are considered "quasi
public service corporations " subject to rate regulation.
REGULATING AGENCIES
Regulation of irrigation rates in several States was formerly left
to boards of county commissioners or supervisors and to city coun-
cils, whose authority was usually limited to fixing maximum rates.
Irrigation rate fixing in Colorado is still handled by county com-
missioners, but in most States has been given to State commissions
having jurisdiction over other public utilities, which determine not
maximum but specific rates. Exceptions are Texas, which places
this duty upon the board of water engineers; Oklahoma, which
formerly placed it upon the State engineer but has recently trans-
ferred the State engineer's duties pertaining to irrigation to the con-
servation commission; and Montana, New Mexico, and South Da-
kota, which have not provided for irrigation-company regulation.
Regulation by local boards frequently proved unsatisfactory, partly
because it was a purely incidental function and partly because board
members included the water users among their constituents and were
themselves sometimes users of irrigation water, with resulting diffi-
culties in maintaining an entirely impartial attitude. A state-wide
body, by contrast, has a much broader point of view in the matter
and necessarily is considerably more scientific in its determinations.
PROCEEDINGS
Proceedings relative to rate changes and service requirements may
usually be initiated by (1) the commission on its own motion; (2)
complaint made by civic or municipal bodies or by some minimum
number of consumers, such as 25 ; or (3) by the utility itself, in some
States on petition for a hearing and in others on filing new rate
schedules or rules and regulations which will stand as filed unless
suspended by the commission pending a hearing. Formal or in-
formal hearings are held by the commission, testimony taken, and
decisions and orders issued, subject to review in the courts.
RATES
Rate-making principles developed by commissions and courts^
especially those involving property rights and rights of utilities and
26 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
consumers as against each other, apply in general to irrigation as
well as to other public services. Irrigation rates, however, involve
many features distinguished by the nature and background of the
industry, and with the past 15 years' experience in mind it is quite
obvious that such rates can not be viewed altogether in the same
light as those of some other industries. The following statement
summarizes the principles and policies actually applied in irrigation
rate and service cases and therefore of particular interest to irriga-
tion companies. Many of these cases arose in California,^'* and the
others in Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Nevada, Wyoming, Nebraska,
and Texas.
ITEMS OF RETURN
Eates are fixed to provide for (1) efficient operation and mainte-
nance of irrigation works; (2) a depreciation annuity to cover
eventual replacement of units not included in annual maintenance
expenditures; and (3) a fair return on valuation of plant.
Extraordinary expenses, such as repair of damage due to dis-
astrous floods, and reconstruction to overcome water shortages, as
well as the loss in revenue resulting from necessary discontinuance
of irrigation service, are properly chargeable to operation and main-
tenance, but as they are not incurred annually they are amortized
over a series of years. Reasonable legal expenses are included, ex-
cept damages paid as the result of negligence. Expenditures in-
curred in defending water rights are either amortized over a definite
term or included in the rate base as part of the cost of water rights.
Taxes are a part of operation cost. Past operation losses, including
deficits incurred during the development stage, are allowed to be
recouped to some extent and in some cases only, depending upon cir-
cumstances, but usually are excluded from consideration in irriga-
tion cases because of the difficulty of providing for even current
items.
The actual maximum rate of return on valuation, or owners' profit,
is usually set at 6 to 8 per cent. Commissions, for good reason, sel-
dom announce fixed policies applicable to all classes of utilities but
determine each case on its merits. In these irrigation cases there
are usually so many limiting circumstances that the maximum allow-
able return on valuation means little. This return on valuation
comprises the following items : Interest on indebtedness incurred in
developing the system, interest on the depreciation annuity in case
the sinking-fund method is followed, dividends and additions to
surplus.
ITEMS NOT INCLUDED IN RATES
Rates do not cover additions to capital, such as the cost of improve-
ments and extensions to the irrigation system or retirement of
bonded indebtedness. If this were not true, the State would be in
the position of forcing ratepayers to provide capital and then to pay
interest on it. Capitalization of voluntary donations from con-
sumers is a different matter. Of course the owners may devote part
of their return on valuation to such purposes if they choose.
^ For a complete statement of principles applicable to all classes of utilities in
California, see (12).
COMMERCIAL IRRIGATION COMPANIES 27
The rule has often been announced that present consumers shall
not be required to pay a full return on investment or even the entire
cost of maintenance of an irrigation system built largely in excess
of their needs, particularly if the principal reason for overbuilding
was to promote land sales. Nor will irrigation consumers be saddled
with land-development expenses not covered by the purchase price
of land.
As shown under "Valuation for rate-making purposes" (p. 29).
rates do not include a return on property not useful in the public
service.
REASONABLENESS
Every rate must pass the test of reasonableness, which means that
it must be as fair as possible to all whose interests are involved.
Such a thing, of course, can not be determined by any definite for-
mula. To be fair to the utility owner, the rate should provide for
all running and replacement expenses and a return on investment
higher than a creditor of the same project would demand, but must
not be such as to invite destructive competition from individual
pumping or other projects. Fairness to the consumer, on the other
hand, requires that he be not penalized for sparseness of settlement
of the irrigation project, inefficiency and extravagance in operation,
or inadequacy of service. To accomplish this, commissions in a num-
ber of cases have allowed as reasonable operation expenditures sums
considerably less than the companies have actually been spending.
The rate in any case should not exceed the value of service to the
user, which depends finally upon his ability to pay, and can not do
so if the project is to operate on a sound basis. That determination
of reasonableness must be predicated upon operation experience, use
of water, and economic conditions obtaining over a series of years
rather than in any single year applies with great force to an irriga-
tion utility.
APPORTIONMENT AMONG CONSUMERS
The irrigation utility as a privately owned organization can not
compel nonpatrons to become consumers or to pay rates without vol-
untary application for service, even though they may be benefiting
substantially from proximity to the canal system.
Actual consumers must be treated without discrimination, whether
or not they hold preferred contracts. Commissions, in fact, have not
hesitated to modify or entirely abrogate utility contracts where it was
necessary to remove discrimination or to raise all rates uniformly.
Rates may, however, be apportioned among classes of consumers
without violating the rule against discrimination, but on the contrary
really to remove discrimination. For example, occasional or " op-
portunist " water users are sometimes required to pay higher rates
than regular patrons, particularly where the added expense of serving
occasional users is material. In at least one proceeding the Cali-
fornia commission allowed lower rates for a time to persons who had
made initial payments for "water rights," by approximately the
annual interest on such payments, but later removed the differential
owing to continued dissatisfaction over two classes of rates. Prefer-
ential rates have also been allowed users under the followinir cir-
28 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGKICULTURE
cumstances: On laterals owned and operated by themselves; on the
gravity unit of a project containing supplemental pumping units; and
on portions of a project for which only one source of water supply^
was available, whereas other portions had two.
A fundamental rule is that consumers in one department of a
utility's activities, such as electricity, may not be burdened with losses
sustained in another department, such as irrigation.
BASIS
Commissions have leaned toward rates based upon measured quan-
tities of water delivered, rather than flat rates per acre, because of
the added incentive toward economy in use. The beneficial effect of
this policy is apparent in sections where irrigation is recognized
as essential to most profitable crop production, but is seriously ques-
tioned where irrigation is primarily of supplemental value and
farmers are not yet wholly converted to its use. In a few cases rate
differentials have been based upon character of crops grown, particu-
larly on systems serving both rice and general crops, on account of
the relatively heavy applications of water required for rice. Rates
of several companies have allowed lower charges for water if used
prior, say, to July 1, with a view toward encouraging early use while
the supply is relatively plentiful. Seasonal rates, for quantities
delivered at regular rotation intervals, have also been set lower than
rates for delivery on demand on the same system, because of the
lower cost of rotation deliveries.
PROBLEM OF PROVmiNG ADEQUATE REVENUE
Commissions can not guarantee adequate revenue, but at the most
can give only reasonable assurance of a minimum annual income.
Liens on land are generally out of the question. Not only is no case
known to the author in which a utility has been authorized by a reg-
ulatory commission to require continuous liens as prerequisites to
service, but it is very doubtful if such a proposal for the benefit of
outside capital would be viewed favorably. Liens existing from
preregulation days have been left undisturbed in some cases, but
usually apply to only part of the users and therefore assure only a
minimum income. Furthermore, contracts for long periods, such as
10 years, are regarded as unreasonable prerequisites to service.
With a view to assuring a fairly dependable minimum income, com-
missions at various times have authorized the following: Contracts
for short periods, such as one to three years, with flat rates per
acre ; contracts for short periods, with stand-by or readiness-to-serve
charges and additional quantitative charges based upon actual use;
and payments in advance of the irrigation season. Beyond such pro-
visions, all the commission can do is to set rates which on the basis
of probable demand for water will provide the necessary financial
return.
An assured minimum income is distinctly preferable to the utter
uncertainty that might otherwise prevail; but while it may enable
the company to operate, it can not be expected to provide in addition
for depreciation and owners' profits. Hence, while the company's
minimum operating income may be assured for one or two seasons
COMMERCIAL IRRIGATION COMPANIES 29
in advance, the added margin required for these other purposes may
1)6 lacking in any year. Abundant experience shows this to be a very
real contingency.
The only way to eliminate the deficit, as discussed heretofore under
"Insufficiency of annual rates" (p. 9), is to anticipate it or include
it in subsequent years' rates. Irrigation-utility losses have been due
so generally to inability of users to pay that commissions have seldom
if ever included past losses in current irrigation rates. They have,
however, fixed rates to meet conditions obtaining over a series of
years, to the extent of ability of consumers to pay such charges.
VALUATION FOR RATE-MAKING PURPOSES
The first test of value is whether the property is actually used and
useful in the public service ; second, the extent to which this applies
to the particular customers whose rates are involved. For example,
levees used to protect a ditch system are valued at only part cost if
they also protect lands of the holding company, and the cost of
canals used for both power and irrigation is allocated to the two serv-
ices. Likewise, the value of a system built for hydraulic-mining
purposes and now used entirely for irrigation will be measured by
its usefulness to irrigation consumers only.
Among the more important questions involved in irrigation-utility
valuation proceedings, aside from valuation of overheads, which pre-
sents no very distinctive irrigation features, are the following :
PHYSICAL WORKS
In measuring the value of physical works for rate-making pur-
poses, some commissions use historical cost undepreciated and others
reproduction cost minus accrued depreciation. The California Kail-
road Commission leans to historical cost or fair original cost as the
•controlling factor, with due regard to other factors involved, estimat-
ing the reasonable investment where actual original figures are not
available. The Texas Board of Water Engineers, on the other hand,
arrives at present value by ascertaining or estimating original cost,
adding to each item an appreciation factor to allow for increased
prices of materials and labor and deducting from this result the
percentage computed for accrued depreciation. In States folloAving
the reproduction theory, little or no allowance is made for deprecia-
tion of long-lived concrete structures. Seasoned earth ditches, which
may be kept in perfect condition by annual maintenance work and
which really improve with age, are not depreciable but occasionally
require an allowance for obsolescence.^'^
^ The United States Supreme Court decision of May 20, 1929, in the so-called " O'Fallon
Valuation Cases " (The St. Louis & O'Fallon Railway Co. and Manufacturers' Railway Co.,
appts., V. United States et al., No. 131), 73 L. ed. 457, holding that the Interstate Com-
merce Commission, in giving no consideration to reproduction costs, had failed to carry
out the congressional mandate that due consideration be given " to all the elements of
value recognized by the law of the land for rate-making purposes," arose under the
recapture provisions of the transportation act of 1920. The extent to which this decision
will affect valuation of public-utility properties by State commissions for rate-making
purposes is a matter for the future to determine. So far as irrigation companies are
concerned, the ability of consumers to pay under present economic conditions is a vital
factor in limiting the rates fixed under even the system of valuation most favorable to
the irrigator.
30 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
LAND AND RIGHT OF WAYS
Land is valued at present-day prices rather than original cost.
Land in the form of right of ways is valued by various methods,
some cases using the present value of adjoining property ; others the
value of dry land plus severance damages, especially if the land on
one side of the canal is high and rough; and others original cost,
with no allowance for right of ways granted free. Right-of-way
easements — for example, for pipe lines — are valued at cost.
WATER RIGHTS
Water-right valuations have caused much controversy. The first
consideration in such cases involves location of title to" the water
rights, that is, whether title vests in company or in consumers; the
second, a determination as to what, if any, intangible value attaches
to water rights held by the company.
In jurisdictions in which water rights belong as a matter of law
to landowners rather than the utility, no allowance for their value
has been made in any irrigation-rate case known to the author, be-
yond the actual cost incurred by the company in connection with
such water rights. Intangible water-right values have been ignored
in some cases, and have been definitely refused consideration by the
commissions of Nevada, Idaho, and Nebraska, as well as by the
Federal court in a rate case arising under the Colorado State laws.^^
In States in which the company may, as a matter of law, hold title
to the water rights, it is recognized that water rights actually held
by a company have value, particularly in localities where high
market values generally prevail. Yet even in those cases commis-
sions appear very reluctant to assign values substantially in excess
of the actual cost of acquisition of the rights, largely because of the
peculiar nature of a water right as a grant from the State of use
of a limited natural commodity. In California, for example, water
rights must be valued in rate-fixing cases because of a decision of
the United States Supreme Court, which, however, did not decide
the principle on which the valuation should be measured.^^ The
railroad commission, therefore, considers their value, but either in-
cludes it in a lump sum representing the entire rate base or allows
it as a separate item based upon cost of acquisition and protection
or on -an amount not greatly exceeding such cost. The practical
effect of this policy, then, is really not greatly different from that of
commissions in States which consider that water rights belong to
the user.
"Pioneer Irr. Co. v. Board of Comrs. of Yuma County, Colo., 236 P. 790. On appeal
from this decision, the circuit court of appeals declined to express an opinion upon this
point, but based its decision on other grounds. (251 Fed. 264.) The United States
Supreme Court, in another rate case arising under the Colorado law. City and County
of Denver et al. v. Denver Union Water Co., 38 S. Ct. 278, 246 U. S. 178, 193, had before
it the same question — namely, whether under the Colorado State laws and court decisions
the water rights belonged to the public-service company and therefore should be given
substantial value in rate-flxing proceedings — but found it unnecessary to pass upon the
question inasmuch as the rates in controversy were held to yield an inadequate return,
" even excluding from consideration the disputed water rights.'' The court stated : " The
question is one of great consequence and is not free from difficulty. It ought not to be
passed upon unless the exigencies of the case require it."
^^ San Joaquin and Kings River Canal & Irrigation Co. v. County of Stanislaus, in the
State of California, 233 U. S. 454.
COMMERCIAL lEEIGATION COMPANIES 31
Whether water rights have been adjudicated or not is an element
to be considered in allowing value beyond actual cost. Action of the
Texas Board of Water Engineers in refusing to place a value on
water rights in irrigation rate cases was determined by the fact that
water rights had not been adjudicated, the question of quantity being
considered too uncertain to justif}^ an attempt to fix the value.
In view of the definite aversion to placing substantial values upon
water rights, beyond cost of acquisition, so generally shown by State
commissions in irrigation rate fixing orders, it is deemed unnecessary
to discuss further the various elements of value which advocates of
water-right valuations urge for consideration.
ADVANCES FROM CONSUMERS
Capitalization of donations or advances from consumers is a matter
on which practices differ somewhat, although the prevailing view
seems to be that it will ordinarily be permitted. It has been favored
in some recent instances on the theory that property so acquired is
as much in the public service as though paid for out of the utility's
capital funds, can not be withdrawn from public service, and must,
on the contrary, be maintained and eventually replaced by the utility.
^^ The California commission allowed such capitalization in certain
early cases but has refused it in some recent ones, using as the rate
base for one postwar extension the $526,000 actually spent by the
utility and excluding^$309,000 donated by consumers, mainly because
the actual cost exceeded reasonable present value on account of
rushed construction at peak prices. The reason for rushing the
work was to benefit users on this one extension ; therefore the extra
cost was considered not a proper charge against users on other por-
tions of the system.
Initial payments for " water rights " have been disregarded in ad-
justing rate bases of several California companies, these being re-
garded rather as advance payments on rates. The Nebraska commis-
sion required purchasers of rights in a system which was eventually
to belong to the users, and in which they therefore had an equity, to
pay no return on the investment, and annual renters to pay a return
on only the portion allocated to themselves.
Whether profits from land sales will be offset against the irrigation
investment of a land and water company depends, apparently, upon
the circumstances in each case, such as representations to land pur-
chasers, prices paid, and what payments were supposed to cover,
with due regard to the fact that legitimate real-estate profits, plus
a reasonable return on the irrigation investment, can not be denied
to a company that has acted in good faith. The Oregon commission
declined to allow a return on value of such a system (which, how-
ever, the courts afterwards held to be not a public utility) , the initial
cost of which " was plainly reflected in the prices at which land was
sold."
SERVICE
Service regulation applies to practices and requirements of the
utility relating to its service to consumers but does not extend to
" See, for example, (7) .
32 TECHN^ICAL BULLETIN 17 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
questions of mana«^ement or other internal affairs. The most im-
portant features follow:
EXTENSION, LIMITATION, AND ABANDONMENT OF SERVICE
Where specifically authorized by statute, commissions may and
do require utilities to extend their facilities to reach new consumers
within the area to which the water supply has been dedicated, even
when to do so new outlays of capital are necessary. The California
commission, however, refused to order extensions to persons who de-
manded exorbitant prices for a right of way. Extensions and recon-
structions of canals will not otherwise be ordered unless clearly justi-
fied by the water supply and probable returns on the investment.
Development of additional water will be required by the commission,
if practicable, where the present supply proves insufficient for the
area of service.
Limitation of utility service is a most important regulatory power,
exercised for the purpose of protecting existing consumers from im-
pairment of their water supply. Fairness to both utility and con-
sumers, present and prospective, demands a thorough analysis of the
Avater supply and distribution facilities before an order restricting
service may be issued. Distribution of surplus Avater, however, has
been allowed to new users on the distinct understanding, with neces-
sary legal safeguards, that such users may share only in the surplus
when available without impairing the prior rights of regular con-
sumers to the normal supply. •
A utility can not be compelled to operate at a continued loss.
Abandonment of service, however, is not optional with the utility,
but must have prior authorization of the commission based upon full
presentation of the facts. This is an important determination, for
if refused it may mean confiscation of the utility's property, and if
granted, loss of the consumers' water supply and resulting confisca-
tion of their property. Consequently commissions have made several
such orders conditional upon finding other sources of water supply
for consumers. As a matter of fact, abandonment questions seldom
arise except in case of very small projects, such as those built in con-
nection with subdivisions of small tracts, for investments in irrigation
systems of any considerable size are such that owners can better
afford to carry them at a loss for years pending eventual sale to the
water users.
PREVENTION OF DISCRIMINATION
Discrimination in service is tolerated no more than in rates. Com-
panies in specific instances have been ordered to cease the following
discriminatory practices : Fulfillment of contracts granting preferen-
tial rights to water during shortage; installation of distribution
facilities at the expense of some users and not others ; requiring users
to maintain and operate at their own expense certain laterals and
not others, under rates applying uniformly to all laterals; giving
preferences to users who are also stockholders of the company. Con-
tracts for free service have been sanctioned where the consideration
was an actual transfer of users' water rights to the company, but
not where it was money payments or work performance, the former
contracts being considered private and the latter public.
COMMERCIAL lEEIGATION COMPANIES 33
EFFICIENCY OF SERVICE
Utilities are charged with the duty of taking all practicable means
of rendering efficient service, including prevention of tampering with
the water supply and prosecution of offenders. The California com-
mission on several occasions has expressed the view that to give
most efficient service, utilities should operate and maintain all
laterals to the point of serving the individual consumer ; but has not
required utilities to take control of private laterals unless rates
sufficient to cover cost of operation and a return on capital outlay
appeared feasible. Companies in some cases have been ordered
to put canals and structures in shape to render more satisfactory
service. That this rule works both ways is indicated by authori-
zation to one company to measure water at the intake of a private
lateral rather than at the land, where such lateral had not been
cleaned. Commissions of Texas and California have either recom-
mended the rotation method of water delivery or based rates upon
its operation where such method appeared most economical, and
have strongly urged installation of some practicable system of meas-
urement. Companies serving both domestic and irrigation consumers
have been allowed to provide certain hours during which water may
not be used for irrigation. A rule that land must be properly pre-
pared for irrigation has been held reasonable.
SECURITY ISSUES AND CONSTRUCTION
In a number of States the approval of commissions having juris-
diction over rates of irrigation companies is required before they
may undertake new construction and extensions, and in a few States
before they may issue securities. Security issues of public utilities
are usually exempt from i)rovisions of the " blue-sky " laws, even
where not supervised by utilities commissions, in view of the regula-
tory power exercised over other major activities.
Kegulation of irrigation-utility securities is of practical import-
ance mainly in California, and extends in that State to securities
payable more than one year from date and to the refunding of notes
maturing in less than one year, being independent of the limita-
tions of indebtedness provided by the general laws governing corpo-
rations. The commission's function is not so much to determine the
excellence of investment in a proposed issue of securities as to
make reasonably certain that the utility will receive value and will
translate it into service at reasonable cost to consumers. That done,
the soundness of the investment is as w^ell assured as the State can
make it without guaranteeing the securities, which it specifically
refuses to do.
The California Railroad Commission's attitude toward feasibility
of a proposed irrigation enterprise (2) is that promoters who pro-
pose to expend their own money in developing the country shall not
be required to submit complete proof of final success but that those
who ask the commission to authorize bonds for sale to the public,
" to some extent on the faith of the commission's authorization,"^
must demonstrate feasibilitv.
34 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTUKB
ACCOUNTING
Utility commissions having jurisdiction over irrigation companies
are all authorized to provide for uniform systems of accounts and
annual reports and in several States are specifically empowered to
require individual companies to set up depreciation accounts to
which a definite portion of the annual income is chargeable.
The chief purpose of a uniform accounting system is to provide
the commission with complete and accurate information regarding
a utility's financial transactions. This purpose is fully realized in
case of an old utility only after appraisal of its properties, due
to diversity in bookkeeping methods practiced before the era of
commission control. Utilities are forbidden to keep accounts other
than those prescribed by the State or Federal Government, with
the obvious design of preventing falsification of accounts for rate-
making or other purposes. Most of the controversies over account-
ing methods have arisen over allocation of expenditures to capital
and operating accounts.
The depreciation account is of considerable importance, particu-
larly to a company operating pumping plants or other equipment
of fairly definite life. Commissions in rate orders almost invariably
estimate the amount of annual depreciation and provide in the rate
set-up for an annuity to cover it, which must be expended in con-
formity with the commission's orders. As a rule this annuity may
be invested in extensions and betterments to the company's own sys-
tem, unless the commission has reason to doubt the good faith or
good judgment of utility officers, in which case a cash depreciation
reserve fund must be created. Investing in the business operates
to the company's advantage, for it permits a return on investment
and forms the basis for a later bond issue to make actual replace-
ments, whereas a cash fund yields a low rate of interest and may
necessitate borrowing at a higher rate on short-term notes to make
replacements. The experience of some irrigation companies has been
that the depreciation annuity has necessarily been used in some years
to make up operation deficits, the companies hoping to repair their
finances before replacements should become necessary.
WHAT PUBLIC REGULATION HAS ACCOMPLISHED
Regulation of rates and service of utilities has grown from the
public demand for protection against unreasonable charges and
practices and has carried with it protection to the utilities them-
selves against destructive competition and continuance of unreason-
ably low contract rates.' So far as irrigation companies are con-
cerned, public regulation has been of possibly greater value to
utility investors than to consumers. Thus, while it is decidedly to
the advantage of consumers to have the irrigation system serving
them operated satisfactorily, which can not be done if rates are in-
sufficient, and while their water supply has been protected in more
than one case against unwarranted diversion to new consumers,
nevertheless it is a fact that irrigation-rate revisions have usually
been upward and have frequently involved nullification of inade-
quate contract rates. Private-contract companies, faced by mount-
COMMERCIAL lEEIGATION COMPANIES 35
ing operating costs, have had only one way out — sale of the system
to the water users at the best price obtainable — but public utilities
have had help from the State in adjustments to meet new economic
conditions. Furthermore, creditors of utilities whose securities re-
quire State approval benefit to whatever extent the commission
analyzes the necessity for and the soundness of the issue. Such
analyses, in the case of the irrigation companies under considera-
tion, seem to have been beneficial to the creditors.
Kate regulation will not guarantee 6 or 8 per cent to investors.
It is simply a method of adjusting charges with a view to doing
justice to utility owners and farmers alike, and is* powerless to
effect an adequate return in the face of conditions which render it
uneconomic or impossible for farmers to pay sufficiently high rates.
Taking the industry as a whole, therefore, public regulation has not
made possible a desirable return on irrigation investments, nor has
it stimulated the growth of irrigation utilities. What it has done,
for the water users, has been to improve the character of service on
a number of irrigation systems and to protect consumers against
discrimination and exploitation; and for utility owners, to make
possible a continuance in operation notwithstanding existence of
ruinous contract provisions and to effect such returns as existing
•economic conditions have justified.
APPENDIX
PROFITS OF CALIFORNIA IRRIGATION UTILITIES
Table 2 has been compiled from all published annual reports of the California
Railroad Commission in order to show aggregate capitalization, operating
finances, net profits and losses, and dividends declared on capital stock, of
irrigation utilities in that State. The financial condition of these prepon-
derant California companies, as shown in this table, is considered quite repre-
sentative of the average condition of irrigation utilities prevailing throughout
the West.
Table 2. — Aggregate capitalisation, operating piances, profits, losses, and
dividends of irrigation utilities reporting to California Railroad Commission
deriving 25 per cent or more of total water revenue from sales for irrigation
Year
Capitalization
All compan-
3aS
o ee >•
Eh
Incorporated
companies
Unincorpo-
rated com-
panies
^1
Companies reporting net
incomes
!■-
(-1
— .2
03 © —
eS O S
«^|
O «3 >
en
1-1 -t-^
■fc: o
0 5 3
O (U c
OG®
1913
1914.
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919...
1920
1921
1922-
1923
1924...
1925.
1926
Average
Dollars
26, 689, 098
28,117,716
32, 442, 752
29, 932, 497
26, 914, 705
30, 134, 061
31,337,114
31, 045, 098
30, 355, 087
27,271,275
27, 089, 796
26, 254, 552
27, 343, 294
25, 692, 815
Dollars
25, 030, 178
28, 117, 716
32, 442, 752
29, 932, 497
26, 914, 705
30, 134, 061
30, 561, 889
30, 269, 873
29, 331, 265
26, 263, 938
25, 639, 768
46 24, 856, 190
51 25, 943, 875
47 25,444,236
Dollars
1, 558, 920
6128,608,561 55
775, 225
775, 225
1, 023, 822
1, 007, 337
1,450,028
1, 398, 362
1,399,419
248, 579
Dollars
1, 558, 512
1, 410, 350
1, 552, 267
1, 622, 136
1, 932, 527
2, 012, 592
2, 487, 260
2, 231, 172
2, 434, 097
2, 397, 666
2,344,161
2,176,921
2, 333, 682!
2,170,596
Dollars
1, 173, 302
1, 144, 412
1, 158, 588
1, 223, 782
1, 353, 601
1,581,390
2, 024, 798
2, 006, 502
2, 235, 870
1,929,711
1,931,284
1, 772, 877
1, 900, 304
1, 564, 583
Dollars
9, 668, 398
7, 147, 070
12, 509, 300
20, 961, 400
16, 531, 710i
7, 266, 843 i
6,917,609|
7, 782, 123
8,004,342
7, 954, 100
9, 138, 201
8, 124, 593
7, 986, 134
7, 963, 285
27, 920, 210 « 12 6 1,155, 210 2,047,424| 1,642,929
28
9, 853, 936
Dollars
233, 609
389, 846
372, 642
570, 115
545, 320
435, 856
579, 205
374, 841
317, 131
387, 131
693, 582
456, 361
400, 076
190, 672
424,734
1 Exclusive of several systems owned by power companies whose reported balance sheets do not segregate
the irrigation investment.
« Exclusive of years 1914 to 1920, inclusive.
7 This figure in each case is the ratio of yearly averages, rather than the average of yearly ratios.
36
COMMERCIAL lERIGATIOIT COMPANIES 37
Table 2. — Aggregate capitaUzcUion, operating finances, etc. — Continued
Year
1913
1914
1915
1916.
1917
1918
1919
1920
1921 ■
1922
1923
1924....
1925
1926 ;
Average.
Companies reporting net
o
-§1
15 bo
O m
«
Dollars
16, 909, 350
20, 958, 946
19, 921, 752
8, 959, 397
10,382,995
22, 867, 218
24,419,505
23, 262, 975
22, 350, 745
19,317,175
17, 950, 795
18, 129, 959
19, 338, 160
17, 729, 530
33 18,'
78
Dollars
312, 478
348, 892
253, 201
333, 369
149, 728
296, 284
451, 894
486, 291
441, 336
238, 343
269, 458
393, 144
257, 424
183, 802
315, 403
a
.s «
O 08
■^ O
C 1^
05 >
Dollars
-78,869
40,954
119,441
236, 746
395, 592
139, 572
127,311
-111,450
-124,205
148, 788
424, 124
63, 207
142, 652
6,770
109, 331
S'2
^-S-
P.ct.
-0.30
.15
.37
.79
1.47
.46
.41
-.36
-.41
.55
1.57
.24
.52
Companies paying dividends
I
I t
H s
Dollars
1,612,400
1,197,550
6, 106, 400
1,500,000
1,895,500
1,613,000
2, 513, 000
2, 200, 000
2, 182, 200
2,000,000
4,108,480
2, 636, 367
3, 776, 623
3, 573, 000
A5
-..as
rt a 3
Q ^ S
0-- w
"■3 rt o
41 2, 636, 751 ^ 72
P.ct.
95
94
Dollars
147, 964
96, 095
118, 057
107,815
131, 564
81,659
106, 6871
3 97, 849
* 6, 893
65, 339
'367, 751
92, 849
89, 567
123, 049
Dollars
72, 012
79, 161
111,836
85,000
130, 950
130, 780
110,390
145,000
69,110
49, 610
220, 962
54,958
73, 593
78, 035
116,653 100,814
O CO S
(4
P.ct.
4.47
6.61
1.83
5.67
6.91
8.11
4.39
6.59
3.17
2.48
5.38
2.08
1.95
2.18
7 3.82
1 Exclusive of several systems owned by power companies wliose reported balance sheets do not segregate
the irrigation investment.
2 Minus sign (— ) denotes excess of losses.
3 1 company reported net loss of $53,545.07; not deducted fron# total net incomes.
* 2 companies reported net losses totaling $95,781.45; not deducted from total net incomes.
« 1 company reported net loss of $504.52; not deducted from total net incomes. ^
7 This figure in each case is the ratio of yearly averages, rather than the average of yearly ratios.
Many companies reporting to the commission sliowed earnings from sales
of water for purposes otlier than irrigation — such as commercial, industrial,
and municipal purposes — thus necessitating an arbitrary classification of
companies for inclusion in Table 2. The only practicable basis of segregation
is the relative volume of irrigation sales; and as several important irrigation
systems contribute 25 to 40 per cent of the total water revenue of companies
owning them, the criterion followed in preparing this table is that 25 per
cent or more of water revenue must be derived from irrigation sales. Com-
paratively few of these companies derived less than 50 per cent of water
revenue from irrigation sales. There were 5 such companies in 1926 and 15
in 1919, the average for the 10 years ended with 1926 being 9 companies,
or about 15 per cent of all companies included for those years. Fluctuations
in this group are due in part to changes in relative proportions of irrigation
and other water sales.
Attention is called again to the fact that irrigation utilities and domestic-
water utilities are not to be confused. Of the many companies in California
supplying water primarily for domestic and industrial purposes, those appear-
ing in this table are only the relatively few which also do substantial irriga-
tion businesses. Certain of the more important ones so included owe their
good financial condition in large measure to existence of profitable domestic-
water markets.
Companies reporting to the commission, l)ut afterwards shown to be not
under their jurisdiction, are not included.
EXPLANATION OP TABLE 2
Figures shown for total capital stock do not necessarily represent actual
value. In several cases heavy unamortized discounts are shown In reported
balance sheets as offsets to nominal capitalization, and one system capitalized
at $10,000,000 was subjected to foreclosure In 1927 and recapitalized at
ORGANIZATION OF THE
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
March 12, 1930
Secretary of Agriculture Arthur M. Hyde.
Assistant Secretary R. W. Dunlap.
Director of Scientific Work A. F. Woods.
Director of Regulatory Work Walter G. Campbell.
Director of Extension Work C. W. Warburton.
Director of Personnel and Business Ad- W. W. Stockbergeb.
ministration.
Director of Inform^ation M. S. Eisenhower.
Solicitor E. L. Marshall.
Weather Bureau Charles F. Marvin, Chief.
Bureau of Animal Industry John R. Mohler, Chief.
Bureau of Dairy Industry O. E. Reed, Chief.
Bureau of Plant Industry William A. Taylor, Chief.
Forest Service R. Y. Stuart, Chief.
Bureau of Chemistry/ and Soils H. G. Knight, Chief.
Bureau of Entomology C. L. Marlatt, Chief.
Bureau of Biological Survey , Paul G. Redington, Chief.
Bureau of PuUic Roads Thomas H. MacDonald, Chief.
Bureau of Agricultural Economics Nils A. Olsen, Chief.
Bureau of Home Economics Louise Stanley, Chief.
Plant Quarantine and Control Admin- Lee A. Strong, Chief.
istration.
Grain Futures Administration J. W. T. Duvel, Chief.
Foody Drug, and Insecticide Adminis- Walter G. Campbell, Director of
tration. Regulatory Work, in Charge.
Office of Experiment Stations , Chief.
Office of Cooperative Extension Work C. B. Smith, Chief.
Library Claribel R. Barnett, Librarian.
This bulletin is a contribntion from
Bureau of PuUic Roads ^— Thomas H. MaoDonald, Chief.
Division of Agricultural Engineering. S. H. MoCbory, Chief.
40
U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 19S0
Technical Bulletin No. 176
May, 1930
THE CITRUS RUST MITE
AND ITS CONTROL
BY
W. W. YOTHERS
Entomologist
and
ARTHUR C. MASON
dissociate Entomologist
Divinon of Tropical, Subtropical, and Ornamental Plant Insects
Bureau of Entomology
United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
Technical Bulletin No. 176
May, 1930
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
THE CITRUS RUST MITE' AND ITS
CONTROL
By W. W. YoTHERS, Entomologist, and Arthur C. Mason, Associate Entomologist,
Division of Tropical, Subtropical, and Ornamental Plant Insects, Bureau 01
Entomology
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction l
Origin and distribution 2
Systematic history__. 2
Economic importance 3
Host plants 3
Specific preference 5
Mites mistaken for the citrus rust mite 6
Rust mite injury 7
Injury to the fruit 7
Injury to the leaves and branches 16
Life history and habits .". 17
Methods of rearing 17
The egg 20
The larva 21
The adult 21
Seasonal history 26
Methods of spread.. 27
Distribution on nursery stock 27
Distribution by insects and birds "28
Distribution by wind 28
Distribution by crawling 28
Natural control 29
Climatic factors influencing the number
of rust mites 29
Natural control— Continued.
Relation to site 32
Insect enemies 33
Fungi 34
Artificial control 35
Ineffective insecticides 35
Effect of sulphur on rust mites 39
Effect of weak dilutions of lime-sulphur
solutioij on rust mites 41
Efficiency of various sulphur compounds
for rust mite control 42
Thoroughness in spraying needed 46
Time to spray 47
Effect of rain following spraying with
lime-sulphur solution 47
Injury following the use of lime-sulphur
solution 48
Dusting with sulphur for rust mite con-
trol 49
Summary 54
Literature cited 55
INTRODUCTION
Several years prior to 1879, Florida orange growers were very
much concerned about the cause of russet fruit. Some growers were
of the opinion that it was of a fungous nature; others, that it resulted
from adverse soil conditions. Perhaps the honor of discovering the
real cause of russeting belongs to J. K. Gates, who was the first to
find the mites on oranges and immediately ascribed russeting to their
presence. His observation was probably made in 1878 or 1879. He
conveyed the information to W. C. Hargrove, of Palatka, who in turn
informed T. W. Moore {8, jp. 133Y of their discovery. Mr. Moore
knew that William H. Ashmead was studying the insects affecting
the orange, so he took up the matter of the discovery of the pest with
this entomologist. This led to the description of the species by
Ashmead {1 ) . Considerable experimenting was carried on by Moore
» Phyllocoptes oleivorus (Ashm.); order Acarina, family Eriophyidae.
2 Italic numbers in parentheses refer to "Literature cited," p. 55.
930G1— 30 1
2 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 176, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
and Ashmead for the elimination of the damage caused by this pest.
Moore found that a decoction of tobacco and whale-oil soap was very
effective if applied once a month from February to June. No refer-
ence is made in these experiments to the use of sulphur as a remedy.
In 1885 a report was published covering the most exhaustive study
of orange-infesting insects that had been made up to that time. This
was the treatise on Insects Affecting the Orange, by Hubbard (7).
Much relating to the life history and habits of the rust mite was
found out by Hubbard, and sulphur was mentioned for the first time
as a most satisfactory remedy. From 1885 until the present investi-
gation was begun very little of importance was added to our knowl-
edge of the rust mite.
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION
In all probability the original habitat of the citrus rust mite is
southeastern Asia, where citrus trees are indigenous. It has probably
accompanied its hosts from their original home to many other citrus-
growing regions. It now occurs in Florida, Alabama, Louisiana,
Texas, and California, and has been found on citrus trees growing in
greenhouses in Philadelphia, Pa., and Marlboro and Niagara Falls,
N. Y. There are also records of its occurrence in Cuba, Porto Rico,
Jamaica, Bermuda, Venezuela, Yucatan, Hawaii, the Philippine
Islands, Japan, and Australia.
There are no records of its presence in the citrus-growing districts
of the Mediterranean. Penzig {9, p. SSI) stated that up to 1887 it
had never been found in Italy. F. Silvestri in 1923 wrote in a letter
that he had never seen this mite there. It is not recorded as being
present in South Africa. In fact, up to this time, it has not been
recorded from India, although without doubt it is present there and
has been overlooked owing to its small size.
SYSTEMATIC HISTORY
The rust mite was first described by Ashmead (1) in 1879 as
Typhlodromus oliioorus. Pergande determined it the same year as a
species of Eriophyes. The genus Typhlodromus does not occur in
recent literature and, according to Ewing (4), is evidently a synonym
of Phytoptus Dujardin (1851), which in turn is a synonym of Eri-
ophyes Siebold (1851); consequently the rust mite has long been
placed in the genus Eriophyes. Banks (3) first called the mite
Phyllocoptes oleivorius, and other authors also refer to it as Phyllo-
coptes (a genus erected by Nalepa in 1889), and this classification
according to Ewing is correct, since only half of the abdominal rings
are complete rings.
The specific name has been referred to in various papers as oliioorus,
oleiiorus, oilivorus, and oil-livorus. Although it was first described
under the first-mentioned spelling Ashmead a year later (1880) in his
Orange Insects {2, p. 40) speaks of it as Typhlodromus oleivorus; con-
sequently this earliest emended spelling is accepted as the proper
specific name.
THE CITRUS RUST MITE AND ITS CONTROL 6
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
In all probability the rust mite ranks third (16, p. 3) among the
injurious pests on citrus in Florida, being exceeded in amount of
damage done only by the purple scale (Lepidosaphes beckii Newm.)
and the citrus white fly {Dialeurodes citri Ashm.), and the total loss
sustained by the industry is very great. It is present over the entire
citrus belt and no doubt occurs in greater or less numbers on every
tree in the State, and when climatic conditions are favorable its rapid
rate of reproduction enables it to cause great damage to the foliage
and fruit in a very short time. In fact, in many instances fruit
russets before the grower is aware of the presence of the rust mites
in injurious numbers. On an average, more than 50 per cent of the
fruit is more or less injured by rust mites. This lowers the grade,
and such fruit brings from 25 to 50 cents a box less in the market
than normally colored fruit. On the basis of a 16,000,000-box crop,
50 per cent of which would be russet and selling for 25 cents per box
below the standard price, the loss would be $2,000,000 annually. To
this must be added the loss due to the devitalization of the trees by
the feeding of countless mites on the foliage.
HOST PLANTS
The citrus rust mite infests all commercial species and varieties of
citrus grown in Florida. The host plants are here listed in the order
of the severity of infestation, or as preferred host plants :
Lemon (Citrus limonia).
Lime (C. auraniifolia).
Citron (C. medico).
Grapefruit (C. grandis).
Sweet orange (C. sinensis).
Sour orange (C. aurantium) .
Tangerine (C nobilis, var. deliciosa).
Calamondin {C. mitis).
Satsuma (C. nobilis, var. unshiu).
Mandarin (C nobilis, var. deliciosa).
Oval kumquat (Fortiinella margarita).
Round kumquat (F. japonica).
Meiwa kumquat (F. crassifolia) .
It has also been found on the following hybrids and other miscel-
laneous species of Rutacese:
Natsumikan 11184-11337.3
Siamelo 52007-1-8.
Tangor 539.
Tangelolo 47220.
Citrangeejuat 48010- D-5.
Faustrimedin 47431.
Faustrime 49806.
Eustis limequat.
Seedling orange Tample 11159.
C haetospermum glutinosa 7138.
Cleopatra orange (C. nobilis, var. deliciosa) 11338.
No rust mites were found on the following species of Rutacese
on any of the 34 examinations made during a period of more than two
» The numbers are those given to each variety by the Division of Crop Physiology and Breeding, Bureau
of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
4 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 176, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
years: Severinia buxifolia, Chalcas exotica, Toddalia lanceolata,
Glycosmis pentaphylla, and Aeglopsis chevalieri (7633).
Only one mite each was found on Citropsis schweinfurthii (11260)
and Triphasia trijolia throughout the entire two years, and it is only
reasonable to suppose that these two rust mites were simply blown
from some of the near-by infested trees and were merely resting on the
foliage. All of the above species were planted near (less than 10 feet
from) the other species which were infested with rust mites, and if the
rust mite could maintain itself on them it certainly had an opportunity
to do so.
The hybrids and species of Kutaceae listed in Table 1 were growing
on the laboratory grounds at Orlando, Fla., and examinations were
made to determine the presence of rust mites thirty-four times from
May 25, 1920, to August 3, 1922. The mites in the same number of
half -inch squares^ were counted for each species on each date. As a
usual practice 5 squares on the upper surfaces of the leaves, 5 squares
on the lower, and 5 squares on the fruit, if any were present, were
counted. The numbers of rust mites found in the 34 examinations are
given in Table 1.
Table 1. — Number of rust mites found on the Rutacex growing in the laboratory
grounds, Orlando, Fla., from May 25, 1920, to August 3, 1922
1920
1921
Variety
May
25
June
23
Aug.
26
Oct.
16
Oct.
30
Nov,
13
Nov.
27
Dec.
11
Dec.
27
Jan.
8
Jan.
27
Feb.
- 8
Calamondin
8
3
9
17
4
22
39
6
80
23
28
142
238
204
199
18
10
135
14
6
33
21
6
0
53
17
35
9
8
1
26
1
316
80
104
381
223
97
406
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
5
0
0
0
0
0
S
1
0
0
0
0
»
0
6
0
200
0
1
0
2
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
1
n
Faustrime
0
Natsumikan
0
Siamelo
255
Tangor
0
Kumquat
0
Seedling orange - .
0
Chaitospermum glutinosa. .
Meiwa _.
0
P. LoloR. L
Cleo 11338...
Total-.
108
932
225
150
1,608
0
'
1
209
2
'
255
1921
Variety
.
^
Mar.
Mar.
Apr.
May
May
June
June
July
July
Aug.
Aug.
Sept.
1
24
15
2
17
1
14
5
15
2
15
1
Calamondin
0
0
2
1
1
0
2
0
1
0
2
0
Faustrime
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
Natsumikan
0
0
0
0
0
48
0
7
32
0
33
1
Siamelo
4
0
0
2
5
4
150
0
2
0
0
28
Tangor
66
146
12
24
112
360
583
87
18
0
15
40
Kumquat
2
0
0
0
0
5
0
1
0
1
0
7
Seedling orange.
3
1
0
0
0
31
113
1
5
104
12
4
Chaitospermum glutinosa. .
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
4
1
Meiwa . ..
27
14
89
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
211
0
P. LoloR. L..
0
Cleo 11338
59
75
Total
147
14
27
118
450
979
97
58
105
277
140
* The term "square" as used in this bulletin denotes an area one-half inch square and was used as the
standard for determining the relative abundance of rust mites on the fruit and foliage of trees. In practice a
piece of paper with an area one-half inch square cut out was placed over the leaf or fruit and all the mites
within the square counted.
THE CITRUS RUST MITE AND ITS CONTROL O
Table 1. — Number of rust mites found on the Rutaceae growing in the laboratory
grounds, Orlando, Fla., from-May 25, 1920, to August S, 1922 — Continued
1921
1922
Total num-
ber of mites
Variety
sept.
nr-
Oct.
15
Nov.
1
Nov.
16
Dec.
1
Dec.
15
Feb.
21
Apr.
3
Aug.
3
found May
25, 1920, to
Aug. 3, 1922
Calaniondin
0
0
7
1
85
4
()
0
6
52
76
0
6
117
248
84
135
20
0
0
4
19
5
2
44
234
72
131
22
0
70
90
15
7
0
11
9
95
82
4
0
35
63
10
28
0
10
74
404
173
1
0
96
27
2
44
0
78
143
270
103
26
114
18
6
28
0
55
59
94
196
50
0
17
27
9
0
0
17
18
78
11
1
0
31
21
0
9
0
2
2
1
1
7
0
1
2
0
4
0
89
45
77
16
147
0
97
115
41
ro2
Faustrime
274
NatsumikaD . . .. ..
747
Siamelo -..
2,039
Tangor..
3,229
Kumquat
1,217
Seedling orange
1,234
Chaitospermuiu glutinosa..
37
494
P. LoloR. L
434
Cleo 11338
537
Total
237
633
685
316
815
803
535
177
25
631
10, 844
Note. — During the period covered by the examinations the trees were sprayed as follows: June 23, 1920,
lime-sulphur solution, 1-66; Nov. 2, 1920, 1 per cent oil emulsion; June 15, 1921, 1 per cent oil emulsion;
July 28, 1921, some trees were sprayed with 1 per cent oil emulsion.
The development of the rust mites on these plants was checked by
the several sprayings. On June 23, 1920, a spraying was given with
lime-sulphur solution, following which the mites did not get abundant
in July, so no count was made. On October 30, however, the mites
were quite abundant, but an application of lubricating-oil emulsion,
made on November 2 for scale insects and white flies, was also effec-
tive in killing the mites. Another spraying with oil emulsion on June
15, 1921, for scale insects and white flies also greatly reduced the num-
ber of rust mites. During the spring of 1922 a very severe drought
occurred from February until May, and the rust mites did not become
abundant during this period.
The results of these examinations certainly indicate that the nearer
the species and hybrids are to a true citrus, the more favorable the
rust mite finds the food supply. The tangor, a cross between the
tangerine and the sweet orange, was the most favorable host plant.
The siamelo, which is a cross between the King orange and the grape-
fruit, was the second, and the seedling orange and kumquat were also
favorable hosts. It is very doubtful whether Chaitospermum glutinosa
should be considered a true host plant since so few mites were found
on it.
SPECIFIC PREFERENCE
The citrus rust mite infests lemon more severely than any other
host, and grapefruit much more severely than it does orange. From
June 4 to 8, 1923, three counts were made of the rust mites in an equal
number of half-inch squares on grapefruit and orange trees growing in
adjoining rows. There were one and two-thirds times as many mites
on the grapefruit as there were on the orange trees. The infestation
records of rust mites on the check trees during the spraying work
of several years, covering all seasons, show three and one-half times
as many mites on grapefruit as on orange. Probably on an aver-
age, year after year, the infestation is about three times as severe
on grapefruit as it is on orange. The infestation is much less severe
on tangerine than it is on orange.
6 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 176, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
MITES MISTAKEN FOR THE CITRUS RUST MITE
In so far as is known there is only one species of rust mite attacking
citrus in Florida, and consequently any Phyllocoptes mite found there
is undoubtedly the rust mite which causes the enormous damage to the
foliage and fruits. There are, however, several species of mites, some of
them closely related, found on plants and shrubs growing in and near
citrus groves, which could easily be mistaken for the citrus rust mite.
A mite that feeds on maiden cane resembles the citrus rust mite
more closely, perhaps, than any other species observed thus far. It is
lighter in color, more transparent, and considerably larger, but, like
the citrus rust mite, it does not make a gall. The eggs, larvae, and
adults may be found on the host plant in May, June, and July. It
could not be found, however, early in October. Both mites evidently
reach their period of maximum infestation at about the same time.
It was first observed in 1919 at Plymouth, Fla., and since that time in
Orlando and south of Orlando, and about many other groves. Several
attempts were made to transfer these mites to leaves of citrus trees
under observation, but in all cases the mites remained only a day or
two and then disappeared.
In 1914 a mite resembling the citrus rust mite was reported by
the writer, on roses (13). It is pinkish or lavender in color and per-
haps somewhat smaller than the citrus rust mite. It also does not
make a gall. Eggs, larvae, and adult mites are present on the foliage
most abundantly about the 1st of June, but soon after that it largely
disappears. While present in great abundance, it does not seem to
cause serious injury to the plant beyond the crinkling of the young
leaves in some cases. On the theory that these might be the same
mites which infest citrus trees, some experiments were made to de-
termine whether the citrus rust mite could live on rose foliage. Sev-
eral mites were transferred to the rose bushes, and some of them lived
for two or three days, but they were unable to maintain themselves
there, and most of them disappeared within a day. Subsequent exam-
inations have shown that the rose mite is distinctly different although
superficially resembling the citrus rust mite.
Several of the gall-forming mites also resemble the rust mite very
closely both in size and general appearance. Although gall forming
is characteristic of the Eriophyidse as a class, the citrus rust mite is
one of the few exceptions in the family. Some of these gall-forming
mites were observed on trees around citrus groves. A gall-making
mite infesting persimmon is usually present in great abundance in
late May, June, and July, but it is not known how it passes the winter,
as the persimmon sheds its foliage. There is also a gall-forming mite
found on sumac. This mite is present in great abundance in May and
June crawling over the foliage. In August it appears to be only on
the inside of the galls. In October the galls, of course, are present,
but examinations showed no mites within.
Free-feeding mites have also been found on a briar, a bamboo, and
a native plant resembling the rubber plant, but since only single
specimens were observed no data relating to them are available.
Although little is known of the biology of these various species of
mites it is most interesting and remarkable that they reach the period
of maximum infestation at about the same time as does the citrus rust
mite and then disappear. It may be that these species are attacked
by the same fungus that attacks the citrus rust mite.
THE CITRUS RUST MITE AND ITS CONTROL 7
RUST-MITE INJURY
INJURY TO THE FRUIT
NATURE OF INJURY
The rust mite, being possessed of piercing mouth parts, punctures
the epidermal cells of the rind of the fruit. This injury, when exces-
sive, destroys the outer layers of cells, as shown in Figure 1, B. This
»k /)}
Figure l.— Magnified section of grapefruit rind: A, Normal cellular structure; B, cellular struc-
ture showing flattened epidermal cells after severe injury that has produced "shark skin"
illustration shows that the outer layers of epidermal cells have been
largely flattened or destroyed. It will be noticed (fig. 1, A) that the
epidermal cells of the normal grapefruit are more or less rectangular
in shape and are much thicker than the cells of the injured fruit.
When this injury, in the case of orange, is only slight the blemish re-
sults in a grade of fruit known as ''golden." If it is very severe when
8 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 176, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Figure 2.— Severe injury by rust mites known as "sharlc skin": A, On lemons; B, on grapefruit, X 2
Technical Bulletin 176, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
PLATE 1
lRN offset INC .B*
Oranges Injured by Feeding of Rust Mites
A, Type of severe injury known as " black russet."
B, Less severe injury known as "russet."
THE CITRUS RUST MITE AND ITS CONTROL 9
the fruit is young ''black russet" develops. (PL 1, A.) When it is
quite severe but does not cover all the rind it is known as ''russet."
(PL 1, B.) The same term can be applied with reference to injury on
grapefruit excepting that when the rust-mite injury is excessive on young
fruit it develops into what is known as ' ' shark skin.' ' (Fig. 2, B.) When
grapefruit or lemons are thus injured, the epidermal cells can be turned
back and peeled off. (Fig. 2.) In many instances the presence of
thousands of rust mites on a single fruit stunts its growth and pre-
vents it from developing into a normal fruit. These stunted fruits
are very small and are practically all rind. The rind of both russet
oranges and russet grapefruit and of shark-skin grapefruit is much
thicker than it is on normal fruit; in fact, excessive injury from rust
mites produces fruit which might be termed citrus galls. (Fig. 3.)
Until the last few years the blemish known as "tear stain" (fig. 4)
was thought to be due to a fungous disease, but it is now known to be
the result of rust-mite attack {11).
PROOF THAT THE INJURY IS CAUSED BY RUST MITES
Although it is universally believed by citrus growers that russeting
is caused by rust mites, some experiments were carried on to furnish
positive proof that such was the case. On July 5, 1919, several
designs were painted with pure lime-sulphur solution on fruits heavily
infested wdth the rust mite. The lime-sulphur solution killed the
rust mites upon the surface of the orange where it was placed, leaving
the rest of the fruit to be attacked by the mites. These fruits were
picked on March 19, 1920. Some of the lime-sulphur designs showed
very distinctly, while in other cases they appeared as bright spots.
The lime-sulphur in some cases no doubt killed the mites at a con-
siderable distance from the design, which accounted for the appear-
ance of a bright spot instead of the distinctive design. In some
cases, however, letters painted on the fruit showed very distinctly as
bright lines on the russeted fruit. This experiment certainly shows
that russeting follows the feeding by rust mites, and, further, that one
part of an orange may be protected so as to be bright while the rest
of it may become russeted.
ATTEMPTS TO PRODUCE ARTIFICIAL RUSSETING
Since rust mites puncture the skin of the orange it was thought that
some artificial means could be used to imitate the work of the mite and
thereby produce at will the russeting as well as the severe form of
injury known as shark skin on grapefruit. On December 20, 1916,
half of the several fruits were hit with the bristles of a stiff hairbrush.
Over other fruit the hairbrush was rubbed quite vigorously. In both
instances it was quite evident that several oil cells had been punc-
tured, as the odor of the oil could be very readily detected. A heavy
rain fell eight hours afterward. By February 8, 1917, no injury
resembling in the slightest degree rust-mite injury had developed.
Severe spots had resulted on some of the fruit. A freeze on February
2 had caused most of the fruit to fall, so a complete record was not
available.
93061—30 2
10 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 176, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Again, on May 23, other experiments were conducted to imitate the
rust-mite injury. The fruits were about 1 inch in diameter and were
pricked with a hairbrush having stiff bristles. On June 8 these fruits
Figure 3.— Grapefruit cut open to show effect of rust-mite injury: A, A normal, uninjured fruit;
B, injured fruit showing the thickened skin and the smaller size of the fruit which contains prac-
tically no juice
were showing rust wherever the oil cells of the skin were broken by
the bristles. As a general thing the injury w^as coarse and in spots and
did not in the slightest degree resemble that of rust mites. On June
THE CITRUS RUST MITE AND ITS CONTROL
11
Figure 4.— Grapefruits showing the results of infestation by rust mites: A, An example of what
may be termed "multiple tear stain"; B, a fruit showinga form more distinctly marked. These
variant types of injury are frequently observed. One side of the fruit may be severely russeted
aud the other side bright or tear stained
12 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 176, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
5, 1918, the entire surface of 25 oranges and only half of the surface
area of 25 additional fruits were struck with the bristles of a tooth-
brush. On December 1, 1918, 44 of these fruits were picked. Not a
single one had a blemish resembling the rust-mite damage; in fact the
injury was purely mechanical.
Additional experiments were carried on in 1922 with grapefruit
which were about 4 inches in diameter, and some June-bloom fruits
1 inch in diameter were also used. Distilled orange oil was put on the
fruit with an atomizer. Twenty minutes after this oil was sprayed on
the fruits they showed brown spots where the oil had hit them.
Those in the sun showed more pronounced burning than those in the
shade. On the following day the fruit showed severe injury. The
larger grapefruit, and lemons similarly treated, had dark-brown areas
where the oil came in contact with the rind. Some of the leaves also
were injured and had dead spots in them. The young grapefruit were
black and deformed from the effects of the oil. On July 14, three
days after the experiment was started, all the fruits were brown, and
the injury very severe. On July 17 one fruit had turned yellow and
had dropped off. The others were badly injured and were starting
to decay. Gum exuded from the brown areas. On July 20 the fruits
had all dropped or were yellow and badly deformed.
Another experiment was conducted to show the effects of oil on
fruit. Six more fruits — lemons and grapefruit — were sprayed with
the distilled orange oil, the atomizer being held 10 or 12 inches from
the fruit and the oil sprayed into the air and allowed to drift on to the
fruits. In this way only a very small quantity of spray hit the fruit.
On the following day no injury whatever could be seen on the fruit.
On July 17 some of the fruits were sprayed for the second time, and
also some new fruits w^ere sprayed. On the following day none of the
fruit showed any effect whatever of the oil. As late as August 16 the
fruit sprayed lightly with orange oil showed no injurious effects.
Several other methods were used in attempting to produce an
injury similar to rust-mite injury. In June, 1921, green oranges
were ground up with a meat grinder, and some of this pulp was
bound on several oranges with oil paper and left for 24 hours. This
produced no injury. Other oranges were dipped in the juice of these
ground oranges for periods ranging from 10 seconds to 2 minutes,
with no resulting injury. On August 15, 1922, a slice of black walnut
was rubbed over several fruits, and no injury resulted. Fruits dipped
in a dilution of 5 c. c. of sulphuric acid to 50 c. c. of water fell off
without developing any russet. In another experiment the pulp of
ground oranges was spread on the fruit and no damage resulted.
On July 17, 1922, a great many designs were made on fruit by punc-
turing the oil cells with a very fine needle, so that the contents ran
out over the surface of the fruit. After 24 hours the designs on the
fruit showed up very distinctly, somewhat resembling rust-mite
work, but they were very coarse. At the end of three days they
were much more noticeable, but they were then entirely too coarse
to resemble rust-mite work. Various substances, such as pumice
stone or fine sandpaper, have been tried, but all these materials were
so coarse that the injury resulting did not resemble rust-mite injury
in the slightest degree.
The citrus rust mite and its control 13
EFFECT OF THE INJURY
LOWERING OF THE GRADE
The blemish caused by the presence of rust mites lowers the grade
of the fruit. This has been discussed in considerable detail by the
senior author {15, p. 8), who showed that during the winter of 1915-16
there was approximately 13 per cent of first-grade, 41 per cent of
second-grade, and 46 per cent of third-grade fruit shipped from
Florida. It was also shown that by controlling the rust mite with
lime-sulphur solution the grade of fruit was raised in several groves,
so that 35 per cent was shipped as first grade, 50 per cent as second,
and the remaining as third and fourth grades.
REDUCTION OF THE SIZE OF FRUITS
The injury following rust-mite feeding prevents the fruit from
attaining its normal size. In just what manner this is accomplished
is not known, except that it is due to injury of the epidermal cells.
This reduction in size has also been discussed by the senior author
{15, p. 8). It was shown that the russet fruit is, on the average,
about 12 K per cent, or one size, smaller than bright fruit.
INCREASE OF EVAPORATION OF THE WATER CONTENT
It is well known that russet fruit becomes wrinkled in appearance
in a very short time after it has been taken from the trees. The
results, so far as available, show that the percentage of evaporation
of the water content from russet fruit is about twice as great as that
from bright fruit {15, p. 12).
SUNBURN
It is well known that when russet oranges are left on the trees
until late spring quite a large number of them are rendered unmar-
ketable because of the effect of the sun on the rind. Since the normal
protection of the rind has been destroyed by the rust mites, the hot
sun breaks down the oil cells over a considerable area of the part
turned toward the sun, and a large black spot develops. In some
instances this affects a considerable portion of the crop, depending,
of course, upon the time the fruit is picked. The later in the season
the greater the damage. ,
MORE RAPID DECAY
Experiments which showed that russeted fruit decayed more rapidly
than bright fruit were carried on by the senior author {15). In addi-
tion to these, other experiments were conducted from February 1 to
April 15, 1919. One hundred bright fruit and one hundred russet
fruit were put in pasteboard plates, which were then placed on shelves
in the laboratory. The bright fruits were not what would be termed
absolutely bright, and the russets were affected to a greater or less
extent by other blemishes than those caused by rust mites, although
an attempt was made to select fruit affected only with rust-mite
injury. Careful examinations were made of all fruits used in the
experiment so as to select only fruit free from mechanical injury.
14 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 176, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
This will account, perhaps, for the small quantity of blue mold
which developed during the experiment. The results of the exami-
nations which were made from time to time are given in Table 2.
Table 2. — Rapidity of decay in russet fruit and bright fruit {100 of each) picked
February 1, 1919
Date of
examination
Number of bright
fruit decayed
from—
Number of russet
fruit de(!ayed
from—
Blue
mold
Stem-end
rot •
Blue
mold
Stem-end
rot 1
Feb. 12*
2
3
0
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
6
1
3
5
4
9
12
14
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
21
12
3
4
18
6
7
10
f)
Feb. 19
Mar. 1
Mar. 10 .-
Mar. 13
Mar. 18
Mar. 20
Mar. 27
Mar. 31
Apr. 5
Apr. 15
Total
10
60
0
87
1 Phomopsis citri.
2 All russet fruits were shriveled on this date.
At the end of one month only 6 per cent of the bright fruit had
decayed from stem-end rot while 21 per cent of the russet fruit had
decayed. At the end of two and one-half months 60 per cent of the
bright and 87 per cent of the russet fruit had decayed from stem-end
rot. It may be that some of this decay was brought about by the
fruit being affected with melanose russet instead of rust-mite russet.
Every possible effort, however, had been made to select only fruit that
showed rust-mite injury instead of melanose russet. The russet fruit
shriveled up much faster than did the bright fruit.
CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF BRIGHT AND RUSSET ORANGES
There is an almost universal belief that russet fruit is sweeter than
the bright or natural-colored fruit. As to the origin of this belief, the
writer has no explanation to offer other than that the russet fruit is
seldom sold before the holidays; hence it is never eaten before it has
had ample time to ripen, so no russet fruit is ever sour. Bright fruit
is usually sold early in the season, and therefore may not have had
time to mature fully.'
As far as is known no analyses of bright and russet fruit had been
previously made so that these could be compared. It was thought
advisable therefore to make analyses of these two classes of fruit to
determine if this belief had any foundation in fact.
The analyses were made by the division of drug, poisonous, and
oil plants, Bureau of Plant Industry. The results, corrected for
temperatures, are given in Table 3.
The bright and russet fruit in the first half of the table were taken
from two seedling orange trees in the same grove, the former having
been sprayed with lime sulphur the previous July and the latter left
unsprayed throughout the entire season. The grove treatment was
THE CITRUS RUST MITE "AND ITS CONTROL
15
the same for both trees excepting that the tree of bright fruit had
received some stable manure a year or more before the date of the
analyses. The commercial fruits were taken from the packing house
and had been graded by the packing-house grader. Twelve fruits
were used for each test on each date.
Table 3. — Difference in soluble solids and anhydrous citric acid in bright and
russet oranges, Orlando, Fla.
BRIGHT FRUIT TAKEN FROM TREE
Ratio of
Date
Date
Anhydrous
Soluble
anhydrous
citric acid
to soluble
picked
analyzed
citric acid
solids
solids
1917
1917
Per cent
Per cent
Nov. 1
Nov. 10
1.22
9.93
1- 8. 14
Nov. 10
do
1.07
9.20
1- 8. 60
Nov. 20
Nov. 23
1.19
10.50
1- 8. 82
Nov. 30
Nov. 30
1.29
10.50
1- 8. 14
Dec. 30
Dec. 20
1.22
11.52
1- 9. 44
Dec. 20
- — -do-
1.19
11.27
1- 9. 47
Dec. 30
Dec. 30
1.03
11.52
1-11.18
RUSSET FRUIT TAKEN FROM TREE
Nov. 1
Nov. 10---
1.39
10. 50
1- 7. 55
Nov. 10
do
1.26
9.93
1- 7.88
Nov. 20
Nov. 23..-.
1.31
10.50
1- 8. 01
Nov. 30
Nov. 30---
1.44
10. 50
1- 7.29
Dec. 10
Dec. 20
1.44
12.22
1- 8. 48
Dec. 20
do
1.46
12.41
1- 8. 50
Dec. 30
Dec. 30
1.10
11.52
1-10. 47
BRIGHT FRUIT TAKEN FROM PACKING HOUSE
Nov. 10 1 Nov. 12...
Nov. 23 I Nov. 23...
Nov. 30 ! Nov. 30...
Dec. 20. Dec. 20....
0.97
8.82
1-9.09
1.50
11.90
1-7.93
1.43
11.68
1-8. 17
1.22
11.52
1-9.44
RUSSET FRUIT TAKEN FROM PACKING HOUSE
Nov. 10
Nov. 20
Nov. 30
Dec. 20.
Nov. 12
Nov. 23. ...
Nov. 30
Dec. 20
1.92
10.24
1-5. 33
1.82
10. 97
1-6.03
1.45
10.70
1-7.38
1.3.
11.68
1-8. 91
BRIGHT AND RUSSET FRUIT FROM THE SAME SEEDLING TREE
Bright
Nov. 5
Nov. 5
1.73
10.72
1
1-6.20
Russet
Nov. 5
Nov. 5
1.70
9.77
1-5. 75
The total soluble solids in the bright fruit from trees were less than
those in the russet fruit in four analyses and equal in three, and the
anhydrous citric acid was less in the bright fruit in all tests. Owing
to the larger quantity of acid in the russet fruit the proportion of acid
16 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 176, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
was less in the bright fruit in every test. In the commercial bright
fruit the total soluble solids were greater than they were in the russet
in two tests and less in two tests. These russets also had a greater
quantity of citric acid than the commercial brights, which caused
every test to show a lower proportion of acid in the bright than in the
russet fruit.
The russet fruit picked November 20, 1917, was much more tart
than the bright. The commercial russets were extremely tart, very
sour, and not fit for use.
The juice of the bright fruit taken from the packing house on
November 30 was much better flavored and considerably sweeter, than
that of the russet. The same was true of the sprayed and unsprayed
fruit.
On December 20 the same was found true of both the fruit from the
grove and from the packing house.
Another analysis was made on November 5, 1919, by H. D. Poore of
the then Bureau of Chemistry. The samples of fruit were picked from
a seedling tree.
It will be seen that the russet fruit is not so sweet as the bright
fruit even though from the same tree. The foregoing analyses show
that the rust-mite injury retards the ripening to a considerable ex-
tent. Toward spring, after considerable of the water content has
evaporated through the rind of the russet fruit, the ratio of the sugar
content to acid content may be much greater and therefore such fruit
may be really sweeter.
INJURY TO THE LEAVES AND BRANCHES
INJURY TO THE LEAVES
The rust mites when present on the upper surfaces {5) of citrus
leaves cause a roughening or stippling effect that can be detected by
touch. The leaves lose their glossy appearance and no doubt lose a
large part of their waxy covering, which increases the rate of evapora-
tion. The rust mites, when present in great abimdance, also cause a
bronzing of the lower surfaces of the leaves, but in some cases it is also
present on the upper surfaces. In a number of instances rust mites
have been so abimdant in the spring that the size of the leaves was
reduced. No doubt the devitalization caused by the presence of
thousands of rust mites on citrus foliage is much greater than the
average grower realizes.
' INJURY TO THE BRANCHES
Kust mites are also found on the branches just after they have
become reasonably mature, in some cases so abundantly as to cause
russeting on the bark. This is especially true on lemon and grapefruit,
and is also more frequently found on water shoots than on regular
growth. Since an injury to wood is much more serious than an
injury to foliage the devitalization caused by the presence of rust
mites on the branches must be considerable.
THE CITRUS RUST MITE AND ITS CONTROL
17
LIFE HISTORY AND HABITS
METHODS OF REARING
Observations made both in the laboratory and in the field had
given a general impression of the various stages, oviposition, meta-
morphosis, etc., of the rust mite, but because of its extremely small
size as well as its wandering habits many difficulties were encountered
when individual mites were reared in cages in order to determine the
length of the various stages and other factors regarding their life
history. Unless confined in a very small cell, the mites were easily
lost or would get into a crevice or other place where it was impossible
to find them. Their minute size always necessitated the use of a
hand lens when working with them and many times the binoculars
were needed when making ex-
aminations. Besides this, the
mites have the habit of wan-
dering around considerably
and hence will not live long in
confinement. This is espe-
cially true of the adults, which
could usually be kept for only
a few days. A fresh supply
of food is always necessary
since the mites failed to live
on withered or dry fruit and
leaves. This necessitated
transferring them from one
fruit to another, and many
were lost or injured in this
process. Many rearings,
therefore, had to be started
in order to carry through a
few of them successfully.
Repeated efforts to raise the
mites for observation purposes
on very small trees or isolated
portions of trees or leaves were
unsuccessful since they could
not be found when wanted.
It was necessary, therefore, to devise a cage in which they would live and
could be observed at regular intervals. Various types of cells made of
felt and pasteboard, bone rings, etc., were devised, and attempts were
made to rear the mites in these cells placed over the leaves and fruit.
The cage finally adopted (fig. 5) as being the most satisfactory con-
sisted of a No. 0 gelatin capsule secured on a fruit by means of hot
paraffin placed around the outside and allowed to harden. In this
cell the mites would sometimes live for several days or until the fruit
began to dry, when they could be transferred to a fresh fruit. At
first the entire half capsule was used, but it was later found that by
93061—30 3
Figure 5.— Cage used for rearing rust mites. The cage
consists of a gelatin capsule fastened ofi the surface of
the orange with melted paraffin. This method causes
no injury to the rind and prevents the exudation of
juices detrimental to the mites under observation
18
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 176, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
cutting off the end and using only the gelatin cylinder more satis-
factory observations could be made since the convex surface at the
end of the capsule reflected the light and made it difficult to see
inside. With the cylinder open, air was admitted, and the mites
did not often attempt to crawl up the perpendicular sides.
These capsules could be placed on the fruits, and they made fairly
satisfactory breeding cages. No injury was done to the surface of
the orange, and the green fruit could be kept fresh and in good con-
dition for several days by putting the stem in water. During the
spring and early summer, when the mites were reproducing in greatest
abundance, the fruits were of a convenient size to handle (one-half
inch to 2 inches in diameter). Later in the fall, when the oranges
began to color up, the mites could not readily be found on them
since they were too nearly the color of the fruit. The leaves and
stems were never successfully used since they soon withered and dried.
As already stated, confinement in the small cells lessened the
normal activities of the mites to some extent and perhaps interfered
with their regular life processes. It is believed, however, that the
results obtained will at least approximate what occurs in natural life.
Detailed records of the various stages of the citrus rust mite are
given in Table 4.
Table 4. — Length of the various life stages of the rust mite for summer and winter,
Orlando, Fla., 1922 and 1928
Date
deposited
1
H
3
1
c
53
3
1
=1
li
1
P
Duration of sec-
ond larval stage
>
11
03
Q
3.2
1!
SI
1
0
1
Q
3
5
1
May 26
26
26
1
2
May 29
May 30
May 29
May 30
May 29
May 30
--.do
May 31
May 30
...do
Msiv SI
Days
3
4
4
3
4
3
t
Days
Days
Days
May 30
June 7
June 6
June 13
May 30
June 9
June 11
June 1
June 10
June 11
June 3
June 6
.. do
Days
June 1
-.do
--do— -
2 1 June 3
2V^ JuTip. 2
2
1
14
June 4
1
4
4
26
26
2^
--do
June 3
1
11
26
27
27 '^
June i
2
2
June 3
June 2
2
1
June 5
-.do
2
3
6
9
27
TiinA 1
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
June 2
-do
1
1
8
27
27
3 i---do
4 |--.do
3 ' June 3
3 : Jnnfl 4
June 5
3
9
30
June 5
2
1
30
1
1
--do
June 5
--do..'...
June 4
-.do
June 6
do
June 1
1
1
1
4
> 4
I
4
4
4
2
2^
2
2H
1
3
2
3
2
3
3
2
June 6
-.do-—
June 5
---do—.
June 7
---do— -
--do
June 9
June 7
June 8
June 7
June 8
-.do— -.
--do
...do— -
June 10
14
Y^
3
1
1
1
1
June ii
June 10
34
--3-
June 20
June 9
June 14
June 8
June 18
June 22
June 8
June 11
June 8
June 14
June 7
June 8
June 16
June 19
June 12
June 9
June 17
June 9
June 20
June 10
June 22
13
1
2
1
10
2
14
2
1 ! do
5
J
June 7
--do
--do
---do
June 8
June 10
June 9
--do
-.do
June 10
June 9
June 10
--do
—do...-
1
5
5
June '9
2
June 11
2
3
I
5
6
June 12
June 11
...do
2
2
2
June 13
June 12
—do-
1
1
1
3
6
6
7
7
7
June 12
2
June 13
1
June 15
2
4
7
7
June 12
2
June 13
1
June 15
2
7
8
June 12
2
June 13
1
9
1 Observations were made twice daily.
in the afternoon.
Where fractions of days occur the transformation was observed
THE CITRUS RUST MITE AND ITS CONTROL
19
Table 4.
•Length of the various life stages of the rust mite for summer and winter,
Orlando, Fla., 1922 and 1923 — Continued
Date
deposited
o
i
d
1
P
a =3
f
Q
1
o
5
Q
1
P
1
o
a
si
p
is
II
3 fl
P°
*>
o
o 2
1
P
1.1
p^
i
.2
P
3
OS
c
June 8
June 10
June 12
...do.....
June 13
June 16
--do
June 18
--do.—.
June 19
June 20
.-.do-—
June 22
June 30
-.do
July 2
-.-do
-.do—.
July 1
...do-
July 2
July 3
-..do
-.do
...do
July 4
-.-do
...do....-
July 10
-.-do
...do....-
--do
...do.....
...do.....
...do
-.do
July 11
...do
July 12
...do
July 14
July 12
...do
...do
July 14
July 15
...do
July 16
-.-do
Tiilv 17
Days
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
2^
4
4
June 12
June 14
...do
June 15
June 18
--do
June 19
--.do..—
June 21
June 22
...do
June 23
Days
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
2
2
1
June 13
June 15
...do
June 16
June 19
...do
June 20
June 21
Days
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
Days
June 13
June 26
June 19
June 17
June 27
June 19
June 25
...do
June 21
June 24
June 25
.. do. ..
Days
9
9
10
June 24
June 17
9
2
11
4
1
13
13
June 22
3
8
15
5
15
16
4
17
June 23
...do..-..
June 24
1
1
1
17
19
27
July 1
June 30
July 3
July 2
.. do
28
28
28
28
4
1
28
3
3
3
3
3
3
m
3
3
3
3
3K2
3
3
3
3
3
3M
2
4
2
2J/2
^^
3
3
2
2
3
3.05
July 3
...do
July 4
2
2
2
July 5
-.do
...do.....
2
2
1
July 17
July 14
July 7
July 3
July 13
July 5
...do
12
28
29
July 7
2
9
2
30
30
30
July 4
--.do
1
1
July 5
-.-do
1
1
July 7
2
8
30
July 1
July 4
July 20
July 5
July 25
July 14
July 18
July 20
July 19
July 20
July 14
July 18
July 19
July 31
July 20
July 25
July 17
July 12
Aug. 2
July 15
July 25
...do
July 15
July 26
July 16
July 27
July 6
2
July 7
1
July 11
4
13
July 12
...do...-.
-.do- —
...do.....
...do.....
...do.....
...do.....
...do
...do
July 13
July 14
...do.....
July 16
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
July 14
-.do—.
...do
--do-...
--do
...do
-.do.....
...do
...do
...do
July 15
July 16
July 17
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
11
4
July 15
July 18
1
4
6
5
g
8
17
9
10
July 17
2
5
9
10
10
10
July 14
July 15
July 16
July 18
2
3
2
3
July 16
2
17
10
11
July 17
July 19
i
1
8
12
12
.......:.
6
14
July 19
3
July 20
1
6
14
14
July 19
2
July 20
1
7
1.82
1.34
2.66
6.89
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
1
2
1
1
1
4
1
Jan. 5
...do
Jan. 6
Jan. 8
...do
Jan. 9
Jan. 10
Jan. 15
Jan. 16
Jan. 25
Jan. 26
Jan. 29
Jan. 30
Jan. 26
.......
6
6
4
4
I
8
5
7
4
Jan. 10
Jan. 9
...do
5
4
3
Jan. 23
Jan. 15
Jan. 14
13
6
5
1
Jan. 30
...do
Jan. 26
7
Jan. 22
Jan. 17
7
3
15
Jan. 2
2
12
2
Jan. 12
4
Jan. 16
4
I
5
1
6
'■
9
'1 1 ■
10
1
1 1
17
Jan. 29
Jan. 30
4
4
Feb. 2
4
■ 1 1
21
— j" 1
22
::
1 \
26
...J
1 1
Feb. 1
6
!
Average for winter
5.07
4.3
6.4
5
11.3
20
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 176, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
THE EGG
DESCRIPTION
The eggs (fig. 6, B) of the rust mite are found on the fruit and leaves,
usually in the pits or depressions of the surface. Although laid
singly, several usually occur together in a group but never so close as
to touch one another. They are very minute, and it is almost
impossible to see them without the aid of a hand lens unless they are
present in groups. The egg is spherical with a smooth regular surface
and semi transparent or pale translucent yellow. In spite of their
small size the eggs are relatively large for the size of the female, and
only one or two developed eggs occur in the abdomen at one time.
INCUBATION PERIOD
The incubation period of the egg is of brief duration during hot
weather. One hundred eggs under observation during the months of
^ ^ >^i» /%-%<r<^»^ i.- ^ .
Figure
-The citrus rust mite: A, Adult, X 700; B,
X 1,500
egg, X 825; C, one leg showing appendages,
May, June, and July, 1922, at Orlando, Fla., as shown in Table'4,
ranged in the length of the developmental period from 2 to 4 days
with an average of 3.01 days. In these months the mites increase
in greatest numbers on the trees and cause the most injury to the
green fruits. The temperatures recorded during this period were as
follows: For May the maximum temperature ranged from 80° to
99° F., with a mean of 90.9° and a mean minimum of 65.9°, and a
total precipitation of 5.88 inches; for June the maximum ranged
from 88° to 99°, with a mean of 92.9°, and a mean minimum of 70°,
and a total precipitation of 9.75 inches; for July the maximum ranged
from 87° to 101°, with a mean of 93.4°, and a mean minimum of 71.4°,
and a total precipitation of 4.84 inches.
THE CITRUS BUST MITE AND ITS CONTROL 21
During the winter months the period of incubation is considerably
extended. In January, 1923, the time ranged from 4 to 8 days, with
an average of 5.53 days. The maximum temperature during this
month ranged from 64° to 88° F., with a mean of 77.2°, and a mean
minimum of 48.1°, total precipitation 0.56 inch. Doubtless this time
would be considerably lengthened for eggs deposited during very cold
spells. Hubbard (7, p. 115) states that the incubation period seldom
exceeds two weeks.
HATCfflNG
During the last few hours of the incubation period the young mite
can be seen inside of the egg, curled up to fit into the spherical shell.
When the time for hatching arrives the shell cracks, and the mite
crawls out. This may take place at any time of the day, but by far
the largest percentage hatch out in the early morning. Bright, sunny,
warm mornings will cause the eggs to hatch in greater numbers, and
cloudy or cool weather retards their development.
THE LARVA
The young mites undergo two molts before becoming adult, the
two larval stages being of about equal duration. When first emerged
from the egg the larva is of a very pale straw color or semi transparent.
Feeding begins at once on the cell contents of the leaf or fruit.
Although at first not very active, the young mite begins to wander
around within a few hours. This stage lasts for only a very few days,
whereupon the mite takes a short rest preliminary to molting. The
mite becomes motionless for a few hours until the skin cracks, and it
crawls out. The second-stage mite is slightly larger and has a more
decidedly yellow color, but otherwise it is very little changed. After
a brief period of feeding, about equal in duration to that of the first
stage, the mite again enters a quiescent state and prepares to molt.
The skin again splits, and the adult mite emerges. The white cast
skin remains attached to the surface of the leaf or fruit and con-
tributes to the dusty appearance of the tree caused by the presence
of the mites.
During the summer the first larval stage lasted from 1 to 3 days,
with an average of 1.82 days, but in winter it was increased to from
3 to 6 days, with an average of 4.3. The second stage also lasted
from 1 to 3 days in summer but averaged 1.34 days. In winter it
was increased to from 4 to 13, with an average of 6.4 days. (Table 4.)
THE ADULT
DESCRIPTION
The citrus rust mite (fig. 6, A) is among the smallest of the pests
of economic importance. When occurring singly on the tree, it is
difficult to distinguish, and the russeting resulting from the feeding
of the mites was for many years attributed to other causes. When
occurring in large numbers, they give the leaves and fruit a dusty
or powdery appearance, each individual mite appearing as a speck
of dust. Close examination with a hand lens, however, will reveal a
minute vermiform mite, light yellow or straw colored. Some speci-
mens become a darker yellow or nearly brown a few days after
reaching maturity. This is particularly true of those which are at-
tacked by the fungous disease described later. Instead of having the
22 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 176, TJ. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
spiderlike or crab-shaped appearance of many of the other mites the
rust mites are elongate and wedge shaped, being about three times
as long as wide. The body is composed of a cephalothorax, or fused
head and thorax, and a slender, tapering abdomen. The mite ranges
from 0.11 to 0.14 mm. in length, with an average of 0.12 mm. The
cephalothorax at its widest part averages 0.046 mm., ranging from
0.041 to 0.054 mm. If placed under the microscope, the abdomen
will be found to be transversely striated and have the appearance of
being made up of a number of rings each of which grows smaller
toward the posterior end. There are usually 28 rings appearing on
the dorsal surface, but on the ventral surface there are twice as many.
The anterior end tapers bluntly off to the head, which is rounded
and curved downward. It is supplied with a pair each of maxillary
palpi and mandibles used for piercing the cell walls. On the ventral
side and placed closely together are two pairs of short rather weak
legs (fig. 6, C) which are used in crawling. The creature is assisted
in moving about and clinging to the trees by a pair of lobes, or false
feet, located on the last abdominal segment. By means of these it
is able to raise the entire body and turn around in various directions.
It also rears up in this manner when disturbed.
LENGTH OF UFE
The length of life of the adult mite is difficult to estimate and could
not be accurately determined in the breeding jars since the mites
failed to live long in confinement. The longest period recorded for
an adult mite was 23 days. Another was kept alive 17 days, and a
number lived for about two weeks, while many others died or were
lost in less than a week. The average length of life for all adults
kept in confinement was 7.6 days. It is not thought that the rust
mites live for any great length of time, even under ideal conditions,
or that the number of eggs deposited is excessive. On the other hand
the mites owe their great numbers and extremely rapid increase to
the brief length of time required to reach maturity.
OVIPOSITION
Oviposition begins shortly after the mite reaches maturity. When
mites were confined in the cells there was often a preoviposition pe-
riod of from 1 to 4 or 5 days (an average of 2.66 days in summer),
but it is not thought that this would be so long under natural condi-
tions. Eggs are probably deposited within a day or two after the
mites reach maturity. Table 4 shows that some of the specimens in
the breeding cages deposited eggs on the day following the last molt.
Egg laying continues throughout the life of the mite.
The eggs are deposited, both singly and in groups, on the leaves,
fruit, and small limbs. The favorite places for oviposition seem to
be the pits on the surface of the green fruits. This is especially true
in May and June when the oranges are from 1 to 2 inches in diameter,
and the mites are increasing most rapidly. The adult female rests
with her ovipositor extending down into a pit or depression on the
surface and deposits the egg at the bottom. Although single eggs
are sometimes seen in these cavities, there are usuall}^ from 5 or 6 to
10 or more. Several hundred eggs can be seen at times on a single
green fruit when it is well infested with mites. On the leaves also
the mites seek the small depressions on the surface, and eggs can
THE CITRUS RUST MITE AND ITS CONTROL 23
often be found there in large numbers. No preference is shown for
either side of the leaf, as many eggs occurring on the top as on the
bottom. The leaf petioles and limbs are rarely selected for ovipo-
sition, though a few eggs can be found on the smaller limbs of heavily
infested trees. As far as is known oviposition does not take place
on any plants other than citrus. The morning hours seem to be the
time of greatest activity in egg laying.
NUMBER OF EGGS
The number of eggs which a female mite is capable of laying can
only be estimated, since they could be kept alive in the cells for only a
limited time. The greatest number obtained from a single female was
29, deposited over a period of 20 days. A second mite deposited 19
eggs in 9 days, and others deposited from 8 to 14 eggs each over
periods of about a week. The number actually laid under natural
conditions would be somewhat greater.
As many as five eggs have been deposited by a female in a day,
although it was seldom that more than one or two were produced.
There were many days during which no eggs were laid, and some mites
reared to maturity in the cells and kept for several days died without
ovipositing. This was undoubtedly abnormal, for it is believed that
mites under favorable conditions will deposit a few eggs ever^ day.
Warm weather seems to stimulate oviposition to some extent. Fol-
lowing the egg-laying stage there usually was a postoviposition period
of a day or two preceding death.
PARTHENOGENESIS
Keproduction appears to be entirely by parthenogenesis. No
sexual differences have ever been distinguished in the rust mites, nor
has copulation ever been observed. The rearing work was carried
on wdth single individuals in isolated cells, and in all cases where eggs
w^ere obtained they seemed to be fertile. Several mites reared sepa-
rately from egg to adult deposited eggs which in all cases hatched out
in due time. Several generations were reared in this way. There
may be times during the year when males occur in nature, but no
evidence has been obtained to substantiate such a supposition.
NUMBER OF GENERATIONS
From the results obtained it will be seen that the mites reproduce
at an exceedingly rapid rate. From 7 to 10 days only are required
for a generation during warm weather, while in winter this time is
increased to 14 days or more, depending upon the temperature. In
several instances an entire generation from egg to egg was produced
in 7 days. This will allow for several generations per month and
accounts for the enormous number of the mites on the trees at some
seasons of the year.
MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS
On August 13, 1913, about 7.30 a. m., the mites on an orange were
noticed to behave in a remarkable manner. They were jumping or
flip-flopping around in a ludicrous way. As well as could be seen,
this was done by bringing the head and rear ends together and then
suddenly straightening out. This action would sometimes throw
the mite a half inch or even more from the starting point. This is,
no doubt, one of the means of distribution.
24 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 176, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
It was thought that the rust mites possibly have a diurnal migration,
going from the tops of the leaves to the lower surfaces for the night
and returning to the upper surfaces to spend the day. On May 24,
1920, the trees on the laboratory grounds were examined at 9 p. m.,
and mites were found on both sides of the leaves — more, perhaps, on
the upper surfaces than on the lower. There are indications, how-
ever, that the mites may crawl to the lower surfaces of the leaves to
protect themselves from heavy rains.
REACTION TO UGHT
Having noticed that occasionally the mites on some oranges gather
in bunches in the direct sunlight, apparently at times when attacked
by a fungous disease, the senior writer thought it advisable in June,
1920, to study the reaction of the mites to light.
Several branches with infested fruit were set in water on the labora-
tory table for observation. On some of the fruits the mites congre-
gated on the side toward the window. One fruit that had a large
group of mites on it was turned around at 4 p. m., but on the following
morning there was no marked movement toward the side now turned
toward the window. Another fruit infested with mites was placed
in a parasite-breeding box with the only opening turned toward the
light. " The mites quickly gathered on the light side, but on the follow-
ing morning they were scattered all over the fruit. During the
second day many reassembled on the light side, but the next morning
found them scattered again. This was repeated the next day.
From the foregoing experiments it appears that the rust mites
gather to the light during the day and scatter during the night. The
early morning light does not seem to attract them.
Unless infected with a fungous disease (see p. 34), mites appear to
avoid direct sunlight.
PARTS OF THE TREE INFESTED
On June 4, 1920, several trees were examined to determine the rela-
tive number of mites on the limbs, trunk, foliage, and fruit. They
were very abundant on the fruit and foliage and very nearly as abun-
dant on the smaller green limbs, where there was russeting similar to
that found on the leaves and fruit. There was also a considerable
infestation on the larger limbs, but none could be seen on the trunks,
as the bark was rough and brown. Wherever the bark was green,
however, mites were present. Limbs up to 2 inches in diameter
were infested, but the numbers seemed to decrease as the size of the
limbs increased.
There were no mites found nearer to the ground than 1 inch.
They were present on foliage growing near the ground, and also close
to the trunk under the trees, where the sun would never reach them.
There were not so many in such locations, however, as on the foliage
near the tops of the trees.
On June 7, several trees were examined in the morning, and rust
mites were found on the limbs of all of them. The leaves in the center
of the tree, which were always in the shade, and the small limbs
growing near the trunk also had many mites on them.
The data given in Table 5 were collected to determine whether the
rust mites were mostly on the lower or the upper surfaces of the
THE CITRUS RUST MITE AND ITS CONTROL
25
leaves at different times of the year. The results were about the same
on orange and grapefruit.
Table 5. — Comparative number of rust mites on the upper and lower surfaces of
spring flush leaves of oranges and grapefruit, Orlando, Fla., 1920
Fruit and date
Upper side
Lower side
Remarks
Orange:
Feb 6
Num-
ber
0
219
426
111
0
203
495
257
Per
cent
0
24.4
38.8
16.0
0
23.3
24.3
16.1
Num-
ber
4
678
671
583
1
668
1,539
1,336
Per
cent
100
75.6
61.2
84.0
100
76.7
75.7
83.9
June 4
Counted between 10 and 11 a. m.i
June 5
Counted between 8 and 9 a. m.
June 8 2
Counted between 9 and 10 a. m.
Grapefruit:
Feb. f)
Juno \
Counted between 10 and 11 a, m.
Counted between 8 and 9 a. m.
June 82
Counted between 9 and 10 a. m.
1 The relative abundance of mites on the upper and lower surfaces may be entirely difTerent at sonic
other time oi day.
2 A total of 2.42 inches of rain fell on June 6 and 7.
In making examinations throughout a period of more than two
years in another grove the rust mites found on the tops of the leaves
and those found on the lower surfaces were counted. In only 3 out
of 59 examinations were more rust mites found on the tops of the
leaves than on the lower surfaces. In one of these instances only 7
mites were found in all, so its record is of little importance. The
results of the 59 examinations are given by months in Table 6. It is
seen in this table that 20.2 per cent were found on the tops and 79.8
per cent on the lower surfaces.
Table 6. — Number and percentage of rust mites on tops and lower surfaces of
citrus leaves at Orlando, Fla., for each month, as shown by 59 examinations
Month
1920
January
February..
March
April... ...
May
June
July...
August
September.
October
November.
December..
Total..
Rust mites found on-
!
Upper side
Lower side
Number
Per cent
Number
Per cent
39
4.1
921
95.9
79
4.9
1, 547 *
95.1
154
11.8
1, 151
88.2
86
30.4
150
63.6
48
36.9
82
63.1
36
4.6
750
95.4
809
30.5
1,847
69. 5
68
42.0
94
58.0
52
27.2
139
72.8
358
53.2
315
40.8
361
29.0
858
70.4
75
9.5
716
90.5
2,165
20.2
8,570
79.8
An examination of all the results, covering both grapefruit and
orange, indicates that approximately 75 per cent of the rust mites
arc found on the lower surfaces of the foUage. These results of
course indicate nothing as to the number of mites on the upper or
lower surfaces of the fruits. It is also seen that these results vary
somewhat for the winter and summer months, more mites being on
the lower surfaces during the dry season, which lasts from November
to April, than during the rainy season.
93061—30 4
26
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 176, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Kust mites leave the old leaves some time in late spring and migrate
to the new foUage. On May 12, 1922, there were only 11 mites in 50
squares on the old foliage, whereas there were 47 mites in 25 squares
on the new foliage. It was evident for some time previous to this date
that the rust mites were moving to new leaves.
SEASONAL HISTORY
The rust mite is present on citrus trees throughout the entire
year. Even in unsprayed groves the mites, as a usual thing, are not
present in great abundance during January and February, although
in exceptional cases great numbers may be present on grapefruit
and lemon. During March and April their numbers increase rapidl3\
During May and the first part of June the rate of increase is much
more rapid than at any other time of the year. Figure 7 shows the
curve of abundance. The period of maximum infestation usually
occurs during late June or early July, at which time the rust mites
are present in countless hordes, in some cases a single grapefruit
being infested with half a million or more mites.
u^/v /^ss. Af^^. ^p^, AMi^ cy6/A£<y^/.y^c/a Sir/>7r ocTT aoi/. /?£C
T/Af£.
W/77r
I
1
1
1
1
t
L
r/M£ AOjP jQC^S/--/
^/r£
^
Figure 7. — Curve showing the abundance of mites on orange throughout the year and the proper
times for spraying. The broken line indicates the abundance of mites on sprayed trees
Though the period of maximum infestation usually occurs during
the middle of June, it occasionally comes as early as May. In 1911
the rust mites were present in the greatest abundance about May
10, and much russeting was done as early as May 1. On the other
hand, in 1917 the period of maximum infestation did not appear
until late in July, owing, no doubt, to the effect of the freeze of the
previous February w^hich reduced their numbers. During the rainy
season their numbers diminish, as if by some magical force, almost to
the point of extinction. No doubt this disappearance is caused by
an entomogenous fungus which is discust^ed on page 34. After this
they very slowly and gradually increase until the following June.
The period of maximum infestation occurs first on lemon and
then on grapefruit and about one month later on orange.
Table 7 gives a summary of the counts of rust mites made on the
check trees used for the control experiments over a period of several
years. It is obvious from the table that there is a much larger pop-
ulation of rust mites during May, June, and July than during the
remainder of the year. It is the writers' opinion from general observa-
tions that the figures given do not represent so great a difference as
often exists. It will be seen also that there are many more mites on
grapefruit than there are on orange.
THE CITRUS RUST MITE AND ITS CONTROL
27
Table 7. — Summary, by months, of the counts of rust mites on the check trees over a
period of several years at Orlando, Fla.
ON ORANGE
Month
Upper surface
of leaves
Squares
January 1 110
February 115
March _ .j 170
April I 100
May 514
June 425
Julv 155
August i 130
September i 110
October. j 20
November ; 5
December j 173
Total I 2,027
Average
Mites
70
2,694
783
102
942
128
3
5
657
10,490
5.1
Lower surface
of leaves
Squares
110
115
170
100
514
425
155
130
110
20
5
173
2,027
Mites
677
329
98
212
2,443
2,992
758
334
40
1
41
2,209
10, 134
5.0
Fruit
Squares
10
10
243
310
145
130
110
37
10
1,005
Mites
0
0
3,389
12, 692
7,146
4,377
552
17
43
28,216
28.0
Total
Squares
220
230
350
210
1,271
1,160
455
390
330
77
10
356
5.059
Mites
724
329
157
282
8,526
19, 467
10,006
5,653
720
21
46
2,909
48,840
Aver-
1.43
.45
1.34
6.71
16.78
21.99
14.49
2.18
.27
4.60
8.17
-
ON GRAPEFRUIT
Jfinuary. . .•
10
45
20
35
0
0
10 27
45 1
20 0
20
90
40
62
1
0
3.10
February... . -_. ..
.01
March
0
April
May..
170
120
10
3,477
1,014
42
170 2,614
120 3, 578
10 4
100
30
10
13,299
4,553
923
440
270
30
19,390
9,145
969
44 07
June -
33.87
July
August -. ..
32.30
September
October . ...
November
15
2
15 102
10
10
40
114
2.85
December ... .
Total
390
4.570
11.7
390 6, 326
16 2
150
18, 785
125.2
930
29.681
31.9
Average
No reliable statements can be made as to conditions in the sprayed
groves other than to say that the rust mite becomes quite abundant
by late December and January, when control measures may be
necessary during the winter.
METHODS OF SPREAD
DISTRIBUTION ON NURSERY STOCK
It is probable that the rust mites were introduced on nursery trees
years ago when these were first brought into Florida for propagation.
Little or no attempt was made in those early days to eliminate pests
which might infest the plant when it was being introduced.
It is well known that rust mites can be found on the first flush of
growth which appears after nursery trees have been planted in grove
formation. Heavy infestation has been found on the first flush of
growth of young trees that were at least 40 rods from the nearest
older trees from which any possible infestation could spread. In all
probability the rust-mite eggs are present in the tiny crevices of the
bark and hatch out after the trees are planted, and the spread of the
rust mite over Florida has been principally through infested nursery
stock.
28 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 176, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
DISTRIBUTION BY INSECTS AND BIRDS
Since rust mites are present on citrus trees at certain times of the
year in great abundance, often covering the surface of the fruit and
leaves, it is only natural to suppose that several species of insects
crawling over the trees would collect rust mites in the hairs of their
bodies and legs. On June 9, 1920, a coccinellid larva was taken from
a tree and examined in the laboratory. Three rust mites were found
on its body and also the dried skin of a purple mite. On July 15,
1920, another coccinellid larva was examined, and several living
mites were found on its back and legs. On August 2, 1922, six rust
mites were found on the ventral side of the abdomen, near the tip, of
a large female katydid. There were also a few mites on the legs.
Rust mites were also found on this same date on trash bugs (chrysopid
larvae). None were found, however, on an adult Chrysopa, several
ants, a spider, a lady beetle, and some mealy bugs. A year later,
however, two were found on an adult lady beetle taken from an
orange tree. Another coccinellid, however, showed no mites.
Birds also may be largely instrumental in spreading mites from
tree to tree. Since the mites are easily detached^ large numbers,
when the mites are numerous on the leaves or fruit, are undoubtedly
swept off by the tail feathers and feet of birds and transported to
other trees.
DISTRIBUTION BY WIND
The wind no doubt causes a more or less local spread of rust mites.
In August, 1922, spider webs stretched from one orange tree to
another were examined, and four rust mites were f?5iind on the webs.
No doubt these rust mites had been carried to them by the wind.
Floating spider webs are very numerous in the groves at some seasons
and they may carry mites for long distances. Hubbard {7, p. Ill) is
also of the opinion that spider webs and wind are important factors in
spreading mites.
In order to test the effect of winds in spreading rust mites, three
fruits heavily infested with mites were placed 1 foot in front of an
electric fan. A black tray 7K by 9 inches was placed immediately
back of the fruits. This tray had been given a thin coat of glycerine
jelly, to which the rust mites would adhere in case they were blown
from the fruit to the tray. After the fan had been run for 30 niinutes
the tray was ruled off in small squares and the mites counted in each
square; 26 mites were found after two hours of examination. No
eggs were seen, but several may have been overlooked in the exami-
nation. Other tests to blow mites from the fruit with less power or
-at a greater distance from the fruits were unsuccessful.
DISTRIBUTION BY CRAWLING
Several experiments were conducted to determine the rate at which
rust mites distributed themselves locally. On May 24, 1920, at
4 p. m., a small fruit and some leaves heavily infested with rust mites
were tied into each of four small trees on which only a very few mites
could be found. The following day at 4 p. m. the old fruits were
still covered with mites, and some were also present on the old leaves.
Only a very few had crawled off on to the fresh leaves. One tree
had 5 mites; another, 35, of which 25 were touching the old fruit;
THE CITRUS RUST MITE AND ITS CONTROL 29
another had 10 mitos; and the fourth tree, none; making a total of
50 mites. Check trees had only a very few mites. On June 7 there
were still mites living on the old fruit introduced May 24, and also
many on the fruit touching the old fruits. On June 9 rust mites
were found all over the young grove, and the experiment was of little
value from this time on. On June 2, however, four additional fruits
had been tied on other young trees on which very few mites could
be found at that time. On June 7 the 40 squares counted had 128
mites, whereas on the trees adjoining there were only 17 mites on 40
squares. There were living mites still on the old fruits, however.
On July 2, 1919, a branch having two oranges covered with rust
mites was cut off and hung beneath another orange tree. Three days
later the branch and fruit were quite wilted, but the mites were still
alive and covered the fruit. On July 10 all leaves were brown and
the fruit wilted, but the mites appeared as numerous as when the
fruit was hung up. On July 15 mites were still very abundant on
the oranges, which were very badly wilted. On July 24 only two or
three living and a few dead mites were found on the fruit cut off
July 2. This shows that rust mites will live on fruit until it no longer
furnishes a food supply rather than crawl up the stem to other parts
of the tree.
NATURAL CONTROL
CLIMATIC FACTORS INFLUENCING THE NUMBER OF RUST MITES
FROST
Abnormally low temperatures in Florida in February, 1917, fur-
nished an opportunity to note the effect of freezing on the rust mites.
From December 25, 1916, until February 1, 1917, the weather had
been very warm. On many days the temperature reached 85° F. at
Orlando, and on February 1 it was 1 degree higher. Owing to this
prolonged period of warm weather, citrus trees were in a growing con-
dition in every part of the State, and there were present many more
rust mites than is ordinarily the case at that season of the year.
The following minimum temperatures were recorded for February
2 to 4, at localities where examinations were made to determine the
conditions of mites : o y
Crescent City, Putnam County 19
De Land, Volusia County 15
Ocala, Marion County 18
Eustis, Lake County ^ 20
Orlando, Orange County 22
Winter Haven, Polk County 25
Frostproof, Polk County 27
Pinellas Park, Pinellas County 27
As a result of these low temperatures many of the rust mites were
frozen, and many died because of the shedding of the foliage.
Examinations (14) were made at Orlando on February 3, or after
the first cold night, and before the second one. No mites could be
found on a small sour orange tree located in an exposed situation on
which many thousands had been present previous to the frost. Ex-
aminations of green leaves still on the trees on February 7 showed
that the mites were very scarce, as compared with the number present
before the frost.
30 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17G, U, S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The rust mite can not live on dead, fallen leaves. Green leaves
were picked up from the ground on February 10 and examined, but
only 1 living mite was found, and that was on a leaf from a protected
location where 17 living mites and 3 eggs were found on 10 leaves
taken from a tree. There is no doubt that the rust mites present
on the trees and fruit the following October were the progeny of those
that survived on the leaves uninjured by the frost.
In the northern counties, where defoliation was complete, the rust
mites were nearly exterminated. Those that were not actually frozen
perished with the falling of the leaves. In an examination of six
groves at Crescent City early in May only two mites were observed
in two days. In a normal infestation there would have been literally
billions present. In Marion County, on May 24, the}^ were also
extremely scarce.
In the counties where the defoliation amounted to from 90 to 95
per cent the rust mite also received a serious setback. A conserva-
tive estimate of the mortality would be more than 99 per cent; in
fact not until June 1, or more than four months after the frost, had
they become as abundant as they were before the cold wave. Fol-
lowing the freeze the weather was extremely favorable for the repro-
duction of the mites, and this pest was so abundant in this section in
late June that spraying was necessary in order to get bright fruit.
The only result of the reduction of the mites by the freeze was the
postponement of the time of maximum infestation in these counties
about a month or six weeks.
In the more southern localities they were also greatly reduced in
numbers, but the reduction was not sufficient to be of an}' great
economic importance. Spraying had to be resorted to at about the
same time as in an ordinary season.
By late July and early August the rust mites had become so abun-
dant that it was generally believed that a heavier infestation fol-
lowed the freeze than had occurred for man}^ years. The almost com-
plete extermination of this species by the freeze and its reproduction
to billions in six months is a most remarkable biological fact. It is
difficult for the human mind to conceive of such a rate of reproduc-
tion. Many single grapefruits during August were infested with at
least a half million mites. On October 3, however, the species was
very scarce. Several groves were examined, and only a very few
mites were found.
DROUGHT
The drought of the spring of 1922 was the worst since that of
1906-7. Observations made during this period indicated that rust
mites did not multiply at all. There seemed to be no more mites
present on May 4, the date of the first rain, than there were three
months before. Not long after the rain of May 4, and subsequent
rains, the rust mites developed at a very rapid rate.
HEAT OF SUN
It has been observed for many years that rust mites do not attack
the outer surfaces of the fruit on the outside of the tree. They are
usually found on the side of the fruit which is in semishade. Of
course they attack the entire surface of fruit on the inside of the tree.
THE CITRUS RUST MITE AND ITS CONTROL 31
It is supposed that the rust mites are not able to endure the direct
rays of the hot sun and therefore feed mostly on the sides of the fruit
in semishade.
RAIN
For many years it has been thought by citrus growers that the
heavy rains of summer are directly responsible for the scarcity of rust
mites during the rainy season. They have thought that the heavy rains
washed the mites from the foliage and fruits. As noted elsewhere,
this scarcity of rust mites is due to a fungous disease.
Observations were made, however, to determine whether heavy
driving rains did wash mites from foliage and fruit. On May 17,
1920, the rust mites were extremely abundant on both the upper and
lower surfaces of the leaves, on the stems, and on the fruit of the
trees around the laboratory. On May 18 it rained all day and prac-
tically all night, the total precipitation being 1 inch. An examination
was made in the afternoon during the rain, and the mites were all
found on the lower surfaces of the leaves. On May 19 an examination
made at noon showed that the mites were very abundant on both the
upper and lower surfaces of the leaves. There appeared to be no fewer
mites present on the 19th than there were on the 17th. It is only rea-
sonable, however, to suppose that some of the mites had been washed off.
On May 25, between 6 p. m. and 8 p. m., 2}i inches of rain fell. At
9 p. m. an examination indicated that though many of them might
have been washed off, there were still countless numbers of mites
present. There were many more on the lower surfaces of the leaves
than on the upper surfaces. Those leaves which were somewhat pro-
tected from the most direct downpour had many mites on the upper
surfaces. The mites seemed to have the power of sticking to the
foliage in spite of the rains. On May 26 observations made as soon
a3 the leaves became dry indicated that mites were still present by
countless millions, and they seemed to be crawling back to the upper
surfaces of the leaves.
On June 5 rust mites were found covered by drops of water on the
fruit and also on both sides of the leaves which were wet on both
surfaces. Apparently the mites were not affected by the water.
In 1923 it rained practically every day from May 3 to June 1, all
the night of June 1, and all the forenoon on June 2. After such a
period of wet weather it was thought advisable to note the location
of the mites. At 10 a. m. on June 2, while it was still raining, an
examination showed that the rust mites on plots which had been
sprayed with Bordeaux mixture alone were mostly on the lower
surfaces of the leaves. Not more than 5 per cent of the mites on
all the foliage were on the upper surfaces. A large number of the
mites on the fruit were on those areas which were not wet. In
several instances mites, which were probably alive, were observed
beneath drops of water. Around the edges of several drops of
water were lines of mites which appeared to be drinking the water.
While no doubt the heavy driving rains did wash a few mites from
the foliage and fruit this diminution in numbers was not appreciable
and had little or no bearing either on methods of control or on sub-
sequent abundance of the mites. It was apparent, however, that
rust mites crawl to the lower surfaces of the leaves to protect them-
selves to a certain extent from the rains.
32
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 176. U. S, DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
RELATION TO SITE
It has been known for many years by growers and shippers that
fruit grown in hammock lands, both on the Florida east coast and
elsewhere, does not become russet to a degree amounting to injury.
The term ^'hammock" is applied in Florida to land having a deeper
soil and supporting a greater variety of hardwood growth than the
surrounding flat woods. As many people believe that the rust mite
is not present in such groves, it was thought desirable to make a
special effort to determine the status of the rust mite throughout the
year in several hammock groves. To do this, counts were made,
monthly with a few exceptions, of the rust mites in one grove at
Hawks Park, now Edgewater, in two groves at Mims, and in one
grove on Merrits Island. In most of these groves there was con-
siderable shade from cabbage palmettos, as illustrated in Figure 8.
The results of these examinations are given in Table 8.
Figure 8.— Citrus grove shaded by cabbage palmettos. The partial shade is conducive to the
development of the fungous disease of the rust mites
Table 8. — Counts of rust mites on oranges in unsprayed groves on hammock land
Date
1922
Mar. 6
Apr. 7
May 10
June 7
Julys
Aug. 8
Sept. 13-..-
Oct. 11
Squares
examined
Mites
counted
Average
mites per
square
Number
Number
Number
100
1
0.010
200
5
.025
220
1
.005
280
3
.010
600
123
.205
600
330
.550
600
62
.103
540 131
.242
Date
1922
Nov. 7
Dec. 7
1923
Jan. 11
Total or average.
Squares
examined
Number
540
600
300
4,580
Mites
counted
i Average
mites per
square
Number
121
20
126
Number
0.224
.033
420
923
202
Rust mites were present on every date when examinations were
made, but the infestation was so slight that in the entire four groves
THE CITRUS RUST MITE AND ITS CONTROL
33
not more than a dozen oranges became russeted during the year.
Adjoining the grove at Hawks Park, in a grove with no shade or
palmettos, there was a considerable infestation of rust mites. Here,
on August 8, there were 20 mites on as many squares, and numerous
cast skins and dead mites were found on one leaf which was slightly
tinged with rust.
As lemon is a preferred host plant for the citrus rust mite, ex-
aminations were made in a lemon grove of about an acre in extent
growing in the Mims hammock. This was very low hammock,
and during parts of the year there was considerable water around
the trees. Table 9 gives a detailed account of the examinations and
notes made.
Table 9. — Counts of rust mites in an unsprayed lemon grove, Mims, Fla.
Date
Squares
examined
Mites on
foliage
and fruit
Remarks
1922
Mar. 6
Number
80
80
80
60
150
150
150
150
150
150
45
Number
\
0
24
24
0
0
0
514
Apr. 7
May 10.
Foliage only examined
June 7
Some shark skin present; 6 mites were found on branches.
A few mites on branches.
JulvS...
Aug. 8
No russeting or shark skin; clean fruit.
Sept. 13
3 or 4 shark-skin fruit; some dead mites.
Oct. 11
A few on stems; 3 rusty fruit.
A few on stems.
Nov. 7 . .
Dec. 7. ..
No rustv fruit.
1923
Jan. 10
Practically all mites were on one fruit.
Total
1. 215
563
Several shark-skin fruits were observed, but only a few fruits in the
entire grove showing the presence of excessive numbers of rust mites
could be found on any date. On several occasions dead mites were
observed on the fruit, and on several other occasions living rust mites
were observed on the branches. The fruit with few exceptions re-
mained entirely bright throughout the year.
Numerous examinations have been made in other hammock groves,
and only a very few rust mites could ever be found. In some groves
Valencia oranges remained bright until late spring.
Russet fruit was found in every grove visited on the east coast, but
in some cases only one or two were discovered. Shark skin on lemons
was observed in the Mims hammock, and fruit literally covered with
rust mites was found also in this lemon grove. Dead rust mites were
also observed on several occasions. The appearance of these dead
mites was identical with that of those found in central Florida, and
they were no doubt killed by the same fungous disease that caused the
death of rust mites in other parts of the State. Probably the reason
why the rust mites do not become more abundant on the east coast
is that the excessive humidity is conducive to the development of the
entomogenous fungus on rust mites throughout the greater part of the
vear.
INSECT ENEMIES
No internal parasite has ever been found attacking the citrus rust
mite.
Adults of the lady beetle Stethorus nanus Lac. have been observed
to feed upon rust mites, and on August 29, 1922, J. R. Springer found
34 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 176, iT. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
two larvae of this beetle so feeding. These were put in a breeding
jar, and one adult emerged September 5. The feeding of the larva
of this beetle on rust mites may be of very rare occurrence, as the
above is the only instance on record. This species is of little or no
importance in holding the mites in check.
It is very probable that several other species of Coccinellidae which
inhabit citrus trees feed to some extent, in both the larval and adult
stages, on rust mites. The mites, however, are so small that they
would not prove attractive to the lady beetle when other food was
available. The same is true of the trash bugs or larvae of the golden-
eyed lacewing, Chrysopa oculata Say, and of a species of Hemerobius.
These trash bugs when very small undoubtedly feed to some extent
on rust mites, as the dead mites are often seen on their backs along
with the remains of other insects.
Hubbard (6, p. 11) was the first to observe that cecidomyiid larvae
ate rust mites. These are coral red maggots wdth yellowish or trans-
parent heads and a band of the same color near the posterior end,
although the last segment is red. This feeding was observed by the
writers in 1913 and has been observed many times since, though the
larvae appear only when the mites are very abundant. Although they
have been seen to eat mites at the rate of four or five per minute for
several minutes their feeding does not reduce the number of mites to
any appreciable extent. These larvae are very small and extremely
delicate, and all attempts to rear them to maturity have failed. They
fed on mites when placed in small cages, but always died without
pupating.
FUNGI
Though it has not been established as a scientific fact, there is con-
siderable evidence to show that an entomogenous fungus attacks rust
mites {10).
It has been observed annually since 1912 that the citrus rust mite
reaches the point of maximum infestation just after the beginning of
the rainy season. In some instances a single grapefruit ma}^ be in-
fested at this time with more than half a million mites. Shortly after
the point of maximum infestation is reached the mites disappear as if
by magic so that by the middle or end of September more than an hour
of diligent search is sometimes required to find a single specimen.
This diminution of numbers is not due to a lack of food since on an
average only about 50 per cent of the unsprayed fruit is seriously
attacked by the rust mites.
There is considerable evidence to show that this disappearance of
the citrus rust mite is due to a fungous disease. In many instances
since 1920 the mites have been seen to congregate on a small area
of the fruit w^hich is in the most direct sunlight. When so herded
together, the area occupied by them becomes yellow, and it is impos-
sible to see the rind of the fruit. The mites in this mass seem to be
stuck to one another like numerous angleworms. They are a writh-
ing, wriggling mass and crawl around without any apparent object or
sense of direction. Shortly after this the mites are seen to be dead, or
more brownish in color than when alive, and occupying the same spot
in the direct sunlight. This congregating habit is contrary to the
habits of the species, for they normally seek partial shadow and are
not found in great abundance on the part of the fruit in direct sunlight.
THE CITRUS RUST MITE AND ITS CONTROL 35
It has been also observed that most of the adult mites change
color from a lemon yellow to a darker or orange yellow. They also
become somewhat sluggish in their movements.
An examination of the dead mites usually shows that certain fungal
filaments protrude from their bodies. In most instances also there
are fungous bodies on the inside of the dead mites; in fact these
bodies have been observed in mites which were still alive but which
had changed color and become sluggish.
The use of copper sprays also gives strong circumstantial evidence
that the limiting factor in the reproduction of rust mites is an ento-
mogenous fungus. Winston, Bowman, and Yothers {12, p. 12) proved
beyond the possibility of a doubt that the rust mites always become
much more abundant following the use of copper sprays or compounds
than on unsprayed trees and fruit. They are also abundant for a
considerable length of time after the beginning of the rainy season
when scarcely any mites are present on the trees not sprayed with
copper sprays. The use of such fungicides evidently eliminates the
fungous disease which in all probability, under normal conditions,
would have attacked the rust mites. This same disease very likely
attacks the species wherever the climatic conditions permit.
ARTIFICIAL CONTROL
Numerous experiments and observations extending over many years
show that the blemish or injury following rust-mite feeding can not
be removed. This damage to the fruit must be prevented by killing
the rust mites before any appreciable injury takes place {16, p. 28).
As a general rule rust mites are present in great abundance from one
to two weeks before extensive injury appears.
INEFFECTIVE INSECTICIDES
LEAD ARSENATE
As the rust mites have piercing mouth parts, lead arsenate would
not be expected to be an effective insecticide for their control. Never-
theless it was thought advisable to make some actual tests to deter-
mine this point. On June 10, 1914, powdered lead arsenate in the
proportions of 1 and 2 pounds, respectively, to 50 gallons of water
were sprayed on citrus trees infested with rust mites. Observations
made on several later dates showed that no rust mites had been killed.
They were still present in great abundance. Another test was made
in 1922. Trees w^ere sprayed twice, April 17 and June 23, with 1%
pounds of powdered lead arsenate to 50 gallons of water. There
were, of course, thousands of rust mites present before the spraying
on June 23. On June 27 living rust mites were present on the fruit
and foliage in great numbers. Some grapefruit were quite rusty, and
mites were present on these fruits by the millions. There was not the
slightest evidence that any mites had been killed by the spray.
TOBACCO SPRAYS
Tobacco sprays perhaps should be classed as only partially effective
against rust mites since the ordinary tobacco decoctions used at 1 to
1,600 will kill the adults and young mites, but the strength necessary
to prevent the eggs from hatching is so great that the cost would be
prohibitive. On June 28, 1915, several trees were sprayed with a
36
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 176, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
tobacco extract, 1 to 1,600, but a rain fell immediately after the last
tree was sprayed, and on June 1 there were both adult and young
mites and also eggs present. In all probability the rain prevented the
insecticide from producing its full effect. An experiment was tried
with a solution made by soaking a quantity of tobacco stems in water.
This solution was sprayed on the trees, and it was strong enough to
kill mites and also to prevent practically all the eggs from hatching.
NICOTINE DUST
In order to determine the effect of nicotine sulphate in the form of
a dust preparation on rust mites, an entire grove was dusted on March
15, 1922. Over most of the grove the machine went on only one side
of each row, but there was a gentle breeze, and the dust drifted in
good shape. Part of the grove, however, was dusted on both sides,
and another plot was dusted twice on each side. The results of the
various examinations are given in Table 10. The rust mites in 25
squares on the upper surfaces and 25 on the under sides of the leaves
were counted for each treatment and for each date.
Table 10. — Counts of rust mites surviving after dusting on March 15, 1922, with
various strengths of nicotine sulphate in an orange grove at Orlando, Fla.
Number of mites found on 25 squares on foliage dusted
with nicotine sulphate of stated concentration
Number of mites found
on check trees
Date of
examination
2.2 per cent
5 per cent
10 per cent
10 per cent,
2 dustings on
each side
Squares
counted
Upper
surface
Lower
Upper
sur-
face
Lower
sur-
face
Upper
sur-
face
Lower
sur-
face
Upper
sur-
face
Lower
sur-
face
Upper
sur-
face
Lower
sur-
face
surface
Mar. 16-
Mar. 21
1
0
3
42
I
2
1
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
3
0
12
5
13
0
2
2
0
0
18
28
9
2
8
7
140
48
82
Mar. 30
Apr. 17
50
100
1
30
2
8
Total
46
12
0
2
20
17
46
26
290
79
92
For all treatments combined it was found by computation that
80 per cent of the rust mites were killed at the expiration of 24 hours.
This is not at all a satisfactory mortality. There were a few left at
the expiration of 6 days, but there were a considerable number present
at the expiration of 15 days, and on June 16 there were just as many
rust mites present as if no dusting had been done, a condition which
was to be expected.
FUMIGATION WITH HYDROCYANIC-ACID GAS
From 1906 to 1910 much experimental work was done in fumigation
with hydrocyanic-acid gas for the control of white flies and scale
insects. A. W. Morrill, who had charge of the work, except during
the last year, observed that the rust mites which were present on the
trees at the time of fumigation were killed, but that there was rein-
festation later. The senior author, working with him at that time,
also observed that groves which were fumigated had the usual per-
centage of russet fruit. In the fall of 1918 additional experimental
w^ork was carried on at three or four places in the State. Although
THE CITRUS KUST MITE AND ITS CONTROL
37
the main object was to determine the value of this process in the
control of white flies and scale insects, it was deemed advisable to
obtain as extensive data as possible on the effect of the fumigation
on mites, both immediately afterwards and at monthly intervals
throughout the spring until the period of maximum infestation had
occurred. In most experiments regular white-fly and scale dosages
were used. The results are given in Table 11.
Table 11. — Effect of fumigation with hydrocyanic-acid gas on rust mites in Florida
Time of examination
November and December before
fumigation (check).
First examination immediately
after fumigation.
Second examination (January)
Third examination (February)
Fourth examination (March)
May examination
June condition
Squares
counted
Mites
found
Average
mites per
square
Number
196
220
Number
1.866
282
320
265
311
5
21
3,688
1,757
Number
9.52
.01
.02
.07
13.92
5.65
Remarks
Practically all mites from 1 grove.
Rust mites abundant and all groves
required treatment.
On December 13, 1918, a count was made to determine the abun-
dance of rust mites on foliage that had been fumigated the night
before. In 50 squares not a single mite was found. On the row
adjoining the fumigated row^ 50 squares had 441 mites, or 8.8 mites
per square.
An examination of the foregoing data proves that fumigation
with hydrocyanic-acid gas kills rust mites and in all probability a
majority of the eggs present. It is also indicated that however
complete the killing may be at the time of fumigation, which is
usually before February 1, the rust mites will be just as abundant in
late May and June as if no fumigation had been done. The same
is usually true if spraying for rust mites is done in the late winter or
early spring. If fumigating were done in either May or June, using
such dosages as have been found effective for the killing of white
flies and scale insects, it is evident that it would be an effective rust-
mite control.
OIL EMULSIONS
Since emulsions made of lubricating oils are extensively used in
Florida for the control of white flies and scale insects on citrus trees,
it was considered advisable to determine the effect of these emulsions
on rust mites and their eggs. In 1910 and 1911 several groves sprayed
with them had fruit reasonably free from rust-mite injur}^, and it
was thought by some growers that these emulsions were very effective
in killing rust mites and therefore favored the production of bright
fruit. Other groves sprayed with them did not produce satisfactory
fruit. Experiments conducted in 1912 showed that 0.25 per cent of
oil ^ did not kill rust mites; that 0.5 per cent killed nearly all mites;
that 0.75 per cent killed still more; and that after the use of 1 per
cent only a very few mites survived. To be a satisfactory spray for
• Analysis of oil No. 1:
Specific gravity at 27' C - 0.886.
Flash point..-. 184° C.
Fire point .- 207° C.
Viscosity ..- 365.3 Saybolt seconds.
Volatility 4.9 per cent.
38 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 176, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
rust mites, not a single mite should be observed in the entire grove
for at least a period of from three weeks to a month after spraying.
The fact that a few rust mites were observed where 1 per cent of
oil was used indicates that it is not an entirely satisfactory spray.
There was much less russet trees in each test, except that of the
one-fourth of 1 per cent, than on the unsprayed trees, and the fruit
from the trees sprayed with 1 per cent was reasonably free from
rust-mite injury. A commercial lubricating-oil emulsion applied on
a large scale in 1913 with 1 per cent of oil in the diluted spray material
gave reasonably satisfactory results, but not so good as was given by
lime-sulphur solution at 1 to 75.
On June 28, 1915, several seedling sweet orange trees abundantly
infested with rust mites were sprayed with 1 per cent of oil No. 1 .^ On
July 1 all adult mites were dead, but there were literally thousands of
very young mites present. On July 10 there was still an abundant
infestation, and on August 26 rust mites were abundant, but no
russeting had taken place.
On May 20, 1916, a row of seven large seedling trees abundantly
infested with rust mites was sprayed with 0.67 per cent of oil No. 1.
On June 3 the rust mites were exceedingly abundant, and by July 3
millions were present and much russeting had taken place.
On May 20, 1916, a row of trees was likewise sprayed with a dilu-
tion of 1 per cent of a commercial miscible oil.'' On June 3 rust
mites were present in considerable abundance. On July 3 many more
mites were present than in the following test, where 2 per cent of oil
was used, and on August 2 much russeting had developed and the
row was sprayed for the second time. On January 17 there were
1 bright fruit (0.53 per cent), 54 goldens (28.9 per cent), and 132
russets (70.6 per cent).
On May 20, 1916, seven large seedling trees were sprayed with
an emulsion containing 2 per cent of oil No. 1. A heavy rain fell
two days later, which in all probability did not interfere with the
effectiveness of the spray. On June 3 living rust mites were present.
On July 3 there were millions of them, eggs were abundant on both
leaves and fruit, and russeting had just begun to appear. After an
average spraying with lime-sulphiir solution practically no rust mites
would have been present. Up to this time no injury had resulted
from the spraying. On August 2 the same trees were sprayed for
the second time, 2 per cent of the same emulsion as was used for the
first application being used. On September 9 it was quite noticable
that some of the fruit on the trees spraj^ed twice showed considerable
injury from the oil; i. e., the shadows were very pronounced on the
fruit. On January 17 the fruit was picked, and there were 24 bright
fruit (3.9 per cent), 265 goldens (43.4 per cent), and 321 russets
(52.6 per cent).
On May 13, 1922, a row of heavily infested young trees having
no fruit was thoroughly sprayed with 1 per cent of oil No. 1. On
May 17 a careful examination of 10 leaves was made, and not a single
rust mite or egg was found. On May 20 no rust mites could be found
after the trees had been examined for over 15 minutes, and no rust
mites were found on June 1.
Although the above experimental work appears somewhat con-
tradictory, it certainly is evident that the oil emulsions are generally
« See footnote 5 on p. 37. ' No analysis available.
THE CITRUS RUST MITE AND ITS CONTROL 39
only partially effective against rust mites and their eggs. They can
not be relied upon to produce bright fruit. It is probable that any
dilution of oil emulsion of 1 per cent or stronger kills practically all
mites actually hit by the spray, but none are killed that are not hit.
As a consequence, owing to imperfect spraying, many mites are left,
and all the eggs are not prevented from hatching, and these provide
for rapid reinfestation. The past experience of Florida growers
bears out the conclusion that oil sprays are only partially effective
against rust mites.
EFFECT OF SULPHUR ON RUST MITES
WHEN NOT IN IMMEDIATE CONTACT
Rust mites are extremely sensitive to sulphur. This was reported
by Hubbard (7, p. 117), who found that rust mites were killed by
the fumes resulting from its oxidation when the mites w^ere not in
immediate contact with the sulphur. Additional experimental work
was undertaken to determine further the effect of sulphur on rust
mites.
On June 23, 1921, a pound of sulphur was sprinkled over the bottom
of an air-tight box of 25 cubic feet capacity, with shelves 8, 16, and
24 inches, respectively, from the bottom. This was done some time
in the forenoon so that the sulphur would have time to settle before
the fruit was placed inside. In the afternoon five recently picked
oranges, heavily infested with rust mites, were placed on each of the
three shelves in the box, and the box was then closed. On the next
day an examination showed that there were living mites on all the
fruit and a faint odor of sulphur was present. There may have been
some dead mites also, but not enough to be noticeable. At the
expiration of 48 hours the odor of sulphur was quite pronounced, and
it seemed that most of the mites on the fruit were dead, though there
were some living mites on each fruit. No difference could be de-
tected in the number of dead mites on the fruit on the three shelves.
On June 27, four days after the beginning of the experiment, not a
single living mite could be seen with a hand lens on any of the fruit.
On June 28, the fifth day, a very careful examination was made with
the binocular microscope, and a very few living mites were observed
on each of the fruits. The living mites were all old ones; the eggs
w^hich were present at the beginning of the experiment evidently had
hatched, but the young mites had been killed by the sulphur fumes.
On July 2 all mites were dead, and the fruits had shriveled up and
dried out. The average maximum temperature from June 23 to
June 28 was 93° F., which no doubt was conducive to a more rapid
oxidation of the sulphur. As a check on the above test, five fruits
heavily infested with rust mites had been placed on each of the
shelves in the box on June 21, and after 48 hours no mites had been
killed by the confinement in the box. Under the binoculars they
were seen to be moving about and appeared exactly as they did when
the fruit was first put in the box.
AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES
On January 22, 1923, experiments were started to determine the
effect on rust mites of oxidation of sulphur at different temperatures.
The temperature box had five compartments holding constant tem-
peratures of 10°, 15°, 20°, 25°, and 30° C. The warmest compart-
40 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 176, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
ment was regulated with a thermostat so that a constant tempera-
ture of 30° C. (86° F.) was maintained. The temperature of the
coldest compartment was maintained at 10° C. (50° F.) by ice in an
adjoining chamber. Fifteen grams of flour of sulphur was placed on
the bottoms of each of five clean tin cans of about 3-pint capacity,
and an orange heavily infested with rust mites was put into each can.
A small glass beaker was placed in each can, which supported the
orange and kept it from coming in contact with the sulphur. Five
other cans were prepared in the same way except that the sulphur
was omitted, and these were used as checks. Two cans, one with
sulphur and one without, were placed in each compartment. Tightly
fitting lids were placed on the cans, and all were handled most care-
fully so as not to disturb the sulphur.
Several examinations were made to determine the effect of the
sulphur on the mites in the cans. At the end of the third day the
mites in the cans without the sulphur were, in so far as could be told,
normal in numbers and in appearance. There were practically no
mites killed in any of the compartments with sulphur except the
warmest two. Only a few mites were killed in the second-warmest
compartment, with a temperature of 25° C. (77° F.), and most of
the mites were killed in the hottest compartment, where the tem-
perature was 30° C.
A grove experiment was also conducted in which two large, heavy
paper sacks were placed over branches each having about six fruits
heavily infested with mites. In one a fairly large quantity of sulphur
was placed so that it was at least 6 or 8 inches from the fruits. The
other sack did not contain any sulphur. The average maximum
temperature for the following three days was about 90° F. At the
end of this time no mites had died in the sack without sulphur,
whereas nearly all were dead in the sack containing the sulphur.
The fruits in the treated sack were reasonably bright at picking time
but there was much rust on those fruits in the sack without sulphur.
These experiments show that the rust mites are killed by the
fumes resulting from the oxidation of sulphur if the temperature is
high enough.
Numerous experiments have been conducted to determine the
effect of sulphur fumes on rust mites in the open. Several cigar
boxes containing a pound each of sulphur were placed 6 inches
beneath foliage heavily infested with rust mites, but no mites were
killed. As many as 12 paper bags containing sulphur have been
hung in a single tree without producing any mortality whatever.
Sulphur has likewise been put on the ground, but it is doubtful if
any mites were killed by it.
WHEN IN CONTACT WITH THE MITES
Leaves heavily infested with rust mites were placed under the
microscope. With the eyes protected, sulphur was blown from a
hand duster over the leaves. There was on the whole no unusual
activity among the mites as the grains of sulphur settled near them.
A few reared themselves on the anal end, and a few crawled very
short distances, but the majority remained motionless and died with-
out any movement visible through the microscope. A large percent-
age were dead at the end of 5 minutes, nearly all at the end of 10
minutes, and no life could be detected at the end of 20 or 25 minutes.
These results show that the effect of the sulphur is extremely rapid.
THE CITRUS RUST MITE AND ITS CONTROL 41
To determine whether the mites were dead, they were touched very
gently with a needle, and if the legs did not move the mite was con-
sidered to be dead. The temperature ranged from 90° to 92° F.
The observations were made outdoors in the shade, but the sun was
shining brightly.
EFFECT OF WEAK DILUTIONS OF LIME-SULPHUR SOLUTION ON
RUST MITES
LABORATORY TESTS
In order to get additional data on the sensitiveness of rust mites
to sulphur and also to obtain information as to what dilution of lime-
sulphur solution might be used for spraying purposes, a series of
dipping tests were carried on in the laboratory from June 14 to 27,
1920. Small twigs from seedling trees were cut off, each twig having
one orange and a few leaves heavily infested with rust mites, and
were immersed in lime-sulphur solution at a wide range of dilutions.
Each twig was then placed in a bottle of water to keep it fresh.
In all dilutions from 1-50 to 1-275 all the mites present at the time
of dipping were instantly killed, and in 24 hours their bodies had
dried up. No eggs hatched; they seemed to collapse or were eaten
by the caustic nature of the insecticide. In the dilutions from 1-300
to 1-325 all the mites were killed by the dipping, but a few eggs
hatched out on the third and fourth days. In 13 dilutions ranging
from 1-400 to 1-8,000, all of the rust mites were killed, and their
bodies were dried up on the following day. The eggs, however, did
not seem to be injured in any way, and an abundance of young mites
hatched on each of the days following the tests. In the dilutions
1-400 and 1-500 most of the hatching took place after the second
day, showing, perhaps, that if the egg was ready to hatch the sulphur
was effective in killing the embryo mite. It would appear from the
tests that 1-8,000 is the critical dilution. At 1-10,000 most of the
mites present were killed, but a few of the older ones remained un-
harmed; 1-20,000, 1-30,000, and 1-40,000 did not seem to hurt
them at all.
The mites on three check twigs lived normally for over a week, or
throughout the experiment. Eggs hatched normally. Two other
checks were dipped in water, but the mites were not killed, and the
eggs hatched in normal numbers. The water, however, seemed to
make the mites crawl around more than they did on the dry checks.
In the main the experiments were repeated from June 15 to 20,
1921. That year the dilutions 1-200, 1-225, and 1-250 killed all
mites present, and no eggs hatched. With the 1-275 dilution, how-
ever, three young mites appeared on the second day. Also for the
dilutions 1-300, 1-325, 1-350, and 1-500 from one to four were
present after two days. None appeared after the use of the 1-400
dilution. The 1-5,000 was the weakest dilution that killed all the
mites present. A few adult mites were present on the day following
the tests with 1-6,000 and 1-7,000. With the strengths 1-8,000 and
1-9,000 about 50 per cent of the mites were killed, but 1-10,000,
1-12,000, and 1-15,000 did not affect the mites at all.
On the whole the experiments conducted in 1920 and 1921 agreed.
In 1920 the dilution 1-275 killed all mites, and no eggs hatched;
whereas in 1921 the dilution 1-250 produced the same results. In
1920 the weakest dilution to produce a complete mortality of mites
was 1-8,000, but in 1921 it was 1-5,000.
42 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 176, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
FIELD SPRAYING TESTS
For field tests with various dilutions of lime-sulphur solution five
lots of 50 gallons each were sprayed on trees heavily infested with
rust mites and eggs on June 26, 1920. The temperature during the
spraying was 80° to 84° F., and the trees were very thoroughly
sprayed, but about one and one-half hours after the last lot had been
applied a shower (0.45 inch) fell. The first count was made on
June 28, two days after the spraying, so that the effect of various
dilutions could be determined upon both the adult mites and the
eggs. The results of the test are shown in Table 12.
Table 12. — Number of rust mites surviving field tests with weak dilutions of
lime-sulphur solution
[Sprayed June 26, 1920; counted June 28, 1920]
Dilution
Number of mites found on
10 squares
Total
Upper
surface
of leaves
Lower
surface
of leaves
Fruit
1-2,000
1-1,500
1-1,000
1-500
1-250
124
172
47
29
1
51
62
27
15
3
247
152
137
68
7
422
386
211
112
11
Practically all of the rust mites found on June 28 were young
mites and no doubt had hatched from the eggs which had been
deposited before the trees were sprayed. The 1-2,000 dilution
left twice as many mites as the 1-1,000, and the 1-1,000 dilution left
approximately twice as many mites as the 1-500, whereas the 1-250
left very few mites alive. The above results were obtained by
counting the same number of squares from each plot, 10 on the
upper and 10 on the lower surface of the leaves, and 10 on the fruit.
There were present thousands of dead mites. It was also noticed
that more than twice as many mites were found on the upper surfaces
as on the lower surfaces. No doubt this was due to the effect of the
rain in the afternoon, which washed off the sidphur from the top
surfaces of the leaves more thoroughly than from the lower surfaces.
Another count was made of the 1-250 dilution plot on June 30.
There were 16 mites on the upper surfaces and 2 on the lower surfaces
of the leaves, and 64 on the fruit. Practically all of these mites were
young ones which had hatched since the spraying on June 26. The
results of this spraying certainly indicate that, so far as field work is
concerned, not even the dilution of 1-250, the strongest spray used in
this experiment, is strong enough to give perfect results or commercial
control with one application.
EFFICIENCY OF VARIOUS SULPHUR COMPOUNDS FOR RUST-MITE
CONTROL
It has been shown (18) that certain sulphur compounds, when
used so that the diluted spray material contains equal quantities of
sulphur in solution, produce equally satisfactory results. In order to
further test several forms of sulphur recommended by the manufac-
THE CITRUS RUST MITE AND ITS CONTROL
43
turers as substitutes for lime-sulphur solution, additional experimental
work was conducted June 9 and 10, 1921, in a grove near Orlando
where there was an abundant infestation of rust mites. Each
material was applied at such a dilution that the quantity of sulphur
present in each spray material was the same. The trees were very
thoroughly sprayed, in fact drenched. No rains fell during the spray-
ing or until June 15, at 8 p. m., when a heavy downpour occurred.
To obtain the records given in Table 13 the mites w^ere counted in 75
squares for each material and check on June 16 and 30, and on July
14, and in 30 squares for each material and check on July 30 and
September 2, an equal number being counted on the lower surfaces
and upper surfaces of the foliage, and on the fruit.
The examination made on June 16, six days after the spraying,
showed that all of the materials were efficient in preventing the eggs
from hatching. Of the 16 mites found, 8 were young ones which had
hatched since the spraying. Considering the millions of eggs present
at the time of spraying, the results were most satisfactory. As
stated before, the trees were thoroughly drenched, and it is the
writers' opinion that this may account for the uniformity of the results
obtained with the several materials and dilutions.
Many more mites were present on the unsprayed checks on June
16 and 30 and July 14 than on the sprayed plots. On July 30 and
September 2 this condition was reversed. This is probably due to
the presence of an entomogenous fungus which developed on the
unsprayed check during the rainy season. No doubt this fungus was
responsible for fewer mites being present wSeptember 2 on the sprayed
trees on which the materials were used at the weakest dilution. The
stronger dilutions may have acted to prevent the development of
this fungus whereas the weaker dilutions were not so effective.
Table 13. — Number of rust mites counted following the use of several sulphur
compounds on trees in a grove near Orlando, Fla., June 9 and 10, 1921
Material used
Dilution
Number of rust mites present
on—
June 16
June 30
July 14
July 30
Sept. 2
Lime-sulphur solution
1-66
4
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
4
11
2
5
27
22
105
148
178
19
66
277
309
210
176
424
1102
459
265
Dry lime-sulphur .. ... ... .
3 pounds to 50 gallons
Z% pounds to 50 gallons. --
do
do
344
Dry soda-sulphur (lime added)
Dry soda-sulphur (no lime)
Liver of sulphur
217
165
152
Barium tetrasulphide
4H pounds to 50 gallons...
3H pounds to 50 gallons...
425
Commercial sulphur spray (sub-
stitute for self-boiled lime-
sulphur solution).
753
Total
6
1,072
27
2,527
555
3,666
1,957
615
2,321
Check
64
1-200-.- -
Lime-sulphur solution
3
1
0
1
5
0
0
6
15
2
22
11
13
0
66
120
89
151
91
27
18
258
382
792
164
184
243
231
232
Dry lime-sulphur
1 pound to 50 gallons -
IJi pounds to 50 gallons-...
do
do -
64
Dry soda-sulphur (lime added)
Dry soda-sulphur (no lime)
Liver of sulphur
132
212
418
Barium tetrasulphide
1)4 pounds to 50 gallons...
IH pounds to 50 gallons...
49
Commercial sulphur spray (sub-
stitute for self-boiled lime-
sulphur solution).
281
Total
10
1.072
69
2,527
562
3.666
2,254
615
1,388
Check
64
1 No fruit on this plot. Mites counted on 50 squares of foliage.
44 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17G, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
In 1922 the same materials were again used on the sulphur-content
basis. Two strengths of each material, based on lime-sulphur solu-
tion 32° Baum^ 1-66 and 1-132, were applied. The spraying was
done June 13, 14, and 15, when the rust mites were present in great
abundance, and the first rain (1.28 inches) fell June 19 at 7 p. m.
The results were identical with those obtained in 1921. No one
material gave evidence of having been more effective than the others.
Dry lime-sulphur and barium tetrasulphide (19, p. 9) should be
used according to the quantity of sulphur they contain, or on the
sulphur-equivalent basis. There is no indication in any of the experi-
ments recorded in this bulletin that the sulphur is any more effective
in either of these forms than it is in lime-sulphur solution. In fact,
in every experiment conducted lime-sulphur solution proved to be
equal to or superior to any other form of sulphur. Dry soda-sulphur
or soda-sulphur solution should perhaps not be used alone for rust-
mite control, since these materials if used on the sulphur-equivalent
basis of lime-sulphur 1-50 will produce some injury to the foliage.
They have a distinct place, however, when mixed with an oil emulsion
to make a combined white-fly, scale, and rust-mite spray. If this
combination is used, the oil emulsion should be diluted to the strength
usually prescribed for the insects it is intended to control, and 3 or
4 pounds of dry soda-sulphur or !}{ gallons of soda-sulphur solution
to 100 gallons of water should be used.
As mentioned before, the trees sprayed in 1918, 1919, 1921, and
1922 were most thoroughly sprayed, which may account for the
remarkable uniformity of the results obtained. An opportunity was
presented in 1921 for determining the results of spraying under the
average grove conditions, using dry lime-sulphur and lime-sulphur
solution. The spraying was done April 23, and an abundant infes-
tation of rust mites was present. The results are given in Table 14.
Table 14. — Number of rust mites per 75 squares following application of sprays
made with dry lime-sulphur and lime-sulphur solution, April 23, 1921
Number of rust mites per
75 squares following application of—
Date of examination
Spray made with dry lime-sulphur
Spray made with lime-sulphur so-
lution
Check
2 pounds to
50 gallons
3 pounds to
50 gallons
4 pounds to
50 gallons
H gallon to
50 gallons
% gallon to
50 gallons
1 gallon to
50 gallons
May 18
805
(0
59
264
43
175
8
3
15
110
1,765
June 15
659 481
9,979
1 Too many to count.
It will be seen from the table that dry lime-sulphur is much less
efficient than lime-sulphur solution when applied under average
grove conditions. When 2 pounds to 50 gallons of water was used,
the results were little better than where no spraying had been done.
SULPHUR COMPOUNDS COMBINED WITH OIL EMULSIONS FOR RUST MITES
It is often necessary, and many times advisable, to spray for rust
mites, white flies, and scale insects at the same time. Since the
lubric a ting-oil emulsions designed for white-fly and scale control are
only partially effective against rust mites, it is necessary to add sulphur
THE CITRUS RUST MITE AND ITS CONTROL
45
in order to obtain satisfactory results. For many years soda sulphur
in both the dry and liquid forms has been used for this purpose.
In 1912 an attempt was made to determine the strength of soda-
sulphur solution ^ that should be used with oil emulsion to produce
satisfactory results. The results obtained are given in Tables 15 and
16. The adults were killed in every test, and examinations had ref-
erence only to young mites which hatched out after the tests were
made.
The results of the tests made by dipping branches and spraying
trees agreed reasonably well, and if 1 per cent of oil is used for the
control of scale insects the strength of soda-sulphur solution should
not be less than 1-100, and 1-75 would make a perfect mortaUty
more certain. From 3 to 4 pounds of the dry form of soda-sulphur
(analyzing 56 per cent of sulphur) to 100 gallons of water produces
satisfactory results when combined with 1 per cent of oil as emulsion.
Table 15. — Dipping tests to determine the strength of soda-sulphur solution most
effective in combination with oil emulsion for the killing of eggs of the rust mite
[Twigs dipped July 27, 1912, Orlando, Fla.]
Composition of
insecticide used
Results of examinations made-
Remarks
Oil emul-
sion
Soda
sulphur
July 29
Aug. 7
Per cent
oil
0.25
Gallons to
gallons of
water
1-75
1-50
1-100
1-75
1-50
1-150
1-100
1-75
1-150
1-75
1-100
15 young mites
1
1
!
Very few mites, eggs numer-
.25
Young mites present
ous.
No living mites, but eggs ap-
pear normal.
1 young mite
Nearly perfect.
50
6 young mites present
50
Perfect.
Nearly perfect.
Do.
Perfect.
.50
No young mites
No mites
No examination
.75
.75
1 young mite
No mites found, but may not
be conclusive.
75
Killed no eggs. No young
mites present.
Young mites present, eggs ap-
pear normal.
2 young mites -
1 00
No examination
% 1.00
No living mites.
1.00
4 young mites - Nearly perfect.
Table 16. — Spray tests to determine the strength of soda-sulphur solution most
effective in combination with oil emulsion for the killing of rust-mite eggs
[Trees sprayed July 19, 1912, Orlando, Fla.]
Composition of
insecticide used
Results of examinations made-
Oil emul-
sion
Soda
sulphur
July 23
Aug. 6
Remarks
Per cent
oil
0.25
.25
.25
.25
.50
.75
LOO
Gallons to '
gallons of \
water '
1-150 * Living mites abundant.
1-100 i Many living mites present
1-75
1-50
Living mites present...
One young mite living.
Mites abundant, sam
check.
Mites abundant, about
as check.
Very few present
Mites fairly abundant...
1-100 Living mites present
1-100 I Very few living mites present.
1-100 None present
.do.
.do.
Few living mites present.
Kggs appear abnor-
mal. Perfect.
Perfect.
Do.
8 The solution used in all the experiments was made according to the formula given on p. 22 of Farmers'
Bulletin 933 (/6).
46 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 176, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
The simple oil emulsions can be treated with glue or other stabilizers
to make them mix with lime-sulphur solution (21), dry lime-sulphur,
or barium tetrasulphide. Several commercial oil emulsions are so
made that they will readily mix with these sulphur compounds.
These combination sprays have been used by the writers experimen-
tally and in most cases produced satisfactory results, as shown in
Table 17.
All of the tests produced a satisfactory mortality.
In 1922 a small grove was sprayed with 3 quarts of lime-sulphur
solution combined with 1 per cent of oil as emulsion in 50 gallons of
water, and satisfactory results were produced.
Table 17. — Results of spraying with 7 per cent oil emulsions combined with varying
quantities of lime-sulphur solution, dry lime-sulphur, and barium tetrasulphide
Compos ition of spray
Number of rust mites present on 75
squares
Before
spraying
May 12
I
May 31 July 6
Barium tetrasulphide IH pounds, plus oil-emulsion paste .. . . -
589
589
56
589
589
56
589
56
0
0
0
21
0
0
0
0
2 1
Barium tetrasulphide 2J^ pounds, plus oil emulsion with glue
0 !
0 i 1 219
Dry lime-sulphur l]/2 pounds, plus oil emulsion with glue
34 1
Dry lime-sulphur 1)4, pounds, plus oil-emulsion paste.
4 2 1
Dry lime-sulphur 3 pounds, plus oil emulsion with glue.
0 1 107
Lime-sulphur solution 1-130, plus oil emulsion with glue --.
0 i »1
Lime-sulphur solution 1-66, plus oil emulsion with glue
0 ! 06
Check
332
1 175 on 1 fruit may not have been hit by spray
2 1 voune mite.
2 1 young mite.
3 2 young mites
* 2 young mites.
* 1 young mite.
In 1923 considerable injury followed the use of oil-emulsion paste
made by using kaolin as the emulsifying agent and lime-sulphur
solution. In several other cases injury has followed the use of soda-
sulphur solution combined with the oil emulsions. It is not known
why the oil emulsion and sulphur sprays cause injury in rare iu;-
stances only, and this combination has gradually been discarded in
recent years.
THOROUGHNESS IN SPRAYING NEEDED
In spraying for white flies and scale insects it is necessary to hit
every insect with the spray material in order to kill it. This requires
most thorough application and the skillful use of a spray rod. Since
rust mites are killed by the oxidation of sulphur not necessarily in
immediate contact, the necessity for such thorough work is not im-
perative to produce satisfactory rust-mite control. Spraying, how-
ever, should not be carried on in a haphazard or disinterested manner.
Every fruit on a tree should be thoroughly wet, and an attempt should
be made to hit foliage on the lower surfaces. In so doing a large
part of the upper surfaces of the foliage will likewise be wet by the
spray. Abundant observations indicate that the more thoroughly
spraying for rust mites is done the more lasting are the results.
THE CITRUS RUST MITE AND ITS CONTROL 47
TIME TO SPRAY
The opportune time for spraying for rust-mite control is when the
mites are present in great abundance and yet before Httle or any
blemish to the fruit has been caused. Since the rust mite reaches
its period of maximum abundance between the middle and the last
of June, it is obvious that the opportune time to spray should be
some time between the 1st and the 15th of June. Rust mites also
become abundant in December and January, and as it is desired to
keep fruit from becoming even slightly russeted it is often necessary
to spray or dust. If winter spraying in December and January for
white flies and scale insects is given, it is advisable to use soda-
sulphur if rust mites are present. Where shark skin is present on
grapefruit the opportune time to spray is in April, with a second
application in June. Numerous experiments show that spraying
done in February or March is of value in preventing shark skin and
rust-mite abundance during the spring months, but in no instance
has this spraying resulted in such a degree of rust-mite control as to
make the June spraying unnecessary. On figure 7, which shows the
curve of abundance of rust mites on oranges, is indicated the oppor-
tune time to spray to obtain the maximum results with the mini-
mum expenditure of money. Spraying for grapefruit should be done
a month or six weeks before that required for oranges
EFFECT OF RAIN FOLLOWING SPRAYING WITH LIME-SULPHUR
SOLUTION
Since the opportune time to spray for rust mites in order to obtain
the maximum results for the least cost often comes at the season of
the year when heavy rains may take place, it is important to know
the results to be expected under such conditions. Many experiments
and observations have been made, extending over a long period, to
determine this point, and the more striking of these are here discussed.
On July 8, 1916, spraying experiments for the control of rust mites
with lime-sulphur solution were being conducted. There was a
gentle rain about 30 minutes after some of the trees had been sprayed
and before the material had dried on the foliage. Other trees were
sprayed during the rain. An examination made on the following
day of trees sprayed with 1-25 and also with 1-50 strength showed
that all the mites had been killed. A tree sprayed with the 1-50
strength during the rain was quite white. On July 8 trees that had
been sprayed during the rain had no rust mites on them, and in
August they were just as free from rust mites as those trees sprayed
a half hour before the rain.
Again on May 24, 1920, a grove was sprayed using lime-sulphur
solution 1-50 applied most thoroughly. The work was finished at
4.30 p. m., and between 6 and 7.30 p. m. 2% inches of rain fell. On
June 2 the fruit and leaves were examined for about 30 or 40 minutes,
and no living mites were found. As it had been nine days since the
adult mites were killed, there had been plenty of time for the eggs
laid prior to the spraying to have hatched. This large-scale experi-
ment certainly indicated that the eggs of the rust mites were killed
by the spray even though a heavy rain fell shortly afterwards. The
spray was thoroughly effective and protected this crop from rust
mites until late fall.
48
TECHNICAL BULLETIN 176, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Perhaps the most severe test of the effect of lime-sulphur solution
when followed by excessive rains was carried on in May, 1923. On
May 21, at about 11a. m., some sweet lemon and grapefruit trees,
very heavily infested, were sprayed with lime-sulphur solution 1-66.
A heavy rain fell one hour after the spraying was done, and consider-
able rain continued to fall until late in the afternoon. It rained for
three hours on the night of May 22, and a heavy rain fell on May 23,
from 4 to 4.30 p. m. Another heavy rain occurred May 24 (p. m.).
On May 25 an examination of 30 squares (15 on upper surfaces and
15 on the lower surfaces of the leaves) gave only one young mite.
No adult mites were present. Another heavy rain fell the night of
May 25. An examination of 20 squares on May 26 showed no living
mites. On both dates there was an abundance of dead rust mites
killed by the spray. On June 13 these trees were again examined,
and 50 squares (half on the upper and half on the lower surfaces)
gave no mites.
INJURY FOLLOWING THE USE OF LIME-SULPHUR SOLUTION
Considering the quantity of lime-sulphur solution used in Florida
the injury resulting therefrom is very slight indeed, although instances
do appear where exten-
sive and serious damage
follows its application.
This injury in nearly ev-
ery instance is on the side
of the fruit on w^hich the
sun was shining when
the spraying was done,
and is never found on the
lower side of the fruit,
where the drops of spray
material would collect.
In some cases the dam-
aged area is an inch and
a quarter in diameter
(fig. 9), and of course such
fruit has no commercial
value.
Some time during the
last week in April,
1919, a citrus grower of
Bradenton sprayed, by
mistake, his entire
grove with commercial
lime-sulphur solution 1-9, or according to directions on the barrel for
dormant spray on deciduous trees. Such dilutions are usually applied
for the San Jose scale. The trees were sprayed on the following day
with water, which may have washed off some of the lime-sulphur solu-
tion. On May 19 very little injury was apparent, not nearly so much
as would be expected. Many old leaves and a very few new ones had
fallen. Only a small percentage of fruit had fallen off, and only a very
small percentage of that left had been damaged at all. The trees
were still quite white on the date of the examination.
Figure
-Orange injured apparent^' by sunburn following
the use of lime-sulphur solution
THE CITRUS RUST MITE AND ITS CONTROL 49
Experiments have been carried on to determine, if possible, what
factors are responsible for this damage. On July 18, 1912, one tree
without fruit was thoroughly sprayed with lime-sulphur solution
32° Baume, 1 to 9. Little or no injury had been done to the foliage
up to August 6. Only the most recent growth had been injured.
Some time during 1914, with the temperature at 95° F., a sweet-
orange seedling tree was sprayed with lime-sulphur solution 1-25.
On February 5, 1915, there were 44 fruits injured and 195 uninjured,
or 18.4 per cent damaged. A row of trees including one sour-orange
tree was sprayed with 1-25 lime-sulphur solution during the spring
of 1914. When the fruit was picked 13.8 per cent of it was damaged.
The fruit on the sour-orange tree in the row was very seriously dam-
aged. In 1911, however, a row of 20 seedling trees was sprayed three
times — on May 15, July 1, and August 15 — with lime-sulphur solu-
tion 1-25. The spraying was most thoroughly done, and not the
slightest injury developed. On June 9, 1917, a tree was sprayed at 2
p. m. (temperature 95° F.) with lime-sulphur solution 1-25, and no
injury developed. On the same day some large trees were sprayed
with lime-sulphur solution 1-50, and no injury resulted.
On November 26, 1912, four trees were sprayed, half of each with
lime-sulphur solution 1-75 and half with 1-33. No injury apparently
developed, except that on the lower side of each fruit sprayed with
1-33 a very tiny reddish spot developed. This injury did not seem
to be at all serious, and the fruit appeared normal except for this tiny
spot on January 23. A great deal of spraying has been done with
lime-sulphur solution 1-50, and only rarely does it cause injury, and
1-75 does not cause injury except in extremely rare cases. Just what
the factors involved in causing this injury are, the experiments have
not shown. The writers think, however, that it is largely a case of sun
damage hastened or intensified by the lime-sulphur solution.
DUSTING WITH SULPHUR FOR RUST-MITE CONTROL
It has been known since 1885 that sulphur when applied to citrus
trees and fruit as a dust was extremely effective in killing rust mites
(7, p. 116). This method of application owes its value to the extreme
sensitiveness of the mites to sulphur. (See p. 39.) Considerable
field experimental work was carried on in 1919 {17), 1922, 1923, 1924,
and 1925. Several other groves dusted by commercial concerns were
under observation, and the results then obtained were utiUzed in form-
ing conclusions on the several points connected with dusting. Prac-
tically all of the writers' experimental work was carried on with a
large power duster. (Fig. 10.)
MATERIALS AND QUANTITIES
FLOUR OF SULPHUR
A large part of the experimental work was done with flour of sul-
phur, which is perhaps the cheapest grade of sulphur that can be used
for dusting purposes. It is 99.5 per cent pure, is somewhat coarse
and heavy, the screen test being 56 per cent through 170 mesh, but
it comes out of the machine in fairly good shape and reaches the tops
of the highest seedling trees. It required from two-thirds of a pound
to one pound to cover a tree. The results were entirely satisfactory,
a complete mortality having been produced.
50 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 176, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
Figure 10.— Power duster applying sulphur dust: (A; To low citrus trees and (B; to tall
citrus trees
THE CITRUS RUST MITE AND ITS CONTROL 51
FLOWERS OF SULPHUR OR SUBLIMED SULPHUR
A considerable portion of the experimental work was done with
flowers of sulphur. It is a very fine bulky and fluffy material, the
screen test being 84 per cent through 170 mesh, and it comes out of
the machine in fine shape, producing a cloud of sulphur particles that
envelopes the trees. Owing to the great bulk of this form of sulphur,
it requires only a little more than one-half pound per tree. The
results were highly satisfactory, a complete mortality having been
produced.
SULPHUR AND LIME MIXTURE
There are a great number of dust mixtures on the market in Florida.
Most of these are mixtures of sulphur and hydrated lime in various
proportions and depend for their effectiveness on the sulphur content.
The writers used in part of one grove a mixture of 80 per cent sulphur
and 20 per cent hydrated lime. It came out of the machine satis-
factorily, and the mortality was complete. Mixtures containing 90
per cent of sulphur and 10 per cent of hydrated lime have also been
used with satisfactory results. If the percentage of lime in the
mixture is much more than 20 per cent the results are not so satis-
factory. The hydrated lime itself has no value in killing mites.
Trees were dusted in 1922 and 1923 with hydrated lime alone and,
in so far as could be determined, no mortality whatever was produced.
No injury to the fruit or foliage has ever resulted from the use of
any form of sulphur dust. Even parts of the trees which received
large quantities of sulphur when the dusting machine was standing
still showed no injurious effect. In several instances trees were dusted
so heavily that they were coated with sulphur, but not the slightest
injury developed.
TIME OF APPUCATION OF DUST
Dusting for rust-mite control may be done at any time during the
day at the convenience of the operator. Sulphur applied during the
hottest and dryest part of the day produced results as satisfactory as
that applied in the early morning. In a grove dusted between 11.30
a. m. and 2 p. m. a complete mortality of mites was obtained. In
another grove dusted between 7 and 9 a. m., when the foliage was wet
with dew, similar results followed. The sulphur, however, adheres
to the leaves better if it is applied when they are wet and therefore
may be effective over a longer period. In the grove dusted in the
early morning some of the sulphur remained on the leaves and
branches after almost daily rains for a month. In all probability
enough sulphur to kill mites remained on the leaves and fruit after
several rains. In all cases when the sulphur was applied when the
leaves were dry the first drenching rain washed it all off. If the
dusting can conveniently be done when the foliage is wet it is advisable
to do it then, but operations should not stop if the dusting is unfinished
when the leaves become dry. If extensive work is done the dusting
should begin in the morning and continue until night or until the work
is finished.
RELATION OF TEMPERATURE TO MORTALITY OF MITES
The efficiency of dusting presumably depends upon the oxidation
of the sulphur. The higher the temperature the more rapidly this
52 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17G, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
process takes place, and consequently the earlier the results are
effected. In every case when dusting was done when the temper-
ature was 90° F. or above, a complete mortality followed in a very
few minutes. The writers have never found any living mites in a
grove one hour after dusting when the temperature was 90° F. or
above. When dusting is done during the winter with the tempera-
ture ranging from 70° to 80° the effect is not so immediate. Some-
times it is several days before all the mites are killed. In a grove
dusted January 8, 1923, with a temperature ranging from 75° to 80°
in the middle of the day it was two or three days before a satisfactory
mortality was obtained, and even after a week a few mites were still
present. The records of the Weather Bureau show that the average
temperatures prevailing in May, June, and July, when the greater
part of the dusting for rust-mite control is done, are highly conducive
to a complete mortality of mites.
RELATION OF RAINS TO EFFECTIVENESS OF DUSTING
Experiments and observations made in all field tests show that a
large part of the sulphur which adheres to the foliage at the time of
dusting will remain there until it is washed off by a drenching rain.
In one case the sulphur remained on the foliage for more than two
weeks, apparently in undiminished quantity. In another grove,
dusted in January, 1923, more than two weeks elapsed after the dust-
ing before a drenching rain fell. The heavy dews and breezes had
caused a considerable portion of the sulphur to disappear, but there
was a sufficient quantity present to kill the rust mites. In two groves
dusted in 1919 practically all the sulphur remained until it was
washed off by a drenching rain. Before the rain it was not possible
to determine that any less sulphur was present on the foliage than
there was immediately after the dusting. After the rain, however,
there was practically none present. In one of the groves it remained
4K days and in the other it remained 2K days. In a grove dusted
in 1922 the sulphur remained for 5 days, when practically all of it was
washed off by a drenching rain. In another grove dusted in 1922 a
drenching rain came a day after the dusting. The grove was dusted
again on the fourth day after the first dusting. The foliage was wet
when the second dusting was given, and the sulphur adhered much
better than when it was dry. Though it is true that perhaps enough
sulphur remained on the trees after one or two rains to cause death
to rust mites, a greater part of it was washed oft' within the period of
a week. Although sulphur adheres to the smooth citrus leaves much
better than would be supposed, it is exceedingly doubtful whether
under average conditions enough sulphur will be left on the trees to
kill mites after one drenching rain.
Since the presence of sulphur on leaves and fruit produces the almost
immediate death of all rust mites it would appear from a superficial
standpoint that rains would have little or no bearing on the effective-
ness of dusting for their control. This, however, is not the case.
In June, when most of the dusting should be done, there is a large
number of eggs present which require from two to four days to hatch.
It is reasonably certain that sulphur will not prevent many of these
eggs from hatching, but it is a certainty that the young mite will be
killed by the sulphur just as soon as it emerges from the eggshell.
THE CITRUS RUST MITE AND ITS CONTROL 53
ADHESIVES
As sulphur is washed from the trees by drenching rains it occurred
to the writers that some adhesive might be mixed with the sulphur
to make it adhere to the trees indefinitely. If such an adhesive
could be procured it would be a decided advantage to the citrus
grower, and rust-mite control would be placed on a simple and inex-
pensive basis. Plaster of Paris, Portland cement, powdered glue,
rosin, and tripoli were used, but without any success. The sulphur
was washed from the trees whether these were used or not.
NUMBER OF APPLICATIONS
The number of times a grove should be dusted depends entirely
upon the length of time after dusting before a drenching rain falls.
Though the results obtained from dusting when followed immediately
by drenching rains were much better than could be expected, young
mites were usually found in more or less abundance under such con-
ditions. If no rain falls for four or more days after the dusting all the
rust mites as well as all the young mites which have hatched from
the eggs present at the time of dusting will be killed, and a complete
mortality thus effected. In case of rain it may be advisable to repeat
the dusting before the expiration of the eighth day after the first dust-
ing. This will reach all young mites before they are old enough to
deposit eggs. Some groves no doubt will be able to get along with
one dusting in June, and, if the fruit is to be held late, another dusting
in January. Other groves will require two dustings in May and Jime
and perhaps another one in December, or at any rate during the win-
ter. Dusting for mites should be given when they are reasonably
numerous on the fruit but before the faintest tinge of russeting has
appeared.
EFFECTS OF DUSTING WITH SULPHUR FOLLOWING AN OIL SPRAY
It was deemed advisable (20) to test out the effect of dusting with
sulphur following an oil-emulsion spray. On May 9, 1926, two rows
of Valencia orange trees were sprayed with a so-called red oil that has
been commonly used for spraying citrus trees for many years. Two
rows were also sprayed with a good grade of so-called white oil. The
red oil was used at 1.25 per cent actual oil and the white oil at the
rate of 1.5 per cent. The maximum temperature was above 92° F.
every day. Five days later the entire four rows were dusted with
commercial dusting material containing about 92 per cent of sulphur
and 8 per cent of hydra ted lime. An excessive quantity of dust was
used. Examinations were made on May 21 and June 6 and 14, and
no evidence whatever was present to indicate that any injury had
been done. There had been no rain until June 5, when 0.13 inch fell.
On May 19, 1926, two rows of Valencias were sprayed with the
same red oil as was used on May 9, and also two rows with a high-
grade white oil. Both oils were used at exactly 1.5 per cent of oil in
the spray material. Within 20 minutes after the spraying, a sulphur-
dust application was made to one row each of the trees sprayed with
the red oil and to one sprayed with the white oil. Although the tem-
perature was not excessive on the day the materials were applied, it
reached a maximum of 102° F. before June 14, the date of the last
examination. On May 21, the fruit was covered with a film of oil
54 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 176, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
overlaid with a layer of sulphur. There was not the slightest indica-
tion of injury. On June 6 and 14 there was evident severe injury
to the fruit on the rows dusted with sulphur. The side of the fruit
facing the direct sunlight showed yellow spots or large yellow areas.
Some of these spots were scarcely visible, but showed up as very light
yellow areas. The injury was very slow in developing. There was
no injury whatever to the fruit sprayed with either oil and not dusted
with sulphur.
The injury was of commercial importance, and the writers would
advise growers to wait two or three weeks after the application of an
oil spray before dusting with sulphur.
SUMMARY
The familiar russeting of citrus fruit was first ascribed, about the
year 1878, to the feeding of a mite. This insect was described by
Ashmead, and is now known as Phyllocoptes oleivorus, or the citrus
rust mite. It is found in most of the citrus regions of the world, but
so far as known is absent from the Mediterranean and South African
areas. It probably ranks third among the injurious pests on citrus
trees in Florida, injuring more or less about 50 per cent of the fruit.
The mite is found on all the commercial species and varieties of
citrus grown in Florida, being most severe on lemon and about one
and two-thirds times as numerous on grapefruit as on orange. There
are no other species of Phyllocoptes found in Florida, but other mites
are sometimes confused with the citrus rust mite, especially one that
feeds on maiden cane and one found on roses, and several species of
gall-forming mites.
The injury is apparent on the exterior of the fruit in the form of a
more or less severe russeting of the rind. The grade of the fruit is
lowered, and the infested fruits are smaller and lose further by evapo-
ration much more quickly than normal fruit. The keeping quality is
impaired and, contrary to the somewhat prevalent idea, the russeted
fruit is not so sweet as the uninjured fruit. The leaves and branches
are also injured by the feeding of the rust mite.
On account of the small size of the mites, studies of the individual
mites were difficult to make, but a small gelatin capsule fastened by
paraffin to the rind of a fruit provided a cell or cage in which they
could be observed. The incubation period was found to last from
2 to 4 days during the hot months and to extend to 8 or more days in
the winter. The larval stage is of about the same duration as the
egg stage. The longest life period recorded for an adult was 23 days,
and the maximum number of eggs deposited by any female under
observation was 29. No male has been observed. The rapid increase
of this mite may be due more to the fact that in the summer a genera-
tion may be completed in 7 days than to a large reproductive capacity
of the individual.
The mites are continuously present in the trees throughout the year,
but the numbers rise to injurious proportions about the middle of
June and, probably because of an entomogenous fungus, suddenly
decrease a short time after the beginning of the summer rains. They
are probably distributed on nursery stock, by insects and birds, and
by the wind.
THE CITRUS RUST MITE AND ITS CONTROL 55
The weather factors that affect adversely the abundance of the
rust mites are the occasional visitations of freezing weather in the
citrus belt and seasons of dry weather. Hot sunshine and rains seem
only to drive them to the more protected surfaces of the fruit and
leaves. Insect enemies are unimportant, but a fungous disease seems
to be responsible for the almost complete disappearance of the mites,
usually in the first half of July. They are never abundant in the more
humid sections near the coast.
Insecticides that would control leaf-eating insects are of no value
against the mites. Tobacco, nicotine dust, and oil sprays have not
given sufficient control to prove profitable. Sulphur has been found
the best agent for use against the rust mite. Its action is through
the fumes from the oxidation of the sulphur, which does not have to
be in actual contact with each mite to cause its death. Sprays and
dusts containing sulphur seem to be about equally effective when
compared on the basis of the sulphur content. When used in the
form of a lime-sulphur solution at a dilution of from 1-50 to 1-100, it
should kill all adults and larvae present at the time and remain effective
under any weather conditions for a sufficient time to Idll all larvae
subsequently emerging from the eggs that had been deposited prior
to the spraying. Dusting with sulphur or sulphur and lime mixtures
is also effective and may be carried on at any time of the day, but the
dust will remain on the trees longer if applied while the foliage is wet
with dew. If a drenching rain falls within four days it may be neces-
sary to repeat the dusting before the eighth day after the first appli-
cation.
LITERATURE CITED
(1) ASHMEAD, W. a.
1879. INJURIOUS AND BENEFICIAL INSECTS FOUND ON THE ORANGE TREES
OF FLORIDA. Canad. Ent. 11: 159-160.
(2) •
1880. ORANGE insects; a TREATISE ON THE INJURIOUS AND BENEFICIAL
INSECTS FOUND ON THE ORANGE TREES OF FLORIDA. 78 p., illus.
Jacksonville, Fla.
(3) Banks, N.
1907. catalogue of the acarina, or mites, of the united states.
U. S. Natl. Mus. Proc. 32: 595-625.
(4) EwiNG, H. E.
1923. THE GENERIC AND SPECIFIC NAME OF THE ORANGE RUST MITE. Fla.
Ent. 7: 21-22.
(5) Grossembacher, J. G.
1923. CONTROLLING THE RUST MITE TO PREVENT RUST. CitrilS Leaf 31:
3-6.
(6) Hubbard, H. G.
1883. miscellaneous notes on orange insects. the rust mite and
NOTES ON OTHER ORANGE PESTS. U. S. Dept. AgF., Div. Ent.
Bul. 1 (o. s.): 9-13.
(7)
1885. INSECTS AFFECTING THE ORANGE. U. S. Dept. AgF., Div. Ent.
Spec. Rpt. 1885, 227 p., illus.
(8) Moore, T. W.
[1881]. treatise and hand-book of orange culture in FLORIDA. Ed.
2, rev. and enl., 184 p., illus. New York; Jacksonville, Fla.
(9) Penzig, O.
1887. STUDi botanici sugli agrumi e sulle piante affini. Ann. Agr.
[Rome], [v.] 116. 590 p., illus.
(10) Speare, a. T., and Yothers, W. W.
1924. is there an entomogenous fungus attacking the citrus rust
mite in FLORIDA? Sciencc (n. s.) 60: 41-42.
56 TECHNICAL BULLETIN 17G, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
(11) Winston, J. R.
1921. TEAR-STAIN OF CITRUS FRUITS. U. S. Dept. AgF. Bul. 924, 12 p.,
illus.
(12) , Bowman, J. J., and Yothers, W. W.
1923. BORDEAUX-OIL EMULSION. U. S. Dept. AgF. Bul. 1178, 24 p., illus.
(13) Yothers, W. W.
1914. the rust MITE AND ITS CONTROL. Fla. State Hort. See. Proc. 27:
115-119.
(14)
(15)
(16)
1917. THE EFFECTS OF THE FREEZE OF FEBRUARY 2-4, 1917 ON THE INSECT
PESTS AND MITES ON CITRUS. Fla. Buggist 1: 29-35, 38-40.
1918. SOME REASONS FOR SPRAYING TO CONTROL INSECT AND MITE ENEMIES
OF CITRUS TREES IN FLORIDA. U. S. Dept. AgF. Bul. 645, 19 p.
1918. SPRAYING FOR THE CONTROL OF INSECTS AND MITES ATTACKING
CITRUS TREES IN FLORIDA. U. S. Dept. AgF. FaFHieFs' Bul. 933,
39 p., illus.
1919. THE DUST METHOD FOR CONTROLLING RUST MITES ON CITRUS TREES.
Fla. GroweF 20 (23) : 8-9, illus.
1920. SULPHUR COMPOUNDS FOR RUST MITES. Fla. State Hort. Soc.
Proc. 33: 128-133.
(17)
(18)
(19)
1921. SOME FUNDAMENTALS OF GROVE PEST CONTROL. Fla. State Plant
Bd. QuaFt. Bul. 6: 1-10.
(20) and McBride, O. C.
1927. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ON THINGS CITRUS. CitFUS InduS. 8 (10):
15, 29.
(21) and Winston, J. R.
1924. MIXING EMULSIFIED MINERAL LUBRICATING OILS WITH DEEP-WELL
WATERS AND LIME-SULPHUR SOLUTIONS. U. S. Dept. AgF. Bul.
1217, 6 p.
U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1930
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. - - - - - Price 15 cents
ORGANIZATION OF THE
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
May 1, 1930
Secretary of Agriculture Arthur M. Hyde.
Assistant Secretary R. W. Dunlap.
Director of Scientific Work A. F. Woods.
Director of Regulatory Work Walter G. Campbell.
Director of Extension Work C. W. W^arburton.
Director of Personnel and Business Admin- W. W. Stockberger.
istration.
Director of Information M.S.Eisenhower.
Solicitor E. L. Marshall.
Weather Bureau Charles F. Marvin, Chief.
Bureau of Animal Industry John R. Mohler, Chief.
Bureau of Dairy Industry 0. E. Reed, Chief.
Bureau of Plant Industry William A. Taylor, Chief.
Forest Service R, Y. Stuart, Chief.
Bureau of Chemistry and Soils H. G. Knight, Chief.
Bureau of Entomology C. L. Marlatt, Chief.
Bureau of Biological Survey Paul G. Redington, Chief.
Bureau of Public Roads Thomas H. MacDonald, Chief.
Bureau of Agricultural Economics Nils A. Olsen, Chief.
Bureau of Home Economics Louise Stanley, Chief.
Pla7it Quarantine and Control Administration- Lee A. Strong, Chief.
Grain Futures Administration J. W. T. Duvel, Chief.
Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration- Walter G. Campbell, Director of
Regulatory Work, in Charge.
Office of Experiment Stations , Chief.
Office of Cooperative Extension Work C. B. Smith, Chief.
Library Claribel R. Barnett, Librarian.
This bulletin is a contribution from
Bureau of Entomology C. L. Marlatt, Chief.
Division of Tropical, Subtropical, and A. C. Baker, Principal EntO'
Ornamental Plant Insects. mologist, in Charge.
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11